,,magic ,,and ,,religion ,,by ,,andrew ,,lang ,,author ,,of ',,myth1 ,,ritual1 ,,and ,,religion' ',,custom ,,and ,,myth' ,,etc ,,longmans1 ,,green1 ,,and ,,co #ci ,,paternoster ,,row1 ,,london ,,new ,,york ,,and ,,bombay #aija ,,preface ,recent years have brought rich additions to the materials for the study of early religion1 ritual1 magic1 and myth4 ,in proportion to the abundance of information has been the growth of theory and hypothesis4 ,the first essay in this collection1 ',science and ,superstition1' points out the danger of allowing too ingenious and imaginative hypotheses to lead captive our science4 ,as1 like others1 ,i have not long since advanced a provisional theory of my own1 the second and third essays are designed to strengthen my position4 ,the theory is that perhaps the earliest traceable form of religion was relatively high1 and that it was inevitably lowered in tone during the process of social evolution4 ,obviously this opinion may be attacked from two sides4 ,it may be said that the loftier religious ideas of the lowest savages are borrowed from ,christianity or ,islam4 ,this ,i understand to be the theory of ,mr4 ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor4 ,it is with much diffidence that ,i venture1 at present1 to disagree with so eminent and sagacious an authority1 while awaiting the publication of ,mr4 ,tylor's ,aberdeen ,gifford ,lectures4 ,my reply to his hypothesis1 so far as it has been published by him1 will be found in the second essay1 ',the ,theory of ,loan-,gods4' ,secondly1 my position may be attacked by disabling the evidence for the existence of the higher elements in the religion of low savages4 ,mr4 ,frazer1 in the second edition of his ',golden ,bough1' has advanced an hypothesis of the origin of religion1 wherein the evidence for the higher factors is not taken into account4 ,probably he may consider the subject in a later work1 to which he alludes in his ,preface4 ',should ,i live to complete the works for which ,i have collected and am collecting materials1 ,i dare to think that they will clear me of any suspicion of treating the early history of religion from a single narrow point of view4'#a ,meanwhile1 however1 ,mr4 ,frazer has advanced a theory of the origin of religion wherein evidence which ,i think deserving of attention receives no recognition4 ,i hope1 therefore1 that it is not premature to state the evidence1 or some of it1 which ,i do in the third essay1 ',magic and ,religion4' ,fourth comes a long criticism of ,mr4 ,frazer's many hypotheses1 which are combined into his theory of the origin1 or partial origin1 of the belief in the divine character of ,christ4 ,this argument demands very minute1 and1 ,i fear1 tedious examination4 ,i fear still more that my labour has not1 after all1 been sufficiently minute and accurate4 ,it seems to be almost impossible to understand clearly and represent fairly ideas with which one does not agree4 ,if ,i have failed in these respects it is unconsciously1 and ,i shall gratefully accept criticism enabling me to recognise and correct errors4 ,fifthly1 ,i examine1 in ',the ,ghastly ,priest1' ,mr4 ,frazer's theory of the ,golden ,bough of ,virgil as connected with the fugitive slave who was ',king of the ,wood' near ,aricia4 ,i offer a conjecture as to the origin of his curious position1 which seems to me simpler1 and not less probable1 than ,mr4 ,frazer's hypothesis that this outcast 'lived and died as an incarnation of the supreme ,aryan god1 whose life was in the mistletoe or golden bough4' ,but my conjecture is only a guess at a problem which1 ,i think1 we have not the means of solving4 ,there follow an essay1 ',south ,african ,religion1' and another on the old puzzle of the ',cup and ,ring' marks on rocks and cists and other objects all over the world4 ,next ,i consider the subject of ',taboos1' with especial reference to the theory of ,mr4 ,f4 ,b4 ,jevons4 ,an essay follows on the singular rite of the ,fire ,walk1 with the alleged immunity of the performers4 ,this curious topic ,i have treated before1 but now add fresh evidence4 ,of these essays the second1 in part1 appeared in the ',nineteenth ,century1' and most of ',the ,ghastly ,priest' was published in ',the ,fortnightly ,review1' while ',cup and ,ring' first saw the light in ',the ,contemporary ,review4' ,my thanks are due to the ,editors of those periodicals for permission to republish4 ,the essay on the ',fire ,walk' was in the ',proceedings of the ,society for ,psychical ,research1' though the topic does not appear to be 'psychical4' ,all the other papers are new1 and three ,appendices on points of detail are added4 ,the design on the cover is drawn by ,mr4 ,donnelly1 the discoverer of the ,dunbuie and ,dumbuck sites and relics1 from an ,australian design1 in ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen's ',native ,tribes of ,central ,australia4' ,for permission to reproduce this drawing ,i have to thank the kindness of ,messrs4 ,macmillan ,co4 ,the designs of feet1 on the back of the volume 7a subject found in ,australia71 and the ',jew's harp' ornament 7common to ,scotland and ,hindustan71 are also by ,mr4 ,donnelly1 from ,scottish rock carvings4 #a ,golden ,bough1 i4 xvii1 #aijj4 ,corrigenda and ,addenda ,page #d1 lines #bd1 #be1 for story read storey1 for stories read storeys4 ,page #ac1 line #g1 compare p4 #big1 the second paragraph1 as to ,motagon and ,bishop ,salvado4 ,page #ag1 line #bd1 for #ahga read #ahgc4 ,page #dd4 ,to the names of writers who support the idea of an ,australian religion should be added that of ,dr4 ,john ,mathew1 in ,eaglehawk and ,crow1 p4 #adg 7#ahii71 ',i was once of opinion that notions about a divinity had been derived from the whites and transmitted among the blacks hither and thither1 but ,i am now convinced that this idea was here before ,european occupation4' ,but 7pp4 #acj1 #aca7 ,dr4 ,mathew gives his reasons for thinking importation from ,indian mythology possible4 ,but as they rest on his decipherment of certain marks1 which may be meant for characters1 in ,sir ,george ,grey's copy of an ,australian wall-painting1 the evidence is weak4 7,grey1 ,north-west and ,western ,australia1 i4 #bja et seq474 ,supposing the characters to be ,sumatran1 it would be necessary to show that the people of ,sumatra do represent their otiose deity as in the painting copied by ,grey4 ,page #eh1 line #f1 for rights read rites4 ,page #ge1 note #a1 for ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #cgi1 #ahga1 read ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #dai1 #ahgc4 ,page #aab1 note #a4 ',but so there were in #ajjj ,a4,d4' ,i have been informed that there was no special fear of the end of the world in #ajjj ,a4,d4 ,m4 ,cumont gives good reasons for holding that the martyrdom of ,st4 ,dasius in #cjc was on record between #cfb and #daa 7,man1 ,may #aija1 ,no4 #ec74 ,page #abj4 ',ctesias flourished rather earlier than ,berosus1 who is about #bjj ,b4,c42' for #bjj read #bfj4 ,ctesias was a contemporary of ,herodotus4 ,all necessary corrections have been made4--,m4 ,d4 ,,contents ,i4 ,,science ,,and ,,superstition ,,ii4 ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,loan-,,gods2 ,,or ,,borrowed ,,religion ,,iii4 ,,magic ,,and ,,religion ,,iv4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,christian ,,faith ,v4 ,,the ,,approaches ,,to ,,mr4 ,,frazer',s ,,theory ,i4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,gods ,,ii4 ,,the ,,alleged ,,mortality ,,of ,,gods ,,iii4 ,,religious ,,regicide ,,iv4 ,,annual ,,religious ,,regicide ,v4 ,,the ,,saturnalia ,,vi4 ,,the ,,greek ,,cronia ,,vii4 ,,the ,,sac,a ,,vi4 ,,attempts ,,to ,,prove ,,the ,,sac,,an ,,criminal ,,divine ,i4 ,,sacrifice ,,by ,,hanging4 ,,does ,,it ,,exist8 ,,ii4 ,,stages ,,in ,,mr4 ,,frazer',s ,,theory ,,iii4 ,a ,,possible ,,reconciliation ,,iv4 ,,the ,,sac,a ,,suddenly ,,changes ,,its ,,date ,v4 ,,various ,,theories ,,of ,,the ,,victim ,,vii4 ,,zakmuk1 ,,sac,a1 ,,and ,,purim ,i4 ,,historical ,,difficulty ,,ii4 ,,persians ,,are ,,not ,,babylonians ,,iii4 ,,origin ,,of ,,purim ,,iv4 ,,is ,,purim ,,pre-,,exilian ,,or ,,post-,,exilian ,v4 ,,theory ,,of ,a ,,human ,,victim ,,at ,,purim ,,vi4 ,,contradictory ,,conjecture ,,vii4 ,a ,,new ,,theory ,,of ,,the ,,victim ,,viii4 ,,new ,,german ,,theory ,,of ,,purim ,,ix4 ,,another ,,new ,,theory4 ,,human ,,and ,,the ,,victim ,,viii4 ,,mordecai1 ,,esther1 ,,vashti1 ,,and ,,haman ,i4 ,,esther ,,loved ,,by ,,mordecai ,,ii4 ,,the ,,persian ,,buffoon ,,iii4 ,a ,,helpful ,,theory ,,of ,,my ,,own ,,ix4 ,,why ,,was ,,the ,,mock-,,king ,,of ,,the ,,sac,a ,,whipped ,,and ,,hanged8 ,i4 ,,periods ,,of ,,licence ,,ii4 ,,the ,,divine ,,scapegoat ,,iii4 ,,more ,,periods ,,of ,,licence ,,iv4 ,,the ,,sac,a ,,as ,a ,,period ,,of ,,licence ,x4 ,,calvary ,,xi4 ,,the ,,ghastly ,,priest ,,xii4 ,,south ,,african ,,religion ,,xiii4 ,,cup ,,and ,,ring3 ,,an ,,old ,,problem ,,solved ,,xiv4 ,,first-,,fruits ,,and ,,taboos ,,xv4 ,,walking ,,through ,,fire ,,appendices ,a4 ,,mr4 ,,tylor',s ,,theory ,,of ,,borrowing ,b4 ,,the ,,martyrdom ,,of ,,dasius ,c4 ,,the ,,ride ,,of ,,the ,,beardless ,,one ,,index ,i ,,science ,,and ,,superstition ,we all know what we mean by science2 science is 'organised common sense4' ,her aim is the acquisition of reasoned and orderly knowledge4 ,presented with a collection of verified facts1 it is the part of science to reduce them to order1 and to account for their existence in accordance with her recognised theory of things4 ,if the facts cannot be fitted into the theory1 it must be expanded or altered2 for we must admit that1 if the facts are verified1 there is need for change and expansion in the theory4 ,the 'colligation' of facts demands hypotheses1 and these may not1 at the moment of their construction1 be verifiable4 ,the deflections of a planet from its apparently normal course may be accounted for by the hypothesis of the attraction of another heavenly body not yet discovered4 ,the hypothesis is legitimate1 for such bodies are known to exist1 and to produce such effects4 ,when the body is discovered1 the hypothesis becomes a certainty4 ,on the other hand1 the hypothesis that some capricious and conscious agency pushed the planet into deflections would be illegitimate1 for the existence of such a freakish agency is not demonstrated4 ,our hypotheses then must be consistent with our actual knowledge of nature and of human nature1 and our conjectured causes must be adequate to the production of the effects4 ,thus1 science gradually acquires and organises new regions of knowledge4 ,superstition is a word of much less definite meaning4 ,when we call a man 'superstitious1' we usually mean that evidence which satisfies him does not satisfy us4 ,we see examples daily of the dependence of belief on bias4 ,one man believes a story about cruelties committed by our adversaries2 another1 disbelieving the tale1 credits a narrative about the misconduct of our own party4 ,probably the evidence in neither case would satisfy the historian1 or be accepted by a jury4 ,a man in a tavern tells another how the ,boers1 retreating from a position1 buried their own wounded4 ',i don't believe that1' says the other4 ',then you are a pro-,boer4' ,the sceptic reasoned from his general knowledge of human nature4 ,the believer reasoned from his own prejudiced and mythopic conception of people whom he disliked4 ,if the question had been one of religion the believer might be called superstitious2 the sceptic might be called scientific1 if he was ready to yield his doubts to the evidence of capable observers of the alleged fact4 ,superstition1 like science1 has her hypotheses1 and1 like science1 she reasons from experience4 ,but her experience is usually fantastic1 unreal1 or if real capable of explanation by causes other than those alleged by superstition4 ,a man comes in at night1 and says he has seen a ghost in white4 ,that is merely his hypothesis2 the existence of ghosts in white is not demonstrated4 ,you accompany him to the scene of the experience1 and prove to him that he has seen a post1 not a ghost4 ,his experience was real1 but was misinterpreted by dint of an hypothesis resting on no demonstrated fact of knowledge4 ,the hypotheses of superstition are familiar4 ,thus1 an event has happened3 say you have lost your button-hook4 ,you presently hear of a death in your family4 ,ever afterwards you go anxiously about when you have lost a button-hook4 ,you are confusing a casual sequence of facts with a causal connection of facts4 ,sequence in time is mistaken for sequence of what we commonly style cause and effect4 ,in the same way1 superstition cherishes the hypothesis that like affects like4 ,thus1 the sun is round1 and a ball of clay is round4 ,therefore1 if an ,australian native wishes to delay the course of the round sun in the heavens1 he fixes a round ball of clay on the bough of a tree2 or so books on anthropology tell us4 ,acting on the hypothesis that like affects like1 a man makes a clay or waxen image of an enemy1 and sticks it full of pins or thorns4 ,he expects his enemy to suffer agony in consequence1 and so powerful is 'suggestion' that1 if the enemy knows about the image1 he sometimes falls ill and dies4 ,this experience corroborates the superstitious hypothesis1 and so the experiment with the image is of world-wide diffusion4 ,everything is done1 or attempted1 on these lines by superstition4 ,men imitate the killing of foes or game1 and expect1 as a result1 to kill them in war or in the chase4 ,they mimic the gathering of clouds and the fall of rain1 and expect rain to fall in consequence4 ,they imitate the evolution of an edible grub from the larva1 and expect grubs to multiply2 and so on4 ,all this is quite rational1 if you grant the hypotheses of superstition4 ,her practices are magic4 ,we are later to discuss a theory that men had magic before they had religion1 and only invented gods because they found that magic did not work4 ,still later they invented science1 which is only magic with a legitimate hypothesis1 using real1 not fanciful1 experience4 ,in the long run magic and religion are to die out1 perhaps1 and science is to have the whole field to herself4 ,this may be a glorious though a remote prospect4 ,but surely it is above all things needful that our science should be scientific4 ,she must not blink facts1 merely because they do not fit into her scheme or hypothesis of the nature of things1 or of religion4 ,she really must give as much prominence to the evidence which contradicts as to that which supports her theory in each instance4 ,not only must she not shut her eyes to this evidence1 but she must diligently search for it1 must seek for what ,bacon calls instantice contradictorim1 since1 if these exist1 the theory which ignores them is useless4 ,if she advances an hypothesis1 it must not be contradictory of the whole mass of human experience4 ,if science finds that her hypothesis contradicts experience1 she must seek for an hypothesis which is in accordance with experience1 and1 if that cannot be found1 she must wait till it is found4 ,again1 science must not pile one unverified hypothesis upon another unverified hypothesis till her edifice rivals the ,tower of ,babel4 ,she must not make a conjecture on p4 #ce1 and on p4 #baj treat the conjecture as a fact4 ,because1 if one story in the card-castle is destroyed by being proved impossible1 all the other stories will 'come tumbling after4' ,it seems hardly necessary1 but it is not superfluous1 to add that1 in her castle of hypotheses1 one must not contradict1 and therefore destroy1 another4 ,we must not be asked to believe that an event occurred at one date1 and also that it occurred at another2 or that an institution was both borrowed by a people at one period1 and was also possessed1 unborrowed1 by the same people1 at an earlier period4 ,we cannot permit science to assure us that a certain fact was well known1 and that the knowledge produced important consequences2 while we are no less solemnly told that the fact was wholly unknown1 whence it would seem that the results alleged to spring from the knowledge could not be produced4 ,this kind of reasoning1 with its inferring of inferences from other inferences1 themselves inferred from conjectures as to the existence of facts of which no proof is adduced1 must be called superstitious rather than scientific4 ,the results may be interesting1 but they are the reverse of science4 ,it is perhaps chiefly in the nascent science of the anthropological study of institutions1 and above all of religion1 that this kind of reasoning prevails4 ,the topic attracts ingenious and curious minds4 ,system after system has been constructed1 unstinted in material1 elegant in aspect1 has been launched1 and has been wrecked1 or been drifted by the careless winds to the forlorn shore where ,bryant's ark1 with all its crew1 divine or human1 lies in decay4 ,no mortal student believes in the arkite system of ,bryant1 though his ark1 on the match-boxes of ,messrs4 ,bryant and ,may1 perhaps denotes loyalty to the ancestral idea4 ,the world of modern readers has watched sun myths1 and dawn myths1 and storm myths1 and wind myths come in and go out3 autant en emporte le vent4 ,totems and taboos succeeded1 and we are bewildered by the contending theories of the origins of taboos and totems4 ,deities of vegetation now are all in all1 and may it be far from us to say that any one from ,ouranos to ,pan1 from the ,persian ,king to the horses of ,virbius1 is not a spirit of vegetable life4 ,yet perhaps the deity has higher aspects and nobler functions than the pursuit of his 'vapid vegetable loves2' and these deserve occasional attention4 ,the result1 however1 of scurrying hypotheses and hasty generalisations is that the nascent science of religious origins is received with distrust4 ,we may review the brief history of the modern science4 ,some twenty years ago1 when the ',principles of ,sociology1' by ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 was first published1 the book was reviewed1 in ',mind1' by the author of ',primitive ,culture4' ,that work1 again1 was published in #ahga4 ,in #ahij appeared the ',golden ,bough1' by ,mr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 and the second edition of the book1 with changes and much new matter1 was given to the world in #aijj4 ,here1 then1 we have a whole generation1 a space of thirty years1 during which ,english philosophers or scholars have been studying the science of the ,origins of ,religion4 ,in the latest edition of the ',golden ,bough1' ,mr4 ,frazer has even penetrated into the remote region where man neither had1 nor wanted1 any religion at all4 ,we naturally ask ourselves to what point we have arrived after the labours of a generation4 ,twenty years ago1 when reviewing ,mr4 ,spencer1 ,mr4 ,tylor said that a time of great public excitement as to these topics was at hand4 ,the clamour and contest aroused by ,mr4 ,darwin's theory of the ,origin of ,species and the ,descent of ,man would be outdone by the coming war over the question of the ,evolution of ,religion4 ,but there has been no general excitement2 there has been little display of public interest in these questions4 ,they have been left to 'the curious' and 'the learned1' classes not absolutely identical4 ,mr4 ,frazer1 indeed1 assures us that the comparative study of human beliefs and institutions is 'fitted to be much more than a means of satisfying an enlightened curiosity1 and of furnishing materials for the researches of the learned4'#a ,but enlightened curiosity seems to be easily satisfied1 and only very few of the learned concern themselves with these researches1 which ,mr4 ,tylor expected to be so generally exciting4 ,a member of the ,university of ,oxford informed me that the study of beliefs1 and of anthropology in general1 is almost entirely neglected by the undergraduates1 and when ,i asked him ',why8' he replied ',there is no money in it4' ,another said that anthropology 'had no evidence4' ,in the language of the economists there is no supply provided at ,oxford because there is no demand4 ,classics1 philology1 history1 physical science1 and even literature1 are studied1 because 'there is money in them1' not much money indeed1 but a competence1 if the student is successful4 ,for the study of the evolution of beliefs there is no demand1 or very little4 ,yet1 says ,mr4 ,frazer1 'well handled1 it may become a powerful instrument to expedite progress1 if it lays bare certain weak spots in the foundations on which modern society is built4' ,we all desire progress 7in the right direction71 we all pine to lay bare weak spots1 and yet we do not seem to be concerned about the services which might be done for progress by the study of the evolution of religion4 ',it is indeed a melancholy and1 in some respects1 thankless task1' says ,mr4 ,frazer1 'to strike at the foundations of beliefs in which1 as in a strong tower1 the hopes and aspirations of humanity through long ages have sought a refuge from the storm and stress of life4' ',thankless1' indeed1 these operations are4 ',yet sooner or later1' ,mr4 ,frazer adds1 'it is inevitable that the battery of the comparative method should-breach these venerable walls1 mantled over with the ivy and mosses and wild flowers of a thousand tender and sacred associations4 ,at present we are only dragging the guns into position2 they have hardly yet begun to speak4' ,mr4 ,frazer is too modest3 he has dragged into position a work of immense learning and eloquent style in three siege guns1 we may say1 three volumes of the largest calibre1 and they have spoken about #ejj1jjj words4 ,no man1 to continue the metaphor1 is better supplied than he with the ammunition of learning1 with the knowledge of facts of every kind4 ,yet the venerable walls1--with their pleasing growth of ivy1 mosses1 wild flowers1 and other mural vegetation1 do not1 to myself1 seem in the least degree impaired by the artillery1 and ,i try to show cause for my opinion4 ,why is this1 and why is the portion of the public which lives within or without the venerable walls mainly indifferent8 ,several sufficient reasons might be given4 ,in the first place many people have1 or think they have1 so many other grounds for disbelief1 that additional grounds1 provided by the comparative method1 are regarded rather as a luxury than as supplying a felt want4 ,again1 but very few persons have leisure1 or inclination1 or power of mind enough to follow an elaborate argument through fifteen hundred pages1 not to speak of other works on the same theme4 ,once more1 only a minute minority are capable of testing and weighing the evidence1 and criticising the tangled hypotheses on which the argument rests1 or in which it is involved4 ,but there is another and perhaps a sounder argument for indifference4 ,the learned are aware that the evidence for all these speculations is not of the nature to which they are accustomed1 either in historical or scientific studies4 ,more and more the age insists on strictness in appreciating evidence1 and on economy in conjecture4 ,but the study of the evolution of myth and belief has always been1 and still is1 marked by an extraordinary use1 or abuse1 of conjecture4 ,the 'perhapses1' the 'we may supposes1' the 'we must infers' are countless4 ,as in too much of the so-called ',higher ,criticism' hypothesis is piled1 by many anthropologists1 upon hypothesis1 guess upon guess1 while1 if only one guess is wrong1 the main argument falls to pieces4 ,moreover1 it is the easiest thing1 in certain cases1 to explain the alleged facts by a counter hypothesis1 not a complex hypothesis1 but at least as plausible as the many combined conjectures of the castle architects1 though perhaps as far from the truth1 and as incapable of verification4 ,of these statements examples shall be given in the course of this book4 ,we are all1 we who work at these topics1 engaged in science1 the science of man1 or rather we are painfully labouring to lay the foundations of that science4 ,we are all trying ,i to expedite progress4 ,but our science cannot expedite progress if our science is not scientific4 ,we must1 therefore1 however pedantic our process may seem1 keep insisting on the rejection of all evidence which is not valid1 on the sparing use of conjecture1 and on the futility of piling up hypothesis upon unproved hypothesis4 ,to me it seems1 as ,i have already said1 that a legitimate hypothesis must 'colligate the facts1' that it must do so more successfully than any counter hypothesis1 and that it must1 for every link in its chain1 have evidence which will stand the tests of criticism4 ,but the chief cause of indifference is the character of our evidence4 ,we can find anything we want to find people say--not only 'the man in the street' but the learned say--among reports of the doings of savage and barbarous races4 ,we find what we want1 and to what we do not want we are often blind4 ,for example1 nothing in savage religion is better vouched for than the belief in a being whom narrators of every sort call 'a ,creator who holds all in his power4' ,i take the first instance of this kind that comes to hand in opening ,mr4 ,tylor's ',primitive ,culture4' ,the being is he whom the natives of ,canada 'call ,andouagni1 without1 however1 having any form or method of prayer to him4' ,the date of this evidence is #aeeh4 ,it is obvious that ,andouagni 7to take one case out of a multitude7 was not invented in the despair of magic4 ,mysticism has been called the despair of philosophy1 and ,mr4 ,frazer1 as we shall see1 regards religion as the despair of magic4 ,by his theory man1 originally without religion1 and trusting in magic1 found by experience that magic could not really control the weather and the food supply4 ,man therefore dreamed that 'there were other beings1 like himself1 but far stronger1' who1 unseen1 controlled what his magic could not control4 ',to these mighty beings 444 man now addressed himself 444 beseeching them of their mercy to furnish him with all good things4444'#b ,but nobody beseeched ,andouagni to do anything4 ,the ,canadians had 'no method or form of prayer to him4'#c ,therefore ,andouagni was not invented because magic failed1 and therefore this great power was dreamed of1 and his mercy was beseeched with prayers for good things4 ,that was not the process by which ,andouagni was evolved1 because nobody prayed to him in #aeeh1 nor have we reason to believe that any one ever did4 ,from every part of the globe1 but chiefly from among very low savage and barbaric races1 the existence of beings powerful as ,andouagni1 but1 like him1 not addressed in prayer1 or but seldom so addressed1 is reported by travellers of many ages1 races1 creeds1 and professions4 ,the existence of the belief in such beings1 often not approached by prayer or sacrifice1 is fatal to several modern theories of the origin and evolution of religion4 ,but these facts1 resting on the best evidence which anthropology can offer1 and corroborated by the undesigned coincidence of testimony from every quarter1 are not what most students in this science want to find4 ,therefore these facts have been ignored or hastily slurred over1 or the beliefs are ascribed to ,european or ,islamite influence4 ,yet1 first1 ,christians or ,islamites1 with the god they introduced would introduce prayer to him1 and prayer1 in many cases1 there is none4 ,next1 in the case of ,andouagni1 what missionary influence could exist in ,canada before #aeeh8 ,thirdly1 if missionaries1 amateur or professional1 there were in ,canada before #aeeh they would be ,catholics1 and would introduce1 not a ,creator never addressed in prayer1 but crosses1 beads1 the ,madonna1 the ,saints1 and such ,catholic rites as would leave material traces4 ,in spite of all these obvious considerations1 ,i am unacquainted with any book on this phase of savage religion1 and scarcely know any book1 except ,mr4 ,tylor's ',primitive ,culture1' in which the facts are prominently stated4 ,the evidence for the facts1 let me repeat1 is of the best character that anthropology can supply1 for it rests on testimony undesignedly coincident1 given from most parts of the world by men of every kind of education1 creed1 and bias4 ,contradictory evidence1 the denial of the existence of the beliefs1 is also abundant3 to such eternal contradictions of testimony anthropology must make up her mind4 ,we can only test and examine1 in each instance1 the bias of the witness1 if he has a bias1 and his opportunities of acquiring knowledge4 ,if the belief does exist1 it can seldom attest itself1 or never1 by material objects1 such as idols1 altars1 sacrifices1 and the sound of prayers1 for a being like ,andouagni is not prayed to or propitiated3 one proof that he is not of ,christian introduction4 ,we have thus little but the reports of ,europeans intimately acquainted with the peoples1 savage or barbaric1 and1 if possible1 with their language1 to serve as a proof of the existence of the savage belief in a supreme being1 a maker or creator of things4 ,this fact warns us to be cautious1 but occasionally we have such evidence as is supplied by ,europeans initiated into the mysteries of savage religion4 ,our best proof1 however1 of the existence of this exalted1 usually neglected belief1 is the coincidence of testimony1 from that of the companions of ,columbus1 and the earliest traders visiting ,america1 to that of ,mr4 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 a mystes of the ,australian ,eleusinia1 or of the latest travellers among the ,fangs1 the remote ,masai1 and other scarcely 'contaminated' races4#d ,if we can raise1 at least1 a case for consideration in favour of this non-utilitarian belief in a deity not approached with prayer or sacrifice1 we also raise a presumption against the theory that gods were invented1 in the despair of magic1 as powers out of whom something useful could be got3 powers with good things in their gift1 things which men were ceasing to believe that they could obtain by their own magical machinery4 ,the strong primal gods1 unvexed by prayer1 were not invented as recipients of prayer4 ,to ignore this chapter of early religion1 to dismiss it as a tissue of borrowed ideas--though its existence is attested by the first ,europeans on the spot1 and its originality is vouched for by the very absence of prayer1 and by observers like ,mr4 ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,miss ,kingsley1 and ,sir ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 who proposed1 but withdrew1 a theory of 'loan-gods'--is not scientific4 ,my own early readings in early religion did not bring rue acquainted with this chapter in the book of beliefs4 ,when ,i first noticed an example of it1 in the reports of the ,benedictine ,mission at ,nursia1 in ,australia1 ,i conceived1 that some mistake had been made in #ahde1 by the missionary who sent in the report4#e ,but later1 when ,i began to notice the coincidence of testimony from many quarters1 in many ages1 then ,i could not conceal from myself that this chapter must be read4 ,it is in conflict with our prevalent theories of the development of gods out of worshipped ancestral spirits3 for the maker of things1 not approached in prayer as a rule1 is said to exist where ancestral spirits are not reported to be worshipped4 ,but science 7in other fields7 specially studies exceptional cases1 and contradictory instances1 and all that seems out of accord with her theory4 ,in this case science has glanced at what goes contrary to her theory1 and has explained it by bias in the reporters1 by error in the reporters1 and by the theory of borrowing4 ,but such coincidence in misreporting is a dangerous thing for anthropology to admit1 as it damages her evidence in general4 ,again1 the theory of borrowing seems to be contradicted by the early dates of many reports1 made prior to the arrival of missionaries1 and by the secrecy in which the beliefs are often veiled by the savages2 as also by the absence of prayer to the most potent being4 ,we are all naturally apt to insist on and be pre-possessed in favour of an idea which has come to ourselves unexpectedly1 and has appeared to be corroborated by wider research1 and1 perhaps1 above all1 which runs contrary to the current of scientific opinion4 ,we make a pet of the relatively new idea2 let it be the origin of mythology in 'a disease of language2' or the vast religious importance of totems2 or our theory of the origin of totemism2 or the tremendous part played in religion by gods of plants4 ,we insist on the idea too exclusively2 we find it where it is not--in fact1 we are very human1 very unscientific1 very apt to become one-idea'd4 ,it is even more natural that we should be regarded in this light by our brethren 7est-il embtant avec son ,etre ,suprme671 whose own systems will be imperilled if our favourite idea can be established4 ,i risk this interpretation when ,i keep maintaining--what--that the chapter of otiose or unworshipped superior beings in the ',early ,history of ,religion' deserves perusal4 ,not to cut its pages1 to go on making systems as if it did not exist1 is1 ,i venture to think1 less than scientific1 and borders on the superstitious4 ,for to build and defend a theory1 without looking closely to whatever may imperil it1 is precisely the fault of the superstitious ,khond1 who used to manure his field with a thumb1 or a collop from the flank of a human victim1 and did not try sowing a field without a collop of man's flesh1 to see what the comparative crops would be4 ,or science of this kind is like ,don ,quixote1 who1 having cleft his helmet with one experimental sword-stroke1 repaired it1 but did not test it again4 ,like other martyrs of science1 ,i must expect to be thought importunate1 tedious1 a fellow of one idea1 and that idea wrong4 ,to resent this would show great want of humour1 and a plentiful lack of knowledge of human nature4 ,meanwhile1 ,i am about to permit myself to criticise some recent hypotheses in the field of religious origins1 in the interests of anthropology1 not of orthodoxy4 #a ,golden ,bough1 i4 xxi41 #aijj4 #b ,g4 ,b4 i4 #gg4 #c ,tylor1 ,prim4 ,cult4 ii4 #cji1 citing ,thevet1 ,singularitez de la ,france ,antarctique1 ,paris1 #aeeh1 ch4 #gg4 #d ,journal of ,anthropological ,institute1 ,oct4-,dec4 #aijj and ,n4,s4 ,,ii41 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 p4 #he4 #e ,max ,mller1 ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #af4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,loan-,,gods2 ,,or ,,borrowed ,,religion ,the study of the origins of religion is impeded by the impossibility of obtaining historical evidence on the subject4 ,if we examine the religious beliefs of extant races1 the lowest in material culture1 the best representatives of palolithic man1 we are still a long way from the beginnings of human speculation and belief4 ,man must have begun to speculate about the origins of things as soon as he was a reasoning animal4 ,if we look at the isolated and backward tribe of ,central ,australia1 the ,arunta1 we have the advantage of perhaps the best and most thoroughly scientific study ever made of such a race1 the book by ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen4#a ,here we watch a people so 'primitive' that they are said to be utterly ignorant of the natural results1 in the way of progeny1 of the union of the sexes4 ,yet1 on the same authority1 this tribe has evolved an elaborate1 and1 granting the premises1 a scientific and adequate theory of the evolution of our species1 and the nature of life4 ,an original stock of spirits is constantly reincarnated2 spiritual pedigrees are preserved by records in the shape of oval decorated stones1 and it seems that a man or woman of to-day may be identified as an incarnation of a soul1 whose adventures1 in earlier incarnations1 can be traced back to the ,alcheringa1 or mythical heroic age of the people4 ,their marriage laws are already in advance of those of their neighbours1 the ,urabunna1 and their only magistracy1 of a limited and constitutional kind1 descends in the male line4 ,thus the ,arunta are socially in advance of the ,pictish royal family in ,scotland1 whose crown descended in the female line1 no king being succeeded by his son4 ,manifestly the religious or non-religious ideas of such a people1 unclothed1 houseless1 ignorant of metals and of agriculture1 and without domesticated animals though they are1 must be ideas with a long history behind them4 ,the ,arunta philosophy is a peculiar philosophy1 worked out by thoughtful men1 and elaborated so artfully that there seems neither room for a god1 nor for the idea of a future life1 except the life of successive reincarnations4 ,it is therefore impossible for us to argue that mankind in general began its speculative career with the singular and apparently godless philosophy of the ,arunta4 ,their working science is sympathetic magic2 to the ,great ,spirit1 with a trace of belief in whom they are credited1 they are not said to pray2 and he seems to be either an invention of the seniors1 for the purpose of keeping the juniors and women in order1 or a being originally of higher character1 belief in whom has died out among the adults4 ,to him we return in another essay4 ,as historical information about the early or late evolution of the idea of a superior 7not to say supreme7 being is thus unattainable1 thinkers both ancient and modern have derived the idea of ,god from that of ghost4 ,the conception of a powerful spirit of a dead father1 worshipped by his children1 is supposed to have been gradually raised to the power of a god4 ,against this theory ,i have elsewhere urged that superior beings are found among races who do not worship ancestral spirits2 and again that these superior beings are not envisaged as spirits1 but rather as supernormal magnified men1 of unbounded power 7an idea often contradicted in savage as in ,greek mythology7 and of limitless duration4 ,the reply to me takes the form of ignoring1 or disabling the evidence1 or of asserting that these superior beings are 'loan-gods1' borrowed by savages from ,europeans or ,islamites4 ,it is to the second theory1 that these savage superior beings are disguised borrowings from missionaries1 explorers1 traders1 or squatters1 that ,i now address myself4#b ,these beings certainly cause difficulties to the philosophy which derives gods1 in the last resort1 from ghosts4 ,it is probable that these difficulties have for some time been present to the mind of ,mr4 ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor 7one may drop academic titles in speaking of so celebrated a scholar74 ,when ,mr4 ,tylor publishes the ,gifford ,lectures which he delivered some years ago at ,aberdeen1 we shall know his mature mind about this problem4 ,meanwhile he has shown that the difficulty1 the god where no god should be1 is haunting his reflections4 ,for example1 his latest edition of his ',primitive ,culture' 7#ahia7 contains1 as we shall show1 interesting modifications of what he wrote in the second edition 7#ahga74 ,there are three ways in which friends of the current theory that gods are grown-up ghosts may attempt to escape from their quandary4 7#a7 ,the low races with the high gods are degenerate1 and their deity is a survival from a loftier stage of lost culture4 ,mr4 ,tylor1 however1 of course1 knows too much to regard the ,australians1 in the stone age1 as degenerate4 7#b7 ,the evidence is bad or 7,fr4 ,mller7 is that of prejudiced missionaries4 ,but ,mr4 ,tylor knows that some of the evidence is excellent1 and1 at its best1 does not repose on missionary testimony4 7#c7 ,the high gods of the low races are borrowed from missionary teaching4 ,this is the line adopted by ,mr4 ,tylor4 ,i recently pointed out1 in ',the ,making of ,religion' 7#ahih71 the many difficulties which beset the current theory4 ,i was therefore alarmed on rinding that ,mr4 ,tylor had mined the soil under my own hypothesis4 ,his theory of borrowing 7which would blow mine sky-high if it exploded7 is expounded by ,mr4 ,tylor in an essay1 ',the ,limits of ,savage ,religion1' published in the ',journal of the ,anthropological ,institute' 7vol4 xxi41 #ahib74 ,i propose to examine ,mr4 ,tylor's work1 and to show that his own witnesses demonstrate the unborrowed and original character of the gods in question4 ,mr4 ,tylor first opposes the loose popular notion that all over ,north ,america the ,indians believed in a being named ,kitchi ,manitou1 or ',great ,spirit1' a notion which ,i do not defend4 ,he says3 ',the historical evidence is that the ,great ,spirit belongs1 not to the untutored1 but to the tutored mind of the savage1 and is preserved for us in the records of the tutors themselves1 the ,jesuit missionaries of ,canada4'#c ,now as to the word ',manitou' spirit1 ,mr4 ,tylor quotes ,le ,jeune 7#afcc73 ',by this word ,manitou1 ,i think they understand what we call an angel1 or some powerful being4'#d ,again3 ',the ,montagnets give the name ,manitou to everything1 whether good or bad1 superior to man4 ,therefore1 when we speak of ,god1 they sometimes call ,him ,the ,good ,manitou1 while when we speak of the ,devil1 they call him ,the ,bad ,manitou4'#e ,when then1 ninety years later1 in #agbd1 ,pre ,lafitau dilates on ',the ,great ,spirit1' ',the ,great ,manitou1' we are to see that in ninety years the term which the ,indians used for our ,god--their translation of le bon dieu--has taken root1 become acclimatised1 and flourished4 ,lafitau1 according to ,mr4 ,tylor1 has also raised the ,huron word for spirit1 oki1 to ,okki1 with a capital ,o1 which he calls ,le ,grand ,esprit4 ,the elevation is solely due to ,lafitau and other ,christian teachers4 ,if all this were granted1 all this is far indeed from proving that the idea of a beneficent ,creator was borrowed by the ,indians from the ,jesuits between #afcc and #agbd4 ,mr4 ,tylor's own book1 ',primitive ,culture1' enables us to correct that opinion4 ,here he quotes ,captain ,smith1 from an edition of the ',history of ,virginia' of #afcb4 ,smith began to colonise ,virginia in #afjg4 ,he says 7edition of #afcb73 ',their chief god they worship is the ,devil4 ,him they call ,okee 7,okki71 and serve him more of fear than love4' ,mr4 ,tylor cites this as a statement by 'a half-educated and whole-prejudiced ,european' about 'savage deities1 which1 from his point of view1 seem of a wholly diabolic nature4' ',the word oki1' ,mr4 ,tylor goes on1 'apparently means that which is above1 and was1 in fact1 a general name for spirit or deity4'#f ,the chief deity of the ,virginians then 7in #afjg1 before missionaries came71 with his temples and images1 was a being whose name apparently meant 'that which is above4' ,moreover1 ,father ,brebeuf 7#afcf7 describes an oki in the heavens who rules the seasons1 is dreaded1 and sanctions treaties4 ,consequently ,lafitau did not1 in #agbd1 first make oki1 a spirit1 into ,okki1 a god4 ,that had been done in ,virginia before any missionaries arrived1 by the natives themselves1 long before #afjg4 ,for this we have1 and ,mr4 ,tylor has cited1 the evidence of ,smith1 before ,jesuits arrived4 ,what is yet more to the purpose1 ,william ,strachey1 a successor of ,smith1 writing in #afaa-ab1 tells us that ,okeus 7as he spells the word7 was only a magisterial deputy of 'the great ,god 7the priests tell them7 who governs all the world1 and makes the sun to shine1 creatyng the sun and moone his companions1444 him they call ,ahone4 ,the good and peaceable ,god requires no such duties as are paid to ,okeus1 nor needs to be sacrificed to1 for he intendeth all good unto them4' ,he has no image4#g ,strachey remarks that the native priests vigorously resisted ,christianity4 ,they certainly borrowed neither ,okeus nor ,ahone1 the beneficent ,creator who is without sacrifice1 from ,jesuits who had not yet arrived4 ,do we need more evidence8 ,if so1 here it is4 ,speaking of ,new ,england in #afbb1 ,winslow writes about the god ,kiehtan as a being of ancient credit among the natives4 ,he 'made all the other gods2 he dwells far westerly above the heavens1 whither all good men go when they die4' ,thus ,mr4 ,tylor himself 7loc4 cit47 summarises ,winslow1 and quotes3 ',they never saw ,kiehtan1 but they hold it a great charge and dutie that one age teach another4 ,and to him they make feasts1 and cry and sing for plentie1 and victorie1 or anything that is good4' ,thus ,kiehtan1 in #afbb1 was not only a relatively supreme god1 but also a god of ancient standing4 ,borrowing from missionaries was therefore impossible4 ,mr4 ,tylor then added1 in #ahga3 ',brinton's etymology is plausible1 that this ,kiehtan is simply the ,great ,spirit 7,kittanitowit1 ,great ,living ,spirit1 an ,algonquin word compounded of ,kitta great1 manitou spirit1 termination1 wit1 indicating life74' ,but all this etymology ,mr4 ,tylor omitted in his edition of #ahia1 probably no longer thinking it plausible4 ,he did1 however1 say in #ahia 7ii4 #cdb73 ',another famous native ,american name for the ,supreme ,deity is ,oki4' ,not content with ,okeus1 capital ,o and all1 before the arrival of missionaries2 not content with ,kiehtan1 whose etymology 7in #ahga7 'apparently' means ',great ,spirit1' before the arrival of ,jesuits in ,new ,england1 ,mr4 ,tylor1 in ',primitive ,culture1' adds to these deities 'the ,greenlanders' ,torngarsuk1 or ,great ,spirit 7his name is an augmentative of torngak1 spirit in #ahia demon71' before the arrival of missionaries6 ,for1 says ,mr4 ,tylor1 'he seems no figure derived from the religion of ,scandinavian colonists1 ancient or modern4444 ,he so clearly held his place as supreme deity in the native mind that1 as ,cranz the missionary alleges1 many ,greenlanders1 hearing of ,god and ,his ,almighty power1 were apt to fall on the idea that it was their ,torngarsuk who was meant4'#h ,now1 in #ahia1 ,mr4 ,tylor dropped out 'he seems no figure derived from the religion of ,scandinavian colonists1 ancient or modern2' and he added that ,torngarsuk was later identified1 not with our ,god1 but with our ,devil3 a foible characteristic1 ,i may say--as ,mr4 ,tylor said concerning ,captain ,smith and ,oki--of 'a half-educated and whole-prejudiced ,european4' ,for the ,algonquin ,indians ,mr4 ,tylor cited ,father ,le ,jeune 7#afcc73 ',when the missionary talked to them of an almighty creator of heaven and earth1 they began to say to one another ,atahocan1 ,atahocan4' ,but his name had fallen into contempt and a verb1 ,nitatahocan1 meant ',i tell an old fanciful story4' ,in #aeeh ,thevet credits the ,canadian ,indians with belief in 'a creator' ,andouagni1 not approached with prayers4 ,none of these beings can have been borrowed from ,europeans4 ,it will presently be seen that between #ahga and #ahib ,mr4 ,tylor became sceptical as to the records of a ,great ,spirit in ,america4 ,but he retained ,oki in the sense of ,supreme ,deity4 ,here1 then1 from ,virginia to ,greenland1 ,mr4 ,tylor presented in #ahga evidence for a being of supreme power1 called bynames which1 perhaps1 mean ',great ,spirit4' ,in his essay of #ahib he does not refer to his earlier work and his evidence there for a ,great ,spirit1 nor tell us why he has changed his mind4 ,he now attributes the ,great ,spirit to missionary influence4 ,we naturally ask in what respect he has found the early evidence on which he previously relied lacking in value4 ,mr4 ,tylor1 in ',primitive ,culture1'#i gives a yet earlier reference than the others for a ,virginian ,creator4 ,he cites ,heriot 7an author of #aehf74 ,again3 ',they believe in one who made all things1 but pay him no honour1' writes ,pre ,l',allemant in #afbf1 in a region where 'il n'y ait point eu de religieux4' ,in #ahga ,mr4 ,tylor said3 ',it has even been thought that the whole doctrine of the ,great ,spirit was borrowed by the savages from missionaries and colonists4 ,but this view will not bear examination4 ,after due allowance made for mis-rendering of savage answers and importation of white men's thoughts1 it can hardly be judged that a divine being1 whose characteristics are so unlike what ,european intercourse would have suggested1 and who is heard of by such early explorers among such distant tribes1 could be a deity of foreign origin4'#aj ,in #ahia 'this view will not bear examination' is deleted--why8--and the deity1 we are told1 'could hardly be altogether of foreign origin4' ,he could not be1 when found by the first ,european discoverers1 and1 had the creed been borrowed1 prayer to the being would have been borrowed with it4 ,now1 in his essay of #ahib1 ,mr4 ,tylor never1 ,i think1 alludes to his own evidence of #ahgc1 or even of #ahia1 in favour of a ,red ,indian creator1 evidence earlier than the ,jesuits 7#aeeh1 #aehf1 #afab-af1 #afbb1 and of ,le ,jeune1 #afcc74 ,in the essay of #ahib that authentic evidence 'of such early explorers among such distant tribes' to a savage conception of the ,creator is not cited4 ,the coincidence of testimony is the strongest possible evidence to the nature and unborrowed character of the being4 ,such coincidence is1 in fact1 ,mr4 ,tylor's own touchstone of trustworthy testimony4 ,yet in #ahib the ,jesuits receive the whole credit of introducing the idea4 ,it would be interesting to know why the early evidence has suddenly become untrustworthy4 ,the essay of #ahib ought1 of course1 to be regarded as only a sketch4 ,yet we are anxious to learn the reasons which made ,mr4 ,tylor leave his evidence out of sight1 though republished by him only the year before he put forth his tractate in favour of borrowing from ,jesuits4 ,i turn to another point on which ,i cannot accept ,mr4 ,tylor's arguments4 ,in his essay of #ahib ,mr4 ,tylor dates the ,mandan ,deluge legend as not before #agjj4 ,why8 ,because ,catlin 7in #ahcj-ahdj7 found iron instruments used ritually in the native ,mystery ,play of the ,flood4 ,they were supposed to represent the tools employed in making the vessel wherein 'the only man' escaped drowning4 ,but the ,mandans did not get iron tools before #agjj4 ,the ,indians1 however1 we reply1 had canoes before they had iron tools1 and1 in modern times1 might naturally employ iron instead of flint instruments 7discarded7 in the ,mystery ,play4 ,they might do this1 in spite of the marked preference for stone tools in ritual4 ,perhaps they had none4 ,it must here be observed that ,catlin does not use the word 'ark' 7as ,mr4 ,tylor does7 for the vessel of 'the only man4' ,catlin always says 'the big canoe4' ,even if we admit 7which we do not7 that the ,mandans necessarily borrowed their ,deluge legend from whites1 it does not follow1 as ,mr4 ,tylor argues1 that because the ',great ,spirit' appears in the ,deluge legend1 he 'cannot claim greater antiquity' than #agjj4 ,in the first place1 as1 in ,mr4 ,tylor's earlier statement1 ,canadians1 ,algonquins1 ,virginians1 ,massachusetts1 and ,greenlanders had a ,great ,spirit before ,christian influences began1 the ,mandans may have been equally fortunate4 ,nor does it seem safe to argue1 like ,mr4 ,tylor1 that if the ,great ,spirit figures in a 7hypothetically7 borrowed myth1 therefore the conception of a ,great ,spirit was necessarily borrowed at the same time4 ,that more recent myths are constantly being attached to a pre-existing god or hero is a recognised fact in mythology4 ,nor can mythologists argue 7#a7 that ,biblical myth is a modified survival of savage myth1 and 7#b7 that such natural and obvious savage myths as the kneading of man out of clay1 the origin of death 7'the ,fall'71 and the tradition of the ,deluge are necessarily borrowed by savages from the ,bible4 ,this is1 indeed1 to argue in a vicious circle4 ,again1 was the ,australian and ,american myth of a race of wise birds1 earlier than man1 borrowed from the famous chorus in the ',birds' of ,aristophanes8 ,is the ,arunta theory of evolution borrowed from ,darwin1 or their theory of reincarnation from ,buddhism8 ,borrowing of ideas seems only to be in favour when savage ideas resemble more or less those of ,christianity4 ,mr4 ,tylor remarks that ,prince ,maximilian1 who knew ,mandanese better than ,catlin1 found among them no ',great ,manitou'--so called4 ,but he did find a ,creator whose name means ',lord of ,earth4' ,was ,he borrowed from the whites8 ,finally1 on this point1 would savages who remained so utterly un-,christian as the ,mandans1 adopt from missionaries just one myth--the ,deluge--and make that the central feature in their national ritual8 ,indeed this seems very improbable conduct6 ,nothing is more conservative than ritual3 that is notorious4 ,we do not follow ,mr4 ,tylor into ,south ,america4 ,if our case is proved1 by his own not repudiated authorities1 for ,north ,america1 that suffices us4 ,we turn to ,australia4 ,let us first take the typical ,australian case of ,baiame1 ,pei-a-mei1 or ,baiamai1 at present alleged by ,mr4 ,howitt and others to be the moral creative being of many tribes1#aa and served1 without sacrifice1 in their mysteries4 ,mr4 ,tylor first finds him mentioned as a creator by ,mr4 ,horace ,hale1 whose book is of #ahdj4ab ',next1 in #ahej1 ,baiame was spoken of by a native to some ,german ,moravian missionaries as a being who1 according to their 'sorcerers or doctors1' made all things1 but was easy to anger1 and was to be appeased by dances4 ,thus he was accepted by the most notoriously conservative class1 the class most jealous of missionary influence1 the sorcerers4 ,omitting for the moment a later description of ,baiame as seen by a black devotee in a vision1 we turn to ,mr4 ,tylor's theory of the origin of this god4 ,mr4 ,ridley 7who began his missionary career in ,victoria in #ahed7 gives a pleasing account of ,baiame as a creator1 with a paradise for the good4 ,according to ,mr4 ,ridley1 ',baiame' is discovered by ,mr4 ,greenway to be derived from baia1 'to make1' and he concludes that 'for ages unknown' the blacks have called ,god 'the ,maker4'#ac ,mr4 ,tylor now asks1 ',was ,baiame1' who is1 he avers1 'near #ahdj so prominent a divine figure among the ,australians1 known to them at all a few years earlier8' ,he decides that before #ahdj ,baiame was 'unknown to well-informed 7white7 observers4' ,this1 of course1 would not prove that ,baiame was unknown to the blacks4 ,as for the observers1 who are three in number1 one1 ,buckley the convict1 in spite of his thirty-two years with the blacks1 is of no real value4 ,we cannot trust a man who lied so freely as to say that in ,australia he 'speared salmon'6 and often saw the fabled monster1 the ,bunyip4#ad ,buckley could not read1 and his book was made up by a ,mr4 ,morgan out of 'rough notes and memoranda 444 and by conversation4' ,if1 then1 as ,buckley says1 'they have no notion of a ,supreme ,being' 7p4 #eg71 we may discount that2 ,buckley's idea of such a being was probably too elevated4 ,moreover he never mentions the confessedly ancient native mysteries1 in one of which among certain tribes the being is revealed4#ae ,mr4 ,tylor's next well-informed observer before #ahdj1 ,mr4 ,backhouse1 a ,quaker1 takes his facts straight from the third witness1 ,mr4 ,threlkeld2 he admits it for some of them1 and it is true1 in this matter1 of all of them4#af ,buckley being out of court1 and ,backhouse being a mere copy of ,mr4 ,threlkeld1 what has ,mr4 ,threlkeld to say8 ,what follows is curious4 ,mr4 ,threlkeld 7#ahcd-aheg7 does not name ,baiame1 but speaks of a big supernatural black man1 called ,koin1 who carries wizards up to the sky1 inspires sorcerers1 walks about with a fire-stick1 and so on4#ag ,to honour him boys' front teeth are knocked out in the initiatory stages4 ,as soon as ,i read this passage ,i perceived that ,mr4 ,threlkeld was amalgamating such a goblin as the ,kurnai call ',brewin' with the high ,god of the ,mysteries4 ,in #ahha1 when ,mr4 ,howitt1 with ,mr4 ,fison1 wrote ',kamilaroi and ,kurnai1' he knew no higher being among that tribe than the goblin ,brewin4 ,but1 being initiated later1 ,mr4 ,howitt discovered that the ,god of the ,mysteries is ,mungan-ngaur ',our ,father' 7this shows the slight value of negative evidence74 ,women know about ,brewin1 the goblin master of sorcerers1 but the knowledge of ,mungan-ngaur is hidden from them under awful penalties4#ah ,not only ,i1 but ,mr4 ,horace ,hale 7#ahdj71 came to this opinion3 that ,koin is a goblin1 ,baiame a god1 as we shall see4 ,in the same way1 where ,baiame is supreme1 ,daramulun is sometimes a goblin or fiend4 ,mr4 ,threlkeld very properly did not use the name of the fiend ,koin as equivalent to ',god' in his translation of the ,gospel of ,st4 ,luke into the native tongue 7#ahca-ahcd74 ,he there used for ,god ,eloi1 and no doubt did the same in his teaching2 he also tried the word ,jeliovaka-birun4 ,neither word has taken with the blacks2 neither word occurs in their traditions4 ,the word1 though forced on them1 has not been accepted by them4 ,that looks ill for the theory of borrowing4 ,here1 then1 of ,mr4 ,tylor's three negative witnesses1 who1 before #ahdj1 knew not ,baiame1 ,mr4 ,threlkeld alone is of value4 ,as ,mr4 ,hale says1 ,mr4 ,threlkeld was 7#ahbf-aheg7 the first worker at the dialects of those ,baiame-worshipping tribes1 the ,kamilaroi of the ,wellington ,valley1 in ,victoria4 ,but whence did ,mr4 ,hale get what ,mr4 ,tylor cites1 his knowledge in #ahdj of ,baiame8 ,he1 an ,american savant on an exploring expedition1 could not well find out esoteric native secrets4 ,i shall prove that ,mr4 ,hale got his knowledge of ,baiame from ,mr4 ,tylor's own negative witness1 ,mr4 ,threlkeld4 ,mr4 ,hale says that 'when the missionaries first came to ,wellington1' ,baiame was worshipped with songs4 ',there was a native famous for the composition of these songs or hymns1 which1 according to ,mr4 ,threlkeld1 were passed on1' c4 ,mr4 ,hale thus declares 7,mr4 ,tylor probably overlooked the remark7 that when the missionaries first came to ,wellington 7where ,baiame is the ,creator7 they found ,baiame there before them6#ai ,then1 why did ,mr4 ,threlkeld not name ,baiame8 ,i think because ,mr4 ,hale says that ,baiame's name and sacred dance were brought in by natives from a distance1 and 7when he is writing7 had fallen into disuse4#bj ,had1 then1 a missionary before #ahdj evolved ,baiame from ,kamilaroi baia1 'to make' 7for that is ,mr4 ,tylor's theory of the origin of the word ',baiame'71 and taught the name to distant natives as a word for his own ,god2 and had these proselytising distant dancing natives brought ,baiame's name and dance to ,wellington8 ,are missionaries dancing masters8 ,they would teach prayer and kneeling1 or give rosaries2 dances are no part of our religion4 ,to demonstrate missionary influence here we must find a missionary1 not ,mr4 ,threlkeld1 who was studying and working on the ,kamilaroi tongue before #ahdj4 ,there was no such missionary4 ,finally1 ,mr4 ,hale runs counter to ,mr4 ,tylor's theory of borrowing from whites1 though ,mr4 ,tylor does not quote his remark4 ,the ideas of ,baiame may 'possibly' be derived from ,europeans1 'though1' says ,mr4 ,hale1 'the great unwillingness which the natives always evince to adopt any custom or opinion from them militates against such a supposition4' ,so strong is this reluctance to borrow ideas from the whites1 that the blacks of the centre have not even borrowed the idea that children are a result of the intercourse of the sexes6 ,here1 then1 in part of the district studied by ,mr4 ,threlkeld in #ahbf-aheg1 an ,american savant 7who certainly received the facts from ,mr4 ,threlkeld7 testifies to ,baiame as recently brought from a distance by natives1 but as prior to the arrival of missionaries1 and most unlikely to have been borrowed4 ,whence1 then1 came ,baiame8 ,mr4 ,tylor thinks the evidence 'points rather to ,baiame being the missionary translation of the word creator1 used in missionary lesson books for ,god4' ,but by #ahdj1 when ,baiame is confessedly 'so prominent a divine figure1' ,mr4 ,threlkeld's were the only translations and grammatical tracts in the ,kamilaroi tongue4 ,now ,mr4 ,threlkeld did not translate 'creator' 7or anything else7 by ',baiame2' he used ',eloi' and ',jehovah-ka1' and the natives would have neither of these words4 ,where is ,mr4 ,tylor's reason1 then1 for holding that before #ahdj 7for it must be prior to that date if it is going to help his argument7 any missionary ever rendered creator by ',baiame'8 ,he has just argued that no 'observer' then knew the name ,baiame1 so no observer could have introduced a name ,baiame which he did not know2 yet there was the name2 ,mr4 ,hale found it there4 ,mr4 ,tylor's argument seems to be that ,mr4 ,ridley in #ahff1 and again in #ahgg1 printed extracts1 in which occurs ,baiame,god1 from the ',missionary ,primers prepared for the ,kamilaroi4' ,we might have expected ,mr4 ,tylor at least to give the dates of the ',missionary ,primers' that1 ex hypothesi1 introduced ,baiame before #ahdj4 ,he gives no dates1 and the primers are of #ahef and are written by ,mr4 ,ridley1 who cites them4#ba ,thus they must be posterior to the ,baiame of #ahdj1 and ,baiame was prior to missionaries at ,wellington1 at the time when ,mr4 ,tylor first notes his appearance4 ,thus1 by ,mr4 ,tylor's own evidence1 ,baiame is not shown to be a missionary importation2 the reverse4 ,as to ,australia1 it is not denied by ,mr4 ,tylor that practically all over the continent the blacks possess religious mysteries of confessed antiquity4 ,it is not denied that the institution of these mysteries is now1 in many cases1 attributed by the blacks to a moral creative being1 whose home is in or above the heavens4 ,it is not denied that his name now usually means1 in different dialects1 ,maker 7,baiame71 ,master 7,biamban71 and ,father 7,papang1 and many other words74 ,it is not denied that the doctrine of this being is now concealed from children and women1 and revealed to lads at the ,bora1 or initiatory mystery4#bb ,but1 on the other hand 7as ,i understand ,mr4 ,tylor71 while initiatory rites are old 7they certainly existed when ,dampier touched at the ,australian coast in #afhh-afhi71 the names of their institutor 7,father1 ,maker71 his moral excellencies 7871 and his creative attributes1 are all due to missionary influence4 ,the original founder of the ,bora1 in pre-missionary days1 would only be a dead 'head-man' or leader1 now religiously regarded4 ,to this we first demur4 ,it is not shown--it is denied by ,waitz1 and it is not even alleged by ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer--that the ,australians 'steadily propitiate' or sacrifice at all to any ghosts of dead men4 ,how can they8 ,the name of the dead is tabooed1 and even where there is in one instance an eponymous human patronymic of a tribe1 that patronymic alters in every generation4 ,now1 among such a ghost-worshipping people as the ,zulus1 the most recently dead father gets most worship4 ,in ,australia1 where even the recent ghosts are unadored1 is it likely that some remote ghost is remembered as founder of the ancient mysteries8 ,this is beyond our belief1 though the opinion is1 or at least was1 that of ,mr4 ,howitt4 ,the mere institution of female kin among some of these tribes 7though paternity is recognised7 makes against an ancient worship of a male ancestor where even now ancestors are unworshipped4 ,as to the aspect of this god1 ,baiame1 ,mr4 ,tylor presently cites a story told to ,mr4 ,howitt by a native1 of how with his father he once penetrated in the spirit to ,baiame's home1 and found him to be 'a very great old man with a long beard1' and with crystal pillars growing out of his shoulders which support a supernal sky4 ,his 'people1' birds and beasts1 were around him4 ,mr4 ,tylor says3 ',these details are1 it will have been noticed1 in some respects of very native character1 while in others recalling conventional ,christian ideas of the ,almighty4' ,the ',christian' idea is1 naturally1 that of the old man of ,blake and ,michael ,angelo--,hartley ,coleridge's 'old man with the beard4' ,is it likely that the savages had seen any such representations8 ,again1 is the idea of ,baiame as an old man not natural to a race where respect of age is regularly inculcated in the mysteries and prevails in practice8 ',among the ,kamilaroi about ,bundurra1 ,turramulan another name for this or a lower god is represented at the mysteries by an old man learned in all the laws4'#bc444 ,as early as #agih ,collins found that the native word for 'father' in ,new ,south ,wales was applied by the blacks as a title of reverence to the ,governor of the nascent colony4#bd ,it is used now in many native tribes as the name of their ,supreme ,being1 and ,mr4 ,tylor thinks it of missionary origin4 ,manifestly1 this idea of age and paternity in a worshipped being is congenial to the natives1 is illustrated in their laws and customs1 need not be borrowed1 and is rather inevitable4 ,the vision of ,baiame1 we may add1 was narrated to ,mr4 ,howitt by a native fellow-initiate4 ,to lie1 in such cases1 is 'an unheard-of thing1' says ,mr4 ,howitt4 ,the vision was a result of the world-wide practice of crystal gazing4 ,the seer's father handed to him a crystal4 ',when ,i looked at it1' says the narrator1 all manner of visions appeared1 including that of ,baiame4#be ,it is manifest1 we think1 that when the natives attach the attributes of fatherhood and antiquity to ,baiame1 they need not be borrowing from ,christian art notions so natural1 nay1 so inevitable1 in their own stage of society4 ,though in many cases reckoning kinship through women1 they quite undeniably recognise paternity in fact4 ,thus the paternal title had no need to be borrowed as a word of reverence4 ,it was so used before missionaries came4 ,mr4 ,howitt1 who is deeply initiated1 writes3 ',beyond the vaulted sky lies the mysterious home of that great and powerful being who is ,bunjil1 ,baiame1 or ,taramulan in different tribal languages1 but who in all is known by a name the equivalent of the only one used by the ,kurnai1 which is ,mangun-ngaur1 ,our ,father4'#bf ,now1 not to multiply evidence which is provided by other observers as to ,central ,australia 7not so central as the ,arunta country7 and the ,north1 ,mr4 ,tylor is confronted with this problem3 ,have all the tribes who regard a powerful being1 ,baiame or another1 as founder of their ancient mysteries1 borrowed his name and attributes1 since #ahdj or so1 from whites with whom they were constantly in hostile relations8 ,is it probable that1 having hypothetically picked up from ,christians the notion of a moral ,father in heaven1 their 'priests' and initiators instantly disseminated that idea over most of the continent1 and introduced it into their most secret and most conservative ceremonies8 ,would they be likely to restrict so novel a piece of ,european information to the men8 ,mr4 ,dawson1 in his ',aborigines of ,australia' 7p4 #ea71 writes3 ',the recent custom of providing food for it 7a corpse7 is derided by intelligent old aborigines as white fellows' gammon6' ,thus do they estimate novelties6 ,yet in ,mr4 ,tylor's theory it is the most conservative class of all1 the medicine-men and learned elders--everywhere rivals and opponents of ,christian doctrine--who pick up the ,european idea of a good1 powerful father or master1 borrow a missionary name for him 7we have shown that the name1 ,baiame1 is not of missionary origin71 and introduce him in precisely the secret heart of the mysteries4 ,this knowledge is hidden1 under terrible penalties1 from women and children3 to what purpose8 ,do missionaries teach only the old rams of the flock1 and neglect the ewes and lambs8 ,obviously the women and children must know any secret of divine names and attributes imparted by missionaries4 ,again1 it is not probable that having recently borrowed a new idea from the whites the blacks would elaborately hide it from its authors1 the ,europeans4 ,so well is it hidden that1 till he was formally initiated1 ,mr4 ,howitt had no suspicion of its existence4#bg ,mr4 ,tylor may rest in his hypothesis of borrowing1 but for the reasons assigned we think it impossible in our1 and his1 selected ,north ,american cases1 and inconceivable as an explanation of the ,australian phenomena4 ,finally1 ,mr4 ,tylor candidly adduces a case in which ,mr4 ,dawson1 taking great and acknowledged trouble to collect evidence1 learned from the blacks that they had believed in a benevolent being1 ,pirnmeheal1 'whose voice is the thunder1' 'before they knew of the existence of ,europeans1' who 'have given them a dread of ,pirnmeheal4'#bh ,we add ,mr4 ,howitt's testimony to a supreme being ruling 'from ,omeo to ,shoalhaven ,river1 from the coast to ,yass ,gundagai1' concerning whom 'old men strenuously maintained that it was so before the white men came1' they themselves1 now aged1 having only learned the secret when they were initiated 'and made men' at about the age of fourteen4#bi ,in the same essay of #ahhecj ,mr4 ,howitt tells of a native whose grandfather initiated him as to an all-seeing personality1 ,bunjil1 'up there1' who would mark his conduct4 ',this was said before the white men came to ,melbourne' 7#ahce74 ,bunjil1 said ,william ,beiruk1 a black1 was called 'our father' 'before white men came to ,melbourne4' ,i might give other evidence in favour of the unborrowed character of ,australian belief in some such being as ,baiame4 ,thus ,mrs4 ,langloh ,parker1 the careful collector of ',australian ,legendary ,tales1'#ca was herself interested in the question4 ,she approached the subject as a disciple of ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 who allows hardly a germ of religion to the ,australians4 ,on hearing what she did hear1 as to ,baiame1 from the tribesmen1 she asked one of them whether the idea was not borrowed from ,europeans4 ,the old warrior answered that if it were so the young men would know most about ,baiame4 ,but they know nothing1 apparently because the old rites of initiation have fallen into disuse4 ,nor are they much more familiar with ,christian doctrine4 ,this black man had logic in him4 ,mrs4 ,langloh ,parker came1 contrary to her prepossessions1 to the same opinion as our best authority1 ,mr4 ,howitt1 that the ,australian belief is unborrowed4 ,this lady1 who has taken very great pains in criticising and collecting her evidence1 kindly sent me an essays of ,mr4 ,manning's from ',the ,journal of the ,royal ,society of ,new ,south ,wales1' vol4 xvi4 p4 #aei1 #ahhc4 ,mr4 ,manning was an early settler in the north border of the southern colony4 ,about #ahcb he was in ,europe1 and met ,goethe1 whose undiminished curiosity1 he being then about eighty-five1 induced him to bid ,mr4 ,manning examine ,australian beliefs4 ,he did1 but lost his notes1 made in #ahde-ahdh4 ,in these notes1 which he later recovered1 ,mr4 ,manning used ,christian terminology1 instead of making a verbatim report4 ,struck by the certainly singular savage idea of a son 7begotten in some cases1 in others a kind of 'emanation'7 of the superior being1 he employed theological phrases4 ,the son1 in his story1 sprang from a liquid like blood1 which ,boyma 7,baiame7 placed in a vessel within a crystal oven4 ,the myth of such a birth1 as ,mr4 ,hartland remarks1 is familiar to ,zulus and ,red ,indians4#cb ,it is therefore not likely to be of ,european origin4 ,but ,mr4 ,manning's evidence1 despite its terminology1 so far agrees with ,mrs4 ,langloh ,parker's account of the extant ,baiame belief as to 'make a case for further inquiry2' so ,mr4 ,hartland concedes4 ,i ask for no more4#cc ,thus ,mr4 ,manning has ,ballima1 ,mrs4 ,langloh ,parker has ,bullimah1 for a kind of floral paradise of souls1 very beautifully described in the lady's ',more ,australian ,legendary ,tales4' ,both authorities mention prayers for the dead2 ,mrs4 ,langloh ,parker quotes what ,mr4 ,hartland calls 'very interesting funeral rites and prayers for the dead4' ,he adds3 ',we want to be assured whether these are usual1 by means of an accurate description of the customary ceremonies1 and that she does not give us4' ,i shall make inquiry2 but what does it matter whether the rites1 in the overthrow of native manners1 are now usual or not8 ,baiame is unknown to the new generation1 as we have seen4 ,prayers to him1 then1 cannot be usual4 ,the point is that ,mr4 ,manning in #ahde1 and ,mrs4 ,langloh ,parker in #ahih1 both mention the prayers for the dead1 certainly not borrowed from ,protestants4 ,there is a similar account1 only that of an unnamed runaway convict who lived with the black fellows in ,north-,western ,australia4#cd ,by a mythical contradiction1 the soul of the hero ,eerin1 prayed for in ,mrs4 ,langloh ,parker's tale1 now inhabits a little bird4 ,another curious point needs to be considered by the advocates of the theory of borrowing4 ,mr4 ,hartland offers some deserved censures on ,mr4 ,manning's terminology in his report of ,australian religion 7#ahde-ahdh74 ,mr4 ,manning says3 ',they believe in the existence of a ,son of ,god1 equal with him in omniscience1 and but slightly inferior to his ,father in any attribute4 ,him they call ,grogoragally4 ,his divine office is to watch over all the actions of mankind1 and to bring to life the dead to appear before the judgment seat of his ,father1 who alone pronounces the awful judgment of eternal happiness in heaven 7,ballima7 or eternal misery in ,oorooma 7hell71 which is the place of everlasting fire 7gumby74 ,the ,son 444 acts as mediator for their souls to the great ,god1 to whom the good and bad actions of all are known4' ,as ,mr4 ,hartland truly says1 'this is not an accurate scientific account4' ,even ,mr4 ,manning's 'capital letters' are censured4 ,probably the native theologian really said something like this3 ',boyma' 7,baiame7 big man2 very budgery man4 ,him sit on big glass stone4 ,him son ,grogoragally can see everything and go everywhere4 ,see budgery man1 like him2 see bad man1 plenty too much devil devil4 ,likes budgery man2 no likes bad man3 he growl too much4 ,budgery man die1 ,grogoragally tell ,boyma2 ,boyma say1 ',take him ,ballima way1 plenty budgery place4' ,bad man die2 ,boyma say1 ',take him ,oorooma way1 plenty too hot1 him growl there4' ,grogoragally plenty strong1 him not so strong as ,boyma4 ,this1 or something like this1 would be the actual statement of the dusky theologian4 ,it is easily rendered into ,mr4 ,manning's terminology2 but at the same time the native1 in his rude lingua franca1 or pidgin ,english1 could hardly do justice to his creed4 ,it was his creed2 ,mr4 ,hartland himself recognises the original character of the native version of the ,supernatural ,birth4#ce ,here are certainly ',biblical analogies1' as ,mr4 ,tylor recognises1 but they are as certainly unborrowed4 ,now let us fancy that a traveller1 not a ,greek scholar1 is storm-driven to a hitherto unknown island4 ,he finds a race of heathen white men4 ,he describes their religion4 ',despite their polytheism1 they have certainly been visited by ,christian missionaries1 or are descended from a ,christian colony4 ,they believe in a supreme being whom they call ,zeus4 ,he has a son named ,apollon or ,phbus ,apollon1 who is all-knowing and all-seeing4 ,he acts as a kind of mediator between ,zeus and men1 to whom1 as one of the native hymns says1 he delivers the counsels of the ,father1 and his unerring will4 ,this ,apollo is consulted through an hysterical woman1 who lives in a cave4 ,after being convulsed1 like other savage mediums1 she speaks in a kind of verse4 ,her advice is often obscure and ambiguous1 but generally of a moral tendency4 ',this son of ,zeus is believed to be the only god who really knows the future and the will of his father4 ,there is another son1 ,hermes1 one of whose duties is to conduct the souls of the dead into the presence of their judge1 