,established by ,edward ,l4 ,youmans    
,,appletons'                            
,,popular ,,science                     
,,monthly                               
,,edited ,,by                           
,,william ,,jay ,,youmans               
,,vol4 ,,lvi                            
,,november1 #ahii1 ,,to ,,april1 #aijj  
,,new ,,york                            
,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company          
#aijj                                   
,,copyright1 #aijj1                     
,,by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company4    
,illustration3 ,,edward ,,orton4        
,,contents                              
,,page    ,,the ,,transplantation ,,of  
,a ,,race4                              
#eac    ,,modern ,,city ,,roadways4     
#ebd    ,,typical ,,criminals4          
#eci    ,a ,,century ,,of ,,geology4    
#edf    ,,salamanders ,,and ,,salamander
 ,,cats4                           #eef 
,,what ,,makes ,,the ,,trolley ,,car    
,,go4                                   
#efd    ,a ,,survival ,,of ,,medi,,val  

,,credulity4                            
#egg    ,,ribbon ,,lightning4           
#ehg    ,,cross-,,education4            
#ehi    ,,the ,,morbid ,,sense ,,of     
,,injury4                               
#eif    ,,early ,,experiments ,,in ,,air
 ,,flight4                              
#fjc    ,,sketch ,,of ,,edward ,,orton4 
#fjg    ,,editor',s ,,table4            
#fad    ,,fragments ,,of ,,science4     
#fah    ,,minor ,,paragraphs4           
#fbb    ,,publications ,,received4      
#fbd                                    
,,appletons'                            
,,popular ,,science                     
,,monthly4                              
,,march1 #aijj4          ,,the          
,,transplantation ,,of ,a ,,race4       
,,by ,n4 ,s4 ,,shaler1    ,,dean ,,of   
,,the ,,scientific ,,school ,,of        
,,harvard ,,university4      ,the       
experiments which have been             
intentionally or accidentally made in   
transplanting organic species from the  
countries in which they have  been      

developed to others of diverse soil1    
climate1 and inhabitants  are always of 
much interest to the naturalist--each of
 them affords  indications of some value
 as to the relations of species to what 
we term environment4 ,in almost all     
instances we find that the  transplanted
 forms undergo changes in consequence of
 the alteration  of their circumstances4
 ,it is true that certain of our        
domesticated  animals1 such as the      
horse1 the dog1 and most cattle1 follow 
men from  the ,arctic to the ,antarctic 
,circle1 and that sundry insect pests   
appear to demand nothing of ,nature save
 the presence of man2 yet1 as  a whole1 
the creatures we have turned to use1    
both plant and animal  alike1 have shown
 themselves incapable of accommodating  
themselves to  conditions of temperature
 differing much from those in which they
 were  developed4 ,with hardly an       
exception1 species or varieties which   
have  been developed in the tropics     
perish when called on to withstand the  

winter of higher latitudes4 ,few1       
indeed1 do well when taken to stations  
where the heat or the humidity differs  
greatly from that to which they  are    
accustomed4    ,the intolerance of      
organisms to climatal changes is nowhere
 more  evident than in the varieties1 or
 species1 as we would term them1 of     
mankind4 ,it is a well-attested fact    
that none of the tropical races  has    
ever of its own instance colonized in   
the temperate zones4 ,it  is also clear 
that none of the northern peoples have  
ever become  fully acclimated within the
 tropical realm4 ,the colonies which    
have  been founded there by the         
,teutonic folk1 including the ,english  
group  therein1 have been lamentable    
failures1 the pure-blooded strains dying
  out in a few generations4 ,the people 
of southern ,europe have been a  little 
more successful in the equatorial       
regions1 probably because  their blood  
has there to a great extent become      
mingled with that of  tropical origin4  

,these general conclusions concerning   
the climatal  limitations of man would  
be unassailable were it not for the     
history  of the negro in ,north         
,america4 ,in his case we have the one  
masterful  exception to the rule1       
otherwise good1 that creatures bred near
 the  equator can not endure boreal     
conditions4    ,the negroes who came to 
,north ,america had to undergo as       
complete a  transition as ever fell to  
the lot of man1 without the least chance
 to  undergo an acclimatizing process4  
,they were brought from the hottest     
part of the earth to the region where   
the winter's cold is of almost  arctic  
severity--from an exceedingly humid to a
 very dry air4 ,they  came to service   
under alien taskmasters1 strange to them
 in speech and  in purpose4 ,they had to
 betake themselves to unaccustomed food 
and to  clothing such as they had never 
worn before4 ,rarely could one of the   
creatures find about him a familiar face
 of friend1 parent1 or child1  or an    

object that recalled his past life to   
him4 ,it was an appalling  change4 ,only
 those who know how the negro cleaves to
 all the dear1  familiar things of life1
 how fond he is of warmth and           
friendliness1 can  conceive the physical
 and mental shock that this introduction
 to new  conditions meant to them4 ,to  
people of our own race it could have    
meant  death4 ,but these wonderful folk 
appear to have withstood the trials of  
their deportation in a marvelous way4   
,they showed no peculiar liability  to  
disease4 ,their longevity or period of  
usefulness was not diminished1  or their
 fecundity obviously impaired4 ,so far  
as ,i have been able to  learn1         
nostalgia was not a source of mortality1
 as it would have been  with any ,aryan 
population4 ,the price they brought in  
the market and the  satisfaction of     
their purchasers with their qualities   
shows that they  were from the first    
almost ideal laborers4 ,if we compare   
the ,algonkin  ,indian1 in appearance a 

sturdy fellow1 with these negroes1 we   
see of  what stuff the blacks are made4 
,a touch of housework and of honest toil
  took the breath of the aborigines     
away1 but these tropical exotics fell   
to their tasks and trials far better    
than the men of our own kind could  have
 done4    ,at their first coming1 or    
soon afterward1 the negroes were        
distributed  along the coast of our     
country from the ,carolinas to ,nova    
,scotia4  ,so far as ,i have been able  
to find1 there appears to have been no  
distinct difference in their tolerance  
of the climate in any part of  this     
varied district4 ,there are still       
negroes in the maritime provinces  who  
are said to be the descendants of those 
who came upon the ground  certainly more
 than a century ago4 ,they are good     
specimens of their  stock4 ,so1 too1    
along the ,new ,england coast and in    
,new ,york there is  a sufficient number
 of the progeny of those once held as   
slaves to  make it clear that the       

failure to become a considerable part of
 the  population in that district is not
 due to any incapacity to withstand  the
 climate4 ,the failure of the negro to  
increase in this field can be  accounted
 for in other ways--by the effects of   
race prejudice1 nowhere  stronger than  
in this part of the country1 and by the 
vice and misery  that overtake a        
despised lower class4    ,it early      
became evident that slavery was to be of
 no permanent  economic advantage to any
 part of the colonies within the        
glaciated  district1 say from central   
,new ,jersey northward4 ,in that portion
 of the  coastal belt the state of the  
surface and the character of the crops  
alike tended to make the ownership of   
slaves unprofitable4 ,the farms  were   
necessarily small4 ,they became in a    
natural way establishments  worked by   
the head of the house1 with the help of 
his children4 ,such  other help as was  
needed was1 in the course of two        
generations1  readily had from hired    

white men and women4 ,it was otherwise  
in the  tobacco-planting region to the  
southward4 ,the cultivation of that     
plant1 to meet the extraordinary demands
 that ,europe made for it1 gave  slavery
 its chance to become established in    
this country4 ,but for  that industry   
the institution would most likely have  
taken but slight  root1 and the         
territory as far south as ,north        
,carolina would have  been in social    
order not very different from           
,pennsylvania1 ,new ,york1  and the ,new
 ,england settlements4 ,but1 owing to   
some peculiar1 as yet  unrecognized1    
adjustments of climate and soil1 tobacco
 for pipes has  a quality when grown in 
the ,virginia district such as it has   
nowhere  else in the world1 and the     
world turned to smoking it with a       
disregard  for expense that made each   
laborer in the field worth some hundred 
dollars a year4 ,moreover1 the          
production of good tobacco requires     
much care1 which extends over about a   

year from the time the seed is  planted4
 ,some parts of the work demand a       
measure of judgment such as  intelligent
 negroes readily acquire4 ,they are     
indeed better fitted for  the task than 
white men1 for they are commonly more   
interested in their  tasks than whites  
of the laboring class4 ,the result was  
that before  the period of the          
,revolution slavery was firmly          
established in the  tobacco-planting    
colonies of ,maryland1 ,virginia1 and   
,north ,carolina4 ,it  was already the  
foundation of their only considerable   
industry4    ,although the production of
 tobacco had made slavery a great       
economical  success in the limited field
 where the best product was to be had1  
it  is doubtful if the institution would
 have attained to any widespread        
importance but for the development of   
another form of planting--that  of      
cotton4 ,thus1 in ,kentucky1 where the  
crops1 with the exception of  a coarse  
tobacco1 are the same as in the other   

,northern ,states of the  ,union1 the   
institution1 despite the long-continued 
scarcity of labor1  never attained any  
very great development4 ,the slaves were
 generally  used for household service1 
but to no great extent in the fields1   
and  in such employment only in the     
districts where the soil was of such    
great fertility that large quantities of
 grain were raised for export4  ,in one 
third of that ,commonwealth negroes     
were1 and remain to this day1  quite    
unknown4 ,the invention of the cotton   
gin ended all hope that  slavery might  
be limited to a part of the seacoast    
region1 for nearly  all of the lowland  
regions of the ,south1 as well as some  
of the upland  country north to the     
southern border of ,kentucky and        
,virginia1 are  admirably suited to that
 crop--producing1 indeed1 a better      
staple  than that of any other country4 
,this industry1 even more than that of  
raising tobacco1 called for abundant    
labor which could be absolutely         

commanded and severely tasked in the    
season of extreme heats4 ,for this  work
 the negro proved to be the only fit    
man1 for while the whites can  do this  
work they prefer other employment4 ,thus
 it came about that the  power of       
slavery in this country became rooted in
 its soil4 ,the facts  show that1 based 
on an ample foundation of experience1   
the judgment  of the ,southern people   
was to the effect that this creature of 
the  tropics was a better laborer in    
their fields than the men of their  own 
race4 ,much has been said about the     
dislike of the white man for  work in   
association with negroes4 ,the failure  
of the whites to have  a larger share in
 the agriculture of the ,south has been 
attributed  to this cause4 ,this seems  
to me clearly an error4 ,the dislike to 
the  association of races in labor is1  
in the slaveholding ,states1 less than  
in the ,north4 ,there can be no question
 that if the ,southern folk could  have 
made white laborers profitable they     

would have preferred to employ  them1   
for the reason that the plantations     
would have required less  fixed capital 
for their operation4 ,the fact was and  
is that the negro  is there a better    
laboring man in the field than the      
white4 ,under the  conditions he is more
 enduring1 more contented1 and more     
trustworthy  than the men of our own    
race4    ,the large development of the  
cotton industry in this country came    
after  the importation of negroes from  
,africa had ceased to be as completely  
unrestricted as it was at first4 ,the   
prohibition of the traffic came  indeed 
before the needs of laborers in the more
 ,southern and ,western  slave ,states  
had been met4 ,for a while there was    
some surreptitious  importation1 which  
in a small way continued down to the    
middle of  this century1 but this       
smuggling was quite insufficient to     
supply the  market of the new ,states   
with slaves4 ,the result was that the   
border  slaveholding ,states became to a

 considerable extent the breeding       
grounds for men and women who were to be
 at maturity exported to the  great     
plantations of ,alabama and             
,mississippi1 there to be herded by     
overseers in gangs of hundreds1 with no 
hope of ever returning to their         
kindred4 ,with this interdiction of the 
foreign slave trade the evils of  the   
former situation became magnified into  
horrors4 ,the folk who were  brought    
from ,africa came from a state of       
savagery to one of relative  comfort4   
,when once adjusted to their new        
conditions1 their lot was  on the whole 
greatly bettered4 ,but their            
descendants1 who had become  attached to
 the places where they were born with   
the peculiar affection  the better of   
them had for their homes1 being         
accustomed to masters who  on the whole 
were gentle1 were now to undergo a worse
 deportation than  that which made them 
slaves4 ,it is not too much to say that 
the deeper  evils of the system to the  

slaves themselves1 as well as to their  
masters1 began with this miserable slave
 trade that went on within the  limits  
of this country1 and was about at its   
height when the civil war  began4    ,it
 can not be denied that even in the best
 stages of slaveholding  there had been 
a good deal of commerce in slaves where 
the feelings of  these chattels were in 
no wise regarded4 ,still1 there was a   
prevailing  sentiment among all the     
slaveholders of the gentler sort that it
 was  in a way disgraceful to part      
families4 ,i distinctly recall1 when ,i 
was  a lad1 some years before the civil 
war1 my maternal grandfather often      
charged me to remember that ,i came of a
 people who had never bought or  sold a 
slave except to keep families together4 
,i know that this was a  common feeling 
among the better men of ,kentucky and   
,virginia1 and that  the practice of    
rearing negroes for the ,southern market
 filled them  with sorrow and           
indignation4 ,yet the change was the    

inevitable result  of the system and of 
the advancing commercialism which       
separated the  plantation life more and 
more from that of the owner's household4
 ,at  the time when the civil war began 
the institution of slavery was1 from    
the commercial point of view1 eminently 
successful4 ,notwithstanding  the       
occasional appearance of the spendthrift
 slave owner in ,northern  pleasure     
resorts or in ,europe1 the great        
plantations were generally  in charge of
 able business men1 who won a large     
interest on their  investments and who  
were developing the system of planting  
in a way  which1 though it appeared to  
those who were accustomed to close      
tillage as shiftless1 was really well   
adjusted to the conditions4  ,not one   
fourth of the land of the ,southern     
,states that was well  fitted for the   
work of slaves had been brought into    
use4 ,the blacks  who were carefully    
managed in all that regarded their      
health and  in their morals1 so far as  

might affect their breeding1 were in    
admirable physical condition1 and       
rapidly increasing in numbers4 ,it  is  
doubtful if ever a peasant class was so 
well cared for or so freed  from        
avoidable diseases4 ,the growing protest
 against the institution1  so far as it 
operated in the ,south1 was practically 
limited to the  border ,states1 mainly  
to ,kentucky1 where alone did a         
considerable  number of well-born men   
set themselves against it4 ,there is    
good reason  to believe that if the     
civil war had not occurred the end of   
the  nineteenth century would have seen 
a negro population in the ,south much   
more numerous than we now have there4   
,experience has shown that the          
,american cotton crop is little affected
 by foreign competition1 so that  it    
would have maintained the success of the
 institution4    ,although the system of
 slavery was by a chance of ,nature so  
firmly  planted on the cotton fields as 
to give it entire dominance in the      

,south1 and something like control of   
the ,federal ,union1 there was  one     
geographic condition that menaced its   
future1 and in the end did  much to     
insure its downfall in the events of the
 civil war1 and most  likely would have 
brought about its end even if the       
,confederacy had  been established4     
,this was the form and extent of the    
,appalachian  uplands between the       
,potomac and the ,ohio on the north and 
,alabama and  ,georgia in the ,south4   
,in this area of nearly one hundred and 
fifty  thousand square miles in extent  
the surface lies at an average height   
of some fifteen hundred feet above the  
sea2 the good arable land  is found     
mostly in narrow valleys suited only for
 household farms1  totally unfit for the
 systematic agriculture in which alone  
negroes  could be profitably employed as
 slaves4 ,into this area drifted the    
class of small farmers who by one chance
 and another had never been  able to    
enter or to maintain themselves in the  

aristocratic class of  slaveholders4    
,these mountaineers--they may better be 
termed the hill  people of the          
,south--were an eminently peculiar      
people4 ,they are not  to be compared   
with the poor white trash--i4e41 the    
downfallen and  dependent whites1 who   
were broken men in spirit1 scarce above 
the  slaves in quality4 ,these poor     
whites were often1 if not generally1    
either the weaker strains of the        
militant families or the descendants  of
 the people who had been imported into  
this country by the land  companies or  
sent out as peons4    ,partly because of
 their separation from the slaveholding 
class and  partly because of the        
circumstances of their origin1 the      
people of  the ,southern highlands      
formed a curiously separated class4     
,they  retained the quality of their    
,english stock1 as they had brought it  
with them--an independence1 a           
carelessness as to life1 and a humor for
  quarreling with those who were set    

above them whenever their liberties  or 
their license seemed to be threatened4  
,even their customs and  utensils held  
with curious adhesion to the usages of  
earlier centuries4  ,thus1 in #ahgh1 ,i 
found1 in a secluded valley of          
southwestern ,virginia1  men hunting    
squirrels and rabbits with the old      
,english short bow4  ,these were not the
 contrivances of boys or of to-day1 but 
were made  and strung and the arrows    
hefted in the ancient manner4 ,the men1 
one  of them old1 were admirably skilled
 in their use2 they assured me  that1   
like their fathers before them1 they had
 ever used the bow and  arrow for small 
game1 reserving the costly ammunition of
 the rifle for  deer and bear4 ,these   
hill folk were1 in a passive but        
obdurate manner1  opposed to slavery1   
and even more to negroes4 ,there are    
still many  counties in this district   
where a negro has never dwelt4 ,in some 
parts  of it ,i have had people gather  
from twenty miles away to stare at my   

black camp servants1 as the folk of     
central ,africa are said to do at a     
white man4    ,at the outbreak of the   
civil war the ,appalachian upland was   
still  thinly peopled2 it was1 however1 
fitted to maintain a population  of some
 millions4 ,if the ,confederacy had won 
its independence1 its  plantation       
districts1 with a relatively small      
voting population1 would  soon have had 
to settle an account with the people of 
the hills4 ,as it  was1 the existence of
 this folk in a great ridge of country  
extending  from the ,northern ,states to
 within two hundred miles of the ,gulf  
of  ,mexico was an element of weakness  
which went far to give success to the   
,federal arms4 ,it kept ,kentucky from  
seceding1 prevented the region of  ,west
 ,virginia from being of any value to   
the rebellion1 and weakened  its control
 in several other ,states4 ,in all1     
somewhere near one hundred  thousand    
recruits came to the ,federal army from 
this part of the ,south4  ,it is not    

improbable that to this folk we may     
attribute the failure of  the great     
revolt4 ,that they turned thus against  
the people of their own  ,states to cast
 in their lot with those who were       
strangers to them shows  their feelings 
toward the institution of slavery2 it   
indicated where  they would have stood  
if the ,confederacy had been            
established4    ,it is not easy to      
picture the condition of the negro      
population in  #ahfj4 ,there is a common
 notion that it was consciously and     
bitterly  suffering from its            
subjugation--ready to rise in arms      
against its  oppressors4 ,this view was 
indeed shared by the ,southern people1  
who  lived in chronic fear of           
insurrections4 ,the error of it arose   
from the  fallacious notion that the    
people of another race must feel and act
 as  we would under like circumstances4 
,the facts showed that the negro mind   
does not work in the fashion of our own4
 ,he had1 it is true1 suffered  from    

slavery1 but not as men of our race     
would have suffered4 ,against  its      
deprivations and such direct cruelty as 
he experienced1 not often  great1 he    
could set the simple comforts and small 
pleasures which are  so much to him4    
,that he was on the whole fairly        
contented with his  lot1 that his       
relations with his masters were on the  
whole friendly1  is shown by his        
remarkable conduct during and since the 
civil war4 ,if  the accepted account of 
the negro had been true1 if he had been 
for  generations groaning in servitude  
while he passionately longed for        
liberty1 the ,south should have flamed  
in insurrection at the first  touch of  
war4 ,we should have seen a repetition  
of the horrors of many a  servile       
insurrection4 ,it is a most notable fact
 that1 during the four  years of the    
great contention1 when the blacks had   
every opportunity  to rise1 there was no
 real mark of a disposition to turn upon
 their  masters4 ,on thousands of       

,southern farms the fighting men left   
their  women and children in the keeping
 of their slaves1 while they went  forth
 for a cause whose success meant that   
those slaves could never be  free4      
,that the negroes desired to be free is 
plain enough4 ,the fact that  they fled 
in such numbers to our camps shows this4
 ,their failure to  revolt must be taken
 as an indication that their relations  
with their  masters measured on their   
own instinctive standards were on the   
whole  affectionate4 ,they had the      
strength to have made an end of the war 
at a stroke4 ,they were brave enough for
 such action4 ,that they did  not take  
it after the manner of their kindred of 
,santo ,domingo is  the best possible   
testimony as to the generally           
sympathetic relation  which existed     
between master and slaves4 ,of this no  
better test can be  imagined than that  
which the final stages of the           
institution afforded4    ,in taking     
account of the history of the slave in  

this ,union it is  not amiss for me to  
bear testimony as to the spirit with    
which the  body of our slave owners met 
the singular obligations of their       
positions4 ,there were here and there   
base men who abused their trust  as     
masters--some1 indeed1 who never        
perceived its existence4 ,but  of the   
very many slave owners whom ,i can      
remember ,i can recall but  three who   
failed to recognize the burden that fate
 had put upon them  and to deal with it 
much as they dealt with the other cares 
of their  households--conscientiously   
and mercifully1 though often in the rude
  whacking way in which parents of old  
dealt with their children2 so far  as   
slavery was a household affair1 and even
 where the farm employed no  more hands 
than could be gathered in a house       
quarter1 the people were  commonly      
subject to an anxious scrutiny as       
regarded their moral and  religious     
training4 ,here and there1 especially   
when there were young  white men about1 

the result was the deplorable mixture of
 the races4  ,there is no question but  
that this was extensive1 though the     
amount  of it is exaggerated4 ,yet it   
was common enough to degrade the whites 
and to make of itself a sufficient      
reason for ending the institution1      
however profitable it might otherwise   
have been4 ,men of no race are  safely  
to be trusted with such power4 ,the     
social evil was the heaviest  part of   
the load which the high-minded slave    
owners had to bear4 ,it was  shared in  
even larger measure by his wife and     
daughters4 ,how heavy the  cross was can
 only be known to those who remember the
 conditions of  that unhappy time4      
,the result of the hopeless effort to   
keep the slaves in decent ways  and to  
prevent the pollution of their sons was 
to make nearly every  right-minded      
slaveholder at heart an abolitionist4   
,although the  men1 and even the women1 
who suffered most would have been       
disposed  to slay any one who suggested 

that they shared the opinions of the    
detested antislavery folk1 nearly every 
one in his heart reprobated  the        
institution and in his mind was         
revolving some scheme1 generally        
fanciful1 by which an end of it might be
 made4 ,they were in the unhappy        
position where overwhelming             
self-interest fought with their moral   
sense4 ,now and then some one of them   
passed the critical point and  entered  
into the fold of the accursed           
abolitionists2 but others1 after  the   
manner of average men1 paltered with the
 situation1 waiting for  fate to decide 
the matter4 ,in the meantime1 they      
strove as best they  could to lift these
 people to a higher estate4    ,in many 
ways the standard of care by which the  
conduct of a master  in relation to his 
slaves was judged was high4 ,he was     
expected to  clothe them in a fit       
manner1 keep them from the nocturnal    
wanderings1  termed running1 so common a
 trait in these children of the tropics1

  to see that they were decently        
married1 that they went to church in  a 
dutiful way1 and1 above all1 that they  
were not abused by other  whites1       
particularly by other slaveholders4 ,to 
strike or even to vilify  the slaves of 
another was a very serious thing4 ,the  
offended person  knew well that it was  
his part to make his complaint to the   
servant's  master4 ,where the negroes   
exceeded in number those needed for     
household  and personal service--there  
were often a dozen or two thus employed 
in families of no great wealth--there   
was a division between the  house people
 and the hands4 ,those in the former    
group were selected  folk1 often        
belonging to families that had been     
associated with those  of their masters 
for a century or more4 ,such servants   
had rights  that none could dispute4    
,not uncommonly their elders were the   
actual  rulers of the establishment4    
,these family slaves often received some
  little schooling1 even when the laws  

forbade that slaves should be  taught to
 read and write4 ,the children of the   
household servants were  allowed freely 
to play with those of their masters     
until the young  people were about      
twelve years old4 ,the boys of both     
often had their  rough-and-tumble games 
together until they were young men4 ,the
 field  laborers1 where the class was   
separate1 had less perfect connection   
with their masters4 ,they usually came  
to the family storeroom for  the daily  
issued rations1 which they received from
 the hands of the  mistress or the      
daughter of the house4 ,they were       
visited when sick1  and their complaints
 were heard4 ,they were free to all of  
the many  festivities of the holiday    
time4    ,it is impossible to conceive  
of a more effective schooling for the   
,african people than was given this     
adoption into the households1 and  often
 into the hearts1 of high-minded        
masters4 ,a like opportunity never      
before came and will never again come to

 so lowly a folk4 ,the effect  of this  
educative contact with the superior race
 is1 as before noted1  to be seen in the
 temper of the negroes during and after 
the civil  war4 ,upon the high-minded   
master the effect of the institution was
 in  many ways enlarging4 ,a man is     
morally what his cares have made him1   
and of these the dutiful slaveholder has
 more than an average share4  ,he grew  
in the power of command and in the habit
 of doing justice to  many              
fellow-beings4 ,he lived a large life4  
,the qualities bred of his  station have
 been of profit to his folk and time4   
,all this is true of  slavery of the    
domestic sort4 ,it is not so in like    
manner of the great  plantations which  
came with the development of the cotton 
and sugar  industries4 ,it was          
characteristic of the northern part of  
the ,south  until it began to be the    
place of supply for the rapidly         
developing  plantation district4    ,so 
long as the negro could look forward to 

life in the place and  with the people  
of his birth his simple1 careless nature
 opened to  him little to bring a sense 
of danger4 ,he was to live on until he  
passed in to the ,elysium of the        
hereafter1 of which he had no doubt     
whatever4 ,gradually there came1 in the 
overcrowding of the farms and  the      
diminishing fertility of the wasted     
land1 the need of reducing  the number  
of slaves4 ,then each year came the     
dreaded visits of the  trader1 who was  
like a visible angel of death1 to lead  
one or more  into the far unknown       
country4 ,before the plantation demand  
for slaves  began there were1 of course1
 sales of slaves1 but they commonly went
 as  families1 and not to places to them
 inconceivably remote4 ,these could     
hope for ,christmas reunions and other  
exchanges1 but when the negro  was sold 
,south the place and people that had    
known him would know him  no more4 ,my  
first impression of the iniquity of     
slavery came from the  anxious questions

 of negroes as to the danger of their   
being sold to  ,alabama1 that ,state    
being then the supposed destination of  
all those  who were out of favor4 ,they 
naturally strove to make interest with  
children whom they thought could        
successfully intercede for them4        
,there were several very diverse        
consequences arising from the           
exportation of slaves from the border   
,states to the far ,south4 ,it  shook   
the confidence of the negro as to his   
safety in all that was  dearest to him1 
and thus did much to degrade the        
relation between him  and his master4   
,it served1 cruel as it was1 to elevate 
the relatively  uncivilized blacks of   
the more ,southern districts1 where the 
newly  imported laborers were mostly    
accumulated4 ,it curiously operated to  
elevate the quality of the blacks in    
what was termed the slave-breeding      
,states1 those where the institution had
 longest been established4 ,this  was   
due to the selection of those of lower  

grade for the market4 ,as  it became    
necessary to part with slaves1 a choice 
was naturally made  of men and women who
 had least endeared themselves to the   
household4  ,save in rare cases1 the    
trader sought rather the lusty youths   
for their  brawn than the more delicate1
 refined house people4 ,moreover1 where 
a fellow had shown a tendency to any    
vice1 the choice fell on him4  ,in this 
way for two or three generations a      
weeding process went on1  with the      
result that the negroes who were left in
 the districts where  the work was done 
acquired a quality noticeably better    
than those on  the ,southern            
plantations4 ,the difference is almost  
that we would look  for between two     
distinct races4 ,the faces of the       
selected folk are  more intelligent1 the
 lines of their bodies finer1 their     
moral and  intellectual quality very    
much above those of their lower kindred4
 ,they  are at their best1 in very      
numerous instances1 as gentle as the    

elect  of our own race4    ,where1 as in
 the ,southern plantations1 the         
institution of slavery was  deliberately
 made the basis of large commercial     
interests1 the motives  were wholly     
different from whatever existed in the  
early and better  days1 when the slaves 
were appendages of a household4 ,even on
 the  largest tobacco plantations the   
numbers were not such as to exclude a   
share of contact with friendly whites4  
,but on the great properties of  the    
,south the negro was not to any extent  
subject to the influences  which had in 
the earlier stage of his apprenticeship 
done so much for  him4 ,worked in gangs 
that were counted by the hundreds1      
seeing no  whites except the overseers1 
they tended to lose what little culture 
they had gained4 ,their peculiar but    
perfectly intelligible speech  began a  
degradation into a puzzling jargon4     
,african superstitions1  little if any  
trace of which remained among their     
kindred in ,virginia  and ,kentucky1    

regained their hold4 ,marriage and a    
respect therefor1  which had been       
tolerably well affirmed1 tended to      
disappear4 ,all trace  of good thus     
vanished from the system4    ,although  
the great plantation1 of the            
,mississippi type1 was a  relatively    
novel feature in ,american slaveholding1
 it was evidently the  only largely     
profitable method of using slave labor4 
,in the household  system the care of   
the children1 the aged1 and the infirm1 
the  unbusinesslike management of the   
labor1 and the tendency to slipshod     
methods which with negroes can only be  
corrected by strict discipline1  made   
ordinary farming unremunerative4 ,it is 
evident that the profit1  other than    
that in mere money1 which the           
institution in the earlier  state had   
brought to master and slave was rapidly 
diminishing1 and that  any further      
maintenance of it would have been       
calamitous4 ,though we may  regret that 
it was ended by the civil war1 it is    

difficult to see any  other way in which
 it could have been terminated1 or any  
profit which  could have been gained by 
postponing the crisis4          ,,modern
 ,,city ,,roadways4    ,,by ,,nelson ,p4
 ,,lewis1    ,,engineer ,,of ,,highways1
 ,,borough ,,of ,,brooklyn4      ,one of
 the conspicuous results of cheapened   
transportation and the  facility with   
which the products of field1 forest1    
mine1 and factory  can be transferred to
 the consumer has been the rapid        
increase in  population of all our      
cities4 ,in #ahij over forty-five per   
cent of the  population of ,new ,york   
,state 7nearly six millions7 was        
concentrated in  four cities1 while it  
is estimated that the greater city of   
,new ,york  contains at present not less
 and probably more than fifty per cent  
of  the ,state's population4 ,nor is    
this tendency characteristic only of    
,american cities1 though the general    
impression seems to be that it is  more 
conspicuous with us4 ,in fact1 many     