who is not ,zeus1 but another god4 ',there is also a son of ,apollo1 whom ,i take to be only a kind of double of that god2 he sometimes appears to his worshippers as a serpent3 his name is ,asclepius4 ',this reminds us of what ,winslow writes about the ,red ,indians of ,new ,england4 ,they have a supreme being1 ,kiehtan1 whose son1 ,hobamok1 appears in their assemblies as a serpent4 ,ridley has the same story about the blacks of ,australia4 ,i infer1 then1 that the natives of this island have inherited or been taught some elements of ,christianity1 as in the case of ,apollo1 the mediator between ,zeus and men2 and ,hermes1 the ,guide of ,souls as they call him1 psychopompos in their language4 ,but they have mixed up all this with degrading superstitions4' ,of course our traveller has arrived among ,greeks1 and quotes the ,homeric hymn to ,apollo4 ,but the ,greeks1 being prior to ,christianity1 did not borrow from it1 as our traveller supposes4 ,on the other hand1 the ,greek beliefs which he describes resemble ,australian and ,american beliefs more closely than ,australian and ,american beliefs resemble the creed taught by missionaries4 ,yet neither ,mr4 ,tylor nor any other friend of the borrowing theory asserts that the ,australians or ,americans borrowed their tenets from ,greece4 ,the truth seems to be that where a supreme being is regarded as too remote and impassive1 he is naturally supplied with a deputy4 ,ahone has ,oki1 ,kiehtan has ,hobamok1 ,boyma has ,grogoragally1 ,baiame has ,tundun1 or in places ,daramulun2 ,nyankupon1 in ,west ,africa1 has ,bobowissi4 ,sometimes1 as in the ,australian ,noorele's case1 these active deputies are sons of the supreme being4 ,no borrowing is needed to explain ideas so natural to early men1 believing in a supreme being remote and retired1 little concerned with mundane affairs1 and acting through a deputy or deputies4 ,in other cases1 as of the ,finnish ,num1 or the ,zulu ,unkulunkulu1 or the ,algonquin ,atahocan1 the being is quite neglected in favour of spirits who receive sacrifices of meat or grease4 ,human minds work on similar lines1 without borrowing1 which is only alleged in the case of ,christianity to account for the beliefs which do not fit the 'ghost theory' of modern speculators4 ,the essential point of ,mr4 ,manning's report1 injured as it is by his impossible terminology1 is the extreme secrecy maintained on these points by his savage informants4 ,they used to believe that the world would perish if the women heard of their dogmas4 ,thus a man said to ,mr4 ,howitt 7whose competence as a witness is indisputable73 ',if a woman were to hear these things1 or hear what we tell the boys1 ,i would kill her4'#cf ,one of ,mr4 ,manning's witnesses slunk 'into a wooden fireplace1' whence he whispered his beliefs4 ,he had previously examined doors and windows in search of listeners4 ,a man who reported these creeds would1 if they became divulged among the women1 be obliged to kill his wife4 ,if the religious ideas were borrowed from missionaries1 the women would know them as well as the men4 ,they would not be reserved for initiates at the mysteries1 through which ,mr4 ,howitt derived his most esoteric knowledge of creeds1 whereof1 in #ahha1 he was absolutely ignorant4#cg ,if the beliefs were of missionary origin1 the young men1 not the old men1 would know most about ,baiame4 ,for similar beliefs in ,north-,west ,central ,queensland ,i may cite ,mr4 ,both4#ch ,the being ,mulkari is described by ,mr4 ,both as ,i a benevolent1 omnipresent1 supernatural being2 anything incomprehensible4' ',mulkari is the supernatural power who makes everything which the blacks cannot otherwise account for2 he is a good1 beneficent person1 and never kills any one4' ,his home is in the skies4 ,he was also a medicine-man1 has the usual low myths about him1 and invented magic4 ,so writes ,dr4 ,both1 who knows the local ,pitta ,pitta language--and is not a missionary4 ,dr4 ,both is pursuing his researches1 and his remarks are only cited provisionally1 awaiting confirmation4 ,sometimes ,european observers do not see the trend of their own reports4 ,in #ahde ,mr4 ,eyre described 'the origin of creation 'as narrated to him by ,australian blacks on the ,murring ,river4 ,a being1 ,noorele1 with three unbegotten sons1 lives up among the clouds4 ,he is 'all powerful and of benevolent nature4 ,he made the earth1 trees1 water1 c4 ,he receives the souls 7ladko shades1 umbra7 of the natives1 who join him in the skies and will never die again4' ,yet ,mr4 ,eyre adds3 ',a ,deity1 a ,great ,first ,cause1 can hardly be said to be acknowledged4'#ci ,what is ,noorele if not a ',great ,first ,cause'8 ,among some tribes ,bunjil1 merely a title of authority1 meaning master1 lord1 headman1 is a name of the superior being4 ,abundance of the mythology of ,bunjil1 often ludicrous or degrading1 the being showing as a supernormal medicine-man1 may be found in ,mr4 ,brough ,smyth's great collections4#dj ,but no evidence can be better than that of native poetry1 which proves a higher aspect of ,bunjil4 ,a ,woiworung bard of old made a song which moved an aged singer to tears by 'the melancholy which the words conveyed to him4' ,it was an 'inspired' song1 for the natives1 like ourselves1 would think ,tennyson inspired and ,tupper not so4 ,usually 'the spirits' inspire singers2 this song was inspired by ,bunjil himself1 who 'rushes down into the heart of the singer1' just as ,apollo did of old4 ,it is a dirge of the native race3 ,we go all6 ,the bones of all ,are shining white4 ,in this ,dulur land6 ,the rushing noise ,of ,bunjil1 our ,father1 ,sings in my breast1 ,this breast of mine6#da ,the missionaries do not inspire these songs4 ,they put them down4 ',the white man1' says ,mr4 ,howitt1 'knows little or nothing of the black fellows' songs4' ,one of ,mr4 ,manning's informants 7#ahde7 was angry when asked for the ,hymn to ,baiame 7,boyma74 ,he said that ,mr4 ,manning knew too much already4 ,i have dwelt specially on ,australia1 because there1 as the natives do not worship ancestral spirits 7the names of the dead are tabooed71 their superior being cannot have been evolved out of ghost worship4 ,i have expressly avoided the evidence of missionaries1 except the early ,jesuits1 because missionaries are believed by some writers to be biassed on this point1 though1 in fact1 on other points they are copiously cited by anthropologists4 ,as ,mr4 ,tylor finds the saintly and often martyred ,jesuits of #afbj-affj worth quoting1 ,i have therefore admitted ,father ,le ,jeune's testimony to the existence of ,atahocan before their arrival in ,america1 with ,father ,brebeuf's ,oki1 or 'un ,oki1' whose anger is feared and who sanctions treaties4 ,it is impossible to me to understand how the savages could borrow from ,europeans the beliefs which the ,europeans found extant when they arrived4 ,i have not touched the case of ,africa4 ,in ',the ,making of ,religion' 7pp4 #bbb-bbh71 ,i argued against ,sir ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis's elaborate theory of borrowing a god1 in the case of the ,tshi-speaking races4 ,i did not know that this exact writer had repudiated his theory1 which was also rejected by ,miss ,mary ,kingsley4 ,as to ,australia1 in face of the evidence 7which settled ,mr4 ,howitt's doubts as to the borrowing of these ideas7 can any one bring a native of age and credit who has said that ,baiame1 under any name1 was borrowed from the whites8 ,mr4 ,palmer is 'perfectly satisfied' that 'none of these ideas were derived from the whites4' ,he is speaking of the tribes of the ,gulf of ,carpentaria1 far away indeed from ,victoria and ,new ,south ,wales4 ,there is no greater authority among anthropologists than ,waitz1 and ,waitz rejects the hypothesis that the higher ,australian religious beliefs were borrowed from ,christians4#db ,to sum up1 we have proved1 by evidence of #aeeh1 #aehf1 #afab-af1 and #afcc1 that a sort of supreme creative being was known in ,north ,america before any missionary influence reached the regions where he prevailed4 ,as to the ,australian god ,baiame1 we have shown out of the mouth of ,mr4 ,tylor's own witness1 ,mr4 ,hale1 that ,baiame preceded the missionaries in the region where literary evidence of his creed first occurs4 ,we have given ,mr4 ,hale's opinion as to the improbability of borrowing4 ,we have left it to ,mr4 ,tylor to find the missionary who1 before #ahdj1 translated ',creator' by the ,kamilaroi word ',baiame' while showing the difficulty--,i think the impossibility--of discovering any ,kamilaroi philologist before ,mr4 ,threlkeld4 ,and ,mr4 ,threlkeld certainly did not introduce ,baiame6 ,we have proved that1 contrary to ,mr4 ,tylor's theory of what a missionary can do1 ,mr4 ,threlkeld could not introduce his own names for ,god1 ,eloi and ,jehovah-ka1 into ,kamilaroi practice4 ,we note the improbability that highly conservative medicine-men would unanimously thrust a ,european idea into their ancient mysteries4 ,we have observed that by the nature of ,mr4 ,tylor's theory1 the hypothetically borrowed divine names and attributes must 7if taken over from missionaries7 have been well known to the women and children from whom they are concealed under dreadful penalties4 ,we have demonstrated the worthlessness of negative evidence by proving that the facts were discovered1 on initiation1 by a student 7,mr4 ,howitt71 confessedly in the first rank1 though he1 during many years1 had been ignorant of their existence4 ,we show that the ideas of age and paternity1 in an object of reverence1 are natural and habitual to ,australian natives1 and stood in no need of being borrowed4 ,we suggest that the absence of prayer to a powerful being is fatal to the theory of borrowing4 ,we show that direct native evidence utterly denies the borrowing of divine names and attributes1 and strenuously asserts that before ,europeans came to ,melbourne 7#ahce7 they were revealed in the secret doctrine of ancient initiatory rites4 ,this evidence again removed the doubts which ,mr4 ,howitt had entertained on the point1 and ,mr4 ,palmer and ,mr4 ,dawson agree with ,mr4 ,howitt1 ,mr4 ,ridley1 ,mr4 ,gnther1 and ,mr4 ,greenway1 all experts1 all studying the blacks on the spot4 ,in the study1 ,waitz is of the same opinion4 ,australian religion is unborrowed4 ,it is rare1 in anthropological speculations1 to light on a topic in which verifiable dates occur4 ,the dates of the arrivals of missionaries and other ,europeans1 the dates of ,mr4 ,hale's book1 of ,mr4 ,threlkeld's books1 of ,mr4 ,ridley's primer1 are definite facts1 not conjectures in the air4 ,while this array of facts remains undemolished1 science cannot logically argue that the superior beings of low savage belief are borrowed from ,christian teachers and travellers4 ,that idea is disproved also by the esoteric and hidden nature of the beliefs1 and by the usual1 though not universal1 absence of prayer4 ,the absence of prayer again1 and of sacrifice1 proves that gods not bribed or implored were not invented as powerful givers of good things1 because good things were found not to be procurable by magic4 ,this condition of belief is not what a ,european1 whatever his bias1 expects to find4 ,he does not import this kind of ideas4 ,if they are all misreports1 due to misunderstandings in ,america and ,australia from #aeeh to #ahih1 what is the value of anthropological evidence8 ,it ought to be needless to add that when good observers like ,miss ,kingsley find traces of ,jesuit or other missionary teaching in regions1 as ,africa or ,canada1 where ,jesuits actually taught in the past1 ,i accept their decision4#dc ,my arguments against the theory of borrowing apply chiefly to cases where the beliefs reported were found already extant by the first white observers1 to tribes where missionaries like ,mr4 ,threlkeld could not introduce their names for deity1 and to tribes which jealously conceal their theology from the whites4 #a ,natives of ,central ,australia1 ,london1 #ahii4 #b ,with a case of ignoring the evidence ,i deal in the following essay1 ,magic and ,religion4 #c ,op4 cit4 p4 #bhd4 #d ,le ,jeune1 ,relations1 #afcc1 p4 #ag4 #e ,ibid41 #afcg1 p4 #di4 #f ,prim4 ,cult4 ii4 #caj4 #g ,historic of ,travaile into ,virginia4 ,by ,william ,strachey1 ,gent1 7a companion of ,captain ,smith74 ,hakluyt ,society4 ,date circ4#afab-afaf4 ,see ,myth1 ,ritual1 and ,religion1 i4 xx-xxxix1 #ahii4 #h ,prim4 ,cult4 ii4 p4 #cjh4 #i ,prim4 ,cult4 ii4 pp4 #cji1 #caj 7#ahgc and #ahia74 #aj ,prim4 ,cult4 ii4 p4 #cjh4 #aa ,howitt1 ,journal of ,anthropological ,institute1 #ahhd1 #ahhe4 #ab ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition4 ,ethnology and ,philology p4 #aaj4 #ac ,ridley1 ,kamilaroi ,vocabularies1 p4 #ag 7#ahge74 ,also in an earlier ,grammar1 #ahff4 #ad ,the ,life and ,adventures of ,william ,buckley1 #aheb1 pp4 #dj-dh4 #ae ,howitt1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 #ahhe4 ,the ,kurnai tribe4 #af ,backhouse1 ,narrative of a ,visit to the ,australian ,colonies1 #ahdc1 p4 #eee4 ,compare ,threlkeld1 ,an ,australian ,language1 #ahib1 p4 #dg4 ,this is a reprint of ,mr4 ,threlkeld's early works of #ahca-aheg4 #ag ,op4 cit4 p4 #dg4 #ah ,journal ,anthrop4 ,inst41 #ahhe4 #ai ,he was supposed to live on an island1 on fish which came at his call1 probably a childlike answer to a tedious questioner4 #bj ,exploring ,expedition of ,u4 ,s41 #ahdf1 p4 #aaj4 #ba ,gurre ,kamilaroi1 or ,kamilaroi ,sayings4 ,sydney1 #ahef4 ,it is a scarce little book1 with illustrations and ,bible stories4 #bb ,howitt1 ,journal ,anthrop4 ,institute1 ut supra4 #bc ,greenway1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i4 vii4 p4 #bdc4 #bd ,collins1 ,account of the ,colony of ,new ,south ,wales1 #agih1 vol4 ii4 p4 #edd4 #be ,j4 ,a4 ,i44 xvi4 pp4 #di1 #ej4 #bf ,op4 cit41 #ahhe1 p4 #ed4 #bg ,for concealment from women and children1 see ,howitt1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i4 xiii4 p4 #aib4 #bh ,dawson1 ,aborigines of ,australia1 p4 #di4 #bi ,j4 ,a4 ,i4 xiii4 #ahhe1 p4 #adb4 #cj ,op4 cit4 p4 #aid4 #ca ,two volumes4 ,nutt4 #cb ,legend of ,perseus1 i4 #ig4 #cc ,folk ,lore1 ,march #ahii1 p4 #ee4 #cd ,ridley1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 #ahgb1 p4 #bhb4 #ce ,folk ,lore1 ,march #ahii1 pp4 #eb1 #ec4 #cf ,j4 ,a4 ,i4 vol4 xiv4 p4 #caj4 #cg ,see his and ,mr4 ,fison's ,kamilaroi and ,kurnai1 #ahha4 #ch ,north-,west ,central ,queensland ,aborigines1 pp4 #ad1 #cf1 #aaf1 #aec1 #aeh1 #afe4 #ci ,eyre1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #cee-ceg4 #dj ,aborigines of ,victoria4 #da ,arranged in lines from the literal translation1 preserving the native idiom4 ,howitt1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i4 vol4 xvi4 pp4 #ccj1 #cca4 #db ,anthropologie1 vi4 p4 #gih4 ,,iii ,,magic ,,and ,,religion ',the sin of witchcraft is as the sin of rebellion4' ,the idea which inspires this text probably is that a person who seeks to obtain his ends by witchcraft is rebelling against the deity or deities through whom alone these ends should be sought4 ,witchcraft is also an insult and injury to the official priests1 who regard the witch as the surgeon regards the bone-setter1 or as the geologist regards the 'dowser' or water-finder who uses the divining-rod4 ,magic or witchcraft falls into two main classes4 ,the former is magic of the sort used by people who think that things accidentally like each other influence each other4 ,you find a stone shaped like a yam1 and you sow it in the yam plot ,you find a stone like a duck1 and expect to have good duck-shooting while you carry the stone about in a bag4 ,in the same way the part influences the whole2 you burn some of a man's hair1 and so he catches a fever4 ,imitation works in the same manner2 you imitate the emergence of grubs from the larv1 and you expect grubs to emerge4 ,all magic of this kind is wrought by material objects1 sticks1 stones1 hair1 and so forth1 which sometimes have been 'charmed' by songs chanted over them4 ,among the ,arunta of ,central ,australia1 in many respects a backward people1 we do hear of an 'evil spirit' influencing the material object which has been charmed4#a ,we also hear of spirits which instruct men in medical magic4 ,but1 as a rule1 the magic is materialistic4 ,it really does produce effects1 by suggestion3 a man dies and a woman is won1 if they know that magic is being worked to kill or woo4 ,the second sort of magic acts by spells which constrain spirits or gods to do the will of the magician4 ,this magic involves itself in religion when the magical ceremonies are1 so to speak1 only symbolic prayers expressed in a kind of sign-language4 ,but if the idea is to put constraint by spells on a god or spirit1 then the intention is magical and rebellious4 ,though the official priest of a savage god may use magic in his appeal to that deity1 he is not a wizard4 ,it is the unofficial practitioner who is a witch1 just as the unqualified medical practitioner is a quack4 ,in the same way if a minister of the kirk was clairvoyant or second-sighted that was a proof of godliness and inspiration4 ,but if a lay parishioner was second-sighted1 he or she was in danger of the stake as a witch or wizard4 ,these1 briefly stated1 are the points of contrast and points of contact between magic and religion4 ,the question has recently been raised by ,mr4 ,frazer1 in the new edition of his ',golden ,bough1' whether magic has not everywhere preceded religion4 ,have men not attempted to secure weather and everything else to their desire by magic1 before they invented gods1 and prayed to them for what magic1 as they learned by experience1 failed to provide'8 ,this question cannot be historically determined4 ,if we find a race which has magic but no religion1 we cannot be certain that it did not once possess a religion of which it has despaired4 ,i once knew a man who1 as a child1 suffered from toothache4 ,he prayed for relief3 it did not come4 ,he at once1 about the age of eight1 abandoned religion4 ,what a child may do1 in the way of despair of religion1 a childlike race may do4 ,therefore1 if we find a race with magic but without religion1 we cannot scientifically say that the race has never possessed a religion4 ,thus the relative priority of religion or magic cannot be ascertained historically4 ,again1 all depends on our definition of religion1 if we are to pursue a speculation rather airy and unbottomed on facts4 ,mr4 ,frazer defines religion as 'a propitiation or conciliation of powers superior to man which are believed to direct and control the course of nature and of human life4'#b ,i ,but clearly this definition does not include all that we usually mean by religion4 ,if men believe in a potent being who originally made or manufactured the nature of things or most things 7,i am warned not to use the word 'creator'71 that is an idea so far religious that it satisfies1 by the figment of a supernatural agent1 the speculative faculty4 ,clearly the belief in such a being is a germ whence may spring the ideas of duty towards1 and an affection for1 the being4 ,nobody can deny that these are religious ideas1 though they do not appeal in ,mr4 ,frazer's definition4 ,the believers in such a being1 even if they never ask him for anything1 cannot be called irreligious4 ,at a period of his life when ,coleridge never prayed1 he would have been much and not unjustly annoyed if ,mr4 ,frazer had called him irreligious4 ,a man may believe in ,god1 and yet trust him too utterly to address him in petitions for earthly goods and gear4 ',thy ,will be ,done' may be his only prayer2 yet he does not lack religion4 ,he only lacks it in the sense of ,mr4 ,frazer's definition4 ,if that definition is granted1 ,mr4 ,frazer is prepared to produce a backward race1 houseless1 without agriculture1 metals1 domestic animals1 and without religion in ,mr4 ,frazer's sense4 ,they have magic1 but they have no religion1 says ,mr4 ,frazer1 who presently informs us that #a the first-born child of every woman was eaten by the tribe as part of a religious ceremony4'#c ,so they have a religion1 and a bloody religion it is4 ,that people is the ,australian1 among whom1 'while magic is universally practised1 religion in the sense of a propitiation or conciliation of the higher powers seems to be nearly unknown4'#d ',nobody dreams of propitiating gods or spirits by prayer or sacrifice4' ,we are presently to see that ,mr4 ,frazer gives facts which contradict his own statement4 ,but first ,i must cite all that he says about ,australian religion4 ',in the south-eastern parts of ,australia1 where the conditions of life in respect of climate1 water1 and vegetation are more favourable than elsewhere1 some faint beginnings of religion appear in the shape of a slight regard for the comfort of departed friends4 ,thus some ,victorian tribes are said to have kindled fires near the bodies of their dead in order to warm the ghost1 but the recent custom of providing food for it is derided by the intelligent old aborigines as 'white fellows' gammon4'#e ,some tribes in this south-eastern region are further reported to believe in a supreme spirit1 who is regarded sometimes as a benevolent1 but more frequently as a malevolent1 being4#f ,brewin1 the supreme being of the ,kurnai1 was at first identified by two intelligent members of the tribe with ,jesus ,christ1 but on further reflection they thought he must be the devil4#g ,but whether viewed as gods or devils it does not seem that these spirits were ever worshipped4#h ,it is worth observing that in the same districts which thus exhibit the germs of religion1 the organisation of society and the family has also made the greatest advance4 ,the cause is probably the same in both cases--namely1 a more plentiful supply of food due to the greater fertility of the soil4#i ,on the other hand1 in the parched and barren regions of ,central ,australia1 where magic attains its highest importance1 religion seems to be entirely wanting4#aj ,the traces of a higher faith in ,australia1 where they occur1 are probably sometimes due to ,european influence4 ',i am strongly of opinion1' says one who knew the aborigines well1 'that those who have written to show that the blacks had some knowledge of ,god1 practised prayer1 and believed in places of reward and punishment beyond the grave1 have been imposed upon1 and that until they had learned something of ,christianity from missionaries and others the blacks had no beliefs or practices of the sort4 ,having heard the missionaries1 however1 they were not slow to invent what ,i may call kindred statements with aboriginal accessories with a view to please and surprise the whites4'#aa ,sometimes1 too1 the reported belief of the natives in a great or good spirit may rest merely on a misunderstanding4 ,mr4 ,lorimer ,fison informs me 7in a letter dated ,june #c1 #ahii7 that a ,german missionary1 ,mr4 ,siebert1 resident in the ,dieri tribe of ,central ,australia1 has ascertained that their ,mura ,mura1 which ,mr4 ,gason explained to be the ,good ,spirit1#ab is nothing more or less than the ancestors in the 'dream times4' ,there are male and female ,mura ,mura--husbands1 wives1 and children--just as among the ,dieri at the present day4 ,mr4 ,fison adds3 ',the more ,i learn about savage tribes1 the more ,i am convinced that among them the ancestors grow into gods4' ,this is all that ,mr4 ,frazer has here to say about the religious belief of the ,australians4 ,he has found1 in 'the museum of the past1' a people with abundance of magic1 yet with no religion1 or not enough to affect his theory that religion was everywhere second in order of time to magic4 ,i am very content to meet him on ,australian ground4 ,there we find abundance of testimony to the existence of a belief speculative1 moral1 and emotional1 but not practical4 ,the beings of this belief are not propitiated by sacrifice1 and very seldom by prayer1 but they are makers1 friends1 and judges4 ,mr4 ,tylor accepts 7,i think7 the evidence for the beliefs as at present found1 but presumes many of their characteristics to be of ,european importation4 ,against that theory ,i have argued in the preceding essay1 giving historical dates4 ,mr4 ,frazer omits and ignores the evidence for the beliefs4 ,he denies to the ,australians more than 'some faint beginnings of religion1' and puts down 'traces of a higher faith' as 'probably sometimes due' 7and perhaps it sometimes is7 'to ,european influence4' ,for this theory ,mr4 ,curr is cited3 ',having heard the missionaries1 they were not slow to invent what ,i call kindred statements with aboriginal accessories1 with a view to please and surprise the whites4'#ac ,to please and surprise the whites the natives concealed their adaptations of ,christian ideas in the mysteries1 to which white men are very seldom1 or were very seldom1 admitted6 ,is this likely8 ,i believe that the exclusive rule is now relaxed where the natives are practically paid to exhibit4#ad ,one ,bora was under ,european patronage1 and the old men and children were fed on ,european supplies4 ,but when ,mr4 ,howitt was initiated by the ,kurnai1 and so first learned the secret of their religion1' the old men4444 desired to be satisfied that ,i had in very deed been fully initiated by the ,brajerak black fellows in their ,kuringal4' ,he therefore retired to a lonely spot1 'far from the possibility of a woman's presence1' and exhibited the token of his previous initiation by the ,murrings4 ,hitherto 'long as the ,kurnai had known me1 these special secrets of the tribe had been kept carefully from me by all but two1' one of whom was now dead4 ,the inmost secret was the belief in ,mungan-ngaur1 'the ,great ,father of the tribe1 who was once on earth1 and now lives in the sky1 he is rather the beneficent father1 and the kindly though severe headman of the whole tribe1 than the malevolent wizard1 such as are other of the supernatural beings believed in by the ,australian blacks4'#ae ,mr4 ,frazer cites ,mr4 ,howitt thus3 ',some tribes in this south-eastern region are further reported to believe in a supreme spirit1 who is regarded sometimes as a benevolent but more frequently as a malevolent being4'#af ,what has become of ,mr4 ,howitt's evidence after initiation by the ,kurnai1 evidence published in #ahhe8 ,how can the blacks invent beliefs to please the whites when they only reveal them to ,mr4 ,howitt1 after he has produced a bull roarer as a token of initiation8 ,mr4 ,frazer then writes3 ',brewin1 the supreme being of the ,kurnai1 was at first identified by two intelligent members of the tribe with ,jesus ,christ1 but on further reflection they thought he must be the devil4' ,this is cited from a work of #ahha1 ,messrs4 ,fison and ,howitt's ',kamilaroi and ,kurnai' 7p4 #bee74 ,it must have escaped even ,mr4 ,frazer's erudition that ,mr4 ,howitt says3 ',when ,i wrote of ,brewin in my paper on ,some ,australian ,beliefs ,i was not aware of the doctrines as to ,mungan-ngaur4 ,these the ,kurnai carefully concealed from me until ,i learned them at the ,jeraeil1 or mysteries4'#ag ,had ,mr4 ,frazer observed this remark of ,mr4 ,howitt's1 he could not have cited1 without comment or correction1 ,mr4 ,howitt's earlier and confessedly erroneous opinion that ',brewin' is 'the supreme being of the ,kurnai4'#ah ,to ,mr4 ,howitt's correction in #ahhe of his mistake of #ahha ,mr4 ,frazer1 as far as ,i observe1 makes no allusion4 ,mr4 ,frazer must either have overlooked all the evidence for an ,australian belief ruinous to his theory of the origin of religion 7ruinous if ,australia represents the earliest known stages of religion71 or he must have reasons1 not produced1 for thinking all that evidence too worthless to deserve confutation or even mention4 ,we are anxious to know his reasons1 for1 on other matters1 he freely quotes our witnesses4 ,yet ,i cannot think ,mr4 ,frazer consistently so severe as to ,australian evidence4 ,he has a picturesque theory that the origin of the ,passover was a rite in which masked men ran about through ,hebrew towns in the night1 butchering all the first born of ,israel4#ai ,no people1 we exclaim1 ever did such a thing6 ,in proof of the existence of the custom ,mr4 ,frazer adduces an ,australian parallel3 ',in some tribes of ,new ,south ,wales the first-born child of every woman was eaten by the tribe as part of a religious ceremony4'#bj ,mr4 ,frazer's authority is a communication by ,mr4 ,john ,moore ,davis1 and was published in #ahgh1 twenty-three years ago1 by ,mr4 ,brough ,smyth4 ,here is what ,mr4 ,davis says3 ',in parts of ,n4 ,s4 ,w41 such as ,bathurst1 ,goulburn1 the ,lachlan1 or ,macquarie1 it was customary long ago for the first-born of every lubra to be eaten by the tribe1 as part of a religious ceremony1 and ,i recollect a black fellow who had1 in compliance with the custom1 been thrown when an infant on the fire1 but was rescued and brought up by some stock-keepers who happened accidentally to be passing at the time4 ,the marks of the burns were distinctly visible on the man when ,i saw him4444' ,the evidence is what the ,society for ,psychical ,research calls 'remote4' ,in #ahgh the event was already 'long ago4' ,the testimony is from we know not how remote a hand4 ,the black sufferer1 as a baby at the time1 could not remember the facts4 ,the stock-keepers who were present are not named1 nor do we even know whether ,mr4 ,davis was informed by them1 or heard their story at third or fourth hand4 ,we do not know whether they correctly interpreted the alleged sacrifice1 in a religious ceremony 7by a people said to be almost or quite irreligious71 of all the first-born children of women4 ,mr4 ,frazer has circulated inquiries as to ,australian customs1 and has published the results in the ',journal of the ,anthropological ,institute4'#ba ,he does not appeal to the answers in corroboration of ,mr4 ,davis's remarkable story4#bb ,imbued with the superstition of psychical research1 ,i once investigated the famous ,australian tale of ,fisher's ghost 7#ahbf74 ,i sent for the ,court archives 7the ghost led to a trial for murder71 and ,i received these and a contemporary plan of the scene of the murder and the apparition4 ,these documents left me doubtful about the ghost of ,fisher4#bc ,may ,i not say that similar researches and good corroborative evidence are needed before we accept a settler's tale of an ,australian sacrifice1 'long ago1' as confirming a theory of a ,hebrew yearly massacre of all the first-born8 ,moreover1 if ,mr4 ,moore's evidence is good as to a sacrifice1 why is the latest evidence of ,mr4 ,howitt and all my other witnesses as to ,australian religion not worth mentioning8 ,why is it so bad that ,mr4 ,frazer goes back to ,mr4 ,howitt's evidence of #ahha1 before he knew the secret1 and is silent about ,mr4 ,howitt's evidence of #ahhe8 ,we may quote ,sir ,alfred ,lyall3 ',one effect of the accumulation of materials has been to encourage speculative generalisations1 because it has provided a repertory out of which one may make arbitrary selection of examples and precedents to suit any theory4' ,has ,mr4 ,frazer escaped this error8 ,i cannot think that he has escaped1 and the error is fatal4 ,he cites ,mr4 ,howitt1 ,mr4 ,palmer1 ,mr4 ,oldfield1 ,mr4 ,dawson1 and ,mr4 ,cameron 7whom ,i am about to quote71 all of whom speak to a native religion of the kind for which ,i contend4 ,their witness is enough for him in other matters1 but as to this matter these witnesses1 for some reason1 are absolutely ignored4 ,i myself have omitted the affirmative evidence of ,mr4 ,oldfield and ,mr4 ,foelsche as to religion1 because ,i think it contaminated1 although in part corroborated4 ,but my witnesses1 all cited for other points by ,mr4 ,frazer1 are not even mentioned on the point where1 if their reports be correct1 they seem rather to invalidate his central theory--that religion was invented in the despair of magic4 ,as to that despair1 it does not exist4 ,the religions of ,babylon1 ,greece1 and ,egypt lived side by side with superabundant magic4 ,the ,australians1 when their magic fails1 merely say that some other black fellow is working stronger counter-magic4#bd ,however1 that is a different question4 ,the question at present is1 ,why does ,mr4 ,frazer not cite and confute the evidence of witnesses1 whom he quotes on other points1 evidence fatal to his theory8 ,why does he ignore it8 ,among so many witnesses1 distrustful of facts that surprise them1 anxious to explain by borrowing1 all cannot be biassed4 ,if they were1 why is not the testimony of witnesses with the opposite bias also discredited or ignored8 ,why is it welcomed8 ,mr4 ,frazer prefers the opinion of ,mr4 ,siebert1 a ,german missionary1 that the ,dieri propitiate ancestral spirits1 to the opinion of ,mr4 ,gason1 that the being of their belief is a good spirit who made them4 ,i do not know which of these gentlemen is right2 possibly both views are held by different native informants4 ,but ,mr4 ,siebert's ancestral spirits come through ,mr4 ,fison1 who says3 ',the more ,i learn about savage tribes1 the more ,i am convinced that among them ancestors grow into ,gods '--so natural a process where the names of the dead are tabooed6 ',oh no1 we never mention them1 ,their names are never heard4' ,so they grow into gods6 ,mr4 ,fison is a ,spencerian2 so1 for all that ,i know1 may ,mr4 ,siebert be4 ,if so1 both have a theory and a bias1 yet they are cited4 ,it is only witnesses who hold that the ,australians1 certainly not1 as a rule1 ancestor worshippers1 believe in a kind of god1 who are not deemed worthy of mention on this point1 though quite trustworthy on other points4 ,i cannot understand this method4 ,the historian has a theory4 ,he searches for contradictory facts4 ,the chemist or biologist does not fail to mention facts hostile to his theory4 ,we are not asking ,mr4 ,frazer to accept the testimony of ,mr4 ,howitt1 ,mr4 ,cameron1 ,mr4 ,ridley1 ,mr4 ,greenway1 ,mr4 ,gason1 ,mr4 ,hale1 ,archdeacon ,gnther1 the ,benedictines of ,nursia1 ,mr4 ,dawson1 ,mr4 ,eyre1 ,mr4 ,roth1 ,mrs4 ,langloh ,parker2 or to accept the opinion of ,waitz1 ,mr4 ,howitt1 and others as to unborrowed ,australian religion4 ,their testimony may be erroneous2 when it is proved erroneous ,i shall abandon it4 ,but perhaps anthropologists may be allowed to be curious as to the reasons for which this and similar testimony is ignored4 ,the reason cannot be that there is contradictory evidence1 for some observers deny magic to the tribes whom they know4#be ,yet ,mr4 ,frazer has no doubt as to the prevalence of magic1 though one of his witnesses1 ,mr4 ,foelsche1 gives no magic1 but gives religion4 ',whether viewed as gods or devils1' ,mr4 ,frazer says of ,south-,east ,australian beings1 'it does not seem that these spirits were ever worshipped4' ,he has ignored the evidence that they are worshipped 7if the rights of the ,bora are worship71 but1 if they are not worshipped1 so much the worse for his theory4 ,gods1 in his theory1 were invented just to be worshipped4 ',to these mighty beings4444 man now addressed himself4444 beseeching them of their mercy to furnish him with all good things4444'#bf ,as against the correctness of my witnesses ,i only know the mass of evidence by white observers who have detected no religion among these savages4 ,but ,i do not necessarily accept the negative evidence1 because the beliefs are reported1 by the affirmative witnesses1 to be guarded with the utmost secrecy4#bg ,it is not every inquirer who has the power of eliciting beliefs which1 for many reasons1 are jealously guarded4 ,many ,englishmen or ,lowlanders are unable to extract legends of fairies1 ghosts1 and second-sight from ,gaelic ,highlanders4 ,on the other hand1 they are kind enough to communicate to me plenty of their folk-lore4 ',the ,urkus were very shy and frightened when asked about their religion1' says ,mr4 ,pope ,hennessy in his ',notes on the ,jukos and other ,tribes of the ,middle ,ben' 7#ahih74bh ,thus ,i prefer the affirmative evidence of ,europeans who have won the confidence of the ,australians1 and have been initiated1 to the denials of observers less fortunate4 ,as for their theory that the religious practices1 if they exist1 are borrowed from ,christians1 ,i have stated my case in the preceding essay4 ,there could be no stronger evidence than the absence of prayer that the ,australian religion is not borrowed4 ,this argument ought especially to appeal to ,mr4 ,frazer4 ,his definition of religion is that of ,euthyphro1 in the ,platonic ,dialogue of that name4 ,socrates4 ,sacrificing is giving to the ,gods1 and piety is asking from them8 ,euthyphro4 ,yes1 ,socrates4 ,socrates4 ,upon this view1 then1 piety is a science of asking and giving8 ,euthyphro4 ,you understand me capitally1 ,socrates4 ,mr4 ,frazer agrees with ,euthyphro4 ,but if we find that the most backward race known to us believes in a power1 yet propitiates him neither by prayer nor sacrifice1 and if we find1 as we do1 that in many more advanced races in ,africa and ,america it is precisely the highest power which is left impropriated1 then we really cannot argue that gods were first invented as powers who could give good things1 on receipt of other good things1 sacrifice and prayer4 ,sir ,alfred ,lyall here agrees with ,mr4 ,frazer4 ',the foundation of natural religion is4444 the principle of ,do ut des' 7',i give that you may give'71 'and the most ingenious researches into the evolution of primitive ideas will hardly take us beyond or behind it4'#bi ,my 'researches' do not pretend to be ,i ingenious4' ,it is a mere question of facts4 ,have ,mr4 ,howitt's tribes the idea of a power1 a very great power1 which is interested in conduct1 sanctions conduct1 but is not asked for material benefits8 ,have1 or had1 all the ,american and ,african peoples whom ,i have cited a highest power often unconciliated8 ,if so1 why did they invent these beings8 ,certainly not to play with them at the game of ,do ut des4 ,yet that game was the origin of religion1 according to ,sir ,alfred and ,mr4 ,frazer4 ,the facts must be mentioned1 must be disproved1 before the theory of ,do ut des can be established4 ,even if we accepted the theory of ,euthyphro and of ,mr4 ,frazer it is beset by difficulties4 ,religion is the despair of magic1 says the theory4 ,magic is found by the higher minds to be a failure4 ,rain is not produced1 nor sunshine1 nor food1 as a result of magic4 ,consequently invisible powers1 'like himself1 but far stronger1' are invented by man4 ,they are immortal1 and are asked to take man's immortal spirit home to them4#cj ,yet they are mortal themselves4#ca ,they are so dependent on man1 these beings which are far stronger1 that man actually has to sacrifice his kings to them annually to keep these far stronger beings in vigour4#cb ,i am willing to suppose1 with ,mr4 ,frazer1 a very gradual process of evolution in religious thought4 ,man began by thinking his own magic all powerful4 ,he found that a failure1 'and came to rest1 as in a quiet haven after a tempestuous voyage1 in a new system of faith and practice4444 a substitute1 however precarious1 for that' 7magical7 'sovereignty over nature which he had reluctantly abdicated4' ,to be sure he had not abdicated1 ,greek and ,babylonic magic are especially notorious4 ,but let us fancy that man at large but gradually reached the conception of powers far higher than himself4 ,they were very limited powers at first3 they helped him1 but he had to help them1 to the extent1 sometimes1 of killing his kings annually to keep them in health4 ,this is ,mr4 ,frazer's position4#cc ,but if our ,australian evidence is correct1 this theory is baseless4 ,that is why our evidence cannot be neglected4 ,it is another difficulty that the more man ought to be finding out the fallacy of magic1 the less does he find it out4 ,mr4 ,frazer chooses the ,arunta of ,central ,australia as a people wholly without religion1 but universally magicians4 ,i have frequently read the account of ,arunta magic by ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen1 but ,i never found that it included a belief like this3 ',a man god4444 draws his extraordinary power from a certain sympathy with nature4' ,he is defined not as an incarnation of a god 'of an order different from and superior to man1' but as only a superior sorcerer where most men are sorcerers4 ',he is not merely the receptacle of a divine spirit4' ,we have just been told that he is not the receptacle of a divine spirit at all1 and we shall take it to be so4 ',his whole being1 body and soul1 is so attuned to the harmony of the world1 that a touch of his hand or a turn of his head may send a thrill vibrating through the universal framework of things4#cd4444' ,but you will look in vain for this portentous belief among the ,arunta1 who1 not having found out the fallacy of magic1 have not invented beings superior to man4 ,for this sorcerer of the very highest magic you have to go to the civilisation of ,japan1 or to the peoples on the ,congo1 much more civilised than the ,arunta4#ce,these peoples1 by ,mr4 ,frazer's theory1 had experience and intelligence enough to find out the fallacy of magic1 and had gods in great plenty4 ,but they have carried the belief in magic1 in a magician much superior to his neighbours1 to a pitch infinitely beyond the ,arunta4 ,yet the ,arunta have no gods with whom to draw comparisons invidious and unfavourable to magicians2 they have1 it is said1 no gods at all4 ,just as magic thus reaches its highest power1 according to ,mr4 ,frazer1 where there is most religious competition 7while the reverse should be the case by his theory71 so religion flourishes most in ,australia1 exactly where1 by ,mr4 ,frazer's theory1 the circumstances are most unfavourable to religion and most favourable to magic4 ,magic1 by the hypothesis1 must prosper most1 its fallacy must be latest discovered1 it must latest give place to religion1 where it appears to be most successful1 and vice vers4 ,yet ,mr4 ,frazer assures us that in ,australia magic flourishes alone1 where every circumstance demonstrates its failure2 and religion begins to blossom precisely where magic must seem to its devotees a relative success4 ,before examining this apparent inconsistency1 let us note ,mr4 ,frazer's inadvertent proof that his irreligious ,australians are religious4 ,one part of the business of magic is to produce rain in season1 sun in season1 and consequently an abundant food supply4#cf ,the ,dieri of ,central ,australia need especially excellent magic4 ',in a dry season their lot is a hard one4' ,having no religion1 they ought1 of course1 to work by mere materialistic magic1 like the ,arunta4#cg ,but they1 oddly enough1 'call upon the spirits of their remote ancestors1 which they call ,mura ,mura1 to grant them power to make a heavy rain1' and then men inspired by the ,mura ,mura work magic1 or pray in sign-language1 as you please4#ch ,now the ,mura ,mura1 the rain-givers1 by evidence which ,mr4 ,frazer himself has published1 is 'a ,good ,spirit1' not a set of remote ancestral spirits4 ,the witness is ,mr4 ,gason1 'than whom' 7says ,mr4 ,frazer's authority1 ,dr4 ,stirling7 'no man living has been more among blacks or knows more of their ways4' ,if on this excellent evidence the ,australian ,dieri call for rain to a good spirit1 then they have religion1 which ,mr4 ,frazer denies4 ,but if ,mr4 ,siebert1 a ,german missionary1 is right 7and ,mr4 ,frazer1 as we saw1 prefers his view to that of ,mr4 ,gason71 then the ,mura ,mura are only ancestral spirits4 ,yet to demand the aid of remote ancestral spirits by prayer is religion4 ,in fact ,mr4 ,frazer had said of the powerful beings of the ,southern ,australians 'it does not seem that these spirits are ever worshipped4'#ci ,but prayer is worship1 and the ,dieri pray1 whether to a good spirit or to ancestral spirits1 potent over the sky1 and dwelling therein4 ,if this is not religion1 by ,mr4 ,frazer's own definition1 namely 'a propitiation or conciliation of powers superior to man1 which are believed to direct and control the course of nature1' what is religion8#dj ,yet in ,australia 'nobody dreams of propitiating gods or spirits by prayer and sacrifice1' says our author4#da ,none the less they 'call upon the spirits of their remote ancestors1 which they call ,mura ,mura1 to grant them power to make a heavy rain4' ,after ceremonies magical1 or more prayers in sign-language1 the ,mura ,mura 'at once cause clouds to appear in the sky4'#db ,they see the signs which their worshippers are making4 ,here then we have prayer to 'powers superior to man' 7whether to the ,good ,spirit or to ancestral spirits71 and that1 on evidence collected by ,mr4 ,frazer1 occurs in a country where1 fourteen pages earlier1 he had assured us that 'nobody thinks of propitiating gods or spirits by prayer and sacrifice4' ,sacrifice1 happily1 there is none2 the ,dieri have not degenerated to sacrificing human victims like the ,greeks4 ,the scene is ,central ,australia1 where 'the pitiless sun beats down for months together out of a blue and cloudless sky on the parched and gaping earth4' ,consequently rain-making magic must perpetually prove a failure4 ,therefore1 ,i presume1 the ,dieri have been driven into religion by discovering the fallacy of magic4 ,this would be a logical argument1 but ,mr4 ,frazer's argument is the converse of what ,i suggest and contradicts his theory4 ,he dubiously grants the existence of possible faint 'germs of religion' 'in the south-eastern parts of ,australia1 where the conditions of life in respect of climate1 water1 and vegetation are more favourable than elsewhere4444 ,it is worth observing that in the same regions which thus exhibit the germs of religion1 the organisation of society and the family has also made the greatest advance4 ,the cause is probably the same in both cases--namely1 a more plentiful supply of food due to the greater fertility of the soil4'#dc ,now1 according to ,mr4 ,frazer's whole argument1 the confessed failure of magic is the origin of religion4#dd ,but in ,central ,australia1 where magic notoriously fails most conspicuously to supply water and vegetation1 magic flourishes to the entire exclusion of religion1 except among the ,dieri4 ,on the other hand1 in ,south-,eastern ,australia1 where magic1 if practised1 is abundantly rewarded by more water and more vegetation1 there these proofs of the success of magic are 'probably the cause' of the germs of religion4 ,but1 by ,mr4 ,frazer's hypothesis1 what must be the apparent success of magic in securing 'a more plentiful supply of food' ought to encourage the belief in magic1 and prevent religion from even germinating4 ,on the other hand1 the successful result of magic 7for to what else can a people of sorcerers attribute the better food supply87 has been 'probably the cause' of the first germs of religion4 ,how can these things be8 ,all this time one tribe of ,central ,australia1 the ,arunta1 remains resolutely godless 'in spite of all temptations to join denominations' of a religious character4 ,for the ,arunta live in the worst country1 the most rainless1 and therefore their magic is most manifestly a failure4 ,yet1 unlike the natives of ,south-,eastern ,australia 7where magic is most successful71 the ,arunta cling to magic1 and have developed no religion4 ,if so1 as of all rain-making magic theirs is about the most unsuccessful1 they must be very stupid1 or they would detect the failure1 and fly to religion1 'a quiet haven after a tempestuous voyage4' ,the ,arunta are very far from stupid2 they have the most complete and adequate of savage metaphysics4 ,if1 then1 they have not approached superior powers1 in face of the failure of their magic1 it may be that they have tried and discarded religion4 ',religion for the women and the children1 magic for men' appears to be the ,arunta motto3 not so very uncivilised6 ,this ,i suggest because ,mr4 ,frazer tells us that at the initiatory rites of the ,arunta 'the women and children believe that the roaring noise' of the wooden slat1 tied to a string and swung about1 is 'the voice of the great spirit ,twanyirika4'#de ,a great spirit 7above all if spelled with capital letters7 is rather a religious conception4 ',this spirit1 the women are told1 lives in wild and inaccessible regions4444 ,both uninitiated youths and women are taught to believe in the existence of ,twanyirika4' ,so write ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen1 our only sources4#df ,a brief note is all that these inquirers give in their copious book to the great spirit4 ',this belief1' they say1 'is fundamentally the same as that found in all ,australian tribes4' ,now in the tribes reported on by ,mr4 ,howitt1 the spirit whose voice is the sound of the slat or bull roarer called the tundun1 and by other names1 is the son or other deputy of ,baiame1 or some such powerful good being1 ,mungan-ngaur1 ,pirnmeheal1 ,bunjil1 ,noorele1 or by whatever style he may be called4 ,one of his duties is to superintend the ,bora1 or mysteries of the tribes4 ,the ,wiraijuri believe that their type of ,twanyirika was destroyed1 for misconduct1 by his superior1 ,baiame4 ,this sinful great spirit was called ,daramulun1 but in other tribes ,daramulun is apparently the superior1 and goes on existing4 ,he is1 says ,mr4 ,howitt1 'the ,great ,master1' 'the ,father1' the sky dweller1 the institutor of society1 the power whose voice 'calls to the rain to fall and make the grass green4' ,he is the moral being for whom 'the boys are made so that ,daramulun likes them'--a process involving cries of nga 7'good'71 so says ,mr4 ,howitt4 ,his attributes and powers 7where he is supreme7 'are precisely those of ,baiame1' who1 by ,mr4 ,ridley and many others1 is spoken of as a maker1 if ,i may not say creator4 ,it was in #ahed1 two years before publishing his ',gurre ,kamilaroi' 7in which ',baiame' was used for ',god'71 that ,mr4 ,ridley asked a ,kamilaroi man1 ',do you know ,baiame8' ,he said1 ,kamil zaia zummi ,baiame1 zaia winuzgulda 7',i have not seen ,baiame2 ,i have heard1 or perceived him4 ,they hear him in the thunder'74 ,among this tribe ,daramulun was not the superior2 he was 'author of disease and medical skill1 of mischief and wisdom also2 he appears in the form of a serpent at their assemblies1' like ,asclepius and the ,american ,hobamok4#dg ,though ,mr4 ,ridley is a missionary1 ,i venture to cite him1 because his evidence goes back nearly fifty years1 to a time when the blacks had less contact with ,europeans4 ,moreover1 ,mr4 ,ridley is corroborated by ,mr4 ,howitt and other laymen1 while ,mr4 ,frazer even prefers the evidence of a ,german missionary to that of ,mr4 ,gason1 a lay ,englishman of the greatest experience4 ,mr4 ,howitt finds1 among the ,kurnai1 ,tundun as the patron of the mysteries and the bull roarer1 like ,twanyirika4 ,in ,mr4 ,manning's tribe#dh the same rle is taken by ,moodgeegally1 under the control of ,boyma4 ,we have thus five or six parallels to the ,twanyirika of the godless ,arunta1 and all are subordinate to a higher power4 ,if then1 as ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen tell us1 the belief in the ,arunta ,twanyirika1 the great spirit1 'is fundamentally the same as that found in all the ,australian tribes1' ,twanyirika ought to have a much more powerful benevolent superior4 ,in that case the ,arunta would ,incline to think there is a god1 ,or something very like one1 as ,clough says4 ,if so1 as they do not propitiate him1 they did not conceive him as a partner in the game of ,do ut des4 ,but our only witnesses1 ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen1 are extremely reticent about ,twanyirika4 ,nothing is said about his having a superior1 and ,i assume that he has none4 ,it seems to follow that he is a mere ,mumbo ,jumbo1 or bogle1 devised by the men to keep the women and children in order4 ,but in ,south-,eastern ,australia 7if ,i may trust ,mr4 ,howitt's evidence1 to which ,mr4 ,frazer does not here allude7 the counterpart of ,twanyirika is a mere servant of a much higher being1 everywhere called by names meaning 'our father4' ,therefore either 'our father' ,baiame1 ,mungan-ngaur1 and the rest1 have been developed out of a sportive bugbear like ,twanyirika1 or ,twanyirika 7if he really has no superior7 is a rudimentary survival of a belief like that in ,mungan-ngaur1 and his subordinate1 ,tundun4 ,in the former case ,twanyirika1 a germ of the more advanced religion of ,south-,eastern ,australia1 was not invented as a power behind nature1 who might be useful if propitiated1 as in ,mr4 ,frazer's theory4 ,in the latter case the ,arunta do not represent man prior to religion 7as ,mr4 ,frazer holds71 but man who has cast off religion4 ,but ,mr4 ,frazer does not seem to notice this dilemma4 ,the evidence for what most people call 'religion' among the ,australian natives is so far from scanty that one finds it when looking for other matters1 as ,i am going to show4 ,true1 in the following report the religion does not answer to ,mr4 ,frazer's definition1 no powerful being is here said to be conciliated or propitiated3 he is only said to exist and favour morality4 ,but ,mr4 ,frazer's definition1 if pressed1 produces the effect of arguing in a vicious circle4 ,his theory asserts that powerful beings are only invented by man1 in view of man's tardy discovery that his own magic is powerless4 ,the invented beings are then propitiated1 for selfish ends1 and that1 by the definition1 is religion4 ,if we produce1 as we do1 evidence that the belief in powerful beings has been evolved1 and yet that these beings are certainly not propitiated by sacrifice1 and seldom if ever by prayer1 that they are only won by conduct1 and by rites not involving sacrifice1 ,mr4 ,frazer can reply1 ',perhaps2 but by my definition that kind of belief is not religion4' ,then what is it8 ',what else can you call it8' ,its existence1 if proved1 is fatal to ,mr4 ,frazer's theory of the origin of religion in the despair of magic1 because the faithful of the belief of which ,i speak do not usually implore the god to do for them what magic has failed to do4 ,their belief satisfies their speculative and moral needs3 it does not exist to supply their temporal wants4 ,yet it is none the less1 but much the more1 a religion on that account1 except by ,mr4 ,frazer's definition4 ,if religion is to be defined as he defines it1 'a propitiation or conciliation of powers superior to man1' and so on1 religion can only have arisen as it does in his theory1 setting aside a supernormal revelation4 ,but if we do not deny the name of religion to the speculative belief in a power superior to man1 and to the moral belief that he lends a supernormal sanction to conduct1 and to the emotional belief that he loves his children1 then the belief is religion1 but something other than religion as defined by ,mr4 ,frazer4 ,nobody will deny the name of religion to such a belief4 ,mr4 ,frazer says3 ',i would ask those who dissent from my conclusions to make sure that they mean the same thing by religion that ,i do2 for otherwise the difference between us may be more apparent than real4'#di ,i mean by religion what ,mr4 ,frazer means--and more4 ,the conciliation of higher powers by prayer and sacrifice is religion1 but it need not be the whole of religion4 ,the belief in a higher power who sanctions conduct1 and is a father and a loving one to mankind1 is also religion2 few1 if any1 will dispute the fact4 ,but this belief1 if unaccompanied1 as in ,australia1 by prayer and sacrifice1 cannot be accounted for on ,mr4 ,frazer's theory3 that religion was invented1 for worldly ends1 after the recognised failure of magic1 which aimed at the same ends fruitlessly4 ,it is only by limiting his definition of religion1 as he does1 that he can establish his theory of the origin of religion4 ,it is only by omitting mention of the evidence for what nobody else can deny to be religion1 that he can secure his theory4 ,i return to my additional evidence for ,australian religion4 ,as will be seen1 it does not come within ,mr4 ,frazer's definition1 but will anybody deny that the belief is religious8 ,the evidence is that of ,mr4 ,a4 ,l4 ,p4 ,cameron1#ej and contains a brief comparative glossary of words used by different tribes of ,new ,south ,wales to indicate the same objects4 ,mr4 ,cameron had been interested in the black fellows since #ahfh at least1 when their numbers were much larger than at present4 ,he had seen gatherings of from #hjj to #a1jjj4 ,the tribes chiefly in question dwelt along the ,murrumbidgee and ,murray rivers1 and do not include the ,kamilaroi1 the ,kurnai1 and ,coast ,murring of whom ,mr4 ,howitt speaks4 ,as to religion1 ghosts of the dead are believed to visit the earth1 and to be frequently seen4 ,the blacks 'will often resort to peculiar devices to avoid mentioning the names of the dead1' a practice hostile to the development of ancestor worship4 ,no ghost of a man can grow into a god if his name is tabooed and therefore forgotten4 ',the people of all these tribes appear to have a belief in a ,deity1 and in a future state of some kind4' ,the ,wathi ,wathi call this being ,tha-tha-pali2 the ,ta-ta-thi call him ,tulong4 ,mr4 ,cameron could not obtain translations of these names1 any more than we know the meaning of the names ,apollo or ,artemis4 ,the being 'is regarded as a powerful spirit1 or perhaps a supreme supernatural being4 ,they say that he came from the far north1 and now lives in the sky4 ,he told each tribe what language they were to speak4 ,he made men1 women1 and dogs1 and the latter used to talk1 but he took the power of speech from them4 ,the ,ta-ta-thi do not care to speak much of ,tulong1 and say that he does not often come to the earth4 ,although it seems that in many of the ,australian tribes there is only a very dim idea as to the attributes of the ,supreme ,being and of a future state1 yet in the ,ta-ta-thi and its allied tribes there is certainly a belief not only in a future state of existence1 but also in a system of rewards and punishments4 ,my ,ta-ta-thi informant stated that one of the doctors ascended long ago through the sky1 and there saw a place where wicked men were roasted4' ,mr4 ,cameron1 of course1 had the strongest suspicions of a 'place' so ostensibly ,christian4 ,to this we return4#ea ,these tribes practise the ,bora rites or initiatory mysteries4 ,if women witness them 'the penalty is death4 ,the penalty for revealing the secrets is probably the same4' ,mr4 ,cameron1 unlike ,mr4 ,howitt1 has not been initiated1 and does not know the full secret4 ,the presiding being 7like the ,twanyirika of the ,arunta7 is called ,thuremlin1 who1 ,i conjecture1 is ,daramulun in his subordinate capacity4 ',their belief in the power of ,thuremlin is undoubted1 whereas the ,arunta adults do not appear to believe in ,twanyirika1 a mere bugbear of the women and children4 ,the bull roarer is ,kalari1 or among the ,ta-ta-thi ,kalk or ,kallak--that is to say1 word4' ,concerning the instruction given to the boys1 and described by ,mr4 ,howitt1 ,mr4 ,cameron1 not being initiated1 gives no information4 ,as to the future life1 ,mr4 ,cameron received his account from a tribesman named ,makogo1 'an intelligent member of the ,wathi ,wathi tribe4' ,the belief was that current 'before his people came into contact with ,europeans1 and ,makogo expressed an opinion that1 whether right or wrong1 they would have been better off now had their beliefs never been disturbed4' ,probably ,makogo was right4 ,the beliefs were in a future state of reward or punishment4 ,european contact does not import but destroy the native form of this creed4 ,the ,wathi ,wathi belief answers in character to the creeds expressed in the ,egyptian ,book of the ,dead1 the ,fijian hymns1 the famous ,orphic gold talisman of ,petilia1 the ,red ,indian belief published by ,kohl1 and to many other examples4#eb ,the ,way of ,souls1 as in these ancient or savage beliefs1 is beset by dangers and temptations1 to which the ,egyptian ,book of the ,dead is a guide-book4 ,if any one desires to maintain that this ,australian idea1 held before contact with ,europeans1 and now to some extent abandoned after that contact1 is of ,christian origin 7we know this argument71 he must suppose that the ,wathi ,wathi adapted the idea from our old ',lyke ,wake ,dirge3' ,when ,brig o' ,dread is over and past1 ,every night and all1 ,to ,whinny ,muir thou comest at last1 ,and ,christ receive thy saul4 ,a weak point there is4 ,the soul of the ,wathi ,wathi1 after death1 is met by another soul1 'who directs him to the road for good men4' ,but the natives had no roads1 the opponent will reply4 ,they have trade routes and markets1 however1 and barter of articles made in special localities goes on across hundreds of miles of country4#ec ,let us allow that the ,wathi ,wathi may know a clean path or track from a dirty one4 ,the soul meets a dirty and a clean path4 ,the good soul1 being instructed1 chooses the dirty path3 the other path is kept clean by bad spirits 'in order to induce the unthinking to follow it1' as ,bunyan's ,mr4 ,ignorance unwarily chose a by-path into hell4 ,the soul next meets a woman who tries to seduce him4 ,he escapes her lures1 and comes to two women who try to trip him by whirling a rope4 ,one of them is blind1 and the soul evades her4 ,next comes a deep narrow gap1 in which flames rise and fall4 ,the good soul watches the fall of the flames1 and leaps across2 there is no ,brig o' ,dread4 ,bed ,indian souls cross by a log which nearly spans the abyss4 ,two old women meet the good soul1 and take him 'to the ,deity1 ,tha-,tha-,puli4' ,he tests the soul's strength and skill by making him throw a nulla-nulla4 ',when the ,wathi ,wathi see a shooting star1 they believe it to be the passage of such a nulla-nulla through space1 and say3 ,tha-,tha-,puli is trying the strength of some new spirit4 ,the soul of a bad man1 if it escapes the traps set for it1 is sure to fall into the hell of fire4 ,many of the natives have had their beliefs modified by contact with the whites1' and ,i 'feel doubtful1' says ,mr4 ,cameron1 'whether the pit of fire was not of this kind1 and questioned my informant very closely on the subject1 but he assured me that there was no doubt whatever that the above was the exact belief before the settlement of the country by the white men4' ,it is the standing reply of believers in the borrowing theory that a native1 cross-examined1 will always agree with whatever the ,european inquirer wishes him to say4 ,the natives examined by ,mr4 ,cameron1 ,mrs4 ,langloh ,parker1 ,mr4 ,howitt1 ,mr4 ,manning1 and others were exceptions4 ,they would not allow that their beliefs were borrowed4 ,this particular form of native belief is exactly analogous to that of ancient ,egypt1 of ,greece1 of ,fiji1 and so on3 not to the doctrine of our missionaries4 ,the believers in borrowing must therefore say that the ,wathi ,wathi stole heaven1 hell1 and the ways thither from missionaries1 and adapted them1 accidentally coinciding with ,egyptians1 ,greeks1 ,red ,indians1 ,fijians1 ,aztecs1 and the rest1 as to a gulf to be crossed1 and temptations on the way to the abode of the powerful being and the souls of the good4 ,the native proverbial explanation of a shooting star establishes1 as historical fact1 their belief in ,tha-,tha-,puli and his home for good spirits4 ,mr4 ,frazer has six pages on beliefs about shooting stars4#ed ,one case is to our point4 ,the ,yerrunthally of ,queensland think that the souls of the dead climb to a place among the stars by a rope2 when they let the rope fall1 it 'appeared to people on earth as a shooting star4'#ee ,now if the evidence of ,mr4 ,palmer1 in the ',journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1' is good evidence for this ,australian belief1 why is the evidence of ,mr4 ,howitt and ,mr4 ,cameron1 in the same serial1 to an unborrowed ,australian religion 7in this case with ,tha-,tha-,puli and his home for good souls7 unworthy even of mention8 ,we fall back on ,sir ,alfred ,lyall3 ',i think that one effect of the accumulation of materials has been to encourage speculative generalisation1 because it has provided a repertory out of which one may make arbitrary selection of examples and precedents to suit any theory4'#ef ,here ,i have the pleasure of agreeing with this great authority4 ,mr4 ,frazer has chosen ,australia as the home of magic1 as a land where magic is1 but religion has not yet been evolved4 ,as ,i have shown1 in this and the preceding paper1 there is abundance of evidence for an unborrowed ,australian religion4 ,i shall abandon the evidence so soon as it is confuted1 but ,i cannot reject it while the witnesses are treated as good on many other points1 but are unmentioned just when their testimony1 if true1 seems inconsistent with a theory of the priority of magic to religion4 ,by the concurring testimony of a crowd of observers1' writes ,mr4 ,tylor1 'it is known that the natives of ,australia were at their discovery1 and have ever since remained1 a race with minds saturated with the most vivid belief in souls1 demons1 and deities4'#eg ,what can a young student commencing anthropologist think1 when he compares ,mr4 ,tylor's 'concurring testimony of a crowd of observers' of ,australian religion with ,mr4 ,frazer's remark that there are 'some faint beginnings of religion' in ,southern ,australia1 but that 'traces of a higher faith1 where they occur1 are probably sometimes due to ,european influence1' though the people1 ,mr4 ,tylor says1 were in all things so 'saturated with the most vivid belief in souls1 demons1 and deities'--'at their discovery'8 ,there is no use in building a theory of the origin of religion on the case of ,australia till we are at least told about the 'concurring testimony of a crowd of observers4' ,that ,mr4 ,frazer has some reason for disregarding the testimonies which ,i have cited1 that he must have grounds for doubting their validity1 ,i feel assured4 ,but the grounds for the doubt are not apparent1 and to state them would make ,mr4 ,frazer's abstention intelligible4 #a ,spencer and ,gillen1 p4 #edi4 #b ,g4 ,b4 i4 p4 #fc4 #c ,g4 ,b4 ii4 p4 #ea4 #d ,g4 ,b4 i4 p4 #ga4 #e ,j4 ,dawson1 ,australian ,aborigines1 pp4 #ej1 sq4 #f ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt in ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xiii4 7#ahhd71 #aia4 #g ,fison and ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt1 ,kamilaroi and ,kurnai1 p4 #bee4 #h ,see ,a4 ,w4 ,hewitt in ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xiii4 7#ahhd71 p4 #dei4 #i ,see ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt in ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xviii4 7#ahhi71 pp4 #cb1 sq4 ,religion is not mentioned here4 #aj ,see ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia4 #aa ,e4 ,m4 ,curr1 ,the ,australian ,race1 i4 #de4 #ab ,native ,tribes of ,south ,australia1 p4 #bfj4 #ac ,e4 ,m4 ,curr1 ,the ,australian ,race1 i4 #de4 #ad ,cf4 ,mr4 ,matthews and ,mr4 ,crawley1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i4 xxiv4 #dac4 #ae ,j4 ,a4 ,i4 xiv4 #ahhe1 p4 #eba4 #af ,g4 ,b4 i4 #gb1 note2 ,j4 ,a4 ,i4 xiii4 p4 #aia 7#ahhd74 #ag ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 #ahhe1 p4 #cba1 note #b4 #ah ,g4 ,b4 i4 #gb1 note #a4 ,in the first edition of ,myth1 ,ritual1 and ,religion ,i quoted ,mr4 ,howitt's evidence of #ahha4 ,in the second edition ,i naturally cited his later testimony4 #ai ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #di1 #ej4 #bj ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #ea1 citing ,brough ,smyth's ,aborigines of ,victoria1 ii4 #caa4 #ba ,november #ahid1 pp4 #aeh-aih4 #bb ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #ea-ec4 #bc ,for ',fisher's ,ghost' see ,blackwood's ,magazine1 ,august #ahig1 p4 #gh et seq4 #bd ,j4 ,a4 ,i4 xv4 #d4 #be ,to be true to my own principles1 ,i note a few points in ,mr4 ,frazer's ,australian evidence1 published by him in ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 ,november #ahid4 ,mr4 ,gason1 an excellent witness1 says that the ,dieri think some souls turn into old trees or rocks1 or 'as breath ascend to the heavens1' to ',purriewillpanina4' ,the ,dieri believe the ,mooramoora created them and will look after their spirits 7op4 cit4 p4 #age74 ,mr4 ,frazer1 however1 calls the ,mura ,mura 'remote ancestral spirits1' who would have a difficulty1 one thinks1 in creating the ,dieri4 ,the names of the dead may not be mentioned 7p4 #agf74 ,the station master at ,powell's ,creek denies that magic 'exists in any shape or form4' ,there are no religious dances1 no belief in a future life 7p4 #ahj74 ,mr4 ,lindsay ,crawford says 'nothing is known of the nature of souls4' ,for the last ten years this gentleman 'had held no communication with the natives at all1 except with the rifle4' ,perhaps his negative evidence is not very valuable1 as he does not appear to have won the friendly confidence of the blacks4 ,mr4 ,matthews says3 ',many tribes believe future existence is regulated by due observances at burial according to the rites of the tribe' 7p4 #aij74 ,mr4 ,foelsche1 described by ,dr4 ,stirling as 'a most intelligent and accurate observer1 who knows the natives well1' contributes a belief in a benevolent creator1 with a demiurge who made the blacks4 ,he inhabits ,teelahdlah1 among the stars4 ',he never dies4' ,he is 'a very good man1' not a 'spirit4' ,a subterranean being 'can read and write1 and keeps a book' of men's actions4 ,this is so manifestly due to ,european influence that ,i have not cited ,mr4 ,foelsche's evidence4 ,mr4 ,foelsche 'knows of no magic or witchcraft being practised' 7p4 #aig74 ,the blacks believe that after death their souls 'go up'2 they then point skywards 7p4 #aih74 #bf ,g4,b4 i4 #gb note i4 #gg4 #bg ,see ',the ,theory of ,loan ,gods4' #bh ,j4 ,a4 ,i4 ,january to ,june1 #aijj1 ,no4 #ca1 p4 #bg4 #bi ,asiatic ,studies1 ii4 #agb4 #cj ,g4 ,b4 i4 #gg4 #ca ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #a4 #cb ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #a-ei1 and passim1 almost4 #cc ,g4 ,b4 i4 #gh1 #gi4 #cd ,g4 ,b4 i4 #ha4 #ce ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #h2 i4 #bcb1 #bcc4 #cf ,g4 ,b4 i4 #ha-aad4 #cg ,g4 ,b4 i4 #hh1 #hi4 #ch ,g4 ,b4 i4 #hf4 #ci ,g4 ,b4 i4 #gb1 note #a4 #dj ,g4 ,b41 i4 #hf1 #hg4 #da ,g4 ,b4 i4 #gb4 #db ,g4 ,b4 i4 #hg4 #dc ,g4 ,b4 i4 #gb1 note4 #dd ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #ge-hj4 ,the hypothesis is offered with all due diffidence4 #de ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #dbd4 #df ,natives of ,central ,australia1 p4 #bdf1 note #a4 #dg ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 #ahgb1 pp4 #bfh1 #bfi4 ,lang's ,queensland1 pp4 #ddd1 #dde4 ,winslow1 in ,arber's ,captain ,smith1 p4 #gfh4 #dh ,see ',the ,theory of ,loan-,gods1' supra4 #di ,g4 ,b4 i4 xvii4 #ej ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 #ahhe1 pp4 #cdd-cgj4 #ea ,parenthetically1 ,i may remark that many beliefs as to the future state originate in1 or are confirmed by1 visions of 'doctors' who visit the ,hades or ,paradise of a tribe1 and by reports of men given up for dead1 who recover and narrate their experiences4 ,the case of ,montezuma's aunt is familiar to readers of ,mr4 ,prescott's ,conquest of ,mexico4 ,the new religion of the ,sioux is based on a similar vision4 ,anthropologists have given slight attention to these circumstances4 #eb ,see my ,modern ,mythology1 and introduction to my ,homeric ,hymns4 #ec ,roth1 ,north-,west ,queensland ,central ,aborigines1 p4 #acb4 ,spencer and ,gillen1 #ege4 #ee ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #ba4 ,e4 ,palmer1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i4 xiii4 p4 #bib4 #ef ,asiatic ,studies1 i4 ix4 #eg ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #cgi1 #ahga4 ,,iv ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,christian ,,faith ,among the many recent theories concerning the origin of religion1 certainly the most impressive is ,mr4 ,frazer's hypothesis as to the origin of the belief in the divinity of ,christ4 ,unlike several modern speculations1 ,mr4 ,frazer's is based on an extraordinary mass of erudition4 ,we are not put off with vague and unvouched-for statements1 or with familiar facts extracted from the collections of ,mr4 ,tylor1 ,lord ,avebury1 and ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer4 ,mr4 ,frazer does not collect knowledge1 as his ,babylonian kings are supposed by him to have been sacrificed--by proxy4 ,no writer is so erudite1 and few are so exact in their references4 ,while venturing to differ from ,mr4 ,frazer1 ,i must often1 as it were1 make use of his own ammunition in this war4 ,let me say sincerely that ,i am not pitting my knowledge or industry against his4 ,i rather represent the student who has an interest in these subjects1 and peruses ',the ,golden ,bough1' not as 'the general reader' does1 but with some care1 and with some verification of the citations and sources4 ,it is first necessary to state1 as briefly as possible1 ,mr4 ,frazer's hypothesis as to the origin of the belief in the ,divinity of our ,lord1 or1 at least1 as to what he thinks a very powerful factor in the evolution of that creed4 ,the ,babylonians1 he holds1 and their ,persian conquerors were wont yearly1 at a vernal feast1 to dress a condemned criminal in the royal robes1 to enthrone him1 to obey him1 to grant him access to the ladies of the royal harem1 and then1 at the end of five days1 to strip1 whip1 and hang him4 ,the reason why they acted thus1 ,mr4 ,frazer guesses1 was that the condemned man acted as proxy for the divine ,king of ,babylon1 who1 in an age less civilised1 had been sacrificed annually3 so ,mr4 ,frazer conjectures4 ,the ,king was thus sacrificed as a being of divine or magical nature1 a man-god1 and the object1 according to ,mr4 ,frazer1 was to keep providing the god or magical influence resident in him with a series of fresh human vehicles4 ,it appears1 or may appear1 to be ,mr4 ,frazer's opinion1 though the point is stated rather casually and late in the long argument1 that the ,king himself was believed to incarnate a known and recognised god of vegetation1 a personal principle of vegetable life4 ,the ,king's proxy1 therefore1 the condemned criminal1 is sacrificed 7by hanging7 in a character at once royal 7as representing the ,king7 and divine 7since the ,king incarnates a god74 ,all this occurs1 by one of the theories advanced1 at about the time of year in which our ,easter falls1 at a feast called ,zakmuk in ,babylonian1 in ,persian 7by the theory7 ,saca3 a period of hard drinking and singular licence4 ,the ,jews1 by the theory1 or by one of the theories1 had probably no such feast or custom before they were carried into exile in ,babylonia4 ,but from the ,babylonians and ,persians ,mr4 ,frazer holds that they probably borrowed the festival1 which they styled ,purim1 and also borrowed the custom 7historically unheard of among them7 of crowning1 stripping1 flogging1 and hanging a mock-king1 a condemned criminal1 in ,march4 ,it does not appear that this man1 in ,juda1 was allowed to invade the harem1 for example1 of ,herod1 as in the case of the ,persian royal harem4 ,the ,jews also are conjectured to have borrowed a practice1 presumed by ,mr4 ,frazer to have perhaps prevailed at ,babylon1 of keeping a pair of condemned criminals4 ,one of them was hanged2 the other was set free for the year4 ,the first died as an incarnation of the god of vegetable life4 ,the second1 set free1 represented in a pseudo-resurrection the first1 and also represented1 ,i understand1 the revival of the god of vegetable life4 ,the first man was called ,haman1 probably in origin ,humman1 a deity of the vanquished foes of ,babylon1 the ,elamites4 ,the second man1 in ,hebrew ,mordecai1 probably represented ,merodach1 or ,marduk1 the supreme god of the victorious ,babylonians4 ,each man had a female consort1 probably in ,babylon a sacred harlot3 ,haman had ,vashti1 probably an ,elamite goddess2 ,mordecai had ,esther1 doubtless ,ishtar1 the ,venus of the ,babylonian creed4 ,these ladies do not occur in any account of the ,babylonian or ,persian feasts1 nor in the ,gospels3 their existence is a conjecture4 ,the victims1 as descending from the ,babylonian and ,persian criminals1 who stood both for the king and also1 at least in some parts of the theory1 for a god of vegetation1 were conceived of as divine4 ,since ,christ1 by what looks like a chapter of accidents1 was put to death as one of these mock-kings1 ,he inherited their recognised divinity1 and ,his mission1 which had been mainly that of a moral lecturer1 at once was surrounded by a halo of divinity4 ,such1 in brief1 if ,i follow ,mr4 ,frazer1 is the contention1 which1 ,i must repeat1 is presented as the combination of many hypotheses into a single theory1 offered for criticism4 ,to myself1 after studying ,mr4 ,frazer's theory with such care as it deserves1 an hypothesis of its evolution presents itself4 ,before writing the first edition of ',the ,golden ,bough' 7#ahij71 ,mr4 ,frazer had become acquainted with a statement which ,dio ,chrysostom1 a ,greek rhetorician of the first century1 puts into the mouth of ,diogenes the ,cynic1 in an imaginary dialogue with ,alexander the ,great4 ,in this essay ,diogenes is made to tell ,alexander about the ,persian custom of yearly dressing up a condemned criminal in royal robes1 at the feast called ,saca1 allowing him to live 'like a king' for five days1 giving him the entre of the royal harem1 and then stripping1 scourging1 and hanging or crucifying him4 ,the resemblance of ,dio's words to the account of the ,mockery of ,christ is very remarkable4 ,mr4 ,frazer tells us that he saw this resemblance in #ahij1 but could not explain it4 ,in #ahig he became acquainted with a legend1 written in ,greek1 of the martyrdom of ,st4 ,dasius1 a ,roman ,christian soldier1 in ,msia 7#cjc ,a4,d474 ,according to this legend1 ,dasius was drawn by lot as the yearly victim who1 the story says1 was made to represent ,king ,saturnus1 for a month of military revelry1 and then was sacrificed1 or obliged to slay himself1 beside ,saturn's altar1 at the close of the ,saturnalia4 ,dasius declined the part1 and was put to death4 ,here1 then1 in ,msia1 if we believe the legend of ,st4 ,dasius1 was a mock-king1 personating a god1 sacrificed to a god1 and therefore himself1 it may be1 regarded as divine4 ,at the other extreme1 in ,jerusalem1 was ,christ1 who1 after mock royal honours1 was scourged1 crucified1 and acquired a halo of divinity4 ,the middle term was the criminal1 who1 in the character of a mock-king1 was stripped1 scourged1 and hanged in the ,persian feast4 ,there was no trace in ,persia of sacrifice1 of a victim in the technical sense1 or of any halo of divinity4 ,but ,mr4 ,frazer was familiar with barbaric kings who are or were put to death1 to save them from dying naturally1 or after a fixed term of years4 ,in his opinion they are killed to provide the god whom they incarnate with a fresh vehicle4 ,combining all these facts1 and strongly drawn by the resemblance of ,dio's anecdote to the narratives of the ,crucifixion1 ,mr4 ,frazer adopted the argument that the criminal executed at the ,saca1 in ,babylon1 had once been1 like the ,saturn sufferer in ,msia1 a divine victim1 not at first hanged1 but sacrificed yearly1 to redeem the life of the ,persian king1 who in earlier ages must himself have been a yearly sacrifice4 ,the divinity inherited by the criminal from that divine ,king was transmitted by a succession of executed malefactors to the victim of ,calvary4 ,the ingenuity of the idea is undeniable4 ,but it appears to me that the author's mind was throughout unconsciously drawn to the ,crucifixion4 ,this attraction became a 'mental prepossession4' ,in a recent work1 ',fact and ,fable in ,psychology' 7,boston1 ,u4,s41 #aijj71 ,professor ,jastrow has illustrated 'mental prepossession' by a common and trivial experience4 ,a beginner in the art of bicycling is unconsciously drawn into collision with every obstacle on the road which his conscious self is doing its best to avoid4 ,in the same way1 ,i fancy1 our author's mind was led straight to an explanation of the halo of divinity round the ,cross1 instead of to what was needed first1 an explanation of the ,persian custom1 isolated1 and examined only in the light of its attendant circumstances1 as described in our very scanty information4 ,had our author examined the circumstances of the ,persian custom with an intellect unattracted by the hope of throwing new light on the ,crucifixion1 and uninfluenced by a tendency to find gods of vegetation almost every where1 he would have found1 ,i think1 that they admit of being accounted for in a simple manner1 granting that our information is true4 ,there was1 as far as we are informed1 no sacrifice at the ,saca1 and in that ,persian festival nothing religious4 ,the religious element has to be imported by aid of remote inference1 daring conjecture1 and even1 ,i venture to say1 some disregard of documentary history4 ,the consequence1 as ,i shall try to show1 is that the theory has1 in the ,regent ,moray's words1 'to pass over the bellies' of innumerable obstacles1 by aid of a series of conjectures increasing in difficulty4 ,thus the reader's powers of acquiescence are strained afresh at the introduction of each new trial of his faith4 ,if one stage out of so many stages of remote inference and bold presumption is unstable1 the whole edifice falls to the ground4 ,meanwhile we shall have to offer a simple explanation of the circumstances of the ,sacan victim1 only in a single instance demanding the use of one of ,mr4 ,frazer's own conjectures1 itself a legitimate hypothesis4 ,the remainder of this essay is concerned with an examination of the difficulties of his theory1 and of the 'bridges of hypothesis1' by which the 'yawning chasms' are to be crossed4 ,v ,,the ,,approaches ,,to ,,mr4 ,,frazer',s ,,theory ,i4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,gods ,rites so remarkable as those of the pair of criminals1 supposed to have played their parts in ,babylon and ,jerusalem1 each with his female mate1 are not historically known1 but are part of ,mr4 ,frazer's theory1 and have analogies in folklore4 ,institutions so unparalleled as a whole1 in our knowledge of human religion1 cannot have been evolved except through a long series of grades of development4 ,mr4 ,frazer traces these grades throughout the #a1ejj pages of his book4 ,there are1 in accordance with the method1 large sections of the work devoted to illustrative examples of matters which do not bear directly on the main stream of the argument1 and these are apt1 by the very abundance of their erudition1 to distract attention from the central hypothesis4 ,to that ,i try to adhere through its numerous ramifications4 ,to account1 then1 for these hypothetical rites of the double pairs of divinised human beings1 we are to suppose that1 before attaining the earliest germs of religion1 men were addicted to magic1 a theory which we have already examined in the essay ',magic and ,religion4' ,they believed that by imitating the cosmic processes1 they could control or assist them4 ,thus the ,arunta of ,central ,australia have magical rites1 by which they assist the development of larv into grubs1 increase and improve the breed and reproductive energies of kangaroos1 foster the growth of edible tubers1 and bring down rain4 ,these rites are harmless1 and involve no sacrifices1 human or animal1 for the ,arunta1 we are to believe1 have no god to accept offerings4#a ,but as men advanced from almost the lowest savagery1 they gradually attained to higher material culture1 developing the hitherto unknown arts of agriculture1 developing also religion1 in the despair of magic1 developing gods1 and evolving social and political rank1 with kings at the head of society4 ,in disgust with their old original magic 7by which they had supposed that they controlled cosmic forces and animal and vegetable life71 they invented gods and spirits who1 as they fancied1 did really exercise cosmic control4 ,these gods they propitiated by prayer and sacrifice4 ,but though it was in the despair of magic that men invented gods and religion1 yet1 as men will1 they continued to exercise the magic of which they despaired4 ,they persisted1 like the godless ,arunta1 in imitating the processes of nature1 in the belief 7which1 after all1 they had not abandoned7 that such imitation magically aided the efforts of nature or of the gods of nature4 ,men now evolved three species of god1 from one or other of which descends the godhead of the ,persian criminal1 whipped and hanged1 and the ,divinity of ,christ4 ,first1 there were gods 'of an order different from and superior to man4' ,second1 there were men in whom these superior gods became incarnate4 ,third1 there were men who were merely better magicians than their neighbours1 'sensitives' who trembled at a touch of nature1 and at whose touch nature trembled4#b ,it is not1 in thought1 difficult to draw a firm line between these two kinds of man-gods1 though magic and religion overlap and shade into each other4 ,the distinction of the two types1 the man incarnating god1 and the sorcerer with no god to incarnate1 is absolutely essential1 and must be kept firmly in mind4 ,mr4 ,frazer says ',in what follows ,i shall not insist on it1' on this essential distinction4#c ,essential it is3 for the second sort1 the magical sort1 of man-god1 may1 by ,mr4 ,frazer's theory1 be prior to all religion4 ,he is only a high kind of sorcerer1 'a dealer in magic and spells4' ,the other kind of man-god comes in after magic is despaired of and gods are invented4 ,i shall insist on the distinction4 ,the growth of society was advancing and developing at the same time as religion and agriculture4 ,the original sorcerer or medicine-man1 or magic-worker1 through his influence on his neighbours1 was apt to acquire leadership1 and to accumulate property1 as1 indeed1 ,i myself remarked long ago in an essay on the ',origin of ,rank4'#d ,in ,mr4 ,frazer's theory these magic-men finally develop into both kings or chiefs and man-gods4 ,i have observed that there is often a lay or secular king or chief1 a war-leader1 beside them4 ,his position1 if it becomes hereditary1 is apt to end in leaving the man-god-king on one side in a partly magical1 partly religious1 but not secular kingship1 whence it may evolve into a priesthood1 carrying the royal title4 ,the man is more or less a man-god1 more or less a priest1 more or less a controller of cosmic processes1 but is still a titular king4 ,of course all sorts of varieties occur in these institutions4 ,the general result is the divinity of kings1 and their responsibility for the luck of the state1 and for the weather and crops4 ,if the luck1 the weather1 and the crops are bad1 the public asks ',who is to be punished for this8' ,under a constitution such as our own1 the public notoriously makes the ,government responsible for the luck2 a general election dismisses the representatives of the party in power4 ,but1 four hundred years ago1 and previously1 executions took the place of mere loss of office3 the heads of the ,boyds1 of ,morton1 or of ,gowrie fell when these nobles lost office4 ,in the earlier society with which we are dealing1 the king1 as responsible for the weather and crops1 is sometimes punished in bad times4 ,the ,banjars 'beat the king till the weather changes1' elsewhere the king is imprisoned1 or1 in a more constitutional manner1 merely deposed4#e ,there are traces of actually killing the unlucky and responsible monarch4 ,in ,sweden he is said1 in a time of public distress1 to have been not only killed1 but sacrificed to ,odin4 ,this is not1 however1 an historical statement4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,alleged ,,mortality ,,of ,,gods ,there were other magico-religious reasons for killing kings4 ,mr4 ,frazer writes3#f ',lacking the idea of eternal duration1 primitive man naturally supposes the gods to be mortal like himself4' ,here is1 ,i venture to think1 a notable fault in the argument4 ,early men1 contrary to ,mr4 ,frazer's account1 suppose themselves to be naturally immortal4 ,the myths of perhaps all races tell of a time when death had not yet entered the world4 ,man was born deathless4 ,death came in by an accident1 or in consequence of an error1 or an infraction of a divine command4 ,to this effect we have ,zulu1 ,australian1 ,maori1 ,melanesian1 ,central ,african1 ,vedic ,aryan1 ,kamschadal1 and countless other myths2 not to speak of the first chapters of ,genesis4#g ',in the thought of immortality' early man is cradled4 ,his divine beings are usually regarded as prior to and unaffected by the coming of death1 which invades men1 but not these beings1 or not most of them4 ,indeed1 some low savages have not yet persuaded themselves that death is natural4 ',amongst the ,central ,australian natives1' say ,spencer and ,gillen1 'there is no such thing as belief in natural death2 however old or decrepit a man or woman may be when this takes place1 it is at once supposed that it has been brought about by the magic influence of some enemy1' and it is avenged on the enemy1 as in the blood-feud4#h ,these ,australians in ,mr4 ,frazer's opinion 7though not in mine7 are 'primitive4' ,thus1 far from lacking the idea of eternal duration of life1 'primitive man' has no other idea4 ,not that he formulates his idea in such a term as 'eternal4' ,mariner says1 indeed1 concerning the ,tongan supreme being ,ta-li-y-,tooboo1 ',of his origin they had no idea1 rather supposing him to be eternal4' ,but1 in ,tongan1 the metaphysical idea of eternity is only expressed in the meaning of the god's name1 'wait-there-,tooboo4' ,this god occasionally inspires the ,how1 or elective king1 but the ,how was never sacrificed to provide the god with a sturdier incarnation1 a process which ,mr4 ,frazer's theory of the ,divinity of ,christ demands as customary4 ,being 'eternal' ,t-li-y-,tooboo was independent of a human vehicle4#i ,these facts must be remembered1 for it is indispensable to ,mr4 ,frazer's theory to prove that the immortals are believed1 to a sufficient extent1 to be mortal4 ,hence the supposed need of killing divine kings1 their vehicles4 ,primitive man1 according to ,mr4 ,frazer1 thinks his gods mortal4 ,but primitive man by his initial hypothesis had no gods at all4 ,mr4 ,frazer clearly means that when man was no longer primitive1 he conceived the gods to be mortal like himself4 ,i have elsewhere given many examples of the opposite belief among races of many grades of culture1 from the ,australian blacks to the immortal gods of ,homer4#aj ,the point will be found to be important later1 and ,i must firmly express my opinion that1 so long as people believe their gods to be alive1 and testify that belief by prayers1 hymns1 and sacrifices1 it is impossible to argue from a few local1 and contradictory1 and easily explicable myths1 that these peoples believe their gods to be dead1 or in danger of dying4 ,here1 ,i think1 the common sense of students will agree with me4 ,however1 as this general and pervading belief in the mortality of the gods is absolutely essential to ,mr4 ,frazer's argument1 perhaps the point had better be settled4 ,as examples of belief in the fact that the god is dead1 we have the ,greenlanders4#aa ,the ,greenlanders believed that a wind could kill their most powerful god1 and that he would certainly die if he touched a dog4 ,mr4 ,tylor1 on the other hand1 tells us that to ,i the summerland' of the ,greenland deity1 'beneath the sea1 ,greenland souls hope to descend at death4' ,let us trust that ',no ,dogs are ,admitted4' ,this ,greenland divine being1 ,torngarsuk1 ,i so clearly held his place as supreme deity in the native mind that1' as ,cranz the missionary relates1 'many ,greenlanders hearing of ,god and ,his almighty power were apt to fall on the idea that it was their ,torngarsuk who was meant4' ,the ,greenland deity was unborrowed2 he 'seems no figure derived from the religion of ,scandinavian colonists1 ancient or modern4'#ab ,from ,cranz's evidence 7and much more might be cited7 the most powerful god of the ,greenlanders was not dead1 nor likely to die1 in spite of the apprehensions of certain ,greenlanders1 communicated to a person not named by ,mr4 ,frazer1 but quoted in a work of #ahjf4ac ,at the best the ,greenland evidence is contradictory2 all ,greenlanders did not agree with ,mr4 ,frazer's ,greenland authority4 ,nor was the ,accuser of the ,brethren currently believed to be deceased1 when the ancient folk-song assures us that ,some say the ,deil's deid1 ,the ,deil's deid1 the ,deil's deid1 ,some say the ,deil's deid1 ,and buried in ,kirkcaldy3 ,some say he's risen again1 ,risen again1 risen again1 ,some say he's risen again1 ,to dance the ,hieland ,laddie4 ',risen again' he was1 and did dance the ,hieland ,laddie at ,gledsmuir and ,falkirk4 ,the ',volkslied' scientifically represents the conflict of opinion as unsettled1 despite the testimony of the grave of ,satan at the lang toun of ,kirkcaldy2 like the grave of ,zeus in ,crete4 ,mr4 ,frazer1 then1 ought not1 ,i think1 to assume a general belief in the mortality of ,greenland gods in face of contradictory but uncited evidence4 #a4 ,a ,north ,american ,indian told ,colonel ,dodge that 'the ,great ,spirit that made the world is dead long ago4 ,he could not possibly have lived so long as this4'#ad ,now this was the ipse dixit and personal inference of a vague modern ',north ,american ,indian1' living in an age which1 as ,mr4 ,frazer remarks1 must 'breach those venerable walls' of belief4 ,to prove his case1 ,mr4 ,frazer needs to find examples of the opinion that the ',great ,spirit' was believed to be dead 7if he grants that there ever existed an ,american belief in a ,great ,spirit7 among the ,american ,indians as first studied by ,europeans4 ,i have elsewhere argued that the supreme being of most barbaric races is regarded as otiose1 inactive1 and so may come to be a mere name and by-word1 like the ,huron ,atahocan1#ae 'who made everything1' and the ,unkulunkulu of the ,zulus1 who has been so thrust into the background by the competition of ancestral spirits that his very existence is doubted4 ',in process of time we have come to worship the spirits only1 because we know not what to say about ,unkulunkulu4' ',we seek out for ourselves the spirits that we may not always be thinking about ,unkulunkulu4'#af ,in the same way1 throughout the beliefs of barbaric races1 the competition of friendly and helpful spirits pushes back such beings as the ,australian ,baiame and ,mungan-ngaur1 who exist where sacrifice to ancestral spirits has not yet been developed2 and the ,canadian ,andouagni of #aeeh4ag ,thus a modern ,north ,american ,indian may infer1 and may tell ,colonel ,dodge1 that the creator is dead1 because he is not in receipt of sacrifice or prayer4 ,but the cult of such high beings1 where it existed and still exists1 in ,north ,america1 the cult of ,ti-ra-w with whom the ,pawnees expect to live after death1 of the ,blackfoot ,n-pi of ,ahone1 ,okeus1 ,kiehtan1 and the rest1 proves belief in gods who are alive1 and who are not said to be in any danger of death4 #b4 ,a tribe of ,philippine ,islanders told the ,spanish conquerors that the grave of the ,creator was on the top of ,mount ,cabunian4 ,so the ,philippine ,islanders did believe in a ,creator4 ,the grave may have been the result of the usual neglect of the supreme being already explained1 or may have meant no more than the grave of ,zeus in ,crete1 while ,zeus was being worshipped all over the ,greek world4 #c4 ,heitsi ,eibib1 of the ,hottentots1 had a number of graves1 accounted for by the theory of successive lives and deaths4 ,but so had ,tammuz and ,adonis yearly lives and deaths1 yet the god was en permanence4 ,the graves of ,greek gods maybe due to ,euhemerism1 a theory much more ancient than ,euhemerus4 ,people who worship ancestral spirits sometimes argue1 like ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 that the gods were once spirits of living men1 and show the men's graves as proofs2 'the bricks are alive to testify to it4' ,but that the ,greeks regarded their gods as mortal cannot be seriously argued1 while they are always styled 'the immortals' in contrast to mortal men2 and while ,apollo 7who had a grave7 daily inspired the ,pythia4 ,her death did not hurt ,apollo4 ,she was not sacrificed for the benefit of ,apollo4 ,the grave of ,zeus 'was shown to visitors in ,crete as late as about the beginning of our era4' ,but was it shown as early as the time of ,homer8 ,euhemerus was prior to our era4 #d4 ,the ,egyptian gods were kings over death and the dead1 with tombs and mummies in every province4 ,but they were also deathless rulers of the world and of men4 ',if ,ra rises in the heavens it is by the will of ,osiris2 if he sets it is at the sight of his glory4' ',king of eternity1 great god 444 whoso knoweth humility and reckoneth deeds of righteousness1 thereby knows he ,osiris4'#ah ,this is a living god1 and ,seb and ,nut can scarcely die4 ,despite myth and ritual the gods of ,egypt lived till they 'fled from the folding star of ,bethlehem4' #e4 ,as to the legend of 'great ,pan is dead1' in the reign of ,tiberius1 ,mr4 ,frazer mentions a theory that not ,pan1 but ,adonis or ,tammuz was dead2 he was always dying4 ,the story is pretty1 but is not evidence4 #f4 ,about #ajfd ,a4,d4 there was a ,turkish story of the death of the ,king of the ,jinn4 ,the ,jinn are not gods but fairies1 and we have heard of fairy funerals4 #g4 ,concerning 'the high gods of ,babylon' it is especially needful for ,mr4 ,frazer to prove that they were believed to be mortal and in danger of death1 for ,dr4 ,jastrow denies that they are mortal4 ',the privilege of the gods' is 'immortality4'#ai ,but ,mr4 ,frazer's hypothesis derives the doctrine of the ,divinity of ,christ from the opinion that he represented1 in death1 a long line of victims to a barbarous superstition4#bj ,and that superstition was1 in ,mr4 ,frazer's conjecture1 that a substitute died for the ,king of ,babylon1 and that the ,king of ,babylon died to reinforce the vitality of a mortal god of ,babylon1 whose life required a fresh human incarnation annually4 ,to prove the ,babylonian belief in the mortality of the deities1 ,mr4 ,frazer writes3 ',the high gods of ,babylon also1 though they appeared to their worshippers only in dreams and visions1 were conceived to be human in their bodily shape1 human in their passions1 and human in their fate2 for like men they were born into the world1 and like men they loved and fought and even died4'#ba ,how many of them died8 ,if they were dead in religious belief1 how did they manage to attend 'the great assembly of the gods which1 as we have seen1 formed a chief feature of the feast of ,zakmuk1 and was held annually in the temple of ,marduk at ,babylon8'#bb ,did ,marduk die8 ,if so1 why is he addressed as ,o merciful one who lovest to give life to the dead6 ,marduk1 ,king of heaven and earth1 ,the spell affording life is thine1 ,the breath of life is thine4 ,thou restorest the dead to life1 thou bringest things to completeness 787#bc ,supposing1 again1 that the ,king was really sacrificed to keep a god in good condition--why only one sacrifice8 ,there were at least scores of gods1 all of them1 if ,i understand ,mr4 ,frazer1 in the same precarious condition of health4 ,they appear1 he might argue1 to have been especially subject to hepatic diseases4 ,o supreme mistress of heaven1 may thy liver be pacified1 says a hymn to ,ishtar4#bd ,of course every one sees that 'thy liver' is only a phrase for 'thy wrath2' the liver 7as in our phrases 'pluck' and 'lily-livered'7 being taken for the seat of the 'pluck' of men4 ,it is manifest that the ,babylonian gods are not dead but living1 otherwise they could not attend the yearly divine assembly1 nor could they be addressed in prayer4 ,moreover1 if they could only be kept alive by yearly sacrificing their human vehicles1 great holocausts of human vehicles would have been needed every year3 one man for one god1 and their name was legion4 ,once more1 if men believed that gods could die1 unless kept alive by sacrifices of their human vehicles1 we must say of the ,greeks that they did not strive ,officiously to keep alive their deities4 ,had the ,greeks known that this was in their power to do1 then ,apollo1 ,dionysus1 ,cronos1 ,zeus1 ,hermes1 ,aphrodite1 ,ares had not died4 ,yet die they did1 if the graves of each of these mortals prove the prevailing belief in their decease4#be ,mankind1 according to ,mr4 ,frazer1 believed in 'mighty beings1' 'who breathed into man's nostrils and made him live4' ,he implored them 'to bring his immortal spirit 444 to some happier world 444 where he might rest with them1' and so on4#bf ,yet1 'lacking the idea of eternal duration1 primitive man naturally supposed the gods to be mortal like himself4' ,mr4 ,frazer has1 we see1 also told us that they did not believe their gods to be mortal4 ,probably1 then1 the belief in their immortality was a late stage in a gradual process4#bg ,yet it had not prevailed when the grave of ,zeus was shown 'about the beginning of our era4'#bh ,man1 then1 believed that he could keep one out of the crowd of gods alive 7though he implored them to keep him alive7 by sacrificing his rightful king once a year1 thereby overthrowing dynasty after dynasty1 and upsetting the whole organisation of the state4 ,all this we must steadfastly believe1 before we can accept ,mr4 ,frazer's theory of the origin of the ,nicene ,creed4 ,it is a large preliminary demand4 ,the gods keep on being 'immortals1' and this we must insist on1 in view of ,mr4 ,frazer's theory that man-gods who are slain are slain to keep alive the god who is incarnate in them1 of which he does not give one example4 ,his instances of beliefs that the high gods are dead notoriously contradict the prevalent belief that they are deathless4 ,and the prevalent belief regulates religion4 ,however1 man-gods certainly die1 and some ,south ,sea ,islanders--by a scientific experiment--demonstrated that ,captain ,cook was no god1 because he died when stabbed1 which a genuine god would not have done4 ,this1 of course1 proves that these benighted heathen knew the difference between an immortal god and a deathly man as well as did ,anchises in the ,homeric hymn to ,aphrodite4 ,,iii4 ,,religious ,,regicide ,peoples who think that all the luck depends on their king-man-god 7the second sort1 the superior sorcerer1 with no god in him7 hold1 we are to believe1 that his luck and cosmic influence wane with his waning forces4 ,therefore they kill him1 and get a more vigorous recipient of his soul 7not of a god7 and of his luck4#bi ,of king-killing for this reason ,mr4 ,eraser gives1 ,i think1 one adequate example4 ,of the transmission of the soul of the slain divinity to his successor he 'has no direct proof1' though souls of incarnating gods are transmitted after natural deaths4#cj ,now this is a very important part of the long-drawn argument which is to suggest that ,christ died as a mock-king1 who also represented a god4 ,first1 we have seen that there are two kinds of man-god4 ,in one kind a real god1 'of an order different from and superior to man1' is supposed to become incarnate4 ,the other kind of man-god is only a superior 'sensitive' and sorcerer4#ca ,now ,jesus1 by ,mr4 ,frazer's theory1 died as representative of a god1 therefore as one of the first two kinds of man-gods4 ,but ,mr4 ,frazer does not here1 as ,i said1 produce one solitary example of a man-god proved to be of the first class--a king in whom an acknowledged god is incarnate--being slain to prevent his inspiring god from waning with the man's waning energies4#cb ,many examples of that practice are needed by the argument4 ,i repeat that not one example is produced in this place4 ,mr4 ,frazer's entire argument depends on his announced failure to 'insist on' the distinction between two sorts of man-gods which he himself has drawn4#cc ,so ,i keep on insisting4 ,again1 it can hardly be said that any examples are produced of a king of the second sort 7a man-god who is really no god at all1 but a 'sensitive1' sorcerer1 or magic-man7 being slain to preserve the vigour of his magic4 ,the examples to be cited all but universally give no proof of the idea of preserving man's magical vigour from the decay of old age4 ,the cases given1 as a rule1 are mere instances of superannuation4 ,it is possible 7would that it were easy7 to pension off aged professors in the ,scottish ,universities4 ,but to pension off a king merely means a series of civil wars4 ,the early middle ages 'tonsured' weak kings4 ,how tempting to represent this dedication of them to ,god as a mitigation of sacrifice6 ,kings1 in fact1 among some barbaric races1 are slain merely by way of superannuation4 ,nay1 the practice is not confined to kings4 ,it is usual among elderly subjects4#cd ,let us take ,mr4 ,frazer's examples4#ce #a4 ,a ,congo people believe that the world would perish if their chitome1 or pontiff1 died a natural death4 ,so he was clubbed or strangled by his successor4 ,but what god is incarnate in the chitome8 ,none is mentioned4#cf ,the king himself 'is regarded as a god in earth1 and all powerful in heaven4' #b4 ,the ,ethiopian kings of ,meroe were worshipped as gods1 but were ordered to die by the priests1 on the authority of an alleged oracle of the gods1 'whenever the priests chose4' ,that they first showed any signs of decay 'we may conjecture4'#cg ,we have no evidence except that the priests put an end to the king 'whenever they chose4' ,and1 far from alleging the king's decay or bad crops as the regular recognised reason1 they alleged a special oracle of the gods4 #c4 ,when the ,king of ,unyoro1 in ,central ,africa1 is old1 or very ill1 his wives kill him 7an obvious reason readily occurs3 it is the wives1 not a god1 who need a more spirited person71 alleging an old prophecy that the throne will pass from the dynasty if the king dies a natural death4 ,but it is not here shown that this king is a man-god of either species2 and the prophecy does not concern injury to a god1 or to magical rapport4#ch #d4 ,the ,king of ,kibanga1 on the upper ,congo1 is killed by sorcerers when he 'seems near his end4' ,so are old dogs and cats and horses in this country1 and peasants are even thought to provide euthanasia for kinsfolk 'near their end4' ,if the ,king of ,kibanga is a man-god1 ,mr4 ,frazer does not say so4 #e4 ,if wounded in war the ,king of ,gingero is killed by his comrades or kinsfolk1 even if he be reluctant4 ,the reason alleged is 'that he may not die by the hands of his enemies4' ,did ,saul1 ,brutus1 and many other warriors who refuse to survive wounds and defeat die as man-gods8 ,is the ,king of ,gingero a man-god8 #f4 ,chaka1 ,king of the ,zulus1 used hair-dye1 having a great aversion to grey hairs4 ,the ,zulus1 a warlike people1 would not elect1 or accept1 a greyhaired king1 and1 though ,i know no instance of slaying a ,zulu king because he was old1 ,mr4 ,isaacs 7#ahcf7 says that grey hair is 'always followed by the death of the monarch4' ,even if an historical example were given1 a warlike race merely superannuates a disabled war-leader in the only safe way4 #g4 ,at last we reach a king-man-god in ,sofala1 who1 according to ,dos ,santos1 was the only god of the ,caffres1 and was implored to give good weather4#ci ,a modern ,zulu told ,dr4 ,callaway that 'when people say the heaven is the chief's they do not believe what they say4'#dj ,the ,sofalese1 or rather their neighbours1 were perhaps more credulous2 and it appears to have been a custom or law among them that a blemished king should kill himself1 though a reforming prince denounced this as insanity1 and altered the law4 ,we are told that the king-god of the ,sofalese was under this law1 and a neighbouring king 7who is nowhere said to have been a man-god7 was4 ,but what god1 if any1 was incarnate in this man-god1 if he was a man-god1 like his neighbour8#da #h4 ,the ,spartans were warned by an oracle against a lame king1 as the ,mackenzies were warned by the ,brahan seer against a set of physically blemished lairds4 ,the seer's prophecy was fulfilled4#db ,we do not hear that the ,spartans ,killed any lame king4 #i4 ,the ,king of the ,eyeos is warned to kill himself1 warned by a gift of parrot's eggs1 'when the people have conceived an opinion of his ill-government4' ,his wives strangle him1 and his son succeeds1 or did so before #aggd1 when the ,king refused to die at the request of his ministers4 ,to make a case1 it must be shown that the king was a man-god of one or other variety4 ,he is1 in fact1 merely king while popular1 'holding the reins of government no longer than whilst he merits the approval of his people4' #aj4 ,the old ,prussians were governed by a king called ,god's ,mouth4 ',if he wanted to leave a good name behind1' when weak and ill he burned himself to death1 in front of a holy oak4 #aa4 ,in ,quilacare1 in ,southern ,india1 the king cut himself to pieces1 before an idol1 after a twelve years' reign4 ,we are not told that he was an incarnation of the god1 if any1 incorporated in1 or represented by1 the idol4 #ab4 ,the ,king of ,calicut1 on the ,malabar coast1 used to cut his throat in public after a twelve years' reign4 ,about #afhj-agjj this was commuted4 ,if any man could cut his way through #cj1jjj or #dj1jjj guardsmen1 to kill the king1 he succeeded4 ,three men tried1 but numbers over-powered them4 ,other examples are given in which every regicide might become king1 if he could1 like ,macbeth4 ,it was held1 at ,passier1 that ,god would not allow the king to be killed if he did not richly deserve it4 ,these kings are not said to incarnate gods4 #ac4 ,ibn ,batuta once saw a man throw a rope into the air1 and climb up it4 ,another man followed and cut the first to pieces1 which fell on the ground1 were reunited1 and no harm done4 ,this veracious traveller also saw a man1 at ,java1 kill himself for love of the ,sultan1 thereby securing liberal pensions for his family1 as his father and grandfather had done before him4 ',we may conjecture that formerly the ,sultans of ,java1 like the ,kings of ,quilacare and ,calicut1 were bound to cut their own throats at the end of a fixed term of years1'#dc but that they deputed the duty to one certain family4 ,we may conjecture1 but1 considering the lack of evidence1 and the stories that ,ibn ,batuta freely tells1 ,i doubt6 ,ibn1 at the ,court of ,delhi1 saw cups and dishes ,i at a wish appear1 and at a wish retire4' ,did the ,sultan of ,java incarnate a god8 #ad4 ,this case is so extremely involved and hypothetical 7it concerns ,sparta1 where ,i never heard that the king was a man-god7 that the reader must be referred to the original4#dd ,meanwhile the list of instances is numerically respectable4 ,but are the instances to the point8 ,do they prove a practice of killing a royal man-god1 for the purpose of helping a god incarnate in him1 or even of preventing his magical power 7or mana1 in ,new ,zealand7 from waning8 ,they rather prove regicide as a form of superannuation1 or as the result of the machinations of priests1 or of public discontent4 ,above all1 they do not demonstrate that the king is ever killed as an incarnation of a deity who needs a sturdier person to be incarnate in4 ,so recalcitrant is the evidence1 that of all ,mr4 ,frazer's kings who are here said to be gods1 or to incarnate gods1 not one is here said to be put to death by his worshippers4#de ,and of all his kings who are here said to be put to death1 not one is here said to incarnate a god4#df ,such are the initial difficulties of the theory3 to which we may add that elderly men are notoriously killed by many savages just because they are elderly1 whether they are kings or commoners4 ,mr4 ,frazer's point is that ,christ died in 'a halo of divinity1' visible 'wherever men had heard the old1 old story of the dying and rising god4'#dg ,but1 apart from other objections already urged1 ,mr4 ,frazer's present instances do not contain one example of a 'dying and rising god1' stated to be represented by a living man who is therefore killed2 even if there are one or two cases of a slain king who is a medicine-man1 sorcerer1 or cosmic sensitive4 ,thus the argument fails from the first4 ,christ is to be reckoned divine as representing a king who was killed as an incarnation of a god4 ,but of regicide for this reason no proof is afforded1 as far as ,i can see4 ,,iv4 ,,annual ,,religious ,,regicide ,next we arrive at an absolutely necessary hypothesis1 which ,i find it difficult to accept4 ',in some places it appears that the people could not trust the king to remain in full mental and bodily vigour for more than a year2 hence at the end of a year's reign he was put to death1 and a new king appointed to reign in his turn a year1 and suffer death at the end of it4444 ,when the time drew near for the king to be put to death 7in ,babylon this appears to have been at the end of a single year's reign71 he abdicated for a few days1 during which a temporary king reigned and suffered in his stead4'#dh ,later we read of 'the time when the real king used to redeem his own life by deputing his son to reign for a short time and die in his stead4'#di ,the hypothesis is1 then1 that at ,babylon the king used to be sacrificed once a year4 ,later he appointed a son1 or some other member of the royal family1 or some one else1 to die for him1 while1 last of all1 a criminal was chosen4 ,is not this a startling hypothesis8 ,yet on it the whole argument about the ,divinity of ,christ depends4 ,mr4 ,frazer overestimates human ambition4 ,we wonder that ,moray1 ,lennox1 and ,morton pined to be ,regents of ,scotland4 ,yet at least they had a faint chance of escaping death within the year4 ,but the kings of ,babylon had no chance3 they were sacrificed annually4 ,mr4 ,frazer asks us to suppose that any men of royal race1 anywhere1 men free and noble1 not captives1 not condemned criminals1 would accept a crown1 followed1 in #cfe days1 by a death of fire6 ,a child knows that no men have ever acted in this way4 ,even if they were so incredibly unlike all other human beings as to choose a year's royalty1 followed by burning to death1 how was the succession regulated8 ,even the primitive ,arunta1 naked savages in ,central ,australia1 have a kind of magistrate1 merely a convener1 called the ,alatunja1 'the head man of a local totemic group4' ,he is an hereditary official1 inheriting in the male line4#ej ,does any one believe that a poor black man would accept the ,alatunjaship if he knew he was to be roasted1 and so die1 at the end of a year8 ,now the ,babylonians 7or rather the ,persians7 were infinitely more civilised than the ,arunta4 ,their kings were hereditary kings4 ,how1 then1 would ,mr4 ,frazer's system work8 ,the king is sacrificed2 his eldest son succeeds2 is sacrificed next year2 they soon work through the royal family4 ,thus1 in ,scotland1 ,darnley is sacrificed 7#aefg74 ,next year you sacrifice the baby1 ,james ,,vi4 ,next year you begin on the ,hamiltons4 ,chatelherault lasts a year3 then ,arran1 then ,lord ,john1 then ,lord ,claude4 ,beginning in #aefg you work out that result in #aegb4 ,then you start on the ,lennox ,stewarts4 ,you have ,lennox offered up in #aegc1 his son ,charles in #aegd1 and by the end of the century you have exhausted the female and illegitimate branches of the royal family4 ,you can only sacrifice males1 and these must be adults1 for each sacrificed man1 by ,mr4 ,frazer's theory1 has to consort before his death with a lady1 probably 'a sacred harlot4'#ea ,mr4 ,frazer perhaps will say 'these ,babylonian kings were polygamous1 and had large families of sons4' ,but think of the situation6 ,when the king comes to providing a son as a substitute1 to reign for a few days and be sacrificed in his stead1 he may be a young king1 just married4 ,even if he could count on a male baby1 or a score of them1 annually1 they would be of no use3 they could not consort with the sacred harlot1 which is indispensable4#eb ,so1 after the young king is sacrificed1 we are in a quandary4 ,we must overlook primogeniture1 and begin sacrificing the king's brothers2 they will not last long2 we fall back on the cousins4 ,soon we need a new dynasty4 ,now no government could be carried on in the circumstances imagined by ,mr4 ,frazer4 ,the country would not stand it4 ,no individual king would ever accept the crown4 ,human beings never had such a preposterous institution4 ,but1 if they had not1 ,mr4 ,frazer's whole theory of the ,crucifixion is baseless1 for it all hangs on the yearly sacrifice of the divine king in ,babylon4 ,where there is no historical evidence of annual regicide1 we must appeal to our general knowledge of human nature4 ,the reply is that the thing is impossible4 ,moreover1 that sacrifice is wholly without evidence4 ,the only reason for believing that the kings of the great ,babylonian ,empire1 or even the kings of ,babylon when it may have been a small autonomous town1 were sacrificed once a year1 is the faint testimony existing to show that once a year at a ,persian feast a mock-king was hanged4 ,to account for that hanging ,mr4 ,frazer has to invent the hypothesis that real kings1 in olden times1 were annually sacrificed4 ,the only corroboration of actual fact is in the savage instances of king killing1 not annual1 which we have explained as1 in most cases1 a rude form of superannuation2 in no case as certainly the deliverance of a recognised god incarnate in the king ,there are also instances in folklore of yearly mock executions of a king of the ,may1 or the like1 and a dubious case in ,lower ,msia4 ,these do not prove annual sacrifices of actual kings in the past1 if they prove any sacrifice at all4 ,in these circumstances1 ,i venture to hold1 science requires us1 if we must explain the alleged yearly hanging of a mock-king at ,babylon1 to look for a theory1 an hypothesis1 which does not contradict all that we know of human nature4 ,for all of human nature that we know is contradicted by the fancy that the kings of ,babylon were once sacrificed annually4 ,i shall later produce a theory which1 at least1 does not run counter to the very nature of man1 and so far is legitimate and scientific4 ,mr4 ,frazer says that his theory 'will hardly appear extravagant or improbable' when we remember that1 in ,ngoio1 the chief who puts on the cap of royalty one day is1 by the rule1 killed the next day4#ec ,so nobody puts on the cap4 ,and nobody would have put on the ,babylonian crown under the condition of being roasted to death at the end of the year4 ,if the theory were correct1 the king incarnating a god would be slain yearly4 ,but he would not like that1 and would procure a substitute1 who would yearly be slain 7a7 as a proxy of the king1 or 7b7 as the god of vegetation1 incarnate in the king1 or as both4 ,yet1 ,i repeat1 not a single instance has been given of a king who is slain for magico-religious reasons1 and who is also the incarnation of any god whatever4 ,the slain kings in the instances produced were1 as a rule1 superannuated because they were old1 or got rid of because they were unpopular1 or because a clerical cabal desired their destruction1 or for some other reason3 at most1 and rarely1 because they were outworn 'sensitives4' ,we know scores of cases of god-possessed men1 but none are killed because they are god-possessed4 ,the argument has thus made no approach to ,mr4 ,frazer's theory of the origin of the belief in the divine character of ,christ and of his doctrine4 ,at this point ,mr4 ,frazer's theory turns from god-mankings slain to preserve their mana1 or cosmic rapport1 to persons who suffer for these kings4 ,not one single historical proof that there ever was such a custom is adduced4 ,all is a matter of inference and conjecture4 ,there is1 we saw1 a region ,ngoio1 in ,congo1 where the throne is perpetually vacant1 because whoever occupied it was killed the day after coronation day--no substitute is suggested1 and no one sits in the ,siege ,perilous4#ed ,there are cases of 'temporary kings1' as ,king ,february1 for three days in ,cambodia--the temporary king being of a cadet branch of the royal family4 ,he is not killed4 ,in ,siam a temporary king for three days conducted a qute1 or jocular pillaging1 like our ,robin ,hood in ,scotland4 ,this is an example of the ,period of ,licence when law is in abeyance1 and the importance of this period we shall later prove4 ,the mock-king also ploughed nine furrows1 and stood later with his right foot on his left knee4 ,he did the same thing on a later occasion1 and omens were drawn from his steadiness2 he was supposed1 if firm1 to conquer evil spirits1 and had another qute4 ,in ,upper ,egypt a king of unreason for three days holds mock tribunals1 then is condemned1 and his 'shell' is burned2 probably1 as ,i shall show1 to mean that 'the gambol has been shown' and is over4#ee ,there are two or three similar cases1 and ,mr4 ,frazer suggests that the mock-king is invested with the 'divine or magical functions' of the real king4 ,but the local ,pacha1 on the ,nile1 has no such functions1 and his august representative wears 'a tall fool's cap4' ,none are put to death3 the ,upper ,egyptian case alone and dimly1 if at all1 suggests the proxy supposed 7as in ,ibn ,batuta's tale interpreted by ,mr4 ,frazer7 to die for the king4 ,next we approach instances of sons of kings who are sacrificed1 but these are cases of sin offerings 7as when the ,king of ,moab sacrificed his son on the wall71 and1 even if the lads were substitutes for their royal fathers1 there is no presumption raised that the fathers were habitually killed year by year1 to keep their cosmic rapport unimpaired1 or to release the god incarnate within them1 a custom of which ,i find no example at all4 ,one instance of what he conjectures to be a proxy sacrifice for a king ,mr4 ,frazer finds in a festival at ,babylon called the ,saca4#ef ,to this we return in due order4 ,we must first examine cases of similar customs1 or inferred customs1 in ,greece and ,borne4 ,meanwhile we hope to have shown that ,mr4 ,frazer's theory of the origin of the belief in the ,divinity of ,christ already rests on three scarcely legitimate hypotheses4 ,first1 there is the hypothesis that kings were slain to release a known deity1 incarnate in them1 and to provide a better human vehicle4 ,of this rite no instances were given4 ,next1 there is the hypothesis that the ,king of ,babylon was annually sacrificed1 and succeeded by a new king1 who was sacrificed at the end of the year4 ,historical evidence does not exist1 and the supposed custom is beyond belief4 ,thirdly1 we are to believe in proxies or substitutes who die annually for the king4 ,of this practice no actual example is adduced4 ,here1 perhaps1 the reader may be invited to ask himself whether he believes that there ever was1 anywhere1 a custom of yearly killing the king1 the head of the state4 ,if he cannot believe this1 in the entire lack of proof1 he may admire the faith which can move this mountain in the interests of ,mr4 ,frazer's conclusions4 ,for my part ,i may say that ,i was so hypnotised1 after first reading through the long roll of ,mr4 ,frazer's 'sad stories of the deaths of kings1' that ,i could only murmur ',but there is no historical evidence for the yearly ,babylonian1 or rather ,persian1 regicides4' ,then ,i woke out of the hypnotic trance2 ,i shook off the drowsy spell of suggestion1 and exclaimed ',the king is killed annually6' ,next1 ,i asked myself whether mortal men would take the crown1 and how the arrangement would work1 and1 alas6 it was my belief in ,mr4 ,frazer's theory that was shattered4 ,but the 'general reader1' perusing an argument of #a1djj pages1 may fall under the hypnotic spell of numerous 'cases1' though none are to the point1 and may accept an hypothesis1 however violently opposed to his knowledge of human nature4 ,to that test we are1 in a case like this1 compelled to appeal1 however little we may value 'common sense' in other fields of speculation4 ,ours is the field of normal human nature1 motive1 and action1 in which every man may be a judge4 ,i cannot but think that the author of the theory would have been stopped by considerations so obvious and obstacles so insuperable4 ,but first he had the remote analogy of the ,aztec war-prisoner who personated a god1 and to a god was sacrificed4 ,that example is of no real service3 the man was a captive and could not help himself2 he was not ,king of ,anahuac4 ,moreover1 he was sacrificed3 he was not put to a death of special shame4 ,again1 there was the ,saturnian victim1 if we believe the legend about to be narrated4 ,but he too was sacrificed3 he was not stripped1 scourged1 and hanged4 ,our author1 however1 was fascinated by the ,cross at the end of the long vista of the argument4 ,in place1 therefore1 of seeking1 or at least in place of finding1 a simple explanation of the ,persian custom1 or leaving it unexplained1 he accepted the impossibility of the annual regicide at ,babylon1 and was launched into a new wilderness of conjectures and inferences to explain the absence1 in the ,persian case1 of sacrifice and religion1 the presence of a merrymaking and a hanging4 ,v4 ,,the ,,saturnalia ,we are next to look for an historical case of the yearly sacrifice1 not of a king1 but of a mock-king4 ,the argument thus carries us to the ,roman feast of the ,saturnalia4 ,this festival 7in late times held in ,december1 #af-bc7 so closely resembled our ,christmas in jollity1 that ,pliny 7like some of us7 used to withdraw to the most retired room in his ,laurentine villa to escape the noise4 ,mr4 ,frazer does not remark the circumstance1 but in ,rome before the ,empire1 or earlier1 the ,saturnalia seem to have been a feast of one day only4 ',among our ancestors1' says ,macrobius1 'the ,saturnalia were completed in a single day1' though he does not seem very certain of his fact4 ,livy says3 ',the ,saturnalia were instituted as a festal day4'#eg ,after the time of ,caligula1 the ,saturnalia endured for five days1 'precisely like the feast of the ,saca at ,babylon1' of which we are fated to hear a great deal4#eh ,it would thus appear that the ,saturnalia were originally a feast of one day1 later lengthened to five days1 and again to seven days4 ,by the time of writers like ,lucian and ,martial the feast continued for a week1 and ,lucian represents ,cronos 7,saturn7 as a jolly old king of unreason4#ei ,the rich helped the poor1 people made presents to each other1 'a ,christmas carol philosophy1' as ,dickens calls it1 prevailed4 ,the masters served the slaves at table2 all was licence and riot4 ,wax candles were given as presents 7cerea71 like those on our ,christmas trees4 ,these cerea1 according to ,macrobius1 were thought by some antiquaries to be substitutes for human sacrifices4 ,originally1 it was said1 the ,pelasgi1 before migrating to ,italy1 received an oracle from ,dodona3 ',send a man to the ,father1' that is1 to the god ,cronos or1 in ,italy1 ,saturn4 ,but1 by a pun on the ,greek 1 they were induced to substitute lights1 the wax candles4#fj ,now it is a really astonishing thing that1 if actual human sacrifices were offered after our era1 at the ,saturnalia1 no ,roman antiquary 7and there were plenty of antiquaries7 should mention the fact1 while discussing the theory that cerea were commutations of sacrifice4 ,if1 now and then1 under the ,empire a survival or recrudescence of human sacrifice was heard of in a rural district1 the antiquaries would catch at it greedily1 as a proof that wax tapers really were commutations of human sacrifice1 which some doubted4 ,that rural recrudescences do occur we know from the recent case of burning an ,irish peasant woman to death1 to deliver her from a fairy4#fa ,mr4 ,frazer1 however1 believes that survivals of human sacrifices at the ,saturnalia did really occur4 ,he is 'tempted to surmise' that the king of the revels 7who answered to our ',twelfth ,night' ',king' or ',queen of the ,bean'7 'may have originally personated ,saturn himself4'#fb ,in the following page we read that the victim 'cut his own throat on the altar of the god whom he personated4' ,the only known or alleged instance of human sacrifice at the ,saturnalia follows4 ,in ,a4,d4 #cjc1 when the persecution under ,diocletian began1 one ,dasius1 a ,christian soldier1 in ,lower ,msia1 is said to have been the victim whom the soldiers yearly chose for the mock-king of a month1 not a week1 the ,saturn of the occasion4 ,why a month1 if the ancient feast lasted but a day1 and1 later1 but a week8 ,after being a merry monarch for thirty days1 he should have cut his own throat at the altar of ,saturn 71 in the ,greek ,,mss474#fc ,dasius declined the crown and was knocked on the head1 on ,november #bj1 by a soldier1 apparently a christened man1 named ,john4 ,the ,saturnalia at ,rome lasted 7at least under the ,empire7 from ,december #af to ,december #bc4 ,dasius must have been executed for his refusal1 announced before his month's reign 7only a week is elsewhere known7 should have begun--on ,november #bc2 if the regnal month ended on ,december #bc4 ,thus the festive ,saturnalian kings at ,rome may be guessed to descend from a custom1 at ,rome unknown1 but surviving among the soldiers1 of killing a mock-king ,saturnus4 ,dasius was no slave or criminal1 but himself a soldier4 ,the revels of a month1 in place of a day or a week1 must also1 one presumes1 be a survival1 though a day was the early limit4 ,the date of the ,,mss4 about ,dasius ,mr4 ,frazer does not give1 but he thinks that the longest ,,ms4 is 'probably based on official documents4' ,to the ,,mss4 ,i shall return4 ,the grotesque figure of ,carnival1 destroyed at the end of a modern ,roman feast which does not fall in ,december1 is also a survival of a slain mock-king 'who personated ,saturn1' so ,mr4 ,frazer suggests1 though in ancient ,rome even this carnival practice is to us unknown4#fd ,it will already have been observed that even if the ,romans were1 in some remote age1 wont yearly to sacrifice a mock-king who represented a god1 they did not do so at ,easter1 as in the case of ,christ1 did not do so in spring1 and did not scourge the victim4 ,their rite1 if it really corresponded to that of the soldiers who slew ,dasius1 began in ,november1 and ended in ,december1 lasting thirty days1 or1 teste ,macrobio1 originally lasting one day4 ,if the slaying of ,dasius really occurred1 and was a survival of a custom once prevalent 7as in ancient ,anahuac71 then the early ,saturnalia lasted for a month1 from ,november #bc to ,december #bc2 but ,roman antiquaries knew nothing of this4 ,the month date is remote indeed from ,easter1 so ,mr4 ,frazer must try to show that originally the ,saturnalia were a spring festival1 like carnival4 ,to make the carnival and ,saturnalia coincide1 ,mr4 ,frazer points out that 'if the ,saturnalia1 like many other seasons of licence1 was always observed at the end of the old year or the beginning of the new one1 it must1 like the carnival1 have been originally held in ,february or ,march1 at the time when ,march was the first month of the ,roman year4'#fe ,thus1 in conservative rural districts1 the ,saturnalia would continue to be held in ,february1 not1 as at ,rome1 in ,december1 though ,roman writers do not tell us so1 and though non-,roman pagan peoples held festival at the winter solstice4 ,the soldiers who killed poor ,dasius were ultra-conservative1 but they killed him in ,november1 when their month of ,saturnalia began1 not in ,february1 when1 as they held by old usage1 their ,saturnalia should have been kept4 ,the hypothesis may be stated thus3 #a4 ,in rural districts 'the older and sterner practice' of murder may long have survived4#ff #b4 ,in rural districts the ,saturnalia continued to be held in ,february-,march1 not in ,december4#fg #c4 ,therefore the soldiers1 who kept up 'the older and sterner practice' of remote districts where the ,saturnalia fell in ,february-,march1 killed ,dasius--in ,november6 #d4 ,meanwhile1 so wedded were the rural districts to ,saturnalia in ,february-,march1 that the feast continued in these months under the ,church and became our carnival4 #e4 ,the eclectic soldiers in ,lower ,msia kept up the old killing and full month of revelry 7though we never hear of a full month in older or later ,rome71 but they accepted the new date1 ,november 7not kept in ,rome7 and ,december2 though in their remote rural homes the ,saturnalia were in ,february-,march4 ,doubtless their officers insisted on the new official date1 while permitting the old month of revel and the human sacrifice4 ,yet1 apparently1 of old there was but one day of revel4 ,but is the story of ,st4 ,dasius a true story8 ,the editor and discoverer of the ,greek text in which the legend occurs at full length1 ,professor ,franz ,cumont of ,ghent1 at first held that as far as the sacrifice of the military mock-king goes the story is false4 ,i have already observed that ,mr4 ,frazer says nothing about the date of the ,greek ,,ms4 containing the longest legend of ,dasius4 ,m4 ,cumont does4 ,the ,,ms4 is of the eleventh century of our era1 and the original narrative1 he thinks1 was done into ,greek out of the ,latin1 which may have been based on official documents1 before the end of the seventh century#fh ,a4,d41 by some one who knew ,latin ill1 wrote execrable ,greek1 did not understand his subject1 and was far from scrupulous4 ,these sentiments of ,m4 ,cumont 'set in a new and lurid light'--as ,mr4 ,frazer says of something else---the only evidence for the yearly military sacrifice of a mock-king of the ,saturnalia4 ,our author was unscrupulous1 for he makes ,dasius profess the ,nicene ,creed before it was made4 ,as to the thirty days' revel1 ,m4 ,cumont supposes that to be a blunder of our author1 who did not know that the ,saturnalia only occupied a week4#fi ,m4 ,cumont held that the king of the feast had not to slay himself1 but only to sacrifice to ,saturn2 in fact1 ,bassus1 his commanding officer1 does ask him1 in the legend1 to 'sacrifice to our gods1 whom even the barbarians worship4' ,dasius1 the ,,ms4 says1 refused1 and was knocked on the head by a soldier named ,john4 ',john' was likely to be a ,christian1 and ,m4 ,cumont suggests that the ignorant translator of the ,latin took 'sepultus est' 7'he was buried' by a soldier named ,john7 for 'pulsus1' or 'depulsus est1' 'he was knocked on the head' 747 ,in fact the ,greek translator of the seventh century retouched his ,latin original plaisir4 ,human sacrifices1 says ,m4 ,cumont1 had been abolished since ,hadrian's time4 ,the soldiers1 if they sacrificed a mock-king1 broke an imperial edict4#gj ,our evidence then would seem1 if ,m4 ,cumont is right1 to be that of an unfaithful and not very scrupulous translator and embellisher of a ,latin text4 ,he informs us by the way that similar noisy performances went on in his own ,christian period1 not in ,december1 but on ,new ,year's ,day4 ,the ,saturnalia were thus pushed on a week from ,december #bc2 we do not learn that they were transferred to1 or retained at1 ,february-,march4 ,the moral lesson of the legend is that we must not be noisy on ,new ,year's ,day4 ,thus ,m4 ,cumont did not at first accept the evidence for the annual sacrifice of a mock-king representing the god ,saturn4 ,but ,m4 ,parmentier suggested that an old cruel rite might have been introduced by ,oriental soldiers into ,msia 7#cjc ,a4,d47 thanks to the licensed ferocity of the persecutions under ,diocletian4 ,the victim1 ,dasius1 was a ,christian1 and the author of his legend told the tale to illustrate the sin of revelry on ,new ,year's ,day4 ,but what led to the revival of the cruelty8 ,m4 ,parmentier quoted the story of our ,babylonian festival1 the ,saca1 in which a mock-king was scourged and slain4 ,this or a similar rite the ,roman legions finally confused with their own ,saturnalia1 both as to date and as to characteristics4 ,the ,oriental soldiers of the ,roman ,empire imported into the army this ,oriental feast and sacrifice3 just as they brought monuments of ,mithra-worship into ,msia4 ,in an hour of military licence and of persecution1 the cohorts in ,msia may actually have tried to sacrifice a ,christian private as a representative of ,king ,saturn4 ,so far the sacrifice is an ,asiatic importation1 not a ,roman survival4 ,but ,m4 ,cumont1 after reading ,m4 ,parmentier1 returned from his disbelief in the veracity of the ,dasius legend4 ,he thought that the extension of the ,saturnalia from one day to five days1 after ,caligula1 might be due to an imitation introduced by ,eastern slaves in ,rome 7an influential class7 of the five days' feast of the ,babylonian ,saca4 ,but thirty days1 as in ,msia1 are not five days4 ,he also inclined to accept the recently proposed identification of the ,saca with a really old ,babylonian feast called ,zagmuk1 or ,zakmuk1 and with the ,jewish ,purim1 an identification which we shall later criticise4 ,as to the imperial edict forbidding human sacrifice1 ,m4 ,cumont now suggested that it had become a dead letter and impotent4 ,in the general decadence of #cjc monstrous cruelties flourished1 and the ,saturnalia were marked by gladiatorial combats4 ,thus1 in remote ,msia1 the half ,oriental soldiery might really sacrifice a ,christian 'for the safety of his comrades under arms4' ,so far the sacrifice of ,dasius looks rather like a cruelty introduced into decadent ,rome1 and at the good-humoured ,saturnalia1 by ,oriental legionaries1 than like a ,roman survival or recrudescence of a regular original feature of the ,saturnalia4 ,in any case the stripping and scourging of the ,sacan mock-king1 his hanging1 and his simulated resurrection 7at which we shall find ,mr4 ,frazer making a guess7 are absent1 while the date of the alleged transaction 7,november-,december7 does not tally with ,purim1 or ,eastertide1 or the date of the ,saca4 ,the duration of the ,dasius feast1 thirty days1 is neither ,roman nor ,oriental4 ,thus1 far from illuminating the ,oriental practice1 the rite reported in ,msia does but make the problem more perplexing4 ,the evidence has all the faults possible1 and the conjecture that the ,greek writer invented the sacrifice1 to throw discredit on the ,new ,year revels of his contemporaries1 may be worth considering4 ,perhaps ,i may hint that ,i think the historical evidence of the author of the ,dasius legend so extremely dubious that ,i might have expected ,mr4 ,frazer to offer a criticism of its character4 ,the general reader can gather from the ',golden ,bough' no idea of the tenuity of the testimony1 which1 of course1 is at once visible to readers of ,french and ,greek4 ,we address ourselves to scholars1 and for scholars ,mr4 ,frazer has provided the necessary citations1 but my heart inclines to regard the needs of the general reader4 7,cf4 ',man1' ,may #aija1 ,no4 #ec47 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,greek ,,cronia ,from ,rome we turn to ,greece4 ,cronos1 in ,greece1 answered1 more or less1 to ,saturn in ,rome1 though how much of the resemblance is due to ,roman varnishing with ,greek myth ,i need not here discuss4 ,now the ,athenian festival of ,cronos fell neither in ,november1 ,december1 ,february1 nor ,march1 but in ,july4#ga ,therefore ,mr ,frazer needs to guess that the ,july feasts of ,cronos were once1 or may have been1 a spring festival1 like the carnival and like the ,saturnalia1 which 7by another hypothesis7 were originally in ,february or ,march1 though of this we have no proof4 ,indeed1 it is contrary to use and wont for a populace to alter a venerable folk-festival because of an official change in the calendar4 ,if the ,romans for unknown ages had kept the ,saturnalia in spring they would not move the date of their gaieties1 and cut off three weeks 7or twenty-nine days7 of their duration1 because the new year was shifted from ,march to ,january4 ,in ,scotland1 all through the ,middle ,ages and much later1 the year began in ,march4 ,but ,yule was not shifted into ,march3 it remained1 and remains1 like the ,saturnalia1 at the winter solstice4 ,as proof that the ,attic feast of ,cronos 7supposed to answer to the ,saturnalia7 was originally in spring1 not in ,july1 ,mr4 ,frazer writes3 ',a cake with twelve knobs1 which perhaps referred to the twelve months of the year1 was offered to ,cronos by the ,athenians on the fifteenth day of the month ,elaphebolion1 which corresponded roughly to ,march1 and there are traces of a licence accorded to slaves at the ,dionysiac festival of the opening of the wine jars1' in the month of flowers preceding4#gb ,it was a proper season for licence4 ,the possible meaning of the cake does not go for much1 and ,cronos is not ,dionysus4 ,there was a spring festival of ,cronos at ,olympia1 and ,aug4 ,mommsen thinks that the ,athenian ,cronos feast was originally vernal1 though ,athenian tradition thought it was a harvest feast4#gc ,the ,attic customs1 then1 do not suit ,mr4 ,frazer's argument4 ,but he has another ,greek instance4 ,sacrificers called 'kings' offered to ,cronos1 at ,olympia1 in spring1 and why should they not once have been sacrificed like ,dasius1 only in spring1 not in ,november8 ,this evidence is an inference from a presumed survival of human sacrifice to ,cronos1 who certainly received many such offerings4 ,we are not told1 we do not know why the ,athenian ,cronia were shifted from ,march to ,july1 or when1 but let no arbitrary proceedings of the kind prevent them from being equated with the ,saturnalia1 only known to us1 in fact1 as a ,december festival1 not as a vernal rejoicing4 ,it is singularly unlucky that the ,july date of the ,athenian ,cronia does tally with the ,june-,july date of the ,persian ,saca1 as given by ,mr4 ,frazer 7and probably given correctly7 in his second volume4#gd ,but in his third volume he awakes to the desirableness of placing the ,saca about ,eastertide1 not in ,july1 and so loses any benefit which his argument might have acquired from the coincidence in date of the ,attic harvest feast 7,cronia7 and the ,persian that date is originally established4#ge ,how deeply this is to be regretted we shall see later1 for periods of licence like the ,saca usually occur just after harvest1 the real time of the ,cronia4 ,liberty to slaves of feasting with their masters was a feature of the harvest ,cronia1 as of many other harvest rejoicings4#gf ,but the conjecture that the ,cronia originally were a vernal feast removes them from such merrymakings of harvest licence as the ,saca in ,june-,july4 ,on the other hand1 the conjecture that the ,saca were vernal brings them into touch with ,eastertide1 and with the other conjecture that kings were once sacrificed at the conjecturally vernal ,cronia1 and so has its value for ,mr4 ,frazer's argument4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,sac,a ,we are still trying to find an historical case of a man who is sacrificed in the character of a god and a king4 ,the argument next introduces us to the ,saca at ,babylon1 when the mock-king was hanged1 the ,persian feast1 which1 as we saw1 ,m4 ,parmentier1 following ,herr ,meissner1 is inclined to identify with the ancient ,babylonian ,zagmuk1 or ,zakmuk1 and with the ,jewish ,purim4 ,this identification1 this theory that ,zakmuk1 ,saca1 and the ,jewish ,purim are all the same feast1 is essential to ,mr4 ,frazer's theory4 ,but1 before his theory was published1 ,meyer1 in the new volume of his ',history of ,antiquity1' had declared that the identification is impossible1 philologically and as a matter of fact 7,geschichte des ,alterthums74 ,it would be interesting to know the meaning of the word ,saca1 or ,sacea1 or ,sakia1 which ,hyde translates 'convivial drinking1 drinking healths' 7compotatio1 propinatio74#gg ,we remember the ,persian butler1 called a ,ski1 in ,omar ,khayyam3 ,the eternal ,ski from the bowl has poured ,myriads of other bubbles1 and will pour4 ,if the wine-pourer1 the ,ski1 of ,omar is etymologically connected with the ,saka1 or ,saca1 then the feast means a wine-party4 ,the ,greeks1 however1 connected the ,saca with the ,sac1 an ,oriental tribe of the great race stretching from the ,black ,sea to ,dacia4 ,indeed1 in ,strabo's time1 the feasters at the ,saca dressed as ,scythians 7,sac7 and drank1 as ,horace tells us that the ,scythians were used to drink4 ,this occurred at ,zela1 a town of ,pontus1 where a love goddess1 in ,persian ,anaitis1 of the type of the ,babylonian ,ishtar1 was adored4 ,mr4 ,frazer even conjectures that her high priest1 or a substitute1 'who played the ,king of the ,saca1' was yearly sacrificed here1 perhaps as ,tammuz4#gh ,no record of the fact has reached us4 ,the interesting point about this derivation of ,saca from the tribe of the ,sac is that the festival was believed1 says ,strabo1 to commemorate a great victory of the ,persians over the ,sac4 ,in precisely the same way the ,persian feast of the ,magophonia was supposed to commemorate a victory over and massacre of the ,magi4#gi ,purim1 again1 was held to commemorate a triumph of the ,jews over the ,persians and a massacre of the ,persians4 ,in three cases1 then1 ,saca1 ,magophonia1 and ,purim1 a feast which was a secular drinking bout1 preserve the memory of a bloody victory4 ,i do not observe that ,mr4 ,frazer notices this coincidence4 ,but manifestly this kind of feast is not a feast of the death of a mock-king1 still less1 if possible1 a religious festival of the death and resurrection of a vernal god4#hj ,yet there really was 7if we accept rather poor evidence7 not a sacrifice but an execution of a mock-king1 a criminal1 at the ,saca1 as held in ,babylon4 ,i quote our authorities4 ,first comes ,athenus1 who is writing about feasts of unreason1 at which1 in various regions1 the slaves are waited upon by their masters4#ha ,he says nothing of the execution of a mock-king4 ,he remarks3 ',berosus1 in the first book of his ,history of ,babylon1 says that on the sixteenth day of the month ,lous there is a great festival celebrated at ,babylon1 which is called ,sakeas1 and it lasts five days2 and during these days it is the custom for the masters to be under the orders of their slaves1 and one of the slaves puts on a robe like the king's1 being called ,zoganes1 and is master of the house4 ,and ,ctesias also mentions this festival in the second book of his ,history of ,persia4' 7,ctesias nourished rather earlier than ,berosus1 who is about #bjj ,b4,c47 ,thus ,athenus is silent about the execution of a mock-king1 though doubtless he had the book of ,berosus before him4 ,and ,dio ,chrysostom1 who does speak of the execution1 and he alone does so1 says nothing about ,berosus1 or any other authority4 ,i cite the observations of ,dio ,chrysostom4 ,he puts them into the mouth of the cynic1 ,diogenes1 who is lecturing ,alexander the ,great1 to tame his pride2 and who tells illustrative anecdotes1 some of them absurd1 much as ,mr4 ,barlow was used to instruct ,masters ,harry ,sandford and ,tommy ,merton4 ,dio1 then1 makes ,diogenes say that at the ,saca 'they take one of the prisoners condemned to death and seat him upon the king's throne1 and give him the king's raiment1 and let him lord it and drink1 and run riot and use the king's concubines during these days1 and no man prevents him from doing just what he likes4 ,but afterwards they strip1 and scourge1 and crucify 7or hang1 7 him4'#hb ,he dies1 not as a victim1 by sacrifice1 but as a criminal1 by a cruel and degrading form of capital punishment4#hc ,according to ,dio any condemned criminal would serve the turn4 ,but ,mr4 ,frazer suggests that perhaps the profession of victim was hereditary4#hd ,such is the story which ,dio makes ,diogenes tell ,alexander1 in a humorous apologue against royal pride4 ',you will soon be growing a crest like a cock1' says ,diogenes in ,dio's essay4 ,i cannot think that evidence found only in a literary tour de force1 and put into the mouth of a professed humourist1 proves historically that the mock-king was actually hanged once a year1 at a feast described by ,athenus1 ,strabo1 and ,hesychius1 who never mention so strange an affair as the hanging4 ,the reader will not find that ,mr4 ,frazer suggests all these doubts4 ,indeed1 the student who avoids footnotes will believe that the tale of the hanging is 'according to the historian ,berosus1 who1 as a ,babylonian priest1 spoke with ample knowledge4'#he ,now1 granting that there really was a yearly execution at ,babylon of a criminal1 a mock-king1 why was he put to death8 ,we know what ,mr4 ,frazer's theory needs4 ,it needs historical examples of men who1 by being sacrificed as victims1 obtain a divine character1 as representing the god to whom they are sacrificed4 ,the theory also demands that these victims shall be arrayed and crowned as kings4 ,it is desirable1 too1 that they should perish about our ,eastertide1 and that they should be supposed to rise again4 ,the solitary example of a ,saturnalian victim in ,msia did not fulfil these conditions4 ,he was arrayed as a king1 indeed1 and was sacrificed1 if we believe the legend of ,st4 ,dasius2 but he was not stripped and scourged1 and he died1 not at ,easter1 but in ,november3 if he had not refused the part thrust on him he would have died in ,december4 ,there was no word about his resurrection4 ,it was found necessary to suggest that originally the ,saturnalian victim died in ,february-,march1 but this was not proved4 ,the other historical case1 the mock-king of the ,saca1 also does not fulfil the conditions required4 ,he is robed1 and crowned1 and scourged1 but he is not sacrificed4 ,we have no hint of a resurrection2 none of a religious character attaching to the feast2 none of a divine character attaching to the victim4 ,the feast is traditionally a revel commemorative of a victory3 the victim is a condemned criminal4 ,as to the date of the death1 ,mr4 ,frazer has two contradictory theories4 ,by the first 7which is correct7 the victim died probably in ,june-,july 7if not1 certainly in ,september74 ,by the second1 the month date of the death is fixed 7provisionally7 in ,march-,april4 ,let me add that1 to suit ,mr4 ,frazer's theory1 the victim must not only have been divine at the origin of the institution1 but must have been recognised as divine at the time of the ,crucifixion of our ,lord3 otherwise our ,lord's death1 in the character of the victim1 could lend him no 'halo of divinity4' #a ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,natives of ,central ,australia44 #b ,g4 ,b4 i4 #hj1 #ha4 #c ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #ha4 #d ,etudes ,traditionistes4 ,a4 ,l4 #e ,g4 ,b4 i4 #aeg4 #f ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #a-e4 #g ,modern ,mythology1 ',myths of the ,origin of ,death4' #h ,spencer and ,gillen1 p4 #dgf4 #i ,mariner1 ii4 #abg4 #aj ,making of ,religion1 chapters xi4-xiii4 #aa ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #a4 #ab ,prim4 ,cult4 ii4 #cjh1 #ahga2 ii4 #cdj1 #ahgc4 ,in the edition of #ahia1 ,mr4 ,tylor1 in accordance with his altered ideas1 dropped his denial of borrowing1 and said that ,torngarsuk was later identified with the devil--a common result of missionary teaching1 just as ,saints under ,protestantism became1 or their statues became1 'idols4' #ac ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #a4 ,meiners1 ,geschichte der ,religionen1 ,hanover1 #ahjf1 #ahjg1 i4 p4 #dh4 #ad ,e4 ,i4 ,dodge1 ,our ,wild ,indians1 p4 #aab4 #ae ,le ,jeune1 ,relations des ,jsuites1 #afcc1 p4 #af2 #afcd1 p4 #ac4 #af ,callaway1 ,religion of the ,amazulu1 pp4 #bf1 #bg4 #ag ,thevet1 ,singularits de la ,france ,antarctique1 ch4 #gg4 ,paris1 #ahee4 ,andouagni is a creator1 not addressed in prayer4 ,see ',science and ,superstition1' pp4 #aj1 #aa4 #ah ,hymns in ,maspero1 ,music de ,boulaq1 pp4 #di1 #ej4 #ai ,religion of ,babylon and ,assyria1 p4 #dhc4 #bj ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aih4 #ba ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #c1 #d1 citing ,l4 ,w4 ,king1 ,babylonian ,religion and ,mythology1 p4 #h 7#ahii74 #bb ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aed4 #bc ,jastrow1 ,the ,religion of ,babylonia and ,assyria1 p4 #cjg4 ,boston1 ,u4,s41 #ahih4 #bd ,jastrow1 p4 #caa4 #be ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #b4 #bf ,g4 ,b4 i4 #gg4 #bg ,g4 ,b4 i4 #gg1 #gh4 #bh ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #a4 #bi ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #f4 #cj ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #ef2 i4 #aea et4 seq4 #ca ,g4 ,b4 i4 #hj-hb4 #cb ,the mortals who incarnate gods are catalogued in ,g4 ,b4 vol4 i4 pp4 #aci-aeg4 ,not one is said to be put to death4 #cc ,g4 ,b4 i4 #hj1 #ha4 #cd ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #f-h4 #ce ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #h-eg4 #cf ,g4 ,b4 i4 #bcf4 #cg ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #aa4 #ch ,emin ,pasha in ,central ,africa1 p4 #ia4 #ci ,g4 ,b4 i4 #aee2 compare ii4 #aj4 #dj ,callaway1 ,religion of the ,amazulu1 p4 #abb4 #da ,here the facts of ,dos ,santos are confused4 ,in volume i4 p4 #aee we read3 ',the ,king of ,quiteva1 in ,eastern ,africa1 ranks with the deity2' 'indeed1 the ,caffres acknowledge no other gods than their monarch1 and to him they address those prayers which other nations are wont to prefer to heaven' 7,dos ,santos1 ,pinkerton1 xvi4 #fhb1 #fhg1 seq474 ,if the ,caffres have no gods1 a god cannot be incarnate in their king4 ,but1 elsewhere in ,dos ,santos 7ii4 p4 #aj71 there is no ',king of ,quiteva' 7as in i4 p4 #aee74 ,quiteva is no longer a district1 but we read 'contiguous to the domains of the ,quiteva2' a title like 'the ,inca1' in fact1 as ,dos ,santos tells us the ,quiteva is 'the ,king of ,sofala4' ,is ,sofala also known as ,quiteva1 and the ,king of ,sofala as 'the ,quiteva'8 ,the ,king of ,quiteva 'ranks with the deity'--though the ,caffres have no deity for him to rank with 7ii4 #aee74 ,but when the ,quiteva becomes ',king of ,sofala' 7ii4 #aj71 the neighbouring prince who kills himself is 'the ,sedanda1' who is not said to 'rank with the deity4' ,and ,dos ,santos assures us that the ,caffres have a ,god1 unworshipped6 #db ,prophecies of the ,brahan ,seer1 ,mackay1 ,stirling1 #aijj4 #dc ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #ah4 #dd ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #ah-bd4 #de ,g4 ,b4 i4 #aci-aeg4 #df ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #h-bd4 #dg ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aig4 #dh ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bd1 #bf4 #di ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aid4 #ej ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,glossary1 s4v4 ,alatuja and pp4 #i-aa4 #ea ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #agh4 #eb ,ibid4 #ec ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bf4 #ed ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bf4 #ee ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #cj4 #ef ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bd4 #eg ,macrobius himself is an author of the fourth or fifth century of our era4 ,macrobius1 i4 x4 #b2 ,livy1 ii4 xxi4 #b4 #eh ,cumont1 ,revue de ,philologie1 ,july #ahig1 vol4 xxi4 p4 #adi1 citing ,mommsen1 ,c4,i4,l4 ,i7#b7 p4 #ccg1 and ,marquhardt1 ,staatsverw4 iii47#b7 #ehg4 #ei ,lucian1 ,saturnalia1 #b4 #fj ,macrobius1 i4 vii4 #ca-cc4 #fa ,the reason was probably a mere 'blind' for wife-murder4 #fb ,g4 ,b4 iii4 p4 #adj4 #fc ,analecta ,bollandiana1 xvi4 pp4 #e-af4 #fd ,g4 ,b4 iii4 p4 #adc4 #fe ,g4 ,b4 iii4 p4 #add4 #ff ,g4 ,b4 iii4 p4 #adb4 #fg ,g4 ,b4 ii4 p4 #add4 #fh ,later 7,rev4 de ,philol41 xxi4 #c1 pp4 #aeb1 #aec71 ,m4 ,cumont dates the ,greek at about #ejj-fjj ,a4,d41 because there were then apprehensions1 as in the ,,ms41 of the end of the world4 ,but so there were in #ajjj ,a4,d4 #fi ,december #af-bc4 ,so also thinks ,m4 ,parmentier1 ,rev4 ,phil4 xxi4 p4 #adc1 note #a4 ,m4 ,parmentier says that we must either suppose the victim to have been selected by lot a whole month in advance 7of which practice ,i think we have no evidence71 or else cast doubt on the whole story1 except the mere martyrdom of ,dasius4 ,but the latter measure ,m4 ,parmentier thinks too sceptical4 #gj ,porphyry1 ,de ,abstinentia1 ii4 #ef2 ,lactantius1 i4 #ba4 #ga ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #adg4 #gb ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #adh4 #gc ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #adg1 note #b2 #adh1 note #b4 #gd ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bec1 #bed4 #ge ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bed4 #gf ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #adg4 #gg ,hyde1 ,de ,bel4 ,pers4 p4 #bfg4 #gh ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #afc1 #afd4 #gi ,strabo1 p4 #eab4 #hj ,herodotus1 iii4 #gi4 #ha ,athenus1 xiv4 p4 #fci1 c4 #hb ,dio1 ,oratio iv41 vol4 i4 p4 #gf1 ,dindorf4 #hc ,mr4 ,frazer1 in his text1 attributes the statement to ,berosus1 a ,babylonian priest of about #bjj ,b4,c4 ,in fact1 we do not know ,dio's authority for the tale 7,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bd1 note ,i74 ,mr4 ,frazer admits this in his note4 ,ctesias may be ,dio's source1 or he may be inventing4 ,on the other hand1 ,macrobius1 a late ,roman writer1 says that the ,persians used to regard 'as due to the gods the lives of consecrated men whom the ,greeks call ,zanas' 7,macrobius1 ,saturnalia1 iii4 #g1 #f74 ,but what ,zan are the learned do not know3 whether the word means 1 or the ,zanes at ,olympia 7,pausanias1 v4 xxi4 #b2 ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bd1 note ,i74 ,moreover1 ,macrobius may have drawn his facts from ,dio4 ,but ,dio says nothing about 'consecrated men4' #hd ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #ahf4 #he ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bd4 ,,vi ,,attempts ,,to ,,prove ,,the ,,sac,,an ,,criminal ,,divine ,as our historical evidence does not meet ,mr4 ,frazer's needs1 as the ,sacan victim is not regarded as divine1 as he is no 'victim' but a criminal1 as he is not sacrificed1 as the feast is not religious but a secular merrymaking1 as no resurrection is mentioned1 as the historical date does not fit ,eastertide1 ,mr4 ,frazer has to invent theories which will prove far more than the facts alleged by ,dio ,chrysostom1 ,berosus in ,athenus1 ,strabo1 and ,hesychius2 or will prove that originally the facts were the opposite of those historically recorded4 ,through his whole argument ,mr4 ,frazer seems to me to present two distinct theories alternately1 and only at the close can ,i detect any attempt at reconciliation4 ,a third theory1 distinct from either1 appears to be rejected4 ,indeed1 ,mr4 ,frazer's task is not easy4 ,he may say that the ,sacan victim represents the king1 and that the king being1 by the hypothesis1 divine1 the victim is divine also4 ,but he needs1 moreover1 a resurrection of the dead man1 hence the theory that the victim represents not only the king1 but a god of the type of ,tammuz or ,adonis4 ,at the feasts of that god1 a god of vegetable life1 there was wailing for his death1 rejoicing for his resurrection4 ,at ,babylon this occurred in ,june-,july4 ,but there is no evidence that a human victim was slain for ,tammuz3 none that he was scourged and hanged4 ,how are the two theories1 the victim as divine king1 the victim as ,tammuz1 to be combined8 ,their combination is necessary1 for the king is needed to yield the royal robes2 while ,tammuz is needed to yield the resurrection1 and the fast preceding the feast before ,purim1 a fast of wailing for ,tammuz4 ,we hear of no fast before the ,saca1 but if ,purim be borrowed from the ,saca 7which is indispensable to the theory71 the ,saca too must have been preceded by a fast1 though it is unrecorded4 ,clearly the king theory alone1 or the ,tammuz theory alone1 will not yield the facts necessary to the hypothesis4 ,consequently the two theories must be combined4 ,the king must not only be divine1 be a god2 he must also be a god of vegetation1 a god of the ,tammuz type1 who has a resurrection4 ,now we have no evidence1 or none is adduced1 to prove that the king1 whether ,babylonian or ,persian1 was ever deemed to be an incarnation of ,tammuz or any such vegetable deity4 ,without sound evidence to that effect the theory cannot move a step4 ,we have abundance of ,babylonian sacred and secular texts3 not one is adduced to prove that the king incarnated any god1 especially ,tammuz4 ,mr4 ,frazer then1 after putting forward alternately the king theory and the ,tammuz theory1 does finally1 if ,i understand him1 combine them4 ,he talks of 'the human god1 the ,saturn1 ,zoganes1 ,tammuz1 or whatever he was called4'#a ,thus the victim is the king1 and we get the royal robes1 and the five days of royalty4 ,the king is also ,tammuz 7unless ,i fail to grasp the meaning71 the victim too is ,tammuz1 and we get the fast 7though we hear of none before the ,saca71 the feast1 and the resurrection4 ,but this is a late and rather casually introduced theory1 quite destitute of evidence as regards the king's being recognised for ,tammuz4 ,previously1 throughout two volumes1 the victim had alternately derived his necessary divinity from the king and from the ,tammuz god4 ,he derived more3 as king he had the entre of the royal harem2 as ,tammuz he was the consort of a woman1 'probably a sacred harlot1 who represented the great ,semitic goddess ,ishtar or ,astarte4' ,his union with her magically fertilised the crops4#b ,a similar duty1 in the dream-time of ,mr4 ,frazer's hypotheses1 had been that of the majesty of ,babylon4 ',originally1 we may conjecture1 such couples exercised their function for a whole year1 on the conclusion of which the male partner--the divine king--was put to death2 but in historical times it seems that1 as a rule1 the human god--the ,saturn1 ,zoganes1 ,tammuz1 or whatever he was called--enjoyed his divine privileges1 and discharged his divine duties1 only for a short part of the year1' namely five days1 at the ,saca4#c ,the divine duties of the early kings of ,babylon 7if ,i understand ,mr4 ,frazer7 were 'to stand for the powers that make for the fertility of plants and perhaps also of animals4' ,are we to conceive that these pleasing exercises with the lady of the divine pair were all the duties of the early kings of ,babylon8 ,in that case1 who carried on the civil and military control of the ,empire8 ,of course1 if the early king did nothing at all but associate with 'the human goddess who shared his bed and transmitted his beneficent energies to the rest of nature1'#d then he may have been a man-god1 a ,tammuz1 if the texts say so1 and his substitute might die at once as royal proxy1 to save the king's life1 and also as ,tammuz4 ,moreover1 it would not matter a pin's fee whether such a king died or not4 ,only1 no man could take the billet of king4 ,thus it may be ,mr4 ,frazer's intention to combine in one the two theories of the victim as ,tammuz and as royal proxy4 ,in that case his two apparently inconsistent theories are one theory4 ,but1 if ,i apprehend it correctly1 it is a very audacious theory4 ,where have we a proven case of a king who incarnates a god of vegetation1 plays the part of 'making for the fertility of plants' by the assistance of 'the human goddess who shares his bed1 and transmits his beneficent energies to the rest of nature1' and who is sacrificed annually8 ,does this divine voluptuary also keep a royal harem1 or is that essential and more or less attested part of the ,saca a later excrescence8 ,without some historical evidence for such a strange array of facts1 including the yearly sacrifice of the monarch1 ,i must hesitate to think that ,mr4 ,frazer's theory of a king who is both king and ,tammuz1 and has1 later1 a substitute who is both ,tammuz and king1 is a practical hypothesis explanatory of 'the halo of divinity which was shed around the cross of ,calvary4' ,i cannot accept as evidence for a combination of facts separately so extraordinary1 a series of inferences and presumptions from rural or barbaric revels in spring or at harvest4 ,the existence of a ,king or ,queen of the ,may1 or of the ,bean on ,twelfth ,night1 with occasional or even frequent mock destructions of the monarch of a playful day1 cannot be used as proof that early ,babylonian kings consorted for a year with a human goddess1 and then were burned to death as gods of vegetable produce2 especially when there is no historical testimony1 and only inference from myth1 in favour of any human goddess or of a burned king4 ,we have not1 meanwhile1 even any testimony to show that1 in any time1 in any place1 any human victim was ever slain1 let alone a king 7and a king annually71 as ,tammuz4 ,we have only a guess1 founded on the weakest possible basis1 that of analogy1 ',the analogy1' says ,mr4 ,frazer1 'of ,lityerses and of folk-custom1 both ,european and savage1 suggests that in ,phnicia the corn-spirit--the dead ,adonis--may formerly have been represented by a human victim4'#e 4444 ,this can hardly persuade me that the kings of ,babylon were annually sacrificed as ,tammuz or as ,adonis4 ,while admitting that ,mr4 ,frazer may really mean to combine his two theories 7the victim as king1 the victim as ,tammuz71 and while he certainly makes his victim both a king and a god1 ,i shall take the freedom to examine his theory in the sequence of the passages wherein it is proposed1 and request the reader to decide whether there be one theory or two theories4 ,but first1 have we any examples of a sacrifice by hanging1 not by burning1 the human victim8 ,for the ,sacan victim1 though confessedly hanged1 is said1 by ,mr4 ,frazer1 to be 'sacrificed4' ,i4 ,,sacrifice ,,by ,,hanging4 ,,does ,,it ,,exist8 ,let us look at actual human victims1 actually known to have been slain in the interests of agriculture4 ,are1 or were1 these human victims put to the infamous death of malefactors1 like the mock-king of the ,saca8 ,they were not4 ,cases are given in vol4 ii4 p4 #bch et seq4 #a4 ,the ,indians of ,guyaquar used to sacrifice human blood and the hearts of men when they sowed their fields4#f #b4 ,in the ,aztec harvest festival a victim was crushed between two great stones 7perhaps to represent the grinding of the maize874 #c4 ,the ,mexicans sacrificed young children1 older children1 and old men for each stage of the maize's growth4 ,we are not told how they were sacrificed4#g #d4 ,the ,egyptians burned red-haired men1 and scattered their ashes with winnowing fans4 ,this burning is a usual feature of sacrifice1 and is not hanging or crucifying4 #e4 ,the ,skidi1 or ,wolf ,pawnees1 burned a victim to ,ti-ra-w1 'the power above that moves the universe1 and controls all things1' but the victim was a deer or a buffalo4 ,there were also occasional human sacrifices before sowing2 the victim had his head cleft with a tomahawk1 and was then riddled with arrows1 and afterwards burned4#h ,in some cases he was tied to a cross1 before being slain with an axe4#i #f4 ,a ,sioux girl was burned over a slow fire1 and then shot with arrows4 ,her flesh1 for magical purposes1 was squeezed over the newly sown fields4 #g4 ,west ,african victims were killed with spades and hoes1 and burned in newly tilled fields4 #h4 ,at ,lagos a girl was impaled among sacrificed sheep1 goats1 yams1 heads of maize1 and plantains hung on stakes4 ,though impalement is a form of capital punishment1 probably the girl's blood was expected to fertilise the earth4 ,we have no proof that crucifixion was used in ,babylon1 or the same motive might be alleged for the mock-king at the ,saca4 ',it may be doubted whether crucifixion was an ,oriental mode of punishment1' says ,mr4 ,frazer4 ,he does not say that it was an ,oriental form of sacrifice4#aj #i4 ,the ,marimos kill and burn a human victim1 and scatter the ashes on the ground to fertilise it4 #aj4 ,the ,bagolos hew a slave to pieces4 #aa4 ,some tribes in ,india chop victims up4 #ab4 ,the ,kudulu allow to a victim all the revels1 women and all1 of the ,sacan mock-king1 and then cut a hole in him1 and smear his blood over an idol4 ,this is sacrifice1 not capital punishment4 #ac4 ,the ,khonds slew their revered and god-like victim in a variety of ways1 strangling him in a tree1 burning1 and chopping up1 that his flesh might be sown on the fields4 ,the head1 bowels1 and bones were burned4 ,such are the examples of a real human victim slain for the good of the crops4 ,in six out of fourteen cases the victim's ashes1 blood1 or flesh is used magically to fertilise the fields1 and probably this is done in several other instances4 ,in seven cases burning occurs4 ,in two sacrifice to a god or idol occurs4 ,in one only is the mode of death a recognised form of capital punishment4 ,therefore ,mr4 ,frazer does not seem to me to be justified in taking for and describing as 'sacrifice' the capital punishment inflicted at the ,saca on a mock-king who notoriously was a criminal condemned to death1 and who was hanged1 not sacrificed4 ,to be sure ,mr4 ,frazer tries to turn this point1 and how8 ,perhaps ancient kings of ,lydia were once burned alive on pyres1 'as living embodiments of their god4' ,for the ,lydian1 like the ,macedonian and many other royal houses1 claimed descent from ,heracles1 who1 being on fire already under the shirt of ,nessus1 homeopathically burned himself4 ,crsus1 defeated1 was about to die by fire1 but not out of his own head4 ,cyrus was going to burn him alive1 like ,jeanne d',arc1 ,cranmer1 ,wishart1 and others4 ,this cruel infliction by a foreign enemy hardly proves a ,lydian custom1 nor are ,lydians exactly ,babylonians4 ,again1 if an old ,prussian king 'wished to leave a good name behind him1' he burned himself before a holy oak4 ',crummies is not a ,prussian1' nor were the kings of ,babylon4 ,once more ,movers thought that the 'divine pair who figured by deputy' at the ,saca were ,semiramis and ,sandan or ,sardanapalus4 7,which divine pair1 the king's proxy and one of the king's concubines1 or the ,tammuz man and the sacred harlot87 ,sandan was thought to be ,heracles by the ,greeks1 and his effigy was perhaps burned on a pyre at his festival in ,tarsus4 ,now the ,persians1 according to ,agathias1 worshipped ,sandes 7,sandan71 and perhaps the ,babylonians did so also1 though really that agreeable ,byzantine minor poet1 ,agathias1 cannot be called a good witness4 ,next1 ,k4 ,o4 ,mller thinks that ,sandan 7,sandes7 may have been burned in a mystery play in ,nineveh1 ,mller giving free licence to his fancy1 as he admits4 ,movers1 too1 thought that 'at the ,saca the ,zoganes represented a god1 and paired with a woman who personated a goddess4'#aa ,and ,movers thinks that the ,sacan victim was originally burned4#ab ,for these 'exquisite reasons1' that the ,lydian monarchs claimed descent from ,heracles1 who was burned1 that ,cyrus wanted to burn ,crsus alive1 that old ,prussian kings who wished to leave a good name burned themselves1 that ,movers thought that ,sandan or ,sardanapalus might have figured at the ,saca as ,zoganes1 that ,agathias mentioned ,sandes as a ,babylonian deity1 and that ,movers thinks that the man who acted the god was burned1 ,mr4 ,frazer suggests that perhaps the mock-king of the ,saca was burned1 once upon a time4#ac ,but we only know that he was scourged and hanged4 ,so perhaps1 ,mr4 ,frazer suggests1 he was both scourged1 hanged1 and burned afterwards1 or perhaps hanging or crucifixion 'may have been a later mitigation of his sufferings'--a pretty mitigation6 ,and why was flogging added8#ad ,one had liefer be burned1 like a god and a king1 than be first whipped and then crucified1 as a malefactor of the lowest and most servile kind1 losing1 too1 the necessary suggestion of sacrifice and divinity implied in being burned4 ,besides1 apart from this theory of a cruel and debasing 'mitigation1' there is no evidence at all except what proves that the mock-king at the ,saca was first stripped of his royal robes1 then whipped1 then hanged4 ,if he dies as god or king1 why is he stripped of his royal robes8 ,the man was hanged1 was capitally punished 7which as a condemned criminal he richly deserved71 and 'there is an end on't1' as ,dr4 ,johnson rudely remarked4 ,now 'we must not forget' that ,mr4 ,frazer has announced this ,i sacrifice 'of a divine king as his theory1 but we need not1 ,i may even say must not1 accept the theory4 ,because1 first1 ,mr4 ,frazer gives many examples of persons believed each to contain a god1 either temporarily or permanently4#ae ,but in not one single case is the person said to be killed for the benefit of the god whom he contains4 ,secondly1 there was historically no sacrifice in the case of the ,sacan mock-king4 ,the mock-king1 then1 if he has any divinity1 has it not as a sacrifice1 for he is not sacrificed2 nor as representing a king who incarnates a god1 for no kings or others thought to incarnate gods1 whether temporarily or permanently1 are proved to be slain for the benefit of that god4 ,nor are any kings who are actually slain1 slain by hanging4 ,the death of a man1 as a god1 belongs1 if to anything1 to quite another festival1 that of ,tammuz or ,adonis1 and to quite another set of ideas4 ,we have no proof indeed that a man was ever hanged or sacrificed as an embodiment of ,adonis or ,tammuz4 ,but ,mr4 ,frazer's theory of the reason for the ,crucifixion on ,calvary demands the sacrifice of a human victim1 who is1 ex officio1 a god1 is sacrificed in that character1 and is feigned to rise again4 ,he must also be royal1 to account for the scarlet robe and crown of thorns of the great victim4 ,,ii4 ,,stages ,,in ,,mr4 ,,frazer',s ,,theory ,let us now trace the stages of ,mr4 ,frazer's theory that the ,sacan victim is both god and king4 #a4 ,first in order of statement comes the description of the ,saca1 combined from ,athenus1 who mentions no victim1 and ,dio ,chrysostom1 who does4 ,we learn 7from ,mr4 ,frazer1 not from ,dio7#af that the victim 'dies in the king's stead4' ,but 'we must not forget that the king is slain in his character of a god1 his death and resurrection1 as the only means of perpetuating the divine life unimpaired1 being deemed necessary for the salvation of his people and the world4' ,that is ,mr4 ,frazer's theory3 we have seen no proof of it1 we have remarked that sacrificed victims are not hanged2 that kings are not scourged2 that there is no evidence beyond conjecture for an earlier ,babylonian process of burning2 while conjecture also explains whipping and hanging as a 'mitigation1' or alleges that possibly the victim was hanged first and burned afterwards4 ,here the king is certainly not1#ag on the face of it1 a god of vegetation3 if anything1 he is more like the ,chitome in ,congo1 who was a 'pontiff4' ,his credulous people believed that the world would end if the ,chitome died a natural death1 'so when he seemed likely to die' he was clubbed or strangled4 ,he was sacrificed to no god whom he incarnated4#ah ,he was not clubbed once a year 7like the ,babylonian king of ,mr4 ,frazer's theory72 he was given a rude euthanasia 'when he seemed likely to die4' ,does science ask us to believe that each ,babylonian king had the cosmic rapport of a ,congo savage pontiff1 and was sacrificed after a year's reign1 because a savage pontiff in ,congo is put to death1 not annually1 but 'when he seems likely to die'8 ,here1 whatever science may expect us to believe1 we are told by ,mr4 ,frazer that the king in ,babylon was annually sacrificed1 as a god1 indeed1 but not explicitly as a god of vegetation1 who has a resurrection4 #b4 ,a ,babylonian god of vegetation1 and a known god1 appears in ii4 #abc1 #abd4 ,this god is ,tammuz4 ,we hear that 'water was thrown over him at a great mourning ceremony1 at which men and women stood round the funeral pyre of ,tammuz lamenting4444 ,the dead ,tammuz was probably represented in effigy1 water was poured over him1 and he came to life again4' ,mr4 ,frazer does not here plead for a human victim4 ,the festival 'doubtless took place in the month ,tammuz 7,june-,july71' or in different places1 at different times1 from midsummer to autumn1 or from ,june to ,september1 as the late ,mr4 ,robertson ,smith calculated4 ,tammuz1 so ,mr4 ,sayce is cited1 'is originally the spring vegetation1 which dies in his month1 ,tammuz or ,du'zu' 7,june-,july74 ,here1 then1 we have a death and resurrection of ,tammuz4 ,it occurs in ,june-,july1 or ,june-,september1 and ,tammuz is undoubtedly the god of spring vegetation4 ,but ,mr4 ,frazer does not here tell us that the king of ,babylon is also ,tammuz4 ,tammuz is not whipped and hanged at the ,tammuz feast in ,july4 ,his dead body is 'probably' a dummy4 ,in vol4 ii4 #bec ,mr4 ,frazer returns to the victim1 the mock-king1 of the ,saca4 ,but he says nothing here about the real king of ,babylon4 ,he wishes to show how and why the victim is divine4 ,now1 in ii4 #bf1 we were told that the victim is divine because he 'represents a dying god4' ',for we must not forget that the king dies in his character of a god4'444 ,was ,mr4 ,frazer satisfied with this explanation given in ii4 #bf8 ,apparently not2 for#ai he gives a new explanation and a different one4 ',it seems worth suggesting that the mock-king who was annually killed at the ,babylonian festival of the ,saca on the sixteenth day of the month ,lous may have represented ,tammuz himself4' ,here the ,tammuz dummy or effigy of ii4 #abc1 #abd1 is1 perhaps1 discarded4 ,still1 if a real live ,tammuz was burned on a funeral pyre#bj his ashes might well be represented by a dummy4 ,it has not yet occurred to ,mr4 ,frazer1 as it does later1 to have the re-arisen god personated by a living human counterpart 7,mordecai in a later page7 of the dead ,tammuz 7,haman74 ,the festival of the ,saca is now a ,tammuz festival1 a religious feast1 and1 indeed1 is identical with that of ii4 #abc1 #abd1 for it occurs in the month ,lous4 ,now ,lous1 says ,mr4 ,robertson ,smith1 'answered to the lunar month ,tammuz1'#ba and the month of ,tammuz#bb was ,june-,july1 or ,june-,september4 ,there could not surely be two ,tammuz feasts in the month ,tammuz8 ,we are therefore confronted by the singular facts that ,tammuz lay 'on a funeral pyre'#bc and also that1 as the ,sacan victim1 who1 ,mr4 ,frazer thinks it 'worth suggesting' personated ,tammuz1 he was at the same feast1 the ,saca1 whipped and hanged4#bd ,mr4 ,frazer goes on3 ',if this conjecture is right1 the view that the mock-king at the ,saca was slain in the character of a god' 7,tammuz7 'would be established4' ,but it was established already1 was it not on other grounds1 to ,mr4 ,frazer's satisfaction1 in ii4 #bf8 ,there the criminal victim died as a king1 and as a god1 for the king was a god1 and so was his proxy4 ,now1 on the other hand1 if ,mr4 ,frazer's latest conjecture is right1 the victim dies as a real known god1 ,tammuz4 ,we keep asking1 ,was the king also an incarnation of ,tammuz8 ,may ,i not be excused for surmising that we have here an hypothesis in the making1 an hypothesis resting on two different theories8 ,if ,mr4 ,frazer holds that the king of ,babylon was also ,tammuz1 as the mock-king was1 here was the opportunity for saying so1 and proving the fact from ,babylonian texts4 ,mr4 ,frazer here gives us a ,tammuz feast in which ,tammuz lies on a funeral pyre1 and also a ,tammuz feast in which the human representative of that deity is whipped and hanged1 while 'the dead ,tammuz was probably represented in effigy1' water was poured over him1 and he came to life again4 ,how8 ,in the person of ,mordecai8 ,these are the results of ii4 #abc1 #abd1 and of ii4 #bec1 #bed4 ,these things are1 confessedly1 conjectures4 ,but one thing is quite certain3 the ,saca1 wherein ,tammuz either lay on a funeral pyre1 and afterwards had water poured over him1 'probably in effigy1' or was hanged1 was a festival of ,june-,july4 ,variations of calendars1 however1 might make the ,saca fall 'from midsummer to autumn or from ,june to ,september' 7ii4 #abc1 note of ,mr4 ,robertson ,smith74 ,these dates are remote from ,eastertide4 ,to this point ,mr4 ,frazer#be promises 'to return later4' ,he does so in the most disconcerting manner4 ,for when he returns the ,saca1 which were in the month ,tammuz1 ,june-,july1#bf startle us by being held in ,march or ,march-,april4#bg ,may ,i not say that ,i seem to detect traces of an hypothesis in the making1 and of discrepant theories8 ,we have already been rather puzzled by the ,tammuz on a funeral pyre1 who has cold water poured over him1 'probably in effigy1' and also is honoured by being whipped and hanged in the person of a human representative1 a mock-king1 at the same festival4 ,but perhaps there were two ,tammuz feasts in the month of ,tammuz8 ,and possibly the victim was whipped and hanged at one of them1 while his mortal remains were burned on the pyre at the other8 ',it is quite possible1' says ,mr4 ,frazer1 when explaining why a victim of a sacrifice was hanged1 not burned as is usual1 'that both forms of execution1 or rather of sacrifice1 may have been combined by hanging or crucifying the victim first and burning him afterwards2'#bh but he neglects the buxom opportunity of corroborating this conjecture1 by referring to the ,tammuz victim who had both a funeral pyre and a gibbet1 in ii4 #abc1 #abd1 #bec1 #bed4 ,,iii4 ,a ,,possible ,,reconciliation ,there is1 perhaps1 a mode of reconciling the dates of the ,tammuz festivals1 at one of which ,tammuz was honoured with a pyre1 at the other 7in the person of his representative1 the ,sacan mock-king7 with a gibbet4 ,dr4 ,jastrow places a ,tammuz feast in the fourth month1 which1 if the ,babylonian year begins1 as ,mr4 ,frazer says it does1 with the month ,nisan1 means that the fourth month and a ,tammuz feast occurred in our ,june-,july4 ,but ,dr4 ,jastrow also writes that in the sixth ,babylonian month1 our ,august-,september1 'there was celebrated a festival to ,tammuz4'#bi ,thus ,tammuz might have his gibbet in ,june-,july1 and his pyre in ,august-,september4 ,but alas6 this will not do1 for the pyre is of ,june-,july4#cj ,nor can he have his gibbet in ,august-,september1 as ,i had fondly hoped1 for he is to be identified with the mock-king of the ,saca1 and the month of his hanging is ,tammuz1 ,lous1 or ,june-,july1 if ,mr4 ,robertson ,smith is right4#ca ,thus ,i really fail to believe that ,tammuz could have both a burning and a hanging in ,june-,july4 ,i hoped that ,dr4 ,jastrow's two ,tammuz feasts had solved the problem1 but ,i hoped in vain4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,sac,a ,,suddenly ,,changes ,,its ,,date ,meanwhile1 even though we have allowed for two ,tammuz feasts1 are we also to admit a third ,tammuz feast at the ,march festival of the ,saca8 ,for in vol4 iii4 #aea-aec1 ,march has become the date of the ,saca1 rather to our surprise1 for the date had been ,june-,july4#cb ,now three ,tammuz feasts in six months seem one too many1 if not two4 ,consequently the arguments which in ii4 #abc1 #abd1 #bec1 #bed1 show the ,sacan victim1 because he died in the month ,tammuz1 to represent the god ,tammuz fail1 perhaps1 if the victim really died in ,march1 at the ,babylonian ,zakmuk1 or ,zagmuku1 a feast in honour1 not of ,tammuz1 but of ,bau 7a goddess71 and later of ,marduk4#cc ,neither ,bau nor ,marduk is ,tammuz2 nor does the victim seem likely to represent ,tammuz1 after his death is shifted from the ,tammuz feasts of ,may-,june or ,june-,july1 ,july-,august1 to ,march1 when the feast was really in honour1 not of ,tammuz1 but of ,bau1 or later1 of ,marduk4 ,all our difficulties1 indeed1 pale before the fact that the date of the ,saca1 when the possible ,tammuz victim was hanged1 is fixed twice2 once1 with much show of reason and 'with unconcealed delight1' in ,june-,july1 in the second volume2 while1 next1 it is argued from1 in the third volume1 as if the date were ,march-,april4 ,i conjecture1 therefore1 that the ,july date was not inconsistent with what is now ,mr4 ,frazer's theory when he revised his second volume4 ,otherwise he would not have said that ,mr4 ,robertson ,smith's decision as to the ,july date 'supplies so welcome a confirmation of the conjecture in the text1'#cd and then1 in iii4 #aeb1 #aec1 have proceeded to argue on the presumption that ,mr4 ,robertson ,smith's calculations may be1 for the purposes of the theory1 disregarded4 ,and they are disregarded1 as we shall see4 ,if they were dubious1 they should never have been welcomed4 ,v4 ,,various ,,theories ,,of ,,the ,,victim ,meanwhile1 for our own argument1 as to the precise nature of the ,babylonian ,king's divinity1 vegetable or not1 ,i do not think that we have yet found the ,king of ,babylon explicitly identified with a god of vegetation4 ,the victim1 remember1 was at first divine1 either as proxy of the king1 incarnating1 ,i think1 a god unknown2 or as full of cosmic rapport1 as a man-god of the second species4#ce ,next his divinity was established1 if ,mr4 ,frazer rightly conjectured that he 'represented ,tammuz himself4'#cf ,next he was a criminal vicariously sacrificed for 'the saving of the king's life for another year4'#cg ,next 'it would appear that the ,zoganes' 7the same old victim7 'during his five days of office personated not merely a king but a god1 whether that god was the ,elamite ,humman1 the ,babylonian ,marduk1 or some other deity not yet identified4'#ch ,next the victim personated 'a god or hero of the type of ,tammuz or ,adonis1 7and7 enjoyed the favours of a woman1 probably a sacred harlot4444' in addition to the caresses of the royal seraglio4#ci ,next the indefatigable victim represented the king1 'the human god1 the ,saturn1 ,zoganes1 ,tammuz1 or whatever he was called1' though all we know of the god ,zoganes is that ,zoganes was the title of the slave lord of the household at the ,persian ,saca4#dj ,it would thus appear almost as if all gods are one god to ,mr4 ,frazer by a kind of scientific ',henotheism4' ,humman or ,saturn1 ,zoganes or ,tammuz1 ,marduk or ,adonis1 any one of them1 or all of them1 will do for the king to incarnate or personate4 ,any one of them1 or all of them1 will figure as representatives of vegetable life in company with ,zeus and the horses of ,virbius6 ',we may conjecture that the horses by which ,virbius was said to have been slain were really embodiments of him as a deity of vegetation4'#da ,now let me too say 'we may conjecture4' ,mr4 ,frazer tells us that 'horses were excluded from the grove and sanctuary' of ,virbius4#db ,is it putting too great pressure on evidence to conjecture that the horses1 while being driven out1 were whipped8 ,now the horses embodied1 perhaps1 as we are told1 a deity of vegetation4 ,they were whipped1 and therefore it was usual to whip the representatives of a deity of vegetation4 ,this solves our problem1 why was the victim1 the divine victim1 whipped8 ,seriously1 have we not in all this book to do with that method of arbitrary conjecture which has ruined so many laborious philosophies of religion8 ,as to one essential conjecture1 that the ,babylonian1 or rather the ,persian1 kings represented a deity of vegetation1 ,i can offer only one shadowy testimony4 ,nebuchadnezzar for a while exhibited a caprice in favour of a purely vegetable diet4 ,this may have been a survival of a royal taboo4 ,as a god of vegetation1 a king would not eat vegetables any more than a savage usually eats his totem4 ,but some savages do eat their totems on certain sacred occasions1 and that may be the reason why ,nebuchadnezzar1 for a given period1 turned vegetarian4 #a ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #ahe4 #b ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #agh4 #c ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #ahe4 #d ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #ahf4 #e ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bec4 #f ,cieza de ,leon1 p4 #bjc4 #g ,g4 ,b4 i4 #adc4 #h ,grinnell1 ,pawnee ,hero ,stories1 pp4 #cfb-cfi4 #i ,g4 ,b41 ii4 #bch4 #aj ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bd1 note #a4 #aa ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #afg4 #ab ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aga4 #ac ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #agj1 #aga4 #ad ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aga4 #ae ,g4 ,b4 i4 #aca-aeg4 #af ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bd-bf4 #ag ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bd-bf4 #ah ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #h4 #ai ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bec1 #bed4 #bj ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #abc4 #ba ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bed1 note #a4 #bb ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #abc4 #bc ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #abc4 #bd ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bec1 #bed4 #be ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bed4 #bf ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #abc1 #abd2 ii4 #bec1 #bed4 #bg ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aeb1 #aed4 #bh ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aga4 #bi ,jastrow1 p4 #dhd4 #cj ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #abc1 #abd4 #ca ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bec1 #ed4 #cb ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #abc1 #abd4 #cc ,jastrow1 #ei1 #abg1 #fca1 #fgg1 #fgh-i4 #cd ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bed1 note #a4 #ce ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bd-bf2 i4 #hj-hb4 #cf ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bec1 #bed4 #cg ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aeb4 #ch ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #afj4 #ci ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #agh4 #dj ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #ahe4 #da ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #cad4 #db ,g4 ,b4 i4 #f4 ,,vii ,,zakmuk1 ,,sac,a1 ,,and ,,purim ,it is necessary to get the death of the ,sacan victim into touch with ,easter4 ,the ,saca1 when he died1 had been in ,june-,july1 in vol4 ii41 in ,mr4 ,frazer's first edition1 before he evolved his theory4 ,when the theory is evolved1 in the second edition and third volume1 the ,saca prefer to occur in ,march-,april1 which gets the sufferings of the mock-king into touch with the ,jewish ,purim1 and so within measurable distance of our ,passion ,week1 though the ,june-,july date of the first edition survives in the second volume of the new edition4 ,the change of date of the ,saca is arranged for by the plan1 rejected by ,meyer and ,jastrow1 of identifying the ,persian ,saca and the ,jewish ,purim with the ancient ,babylonian ,zagmuk or ,zakmuk1 a ,new ,year festival of ,march-,april4#a ,to be sure1 if that be the date1 we seem bereft of our useful ,tammuz1 from whom1 in ii4 #bed1 it was conjectured that the victim mock-king derived his divinity1 an old superstitious belief which 'shed the halo of divinity' on the victim of ,calvary4 ,for the ,tammuz feast was certainly in ,june-,september4 ,however1 perhaps there were three ,tammuz feasts1 resurrection and all1 and ,mr4 ,frazer's last choice of a date1 in ,march-,april1 has the immense advantage for his theory of getting us near ,eastertide4 ,but did the ,saca actually desert their old date1 ,june-,july8 ,to prove that we must identify the ,saca1 a ,persian1 with ,zakmuk1 a ,babylonian feast1 which really fell in ,march or ,april4 ,the old ,babylonian feast1 ,zakmuk1 is known to the learned through inscriptions4 ,we have seen that ,m4 ,cumont and ,herr ,meissner inclined to regard ,zakmuk as identical with the ,saca1 while the feast ,zakmuk-,saca is supposed by ,mr4 ,frazer to be the origin of the ,jewish ,purim4 ,but the ,saca fell in the ,macedonian month ,lous1 as ,athenus tells us according to ,berosus1 a ,babylonian priest1 using the ,macedonian ,calendar4 ,and ,lous1 as ,mr4 ,robertson ,smith proved1 was our ,july4#b ,zakmuk1 on the other hand1 fell in our ,march-,april1 and ,purim in our ,march1 neither of which is ,july1 when the ,saca were held4 ,now it is desirable for ,mr4 ,frazer's argument that the ,saca should fall1 not in ,july1 as it did in ii4 #bed1 but in or about ,eastertide4 ,mr4 ,frazer therefore shifts the ,saca from ,july to ,eastertide in face of difficulties4 ,all we know concerning ,zakmuk is#c that this feast1 originally a feast of ,bau1 says ,dr4 ,jastrow1 fell about the vernal equinox 7near the beginning of the old ,babylonian year72 that1 after a certain period1 it was held in honour of the chief god of ,babylon1 named ,merodach2 that a council of gods was thought to meet in ,merodach's temple1 under his presidency1 and that they determined the fate of the year1 'especially the fate of the king's life4' ,the festival existed as early as #cjjj ,b4,c41 whereas the ,saca1 'so far as appears from our authorities1 does not date from before the ,persian conquest of ,babylon' 7#ecf ,b4,c474#d ,but in spite of dates it is desirable for ,mr4 ,frazer's purpose to identify the ,persian ,saca with the ,babylonian ,zakmuk4 ,for1 if he succeeds in this1 then ,saca must fall when ,zakmuk fell1 and nearly when ,purim fell1 at--or not so very far from--,eastertide4 ,but#e ,saca was eagerly welcomed by ,mr4 ,frazer as a ,july1 not a spring1 feast1 whereas1 in iii4 #aeb1 ,saca is identified with ,zakmuk1 which did fall in spring4 ,again1 we have not even a hint that any mock-king1 or ,tammuz man1 or anybody1 was slain at the ,babylonian feast of ,zakmuk1 as a man was slain1 says ,dio1 at the ,saca4 ,however1 ,mr4 ,frazer tries to show that ,saca and ,zakmuk may be the same feast4 ,for ,saca and ,zakmuk are names that resemble ,zakmuk and ,zoganes4#f ,we may reply that the word ,saca also rather closely resembles the name of the tribe of ,sac1 from whom the ,perso-,greeks derived the word ,saca1 while the ,saca were held to commemorate a victory over the ,sac4 ,again the word ,saca1 which was a drinking feast1 resembles the word ,ski1 ,persian for a pourer forth of wine4 ,i ,the word ,ski is ,arabic1 being the nomen agentis of the verb ,sai to water 7abreuver74 ,this root is common to several ,semitic languages--e4g4 ,hebrew and thiopic--and if we could prove the word ,saca to be of native ,babylonian origin1 it might very probably come from the same root1' ,mr4 ,denison ,ross informs me4 ,in any case we cannot build on resemblances in the sound of words4 ,that argument for the identification of ,zakmuk and the ,saca fails4 ,next ,mr4 ,frazer contends that since1 at ,zakmuk1 the gods determined the fate of the king's life1 it was a critical time for the king4 ,now 'the central feature of the ,saca' appears to have been 'the hanging of the mock-king for the saving of the real king's life4'#g ,here1 then1 are two critical hours for the king3 one at ,zakmuk1 when the gods settle his fate2 one at the ,saca when his life is saved by the execution of his proxy4 ,are not then these two critical periods one period1 and is not ,saca another name for ,zakmuk8#h ,but ,mr4 ,frazer has also told us that the main feature of the ,saca was the death of a man who represented ,tammuz1 and was killed after doing sympathetic magic with a sacred harlot4#i ,was there1 then1 in connection with this ,tammuz man1 a third ,tammuz feast in ,march-,april1 for there were two1 in ,june-,september8 ,thus1 even if we could admit that1 because two periods are critical1 both are the same period1 yet as the victim of the ,saca was a ,tammuz man1 slain to do good to the crops1 we are unable to concede that he also died 'in the king's stead1' and to save his life1 unless the king was ,tammuz4 ,besides1 no authority tells us that either1 or both1 of this victim's deaths occurred at the ,babylonian feast of ,zakmuk3 it occurred at the ,persian feast of the ,saca1 if at all4 ,indeed1 even if ,mr4 ,frazer's two arguments for the identity of ,zakmuk and ,saca were persuasive 7and' how persuasive they are we have seen71 there would remain a difficulty4 ,for ,berosus says1 as we saw1 that the ,saca fell on ,lous #af1 which is ,july1 whereas ,zakmuk fell in ,march-,april4 ,i4 ,,historical ,,difficulty ,this obstacle seems to be1 and really is1 insuperable4 ,but ,mr4 ,frazer1 undaunted1 writes3 ',the identification of the months of the ,syro-,macedonian ,calendar is a matter of some uncertainty2 as to the month ,lous in particular the evidence of ancient writers appears to be conflicting1 and until we have ascertained beyond the reach of doubt when ,lous fell at ,babylon in the time of ,berosus' 7say #bjj ,b4,c47 'it would be premature to allow much weight to the seeming discrepancy in the dates of the two festivals' 7namely ,zakmuk and the ,saca74 ,henceforth ,mr4 ,frazer's hypothesis seems to me to proceed on the fancy that ,saca and ,zakmuk are identical1 which is impossible1 since the ,saca fall in ,july or ,september1 and ,zakmuk in ,march-,april4 ,it is absolutely certain1 historically1 that ,saca and ,zakmuk cannot be identical4 ,they were as remote in date as they well could be4 ,for the conflicting evidence of ancient writers as to the date of the month of the ,saca1 namely the ,macedonian month ,lous ,mr4 ,frazer gives two references4 ,the first is to ,mr4 ,robertson ,smith's proof that ,lous is ,july4#aj ,that does him no good4 ,the second is to ,smith's ',dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,antiquities4'#aa ,in that work ,i read that the only doubt as to the month ,lous is whether it fell in ,july or ,september4 ,smith's ',dictionary' is a book so common and accessible that ,i need not inflict on the reader the nature of the conflicting evidence4 ,it is enough to say that the month of the ,saca1 ,lous1 was almost certainly ,july1 but1 if not ,july1 was undeniably ,september4 ,now neither ,july nor ,september is ,eastertide1 or near it4 ,so that the effort to make the ,saca identical with ,zakmuk1 and therefore more or less coincident with ,purim1 and with our ,easter1 is an absolute failure4 ,the ,jews1 then1 could not 7as in ,mr4 ,frazer's theory7 borrow abroad a ,july or ,september mock-king1 and attach him to a vernal festival1 their ,purim4 ,thus1 as ,zakmuk is several months remote from the ,saca1 it is not identical with the ,saca4 ,mr4 ,frazer himself says3 ',if the ,saca occurred in ,july and the ,zakmuk in ,march1 the theory of their identity could not be maintained4'#ab ,but he loses1 rather than gains1 if the ,saca were in ,september1 and that is the only possible alternative4 ,the game is over2 the mock-king of ,babylon died1 if at all1 in ,july or ,september1 at the ,saca2 not at ,zagmuk or ,zakmuk1 in ,march-,april4 ,there is not a known hint that any mock-king died in ,babylon about ,eastertide1 or earlier1 at the feast of ,zakmuk4 ,i confess that when ,i found ,mr4 ,frazer declining to 'allow much weight to the seeming discrepancy in the dates of the two festivals1' till it was 'ascertained beyond the reach of doubt when ,lous fell at ,babylon in the time of ,berosus1' ,i presumed that 'the apparently conflicting evidence of ancient writers' meant a difference of opinion as to whether ,lous was a spring or a midsummer month4 ,but ,i looked at ,smith's ',dictionary' and found nothing of the sort6 ,the difference of opinion1 the conflict of evidence1 is concerned 7see ,smith7 with the question whether ,lous was ,september 7as it seems to have been in the time of ,philip of ,macedon7 or whether it was ,july1 as in the time of ,plutarch4 ,neither opinion gives ,lous the faintest chance of being a spring month4 ,therefore the vernal ,zakmuk is not the ,saca2 therefore there is not the ghost of a reason for guessing that a mock-king was hanged at ,zakmuk2 therefore ,zakmuk1 in ,april1 cannot lend a hanged mock-king to ,purim1 in ,march2 therefore ,purim1 having no slain mock-king1 cannot hand one on to ,eastertide1 which1 moreover1 does not occur at the same date as ,purim1 but some weeks later1 as may happen4 ,therefore the mock-king1 if he had been divine 7which he was not71 and if he had been sacrificed 7which he was not71 could not have lent his 'halo of divinity' to gild the ,cross at ,calvary4 ,but that he did so is ,mr4 ,frazer's hypothesis--sometimes4 ,,ii4 ,,persians ,,are ,,not ,,babylonians ,the ,saca1 according to all our authorities1 was a ,persian1 not a ,babylonian1 feast4 ,we have not a tittle of evidence to show that the ,babylonians1 with whom ,zakmuk was a feast of old standing1 ever heard of the ,saca before they were conquered by the ,persians 7,b4,c4 #ecf74 ,mr4 ,frazer admits this3 the ,babylonian custom1 'so far as appears from our authorities1 does not date from before the ,persian conquest2 but probably it was much older4'#ac ,why 'probably'8 ,on the strength of this 'probably' ,mr4 ,frazer calls the doings at the ,persian ,saca 'a ,babylonian custom4'#ad ,it was a custom of the ,persian conquerors of ,babylon1 if we can believe ,dio ,chrysostom2 but we have no evidence that it was a ,babylonian custom4 ,yet it 'has just got to be' a ,babylonian custom that ,mr4 ,frazer may attach it to a vernal ,babylonian feast1 ,zakmuk1 and so to ,purim1 and so to ,eastertide4 ,,iii4 ,,origin ,,of ,,purim ,about the real origin of ,purim1 a purely secular jollification1 preceded1 after a certain date1 by a fast1 we know nothing4 ,it is first mentioned in the ,book of ,esther1 which is so secular that the name of ,god is never mentioned in it4 ,scholars have debated as to the date of ,esther1 which ,mr4 ,frazer places in the fourth or third century ,b4,c42 some1 as ,kuenen1 place it later4 ,some think it historical1 as ,mr4 ,sayce does2 others regard it as a romance1 composed to supply an account of the origin of the feast of ,purim1 which we never hear of before the exile4 ,the account in ,esther is well known4 ,xerxes quarrelled with his queen1 ,vashti1 and1 after a series of experiments in wives1 selected ,esther1 cousin of an artful ,jew named ,mordecai4 ,this man discovered1 and through ,esther reported1 a conspiracy4 ,he later behaved with insolence to ,haman1 the ,vizier1 who settled with ,xerxes a kind of ,st4 ,bartholomew's day for all the ,jews4 ,but ,xerxes was accidentally reminded of the services done by ,mordecai1 and asked ,haman how a grateful prince should reward an unnamed servant4 ,haman suggested the ride in royal splendour1 which ,mordecai enjoyed4 ,haman then erected a very tall gallows whereon to hang ,mordecai4 ,but ,esther got news of the intended massacre1 and1 as ,xerxes had promised to give her any gift she asked for1 she demanded the death of ,haman4 ,so ,haman was hanged1 and the ,jews were allowed to defend themselves4 ,they massacred an enormous number of their enemies1 and henceforth kept ,purim1 a feast of two days1 on ,adar 7,march7 #ad and #ae4 ',wherefore they called these days ,purim1 after the name of ,pur1' and 'pur1 that is1 the lot1 was cast before ,haman for a whole year from ,nisan to ,adar4'#ae ,the word pur1 'a lot1' does not occur in ,hebrew1 says ,mr4 ,frazer4 ,however1 the ,assyrian puhra means an assembly1 and there was an assembly of the gods at the feast of ,zakmuk4 ,why the ,jews went after an ,assyrian word we may guess2 but we also learn that 'pur or bur seems to be' 7one wants to know if it really was7 'an old ,assyrian word for 'stone1' and a stone may be used for a lot1#af as the ,greek 1 a pebble1 also means a vote4 ,thus either the ,assyrian puhra or pur may have lent a name to the feast of ,purim4 ,i am no friend to etymological conjecture1 especially when two ,assyrian words put in rival claims to be1 each of them1 the origin of a ,jewish word4 ,mr4 ,frazer does not1 ,i think1 allude to the other guess1 connecting ,purim with the ,persian feast1 ,phurdigan 7,phurim8 or ,purim74#ag ,we find ,purdaghn1 ,purdiyan1 and so forth4 ,this ,persian feast was a drinking bout and time of jollity1 so that ,hyde very naturally compares it to ,purim and to the old ,persian ,saca1 or ,sakea1 or ,sakia1 which means 'drinking together1' or 'drinking healths4'#ah ,if ,sakia means a convivial feast in ,persian1 it fits very well the ,persian ,saca1 which were a time of jollity4 ,the learned may settle their etymological guesses among themselves1 but we are not obliged1 for want of another conjecture1 to fly to old ,assyrian for ,purim3 still less do we agree that ,mr4 ,frazer has made out a fairly probable case for holding that 'the ,jewish feast 7,purim7 is derived from the ,babylonian new year festival of ,zakmuk4'#ai ,no ease at all1 ,i venture to think1 is made out4 ,mr4 ,frazer's ,assyrian etymologies are met by competing etymologies4 ,moreover1 we know next to nothing of the ,babylonian ,zakmuk1 but we do know that the ,persian ,saca1 ,sakea1 or ,sakia was1 like ,purim1 a period of hard drinking and wild licence3 which does not resemble a solemn religious festival of the supreme god1 ,marduk1 or a period of wailing for ,tammuz4 ,there is another coincidence1 unnoted1 ,i think1 by ,mr4 ,frazer1 but already noted by us4 ,herodotus1 our oldest ,greek source for the ,persians1 tells us that their chief feast was called ,magophonia1 and celebrated the massacre of the hostile ,magi4#bj ,strabo tells us that the ,saca were supposed to commemorate a massacre of intoxicated ,sac4 ,purim is held to celebrate a massacre of the foes of the ,jews4 ,can these three feasts for a massacre coincide by accident8 ,it is not easy to see how this tradition attached itself to the slaying of a criminal1 either as king's proxy or as representative of ,tammuz4 ,,iv4 ,,is ,,purim ,,pre-,,exilian ,,or ,,post-,,exilian8 ,in any case ,purim has not been successfully connected with ,zakmuk4 ,mr4 ,frazer1 however1 says that 'an examination of that' 7the ,jewish7 'tradition1 and of the manner of celebrating the feast1 renders it probable that ,purim is nothing but a more or less disguised form of the ,babylonian feast of the ,saca or ,zakmuk4'#ba ,we have seen that stern dates do not allow us to identify ,saca with ,zakmuk4 ,the month ,lous is firm as the ,macedonian phalanx1 and will not masquerade as ,march-,april1 when ,zakmuk was held4 ,setting that aside1 'there are good grounds for believing that ,purim was unknown to the ,jews until after the exile1' and yet 'that they learned to observe it during their captivity in the ,bast4'#bb ,but their captivity in the ,east was the exile1 so how did they know nothing of ,purim at the very time when they also learned to celebrate that festival'8 ,however1 it is reckoned 'fairly probable' that the ,jews borrowed ,purim either 'directly from the ,babylonians or indirectly through the ,persian conquerors of ,babylon2' the only question is from which8#bc ,the ,jews probably borrowed ,purim in or after the exile4 ,but they also kept ,purim before the exile1 at least ,mr4 ,frazer thinks that 'the best solution4' ,it is ,jensen's solution1 stated1 however1 only 'in letters to correspondents4'#bd ,it really seems hardly consistent that ,mr4 ,frazer should both think ,purim probably a feast borrowed in or after the exile1 and also appear to approve a theory which regards the feast as familiar to the ,jews before the exile4 ,yet that is what he has apparently succeeded in doing4 ,he prefers ,jensen's solution1 which is this3 ,a fast was held before the feast of ,purim4#be ,why8 ',the best solution appears to be that of ,jensen1 that the fasting and mourning were originally for the supposed annual death of a ,semitic god or hero of the type of ,tammuz or ,adonis1 whose resurrection on the following day occasioned that outburst of joy and gladness which is characteristic of ,purim4'#bf ,yes2 but the ,jews had that institution before the exile4 ,in the first days of his own captivity ,ezekiel was carried1 in the flesh1 or out of the flesh1 to the temple at ,jerusalem4 ',then he brought me to the door of the gate of the ,lord's house which was towards the north1 and1 behold1 there sat women wailing for ,tammuz4'#bg ,now ,jensen's solution is that the fast at ,purim represents the wailing for ,tammuz1 or somebody of his type4 ,but1 if the ,jews did that1 as they did1 before the exile1 and if that was ,purim1 how did they also borrow ,purim after the exile1 especially as 'there are good grounds for believing that ,purim was unknown to the ,jews till after the exile'8#bh ,how can both views be correct8 ,or is this ,march feast of the ,tammuz kind an addition to the old pre-exilian ,jewish ,tammuz feast8 ,moreover1 ,purim is probably1 according to ,mr4 ,frazer1 'a mere disguised form of the ,saca1' which1 in his opinion1 is the same as ,zakmuk4#bh ,but 'the central feature of the ,saca appears to have been the saving of the king's life for another year by the vicarious sacrifice of a criminal4'#bi ,yet its central feature is also the sorrow for the death and glee for the resurrection 'of a ,semitic god or hero of the type of ,tammuz or ,adonis1' following ,jensen4 ,how can the ,saca have two central features8 ,if it is only an affair of hanging a man to save the king's life1 why should the ,jews at ,jerusalem fast before the vicarious sacrifice of a criminal for the ,babylonian king8 ,they did fast1 we know4 ,and why should the victim's resurrection 7if any7 on the following day 'occasion that outburst of joy and gladness which is characteristic of ,purim'8#cj ,what had the ,jews to make with the resurrection of a proxy of the king of ,babylon8 ,mr4 ,frazer has not1 ,i think1 suggested that the kings of ,israel or ,judah were once annually sacrificed4 ,so why were the ,jewish women wailing at the north gate of the ,temple8 ,for ,tammuz1 as we know from ,ezekiel2 but ,tammuz was not a ,jewish king1 or1 if he was1 it should be stated4 ,also1 if the ,jewish ladies wailed and rejoiced for ,tammuz at the ,temple in ,jerusalem before the exile1 how can it be consistently maintained that they knew nothing of these rites till after the exile1 and then borrowed them from ,babylonians or ,persians8 ,if ,purim is a ,tammuz rite1 the ,jews had it before the exile1 as ,ezekiel proves4 ,if it is not a ,tammuz rite1 why is ,jensen's the best solution8 for ,jensen's solution is that 'the fasting and mourning were originally for the supposed annual death of a ,semitic god or hero of the type of ,tammuz or ,adonis1 whose resurrection on the following day occasioned that outburst of joy and gladness which is characteristic of ,purim4'#ca ,then1 once more1 that outburst of joy and gladness for the re-arisen ,tammuz was#cb probably in the month ,tammuz1 our ,june-,july4 ,but now#cc it is at ,purim--that is1 in ,march4 ,how are ,mr4 ,frazer's theories to be reconciled with each other and with the facts8 ,did the ,jews wail for ,tammuz1 in spring1 before the exile2 and1 after the exile1 adapt their old rite of a ,tammuz fast and feast to the vicarious sacrifice of a condemned criminal 7whether in ,july or in ,april7 in the interests of the king of ,babylon8 ,had they been wont to hang a man1 while they wailed for ,tammuz1 before the exile8 ,if so1 why did they hang him1 and what did they borrow during the exile8 ,or was all that they borrowed just the habit of crowning1 discrowning1 whipping1 and hanging a mock-king1 as an addition to their pre-exilian ,tammuz fast and feast8 ,we have certainly no evidence that they did these cruel things before the exile4 ,and there is no evidence1 as we shall see1 that they yearly committed the same atrocity after the exile4 ,v4 ,,theory ,,of ,a ,,human ,,victim ,,at ,,purim ,as ,mr4 ,frazer is to make our ,lord one of the annual victims at ,purim1 he has to try to prove that the ,jews did annually hang or crucify a mock-king supposed to be divine at ,purim4 ,to be sure neither prophet nor legislator1 neither ,ezekiel1 ,ezra1 ,nehemiah1 ,haggai1 nor ,zachariah1 says one word about this heathen abomination borrowed by the ,jews4 ,mr4 ,frazer therefore tries to prove that the man was hanged at ,purim by the evidence of 'traces of human sacrifice lingering about the feast of ,purim in one or other of those mitigated forms to which ,i have just referred1' such as the uncertain 'burning an effigy of a man at ,tarsus4'#cd ,mr4 ,frazer is1 ,i think1 rather easily satisfied with this kind of testimony to human sacrifice4 ,every fifth of ,november a man1 called ,guy by the populace1 is burned in effigy4 ,but1 as we know the historical facts1 we do not1 though science in the distant future may1 regard this rite as a trace of ,druidical human sacrifice1 ,guy being a god of the dying foliage of ,november1 when ,st4 ,dasius was slain4 ,mr4 ,frazer explains the old custom of burning ,judas on ,easter ,saturday as 'all for the purpose of protecting the fields from hail1' and as 'really of pagan origin4'#ce ,it maybe so3 the ashes are used in agricultural magic4 ,but we know that ,guy ,fawkes is not a relic of human sacrifice4 ,moreover1 it is natural to destroy a foe1 like ,haman1 or ,john ,knox1 or ,mr4 ,kruger1 in effigy3 the thing is often done4 ,the ,jews undeniably regarded ,haman1 on the authority of ,esther1 as an enemy of their race4 ,so they destroyed him in effigy4 ,in the fifth century of our era1 when the hatred between ,jews and ,christians had become bitter1 the ,jews1 'in contempt of the ,christian religion1' attached the effigy of ,haman to a cross4 ,this insult was forbidden by the ,codex ,theodosianus4#cf ,similar doings1 without the cross1 prevailed at ,purim in the ,middle ,ages4 ,but how does this prove the hanging of a real ,haman victim before the rise of ,christianity8 ,it merely proves that1 after the strife between ,jews and ,christians began1 an effigy of ,haman1 the national enemy1 was crucified 'in contemptu ,christian fidei1' as the edict says--to annoy the ,christians4 ,but ,mr4 ,frazer has 'some positive grounds' for thinking that 'in former times the ,jews1 like the ,babylonians from whom they appear to have derived their ,purim1 may at one time have burned1 hanged1 or crucified a real man in the character of ,haman4' ,we have seen that#cg ,purim1 if it is a ,tammuz feast and fast1 was kept by the ,jews before they went to ,babylon4 ,but1 passing that1 what are the 'positive grounds'8 ,merely that in #daf ,a4,d4 some ,jews in ,syria1 being heated with wine after 'certain sports1' began to deride ,christianity1 and1 for that purpose1 bound a ,christian child to the cross4 ,at first 'they only laughed and jeered at him1 but soon1 their passions getting the better of them1 they ill-treated the child so that he died under their hands4' ,mr4 ,frazer 'can hardly doubt that' the 'sports' 'were ,purim1 and that the boy who died on the cross represented ,haman4' ,granting that the 'sports' were ,purim1 and that the ,christian child did duty for ,haman1 the purpose was 'to deride ,christians and even ,christ himself4' ,these motives did not exist before ,christianity1 so how does the anecdote of brutal and cruel mockery1 ending in murder1 afford 'positive grounds' for the hypothesis that1 ever since the exile1 the ,jews1 in imitation of the ,sacan proceedings in ,july or ,september1 yearly hanged a mock-king in ,march8#ch ,,vi4 ,,contradictory ,,conjecture ,mr4 ,frazer is so far from holding by these arguments for the practice of hanging a yearly victim at ,purim1 as to suggest a conjecture that the victim was not killed at ,purim at all1 but a month later6#ci ,if he thinks this possible1 what becomes of his 'positive grounds' for holding that ,purim was the date of the hanging8 ,i have shown the value of the positive grounds for maintaining a theory that the ,jews1 before our era1 annually hanged a mock-king as ,haman at ,purim4 ,mr4 ,frazer himself is so far from being convinced that the ,jews hanged a man at ,purim#dj as to suggest the supposition that they did not do so4#da ,if they did not1 it gets him out of the difficulty caused by the unlucky circumstance that our ,lord was crucified1 not at ,purim1 but a month after ,purim1 as we read in the ,gospels4 ,but1 alas6 if the ,jews did not 7on this theory7 hang a ,haman at ,purim1 what becomes of all ,mr4 ,frazer's proofs that they did hang a ,haman at ,purim8 ,in the total absence of all evidence to that effect1 we may be sure that the ,jews did not borrow 7unrebuked by prophets and legislators7 a heathen brutality in ,march from a heathen brutality occurring1 if at all1 in ,july or ,september4 ,and if they did not1 ,christ was not the ,haman of a year1 which it is ,mr4 ,frazer's contention that he may have been4 ,,vii4 ,a ,,new ,,theory ,,of ,,the ,,victim ,we have seen that ,purim is either an old ,jewish ,tammuz feast1 existing before the exile1 or a post-exilian adaptation of a ,persian rite1 in which a condemned criminal died to save the king's life2 or both4#db ,the victim next 'personates not merely a king but a god1 whether that god was the ,elamite ,humman1 the ,babylonian ,marduk1 or some other deity not yet identified4'#dc ,but#dd the victim represented the king3 no other god was mentioned4 ,again ,mr4 ,frazer says3 ',at the ,sacan festival1 if ,i am right1 a man who personated a god or hero of the type of ,tammuz or ,adonis enjoyed the favours of a woman1 probably a sacred harlot1 who represented the great ,semitic goddess ,ishtar or ,astarte4444'#de ,but did the king also stand for ,i a god or hero of the type of ,tammuz or ,adonis'8 ,did he associate with sacred harlots8 ,and did he1 and the victim also 'personate a god1 whether that god was the ,elamite ,humman1 the ,babylonian ,marduk1 or some other deity not yet identified'8#df ,were the ',elamite ,humman and the ,babylonian ,marduk' 7or ,merodach7 gods of vegetation8 ,marduk1 or ,merodach1 to be sure1 was the chief god of ,babylon1 a solar deity1 says ,dr4 ,jastrow4 ,but as ,mr4 ,frazer suggests that the supreme ,aryan god1 ,zeus1 may have derived his name1 'the ,bright or ,shining ,one1' from the oak tree 7he being 'actually represented by an oak1' and oakwood producing bright sparks when used in fire-making71#dg why then another supreme god1 ,marduk1 may also be a god of vegetable life4 ,but1 like the horses of ,virbius1 the ,sacan victim has been plausibly identified with ,tammuz or ,adonis4#dh ',it seems worth suggesting that the mock-king who was annually killed at the ,babylonian festival of the ,saca on the sixteenth day of the month ,lous may have represented ,tammuz himself4' ,he also takes that rle1 with his sacred harlot1 in iii4 #agh4 ,it is1 therefore1 a little bewildering to find him appearing as ,humman or ,marduk1 or some other god unknown1 in iii4 #aei1 #afj4 ,how many single gods are rolled into one1 scourged1 and hanged in this most unhappy condemned criminal8 ,we have been told that ,marduk presided over a council of the gods at the ,zakmuk1 which is the ,saca4#di ,but the hanged man#ej very probably personates ,marduk4 ,mr4 ,frazer may think that1 when the supreme god is presiding over the ,olympian assembly in his ,temple1 it is a natural and pious compliment to whip and hang him in the person of his human representative4 ,this1 at least1 is the result of his theory in iii4 #aei1 #afj4 ,i do not feel sure that the supreme god1 whether ,marduk or ,humman1 would have taken the same favourable view of the tactless rite4 ,,viii4 ,,new ,,german ,,theory ,,of ,,purim ,i have hitherto but incidentally mentioned ,marduk and ,humman as competitors with ,tammuz and the king for the glory of receiving a vicarious whipping and hanging4 ,they are brought into this honourable position by an entirely new ,teutonic theory of ,purim3 not ,mr4 ,frazer's4 ,it was lately an old ,jewish ,tammuz rite1 or quite a new adaptation of the ,saca4 ,but 'it is possible1' says ,professor ,nldeke1 'that we have here' 7in ,purim7 'to do with a feast whereby the ,babylonians commemorated a victory gained by their gods over the gods of their neighbours1 the ,elamites1 against whom they had so often waged war4 ,the ,jewish feast of ,purim is an annual merrymaking of a wholly secular kind1 and it is known that there were similar feasts among the ,babylonians4' ,from the ,babylonians1 then1 the ,jews borrowed ,purim1 a feast commemorative of a victory of the gods of ,babylon over the ,elamites4 ,but1 if that feast was religious1 the ,jews turned it into 'an annual merrymaking of a totally secular kind4'#ea ,mr4 ,frazer1 if ,i do not misunderstand him1 does not accept the hypothesis of ,nldeke4 ,he says1 however1 ',we can hardly deny the plausibility of the theory that ,haman and ,vashti on the one side1 and ,mordecai and ,esther on the other1 represent the antagonism between the gods of ,elam and the gods of ,babylon1 and the final victory of the ,babylonian deities in the very capital of their rivals4' ,but plausibility1 we shall see1 is remote from proof4 ,and how can ,mr4 ,frazer think this theory plausible if the ,saca really is a ,king-,tammuz feast8 ,but1 if ,purim is now to be a rejoicing over a victory of the ,babylonian gods 7naturally endeared as these gods were to the ,jews71 why was the fast held before ,purim8 ,it was held1 according to ',jensen's solution' 7which is 'the best'71 'for the supposed annual death of a hero of the type of ,tammuz or ,adonis1 whose resurrection on the following day occasioned that outburst of joy and gladness which is characteristic of ,purim4'#eb ,but1 if 'the outburst of joy and gladness characteristic of ,purim' is a jubilation over a victory of the ,babylonian gods1 on ,nldeke's theory1 why is there a fast1 'the fast of ,esther1' before ,purim1 which is a feast of the ,tammuz type8 ,to fast for the death of ,tammuz is a comely thing1 but why should ,jews1 of all people1 fast before a feast commemorative of a victory of the ,babylonian gods8 ,and why should the ,jews1 of all people1 scourge and hang1 at the same time1 the possible human representative of ,marduk1 the chief of the gods whose victory they for some reason are commemorating8#ec ,,ix4 ,,another ,,new ,,theory4 ,,humman ,,and ,,the ,,victim ,to be sure we are given our choice3 the victim may represent ,marduk1 the chief of the victorious gods2 but he may also represent ,humman1 one of the defeated gods4 ,in that case the vanquished hostile god's human representative may well be whipped and hanged1 in derision of the defeated deity1 ,humman4 ,but ,i do not observe that ,mr4 ,frazer offers this hypothesis1 which seems relatively plausible4 ,indeed1 ,i am fairly certain that ,mr4 ,frazer does not accept ,nldeke's theory that ,purim is a form of a ,babylonian rejoicing over a victory of their gods4 ,it cannot be both that and also a ,tammuz feast1#ed or a festival for the saving of the king's life by the vicarious hanging of a criminal4#ee ,we are next to see how ,haman1 ,mordecai1 ,vashti1 and ,esther are mixed up with the ,saca1 ,zakmuk1 ,purim1 ,marduk1 and ,humman4 #a ',zimmern's view of a possible relationship between ,purim and ,zagmuku is untenable1' says ,dr4 ,jastrow 7op4 cit4 p4 #fhf1 note #b74 ,this is also the opinion of ,meyer4 #b ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bed4 #c ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aea1 #aeb4 #d ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bd1 note #a4 #e ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bed4 #f ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aeb4 #g ,ibid4 #h ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aeb4 #i ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #agh4 #aj ,g4 ,b4 #bed1 note #a4 #aa i4 #cci4 #ab ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aeb4 #ac ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bd1 note #a4 #ad ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bf4 #ae ,esther iii4 #g4 #af ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #ajd1 #aee4 #ag ,kuenen1 ,hist4 and ,lit4 of ,israelites1 iii4 #adi1 #aej4 #ah ,hyde1 ,hist4 ,rel4 ,pers4 pp4 #bff1 #bfg4 ,oxford1 #agfj4 #ai ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aee4 #bj ,herodotus1 iii4 #gi4 #ba ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aec1 #aed4 #bb ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aec4 #bc ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aee4 #bd ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #agg1 and note #b4 #be ,esther iv4 #c1 #af2 ix4 #ca4 #bf ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #agg4 #d ,ezekiel viii4 #ad4 #bg ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aec4 #bh ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aec1 #aed4 #bi ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aeb4 #cj ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #agg4 #ca ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #agg4 #cb ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bed4 #cc ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #agg4 #cd ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aga1 #agb4 #ce ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #bdf1 #bdg1 #beh4 #cf ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #agb4 #cg ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #agg2 ,ezekiel viii4 #ad4 #ch ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #agc1 #agd4 ,the source cited for the murder of #daf ,a4,d4 is ,socrates1 ,hist4 ,eccles4 vii4 #af1 with ,theophanes1 ,chronographia1 ed4 ,classen1 vol4 i4 p4 #abi4 #ci ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #ahi4 #dj ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #agb-agd4 #da ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #ahi4 #db ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aeb1 #agg4 #dc ,g4 ,b4 iii #aei1 #afj4 #dd ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aeb4 #de ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #agh4 #df ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #afj4 #dg ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #def1 #deg4 #dh ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bec1 #bed4 #di ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aeb4 #ej ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aei1 #afj4 #ea ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aei2 ,nldeke1 s4 v4 ',esther1' ,encyclopdia ,biblica4 #eb ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #agg4 #ec ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aei1 #afj4 #ed ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #agg4 #ee ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aeb4 ,,viii ,,mordecai1 ,,esther1 ,,vashti1 ,,and ,,haman ,it may be asked1 ,how did ,humman or ,marduk come to appear as the god connected with the ,saca1 whereas ,tammuz had previously taken that part8 ,the answer is that ,humman and ,marduk came in when we were tentatively regarding ,purim1 not 7#a7 as a ,semitic ,tammuz feast1 nor yet 7#b7 as a ,persian punishment of a condemned criminal acting asking's proxy1 but 7#c7 as a festival for 'the final victory of the ,babylonian deities' 7,marduk and the rest7 'in the very capital of their rivals' 7,humman and his company74#a ,this was a theory suggested by ,professor ,nldeke4 ,it has etymological bases4 ,the name ,mordecai resembles ,marduk1 ,esther is like ,ishtar1 ,haman is like ,humman1 