,european cities 7notably those  of     
,germany7 have outstripped ours in      
growth4 ,in #ahgj ,berlin had about     
#aej1jjj less people than ,new ,york2 in
 #ahij it had over #gc1jjj more4 ,in    
#ahge ,hamburg exceeded ,boston in      
population by but #f1jjj1 while in #ahij
  the ,german city was more than        
#aba1jjj ahead4    ,meanwhile the rural 
population the world over has increased 
very  slowly1 or has positively         
decreased4 ,the massing together of     
large  numbers of people1 without proper
 regard to sanitary conditions1 has     
always resulted in great mortality1 as  
witness the terrible plagues  which have
 swept over the old cities of ,europe1  
and the disastrous  results during the  
summer of #ahih of concentrating large  
numbers of our  volunteers in camps not 
subjected to rigid sanitary regulations4
    ,it has been amply demonstrated1    
however1 that our cities can be made at 
least as healthful as the country       
districts1 and an increasingly large    

number of engineers are engaged in such 
city building4    ,one branch of this   
municipal work will be considered in    
this  paper--that of street improvement4
 ,the first impression gained by a      
stranger entering a city is undoubtedly 
that produced by the appearance  of its 
streets4 ,if they are poorly paved1     
irregular1 dirty1 and  generally        
unkempt1 he will consult his time table 
to see how soon  he can get away4 ,if   
they are broad1 smooth1 clean1 well     
shaded and  lighted1 he will stay as    
long as possible4    ,illustration3     
,,sections ,,of ,,roman ,,roads    ,in  
spite of the pride of the ,american     
people in the development of our        
cities1 and notwithstanding the fact    
that their wealth enables them  to have 
only the best1 they have been slow to   
appreciate the value of  thoroughly     
well-paved streets4 ,as stated by ,mr4  
,albert ,shaw1 ,european  cities have   
been ahead of us in accepting the       
doctrine that smooth and  clean highways

 are a wise investment from every point 
of view1 and that  so long as the work  
is done in a thorough and scientific    
manner the  result is worth having1     
regardless of cost4 ,no city should     
think itself  rich enough to prosper    
without them1 and no city is so poor    
that it can  not afford them if it has  
any reason whatever for continued       
existence4  ,good roadways are cheap at 
any cost1 and bad ones are so           
disastrously  expensive that only a very
 rich country1 like the ,united ,states1
 can  afford them4    ,space will not   
permit even a brief history of street   
paving1 or an  attempt to sketch its    
development1 but reference will be made 
to the  different kinds in general use1 
and the kind most in favor in various   
cities4 ,probably no one has introduced 
the subject of pavements without        
reference to the ,roman roads4    ,while
 ,carthage was probably the first city  
to boast of paved streets1  the ,romans 
soon followed its example1 and all over 

,europe1 ,asia1 and  ,africa1 as far as 
the domain of their emperors extended1  
they built  with the greatest care and  
at enormous expense that magnificent    
system  of roads which were often       
supposed1 in the middle ages1 to be of  
supernatural origin1 and remain the     
wonder of our modern civilization4      
,these roads were generally from four to
 six metres in width1 and were          
constructed in this way3 ,the roadbed   
was excavated2 in it was placed a  layer
 of stones1 which were sometimes united 
with mortar4 ,these stones  were such as
 were most available1 sometimes rounded 
stones similar to  the cobblestones with
 which we are familiar1 and in some     
cases in the  ,alps the foundation was a
 compact mass of angular stones1 two    
feet or  more in their longest          
dimension1 carefully fitted together4   
,illustration3 ,a ,,street ,,in         
,,pompeii1 ,,showing ,,old ,,roman      
,,pavement4    ,on this foundation was  
placed a layer of plaster made of stone 

or brick  pounded with mortar2 then a   
course of sand and lime or sand and     
clay1  leveled and pounded until very   
hard4 ,the top or wearing surface was   
made of irregular flat stones1 fitted   
together with nicety and united  with   
cement4 ,the total depth of these roads1
 or pavements1 as they can  properly be 
called1 was from three to 7in some      
cases7 seven feet4 ,it is  said that in 
the province of ,hispania alone 7,spain 
and ,portugal7 twenty  thousand miles of
 roads were built4    ,the first stone  
pavements to be laid in modern city     
streets were  those formed of stones in 
their natural condition1 variously known
 as  bowlders1 pebbles1 or cobblestones4
    ,the first attempt at a street      
pavement in this country was doubtless  
that referred to by ,mrs4 ,john ,king   
,van ,rensselaer1 in the ,goede ,vrouw  
of ,mana-na-ta1 where she says1 in      
speaking of what was once called        
,brower ,street1 because it passed by   
the great brewery built by one of  the  

first of the ,van ,cortlandts3 ,this    
street lies between ,whitehall  and     
,broad1 and was one of the first lanes  
laid out by the settlers1 and  was      
commonly known as ',the ,road4' ,in     
#afeg it was paved with small round     
cobblestones1 and the circumstance      
created such a sensation that the       
country people visited it as a          
curiosity1 and it was one of the sights 
of the little dorp4 ,the burghers       
laughingly nicknamed it ,stone ,street1 
which name it still retains4 ,the       
improvement was effected by ,madame ,van
  ,cortlandt1 as she could not endure   
the dust that filled her tidy house1    
caused by the heavy brewers' wains that 
were constantly passing her  door4      
,illustration3 ,a ,,street ,,in         
,,naples1 ,,showing ,,large ,,paving    
,,stones4    ,this cobblestone pavement1
 laid on ,stone ,street nearly two      
centuries  and a half ago1 has been a   
persistent type1 and1 on account of     
their availability and cheapness1 such  

stones continued to be used  in many    
cities until within a very few years4   
,when they were well  shaped and uniform
 in size they made quite a durable      
pavement1 and1  though rough and noisy1 
were capable1 when well laid1 of        
sustaining a  considerable traffic4     
,fortunately1 the better class of these 
stones  are now so scarce and the poorer
 ones are so execrable that this type   
of pavement is becoming obsolete1 though
 there are many miles for  which more   
civilized pavements are yet to be       
substituted1 two hundred  and           
thirty-eight miles of which are         
unfortunately in the ,borough of        
,brooklyn4 ,the next step in advance was
 the use of stone shaped to  uniform    
size1 or approximately so1 and with a   
more or less smooth  surface4 ,this is  
the pavement in most general use to-day1
 and for  permanency and1 consequently1 
cheapness can not be surpassed4 ,when   
first used1 these blocks were quite     
large1 and the size has been  decreased 

until the best stone pavements laid at  
the present time in  ,great ,britain are
 six-inch cubes1 or still smaller1 with 
a surface four  inches square and a     
depth of seven inches4    ,illustration3
 ,,cobblestone ,,pavement ,,on          
,,saratoga ,,avenue1 ,,brooklyn4    ,but
 stone pavement when most carefully laid
 and maintained is noisy and  unpleasant
 to ride over1 and in these days we can 
never reconcile such  a pavement with a 
handsome residence street4 ,the writer  
experienced a  distinct shock when on   
riding over ,euclid ,avenue1 in         
,cleveland1 last  year1 he found it     
still paved with ,medina sandstone      
blocks1 and it  seemed that this famous 
street was still living on the          
reputation which  ,bayard ,taylor gave  
it years ago as the handsomest street in
 the world4    ,in looking about for    
something more quiet and smooth than    
stone1 the  first material tried was    
wood4 ,in ,london the first wood        
pavement was  laid in the ,old ,bailey  

in #ahci1 and was soon followed by many 
others4  ,none of these pavements lasted
 more than seven years1 and1 as they    
cost  more than granite and were so     
short-lived1 a prejudice arose against  
them1 and as they wore out they were    
mostly replaced with granite4  ,since   
that time wood pavement has become      
popular again1 and a large  area is now 
covered with it4 ,the material most     
generally in use is  ,baltic fir1 though
 there is quite a large amount of       
,australian hard  wood which is more    
durable4 ,the people of ,london seem    
willing to bear  the greater expense and
 submit to the annoyance of more        
frequent  renewals for the sake of the  
quiet1 and wood is certainly the least  
noisy of all known pavements4    ,paris 
had at the close of #ahic more wood than
 asphalt1 the areas of  pavements of    
different kinds being as follows3       
,stone                #g1eda1beh sq4    
yds41 #ga4e per cent4    ,wood          
#hhf1bcf           #h4d        ,asphalt 

#djb1cid           #c4h        ,gravel  
or macadam    #a1gbd1fcb          #af4c 
,berlin also has some wood pavements1   
but asphalt seems more popular1  though 
by far the greatest area is still of    
stone pavements4    ,illustration3      
,,granite ,,pavement ,,on ,,roadway ,,of
 ,,brooklyn ,,bridge ,,after  ,,constant
 ,,use ,,with ,,very ,,heavy ,,traffic  
,,for ,,sixteen ,,years4    ,the most   
durable wood pavements are those made of
 the hard woods of  ,australia1 which   
are especially adapted to this purpose4 
,they are  mostly of the eucalyptus     
family1 the red gum1 blue gum1 black    
butt1  tallow-wood1 and mahogany4 ,mr4  
,george ,w4 ,bell1 in a pamphlet        
published  in #ahie1 gives some         
remarkable statistics as to the         
durability of  these pavements4 ,he     
cites the case of ,george ,street1 in   
,sydney1 which  sustains a very heavy   
traffic1 and on which a wooden-block    
pavement  had been in constant use for  
over ten years1 without repair of any   

kind4 ,the only piece of wood pavement  
of this class which has been  laid in   
this country1 to the writer's knowledge1
 is on ,twentieth  ,street1 between     
,broadway and ,fifth ,avenue1 in the    
,borough of ,manhattan1  where1 in      
#ahif1 the ,australian kari wood was    
laid4 ,the work was done  with the      
greatest care1 and the resulting        
pavement has proved quite  satisfactory4
 ,when ,fifth ,avenue was lately repaved
 the use of this  material was          
considered1 but1 on account of the      
popular prejudice  against all wood     
pavements and the delay which would be  
involved in  obtaining the blocks1 the  
idea was abandoned4    ,illustration3   
,,looking ,,north ,,from ,,beverly      
,,road ,,and ,,east ,,fifteenth         
,,street1 ,,brooklyn1 ,,in ,,march1     
#ahii4    ,illustration3 ,,looking      
,,north ,,from ,,beverly ,,road ,,and   
,,east ,,fifteenth  ,,street1           
,,brooklyn1 ,,in ,,october1 #ahii4      
,when wood pavements are spoken of in   

most of our cities1 the taxpayer        
pictures to himself the round cedar     
block so generally in use in  ,western  
cities4 ,these are used on account of   
their cheapness4 ,they are  usually laid
 on one or two courses of plank4 ,the   
blocks are round1  from four to eight   
inches in diameter and six inches in    
depth1 are  set as closely as possible  
to each other1 and the joints are filled
  with gravel1 after which they are     
usually poured full of pitch4 ,such a   
pavement1 when new1 is quite agreeable  
to ride over4 ,it soon1 however1        
becomes uneven2 the defective blocks    
quickly decay2 the surface not  being   
impervious to water1 the wet foundation 
under a pavement with so  little        
rigidity becomes soft1 and the mud or   
slime works its way up  between the     
blocks1 and the process of decomposition
 is expedited4 ,we  hear sometimes of   
the floating pavements of ,chicago4     
,these are such  cedar-block pavements  
which are said to rise with the floods  

of water  filling the roadways after    
heavy rainfalls1 and from specimens of  
the  pavement which may be seen in that 
city considerable sections must  have   
floated away4 ,the round block has      
nothing to recommend it but  its        
cheapness1 and this usually proves to be
 expensive economy4 ,in  ,galveston1    
,texas1 creosoted yellow pine blocks    
have been laid for some  years with     
general satisfaction4 ,they are laid    
directly on the fine  sand1 which is    
water-rammed so as to be very compact4  
,the surface is  formed with great care 
by a template to the exact grade and    
crown1 and  the joints are filled with  
similar fine sand4 ,in ,indianapolis    
creosoted  blocks have been laid for    
several years1 sixty thousand square    
yards  having been put down during the  
past season4 ,they are laid as closely  
as possible on a concrete foundation1   
with a sand cushion of one inch1  and   
the joints filled with paving cement1   
composed of ten per cent of  refined    

,trinidad asphalt and ninety per cent of
 coal-tar distillate1  after which the  
surface is covered with half an inch of 
clean coarse  sand or granite           
screenings4    ,illustration3 ,a ,,new  
,,cedar ,,block ,,pavement ,,in         
,,toronto4    ,improved wood pavements  
are a luxury4 ,they have many points of 
superiority over asphalt4 ,they are so  
considered in ,london1 where  their use 
is continued1 although they require     
renewal oftener than  asphalt1 and much 
more often than granite4 ,they will     
undoubtedly be  used more frequently in 
this country when the people are willing
 to pay  the additional cost for the    
quiet and freedom from dust and from the
  somewhat disagreeable glare of        
asphalt4    ,for a dozen years or more  
brick has been used for street pavements
  in the cities of the middle ,west4    
,the use of this material is by no      
means new4 ,it began in ,holland in the 
thirteenth century1 and in the          
seventeenth century the highway from    

,the ,hague to ,scheveningen was  paved 
with brick4 ,in ,amsterdam such         
pavements are said to last from ten  to 
twenty years1 or an average of fourteen 
years4 ,after about ten years  they are 
commonly turned over and relaid1 after  
which they will last  about four years  
more4 ,the size in common use is about  
the same as that  made in this country4 
,a good paving brick should be tough    
enough to withstand the wear to  which a
 street surface is subjected without    
chipping or cracking1 and  should not   
absorb more than from two to four per   
cent of its weight  of water after      
submersion for forty-eight hours4 ,it   
has not the  wearing qualities of       
granite1 although there is one block on 
,ninth  ,avenue1 in the ,borough of     
,manhattan1 which has been subjected to 
very  heavy traffic for eight years1 has
 had no repairs to speak of1 and  its   
condition to-day compares very favorably
 with almost any street  pavement of    
equal age which has been subjected to   

similar traffic4    ,illustration3 ,,an 
,,old ,,cedar ,,block ,,pavement4       
,another kind of street improvement     
which must be considered is macadam4    
,in small towns1 and some quite large   
cities1 most of the streets are         
improved in this way4 ,when well        
maintained and kept smooth1 but not too 
hard1 it forms a most agreeable surface 
for driving4 ,it should not1 in  the    
writer's judgment1 be classed as a      
pavement at all1 certainly not  as a    
permanent one1 and its use should be    
restricted to park drives  and          
boulevards 7for maintaining which       
liberal appropriations can be  secured71
 and to suburban roads1 where sewers and
 subsurface pipes have  not yet been    
laid1 and where temporary roads are     
required to furnish  convenient         
communication between centers of        
population1 and to assist  in developing
 these districts4    ,macadam has no    
place in a city street1 nor is it wise  
to lay it on the  entire width of a     

roadway4 ,it best serves its purpose    
when laid in a  comparatively narrow    
strip1 leaving the sides of the road    
unimproved1  except for the formation of
 earth gutters1 so that the surface     
water  can readily soak away where the  
soil is sufficiently porous4    ,macadam
 is the most expensive of all street    
surfaces to keep in  thoroughly good    
condition1 and in this country it is    
rarely1 if ever1  so maintained1 except 
in some of our park roads4    ,the      
pavement which is to-day1 more generally
 than any other1  superseding stone on  
all streets where the traffic is not    
excessive  nor the grades extreme1 is   
asphalt4 ,it is scarcely necessary to   
attempt  to give a history of the use of
 this material1 how its adaptability  to
 paving purposes was first discovered by
 the improved condition of  the roads   
over which it was hauled from the       
,french mines for use in  reservoir and 
tank linings1 etc4 ,the drippings from  
the carts were  observed to have been   

compacted by travel until a smooth1 hard
 roadway  resulted4 ,the first street to
 be paved with it was ,rue ,bergera1 in 
,paris1 in #ahed1 and it was so         
successful that in #aheh ,rue ,st4      
,honore  was similarly treated4 ,an     
asphalt pavement was laid in            
,threadneedle  ,street1 ,london1 in     
,may1 #ahfi1 and in ,cheapside and      
,poultry in the fall  of #ahgj1 while in
 ,berlin its use began in #ahgc4        
,illustration3 ,,eighteenth ,,avenue1   
,,brooklyn2 ,,macadamized ,,full ,,width
 ,,of  ,,roadway ,,and ,,gutters        
,,paved1 ,,with ,,no ,,provision ,,for  
,,surface ,,drainage4    ,the laying of 
bituminous pavements in this country    
began in #ahfi1 and  they were first    
made of tar concrete1 or ,scrimshaw4    
,asphalt began  to be used within the   
next year or two1 and its popularity has
 been  astonishing1 as will be seen from
 the fact that on ,january #a1 #ahih1   
the  area of this kind of pavement laid 
in the ,united ,states was1 as nearly   

as could be ascertained1 thirty million 
square yards4    ,there is a notable    
difference between the ,european and    
,american  asphalts4 ,the former may be 
called natural and the latter artificial
  pavements4 ,in the former the         
material1 as it comes from the mine1 is 
ground to a powder1 heated1 placed upon 
the foundation prepared for  it1 and    
tamped into approximately the same      
condition as before it  was disturbed1  
though usually the product of several   
mines is mixed  in order to obtain the  
best percentage of bitumen1 but nothing 
is  added to or taken from the          
bituminous rock4 ,in the pavement       
usually  laid in ,america1 on the other 
hand1 only a small proportion of the    
material is brought from the asphalt    
deposits1 the principal part of  it     
7sand7 being obtained near at hand4 ,in 
the one case the cost of  long ocean or 
rail transportation has to be paid on   
the entire mass  forming the pavement1  
while in the other this expense attaches

 to but  from twelve to fifteen per cent
 of the material4 ,this1 of course1 is a
  great advantage1 and at recent prices 
it is scarcely possible for the         
,european rock asphalts to compete with 
the artificial ones4    ,the making of a
 pavement from one of the standard      
asphalts may be  briefly described as   
follows3 ,the material as found in      
,nature has this  composition3          
,bitumen                          #ch4ad
 per cent4    ,organic matter1 not      
bitumen       #g4fc        ,mineral     
matter                   #bf4ch         
,water                            #bg4he
                                        
------                                  
#ajj4jj    ,this is cooked until the    
water has been driven off1 and some of  
the  mineral matter has settled4    ,the
 above analysis is of ,trinidad ,pitch  
,lake asphalt1 and is a  particularly   
favorable result4 ,this material is too 
hard for use in  making a pavement1 and 
it has to be softened or fluxed by the  

addition  of something which will       
accomplish this purpose4 ,in order to do
 this  there is usually added to each   
one hundred pounds of refined asphalt   
about eighteen pounds of heavy petroleum
 oil4 ,after this addition we  have the 
asphaltic cement ready to combine with  
mineral matter1 which  is so selected   
that when asphaltic cement is added at  
the rate of about  seventeen pounds of  
the cement to eighty-three pounds of the
 other  all the particles will be       
coated1 and more could not be added     
without  making the pavement too soft4  
,what is found to accomplish this best  
is  fine stone dust and sand4    ,the   
asphaltic cement and sand are heated    
separately to about #cjj ,f4  ,the stone
 dust is then added to and mixed with   
the hot sand in the  proportion of from 
five to eighty in the case of fine1     
well-graduated  sand1 to fifteen to     
sixty-seven for coarse sands1 having    
less variation  in size4 ,the asphaltic 
cement is then added1 and the materials 

are  mixed to a homogeneous mass1 which 
is ready to be taken to the street4  ,it
 should reach there at a temperature not
 less than #bej1 and is  spread with hot
 iron rakes so as to give usually a     
thickness of two  inches after          
consolidation4 ,after spreading1 it is  
rolled with a hand  roller1 after which 
a small amount of hydraulic cement is   
swept over  the surface1 and it is      
thoroughly rolled with a steam roller of
 not  less than ten tons1 the rolling to
 be continued as long as the roller     
makes any impression on the surface4    
,the foundation is usually of cement    
concrete about six inches thick1  though
 asphalt pavements are often laid over  
old stone pavements4  ,between the      
foundation and the wearing surface there
 is generally laid  what is called a    
binder course1 one inch thick and formed
 of small  broken stone1 to which has   
been added asphaltic cement1 the same as
 is  used in making the wearing surface4
 ,five or six pints of this cement  are 

used to each cubic foot of stone4       
,illustration3 ,,king',s ,,highway1     
,,brooklyn2 ,,sixteen ,,feet ,,in       
,,center ,,of ,,road  ,,macadamized4    
,the pavement just described is made    
from ,trinidad asphalt1 the material    
from which nearly all the earlier       
artificial asphalt pavements in this    
country were made1 and which was used   
almost exclusively until within  the    
last half dozen years4    ,within that  
time1 however1 it has been discovered   
that there are a  number of other       
deposits of asphalt well adapted to use 
for street  pavements4 ,a very large    
deposit containing a high percentage of 
bitumen  and very little mineral matter 
is located near the coast in the ,state 
of ,bermudez1 in ,venezuela4 ,large     
deposits have been found in several     
places in ,california1 and in ,utah1    
,kentucky1 and ,texas1 and a number  of 
other places4 ,the ,kentucky product is 
classed as a natural rock  asphalt1 as  
it is a sandstone impregnated with      

bitumen4 ,it has been  mixed with about 
an equal portion of ,german rock asphalt
 and used  with very satisfactory       
results in ,buffalo4 ,these asphalts are
 quite  different in their composition1 
and each requires somewhat different    
treatment4 ,the ,bermudez1 being richer 
in bitumen and softer1 requires  the    
addition of very little flux4 ,the      
,california deposits furnish their  own 
flux in a liquid asphalt or maltha1     
which is almost absolutely  pure        
bitumen1 and the use of petroleum       
residuum is thereby avoided  altogether4
    ,illustration3 ,,asphalt ,,pavement 
,,on ,,clinton ,,avenue1 ,,brooklyn4    
,it has been recognized since #ahcf that
 the bitumen which forms the  greater   
part of natural asphalts can be         
separated into two substances1  which   
have been commonly known as petrolene   
and asphaltene1 the former  of which    
possesses the cementitious qualities    
essential to the making  of a successful
 pavement4 ,instead of the arbitrary    

names--petrolene  and asphaltene--these 
substances are sometimes more aptly     
designated  as active and inert bitumen4
 ,it has been found that of the bitumen 
extracted from asphalts which have given
 the most satisfactory results  in      
making street pavements1 sixty-nine per 
cent or more is soluble in  petroleum   
naphtha having a specific gravity of #gb
 ,beaum4    ,an asphalt pavement can not
 be economically kept in good condition 
unless every defect which may develop is
 immediately repaired4 ,when  the       
smooth1 hard surface is once broken1    
disintegration proceeds very  rapidly1  
and a large hole is soon formed4 ,the   
more general distribution  of smooth    
pavements1 however1 will tend to        
distribute the traffic  more evenly1 and
 the increasing use of rubber tires and 
rubber shoes  for horses1 to say nothing
 of the probably quite general use of   
motor  vehicles1 within the next decade 
will result in the elimination of the   
forces at present most destructive to   

pavements4    ,much regret is often     
expressed that asphalt pavements should 
be so  frequently opened for the purpose
 of laying or obtaining access to       
subsurface pipes and conduits1 and      
thereby mutilated4 ,as a matter  of     
fact1 there is no pavement at present in
 use which can be so  effectively and   
satisfactorily restored as asphalt4     
,when skillfully  done1 almost no trace 
of such an opening can be found4    ,the
 first question to arise1 when it has   
been determined to pave a  street1 will 
be the selection of material1 or the    
kind of pavement to  be laid4 ,in       
determining this1 the governing         
considerations will be the  traffic to  
be sustained1 its density and character1
 the rate of grade1  and the presence or
 absence of railroad tracks4    ,if the 
traffic be very heavy and the street    
given up wholly to  business1 ease of   
traction1 durability1 and economy of    
maintenance are  of first importance1   
while quiet1 comfortable riding1 and    

beauty can  be sacrificed to them4 ,many
 efforts have been made to determine the
  relative force required to draw a load
 over different kinds of surface  under 
similar conditions4 ,the following is   
from a table compiled by  ,mr4 ,rudolph 
,hering1 from different authorities1 the
 force being that  necessary to move one
 ton on a level grade at a speed of     
three miles an  hour3      ,,kind ,,of  
,,road4                   ,pounds4      
,ordinary dirt road                #bbd 
,ordinary cobblestone              #adj 
,good cobblestone                   #ge 
,common macadam                     #fd 
,very hard1 smooth macadam          #df 
,good stone block                   #de 
,best stone block 7,london7          #cf
    ,asphalt                            
#ag    ,granite tramway             #ab 
to #ac    ,iron railway                 
#h to #aa    ,the question of durability
 occurs next1 and the different kinds of
  pavement which may be considered for  
city streets may be rated as  follows1  

it being assumed that the traffic is not
 excessively heavy3          ,,kind ,,of
 ,,pavement4         ,life in years4    
,best granite block on concrete      #cj
    ,granite block laid on sand         
#bj    ,belgian trap                    
#bj    ,cobblestone                     
#ah    ,asphalt                         
#ae    ,best wood--rectangular block    
#aj    ,vitrified brick                 
#ab    ,macadam                         
#h    ,cedar block--round--on sand      
#e    ,no class of municipal work comes 
so near to the daily life of an  urban  
population--both the business and the   
home life--as the surface  improvement  
of city streets1 and no expenditure is  
too great 7provided  the work is        
skillfully and honestly done7 to make   
them smooth1 clean1  sanitary1 and      
beautiful4          ,,typical           
,,criminals4    ,,by ,,samuel ,g4       
,,smith1 ,,ll4 ,d4      ,if the question
 of a criminal type1 defined by certain 
marks of a  physical nature and         

emphasized by accompanying mental and   
moral  characteristics1 were confined to
 the technical speculations of a        
special craft of scientists1 the public 
would have little interest in  the      
spread of the doctrines of ,cesare      
,lombroso and his confrres in  this     
country4 ,when it is believed1 however1 
that certain men and women  are         
committed to prison or condemned to     
death not on account of crimes  in any  
ethical sense1 but because of           
spontaneous actions from vicious        
impulses beyond their control1 the      
subject affects the administration  of  
law1 the theory of punishment1 and the  
safety of society4    ,lombroso and the 
,italian school say that they have      
discovered a  type of man who is born a 
criminal1 and who may be recognized by a
  ,mongolian face1 abnormal features1   
ill-shaped ears1 unsymmetrical  skull1  
and various psychical peculiarities1    
which are the result of  bad            
organization4 ,this doctrine is         

illustrated by descriptions of          
criminals who have the abnormalities1   
and in the hands of skillful  writers   
the case is made very plausible4 ,the   
theory is in harmony  with so much      
popular modern thought1 which loosely   
interprets the  doctrine of evolution by
 a crass materialism1 that it has       
infected  ,american prison literature1  
while it has never misled those men to  
whom  practical experience has given the
 most right to have an opinion on the   
subject4 ,the sense of personal         
responsibility is still the foundation  
of social order1 and if in truth there  
is no such thing1 the world is  awake at
 last from its dream of morality2       
righteousness is resolved  into         
heredity1 structure1 and habit2 living  
is a mere puppet show1 and  the wreck of
 things impends4 ,if ,lombroso is right1
 modern scientific  methods are sure to 
prove him so1 and we shall have at last 
sound  theories2 but we shall have no   
world in which they can be used1 for the

  dissolution predicted by ,herbert     
,spencer will have come4                
,illustration3 ,group #a1 ,no4 #a4      
,illustration3 ,group #a1 ,no4 #b4      
,illustration3 ,group #a1 ,no4 #c4      
,exceptional opportunities for the study
 of the abnormal classes in  the        
institutions of this country and ,europe
 have given me a personal  interest in  
the question of the criminal type4 ,i   
have discovered that  the criminal      
anthropologists do not choose for       
comparison with the  prison population  
their normal men from the ranks where   
the criminal  classes are recruited4    
,blackwell's ,island has no more        
peculiar  inmates than abound in        
sections of ,new ,york near the ,east   
,river2 the  residents of the           
,whitechapel district of ,london may be 
compared with  the inmates of           
,pentonville1 to the distinct credit of 
the latter2 and  the man in ,roquette is
 no worse off in body than scores whom  
,i have  seen in certain localities     

south of the ,seine4 ,the fact is1 no   
human  body exists which is not in some 
respects abnormal4 ,the number of       
abnormalities and their extent depend   
upon a variety of circumstances1  among 
which are food1 climate1 occupation1 and
 the incidents of birth  itself1 as well
 as the various forms of infantile      
disease4 ,i will  undertake to find     
enough physical peculiarities1 in any   
locality1 or  among the members of any  
profession1 to establish any physical   
theory  which may be propounded4        
,illustration3 ,group #b1 ,no4 #a       
7forger74    ,illustration3 ,group #b1  
,no4 #b4    ,illustration3 ,group #b1   
,no4 #c4    ,it occurred to me to try an
 experiment in a manner entirely        
different  from the usual criminal      
researches4 ,having been very familiar  
with a  certain prison for many years1  
,i requested the warden1 who is a very  
able man in his profession1 to send me  
the photographs of ten or a  dozen men  
whom he regarded as the most            

representative criminals in his         
population of some five hundred persons4
 ,the warden was not informed of  the   
use ,i intended to make of the material1
 and supposed it was for  illustration  
in university class work4 ,later1 he    
gave me the ,bertillon  measurements of 
the men1 with an epitome of their       
history4 ,a number of  these men ,i have
 known for years4 ,so far from this     
selection supporting  the modern theory 
of a criminal type1 it confutes it in a 
conspicuous  manner4 ,the abnormalities 
are slight1 and there is as great a     
diversity  among the men as could be    
asked4 ,it must be remembered that these
 cases  were selected by a shrewd and   
competent official1 solely upon their   
criminal record1 and not in the         
interests of any theory whatever4    ,of
 course1 the men do not look well1 but  
neither would any ordinary  company of  
citizens if their heads were shaved and 
they were put in  prison dress4 ,i am   
always shocked by the changed appearance

 of the men  after the prison           
transformation4 ,young embezzlers of    
elegant figure1  who have moved in good 
society without a question1 easily look 
the  rascal behind prison walls4    ,the
 first group are murderers4 ,no4 #a     
murdered his daughter because she       
insisted upon going to a party against  
his wishes4 ,he has the head of  a      
philosopher4 ,it was his first crime4   
,it may be noted that tattooing  is     
supposed to be common among criminals4  
,this man is tattooed1 but  committed no
 crime until fifty years of age1 and was
 a deputy sheriff  for some years4 ,no4 
#b did not kill his victim1 but the     
assault was  murderous1 and the escape  
from death was accidental4 ,it is       
difficult  to discuss the negro in crime
 without entering into racial and social
  questions beyond the present limits4  
,no4 #c has a very good head1 an        
excellent ear1 and1 barring the         
expression1 a pleasing face4 ,he has a  
life sentence for murder4 ,he is the    

worst man in the prison4 ,i have  for   
years believed him to be insane4 ,his   
family is criminal4 ,his  father        
murdered his mother in a brutal manner  
before the child's eyes1  when ,no4 #c  
was only eight years old4 ,he himself   
has committed several  desperate        
assaults1 growing out of his persistent 
mania of persecution4  ,no4 #c is not   
morally responsible1 and there are      
usually two or three  such prisoners out
 of a thousand subjects4    ,the second 
group are very diverse in structure and 
temperament1 but  have committed the    
same kind of crime4 ,no4 #a is a        
confidence man and a  forger4 ,he is a  
crafty and an habitual criminal1 has    
served terms in  various prisons1 is    
keen of intellect1 well educated1 has   
traveled in  many countries1 and is a   
citizen of the world4    ,no4 #b is a   
confirmed forger1 and has served several
 terms in prison  for the same offense4 
,he is a skillful bookkeeper1 has an    
attractive  manner1 and as soon as he is

 out in the world secures employment and
  plans his next crime4    ,no4 #c is a 
counterfeiter4 ,his head is small1 but  
of excellent shape1  and he has rather a
 refined physical organization4 ,his    
criminal record  is bad1 and he has     
served at least one term before for the 
same  offense4 ,his imagination1        
temperament1 and vices would select him 
as a  person who would be guilty of a   
very different and more fleshly kind  of
 crime4 ,the group is formed by the     
correlation of crime2 they have  nothing
 in common in physical organization4    
,illustration3 ,group #c1 ,no4 #a4      
,illustration3 ,group #c1 ,no4 #b4      
,illustration3 ,group #c1 ,no4 #c4      
,the third group are thieves4 ,no4 #a is
 a confirmed criminal1 and has  served  
several terms in prison4 ,he is the     
tallest man in the list4  ,his head is  
long and well formed1 and his features  
are regular4 ,his  expression indicates 
power of sustained thought1 and his     
peculiar  appearance is not due to his  

kind of crime1 but to his habit of      
mind4 ,he is a pessimist of the first   
rank1 and hates the world1 his          
fellow-men1 and perhaps himself most of 
all4 ,he will not work when at  liberty1
 thinks that society is totally         
depraved1 and that war upon it  is the  
only proper mission in life4 ,he is     
pre-eminently the antisocial  man4      
,no4 #b is really a pleasing fellow4 ,he
 is tender1 sympathetic1 and  pious4    
,under proper circumstances he might    
have made an admirable  ,sunday-school  
superintendent4 ,he is plausible1       
insinuating1 and  winning4 ,in          
temperament1 feeling1 and social habit  
he is the complete  antithesis to ,no4  
#a4 ,he is a most dangerous criminal1   
and has a black  and varied record4     
,no4 #c is a man of lower grade of      
organization and habit1 but he is a     
criminal by profession4 ,he is an idle  
and worthless vagabond1 but he  is an   
accomplished thief4 ,he makes an        
excellent prisoner1 obedient to  the    

rules1 industrious1 and seemingly       
anxious to improve4 ,in fact1 the       
prison furnishes his best environment1  
for it is only there that he is  at     
peace with himself and his world4       
,illustration3 ,contrasts1 ,no4 #a4     
,illustration3 ,contrasts1 ,no4 #b4     
,the last two men presented are         
contrasts4 ,no4 #a is an accidental     
criminal4 ,his previous history and     
character give strong grounds for  the  
belief that1 under pressure of want for 
the necessaries of life1  he was led    
astray by a man older and stronger than 
himself4 ,it is not  likely that he     
would repeat his fault4 ,no4 #b1 on the 
other hand1 is a  sexual pervert of the 
worst kind1 whose case seems so hopeless
 that  perpetual imprisonment is        
indicated as the only relief for him1   
and the  only safety for society4 ,apart
 from the expression of his eyes1 caused
  by an irregular focus1 there is       
nothing marked about the face4 ,the head
  is of a pronounced broad type1 but1 on

 the other hand1 he comes from  a       
province of ,germany where that type is 
dominant4    ,to complete the           
experiment1 ,i submitted these portraits
 to a number  of gentlemen1 and to no   
two of them at the same time1 for their 
opinions of the cases4 ,the informal    
committee represented the different     
professions which might be expected to  
fit men for observation1 for  there was 
a lawyer1 a physician1 a railway        
president1 a criminal judge1  and a     
college professor4 ,each of them is     
eminent in his special field4  ,the     
committee was manifestly handicapped by 
the shorn head1 the prison  dress1 and  
the lack of the accessories of masculine
 ornamentation1 such  as collars and    
cravats4 ,the committee was asked to    
name the crimes1  and to group the men  
according to their criminal record4     
,each opinion  differed from the other1 
and all were wide of the mark4 ,the     
shrewd  lawyer thought the accidental   
criminal might be guilty of anything4   

,it was only the college professor1 the 
last man of the company from  whom      
anything might properly be expected1 who
 was able to select the  worst two cases
 with the remark1 ,these men are        
degenerates4 ,but while  the committee  
was at work on the photographs the      
writer was at work on  the committee1   
and actually discovered more anomalies  
of organization  in these distinguished 
citizens than are apparent in the       
criminals4  ,after this remark it is    
necessary to withhold their names1      
though some  of them are men of national
 reputation4    ,it is time to reassert 
with increasing emphasis the personal   
responsibility of the individual1 and to
 insist upon the enthronement  and      
guidance of conscience4 ,there are      
certainly social and economic  reasons  
for crime1 some of which the writer has 
pointed out elsewhere1  but the chief   
fact in human life is the power of      
self-determination4  ,the chief causes  
of crime1 outside of personal and moral 

degradation1  are psychical and not     
physical4 ,the reader of history can not
 fail  to have noted that relation of   
prevalent ideas to conduct which is  so 
conspicuous in human affairs4 ,the      
scenes of blood and desolation          
characteristic of the ,french           
,revolution are directly traceable to   
the  doctrines which prepared the way   
for anarchy1 but not for rational       
freedom4    ,we have had our attention  
directed to the contagion of suicide    
which  has marked the last half decade4 
,but ,lecky tells us that suicide was   
made practically unknown in the         
civilized world by the spread of        
,christianity and its beliefs in the    
dignity and sanctity of man4 ,the       
present contagion will disappear not as 
the result of food1 or raiment1  or     
houses1 or any other material good1 but 
by a revival of practical  faith in the 
human soul and its capacity1 in human   
righteousness and  its obligation4      
,a ,,century ,,of ,,geology4    ,,by    

,,prof4 ,,joseph ,,le ,,conte4          
,concluded4    ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,the   
,,earth4      ,until almost the         
beginning of the present century the    
general belief in  all ,christian       
countries was that not only the earth   
and man1 but the  whole cosmos1 began to
 exist about six thousand to seven      
thousand years  ago2 furthermore1 that  
all was made at once without natural    
process1  and have remained             
substantially unchanged ever since4     
,this is the old  doctrine of the       
supernatural origin and substantial     
permanency of the  earth and its        
features4 ,among intelligent and        
especially scientific men  this         
doctrine1 even in the eighteenth        
century1 began to be questioned1        
although not publicly2 for in #agea     
,buffon was compelled by the ,sorbonne  
to retract certain views concerning the 
age of the earth1 published in  his     
,natural ,history in #agdi4a ,remnants  
of the old belief lingered  even into   

the early part of the present century1  
and may even yet be  found hiding away  
in some of the remote corners of        
civilized countries4  ,but with the     
birth of geology1 and especially through
 the work of  ,hutton in ,scotland1     
,cuvier in ,france1 and ,william ,smith 
in ,england1  the much greater--the     
inconceivably great--antiquity of the   
earth and  the origin of its present    
forms1 by gradual changes which are     
still  going on1 was generally          
acknowledged4 ,indeed1 as already said1 
this is  the fundamental idea of        
geology1 without which it could not     
exist as a  science4    ,geology has its
 own measures of time--in eras1 periods1
 epochs1  ages1 etc4--but it is natural 
and right that we should desire more    
accurate estimates by familiar          
standards4 ,how old1 then1 is the       
earth1 especially the inhabited earth1  
in years8 ,geologists have  attempted to
 answer this question by estimates based
 on the rates of  sedimentation and     

erosion1 or else on the rate of changes 
of organic  forms by struggle for life  
and survival of the fittest4 ,physicists
 have  attempted to answer the same     
question by calculations based on known 
laws of dissipation of energy in a      
cooling body1 such as the sun or the    
earth4 ,the results of the two methods  
differ widely4 ,the estimates of  the   
geologists are enormous1 and growing    
ever greater as the conditions  of the  
problem are better understood4 ,nothing 
less than several hundred  million years
 will serve his purpose4 ,the estimates 
of the physicists  are much more        
moderate1 and apparently growing less   
with each revision4  ,the latest results
 of ,king and ,kelvin give only twenty  
to thirty  millions4#b ,this the        
geologist declares is absurdly          
inadequate4 ,he can  not work freely in 
so narrow a space--he has not elbow     
room4    ,the subject is still discussed
 very earnestly1 but with little hope of
  definite conclusion4 ,one thing1      

however1 must be remarked4 ,both parties
  assume--the geologist tacitly1 the    
physicist avowedly--the nebular         
hypothesis of the origin of the solar   
system1 and therefore the early         
incandescent fluid condition of the     
earth as the basis of all his           
reasonings4 ,now1 while this is probably
 the most reasonable view1 it is  not so
 certain that it can be made the basis  
of complex mathematical  calculation4   
,there is a possible alternative        
theory--viz41 the meteoric              
theory--which is coming more and more   
into favor4 ,according to this  view1   
the planets may have been formed by     
aggregation of meteoric  swarms1 and the
 heat of the earth produced by the      
collision of the  meteors in the act of 
aggregation4 ,according to the one view 
7the  nebular71 the heat is all primal1 
and the earth has been only losing  heat
 all the time4 ,according to the other1 
the aggregation and the  heating are    
both gradual1 and may have continued    

even since the earth  was inhabited4    
,according to the one1 the spendthrift  
earth wasted  nearly all its energy     
before it became habitable or even a    
crust was  formed1 and therefore the    
habitable period must be comparatively  
short4  ,according to the other1 the    
cooling and the heating1 the expenditure
  and the income1 were going on at the  
same time1 and therefore the  process   
may have lasted much longer4    ,the    
subject is much too complex to be       
discussed here4 ,suffice it to  say that
 on this latter view not only the age of
 the earth1 but many  other fundamental 
problems of dynamical geology1 would    
have to be  recalculated4 ,the solution 
of these great questions must also be   
left  to the next century4 ,in the      
meantime we simply draw attention to two
  very recent papers on the             
subject--viz41 that of ,lord ,kelvin1#c 
and  criticism of the same by           
,chamberlin4#d      ,,antiquity ,,and   
,,origin ,,of ,,man4    ,even after the 

great antiquity of the earth and its    
origin and  development by a natural    
process were generally accepted1 still  
man  was believed1 even by the most     
competent geologists1 to have appeared  
only a few thousand years ago4 ,the     
change from this old view took  place in
 the last half of the present           
century--viz41 about #ahei--;and1       
coming almost simultaneously with the   
publication of ,darwin's ,origin of     
,species1 prepared the scientific mind  
for entertaining1 at least1 the  idea of
 man's origin by a natural process of   
evolution4    ,evidences of the work of 
man--flint implements1 associated with  
the  bones of extinct animals and       
therefore showing much greater age than 
usually accepted--had been reported from
 time to time1 notably those  found in  
the river ,somme by ,boucher de         
,perthes4 ,but the prejudice  against   
such antiquity was so strong that       
geologists with one accord1  and without
 examination1 pooh-poohed all such      

evidence as incredible4  ,it was ,sir   
,joseph ,prestwich who1 in #ahei1 first 
examined them  carefully1 and published 
the proofs that convinced the geological
 world  that early man was indeed       
contemporaneous with the extinct animals
 of  the ,quaternary period1 and that   
the time must have been many times      
greater than usually allowed4#e         
,since that time confirmatory evidence  
has accumulated1 and the earliest       
appearance of man has been pushed back  
first to the late glacial1 then  to the 
middle glacial1 and finally1 in ,mr4    
,prestwich's ,plateau ,gravels1  to the 
early glacial or possibly preglacial    
times4    ,still1 however1 in every case
 earliest man was unmistakably man4 ,no 
links connecting him with other         
anthropoids had been found4 ,very       
recently1 however1 have been found1 by  
,du ,bois1 in ,java1 the skull1  teeth1 
and thigh bone of what seems to be a    
veritable missing link1  named by the   
discoverer ,pithecanthropus erectus4    

,the only question  that seems to remain
 is whether it should be regarded as an 
ape  more manlike than any known ape1 or
 a man more apelike than any yet        
discovered4 ,the age of this creature   
was either latest ,pliocene or  earliest
 ,quaternary4      ,,breaks ,,in ,,the  
,,geological ,,record ,,and ,,their     
,,significance4    ,from the earliest   
times of geologic study there have been 
observed  unconformities of the strata  
and corresponding changes in the fossil 
contents4 ,some of these unconformities 
are local and the changes of  organic   
forms inconsiderable1 but sometimes they
 are of wider extent  and the changes of
 life system greater4 ,in some cases the
 unconformity  is universal or nearly   
so1 and in such cases we find a complete
  and apparently sudden change in the   
fossil contents4 ,it was these          
universal breaks that gave rise to the  
belief in the occurrence of  violent    
catastrophes and corresponding wholesale
 exterminations and  re-creations of    

faunas and floras4    ,it is evident1   
however1 on a little reflection1 that   
every such  unconformity indicates a    
land period at the place observed1 and  
therefore a time unrecorded in strata   
and fossils at that place--i4  e41 a    
lost interval--certain leaves missing   
from the book of time4 ,and  if the     
unconformity be widespread1 the lost    
interval is correspondingly  great4 ,it 
is therefore probable that change of    
species went on slowly  and uniformly   
all the time1 although not recorded at  
that place4  ,intermediate strata may be
 and often are found elsewhere1 and the 
supposed lost interval filled4 ,the     
record was continuous and the  changes  
uniform1 but the record is not all found
 in one place4 ,the  leaves of the book 
of ,time are scattered here and there1  
and it is the  duty of the geologist to 
gather and arrange them in proper order1
 so  that the record may read           
continuously4    ,this is the           
uniformitarian view1 and is undoubtedly 

far truer than  the catastrophic4 ,but  
the objection to it is that in the case 
of very  widespread unconformities1 such
 as occurred several times in the       
history of the earth1 the changes of    
organisms are so great that if the  rate
 of change was uniform the lost interval
 must have been equal to  all the rest  
of the history put together4 ,therefore 
we are compelled  to admit that in the  
history of the earth there have been    
periods of  comparative quiet 7not      
fixedness7 during which evolutionary    
changes  were slow and regular1 and     
periods of revolution during which the  
changes were much more rapid1 but not   
catastrophic4 ,this is exactly  what we 
ought to expect on the idea of gradual  
evolution of earth  forms by secular    
cooling1 for in the gradual contraction 
of the earth  there must come times of  
general readjustment of the crust to the
  shrinking nucleus4 ,these             
readjustments would cause great changes 
in  physical geography and climate1 and 

corresponding rapid changes in  organic 
forms4 ,in addition to this1 the changes
 in physical geography  and climate     
would cause extensive migrations of     
species1 and therefore  minglings of    
faunas and floras1 severer struggles of 
competing forms1  and more rapid advance
 in the steps of evolution4 ,among these
 changes  of organic forms there would  
arise and have arisen new dominant      
types1 and these1 in their turn1 would  
compel new adjustment of  relations and 
still further hasten the steps of       
evolution4 ,such  changes1 whether      
geographic1 or climatic1 or organic1    
would not  be simultaneous all over the 
earth1 but propagated from place to     
place1 until quiet was re-established   
and a new period of comparative         
stability and prosperity commenced4     
,this view is a complete reconciliation 
of catastrophism and  uniformitarianism1
 and is far more rational than either   
extreme4    ,critical ,periods in the   
,history of the ,earth4--,such periods  

of rapid  change may well be called     
critical periods or revolutions4 ,they  
are  marked by several characteristics3 
7#a7 ,by widespread oscillations of  the
 earth's crust1 and therefore by almost 
universal unconformities4  7#b7 ,by     
widespread changes of physical          
geography1 and therefore by  great      
changes in climate4 7#c7 ,by great and  
widespread changes in  organic forms1   
produced partly by the physical changes 
and partly by  the extensive migrations4
 7#d7 ,by the evolution of new dominant 
types1  which are also the cause of     
extensive changes in species4 7#e7      
,among the  physical changes occurring  
at these times is the formation of great
  mountain ranges4 ,the names of these  
critical periods or revolutions are     
often taken from the mountain range     
which form their most conspicuous       
features4    ,there have been at least  
four of these critical periods1 or      
periods of  greatest change3 7#a7 ,the  
pre-,cambrian or ,laurentide revolution2

 7#b7  the post-,paleozoic or           
,appalachian2 7#c7 the post-,cretaceous 
or ,rocky  ,mountain2 7#d7 the          
post-,tertiary or glacial revolution4   
,now1 as these critical periods separate
 the primary divisions of  time--the    
eras--it follows that the ,present--the 
,age of ,man--is an  era4 ,it may be    
called the ,psychozoic ,era4 ,these     
views have been  mainly advocated by the
 writer of this sketch1 but ,i believe  
that1 with  perhaps some modification in
 statement1 they would be accepted by   
most  geologists as a permanent         
acquisition of science4#f               
,,geological ,,climates4    ,attention  
was first drawn to this subject by the  
apparently unique  phenomena of the     
,glacial epoch4    ,for nearly a century
 past ,alpine glaciers1 their structure1
 their  mysterious motion1 and their    
characteristic erosive effects1 have    
excited the keenest interest of         
scientific men4 ,but until about #ahdj  
the interest was purely physical4 ,it   

was ,louis ,agassiz who first           
recognized ice as a great geological    
agent4 ,he had long been familiar  with 
the characteristic marks of glacial     
action1 and with the fact  that ,alpine 
glaciers were far more extensive        
formerly than now1 and  had1 moreover1  
conceived the idea of a ,glacial        
epoch--an ice age in  the history of the
 earth4 ,with this idea in his mind1 in 
#ahdj he  visited ,england1 and found   
the marks of glaciers all over the      
higher  regions of ,england and         
,scotland4 ,he boldly announced that the
 whole  of northern ,europe was once    
covered with a universal ice sheet4 ,a  
few  years later he came to the ,united 
,states1 and found the tracks of        
glaciers everywhere1 and again          
astonished the world by asserting that  
the whole northern part of the ,north   
,american continent was modeled  by a   
moving ice sheet4 ,this idea has been   
confirmed by all subsequent             
investigation1 especially here in       

,america4    ,but it would be strange1  
indeed1 if the cold of the ,glacial     
epoch  should be absolutely unique4     
,attention was soon called to similar   
marks  in rocks of other geological     
periods1 especially in the ,permian of  
the  southern hemisphere4 ,this opened  
up the general question of geological   
climates and their causes4    ,perhaps  
no subject connected with the physics of
 the earth is more  obscure and         
difficult than this4 ,the facts1 as far 
as we know them1  are briefly as        
follows3 7#a7 ,all the evidence we have 
point to a  high1 even an               
ultra-tropical1 climate in early        
geological times2  7#b7 all the evidence
 points to a uniform distribution of    
this early  high temperature1 so that   
the zonal arrangement of temperatures1  
such as characterizes present climates1 
did not then exist2 7#c7  temperature   
zones were apparently first introduced  
in the late ,mesozoic  7,cretaceous7 or 
early ,tertiary times1 and during the   

,tertiary the  colder zones were        
successively added1 until at the end    
there was formed  a polar ice-cap as    
now4    ,thus far all might be explained
 by progressive cooling of the earth    
and progressive clearing of the         
atmosphere of its excess ,,co#b and     
aqueous vapor4 ,but 7#d7 from time to   
time 7i4 e41 at critical periods7  there
 occurred great oscillations of         
temperature1 the last and probably  the 
greatest of these being the ,glacial    
period4 ,the cause of these  great      
oscillations of temperature1 and        
especially the cause of the  glacial    
climate1 is one of the most interesting 
and yet one of the  obscurest and       
therefore one of most hotly disputed    
points in geology4  ,indeed1 the subject
 has entered into the region of almost  
profitless  discussion4 ,we must wait   
for further light and for another       
century4  ,only one remark seems called 
for here4 ,it is in accordance with a   
true  scientific method that we should  

exhaust terrestrial causes before we    
resort to cosmical4 ,the most usual     
terrestrial cause invoked is the        
oscillation of the earth's crust4 ,but  
recently ,chamberlin1 in a most         
suggestive paper1#g has invoked         
oscillations in the composition of the  
atmosphere1 especially in its proportion
 of ,,co#b1 as the immediate  cause1    
although this in turn is due to         
oscillations of the earth's  crust4     
,,the ,,new ,,geology4    ,heretofore   
the geological history of the earth has 
been studied only  in the record of     
stratified rocks and their contained    
fossils4 ,but in  every place there have
 been land-periods in which1 of course1 
erosion  took the place of              
sedimentation4 ,this kind of record is  
very imperfect1  because there are no   
fossils4 ,until recently no account was 
taken of  these erosion-periods except  
as breaks of indefinite length in the   
record--as lost intervals4 ,but now1 and
 mainly through the work of  ,american  

geologists1 interpretation of these     
erosion-periods has fairly  commenced1  
and so important has this new departure 
in the study of  geology seemed to some 
that it has been hailed as a new era in 
geology1  connecting it more closely    
with geography4 ,heretofore former land 
periods were recognized by              
unconformities and the amount of time by
  the degree of change in the fossils1  
but now the amount of time is  estimated
 in existing land surfaces by           
topographic forms alone4  ,this idea was
 introduced into geology by ,major ,j4  
,w4 ,powell1 and has  been applied with 
success by ,william ,morris ,davis1 ,w4 
,j4 ,mc,gee1 and  others4    ,the       
principle is this3 ,land surface subject
 to erosion and standing  still is      
finally cut down to gently sweeping     
curves1 with low1 rounded  divides and  
broad1 shallow troughs4 ,such a surface 
is called by ,davis  a ,peneplain4 ,such
 a peneplain is characteristic of old   
topography4  ,if such a surface be again

 lifted to higher level1 the rivers     
again  dissect it by ravines1 which are 
deep and narrow in proportion to the    
amount and rate of the uplift4 ,if the  
land again remains steady1 the  sharply 
dissected surface is again slowly       
smoothed out to the gentle  curves of a 
peneplain4 ,if1 on the contrary1 the    
surface be depressed1  the rivers fill  
up the channels with sediment which1 on 
re-elevation1  is again dissected4 ,thus
 the whole ontogeny of land surfaces    
have  been studied out1 so that their   
age may be recognized at sight4         
,thus1 while heretofore the more recent 
movements of the crust were  supposed to
 be readable only on coast lines and by 
means of the old  sea strands1 now we   
read with equal ease the movements of   
the interior  by means of the           
physiognomy of the topography1 and      
especially the  structure of the river  
channels4 ,moreover1 while heretofore   
the history  of the earth was supposed  
to be recorded only in stratified rock  

and  their contained fossils1 now we    
find that recent history is recorded    
and may be read also in the general     
topography of the land surfaces4        
,geography is studied no longer as mere 
description of earth forms1 but  also as
 to the causes of these forms1 no longer
 as to present forms1  but also as to   
the history of their becoming4 ,thus    
geography1 by its  alliance with        
geology1 has become a truly scientific  
study1 and as  such is now introduced   
into the colleges and universities4 ,it 
is this  alliance with geology which has
 caused the dry bones of geographic     
facts to live4 ,it is this which has    
created a soul under the dry ribs  of   
this death4 ,this mode of study of the  
history of the earth has  just          
commenced4 ,how much will come of it is 
yet to be shown in the next  century4   
,in this connection it is interesting to
 trace the effect of environment  on    
geological reasonings in different      
countries4 ,heretofore1 especially  in  

,england1 what we have called peneplains
 were usually attributed to  marine     
denudation--i4 e41 to cutting back of a 
coast line by constant  action of the   
waves1 leaving behind a level submarine 
plateau1 which  is afterward raised     
above sea level and dissected by rivers4
 ,american  geologists1 on the contrary1
 are apt to regard such level surfaces  
as  the final result of arial           
degradation or a base level of rain and 
river erosion4 ,the same difference is  
seen in the interpretation of  glacial  
phenomena4 ,until recently1 ,english    
geologists were inclined  to attribute  
more to iceberg1 ,americans more to land
 ice4 ,again1 in  ,england coast scenery
 is apt to be attributed mainly to the  
ravages  of the sea1 while in ,america  
we attribute more to land erosion       
combined with subsidence of the coast   
line4 ,in a word1 in the tight  little  
sea-girt island of ,great ,britain1     
where the ravages of the  sea are yearly
 making such serious inroads upon the   

area of the  land1 it is natural that   
the power of the sea should strongly    
affect  the imagination and impress     
itself on geological theories1 and tend 
perhaps to exaggeration of sea agencies1
 while the broad features  of the       
,american continent and the evidences of
 prodigious erosion  in comparatively   
recent geological time tend to the      
exaggeration of  erosive agency of rain 
and rivers4 ,these two must be duly     
weighed and  each given its right       
proportion in the work of earth         
sculpture4      ,,paleontology4         
,paleontology at first attracted        
attention mainly by the new and strange 
life forms which it revealed4 ,it is the
 interest of a zological  garden4 ,this 
interest is of course perennial1 but can
 hardly be called  scientific4 ,geology 
at first was a kind of wonder book4     
,next fossils1 especially marine shells1
 were studied as characteristic  forms  
denoting strata of a particular age4    
,they were coins by which we  identify  

certain periods of history4 ,they were  
medals of creation4  ,it was in this way
 chiefly that ,william ,smith1 the      
founder of ,english  stratigraphic      
geology1 used them4 ,it was in this way 
that ,lyell and  all the older          
geologists1 until the advent of         
evolution1 were chiefly  interested in  
them4    ,it was ,cuvier1 the great     
zologist and comparative anatomist1 who1
 in  the beginning of the present       
century1 first studied fossils1         
especially  mammalian fossils1 from the 
zological point of view--i4 e41 as  to  
their affinities with existing animals4 
,cuvier's studies of the  vertebrates of
 the ,paris basin may be said to have   
laid the foundation  of scientific      
paleontology from this point of view4   
,thenceforward two views of paleontology
 and two modes of study  gradually      
differentiated from one another1 the one
 zological1 the  other geological4 ,in  
the one case we study fossils in        
taxonomic  groups--i4 e41 as species1   

genera1 families1 orders1 etc4--and     
trace  the gradual evolution of each of 
these from generalized forms to their   
specialized outcomes1 completing as far 
as possible the genetic chain  through  
all time4 ,in the other we study fossils
 in faunal groups1  as successive       
geological faunas1 and the geographic   
diversity in  each geological period--i4
 e41 the evolution of geologic faunas   
and  the causes of geographic diversity 
in each4 ,in a word1 we study the  laws 
of distribution of faunas in time       
geologically and in space               
geographically1 and the causes of these 
laws in each case4 ,the first  is       
strictly a branch of zology and botany1 
and we leave it to these  specialists4  
,the second alone belongs properly to   
geology4 ,in this  purely geologic      
paleontology1 as seen from its scope    
given above1 there  are many questions  
of widest philosophical interest which  
are only now  attracting the attention  
they deserve4 ,i only touch lightly two 

which  have been brought forward in     
these very last years of the century4   
,i4 ,,general ,,laws ,,of ,,faunal      
,,evolution4--,the evolution of the     
organic  kingdom from this strictly     
geological point of view may be briefly 
formulated as follows3    #a4           
,throughout all geological time there   
has been a general movement  upward and 
onward1 as it were abreast1 everywhere4 
,if this were all1  there would be only 
geological progress1 but no geographical
 diversity4  ,geological history would  
be the same everywhere4 ,a time horizon 
would  be easily determined by identity 
of fossil species4 ,this we know is not 
true4 ,therefore there are other        
elements besides this4    #b4 ,in       
different countries1 isolated from one  
another and under  different conditions1
 evolution takes different directions   
and  different rates1 producing         
geographical diversity in each          
geological  period4 ,this diversity     
increases with time as long as the      

isolation  continues4 ,if this were all1
 the geographical diversity by continued
  divergence would have become so great 
that it would be impossible even        
approximately to determine any          
geological horizon4 ,the history of each
  country must be studied for itself4 ,a
 general history of the earth  would be 
impossible4 ,but this also is not true4 
,there is therefore  still another      
element4    #c4 ,from time to time1 at  
long intervals--i4 e41 critical         
periods--there are widespread           
readjustments of the crust to internal  
strain1 determining changes of physical 
geography and of climate1  and therefore
 wide migrations of species with        
mingling and conflict  of faunas4 ,this 
would produce more rapid movement of    
evolution1 but  at the same time more or
 less complete obliteration of          
geographical  diversity4    #d4 ,after  
these periods of migrations and         
minglings there would be  re-isolations 
in new localities1 and the process of   

diversification  would recommence and   
increase as long as the isolation       
continues4    ,the last of these        
critical periods of migrations and      
minglings and  struggles for life among 
competing species was the ,glacial epoch
 or  ice age4 ,therefore the present    
geographical distribution of species was
  largely determined by the extensive   
migrations of that time4    ,,ii4       
,,cosmopolitan ,,and ,,provincial       
,,faunas4--,there are apparently in the 
history of the earth periods of         
widespread or cosmopolitan faunas1      
alternating with localized or provincial
 faunas4 ,the cosmopolitan  periods are 
usually times of prevalence of          
limestones or organic  sediments1 and   
the fossils are very abundant4 ,the     
provincial periods  are usually         
characterized by sandstones and shales  
or mechanical  sediments1 and are       
comparatively poor in fossils4          
,moreover1 it  is believed that the     
cosmopolitan limestone periods are      

oceanic  periods--i4 e41 periods of wide
 oceans and lower and smaller continents
  and little erosive activity1 while the
 sandstone periods1 characterized  by   
provincial faunas1 are periods of higher
 and larger continents1 and  therefore  
of great erosion and abundant mechanical
 sedimentation4    ,now1 according to   
,chamberlin1 these remarkable           
alternations are due  to oscillations of
 the crust1 in which the continents are 
alternately  lifted and depressed4 ,it  
must be remembered that abyssal faunas  
are almost unknown among fossils4 ,this 
is the necessary result of  substantial 
permanency of oceanic basins4 ,the whole
 geological record  is in shallow-water 
faunas4 ,these shallow waters are along 
continental  shore lines and in interior
 continental seas4 ,according to        
,chamberlin  again1 during a period of  
continental depression all the flat     
continental margins are submerged1      
forming broad submarine platforms1  and 
the lower interior portions of the      

continents are also submerged1  forming 
wide and shallow interior seas4 ,under  
these conditions  continental waste1 and
 therefore sand and clay sediments1 are 
reduced  to a minimum4 ,life1 animal and
 vegetal1 abounds1 and therefore much   
limestone is formed4 ,the oceans are    
widely connected with one another1  and 
therefore the faunas are widespread or  
cosmopolitan4 ,during the  period of    
elevation1 on the contrary1 the         
continents are extended to  the margin  
of the deep oceanic basins1 the broad1  
shallow submarine  platforms are        
abolished1 the interior seas are also   
abolished1 the  shallow-water areas are 
reduced to isolated bays1 and their     
faunas are  peculiar or provincial4     
,also1 elevated and enlarged continents 
give  rise to maximum erosion1 and      
therefore abundant sediments of         
sandstone  and clay1 and comparative    
poverty of life and therefore of        
limestone4  ,chamberlin also gives      
reasons why the oceanic periods should  

be warm1  humid1 equable in temperature1
 and the atmosphere highly charged  with
 ,,co#b1 and therefore highly favorable 
to abundant life1 both  vegetal and     
animal1 while land periods would be     
drier and cooler1 the  atmosphere       
deficient in ,,co#b1 and therefore cold 
from that cause and  in many ways       
unfavorable to abundant life4    ,these 
extremely interesting views1 however1   
must be regarded as still  on trial1 as 
a provisional hypothesis to be sifted1  
confirmed1 or  rejected1 or in any case 
modified1 in the next century4          
,lastly1 it is interesting to note the  
ever-increasing part taken by  ,american
 geologists in the advance of this      
science4 ,there has been  through the   
century a gradual movement of what might
 be called the  center of gravity of    
geological research westward1 until now1
 at its  end1 the most productive       
activity is here in ,america4 ,this is  
not due  to any superiority of ,american
 geologists1 but to the superiority of  