the ,elamite god1 and there is a divine name in the inscriptions1 read as resembling ',vashti1' and probably the name of an ,elamite goddess4 ,thus the human characters in ,esther are in peril of merging in ,babylonian and ,elamite gods4 ,but1 lest that should occur1 we ought also to remember that ,mordecai was the real name of a real historical ,jew of the ,captivity1 one of the companions of ,nehemiah in the return from exile to ,jerusalem4#b ,again1 ,esther appears to me to be the crown-name of the ,jewish wife of ,xerxes1 in the ,book of ,esther3 ',hadassah1 that is ,esther4'#c ,in the ,biblical story she conceals her ,jewish descent4 ,hadassah1 says ,nldeke1 'is no mere invention of the writer of ',esther4'#d ,hadassah is said to mean 'myrtle bough1' and girls are still called ,myrtle4 ,esther appears to have been an assumed name1 after a royal mixed marriage4 ,now if a real historical ,jew might be named ,mordecai1 which we know to be the case1 a ,jewess1 whether in fact1 or in this ,book of ,esther1 which1 says ,dr4 ,jastrow1 'has of course some historical basis1' might be styled ,esther4#e ,dr4 ,jastrow supposes from the proper names 'that there is a connection between ,purim' 7the ,jewish feast accounted for in ',esther'7 and some ,babylonian festival1 'not that of ,zagmuku1' or ,zakmuk4 ,nldeke says that no ,babylonian feast coinciding with ,purim in date has been discovered4#f ,indeed this fact gives ,mr4 ,frazer some reason for various conjectures1 as the date of ,purim is not that of ,zakmuk4 ,but1 if ,mordecai be1 as it is1 an historical name of a real ,jew of the period1 while ,esther may be1 and probably is1 a name which a ,jewess might bear1 it is not ascertained that ,vashti really is the name of an ,elamite goddess4 ,yet ,vashti is quite essential as a goddess to ,mr4 ,frazer's argument4 ',the derivation1' he says1 'of the names of ,haman and ,vashti is less certain1 but some high authorities are disposed to accept the view of ,jensen that ,haman is identical with ,humman or ,homman1 the national god of the ,elamites1 and that ,vashti is in like manner an ,elamite deity1 probably a goddess whose name appears in inscriptions4'#g ,now suppose that we adopt ,mr4 ,frazer's method about that unruly month ,lous4 ',the identification of the months of the ,syro-,macedonian ,calendar is a matter of some uncertainty2 as to the month ,lous in particular the evidence of ancient writers appears to be conflicting1 and until we have ascertained beyond the reach of doubt when ,lous fell at ,babylon in the time of ,berosus1 it would be premature to allow much weight to the seeming discrepancy in the dates of the two festivals4' ,following this method we might say 'the identification of ,haman and ,vashti with a probable ,elamite god and goddess is a matter of some uncertainty2 as to ,vashti in particular the opinion of modern writers seems to be conflicting1 and until we have ascertained beyond the reach of doubt that ,vashti was an ,elamite goddess1 and a goddess of what sort1 it would be premature to allow much weight to the conjecture'--and then we might go on to allow none at all4 ,but this would be too hard a method of dealing with ,mr4 ,frazer's hypothesis4 ,we should merely be getting rid of his theory in the same way as his theory evades a definite historical obstacle4 ,it is clear1 from the facts about the names ,mordecai1 ,esther1 ,haman1 and ,vashti1 that to explain these as necessarily connected with ,purim1 ,zakmuk1 and the ,saca1 as a feast of rejoicing for a ,babylonian divine victory over ,elamite gods1 is a very perilous hypothesis1 among many others as hazardous1 or even more insecure4 ,mr4 ,frazer1 however1 is intent on connecting the characters of ',esther' with ,babylonian and ,elamite gods4 ,they are essential to his theory that1 at the ,saca and ,purim1 there were a pair of human representatives of gods3 ,haman1 with a probable sacred harlot1 ,vashti1 doing duty for the dying2 ,mordecai with ,esther1 doing duty for the re-arisen god of vegetation4 ,to this point we return4 ,now1 as to this festival of a resurrection of such a god1 we have seen that1 in vol4 ii4 #abb1 #bec1 #bed1 it occurred in ,july1 to ,mr4 ,frazer's content4 ,but1 when it had to occur in ,march in vol4 iii41 we were met by the difficulty of two1 or rather three1 feasts of this kind in the year4 ,perhaps we get rid of this obstacle in iii4 #agg-agi4 ,the resurrection is here that not of ,tammuz1 but of a hero of the same type1 is fixed by ,jensen at ,zakmuk1 and therefore by ,mr4 ,frazer1 though not by ,jensen1 at the ,saca in spring4 ,jensen's theory is that the death and resurrection 'of a mythical being1 who combined in himself the features of a solar god and an ancient king of ,erech1 were celebrated at the ,babylonian ,zakmuk or festival of the new year1 and that the transference of the drama from ,erech1 its original seat1 to ,babylon1 led naturally to the substitution of ,marduk1 the great god of ,babylon1 for ,gilgamesh or ,eabani in the part of the hero4' ,jensen1 fortunately for his peace of mind1 'apparently does not identify the ,zakmuk with the ,saca4' ,jensen constructs his scheme thus4 ,gilgamesh was a hero of ,erech1 who repelled the amorous advances of the goddess ,ishtar4 ,gilgamesh became extremely unwell4 ,his friend ,eabani also aroused the fury of ,ishtar1 and died4 ,gilgamesh procured his return from the world of the dead to the upper world4#h ,the feast celebrating this resurrection was removed from ,erech to ,babylon4 ,instead of a mortal hero1 ,gilgamesh or ,eabani1 a being cold and chaste as ,joseph ,andrews1 the ,babylonians now cast ,marduk1 their supreme god1 for the part4 ,the feast was ,zakmuk4#i ,of course this is precisely as if we said that an old feast of ,adonis was turned into a new feast of ,zeus1 whose coldness1 as regards goddesses1 was not proverbial1 like the frigidity of ,adonis1 ,gilgamesh1 ,eabani1 ,mr4 ,andrews1 and other notable examples4 ,the theory seems to lack plausibility1 but as ,jensen 'apparently does not identify ,zakmuk with the ,saca' he escapes the curious theory of supposing that ,marduk 7late ,gilgamesh1 or ,eabani7 is whipped and hanged in the person of his human representative--an unheard-of way of honouring the personator of the supreme being4 ,however1 if we accept ,jensen's theory1 and also1 like ,mr4 ,frazer1 identify ,zakmuk with the ,saca1 then1 remembering that ,eabani rose from the dead 7if he did71 and that ,marduk is now ,eabani1 and that the ,sacan victim is or may be ,marduk1 and is also the king1 we get a reason for supposing that the victim1 too1 was feigned to rise from the dead--in the person of ,mordecai 7,marduk74 ,but why was the representative of ,marduk1 who in ,jensen's theory represented ,eabani1 whipped and hanged8 ,the victim1 on this theory1 if we add it to ,mr4 ,frazer's1 seems to me to personate #a4 ,the ,king of ,babylon1 #b4 ,marduk1 #c4 ,eabani1 #d4 ,or ,gilgamesh1 and thus to combine a god or hero of vegetation 7which ,eabani is bound to be7 with a mortal king1 and a supreme god--and1 oh1 why is he whipped and hanged8 ,taking the theory of iii4 #agg-agi it seems to run thus1 in combination with all that has gone before3 ,the king was burned alive annually4 ,his royal substitute was next burned alive annually4 ,his criminal substitute was burned alive annually1 till this was commuted for whipping and hanging1 with or without burning4 ,the king 7before the feast of ,zakmuk was brought from ,erech to ,babylon7 had incarnated some god or other 7,i presume of vegetation74 ,after the ,eabani feast at ,erech became the ,marduk feast at ,babylon1 the king1 ,i think1 but ,i may be wrong1 represented ,eabani plus ,marduk4 ,if he did1 so1 too1 does the victim at the ,saca4 ,but ,eabani1 in a ,babylonian poem1 has a resurrection3 though ,i cannot find it in ,jastrow's account of the poem4 ,the victim then1 being a personation of ,eabani1 of ,marduk1 and of the king1 has a resurrection--after he has been hanged under the name of ,humman1 a god of the ,elamites4 ,he owes that name1 ,mr4 ,frazer thinks1 to a popular misconception1 for he really is the king1 plus ,eabani1 plus ,marduk4 ,dying as king1 and as ,marduk1 under the alias of ,humman 7,haman71 he is feigned1 according to the theory1 to rise under the name of ,marduk 7,mordecai74 ,the ,mordecai of one year becomes the ,haman of the next1 is hanged1 and so on4 ,this is an hypothesis of some complexity4 ,an effort is needed to maintain the mental equilibrium as we contemplate this hypothesis4 ,however1 by thus amalgamating the ideas of ,jensen and of ,mr4 ,frazer1 one gets in the mock royalty 7from the king71 the scourging and hanging 7from the mitigation of burning alive71 the divinity of vegetation 7from ,eabani1 who lends that part of his attributes to ,marduk71 and the resurrection from ,eabani1 who1 in the ,babylonian poem1 rose again3 though ,i own that in ,dr4 ,jastrow's account of the poem ,i am unable to discover this incident4 ,the spirit of ,eabani is conjured up1 indeed1 in the poem1 but 'there is a tone of despair in the final speech of ,eabani4'#aj ,this is hardly a resurrection4 ,however1 ,i am but poorly seen in ,babylon and its poetry1 and no doubt ,eabani had his resurrection4 ,from that or a similar resurrection ,mr4 ,frazer deduces the probability that the ,sacan victim in his resurrection was represented by ,mordecai4#aa ,he1 like ,haman1 had a sacred bride1 ,esther4 ,in the ,book of ,esther1 to be sure1 she is ,mordecai's cousin and adopted daughter4 ,mr4 ,frazer knows better4 ,i4 ,,esther ,,loved ,,by ,,mordecai ',a clear reminiscence' of the time when ,esther was the goddess bride of ,mordecai 7her cousin7 appears in modern ,jewish plays in which ,mordecai is the lover 7,i hope merely platonic7 of ,esther4#ab ,and a very natural modern touch it is4 ,the pair were cousins1 and ,esther was extremely pretty4 ,in exactly the same way two little girls of my acquaintance dramatised ',bluebeard1' and made the brother 7who rescues ,mrs4 ,bluebeard in the tale7 the lover of ,mrs4 ,bluebeard4 ,she had preferred to marry ,bluebeard for his money1 on which1 in this most immoral drama1 ,mrs4 ,bluebeard and her lover1 her husband's slayer1 lived happily ever afterwards4 ,this is modern6 ,the original tale does not run thus4 ,again1 ,mr4 ,frazer says that the ,babbis maintain that ,xerxes only wedded a shadow ,esther1 'while the real ,esther sat on the lap of ,mordecai4' ,a most natural shift to save ,esther's character in a case of mixed marriages4 ,so ,stesichorus and ,euripides1 long before1 gave a shadow ,helen into the arms of ,paris4 ,the real ,helen1 meanwhile1 saved her character by leading a life of remarkable purity in ,egypt4 ,these late shifts and evasions have no real bearing on the question of the original relations between ,esther and ,mordecai4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,persian ,,buffoon ,mr4 ,frazer now harms his cause1 perhaps1 by proving that just as1 in ,esther1 ,mordecai had a royal ride1 so1 in ,persia1 a beardless1 and if possible one-eyed buffoon rode in mock royalty through the streets1 collecting money or goods1 exactly like our ,robin ,hood before and even after the ,scottish ,reformation4#ac ,it was une qute2 examples are endless4 ,after his second round he fled1 for the people might beat him if they caught him1 obviously in revenge1 ,i think1 for his robberies4 ,but ,mr4 ,frazer1 as usual1 supposes the right to beat the buffoon to 'point plainly enough to the harder fate' of the sacrificed mock-king4 ,no date is given for this ,persian custom1 but1 if it existed when the ,jews were in ,persia1 did it coexist with sacrifice of a mock-king8 ,if not1 if it was a substitute for that obsolete cruelty1 why are the ,jews supposed to have borrowed the cruelty no longer practised8 ,this is a question of dates1 which may be implied1 but are not given1 though ,i understand ,mr4 ,frazer to mean that the buffoon's ride is later than the origin of ,purim4#ad ,on the other hand1 ,lagarde1 one of the most learned of ,orientalists1 thinks that the ride of the beardless was already customary at the time when the stories about ,esther and ,purim were composed4 ,the ,persians1 says ,lagarde1 had the ,feast of ,farwardgn1 a feast of jollity1 the rich making presents to the poor1 as at ,purim4 ,they had also the ,feast of the ,massacre of the ,magi 7,magophonia71 and1 thirdly1 they had the popular diversion of the ,bide of the ,beardless4 ,now the authors of the ,esther legend 'had these three colours on their palette1 and with these three painted1 not a portrait of one feast1 but a kind of mixed caricature for the ,jewish carnival4'#ae ,the ,magophonia lent the colours of the massacre1 ,farwardgn lent the jollity and the presents1 the ride of the beardless lent the procession of ,mordecai4 ,in that case1 and if ,lagarde is right1 the ,jews found at ,babylon1 not a slaying of a mock-king1 but the ride of the beardless4 ,so they did not borrow the slaying of a mock-king1 but introduced into the ,esther legend an incident of a ride suggested by the ride of ,mordecai1 which ,mr4 ,frazer calls 'a degenerate copy of the original1' namely the reign and death of the mock-king4#af ,whether ,lagarde's view be correct or not1 this part of the evidence is far too sandy a foundation for a theory about a matter of solemn importance4 ,the ,jews could not borrow the hanging of a victim from the ,saca1 if in their exile they only found the ride of the beardless one1 as in ,lagarde's theory--not that he mentions the ,saca4 ,mr4 ,frazer1 at all events1 sees a connection between ,purim and the ride of the beardless4 ,but the latter is popular1 not official1 in spite of the fact that the king takes most of the goods facetiously robbed4 ,as popular1 the ride is more primitive1 he thinks1 and shows its meaning better than the ,saca does4 ,so ,mr4 ,frazer says 'if there is any truth in the connection thus traced between ,purim and the ,ride of the ,beardless ,one1 we are now in a position to finally unmask the leading personages in the ,book of ,esther1' and show how ,marduk and ,humman got into the plot4 ,purim is not only the ,saca1 sacrifice and all1 but is also connected with the ',ride of the ,beardless ,one1' in which there was no sacrifice4 ,how this1 if true1 enables us 'to finally unmask' the characters in ,esther1 is not at first very clear4 ,apparently the buffoonery of the beardless one1 who complained of the heat while the populace snowballed him in ,march1 was a magical ceremony1 to make hot weather by pretending that the weather1 in fact1 was hot4#ag ,therefore1 the hypothetical rites of ,haman ,vashti ,mordecai ,esther represent1 in the first pair1 the decaying2 in the second pair1 the reviving1 energies of vegetation1 past and present4 ,one pair mates and the male1 at least1 is slain2 the other pair mates and survives1 to encourage vegetable life4 ,by the hypothesis the first pair 7,haman and ,vashti7 originally lived as man and wife for a whole year1 'on the conclusion of which the male partner' 7,haman7 'was put to death4' ,of course1 even if ,haman was the mock-king slain at the ,saca 7which we do not grant71 his mock-kingship was very brief4 ,however1 it lasted for a year1 ,originally1 we may conjecture4' ,the later fortunes of ,vashti are wrapped up in mystery4 ,but ,i cannot refrain from quoting one of my author's most eloquent passages on this obscure subject4 ,we do not hear that ,vashti was put to death1 in fact we do not hear anything about her at all from our one authority2 but ,i the nature of maternity suggests an obvious reason for sparing her a little longer1 till that mysterious law1 which links together woman's life with the changing aspects of the nightly sky1 had been fulfilled by the birth of an infant god1 who should in his turn1 reared perhaps by her tender care1 grow up to live and die for the world4'#ah ,as ,vashti1 except for her profession1 was not an habitual criminal1 let us hope that she was spared to look after the baby4 ,her issue1 if any1 and if male1 was apparently an hereditary criminal1 for otherwise he would not be hanged3 the victims were always condemned criminals4 ,the cruelty of thus deliberately breeding such a criminal class1 for the mere purpose of hanging them1 is shocking to the modern mind4 ,we wish to know whether the ,jewish ,hamans were also born and bred up to the business4 ,mr4 ,frazer does not tell us that this was the case1 or what became of ,vashti's female issue4 ,the ride of ,mordecai in royal raiment is connected with and explained 7if ,i follow my author7 by the ride of the ,persian beardless buffoon4 ,to be sure the buffoon rode naked on an ass2 ,mordecai rode 'in royal apparel of blue and white1 with a crown of gold4' ,but the buffoon is clearly later than the origin of ,purim in ,mr4 ,frazer's opinion1 though not in that of ,lagarde4 ',so long as the temporary king was a real substitute for the reigning monarch1 and had to die sooner or later in his stead1 it was natural that he should be treated with a greater show of deference4444'#ai ,but ,mordecai1 who rode royally1 was the man who did not die3 ,haman died4 ,therefore ,mr4 ,frazer has to guess that the ,mordecai of one year died as the ,haman of the next4 ,ah me1 there are so many guesses6 ,in any case1 ,mordecai is nothing but 'a slightly altered form of ,marduk or ,merodach1' as is now 'generally recognised by ,biblical scholars4' ,nevertheless1 a real historical ,jew called ,mordecai occurs1 as we saw1 in ,ezra and ,nehemiah3 so the name was a ,jewish name1 odd as it appears4#bj ,now ,mordecai1 by the theory1 has to be whipped and hanged finally2 and that seems an odd compliment to ,merodach1 or ,marduk1 who1 as supreme ,babylonian god1 is presiding over the gods1 while his human substitute is being slain infamously4 ,but1 remember1 when whipped and hanged1 the ,mordecai of #aijj1 so to speak1 has become the ,haman of #aija4 ,and 'some high authorities are disposed to accept the theory of ,jensen that ,haman is identical with ,humman or ,homman1 the national god of the ,elamites4'#ba ,,iii4 ,a ,,helpful ,,theory ,,of ,,my ,,own ,if these high authorities are right1 ,i at last see my way clear6 ,haman1 or the victim of the ,saca1 is now neither the representative of the ,king of ,babylon1 nor of ,tammuz1 nor of both at once1 nor of ,marduk1 nor of ,eabani1 nor of ,gilgamesh4 ,he is now 7if ,nldeke or ,jensen is right7 the representative of a conquered and hostile god1 ,humman of the ,elamites4 ,tout va bien6 ,the human representative of a hostile and defeated god may well have been whipped and hanged in derision4 ,i shall grant that ,humman was also the ,elamite god of vegetation1 ,tammuz or the like 7what else could he be871 and so had to fall as the leaves fall1 and also had to spring up as the flowers do2 and this both in ,june-,july#bb and also in ,march-,april4#bc ,if all this is the case1 if the ,sacan victim is ,haman1 and represents ,humman1 and if ,humman is a defeated ,elamite god1 and if ,purim is adapted from a ,babylonian feast of rejoicing for 'victory gained by the ,babylonian gods over the gods of their neighbours the ,elamites1' as ,nldeke thinks possible1#bd then all is comparatively plain sailing4 ,but this is only if we follow ,jensen1 which ,i do not understand ,mr4 ,frazer to do4 ,indeed1 ,jensen is only responsible for identifying ,haman with ,humman4 ,jensen does not identify him with the ,sacan victim4 ,it is ,mr4 ,frazer who does that4 ,the theory1 if ,haman is ,humman1 and is also the victim1 has now put on an aspect which ,i can almost accept4 ,if ,haman stands for ,humman1 and if ,humman is a vanquished god of the hostile ,elamites1 then we solve that hard problem1 namely why the human representative of a king or friendly god was whipped and hanged1 and mocked at the ,saca4 ,the victim1 ,i shall show1 did represent the rightful king1 but also personated the vanquished deity of a race long inimical but now subdued4 ,so his harsh treatment was1 if vulgar1 not unnatural4 ,but all this depends on following ,jensen1 which we are not to do4 ,mr4 ,frazer seems to hold that though according to 'the view of ,jensen1 which some high authorities are disposed to accept1 ,haman is identical with ,humman or ,homman1 the national god of the ,elamites1'#be yet originally this was not really the case4 ,let us suppose it to have been the case1 and ,i can suggest an excellent solution4 ,fatigued by the task of producing sons who had to be sacrificed yearly as his substitutes1 the king of early ,babylon at one time annually sacrificed as his proxy an ,elamite captive1 who1 to deride ,elamite religion1 was also the human representative of the ,elamite god1 ,humman1 and therefore was called ,humman1 or ,haman4 ,just so the ,aztecs sacrificed captives as representatives of their own gods4#bf ,but1 as relations between ,elam and ,babylon grew more peaceful1 ,elamite captives were scarce4 ,the king of ,babylon then substituted for an ,elamite war-prisoner a condemned criminal1 who still represented the ,elamite ,humman1 or ,haman1 but also1 as in the original hypothesis1 represented the king of ,babylon4 ,we must next conjecture that ,humman himself was a god of vegetation2 indeed1 ,i can hardly suppose that any god whatever did not represent the principle of vegetable life4 ,so ,humman must not only die but have a resurrection1 as vegetable gods often do4 ,now1 thanks to my hypothesis1 all is clear1 and every difficulty is removed4 ,we once more see that the kings of ,babylon were sacrificed regularly every year4 ,let us say that they were burned1 as victims usually were4 ,indeed1 ,movers thought that 'at the ,saca also the man who played the god for five days was originally burnt at the end of them4'#bg ,mr4 ,frazer himself suggests that1 in the progress of philanthropy1 the man who used to be burned was merely scourged and hanged or crucified by way of 'a later mitigation of his sufferings4'#bh ,or perhaps he was hanged first1 and burned afterwards1 as in our good old-fashioned punishment for treason1 whereby many ,jesuits were cut down alive1 and many ,jacobites1 their bowels being burned before their living eyes4#bi ,but to burn a man only half hanged and still capable of feeling pain would not mitigate his sufferings4 ,my own theory pleases me better4 ,when tired of being sacrificed yearly1 the ,babylonian king provided a substitute in a son1 or other member of the royal family1 with what sad and ruinous results to the dynasty ,i have already shown4 ,let us suppose that the princely substitutes were also really sacrificed by burning4 ,but here the merit of my theory comes in1 and1 ,i hope1 shines forth4 ,wearied of sacrificing princes of his house1 the king substitutes ,elamite prisoners of war4 ,there is no objection to whipping and hanging them1 except the frivolous objection that they at once cease to be sacrifices1 and we can overcome that difficulty by supposing that they were hanged first1 and burned afterwards1 or 'wirryit at are stake' 7like ,george ,wishart in ,st4 ,andrews71 and then burned4 ,this makes it needless to regard whipping and hanging as a 'mitigation4' ,the next step is1 when ,elamite wars cease1 and ,elamite captives are not procurable1 to substitute a condemned criminal1 who1 he also1 like the ,elamite prisoners1 is called ,humman1 and represents both the king of ,babylon1 and ,humman1 an ,elamite god of vegetation1 who1 like ,tammuz1 has his resurrection4 ,we thus get3 #a4 ,babylonian king4 ,incarnates the god of vegetation4 ,is therefore sacrificed annually to keep the god provided with a succession of fresh and sturdy subjects to be incarnated in4 ,the king is burned4 #b4 ,his sons or nephews are treated in the same way1 for the same reasons1 annually4 ,the king escapes4 #c4 ,an ,elamite war-prisoner becomes the king's substitute4 ,he also represents the ,elamite god of vegetation4 ,in mockery of the ,elamites and their god he is scourged and hanged4 ,observe the ,aztec analogy1 though to be sure the ,aztec captive1 representing an ,aztec god1 is merely sacrificed4 ,but he represents a friendly god4 #d4 ,the substitute is next a condemned criminal4 ,he also is whipped and hanged4 ,like the ,elamite war-captive he represents the king of ,babylon1 and dies for him4 ,he also dies as the ,elamite god of vegetable life1 and1 as such1 has a resurrection1 in the shape of ,mordecai1 who represents the ,babylonian supreme god1 ,marduk 7not ,tammuz or another71 and is not hanged till next year1 when he becomes ,haman or ,humman1 represents the king of ,babylon1 represents the ,elamite god of vegetation1 and is whipped and hanged1 after enjoying 7as king7 the caresses of the royal harem1 and as ,humman the embraces of a sacred harlot1 ,vashti1 who personates ,ishtar4 ,after being hanged 7and perhaps burned7 he has a pseudo-resurrection in the ,marduk of that year1 the ,humman of the next4 ,and so on1 both at the ,saca and at ,purim4 ,this hypothesis appears to be in many ways an advance on any one of ,mr4 ,frazer's hypotheses4 ,it allows us to keep up the ,jewish ,haman as personating ,humman2 which seems necessary1 for how otherwise is ,haman to be explained8 ,we are1 moreover1 enabled to understand how a victim who represented a vanquished ,elamite god1 also1 and at the same time1 represented a victorious ,babylonian king4 ,humman being1 by my hypothesis1 an ,elamite kind of ,tammuz1 all our anxieties about the appearance of ,marduk and ,humman1 where ,tammuz had previously done duty1 disappear4 ,purim1 which had been a ,tammuz feast 7if we accept ,jensen's solution7 and also a feast where a man died for the king1 and then a feast of triumph for the victory of the ,babylonian gods1 and 'a wholly secular merrymaking1' though1 if ,purim is a ,jewish ,tammuz feast1 it had been1 according to ,ezekiel 7who perhaps knew best71 a religious rite of a false religion1 now becomes all these things at once1 though some may doubt how ,purim could be1 simultaneously1 both religious and secular4 ,but ,i would not abandon my theory merely because it involves a contradiction in terms4 ,add to all this that we can now have a ,tammuz death and resurrection in ,june-,july1 and another in ,march-,april1 and all is translucent4 ,at the summer festival we burn a dummy2#cj at the vernal feast we hang a man4#ca ,admirably as my hypothesis colligates the facts1 it is not the hypothesis of ,mr4 ,frazer4 ,though he thinks that 'we can hardly deny the plausibility of' ,nldeke's theory that the ,saca is a triumph for the victory of the ,babylonian over the ,elamite gods1 and that ,purim is an adaptation of the ,saca1#cb ,mr4 ,frazer does not accept that idea4 ,nldeke is plausible1 but not sound2 and this is ruinous to my hypothesis of the ,elamite war-prisoner1 slain as ,humman1 merely in a stage of evolution between the sacrificed prince and the hanged criminal4 ,we have seen how admirably my humble suggestion worked out all round1 but it must be abandoned if ,nldeke is wrong4 ,mr4 ,frazer thinks that the ,saca and ,purim did not 7as in ,nldeke's scheme7 mean originally a triumph of ,babylonian over ,elamite gods4 ,no ,elamite prisoner was hanged 7as ,i had sagely conjectured7 at any stage of the evolution of the ,saca4 ,what occurred was this3 ,at the ,saca there were originally two divine pairs1 let us say ,vashti and ,haman to represent the dying1 ,esther and ,mordecai to represent the renascent1 forces of vegetation4 ,there was nothing ,elamite in the business originally4 ,but 'it would be natural enough that in time an unfavourable comparison should be drawn between the two pairs1 and that people1 forgetting their real meaning and religious identity1 should see in their apparent opposition a victory of the gods of ,babylon over the gods of their eternal foes the ,elamites4 ,hence1 while the happy pair retained their ,babylonian names of ,marduk and ,ishtar1 the unhappy pair1 who were originally nothing but ,marduk and ,ishtar in a different aspect1 were renamed after the hated ,elamite deities ,humman and ,vashti4'#cc ,thus the plausibility of ,nldeke's theory1 that ,purim was adapted from rejoicings for a victory of the ,babylonian gods over those of ,elam1#cd proves to be no more than merely plausible4 ,we are thus driven back to ,jensen's solution3 that the fast and the rejoicings of ,purim are a festival of ,tammuz1 or of a god or hero of his type1 and they cannot1 then1 have been borrowed in ,babylon1 for the ,jews had the ,tammuz ritual before the exile4 ,and yet#ce ,purim was probably borrowed at ,babylon4 ,it must1 apparently1 be meant that only the hanging of a mock-king was really borrowed4 ,the victim may thus represent both the king of ,babylon and also the god of vegetation whom we are to suppose to be incarnated in the king 787#cf ,but why should the ,jews borrow that1 and why did the prophets and legislators hold their peace1 and how do we know that the majesty of ,babylon incarnated a god of vegetation8 ,as ,i sometimes understand ,mr4 ,frazer's whole theory1 it is this4#cg ,the victim of the ,saca represents the king1 who represents ,marduk1 ,humman1 ,tammuz1 or some other deity4 ,he gets his royal robes from the king2 his whipping and hanging from the commuted burning alive of the king2 his divinity from the king plus the god2 his resurrection from the king plus ,tammuz or ,eabani1 granting that ,eabani had a resurrection1 which ,i cannot find in ,dr4 ,jastrow's account4 ,but to do a resurrection plausibly we need another man to take the part of the re-arisen victim1 king1 and god4 ,now the victim for the year is really1 or is called1 ,marduk1 in one shape2 his representative in the resurrection is ,marduk in another shape2 each man being provided with a consort1 representing ,ishtar1 though ,i have yet to learn that she was the wife1 or mistress1 either of ,marduk or ,eabani4 ,but the populace1 not understanding the two ,marduks and two ,ishtars1 preferred to call the ,marduk who died ,humman1 after an ,elamite god1 and his sacred lady of pleasure ,vashti1 after a possible1 but dubious1 ,elamite goddess4 ,the ,marduk who did not die was still called ,marduk till next year1 and his consort till next year was called ,ishtar4 ,all this occurred at the ,saca1 which are ,zakmuk 7though ,jensen does not appear to see it71 and at ,purim 7which ,jastrow and ,nldeke do not identify with ,zakmuk71 and in ,march1 not1 as chronology has it1 in ,july4 ,by pushing the proceedings forward only a month1 from ,purim to ,passover1 we can connect them with the ,crucifixion1 and account for 'the halo of divinity4' ,the theory seems too ramified4 ,it may very naturally be thought that ,i am introducing these complexities and these difficulties by dint of wilfully or unconsciously misrepresenting ,mr4 ,frazer's argument4 ,but the argument1 ,i sincerely think1 is really a very tangled one4 ,it seems plain that originally the victim was only conceived of by ,mr4 ,frazer as dying to save the life of the king1 who otherwise would have been slain as a god1 on ,mr4 ,frazer's hypothesis of religious regicide1 as he could not be trusted 'to remain in full bodily and mental vigour for more than a year4'#ch ,the king was 'slain in his character as a god1' who could not be trusted for more than a year4 ,nothing was said to indicate that the mock king incarnated any special known god2 say ,tammuz4 ,that conjecture appeared later1#ci and the date of the sacrifice was in ,june-,july4 ,nothing was said1 even now1 about the victim's sacred harlot4 ,the victim was content with the royal harem4 ,as late as iii4 #aeb 'the central feature of the ,saca seems to have been the saving of the king's life1' by the slaying of the victim1 and1 to that main end of the rite1 no sacred harlot was necessary4 ,but the date had now been moved from midsummer to early spring1 and into the neighbourhood of the feast of ,purim4 ,the religious character of the ,saca period of wailing and rejoicing in sympathy with a god 7,tammuz7 now seemed to be overlooked1 for ,mr4 ,frazer says that the ,saca 'was a wild ,bacchanalian revel 444' and that ,purim was the same3 men and women disguising themselves1 drinking1 and behaving wantonly4#dj ,but ,purim was connected1 through the ,book of ,esther1 with ,haman1 ,mordecai1 ,vashti1 and ,esther2 and now arose the idea of making ,haman1 the victim1 have a double who represented him in his resurrection4 ,the ,elamite god ,humman and the ,babylonian god ,mordecai crept in through the ,book of ,esther1 and through the very perilous effort to identify the ,saca with ,zakmuk1 and both with ,purim4 ,the ,book of ,esther also introduced two female characters1 and parts had to be found for them in the ,saca1 though our only authority mentions1 in connection with the ,saca1 no female characters whatever1 except the ladies of the royal harem4 ,by analogy and conjecture1 as to ,semiramis and her lovers1 parts were next found for the female characters of the ,book of ,esther as sacred harlots1 representing the goddess of love4 ,the consequent amours are supposed to stimulate the crops1 and1 in this part of the theory1 the conjecture that the victim really dies to save the life of the king does appear to be rather dropped out of sight1 though this idea is the real starting-point of the whole speculation4 ,there is a come and go between the victim as king1 with the royal harem1 and the victim as ,tammuz1 with the sacred harlot4 ,conjectures about the victim as the ,elamite ,humman1 or as the ,babylonian ,marduk1 or as ,marduk representing ,eabani1 or representing ,gilgamesh1 flit like the weaver's shuttle through the strangely woven warp and woof of the argument4 ,throughout we ask in vain for any proof that the ,king of ,babylon was ever1 at any time1 in any text1 regarded or spoken of as an incarnation of ,tammuz1 or of ,marduk1 or of ,humman1 or of ,gilgamesh1 or of ,eabani--which the speculation requires4 ,meanwhile the known1 or at least the alleged1 facts are the mock royalty1 whipping1 and death of the man who yearly lorded it as king for five days in the ,persian palace1 at the ,saca1 a period of licence1 when every house had its slave-king4 ,the extraordinary complexities in a matter really very simple are caused by identifying the ,saca with ,purim and ,zakmuk1 in the teeth of chronology2 and by introducing into the ,saca1 without any historical evidence1 the characters of a ,hebrew historical romance about the origin of ,purim4 ,the tendency also to find gods of vegetation everywhere adds its bewildering enchantment1 till the spirit of system discovers gods of vegetation in the criminals who1 on very slender evidence1 are said to have been yearly whipped and hanged4 ,nay1 even the hypothetical male issue of the criminal1 by a hypothetical harlot1 becomes a hypothetical 'infant god1' is brought up as a criminal1 and ends as a mock-king and a divine victim4 ,mr4 ,frazer's whole argument1 of course1 clashes with the higher criticism of ,wellhausen1 who avers that the ,jews could keep no feasts in the exile1 and there learned 'the lesson of religious isolation4' ,on the other hand1 the ,jews1 by ,mr4 ,frazer's theory1 did keep a feast1 and a very abominable feast1 and1 far from learning the lesson of religious isolation1 borrowed the most execrable heathen cruelties1 accompanied by ritual debaucheries4 ,so ,wellhausen must greatly err in his opinions1 which are much revered by the clergy of this island4#da #a ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aei4 #b ,ezra ii4 #b2 ,nehemiah vii4 #g4 #c ,esther ii4 #g4 #d ,encyclop4 ,bibl4 s4 v4 ',esther4' #e ,jastrow1 p4 #fhf1 note #b4 #f ,encyclop4 ,bibl4 s4 v4 ',esther4' #g ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aeh1 #aei4 #h ,jastrow does not indicate that1 in the ancient poem on ,eabani1 he did 'return to the upper world4' ,but see ,l4 ,w4 ,king1 ,bab4 and ,ass4 ,rel4 and ,myth4 p4 #adf4 #i ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #agh4 #aj ,jastrow1 p4 #eac4 #aa ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #agi4 #ab ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #ahj4 #ac ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aha-ahd4 ,laing's ,knox1 ii4 #aeg-afj4 #ad ,hyde1 ,hist4 ,bel4 ,pers47#agfj71 p4 #bej1 says that some call this ride an innovation1 but they are wrong1 and the ride is very ancient1 in his opinion4 ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #ahc4 #ae ,purim1 ,ein ,beitrag zur ,geschichte der ,religion1 p4 #ea4 ,von ,paul de ,lagarde1 ,gottingen1 #ahhg4 #af ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #ahc4 #ag ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #ahd4 #ah ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #ahf4 #ai ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #ahc4 #bj ,nehemiah vii4 #g2 ,ezra ii4 #b4 #ba ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aeh1 #aei4 #bb ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #abc1 #bed4 #bc ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aeb4 #bd ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aei4 #be ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aei4 #bf ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #acd-acg4 #bg ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aga2 ,movers1 ,die ,phnizier1 i4 #dif4 #bh ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aga4 #bi ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aga4 #cj ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #abc1 #abd4 #ca ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aeb4 #cb ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aei4 #cc ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #ahj1 #aha4 #cd ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aei4 #ce ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aee4 #cf ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #ahe4 #cg ,i assume that ,jensen's theory of ,zakmuk is accepted1 for it gets in a resurrection1 through ,eabani4 ,this is essential1 as we hear nothing elsewhere of a ,tammuz resurrection in ,march at ,babylon4 #ch ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bd1 #bf4 #ci ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bec-bed4 #dj ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aee-aef4 #da ,wellhausen1 ,history of ,israel1 pp4 #dib-dic4 ,,ix ,,why ,,was ,,the ,,mock-,,king ,,of ,,the ,,sac,a ,,whipped ,,and ,,hanged8 ,though ,i have tried to argue against ,mr4 ,frazer's theory of the cause of the 'sacrifice' of the mock ,sacan king1 ,i am not prepared to offer a dogmatic counter-theory4 ,the ,sacan case is unique1 is isolated2 we are acquainted with no other similar examples1 and thus a rite which has an isolated existence may have had a singular cause4 ,the cause may be hidden behind the scenes of history4 ,though ,i have not a firm hypothesis as to that cause1 ,i shall end this chapter by throwing out a conjecture1 for what it may be worth4 ,meanwhile it may be asked why ,i call the adventure of the ,sacan mock-king 'isolated and unique4' ,have we not other examples of temporary kings1 holding office for three or four days1 in a period of festivity and unreason8 ,certainly we have such kings1 but all of them 'scape whipping and hanging4 ,and none of them was a slave or a criminal4 ,these are not mere verbal1 and probably not mere accidental1 variations from the solitary ,sacan type4 ,but we have the legend of ,st4 ,dasius8 ,yes1 but1 accepting the truth of that legend1 it rather adds to than diminishes the difficulty of getting a clue to the origin of the ,sacan mock-king and his doom4 ,let us tabulate the facts3 ,a4 ,,sac,a ,b4 ,,saturnalia #a4 ,a condemned criminal4 #a4 ,a freeman selected by lot4 #b4 ,king of a thirty days' revel4 #b4 ,king of a five days' revel4 #c4 ,is stripped and scourged4 #c4 ,is not stripped or scourged4 #d4 ,is hanged4 #d4 ,is sacrificed at the altar of ,saturn2 or sacrifices himself4 #e4 ,is guessed to represent 7a7 a #e4 ,represents ,saturn4 ,tammuz god1 or 7b7 the king of ,babylon2 or both4 #f4 ,has a pseudo-resurrection4 #f4 ,has no known pseudo-resurrection4 #g4 ,lies with 7a7 the royal #g4 ,does not lie with royal concubines1 7b7 with a sacred concubines or with a sacred harlot4 harlot4 #h4 ,in a period of topsy-turvy #h4 ,in a period of topsy-turvy licence to slaves and free4 licence to slaves and free4 #i4 ,which is supposed to #i4 ,which is supposed to commemorate a victory over the commemorate the ,golden ,age of ,sac4 ,saturn4 ,under ,a1 number #e--the item that the ,sacan mock-king represents the king of ,babylon1 or ,tammuz1 or both--number #f1 the mock-king's pseudo-resurrection1 and number #g 7#f71 his amour with the sacred harlot1 are all conjectures of ,mr4 ,frazer's4 ,the real points of resemblance between the ,sacan and the ,msian victim are 7#a7 their mockery of royalty1 7#b7 their death1 occurring in very different circumstances1 7#c7 during a period of licence1 including the pretence of lordship by slaves in each household at ,babylon2 by free men at ,rome4 ,the points of difference are numerous and essential1 and the dates and durations of the ,babylonian and ,roman festivals vary widely4 ,thus1 ,i think1 the ,sacan and ,msian cases do not explain the meaning of what is a religious rite in ,msia3 a secular custom 7as ,i believe7 in ,babylon4 ,again1 the differences make it hard to conjecture1 with ,,mm4 ,cumont and ,parmentier1 that the ,msian rite was introduced by ,oriental soldiers of ,rome1 accustomed to the ,babylonian ,saca4 ,but to suppose a native ,roman survival or recrudescence is also difficult1 because ,greek and ,roman poets1 historians1 antiquaries1 and essayists1 all writing on the ,saturnalia1 know of no such survival4 ,again1 if originally ,italian mock-kings were sacrificed yearly in many places1 did they die as proxies for real local ,italian kings1 who would otherwise have been sacrificed8 ,this1 as we have seen1 is impossible3 men would never have accepted the crown on such conditions4 ,or did they die1 like the ,mexican victims1 as man-gods slain for a real god ,saturn8 ,but the ,mexican victim was a captive3 free men would hardly draw lots for death4 ,there is no trace in ,roman folk-custom of any mock slaying of the actual ,roman ,saturnalian kings of the brawls in each household4 ,the ,saturnalia were so remote in ,lucian's day from cruelty1 that ,dickens might have written1 as ,christmas papers1 ,lucian's essays and letters on the subject4 ,universal kindness--the ,scrooges feasting the ,trotty ,vecks of the period--universal giving of presents1 and family games of forfeits and of chance 7played for nuts7 were the features of the ,saturnalia4 ,wine flowed like water2 but as to amorous licence at the ,saturnalia1 we only hear the complaint of the rich that the poor guests make too free with the ladies of the house4 ,the connection of the ,saturnalia with ,saturn1 recognised by the ,romans as 'that old savage' the ,greek ,cronos1 may1 or may not1 have been original4 ,the ,saturnalia were not 'saturnine4' ,was the theory of a golden age under ,saturn not a reflection from the festive period1 'the best day in the year1' says ,catullus1 which had become associated with the name of ,saturn8 ,our evidence for sacrifice or hanging of a mock-king is so meagre and shadowy 7in one case the dubious ,dasius legend2 in the other what ,athenus cites from ,berosus1 coupled with what ,dio puts into the mouth of ,diogenes1 and with what ,strabo tells about the ,saca7 that the ground will not bear the weight of ,mr4 ,frazer's high-piled1 eighteen-storied castle of hypotheses4 ,i do not1 even so1 absolutely impugn the truth of the two tales of the deaths of mock-kings2 the undesigned coincidence of testimony ,i am willing to take for presumption of truth1 though of four ancient witnesses who speak of the ,saca1 only one1 ,dio1 alludes to the crowning1 robing1 stripping1 scourging1 and hanging of the mock-king of the festival4#a ,i4 ,,periods ,,of ,,licence ,how are we to explain the obscure facts8 ,let us begin with a feature common to the ,msian event of #cjc ,a4,d4 and to the ,saca4 ,both occur in a period of chartered licence1 when slaves play the masters1 and all is topsy-turvy4 ,mr4 ,frazer has collected many examples of festivals of licence1 when laws lose their force4#b ,the ,roman slaves at the ,saturnalia were not even reproved 'for conduct which at any other season might have been punished with stripes1 imprisonment1 or death4'#c ,now pass the conjecture that in just one known place1 ,babylon1 the stripes and death for the conduct usually punished with these penalties were inflicted1 after the period of licence1 on just one person1 and you get ,dio's case of the mock-king of the ,babylonian ,saca4 ,meanwhile observe that there was a ,zoganes1 or slave-lord1 ruling in every ,babylonian household1 including that of the king4 ,each ,zoganes was royally attired1 and bore sway in the dwelling where1 except in the five days of licence1 he served4 ,but for all that was done in these five days only one man was punished1 and he was the king's ,zoganes4 ,athenus does not mention this2 ,hesychius is silent2 ,strabo does not even speak of the lordship of slaves4 ,our only evidence for the slaying of the king's ,zoganes is ,dio ,chrysostom1 putting the anecdote into a feigned discourse of ,diogenes4 ,the slaying occurs only in one place1 as the ,persians had only one king4 ,meanwhile let us study in various regions the periods of licence4 ,it seems as if human nature needed an annual 'burst4' ,mr4 ,frazer suggests1 as a magical motive1 that the farmers thought by swilling and guzzling just before they proceeded to sow the fields that they thereby imparted additional vigour to the seed4#d ,in fact1 whether men fasted or feasted1 were chaste or amorous1 in all cases they acted for the benefit of the crops4 ,be it so1 but why should non-agricultural savages have periods of licence8 ,i venture to suggest that the agricultural motive in religion and ritual is at present rather over-worked4 ,it is becoming as common an explanation of custom and belief as the recognition of the sun and the dawn everywhere used to be in mythology4 ,to show that a period of licence with express and purposeful breach of the most sacred laws may exist without an agricultural motive1 ,i shall prove later that it occurs among a non-agricultural set of savages1 and1 consequently1 when found among agricultural peoples1 may descend from some non-agricultural motive4 ,mr4 ,frazer himself elsewhere assigns a motive1 not necessarily agricultural1 for these chartered explosions of unlaw4 #a4 ,on the ,gold ,coast the period of licence precedes the annual ceremony of 'banishing the devil4' ,the season of the year is not given4 #b4 ,the feast of licence of the ,hos of ,north-,east ,india is called by ,dalton 'a saturnale4' ,it is held in ,january1 'when the granaries are full of grain1 and the people1 to use their own expression1 are full of devilry4' ,with prayers for a good new year the devil is beaten out of the bounds4 #c4 ,at the similar ,mundari festival 'the servants are feasted by their masters4' ,so far nothing is noted about swilling for the good of the crops2 that is not 'an excuse for the glass4' #d4 ,in the ,hindoo ,koosh a little licence exists at the end of harvest3 devils are driven out1 and then seed is sown4 #e4 ,in ,tonquin from ,january #be to ,february #be was a season of dormant law3 'only treason and murder were taken account of1 and the malefactors detained till the great seal should come into operation again4' ,then offerings were made to evil spirits1 for 'it is usual and customary among them to feast the condemned before their execution4' ,the devils were then expelled4#e #f4 ,in ,cambodia1 after the expulsion of devils 7diabolo-fugium71 gambling is universal4 #g4 ,in ,nepaul1 in ,october1 feasting and drinking occur1 and presents are made by masters to slaves4 ,there may be1 perhaps1 expulsion of devils2 for the army fire salutes4#f ,in these cases of licence ,mr4 ,frazer thinks that men rejoice either before the expulsion of devils1 because that ceremony will carry off their sins1 or after the expulsion1 when their minds are at ease4#g ,thus men enjoy these bursts either1 by the first hypothesis1 to improve the prospects of agriculture2 or1 on the second theory1 because a ceremony will cleanse the sins of the 'burst2' or because a ceremony has freed their minds from fear of devils4 ,when the harvest is just in1 then1 in fact1 men have plenty of food1 and1 as we saw1 are 'full of devilry4' ,so they play it off4 ,in at least four out of our seven cases fulness of bread and drink appears to me to account for the 'burst4' ,this also explains 7#h7 the ,zulu licence at the rejoicing for the first fruits1 'a saturnalia1 people are not supposed to be responsible for what they say or do4'#h #i4 ,the same facts mark the ,pondo feast of first fruits4#i #aj4 ,in ,ashanti the harvest feast is in ,september4 ',during its continuance the grossest licence prevails2 theft1 intrigue1 and assault go unpunished1 and both sexes abandon themselves to their passions4'#aj ,by an extraordinary coincidence1 which ,mr4 ,frazer does not quote1 'on the fifth day' of the ,ashanti harvest festival 'a criminal is sacrificed1' says ,sir ,a4 ,b4 ,ellis1 'sent as a messenger to the deceased kings4' ,is the criminal attired as a mock-king8 ,i would venture to suggest1 as a conclusion1 that people indulge in these lawless excesses not so much to improve the prospects of farming as because they are 'full of devilry1' and that often they are full of devilry because they have ended their labours and are full of meat and drink4 ,sine ,bacche et ,cerere friget ,venus4 ,they therefore permit themselves a regular debauch2 ranks are reversed1 slaves lord it over their masters1 laws are in abeyance2 in ,tonquin reviving law only takes notice of treason and murder4 ,in ,borne1 at the ,saturnalia1 and at ,purim among the ,jews1 however1 a kind of ,dickensite ,christianicy prevailed at the period of licence2 also in ,persia1 at the period called ,purdaghn1 which ,hyde compares to the ,saca and ,purim3 as does ,lagarde1 in writing on ,purim4#aa ,the reader will have observed that at not one of these many periods of licence1 in widely severed regions and grades of civilisation1 is a mock-king put to death4 ,indeed1 nobody is put to death1 except in ,ashanti1 and nobody is scourged4 ,thus1 as ,i remarked before1 the case of the mock-king at the ,babylonian ,saca is isolated1 as far as our knowledge goes4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,divine ,,scapegoat ,in many cases1 however1 at expulsion of the devils1 the part of devil is played by a man who is driven away1 often he is beaten away4 ,now ,i have already said that1 by ,mr4 ,frazer's theory 7as ,i understand it71 the mock-king at the ,saca was 'sacrificed' in a double rle2 namely both as the king's proxy 7the king being a god7 and also as ,tammuz1 not to speak of ,marduk and ,humman4 ,to this1 of course1 ,i replied 7#a7 that no case seemed to be given of killing a king yearly to benefit a god2 7#b7 that ,i could find no case of a king being killed by proxy2 7#c7 that when kings really were killed1 it was not annually nor by the infamous death of a malefactor 7hanging72 7#d7 that there was no proof of a man being killed as ,tammuz2 7#e7 that ,tammuz is nowhere said to have been hanged1 or crucified1 or scourged2 7#f7 that in no case known to me is sacrifice performed by hanging1 still less 7if possible7 by hanging after a whipping4 ,these arguments convince me that ,mr4 ,frazer's theory 7if it is his theory7 is unconvincing4 ,but ,i am not quite sure that ,mr4 ,frazer really holds his ,sacan victim to have played two parts1 at two distinct times of year4 ,now1 however1 in connection with human scapegoats1 our author does certainly make a victim 'double a part4' ,first1 it was usual to kill a beast-god or man-god 'to save his divine life from being weakened by the inroads of age4' ,next1 there were human scapegoats1 driven away with all evil on their heads4 ,but1 suggests ,mr4 ,frazer1 'if it occurred to people to combine these two customs1 the result would be the employment of the dying god' 7god-man1 king1 or his proxy7 'as a scapegoat4 ,he was killed1 not originally to take away sin1 but to save the divine life from the degeneracy of old age2 but1 since he had to be killed at any rate1 people may have thought that they might as well seize the opportunity to lay upon him the burden of their sufferings and sin in order that he might bear it away with him to the unknown world beyond the grave4'#ab ,even so1 when a ,dublin mob was about to throw a man over from the gallery of the theatre1 some economist cried1 ',don't waste him3 kill a fiddler with him'6 ,as proof that people might reason in this thrifty way we learn that1 on ,march #ae1 a scapegoat man1 called ',old ,mars1' was beaten at ,borne and expelled4 ,mars1 of course1 was a god of vegetation1 and here the man-god1 ',old ,mars1' is both god and scapegoat4 ,but he is not sacrificed1 nor even hanged4#ac ,in ,athens during plague1 drought1 or famine two human scapegoats were done to death1 and ,mr4 ,frazer infers1 but doubtfully1 were stoned to death4 ,this also occurred yearly at the ,thargelia2 the stoning is a conjecture4 ,in ,greek cities of ,asia ,minor1 in times of calamity1 an ugly or deformed man was made to eat dried figs1 a barley loaf1 and cheese4 ,then he was beaten seven times in a special manner1 with squills and myrtle boughs1 was burned1 and the ashes were thrown into the sea4 ,the beating at once expelled evil influences and was good for the crops4 ,so in this ugly poor devil 'we must recognise a representative of the creating and fertilising god of vegetation4' ,i really must try to save him from this general doom6 ,these stupid cruelties1 if they had the usual agricultural motive1 worked magically not religiously1 worked by sympathetic magic1 not by divine interference4 ,this creature1 though supposed to be a god of vegetation1 was confessedly in appearance no ,adonis6#ad ,in rejecting the idea that this hideous wretch did duty as a god1 ,adonis1 so fair that he won and so cold that he rejected the love of the golden ,aphrodite1 ,i may justify myself by ,mr4 ,frazer's example4 ,i argue that the deformed victim was1 if anything1 used in magic1 not in religion--not as embodying a god4 ,in the same way ,mr4 ,frazer himself says of the rites of the dying god of vegetation1 all over ,western ,asia1 that the ritual was 'fundamentally a religious1 or rather a magical1 ceremony4'#ae ,so was the beating and death of the ugly deformed man 7as to whom no evidence hints that he did duty for a god7 a merely magical ceremony4 ,now let us see where we are4 ,mr4 ,frazer's point was to prove that a man1 whom he regarded as a proxy of a god-king1 was put to death1 at a period of chartered licence1 to save the divine life4 ,but people also had human scapegoats4 ,so they perhaps argued 7this is my own suggestion73 ',as the proxy of the man-god 7himself ex officio a man-god7 has to be killed at any rate1 and as a scapegoat has to be thumped1 why not thump the man-god who has to die at any rate8 ,let him double the part1 nay1 as we are economising1 let him treble the part1 let him be beaten as a scapegoat1 be hanged as a proxy for the divine life of the king1 and also be hanged as ,tammuz4' ,but to prove that all this was deliberately thought out1 where have we a case of a scapegoat god-man who is put to death8 ,we have none1 unless we let ,mr4 ,frazer persuade us that his ugly deformed person1 ,i a degraded and useless being1' 'must be recognised as a representative of the creative and fertilising god of vegetation1 whose reproductive powers are stimulated that these might be transmitted in full activity to his successor1 the new god or new embodiment of the old god1 who was doubtless supposed immediately to take the place of the one slain4'#af ,i must decline to obey ,mr4 ,frazer's 'must1' and to recognise an ,adonis in the ugly deformed person4 ,next1 ,i demur to the idea that 'doubtless' the dying deformed one handed over his powers to a new god4 ,thirdly1 if all this is meant to show that the ,sacan criminal was not only 7#a7 a proxy1 saving the royal divine life1 and enjoying the royal harem2 and 7#b7 was a representative of ,tammuz1 enjoying a sacred harlot2 but 7#c7 was1 moreover1 a human scapegoat1 scourged as such1 and to stimulate his reproductive powers1 and to expel evil influences1 then ,i really cannot accept the portentous hypothesis4 ,no attested examples of human scapegoats at ,babylon are offered1 but that is a trifle4 ,if ,mr4 ,frazer really means to add the duties of a scapegoat1 and the consequent beating1#ag to the duties of proxy king and ,tammuz man in his chapter on the ,saturnalia1 he does not say so4 ,it does not appear1 then1 that he wishes to explain the scourging of the mock-king at the ,saca by his theory of a human scapegoat1 and it does not appear that he ever explains the stripping of the royal robes from the unlucky man4 ,yet if the man really died as a mock-king1 there must have been some reason for stripping him of his royal raiment4 ,we never hear that the representative of ,king ,saturnus was either stripped or whipped before being sacrificed4 ,nor do ,i remark that1 in ,anahuac1 the human victim who personated a god was stripped of the god's robes and ornaments4 ,why then was the ,sacan victim1 and he alone 7as far as we know71 reduced from his royalty by being stripped before execution1 and also brought down to the estate of a slave by being scourged8 ,,iii4 ,,more ,,periods ,,of ,,licence ,i am going with more than diffidence to offer a guess at the reasons1 asking it to be remembered that ,i do so merely because the case is isolated1 and cannot at present be illustrated by parallel ceremonies4 ,but first1 returning to the periods of licence1 ,i must show that they are not peculiar to agricultural races1 nor1 therefore1 necessarily instituted to aid the farmer4 ,this in itself is a great comfort1 for one wearies of being told that the crops are so eternally the cause of custom and rite4 ,among the ,arunta of ,central ,australia1 in many ways a backward race and not agricultural1 'considerable licence is allowed on certain occasions1 when a large number of men and women are gathered together to perform certain corroborees' 7or sacred dances74 ,so say ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen4 ,the laws of marriage are then turned upside down4 ,a man is ordered to have relations with the woman who is his ',mura--that is1 one to whom he may not1 under ordinary circumstances1 even speak1 or go near1 much less have anything like marital relations with4' ,every man is expected to send his wife to these dances1 for the express purpose of violating1 in this period of licence1 the most sacred laws of the tribe4#ah ,these backward persons1 the ,arunta1 have no native strong drink1 and cannot get intoxicated1 but what they can they do in the way of licence1 like more civilised races1 and necessarily not for agricultural reasons1 as they have no agriculture4 ,they break their most sacred law1 just as the ,jews1 at ,purim1 deliberately broke the law of ,moses4#ai ,conceivably1 then1 even stripping1 scourging1 and hanging a mock-king at the ,saca may also have been done for some reason not agricultural4 ,what view did the ,persians themselves take of their festival8 ,i do not think that ,mr4 ,frazer insists enough on this point4 ,the ,persians regard the ,saca as commemorative of a great massacre of the ,sac near the ,euxine4 ,in both forms of the ,persian legend1 in ,strabo1 their ancestors fell on the ,sac when that tribe was hopelessly intoxicated3 'drunk and frantic1 drowsy and asleep1 or dancing and maddened with wine4' ,the ,sac were massacred1 and the ,saca1 a feast of licence1 was dedicated to the ,persian goddess ,anaitis2 obviously in memory of the intoxicated revels of the ,sac1#bj or so tradition averred4 ,the ,persians thus1 by dint of a popular etymology 7,saca from ,sac71 accounted to themselves for the origin of a period of chartered licence1 in which1 says ,strabo1 'both men and women1 dressed in the ,scythian habit1 drink and sport wantonly by night and day4' ,as in many other cases1 collected by ,athenus1 the lawless revel had its kings of unreason3 slaves acting as masters and kings4 ,just one of these kings1 the ,zoganes in the royal household1 was afterwards stripped1 scourged1 and hanged4 ,what could the reason be8 ,we have seen that in ,tonquin all crimes committed in the period of licence are overlooked1 except treason and murder4#ba ,we have been told that in the ,roman ,saturnalia a slave might do1 unreproved1 what at any other time would be punished 'with stripes1 imprisonment1 or death4'#bb ,we have read that1 at the ,pondo period of licence1 nobody was later made responsible for his actions1 though at ,tonquin murder and treason were excepted4#bc ,the same irresponsibility pervades the ,zulu period of licence4#bd ,to reinforce this fact1 that the most sacred laws are purposefully broken at some periods of licence1 ,i cite the ,nanga orgies in old ,fiji4 ',the ,nanga is frequently spoken of as the ,mbaki1 or harvest2' people being 'full of devilry and food' at harvest1 which1 perhaps1 they need not be in ,march-,april4 ,all distinctions of property were suspended at the ,nanga4 ,men and women1 in fantastic dresses1 publicly 'practised unmentionable abominations4' ,even the relationship of brother and sister 'seemed to be no bar to the general licence4' ,but after the ,nanga1 as before the ,nanga1 brothers and sisters might not even speak to each other4 ,this precisely answers to the ,australian incest with the ,mura4 ,brothers and sisters at the ,nanga were 'intentionally coupled4' ,the ceremonies included initiatory mysteries1 like the ,bora of the ,australian blacks4 ,as at the ,arunta corroborees1 the great point was to break the most sacred laws3 those of incest4#be ,this peculiar 'burst' then is in ,australia pre-agricultural1 though1 as in ,fiji1 it survives among an agricultural people4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,sac,a ,,as ,a ,,period ,,of ,,licence ,well1 the ,saca was such a period of licence4 ,each household was then ruled by a slave1 the ,zoganes1 as ,athenus quotes ,berosus4 ,the royal household was not an exception4 ,now to rule the royal household1 in the royal robes1 and above all to take liberties with the royal harem 7compare ,fijian and ,australian licence71 is treason2 one of the two crimes excepted from the ,saturnalian amnesty in ,tonquin4 ,to overlook treason would be1 for a ,persian monarch1 to set a dangerous precedent4 ,therefore the royal ,zoganes1 or slave-king of the five days' revel1 unlike the ,zoganes of private houses1 would deserve death1 technically speaking4 ,at this point let me adopt ,mr4 ,frazer's theory of a substitute4 ,a criminal already condemned to death is employed instead of a harmless slave1 as ,zoganes of the royal household1 and is then hanged4 ,in dozens of cases of summer gambols1 in ,european folklore1 'the ,whitsuntide representatives of the tree spirit' are put to a mock death4#bf ,these are in one or two instances called 'kings4' ,the regular ,may ,kings and ,may ,queens seem to escape3 the ,grass ,king merely 'hands his crown to the mayor4'#bg ,these mock slayings of folklore actors may 7,i think71 like handing the crown to the mayor1 merely mean that the actor's reign is over4 ,this is not ,mr4 ,frazer's opinion3 the summer monarchs when killed in sport are killed1 he thinks1 as their precursors were really slain1 for the god of vegetation4 ,o vegetation1 what crimes are wrought in thy name6 ,in any case the royal ,zoganes1 or criminal substitute for the slave-king of the royal household in ,babylon1 deserved a hanging1 to discourage the precedent of treason set by him in the period of licence4 ,only in the king's house was the reign of the ,zoganes high treason4 ,now1 before hanging him1 it was actually necessary to demonstrate by symbolic action that he was no real king1 but a common slave or criminal4 ,he was reduced to his true level by being stripped of his royal robes1 and by being whipped1 a specially servile punishment4 ,he was then hanged4 ,but to treat a real slave thus merely because1 as in every other household1 he played the ,zoganes or slave as master1 would be a shame4 ,the man's only fault was the accident1 thrust on him by custom1 of playing lord in the royal household of a jealous monarch4 ,so a criminal already condemned took the part1 and1 as the slave would have been1 he was finally reduced to his level by being stripped of his royal robes and scourged1 before suffering death2 technically for treason1 really for the crime on which he was originally condemned4 ,this mere guess at the origin of a unique custom has certain advantages4 ,it explains 7and ,i fail to see that ,mr4 ,frazer explains7 why the ,sacan mock-king 7unlike the ,saturn victim7 was stripped of his royal robes and whipped4 ,these sufferings proclaimed the man no king1 but a slave4 ,again1 his hanging was just what1 as condemned on a capital charge1 a low-born malefactor might expect4 ,with the best will in the world1 no ,babylonian could follow ,mr4 ,frazer and take a hanged felon for a god or a divine sacrifice4 ,why only one man was thus treated1 though there was a ,zoganes or slave-lord in every house1 is explained by the fact that there was only one royal house1 only one household in which the slave-lord's conduct was treason4 ,with paternal fondness ,i contemplate my own little guess4 ,but1 alas6 we are not told that the other slave-lords at the ,saca actually invaded the ladies of the house4 ,so why should the slave-lord of the royal household be allowed to do so8 ,how is my conjecture to weather this point of danger8 ,well1 we are never told 7as far as ,i am aware7 that a subject in the ,east enfeoffed himself of private demesne by invading the harem of the man to whose estate he was a pretender4 ,but in the case of royal demesne to invade the harem was the first step of a young pretender1 like ,absalom1 'for the purpose of making known and strengthening his claim to the throne1' says ,movers4#bh ,remembering the tenacity of traditional usage1 sanctioning deadly sexual crimes in some periods of licence1 remembering that1 in them1 the 'primitive' ,arunta deliberately break1 as did the ,jews at ,purim1 and the ,fijians1 the most sacred and stringent of their taboos1 shall we not allow ,sacan custom to encroach1 for the purpose of making the royalty of the king's ,zoganes indisputable1 on the king's harem8 ,for in that way was ,oriental royalty proclaimed and asserted4 ,sir ,alfred ,lyall says3 ',we believe that a few unfortunate concubines would have been of no account at all for the due performance of a popular ,babylonian masquerade1 which might just as well mimic earthly kingship as symbolise divine mysteries4' ,and now we see a simple and conceivable reason why the mock-king of the ,saca invaded the king's harem1 ruled all royally1 was crowned1 robed in the king's robes1 and then1 to restore his servile status and wipe away his royalty1 was stripped of the royal robes1 whipped as a slave was whipped1 and hanged as a condemned criminal deserved to be4 ,my guess1 unlike ,mr4 ,frazer's hypothesis1 colligates all the facts4 ,it explains the stripping1 which ,mr4 ,frazer does not1 ,i think1 explain4 ,it explains the scourging and hanging1 which ,mr4 ,frazer is obliged to account for as a mitigation of burning4 ,it does not require us to believe 7what is incredible7 that of old the ,persian kings were sacrificed annually4 ,it accounts for the occurrence of the execution at a season of secular licence just as in ,ashanti4 ,it involves us in no double1 and1 to my thinking1 contradictory theory1 that the sufferer is both king's proxy and also a representative of ,tammuz1 or ,marduk1 or ,humman1 or ,gilgamesh1 or ,eabani4 ,but my guess is only a guess1 and is offered chiefly to prove that guessing is easy4 ,we cannot be certain about any explanation of a custom so remote1 so unparalleled1 and reported on evidence so late and so dubious as that of ,dio ,chrysostom4 ,some student may point out that1 though ,i boast of my theory as colligating all the facts1 ,i have left out the sacred harlot4 ,but she was only the child of an hypothesis of ,mr4 ,frazer's4 ,a scientific hypothesis is not required to colligate more than the known facts in each case4 ,and ,i am by no means certain that the facts given by our only authority1 ,dio1 were facts of history4 #a ,see ,appendix ,b1 ',martyrdom of ,dasius4' #b ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #gf1 #gh1 #hd1 #he1 #hf1 #ach1 #aai1 note ,i2 ii4 #cbf2 iii4 #aci2 iii4 #ada1 #adc2 iii4 #ade2 iii4 #adg4 #c ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aci2 ,horace1 ,sat4 ii4 #g1 #d2 ,macrobius1 i4 #g1 #bf2 ,justin1 xliii4 i4 #d2 ,plutarch1 ,sulla1 #ah2 ,lucian1 ,sat4 #e1 #g4 #d ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #ade4 #e ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #hd4 #f ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aai1 note #a4 #g ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aai4 #h ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #cbf4 #i ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #cbg4 #aj ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #dfj2 ,ellis1 ,tshi-speaking ,peoples1 p4 #bbi4 #aa ,hyde1 ,hist4 ,rel4 ,pers4 pp4 #bfj-bfg4 #ab ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #abj1 #aba4 #ac ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #abb1 #abc4 #ad ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #abe-abh4 #ae ,g4 ,b4 iii4 p4 #agi4 #af ,the italics are mine4 #ag ,when explaining the flogging of the ,sacan victim1 ,mr4 ,frazer does not say that the purpose was 'to stimulate his reproductive powers4' ,he speaks of a 'mitigation' of burning4 #ah ,spencer and ,gill en regard these authorised and enforced breaches of sacred laws as testifying to the existence in the past of a time when no such laws existed1 when promiscuity was universal1 or at least as pointing in the direction of wider marital relations 'than exist at present' 7op4 cit4 #aaa74 ,in the same way the ,romans thought that the ,saturnalia pointed back to a golden age when there was no law4 #ai ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aef4 #bj ,strabo1 #eaa4 #ba ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #hd4 #bb ,g4 ,b4 ii4 p4 #cbg4 #bc ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aci4 #bd ,g4 ,b4 ii4 p4 #cbf4 #be ,fison1 ,j4 ,a4 ,i4 xiv4 p4 #bh4 #bf ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #fj-ff4 #bg ,g4 ,b4 i4 #bah4 #bh ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #afj1 note ,i1 citing ,movers1 ,die ,phnizier1 i4 #dij1 seq42 #b ,samuel xvi4 #ba2 cf4 xii4 #h2 ,herodotus1 iii4 #fh2 ,josephus1 ,contra ,apion4 i4 #ae4 ,x ,,calvary ,it is1 fortunately1 not needful to dwell long on the disproval of ,mr4 ,frazer's theory that his facts 'seem to shed fresh light on some of the causes which contributed to the remarkably rapid diffusion of ,christianity in ,asia ,minor4444 ,the new faith had elements in it which appealed powerfully to the ,asiatic mind4444 ,we have seen that the conception of the dying and risen god was no new one in these regions4444 ,a man whom the fond imagination of his worshippers invested with the attributes of a god gave his life for the life of the world4444 ,a chain of causes which1 because we cannot follow them1 might in the loose language of daily life be called an accidents determined that the part of the dying god in this annual play should be thrust on ,jesus of ,nazareth4444' ,his death as the ,haman of the annual mystery play of the dying god' impressed upon what had been hitherto mainly an ethical mission the character of a divine revelation culminating in the passion and death of the incarnate ,son of a heavenly ,father4 ,in this form the story of the life and death of ,jesus exerted an influence which it could never have had if the great teacher had died the death of a vulgar malefactor4 ,it shed round the ,cross on ,calvary a halo of divinity1' ,c4#a ,but all this halo could only be shed if the victim was recognised by the world as dying in the character of a god1 and as rising again in the person of ,barabbas1 the ,mordecai of the year4 ,we know on the best historical evidence that there was no such recognition4 ',to the ,greeks foolishness1 and to the ,jews a stumbling block1' was the ,cross1 as ,st4 ,paul assures us4 ,moreover1 we know that ribaldry1 not reverence1 marked the multitude at the ,crucifixion4 ,by ,mr4 ,frazer's theory ,barabbas represented the re-arisen god1 ',the ,son of the ,father4' ,was ,barabbas revered8 ,no2 'some pretended to salute his mock majesty1 and others belaboured the donkey on which he rode4'#b ,therefore1 by ,mr4 ,frazer's own explicit statement1 the divine facts about ,barabbas were not recognised4 ,yet he was the counterpart of the sacred ,victim4 ,mr4 ,frazer's theory demands1 ,i think1 the general recognition of the godhead of the yearly victim1 who gave ,christ's mission 'the influence which it could never have had if the great teacher had died the death of a vulgar malefactor4'#c ,yet ,mr4 ,frazer himself assures us that the idea of the divinity of the victim may have been forgotten2 that his 'sacrifice' might seem 'the execution of a criminal4' ,i cite the passage3 ',the divine character of the animal or man is forgotten1 and he comes to be regarded merely as an ordinary victim4 ,this is especially the case when it is a divine man who is killed4 ,for when a nation becomes civilised1 if it does not drop human sacrifices altogether1 it at least selects as victims only such wretches as would be put to death at any rate4 ,thus1 as in the ,sacan festival at ,babylon1 the killing of a god may come to be confounded with the execution of a criminal4'#d ,yet within eighty pages ,mr4 ,frazer attributes the 'halo of divinity' to the happy accident which enabled the victim to die as a recognised representative of a dying god4#e ,mr4 ,frazer puts forth his hypothesis 'with great diffidence4'#f ,he thinks that he may 'have perhaps been led by the interest and importance of the subject somewhat deeper than the evidence warrants4'#g ,that is certain4 ,we have shown that the evidence1 in our opinion1 warrants none of the hypotheses2 no1 not one4 ,it is not proved that magic is older than religion4 ,it is disproved that general belief 7as distinguished from local legend7 in any age regards gods as mortal4 ,there is no evidence1 or none is given1 to show that a man has ever been sacrificed for the benefit of a god whom he incarnates4 ,there is no evidence that a real king was ever yearly sacrificed to benefit a god at ,babylon1 or in every city-state of early ,italy1 or anywhere4 ,the idea is incredible4 ,the evidence for any sacrifice of mock-kings is1 historically1 of the weakest conceivable kind4 ,the deaths of the ,sacan mock-kings were infamous executions of criminals2 they were not sacrifices1 if they ever occurred at all4 ,the date of the festival at which1 if at all1 they perished cannot be made to fit in with ,purim or ,easter4 ,there is no evidence that the ,jews borrowed the custom of killing a yearly human victim1 or practised the habit4 ,if they did1 it was a month after ,purim4#h ,if they did1 by ,mr4 ,frazer's own statement the killing might be thought that of a vulgar malefactor1#i and could not cast on all or on any one of the victims a halo of divinity4 ,finally1 our own history1 in the case of the ,earl of ,atholl 7who