their opportunities4 ,dana has well said
 that ,america is the type  continent of
 the world4 ,all geological problems are
 expressed here  with a clearness and a 
simplicity not found elsewhere4 ,we must
 add to  this the comparative recency of
 geological study in this rich field4   
,in  ,europe the simpler and broader    
problems are already worked out1 and all
  that remain are difficult problems    
requiring much time4 ,in ,america1 on   
the contrary1 not only are all problems 
expressed in simpler terms1 but  many   
great and broad problems are still      
awaiting solution4 ,for these  reasons  
the greatest activity in research1 and  
the most rapid advance  during the next 
century1 will probably be here in       
,america4          ,,salamanders ,,and  
,,salamander ,,cats4    ,,by ,,norman   
,,robinson4      ,in many places in the 
extreme ,southern ,states1 especially in
 what is  locally known as the piney    
woods1 one of the most notable features 
is the constantly recurring mounds of   

yellow sand which everywhere dot  and1  
it must be confessed1 disfigure the     
monotonous landscape4 ,these  piles of  
earth are usually nearly circular in    
form1 fairly symmetrical  in contour1   
from six inches to two feet in diameter1
 and1 save where  they have been beaten 
down by rain or winds or the trampling  
of cattle1  about half as high as they  
are broad4 ,often these sand heaps are  
pretty evenly distributed1 sometimes so 
thickly as to cover at least  one fourth
 of the soil surface4 ,if you ask a     
native the cause of  this singular      
phenomenon1 which you will perhaps at   
first be disposed  to consider a kind of
 arenaceous eruption which has somehow  
broken  out on the face of ,nature1 your
 informant will sententiously reply1    
,salamanders6    ,all this disfigurement
 is indeed the work of a curious little 
rodent  popularly so named and about the
 size and color of an ordinary rat4  ,he
 is never seen above ground if he can   
possibly help it4 ,he digs  innumerable 

branching underground tunnels at depths 
varying from one to  six feet1 and these
 mounds of sand are simply the dump     
heaps which1  in his engineering        
operations1 he finds it necessary to    
make4    ,illustration3 ,,snap-,,shot   
,,view ,,of ,a ,,live ,,salamander4     
,after carrying the excavated earth to  
the surface this cautious little  miner 
takes the greatest pains to cover up his
 tracks4 ,no opening into  his burrow is
 left4 ,how he manages to so carefully  
smooth over his  little sand mound and  
then literally pull the hole in after   
him is  as yet unexplained4 ,the work is
 mostly done at night1 when observation 
is especially difficult4 ,sometimes1    
when he is a little belated and  the    
early morning twilight admonishes him   
that it is quitting time1  he gets in a 
hurry and slights his work4 ,then a     
little depression at  the top of the    
mound tells where he has made a hasty   
exit4 ,ordinarily  the rounding out of  
the sand pile is as deftly done as      

though it had  all been managed from    
above4 ,indeed1 the feat actually       
accomplished by  this little underground
 builder appears more puzzling the more 
it is  considered4 ,the most skilled    
human engineer would confess his        
inability  to thus pile up a mound of   
loose sand1 go down through it1 leave   
the top perfectly smoothed over1 and1   
with no supports save the sand  itself1 
to so fill up the passageway above him  
as he went down that not  the slightest 
mark should be left to indicate his     
pathway of retreat4    ,even if you dig 
into and under one of these sand mounds 
you will find  very little to betray the
 builder's whereabouts4 ,it is seemingly
 all  solid earth1 and unless you know  
exactly when and where and how to  dig  
you will probably give up the search in 
disgust1 with your labor  and your      
backache but no salamander hole for your
 pains4 ,indeed1  the cunning of this   
little rodent in hiding his burrow is   
quite as  conspicuous as his skill in   

digging it4 ,strategy is his strong     
point4 ,if by any chance you come upon  
his burrow it is probably an old        
abandoned one that is closed up and     
leads nowhere4 ,the chances are ten  to 
one that his real burrow is rods if not 
furlongs away4    ,provided you can find
 the last mound he has built and not    
more than  four or five hours have      
elapsed since its completion1 by digging
  diagonally to the right or left1 at   
the distance of a foot or so1 you  will 
have a fair chance of encountering his  
burrow4 ,he is probably near  by1       
resting from the severe labors of the   
previous night4 ,if you give  him time  
to get his nap out and finish his job1  
your wiser plan will be  to stop hunting
 and digging a little before you begin4 
,why this little underground dweller    
should be called salamander is  one of  
those mysteries of popular nomenclature 
which is seemingly  inexplicable4 ,there
 is certainly nothing in the habits or  
appearance of  the animal to suggest the

 fabled fireproof batrachian4 ,like some
 other  lovers of darkness1 he has quite
 a number of aliases by which in        
various portions of the ,south and ,west
 he is known4 ,gopher1 pouched  rat1    
hamster1 and muelos are some of the     
titles by which he is  locally known4   
,salamander appears to be the most      
generally accepted  one4    ,this       
enterprising little rodent belongs to an
 ancient if not honorable  family4 ,by  
naturalists he is generally known as    
pocket gopher1 and  is classed among the
 ,geomyid4 ,some fifteen known species  
have  been recognized1 with possibly    
more to hear from1 and with a habitat   
extending quite across the continent4   
,the ,florida species is probably       
,geomys tuza 7,ord471 and though not as 
large as one or two others1 is  quite   
the peer of any of his cousins in       
enterprise and ability to look  out for 
himself4    ,the illustration given is  
from what is probably the only          
photograph of  a living salamander ever 

taken4 ,mr4 ,geomys is not a model      
sitter4  ,no unwilling candidate for the
 rogues' gallery has more decided  views
 on the subject of having his picture   
taken4 ,in a general way1  it may be    
said that he doesn't pose for anybody4  
,precisely how this  prejudice was      
finally overcome it is needless to      
state4 ,perseverance  and snap shots    
were too much for our recalcitrant      
rodent4 ,in the  matter of looking      
pleasant it must be conceded that ,mr4  
,geomys was a  little intractable4      
,illustration3 ,,dump ,,heaps ,,of ,,the
 ,,salamander4    ,the fore legs and    
feet of the salamander are worth        
studying4 ,they  remind one somewhat of 
those of the mole1 but are more stoutly 
built1  with much longer claws1 and are 
evidently designed for harder tasks4    
,they are controlled by powerful        
brachial and pectoral muscles1 and1  as 
we shall see1 are not only special tools
 adapted to special and  difficult work1
 but work which requires an enormous    

expenditure of  physical force4    ,the 
engineering problems which this little  
troglodyte has to solve are  far and    
away ahead of any that the ,new ,york   
,rapid-,transit ,commission  has to deal
 with4 ,it is very much as though a     
single miner were placed  over in       
,hoboken1 a hundred feet below the      
surface1 with instructions to  tunnel   
under the ,hudson ,river with no tools  
except his hands1 without  a chance of  
seeing daylight until he reached it on  
the ,new ,york side1  and with the added
 conditions that all the excavated earth
 should be  carried out at the eastern  
opening of the tunnel1 and finally that 
he  should obliterate all marks of his  
work and1 as he retreated into his      
tunnel1 pack the exit shaft above him so
 tightly and so deftly that it  is      
impossible to trace its course6    ,how 
our little fur-coated engineer solves   
all these problems is as  yet a mystery4
 ,we only know that he does it4 ,he has 
a steam engine in  his shoulders and    

shovels for hands1 but his exact methods
 of using  them is as yet largely a     
matter of conjecture4 ,only two plans of
  operation would seem to be possible4  
,one would be for the salamander  to    
first carry the excavated earth all to  
the rear into some portion  of his      
already finished tunnel1 and finally1   
when the outward exit is  completed1 to 
carry it back again and deposit it on   
the surface4 ,this1  of course1 involves
 a double transfer of all the earth     
removed4 ,it is  more likely that the   
salamander first forces a narrow        
passageway  along the line of his future
 tunnel in a way similar to that pursued
  by the mole4 ,the latter animal has   
the advantage of working near  the      
surface1 and the earth always yields    
along the line of least  resistance1    
which of course is upward4 ,four or five
 feet down there  is no such line1 and  
the amount of force required to push the
 ground  aside must be something        
enormous4 ,when the salamander comes to 

the  upper air the work of excavation   
and enlargement begins4 ,he then piles  
upon the surface all the earth that he  
can not use in obliterating his  upward 
passageway4 ,as the writer has          
frequently observed fresh sand  mounds  
hundreds of feet from any others1 he is 
inclined to believe that  this is the   
real method pursued4    ,the exceeding  
care which the salamander takes to leave
 no opening  into his subterranean home 
arises1 no doubt1 from his horror of    
snakes4  ,in this respect no woman can  
surpass him4 ,his antipathies to        
reptiles  are probably the accumulated  
embodiment of hundreds of centuries of  
ancestral experience4 ,he is aware that 
these hereditary enemies of his  race   
are of a very investigating turn of     
mind1 and put in a good deal  of spare  
time when awake in crawling into and    
exploring any tempting  hole they may   
discover4 ,and so ,mr4 ,geomys1 like the
 sensible fellow  that he is1 not only  
takes good care to shut and lock his    

front gate  every time he is compelled  
to go through it1 but he blocks up the  
whole  passageway and does his best to  
convince trespassers that it is all a   
mistake to suppose that there ever has  
been any roadway leading to his         
underground home4    ,indeed1 it is by  
taking advantage of this morbid         
antipathy to intruders  and daylight    
that our little underground dweller is  
usually caught4 ,if  by skillful digging
 a recently formed burrow is reached1   
one may be  reasonably certain that in  
from five to ten minutes ,mr4           
,salamander  will be on hand to see what
 has happened and to repair damages4 ,a 
shotgun kept steadily aimed at the      
opening1 and with a quick pull on  the  
trigger the instant the slightest       
movement in the sand is seen1  fetches  
him every time4 ,another very successful
 method is to place  a strong trap right
 at the opening into his burrow4 ,in    
making repairs  our salamander is in too
 big a hurry to look very carefully     

where he  steps1 and so is quite likely 
to blunder into the trap4 ,he is always 
caught1 however1 by one of his legs1 and
 if left any length of time  is quite   
apt to gnaw off the captive limb and    
thus make his escape4  ,spartan bravery 
or love of freedom surpassing this would
 be hard to  find4    ,the food of      
,geomys bursarius appears to be         
exclusively vegetable4  ,native roots   
and root stocks1 cones and bulbs1       
together with the root  bark of various 
trees1 are eaten by him1 and sometimes  
in a very  annoying way4 ,orange trees  
are peculiarly liable to his attacks4   
,he  gnaws through and around the tap   
root as near to the surface as he can   
without disturbing it or in any way     
calling attention to his work1 and  not 
infrequently he continues his           
depredations until every root of any    
size is eaten off4 ,this1 of course1    
means the death of the tree4    ,from   
the salamander point of view1 however1  
the greatest food  bonanza of all is a  

sweet-potato patch4 ,a 'possum up a     
'simmon  tree or a pig in clover is not 
more alive to the delights and          
advantages of the situation4 ,he not    
only eats all he can stuff1 but  invites
 his relatives and friends4 ,nor is this
 all4 ,he has learned  that in autumn   
sweet potatoes are liable to suddenly   
disappear1 so he  takes time--and the   
potatoes--by the forelock1 and packs    
them away  in liberal measure in his    
burrow for winter use4 ,so well         
understood  are the ways and weaknesses 
of this underground marauder that any   
suspicious mound of earth in a          
sweet-potato field is the signal for an 
active campaign of extermination1 which 
ends only in the intruder's  flight or  
death4    ,the side pockets of the      
salamander have already been referred   
to4  ,they are undoubtedly a great      
convenience to their owner in carrying  
food and possibly other things4 ,the    
capacity of these cheek pouches is      
about sufficient to give room for a     

pigeon's egg4 ,they are1 however1  quite
 extensile1 and can readily be made to  
hold three or four times  this amount4  
,indeed1 the skin and underlying        
connective tissue are so  elastic that  
these pockets can readily be turned     
inside out4 ,it is  claimed that the    
salamander employs his handlike fore    
feet to fill  and empty these           
receptacles1 using the right foot for   
the left pouch1  and vice versa4 ,a     
gentleman in ,florida recently assured  
me that by a  lucky thrust of a spade he
 once killed one of these mischievous   
rodents  as he was in the very act of   
cutting off the roots of an orange tree4
  ,the cheek pouches of the culprit were
 filled with fragments of bark  which he
 had gnawed off1 doubtless to be stowed 
away in his burrow4    ,why1 in a       
climate where there is almost no winter1
 where there is  very little            
interruption to vegetable growth and the
 food supply  is practically unlimited1 
provisions should thus be stored away is

  somewhat difficult to explain4 ,it is 
not impossible that it is simply  the   
survival of an ancestral habit acquired 
during the ,glacial period4  ,or it may 
be that1 like the dog1 the salamander   
finds the flavor  of old and            
well-seasoned food more to his taste4   
,all that can be  positively affirmed is
 that this wise little rodent does1     
occasionally  at least1 thus cach his   
food supplies4    ,one of the most      
curious results of the existence and    
habits of this  elusive little burrowing
 rodent is the development of a new and 
peculiar breed of ,felis domestica1     
called salamander cats4 ,ordinary       
tabbys do not understand or admire the  
ways of ,geomys bursarius1  or1 for some
 other good and sufficient feline       
reason1 do not include  him in their    
game list4 ,the variety of cats in      
question1 which1 so  far as the author  
knows1 is confined to ,florida1 appears 
to have been  developed spontaneously   
and with very little if any human       

agency1 and  is noted for its special   
skill in catching salamanders1 as well  
as a  decided liking for the sport4 ,any
 ,mrs4 ,tabby of this breed1 especially 
if she has a family to provide for1 is  
up betimes in the morning4 ,the         
particular object of her pursuit is a   
remarkably early riser1 and  finishes   
his day's work before most people have  
begun theirs4 ,so if  there is a        
convenient fence around the grounds she 
proposes to hunt  she mounts it with the
 first peep of day1 and1 with a sharp   
eye to  landward1 starts on her tour of 
observation4 ,any fresh pile of sand  is
 closely scrutinized4 ,the slightest    
movement there brings her to  the mound 
with a spring1 and she is at once       
crouching behind it2 so  when ,mr4      
,geomys comes up in a big hurry with his
 next load of sand he  finds somebody to
 meet him that is in a bigger hurry     
still1 and so the  unsuspecting victim  
is borne off in triumph4    ,an         
estimable lady of the writer's          

acquaintance who owned one of these     
salamander cats1 with a single juvenile 
pussy to provide for1 kept  an accurate 
account of the number of these rodents  
which she saw this  industrious mother  
cat bring to her offspring in a single  
month4 ,the  number was thirty1 and as  
the month happened to be ,february this 
gave1  of course1 two more than a       
salamander a day4    ,one other curious 
observed feature of this new variety of 
cats is their  want of fecundity4 ,the  
mother tabby seldom has more than one   
kitten  at a birth4 ,the writer once    
owned a fine female of this breed that  
scrupulously adhered to the traditional 
habits of her race4    ,this particular 
pussy1 like the rest of us1 had her     
family troubles4  ,her one              
kitten--probably from its mixed         
parentage--was always inclined  to rebel
 at the salamander diet4 ,there was     
something amusing to a  degree and      
suggestively human in the old cat's     
methods of discipline4  ,when she had   

succeeded in catching a salamander she  
would always first  bring it and lay it 
down before her mistress1 to make sure  
of the  praise and the petting4 ,then1  
with a motherly meow1 she would call    
her kitten4 ,that frisky little         
youngster was always quite ready for his
  breakfast1 but showed a decided       
preference for the maternal font4  ,then
 the old cat would give him a cuff that 
would send him spinning4  ,then she     
would take up the salamander and put it 
down before her  hopeful offspring with 
an air that said as plainly as words    
could do3  ,there1 now6 ,eat that or go 
hungry6 ,then her mother love would get 
the  better of her and she would go to  
licking and petting her disobedient     
baby1 and it would usually end in the   
kitten's having its own way  and        
satisfying its hunger with milk from the
 original package4 ,by  persistence and 
the force of example the old cat finally
 succeeded in  accustoming her offspring
 to what she evidently thought the      

orthodox  diet of her race4    ,the     
writer is quite well aware of the       
intrinsic difficulties involved  in the 
spontaneous development of any new      
variety of cats4 ,still1 such  branching
 of types has occurred in the past1 and 
of course is possible  now4 ,when his   
attention was first called to the matter
 he was inclined  to consider it merely 
an instance of animal education4 ,a fact
 that came  under his personal          
observation seems1 however1 hard to     
reconcile with  this or any theory that 
does not concede the hereditary         
transmission of  acquired habits and    
tastes4    ,a kitten of the breed of    
cats in question was taken when very    
young and  reared nearly a mile away    
from its mother4 ,when grown it         
developed the  same skill in hunting    
salamanders1 and the same love for the  
sport as  that for which its mother was 
celebrated4    ,dogs1 of course1 have   
long been noted for the readiness with  
which  acquired knowledge1 habits1 and  

tastes manifest and perpetuate          
themselves in hereditary forms4 ,the    
setter1 pointer1 collie1 ,st4  ,bernard1
 and other well-known breeds will occur 
to everyone as  illustrating this       
psychic plasticity4 ,doubtless the cat  
brain is  somewhat less impressible1 but
 there would seem to be good reasons for
  including it among the educably       
variable types4          ,,what ,,makes 
,,the ,,trolley ,,car ,,go4    ,,by     
,,william ,,baxter1 ,,jr41 ,c4 ,e4      
,,iii4    ,,note4--,figs4 #bh and #cb   
are reproductions of photographs kindly 
furnished by the ,general ,electric     
,company1 while for the view of car1    
,fig4 #cj1 we are indebted to ,colonel  
,n4 ,h4 ,heft1 chief electrical         
engineer of the ,new ,york1 ,new ,haven1
 and ,hartford ,railroad4    ,although  
the electric railway has been introduced
 throughout the  civilized world with   
the most remarkable rapidity1 replacing 
cable as  well as horse roads1 there has
 always been a strong opposition to the 

use of the overhead trolley1 and in some
 places1 as1 for instance1 the  city of 
,new ,york1 this opposition has been so 
strong as to prevent the  introduction  
of the system until some other means of 
conveying the  current to the moving    
cars was devised4 ,many attempts have   
been made  to solve this problem1 and   
the patents taken out on such devices   
can  be numbered by the hundred and     
possibly by the thousand4 ,inventors  in
 this field1 however1 have not met with 
all the encouragement they  could       
desire1 owing to the fact that1         
notwithstanding opposition1 the         
overhead trolley has been permitted in  
all but about three or four of  the     
larger cities of this country1 and the  
greater portion of those  of other      
countries4 ,the principal well-founded  
objection that can be  raised against   
the trolley is that it is unsightly and 
destroys the  appearance of the street1 
but those who are opposed to it also    
claim  that it is dangerous1 and that   

underground or surface systems would not
  be4 ,as a matter of fact it is not    
dangerous1 and there is nothing on      
record to show that it is4 ,many persons
 have been run over by trolley  cars1   
but this is no fault of the overhead    
trolley2 it is due to the  fact that    
street railroads are permitted to run   
cars through crowded  streets at a speed
 that is too great for safety4          
,underground conduit  cars running at   
the same speed would run over just as   
many people4 ,in  accusing the trolley  
of being dangerous it is sought to prove
 that  the current flowing in the wire  
can do harm2 but the history of the     
numerous roads in existence shows that1 
so far as human beings are  concerned1  
the trolley current is not fatal1       
although it can give a  decidedly       
unpleasant shock1 such as one would not 
care to experience  the second time4    
,there is just as great1 if not greater1
 liability  of obtaining shocks from    
underground systems as from the trolley1

  therefore the only real gain that can 
be made by their use is in the  artistic
 sense4 ,from a financial point of view 
no underground system  so far devised   
can compare with the overhead trolley2  
but if any one  should devise anything  
hereafter that can be constructed at the
 same  expense and will not cost more   
for maintenance it will undoubtedly find
  an extensive application4 ,until such 
a perfect solution of the problem  makes
 its appearance the field for these     
devices will be confined to  cities like
 ,new ,york and ,washington1 where the  
overhead trolley is not  permitted4     
,every system of conductors that        
dispenses with the overhead wire is     
called by the layman an underground     
trolley1 but1 properly speaking1  these 
systems may be divided into surface and 
subsurface conductors4  ,both of these  
may again be divided into exposed and   
inclosed  conductors1 and also into     
continuous and sectional conductors4    
,finally1  we may designate the various 

modifications as mechanical1 electrical1
  and magnetic1 the mechanical being    
those that accomplish the result  by    
purely mechanical means1 the electrical 
being those that employ  electrical     
devices1 and the magnetic those that    
depend for their  action upon the       
attraction of magnets4 ,the principal   
difficulties  that the inventors in this
 field have to contend with are the cost
  of construction and the effective     
insulation of conductors4 ,with the     
overhead trolley the current flows out  
from the power house to the  cars       
through wires carried on poles1 and the 
poles are themselves good  insulators2  
but to make the work doubly sure the    
conductors are secured  to glass        
insulators1 which are practically       
perfect4 ,the current returns  to the   
power house through the ground and the  
track rails4 ,as it is  easier for the  
current to circulate in a short path    
than in a long  one1 there is a         
continual tendency for it to jump from  

the overhead  wire through the          
insulation to the ground1 but this is   
effectually  prevented by the very      
perfect character of the insulation4    
,when the  outgoing and incoming wires  
are both placed upon or underground the 
strain upon the insulation is very much 
increased1 for then instead of  the two 
lines being separated by fifteen or     
twenty feet of pole1 which  is a very   
fair insulator1 they are separated by   
only a few inches of  earth or perhaps  
metal1 the first of which is a fairly   
good conductor1  while the last is a    
nearly perfect one4 ,it is evident1     
therefore1 that  the insulation proper  
in an underground or surface system must
 be of  the highest order4 ,if the      
conduits in which the wires are located 
could be kept perfectly dry1 there would
 be no difficulty in obtaining          
insulation that would withstand the     
strain it is subjected to2 but rain  in 
summer and snow in winter will at times 
cover the tracks and fill  the conduits1

 hence the securing of perfect          
insulation presents great  difficulties4
 ,the manner in which inventors have    
sought to surmount  the obstacles can be
 made clear by the aid of a few         
illustrations of  typical designs4      
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#be4--,,underground ,,conduit ,,with    
,,protecting ,,shield ,,for  ,,the      
,,conductor4    ,fig4 #be shows one of  
the forms of a class of underground     
conduits  belonging to the inclosed     
conductor type4 ,the track rails are    
supported  upon the outer ends of large 
castings1 ,f ,f1 commonly called yokes4 
,these are made of such size that the   
portion below the opening which         
incloses the conduit may be of          
sufficient depth to afford the requisite
  strength to properly support the      
track4 ,the conductor that carries the  
current is located at f and is insulated
 from the casing j1 which  forms the    
lower half of the conduit1 by the stands
 g4 ,from the car a  bar1 ,p1 which is  

called a plow1 projects downward through
 the slot  between the rails1 k k1 and  
on its end is spread out into a fork1   
d1 which carries a pulley1 e4 ,when this
 pulley is in contact with  the         
conductor f the current passes through  
the plow ,p to the motors  upon the car1
 and thence to the track rails and back 
to the power house4    ,as the yokes ,f 
,f and the conduit casing j are made of 
iron and  are in metallic connection    
with the track rails1 it is evident that
  if the conduits should fill with water
 to the depth of the wire f  the current
 would pass directly to the rails1 and  
thus would avoid the  longer path       
through the motors4 ,to prevent this    
occurrence1 the sides  of the conduit   
are inclosed with the sheet-iron covers 
c c1 which  nominally are in the        
position shown by the dotted lines i i4 
,the  plow is also provided with the    
arms b b1 upon the ends of which are    
mounted small wheels a a1 and these run 
upon tracks attached to the  covers c c4

 ,as is shown in the figure1 the wheels 
a a1 running upon  the tracks attached  
to the covers c c1 cause the latter to  
spread  out to the position in which    
they are shown4 ,this spreading1 as can 
be  readily understood1 only takes place
 for a short distance ahead and  behind 
the plow1 but at all other parts of the 
conduit the sides assume  the position i
 i1 and thus close the conduit and      
exclude the water4    ,it can be easily 
seen that some difficulty would be      
encountered in  making a tight joint at 
h h1 and also that the opening and      
closing of  the sides might not operate 
as perfectly in practice as upon paper1 
but  it does not follow from these facts
 that the design is not practical2  it  
simply illustrates that there are many  
minor difficulties to be  overcome in   
order that complete success may be      
attained4 ,many designs  operating upon 
this principle have been patented1 and  
in some of them a  great amount of      
ingenuity is displayed4                 

,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#bf4--,,underground ,,conduit ,,with    
,,inclosed ,,conductor4    ,fig4 #bf    
illustrates another type of inclosed    
conductor which at a first  glance      
appears to be far superior to that just 
described1 but upon  closer             
investigation it is found to be not     
wholly free from objections  that are   
difficult to overcome4 ,the yoke ,f ,f1 
as in the design just  described1 is    
made wide enough to support upon its    
outer ends the track  rails ,r ,r1 and  
is cut away in the middle to an outline 
conforming  with the shape of the       
conduit4 ,the conductor that carries the
 current  is located at d1 being        
supported by the stands e4 ,an elastic  
tube  f is provided1 which is           
water-tight and thus excludes moisture  
from  its interior1 within which the    
conductor d is located4 ,on the top of  
tube f a flexible rail b is secured1 and
 this connects with studs  c1 which are 
within the tube1 as clearly shown in the

 drawing1 and so  situated that they may
 be forced down into contact with d4    
,normally  these studs are separated    
from d1 but when the car comes along1   
the  wheel a1 mounted upon the end of   
plow ,p1 flattens the tube f and  thus  
forces one or more of the studs c into  
contact with d4 ,the  distance between  
the studs c is such that at least two   
will always be  in contact with d1 thus 
insuring a continuous electrical        
connection  with the motors so long as  
the plow is depressed4    ,the first    
impression upon looking at this design  
would be that it is  entirely free from 
objections2 for if we assume that the   
tube f is  made of rubber1 we can see it
 in our mind's eye springing up after   
the plow passes by and thus separating  
the contacts c from d1 and  at the same 
time yielding freely to the pressure of 
the wheel a4  ,all of this is true1 but 
rubber is not very durable when under   
such  exposed conditions1 and to        
maintain a length of several miles of it

 in  a perfect state for even two or    
three years could not reasonably be     
expected2 and if it became necessary to 
renew the tube oftener than  this the   
cost of maintenance would be entirely   
too great4 ,there is  another objection1
 however1 which is more serious1 and    
that is that the  conduit will gradually
 fill up with dirt1 and this pressing   
against the  rubber tube would force it 
out of shape1 and thus cause the        
contacts  c to bear permanently upon d1 
or else to become so far displaced  that
 they would not touch it when depressed 
by the plow4    ,as the rubber tube can 
not be depended upon1 inventors have    
sought  to improve the construction by  
using sheet steel and making the  tube  
flatter and much wider1 so that a       
section of it would present  an outline 
much resembling an elliptic carriage    
spring4 ,such a  construction will meet 
the requirements as to strength and the 
retention of the contacts c in their    
proper position2 but steel  expands when

 warm and contracts when cooled1        
therefore a long tube  would be         
stretched so much in winter that it     
might pull apart1 while in  summer it   
would be compressed and tend to buckle  
up and thus be forced  out of place4    
,these difficulties can be overcome by  
providing expansion  joints at suitable 
intervals1 so that they are not         
necessarily proof  of the               
impracticability of devices based upon  
the principles involved  in this design2
 they simply serve to forcibly bring to 
mind the fact  that the path of the     
inventor of underground systems is not  
strewn with  roses1 no matter in what   
direction he may turn to find a solution
 of  the problem4    ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #bg4--,,underground ,,conduit    
,,with ,,exposed ,,conductors4    ,the  
object in the designs ,figs4 #be and #bf
 is to shield the conductor  so that it 
will remain dry should the conduit be   
filled or partially  filled with water4 
,if water could be excluded from the    

conduit1 the  casing j c c1 in the first
 figure1 and the tube f1 in the second  
one1 would not be required1 for there is
 no difficulty in providing an          
insulating support that will hold the   
conductor firmly in place and  at the   
same time prevent the escape of the     
current2 but as soon as  moisture       
collects upon the surfaces of the       
insulating supports it acts  as a       
conductor1 and thus renders the         
insulation of little value4 ,if  water  
runs into the conduit in such quantities
 as to come in contact  with the        
conductor1 then the effect of the       
insulation is entirely  destroyed2 the  
aim of the inventors1 therefore1 is to  
provide means for  preventing the       
accumulation of water or moisture around
 the conducting  wire4 ,it can be       
readily seen that the shorter the       
conductor the easier  it is to protect  
it1 and this fact has given rise to the 
development of  a great number of       
designs classified as sectional         

conductors4 ,in these1  two conductors  
are used1 one of which is continuous and
 so situated  and insulated that it can 
not under any conditions be reached by  
either  moisture or water4 ,the other   
conductor is made in lengths that vary  
all the way from fifteen to two or three
 hundred feet4 ,normally1 these  short  
sections are not connected with the     
circuit--they are dead1 as  it is       
called--but when the car comes along1   
the plow1 by acting upon  suitable      
mechanism1 establishes a connection     
between the continuous  conductor and   
the portion of the sectional conductor  
that is directly  under it1 and in this 
way the current passes to the car4 ,as  
soon  as the car passes beyond a section
 of the sectional conductor1 the        
connection between it and the continuous
 wire is broken automatically4  ,some of
 these arrangements depend upon         
mechanical devices1 such as  levers that
 are struck by the plow and thereby move
 a switch that  closes a connection     

between the section and the continuous  
conductor1  but in most instances the   
switch is operated by a magnet1 which   
may  be carried by the car or may be    
arranged so as to be energized as the   
car approaches it4 ,designs of this last
 type come under the head of            
electrically operated sectional         
conductor systems4 ,there are other     
arrangements in which a magnet carried  
by the car attracts iron levers         
suitably disposed along the conduit1 and
 these levers close switches  that      
connect the section of conductor under  
the car with the continuous  one4 ,as   
the levers are actuated by the magnet1  
they only hold the  switch closed while 
the latter passes over them2 thus the   
electrical  connection is made and      
broken as the car moves along4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,,view ,,of 
,,street ,,railway ,,lines ,,in         
,,washington  ,,operated ,,by           
,,underground ,,conductor ,,of ,,type   
,,shown ,,in ,,fig4 #bg4    ,most of the

 designs in which sectional conductors  
are used can be  placed much nearer to  
the surface of the street than the types
  illustrated in ,figs4 #be and #bf1 and
 this is a decided advantage1 as it     
greatly reduces the cost of             
construction4 ,any system that requires 
an  underground conduit1 with the yokes 
,f ,f to support the track1 can  only be
 used by roads upon which the traffic is
 very great1 for the  cost of           
construction would be such as to        
prohibit its use under any  other       
conditions1 no matter how successful its
 operation might be4 ,for  small roads  
with moderate traffic the question of   
first cost is of  paramount importance1 
and the only system that can offer a    
satisfactory  solution of the problem   
for these is one that does not require  
an  underground conduit4                
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#bi4--;,,cross-,,section ,,of ,,railway 
,,track ,,provided ,,with               
,,third-,,rail ,,conductor4    ,although