pretended to the crown at the murder of ,james ,i4 of ,scotland7 and in the case of ,sir ,william ,wallace 7who was accused of saying that he would be crowned in ,westminster ,hall71 proves that pretenders to royalty have been mocked by being indued with symbols of royalty4 ,wallace was crowned at his trial with laurel2 ,atholl was tortured to death with a red-hot iron crown4 ,the ,victim of ,calvary was accused of aiming at a kingdom1 and1 like ,wallace and ,atholl1 was crowned--with thorns4 ,the preliminary scourging is illustrated by the tyranny of ,verres in ,sicily4 ,may we not conclude that ,mr4 ,frazer's 'light bridges' of hypothesis have 'broken down'8#aj ',the importance and interest of the subject' have induced me to examine the hypotheses4 ,but it was needless4 ,one point has been clear from the beginning4 ,even if the ,sacan victims were originally supposed to be gods1 they could not bequeath a halo of divinity to ,christ1 unless1 as late as the reign of ,tiberius1 their own godhead was still commonly recognised4 ,now it certainly was not recognised4 ,when ,mr4 ,frazer published the first edition of his ',golden ,bough1' he doubted that the ,sacan victim could1 as civilisation advanced1 be identified with a god4 ,but1 before publishing his second edition1 ,mr4 ,frazer evolved his theory of the origin or partial origin of the belief in the divinity of ,christ1 as inherited from the criminal slaves at the ,saca4 ,in his second edition1 therefore1 the godhead of the ,sacan victims is usually regarded as commonly recognised2 though ,mr4 ,frazer had doubted the possibility of this in his first1 and preserves the doubt in his second edition4 ,it is needless to say more4 ,mr4 ,frazer1 in vol4 iii4 #abj1 had already shaken his own theory as given in vol4 iii4 #aie-aih4aa ,i might have contented myself with comparing these two passages1 but in the interest of the nascent science of religion it seemed desirable to point out what ,i am constrained to think the errors of method that now prevail4 ,in the following essay criticism is applied to an hypothesis with which modern orthodoxy has no concern4 #a ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aie-aig4 #b ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #aib4 #c ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aig4 #d ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #abj4 #e ,the passage in which ,mr4 ,frazer thus appears to demolish his own theory represents his opinion before his theory was evolved4 ,it appeared in his first edition1 but he retains it in his remodelled work4 #f ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aic4 #g ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aie4 #h ,see the contradictory attempts to get out of this difficulty in iii4 #ahi4 #i ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #abj4 #aj ,g4 ,b4 i4 xv4 xvi4 #aa ,see also ,appendix ,c1 pp4 #cjc-cjd4 ,,xi ,,the ,,ghastly ,,priest ,the spirit of system1 of finding master keys for all the locks of old religion and mythology1 has confessedly been apt to misguide students4 ',macrobius was the father1' says ,mr4 ,frazer1 'of that large family of mythologists who resolve all or most gods into the sun4 ,according to him ,mercury was the sun1 ,mars was the sun1 ,janus was the sun1 ,saturn was the sun1 so was ,jupiter1 also ,nemesis1 likewise ,pan1 and so on through a great part of the ,pantheon4 ,it was natural1 therefore1 that he should identify ,osiris with the sun4444'#a ,mythology has been of late emancipated from the universal dominion of the sun1 but only to fall under that of gods of vegetation1 whether of vegetable life at large1 or of the corn spirit and the oak spirit in particular4 ,what ,mr4 ,frazer says about ,macrobius1 ,macrobius would retort on ,mr4 ,frazer1 thus3 ',according to him ,mars was a god of vegetation1 ,saturn was a god of vegetation 7of sowing71 so was ,zeus1 also ,hera1 and so on through a great part of the ,pantheon4 ,it was natural1 therefore1 that he should identify ,osiris with a god of vegetation--and ,mr4 ,frazer does so4' ,far be it from me to say that ,mr4 ,frazer is wrong1 when his gods are gods of vegetation1 or even that ,macrobius is wrong1 when his gods are gods of the sun4 ,it appears to me that when a god had obtained a firm hold of public favour1 the public might accept him as a god of this1 that1 and the other aspect or phenomenon of nature4 ,still1 the new school of mythology does work the vegetable element in mythology hard2 nearly as hard as the solar element used to be worked4 ,aphrodite1 as the female mate of ,adonis1 gets mixed up with plant life4#b ,so does ,attis with ,cybele1 so does ,balder1#c so does ,death1#d so does ,dionysus#e with undoubted propriety2 so does ,eabani1 so does ,gilgamesh1 so does ,haman1 so does ,hera1#f so does ,iasion with ,demeter1#g so does ,isis1#h so does ,jack-in-the-,green1 so does ,kupalo1#i so do ,linus and ,lityerses1#aj so does ,mamurius ,veturius1#aa so does ,merodach or ,marduk 7if he represents ,eabani or ,gilgamesh71 so does ,mars1#ab so does ,osiris1#ac so1 ,i think1 does ,semiramis1#ad so does ,tammuz1 so does ,virbius1#ae so does ,zeus1 probably2#af so does a great multitude of cattle1 cats1 horses1 bulls1 goats1 cocks1 with plenty of other beasts4 ,the solar mythologists did not spare heroes like ,achilles2 they1 too1 were the sun4 ,but the vegetable school1 the ,covent ,garden school of mythologists1 mixes up real human beings with vegetation4 ,jesus ,christ derives his divinity1 or some of it1 as we have seen1 from a long array of criminals who were hanged partly as kings1 partly as gods of vegetation4 ,i do not feel absolutely assured that ,judas ,iscariot1 at his annual burnings in effigy1 escapes the universal doom any more than the ugly deformed person who was whipped and killed in old ,attica4 ,but an unexpected man to be a representative of a god of vegetation is the priest of the grove of ,diana near ,aricia4 ,he is known to all from the familiar verse of ,macaulay-- ,these trees in whose dark shadow ,the ghastly priest doth reign1 ,the priest who slew the slayer1 ,and shall himself be slain4 ,why1 ,mr4 ,frazer asks1 in effect1 had the priest of the grove of ,diana1 near ,aricia1 to slay his predecessor1 subject1 in turn1 to death at the hands of a new competitor for the office8 ,first1 let us ask what we know about this ghastly priest4 ,let us begin with the evidence of ,virgil1 in the ,sixth ,book of the 'neid' 7line #acf and so onwards74 ,virgil says nothing about the ghastly priest1 or1 in this place1 about ,diana1 or the grove near ,aricia4 ,virgil1 indeed1 tells us much about a bough of a tree1 a golden branch1 but1 as to the singular priest1 nothing4 ,but some four hundred years after ,virgil's date 7say #cgj ,a4,d47 a commentator on ,virgil1 ,servius1 tries to illustrate the passage cited from the 'neid4' ,he obviously knows nothing about ,virgil's mystic golden bough1 but he tells us that1 in his own time1 'public opinion' 7publico1 opinio7 placed the habitat of ,virgil's bough in the grove haunted by the ghastly priest1 near ,aricia4 ,it is1 in fact1 not known whether ,virgil invented his bough1 with its extraordinary attributes1 or took it from his rich store of antiquarian learning4 ,it may have been a folklore belief1 like ,le ,rameau d',or of ,madame d',aulnoy's fairy tale4 ,virgil's bough1 as we shall see1 has one folklore attribute in common with a mystic sword in the ,arthurian cycle of romances1 and in the ,volsunga ,saga4 ,i think that ,mr4 ,frazer has failed to comment on this point4 ,if ,i might hazard a guess as to ,virgil's branch1 it is that1 of old1 suppliants approached gods or kings with boughs in their hands4 ,he who would approach ,proserpine carried1 in ,virgil1 a bough of pure gold1 which only the favoured and predestined suppliant could obtain1 as shall be shown4 ,in the four centuries between ,virgil and ,servius the meaning and source of ,virgil's branch of gold were forgotten4 ,but people1 and ,servius himself1 knew of another bough1 near ,aricia1 and located 7conjecturally87 ,virgil's branch of gold in that district4 ,servius1 then1 in his commentary on the 'neid1' after the manner of annotators in all ages1 talks much about the boughs of a certain tree in a certain grove1 concerning which ,virgil makes no remark4 ,virgil1 as we shall see1 was writing about a golden branch of very peculiar character4 ,knowing1 like the public opinion of his age1 something about quite other branches1 and nothing about ,virgil's branch1 ,servius tells us that1 in the grove of ,diana at ,aricia1 there grew a tree from which it was unlawful 7non licebat7 to break a bough4 ,if any fugitive slave1 however1 could break a branch from this tree1 he might fight the priest1 taking his office if successful4 ,in the opinion of ,servius the temple was founded by ,orestes1 to the barbaric ,diana of the ,chersonese1 whence he had fled after a homicide4 ,that ,diana received human sacrifices of all strangers who landed on her coasts4 ,the rite of human sacrifice was1 in ,italy1 commuted1 ,servius thinks1 for the duel between the priest and the fugitive slave1 ,orestes having himself been a fugitive4 ,the process is1 first a ,greek wanderer on a barbarous coast is in danger of being offered1 as all outlanders were offered1 to the local goddess4 ,this rite was a form of xenelasia1 an anti-immigrant statute4 ,compare ,china1 the ,transvaal1 the agitation against pauper immigrants4 ,having escaped being sacrificed1 and having killed the king in an unfriendly land1 ,orestes flies to ,italy and appeases the cruel ,diana by erecting her fane at ,aricia4 ,but1 instead of sacrificing immigrants1 he1 or his successors1 establish a duel between the priest and any other fugitive slave4 ,why8 ,for the priest of the cruel ,diana was not accustomed to be sacrificed1 nor had he been a fugitive slave4 ,servius then1 not observing this1 goes off into an allegorising interpretation of ,virgil's branch1 as worthless as all such interpretations always are4 ,the story about ,orestes appears to myself to be a late 'tiological myth1' a story invented to explain the slaying of the slayer--which it does not do2 in short1 it is an hypothesis4 ,the priesthood is open not to men flying the blood feud like ,orestes1 but only to runaway slaves4 ,the custom introduced by ,orestes was the sacrifice of outlanders1 not of priests4 ,the story has a doublette in ,pausanias4#ag ,according to ,pausanias1 ,hippolytus was raised from the dead1 and1 in hatred of his father1 and being a fugitive1 he went and reigned at the ,arician grove of the goddess4 ,for these reasons1 apparently1 ,statius calls the ,arician grove 'profugis regibus aptum1' a sanctuary of exiled princes1 ,orestes and ,hippolytus4#ah ,from ,suetonius we learn that the ghastly priest was styled ,rex ,nemorensis1 ,king of the ,wood1 and that the envious ,caligula1 thinking the priest had held office long enough1 set another athlete to kill him4#ai ,the title of 'king1' borne by a priest1 suggests1 of course1 the sacrificial king at ,borne4 ,also ,mr4 ,frazer adduces ,african kings of fire and water1 credited with miraculous powers over the elements4 ,they kill nobody and nobody kills them4 ,then we have ,jack-in-the-,green ,may-,tree the ,spirit of ,vegetation the ,may ,king and the ,queen of the ,may4 ',these titles1' as ,mannhardt observes1 'imply that the spirit incorporate in vegetation is a ruler1 whose creative power extends far and wide4' ,possibly so4 ,now1 the ,king of the ,wood1 the ghastly priest1 lived in the grove of ,diana1 who 7among other things7 has the attributes of a tree-spirit4 ',may not1 then1 the ,king of the ,wood1 in the ,arician grove1 have been1 like the ,king of the ,may 444 an incarnation of the tree-spirit1 or spirit of vegetation8' ,given a female tree-spirit1 we should rather expect a ,queen of the ,wood2 and we assuredly do not expect a priest of ,diana to represent the supreme ,aryan god1 nay to incarnate him4 ,but this ,mr4 ,frazer thinks probable4#bj ,again1 'since the ,king of the ,wood could only be assailed by him who had plucked the golden bough1 his life was safe from assault as long as the bough1 or the tree on which it grew1 remained uninjured4'#ba ,here we remark the nimbleness of ,mr4 ,frazer's method4 ,in vol4 i4 #d he had said3 ',tradition averred that the fatal branch' 7in the grove near ,aricia7 'was that golden bough which1 at the ,sibyl's bidding1 neas plucked before he assayed the perilous journey to the world of the dead4' ,but ,i have tried to show that1 according to ,servius1 this identification of two absolutely distinct boughs1 neither similar nor similarly situated1 was the conjecture of 'public opinion' in an age divided from ,virgil's date by four hundred years4 ,in the space between vol4 i4 #d and i4 #bca the averment of tradition1 as ,mr4 ,frazer calls it1 the inference of the curious1 as ,i suppose1 to the effect that ,virgil's golden branch and the ,arician branch were identical1 has become matter of fact for ,mr4 ,frazer4 ',since the ,king of the ,wood could only be assailed by him who had plucked the ,golden ,bough1' he says2 with what follows4#bb ,but who has told us anything about the breaking1 by a fugitive slave1 near ,aricia1 of a golden bough8 ,nobody1 as far as ,i am aware1 has mentioned the circumstance4 ,after an interval of four hundred years1 the golden bough of ,virgil is only brought by ,servius into connection with the wood at ,aricia1 because ,servius1 and the public opinion of his age1 knew about a branch there1 and did not know anything about ,virgil's branch of gold4 ,that branch is a safe passport to ,hades4 ,it is sacred1 not to a tree-spirit named ,diana1 but to ,infernal ,juno1 or ,proserpine4 ,it cannot be broken by a fugitive slave1 or anybody else2 no1 nor can it be cut with edge of iron4 ,none but he whom the ,fates call can break it4 ,it yields at a touch of the predestined man1 and another golden branch grows instantly in its place4 ,ipse volens facilisque sequetur1 ,si te fata vocant4 ,primo avulso non deficit alter ,aureus4 ,virgil's bough thus answers to the magical sword set in a stone in the ,arthurian legends1 in a tree trunk in the ,volsunga ,saga1 as ,mr4 ,h4 ,s4 ,o4 ,everard reminds me4 ,all the knights may tug vainly at the sword1 but you can draw it lightly1 si te fata vocant1 if you are the predestined king1 if you are ,arthur or ,sigmund4 ,when neas bears this bough1 ,charon recognises the old familiar passport4 ,other living men1 in the strength of this talisman1 have already entered the land of the dead4 ,ille admirans venerabile donum ,fatalis virg1 longo nunc tempore visum4 ,i have collected all these extraordinary attributes of ,virgil's bough 7in origin1 a suppliant's bough1 perhaps71 because1 as far as ,i notice1 ,mr4 ,frazer lays no stress on the many peculiarities which differentiate ,virgil's bough from any casual branch of the tree at ,aricia1 and connect it with the mystic sword4 ,the 'general reader' 7who seldom knows ,latin7 needs1 ,i think1 to be told precisely what ,virgil's bough was4 ,nothing can be more unlike a branch1 any accessible branch1 of the ,arician tree1 than is ,virgil's golden bough4 ,it does not grow at ,aricia4 ,it is golden4 ,it is not connected with a tree-spirit1 but is dear to ,proserpine4 7,i easily see1 of course1 that ,proserpine may be identified with a tree spirit47#bc ,virgil's branch is not to be plucked by fugitive slaves4 ,it is not a challenge1 but a talismanic passport to ,hades1 recognised by ,charon1 who has not seen a specimen for ever so long4 ,it is instantly succeeded1 if plucked1 by another branch of gold1 which the ,arician twig is not4 ,so ,i really do not understand how ,mr4 ,frazer can identify ,virgil's golden bough with an ordinary branch of a tree at ,aricia1 which anybody could break1 though only runaway slaves1 strongly built1 had an interest in so doing4 ,still less do ,i think that ,virgil meant to identify his branch of gold with mistletoe4 ,he does the reverse3 in a poetic simile he compares his bough to mistletoe4 ,a poet does not compare a thing to itself6#bd ,mr4 ,frazer cites the ,welsh for mistletoe--pren puraur1 tree d'or pur4 ,in places1 also1 mistletoe is used for divining rods1 which may be employed by gold-hunters4 ,what wood is not thus used8#be ,like other magical plants1 mistletoe is gathered at the solstices1 when fern-seed is fabled to flame4 ,must not the golden bough1 like the golden fern-seed1 be an emanation of the sun's fire8 ,the older solar mythologists would have had not a doubt of it4#bf ,i must admit1 then1 that ,i cannot1 at present1 accept the identification of the branch of gold in ,virgil with any branch you please on a certain tree at ,aricia4 ,nor am ,i aware of any historical evidence that the grove there was an oak grove1 or the tree an oak tree1 or that the branch to be plucked was a mistletoe bough1 or that any branch1 for the purpose of the runaway slave1 was not as good as another4 ,that ,virgil's branch of gold was mistletoe1 that the tree at ,aricia was an oak1 that the bough to be plucked by the person ambitious of being a ghastly priest was mistletoe1 seems 7if ,i follow ,mr4 ,frazer accurately7 to be rather needful to the success of the solution of his problem which he finally propounds4 ,he takes1 on his road1 the ,eddaic myth of ,balder1 which ,i do not regard as a very early myth2 but on that point there is great searching of hearts among ,scandinavian specialists4 ',no one now1' writes a ,scandinavian scholar to me1 'puts any of the ,edda poems earlier than #ijj ,a4,d41 and most of them1 if not all1 are probably later than that4 ,we do not even know whether they were composed by ,christians or pagans1 as the ,icelanders never lost their interest in the old mythology4 ,it has never been sufficiently noticed that these poems are not religious in any sense2 all that their poets cared for was the story4 ,that it will ever be possible to say where the stories came from1 ,i doubt very much3 probably they represent the fusion of several quite different veins of legends1 heathen and ,christian4 ,the ,saga writers knew practically nothing about the old heathen worship1 and ,balder may never have been worshipped at all1 or1 if he was1 it is rather hopeless to conjecture in what capacity4' ,such are the opinions of ,mr4 ,w4 ,a4 ,craigie1 whose writings on the ,celto-,scandinavian relations of the ,northern mythological literature are familiar to students4 ,we return to ,mr4 ,frazer's handling of the ,balder story4 ,balder1 says the ,edda1 dreamed of death4 ,a goddess made everything in nature swear not to hurt him1 except a mistletoe plant1 which she thought too young to understand the nature of an oath6 ,loki learned this1 plucked the plant1 and1 when the gods were hurling things at ,balder1 asked the blind ,hdur to throw the mistletoe4 ,it pierced and slew ,balder1 and his funeral was of a kind which may1 or may not1 have been used before the period of inhumation in 'howes' or barrows4 ,balder's dead body was burned on board his ship1 'the hugest of all ships4'#bg ,i had an impression that this was a not uncommon ,viking form of incremation1 but ,mr4 ,craigie thinks that it had quite gone out before the historic period4 ,in the legendary period he remembers but one case1 in ,ynglinga ,saga4#bh ,king ,haki1 being mortally wounded1 had his ship piled with the bodies and weapons of the slain2 a funeral pyre was erected on board and lit1 and the body of ,haki was borne forth to sea in the flaming vessel4 ',the thing was famous long after4' ,the story may be borrowed from the ,balder story or the ,balder story from that of ,king ,haki4 ,in any case ,balder was not sacrificed1 but cremated1 and the 'huge ship1' of course1 is a late ,viking idea1 an idea the reverse of primitive4 ,mr4 ,frazer1 however1 goes on1 apparently assuming that in the original form of the myth ,balder was sacrificed1 to a theory about certain religious or ritual fires1 which survive in folklore4 ,these fires are lit by peasants at various seasons1 but are best known at midsummer1 while a pretence of burning a man is made1 and this at a season when mistletoe is gathered as a magical healing herb1 not as a weapon of death4 ,he seems to think that ,balder was the spirit of the oak1 that human victims1 representing the oak and ,balder1 were1 of old1 periodically sacrificed1 and that people deemed that the oak could not be injured by axes before the mistletoe 7in which1 they thought1 lay its life7 was plucked off4 ,unluckily1 ,i see no evidence that people ever did entertain this opinion--namely1 that the oak was invulnerable till the mistletoe was plucked4#bi ,mr4 ,frazer says3 ',the mistletoe was viewed as the seat of the life of the oak1 and1 so long as it was uninjured1 nothing could kill or even wound the oak4' ,he shows how this idea might arise4 ',the oak1 so people might think1 was invulnerable1' so long as the mistletoe remained intact4#cj ,but did the people think so8 ,pliny says a great deal about the ,druidical gathering of mistletoe1 which1 on oaks1 'is very rarely to be met with4' ,the ,druids1 ,i presume1 never observed that oaks in general1 in fact by an overwhelming majority1 lived very well without having any seat of life 7mistletoe7 at all4 ,not noticing this obvious fact1 they reckoned1 it would appear1 that an oak with mistletoe on it con ,id not be cut till the mistletoe was removed4 ,perhaps they never tried4 ,pliny does not say that when the ,druid had climbed the tree and removed the mistletoe1 he next cut down the tree4#ca ,it does seem desirable to prove that people thought the life of an oak was in the mistletoe 7which they might gather without hurting the oak71 before we begin to build another theory on our theory that they did hold this opinion4#cb ,this new theory ,mr4 ,frazer goes forth to erect on the basis of the first theory4 ,the theory1 in brief1 comes to this3 that as ,balder was the spirit of the oak1 and was sacrificed 7of which ,i see no proof71 so human beings1 representing ,balder and the oak1 were sacrificed1 to reinvigorate vegetation4 ,the mistletoe which slew ,balder was the soul-box of both ,balder and of the oak1 and of the human victims who represented1 yearly1 the oak and ,balder4 ,about all this much might be said4 ,the killing of 'divine kings1' ,balder and others1#cc seems to me1 as ,i have already said1 in the majority of cases1 to be a mere rude form of superannuation4 ,we do not kill a commander-in-chief1 or an old professor2 we pension them off4 ,but it is not so easy to pension off a king4 ,i think that most of the cases cited mean superannuation1 or dissatisfaction with the ruler1 not a magical ceremony to improve vegetation4 ,regicide is1 or was1 common4 ,says ,birrel 7#aefj-afje73 ',there has beine in this ,kingdome of ,scotland1 are hundereth and five ,kings1 of quhilk there was slaine fifty-sex1' often succeeded by their slayers1 like the ghastly priest4 ,i am not convinced that the ghastly priest represented vegetation1 and endured the duel ordeal as a commutation of yearly sacrifice1 though there is a kind of parallel in the case of the king of ,calicut4 ,but that modern mummers are put to death1 in a mock ceremony 7as ,mr4 ,frazer holds1 to quicken vegetation71 is proved by much folklore evidence4#cd ,if we admit 7which ,i think far from inevitable7 that the ghastly priest was once a kind of ,may ,king1 periodically slain1 and was analogous to ,balder1 and represented the life of an oak1 we are next invited to suppose that the tree at ,aricia was also an oak1 that the only branch on it to be plucked by the would-be successor was mistletoe1 and that the mistletoe was the soul-box of the tree and of the ghastly priest1 who could more easily be killed when his life-box 7the mistletoe7 was damaged4#ce ,there is hardly a link in this chain of reasoning which to me seems strong4 ,i do not see that ,balder1 in the ,edda1 was sacrificed4 ,i do not see that the mistletoe was his soul-box4 ,i conceive that the use of so feeble a weapon to kill him is analogous to the slaying of an invulnerable hero1 in ,north ,american myth1 by the weapon of a bulrush3 an example of the popular liking for weakness that overcomes strength4 ,i find no evidence that the mistletoe was ever thought to be the soul-box of the oak2 none to prove that the tree at ,aricia was an oak2 nothing to show that the branch to be plucked was the branch of gold in ,virgil1 and nothing to indicate that ,virgil's branch was the mistletoe4 ,to reach ,mr4 ,frazer's solution--that the ghastly priest was an incarnate spirit of vegetation1 slain1 after the plucking of mistletoe1 in order that he might be succeeded by a stronger soul1 more apt to increase the life of vegetation--we have to cross at least six 'light bridges' of hypothesis1 'built to connect isolated facts4'#cf ,to me these hypotheses seem more like the apparently solid spots in a peat-bog1 on which whoso alights is let into the morass4 ,i feel like ,mr4 ,frazer's 'cautious inquirer1' who is 'brought up sharp on the edge of some yawning chasm4'#cg ,i ought to propose an hypothesis myself4 ,in doing so ,i shall confine myself 7the limitation is not unscientific7 to the known facts of the problem4 ,in the grove of ,diana 7a goddess of many various attributes7 was a priest of whom we know nothing but that he was 7#a7 a fugitive slave1 7#b7 called ,king of the ,grove1 7#c7 might be slain and succeeded by any other fugitive slave1 7#d7 who broke a bough of the tree which the priest's only known duty was to protect4 ,these are all the ascertained facts4 ,why had the priest to be a runaway slave8 ,mr4 ,frazer says3 ',he had to be a runaway slave in memory of the flight of ,orestes1 the traditional founder of the worship4444'#ch ,but the ,greek story of ,orestes1 and its doublette as to ,hippolytus1 are only tiological myths1 fanciful' reasons why1' attached to a ,latin usage4 ,neither ,orestes nor ,hippolytus was a slave1 like the ghastly priest4 ,the story about ,orestes1 a fugitive1 arises out of the custom of ,aricia1 and does not explain that custom4 ,mr4 ,frazer1 ,i presume1 admits this1 but thinks that the ghastly priest might perhaps1 at one time1 save himself by being a runaway4 ,but why a slave8 ,if ,i might guess1 ,i would venture to suggest that the grove near ,aricia may have been an asylum for fugitives1 as they say that ,borne originally was4 ,there are such sanctuaries in ,central ,australia4 ,here1 fortunately1 ,mr4 ,frazer himself supplies me with the very instances which my conjecture craves4 ,he cites ,mr4 ,turner's ',samoa' for trees which were sanctuaries for fugitives4 ,these useful examples are given1 not in ',the ,golden ,bough1' but in an essay on ',the ,origin of ,totemism4'#ci ',in ,upolu1 one of the ,samoan islands1 a certain god1 ,vave1 had his abode in an old tree1 which served as an asylum for murderers and other offenders who had incurred the penalty of death4' ,i gather from ,mr4 ,turner's ',nineteen ,years in ,polynesia' 7p4 #bhe7 that the death penalty was that of the blood feud4 ,in his ',samoa1' ,mr4 ,turner writes concerning trees which were sanctuaries3 ',if that tree was reached by the criminal1 he was safe1 and the avenger of blood could pursue no farther1 but wait investigation and trial4 ,it is said that the king of a division of ,upolu1 called ,atua1 once lived at that spot4 ,after he died the house fell into decay1 but the tree was fixed on as representing the departed king1 and out of respect for his memory it was made the substitute of a living and royal protector4 ,it was called o le asi pulu tangata1 'the asi tree1 the refuge of men4' ,this reminds me of what ,i once heard from a native of another island4 ,he said that at one time they had been ten years without a king1 and so anxious were they to have some protecting substitute that they fixed upon a large ,o'a tree 7,bischoffia ,javanica71 and made it the representative of a king1 and an asylum for the thief or the homicide when pursued by the injured in hot haste for vengeance4#dj ,there seem to have been three sanctuary trees3 one inhabited by a god1 ,vave2 one respected in memory of a king2 and one doing duty as a kind of figure-head1 or representative of a king4 ,if my guess that the tree in the ,arician grove was once a sanctuary1 or asylum for fugitives1 including fugitive slaves1 is plausible1 ,i cannot1 of course1 conjecture as to the reason of its protective sanctity4 ,it may have been one of the three ,samoan reasons 7which none of us could have guessed correctly71 or any other motive may have taken effect4 ,a fugitive slave1 of course1 was not awaiting trial and chance of acquittal4 ,by custom he would be restored to his master's tender mercies1 or live on under the tree4 ,but an unlimited asylum of fugitive slaves was an inconvenient neighbour to ,aricia4 ,hence 7it is physically conceivable1 but ,i lay no stress on it7 the asylum was at last limited to one fugitive slave at a time4 ,it was not like the forest in the ,indian fable1 populated by 'millions of hermits1' who cannot have been very solitary anchorites4 ,any fugitive slave who took sanctuary had to kill and dispossess the prior occupant4 ,there was only sanctuary for one at a time4 ,more would have been most inconvenient4 ,in any case the one solitary duty of the ghastly priest 7as far as we know7 was to act as garde champtre to one certain tree4 ,why this one tree1 we do not and cannot know4 ,i am averse to ,sir ,alfred ,lyall's plan of suggesting singular solutions arising out of some possible historical accident in the veiled past1 when the problem to be solved is a practice of wide diffusion4 ,the causes1 in such cases of wide diffusion1 cannot be regarded as mere freaks or recurring accidents4 ,but this affair of the tree and its inviolate branches is isolated1 unless we regard the tree as a taboo or sanctuary tree1 which it might be for many reasons1 as in ,samoa1 perhaps because it was the residence of a tree-spirit4 ,at all events1 the priest's only known duty was to guard the tree4 ,then1 why had his would-be successor to break a bough before fighting8 ,obviously as a challenge1 and also as a warning4 ,the priest in office was to 'have a fair show2' some 'law' was to be given him4 ,when he found a branch broken1 any branch1 he was in the position of the pirate captain on whom 'the black spot' was passed4#da ,he was in the situation of the king of the ,eyeos1 to whom a present of parrots' eggs meant that it was 'time for him to go4'#db ,if the bough was mistletoe1 and if the fugitive slave1 like the ,druids in ,pliny1#dc had to climb for it1 then the ghastly priest 'had him at an avail4' ,it was any odds on the priest1 who could 'tree' his man or cut him down as he descended4 ,however1 our authorities tell us about no bough in particular1 still less about mistletoe4 ,let me add that1 if the bough was mistletoe1 the sacred tree would need to be changed every time 7of which we hear nothing71 for it is not a case of ,uno avulso non deficit alter with mistletoe4 ,the bough was broken1 then1 as a taunt1 a challenge1 and a warning4 ',you can't keep your old tree1 make room for a better man6' ,that is the spirit of the business4 ,the fugitive1 utilised as a priest of the grove1 was slain when the better man appeared1 not that a new soul might keep the vegetation lively1 but merely because the best man attainable was needed to guard the taboo tree4 ,the sacred and priestly character of a runaway fighting slave does not1 to me1 seem pronounced4#dd ,we know not that he ever sacrificed4 ,ladies who wished to be mothers visited the shrine1 indeed1#de as this ,diana was a goddess like ,lucina1 presiding over birth4 ,i do not deny that the priest might have worked miracles for them 7like the ,indian forest sages who do the miracle for childless rajahs74 ,but his one known duty1 guarding the tree1 was inconsistent with much attention to this branch of his sacred calling4 ',he prowled about with sword drawn1 always on the look out4'#df ,that is all6 ,we have not1 in this theory1 to invent a single fact1 or introduce a single belief where we do not know that it existed4 ,sanctuaries or asyla did exist1 we have given examples of sanctuary trees1 and the tree was a sanctuary for just one runaway slave at a time3 he could not run to burg1 as in our old and more merciful law4 ,if he wanted the billet of ghastly priest he had to fight for it3 ,lads1 you'll need to fight ,before you drive ta peasties4 ,before fighting he had to get through the priest's guard and break a branch of the tree which the priest protected1 the act being a warning as well as a challenge4 ,this hypothesis introduces no unknown and unproved facts1 and colligates all the facts which are known4 ,the title of ',king of the ,grove' may mean no more than the title of ',cock of the ,north2' or it may be a priestly title1 not1 even so1 necessarily implying that the runaway slave embodied the ruling spirit of the vegetable department4 ,i have been favoured with objections to my guess4 ,first1 if ,i am right1 where is the sanction for the custom at which ,i conjecture8 ,well1 where is the sanction of the ,samoan customs8 ,they reposed 7#a7 on the residence of a god in a tree1 7#b7 on respect for a king who had lived near a tree1 7#c7 on a legal fiction4 ,the sanctuaries of the ,arunta ,ertnatulunga derive their sanction from hoards of churinga1 sacred objects of which1 till recently1 we knew nothing4#dg ,obviously ,i cannot say which of many conceivable and inconceivable primeval reasons gave a sanction to the tree-asylum of ,aricia4 ,once instituted1 custom did the rest4 ,the tree was a sanctuary for one fugitive slave1 and1 next1 for another who could kill him4 ,secondly1 my guess is thought to disregard ,mr4 ,frazer's many other analogies from folklore4 ,which analogies8 ,where else do we find a priestly fugitive slave1 who held his sacred office by the coir na glaive1 the ,eight of ,sword8 ,i am acquainted with no other example4 ,as ,i have shown already1 the kings who are killed 7admitting the ,arician fugitive to be a rex7 are killed for a considerable variety of reasons1 and are never shown to be killed that a sturdier vehicle may be provided for a vegetable deity2 while the kings said to incarnate a deity are never said to be killed for religious reasons4 ,if the reverse were the case1 then the ,arician fugitive1 the ghastly priest1 might take the benefit of the analogies4 ,i hope that my bald prosaic theory1 abjectly ,philistine as it is1 has the characteristics of a scientific hypothesis4 ,but1 like my guess as to the real reason for the death of the ,sacan victim1 this attempt to explain the office of the ghastly priest is but a conjecture4 ,the affair is so singular that it may have an isolated cause in some forgotten occurrence4 ,i remember no other classical instance of a priest whose duty was to be always watching a single sacred tree1 a thing requiring a vigilance of attention not compatible with much other priestly work3 a post so unenviable that only a fugitive slave would be likely to care for the duties and perquisites4 ,naturally he would not know that he was 'an incarnation of the supreme ,aryan god1 whose life was in the mistletoe or golden bough4' ,and1 as he did not know1 he would not be 'proud of the title4' #a ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #adg4 #b ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aff4 #c ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #cdf4 #d ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #ie4 #e ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #afj4 #f ,g4 ,b4 i4 #bbg4 #g ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bag4 #h ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #ade4 #i ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #abi4 #aj ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #bec2 ii4 #bej4 #aa ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #abc4 #ab ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #abb4 #ac ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #abg4 #ad ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #afc4 #ae ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #def4 #af ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #def1 #deg4 #ag ,pausanias1 ii4 xxvii4 #d4 #ah ,sylv1 iii4 i4 #ee4 #ai ,caligula1 #ce4 #bj ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #deg4 #ba ,g4 ,b4 i4 #bca4 #bb ,g4 ,b4 i4 #bca4 #bc ,who1 or what1 can escape being a tree-spirit1 if ,zeus is one8 ,mr4 ,frazer thinks that the savage must regard all trees used in fire-making as sources of hidden fire4 ',may not this1' he asks1 'have been the origin of the name the ,bright or ,shining ,one 7,zeus1 ,jove ,dyaus71 by which the ancient ,greeks and ,italians designated their supreme ,god8 ,it is1 at least1 highly significant that1 amongst both ,greeks and ,italians1 the oak should have been the tree of the supreme ,god4444'--iii4 #deg4 ,zeus1 like ,num1 and countless others1 was also a sky god4 ,the sky is bright and shining1 an oak is the reverse4 ,we do not think that a savage would call an oak or a match-box 'bright1' even if they do hold seeds of fire4 #bd ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #ddi2 n4 vi4 #bjc1 et seq4 #be ,see ,professor ,barrett's two works on 'the so-called ,divining ,rod1' in ,proceedings of the ,society for ,psychical ,research4 #bf ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #ded4 #bg ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #bcf-bcg4 #bh c4 #bg4 #bi ,mr4 ,frazer notices that ,pliny derived ',druid' from ,greek drs1 oak4 ',he did not know that the ,celtic word for oak was the same1 daur1 and that therefore ,druid1 in the sense of priest of the oak1 was genuine ,celtic1 not borrowed from the ,greek4' ,with other authorities ,mr4 ,frazer cites ,j4 ,rhys's ,celtic ,heathendom1 p4 #bba et seq4 ,principal ,rhys informs me that he is inclined to think that ',druid' is of the same origin as the ,celtic word for oak4 ,mr4 ,stokes seems to think otherwise1 and to interpret dru to be the equivalent to 'true1' and to make the word ,druid mean 'soothsayer1' to which ,principal ,rhys sees phonetic objections4 ,he himself sees the difficulty1 in both theories1 that they make the word ',druid' ,aryan1 whereas the whole ,druidical business may be non-,aryan and 'aboriginal1' ,pictish1 or whatever we like to call it4 #cj ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #cej4 #ca ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #cbg4 #cb ,the story of mistletoe as the 'life-token' of the ,hays of ,errol 7iii4 #ddi7 seems to rest on a scrap of recent verse1 cut from a newspaper of unknown name and date4 ,i suspect that it is from the pen 7circ4 #ahbb7 of ',john ,sobieski ,stolberg ,stuart1' alias ,john ,hay ,allan1 author of other apocryphal rhymes on the ,hays of ,errol1 and of their genealogy4 #cc ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #a-ei4 #cd ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #ei-fg4 #ce ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #dej4 #cf ,g4 ,b4 i4 xv4 #cg ,g4 ,b4 i4 xx4 #ch ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #fg4 #ci ,fortnightly ,review1 ,april #ahii1 p4 #feb4 #dj ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #fd1 seq4 #da ,see ,treasure ,island4 #db ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #ac4 #dc ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #cbg4 #dd ,compare i4 #bcb4 #de ,g4 ,b4 i4 #e4 #df ,strabo1 v4 #c1 #ab4 #dg ,spencer and ,gillen1 pp4 #acd-ace4 ,,xii ,,south ,,african ,,religion ,the provisional hypothesis by which ,i try to explain the early stages of religion may be stated in the words of a critic1 ,mr4 ,hartland4 ',apparently it is claimed that the belief in a supreme being came1 in some way only to be guessed at1 first in order of evolution1 and was subsequently obscured and overlaid by belief in ghosts and in a pantheon of lesser divinities4'#a ,i was led to these conclusions1 first1 by observing the reports of belief in a relatively supreme being and maker among tribes who do not worship ancestral spirits 7,australians and ,andamanese71 and1 secondly1 by remarking the otiose unworshipped supreme being1 often credited with the charge of future rewards and punishments1 among polytheistic and ancestor-worshipping people too numerous for detailed mention4 ,the supreme being among these races1 in some instances a mere shadow of a children's tale1 ,i conjectured to be a vague survival of such a thing as the ,andamanese ,puluga1 or the ,australian ,baiame4 ,granting the validity of the evidence1 the hypothesis appears to colligate the facts4 ,there is a creative being 7not a spirit1 merely a being7 before ghosts are worshipped4 ,where ghosts are worshipped1 and the spiritual deities of polytheism have been developed1 and are adored1 there is still the unworshipped maker1 in various degrees of repose and neglect4 ,that the belief in him 'came in some way1 only to be guessed at1' is true enough4 ,but if ,i am to have an hypothesis like my neighbours1 ,i have suggested that early man1 looking for an origin of things1 easily adopted the idea of a maker1 usually an unborn man1 who was before death1 and still exists4 ,bound this being crystallised affection1 fear1 and sense of duty2 he sanctions morality and early man's remarkable resistance to the cosmic tendency3 his notion of unselfishness4 ,that man should so early conceive a maker and father seems to me very probable2 to my critics it is a difficulty4 ,but one of ,dr4 ,callaway's native informants remarks3 ',when we asked ,by what was the sun made8 they said ,by ,umvelinqangi4 ,for we used to ask when we were little1 thinking that the old men knew all things4'#b ,what a savage child naturally asks about1 his yet more savage ancestors may have pondered4 ,no speculation seems more inevitable4 ,as soon as man was a reasoning being he must have wondered about origins2 he has usually two answers3 creation1 complete or partial1 and evolution4 ,like ,topsy 'he 'specs things growed1' when he does not guess that things were made by somebody4 ,as far as totemism is religious1 it accepts the answer of evolution1 men were evolved out of lower types1 beasts and plants1 their totems4 ,but these are not always treated with religious reverence1 as sometimes are such creative beings and fathers as ,baiame4 ,in many cases1 as ,i have kept on saying1 the savage creative being has a deputy1 often a demiurge1 who exercises authority4 ,where this is the case1 and where ancestor-worship is the working religion1 the deputy easily comes to be envisaged as the first man1 unborn of human parents1 maker of things1 or of many things1 and culture hero4 ,mr4 ,tylor says3 ',in the mythology of ,kamchatka the relation between the ,creator and the first man is one not of identity1 but of parentage4' ,it is clear that1 in proportion to the exclusive prevalence of ancestor-worship as a working religion1 the idea of the ,creator might be worn away1 and the first man might be identified with him4 ,it would not follow that the idea of creation was totally lost4 ,the first man might be credited with the feat of creation4 ,mr4 ,tylor observes that 'by these consistent manes-worshippers1 the ,zulus1 the first man1 ,unkulunkulu1 is identified with the ,creator4'#c ,mr4 ,tylor's statement1 of course1 involves the opinion that the idea of creation is present to the ,zulu mind4 ,unkulunkulu made things1 as ,baiame1 and ,puluga1 and other beings did4 ,like them he is no spirit1 but a magnified non-natural man4 ,unlike them1 he is subject to the competition of ancestral ghosts1 the more recent the better1 in receipt of prayer and sacrifice4 ,having no special house which claims him as ancestor1 and being very remote1 he is now believed by many ,zulus to be dead4 ,his name is a fable1 like that of ,atahocan1 a thing to amuse or put off children with2 they are told to call on ,unkulunkulu when their parents want to send them out of the way4 ,all this is exactly what my theory would lead me to anticipate1 if the ,zulus had once possessed the idea of an unworshipped creative being1 and had lost it under the competition of worshipped1 near akin1 and serviceable ghosts4 ,their ancestral character would be reflected on him4 ,it is just as if the ,australian ,kurnai were to take to ancestor-worship1 glorify ,tundun1 the son and deputy of ,mungan-ngaur2 neglect ,mungan-ngaur1 look on ,tundun as the creator1 and finally neglect him in favour of ancestral spirits less remote1 and more closely akin to themselves4 ,this process is very readily conceivable1 and1 from our point of view1 it would look like degeneration in religion1 under stress of a new religious motive1 the do ut des of sacrifice to ancestral ghosts4 ,that ,unkulunkulu should come to be thought dead is the less surprising1 as a ,zulu in bad luck will be so blasphemous as to declare that the ancestral spirits of his worship are themselves dead4 ',when we sacrifice to them1 and pray that a certain disease may cease1 and it does not cease1 then we begin to quarrel with them1 and to deny their existence4 ,and the man who has sacrificed exclaims3 ,there are no ,amadhlozi2 although others say there are1 but for my part ,i say that the ,amadhlozi of our house died for ever4'#d4444 ,thus ,i can easily suppose that the ,zulus once had an idea of a creative being2 that they reduced him1 on the lines described1 to a first man2 that they neglected him in favour of serviceable ghosts2 and that they now think him extinct2 like the ghosts themselves when they cease to be serviceable4 ,mr4 ,hartland's theory is the reverse of mine4 ,he says3 ',in fact1 so far as can be gathered1 the very idea of creation was foreign to their minds4' 444 ',the earth was in existence first1 before ,unkulunkulu as yet existed4'#e ,but heaven1 and the sun1 and all things were not in existence before ,unkulunkulu3 he made them1 according to other native witnesses1 and ,dr4 ,callaway1 in his first page1 says that the ,zulus regard ,unkulunkulu as the ,creator4 ,the evidence1 as ,mr4 ,hartland urges with truth1 is 'contradictory4' ,but its contradictions contradict his statement that 'the very idea of creation was foreign to their minds4' ,many witnesses attest the existence in the ,zulu mind of the idea of creation4 ',it was said at first1 before the arrival of missionaries1 if we asked1 ,by what were the stones made8 ,they were made by ,umvelinqangi4' ',the ancients used to say1 before the arrival of the missionaries1 that all things were made by ,umvelinqangi2 but they were not acquainted with his name4' ',the natives1' says ,dr4 ,callaway1 'cannot tell you his name1 except it be ,umvelinqangi4'#f ',the sun and moon we referred to ,unkulunkulu1 together with all the things in this world1 and yonder heaven we referred to ,unkulunkulu4444 ,we said all was made by ,unkulunkulu4'#g ',at first we saw that they were made by ,unkulunkulu1 but 444 we worshipped those whom we had seen with our eyes' 7the ghosts of their fathers71 'so then we began to ask all things of the ,amadhlozi4' ,this convenient ,zulu1 ,umpengula ,mbanda1 states my very hypothesis4#h ,but he seems to have been a ,christian convert1 and probably constructed his theory after he heard of the ,christian ,god4 ',we seek out the ,amadhlozi that we may not be always thinking about ,unkulunkulu4' ,so spiritualists are more interested in ghosts than in the ,christian ,god4 ',in process of time we have come to worship the ,amadhlozi only1 because we knew not what to say about ,unkulunkulu1' just as the spiritualist 'knows what to say' about his aunt1 who speaks to him through the celebrated ,mrs4 ,piper4#i ,dr4 ,callaway consulted a very old ,zulu1 ,ukoto1 whose aunt was the mother of ,king ,chaka 7,utshaka74 ,mr4 ,rider ,haggard dates ,chaka about #ahac-ahbh4 ,with him began seventy years of ,zulu conquest and revolution1 in which old ideas might be obliterated4 ,ukoto answered ,dr4 ,callaway's inquiries thus3 ',when we were children it was said the ,lord is in heaven4444 ,we heard it said that the ,creator of the world 7,umdabuko7 is the ,lord which is above4 ,when ,i was growing up1 it used to be said the ,creator of the world is above4'#aj ,so far we must either reject most respectable evidence1 going back to the earliest years of last century1 before the ,zulu period of revolution1 or dismiss ,mr4 ,hartland's opinion that the very idea of creation is foreign to the ,zulu mind4 ,a very old woman1 whose childhood was prior to ,chaka's initiation of the revolutionary period of conquest 7#ahac71 being interrogated by the ,zulu1 ,umpengula1 said that 'when we asked of the origin of corn1 the old people said it came from the ,creator who created all things4 ,but we do not know him4 ,the old people said 'the ,creator of all things is in heaven4'#aa ,the old woman then abounded in contradictions4 ,she said that ,unkulunkulu was the ,creator in heaven1 but only the day before she had denied this4 ,dr4 ,callaway thought not that her mind was wandering1 but that 'there appears in this account to be rather the intermixture of several faiths1 which might have met and contended or amalgamated at the time to which she alludes'--the early days of ,chaka--' #a4 ,primitive faith in a heavenly ,lord or ,creator4 #b4 ,the ancestor-worshipping faith1 which confounds the ,creator with the first man4 #c4 ,the ,christian faith1 again directing the attention of the natives to a ,god who is not anthropomorphic' ,she might also1 in a part of her tale1 allude to the fabled ascension of the father of ,king ,chaka prior to #ahac4 ,from my point of view1 ,dr4 ,callaway's theory seems possible4 ,the memories and ideas of people who were 'ancient1' when ,chaka and this old woman were young1 before the ,zulus entered on a 'wolf age1 a war age1' went far back into the ,zulu past1 when their belief may have been nearer to that kind of savage deism which ,waitz regards as unborrowed and indigenous to ,africa4#ab ,another very old man1 ,ubebe1 who had fought against ,chaka1 said3 ',as to the source of being' 7,umdabuko71 ',i know only that which is in heaven4 ,the ancient men said ,umdakuko is above 444 for the ,lord gives them life4' ,umdabuko1 source of life1 may be 'local or personal1 the place in which man was created1 or the person who created him4' 444 ,here the ,umdabuko is called 'the lord which gives them life4'#ac ,here1 too1 the evidence is of ,zulu antiquity1 the words of the ancients of ,chaka's time4 ,the use of the same name for a person and a place is familiar to us in ',zeus' and ',hades1' and we use ',heaven' ourselves for ,god1 as in 'the will of ,heaven4' ,the old man uses ,umdabuko as a personal name2 elsewhere it is equivalent to ,uthlanga1 the impersonal metaphysical source of being1 not identical with ,um,hlanga1 'a bed of reeds1' from which mankind arose in ,zulu myth4 ',umhlanga is the place where they broke off1 or out came1 from ,uhlanga4'#ad ,old ,ubebe said to ,umpengula3 ',do you not understand that we said ,unkulunkulu made all things that we see or touch4' ,and ,unkulunkulu1 he added1 was a man1 and now a dead man2 then he considered1 and added3 ',it is evident that all things were not made by a man who is dead2 they were made by one who now is4' ,he began with the creator vouched for by the other old people2 he relapsed into the confusion of him with the first man1 and either reverted to the original idea1 or to a natural reflection of his own4 ,dr4 ,callaway found ,ubebe declaring that tradition averred the maker to have been a man1 but that the missionaries averred the ,creator to be 'the heavenly ,lord4' ',the old men said that ,unkulunkulu was an ancestor and nothing more1 an ancient man who begat men1 and gave origin to all things4'#ae ,in fact the primal being of lower savages1 ,andamanese and ,australians1 is a man1 without human limitations1 and creative4 ,my hypothesis1 like ,dr4 ,callaway's1 is that ,ubebe and the rest wandered between three faiths3 a faith analogous to that of the ,andamanese and ,australians2 that faith modified by ancestor-worship carried to a great pitch--the creator being identified with the first man1 and the doctrine of the missionaries4 ,it is no wonder that these ancients are confused1 but perhaps my hypothesis1 which is ,dr4 ,callaway's1 so far1 helps to explain their contradictions4 ',they talk of ,providence1 but ,i reckon there is ,one above he1' said the ,british agriculturist1 quite as confused as ,ubebe4 ,dr4 ,callaway interrogated another very old man1 ,ulangeni4 ,he denied that ,utikxo1 his name for ,god1 was a ,hottentot word1 introduced by missionaries1 misled by what ,dr4 ,callaway thinks their erroneous idea that the ,hottentot ,utikxo represented a lofty and refined theistic belief4 ,ulangeni utterly rejected with extreme contempt the idea that his tribe borrowed ,utikxo from a people broken and contaminated by the ,dutch4#af ',we have learnt nothing of them4' ,in ,ulangeni's opinion1 ,utikxo created ,unkulunkulu1 but1 being invisible1 was disregarded in favour of his visible deputy1 as ,mungan-ngaur might come to be disregarded in favour of ,tundun4 ',and so they said ,unkulunkulu was ,god4' ,i am grateful to ,ulangeni for again anticipating my humble theory4 ,he gave a humorous account of the arrival of the first missionary1 ,unyegana 7,gardiner871 of his 'jabbering1' of his promise to give news of ,utikxo1 and of the controversies of ,zulu theologians4 ,a native convert won the day and composed a hymn3 all this is recorded by ,umpengula4 ,with all respect for ,ulangeni1 he appears to have been in the wrong about ,utikxo4 ,kolb 7#agbi7 gives ,gounja ,ticquoa 7,utikxo7 as the ,hottentot word for a supreme deity2 but1 if ,dr4 ,callaway is right1 ,kolb was in error4 ',nothing is more easy than to inquire of heathen savages the nature of their creed1 and during the conversation to impart to them great truths and ideas which they never heard before1 and presently to have these come back to one as articles of their own original faith4444'#ag ,but ,kolb's ,hottentots1 as ,dr4 ,callaway notes1 say that ,ticquoa 'is a good man' ,they did not get that from ,kolb1 or any missionary3 as ,i have said it is the regular preanimistic savage theory1 as in ,australia and the ,andaman ,isles4 ,later investigations down to ,hahn tell us of ,tsui ,goab1 'wounded knee1' a ,hottentot being who is only an idealised medicine-man4 ,shaw says that 'the older ,kaffirs used to speak of ,umdali1 the ,creator2' but ,moffat found no trace of anything higher than ,morimo1 another mythical first ancestor1 who came out of the earth4 ,livingstone asserts just the reverse4 ',there is no necessity for beginning to tell even the most degraded of these people of the existence of ,god1 or of a future state1 the facts being universally admitted4'#ah ,as to the ,bechuana ,morimo1 ,mr4 ,hartland gives the etymology of his name3 it is said to be derived from gorimo1 above1 with the singular prefix mo4 ,it would thus mean ',him who is above4' ,but why1 then1 did ,morimo come out of a hole in the earth8 ,was he once ',he who is above1' and was he confused with the first man8 ,the plural1 ,barimo1 seems to mean the spirits of the dead4 ,molsino1 teste ,cassilis1 is used for an ancestral ghost4 ,mr4 ,hartland is 'inclined to regard ,morimo not as a once supreme deity fading away1 but as a god in process of becoming4'#ai ,i feel that ,i have no grounds whereon to base even a conjecture4 ,a curious piece of evidence by ,dr4 ,callaway is given in a note not in his book4 ,one ,zulu account is that ,unkulunkulu was created by ,utikxo4 ,now ,unkulunkulu was visible1 ,utikxo was invisible1 and so was more prominent and popular4'#bj ,thus regarded1 ,unkulunkulu is the demiurge and deputy of ,utikxo1 as sometimes are ,daramulun1 ,tundun1 ,hobamok1 ,okee1 ,bobowissi1 the deputies of ,baiame1 ,mungan-ngaur1 ,kiehtan1 ,ahone1 ,nyankupon1 and so on4 ,the idea is usual in savage theologies4 ,now ,dr4 ,callaway cites the evidence of another ,zulu3 ,i ,we had this word before the missionaries came2 we had ,god 7,utikxo7 long ago2 for a man when dying would utter his last words1 saying1 ,i am going home2 ,i am going up on high4 ,for there is a word in a song which says3 ,guide me1 ,o ,hawk6 ,that ,i may go heavenward1 ,to seek the one-hearted man1 ,away from double-hearted men1 ,who deal in blessing and cursing4 ,we see1 then1 that those people used to speak of a matter of the present time1 which we clearly understand by the word which the missionaries teach us4444 ,so we say there is no ,god' 7no new ,god7 'who has just come to us4' ,dr4 ,callaway explains3 ',that ,god of whom the missionaries speak is not a new ,god1 but the same ,god of whom we spoke by the terms ,ukqamata and ,utikxo4'#ba ,dr4 ,callaway could not produce this testimony1 or translate it1 owing to the archaisms and allusions demanding familiarity with ancient ,zulu songs1 till he got the aid of a ,kxosa ,kaffir4 ,i am apt to regard the archaic character of the piece as fairly good proof of genuine antiquity4 ,if the testimony is accepted1 it settles the question in my sense4 ,the ,zulu religion1 in its higher elements1 was a waning religion ,utikxo was1 'with his one foot in the grave1' like ,john ,knox2 he was not1 as by ,mr4 ,hartland's theory1 a god in the making4 ,old hymns are our best authorities1 and the hymn proves a belief in a future far nobler than the transfiguration of ,zulu souls into serpents4 ,a deity is also attested by the witness4 ,but from the use of the word ,utikxo by this witness1 he may be speaking of ideas borrowed by ,hottentots from the ,dutch1 and by ,kaffirs from ,hottentots4 ,another odd example occurs elsewhere4 ,mr4 ,frazer quotes the ,king of ,sofala1 or of ,quiteva1 or ',the ,quiteva4'#bb ,this king ranks with the deity2 in fact1 'the ,caffres acknowledge no other gods than their monarch1' says ,dos ,santos4 ,but ,mr4 ,frazer omits the circumstance that the same author adds3 ',they acknowledge a ,god who both in this world and the world to come they fancy measures retribution for the good and evil done in this4444 ,though convinced of the existence of a deity they neither adore nor pray to him4'#bc ,here we have a belief in a future life and a god 7,molunga7 analogous to that revealed in the archaic ,zulu hymn4 ,but ,dos ,santos only recognised as god a god who receives prayer and adoration2 hence he says that the ,kaffirs have no gods1 and also that they 'acknowledge a god'--unworshipped4 ,the name of that god1 ,molunga1 is the same1 ,i presume1 as ,mulungu1 who now1 'in the world beyond the grave1 is represented as assigning to spirits their proper places4'#bd ,to myself1 then1 ,zulu religion1 now almost exclusively ancestor-worship1 does seem to contain a broken and almost obliterated element of belief in a high unworshipped god1 presiding over a future life4 ,obviously archaic hymns are better evidence1 with their native interpretation1 than the contradictory statements of individual ,zulus1 who speak dubiously of what the fathers used to say4 ,the analogy between the ,utikxo and ,mulungu belief also counts as corroboration1 while the unworshipped supreme being1 with a deputy or deputies 7,utikxo--,unkulunkulu71 is a pervading feature of savage religion4 ,if philology could throw any certain light on the meanings of names like ,mulungu1 and so forth1 more sure ground might be reached4 ,again1 when the name of a relatively supreme being may be regarded as a plural1 like ,elohim1 the inference may be that many ancestral spirits are being blended1 or have been blended1 into one being4 ,the case of the ,mura ,mura of the ,australian ,dieri has met us already1 in the essay on ',magic and ,religion4' ,is it a case of ',they' or ',he8' ',mulungu ,god1' a native told ,mr4 ,clement ,scott2 'you can't put the plural1 as ,god is ,one4' ',spirits are spirits of people who have died' 7,mzima71 'not gods4' ,on the other hand1 ,mr4 ,macdonald learned that 'people who have died become ,mulungu4' ,yet he is also regarded as a separate and supreme being1 who assigns their places to the spirits of the dead4 ,his very name is variously interpreted as 'sky' or 'ancestor4' ,we may argue that ,mulungu is primal1 and that the spirits of the dead1 ,mzima1 are only 'the people of ,mulungu1' who was1 in the myth1 prior to death4 ,or we may argue that many ,mzima have been combined in a later conception of ,mulungu as a single being4 ,such beings do occur1 it is certain1 where spirits of the dead are held of no account in religion4 ,i fear that1 in the condition of the evidence1 students will take sides in accordance with their bias3 at least both parties will think that their opponents do so4 ,i have observed that many writers appear only to be aware of the existence of the religious bias1 which denotes lack of humour4 ,as to ,utikxo1 ,mr4 ,beiderbecke1 like ,dr4 ,callaway1 thinks that ,kaffirs1 living near ,hottentots1 borrowed their name for god1 ,tixo 7,utikxo71 and dropped ,unkulunkulu4 ,among the ,ovaherero1 in a region 'which had not yet been under the influence of civilisation and ,christianity' 7#ahgc71 ,mr4 ,beiderbecke found that a god called ,karunga was believed in4 ',look at our oxen and sheep3 is it not ,karunga who has made us so rich1' as ,jehovah made the ,israelites8 ,mukuru was used by believers in ,kuringa as the name for the missionaries' ,god4 ,mukuru 'is in ,otyiherer the name for god4' ,the derivation is unknown1 but ,omurunga1 the sacred fan-palm tree1 must be derived from ,omuru1 not ,omuru from ,omurunga4 ,the ,otyiherer word for spirit differs from both3 it is ,otyimbosi4 ,as a god1 ,karunga seems to have no sacrifices3 these are made to ancestral spirits4 ,karunga does not appear to be offended by sin1 but this seems merely to be inferred from his receiving no atonement1 as the spirits do4 ,when people are dying they say ',karunga has bid them come4' ,traces of him as a creator are very dubious1 but rain1 thunder1 and so on come from him1 as proverbial sayings prove1 and he is prayed to in time of danger--the prayers may be post-,christian4 ,the ,omuambo creation tale1 or one of the tales1 makes ,kalunga1 like ,morimo1 come out of the earth1 and create men and women4 ,he is no ghost4 ',they also had ghosts1' the witness said1 ,i but ,kalunga was quite a distinct and unique being4'#be ,my bias in favour of my own theory is unconcealed1 but ,i conceive that ,south ,african belief in a god1 'a unique being1' indicates itself in ,mr4 ,beiderbecke's evidence4 ,there are different words for this being and for ghosts and spirits2 though in other cases philology finds cognate ,african words for both4 ,dr4 ,callaway concludes3 ',it appears that in the native mind there is scarcely any idea of deity1 if any at all1 wrapped up in their sayings about a heavenly chief4 ,when it is applied to ,god it is simply the result of teaching4 ,among themselves he is not regarded as the ,creator1 nor as the preserver of men2 but as a power1 it may be nothing more than an earthly chief1 still celebrated by name--a relic of the king worship of the ,egyptians2 another form of ancestor-worship'--only he is not worshipped6#bf ,dr4 ,callaway1 a most impartial inquirer1 has given several cases of very old ,zulus1 who in childhood heard from their elders about a creator1 a creative lord4 ,but this excellent collector had just a trifle of most justifiable bias4 ,he was arguing to prove that ,unkulunkulu1 ,uthlanga1 ,utikxo1 and the rest were not safe equivalents to be used by missionaries for ,god4 ,and they were not safe equivalents4 ,umpengula argued that point to perfection4 ,unkulunkulu1 he said1 was a name to deceive children with2 you must not come to us with a new great god1 and call him by the name of a being whom every adult ,zulu despises4#bg ,but that the name was despised1 say in #ahfj1 by 'convinced manes-worshippers1' by no means proves the non-existence of a higher belief in the past4 ,mr4 ,ridley deemed ,baiame a fit name for the ,christian ,god3 probably it was imprudent to employ it in teaching natives4 ,urged by his justifiable objection to the use of native names to indicate the ,christian ,god1 ,dr4 ,callaway1 in the conclusion just quoted1 forgot1 or had abandoned1 his opinion that the evidence of old ,zulus represented a blending of beliefs1 beginning with 'a primitive faith in a heavenly ,lord or ,creator4'#bh ,i entirely go with his conclusion that the natives at large1 of his generation1 did not regard 'the heavenly chief as the ,creator or preserver of men1' and that 'they had scarcely any notion of deity at all4' ,but1 on the evidence collected from very old people by ,dr4 ,callaway1 ,i feel disposed to think it probable enough that1 under stress of military life1 conquest1 and ancestor-worship1 the ,zulus may have forgotten and almost obliterated the higher belief which the old men had heard of in their infancy4 ,if so1 the ,zulus fall into the general line of my argument4 ,their faint traditions 7as in the case of ,atahocan7 have dwindled to children's tales4 ,they are not the 'theoplasm' of a god who was in course of becoming4 ,but1 of course1 it may be argued that these faint rudiments came in1 with ,utikxo1 through the ,hottentots1 who picked them up in conversation with the ,dutch4 ,this process1 however1 does not apply to the belief in superior beings1 carefully concealed from the native women1 the children1 and the ,europeans1 by the ,australians4 ,nor does it apply to the ,american ,kiehtan1 ,ahone1 ,andouagni1 ,atahocan1 and many others4 ,such are the hesitating conclusions which ,i venture to draw from what we are told about religion among the peoples of ,south ,africa4 ,in favour of my theory is the fact that the oldest evidence1 that of persons born before the genius of ,chaka revolutionised ,zulu life1 agrees with what ,i expect to find1 a creative tradition4 ,the success of either of the competing theories--that which sees elements of a high religion among low savages1 and that which denies the existence of these elements--does not appear to me to affect our ideas about 'the truth of religion4' ,each theory regards religion as a thing evolved by mankind in accordance with their essential nature4 ,the only question is as to the sequence of stages of evolution4 ,suppose that the beginning of religion was 7as in my hypothesis7 regard for a maker and father1 who was credited with sanctioning morality1 and1 in some cases1 with rewarding or punishing the good or bad in a future life4 ,these ideas occur in modern religion4 ,but the circumstance that they also occurred in primitive religion would not prove modern religion to be 'true4' ,it would only prove that the men who evolved primitive religion were really human3 very like their descendants4 ,why not8 ,they did not produce the higher ideas pure3 or at least1 as we find them1 they are always contaminated1 soften overlaid1 by myths of every degree of absurdity and viciousness4 ,but it is to be observed that the faith of primitive man1 as far as it is represented by the evidence which ,i offer as to very backward man1 had not some of the worst elements of the creeds of more advanced races4 ,sacrifices there were none4 ,but when agriculture arose1 it brought with it hecatombs of human sacrifices1 especially if we agree with ,mr4 ,frazer's theory stated in ',the ,golden ,bough4' ,so far it cannot be doubted that1 as man advanced in social progress1 he became more deeply stained with religious cruelty4 ,in similar fashion the religion of peace and goodwill came to be accompanied1 thanks to the nature of mankind1 by religious cruelties as barbarous as those of the ,aztecs4 ,tant molis erat3 so hard has it been to elevate the race in any one direction without introducing new depressions in other directions4 #a ,folk ,lore1 ,march #aija1 p4 #ba4 ,presidential address4 #b ,callaway1 ,religion of the ,amazulu1 p4 #aj #ahfh4 #c ,primitive ,culture1 ii4 pp4 #cab1 #cac1 #ahgc4 #d ,callaway1 p4 #bi4 #e ,callaway1 p4 #da2 ,folk ,lore1 ut supra1 p4 #bc4 #f ,callaway1 p4 #aj1 note #be4 #g ,ibid4 p4 #ba4 #h ,ibid4 p4 #ag4 #i ,ibid4 pp4 #bf1 #bg4 #aj ,umdabuko is derived from ukadabuka1 to be broken off1 a word implying the pre-existence of something from which the division took place4 ,callaway1 i4 note #c1 #ej1 note #ie4 ,it is usually a vaguely metaphysical term4 #aa ,callaway1 pp4 #eb1 #ec4 #ab ,waitz1 ,anthropologie1 i4 #afg4 #ac ,ibid4 p4 #ei1 and note #ab4 #ad ,ibid4 #fa1 and note #ag1 #i1 and note #bb4 #ae ,callaway1 #fc1 and note #bc4 #af ,ibid4 p4 #fe4 #ag ,waitz1 ,anthropologie1 pp4 #aje1 #ajf4 #ah ,missionary ,travels1 p4 #aeh4 #ai ,folk ,lore1 ,march #aija1 pp4 #bf1 #bg4 #bj ,callaway1 ,rel4 of ,amazulu1 p4 #fg4 #ba ,folk ,lore ,journal1 ,south ,africa1 ii4 iv4 #ahhj1 p4 #ei1 et seq4 #bb ,golden ,bough1 i4 #aee2 ii4 #aj4 ,dos ,santos1 in ,pinkerton1 xvi4 #fhb-fhg1 et seq4 #bc ,dos ,santos2 in ,pinkerton1 xvi4 #fhg4 ,he confuses ,quiteva1 the country1 and the king1 the ,quiteva4 ,cf4 supra1 p4 #ig note #c4 #bd ,macdonald1 ,africana1 i4 #ff1 #fg4 ,for etymological guesses1 and the application of ,mulungu 7as of ,barimo7 to ancestral spirits1 and the statement that 'all things in the world were made by ,mulungu1' who was prior to death1 see ,africana1 and ,mr4 ,clement ,scott's ,dictionary of the ,mang'anja ,language in ,british ,central ,africa1 and ,making of ,religion1 pp4 #bcb-bch4 #be ,beiderbecke1 ,f4 ,l4 ,journal1 ,south ,africa1 iv4 v4 #hh-ig4 #bf ,callaway1 p4 #abd4 #bg ,callaway1 pp4 #gd-gf4 #bh ,callaway1 p4 #ee1 note #d4 ,,xiii ',,cup ,,and ,,ring3' ,,an ,,old ,,problem ,,solved ,history and antiquity supply our curious minds with many pleasant profitless exercises4 ,even in these days of education there are still many persons who have heard of the ,man in the ,iron ,mask1 and would like to know who he was4 ,nobody1 of course1 reads the ',letters of ,junius1' but many would be glad to be certain as to who wrote them4 ,my riddle is infinitely more remote1 but it has this merit3 that ,i think ,i can unriddle it4 ,if ever you roamed on that moor of the ,cheviot ,hills which is near ,chatton ,park 7,i think on ,lord ,tankerville's ground71 you may have noticed1 engraved on the boulders1 central cup-like depressions1 surrounded by incised concentric circles4 ,who hollowed out these devices1 why1 and in what age8 ,i remember putting these questions when ,i first saw the 'scalps' of whinstone1 just swelling out of the turf among the heather1 on a beautiful day of ,september4 ,it was a lonely spot1 where victual never grew2 about us were the blue heights of the ,cheviots1 below us the fabulosus amnis of ,till1 that drowns three men to one drowned by ,tweed4 ,my friend told me that some said the stones were places of ,druid human sacrifice1 and others1 men of common sense1 held that the herd-boys carved the circles out of sheer idleness4 ,but these answers will not pass4 ,there were no herd-boys nor ,druids in ,central ,australia1 nor on the ,rio ,negro in ,brazil1 among the ,waimara ,indians1 nor in ,fiji1 nor in ,georgia of old1 nor in ,zululand1 where these decorative markings occur with others of primeval character4 ,in our own country they are found1 not only on scalps of rock1 but on the stones of ',druid circles1' from ,inverness-shire to ,lancashire1 ,cumberland1 and the ,isle of ,man4 ,they also occur on great stones arranged in avenues2 on cromlechs 7one huge horizontal stone supported on others which are erect72 on the stones of chambered tumuli 7artificial mounds7 in ,yorkshire2 on stone 'kist' or coffins1 in ,scotland1 ,ireland1 and in ,dorset2 on prehistoric obelisks1 or solitary 'standing stones1' in ,argyll2 on walls in underground ,picts' houses in the ,orkneys and ,forfarshire2 in prehistoric ,scottish forts2 near old camps2 as well as on isolated rocks1 scalps1 and stones4 ,analogous double spirals occur at ,new ,grange1 in ,ireland1 at the entrance of the great gallery leading to the domed chamber2 in ,scandinavia2 in ,asia ,minor2 in ,china and ,zululand2 in ,australia1 ,india1 ,america1 ,north and ,south1 and in ,fiji4#a ,now1 who made these marks1 when1 and why8 ,sir ,james ,simpson says3 ',they are archological enigmas1 which we have no present power of solving4' ,he cites some guesses4 ,the markings are 'archaic maps or plans of old circular camps and cities4' ,they are sundials--but they occur in dark chambers of sepulchres1 or underground houses6 ,they stand for sun1 or moon1 or for ,lingam worship4 ,they are ,roman1 or they are ,phnician--a theory on which much learning has been wasted4 ,to all these guesses ,sir ,james ,simpson opposed the solution that the markings are merely decorative4 ',from the very earliest historic periods in the architecture of ,egypt1 ,assyria1 ,greece1 c1 down to our own day1 circles1 single or double1 and spirals have formed1 under various modifications1 perhaps the most common types of lapidary decoration4' ,it appears in ,polynesian tattooing1 this love of spirals and volutes4 ,but1 added ,sir ,james1 'that they were emblems or symbols1 connected in some way with the religious thoughts and doctrines of those that carved them1 appears to me to be rendered probable1 at least1 by the position and circumstances in which we occasionally find them placed1' as on the lids of stone coffins and mortuary urns4 ,their date must be 'very remote4' ,they preceded writing and tradition4 ,they are found in company with polished neolithic stone weapons1 as in ,brittany1 without any remains of the metals1 save in one case1 of gold4 ,the markings are certainly1 in ,australia1 earlier than the use of metals4 ,sir ,james found by experiment that the markings could be made even on ,aberdeen granite with a flint celt and a wooden mallet4 ,he reckoned them earlier than the arrival of the ,celtic race1 and asked for evidence of their existence in ,africa1 ,america1 or ,polynesia4 ,he did not know the ,fijian example in ,williams's work on the ,fijians1 nor the ,american and ,australian examples4 ,sir ,james did not live to hear much about these mysterious marks in remote and savage lands4 ,but1 in #ahge1 ,professor ,daniel ,wilson discovered1 or rather reported his discovery of1 cups and rings on a granite boulder in ,georgia4 ,the designs are quite of the familiar orthodox sort1 and rocks covered with deep cup-marks occur in ,ohio4#b ,now there are romantic antiquaries1 all for ,druids and ,phnicians2 and there are sardonic antiquaries1 who like to rub the gilt off the gingerbread4 ,dr4 ,wilson was of the latter class1 and explained the cups as holes made by early men in grinding stone pestles4 ,the concentric rings may have been drawn round the cups 'for amusement4' ,this is clamping1 but early man did not use stone kists and the inner walls of sepulchres as grindstones2 yet on these the marks occur4 ,nor would he climb an almost inaccessible rock to find his grindstone2 yet the summit of such a rock has the decorations1 in the parish of ,tannadyce 7,forfarshire74 ,we may1 therefore1 discard ,dr4 ,wilson's theory as a general solution of the problem4 ,sir ,james ,simpson left it with the answer that the marks are decorative1 plus religious symbolism4#c ,his guess1 as ,i think ,i can prove1 or1 at least1 cause to seem probable1 was correct4 ,the cups and circles1 with other marks1 were originally decorative1 with a symbolical and religious meaning in certain cases4 ,how ,i have reached this conclusion ,i go on to show4 ,when you want to understand an old meaningless custom or belief1 found in the middle of civilisation1 you try to discover the belief or custom in some region where it possesses intelligible life4 ,then you may reckon that1 where you now find it without meaning1 it once meant