 many patents have been taken out for   
systems similar to  those described in  
the foregoing1 nothing has been done    
practically  with any of them except in 
an experimental way4 ,some are in       
operation  on small roads in            
out-of-the-way places1 being intended   
principally  to illustrate the          
practicability of the system and thus   
assist in  promoting its introduction   
elsewhere1 but the system that has been 
adopted in a commercial way is one in   
which no attempt is made to  shield the 
conductor from moisture and water1 and  
for its successful  operation dependence
 is placed entirely upon the proper     
drainage of  the conduit4 ,this system  
is well illustrated in ,fig4 #bg4 ,the  
plow ,p  carries upon its end two       
brushes1 b b1 which are insulated from  
each  other4 ,these brushes rub against 
the conductors a a1 which are made  of  
bars of channel iron and are well       
insulated from the yokes ,f ,f and  the 
conduit casing to which they are        

attached by means of the supports  c c4 
,in the construction shown in the figure
 the current comes  from the generator  
through one of the a bars and returns   
through  the other1 but both bars can be
 used to conduct the current from the   
generator1 in which case the return can 
be effected through the track  rails1   
just as in the designs already          
considered4 ,if both the bars a  a are  
used to convey the current from the     
power house the insulation  between the 
brushes b b is not required4 ,to avoid  
the accumulation  of water in the       
conduit the drain ,g is provided with   
outlets d1  located at suitable points4 
,although this system is the simplest   
that can be devised for use in  streets 
or public highways its construction is  
very costly1 so much so  that it can    
only be used in cities where the traffic
 is so great as to  require the running 
of cars on short headway2 and1          
furthermore1 it can  not be operated    
with any degree of success except in    

municipalities  where there is a good   
sewage system4 ,during the summer months
 it is  liable to be more or less       
impaired by heavy showers1 but the      
trouble in  such cases is only          
temporary4 ,in winter time snowstorms   
are liable to  affect it in the same    
way1 especially if1 after a heavy fall1 
a warm  wave comes along and produces a 
rapid thaw4    ,from the fact that no   
attempt whatever is made to protect the 
conductors1 one would naturally suppose 
that every time there is a rain  the    
road would be compelled to shut down2   
for1 as the slot through  which the plow
 travels is open1 water can enter the   
conduit with the  greatest freedom1 and1
 in trickling down the sides1 would be  
caught  to some extent upon the brackets
 c c1 and thus make its way over to  the
 channel bars a a1 and thereby destroy  
the insulation4 ,practice1  however1    
shows that this action does not take    
place1 at least not so  often as to     
produce any serious trouble4 ,the roads 

that are operated  by electricity in    
,new ,york1 and also the lines of the   
,capital ,traction  ,company1 of        
,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 employ this       
system1 and they have been  in operation
 a sufficient length of time to fully   
demonstrate that  the difficulties      
actually developed by the action of the 
elements are  not of a formidable       
character4 ,on one occasion the ,sixth  
,avenue road1  in ,new ,york1 was       
compelled to stop its cars for a short  
time just  after a severe snowstorm1 but
 the failure was not due to impairment  
of  the insulation1 according to the    
statements of the officials of the      
company1 but to the fact that the melted
 snow froze upon the track and  caused  
the wheels to slip around without       
sending the car ahead4 ,the  fact that  
other roads in ,new ,york1 belonging to 
the same company1 are  being equipped   
with the system1 is proof that1 upon the
 whole1 its  practical operation is     
regarded as satisfactory2 but it is very

 evident  that it is not the final      
solution of the problem4 ,a system to be
 a  decided success must cost very      
little more than the ordinary overhead  
trolley1 and its construction must be   
such that it will not easily get  out of
 order4 ,if it is not inexpensive it    
will not come into use except  in places
 where the authorities will not permit  
the overhead wires4  ,a surface or      
underground system ought to be more     
durable than the  overhead1 as the wires
 are not liable to be injured by high   
winds or  the accumulation of ice and   
snow2 and1 furthermore1 as the          
conductors  are below the ground the    
danger of burning out motors and        
generators  by lightning would be       
eliminated1 and this is a serious matter
 with  all trolley roads1 especially in 
cities4 ,country roads do not suffer  so
 much from lightning1 because when there
 is a heavy thunderstorm  the generators
 are stopped and the trolley poles are  
pulled away from  the wire1 the cars    

remaining stalled on the track until the
 storm  passes over4 ,this course can   
not be pursued by city roads1 for the   
passengers feel that1 lightning or no   
lightning1 they must reach their        
destination1 therefore the cars must    
continue to run and take their  chances4
 ,lightning1 however1 does not strike   
trolley lines as often in  cities as in 
the open country1 owing to the fact that
 there are so many  iron buildings and  
roofs to attract it in other directions4
    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,,view  
,,of ,a ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,new      
,,york1 ,,new ,,haven  ,,and ,,hartford 
,,railroad1 ,,equipped ,,with ,,the     
,,third-,,rail ,,system4    ,fig4 #bh   
shows the appearance of the street      
surface when an underground  system such
 as is illustrated in ,fig4 #bg is used4
 ,this figure is a  photograph of the   
,capital ,traction ,company's lines in  
,washington4  ,after looking at this    
picture one can not deny that the       
appearance  of the streets of a city is 

greatly improved when the overhead wires
  are removed1 but underground systems  
which require a plow to run in a  groove
 are not without objection1 for the     
groove forms a dangerous trap  into     
which the narrow-tired wheels of light  
wagons can readily drop1  and the toes  
and heels of horseshoes can be caught4  
,thus1 unless the  slot can be dispensed
 with the greater beauty overhead is    
obtained at  the expense of increased   
danger on the street surface4 ,there are
 quite  a number of underground         
conductor systems in which the slot is  
not  used1 the current being conveyed to
 the car by contact made with plates    
set at suitable intervals between or    
along the sides of the tracks1 and  on a
 level with the street surface4 ,many of
 these arrangements appear  to be quite 
practical1 but none of them can attract 
the attention of  railroad managers     
unless it can be constructed at a       
reasonable cost4    ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #ca4--;,,cross-,,section ,,of    

,,railway ,,track1 ,,showing ,a         
,,modification ,,of ,,the ,,third-,,rail
 ,,system4    ,about two years ago the  
,new ,york1 ,new ,haven1 and ,hartford  
,railroad  published a report of the    
performance of a branch line that was   
equipped with electric motors1 the      
current being conveyed to them by  means
 of a third rail4 ,some of the          
sensational dailies at once took  the   
matter up and heralded the third rail to
 the public as something  entirely new  
and sure to supersede the trolley4 ,now1
 as a matter of  fact1 the third rail is
 one of the oldest arrangements that    
have been  used1 and was in daily       
operation in ,baltimore in #ahhf4 ,it is
 a very  cheap system and well adapted  
to roads owning the right of way or     
running upon elevated tracks1 but could 
not be used on public highways  or      
streets4 ,the third-rail system in its  
simplest form is shown in  ,fig4 #bi1   
which represents a section through the  
roadbed4 ,the log ,a  represents a tie  

or sleeper1 and c c are the track rails1
 while b  is the third rail through     
which the current passes to the motors4 
,between the rail b and the tie ,a is   
placed a piece of insulating  material1 
a1 of such dimensions as may be         
necessary4 ,if the track is  high above 
the surrounding ground1 so as to not be 
submerged when there  is a heavy fall of
 rain1 a may be thin1 but otherwise it  
must be of  sufficient thickness to     
raise the rail above the high-water     
mark4 ,the  car is provided with a wheel
 or brush to bear upon the rail b4      
,this is the construction used upon the 
,new ,york1 ,new ,haven1 and  ,hartford 
,railroad1 as can be seen from ,fig4    
#cj1 which is a photograph  of a section
 of the road4 ,the third rail1 it will  
be seen1 is raised  but slightly from   
the ties1 just about as shown in ,fig4  
#bi4 ,one  objection to this            
construction is that persons and animals
 can receive  shocks by touching the    
center rail and one of the side ones at 

the same  time1 as1 for example1 by     
standing with one foot on each4 ,such   
shocks  would not prove fatal to men1 as
 the currents used for railway work  are
 not of a sufficiently high             
electro-motive force to produce death1  
but the shock is nevertheless very      
severe4 ,horses and cattle would be     
killed outright1 as these animals are   
not able to withstand as strong  a shock
 as human beings4 ,to render the        
third-rail system safer1 and  also to   
improve the insulation of the conducting
 rail1 the construction  illustrated in 
,fig4 #ca has been devised4 ,the only   
difference between  it and ,fig4 #bi is 
that the rail b1 instead of resting upon
 the ties  between the tracks1 is       
carried upon a side support c c and is  
housed  in with boards a a4 ,to take the
 current from it a wheel is mounted     
upon a shaft projecting from the side of
 the car truck4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #cb--;,,electric ,,locomotive ,,on     
,,the ,,buffalo ,,and ,,lockport        

,,railway4    ,from the foregoing brief 
description of the essential features of
 the  several systems devised for       
conveying current to the moving car by  
means of conductors placed underground  
or upon the surface1 it can  be seen    
that while the result can be            
accomplished in many ways1 and  is      
actually accomplished in a number of    
instances1 nothing has been  brought    
forward so far that is as free from     
objection as the simple  trolley1 if we 
disregard the unsightliness of the      
latter4 ,it is this  unsightliness that 
has created a demand for something else1
 but the  substitutes1 while capable of 
doing the work1 are far more costly and 
can not be said to be as reliable under 
all conditions of weather4    ,the      
sphere of action of the electric-railway
 motor is not confined to  street       
railways or suburban transit1 but       
extends to the legitimate  domain of the
 steam locomotive4 ,in many places      
electric locomotives are  used to move  

freight trains made up of cars of the   
largest capacity1  this same work having
 been done formerly by steam            
locomotives4 ,in  the city of           
,baltimore1 the ,baltimore and ,ohio    
,railroad uses electric  locomotives1 of
 greater capacity than any steam        
locomotives so far  made1 to draw trains
 through the tunnel that passes under   
the city4 ,the  general appearance of an
 electric locomotive can be judged from 
,fig4  #cb1 which shows an engine of    
average size at the head of a long      
freight  train4       ,,mm4 ,bertaux and
 ,g4 ,yver are quoted1 in ,la ,nature1  
as relating in   their travels in ,italy
 that between ,benevento and ,foggia1   
where the   railway passes through a    
tract of wheat fields1 a falcon was     
observed   closely accompanying the     
train4 ,he would graze the windows1 fly 
over   the roofs of the cars and turn1  
and keep constantly dashing down to     
the ground by the side of the track4 ,a 
habitual traveler on the road   remarked

 that he had observed this habit of the 
bird several times a   week4 ,the crafty
 hawk had observed that the eddy made by
 the train as   it rushed through the   
air overcame the small birds and made   
them an   easy prey1 and it had learned 
to take advantage of the fact4 ,it was  
also remarked that this particular      
train1 which was the fast train1   was  
the only one the bird thus pursued4     
,a ,,survival ,,of ,,medi,,val          
,,credulity4    ,,by ,,professor ,e4 ,p4
 ,,evans4      ,one of the crassest and 
most impudent and yet most successful   
frauds of  modern times is that recently
 practiced by ,leo ,taxil and his       
associates  on the papal hierarchy in   
their pretended exposures of the        
,freemasons  and the ,satanic rites     
performed by this secret fraternity4 ,on
 ,april  #bj1 #ahhd1 ,leo ,,xiii issued 
an encyclical letter in which he divides
 the  human race into two diverse and   
adverse classes 7in partes duas         
diversas adversasque73 the kingdom of   

,god on earth--namely1 the  true ,church
 of ,jesus ,christ--and the realm of    
,satan4 ,all who are  not members of the
 former belong to the latter1 so that   
there is no  alternative between being a
 good ,catholic or a worshiper of the   
devil4  ,his ,holiness then proceeds to 
show that the headquarters of ,satanism 
are the lodges of the ,freemasons1 a    
fact1 he adds1 fully recognized  by his 
predecessors1 who have never ceased to  
expose and denounce the  diabolical     
character and flagitious aims of these  
archenemies of the  ,christian faith4   
,the detailed description of the        
organization of this  order1 its        
devilish purposes1 and the horrible     
crimes committed in  order to accomplish
 them are very queer reading in an      
official document  emanating from an    
infallible ecclesiastical authority at  
the close of  the nineteenth century4   
,on ,august #bj1 #ahid1 ,leo ,,xiii     
published a decree  of the ,inquisition 
putting under ban ,odd ,fellows1 ,sons  

of ,temperance1  and ,knights of        
,pythias as synagogues of ,satan1 and   
excluding them  from the sacraments of  
the ,church4    ,it is no wonder that   
such an exhibition of credulity1 which  
excited  the astonishment of many a     
,romanist and made all intelligent and  
unprejudiced persons smile and shrug    
their shoulders1 should have  suggested 
to an arrant wag and incorrigible player
 of practical jokes  like ,leo ,taxil   
7pseudonym of ,gabriel ,jogand7 the idea
 of appealing to  this peculiar passion 
on a grand scale and seeing to what     
extent the  mother ,church could be led 
into fraud1 as ,milton says1 like ,eve1 
our credulous mother4 ,in tracing the   
development of this audacious  plot     
through all its stages and perceiving by
 what silly tales and  transparent      
deceptions the ,holy ,father permitted  
himself to be duped1  one can hardly    
refrain from exclaiming1 in the words of
 ,ben ,jonson3                  ,had you
 no quirk    ,to avoid gullage1 sir1 by 

such a creature8    ,leo ,taxil was born
 at ,marseilles on ,march #ba1 #ahed1   
and was therefore  thirty years of age  
when he entered upon this career of     
intrigue and  mystification4 ,from his  
childhood he had been educated in       
strictly  ,roman ,catholic schools1 and 
everything was done by his pious parents
  and teachers to render him sound in   
the faith4 ,long before arriving at     
man's estate he had thrown off these    
influences and cast in his lot  with    
unbelievers1 although he continued to go
 to mass1 confession1  and communion4   
,while a pupil in the ,catholic ,college
 of ,st4 ,louis1  at ,marseilles1 he was
 strongly attracted to the political    
views of  the radical party as set forth
 in ,rochefort's ,lanterne1 and soon    
began to write for the press2 in #ahga  
he joined the editorial staff  of       
,egalit1 and published for two years a  
humoristic journal--,la  ,marotte       
7,fool's ,bauble74 ,it is not necessary 
to give a detailed  sketch of this man's

 life4 ,suffice it to say that he was   
violently  anticlerical1 and was        
repeatedly fined and imprisoned for     
articles  insulting to the ,church and  
to ecclesiastical dignitaries4 ,on      
,december  #bi1 #ahha1 at ,montpellier1 
he was condemned to pay a fine of       
sixty-five  thousand francs for         
publishing a book entitled ,the ,secret 
,amours of  ,pius ,,ix4 ,he appealed    
from this decision1 and1 after repeated 
efforts1  succeeded in having the       
indictment quashed4 ,a new edition      
appeared in  #ahhe1 and was announced by
 large placards1 in the center of which 
was  a medallion of the ,pope's head1   
encircled with the heads of a bevy of   
beautiful women1 forming1 according to  
the author1 a fitting halo for  his     
,holiness4 ,we may add that the         
sensational revelations contained  in   
this book1 as well as in the ,scandalous
 ,history of the ,orlans and  similar   
works1 are for the most part mere       
figments of the imagination  recorded as

 facts1 for the purpose of mystifying a 
credulous public4 ,in  #ahhj he founded 
a ,society of ,freethinkers1 which1 with
 its numerous  branches1 numbered in a  
few years about seventeen thousand      
members4 ,the  remarkable success of    
this movement was due in a great measure
 to the  energy with which he advocated 
it in the columns of the ,rpublique     
,anti-,clericale1 of which he was the   
editor4    ,perhaps the most comical    
episode in his strange career is his    
pretended  repentance1 resulting in the 
return of this black sheep to the fold  
of  the ,catholic ,church4 ,in his      
,confessions the arrant renegade relates
  how1 on ,april #c1 #ahhe 7,april #ast 
would have been a more appropriate      
date71 while engaged in writing a book  
on ,joan of ,arc designed to  excite    
animosity against the clergy1 his fell  
purpose was suddenly  shaken by strong  
compunctions1 and soon a fearful        
agitation convulsed  his whole being4   
,his description of his contrition and  

self-reproaches  is quite sensational   
and thrilling1 and shows rare talent as 
an  actor1 if we only bear in mind that 
the whole thing was a farce4 ,i  burst  
into sobs4 ',pardon me1 ,o ,god6' ,i    
cried out in a voice choked  with tears4
 ',pardon my many blasphemies6 ,pardon  
all the evil ,i have  wrought6' ,i      
passed the night in prayer1 and resolved
 on the next day  to seek absolution for
 my sins4 ,he retired from the          
editorship of  the ,rpublique           
,anti-,clericale1 and handed in his     
resignation at a  meeting of the        
,anti-,clerical ,league1 of which he was
 the founder  and hitherto the most     
active member1 when he had the          
satisfaction of  being denounced by the 
presiding officer as a comedian and     
scoundrel4  ,no one of his former       
colleagues believed in his sincerity1   
and yet  every one was puzzled to       
understand the strategic purpose of this
  retrograde movement4 ,the general     
impression was that he had been  bribed4

 ,you can't fool us by your abjuration6 
they exclaimed4 ,the  fact is1 you have 
received a large sum of money from the  
,vatican4 ,he  does not seem to have    
attempted to refute these charges1 nor  
did he  permit them to divert him from  
the execution of his deep-laid plot4    
,with hypocritical humility1 he made    
full confession to the papal  nuncio in 
,paris1 ,monsignore ,di ,rende1 who1    
after subjecting him to  several days'  
penance1 embraced him with joy and      
released him from all  excommunications 
and ecclesiastical censures4    ,taxil  
now began to issue his ,complete        
,revelations concerning  ,freemasonry1  
in four volumes1 the ostensible object  
of which was to  expose the secret and  
sacrilegious rites of this order as an  
organized  system of devil-worship1 thus
 confirming by the testimony of an      
eyewitness the assertions of the ,popes1
 and proving that their decrees  and    
decisions on this point had been bulls  
in the ecclesiastical and  not in the   

,irish sense of the term4 ,this work1   
although a mere tissue  of fabrications1
 was greeted by the ,catholic press and 
priesthood  with exultation1 as an      
authentic narration containing positive 
and  irrefutable proofs of the diabolic 
character of the ,masonic mysteries4    
,the members of this fraternity1 says   
,taxil1 regard the ,god of the          
,catholics as an evil principle--a      
crafty1 jealous1 and cruel genius1  a   
supernal tyrant1 and archenemy of human 
happiness4 ,opposed to him  is ,lucifer1
 the good genius1 the perennial source  
of virtue and  wisdom1 the spirit of    
freedom1 and the friend of mankind4 ,for
 this  reason1 in the high-grade lodges 
,lucifer1 the reputed father of ,cain1  
,canaan1 and ,hiram1 is adored1 under   
different names indicative of the       
,supreme ,being1 as the ,god of ,nature1
 and the great architect of the         
universe4 ,in short1 while modern       
freethinking is atheistic and begets  a 
skepticism which1 even when not denying 

,god1 does not care for him1            
,freemasonry is essentially a ,satanic  
cult4 ,these words give the sum  and    
substance of the supposititious         
disclosures which excited such  intense 
joy in the clerical camp4 ,in #ahhg1    
when ,taxil was received  in solemn     
audience by ,leo ,,xiii1 ,my son1 asked 
the ,pope1 what dost  thou desire8 ,holy
 ,father1 to die this moment at thy feet
 were for  me the highest bliss1 replied
 the kneeling penitent4 ,not so1 was    
the benignant response of the successor 
of ,st4 ,peter2 thy life is  still very 
useful in combats for the faith4 ,his   
,holiness then pointed  to ,taxil's     
writings on the shelves of his library1 
declaring that he  had read them all    
through with extreme satisfaction1 and  
encouraged  him to continue his         
exposures of these satellites of ,satan 
and their  abominations4 ,taxil left the
 ,vatican with the papal benediction and
  with the firm conviction that he could
 devise no better means of  currying    

favor with the ,apostolic ,see than by  
inventing tales about the  homage paid  
by the ,freemasons to the devil1 and    
determined to work this  rich vein to   
its utmost capacity4 ,he also came to   
the conclusion that  he could imagine   
nothing so absurd that it would not be  
received in  ,catholic circles as       
authentic and indorsed by infallible    
authority4    ,his work had an immense  
pecuniary success1 and thus attained the
  chief object which he had in view4    
,more than one hundred thousand  copies 
of the original ,french edition were    
sold1 and it was translated  into       
,english1 ,german1 ,italian1 and        
,spanish4 ,this result is not so        
surprising1 if we remember that nearly  
all the bishops and other clergy  of the
 ,catholic ,church acted as voluntary   
and extremely zealous agents  for the   
diffusion of these ,revelations1 which  
they seemed to regard  as a new         
apocalypse designed to unveil the       
mysteries of ,babylon and  disclose the 

present doings of ,satan and dominion of
 antichrist4 ,of the  utterly apocryphal
 character of the ,revelations they do  
not appear to  have entertained the     
slightest suspicion1 although the hoax  
was clearly  perceptible to every       
unprejudiced mind4 ,the ,german         
translation by the  ,jesuit ,father     
,gruber1 which appeared at ,freiburg1 in
 ,switzerland1 and  at ,paderborn1 in   
,westphalia1 omitted the volume entitled
 ,the ,masonic  ,sisters1 on account of 
the indecency of its contents1 although 
accepted  as true and deemed especially 
damaging to the ,masonic fraternity4    
,however desirable it might be to tear  
away the mask of philanthropy  from the 
face of ,freemasonry and let the world  
see its devilish  features1 it was      
thought best not to outrage the moral   
sense of the  community by uncovering   
the filthiness of the hellish crew4     
,in #ahib ,taxil's coadjutor1 ,dr4      
,bataille 7a pseudonym of ,dr4 ,karl    
,hacks1  a ,german from the ,rhineland71

 began to issue a serial publication1   
entitled ,the ,devil in the ,nineteenth 
,century1 purporting to embody  the     
results of his observations as ship's   
surgeon during his travels  in various  
countries1 and especially in the        
,orient1 where he had  opportunities of 
studying ,satanism in its diverse       
manifestations4 ,he  begins by referring
 to the encyclical letter ,humanum      
genus1 already  cited1 in which ,leo    
,,xiii divides the human race into      
worshipers of ,god  and worshipers of   
,satan1 and then proceeds to adduce     
facts proving the  correctness of this  
classification4 ,it is1 in reality1 a   
bold burlesque  of the papal circular1  
as1 indeed1 it was intended to be1 and  
would  doubtless have been laughed at   
for a time as a clever persiflage1 if   
the dignitaries of the ,church had not  
taken it seriously1 as they were        
expected to do4 ,dr4 ,hacks confessed to
 an interviewer1 in #ahig1 that  no     
sooner had he read the pontifical       

circular in question than he saw  in it 
a rare opportunity to coin money out of 
the crass credulity and  boundless      
stupidity of the ,catholics4 ,it needed 
only a ,jules ,verne to  clothe these   
extravagant fancies in an attractive    
garb4 ,i resolved to  play the part of  
this ,jules ,verne4 ,strangely enough1  
the same idea  occurred to others4 ,i   
therefore joined forces with ,leo ,taxil
 and a few  friends1 and began to       
publish ,the ,devil in the ,nineteenth  
,century1 the  success of which is well 
known4444 ,i had traversed many lands   
and got  up marvelous stories1 the      
scenes of which were laid in remote     
regions1  which ,i was sure no one would
 visit in order to test the truth of my 
assertions4 ,besides1 he counted on the 
silliness of the persons with  whom he  
had to deal1 and felt certain that if he
 should tell them he  had been fooling  
them they would not believe him1 but    
would remain  convinced that all his    
inventions were strictly true4 ,he could

 not  conceive of a body of             
ecclesiastics as ready to discard a     
belief which  served their turn1 however
 evident its absurdity might be to other
  minds4 ,sometimes ,i fabricated the   
most incredible stories1 as1 for        
example1 that of the serpent inditing   
prophecies with its tail on the  back of
 ,sophia ,walder1 or that of the demon1 
who1 in order to marry a  ,freemason1   
transformed himself into a young lady1  
and played the piano  evenings in the   
form of a crocodile4 ,my colleagues were
 aghast1 and  exclaimed1 ',you'll spoil 
the whole joke with your nonsense4'     
',bah6' ,i  replied4 ',let me be1 and   
you will see6' ,and they did see how    
eagerly  such gross falsehoods were     
accepted as positive facts4 ,protestants
  without exception are denounced as    
godless apostates4 ,every ,lutheran  is 
a ,luciferian in disguise4 ,singapore1  
he says1 like every ,british  colony1 is
 settled by knaves1 footpads1 and all   
sorts of criminals4 ,the  ,protestant   

,englishman is1 at the bottom1 an       
embodiment of scoundrelism  coupled with
 ,satanism4 ,there is a strangely       
infernal element in the  social life at 
,singapore4 ,the ,british matrons and   
even the maidens are  incarnations of   
vice and godlessness4 ,the young        
,english woman dedicates  all her charms
 and intelligence to the service of     
,satan1 whose apostle  and agent she is2
 cursed by ,god1 she is the dearly      
beloved paramour of  ,lucifer2 a woman  
only in name1 she is in fact absolutely 
infernal--an  actual deviless4 ,hacks   
asserts that in a ,presbyterian church  
at  ,singapore he discovered a secret   
tabernacle for the worship of ,satan4   
,the pastor opened the door1 and there  
was a ,baphomet1 with all the           
,palladistic 7,satanic7                 
apparatus--goblet1 host1 and            
dagger--standing  before his eyes4      
,albert ,pike1 ,grand ,master of the    
,freemasons in ,charleston1 ,s4 ,c41 is 
called the ,satanic ,pope1 and is said  

to have a telephone invented and        
operated by devils1 whereby             
instantaneous communication is possible 
between the seven principal directorates
 at ,charleston1 ,rome1 ,berlin1        
,washington1 ,montevideo1 ,naples1 and  
,calcutta4 ,he has also a magic         
bracelet1 by means of which he can      
summon ,lucifer at any moment4 ,one  day
 ,satan took ,pike gently in his arms   
and made a trip with him to  ,sirius1   
traversing the whole distance in a few  
minutes4 ,after exploring  the fixed    
star1 he was brought back safe and sound
 to his room in  ,washington4 ,whether  
he found the star as hot and scorching  
as its name  implies is not stated4     
,hacks discovered1 under the cliffs of  
,gibraltar1  mysterious caverns with    
laboratories in which devils prepared   
microbes  for generating and diffusing  
epidemics4 ,he was politely received by 
,tubal-,cain1 the director of the       
establishment1 who addressed him in     
pure ,parisian ,french1 from which we   

may infer that this is the language  of 
the lower regions4 ,on his departure    
,hacks was presented with a small  vial1
 the contents of which would suffice to 
produce a fearful epidemic  of cholera4 
,no less an authority than ,professor   
,bautz1 of the ,prussian  ,academy at   
,mnster1 tells us that the volcanoes are
 the flues of hell1  and it was probably
 this contribution to the topography of 
,tartarus  that led ,hacks to look for  
the devil's workshop in the cavities of 
mountains1 which1 however1 being used   
for infernal purposes1 would  hardly be 
what ,milton calls umbrageous grots and 
caves of cool  recess4#h    ,the        
following may be cited as a specimen of 
the manner in which  historical events  
were perverted by ,hacks to subserve his
 purpose3  ,before the capture of ,rome 
by the ,italian troops in #ahgj1 a      
secret  meeting of ,freemasons was held 
in ,milan1 at which ,riboli1 ,cucchi1   
and  ,general ,cadorna were present1 and
 the revolutionary deliberations  were  

rendered piquant by dreadful            
blasphemies4 ,thus ,general ,cadorna1 a 
renegade priest1 parodied the           
consecration of the host with a piece of
  bread1 which he finally threw into the
 fire with the words1 ,in honor  of     
,lucifer6 ,thereupon ,lucifer rose up in
 person through the floor1  gazed       
benignantly for a moment on his faithful
 followers1 and said1  ,the moment is   
come for firing the third salvo of      
cannon4 ,a month  later ,general        
,cadorna entered ,rome through the      
breach of the ,porta  ,via4 ,in         
,luciferian lingo1 the first salvo was  
the ,reformation and the  second the    
,french ,revolution1 while the third    
victory of ,satan was the  overthrow of 
the ,pope's temporal power4    ,hacks   
relates that in ,freiburg1 ,switzerland1
 there was a ,masonic  temple of ,satan 
hewn in a rock and provided with altars 
and all the  paraphernalia of this cult4
 ,there men and women assembled in the  
costume worn by our first parents before

 the fall4 ,attached to the  lodge was a
 brothel1 the scene of the most         
disgusting debaucheries4 ,one  altar1 in
 the form of a triangle with an image of
 the demon ,baphomet1  was used for     
stabbing the body of ,christ1 in the    
form of consecrated  wafers1 with a     
dagger4 ,at this altar1 too1 was said   
the so-called  black mass1 an invention 
of the ,grand ,master ,holebrook and    
,albert  ,pike1 of ,charleston4 ,during 
this service hymns were sung to ,satan4 
,the  consecrated wafers were procured  
by ,miss ,lucia ,claraz1 of ,freiburg1  
who stole them while pretending to      
partake of the communion1 and  passed   
the night before committing the theft in
 the wildest orgies4  ,this incredibly  
foolish story was published in the      
,moniteur de ,rome1  against which ,miss
 ,claraz1 a lady piously inclined and   
morally  irreproachable1 according to   
the testimony of the ,bishop of         
,freiburg1  brought suit for defamation4
 ,the court sentenced the editor1       

,monsignore  ,vglin1 to a fine of       
twenty-five thousand lire and four      
years'  imprisonment4    ,these examples
 suffice to show the wretched stuff     
which ,hacks hashed  up for the         
edification of the clerical and the     
entertainment of the  carnal-minded     
public4 ,even the silly statement that  
he saw a gigantic  tree bow down before 
,sophia ,walder1 the predestined        
great-grandmother  of antichrist1 and   
present her with a bouquet1 did not     
shake the faith  of the true believers4 
,the editor of the ,revue ,mensuelle    
declared1 in  #ahid1 that ,dr4 ,bataille
 had really made all these discoveries  
on his  travels1 and that his honesty   
and sincerity were beyond question4     
,this  was the attitude of the whole    
clerical press almost without exception1
  as well as of abbots1 bishops1        
cardinals1 and the highest dignitaries  
of the ,church4 ,even as late as ,july1 
#ahig1 when the imposture had been      
exposed and confessed1 a ,parisian      