what it now does where it is full of vitality1 or meant something analogous4 ,the place where the concentric circles and other markings have a living and potent signification ,i discovered by pure accident4 ,i had been reading the proofs of ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen's valuable book on the ',native ,tribes of ,central ,australia' 7,macmillan74 ,there ,i had noted plenty of facts about the native churinga1 or 'sacred things1' flat oval pieces of wood or stone1 covered with concentric circles1 cups1 and other decorations1 which are read1 or deciphered1 as records of the myths and legendary history of the native race4 ,these churinga are of various sizes1 down to a foot or less in length4 ,i did not think of them in connection with our cups1 circles1 and so forth on our boulders and standing stones4 ,but a friend chanced to come into my study1 who began to tell me about the singular old site1 ,dumbuck1 discovered by ,mr4 ,w4 ,a4 ,donnelly 7,july #ahih71 under high-tide mark in the ,clyde estuary1 near ,dumbarton4 ',the odd thing1' said my friend1 'is that they have found small portable stones1 amulets marked in the same way as the cup and ring marked rocks1' and he began to sketch a diagram4 ',why1 that's a churinga1' said ,i1 'a ,central ,australian churinga1' enlightened by ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen4 ,my friend1 after being informed as to churinga1 told me that other examples had been dug up1 also by ,mr4 ,donnelly1 in an ancient fort near the other site1 at a place called ,dunbuie4 ,here1 then1 ,i had things very like churinga1 and of the same markings as our boulders1 kists1 and so on1 in two ,scottish sites1 where ,i understand neither pottery nor metal has yet been detected4 ,next1 ,i found that the marks which the ,australians engrave on their small churinga1 they also paint on boulders1 rock-walls1 and other fixtures in the landscape1 on sacred ground1 tabooed to women4 ,the startling analogy between ,australian and old ,scottish markings saute aux yeux4 ,on the cover of ,sir ,james ,simpson's book1 stamped in gold1 is a central set of six concentric circles1 surrounding a cup4 ,from the inmost circle a groove goes to the circumference of the outer circle 7the circles often occur without this radial groove71 and there the line gives a wriggle1 suggesting that the circle was evolved out of a spiral4 ,above and below this figure are a similar one with three and another with four concentric circles2 at each side are two-circled and one-circled specimens with the wriggled line1 and two cups and circles with no wriggle4 ,now compare fig4 #aca1 p4 #fca1 of ,messrs ,spencer and ,gillen4 ,here we have the churinga ilkinia1 or sacred rock-drawing1 in red and white1 of the honey ant totem in the ,warramunga tribe4 ,here are1 first1 seven concentric circles1 through the centre of which goes a straight line of the same breadth 7only found among the ,warramunga71 while to each extremity are added two concentric circles of small dimensions1 ending in a cross4 ,around1 as on ,sir ,james's cover1 are smaller sets of less numerous concentric circles1 exactly like ,sir ,james's1 except for the radial groove which ends in a wriggle4 ,again 7fig4 #abd1 p4 #fae71 we have two sets of concentric circles with white dots answering to cups1 and1 where the third set of circles should be1 is a volute1 as at ,new ,grange1 in ,ireland1 and in many other examples in our islands4 ,now1 in ,central ,australia the decorative motives1 or analogous motives1 of the permanent rock-paintings are repeated on the small portable churinga1 which are deciphered by the blacks in a religious1 or rather in a mythical1 sense4 ,it is1 therefore1 arguable that the small portable ,scottish cup and circle marked stones1 only recently discovered1 bore the same relation to the engravings on permanent stones1 scalps1 and boulders as do the ,australian churinga to the ,australian sacred rock-paintings4 ,they may have been portable sacred things4 ,i have been unable to visit ,dumbuck1 now in course of excavation1 and have only seen some casts and pen-and-ink sketches sent to me by ,mr4 ,donnelly4 ,but ,i have examined the similar objects from ,dunbuie1 in the museum at ,edinburgh4 ,the antiquaries looked dubiously on them1 because they had seen no such matters before 7they might have done so in ,ireland71 because a shell1 with a very modern scratched face1 was among the finds1 and because a few of the markings on one or two stones look recent and fresh4 ,but ,i argue that a ,dumbarton humourist wishing to hoax us ,monkbarnses would hardly 'salt' an old site with objects unknown to ,scottish antiquaries1 yet afterwards discovered in ,central ,australia4 ,how could the idea occur to him8 ,a forger would forge things known1 such as flint weapons2 he would not forge novelties1 which1 later1 are found to tally with savage sacred things in actual use4 ,many of the ,dunbuie finds are engraved in ,mr4 ,millar's paper on ,dunbuie4#d ,but he has not engraved the most unmistakable churinga1 a small oval slab of stone1 with an ornament of little cups following its outline 7much as in an ,irish instance71 and provided1 like stone churinga in ,australia1 with a hole for suspension4 ,he does engrave certain hitherto unheard-of articles-spearheads of slate1 two supplied with suspension holes4 ,one 7p4 #bid7 has a pattern of the simplest1 like a child's drawing of a larch1 which recurs in ,australia4#e ,that these slate spear-heads1 pierced for suspension1 were used in war ,i doubt1 though some ,australians do use spear-heads 'of a flinty slate2' and where flint is so scarce1 as in ,scotland1 hard slate may be used--for example1 in ,north ,america4#f ,i rather regard the slate weapons as amulets1 or churinga1 analogous to the very old and rare boomerang-shaped churinga of the ,arunta 7lizard totem7 of ,central ,australia4 ,mr4 ,millar observes3 ',they have all been saturated with oil or fat1 as water does not adhere to them1 but runs off as from a greasy surface4' ,now the ,australian churinga are very frequently rubbed with red ochre1 and made greasy with 'hand grease'--a singular coincidence4 ,footmarks are among the sacred ,australian rock-paintings with a legendary sense4 ,they also occur1 engraved on rock in ,brittany1 ,ireland1 on ',the ,fairy ,stone' 7ilkinia7 in ,glenesk1 and on ',the ,witches' ,stone' at ,monzie1 associated with cups and concentric circles4#g ,these close analogies point all in one direction4 ,meaningless in ,europe1 what meaning have these designs in ,australia8 ,though certainty is impossible1 ,i take it that they were first purely decorative1 before the mythical and symbolical meaning was read into them by the savages4 ,they occur on the mystic 'bull-roarers' of ,central ,queensland1 but ,i do not learn that in ,queensland the circles and so on are interpreted or deciphered as among the ,arunta4#h ,still1 they occur here in a religious connection--the bull-roarer being swung at the mysteries--and they are carved on trees at mysteries held far south in ,new ,south ,wales4#i ,but even in ,central ,australia the markings sometimes occur as purely decorative1 on one rock or other object1 while on others they are sacred1 and are interpreted as records of legends1#aj according to ,spencer and ,gillen4 ,there are 'ordinary rock-paintings1' and certain other drawings1 in many cases not distinguishable from some of the first series1 so far as their form is concerned1 but belonging to a class all of which are spoken of as churinga ilkinia1 and are regarded as sacred because they are associated with totems4 ,each local totemic group has certain of these specially belonging to the group1 and in very many cases preserved on rock-surfaces in spots which are strictly tabu to the women1 children1 and uninitiated men4' ,one of the commonest ,i represents a snake coming out of a hole in a rock1' which the wriggle out of the cup in our circle-marked stones would stand for fairly well4 ,some designs are only 'play-work2' others exactly similar1 on another spot1 have a definite meaning4 ,the meaning is read1 where the spot is sacred ground4 ,the concentric circles are 'believed1 on good ground1 to have been derived from an original spiral4' ',it is much more easy to imagine a series of concentric circles originating out of a spiral than to imagine a spiral originating out of a series of concentric circles4' ,in this country the spiral seems to be later than the circle4 ,these devices not only occur on fixed rocks and portable churinga1 they are also painted on the bodies of boys when initiated in the mysteries3 'concentric circles with radiating lines preponderate4' ,in ,mr4 ,haddon's ',decorative ,art of ,british ,new ,guinea' he describes designs of concentric circles and spirals which are clearly derivatives of drawings of the human face4#aa ,thus our concentric circles and spirals may1 in the last resort1 have been derived from drawings of the human face1 though diablement changs en route4 ,what1 then1 however we interpret the origin1 decorative or symbolic1 of the sacred designs1 is their significance as understood by the ,arunta of ,central ,australia at the present time8 ,the ,arunta are totemistic--that is1 they believe in close relations which bind up the groups of their society with certain plants and animals4 ,but they differ vastly from other totemistic races all over the world1 and even in ,australia4 ,so much do they differ that it may be doubted whether their totems can properly be called totems at all4 ,elsewhere a man of a given totem--say the emu--cannot marry a woman of that stock2 it is incest4 ,the children inherit their totem1 either from the mother1 or1 less frequently1 the father4 ,any local group in a given region contains persons of various totems4 ,people may not kill1 eat1 or make any use of the plants and animals which1 in each case1 are their totems4 ,among the ,arunta all is otherwise4 ,a child's totem may be that of his father1 of his mother1 or different from that of either parent4 ,a man may marry a woman of his own totem1 which elsewhere is incest1 and capitally punished4 ,thus1 father is a grub2 mother is a grub2 one child may be a grub1 another an emu4 ,moreover1 here totems are local2 almost every one in a given place will be1 for example1 a lizard or a plum tree4 ,usually people do eat their own totems1 though sparingly1 at magical rites1 intended to multiply the animal or plant with which it is associated1 in the interests of the general food supply4 ,the ,grubs work a rite to cause plenty of grubs1 and they give the other groups a lead by eating sparingly of the first fruits of the grubs4 ,this bears1 in my opinion1 no strong analogy to the so-called 'totem-sacrament4' ,to work the magic1 the men of the grub or other totem must eat a little of it4 ,this probably confirms their relation to the grub1 but involves no religious element4 ,they do not adore the grub4 ,if any one likes to call this a 'totem-sacrament1' he is rather easily satisfied4 ,nor does it agree with the notion that a man's totem is the receptacle of his 'life' or 'soul2' if so1 why should he encourage his neighbour to kill and eat it8 ,nay1 he even helps them to destroy it4 ,whether ,arunta totemism is the most archaic kind1 from which all other totemism has varied1 or whether it is a private 'sport' from the main stock1 does not concern us here1 and is matter of conjecture4 ,the ,arunta1 and other ,central ,australian tribes1 look back to a mythic past1 when ancestors1 closely connected with this or that plant or animal1 perhaps transformations of such animal or plant1 roamed the country in groups1 each of the same totem name1 each feeding freely on its own totem4 ,this was 'the ,alcheringa time1' and existing rites are explained by 'tiological myths1'stating how such or such a mummery1 still practised1 was originally practised in the ,alcheringa4 ,nothing of the sort1 of course1 need have been the case1 and such myths cannot tell us what the manners and customs of that dim age really were4 ,demeter was a woman of the ,greek ,alcheringa1 and the ,eleusinian rites were explained by the ,greeks as originating in her ,alcheringa adventures4 ,but these obviously were invented purely to account for the rites themselves1 not vice vers4 ,now1 among the ,arunta the blacks of to-day are regarded as reincarnations of the ,alcheringa fabulous ancestors4 ,each of these carried about 7both men and women7 churinga1 the portable decorated stones4 ,when an ,alcheringite died1 a rock or tree rose to mark the place1 but his or her spirit 'remained in the churinga4' ,plenty of churinga were dropped at different sites1 and round these now hover the spirits associated with them4 ,in one place is a crowd of wild cat ghosts2 at another1 a mob of frog or lizard or emu ghosts4 ,these want to be reincarnated4 ,consequently1 a woman who desires to have a baby goes to one of them 7in ,argyll she would slide down a cup-marked rock671 a woman who does not want to have a baby keeps away4 ,a child's totem is derived1 not from father or mother1 but from the totem of the ghosts at the place where the woman thinks she conceived it4 ,when the baby is born her relations hunt the spot1 and find for it the churinga left by the spirit which is reincarnated in it4 ,thus1 first there is the fabulous ,alcheringite1 himself a transformation of an emu1 lizard1 water1 fire1 or what not4 ,then there is his spirit haunting1 after his death1 a spot where churinga of his totem were deposited4 ,that spirit enters into and is born again from a passing woman1 and the spirit's churinga is found and is henceforth the child's churinga--an oval plate of stone1 with cup and ring or other decorations4#ab ,all these churinga are kept at sacred central stores1 caves1 or crevices4 ,each member of the tribe is represented by her or his 'churinga nanja' in these repositories4 ,women may not go near these sacred stores1 nor may they see a churinga4#ac ,if they do1 their eyes are burned out with a fire stick4 ,a man's churinga is not1 to him1 like the egg in which was the life of the giant in the fairy tale4 ,if it comes to grief1 he does not die1 but expects bad luck1 as we do if we break a mirror4 ,not till he has been through the mysteries and the most cruel mutilations1 and just before he has been painted with the pattern on the sacred rock of his totem1 can a man see the store-houses of the churinga4 ,now1 in the witchetty grub totem this sacred painting tallies with the lines incised1 under concentric circles1 on the covering of a stone kist at ,tillicoutry4#ad ,there are circles above the lines in the ,australian example1 or rather circular dabs of paint1 called 'the decorated eyes1' painted on the rocks2 the corresponding patterns are incised on the portable churinga4 ,in ,scotland the patterns are incised both on fixed rocks and portable stones2 the latter at ,dumbuck and ,dunbuie4 ,i observe many patterns common to both regions4 ,there are the concentric circles1 the spiral1 the marks like horseshoes1 the tree pattern1 the witchetty grub pattern1 the volute1 the long sinuous snake-like pattern1 and a number of these recur in ,brazil1 on the banks of the ,rio ,negro4#ae ,now1 though we have those patterns on rocks in ,ohio1 ,brazil1 ,australia1 in this country1 in ,france1 in ,asia ,minor1 ,i only know the patterns on portable small stones in ,australia1 at ,dunbuie1 on the ,dumbuck site1 and1 ,i think1 in a cairn near ,lough ,crew1 in ,county ,meath4 ,the curious1 for this last case1 may consult ',proceedings of ,scottish ,society of ,antiquaries1' #ahic1 p4 #bii1 where in figs4 #f and #g he will see what in ,australia would be called two stone churinga1 with any number of ,scoto-,australian patterns on large stones4 ,on one the pattern is like that of a stone from ,dunbuie4 ,in ,australia members of each totem decipher the marks1 purely conventional1 as representative of the totem1 and of adventures in the ,alcheringa time4 ,for example1 a mark like two croquet hoops1 or horseshoes1 is 'an old woman gathering frogs4' ,the concentric circles are frogs2 the dots round them are tracks of women2 dull1 often dirty1 stories are told about the adventures of the ,alcheringites commemorated by the patterns4 ,at the sacred pattern-painted rocks1 magic ceremonies1 extremely puerile1 are performed to ensure a supply of the edible totem which the pattern represents4 ,some event occurred there in the ,alcheringa2 the rite repeats what1 in myth1 was then done1 and the stomachs of the men are rubbed with the churinga 'for luck4' ,such are the uses of the churinga4 ,did they once exist wherever the similarly decorated fixed rocks exist8 ,did the makers of the decorations in ,scotland decipher the churinga as the ,central ,australians do now8 ,were the dwellers by ,clyde 7much more advanced in culture than the ,australians7 totemists1 looking on their small decorated stones as associated with the spirits of ,alcheringa ancestors8 ,do women in ,argyll slide down a cup-marked rock1 in hope of offspring1 because totemistic ghosts once hovered round it1 eager to be reincarnated8 ,the fact of the sliding is attested by a chief of ,clan ,diarmid4 ,nobody can answer6 ,i have shown these decorated rocks and small stones to have a living significance1 a vital legendary symbolism1 in ,central ,australia4 ,i cannot prove that they had the same significance in ,county ,meath or ,dumbartonshire4 ,the ,australians may have begun with mere decoration1 and later added a symbolism suited to their amazing theory of life4 ,in our country the decorations may have quite a different symbolical sense1 but probably they had some sense4 ,otherwise1 why engrave them1 not only on rocks1 but on small stones pierced for suspension8 ,perhaps men believed in an ,alcheringa time on the ,clyde2 perhaps they multiplied salmon and deer by magical mummeries at the engraved rocks2 perhaps these were sacred places1 tabooed to women4 ,or quite a different set of fables and customs may have crystallised in ,scotland round marked rocks and inscribed small stones4 ,i cannot prove that1 as in ,australia1 ,clydesdale boys of old1 when initiated in the mysteries1 were painted with the pattern on their sacred totem rock and stone or wood churinga4 ,but1 if not these rites1 other rites were1 ,i conceive1 connected with the decorative patterns found in so many still savage countries4 ,one piece of evidence rather points in this direction4 ,the ,australian stone churinga are shaped like the wooden churinga1 and these are shaped like the tundun1 or 'bull-roarer4' ,now the bull-roarer 7which occurs in ,australia where stone churinga do not7 is a sacred oval piece of wood1 not to be seen by women1 which is whirled at the mysteries1 and makes a windy1 roaring noise4 ,the same object is used1 for the same purpose1 at the mysteries in ,america1 ,africa1 and1 of old1 in ,greece4#af ,the roaring noise is taken to be the voice of ,tundun1 son of ,mungan-ngaur1 ',our ,father' in the heavens1 among the ,kurnai1 and of gods or culture heroes of other names in other tribes4 ,now1 in ,celtic ,scotland 7as also in ,england7 this instrument1 the tundun1 occurs as a mere toy1 in ,gaelic named strannam4 ,does it descend from a sacred object of savage mysteries1 and are the ,australian stone churinga--in shape like the tundun1 and like the tundun tabooed to women--mere lapidary modifications of the wooden tundun8 ,however this may be1 the strannam looks like a link in the long chain which binds us to the prehistoric past4 ,while correcting the proof-sheets of this article ,i read1 in the ,glasgow ,herald 7,january #g1 #ahii71 an article on ,dumbuck and ,dunbuie1 by ,dr4 ,munro1 the eminent authority on crannogs1 or pile-dwellings1 and1 generally on prehistoric ,scotland4 ,dr4 ,munro1 as ,i understand him1 does not regard ,dumbuck as an older than medival site1 nor as a true crannog4 ,the incised stones he looks on either as of most singular character 7if genuine7 or as forgeries of to-day1 the opinion which he seems to prefer4 ,he was then unacquainted with similar objects in any part of the world4 ,i have here provided references to similar objects from ,central ,australia1 and ,i suggest examination of the apparently similar ,irish objects1 figured in ',proceedings of ,scottish ,society of ,antiquaries1' #ahic1 p4 #bii1 figs4 #f and #g4 ,not having seen these stones ,i can only offer the hint suggested by the illustrations in ',proceedings4' ,why a forger should forge such unknown objects1 and place them at ,dunbuie1 in #ahie1 before the ,central ,australian stones had been described1 ,i cannot guess4 ,nor can ,i enough deplore the stupidity of the same hypothetical forger in not 'salting' ,dunbuie and ,dumbuck with neolithic implements1 whether antique or made by some ,flint ,jack of to-day4 ,both his sins of omission and of commission donnent furieusement penser4 ,dr4 ,munro1 however1 as ,i gather from his article on ,dumbuck in ',the ,reliquary' 7,april #aija71 still declines to recognise the ,dumbuck decorated portable stones as of genuine antiquity4 #a ,for ,india see ,archaic-logical ,notes on ,ancient ,sculpturings on ,rocks in ,kumaon1 ,india1 by ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,bivett-,carnac1 ,calcutta1 #ahhc4 ,the form of the ,jew's harp is common to ,india and ,scotland4 #b ,proceedings ,s4,a4,s41 ,june #ahge4 ',ohio ,rock ,markings4' #c ,ancient ,sculpturings of ,cups1 ,circles1 c4 ,edinburgh1 #ahga4 #d ,proceedings ,s4,a4,s4 vol4 xxx4 #ahif1 pp4 #bia-caf4 #e ,spencer and ,gillen1 p4 #fcb1 ,nos4 #ad-bc4 ',ilkinia and ,plum ,tree ,totem4' #f ,the evidence for ,australian slate spear-heads is not strong4 ,capt4 ,king acquired a bundle of bark in a raid on natives4 ,it contained 'several1 spear-heads1 most ingeniously and curiously made of stone 444 the stone was covered with red pigment1 and appeared to be of a flinty slate4'--,see ,the ,picture of ,australia1 p4 #bdc4 ,london1 #ahbi4 #g ,simpson1 pp4 #ahb-ahd4 #h ,both1 ,natives of ,n4 ,w4 ,queensland1 p4 #abi1 pi4 xvii4 #i ,journal ,anthrop4 ,institute1 ,may #ahie1 p4 #daj1 pi4 #ba1 fig4 #g4 #aj ,some wooden churinga are engraved1 as ',australian ,magic ,sticks1' in ,ratzel's popular ,history of ,mankind1 i4 #cgi4 ,they exactly answer to the churinga of the ,arunta4 #aa ,royal ,irish ,academy1 ,cunningham ,memoirs1 ,no4 x4 #ahid4 #ab ,for cups1 see ,spencer and ,gillen1 p4 #abi2 for concentric circles1 see p4 #aca4 #ac ,the tribal stores of churinga are not the same as the places where churinga were dropped in the ,alcheringa4 #ad ,proceedings ,s4,a4,s4 vol4 xxix4 p4 #aic4 ,spencer and ,gillen1 fig4 #acb1 ,no4 #f4 #ae ,s4,a4,s4 #ahhd-e1 vol4 vii4 pp4 #chh-cid4 ,compare1 for ,county ,meath1 the same work1 #ahib-ic1 pp4 #big-cch4 #af ,see the author's ,custom and ,myth3 ,the ,bull ,roarer4 ,prof4 ,haddon has discovered many other instances2 see also ,the ,golden ,bough1 iii4 #dbc et seq4 ,,xiv ,,first-,,fruits ,,and ,,taboos ,taboo is one of the few savage words which have struck root in ,england4 ,introduced from ,new ,zealand 7tapu7 and other ,polynesian islands1 it is used in ,english to denote a prohibition4 ,this1 that1 or the other thing1 or person1 or book is 'tabooed4' ,many of the ,ten ,commandments are1 in this sense1 taboos4 ,but1 in anthropological language1 'taboo' generally denotes something more than a prohibition4 ,it commonly means a prohibition for which1 to the civilised mind1 there is no very obvious meaning4 ,in this way the prohibitive ,commandments are not precisely taboos2 it is pretty obvious why we ought not to steal or kill1 though the raison d'tre of the ,seventh ,commandment is obscure to some advanced intelligences4 ,but the reasons why a ,sinclair must not cross the ,ord on a certain 'lawful day1' or why on another 'lawful day' the fishermen of ,st4 ,andrews might not go a-fishing1 resemble many savage taboos in the lack of a manifest reason why4 ,secondly1 the infraction of the savage taboo generally1 unlike that of the decalogue1 carries its own punishment4 ,forbidden food is poison1 tabooed land is dangerous to tread upon1 to handle tabooed property may mean death2 nobody knows what awful cosmic catastrophe might occur if a tabooed woman saw the sun2 many words and names are taboo1 and no luck will come of using them--for instance1 you must not name 'salmon1' 'pigs1' or the minister when out fishing in some parts of ,scotland4 ,in many cases the reason of this or that taboo is easily discovered4 ,a day is unlucky because all the fishers1 as at ,st4 ,andrews1 were lost on that day in a past century through a storm2 or the ,sinclairs on another day were cut off in an expedition4 ,most of us have our lucky or unlucky days1 clothes1 and other vanities4 ,again1 things are taboo for some reason in that kind of faith which holds that things connected in the association of ideas are mystically connected in fact4 ,you must not mention salmon1 lest they hear you and escape2 or tin in ,malay tin mining1 lest the tin should literally 'make itself scarce4' ,you may not name the fairies1 a jealous folk4 ,therefore you say 'the people of peace1' and so on4 ,but many other taboos have good practical reasons4 ,if women1 among ourselves1 were tabooed from salmon-fishing1 eating oysters1 or entering smoking-rooms 7all of which things are greatly to be desired71 the reason would be the convenience of the men1 who wish a sanctuary or asylum in the smoking-room1 and want to keep oysters and fishing to themselves4 ,it is pretty plain why the sight of the royal treasury is tabooed to a ,west ,african king3 to speak colloquially1 if admitted to see the hoards he 'would blue the lot4' ,a taboo often protects by a supernatural sanction the property and persons of the privileged classes4 ,if the umbrella of a bishop or a baronet were taboo1 it would not be taken away from the club by accident4 ,this simple explanation covers the case of many taboos4 ,brother and sister may scarcely ever see each other1 still less speak to or name each other1 where the law against brother and sister marriage or amour is the one most definite law of the community4 ',it is not1 therefore1 surprising1' says ,mr4 ,jevons1 'that the earlier students of the custom' 7of taboo7 'regarded it as an artificial invention1 a piece of statecraft1 cunningly devised in the interests of the nobility and the priests4 ,this view is1 however1 now generally abandoned1' because taboo 'is most at home in communities which have no state organisation1 and flourishes where there are no priests or no priesthood4 ,above all the belief is not artificial and imposed1 but spontaneous and natural4'#a ,i hesitate about this theory4 ,taboo can hardly flourish more than it does in ,polynesia and ,west ,africa1 where there are kings and priests4 ,moreover1 though there are human societies without kings or priests 7as in ,australia71 there are no societies in which artificial rules are not propagated1 instituted1 and enforced by the adult males meeting in councils4 ,the ,arunta of ,central ,australia are1 of course1 far from 'primitive4' ,they have institutions1 ceremonies1 weapons1 rules1 and a complete system of philosophy1 which must have needed unknown ages to develop4 ,they have local head-men1 or ,alatunjas1 whose office passes always in the male line3 from father to son1 if the son be of age to succeed1 or1 if he is not1 to the brother1 on whose death it reverts to the son4 ,an ,alatunja dying without a son nominates a brother or nephew to succeed him4 ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen know no equivalent to this law among other ,australian tribes1 and it indicates1 among the so-called 'primitive' ,arunta1 a marked advance beyond other tribes in social evolution4 ,the ,alatunja is hereditary ,convener of ,council1 and if an able man has considerable power4 ,he is guardian of the ,sacra of the group1 determines the date of the cessation of close-time for certain sorts of game1 the date of the magical ceremonies for fostering the game or edible plants1 and directs the ceremonies4 ,in the councils called by the ,alatunja it appears that changes in stereo-typed custom may be introduced4 ,men learned in the customs and skilled in magic 'settle everything4' ,definite proof of fundamental innovations thus introduced ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen do not possess2 but tradition indicates alterations of custom1 and it is quite possible that a strong ,alatunja1 well backed1 might bring in even a radical reform4#b ,there are also recognised grades of skill among the medicine-men and the dealers with spirits1 who must have their own share of social influence4 ,in brief1 though without priests or kings these backward tribes have councils1 and conveners1 and directors whose office is hereditary in the male line4 ,these persons1 through unknown ages1 have moulded customs and taboos1 which are just as much sanctioned by tradition and authority just as little 'spontaneous and universal1' as if kings and priests had invented them for purposes of statecraft4 ,mr4 ,jevons next argues that taboo 'cannot have been derived from experience4 ,it is prior to and even contradictory of experience4 ,in fine1 it is an inherent tendency of the human mind4' ,in the same way ,gibbon's ancestor1 ,blue ,gown herald1 when among ,north ,american ,indians1 declared that heraldry is an inherent tendency of the human mind1 an innate idea4 ,an opinion is not necessarily erroneous because it is obsolete1 nor a view wrong because 'it is generally abandoned4' ,i am here supporting the 'generally abandoned' hypothesis that many taboos1 at least1 are artificial and imposed1 against ,mr4 ,jevons's idea that the taboo1 like armorial bearings1 results from 'an inherent tendency of the human mind' 'prior to and even contradictory of experience4'#c ,that 'a new-born baby is dangerous1' or that 'the water in which a holy person has washed is dangerous1' my private experience does not tell me2 in fact1 ,i never made either experiment3 never tubbed in the water previously used by a bishop4 ,but ,i am prepared to admit that neither babies nor bishops are proved by our experience to be dangerous4 ,that is not the question4 ,the savage argued1 not from unbiassed and impartial scientific experiment1 but from fancied experience4 ,thus ,mr4 ,jevons mentions a ,maori who died after rinding out that he had eaten1 unawares1 the remains of the luncheon of a holy person1 a chief4 ,there was experience produced by suggestion4 ,the suggestion was suggested in the interests of holy chiefs2 they were 'tabooed an inch thick1' as ,mr4 ,manning writes4 ,as to the baby1 the ,dyaks1 as in our own fairy belief1 hold that 'new-born children are the especial prey of evil spirits1' just as corpses were in--,scotland1 where1 if the door was left ajar1 the corpse sat up1 and mopped and mowed4 ,if the watchers left it1 and dined in the 'but1' an awful vacarme arose in the 'ben4' ,the minister entered1 stilled the tumult1 asked for the tongs1 and came back holding in the tongs a bloody glove6 ,this he dropped into the fire4 ,this kind of thing is contradictory to the experience of ,mr4 ,jevons1 but not to the fancied experience of ,dyaks1 ,scots1 and other races4 ,opinion therefore makes taboos in accordance with experience1 or what is believed to be experience1 and the belief is fortified by suggestion1 which produces death or disease when the taboo is broken4 ,on the analogy of infectious diseases1 the mischief of the tabooed thing is held to be contagious4 ,thus ,i cannot hold with ,mr4 ,jevons that the human mind is provided with an a priori categorical imperative that there are some things which must not be done1' 'a feeling' 'independent of sense experience4'#d ,if the choice of what things are 'not to be done' seems to us 'irrational1' that is merely because our reason is more enlightened than that of the savage4 ,he prohibited just such things as his philosophy1 and what he believed to be his experience1 showed him to be dangerous for obscure reasons4 ,any fool could see that it was dangerous to eat poison berries or frolic with a bear4 ,but it took reflection to discover that a baby or a corpse was dangerous by reason of evil spirits1 ,iruntarinia1 whom the ,alkna ,buma1 or clairvoyant1 could see1 and describe1 though ,mr4 ,jevons and ,i could not discern them4#e ,these ,iruntarinia notoriously carry off women1 and probably1 like the fairies1 have their best chance in the hour of child-birth3 at all events1 the fairies have4#f ,the belief is socially useful3 it prevents young ,arunta women from wandering off alone1 and philandering out of bounds4 ,thus these taboos are sanctioned by the tribal counsellors as the results of experience1 not their own perhaps1 but that of the ,alkna ,buma1 or clairvoyant1 or 'sensitive1' or 'medium1' or habitually hallucinated person4 ,other taboos1 as to women1 are imposed for very good reasons1 though not for the reasons alleged1 and broken taboos are not 7in actual ordinary experience7 attended by the penalties which1 however1 suggestion may produce4 ,taboo1 then1 is not imposed irrationally1 nor in deference to 'an inherent tendency of the human mind' 7that ,mrs4 ,harris of philosophy71 but for a very good reason1 as savage reasoning goes1 and in accordance with what is believed to be experience1 and1 by dint of suggestion1 really does become experience4 ,it was 'irrational' in ,dr4 ,johnson to touch certain posts1 and avoid certain stones1 and enter a door twice1 if he first entered it with the wrong foot4 ,all my life ,i have had similar private taboos1 though nobody knows better that they are nonsense4 ,but some solitary experience in childhood probably suggested a relation of cause and effect1 where there was only a fortuitous sequence of antecedent and consequent1 and so ,dr4 ,johnson and ,i 7though not so conspicuously as the ,doctor7 imposed taboos on ourselves in deference to 7fancied7 experience4 ,early man has acted in the same way on a large scale1 obeying no categorical a priori imperative1 but merely acting on his philosophy and experience which is real to him1 though not to civilised men4 ,they usually do not understand it1 but educated persons with a survival of savagery in their mental constitutions find the affair intelligible4 ,but the reason in actual practical experience for some taboos must be plain to the most civilised minds1 except those of ,badical voters for the ,border ,boroughs4 ,man1 in the hunter stage1 must have game laws and a close-time for edible animals and plants4 ,the ,border ,badical will not permit a close-time for trout1 preferring to destroy them1 and with them their offspring1 when gravid and unfit for human food1 or before they recover condition4 ,the 'primitive' ,arunta are not so irrational1 and have a close-time1 protected by taboo1 or1 at least1 by ceremonies of a nature more or less magical4 ,in these ceremonies of a people not pastoral or agricultural1 we seem to see the germs of the offerings of first-fruits to gods or spirits1 though the ,australian produce is offered neither to spirits nor to gods4 ,these tribes recognise a great spirit1 indeed1 ,twanyirika1 but that he plays any other part in religion or society than presiding over the tribal mysteries we have at present no evidence to prove4 ,similar figures1 associated with the mysteries1 are1 in other parts of ,australia1 provided with an ample mythology1 and are subject to a being more august and remote4 ,but either the ,arunta are advanced thinkers who have passed beyond such ideas1 or they have not yet attained to them1 or our witnesses are uninformed on the subject4#g ,in any case1 the first-fruits of the game1 grubs1 and plants of the ,arunta are not offered to ,twanyirika1 or to the minor sprites1 ,iruntarinia4 ,the ceremonies1 partly intended to make the creatures used for food prolific1 and partly1 ,i think1 to indicate that the close-time is over and that the creatures may be taken and eaten1 are called ,intichiuma4 ,on the mummeries expected to make animals and plants plentiful we need not dwell4 ,in each case the men who belong to the totem of the beast1 grub1 or plant perform the ceremonies4 ,there is believed to be a close and essential connection between a man of the kangaroo totem and all kangaroos1 between a man of the grub totem and all grubs1 so each totem group does the magic to propagate its ally among beasts or plants4 ,how these ideas arose we do not know4 ,but if a local group was originally called kangaroos or grubs 7and some name it must have71 the association of names would inevitably lead1 by association of ideas1 to the notion that a mysterious connection existed between the men of a totem name and the plant1 animal1 or what not which gave the name4 ,these men1 therefore1 would work the magic for propagating their kindred in the animal and vegetable world4 ,but the existence of this connection would also suggest that1 in common decency1 a man should not kill and eat his animal or vegetable relations4 ,in most parts of the world he abstains from this uncousinly behaviour3 among the ,arunta he may eat sparingly of his totem1 and must do so at the end of the close-time or beginning of the season4 ,he thus1 as a near relation of the actual kangaroos or grubs1 declares the season open1 and gives his neighbours of other totems a lead4 ,now they may begin to eat grubs or kangaroos2 the taboo is off4 ,thus1 in #agde1 ,gask tabooed the corn of his tenants2 they must not reap it1 because they refused 'to rise and follow ,charlie4' ,prince ,charles1 hearing of this1 cut a few ears with his claymore1 thus removing the taboo4 ,in the same way the grub or kangaroo men publicly eat a little of their own totem1 after which the tribesmen and other totems may fall to and devour4 ,when the grub or whatever it is becomes plentiful1 after the magic doings for its propagation1 it is collected and placed before some members of the grub totem4 ,the ,alatunja1 or convener1 grinds up some of the grub1 he and his fellow totemists eat a little1 and hand the mass back to the members of other totems4 ,they eat a little of their own totem1 partly1 ,messrs4 ,spencer and ,gillen say1 to strengthen their mystic connection with the creature4 ,this1 in a way1 is a 'sacramental' idea1 though no religious regard is paid to the plants and animals4 ,but the men also partake1 to remove the taboo1 and to let the rest of the community gorge themselves legally4#h ,the rite has thus a practical purpose4 ,the grubs or other creatures are not prematurely destroyed1 like trout on the ,border4 ,in fact1 trout themselves are sensible enough not to begin feeding on ,may fly prematurely4 ',throughout the previous week1' says ,sir ,herbert ,maxwell1 'a few ,may flies had been seen 444 but not a trout would point his nose at one4444 ,this hesitation on the part of the trout to begin their annual banquet is one of the best known and1 at the same time1 least explicable features of the ,may fly fortnight4'#i ,the ,arunta also let the grub come on to its full rise before feeding4 ,when a certain bulb is ripe1 the men of its totem rub off and blow away the husks1 then the general public may begin feeding4 ,there is nothing sacramental in this ceremony1 which merely opens the season for tuber eating4 ,the taboo is off4 ,and so in other cases3 the kangaroo men are smeared with the fat of the kangaroo1 and eat a little of the animal4#aj ,the non-kangaroo tribesmen may then eat kangaroo4 ,the traditions of the ,arunta represent their mythical ancestors as in some cases feeding solely on their totems4 ,but this cannot possibly be true4 ,a grub man would die1 when grubs were out1 of starvation1 and so with the rest4 ',when fruits is in1 cats is out1' and a man of the gooseberry totem1 who only ate gooseberries1 would perish miserably4 ,the ,arunta eating of the totem has nothing to do with consecrating the first-fruits of grubs or kangaroos to a god or with absorbing the qualities of a spirit4 ,when ,swedish peasants bake a cake shaped like a girl1 from the last sheaf of the new corn1 they perhaps originally ate the cake 'as the body of the corn spirit4'#aa ,but when the ,lithuanian farmer takes the first swig of the new beer--'the second brew was for the servants'--perhaps he is only declaring his ownership1 and opening the beer season4#ab ,in an unnamed part of ,yorkshire the parson cuts the first corn2 he is the ,alatunja1 and opens the harvest4 ,in the ,celebes the priest opens the rice harvest2 all eat of it2 'after this every one is free to get in his rice4' ,at ,st4 ,andrews on the ,medal ,day 7which is in harvest time7 the ,alatunja 7that is the new captain7 drives a ball from the first tee2 after this every one is free to drive off in his turn--but not before4 ,in some places1 as in ,indo-,china1 the first-fruits are offered to a god2 in ,zululand the king pops a little into the mouth of every man present1 who 'may immediately get in his crops4' ,if he began harvest before he would die1 or1 if detected1 would be speared1 or forfeited4 ,sometimes the first-fruits are offered to 'the holy spirit of fire4' ,there are all sorts of ways and ceremonies of opening the season and taking off the taboo4 ,i really don't think it follows that the first fruits are dangerous to eat1 before the ceremony1 because 'they are regarded as instinct with a divine virtue1 and consequently the eating of them is a sacrament or communion4#ac ,i ,it is dangerous to eat them1 as it would be dangerous to steal a tabooed umbrella4 ,they are tabooed because it is close-time4 ,the other ideas may come to be entertained1 an automatic punishment may be thought to follow the breach of the taboo1 though we do not learn that this is the case among the ,arunta4 ,but the origin of the taboo on the immature food1 ,i think1 is the perfectly practical idea of a close-time2 plants are not to be gathered1 nor animals killed1 prematurely4 ,the more or less supreme being of the ,fuegians is angry--if you shoot flappers4 ',very bad to shoot little duck1 come rain1 come wind1 blow1 very much blow4'#ad ,the 'great black man1 who cannot be escaped1 and who influences the weather according to men's conduct1' is right about the flappers4 ,he sanctions a necessary game law4 ,the ,how 7king71 in ,tonga1 used to wait till the yams were ripe1 then he fixed a day for gathering them1 and had a religious function4 ,the sort of function depends on the stage at which local religion has arrived2 but a close-time--no premature killing or gathering--is the practical idea at the base of all these affairs of first-fruits4 ,any other superstition1 sacrificial or sacramental1 may crystallise round the practical primitive prohibition1 especially when it was sanctioned by the good old device of automatic punishment1 following on infringement of taboo4 ,if ,sir ,herbert ,maxwell could persuade ,mr4 ,thomas ,shaw1 ,m4,p41 that the proverbially execrable weather on the ,border is the direct result of fishing1 especially with salmon-roe1 out of season2 if there was to be no fishing till ,mr4 ,shaw1 after tasting of the first trout1 declared the season open2 if the clergy of all denominations lent their presence to the imposing ceremony1 then ,i believe that ,tweed1 ,ettrick1 ,teviot1 ,yarrow1 ,ail1 and ,kale would be worth fishing in again4 ,taboo1 as ,mr4 ,frazer and ,mr4 ,jevons agree1 has had its uses in the evolution of morality2 but remark that strictly moral offences are nowhere under taboo4 ,you may steal 7as long as the object stolen is not tabooed and does not belong to a chief or priest71 you may kill1 you may interfere with the domestic bliss of your neighbour1 you may lie1 but the automatic punishment of taboo-breaking nowhere follows4 ,baiame or ,pundjel may punish you2 but there is no instant mechanical penalty1 as under taboo4 ,after writing this paper1 ,i found that ,mr4 ,robert ,louis ,stevenson's experience of tapu1 in the ,pacific1 led him to form the same opinions as are here expressed4 ',the devil-fish1 it seems1 were growing scarce upon the reef2 it was judged fit to interpose what we should call a close season 444 a tapu had to be declared4' ,the tapus described 'are for thoroughly sensible ends4' ,there are tapus which1 to us1 appear absurd1 'but the tapu is more often the instrument of wise and needful restrictions4'#ae ,these taboos are imposed from above1 by ,government4 ,in other cases1 where the taboo expresses an inference from savage superstition 7say that a baby or a corpse is dangerous71 the taboo is not imposed except by public opinion4 ,that opinion is sanctioned 7as in the case of first-fruits7 by the action of the ,alatunja1 or headman3 in more advanced societies1 by the king4 ,in many cases1 taboos are imposed on the king himself by the priestly colleges4 ,but the greatest authority is tradition1 resting on fancied experience4 #a ,introduction to the ,history of ,religion1 p4 #hb4 #b ,spencer and ,gillen1 pp4 #aj-af4 #c ,jevons1 p4 #he4 #d ,jevons1 pp4 #he-hg4 #e ,spencer and ,gillen1 pp4 #ae1 #eae4 #f ,ibid4 p4 #eag4 #g ,spencer and ,gillen1 pp4 #bbb1 #bdf4 #h ,the ,arunta eating of the totem1 at the magic ceremony1 is not religious4 ,mr4 ,jevons1 however1 adduces it as proof of 'the existence of the totem-sacrament1' surviving 'in an etiolated form4' ,but what proof have we that the totems were once 'totem gods1' or in any way divine1 among the ,arunta8 ,jevons1 ',the ,science of ,religion1' ,international ,monthly1 p4 #dhi1 ,april #aija4 #i ,memories of the ,months1 #aijj1 pp4 #acb1 #acc4 #aj ,spencer and ,gillen1 chapter vi4 #aa ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #cah4 #ab ,ibid4 #ac ,g4 ,b4 ii4 #cce4 #ad ,fitzroy1 ,cruise of the ,beagle1 ii4 #ahj4 #ae ,in the ,south ,seas1 pp4 #dg-ej4 ,,xv ,,walking ,,through ,,fire ,perhaps the topic of this paper may be ranged under the head of ',magic1' though in many cases the rite of passing through fire is sanctioned by religion1 and the immunity of the performers is explained by the protection of gods4 ,the immunity is really the curious feature4 ,mr4 ,frazer describes the ,chinese vernal festival of fire in spring1 connected as it is with the widespread custom of 'renewing the fire' at a certain season4 ,the chief performers are labourers1 who must fast for three days and observe chastity for a week2 while they are taught in the temple how to discharge the difficult and dangerous duty which is to be laid upon them4 ',the fire is made in an enormous brazier of charcoal1 sometimes twenty feet wide4' ,the fire is gratified with salt and rice1 thrown on it by a ,taoist priest4 ,further1 'two exorcists1 barefooted1 and followed by two peasants1 traverse the fire again and again till it is somewhat beaten down4' ,the procession of performers then walks through amidst much excitement4 ,their immunity is ascribed to the horny consistency of the soles of their feet1 and they suffer if the fire touches their ankles4#a ,various ,indian examples are given by ,mr4 ,frazer4 ,captain ,mackenzie found the performance remote from the 'sensational1' and thought that only girls with tender soles were likely to suffer4 ,a case is also quoted from ,strabo1 women being the performers1 and the instance of the ,hirpi of ,soracte is well known4#b ,mr4 ,frazer is interested mainly in the religious1 magical1 or ritual significance of the rite1 which varies in different places4 ,to me1 on the other hand1 the immunity of the performers appears a subject worthy of physiological inquiry4 ,the subject occurs everywhere in history1 legend1 folklore1 law1 and early religion1 and yet nobody has thought it worth while to collect the ancient reports and to compare them with well-authenticated modern examples4 ,in ,mr4 ,tylor's celebrated work1 ',primitive ,culture1' only one or two casual allusions are made to the theme4 ',they built the high places of ,baal1 in the valley of the son of ,hinnom1 to cause their sons and daughters to pass through to ,moloch1' that is to pass through the fire1 'whether in ritual or symbolical sacrifice4'#c ,as a supposed rite of purification the ceremony is again touched upon lightly4#d ,again3 ',the ancient ceremony of passing through a fire1 or leaping over burning brands1 has been kept up vigorously in the ,british ,isles1'#e namely1 at the midsummer ceremonies1 when it is1 or was1 the custom to jump over1 or run through1 light fires4 ,nobody would guess that a rite of passing deliberately1 and unscathed1 through ovens or furnaces yet exists in ,japan1 ,bulgaria1 the ,society ,islands1 ,fiji1 ,southern ,india1 ,trinidad1 the ,straits ,settlements1 the ,isle of ,mauritius1 and1 no doubt1 in other regions4 ,we must distinguish between such sportive playing with fire as prevailed recently in our isles and the more serious ,fire ,ceremony of ,central ,australia1 which tests endurance on the one hand1 and the apparent contravention of a natural law on the other4 ,again1 we must discount the popular reply that the hand can be rapidly plunged into molten metal and withdrawn without injury1 for we do not happen to be concerned with such a brief exposure to heat4 ,once more1 the theory of the application of some unknown chemical substance must be rejected1 because1 as we shall prove1 there are certainly cases in which nothing of the kind is done4 ,moreover1 science is acquainted with no substance--alum or diluted sulphuric acid1 or the like--which will produce the result of preventing cauterisation4#f ,sir ,william ,crookes1 at least1 is not familiar with any such resources of science4 ,his evidence as to fire-handling by ,d4 ,d4 ,home is familiar1 and ,i understand that ,mr4 ,podmore can only explain it away by an hypothesis of a trick played in a bad light1 by means of an asbestos glove or some such transparent trick4#g ,perhaps he adds a little 'hallucination' on the part of the spectators4 ,but asbestos and hallucination are out of the question in the cases which ,i am about to quote4 ,home was1 or feigned to be1 in a state of trance when he performed with fire4 ,the seeress of ,lourdes1 ,bernadette1 was also in religious contemplation when she permitted the flame of a candle to play through her clasped fingers 7which were unscathed7 for a timed quarter of an hour4#h ,some ,indian devotees1 again1 aver that they 'meditate' on some divine being while passing over the glowing embers1 and the ,nistinares of ,bulgaria1 who dance in the fire1 are described as being in a more or less abnormal mental condition4 ,but even this condition is absent in the well-attested ,raiatean and ,fijian examples1 in which also no kind of chemical preparation is employed4 ,finally1 where savages are concerned1 the hardness of the skins of their feet is dwelt upon1 as in the ,chinese case already quoted4 ,but1 first1 the sole of the boot would be scorched in the circumstances1 while their feet are not affected2 next1 the savages' feet were not leathery 7so ,dr4 ,hocken avers72 thirdly1 one of the ,europeans who walked through the fire at ,rarotonga declares that the soles of his own feet are peculiarly tender4 ,thus every known physical or conjectured psychical condition of immunity fails to meet the case1 and we are left wholly without an ascertained1 or a good conjectural1 'reason why' for the phenomena4 ,i shall begin with the most recent and the best authenticated cases1 and work back in time1 and in civilisation4 ,mr4 ,tregear1 the well-known lexicographer of the ,maori and the allied ,mangarova languages1 lately sent me the twenty-ninth number of ',the ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1' ,march #ahii1 ,wellington1 ,n4,z4 ,professors ,max ,mller and ,sayce were ,honorary ,members of the ,society1 which studies ,polynesian languages1 customs1 and conditions4 ,mr4 ,tregear attests the upright1 truth-telling character of the ,british official1 who is the narrator of his own experiment4 ,as the journal is not widely circulated in ,england1 ,i quote the whole of the brief report4 ,,the ,,umu-,,ti1 ,,or ,,fire-,,walking ,,ceremony ,,by ,,colonel ,,gudgeon1 ,,british ,,resident1 ,,rarotonga ,in this ,journal1 vol4 ii p4 #aje1 ,miss ,teuira ,henry describes this ceremony as practised in ,raiatea1 of the ,society group4 ,we have lately received from ,colonel ,gudgeon the following account of his experiences in walking barefooted across the glowing hot stones of a native oven1 made in ,rarotonga by a man from ,raiatea4 ,since the date of the paper quoted1 it has come to light that the ,maoris of ,new ,zealand were equally acquainted with this ceremony1 which was performed by their ancestors4 ,on reading ,colonel ,gudgeon's account to some old chiefs of the ,urewera tribe1 they expressed no surprise1 and said that their ancestors could also perform the ceremony1 though it has long gone out of practice4--,,editors4 ,i must tell you that ,i have seen and gone through the fire ceremony of the ,umu-ti4 ,the oven was lit at about dawn on the #bjth of ,january1 and ,i noticed that the stones were very large1 as also were the logs that had been used in the oven for heating purposes4 ,about #b ,p4,m4 we went to the oven and there found the tohunga 7a ,raiatea man7 getting matters ready1 and ,i told him that1 as my feet were naturally tender1 the stones should be levelled down a bit4 ,he assented to this1 and evidently he had intended to do so1 for shortly after1 the men with very long poles1 that had hooks1 began to level the stones flat in the oven1 which was some #ab ft4 in diameter4 ,he then went with his disciple and pointed to two stones that were not hot1 and instructed him the reason was that they had been taken from a marae1 or sacred place4 ,he then unwound two bundles1 which proved to be branches of a large-leaved ,ti 7or ,dracna7 plucked1 it is said1 from two of these trees standing close together1 and it is said that the initiated can on such occasions see the shadow of a woman with long hair1 called te varua kino 7evil spirit71 standing between the trees4 ,the right-hand branch is the first plucked1 and it is said that the branches bend down to be plucked4 ,so much for the ,shamanism1 and now for the facts4 ,the tohunga 7priest7 and his tauira 7pupil7 walked each to the oven1 and then halting1 the prophet spoke a few words1 and then each struck the edge of the oven with the ti branches4 ,this was three times repeated1 and then they walked slowly and deliberately over the two fathoms of hot stones4 ,when this was done1 the tohunga came to us1 and his disciple handed his ti branch to ,mr4 ,goodwin1 at whose place the ceremony came off1 and they went through the ceremony4 ,then the tohunga said to ,mr4 ,goodwin1 ',i hand my mana 7power7 over to you2 lead your friends across4' ,now1 there were four ,europeans--,dr4 ,w4 ,craig1 ,dr4 ,george ,craig1 ,mr4 ,goodwin1 and myself--and ,i can only say that we stepped out boldly4 ,i got across unscathed1 and only one of the party was badly burned2 and he1 it is said1 was spoken to1 but1 like ,lot's wife1 looked behind him--a thing against all rules4 ,i can hardly give you my sensations1 but ,i can say this3 that ,i knew quite well ,i was walking on red-hot stones and could feel the heat1 yet ,i was not burned4 ,i felt something resembling slight electric shocks1 both at the time and afterwards1 but that is all4 ,i do not know that ,i should recommend every one to try it4 ,a man must have mana to do it2 if he has not1 it will be too late when he is on the hot stone of ,tama-ahi-roa4 ,i cannot say that ,i should have performed this wizard trick had ,i not been one of the fathers of the ,polynesian ,society1 and bound to support the superiority of the ,new ,zealander all over ,polynesia--indeed all over the world4 ,i would not have missed the performance for anything4 ,to show you the heat of the stones1 quite half an hour afterwards some one remarked to the priest that the stones would not be hot enough to cook the ti4 ,his only answer was to throw his green branch on the oven1 and in a quarter of a minute it was blazing4 ,as ,i have eaten a fair share of the ti cooked in the oven1 ,i am in a position to say that it was hot enough to cook it well4 ,i walked with bare feet1 and after we had done so1 about #bjj ,maoris followed4 ,no one1 so far as ,i saw1 went through with boots on4 ,i did not walk quickly across the oven1 but with deliberation1 because ,i feared that ,i should tread on a sharp point of the stones and fall4 ,my feet also were very tender4 ,i did not mention the fact1 but my impression as ,i crossed the oven was that the skin would all peel off my feet4 ,yet all ,i really felt when the task was accomplished was a tingling sensation not unlike slight electric shocks on the soles of my feet1 and this continued for seven hours or more4 ,the really funny thing is that1 though the stones were hot enough an hour afterwards to burn up green branches of the ti1 the very tender skin of my feet was not even hardened by the fire4 ,many of the ,maoris thought they were burned1 but they were not--at any rate not severely4 ,do not suppose that the man who directed this business was an old tohunga4 ,he is a young man1 but of the ,raiatea family1 who are hereditary fire-walkers4 ,i can only tell you it is mana--mana tangata and mana atua4 ,on this report a few remarks may be offered4 7#a7 ,no preparation of any chemical1 herbal1 or other sort was applied to the ,europeans1 at least4 7#b7 ',the handing over the mana' 7or power7 was practised by ,home1 sometimes successfully 7it is alleged71 as when ,mr4 ,s4 ,c4 ,hall's scalp and white locks were unharmed by a red-hot coal2 sometimes unsuccessfully4 ,a clergyman of my acquaintance still bears the blister caused when he accepted a red-hot coal from the hand of ,home1 as he informs--me by letter4 7#c7 ,the 'walk' was shorter than seems common3 only #ab ft4 7#d paces74 7#d7 ,a friend of ,colonel ,gudgeon's was badly burned1 and the reason assigned was a good folklore reason1 since the days of ,lot's wife1 of ,theocritus1 and of ,virgil3 he looked behind4 7#e7 ,the feeling as if of 'slight electric shocks' is worthy of notice4 7#f7 ,colonel ,gudgeon clearly believes that a man without mana had better not try1 and by mana1 here1 he probably means 'nerve4' ,as we can hardly suppose1 in spite of ,home1 that mana1 in a supernormal sense1 can be 'handed over' by one man to another1 ,colonel ,gudgeon's experience seems equally to baffle every theory of 'how it is done4' ,perhaps we can all do it4 ,people may make their own experiments4 ,perhaps ,colonel ,gudgeon faced fire in a manner so unusual as a result of ,dr4 ,hocken's description of the ,fijian rite at ,mbenga1 an isle twenty miles south of ,suva4 ,this account was published in the ',transactions of the ,new ,zealand ,institute1' vol4 xxxi4 #ahih1 having been read before the ,otago ,institute on ,may #aj1 #ahih1 and is here reprinted in full as follows3-- ,,an ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,fiji ,,fire ,,ceremony ,,by ,,dr4 ,t4 ,m4 ,,hocken1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,amongst the many incidents witnessed during a recent visit to the tropical island of ,fiji1 probably none exceeded in wonder and interest that of which ,i propose to give some account this evening1 and to which may be applied the designation of 'fire ceremony4' ,it is called by the natives 'vilavilairevo4' ,in this remarkable ceremony a number of almost nude ,fijians walk quickly and unharmed across and among white-hot stones1 which form the pavement of a huge native oven--termed 'lovo'--in which shortly afterwards are cooked the succulent sugary roots and pith of the ,cordyline terminalis1 one of the cabbage trees1 known to the ,maoris as the 'ti1' and to the ,fijians as the 'masawe4' ,this wonderful power of fire-walking is now not only very rarely exercised1 but1 at least as regards ,fiji1 is confined to a small clan or family--the ,na ,ivilankata--resident on ,bega 7 ,mbenga71 an island of the group1 lying somewhat south of ,suva1 and twenty miles from that capital4 ,a small remnant of the priestly order at ,raiatea1 one of the ,society ,islands1 is yet able to utter the preparatory incantation1 and afterwards to walk through the fire4 ,it exists also in other parts of the world1 as in parts of ,india1 the ,straits ,settlements1 ,west ,india ,islands1 and elsewhere4 ,very interesting accounts of the ceremony as seen at ,raiatea and at ,mbenga are to be found in the second and third volumes of the ',journal of the ,polynesian ,society1' and in ,basil ,thomson's charming ',south ,sea ,yarns4' ,these descriptions filled our small party of three--my wife1 ,dr4 ,colquhoun1 and myself--with the desire to witness it for ourselves1 and1 if possible1 to give some explanation of what was apparently an inexplicable mystery4 ,our desires were perfectly realised4 ,the ,hon4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,m4 ,duncan1 a member of the ,legislative ,council of ,fiji1 and agent at ,suva of the ,union ,steamship ,company1 to whom ,i carried a letter of introduction from ,mr4 ,james ,mills1 the managing director of that ,company1 was most courteous and obliging1 and promised his best efforts in the matter4 ,his energy and ready response succeeded1 with the result that a large party from ,suva enjoyed such a day as each one must have marked with a red letter4 ,it was necessary to give the natives three days in which to make their preparations--constructing the oven and paving it with stones1 which then required heating for thirty-six or forty-eight hours at least with fierce fires fed with logs and branches4 ,they had also to gather their stores of food to form the foundation of the huge feast whose preparation was to succeed the mystic ceremony4 ,during these three days we lost no opportunity of collecting from former witnesses of the ceremony whatever information or explanation they could afford1 but with no very satisfactory result3 the facts were undisputed1 but the explanations quite insufficient4 ,some thought that the chief actors rubbed their bodies with a secret preparation which rendered them fireproof2 others that lifelong friction on the hard hot rocks1 coral-reefs1 and sands had so thickened and indurated the foot-sole that it could defy fire2 but all agreed as to the bona fides of the exhibition4 ,the incident recounted in the ',polynesian ,journal' was also confirmed---where ,lady ,thurston threw her handkerchief upon the shoulder of one of the actors1 and though it remained there but a few seconds before being picked off by means of a long stick1 it was greatly scorched4#i ,the story or legend attached to this weird gift of fire-walking was told us1 with some variation1 by two or three different people1 and it is mainly as follows3 ,a far-distant ancestor of the present inheritors of this power was walking one day when he espied an eel1 which he caught1 and was about to kill4 ,the eel squeaked out and said1 ',oh6 ,tui ,na ,galita 7 ,eng-,galita71 do not kill me2 spare me4 ,i am a god and ,i will make you so strong in war that none shall withstand you4' ',oh1 but1' replied ,na ,galita1 ',i am already stronger in war than any one else1 and ,i fear no one4' ',well1 then1' said the eel4 ',i will make your canoe the fastest to sail on these seas1 and none shall come up with it4' ',but1' replied ,na ,galita1 as it is1 none can pass my canoe4' ',well1 then1' rejoined the eel4 ',i will make you a great favourite among women1 so that all will fall in love with you4' ',not so1' said ,na ,galita1 ',i have one wife1 of whom ,i am very fond1 and ,i desire no other4' ,the poor eel then made other offers1 which were also rejected1 and his chances of life were fading fast when he made a final effort4 ',oh1 ,na ,galita1 if you will spare me1 ,i will so cause it that you and your descendants shall henceforth walk through the masawe oven unharmed4' ',good1' said ,na ,galita1 'now ,i will let you go4' ,this story varies somewhat from that told in the ',polynesian ,journal4'#aj ,the eventful morning was blazingly hot and brilliant1 and the vivid-blue sky was without a cloud as we steamed down towards ,mbenga in the s4s4 ,hauroto4 ,mr4 ,vaughan1 an eminent inhabitant of ,suva1 who has charge of the ,meteorological ,department there1 was of our party1 and carried the thermometer4 ,this was the most suitable for our purpose procurable2 it was in a strong japanned-tin casing1 and registered #djj ,fahr4 ,we had also three amateur photographers4 ,owing to the numerous coral-reefs and shallows1 we finally transhipped into the ,maori1 a steamer of much less draught4 ,approaching the silent verdure-clad islet1 with its narrow beach of white coral sand1 we saw a thin blue haze of smoke curling above the lofty cocoanut trees at a little distance in the interior1 which sufficiently localised the mysterious spot4 ,we now took the ship's boat1 and soon1 stepping ashore1 made our way through a narrow pathway in the dense bush until we came to an open space cleared from the forest1 in the midst of which was the great lovo1 or oven4 ,a remarkable and never-to-be-forgotten scene now presented itself4 ,there were hundreds of ,fijians1 dressed according to the rules of nature and their own art--that is1 they were lightly garlanded here and there with their fantastic likulikus of grass1 ornamented with brilliant scarlet and yellow hibiscus flowers and streamers of the delicate ribbonwood4 ,these hung in airy profusion from their necks and around their waists1 showing off to advantage their lovely brown glossy skins4 ,in addition1 many wore clean white cotton sulus1 or pendant loin-cloths4 ,all were excited1 moving hither and thither in wild confusion1 and making the forest ring again with1 their noisy hilarity4 ,some climbed the lofty cocoa-palms1 hand over hand1 foot over foot1 with all the dexterity of monkeys4 ,the top reached1 and shrouded amongst the feathery leaves1 they poured down a shower of nuts for the refreshment of their guests4 ,the celerity with which they opened the nuts was something astonishing1 and afforded an example1 too1 as to the mode of using stone implements4 ,a stout strong stick1 #c ft4 long1 and sharpened at both ends1 was driven into the ground1 and a few smart strokes upon it soon tore from the nut its outer thick covering4 ,the upper part of the shell was then broken off by means of a long sharp-edged stone as cleanly and regularly as the lid of an egg is removed with a knife1 and then was disclosed a pint of delicious milk--a most welcome beverage on that over-poweringly hot day4 ,the great oven lay before us1 pouring forth its torrents of heat from huge embers which were still burning fiercely on the underlying stones4 ,these were indeed melting moments for the spectators4 ,the pitiless noontide sun1 and the no less pitiless oven-heat1 both pent up in the deep well-like forest clearing1 reduced us to a state of solution from which there was no escape4 ,despite this the photographers took up their stations1 and others of us proceeded to make our observations4 ,the lovo1 or oven1 was circular1 with a diameter of #be ft4 or #cj ft42 its greatest depth was perhaps #h ft41 its general shape that of a saucer1 with sloping sides and a flattish bottom1 the latter being filled with the white-hot stones4 ,near the margin of the oven1 and on its windward side1 the thermometer marked #aad4 ,suddenly1 and as if ,pandemonium had been let loose1 the air was filled with savage yells2 a throng of natives surrounded the oven1 and in a most ingenious and effective way proceeded to drag out the smouldering unburnt logs and cast them some distance away4 ,large loops of incombustible lianas attached to long poles were dexterously thrown over the burning trunks1 much after the manner of the head-hunters of ,new ,guinea when securing their human prey4 ,a twist or two round of the loop securely entangled the logs1 which were then dragged out by the united efforts of scores of natives1 who all the while were shouting out some wild rhythmical song4 ,this accomplished1 the stones at the bottom of the oven were disclosed1 with here and there flame flickering and forking up through the interstices4 ,the diameter of the area occupied by those stones was about #aj ft41 but this was speedily increased to a spread of #ae ft4 or more by a second ingenious method4 ,the natives thrust their long poles1 which were of the unconsumable wi-tree 7,spondias dulcis71 between the stones at intervals of perhaps #a ft4 ,a long rope-like liana--wa--previously placed underneath the poles1 and #a ft4 or #b ft4 from their extremities1 was now dragged by scores of lusty savages1 with the effect of spreading and levelling the stones4 ,this done1 our thermometer was suspended by a simple device over the centre of the stones1 and about #e ft4 or #f ft4 above them2 but it had to be withdrawn almost immediately1 as the solder began to melt and drop1 and the instrument to be destroyed4 ,it1 however1 registered #bhb ,fahr41 and it is certain that had not this accident occurred1 the range of #djj would have been exceeded1 and the thermometer burst4 ,during all these wild scenes we had seen nothing of the main actors--of the descendants of ,na ,galita4 ,doubtless to give more impressive effect1 they had been hiding in the forest depths until the signal should be given and their own supreme moment arrive4 ,and now they came on1 seven or eight in number1 amidst the vociferous yells of those around4 ,the margin reached1 they steadily descended the oven slope in single file1 and walked1 as ,i think1 leisurely1 but as others of our party think1 quickly1 across and around the stones1 leaving the oven at the point of entrance4 ,the leader1 who was longest in the oven1 was a second or two under half a minute therein4 ,almost immediately heaps of the soft and succulent leaves of the hibiscus1 which had been gathered for the purpose1 were thrown into the oven1 which was thus immediately filled with clouds of hissing steam4 ,upon the leaves and within the steam the natives1 who had returned1 sat or stood pressing them down in preparation for cooking the various viands which were to afford them a sumptuous feast that evening or on the morrow4 ,but for us the most interesting part of the drama was over1 and it only remained to review observations and draw conclusions4 ,just before the great event of the day1 ,i gained permission to examine one or two of the fire-walkers prior to their descent into the oven4 ,this was granted without the least hesitation by the principal native magistrate of the ,rewa district1 ,n',dabea by name1 but generally known as ,jonathan4 ,this native is of great intelligence and influence1 is a member of the ,na ,galita ,clan1 and has himself at various times walked through the fire4 ,on this occasion he took no other part in the ceremony than that of watching or superintending it4 ,the two men thus sent forward for examination disclosed no peculiar feature whatever4 ,as to dress1 they were slightly garlanded round the neck and the waist2 the pulse was unaffected1 and the skin1 legs1 and feet were free from any apparent application4 ,i assured myself of this by touch1 smell1 and taste1 not hesitating to apply my tongue as a corroborative4 ,the foot-soles were comparatively soft and flexible--by no means leathery and insensible4 ,thus the two ,suvan theories were disposed of4 ,this careful examination was repeated immediately after egress from the oven1 and with the same result4 ,to use the language of ,scripture1 ',no smell of fire had passed upon them4' ,no incantations or other religious ceremonial were observed4 ,though these were formerly practised1 they have gradually fallen into disuse since the introduction of ,christianity4 ,i did not succeed in procuring the old incantation formula2 doubtless it was similar to that of the old ,raiatean ceremony1 which is given in the second volume of the ',polynesian ,society's ,journal1' p4 #ajf4 ,whilst walking through the fire1 ,dr4 ,colquhoun thought the countenances of the fire-walkers betrayed some anxiety4 ,i saw none of this2 nor was it apparent to me at either examination4 ,the stones1 which were basaltic1 must have been white-hot1 but due to the brilliance of the day this was not visible4 ,various natives1 being interrogated for an explanation1 replied1 with a shrug1 ',they can do this wonderful thing2 we cannot4 ,you have seen it2 we have seen it4' ,whilst thus unable to suggest any explanation or theory1 ,i am absolutely certain as to the truth of the facts and the bona fides of the actors4 ,a feature is that1 wherever this power is found1 it is possessed by but a limited few4 ,i was assured1 too1 that any person holding the hand of one of the fire-walkers could himself pass through the oven unharmed4 ,this the natives positively assert4 ,my friend ,mr4 ,walter ,carew1 for thirty years a ,resident ,commissioner and ,stipendiary ,magistrate in ,fiji1 has frequently conversed with ,jonathan 7referred to above71 who1 whilst withholding no explanation1 can give none4 ,he says1 ',i can do it1 but ,i do not know how it is done2' and1 further1 that at the time he does not experience any heat or other sensation4 ,does any psychical condition explain these facts1 as suggested in ,lang's ',modern ,mythology'8#aa ,i certainly did not observe any appearance of trance or other mental condition4 ,in connection with this ,mr4 ,carew thinks that intense faith is the explanation1 and that if this were upset1 the descendants of ,na ,galita would be no longer charmed4 ,but it is difficult to see how any mental state can prevent the action of physical law4 ,hypnotism and ansthetics may produce insensibility to pain1 but do not interfere with the cautery4 ,many of the so-called fire miracles are remarkable indeed1 but are readily explained1 and by no means come within the present category4 ,such1 for instance1 as plunging the hand1 which is protected by the interposed film of perspiration assuming the globular state of water1 into boiling lead4 ,similarly1 many conjuring feats4 ,at the beginning of this century an ,italian--,lionetti--performed remarkable experiments3 rubbed a bar of red-hot iron over his arms1 legs1 and hair1 and held it between his teeth2 he also drank boiling oil4 ,dr4 ,sementini1 of ,naples1 carefully examined these experiments1 and experimented himself until he surpassed the fireproof qualities of his suggestor4 ,he found that frequent friction with sulphurous acid rendered him insensible to red-hot iron2 a solution of alum did the same4 ,a layer of powdered sugar covered with soap made his tongue insensible to heat4 ,in these and similar instances1 however1 an explanation1 though probably not a very sufficient one1 has been given1 but in that forming the subject of this paper no solution has been offered4 ,lang's chapter on the ',fire ,walk' should be consulted2 his account of the ,bulgarian ,nistinares is as wonderful and inexplicable as anything here recited4 ,the whole subject requires thorough scientific examination4 ,my next case occurs among a civilised race1 the ,japanese1 and is vouched for by ,mr4 ,lafcadio ,hearn1 an ,american writer1 whose book ,i have not at hand1 and by ,colonel ,andrew ,haggard4#ab ,colonel ,haggard saw the fire-walk done in ,tokio1 on ,april #i1 #ahii4 ,the fire was #f yards long by #f ft wide4 ,the rite was in honour of a mountain god4 ,ablutions in cold water were made by the performers1 and ,colonel ,haggard was told by one young lady that she had not only done the fire-walk1 but had been 'able to sit for a long time1 in winter1 immersed in ice-cold water1 without feeling the cold in the least4' ,after some waving of wands and sprinkling of salt1 people of all ages walked through1 not glowing stones in this case1 but 'red-hot charcoal4' ',i examined their feet afterwards3 