,catholic journal continued to regard   
the mystification as more apparent than 
actual1 and the documents  adduced as   
chiefly authentic2 so difficult is it   
for minds thus  constituted1 with the   
rational faculties dwarfed and stunted  
by being  constantly kept in the leading
 strings of credulity1 to recognize the 
falsity of what they wish or are told to
 believe4    ,another of ,taxil's       
confederates was ,domenico ,margiotta1  
according to  his own account a native  
of ,palmi1 in southern ,italy1 and      
professor of  literature and philosophy4
 ,his principal work1 ,adriano ,lemmi1  
,supreme  ,head of the ,freemasons1     
published in ,french in #ahid1 gives a  
long  list of his titles1 designed to   
impress the public by indicating his    
high position in the ,masonic order4    
,hacks calls him a ,member of the       
,sovereign ,sanctuary of the ,oriental  
,rite of ,memphis and ,mizraim1 a       
purely fictitious designation4 ,this    
cunning device was also crowned  with   

complete success1 and caused the        
fabricated disclosures to be  hailed    
with enthusiasm4 ,here1 exclaimed the   
clerical journals1 we  have not an      
apprentice or novice like ,taxil1 but   
one of the highest  dignitaries of      
universal ,freemasonry and              
,luciferianism1 who is  initiated and   
instructed in all its mysteries and     
occult observances1  being apparently   
ignorant of the fact that ,taxil was in 
the main the  real author of the book4  
,one of the most common accusations     
brought against the ,freemasons is  that
 of desecrating the host by stabbing it 
with a dagger4 ,a ,german  ,catholic    
journal1 ,the ,pelican1#i affirms that  
not only ,masonic devil  worshipers1 but
 also ,jews1 infidels1 and heretics in  
general commit  this sacrilege in order 
to show their deadly hatred of          
,christianity4  ,in proof of this       
charge1 the following historical fact is
 published  in the number for ,july1    
#ahig3 ,several consecrated wafers were 

once  stolen by ,jews from a church at  
,langenses1 in ,silesia1 and1 after     
being  pierced through with knives1 were
 hidden in the forest4 ,they were       
discovered by a ,polish nobleman1 whose 
four horses1 as he was driving  by1     
suddenly kneeled down and refused to go 
on1 although he beat them  with his     
whip4 ,he then descended from the       
carriage1 and soon found the  wafers    
covered with blood4 ,they were carried  
back with solemn ceremony  to the       
church1 which became a place of         
pilgrimage with a wonder-working  pyx4  
,what a hardened and hopeless skeptic a 
man must be1 who is not  convinced by   
conclusive evidence of this kind1 when  
even horses bear  witness to the truth  
by their genuflections6    ,still more  
sensational was the part played in this 
spicy comedy  by ,miss ,diana ,vaughan1 
whom ,taxil introduced to the public as 
a  descendant of the ,rosicrucian       
alchemist and ,oxford professor ,thomas 
,vaughan1 and who was said to have in   

her possession a copy of the  written   
pact with ,satan1 signed by her ancestor
 on ,march #be1 #afde4  ,the young lady 
claimed to have been born in ,paris on  
,february #bi1  #ahgd4 ,the fact that   
there was no ,february #bith in the year
 #ahgd would  make this date an         
impossible natal day for ordinary       
mortals1 but a  person with ,luciferian 
blood in her veins would naturally take 
no  note of the divisions of time as    
recorded in human calendars2 for1       
according to ,taxil1 her forbear was the
 goddess ,astarte1 who appeared  to     
,thomas ,vaughan on a summer night in   
#afdf1 while he was sojourning  among   
the ,american ,indians1 in all her      
marvelous beauty1 bringing  with her a  
bed surrounded with flames and attended 
by little demons  bearing flowers4 ,she 
approached ,vaughan and put a wedding   
ring on his  finger1 and eleven days    
later gave birth to a daughter named    
,diana1  from whom the ,miss ,diana     
,vaughan in question traced her descent4

  ,several instances of similar commerce
 with incarnate demons are said  to have
 occurred in the history of her family1 
so that she inherited  a strong ,satanic
 taint2 even her own mother was guilty  
of the same  criminal conduct4 ,her     
inherited qualities were carefully      
fostered by  education1 inasmuch as she 
was brought up by her father and uncle  
on  strictly ,luciferian principles4    
,one day1 when her instructors were     
praising ,cain and ,judas as ideals of  
excellence1 she expressed some  doubt of
 the superior worthiness of the         
fratricide and venal traitor4  ,this    
dangerous unbelief was attributed to    
angelical possession1 and  it was soon  
ascertained that the archangel ,raphael 
was the cause of  the lapse from        
,luciferianism4 ,recourse was had to    
exorcism1 the whole  process of which1  
as described by ,taxil1 is a clever     
travesty of the  ceremonial prescribed  
by the ,romish ,church for the expulsion
 of evil  spirits4 ,the dance performed 

by the father and uncle on this occasion
  consisted of the same saltatory       
movements that are executed by the      
procession of jumpers every year at the 
grave of ,st4 ,willibord1 in            
,echternach1 ,luxemburg4#aj ,devil's    
ointment took the place of holy oil1    
and the exorcism ended with the         
sacrifice of a black hen2 thereupon     
,raphael went out of her1 and           
simultaneously with his exit all the    
panes of glass in the house were broken 
into fragments and fell to the  ground  
with a tremendous crash4 ,the marvel is 
that bishops and priests  accepted this 
ridiculous story as an authentic and    
edifying narration1  instead of         
rejecting it with horror and disgust as 
a palpable burlesque  of their own      
approved methods of casting out demons1 
and particularly  of the ,exorcismus in 
,satanam et ,angelos ,apostatas1        
composed by ,leo  ,,xiii and issued by  
him ,november #ai1 #ahij4 ,it is evident
 that ,taxil had  this document in his  

eye1 and intended to hold it up to      
derision2 to  calm the fears of the     
simple-minded1 who were puzzled and     
perplexed by  the striking resemblance  
of diabolic orgies to divine ordinances1
 he  explained it on the general        
principle that ,satan is the ape of     
,god4    ,after being freed from the    
influence of ,raphael1 ,diana was placed
 under  the tutelage of ,asmodeus1 who1 
as her guardian devil1 watched over her1
  shielding her from bodily harm and    
helping her to resist the wiles of      
angels4 ,one day when she was wandering 
in the woods she was attacked  by       
negroes1 but ,asmodeus came to her      
rescue1 and bore her safely  to her home
 through the air4 ,another time he      
caught her mettlesome  courser by the   
bridle as he was running away1 and when 
the chief of  ,garibaldi's staff1       
,bordone1 insulted her1 ,asmodeus       
twisted his neck so  that his face      
looked backward4 ,for three weeks he was
 obliged to take a  retrospective view  

of life and of his own conduct1 when    
,diana1 in the  kindness of her heart1  
set his head right again4 ,on these     
occasions the  tutelar demon usually    
appeared in the form of a fine young    
gentleman1  and emitted an aroma of     
balsam1 which seems to have been as     
inseparable  from him as is the scent of
 musk from a modern dude or modish dame4
  ,he spoke of her as his bride1 and    
often took her on pleasure trips  to    
paradise1 purgatory1 and other remote   
regions2 once when she was  greatly     
depressed1 because her ,luciferian      
rival1 ,sophia ,walder1 had got  the    
better of her1 he consoled her by making
 an excursion with her to  ,mars1 where 
they rode on ,schiaparelli's canals1    
sailed on the ,sea of  the ,sirens1 and 
strolled like pygmies among the gigantic
 inhabitants of  that planet4    ,to be 
concluded4       ,contrary to the common
 supposition that the astronomy of the  
ancients   was based exclusively on the 
geocentric hypothesis1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,h4     

,bryan   says in ,nature3 ,schiaparelli 
has shown that ,heraclitus ,ponticus1   
a disciple of ,plato1 had already       
accepted the theory that the sun   is   
the center of the orbit of the planets1 
while the earth is the   center of the  
universe and of the lunar and solar     
rotations--a theory   substantially that
 of ,tycho4          ,,ribbon           
,,lightning4    ,,by ,,orange ,,cook4   
,in the summer of #ahih1 ,w4 ,h4        
,osborne1 of ,chardon1 ,ohio1 an amateur
  photographer of some experience1      
secured the accompanying photograph  of 
a lightning flash which seemed to us to 
show certain peculiarities  that entitle
 it to a public notice and a permanent  
record4 ,the picture  shows three       
flashes1 of which the distant and faint 
one at the right  and the bright one at 
the left were simultaneous1 while the   
center one  occurred a few seconds      
earlier4 ,nothing about the thunder that
 followed  the last and bright flash    
suggested that it was specially near1   

but  an examination of the picture when 
developed and a comparison with  the    
features of the landscape showed that it
 had come to earth about  fifteen rods  
from the place where ,mr4 ,osborne stood
 with his camera4  ,mr4 ,osborne and    
myself carefully searched the locality  
indicated1 but  failed to find even the 
slightest mark caused by the discharge  
upon any  object or in the earth4       
,illustration    ,measurements at this  
place give the width of the ribbon of   
light1 if  it stood at right angles with
 the line of sight1 about eight feet4   
,this ribbon of light is seen to consist
 of six lines1 approximately  parallel1 
of unequal brightness1 a pair being at  
each edge and a pair  near the center4  
,the space between these pairs is       
crossed by many  nearly horizontal lines
 and a few oblique ones1 while that     
between  the right-hand pair is crossed 
by oblique lines only4 ,the horizontal  
lines at the right of the center become 
curved downward1 which1 with  the       

increased brightness of the whole toward
 that side1 suggests to  us that the    
ribbon of light did not lie in a plane1 
but was concave  toward a point at the  
observer's left4 ,that the ribbon did   
not stand  at right angles with the line
 of sight1 but was nearer the observer  
at the right-hand edge1 is also shown by
 the inequality of the lower            
termination of the six vertical lines   
referred to above4 ,the ones at  the    
left either rest upon or are hidden     
behind a rise of ground1 whose  crest   
can be traced for a little distance each
 side of the flash1 while  those at the 
right come lower1 falling between the   
observer and the  ground at that point4 
,probably1 when measured upon this      
diagonal and  curved line1 the width of 
the flash was fifteen or twenty feet4   
,mention has already been made of the   
fact that the accompanying thunder  was 
comparatively light1 and not at all like
 that ordinarily heard when  lightning  
occurs within so short a distance4      

,possibly this1 as well as  the absence 
of marks at the point where it reached  
the earth1 might  have been because the 
discharge was of very low tension4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,a very similar lightning flash was     
described and pictured in the  issue of 
the ,electrical ,world and ,engineer for
 ,october #bh1 #ahii1 by  ,a4 ,e4       
,kennelly1 who suggested the following  
explanation3 ,a lightning  flash passed 
through the air on the left-hand side of
 the ribbon of  lightning 7the wind was 
blowing from right to left7 and broke a 
hole  in the air along that line4 ,this 
discharge may have been oscillatory1    
and may have lasted in all any time up  
to about #a_/ajj of a second4 ,the      
discharge then ceased for lack of       
electricity1 but a fresh charge from    
the cloud being gathered immediately    
afterward1 or in about #a_/cj of  a     
second from the first rupture1 a new    
discharge passed through the  same hole 
in the air1 which had not had time to   

seal up4 ,there might  thus be fourteen 
successive flashes 7this was the number 
of distinct  flashes making up the      
ribbon in the photograph71 each         
averaging about  #a_/be of a second     
apart1 through the same hole1 owing to  
the imperfect  conducting qualities of  
the clouds overhead1 meanwhile the hole 
having  been carried from left to right 
in the picture1 across the line of      
sight 7by the wind71 and thus producing 
the appearance of a broad  ribbonlike   
flash4 ,professor ,trowbridge1 of       
,cambridge1 has suggested the           
possibility that many of these          
apparently curious electrical phenomena 
may be of purely optical or             
physiological origin--that is1 may arise
  through the abnormal behavior of the  
eye or the camera lens toward  intense  
lines of light1 such as lightning       
flashes4--,,ed4                         
,,cross-,,education4    ,,by ,e4 ,w4    
,,scripture1    ,,director ,,of ,,the   
,,psychological ,,laboratory1 ,,yale    

,,university4      ,some years ago ,i   
made the following simple experiment3 ,i
 arranged a  rubber bulb1 like that used
 for releasing a photographer's shutter1
 to  connect with a bottle1 from which  
rose a long1 vertical glass tube4  ,the 
bottle contained mercury1 and the long  
tube reached nearly to the  bottom4     
,every part was air-tight1 so that when 
anybody squeezed the  bulb the mercury  
was forced up the vertical tube4 ,it was
 what is known  as a                    
mercury-dynamometer4    ,during         
experiments with this dynamometer1 what 
was more natural than to  think of      
trying what would happen if one hand    
were practiced daily in  squeezing the  
bulb8 ,so one of our graduate students1 
,miss ,e4 ,m4 ,brown1  was set to work  
in the following manner3 ,on the first  
day she squeezed  the bulb as hard as   
possible with the left hand1 while an   
assistant  noted the height of the      
mercury2 this was repeated ten times1   
and the  results were averaged4         

,immediately thereafter she took ten    
records with  the right hand4 ,then1 on 
the following days1 with some           
intermissions1  she practiced the right 
hand by squeezing ten times on each     
occasion4  ,on the last day she again   
tested the left hand1 which had not been
  practiced in the meantime4 ,the       
records ran as follows3                 
----------------------------------------
---------------------------------       
,,day4                                  
----------------------------------------
---------------             ,first      
,second,third ,fourth,fifth ,sixth      
,seventh,eighth,ninth                   
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
,inches,inches,inches,inches,inches,inch
es,inches ,inches,inches   ,right hand  
#bh4h  #cc4g  #ce4f  #cf4f  #dj4i  #dd4g
  #dg4j   #dh4h  #dh4f   ,left hand     
#bi4f  4444  4444  4444  4444  4444     
4444   4444  #db4c                      
----------------------------------------

-------------------------    ,thus the  
left hand had gained about fifty per    
cent in strength through  practice of   
the right hand4 ,this peculiar          
phenomenon of transference of  the      
effects of practice from one side to the
 other ,i have ventured to  call        
cross-education4    ,the phenomenon was 
curious enough to suggest other         
experiments4 ,another  student1 ,miss   
,t4 ,l4 ,smith1 was set to trying to    
insert the point of a  needle at the end
 of a rod into a small hole in a        
drill-gauge without  touching the sides4
 ,the first experiment consisted of     
twenty trials  with the left hand1 with 
a success of fifty per cent4            
,immediately  thereafter twenty trials  
were made with the right hand1 with a   
success  of sixty per cent4 ,on the     
following day and on each succeeding day
 two  hundred experiments were made with
 the right hand1 with successes of  #fa1
 #fd1 #fe1 #ge1 #gd1 #ge1 #hb1 #gi1 #gh1
 and #hh per cent4 ,on the last day  the

 left hand1 which had not been practiced
 in the meantime1 was again  tried1 with
 a success of seventy-six per cent4     
,these last experiments remind us of    
certain familiar phenomena4 ,it has     
frequently been noticed that persons    
taught to write with the right  hand    
become able to write backward1 but not  
forward1 with the left  hand4 ,this is  
the so-called mirror writing1 which     
appears correct if  seen in a mirror4   
,the first published observation of this
 fact exists  in a letter from ,h4 ,f4  
,weber to ,fechner1 the founder of      
experimental  psychology4 ,fechner1     
moreover1 noticed that with the left    
hand he could  make the figure #i       
backward better than in the regular way4
    ,curiously enough1 the principle of 
cross-education has been put to         
practical use4 ,a letter 7with          
permission to publish7 has been received
  from ,oscar ,raif1 ,professor of      
,music in the ,berlin ,hochschule3      
,in the spring of #ahih ,i made an      

experiment with twenty of my pupils4 ,i 
began by taking the average speed of    
each hand with the metronome4 ,the      
average of the right hand was quarter   
note symbol  #aaf 7 four times  #aaf in 
the minute7 #dfd beats1 and for the left
 hand #aab #ddh beats4  ,i gave them    
exercises for the right hand only       
7finger exercises1  scales1 and broken  
accords7 to develop rapidity4 ,after one
 week the  average of the right hand was
 #abj #dhj2 after two weeks1 #abf #ejd2 
three weeks1 #acb #ebh1 etc4 ,after two 
months the right hand yielded  #agf     
#fjd4 ,then ,i had them try the left    
hand1 which averaged #aeb #fjh1  whereas
 in ,november the average was only #aab 
#ddh4 ,in two months'  time1 absolutely 
without practice1 the left hand had     
risen from #aab  #ddh to #aeb #fjh4 ,a  
few of my pupils had some difficulty in 
playing  the scales in parallel motion1 
but were able to play them in contrary  
motion4    ,the tenor of my work is that
 in piano playing the chief requirement 

is not that each single finger should   
move rapidly1 but that each  movement   
should come at exactly the right time1  
and we do not work only  to get limber  
fingers1 but1 more than that1 to get    
perfect control over  each finger4 ,the 
source of what in ,german is called     
,fingerfertigkeit  is the center of our 
nervous system--the brain4    ,these    
facts1 however1 require further         
investigation1 for it is evident  that  
we must begin with the fact of          
cross-education and proceed to  more    
complicated cases4 ,indeed1             
cross-education has shown itself to  be 
one step of a ladder up which we must   
climb even if there were  no other      
motive except that of curiosity as to   
what we could find  at the top4 ,if     
practice of one hand educates the other 
hand1 will  it not also educate the     
foot8 ,again1 if practice of one hand in
  squeezing a dynamometer develops the  
strength of the other members of  the   
body1 will it not also develop their    

dexterity or their advance8  ,again1 if 
the development of voluntary power--let 
us say1 frankly1  will power--in one    
direction brings about a development in 
other  directions1 why should we limit  
the transference to muscular activity8  
,why can we not expect1 that the        
development should be extended to the   
higher forms of will power that go to   
make up character8 ,the outlook  begins 
to be stirring on account of its        
vastness4 ,if the last principle  be    
admitted1 there seems no argument       
against the claim that some forms  of   
manual training1 such as lathe work and 
forge work1 are just the  things to     
develop moral character4 ,by the same   
reasoning we would be  obliged to admit 
the often-made argument that training in
 ,latin1 ,greek1  and mathematics       
furnishes a means of general mental     
development4 ,if we  admit the          
principle1 we find ourselves at once    
involved in important  educational      
controversies4 ,however we may think in 

respect to these  questions1 it is plain
 that it is worth while to climb a      
ladder which  has such an outlook at the
 top4 ,let us begin4    ,in the first   
place1 the fact of cross-education is   
established4 ,let  us ask in what this  
education consists4 ,on this point some 
curious  observations have been made by 
,prof4 ,w4 ,w4 ,davis1#aa now of ,iowa  
,college4 ,the subject of the experiment
 began by raising a five-pound          
dumb-bell by flexing the arm at the     
elbow2 this called into play  chiefly   
the biceps muscle for lifting and the   
forearm muscles for  grasping4 ,this was
 done as many times as possible with the
 right arm1  and then1 after a rest1    
with the left arm4 ,the subject then    
entered  upon a practice extending from 
two to four weeks2 this consisted in    
lifting the weight with the right arm   
only4 ,at the end both arms were  tested
 as at the start4    ,the results were  
strange enough4 ,the unpracticed left   
arm gained in  power as we expected1 but

 it also gained in size4 ,careful       
measurements  were made by ,dr4 ,j4 ,w4 
,seaver1 of the ,yale ,gymnasium1 on the
 girths of  both upper arm and forearm4 
,let us compare the gains in girth with 
the  gains in power3                    
----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
,,gains ,,in ,,girth4                   
,,gains ,,in ,,power4     ,,subject4    
----------------------------------------
---------               ,right biceps4  
,left biceps4   ,right arm4     ,left   
arm4                                    
----------------------------------------
----------------------------         ,g 
#e mm4         -#e mm4     #hbj         
flexions4 #bjj flexions4         ,j     
#b             #j        #djj           
#bbe             ,k         #d          
#b        #gbd          #ead            
,h        #ac             #f        #iej
           #cj             ,b         #f
            #aa        #ijj             
#ge             ,i         #h           

#c        #gej           #ge            
----------------------------------------
----------------------------    ,all    
subjects had gained power in the        
unpracticed left arm1 three  of them    
largely and three slightly4 ,all but one
 had gained in the  size of the         
unpracticed left biceps4 ,strangely     
enough1 those who had  gained most in   
power had gained least in size4 ,the    
case was quite  similar in regard to the
 girth of the forearm4 ,the gains in    
power were  unquestionably mostly       
central--that is1 in the nerve          
centers--and not  in the muscles4 ,yet  
there was also a strange but            
unquestionable gain in  the size of the 
muscles at the same time4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4    ,we have   
arrived at the second step of the       
ladder1 which is3 ,the gain  by practice
 which shows itself in cross-education  
consists in a  development of higher    
nerve centers connected with the two    
sides of  the body4 ,we must next ask3  

,is this effect of practice confined to 
the  symmetrical organ1 or does it      
extend to other organs8 ,this question  
was  answered by a peculiar experiment4 
,the experiment consisted in testing the
 effect of educating one of the  feet to
 tap as rapidly as possible on a        
telegraph key4 ,the apparatus  is shown 
in ,fig4 #a4 ,the clocklike instrument  
is really a piece of  clockwork actuated
 by a magnet1 so that it counts up one  
point every  time the electric circuit  
is closed4 ,the electric circuit is     
comprised  of a battery and two keys4   
,any form of battery will do2 the one in
  the figure is a lamp battery--that is1
 an arrangement of lamps in  series and 
in shunt1 such that the ordinary        
high-voltage city current  is           
conveniently transformed into a         
low-voltage current4 ,the key to the    
left is the experimenter's key1 and that
 to the right the subject's  key4 ,when 
the subject is set to tapping on the    
latter key the counter  will register   

whenever the experimenter keeps his key 
closed4    ,for the actual experiments  
by ,professor ,davis the subject's key  
was  removed to a distant room4 ,here   
there were three keys of this kind1 any 
one of which would register4 ,one key   
each was arranged for tapping with  the 
big toes2 the third key could be tapped 
by either right or left  index finger4  
,on the first day all four digits--right
 and left index fingers and  right and  
left large toes--were carefully tested  
in tapping as rapidly  as possible4     
,thereafter the right large toe was     
practiced daily in  tapping for several 
weeks1 the other digits being left      
unpracticed4  ,at the end all four      
digits were again tested4 ,four of the  
six persons  experimented upon showed a 
gain for the right large toe--that is1  
for the digit practiced2 the other two  
showed a slight loss1 due               
unquestionably to over-practice1 or     
over-training4 ,all of those  who gained
 for the right large toe gained for the 

other digits also4  ,their average gains
 were3 ,right foot1 thirty-three per    
cent2 left  foot1 thirty-one per cent2  
right hand1 twenty-one per cent2 left   
hand1  thirty-one per cent4 ,even both  
of the over-trained men gained for  the 
left foot and one of them gained for the
 left hand4 ,thus we have  reached the  
third step--the effects of practice are 
extended to various  parts of the body4 
,beyond the third step the experimental 
investigations have not yet  advanced1  
but ,i believe that sooner or later we  
shall be able to  establish the fact    
that development of those forms of the  
will involved  in simple muscular       
activities does also develop the more   
complicated  forms that express         
themselves in acts of a mental nature4  
,it has long been claimed that sports1  
games1 and manual occupations are  among
 the best developers of character4      
,football develops solidarity  of       
feeling and action2 running rapids or   
cross-country hunting  develop coolness 

in danger and promptness and firmness of
 judgment2  wood-turning requires       
boldness and foresight2 forge work      
requires  regulation and reserve of     
power1 and so on4 ,this is no place for 
an  account of the psychology of sports 
and occupations1 but if the reader  has 
ever tried any of these things and      
failed he will easily recognize  the    
lacking mental quality4    ,yet there   
has never been but one attempt1 as far  
as ,i can learn1 to  organize a system  
of manual occupations on the basis of   
this principle4  ,the success of the    
attempt furnishes1 ,i believe1 the      
still-lacking  laboratory proof of the  
principle itself4 ,i refer to the       
remarkable  experiment of ,mr4 ,z4 ,r4  
,brockway1 ,superintendent of the       
,elmira  ,reformatory4    ,most of the  
young felons sent to the ,elmira        
,reformatory are set to  learning       
trades1 by which they can support       
themselves on leaving4  ,those1 however1
 who are too stupid to even learn the   

simplest trade  are put into a          
manual-training school1 in the hope that
 their brains  can be sufficiently      
developed to enable them to keep out of 
the prison  or the asylum4 ,those who   
are so stupid that they have difficulty 
in  learning the alphabet or in counting
 their fingers are put into a           
kindergarten1 where they practice on    
letter blocks and sticks and  straws4   
,those who are too stupid to learn a    
trade are the ones of interest  here4   
,three main lines of defect are         
recognized in ,superintendent           
,brockway's classification of them4     
,those who are intellectually weak1  but
 of fair power of self-control1 are     
classed as ,group ,i2 those who  are    
reasonably bright1 but are unable to get
 along because they can not  control    
their impulses1 are classed as ,group   
,,ii2 those who fail on both  sides are 
classed as ,group ,,iii4    ,group ,,ii 
is composed of those who are for the    
most part devoid of moral  sense--those 

who fight1 swear1 assault officers1 are 
licentious1 and  generally unresponsive 
to the usual reformatory measures4 ,to  
this class  belong some of the most     
intellectual inmates of the reformatory1
 but  this intellectuality runs riot on 
account of weakness of character4  ,how 
are their characters to be built up8    
,they are required to devote  most of   
their waking hours to athletics and     
calisthenics1 wood-turning1  making     
wooden patterns for castings1 mechanical
 drawing1 sloyd1 clay  modeling1 and    
chipping and filing metal4 ,these       
exercises have been  selected on account
 of their character-building qualities4 
,the work is a great success4 ,nearly   
all inmates subjected to this           
building-up process finally graduate    
with sufficient self-control from  the  
manual-training department into the     
trades school4 ,a concrete  example will
 give an idea of the change produced in 
the pupil4 ,the  record of ,no4 #f1cfa  
is instructive4 ,the account is taken   

from a report  by the manual-training   
instructor1 ,r4 ,c4 ,bates3    ,the     
pupil1 previous to his assignment to    
manual training1 had earned  for himself
 the sobriquet of 'dangerous man' among 
the officers and  inmates4 ,his offenses
 have been mostly threatening language1 
lying1  contraband articles1 talking1   
fooling1 assaulting officers1 and       
institutional crimes of that nature4    
,we begin his record in ,september1     
#ahie1 when he was reduced to the       
second grade for fighting4 ,october and 
,november he lost three marks  each for 
lying and threatening language1 and1 by 
the influence of  ,september markings1  
caused his reduction to the third grade1
 or  incorrigibles1 a closely defined   
group4 ,he was in the third grade two   
months and three days1 when he was      
placed in the foundry1 where1 amid      
blinding smoke1 stifling air1 and the   
task system1 it was thought he  would   
tone down1 upon the theory that the     
muscular demands of such a  place on a  

#abd-pound body would vitiate           
sufficiently to weaken the  will and    
curb the disposition to riotous acts4   
,from ,january #aeth to ,february #aeth 
he was on modified treatment4 ,on       
,february #ahth he was unconditionally  
restored to the second grade4  ,february
 and ,march he did fairly well1 losing  
one mark each month1  but in ,april his 
period of passably well-doing was       
checked by his  committing an assault1  
along with assumption of authority1 and 
on the  #bgth of ,april he was returned 
to the third grade for the second time1 
remaining in the same two months and    
three days1 when he was again  placed on
 modified treatment1 and did well for   
three months1 when he  fell again1 this 
time for fighting1 losing six marks in  
,october4 ,in  ,november he made a      
perfect month1 securing promotion to    
second grade4    ,on ,december #ae1     
#ahif1 he was assigned to manual        
training1 ,group  ,,ii2 object1         
development of self-control1 with       

subjects as follows3  ,athletics1       
drawing1 sloyd1 woodwork1 chipping and  
filing1 molding4 ,each  subject one hour
 and a half per day1 five days per week4
 ,the influence  of the new environment 
sustained the effort made in ,november  
to  improve1 and1 by securing a perfect 
month in ,december1 all his past was    
blotted out and he was restored to the  
lower first grade again1 through        
'amnesty1' on ,december #be1 #ahif4     
,thus1 on ,december #be1 #ahif1 he was  
where he was institutionally  classed at
 the time of his admittance two years   
and three months  ago--viz41 lower first
 grade1 from which all who are committed
 begin  the reformatory course of       
treatment1 additionally thereto in the  
manual-training department4 ,his        
development now begins4 ,in ,january1   
#ahig1 he lost two marks as a result of 
school failures1 but in ,february  he   
secured a perfect demeanor record2 in   
,march he lost two marks2 ,april  and   
,may were perfect months in all         

respects1 and he was graduated  from    
manual training in ,may1 returned to    
institutional life1 and  assigned to the
 exercise squad in the morning and stone
 masonry in the  afternoon4 ,later his  
daily assignment was changed1 placing   
him in the  molding class of the        
technological department to complete    
trade4 ,his  development was complete   
and permanent4 ,he was returned to the  
manual  training as assistant instructor
 in the molding class1 and is now  doing
 well in all departments1 having been   
promoted to the upper first  grade in   
,august and ranking as sergeant in ',i' 
company4    ,this record is only one    
example of many4    ,when               
manual-training schools organize their  
courses on the principle  of adapting   
the exercise to the ability to be       
developed1 we shall have  abundance of  
similar proof4 ,when these facts have   
been incontestably  established1 there  
will be a means of satisfying the       
complaints of  those who are constantly 

attacking our schools because they      
develop  intellect and ruin character4  
,what is the use1 say they1 of teaching 
children to read and think if you do not
 make them honest and truthful8  ,how is
 it better for the community to educate 
liars and thieves merely  that they may 
lie and steal successfully in business  
and politics1  where they can not be    
caught1 rather than to leave them in the
 slums1  where the police can get them8 
,the accusation is bitterly unjust  in  
many ways1 but its force can be met by  
introducing a system of  character      
building based on a careful study of the
 means of developing  truthfulness1     
honesty1 carefulness1 persistence1      
bravery1 courage under  defeat1 and the 
other qualities that go to make up a    
true man4 ,the  foundation of this      
system is to be found1 ,i believe1 in   
the principle  of character-building by 
motor activity4    ,the ladder of       
cross-education will be slowly climbed  
by psychological  investigators2 if they

 find at the top a principle of such    
value and  wide application1 surely the 
climb will have been worth the time and 
trouble4          ,,the ,,morbid ,,sense
 ,,of ,,injury4    ,,by ,w4 ,f4         
,,becker1 ,m4 ,d4      ,as a fog about a
 ship removes it from exact relations to
 surroundings1  so1 from the standpoint 
of morbid psychology1 we may fancy the  
mind  peering through a more or less    
misty envelope to the true adjustment to
  things--the glass through which we see
 darkly4 ,were all action and  reaction 
of the mind to surroundings perfectly   
adapted1 there could be  such a thing as
 absolute sanity4 ,so long1 however1 as 
evolution with  continuous readaptation 
and the processes of dissolution with   
attempted  adaptations continue1 so long
 can there be but groping1 imperfect    
relations to surroundings1 so long must 
there be defective or morbid  mental    
action1 and sanity and insanity         
therefore but relative terms4  ,thus    
many symptoms of the insane appear to be

 but varying degrees  of the morbid     
mental manifestations of health1 and we 
may assume a  priori that they have a   
common genesis and can be identified for
  study4 ,if we take1 for example1 one  
of the commonest of these--viz41  the   
idea of persecution among the insane--we
 may safely identify it  with the sense 
of injury equally common among the sane4
    ,by this sense of injury is meant   
that vague sense which afflicts many  of
 us at times of being the object of     
hostile feelings on the part  of others4
 ,no doubt we often are1 for1 in the    
stress of necessary  rivalry and        
conflict upon which progress depends1 we
 give and take  injuries4 ,but there    
remains a large excess of this injured  
feeling  which can not be so explained1 
or which is disproportionate to its     
cause or entirely gratuitous1 and is    
thus shifted into the field of  morbid  
psychology4 ,this only is here          
treated--the morbid sense of  injury4   
,it seems to find an easy entrance to   

the mind from a mere feeling of  being  
ill used or stinted in sympathy to the  
entertainment of serious  grievances or 
persecutory ideas4 ,in certain          
temperaments it is marked4  ,on         
so-called blue days we are constantly   
moved to a sense of injury  from fancied
 aloofness of our friends4 ,madam ,lofty
 slights us1 and our  jaundiced         
imagination has it that she has heard   
something detrimental  and dislikes us4 
,but lo6 to-day1 when the liver is      
released1 madam  smiles sweetly1 and    
never heard a thing4    ,so in          
suspicious people4 ,they entertain a    
chronic state of mind1 by  which the    
acts of others are given an invidious   
construction4 ,they  anticipate ill     
will1 carrying the chip on the shoulder4
 ,of two  constructions of a given      
situation1 they leap to the more        
offending4  ,some take on the vindictive
 attitude as a result1 approaching that 
type of insanity known as paranoia1 of  
which ,guiteau and ,prendergast  were   

conspicuous examples2 others are        
humiliated1 as a consequence            
approaching the melancholia type of     
insanity1 each illustrating  again how  
the sane and insane states are          
paralleled4 ,many come to bear  the     
outward marks--the stigmata of this     
mental attitude1 approaching  sometimes 
the asylum face1 like that of the       
insanely suspicious  ,rousseau4 ,we all 
know such faces1 with their hard1 set   
expressions1 as  if forever sealed      
against any tender of good will4    ,by 
a curious fact1 those who invite ill    
will seem often to get it4  ,society1   
based on a reciprocity of faith1 seems  
to have no smiles to  bestow upon the   
misanthrope4 ,it bids him1 ,laugh1 and  
the world laughs  with you4 ,it so comes
 to pass that many of them acquire some 
real  ground for their sense of injury1 
and in the long run that real  quarrels 
are precipitated from this atmosphere of
 suspiciousness4  ,indeed1 this is the  
psychology of most quarrels4 ,the effect

 of  imaginary grievances comes in turn 
to be the cause of real ones4 ,thus     
into an incident between two persons1   
one of them mistakenly reads an  affront
 to himself4 ,he retaliates1 and the    
other person1 unconscious  of having    
done anything to evoke any hostility1   
finds himself  affronted1 and in his    
turn retaliates4 ,by this time real     
grievances  have come1 and the quarrel  
is on4 ,balzac1 that master analyst1 in 
alluding to friendship1 in one of his   
stories1 says3 ,it died 7the            
friendship7 like other great            
passions--by a misunderstanding4 ,both  
sides imagine treachery1 pride prevents 
an understanding1 and the  rupture      
comes4 ,just as the malevolent feelings 
may arise de novo1  so it is with the   
benevolent ones4 ,nordau shows how the  
nondescript  state of being in love     
often arises4 ,some incident between    
,john and  ,mary leads one of them--we  
will say ,john--to think mistakenly that
 ,mary  has been attracted to him4      