they were quite soft1 and not a trace of fire upon them4' ,colonel ,haggard says that the rite is 'a very unusual thing' in ,japan3 many of the ,japanese living in ,tokio had never heard of it before4 ,colonel ,haggard was unable to get any clear answer as to why the rite is performed4 ,the priest talked something about a good ,god who had power over the bad element of fire4 ,it is not clear how1 the rite being so unusual1 two ,japanese ladies told ,colonel ,haggard that they had 'frequently gone through the fiery ordeal4' ,if any one is anxious to know the particulars of the rite as practised in the isle ,mauritius1 he may communicate with our police officials there1 who annually superintend the performance4 ,coolies from southern ,india do just what is done by ,japanese and ,fijians4 ,our administration1 however1 does not permit women to pass through the fire4 ,after giving these recent examples in ,mauritius1 ,japan1 ,rarotonga1 and an isle of the ,fijian group1 ,i am obliged to fall back on the evidence already set forth in ,chapter ,,xii4 of my book1 ',modern ,mythology' 7#ahig74 ,the ,bulgarian practice ,i take from the ',recueil de ,folklore1 de ,littrature et de ,science1' edited by the ,bulgarian ,minister of ,public ,instruction1 with the aid of ,drs4 ,schischmanof 7whom ,i know personally7 and ,mastov4 ,in a private letter1 ,dr4 ,schischmanof hints at extase religieuse1 as in the self-mutilations of ,dervishes and ,fakirs4 ,their performances are extraordinary enough1 but there was no religious ecstasy in the little ,japanese boy of six1 whom ,colonel ,haggard saw pass through the fire1 none in ,colonel ,gudgeon1 none in the ,fijians observed by ,dr4 ,hocken4 ,the fire-walkers in ,bulgaria are called ,nistinares1 and the faculty is regarded as hereditary4 ,we find the same opinion in ,fiji1 in ancient ,italy1 and in the ,spain of the last century4 ,in ,spain the fire-walkers were employed to help to put out fires4 ,the story is given in the essay on the last ,earl ,marischal in my ',companions of ,pickle' 7p4 #bd71 and is derived from d',alembert's account of the ,earl3 ',there is a family or caste in ,spain1 who1 from father to son1 have the power of going into the flames without being burned1 and who1 by dint of charms permitted by the ,inquisition1 can extinguish fires4' ,the ,duchess of ,medina ,sidonia thought this a proof of the verity of the ,catholic faith1 and1 wishing to convert the ,earl1 asked him to view the performance4 ,but he insisted on lighting the fire himself1 and to that the ,spaniards would not consent1 the ,earl being a heretic4 ,to return to the ,bulgarian ,nistinares1 they dance in the fire on ,may #ba1 the feast of ,,ss4 ,helena and ,constantine4 ,great fires of scores of cartloads of dry wood are made4 ,on the embers of those the ,nistinares 7who turn blue in the face7 dance and utter prophecies1 afterwards placing their feet in the muddy ground where libations of water have been poured forth4 ,the report says nothing as to the state of their feet4 ,the ,nistinare begins to feel the effect of the fire after his face has resumed its wonted colour and expression4 ,as for ,india4 ,i may cite ,mr4 ,stokes1 in ',the ,indian ,antiquary' 7ii4 #aij72 ,dr4 ,oppert1 in his ',original ,inhabitants of ,india' 7p4 #aij72 and ,mr4 ,crookes1 in ',introduction to ,popular ,religion and ,folklore in ,northern ,india' 7p4 #aj74 ,mr4 ,stokes uses evidence from an inquest on a boy that fell into the fire and died of his injuries1 at ,periyngridi4 ,the fire-pit was #bg ft4 long by #g ft4 bread1 and a span in depth4 ,thirteen persons walked through4 ,mr4 ,stokes did not witness the performance 7which is forbidden by our law71 but explains that the fire 'would hardly injure the tough skin of the sole of a labourer's feet4' ,yet it killed a boy6 ,the incredulous say that the fire-walkers smear their feet with oil from the fat of the green frog4 ,dr4 ,oppert1 admitting that 'the heat is unbearable in the neighbourhood of the ditch1' says that the walkers 'as a rule do not do themselves much harm4' ,this is vague4 ,equally vague is the reference to rumours about a certain preservative ointment4' ,in ,trinidad4 ,british ,west ,indies1 ,mr4 ,henry ,k4 ,st4 ,clair1 writing to me1 describes 7,september #ad1 #ahij7 the feat as performed by ,indian coolie immigrants4 ,he personally witnessed the rite1 which was like that described to me by ,mr4 ,stephen ,ponder4 ,in both cases the performers were ,klings4 ,the case witnessed by ,mr4 ,ponder took place in the ,straits ,settlements1 ,province ,wellesley4 ,the trench was about #bj yards long by #f ft4 wide and #b ft4 deep4 ,a pyre of wood1 #d or #e ft4 high1 was lighted at noon2 by #d p4m4 it was a bed of red-hot embers4 ,the men1 who with long rakes smoothed the ashes1 could not stand the heat 'for more than a minute at a time4' ,a little way from the end of the trench was a hole full of water4 ,six coolies walked the whole length1 and thence into the water4 ',not one of them showed the least sign of injury4' ,they had been prepared by a 'devil-doctor1' not a ,brahmin4 ,on a later occasion ,mr4 ,ponder heard that one of them fell 'and was terribly burnt4' ,in these cases1 ,trinidad 7and ,mauritius7 and the ,straits ,settlements1 the performers are ,south ,indian coolies4 ,in all cases there were multitudes of ,european spectators1 except in ,mauritius1 where1 ,i learn1 ,europeans usually take no interest in the doings of the heathen4 ,turning to ,tonga1 we have the account of ,miss ,teuira ,henry4#ac ,the sister and sister's child of ,miss ,henry have walked over the red-hot stones1 as in the ,rarotonga and ,fijian cases4 ,the ovens are #cj ft4 in diameter4 ,the performance was photographed by ,lieutenant ,morne1 of the ,french ,navy1 and the original photograph was sent to the ,editor of the ',polynesian ,journal1' with a copy from it by ,mr4 ,barnfield1 of ,honolulu4 ,the ceremony1 preparatory to cooking the ti plant1 is religious1 and the archaic hymn sung is full of obsolete words4 ,mr4 ,hastwell1 of ,san ,francisco1 published a tract1 which ,i have not seen1 on the ,raiatean rite1 witnessed by himself4 ,the stones were ,i heated to a red and white heat4' ,the natives 'walked leisurely across' five times2 'there was not even the smell of fire on their garments' 7cited in the ',polynesian ,journal1' vol4 ii4 ,no4 #c74 ,there is corroborative evidence from ,mr4 ,n4 ,j4 ,tone1 from ,province ,wellesley1 ,straits ,settlements1 in the ',polynesian ,journal1' ii4 #c1 #aic4 ,he did not see the rite1 arriving too late1 but he saw the fire-pit1 and examined the naked feet of the walkers4 ,they were uninjured4 ,mr4 ,tone's evidence is an extract from his diary4 ,as to ,fiji there are various accounts4 ,the best is that of ,mr4 ,basil ,thomson1 son of the late ,archbishop of ,york4 ,mr4 ,thomson was an official in ,fiji1 and is a well-known anthropologist4 ,his sketch in his ',south ,sea ,yarns' 7p4 #aie1 et seq47 is too long for quotation4 ,the rite is done yearly1 before cooking the maswe 7a dracna7 in the oven through which the clan ,na ,ivilankata walk4 ',the pit was filled with a white-hot mass1 shooting out little tongues of white flame4' ',the bottom of the pit was covered with an even layer of hot stones 444 the tongues of flame played continually among them4' ,the walkers planted 'their feet squarely and firmly on each stone4' ,mr4 ,thomson closely examined the feet of four or five of the natives when they emerged4 ',they were cool and showed no trace of scorching1 nor were their anklets of dried tree-fern burnt1' though 'dried tree-fern is as combustible as tinder4' ',the instep is covered with skin no thicker than our own1 and we saw the men plant their insteps fairly on the stone4' ,a large stone was hooked out of the pit before the men entered1 and one of the party dropped a pocket-handkerchief upon the stone 'when the first man leapt into the oven and snatched what remained of it up as the last left the stones4' ,every fold that touched the stone was charred4 ,mr4 ,thomson kindly showed me the handkerchief4 ,he also showed me a rather blurred photograph of the strange scene4 ,it has been rudely reproduced in the ',folk ,lore ,journal1' ,september #ahie4 ,such is part of the modern evidence2 for the ancient1 see 'neid1' xi4 #ghd et seq42 ,servius on the passage2 ,pliny1 ',hist4 ,nat4' vii4 #b2 ,silius ,italicus1 v4 #age4 ,this evidence refers to the ,hirpi of ,mount ,soracte1 a class exempted from military service by the ,roman ,government1 because1 as ,virgil makes ,aruns say1 ',strong in faith we walk through the midst of the fire1 and press our footsteps in the glowing mass4' ,the ,hirpi1 or wolves1 were perhaps originally a totem group1 like the wolf totem of ,tonkaway ,red ,indians2 they had1 like the ,tonkaway1 a rite in which they were told to 'behave like wolves4'#ad ,the goddess propitiated in their fire-walk was ,feronia1 a fire-goddess 7,max ,mller71 or a lightning goddess 7,kuhn71 or a corn goddess 7,mannhardt74 ,each of these scholars bases his opinion on etymology4 ,i have merely given evidence for the antiquity1 wide diffusion1 and actual practice of this extraordinary rite4 ,neither physical nor anthropological science has even glanced at it 7except in ,dr4 ,hocken's case71 perhaps because the facts are obviously impossible4 ,i ought to make an exception for ,sir ,william ,crookes1 but he1 doubtless1 was hallucinated1 or gulled by the use of asbestos1 or both4 ,perhaps ,mr4 ,podmore can apply these explanations to the spectators whom ,i have cited4 ,for my part1 ,i remain without a theory1 like all the ,european observers whom ,i have quoted4 ,but1 in my humble opinion1 all the usual theories1 whether of collective hallucination 7photographic cameras being hallucinated71 of psychical causes1 of chemical application1 of leathery skin on the soles of the feet1 and so on1 are inadequate4 ,there remains 'suggestion4' ,any hypnotist1 with his patient's permission 7in writing and witnessed71 may try the experiment4 ,since this paper was written ,i have seen an article1 ',les ,dompteurs du ,feu1' on the same topic1 by ,dr4 ,th4 ,pascal4#ae ,the first part of the essay is an extract from the ',revue ,thosophique ,franaise4' ,no date is given1 but the rite described was viewed at ,benares on ,october #bf1 #ahih4 ,i am unable to understand whether ,dr4 ,pascal is himself the spectator and narrator of the ',revue ,thosophique1' or whether he quotes 7he uses marks of quotation7 some other writer4 ,the phenomena were of the usual kind1 and the writer1 examining the feet of two of the performers1 found the skin of the soles fine and intact4 ,in four cases1 in which the performers had entered the fire after the procession--with the ,master of the ,ceremonies and two excited persons1 who split cocoanuts with swords--had gone1 there were slight cauterisations1 healed two days later4 ,the author of this passage speaks of a ,brahmin 7apparently 'the ,master of the ,ceremonies'7 who observed to ,mr4 ,govinda ,das1 'that the control of the fire was not so complete as usual1 because the images of the sanctuary had been touched by ,mahomedans and others in the crowd4' ,the second case1 not given with marks of quotation1 occurred in the park of ,maharajah ,tagore on ,december #g1 #ahih4 ',a ,frenchman1 the son of ,dr4 ,javal of ,paris1 was present4' ,the narrator1 'nous1' was also present1 and went up after the rite to venture his hand in the furnace4 ,he was warned that the ,brahmin had left ten minutes before1 and that 'the fire had recovered its activity4' ,the ,maharajah1 however1 caused the ceremony to be repeated1 and some minutes after all was ready4 ,the narrator then traversed the fire1 barefoot1 at un petit trot1 'a little less than two paces a second4' ,as #ajj yards can be run in ten seconds1 this trot was remarkably slow4 ,he felt in paces one and two a sensation of burning1 in the five following paces a sensation of intense heat4 ,there were three small brown marks on his feet1 which formed blisters1 but did not interfere with walking1 and healed 'in some days4' ,he now learned that the ,brahmin's premier aide did the ceremony not quite successfully4 ,he is convinced that1 but for the ceremony1 he would have been seriously injured4 ,the third case was at ,benares in ,february #ahii4 ,three ,hindoos collided and fell in3 neither they nor their clothes were burned4 ,the author clearly regards the performers of the ceremony as able 'to tame considerably the destructive energy of the fire4' ,this1 of course1 is the theory of the savage devotees4 ,the ceremony was only a procession of sacred images carried in a glazed sanctuary1 and words1 not known to the spectator1 were uttered by the ,brahmin4 ,holy water was sprinkled1 and a cocoanut was thrown into the oven4 ,as has been said1 incantations are pronounced in ,fiji and elsewhere4#af ,the following case is recent3 it is culled from ',the ,daily ,mail1' ,november #i1 #aijj4 ,,ordeal ,,by ,,fire ,according to the ',japan ,herald1' on ,monday last a party of distinguished ,americans 7the ,american ,minister and his wife1 two naval officers1 and others7 attended the religious rites of the ,ontake ,jinsha1 a powerful sect of ,shintoists4 ,a heap of burning charcoal was placed in a large furnace4 ,the officiating priest read a service over the fire1 after which the foreign visitors1 to the number of seven1 including ladies1 took off their shoes and walked over the fire1 their naked feet showing no sign of scorching4 ,the performance called forth1 says the report1 the enthusiastic approval of the spectators4 ,yet more recent is the next case1 from ,honolulu1 the reporter being ,mr4 ,gorten1 a correspondent of the ',boston ,evening ,transcript1' ,march #bj1 #ahia4 ,we quote the passage3-- ,we have already witnessed still another strange sight suggestive of necromancy and the incantations of the ,east4 ,papa ,ita1 a ,tahitan1 has given us exhibitions of the famous fire-walking which is still practised in the ,south ,sea ,islands and parts of ,japan and ,india4 ,on the vacant land swept a year ago by the ,chinatown fire a great elliptical pit was dug and a large quantity of wood placed therein1 on which were piled the lava rocks4 ,all day the fire burned till the stones were of a white heat2 then the white-haired native from ,tahiti approached the fiery furnace dressed in a robe of white tapa1 with a girdle and head-dress of the sacred ti leaves and a bundle of leaves in his hand for a wand4 ,striking the ground with the ti-leaf wand1 he uttered an incantation in his own language1 which was a prayer to his gods to temper the heat and allow him to pass2 then calmly and deliberately1 with bare feet1 he walked the length of the pit1 bearing aloft the ti-leaf wand4 ,pausing a moment on the other side1 he again struck the ground and returned over the same fiery path4 ,this was several times repeated1 and he even paused a few seconds when in the middle of the pit to allow his picture to be taken4 ,the stones were undoubtedly hot and were turned by means of long poles just before the walking1 to have the hottest side up1 and from between the rocks the low flames were continually leaping up4 ,the heat that radiated to the spectators was intense4 ,it was a fact that others followed with shoes on1 but no one could be found to accept the standing offer of #ejj dollars to any one who would1 with bare feet1 follow ,papa ,ita4 ,none but natives of course believe there is anything supernatural1 but we cannot explain how he does it4 ,it cannot be called a fake1 for he really does what he claims to do1 and none1 so far1 dare imitate him4 ,the natives fall down before him1 as a great ,kapuna1 and many interested in the welfare of the ,hawaiians deplore these exhibitions1 feeling it is bad for the natives1 in that it strengthens their old bonds of superstition1 to the undoing of much of the advancement they have made4 ,just now ,papa ,ita is touring the other islands of the group1 and rumour has it that his manager will take him to the ,pan-,american ,exhibition at ,buffalo4 ,in that case people in the ,states can see and judge of this curious exhibition for themselves4 ,i end with the only instance 7forwarded from a correspondent by ,mr4 ,t4 ,s4 ,o',connor7 of the ascertained use of an ointment to diminish the effect of the fire4 ,dr4 ,hocken and ,colonel ,gudgeon1 as we saw1 found no trace of this device2 nor is it mentioned in the ,japanese evidence4 ,port of ,spain1 ,trinidad1 ,b4,w4,i41 ,june #h1 #ahig4 ,you referred some time ago to the fire-walkers4 ,i have seen some of these gents performing quite recently1 and got an explanation from a coolie customer of ours who watched the business with me4 ,it seems they rub themselves with an oil1 made from the root of the tabicutch 7don't know the ,latin name71 which has the property of producing profuse sweat1 and the two combine1 causing an oily covering which warms very slowly and is difficult to dry up by heat4 ,but even then it is essential that the men be good ,stoics4 ,i give the explanation for what it is worth1 but saw the preparation myself1 and had some of the stuff scraped off a man1 who was ready for the rite1 put it on a piece of tin and held it in the fire1 and it certainly neither dried up nor got hot in a hurry4 ,it is clear that this explanation does not explain several of the cases wherein no anointing is used4 ,we can only agree with ,dr4 ,hocken that the performances deserve the study of physiologists and physicians4 ,the explanation of ,iamblichus1 'they walk on fire unharmed1' is that 'the god within them does not let fire harm them4' ,this implies that an exalted psychical condition of the performers secures their immunity4 ,but in the cases where ,europeans bore a part1 and even in ,dr4 ,hocken's examination of the natives1 there was no sign of other than the normal mental condition4 ,as fresh evidence comes in1 it is perhaps not impossible that science will interest herself in the problem4 #a ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #cjg1 #cjh1 citing ,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnographie 7#ahif71 pp4 #aic-aie4 #b ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #caa1 #cab2 ,strabo1 xii4 #b-g1 for ,castabala in ,cappadocia2 ,virgil1 n4 xi4 #ghd2 and ,servius's ,commentary4 #c ,primitive ,culture1 ii4 p4 #bha4 #d ,ibid4 ii4 p4 #dbi4 #e ,ibid4 i4 p4 #he4 #f ,see note at end of chapter4 #g ,studies in ,psychical ,research1 pp4 #eh-ei4 #h ,dr4 ,dozous timed the 'miracle4' ,boissarie1 ,lourdes1 p4 #di4 #i ,i have not seen this account4 #aj ,see also ,mr4 ,thomson's ,south ,sea ,yarns4 #aa ,i would now withdraw the suggestion in the light of recent evidence4 #ab ,the ,field1 ,may #bj1 #ahii1 p4 #gbd4 #ac ,polynesian ,journal1 vol4 ii4 ,no4 #b1 pp4 #aje-ajh4 #ad ,serv4 neid1 vii4 #hjj4 #ae ,annales des ,sciences ,psychiques1 ,july-,august1 #ahii4 #af ,in the ,wide ,world ,magazine 7,december #ahii71 a ,japanese lady describes the performance witnessed by ,colonel ,haggard1 already cited4 ,,appendix ,a ,,mr4 ,,tylor',s ,,theory ,,of ,,borrowing ,i feel so nervous about differing from ,mr4 ,tylor as to the borrowing of the idea of a superior and creative being from the ,jesuits by the ,red ,indians that ,i have reconsidered his essay4#a ,he is arguing that 'the ,great ,spirit belongs not to the untutored but to the tutored minds of the savages4' ,i am not contending for the use of the words ',great ,spirit' as of native origin1 and as employed to designate what ,i call a superior being4 ,that the natives had an untaught belief in such a being is my opinion1 not that they styled him ',great ,spirit4' ,mr4 ,tylor refers us to ',relations des ,jsuites1' #afaa1 p4 #bj1 in the ,quebec edition of #aheh4 ,here 7to translate the passage7 ,i read3 ',they believe in a god1 so they say1 but can only name him by the name of the sun1 ,niscaminou1 and know no prayers1 nor manner of adoring him4' ,when hungry they put on sacred robes1 turn to the east1 and say1 ',our ,sun1 or our ,god1 give us to eat4' ,here1 then1 are prayer1 vestments1 and turning to the east4 ,the ,jesuits1 then1 did not introduce these for the first time2 nor did they introduce the conception of the superior being thus implored4 ,a similar relation of the sun to the being addressed in prayer exists now among the ,blackfoot ,indians of ,america4 ,with them the word ,natos is 'equivalent to holy or divine1' and is also the name of the sun4 ,to ,natos prayer and sacrifice are offered1 and the cruel rites of the ,natos-dance are performed4 ,tongues of cattle are served out to the virtuous3 'this rite partakes of the nature of a sacrament4' ,youths sacrifice a finger1 in recognition of prayers answered by ,natos4 ',prayer is made to ,natos only1 and everything in ,okn' 7the ceremony7 'is sacred to him alone4'#b ,these are advanced1 elaborate1 and thoroughly native observances1 of which the germ may be found in the religions described in the ,jesuit ',relations' of #afaa4 ,mr4 ,tylor says 'especially through missionary influence1 since #aejj1 ideas of 444 retribution after death for deeds done in life have been implanted on native polytheism in various parts of the world4' ,but his ,jesuit authority of #afaa1 in the passage cited by him1 writes3 ',they believe in the immortality of the soul1 and in recompenses for good men and bad1 confusedly1 and in a general way1 but they seek and care no further as to the manner of such things' 7comment cela doibt estre74 ,mr4 ,tylor's authority does not1 ,i confess1 appear to me to support his opinion4 ,the natives believed in future 'retribution4' ,his other texts#c show us savages consulting each his ,manitou1 'a powerful being' 7quelque nature puissante71 or diable4 ,a ,manitou is 'any superior being1 good or bad3' the ,god of the ,jesuits is le bon ,manitou1 ,satan is le mauvais ,manitou4 ,i am not arguing that these phrases are more than the pigeon-,french of the savage flock1 or that the ideas expressed did not later become implanted in their minds4 ,but ,mr4 ,tylor1 in his essay of #ahib1 omits what he quotes in his ',primitive ,culture1' the ,jesuit evidence of #afcc 7p4 #af7 to 'one ,atahocan who made everything4 ,speaking of ,god in a hut one day1 they asked me1 ,what is ,god8 ,i replied1 ,the ,all ,powerful ,one1 who made heaven and earth4 ,they then began to say to each other1 ,atahocan1 ,atahocan1 he is ,atahocan4' ',they have no worship which they are used to pay to him whom they hold for their god4' 7,this is the religious condition of the ,kaffirs described by ,dos ,santos in ,pinkerton1 xvi4 #fhg47 ,now it is ,atahocan who interests me1 as pre-missionary3 no doubt he was not called le bon ,manitou--but there he was6 ,in #afcd ,father ,le ,jeune consulted a very hostile sorcerer1 who minimised ,atahocan4 ',they do not know1' said the sorcerer1 'who was the author of the world1 perhaps ,atahocan3 it was uncertain4 ,they only spoke of ,atahocan as one speaks of something so remote as to be dubious4 ,in fact the word ,nitatahocan means in their language1 ,i tell a story1 an old tale4'#d ,the 'sorcerer1' a servant of familiar spirits1 had no interest in ,atahocan1 though the tribesmen recognised in him the ,god and ,creator of ,father ,le ,jeune4 ,there was but a waning tradition of a primal maker2 interesting and important just because it was waning1 and therefore could not be of fresh ,european introduction4 ,the beings in receipt of sacrifice were ,khichikouai1 to whom they threw fat on the fire1 with prayer4'#e ,it appears to me that these affable familiar ghosts1 practically serviceable1 had cast the otiose ,atahocan into the background4 ,but he1 like ,andouagni1 ,kiehtan1 and others1 was certainly there before the ,jesuits1 and these beings are elsewhere cited by ,mr4 ,tylor4 ,the question is one of the existence of belief in such a being1 not 7for me at least7 of the origin1 which may well be post-,european1 of the words ',kitchi ,manitu1 or ,great ,spirit4' ,if the ,mandans believed1 as ,mr4 ,tylor does not deny in ',omahank ,numakchi1 the ,creator1 whose name appears to mean ,lord of ,earth1' it is quite unimportant that 'there is no ,mandan deity whose name answers to that of ,great ,spirit4'#f ,i mentioned1 in the first essay of this book1 ,mr4 ,max ,mller's version of ,bishop ,salvado's account of ,motagon1 a dead creator in ,western ,australia4 ,mr4 ,tylor recognises him as ,sir ,george ,grey's ,mettagong1 'an insignificant demon identified with the phosphoric fungus4' ,but did that demon 'die in decrepit old age long ago1' like ,bishop ,salvado's ,motagon8 ,there seems to be no hope of making anything clear out of ,motagon4 ,mr4 ,oldfield1 cited by ,mr4 ,tylor for ,australia1 ,i have never quoted3 his account cannot be uncontaminated4 ,yet the natives may have believed in an evil spirit before they adorned him with horns1 as ,mr4 ,oldfield states1 which no indigenous beast possesses4 ',their doctrine of a horned devil' must be modern1 though not necessarily their belief in a bad spirit4 ,with ,mr4 ,tylor's theory of ,baiame as 'a missionary translation of the word for creator1' as early as #ahej1 ,i have already dealt in my second essay1 showing that ,baiame is a native pre-missionary word1 whatever may be its etymology4 ,mrs4 ,langloh ,parker renders it1 not 'maker' 7from baia1 to cut1 or fashion71 but 'big man4' #a ,j4,a4,i4 ,feb4 #ahib4 #b ,the ,blackfoot ,sun-dance1 ,rev4 ,j4 ,mac,lean1 ,toronto4 #ahhi4 #c ,rel4 des ,jsuites1 #afcc1 p4 #af2 #afcg1 p4 #di4 #d ,rel4 des ,jsuites1 #afcd1 p4 #ac4 #e ,ibid4 pp4 #cb1 #cc4 #f ,j4 ,a4 ,i4 ,feb4 #ahib1 p4 #bhg4 ,,appendix ,b ,,the ,,martyrdom ,,of ,,dasius ,it is difficult to ascertain the facts about this affair4 ,there are first two brief narratives4 ,one is printed in the ',mnologie de ,basile4'#a ,the other is in ,cod4 ,ambrosianus1 ,d #gd1 fol4 #fer4 ,m4 ,cumont thinks that both have a single source--namely1 an abridgment of the ',acts of ,st4 ,dasius1' published by himself from the ,parisinus #aeci1 a ,,ms4 of the eleventh century4 ,the two brief late narratives say that the ,greeks in ,dorostolum held a yearly feast of ,cronos4 ,thirty days before the feast they chose a handsome young soldier1 clad him in royal raiment1 and allowed him thirty days of revelry1 after which he was to sacrifice himself at the altar of ,cronos4 ,the lot fell on ,dasius1 who preferred to die as a martyr of ,christ4 ,diocletian and ,maximian1 hearing of this1 commanded him to be put to the sword4 ,the second ,,ms4 names ,bassus as the officer at whose tribunal ,dasius was arraigned4 ,the long ,,ms4 first published by ,m4 ,cumont says that the man on whom the lot fell personated ,cronos himself4 ,on the thirtieth day of revelry he died by the sword as a victim to the 'unclean idols4' ,the author then adds that1 in his own time1 so-called ,christians do devil-worship by dancing about in skin of beasts at the new year--which is not the date of the ,saturnalia 7,december #ag-bc74 ,unlike these sinners1 who thus give themselves to the devil1 ,dasius determined to refuse to be a sacrifice to heathen gods4 ,he would never sacrifice himself to ,cronos4 ,he proclaimed himself a ,christian1 was thrown into a dark cell1 and was brought before ,bassus1 'the ,legate1' next day4 ,bassus asked what he was charged with1 his name1 and profession4 ,dasius gave his name1 profession1 and religion4 ,bassus 7who appears to have been a mild kind of man7 bade him revere the images of the ,emperors1 whose salt he ate 7 74 ,dasius1 in a covenanting spirit1 replied that he served no earthly monarch4 ,bassus again invited him to adore the images of the ,emperor1 'which homage even barbarous nations pay4' ,dasius defied the devil1 and anticipated1 in his confession1 the still unformulated ,nicene ,creed4 ,bassus1 keeping his temper to a marvel1 said that every man must obey constituted authority4 ,dasius answered1 ',do to me whatever your filthy and impious ,emperors command4' ,bassus then offered him two hours for reflection1 'that you may consider in yourself how you may live among us with honour4' ,dasius refused the respite in vulgar and insolent terms4 ,bassus then ordered him to be decapitated4 ,he had a last chance1 being offered incense to burn before the ,imperial effigies1 but he threw it on the ground1 and was done to death4 ,not a word about the mock-kingship passed between ,dasius and ,bassus1 who merely asked him to perform the customary sacrifice1 that he might 'live honourably in the regiment' 7 74 ,how could ,dasius live on if he was to be sacrificed 'at any rate'8 ,why did not ,dasius tell ,bassus the supposed facts of the case--that he objected to a month of unhallowed revelry1 followed by self-sacrifice to ,cronos8 ,bassus obviously knew nothing about all that4 ,a soldier only has his orders2 ,dasius insulted the religion and the head of the ,state3 he declined to retract1 and ,bassus had to administer the law4 ,if ,dasius did not like the law he need not have enlisted4 ,the two brief ,,mss4 give us none of this conversation between ,bassus and ,dasius4 ,that foul-tongued confessor1 according to ,mr4 ,frazer1 'refused to play the part of the heathen god and soil his last days by debauchery4 ,the threats and arguments of his commanding officer1 ,bassus1 failed to shake his constancy1 and accordingly he was beheaded4'#b ,but ,bassus1 a perfect gentleman1 never asked ,dasius to soil his last days by debauchery1 or to play the part of a heathen god4 ,he merely offered to ,dasius the usual test1 just as ,claverhouse might have offered the ,abjuration ,oath4 ,the position of ,dasius was exactly that of a dragoon of #afhd who 'refused the abjuration4' ,in my opinion1 ,dasius probably was executed for his scruples1 insolently expressed1 if we believe his biographer2 and1 if we do not believe his biographer1 the evidence ceases to exist4 ,the biographer1 knowing about the usual ,king of the ,saturnalia in every ,roman household1 and wishing to check the survivals of pagan revelry at the new year1 declared that the ,king of the ,saturnalia was actually sacrificed to ,saturn4 ,but in his own account of the conversations between ,dasius and his commanding officer not a word is said about the ,saturnalia and the sacrifice of the mock-king4 ,on the other hand1 the commanding officer1 or military judge1 labours to save the life of ,dasius1 not being aware that it is in any way endangered--except by his recusancy4 ,this hardly appears in ,mr4 ,frazer's brief summary4 ,but a glance at the original ',acts of ,st4 ,dasius' shows the nature of the evidence4#c ,if any part of it has an official basis1 as ,m4 ,cumont supposes1 that part must be the examination of ,dasius by ,bassus4 ,here occurs no hint of sacrificing ,dasius as ,saturn2 ,bassus expects him to throw incense on the flame1 and to continue an honourable soldier of the ,empire4 ,he knows nothing about sacrificing ,dasius4 ,thus1 as historians regard evidence the statement about the yearly victim of ,saturn1 a statement made long after the event1 and after the establishment of ,christianity1 is weak indeed4 ,for it has no corroboration in the works of ,latin or ,greek historians or antiquaries4 ,but anthropology is not history1 and ,mr4 ,frazer argues1 'the martyrologist's account of the ,saturnalia agrees so closely with the accounts of similar rites elsewhere1 which could not possibly have been known to him1 that the substantial accuracy of his description may be regarded as established4'#d ,now we have the ,aztec case and the ,sacan case4 ,but the ,aztec victim is a captive1 not a free soldier1 whose life ,bassus is most anxious to preserve4 ,the ,sacan victim is not sacrificed1 and is a condemned criminal4 ,now ,mr4 ,frazer has said 'when a nation becomes civilised1 if it does not drop human sacrifices altogether1 it at least selects as victims only such wretches as would be put to death at any rate4'#e ,but a valuable soldier1 like ,dasius1 is not a wretch who would be put to death at any rate4 ,again1 among the numerous cases of periods of licence1 like the ,saca1 we know only one instance of sacrifice1 and that of a criminal1 in ,ashanti4 ,our business is to prove that free ,roman soldiers voluntarily sacrificed themselves at the ,saturnalia4 ,the ,aztec sacrifice of a captive1 the ,persian execution of a criminal1 with folklore rites of analogous description1 scarcely make the ,roman custom probable1 while the direct evidence is only that of the martyrologist4 ,his evidence merely asserts1 as to the death of ,dasius1 that he perished for refusing the usual test4 ,again1 as ,m4 ,parmentier argues1 the sacrifice1 if it existed1 may have been of ,oriental importation4 ,in this condition of the evidence1 especially as it allots thirty days to the ,saturnalia1 an otherwise unheard-of period1 suspension of judgment seems prudent4 #a ,urbino1 #agbg1 vol4 i4 p4 #aih4 #b ,golden ,bough1 iii4 #ada4 #c ,analecta ,bollandiana1 xvi4 pp4 #e-af4 ,the precise position of a ',legatus' like ,bassus is rather indistinct4 ,if an officer1 he need not have asked ,dasius what his 'profession' was4 #d ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #adb4 #e ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #abj4 ,,appendix ,c ,,the ,,ride ,,of ,,the ,,beardless ,,one ,mr4 ,frazer's argument about the ,ride of the ,beardless ,one1 and the possible traces of a similar burlesque performance preluding to or succeeding the ,crucifixion1 is not easy to follow4 ,perhaps1 in the text1 ,i may have misconceived my author's meaning4 ,we know the ride of the beardless one in ,persia through the work of ,hyde1 published at ,oxford in #agjj1 and again in #agfj4 ,i condense ,hyde's account as given by ,mr4 ,frazer4#a ,the date of the festivity of the beardless one was 'the first day of the first month1 which in the most ancient ,persian calendar corresponds to ,march1 so that the date of the ceremony agrees with that of the ,babylonian ,new ,year ,festival of ,zakmuk4' ,in ,mr4 ,frazer's third volume1 the ,saca synchronise with ,zakmuk1 though in his second volume the ,saca are of ,june-,july4 ,we shall suppose him1 in the present passage1 to adhere to the date of ,march for the ,saca4 ,the ride of the beardless one1 if so1 occurs at the ,sacan date4 ,but ,hyde found that some ,persians regarded the ride of the beardless one as of recent institution2 if they were right1 it has no traceable connection with the ancient ,saca4 ,nor was there any mock-king concerned in the ride of the beardless one2 and there was no probable sacred harlot2 still less were there two beardless ones1 with two sacred harlots1 as in ,mr4 ,frazer's theory of the ,saca4 ,at all events ,hyde says no more about the sacred harlots than ,dio ,chrysostom or any other ancient author records in the case of the ,saca4 ,far from being attired as a king1 the beardless buffoon was led about naked1 on a horse1 mule1 or ass1 fanning himself and complaining of heat1 while people soused him in ice1 snow1 or cold water4 ,attended by the household of the king or governor1 he extorted contributions4 ,the goods seized between dawn and morning prayers fell to the governor or king2 what the buffoon took between the first and second prayers he kept2 and then he vanished4 ,the populace might beat him later1 if they caught him4 ,now if this holiday farce existed1 at the ,saca and at ,zakmuk1 during the time of the exile1 the ,jews could not borrow the ,sacan custom of hanging a mock-king1 for1 on ,mr4 ,frazer's theory 7if ,i do not misunderstand it71 the ride of the beardless one came in 'after the serious meaning of the custom' 7the hanging of the mock-king7 'had been forgotten4' ,the ride of the beardless one is 'a degenerate copy of the original'--of the ,sacan whipping1 hanging1 and scourging a condemned criminal--which had fallen out of use1 ,i presume4 ,lagarde is not of that opinion3 he thinks that the author of the ,book of ,esther knew and combined the colours of the ,persian ,magophonia1 the ,saca1 and the ride of the beardless4 ,in fact1 ,dio ,chrysostom does not tell us that the ,sacan mock-king rode1 whether naked or in splendour1 through the city2 nor that he made a forced collection1 which he was not allowed to live to enjoy4 ,these things may have occurred1 but no record proves them4 ,yet ,mr4 ,frazer has1 provisionally1 to conjecture that the ,sacan victim had a ride of honour1 and made a collection1 and that our ,lord enjoyed the same privileges4 ',the description of ,his last triumphal ride into ,jerusalem reads almost like an echo of that brilliant progress through the streets of ,susa which ,haman aspired to and ,mordecai accomplished4' ,our ,lord does not appear to have been either naked1 like the beardless one1 or clad in splendour1 like ,mordecai1 or crowned and robed1 or attended by the men-at-arms of ,pilate or ,herod4 ,he borrowed an ass1 with her colt1 and the multitude strewed branches and cried1 ',hosanna to the ,son of ,david4' ,he then 'overthrew the tables of the money-changers1 and cast out all them that sold and bought in the ,temple3 'a raid1' as ,mr4 ,frazer says4 ,but it is not on record that ,he seized any property1 and ,his motive has been regarded as an objection to commercial transactions in a sacred edifice4 ,it may seem a little arbitrary to connect these acts of ,christ1 not with what the ,sacan victim1 to our knowledge1 ever did1 but with what was done by the beardless buffoon1 his degenerate copy4 ,we have first to guess that the ,sacan mock-king acted like him whom we have to guess to be his late 'degenerate copy2' and then to read into the ,gospels an idea derived from accounts of the ancient or modern buffoon4 ,moreover1 while ,christ represents the mock-king of the ,saca in 'the high tragedy of the ancient ceremony'--for ,he is put to death--his counterpart1 ,barabbas1 has a conjectural ride which is mere 'farce1' like that of the beardless buffoon4 ,now ,mr4 ,frazer says that1 'after the serious meaning of the ,sacan custom had been forgotten1 and the substitute was allowed to escape with his fife1 the high tragedy of the ancient ceremony would rapidly degenerate into farce4'#b ,the degeneration was rapid indeed3 in the twinkling of an eye4 ,christ was not allowed to escape with his life3 'the high tragedy of the ancient ceremony' existed in his case4 ,but instantly 'the high tragedy' was forgotten6 ,barabbas1 ,christ's counterpart1 in ,mr4 ,frazer's theory1 'may very well 444 have been going about the streets1 rigged out in tawdry splendour1 with a tinsel crown on his head1 and a sham sceptre in his hand1 preceded and followed by all the tag-rag and bobtail of the town1 hooting1 jeering1 and breaking coarse jests at his expense1 while some pretended to salute his mock majesty1 and others belaboured the donkey on which he rode4 ,it was in this fashion1 probably1 that in ,persia the beardless and one-eyed man made his undignified progress through the town1 to the delight of ragamuffins and the terror of shopkeepers whose goods he confiscated if they did not hasten to lay their peace-offerings at his feet4'#c ,all this as to ,barabbas implies that the 'high tragedy' of the ,saca was already lost in the 'farce' of the 'degenerate copy1' the ride of the beardless4 ,if so1 why did ,christ lose his life8 ,if ,he died solemnly as a recognised god 7which ,mr4 ,frazer seems to me to deny in iii4 #abj and asserts in iii4 #aid-aig71 why is his no less sacred counterpart1 ,barabbas1 also and simultaneously a counterpart of the beardless buffoon8 ,either the whole affair was solemn and tragic1 the ,haman 7,christ7 and the ,mordecai 7,barabbas7 being recognised as divine1 or the whole affair was farce1 and in neither ,christ nor ,barabbas was there any recognised divinity4 ,mr4 ,frazer makes the belief in the divinity of ,christ depend on the contemporary recognition of the godhead of the ,sacan victim1 whose male issue was also perhaps recognised as divine4#d ,but he also assures us that the divinity of the ,sacan victim must have been 'forgotten4'#e ,in the same way ,christ1 as victim1 was recognised as divine1 and so1 necessarily1 was his counterpart1 ,barabbas2 'whether in sober fact1 or pious fiction1 the ,barabbas or ,son of that ,divine ,father who generously gave his own ,son to die for the world4'#f ,yet this ,son of the ,divine ,father was so remote from sacred that1 just three pages before his ,sonhood is asserted1 we have a picture of him riding about on a donkey among the jeers of the 'tag-rag and bobtail4'#g ,it is difficult to accept both of the theories 7not very self-consistent in my humble opinion71 which ,mr4 ,frazer seems able to hold simultaneously or alternately4 ,if ,barabbas rode a donkey amid the jeers of the ragamuffins1 then ,christ had no triumphal entry into ,jerusalem4 ,he1 too1 had merely a burlesque ride1 if ,barabbas had a burlesque ride1 as ,mr4 ,frazer thinks probable4 ,by the essence of his theory1 ,christ and ,barabbas were counterparts1 both were divine1 or neither was divine1 in general opinion4 ,if ,barabbas was a personage in a low farce 7as ,mr4 ,frazer supposes71 so was ,christ1 and no halo of divinity can accrue from taking part in a burlesque1 which cannot also be a high tragedy1 with divine actors4 ,as if difficulties were never to cease1 the beardless buffoon is a degenerate copy of the ,sacan victim4 ,but while he was a proxy for the king1 and also a representative of ,humman1 or ,marduk1 or ,tammuz1 or ,gilgamesh1 or ,eabani1 or a god not yet identified3 in his popular form1 as the beardless buffoon1 'his pretence of suffering from heat1 and his final disappearance1 suggest that1 if he personified either of the seasons1 it was the departing winter rather than the coming summer4'#h ,if so1 was the buffoon of the popular ceremony the folklore original of the ,sacan mock-king1 or was he a degenerate copy of that versatile victim with a new meaning popularly assigned to him8 ,we are to 'recognise in him the familiar features of the mock or temporary king1'#i though he has neither crown1 sceptre1 robes1 nor aught to cover his nakedness4 ,if he is not the popular original of the mock-king of the ,saca1 how does he1 and how does his magic1 put us 'in a position finally to unmask the leading personages in the ,book of ,esther'8#aj ,if he is a new popular interpretation of the ,sacan mock-king1 a misconstrued survival1 he cannot help to explain the ,saca1 or ',esther1' especially if1 as a player in a farce which was a mitigation of the ,saca1 he had not come into existence when ',esther' was written4 ,but1 if the beardless buffoon represents the popular germ of the ,sacan victim1 then that victim was originally neither the king's proxy1 nor ,tammuz1 nor ,marduk1 nor ,gilgamesh1 nor ,eabani1 but perhaps 'the departing winter4' ,he can only serve the theory1 in that capacity1 if provided with a counterpart to represent the coming summer1 while he and his counterpart both have female mates1 of whom there is not a ghost of a trace in our authorities1 whether in the instance of the ,saca1 the ,ride of the ,beardless1 or the ,crucifixion4 ,nobody says that there were two beardless buffoons1 yet there is just as much evidence for them as for the conjectural two sacred characters1 with two sacred harlots1 at the ,saca4 ,we must avoid the multiplicatio entium prter necessitatem4 #a ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aha1 #ahb4 #b ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #ahc4 #c ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aib4 #d ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #ahf4 #e ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #abj4 #f ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aie4 #g ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #aib4 #h ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #ahd4 #i ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #ahb4 #aj ,g4 ,b4 iii4 #ahd4 ,,index ,,adonis4 ,see ,tammuz ,agathias 7,byzantine poet71 cited1 #acj ,ahone 7aboriginal ,n4 ,american god71 #bj1 #ci ,alatunjas 7,arunta headmen71 #aja1 #bei1 #bfj1 #bfe1 #bfg1 #bfi ,alcheringa 7mythical heroic age1 or period of fabulous ancestors1 of the ,arunta71 #ae1 #bea1 #bec1 #bed ,alcheringites 7fabulous ancestors71 #bea1 #beb ,algonquin deity1 #ci ,alkna ,buma 7,arunta clairvoyant71 and new-born babies1 #bfb ,amadhlozi 7,zulu ancestral spirits71 #bbg1 #bbh ,anahuac3 human sacrifices1 #aic ,anaitis 7,persian love goddess71 #aai1 #aid ,andamanese3 religious beliefs1 #bca1 #bcb ,andouagni 7aboriginal ,canadian god71 #aj2 no form of prayer addressed to #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ba1 #hi ,anthropology1 present-day neglect of its study1 #g2 errors of the 'higher criticism1' #i2 gods not addressed in prayer1 #aj1 #aa2 conflicting evidence of race beliefs1 #aa2 coincidence of testimony1 #ab1 #ac4 ,see under names of tribes and gods ,argyllshire3 superstition among women connected with cup-marked rocks1 #beb1 #bed ,arician grove of ,diana1 the1 and its ghastly priest1 #bjg et seq4 ,arthurian legend3 the magical sword1 #baa ,arunta 7tribe of ,central ,australia71 their theory of evolution of our species and the nature of life1 #ae2 scope of their ideas1 #af2 practice of magic1 #df1 #fa1 #fb1 #fe2 magical rites to assist the processes of nature1 #hb1 #hc2 periods of licence1 #aic1 #aid1 #aif1 #aih2 totems1 #bej1 #bea1 #beb2 cited1 #fg1 #fh1 #aja1 #bei1 #bfc1 #bfd1 #bfe note1 #bff1 #bfg ,ashanti3 licence at the harvest festival1 #ahh1 #ahi ,asia ,minor ,greek cities3 use of scapegoats in times of calamity1 #aij ,astarte 7,semitic goddess74 ,see ,ishtar ,atahocan 7,huron deity71 #db1 #hi1 #bch1 #bif1 #big ,athenus1 on the ,saca1 #aai1 #abj1 #aba2 cited1 #acb1 #ahe1 #ahf1 #aie1 #aif ,athenian festival of ,cronos1 #aaf1 #aag ,athens3 scapegoats killed in times of distress1 #aij ,atholl1 ,earl of 7pretender to royalty71 mock crowning of1 #bjc ,atua 7,samoan71 tree of protection1 #bai ,australian blacks3 alleged endeavour to delay the course of the sun1 #c2 religious ideas unborrowed1 #dd2 attention to the dead1 #di2 ,christian ,deity identified by them with their own supreme beings1 #di2 religious ideas vary according to fertility of soil1 #ej2 invent to please whites1 #ej1 #ea2 emergence of gods from ancestors1 #ea2 religious beliefs1 #bca1 #bcb2 engraved churinga and rock paintings1 #bde et seq42 fire ceremony of1 #bga4 ,see also under tribal names ,aztecs3 beliefs1 #ge2 human sacrifice at harvest festival1 #abg1 #agc1 #cjj ,,babylon3 annual sacrifice of a criminal proxy king1 #gg2 hypothesis of that rite1 #ia1 #aja1 #ajc1 #ajf ,backhouse1 ,mr4 7,quaker71 his ',visit to ,australian ,colonies1' cited1 #bf ,bagolos 7tribe73 human sacrifices1 #abi ,baiame 7,pei-a-mei1 or ,baiamai7 7,australian moral creative being71 #be-cb1 #ce1 #cf1 #ci1 #dj1 #db1 #dc1 #ff1 #fg1 #hi1 #bbf1 #bch1 #big ,balder 7,scandinavian spirit71 the ,eddaic myth of1 #bac-bag ,ballima 7,australian spiritual paradise71 #cf1 #cg ,banjars 7tribe73 beat their king till the weather changes1 #he ,barabbas3 a counterpart of the sacred ,victim1 #bja1 #cjc1 #cjd ,bau 7,babylonian goddess71 #acg1 #ach ,beiderbecke1 ,mr41 on ,south ,african gods1 #bcf1 #bcg ,beiruk1 ,william 7,australian black71 on ,bunjil1 #cd ,benares3 fire-walking1 #bij1 #bia ,benedictine ,mission at ,nursia1 #ac ,bernadette 7seeress of ,lourdes73 fire-handling1 #bgb ,berosus1 quoted1 on the ,saca1 #aai1 #abj1 #adb1 #add1 #ahe1 #aif ,birds1 wise1 ,australian and ,american myth of1 #bd ,blackfoot ,indians 7,n4 ,america73 religious ideas1 #bie ,bluebeard3 new version1 #afg ,bobowissi 7,w4 ,african deity71 #ci ,bora 7,australian initiatory mysteries71 women excluded from1 #cj1 #eh1 #ff1 #ga1 #aie ,borrowed religion1 #ae et seq41 #bie ,boyma4 ,see ,baiame ,brahan warning to the ,mackenzies1 superstitious belief1 #ih ,brebeuf1 ,father1 on the ,oki1 #ai1 #db ,brewin 7,kurnai supreme being71 #bg1 #di1 #eb1 #ec ,brinton3 etymology of the god ,kiehtan1 #bj ,british ,isles3 fire-walking1 #bga ,brough ,smyth1 ,mr41 cited1 #da1 #ed ,bryant's ark1 #e ,buckley 7convict71 on the ,australian ideas of a god1 #bf ,bulgaria1 ,nistinares of3 fire-handling1 #bgb1 #bhc1 #bhe1 #bhf ,bullimah 7,australian paradise71 #cf ,bull-roarers1 7in savage mysteries71 #fe1 #fg1 #ga1 #bdh1 #bee ,bunjil 7,australian god71 #cb1 #cd1 #da1 #ff ,bunyip 7fabled ,australian monster71 #bf ,,calicut 7,malabar73 religious self-slaughter of the king1 #ih1 #bag ,caligula and the priest of ,diana1 #bji ,callaway1 ,dr41 on ,zulu beliefs1 #ig1 #bbe1 #bbg1 #bbh1 #bbi1 #bca1 #bcb1 #bcc1 #bcd1 #bcg1 #bch ,calvary1 #bjj et seq4 ,cambodia3 temporary kings1 #aje2 period of licence1 #ahg ,cameron1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,l4 ,p41 on the tribes of ,new ,south ,wales1 #gj ,canadian aboriginal god1 ,andouagni1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ba1 #hi ,carew1 ,mr41 on fire-walking1 #bhc ,carnival1 destruction of1 at end of modern ,roman festival1 #aaj ,catlin1 on ,mandan ,mystery ,play of the ,flood1 #bc1 #bd ,catullus1 cited1 #ahd ,celebes1 the3 harvest customs1 #bfg ,cbaka 7,zulu king71 #ig1 #bbh1 #bbi1 #bcj ,cheviots1 the3 cup and ring incised on boulders1 #bda ,chinese vernal festival of fire1 #bgj ,chitome 7,congo 'pontiff'71 #acc ,christ3 theories concerning1 #gf1 #gh1 #gi1 #ajj1 #ajf1 #aaj1 #bjj1 #bjf ,christian faith1 origin of the1 #gf et seq4 ,churinga 7,australian71 wood or stone marked with circles1 cups1 c1 #bdd1 #bde1 #bdf1 #bdg1 #bdh1 #bdi1 #bea1 #beb1 #bec1 #bed1 #bee ,churinga ilkinia1 sacred rock-drawing of totem1 #bdf1 #bdi ,coleridge1 ,hartley1 cited1 #ca ,collins1 ,mr4 7',new ,south ,wales'71 on native use of word 'father1' #cb ,colquhomi1 ,dr41 on fire-walking1 #bhb ,congo tribes1 #fa2 their pontiff not permitted to die a natural death1 #if1 #acc ,craig1 ,dr4 ,george3 fire-walking1 #bge ,craig1 ,dr4 ,w43 fire-walking1 #bge ,craigie1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,a41 on the myth of ,balder1 #bad ,cranz 7missionary71 on ,greenlanders' beliefs1 #ba1 #hg1 #hh ,crawford1 ,mr4 ,lindsay1 cited1 #eg note ,crsus1 #abi ,cronos festival1 the1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aaf1 #aag ,crookes1 ,mr41 cited1 on fire-walking1 #bhf ,crookes1 ,sir ,william1 cited1 #bhi ,crucifixion1 a theory of the1 #hj1 #ajc ,crystal-gazing1 #cb ,ctesias1 on the ,saca1 #abj ,cumont1 ,professor ,franz1 on the legend of ,dasius1 #aab2 on the ,saturnalia1 #aac1 #aad1 #aae1 #adb2 cited1 #ahc1 #bih1 #cjj ',cup and ring3' a solution1 #bda et seq4 ,curr1 ,mr41 on ,australian native beliefs1 #ea ,,daramulun 7,australian deity71 #bg1 #ff1 #ga ,darwin1 cited1 #f ,dasius1 story of the martyrdom of1 #gi1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aac1 #aad1 #aae1 #aba1 #ahb1 #ahe1 #bih1 #cja ,davis1 ,mr4 ,john ,moore1 on ,australian native sacrifice of the first-born1 #ed ,dawson1 ,mr4 7',aborigines of ,australia'71 on native religious worship1 #cc1 #cd ,deputy gods1 #ci ,devils1 expulsion of1 savage licence following1 #ahg ,diana1 grove of 7near ,aricia73 the golden bough in1 #bjg et seq4 ,diana of the ,chersonese1 #bjh ,dieri1 the 7,central ,australian tribe73 ancestral spirit worship1 #ej1 #ef1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd ,dio ,chrysostom1 on the festival of ,saca1 #gi1 #abj and note1 #aba1 #acb1 #adg1 #ahe1 #ahf1 #aii1 #cjb ,divine scapegoats1 #ahi et seq4 ,dodge1 ,colonel1 on ,north ,american beliefs1 #hh1 #hi ,donnelly1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,a41 discovery of stones marked with cup and ring1 c1 #bde1 #bdf ,dos ,santos1 on ,caffre beliefs1 #ig and note1 #bcd1 #bce ,druid3 origin of the word1 #bae note ,druid circles1 #bdb ,druids1 gathering mistletoe1 #bae ,dumbuck 7,scotland73 marked stones at1 #bde1 #bdf1 #bec ,dunbuie 7,scotland73 stones marked with rings at1 #bde4 #bdf1 #bdg1 #bec ,duncan4 ,hon4 ,l4 ,m43 fire-walking1 #bgg ,dyaks1 their superstition regarding new-born children1 #bfa ,,eabani 7feast of71 #afd1 #afe1 #aff1 #agh1 #ahj1 #aha ,eddaic myth of ,balder1 #bac-bag ,egyptian ,book of the ,dead1 #gb2 gods1 tombs and mummies1 #ij2 ,king of ,unreason1 #aje2 sacrifice of red-haired men1 #abh ,ellis1 ,sir ,a4 ,b41 #ac2 theory of borrowed gods1 #db2 on ,ashanti harvest festival1 #ahh ,erech1 ,eabani feast at1 #afd1 #afe ,esther1 ,book of1 #adg1 #ahj2 theories concerning1 #afa-aha ,ethiopian kings of ,meroe3 worshipped as gods1 killed by priests1 #if ,evolution of gods1 #hb et seq4 ,euhemerism1 #ij ,european influences on savage beliefs1 #aa ,euthyphro1 cited1 #ei1 #fj ,everard1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,s4 ,c1 cited1 #baa ,eyeos1 sacrifice of king of1 #ih1 #bba ,eyre1 ,mr41 on the ,australian blacks' idea of origin of creation1 #dj1 #da ,ezekiel1 #aea1 #agf ,,farwardigan 7,persian feast71 #afh1 #afi ,fijian hymns1 #gb2 periods of licence1 #aie1 #aif1 #aih2 fire ceremony1 #bgc1 #bgg-bhc1 #bhh ,fire-walking1 #bgj et seq4 ,first-born1 eating the1 #ed ,first-fruits1 #bfg et seq4 ,fisher's ghost1 #ed ,fison1 ,mr4 ,lorimer1 on the emerging of gods from ancestors1 #ej1 #ef ,foelsche1 ,mr41 on savage belief in a benevolent creator or demiurge1 #eg note1 #eh ,frazer1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,g41 theories of3 comparative study of human beliefs and institutions1 #f1 #g2 religion the despair of magic1 #aj1 #fj2 magic preceded the invention of god #dg2 limited definition of religion1 #dh1 #ei2 the ,australians who practise magic have little or no religion1 #di-eb2 on the ,jewish ,passover1 #ec2 its ,australian parallel1 #ec1 #ed2 speculative generalisations1 #ee2 arbitrary selection of witnesses1 #ee-eh2 ascription of wrong beliefs to the ,arunta1 #fa2 inadvertent proof that irreligious ,australians are religious1 #fb-fe2 invented powerful beings1 #fh2 religion1 the conciliation of higher powers by prayer and sacrifice1 #fi2 shooting stars1 #gd2 imported religious ideas1 #ge2 origin of the belief in the divinity of ,christ1 #gf-gh2 use of the legend of ,dasius1 #gi1 #aji-aae2 mental prepossession on the ,crucifixion1 #hj2 double pairs of divinised human beings1 #hb2 alleged mortality of gods1 #he-id2 religious regicide1 #id-ajj2 annual religious regicide1 #aja-ajd2 mock kings1 #ajc et seq42 persons who suffer for god-man kings1 #ajd-ajg2 survivals of human sacrifice at the ,saturnalia1 #aji-aae2 modern ,carnival1 #aaj1 #aaa2 the ,greek ,cronia1 #aae-aah2 the ,saca1 #aah-abb2 again mock kings1 #abj1 #aba1 #abc2 attempts to prove the ,sacan criminal divine1 #abc-adj2 sacrifice by hanging1 #abg-acb2 date of the ,saca1 #ace-ach2 the ,sacan victim1 #ach2 analogies of ,zakmuk1 ,saca1 and ,purim1 #ada-afj2 human victims at ,purim1 #aec2 connection of ,mordecai1 ,esther1 ,vashti1 and ,haman with ,babylonian and ,elamite gods1 #afa2 the ride of the beardless ,persian buffoon1 #afh1 #aga1 #cja-cje2 festivals of licence1 #ahe-aii2 divine scapegoat1 #ahi2 ,calvary1 #bjj-bjd2 the ghastly priest of the grove of ,diana1 #bjf-bbc2 the ,quiteva1 #bcd2 taboo1 #bfh2 fire-walking1 #bgj ,fuegian idea on flapper shooting1 #bfg ,,gason1 ,mr41 on the beliefs of the ,dieri1 #ef1 #eg note2 on ,mara ,mura1 #fb1 #fc ,german theory of ,purim1 #adg ,georgia1 stone-markings in1 #bdc ,ghost-worship1 #ca ,gilgamesh and ,eabani1 legend of1 #afd1 #afe1 #ahj1 #aha ,gillen4 ,see ,spencer and ,gillen ,gingero1 king of3 killed by kinsmen if wounded in war1 #if ,gods1 the evolution of1 #hb et seq4 ,goethe1 and native ,australian beliefs1 #ce ,gold ,coast3 savage period of licence1 #ahf ,goodwin1 ,mr43 fire-walking1 #bge ,gorten1 ,mr43 fire-walking1 #bib ,gounja ,ticquoa 7,hottentot supreme deity71 #bcb ,greek religious beliefs paralleled with those of savage races1 #ch2 graves of gods1 #ij1 #ic ,greenlanders3 religious beliefs1 #hg1 #hh ,greenway1 ,mr41 on the derivation of ,baiame1 #be2 #dd ,greyhair3 ,zulu superstition concerning1 #ig ,grogoragally 7,aust4 son of god71 #cf1 #cg1 #ci ,gudgeon1 ,colonel3 the ,te ,umuti1 or fire-walking1 #bgc1 #bgd1 #bgf1 #bhe ,gnther1 ,mr41 cited1 #dd ,guyaquar ,indians1 human sacrifices by1 when sowing1 #abg ,,haddon1 ,mr43 ,new ,guinea art1 #bdi ,haggard1 ,colonel ,andrew1 on fire-walking1 #bhd1 #bhe ,haggard1 ,mr4 ,rider1 cited1 #bbh ,hale1 ,mr4 ,horace1 on the ,australian god ,baiame1 #be1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi2 on ,koin1 #bg2 cited1 #dc ,hall1 ,mr4 ,s4 ,c43 fire-handling1 #bgf ,haman3 theories concerning1 #acd1 #afa-aha ,haman 7,elamite deity71 #gh ,hanging1 sacrifice by1 #gg1 #gh1 #hj1 #abg et seq41 #ach1 #adh1 #aec1 #age1 #agg1 #agh1 #ahi1 #aie1 #aig1 #aii ,hartland1 ,mr41 quoted1 on savage ideas of superior beings1 #ce1 #cf2 prayers for the dead1 #cf2 censure of ,mr4 ,manning's terminology1 #cf2 origin of belief in a supreme being1 #bbd2 on ,zulu beliefs1 #bbg1 #bbi1 #bcb1 #bcc1 #bcd ,hastwell1 ,mr43 fire-walking1 #bhg ,hays of ,errol1 their mistletoe life-token1 #baf note ,hearn1 ,mr4 ,lafcadio1 on fire-walking1 #bhd ,heitsi ,eibib 7,hottentot superior being71 #ij ,hennessy1 ,mr4 ,pope1 quoted1 #eh ,henry1 ,miss ,teuira3 fire-walking1 #bhg ,heraldry1 #bfj ,heriot1 cited1 on the ,virginian ,creator1 #bb ,herodotus1 cited1 #adi ,hesychius1 on the ,saca1 #aba ,hindoo ,koosh3 harvest licence1 #ahg ,hippolytus1 legend of1 #bji1 #bah ,hirpi of ,soracte1 the1 #bga2 fire-walking1 #bhi ,hobamok 7son of the god ,kiehtan71 #ch1 #ci ,hocken1 ,dr4 ,t4 ,m41 on fire-walking1 #bgc1 #bgf1 #bgg-bhc1 #bhe1 #bic1 #bid ,home1 ,d4 ,d41 fire-handling by1 #bgb1 #bgf ,honolulu3 fire-walking1 #bib ,horses of ,virbius1 #aci ,hos 7,n4-,e4 ,indian tribe73 feast of licence1 #ahg ,hottentot religious beliefs1 #bca1 #bcb ,how 7,tongan elective king71 #hf ,howitt1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,w41 on the ,australian god ,baiame1 #be1 #ca1 #cb1 #cd2 the ,kurnai goblin ,brewin1 #bg2 initiated by the ,kurnai1 #eb2 change of views on ,brewin1 #ec2 on the attributes of native great spirits1 #ff2 cited1 #ab1 #ci1 #dj1 #da1 #dc1 #dd ,humman 7,elamite deity71 #aci1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afa1 #aff1 #afi1 #agb1 #agc-aha1 #ahi ,,ibn ,,batuta3 travellers' tales1 #ii2 ,javan family deputed to die for the ,sultan1 #ii ,images1 clay or waxen1 as vicarious objects of revenge1 #c ,india3 fire-walking1 #bhf ,indo-,china3 offering of first-fruits to a god1 #bfg ,ireland3 late superstition in1 #aji2 incised patterns on stones1 #bec ,iruntarinia 7evil spirits71 inimical through new-born children1 #bfb1 #bfd ,isaacs1 ,mr41 quoted1 on ,zulu superstitions1 #ig ,ishtar 7goddess71 #abe1 #aeg1 #afd1 #age1 #agg1 #agh1 #agi ,islamite suggestions of a ,god to savage races1 #aa ,,jastrow1 ,professor1 on mental prepossession1 #hj2 ,babylonian gods1 #ia2 the ,tammuz feast1 #acf1 #acg2 the ,zakmuk1 #adb2 the ,book of ,esther1 #afb2 the ,purim1 #afb2 cited1 #aeg1 #aff1 #agh1 #agi2 ,java3 self-slaughter of kings and their substitutes1 #ii ,jensen1 ,dr41 on the feast of ,purim1 #aej1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aei1 #afb1 #afd1 #afe1 #aff1 #agb1 #agc1 #agf1 #agg1 #agi ,jesuits1 credited with suggesting the idea of a great spirit to savage races1 #bc2 cited1 #db1 #de ,jevons1 ,mr41 on taboo1 #bei1 #bfj1 #bfa1 #bfh ,jewish ,passover1 the1 theory of1 #ec ,jews3 hanging a mock-king at the ,purim festival1 #gh2 condemned criminals representing life and death of vegetation1 #gh ,jinn1 the1 #ia ,johnson1 ,dr41 cited1 #bfc ,,kalari 7,australian bull-roarer47 #ga ,kalk 7,kallak73 ,australian bull-roarer1 #ga ,kalunga 7,african god71 #bcg ,kamchatka3 religious beliefs1 #bbf ,kamilaroi 7,australian tribe73 religious beliefs1 #bh1 #bi1 #ca1 #dc1 #ff ,karunga 7,african god71 #bcf1 #bcg ,khonds3 human sacrifices1 #abi ,kibanga 7,upper ,congo73 king killed by sorcerers when dying1 #if ,kiehtan 7,new ,england god71 #bj1 #ba1 #ch1 #ci1 #ij ,kingsley1 ,miss ,mary1 cited1 #ab1 #db1 #de ,kitchi ,manitou 7,north ,american ,indian great spirit71 #ah ,kittanitowit 7,algonquin great living spirit71 #bj ,koin 7,australian supernatural black man71 #bg ,kolb 7missionary71 cited1 #bcb ,kudulu 7,african tribe73 human sacrifices1 #abi ,kuenen1 ,professor1 cited1 #adg ,kurnai 7,australian tribe71 #cb2 initiate ,mr4 ,howitt in the mysteries1 #eb1 #ec2 #fg ,,lafitau1 ,pre1 on the ,manitou and ,okki1 #ah1 #ai ,l',allemant1 ,pre1 on the ,virginian creator1 #bb ,lagarde4 ,professor1 on ,persian feasts1 #afh1 #afi1 #aga1 #cjb ,lagos3 animal and human sacrifices1 #abh ,le ,jeune1 ,father1 on the meaning of ,manitou1 #ah2 the ,algonquin god1 #ba1 #bc2 cited1 #db1 #big ,licence1 periods of1 at ancient and savage festivals1 #ahe-aii ,lionetti 7,italian conjurer71 fire-handling experiments1 #bhc ,lithuanian beer custom1 #bff ,livingstone1 ,dr41 on ,kaffir beliefs1 #bcb ,livy1 on the ,saturnalia1 #ajh ,loan-gods 7or borrowed religion71 theory of1 #ag et seq4 ,lucian1 on the ,saturnalia1 #ajh ,lyall1 ,sir ,alfred1 #ee2 on the foundation of natural religion1 #ei1 #fj2 speculative generalisation1 #gd2 quoted1 #aih1 #bbj ,lydian kings as sacrifices1 #abi ,,macdonald1 ,mr41 quoted1 #bce note1 #bcf ,mackenzie1 ,captain1 on fire-walking1 #bgj ,macrobius1 on the ,saturnalia1 #ajh1 #aaa1 #abj note1 #bje ,magic1 or witchcraft1 #c1 #aj1 #af2 #df et seq4 ,see under tribal names ,magophonia 7,persian feast71 #aai1 #adi1 #afh ,makogo 7,wathi ,wathi tribesman71 on the future life1 #gb ,mandan ,deluge legend1 the1 #bc1 #bd1 #be ,man-gods1 #hd1 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 #if1 #ii1 #ajd1 #ach1 #aib ,manitou1 meaning of the word1 #ah2 superior being1 #bif ,manning1 ,mr41 on early religious beliefs in ,new ,south ,wales1 #ce2 his terminology in question1 #ce1 #cf1 #cg2 on exclusion of women from religious knowledge1 #ci2 rebuffed by natives in his inquiries1 #db2 on taboo1 #bfa ,marduk 7,babylonian god71 #ib1 #acg1 #ach1 #aci1 #adb1 #adi1 #aef1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afa1 #afd1 #afe1 #aff1 #aga1 #age1 #agf1 #agg1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahj1 #aha1 #ahi ,marimos3 human sacrifices1 #abi ,mariner1 on ,tongan beliefs1 #hf ,matthews1 ,mr41 cited1 #eg note ,masai 7,african tribe71 #ab ,mauritius3 fire-walking1 #bhd ,maximilian1 ,prince1 on ,mandan beliefs1 #bd ,maxwell1 ,sir ,herbert1 on trout and ,may flies1 #bff ,mbenga 7,fiji73 fire-walking1 #bgf1 #bgg1 #bgi ,meath1 portable engraved stones at1 #bec ,medicine-men1 #cc1 #ajj ,meissner1 ,herr1 on the ,zakmuk and ,saca festivals1 #aah1 #adb ,merodach4 ,see ,marduk ,mexicans3 human sacrifices at stages of the maize's growth1 #abh2 #ahd ,meyer 7',hist of ,antiq4'71 quoted1 #aah ,millar1 ,mr41 quoted1 on the ,dunbuie finds1 #bdg1 #bdh ,mistletoe3 a magical plant1 #bab1 #bac1 #bad1 #bae1 #baf1 #bag1 #bba ,mithra-worship1 #aad ,moab3 sacrifice of sons of kings1 #aje ,mock-kings1 sacrifices of1 #gi1 #id1 #aje1 #aaj1 #aad1 #aai1 #abj1 #aca1 #acd1 #aca1 #acg1 #aec1 #afi1 #agh1 #aha1 #ahb-ahe1 #aif1 #aig1 #aii ,msia3 mock-king personating a god1 #gi2 sacrifice of kings1 #ajc2 the killing of ,dasius at the ,saturnalia1 #aji1 #aab2 cited1 #aad1 #aae1 #aba1 #ahc1 #ahe ,moffat1 ,mr41 on ,kaffir beliefs1 #bcb ,molunga1 ,mulungu 7,caffre god71 #bcd1 #bce1 #bcf ,mommsen1 ,prof4 ,aug41 on the ,cronos feast1 #aaf ,montagnets 7,north ,american ,indians71 their application of the word ,manitou1 #ah ,moodgeegally 7patron of the mysteries71 #fg ,moravian missionaries on ,baiame1 #be ,mordecai 7companion of ,nehemiah71 #afa1 #aga ,mordecai 7,babylonian supreme god871 #gh2 theories concerning1 #acd1 #ace1 #afa-aha ,morgan1 ,mr41 compiler of ,buckley's ',life and ,adventures1' #bf ,morimo 7,bechuana deity71 #bcb1 #bcg ,mortality of gods1 #he et seq4 ,motagon 7,australian dead creator71 #big ,movers1 ,dr41 on the ,saca festival1 #acj1 #agd2 cited1 #aih ,mukuru 7,african deity71 the missionaries' ,god1 #bcf ,mulkari 7,queensland deity71 #dj ,mller1 ,k4 ,o41 cited1 #ahj ,mundari 7tribe73 licence at festivals1 #ahg ,mungan-ngaur 7,kurnai god71 #bg1 #cb1 #eb1 #ec1 #ff1 #fh1 #hi ,munro1 ,dr41 on the incised stone finds at ,dumbuck and ,dunbuie1 #bee1 #bef ,mura ,mura 7,dierian ancestors deified71 #ej1 #eg note1 #fb1 #fc1 #bce ,murrings 7,australian blacks71 #eb ,mystery ,play of the ,flood 7,mandan71 #bc ,myths4 ,see under names of tribes and gods ,mzima 7spirits of the dead71 #bcf ,,nanga 7,fijian harvest festival71 orgies at1 #aie ,n-pi 7,blackfoot deity71 #ij ,natos 7,blackfoot deity71 #bie ,nature's processes assisted by magical rites1 #hb1 #hc ,nebuchadnezzar1 #adj ,nepaul3 period of licence1 #ahg ,new ,england3 the god ,kiehtan1 #bj1 #ba2 religious beliefs1 #ch ,new ,guinea1 ,british3 character of decorative art1 #bdi ,new ,south ,wales3 native sacrifice of the first-born1 #ed ,new ,zealand3 the king's mana or magical power1 #ii ,ngoio 7,congo73 daily kings1 #ajd ,niscaminou 7,red ,indian deity71 #bie ,nldeke1 ,professor1 on the feast of ,purim1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afj1 #afa1 #afb1 #agb1 #agf1 #agg1 #agi ,noorele 7,australian creator71 #ci1 #dj1 #da1 #ff ,north ,american ,indians1 religious beliefs of1 #hh1 #hi4 ,see also under tribal names ,nursia 7,australia7 ,benedictine ,mission at1 #ab ,nyankupon 7,west ,africa71 #ci ,,ohio1 stone markings in1 #bdc ,ointment used by fire-walkers1 #bic ,okeus 7aboriginal ,canadian god71 #bj1 #ba1 #ij ,oki 7,huron word for spirit71 #ai1 #ba1 #bb1 #db ,okki 7,lafitau's ',grand ,esprit'71 #ai ',old ,mars' 7,roman god and scapegoat71 #aij ,omuambo creation tales1 #bcg ,ontake ,jinsha 7,shintoists73 fire-walking1 #bia ,oorooma 7native ,australian hell71 #cg ,oppert1 ,dr43 fire-walking1 #bhf ,orestes1 story of his temple to ,diana1 #bjh1 #bji1 #bah ,otyiherer3 different names for god and spirit1 #bcf ,ovaherero1 the 7,african tribe71 god of1 #bcf ,oxford ,university1 and the study of anthropology1 #g ,,palmer1 ,mr41 on the tribes of the ,gulf of ,carpentaria1 #db1 #dd2 cited1 #gd ,pan1 legend of1 #ia ,parker1 ,mrs4 ,langloh1 on unborrowed character of ,australian beliefs1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf2 prayers for the dead1 #cf2 cited1 #big ,parmentier1 ,m41 on the ,saturnalia1 #aac note1 #aad2 on the ,saca1 #aah2 cited1 #ahc1 #cja ,pascal1 ,dr4 ,th43 fire-walking1 #bij ,patterns1 incised1 on portable small stones1 #bec ,pausanias1 quoted1 #bji ,pei-a-mei4 ,see ,baiame ,period of ,licence1 the1 #aje et seq4 ,persia3 annual sacrifice of a criminal proxy king1 #gg2 ride of the beardless buffoon1 #afg1 #afh1 #afi1 #aga1 #cja-cje ,philippine ,islanders3 religious beliefs1 #ij ,phurdigan 7,persian feast71 #adi ,pin-sticking of enemy's image1 #c ,pirnmeheal 7,australian god71 #cd1 #ff ,pliny1 #ajh2 on the ,druids1 #bae1 #baf ,podmore1 ,mr41 on fire-handling1 #bgb ,polynesia3 tattooing1 #bdc2 taboo1 #bei ,ponder1 ,mr4 ,stephen3 fire-walking in ,straits ,settlements1 #bhf ,pondo3 period of licence1 #ahh1 #aie ,priest1 the ghastly1 of the ,arician grove of ,diana1 #bjg et seq4 ,proserpine 7goddess71 #bjh1 #baa1 #bab ,prussian king1 ',god's mouth1' self-immolation1 #ih1 #acj ,puluga 7,andamanese god71 #bbd1 #bbf ,purdaghn 7,persian festival71 #ahi ,purim 7,jewish festival73 date1 origin1 rites1 details1 theories1 conjectures1 analogies1 #gg1 #aah1 #aai1 #abd1 #ada1 #adb1 #ade-afj1 #afa1 #afb1 #afc1 #afh1 #afi1 #agf-aha1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #aid1 #aih1 #bjb ,,queensland deity1 ,mulkari1 #dj ,quilacare 7,southern ,india73 self-slaughter of the king1 #ih ,quiteva1 the 7,sofala deity71 #ig note1 #bcd ,,raiatea 7,society ,islands73 fire-walking1 #bgc1 #bgd1 #bgg1 #bhg ,rain-making magic1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd1 #fe ,rarotonga 7,new ,zealand73 fire-walking1 #bgc-bgf ,regicide1 religious1 #id1 #ajj ,red ,indian beliefs1 #bie ,religious beliefs of barbaric races4 ,see under tribal names and gods ,ride of the beardless buffoon1 #cja-cje ,ridley1 ,mr4 7missionary71 on the ,australian god ,baiame1 #be1 #bi1 #cj2 on native ideas of great spirits1 #ff1 #fg2 cited1 #dd1 #bch ,romans3 customs at the ,saturnalia1 #ajh et seq4 ,ross1 ,mr4 ,denison1 cited1 #adc1 #ade ,roth1 ,dr41 quoted1 on the ,queensland god ,mulkari1 #dj ,,sac 7,oriental tribe71 #aah1 #aai1 #adc1 #aid ,saca 7,persian festival71 date1 origin1 rites1 theories1 details1 analogies1 #gg1 #gi1 #hj1 #ha1 #ajf1 #aad1 #aag1 #aah1 #aai1 #abb1 #abc1 #abd1 #abf1 #abg1 #acj1 #aca1 #acb1 #acd1 #ace1 #acf1 #ach1 #aci1 #ada1 #add1 #ade-afj1 #afc1 #afd1 #afi1 #agj1 #agb1 #agf-aii1 #bja1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bbc1 #cja-cje ,st4 ,clair1 ,mr4 ,henry ,r43 fire-walking1 #bhf ,st4 ,dasius1 martyrdom4 ,see ,dasius ,st4 ,paul1 cited1 #bja ,sakeas4 ,see ,saca ,salvado1 ,bishop1 cited1 #big ,samoan trees of refuge for criminals1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bbb ,sandes1 ,sandan 7,persian deity71 #acj ,saturn1 #ajh1 #aci1 #ahc1 #ahd ,saturnalia 7,roman festival71 rites1 details1 theories and analogies concerning1 #gi1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aaj1 #ahc1 #ahd1 #aie ,sayce1 ,mr41 cited1 #acc1 #adg ,scapegoats1 #ahi et seq ,schischmanof1 ,dr43 ,bulgarian fire-handling1 #bhe ,science and superstition3 definition1 #a et seq4 ,scotland3 incised patterns on rocks and stones1 #bec1 #bed ,sementini1 ,dr43 fire-handling1 #bhc ,servius 7early commentator on ,virgil71 on the golden bough in the grove of ,diana4 #bjg1 #bjh1 #bji ,shaw1 quoted1 #bcb ,shooting stars1 ,wathi ,wathi interpretation of1 #gc1 #gd ,siam3 temporary kings1 #aje ,siebert1 ,mr4 7,german missionary71 on ancestral gods1 #ej1 #ef1 #fc ,simpson1 ,sir ,james1 on the cup and ring1 #bdb1 #bdc1 #bdd1 #bde1 #bdf ,sioux3 human sacrifices for magical purposes1 #abh ,skidi 7,wolf ,pawnees73 animal and human sacrifices1 #abh ,slate spear-heads1 #bdg ,smith1 ,captain 7',history of ,virginia'71 on ,okki1 #ai ,smith1 ,mr4 ,robertson1 cited1 #acc1 #acd1 #acf1 #acg1 #ach1 #adb ,sofalese 7,caffre tribe71 their king-god1 #ig ,south ,african religions1 #bbd et seq4 ,see under tribal names ,south ,sea ,islanders and ,captain ,cook1 #id ,spain3 fire-walking1 #bhe ,spartans3 lame kings1 #ih ,spencer1 ,mr4 ,herbert1 cited1 #f1 #ce ,spencer and ,gillen1 ,messrs41 cited1 #ae1 #fg1 #hf1 #aic1 #aid note1 #bdd1 #bde1 #bdf1 #bdh1 #bei1 #bfj1 #bfe ,statius1 on the ,arician grove1 #bji ,stevenson1 ,r4 ,l41 on tapu in the ,pacific ,islands1 #bfh ,stirling1 ,dr41 cited1 #fb ,stokes1 ,mr43 fire-walking1 #bhf ,stones carved with cup and rings1 universality of1 #bdb et seq4 ,strabo1 on the ,saca festival1 #aai-abj2 cited1 #adi1 #ahe1 #ahf1 #aid1 #aie1 #bga ,strachey1 ,william 7successor of ,captain ,smith in ,virginia71 on the position of ,okeus1 #bj ,straits ,settlements3 fire-walking1 #bhf1 #bhg ,strannam 7,gaelic71 tundun1 bull-roarer1 #bee ,suetonius1 on the 'ghastly priest1' #bji ,superstition1 definition of1 #b et seq4 ,superstitions4 ,see under names of tribes1 gods1 and authorities ,sweden3 ancient treatment of king in times of public distress1 #he2 cake-eating1 #bff ,sword1 the magical1 #baa ,,taboo1 #beg et seq4 ,tagore3 fire-walking1 #bij ,t-li-y-,tooboo 7,tongan supreme being71 #hf ,tammuz 7,babylonian god of vegetation71 theories concerning1 #abc-abg1 #acc-aci1 #ada1 #adc1 #add1 #adi1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aec1 #aee1 #aeg1 #aei1 #afj1 #afa1 #afd1 #agb1 #agf-ahj1 #ahc1 #ahi1 #aib ,ta-ta-thi 7,new ,south ,wales tribe71 #gj1 #ga ,te ,umu-ti 7,maori71 or fire-walking ceremony1 #bgc-bgf ,thargelia 7,athenian festival73 scapegoats1 #aij ,tha-tha-pali 7,watha ,watha deity71 #gj1 #gc1 #gd ,thevet1 ,m41 on the ,canadian ,indians' belief in a 'creator1' #ba ,thomson1 ,mr4 ,basil3 fire-walking1 #bhh ,threlkeld1 ,mr41 on the ,australian god ,koin1 #bg2 translation of the ,gospel of ,st4 ,luke1 #bg2 first worker at the dialects of the ,baiame-worshipping tribes1 #bg1 #bi2 cited1 #dc1 #dd1 #de ,thuremlin 7superior being71 #ga ,thurston1 ,lady1 her experiment in fire-walking1 #bgh ,ti-ra-w 7,pawnee deity71 #hi1 #abh ,tokio 7,japan73 fire-walking1 #bhd ,tone1 ,mr4 ,n4 ,j43 fire-walking1 #bhg ,tonga3 the ,how religious function1 #bfh2 fire-walking1 #bhg ,tongan religious beliefs1 #hf ,tonquin3 period of licence1 #ahg1 #ahh1 #aie1 #aif ,torngarsuk 7,greenlanders' great spirit71 #ba1 #hg ,totems1 #bdf1 #bdi-bea1 #bfd1 #bfe1 #bff1 #bhi ,traditions4 ,see under names of tribes1 gods1 and authorities ,tree spirits1 #baj et seq4 regear1 ,mr41 on fire-walking1 #bgc ,trinidad 7,w4 ,indies73 fire-walking1 #bhf ,tshi-speaking races1 #db ,tsui ,goab 7idealised ,hottentot medicine man71 #bcb ,tulong 7deity71 #gj1 #ga ,tundun 7patron of ,kurnai mysteries and bull-roarer71 #ff1 #fg1 #fh ,turner1 ,mr41 quoted1 on ,polynesian tree sanctuaries1 #bai ,turramulan1 ,taramuhin 7,australian god71 #ca ,twanyirika 7,arunta great spirit71 #fe1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh1 #ga1 #bfc1 #bfd ,tylor1 ,mr43 on the ,canadian deity ,andouagni1 #af2 modification of his views on primitive culture1 #ag2 the high gods of low races1 #ah2 the ,great ,spirit or ,manitou of the ,north ,american ,indians1 #ah2 the word ,oki1 #ai2 summary of ,winslow1 #bj2 the ,greenlanders' ,torngarsuk1 #ba2 attribution of the idea of the great spirit to missionary influence1 #bb2 ,mandan ,deluge legend1 #bc1 #bd2 ,australian god ,baiame1 #be-cb2 ideas of ,european importation1 #ea2 native ,australian beliefs1 #ge2 ,greenlanders' beliefs1 #hg1 #hh note2 ,zulu beliefs1 #bbf2 fire-walking1 #bga2 theory of borrowed gods1 #bie ,,ubebe 7,zulu native71 on his race's beliefs1 #bcj1 #bca ,ukoto 7,zulu native71 on his race's beliefs1 #bbh1 #bbi ,ulangeni 7,zulu native73 repudiates idea of borrowed ,hottentot deity1 #bca1 #bcb ,umdabuko 7,zulu creator71 #bbi1 #bcj ,umdali 7,kaffir creator71 #bcb ,umhlanga 7,zulu71 bed of reeds whence man sprung1 #bcj ,umpengula ,mbandi 7,zulu native71 on native beliefs1 #bbh1 #bbi1 #bcj1 #bcb1 #bch ,umvelingangi 7,zulu deity71 #bbe1 #bbh ,unkulunkulu 7,zulu deity71 #hi1 #bbf1 #bbg1 #bbh1 #bbi1 #bcj1 #bca1 #bcc1 #bce1 #bcf1 #bch ,unyoro1 the king of3 not allowed by his wives a natural death1 #if ,upolu 7,samoan ,islands73 sacred tree asylums for criminals1 #bai ,urabunna 7tribe of ,central ,australia71 #af ,urkus 7savage tribe71 #eh ,uthlanga 7,zulu source of being71 #bcj ,utikxo 7,zulu deity71 #bca1 #bcb1 #bcc1 #bcd1 #bce1 #bcj1 #bch ,,vashti1 theories concerning1 #gh1 #afa1 #aga1 #age1 #agg1 #agh1 #ahj ,vave 7,samoan god71 #bai ,vegetation1 gods of1 #e1 #bjf et seq4 ,virbius 7deity of vegetation71 #aci ,virgil1 his golden bough1 #bjg et seq4 ,virginia3 aborigines' chief god ,okki1 #ai ,volsunga ,saga3 the magical sword1 #bjg1 #baa ,,waitz1 ,dr43 on ,australian religious customs1 #cj2 rejects the hypothesis of ,australian borrowed beliefs1 #dc1 #dd2 quoted1 #bcb ,walking through fire1 #bgj et seq4 ,wallace1 ,sir ,william3 mock crowning1 #bjc ,warramunga 7,australian tribe73 sacred rock-drawing1 #bdf ,wathi ,wathi 7,new ,south ,wales tribe71 religious beliefs1 #gj1 #gb1 #gd ,way of ,souls1 the1 #gb1 #gc ,wellhausen1 ,dr43 on the ,jewish exile1 #aha ,west ,africa1 taboo in1 #bei2 human sacrifices1 #abh ,wilson1 ,professor ,daniel1 on cups and rings1 #bdc1 #bdd ,winslow1 quoted1 on ,kiehtan 7,new ,england native deity71 #bj1 #ch ,wiraijuri 7,australian tribe71 beliefs of1 #ff ,witchcraft4 ,see ,magic ,woiworung dirge1 a1 #da ,women debarred from the mysteries1 #bg1 #cc1 #eb1 #ga ,,xerxes 7the king in ,book of ,esther71 #adh1 #afa1 #afg ,,yerrunthally 7,queensland tribe73 idea of shooting stars1 #gd ,ynglinga ,saga1 the1 #bad ,,zagmuk1 ,zakmuk 7,babylonian festival71 details and theories concerning1 #aah1 #acg1 #ada-add1 #ade-afj1 #afb1 #afc1 #afd1 #afe1 #agi1 #aha1 #cja ,zeus1 grave of1 #ij1 #ic2 #aeg ,zoganes 7,babylonian slave-lord71 theories concerning1 #abd1 #abe1 #acj1 #aci1 #ahe1 #ahf1 #aie1 #aif1 #aig1 #aih ,zulus3 ghost worshippers1 #ca2 religious beliefs1 #ig2 period of licence1 #ahh1 #aie2 harvest custom1 #bfg4 ,see under tribal names