,pleased with the fact1 he reciprocates4
  ,mary1 altogether unconscious of the  
reciprocal nature of ,john's  attention1
 finds pleasure in it1 and in her turn  
reciprocates4 ,mutual  reciprocity then 
follows4    ,in irritable persons we    
find the morbid sense of injury coupled 
with  resentment4 ,quickly interpreting 
anything disagreeable to them as an     
affront by another1 their first impulse 
is to resent it1 which they  do more or 
less violently1 according to            
circumstances1 their second  thought    
often recognizing the irrational nature 
of the outbreak4 ,this  suggests the    
feral instinct4 ,examples are common in 
the lower animals1  while in pain       
attacking those about them as if they   
were the cause of  it4 ,no doubt this   
resentment is a survival from           
evolutionary ancestry4  ,it has probably
 served a necessary purpose in the      
conservation of  animal life by causing 
the animal to attack what may1 in the   
jealousy  of self-preservation and its  

feeble discrimination1 even be suspected
  of being inimical to its welfare4     
,blind and unjust1 perhaps1 but  ,nature
 hesitates at no apparent injustice to  
accomplish this4 ,when  we go higher1 to
 the tribal relation of man1 we find the
 same blind  resentment4 ,the           
,australian aborigines have no          
conception of death1  except as vaguely 
associated with homicidal causes1 and   
when a member  of a tribe dies a most   
natural death a member of a hostile     
tribe  is killed to avenge the supposed 
murder4 ,the ,africans1 too1 read       
homicidal forces into natural deaths4   
,in civilized social relations it       
appears again in the very popular and   
usually irrational demand for a         
scapegoat when matters go wrong4 ,the   
idea of religious sacrifice1 too1  is a 
practice by which the anthropomorphic   
,god is credited with being  aggrieved  
by human conduct and of wishing to be   
appeased therefor4  ,though the exercise
 of this indiscriminate resentment was  

probably  greater and more necessary in 
the pre-social stage of human evolution1
  there is still ground for its activity
 to-day in the struggle for  existence  
which has but changed its arena4 ,under 
a veneer of amity1  laudable enough1    
there are till the suspicion and        
resentment of the  tribal relation1 as  
we may often see unveiled in a posse of 
boys1 and  that this resentment is yet  
of the blind kind1 we still have proof  
if  we have seen an enlightened man     
deliberately kick a harmless chair      
because he stumbled on it in the dark4  
,phylogenetically1 then1 we see this    
morbid sense of injury to be            
reversional4 ,this is in harmony with   
the atavic theory of insanity4 ,in  the 
individual it is a delusion1 and1 like  
other delusions1 an attempt  by the     
reason to explain a disordered feeling2 
in this case a painful  feeling1 having 
its origin broadly in some imperfect    
adaptation of the  organism4 ,this      
attempt to explain a feeling or         

sensation seems a human  necessity4     
,however wide of the truth such         
explanations usually are1 we  seem      
forced to attempt them4 ,in the case of 
this painful feeling1  with which we are
 here concerned1 we are either unwilling
 or unable to  explain it in its true   
way1 and are prone to attribute it to   
malevolent  agencies1 often             
personal--perhaps the bogy-man remnant  
of the  child and race4 ,such           
explanation is often an easy escape from
 truths  unwelcome to our ego--truths   
which1 if recognized1 would wound pride 
or conscience beyond easy endurance4 ,it
 requires a man of rare courage  and    
mental clarity to recognize his         
particular pain from failure in         
adaptation as autogenetic1 and to lay it
 to natural and unflattering  causes4   
,we prefer1 of the two1 to accuse the   
environment rather than  the organism1  
especially when the organism happens to 
be our own4 ,we  take refuge in a       
grievance rather than impugn the        

supremacy of our ego4  ,indeed1 it seems
 to be necessary for healthy subjective 
activity1 so to  speak1 that a sort of  
imperialism of the ego1 however         
circumscribed1  be maintained4 ,it is   
the condition sine qua non of the       
necessary  measure of well-being of the 
individual4 ,it is most reluctantly     
relinquished1 and we constantly see the 
plainest truths immolated that  it be   
retained4 ,only in the great            
self-effacement of melancholia and  in  
those rare characters who recognize and 
bear complacently naked  truths--the    
,weltschmerz of ,goethe--is this        
well-being renounced4  ,even those who  
are willing to father their own wounded 
ego still  seek the necessary           
approbation by reducing its future      
pretensions  or claims so that they may 
not be again pained by their failure to 
achieve them4 ,they unhitch their wagon 
from the star4 ,professor  ,james has   
illustrated this by a fraction showing  
that our approbation  is determined by  

our success divided by our pretensions4 
,thus1  success_/pretensions            
approbation 7self-esteem74 ,the quotient
 may  be increased by diminishing the   
pretensions or by increasing the        
success4 ,james's fraction is as        
applicable to the moral conduct as to   
the intellectual side4    ,when we look 
for the physical equivalent of the      
mental state which  evokes the sense of 
injury we find it in dynamic and toxic  
states  of the nervous system and their 
correlation4 ,certain conditions of  the
 individual or environment bring these  
into special relief4 ,old  age is one4  
,the querulousness1 the sense of abuse  
or persecution  which afflict the aged  
and often lead them to take refuge in   
the  martyr-spirit1 are sad examples4   
,the state of fatigue or exhaustion is  
another1 and neurasthenic insanity is   
only an expression in greater  degree of
 the morbid mental action found in      
fatigue and exhausted  states4    ,the  
primary and secondary effects of alcohol

 or other narcotic  indulgence is       
another soil in which the sense of      
injury easily grows4  ,the habitu is    
notoriously suspicious and irritable1   
and full of  fictitious grievances and  
unwarranted persecutory ideas4 ,his     
attitude  toward them is that of the    
paranoiac1 vindictive1 rather than that 
of the melancholiac1 humiliated4 ,they  
swell the army of so-called  borderland 
cases of insanity1 fretting their       
friends and puzzling the  doctor with   
conduct alternately interpreted as      
cussed or crazy4    ,where there is     
bodily disease1 acute or chronic1 the   
morbid sense  of injury is much in play4
 ,an intelligent patient1 on recovery   
from  a stomach disorder1 admitted that 
whenever her stomach had ached she  was 
taken with a violent hatred of her      
companion with whom she was in          
affectionate relation4 ,an ignorant     
,southern colored woman1 who had        
rheumatism in her ankle1 believed that  
she had been hoodooed1 and  explained   

the pain in her ankle by the presence of
 a snake1 which she  believed had been  
put there by a hoodoo4 ,she was not     
insane1 the  idea being consistent with 
her degree of intelligence1 training1   
and  early environment4 ,another        
patient1 a sensible1 cultivated woman1  
while suffering from a non-nervous      
illness1 in which she had received  all 
the consideration that love and money   
could furnish1 believed  herself to have
 been constantly and deliberately       
abused4 ,after her  recovery1 now some  
years1 she still maintains the belief4  
,instances  could be multiplied1 for    
doctors continually meet this atmosphere
 in  the sick-room1 from ugly little    
grievances to delusions of persecution4 
,they are not surprised when a patient  
tells them in mingled confidence  and   
complaint that he is hungry and         
neglected1 that they will  give him     
nothing to eat1 etc41 to find that his  
wife has been most  attentive1 has been 
pressing him to eat1 and has stocked the

 pantry in  anticipation4 ,dr4 ,johnson 
had plenty of ground for saying that a  
sick  man is a rascal1 though the modern
 doctor has reversed the formula4       
,persons who suffer from actual trouble 
or ill treatment easily develop  a      
morbid sense of injury1 just as under   
similar conditions they may  become     
insane4 ,unable to estimate the precise 
amount of their real  grievance1 there  
is an easy mental overflow into the     
fictitious  ones4 ,it is for this reason
 that the narrative of a real trouble or
  quarrel is so fraught with calumnious 
arraignment of others that it  is       
unreliable until we have heard the other
 side of the story1 and  that when      
disputants meet and explanations follow 
they often find  that they have no casus
 belli4 ,in the examination of the      
alleged  insane for commitment we have  
constantly to separate the real from the
  imaginary troubles4 ,mr4 ,f---- was   
the subject of such examination4 ,he    
was suffering from heart disease1 and   

thereby compelled to remain at  home    
idle4 ,his wife was supporting the      
family by keeping boarders1  and he     
began to develop a morbid jealousy of   
her4 ,he annoyed her by a  constant     
surveillance and suspicion of her every 
act1 which amounted  at times to the    
delusion that she was unfaithful to him1
 and which  culminated one night in an  
outbreak in which the police figured4   
,it  was difficult to separate his real 
from his imaginary grievances1 for  his 
wife had ceased to have any affection   
for him1 though his delusion  in regard 
to her unfaithfulness was unfounded and 
had been grafted  upon his real trouble4
 ,sent to a general hospital1 he        
improved1 and  was reported not insane4 
,circumstances requiring a hard struggle
  for existence1 disappointment without 
apparent cause1 coupled with a  certain 
sentimental cast of mind1 often prevent 
the correct estimation  of the wrongs   
suffered and the proper relation of     
undoubted misfortunes4    ,in the insane

 the sense of injury or its             
analogue--delusions of                  
persecution--appears in numerous shapes4
 ,thus patients are defrauded1  or      
conspired against1 or acted upon by     
witchcraft1 magnetism1  electricity1 or 
poisoned1 or preached against1 or       
subjected to  disagreeable odors4       
,sometimes the delusions are but        
ill-defined  and vague4 ,often it is    
possible to trace them to their         
underlying  disordered sense impression 
or the particular environment or to     
vestiges of outgrown beliefs4 ,they     
appear in depressed states of           
melancholia as well as in the exalted   
states of mania and paranoia4  ,in      
melancholia they accompany a feeling of 
worthlessness which is the  patient's   
explanation of his persecution--i4 e41  
he is unworthy of  better treatment4 ,in
 paranoia the patient believes the      
persecution to  be prompted by fear or  
envy of him1 and there is consequently a
 feeling  of self-importance--a morbid  

egotism which is in direct proportion to
  the magnitude or complexity of the    
ideas of persecution4 ,indeed1 it  is   
probable that these ideas of            
persecution1 acting on a potentially    
melancholic or a potentially paranoiac  
mind1 whatever these may be1  determine 
the type that these mental diseases     
take4    ,the difference between the    
injured sense in the sane and insane    
states we must from our view point1     
without essaying to bridge all  the     
terra incognita which lies between      
sanity and insanity1 regard  as largely 
but one of degree4 ,and so with the     
underlying mental and  physical states4 
,we find the morbid ideas more fixed in 
the sane than  in the insane1 frequent  
repetitions of the morbid impression    
tending  to its final organization1 so  
to speak4 ,we also find that the morbid 
idea is usually more elaborated in the  
insane than in the sane state1  although
 instances of the greatest elaboration  
are sometimes met with1  especially     

where the element of some external      
foundation is large4 ,it  is probable1  
however1 that the elements of fixity and
 elaboration of  the persecutory idea   
are after all dependent upon and in     
proportion to  the intensity of the     
underlying brain and mind states4 ,in   
other words1  that to increase a given  
intensity of these states is to increase
 the  fixity and elaborateness of the   
sense of injury1 is to prevent the      
correction of the morbid idea1 until    
finally exploited in conduct1  which is 
the dbut of the insanity4    ,thus the  
relativity of insanity which has all    
along been maintained is  clear on the  
line here pursued4 ,it would be equally 
so in following  other lines of morbid  
psychology4 ,it has1 though1 received   
but little  general recognition1 and    
writers still treat insanity as an      
entity  apart from its bearings on the  
average mind and its evolutionary       
history4 ,the word insanity1 or lunatic1
 is no doubt largely  responsible for   

this1 suggesting popularly1 as it does1 
a distinct  class of persons--a type of 
being as unlike ourselves as a ,martian 
might be fancied to be4 ,nature or      
science1 however1 has set no line       
between the morbid mental manifestations
 which constitute sanity and  those     
which constitute insanity1 that being an
 arbitrary1 however  practical1         
distinction which science has had rather
 to descend to  meet4 ,nothing so stands
 in the way of the best welfare of the  
insane  than this abysmal ignorance     
which still prevails in regard to       
them--an  ignorance which still clings  
to the medival idea of insanity1 the    
classical portraiture1 as in the        
pictures of ,hogarth1 or on the stage1  
or in fiction2 an ignorance which is    
ever hearkening for the maniac's  shriek
 or the clanking of his fetters1 which  
recognizes nothing short  of furious    
madness as sufficient ground for        
committing a brain-sick  man to the     
tender therapy of the hospital ward4    

,but those who know best tell us that   
the insane are very much like  other    
people1 that there is wonderfully little
 difference between them  and ourselves2
 and sometimes but a slight             
circumstance1 a mere accident  of       
environment1 determines which side of   
the hospital wall we shall be  on4      
,,early ,,experiments ,,in ,,air        
,,flight4    ,,by ,m4 ,,banet ,,rivet4  
,man has sought in all times and at all 
places to find means of leaving  the    
earth's surface1 in imitation of the    
birds1 and rising into the  air4        
,ancient legendary lore furnishes many  
stories1 like those of  ,ddalus and his 
son ,icarus1 of attempts of this sort4  
,in the fourth  century ,b4 ,c41        
,archytas of ,tarentum1 a learned       
,pythagorean1 who has  been credited    
with the invention of the screw1 the    
pulley1 and the  kite1 according to     
,aulus ,gellius1 constructed a wooden   
dove which could  rise and sustain      
itself in the air by some mechanism the 

arrangement of  which is not known4     
,credible accounts exist of an ,english 
,benedictine  monk1 ,oliver of          
,malmesbury1 in the eleventh century1   
having tried to  fly by precipitating   
himself from the height of a tower1 with
 the  assistance of wings attached to   
his arms and his feet4 ,it is said that1
  after having gone along a little way1 
he fell and broke his legs4 ,he         
attributed his accident to failure to   
provide his apparatus with a  tail1     
which would have helped preserve his    
equilibrium and made the  descent a     
gentler one4    ,in the sixteenth       
century1 ,leonardo da ,vinci first      
demonstrated that a  bird1 which is     
heavier than the air1 sustains itself1  
advances in the  air1 by rendering the  
fluid denser where it passes than where 
it does  not pass4 ,in order to fly it  
has to fix its point of support on the  
air2 its wing in the descending stroke  
exerts a pressure from above  down1 the 
reaction of which from below up forces  

the center of gravity  of its body to   
ascend at each instant to the height at 
which the bird  wishes to maintain it4  
,some sketches that have come down to us
 prove  that ,leonardo occupied himself1
 like ,oliver of ,malmesbury1 with      
giving  man power to fly by the aid of  
wings suitably fixed to his body4 ,we   
owe  to ,leonardo also the invention of 
the parachute1 which he described in    
the following terms3 ,if a man had a    
pavilion1 each side of which was        
fifteen braces wide and twelve braces   
high1 he might cast himself from  any   
height whatever1 without fear of danger4
 ,it may be said1 too1 of  ,leonardo da 
,vinci1 that he was the first to suggest
 the idea of the  screw propeller4 ,if1 
he said1 this instrument in the form of 
a screw  is properly made--that is1 made
 of linen cloth1 the interstices of     
which have been filled with starch--and 
if we turn it rapidly1 such a  screw    
will make a bearing nut for itself      
through the air and rise4 ,this  can be 

proved by moving a broad1 thin rule     
rapidly through the air1  when it will  
be found that the arm is forced to      
follow in the direction  of the edge of 
the board4 ,the frame for the cloth of  
which ,i have been  speaking should be  
made of long1 stout reeds4 ,a model of  
it might be  made in paper1 with1 for   
its axis1 a thin strip of iron which we 
twist  forcibly4 ,when the strip is left
 free it will turn the screw4    ,in    
#afhj ,borelli published some studies of
 a remarkably correct  character on the 
flight of birds4 ,according to his view1
 the wing  acts upon the air in the     
phase of beating down1 in the manner of 
an  inclined plane1 so as1 by virtue of 
the resistance opposed by the  air1 to  
push the body of the animal upward at   
first and then onward4  ,the action of  
the ascending wing was compared to that 
of a kite1 and  it would consequently   
continue to sustain the body of the bird
 while  waiting the following stroke4   
,but ,borelli never thought of turning  

his observations to advantage1 so as to 
supply man with the means  of flying4   
,attention was much engaged in #agdb    
with the attempt of  the ,marquis de    
,bacqueville1 substantially repeating   
that of ,oliver  of ,malmesbury1 which  
was terminated by a similar accident4   
,mention  should also be made of        
,paucton1 who in #agfh drafted a plan   
for a screw  machine4 ,in #aghd ,launoy 
and ,bienvenu exhibited and operated1   
before  the ,academy of ,sciences in    
,paris1 a screw which was moved by a    
strong  spring4 ,before this1 however1  
,joseph and ,stephen ,montgolfier had   
filled  the world with the noise of     
their discovery of the air balloon1 and 
the  ingenious machine of these aronauts
 failed to receive the attention it     
deserved4    ,it has been known since   
the days of ,archimedes that every body 
partly  or wholly submerged in a liquid 
in equilibrium suffers a vertical push  
upward from the fluid equal to the      
weight of liquid it displaces4    ,let  

us consider the case of a body entirely 
plunged in a liquid--water1  for        
example4 ,if its weight exceeds the     
thrust it suffers it will fall  to the  
bottom of the water under the action of 
a descensional force  equal1 at each    
instant1 to the difference between the  
weight of the  body1 which is           
invariable1 and the thrust1 which is    
invariable also1  and thus constant in  
direction and also in amount4 ,if the   
weight of the  body is less than the    
thrust1 the latter overcomes it1 and1   
contrary  to the usual laws of weight1  
the body will rise under the action of  
an ascensional force1 which will        
evidently be likewise constant in       
amount as well as in direction4 ,a cork 
held down at the bottom of a  vessel of 
water and then left to itself will      
supply an example of this  ascensional  
movement4    ,a third case may be       
presented--that in which the weight of  
the body  is equal to the thrust of the 
water4 ,weight and thrust are then in   

mutual equilibrium4 ,no force invites   
the body either to descend or to  rise1 
and it remains balanced in the midst of 
the liquid1 wherever it  happens to have
 been placed4 ,this state of indifferent
 equilibrium is1  however1 possible only
 if the weight of the body remains      
rigorously  constant4 ,the slightest    
augmentation of the weight immediately  
causes  the body to descend1 while the  
slightest diminution sends it up4 ,from 
this source arise the difficulties that 
are met in the construction  of         
submarine boats1 when their ascent or   
descent is obtained by  means of air    
chambers1 which are filled with water or
 emptied of it  according to the        
requirements4 ,the equilibrium of these 
engines is  always precarious1 and this 
explains why none of them1 from that of 
,van  ,drebbel in #afbj to the          
experiments of ,goubet in #ahie1 have   
given really  practical results in the  
matter of stability of immersion4       
,when ,galileo1 following ,aristotle1   

had demonstrated the ponderability  of  
the air1 and ,torricelli had proved that
 atmospheric pressure was a  result of  
that property1 it was immediately       
thought that the principle  discovered  
by ,archimedes might be extended to the 
air1 and ,otto von  ,guericke gave an   
experimental demonstration of it by the 
invention of  the baroscope4    ,from   
this period it seems1 then1 that the    
discovery of aronautics was  possible4  
,if the weight of the volume of air     
displaced is greater than  that of the  
body1 the latter should take an         
ascensional movement in the  atmosphere1
 as a cork does when plunged into water2
 and it is evident  that for a body to  
satisfy such conditions we have only to 
fill a very  light envelope with a gas  
less dense than the ambient air4 ,but   
the  study of gases was still in its    
infancy in the seventeenth century1 and 
it required the labors of ,mortrel      
d'lement and ,hales1 at the beginning   
of the following century1 to teach      

physicists how to collect and retain    
them4    ,the history of the progress of
 the human mind shows1 further1 that the
  pure and simple acceptance of a       
scientific discovery is not enough to   
make it produce all the consequences we 
have a right to expect from it4  ,it    
must1 further1 impregnating the mind    
with itself1 pass1 we might  say1 into  
the condition of an innate idea4        
,chemistry1 in this very  matter of the 
discovery of the weight of the air and  
of the gases1  presents a striking      
example of the accuracy of our          
proposition4 ,the  ponderability of the 
air had been accepted by physicists for 
a long  time1 while chemists continued  
to take no account of it1 although1 as  
,mendeleef has remarked1 no exact idea  
could be conceived1 under such          
conditions1 concerning most chemical    
phenomena4 ,it is to the glory of       
,lavoisier that he first took account of
 this ponderability and of that  of all 
the gases as well4 ,when we reflect that

 it was not till about  #agge1 or a     
hundred and fifty years after ,galileo1 
that this illustrious  ,frenchman began 
to set forth those ideas1 it is not any 
wonder that  the discovery of arostats  
was not made till toward the end of the 
eighteenth century4 ,lalande was        
therefore much in the wrong when he     
said it was so simple6 why was it not   
done before8    ,it would not be just1  
however1 to refer the discovery of      
arostats  solely to the efforts of the  
,montgolfiers4 ,like all inventors1 like
  ,lavoisier himself1 these brothers1 as
 ,figuier has remarked1 had the  benefit
 of a long series of isolated labors1   
carried on often without  special       
purpose1 by which the elements of their 
invention had been  gathered up4    ,pre
 ,lana1 of ,brescia1 conceived a plan in
 #afgj for constructing a ship  which   
should sustain itself in the air and    
move by the aid of sails4  ,four copper 
globes1 in which a vacuum had been      
produced in order to  render them       

lighter than the volume of air          
displaced1 were to support  the ship    
while the sails propelled it4 ,the      
scientific conception of the  empty     
globes was correct1 but ,pre ,lana did  
not think of the enormous  collapsing   
force which the atmospheric pressure    
would exercise upon  them4 ,the idea of 
a sail which would give his arial boat a
 resemblance  to a vessel driven by the 
winds was wholly erroneous4             
,sixty-five years later1 in #agce1 ,pre 
,galien1 of ,avignon1 gave a  fairly    
clear expression to the theory of       
arostats4 ,resting on the  principle of 
,archimedes1 he maintained that if he   
could fill a globe  made of light cloth 
with a sufficiently rarefied air the    
globe would  necessarily possess an     
ascensional force1 which would permit it
 to lift  itself up in the air with a   
ship and all its cargo4 ,he proposed to 
draw  this rarefied air from out of the 
upper regions of the atmosphere1  down  
from the summits of high mountains1     

forgetting that the air1 when  brought  
down to the level of the ground1 would  
contract in volume and  assume the      
density of the ambient atmosphere4      
,in the condition of ignorance of the   
properties of gases that existed  in    
that age1 it did not occur1 and could   
not have occurred1 to ,pre  ,galien to  
use other gases than air2 no more could 
he have thought  of employing heat to   
rarefy the air1 for the first not very  
precise  notions on the decrease in     
densities of gases by heat only date    
from  ,priestley4 ,but when ,cavendish1 
in #agfe1 had fully studied hydrogen    
gas1 and shown that as it was prepared  
then it was seven times lighter  than   
air1 ,black was enabled to suggest that 
by filling a light bag  with hydrogen   
the bag would be able to raise a certain
 weight in the  air4 ,the labors of     
,cavendish1 ,black1 and the discoveries 
of oxygen1  nitrogen1 and other gases by
 ,priestley1 were described by          
,priestley  a few years afterward in the

 celebrated book on ,the ,different     
,kinds  of ,air--a book which ,stephen  
and ,joseph ,montgolfier had in their   
possession4 ,the two brothers evidently 
found the germ of their  invention in   
it4    ,it is fair to say that the      
,montgolfiers1 who were already known in
 the  learned world by their discoveries
 in the mechanical sciences1 had        
thought1 before they knew of            
,priestley's book1 of a way of imitating
  ,nature by inclosing vapor of water1 a
 gas lighter than air1 in a paper  bag1 
which would be lifted up1 the vapor     
contained in the bag being  sustained in
 the air like a cloud4 ,but the vapor   
condensed1 and the  weighted balloon    
shortly fell to the ground4 ,the smoke  
produced by  burning wood inclosed in a 
bag gave no better results4 ,after      
seeing  ,priestley's book1 they         
substituted hydrogen for vapor and for  
smoke1  but the gas passed through the  
paper bag1 and they gave up this        
attempt4    ,they then fancied that     

electricity was one of the causes of the
 rise  of clouds1 and sought for a gas  
that had electrical properties4 ,they   
thought they could obtain it by burning 
wet straw and wool together4  ,a box    
made of silk was filled with this gas1  
and they had the great  satisfaction of 
seeing it rise to the ceiling of their  
room1 and1 in a  second experiment1 into
 the air4 ,this was in ,november1 #aghb4
    ,five months previously1 ,tiberius  
,cavallo1 in ,england1 had repeated     
,black's experiment of filling a paper  
sack with hydrogen2 but1 as  the        
,montgolfiers had found1 the hydrogen   
leaked through the paper4  ,cavallo had 
better success with soap bubbles1 which 
held the gas4 ,his  experiments stopped 
here1 while the ,montgolfiers carried   
theirs on to  practical                 
success4--,translated for the ,popular  
,science ,monthly from  the ,revue      
,scientifique4          ,,sketch ,,of   
,,edward ,,orton1    ,,late ,,state     
,,geologist ,,of ,,ohio2 ,,late         

,,president ,,of ,,the ,,american       
,,association ,,for ,,the ,,advancement 
,,of ,,science4      ,all persons       
interested in ,american science were    
surprised and shocked  at learning of   
the death1 from heart trouble1 on       
,october #af1 #ahii1 of  ,prof4 ,edward 
,orton1 of the ,ohio ,state ,university4
 ,the event occurred  only little less  
than two months after ,professor ,orton 
had presided1  with a simplicity of     
manner that did not hide but rather     
heightened  the traits of vigor in his  
character1 over the meeting of the      
,american  ,association for the         
,advancement of ,science at his home in 
,columbus1  ,ohio4 ,the services he     
rendered to geology1 his long and       
honorable  career as an educator1 and   
his continual and consistent insistence 
upon the faithful use of the scientific 
method well entitle him to  be          
remembered as one of the most           
meritorious of ,american scientific     
workers4    ,,edward ,,orton was born in

 ,deposit1 ,delaware ,county1 ,n4 ,y41  
,march #i1  #ahbi4 ,he was descended    
from ,thomas ,orton1 who1 born in       
,england in  #afac1 was one of the      
fifty-three original settlers and owners
 of  ,farmington1 ,conn41 was of the    
stock from which most of the ,ortons in 
the ,united ,states are derived1 and    
represented his town in the ,general    
,court in #aghd4 ,another ancestor1 a   
grandson of ,thomas ,orton1 was one  of 
the original purchasers and settlers of 
,litchfield1 ,conn41 where  he owned a  
square mile of land known as ,orton     
,hill1 on the south side  of ,bantam    
,lake4 ,two of the maternal ancestors of
 the subject of this  sketch fought in  
the colonial wars1 and ten ,ortons were 
soldiers in the  ,revolution4    ,young 
,edward ,orton was taught by his father1
 the ,rev4 ,samuel ,g4 ,orton1  ,d4 ,d41
 and received further training          
preparatory for college in the          
academies of ,westfield and ,fredonia1  
,n4 ,y4 ,he entered ,hamilton ,college1 

whence his father had been graduated in 
#ahbb1 in #ahde as a sophomore1  and was
 graduated in #ahdh in a class among the
 other members of which  were the ,rev4 
,dr4 ,thomas ,s4 ,hastings1 ,president  
of ,union ,theological  ,seminary1 ,new 
,york1 and the ,hon4 ,f4 ,j4 ,van       
,alstyne1 afterward ,mayor of  ,albany1 
,n4 ,y41 and member of ,congress4 ,after
 his graduation he taught  for a number 
of years in academies at ,erie1 ,pa41   
,franklin1 ,n4 ,y41 and  ,chester1 ,n4  
,y41 and became1 in #ahef1 ,professor of
 ,natural ,science in  the ,state       
,normal ,school at ,albany1 ,n4 ,y4 ,he 
pursued post-graduate  studies in       
chemistry1 botany1 and other subjects at
 the ,lawrence  ,scientific ,school1    
with ,professors ,horsford1 ,cooke1 and 
,gray as his  teachers1 and studied     
theology for a time under ,dr4 ,lyman   
,beecher1 at  ,lane1 and ,dr4 ,edwards  
,a4 ,park1 at ,andover ,seminaries4     
,while teaching at  ,chester1 ,n4 ,y41  
he was called to ,antioch ,college1     

,yellow ,springs1 ,ohio1  where he took 
charge of the preparatory department in 
#ahfe2 was made  ,professor of ,natural 
,history shortly afterward1 and was made
 president  of the college in #ahgb1 but
 retained the office for only one year1 
at  the end of which he went to occupy a
 similar position in the ,state         
,university at ,columbus4    ,when the  
second ,geological ,survey of ,ohio was 
undertaken in #ahfi under  the charge of
 ,prof4 ,j4 ,s4 ,newberry1 ,professor   
,orton was appointed  an assistant by   
,governor ,rutherford ,b4 ,hayes1 and   
was continued by  reappointment by      
,governor ,e4 ,f4 ,noyes4 ,when         
,professor ,newberry withdrew  from the 
survey in #ahha1 ,professor ,orton was  
appointed ,state ,geologist  by         
,governor ,charles ,foster1 and he was  
afterward reappointed to the  position  
successively by ,governors ,hoadley1    
,foraker1 ,campbell1 and  ,bushnell4 ,he
 retained the title of ,state ,geologist
 till his death1  although he had not   

been engaged in any active public work  
on the  survey for a considerable time4 
,the ,ohio ,state ,university having    
been established on the basis of  the   
grants of land made to the ,states for  
colleges under the ,morrill             
,land-,grant ,act1 ,professor ,orton was
 appointed its president and  ,professor
 of ,geology4 ,he discharged the duties 
of this office for  eight years1 or till
 #ahha4 ,but the executive work of the  
president's  office was irksome to him1 
since it grew constantly heavier as the 
young college expanded1 and therefore   
left him less and less time  for        
teaching and research in geology4 ,being
 in a measure compelled  to make a      
choice between the two fields of        
activity1 he chose the  less ambitious  
position1 resigning the presidency1 and 
assuming the  position of ,professor of 
,geology1 which he retained for the     
remainder  of his life4 ,the geological 
building of the university is named     
after  him--,orton ,hall4 ,besides his  

work on the ,geological ,survey of ,ohio
 and  his participation in the          
composition of its reports1 ,professor  
,orton  prepared1 for the ,eighth       
,annual ,report of the ,united ,states  
,geological  ,survey1 a paper on the    
,new ,oil and ,gas ,fields of ,ohio and 
,indiana1  and another1 only recently   
published in the ,nineteenth ,annual    
,report  of the ,united ,states ,survey1
 on the ,rock ,waters of ,ohio2 a volume
 for  the ,geological ,survey of        
,kentucky on the ,petroliferous         
,production of  the ,western ,part of   
the ,state1 published in #ahia2 and a   
report on  petroliferous productions    
which is in process of publication by   
the  ,geological ,survey of ,new ,york4 
,in the paper on the ,oil and ,gas      
,fields of ,ohio and ,indiana the       
discovery of the supply of those        
materials1 the great value of which  was
 only realized in #ahhd and afterward1  
is spoken of as being more  surprising  
and anomalous than any similar discovery

 that had preceded  it1 and as a        
development which experts were hardly   
more prepared for  than others4 ,the oil
 and gas derived from the ,trenton      
limestone in  certain parts of these    
,states were found to differ from the   
oil and  gas in the ,pennsylvania wells 
in chemical composition and physical    
properties1 in the horizons from which  
they were obtained1 in the  structural  
features of the rocks associated with   
their production1  and1 most of all1 in 
the kind of rock that produced them4 ,no
 facts  more unexpected have ever been  
brought to light in connection with  the
 geology of this country than those with
 which we are now becoming  acquainted4 
,professor ,orton's paper1 which fills  
one hundred and  eighty of the large    
pages of the report of the ,geological  
,survey1  includes a sketch of the      
history of the discovery to ,july1      
#ahhg1  when it was prepared2 a         
designation of what was known in regard 
to  the geological scale and geological 

structure of the regions within  which  
the new fields are embraced1 and the    
tracing of the chief  factors that      
influence or control the productiveness 
of the oil rock1  with the description  
of the special features and boundaries  
of the  several fields and the setting  
forth of the leading facts and present  
development of these lately found       
sources of power4 ,two principal        
conditions under which the new oil rock 
had proved petroliferous on a  large    
scale were found to be porosity1        
connected with and apparently  dependent
 on the chemical transformation of the  
upper portion of the  limestone1 for a  
number of feet in thickness1 into a     
highly crystalline  dolomite2 and a     
relief resulting from slight warping of 
the strata1  whereby the common contents
 of the porous portions of the ,trenton 
limestone had been differentiated by    
gravity1 the gas and oil seeking  the   
highest levels1 and the salt water      
maintaining a lower but definite        

elevation in every field4 ,professor    
,orton found nothing in the new         
experience to make it safe to count the 
,trenton limestone an oil  rock or a gas
 rock in any locality1 unless it could  
be shown to have  undergone the         
dolomitic replacement by which its      
porosity was assured2  and even in case 
it had suffered this transformation it  
would not be  found a reservoir of gas  
or oil in an important sense unless some
 parts  of it had acquired the relief   
essential to the due separation of its  
liquid and gaseous contents4    ,the    
report on the ,rock ,waters of ,ohio    
concerns1 first1 those waters1  chiefly 
in the northwestern and western part of 
the ,state1 that are  obtained from a   
considerable depth as compared with     
ordinary wells1 the  knowledge of which 
was almost wholly derived from wells    
drilled in the  search for oil and gas1 
and was necessarily fragmentary and     
incomplete2  because water was not      
included among the objects of search1   

but was  considered a hindrance and     
obstruction to be got out of the way as 
well  as possible2 and1 second1 flowing 
wells1 including only those having      
considerable head of pressure and those 
occurring in considerable  areas1 all of
 which belong entirely to the drift4    
,further1 a brief  review is given of   
some facts of unusual interest that were
 developed  in the deep drillings       
concerning the preglacial drainage      
system of the  part of the ,state in    
question4 ,indications of old river     
channels1 one  of which seems to have   
been extensive1 were found at several   
points4  ,among the curious results of  
these studies was the conclusion1       
seeming  to be already established1 that
 the ,ohio ,river1 as we now know the   
stream1 is of recent origin1 and that   
the main volume of water gathered  in it
 at the present time originally flowed  
across the ,state to the  northward at  
least as far as ,auglaize and ,mercer   
,counties1 where it  turned to the      

westward toward the present lines of    
,wabash drainage in  ,indiana4          
,professor ,orton seems to have placed  
considerable emphasis  on the value of a
 study of the rocky floor of the ,state1
 concerning  which all we know at       
present is derived from the revelations 
of deep  drillings at haphazard2 and he 
thought it would be a good work for  the
 ,state to make use of all accessible   
data of this kind at once in            
constructing a model of the rocky floor 
of the region under review4 ,the  care  
and fidelity with which he studied the  
underground geology are  exemplified in 
a map attached to the paper on the oil  
and gas fields1  in which the horizons  
of the ,trenton limestone are indicated 
and  approximately bounded as they occur
 by gradations ranging from fifty  to   
two hundred and fifty feet1 from        
elevations above the ocean level  to one
 thousand and more feet below4 ,another 
contribution of ,professor  ,orton's    
which may appropriately be given special

 notice is his part  of the article on  
,ohio in the ,encyclopdia ,britannica1  
in which a  succinct1 clear1 and        
comprehensive account of the geology of 
the whole  ,state is given1 with its    
salient features delineated so sharply  
that  one may almost conceive from it a 
definite geological picture of the      
region4    ,of all his scientific work1 
however1 ,professor ,orton regarded  the
 fixing of the order of the coal        
measures of ,ohio as the most           
important2 and he considered the        
determination of the order of the       
subcarboniferous strata1 and            
particularly of the ,berea ,grit1 as    
constituting a large permanent service  
to the study of the geology of  the     
,state4    ,at the recent meeting of the
 ,american ,association for the         
,advancement  of ,science ,professor    
,orton contributed a special paper on   
the local  geology of ,columbus1 the    
place of the meeting1 in which he dwelt 
largely on the origin of the drift that 

marks the superficial geology  of the   
vicinity4    ,of the work he has done   
for the increase and advancement of     
knowledge1  the extent of a part of     
which we have only faintly indicated by 
the  mention of a few particular        
researches1 ,professor ,orton put the   
highest  value on his labors as a       
teacher1 a calling to which he was      
devoted for  more than half a century4  
,he found peculiar pleasure in          
instructing  the children of the old    
pupils whom he had taught in his younger
 days4  ,he was actively concerned in   
the promotion and extension of sanitary 
science1 his addresses in that field    
having been one of the factors  that led
 to the establishment of the ,ohio      
,state ,board of ,health4 ,he was  also 
greatly interested in the advancement of
 agriculture4    ,a theme on which      
,professor ,orton was fond of dwelling  
in his public  addresses was the amount 
and value of what has been accomplished 
within a comparatively short time in the

 world's history by the use  of the     
methods of science4 ,in an address      
delivered before the alumni  of         
,hamilton ,college in #ahhh he          
maintained that we were living in a     
revolutionary period1 which is marked by
 a great advance in knowledge  and a    
vastly larger control of the forces of  
,nature2 by a large  increase in freedom
 of thought and action2 by a sudden and 
remarkable  addition to the mobility of 
man1 accompanied by an unexampled growth
  of great cities2 and by an            
incalculable addition to the wealth of  
the world4 ,accompanying these great    
changes in the material and             
intellectual world were certain moral   
transformations appearing to grow  out  
of them4 ,all these advances were       
ascribed to a movement--a new  method of
 investigating ,nature--that began1 so  
far as its particular  and continuous   
development is concerned1 about three   
hundred years  ago1 but to which no date
 or founder's name could be attached4   

,this  new philosophy thoroughly        
respected ,nature1 was humble1 patient  
in the  accumulation of facts and the   
trial of its theories1 comprehensive1   
progressive1 and hopeful4 ,it has given 
us the marvelous increase  of knowledge 
which especially marks the nineteenth   
century2 it has  impressed its influence
 upon all branches of study1 and has    
wrought  great improvements in methods  
and results2 and has rendered an immense
  and inestimable service to ,christian 
theology1 and done much to broaden  and 
rationalize it and thus to perpetuate   
and strengthen its hold on  the world4  
,finally1 the method of science was     
pronounced the best gift  that ,god has 
given to the mind of man4 ,a similar    
train of thought as  to the material    
aspects is apparent1 though in a        
somewhat different  form1 in an address 
on ,the ,stored 7or ,fossil7 ,power of  
the ,world1  delivered in #ahid4    ,a  
considerable part of ,professor ,orton's
 presidential address at the  last      

meeting of the ,american ,association   
was devoted to a summary  of the        
conclusions derived from ,alfred        
,russell ,wallace's book1 ,the          
,wonderful ,century1 that the progress  
accomplished in the present  century far
 outweighs the entire progress of the   
human race from the  beginning up to    
#ahjj4 ,in this address1 also1 the      
author felicitously  spoke of the scope 
of the ,american ,association as        
possibly including  the whole continent1
 and its object as the advancement of   
science1 the  discovery of new truth4   
,it is possible that we could make      
ourselves  more interesting to the      
general public if we occasionally       
forswore  our loyalty to our name and   
spent a portion of our time in restating
  established truths4 ,but the          
discoveries recorded1 though often      
fragmentary and devoid of special       
interest to the outside world1 all  had 
a place in the great temple of          
knowledge2 and the speaker hoped  that  

although no great discoveries should be 
reported this time1 the  meeting might  
still be a memorable one through the    
inspiration it would  give to the       
multitude of workers in the several     
fields of science4    ,professor ,orton 
was a member of several learned         
societies2 was  ,president of the       
,sanitary ,association of ,ohio in #ahhd
 and #ahhe2  received the degree of ,ph4
 ,d4 from ,hamilton ,college in #ahgf1  
and that  of ,,ll4 ,d4 from the ,ohio   
,state ,university in #ahha2 was elected
 ,president  of the ,geological ,society
 of ,america in #ahif2 and was          
designated at the  ,boston meeting of   
the ,american ,association1 #ahih1 as   
president for the  ,columbus meeting1   
#ahii4    ,in addition to his interests 
in science and theology1 ,professor     
,orton  was keenly alive to everything  
that bore on the history of man on  this
 planet4 ,he was long a member of the   
,ohio ,state ,archological and          
,historical ,society1 and had recently  

been made a member of its board of      
trustees4 ,he was a prominent member of 
the ,old ,northwest ,genealogical       
,society1 and was the author of a       
volume1 published in #ahif1 on the      
,genealogy of the ,orton ,family in     
,america4 ,the absolute freedom of his  
character from any desire for display or
 self-aggrandizement is well  shown by  
the fact that in this volume1 compiled1 
with enormous labor1  in the spare      
minutes of a busy life1 he cuts himself 
off with one  paragraph of a hundred    
words1 while devoting pages to          
contemporaneous  members of the family  
of whom the world has never elsewhere   
heard4    ,he was stricken with         
hemiplegia in ,december1 #ahia1 but was 
able to do  a considerable amount of    
work in his profession afterward4 ,a few
 days  before his death he said1 in a   
note1 that he felt that he had lived out
  his allotted time1 and that his work  
was done4 ,he never met his classes     
again1 though he continued able to be up

 and about his home till the  hour of   
his death4 ,he seemed to feel that the  
solemn event was drawing  close1 during 
the last two days of his life1 and his  
mind was always  busy with the great    
question1 ,if a man die1 shall he live  
again8 ,he  had formed an affirmative   
answer apparently1 as he read           
,browning's  ,prospice repeatedly in his
 last hours1 and seemed to find in it   
the  greatest pleasure and solace4 ,his 
death was a quiet and painless one--a   
fitting end to a beautiful life4        
,statistics of cremation1 presented by  
,m4 ,bourneville at the recent   annual 
meeting of the society in ,paris1 show  
that the number of   incinerations at   
the ,pre ,lachaise crematory has almost 
steadily   increased since #ahhi1 and   
that the whole number last year was     
#d1eac1   making #cg1jfh from the       
beginning4 ,a fair proportion of the    
number   were women4 ,there are now in  
,europe and ,america seventy            
crematories1   twenty-seven of which are

 in ,italy and twenty in the ,united    
,states4   ,cremation is making good    
progress in ,england1 where four        
crematories   are reported from1 and two
 are in course of erection4 ,germany has
 six1   where #dbc incinerations took   
place in #ahih2 ,switzerland and ,sweden
   have two each1 ,denmark one1 and one 
has been authorized in ,norway4         
,editor's ,table4      ,a ,,commission  
,,in ,,difficulties4    ,the synopsis   
which has been given to the press of the
 ,thirteenth  ,annual ,report of the    
,interstate ,commerce ,commission is not
 encouraging  reading for those who like
 to believe in legislation as an        
infallible  panacea for all public and  
social ills4 ,the tone of the document  
indeed  is very far from being one of   
triumph4 ,the note struck in the very   
first paragraph is the need for more    
legislation to save the copious         
legislation already passed from proving 
ineffectual and abortive4  ,whether it  
is that ,congress does not wish to make 

the work of the  commission successful1 
or whether it has begun to have a wise  
distrust  of its own powers1 we can not 
say2 but the commissioners complain     
bitterly of its inaction4 ,we can not do
 better than quote their own  words3    
,the reasons for the failure of the law 
to accomplish the  purposes for which it
 was enacted have been so frequently and
 fully set  forth that repetition can   
not add to their force or make them     
better  understood4 ,it is sufficient to
 say that the existing situation and the
  developments of the past year render  
more imperative than ever before  the   
necessity for speedy and suitable       
legislation4 ,we therefore renew  the   
recommendations heretofore made1 and    
earnestly urge their early              
consideration and adoption4    ,as the  
document proceeds1 we see the good      
commissioners at war with the  wicked   
railways1 and it is impossible to resist
 the conclusion that1 on  the whole1 the
 wicked railways have the best of it4   

,the commissioners  admit that certain  
cases which have come before the courts 
have been  decided against them1 and in 
favor of the railways2 but they are far 
from disclosing the full extent of the  
discouragement1 not to say              
mortification1 they receive4 ,the       
business of the commission is to        
interfere between the railways and their
 customers--the public--in  the interest
 of the latter4 ,the railways naturally 
consider this a  rather one-sided       
function1 and are not extremely zealous 
to aid in its  performance4 ,they have  
their own troubles with the public1 and 
have  no commission to come to their    
assistance4 ,everybody is after cheap   
railway rates1 just as everybody is     
after cheap goods2 and the means        
sometimes resorted to to get reductions 
would at least hold their own  for      
astuteness with any that could be       
concocted in a traffic office for  the  
raising of rates4 ,we give the          
commissioners full credit for doing     

their best to protect the interests of  
the public1 but we can not help         
doubting whether1 on the whole1 the     
public has derived much benefit  from   
their efforts4 ,in fact1 we are strongly
 inclined to the opinion  that the whole
 idea of the commission is simply a     
legislative blunder4    ,the railways   
undoubtedly possess great powers which  
theoretically  there is nothing to      
prevent their abusing to almost any     
extent4 ,but  what is theoretically     
possible is not always practically      
possible4  ,the ,president of the       
,united ,states possesses great powers1 
which  theoretically he might abuse to  
any extent2 so does the ,queen of       
,england2 so do many other potentates4  
,but of all the evil that is            
theoretically possible1 how much is     
carried out in practice8 ,all kinds  of 
things might happen if people were fools
 enough to do all the harm  that it is  
in their power to do4 ,the great saving 
fact is that it is  not possible to go  

very far in doing harm to others without
 doing it  to yourself4 ,it is this fact
 which the insatiable legislation-monger
  ignores4 ,he has an infinite faith in 
the mischief that will happen  if things
 are left alone4 ,he can not bear to    
think that somebody is  not looking     
after everybody4 ,he has no faith       
whatever in natural  law or natural     
actions and reactions1 and would hoot   
the idea of  what the poet ,wordsworth  
calls a wise passiveness4 ,such people  
have little conception of the mischief  
they do1 and of the good that  fails of 
realization through their pestilent     
activity4 ,the readers of  ,dickens will
 perhaps remember ,mrs4 ,pardiggle and  
the admirable system  of education she  
applied to her numerous family of       
children4 ,the  unhappy youngsters were 
under orders every hour of the day2 they
 were  marched round the country with   
their mother when she went on visits  of
 charity1 and compelled to contribute   
out of their own 7nominal7  pocket money

 to all kinds of religious and          
benevolent schemes4 ,how  they kicked   
and rebelled1 and what distressing      
passions were roused in  their youthful 
breasts1 the great novelist has told us2
 and we think  we may take his word for 
it4 ,the fussy legislator is a          
,pardiggle4 ,if  he would leave things  
alone1 opposing interests would find a  
modus  vivendi1 and practical justice   
would more and more assert itself4  ,the
 more interference there is between     
parties who in the last resort  are     
dependent on one another's good will1   
the less likely they are to  recognize  
their substantial identity of interest4 
,if the interference  is wholly in the  
interest of one of the parties1 the     
other is sure to  be forced into an     
undesirable attitude2 while the one     
whose protection  is the object in view 
will not unnaturally take all the       
protection he  can get1 and look for    
something more4    ,what is wanted to   
put the relations between the railways  

and the public  upon the most           
satisfactory footing possible is1 in the
 first place1  less legislative         
interference2 and1 in the second1 a     
higher tone of  business morality       
throughout the community4 ,we place this
 second not  as underrating its         
importance1 but because we believe it   
would to some  extent flow from the     
first4 ,it is when the public transfers 
its right  of eminent domain to a       
railway corporation that it should take 
adequate  measures to protect its own   
interests2 but how can this be done when
  legislation is sold--when charters are
 given or withheld1 according  to the   
amount of money available for purposes  
of persuasion8 ,with  honest legislators
 and honest courts there would be very  
little trouble  between the railways and
 the public1 and such as arose could be 
easily  remedied4 ,commerce commissions 
are a testimony to the existence of low 
standards of business morality2 and1    
unfortunately1 they tend to keep  them  

low1 if not to make them lower4    ,the 
sooner we make up our minds to trust    
more to moral influences  freely acting 
in the intercourse of man with man and  
of interest with  interest1 and less to 
legal compulsion1 the better it will be 
for us  in every department of our      
national life4 ,the ,thirteenth ,annual 
,report  of the ,interstate ,commerce   
,commission is a virtual confession of  
the  failure of legislation to          
accomplish a purpose which was supposed 
to  be easily within its field of       
action4 ,the confession is coupled with 
a demand for more legislation1 but1 were
 the demand conceded1 who can  guarantee
 that more still would not be wanted8   
,the railways are not at  the end of    
their resources1 and new laws would1 we 
fear1 be only too  likely to suggest new
 means of evasion4 ,no2 the remedy lies 
elsewhere1  and if ,congress is wise it 
will give that remedy a trial by        
allowing  the railways and the public a 
chance to arrange terms between them1   

with public opinion as the principal    
court of appeal4      ,,the ,,function  
,,of ,,the ,,public ,,library4    ,a    
paper that was read by ,mr4 ,lindsay    
,swift1 of the ,boston ,public          
,library1 at a meeting of the           
,massachusetts ,library ,club1 on the   
subject  of ,paternalism in ,public     
,libraries1 and which we find in the    
,library  ,journal for ,november last1  
is one which1 in our opinion1 deserves  
to be  separately printed and widely    
circulated4 ,it abounds in good sense1  
and  preaches a doctrine of self-help   
and self-reliance which is much needed  
in these days4    ,a question which the 
author of the paper does not discuss1   
but which1  it seems to us1 lies at the 
threshold of the whole subject1 is      
whether  the very existence of a public 
library--if we understand by the term a 
library supported by public taxes--is   
not in itself an exemplification  of    
paternalism4 ,mr4 ,swift strikes us as a
 benevolent bureaucrat who  wants to    

give the people at large a wider liberty
 in the matter of  reading than the     
ruling influences of time and place are 
disposed  to allow4 ,he sees that       
liberty is good1 that leading strings   
belong  to infancy1 and he raises his   
protest against a paternalism in the    
management of public libraries which1   
under the plea of providing only  the   
most approved reading for all classes1  
would tend to the repression  of        
individuality in the reader and the     
establishment of the supremacy  of      
commonplace4 ,but what if commonplace   
insists on being supreme and  shutting  
out whatever is not of one complexion   
with itself8 ,how are  we to resist its 
demand in the administration of a       
,state-supported1  and therefore        
majority-ruled1 institution8 ,you offer 
us1 say its  representatives1 a liberty 
we do not want for ourselves1 and are   
not  prepared to concede to others1 as  
we are sure it can not be for their     
good4 ,we are not going to consult the  

tastes of cranks1 criminals1            
intellectual aristocrats1 or social     
mugwumps of any kind4 ,for all          
practical purposes we are the public1   
and we mean to run this public  library4
 ,to the objection that a portion1 at   
least1 of the taxes is  paid by those   
whose views and tastes are not going to 
be consulted1 the  answer would be      
ready3 ,it is for the majority to say   
how taxes shall  be applied4 ,we        
recognize the excellence of ,mr4        
,swift's intentions and  sympathize with
 his way of looking at things1 but we   
feel that his  objections to paternalism
 in connection with public libraries are
  delivered from a somewhat shaky       
platform4 ,we observe that a periodical 
quoted in the ,library ,journal--the    
,overland ,monthly--makes the remark    
that there is nothing to be said for    
free books that could not be  urged in  
favor of free beefsteaks and free       
overcoats4    ,some of the points1      
however1 that are made by ,mr4 ,swift   

are deserving  of attention4 ,the       
several professions--law1 medicine1     
theology1  etc4--would more or less like
 to have only such books placed upon the
  shelves of a public library as        
represent what may be called their      
respective orthodoxies4 ,but1 as ,mr4   
,swift observes1 libraries are as  much 
the depositories of the folly as of the 
wisdom of the ages4 ,a  library1        
therefore1 should tell us what men have 
thought and attempted  in the past1 and 
what they are thinking and attempting   
now4 ,it is for  schools and colleges1  
for newspapers and reviews1 to afford   
guidance  in the wilderness of opinions1
 not for the library to make a point of 
putting out of people's reach everything
 that is not in line with the           
scientific1 literary1 or other orthodoxy
 of the hour4    ,a subtle form of      
paternalism is the deliberate           
inculcation of the  patriotic spirit1   
especially in children4 ,mr4 ,swift is a
 brave man  to attempt to stem this     

particular torrent4 ,he thinks there are
 times  when one who loves his country  
would feel shame for it rather than     
pride1 and that the motto ,my country   
right or wrong is not the most          
wholesome sentiment that can be         
impressed on the mind of youth4 ,to     
fill a child with the consummate virtues
 of ,washington1 ,jefferson1 and  other 
of our immortals1 and to leave him      
ignorant of the greatness of  ,cromwell 
and of ,william the ,silent1 is a       
serious injustice to the child  and to  
the cause of education4 ,not only is    
this done1 but1 in the  domain of       
literature as well1 it seems as if the  
only names with which  public-school    
pupils obtain any acquaintance are those
 of national  authors4 ,so far as poetry
 is concerned1 ,mr4 ,swift says that    
almost the  only name he hears from the 
lips of children frequenting the ,public
  ,library is ,longfellow4 ,he can not  
remember ever having had a call  from a 
child for ,tennyson1 while ,wordsworth  

in the school region is  equally        
unknown4    ,apart from the studied     
inculcation of a narrow patriotism1 the 
author  of the paper we are considering 
thinks that there is altogether too     
much paternalism shown in the choice of 
children's reading4 ,he has only  a     
limited and feeble faith in children's  
rooms in public libraries4  ,they are   
very much1 he thinks1 like ,sunday      
schools--convenient places  for parents 
to unload their offspring4 ,the aim of  
the censorship is  to eliminate         
everything that is not in accord with   
the most approved  canons of juvenile   
life and thought1 leaving only what is  
ready for  immediate acceptance and     
assimilation4 ,such a policy1 ,mr4      
,swift holds1  is not favorable either  
to individuality or to intellectual     
growth4  ,we must1 he says1 take books1 
like life1 as we find them1 and learn   
to distinguish good and bad2 learn1 as  
we ought1 that the good is not  so good 
as we have been told it is1 and that the

 bad contains a strong  infusion of     
good4 ,no wrecks are so fearful as those
 which come to the  young who have up to
 a point led 'sheltered lives4'    ,it  
is not1 however1 children only who get  
the benefit of a benevolent  protective 
policy4 ,selecting committees are quite 
prepared to look  after grown-up people 
as well1 and keep out of their way books
 which  might prove too exciting1 which 
might reveal depths of passion such  as 
persons leading decorous lives are not  
supposed to know anything  about1 or    
otherwise agitate the tranquil mill pond
 of their existence4  ,it does not occur
 to them that thus the salt and savor of
 human life  are expelled1 and that1    
instead of the free play of vital       
forces1  there supervenes a dreary      
mechanic round of semi-automatic        
activities  unvisited by enthusiasm1    
untouched by strong desire1 without     
dream or  vision or any quickening of   
the heart or the imagination4 ,some good
  people are excessively particular not 

only as to what may threaten  moral     
disturbance1 but as to anything that may
 encourage departures  from conventional
 modes of speech and deportment4 ,they  
do not like  to admit books that they   
regard as vulgar1 and a great mark of   
vulgarity in their opinion is the use of
 slang4 ,yet so accomplished  a         
littrateur as ,mr4 ,william ,archer told
 us lately that he pleads  guilty to an 
unholy relish for the talk of ,chimmie  
,fadden and his  ,chicago contemporary  
,artie4 ,to him1 as to ,mr4 ,swift1 the 
books in  which these worthies disport  
themselves mean something1 and something
  deserving of attention4 ,that being   
the case1 the vulgarity1 which is  part 
of the picture1 becomes in proportion to
 its truth an element of  value4 ,mr4   
,swift1 very bold and like the ancient  
prophet1 says plainly3  ,harmless books 
in general are mediocre books2 if a new 
note in morals  or society is struck1   
the suggestion of a possible            
injuriousness at  once arises4    ,taken

 as a whole1 ,mr4 ,swift's paper is a   
strong plea for individualism  and      
liberty4 ,as such we have felt it a duty
 to call attention to it1  and we trust 
that it will in some way obtain a more  
general circulation  than can be        
afforded by the useful1 but somewhat    
technical1 columns of  the ,library     
,journal4          ,fragments of        
,science4      ,longevity of            
,whales4--,some light was thrown1 a few 
years ago1  upon the subject of the     
vitality of whales by finding one of    
these  animals in ,bering ,sea1 in      
#ahij1 with a toggle harpoon head in its
  body bearing the mark of the ,american
 whaler ,montezuma4 ,that vessel  was   
engaged in whaling in ,bering ,sea about
 ten years1 but not later  than #ahed4  
,she was afterward sold to the          
,government1 and was sunk in            
,charleston ,harbor during the civil war
 to serve as an obstruction4  ,hence1 it
 is estimated1 the whale must have      
carried the harpoon not  less than      

thirty-six years4 ,in connection with   
this fact1 ,mr4 ,william  ,h4 ,dall     
gives an account1 in the ,national      
,geographic ,magazine1 of a  discussion 
with ,captain ,e4 ,p4 ,herendeen1 of the
 ,united ,states ,national  ,museum1 of 
cases of whales that have been supposed 
to have made their  way from ,greenland 
waters to ,bering ,strait1 and to have  
been identified  by the harpoons they   
carried4 ,while it is very likely that  
the whale  really makes the passage1 an 
uncertainty must always be allowed1 for 
ships were often changing ownership and 
their tools were sold and put  on board 
of other vessels1 and harpoon irons were
 sometimes given or  traded to ,eskimos4
 ,it therefore becomes possible that the
 animal was  struck with a second-hand  
iron4      ,solidification of           
,hydrogen4--,as soon as he was able to  
obtain liquid  hydrogen in manageable   
quantities1 in the fall of #ahih1 ,mr4  
,james ,dewar  began experiments for its
 solidification4 ,the apparatus he used 

was  like that employed in other        
solidification experiments1 consisting  
of a small vacuum test-tube1 containing 
the hydrogen1 placed in a  larger vessel
 of the same kind1 with excess of the   
hydrogen partly  filling the circular   
space between the two tubes4 ,no        
solidification was  produced1 and the   
effort was suspended for a time1 while  
the author  attacked other problems4    
,the experiments were renewed in #ahii1 
with  the advantage of more knowledge   
concerning reductions of temperature    
brought about by reduction of pressure4 
,a slight leak of air in the  apparatus 
was observed1 which was frozen into an  
air snow when it met  the cold vapor of 
hydrogen coming off1 and this leak at a 
particular  point of pressure caused a  
sudden solidification of the liquid     
hydrogen  into a mass like frozen foam4 
,an apparatus was then arranged that    
could  be overturned1 so that if any of 
the hydrogen was still liquid it would  
run out4 ,none ran out1 but by the aid  

of a strong light on the side  of the   
apparatus opposite the eye the hydrogen 
was seen as a solid  ice in the lower   
part1 while the surface looked frothy4  
,the melting  point of hydrogen ice was 
determined at about #af or #ag absolute 
7-#beg or -#bef ,c474 ,the solid seemed 
to possess the properties of the        
non-metallic elements rather than of the
 metals1 among which it has  been usual 
to class hydrogen4      ,the            
,gegenschein4--,much interest prevails  
among astronomers at present  concerning
 the question of the nature of the      
,gegenschein4 ,this ,german  word1 which
 means opposite shine1 is applied to    
designate a small1  somewhat oblong1    
bright spot which is sometimes seen in  
the sky at  night1 nearly opposite the  
point which is at the time occupied by  
the  sun on the opposite side of the    
globe4 ,it is near the ecliptic1 but    
appears two or three degrees away from  
exact opposition to the sun4  ,it seems 
agreed that the ,gegenschein is not     

atmospheric1 but rather  meteoric1 being
 a reflection from some collection of   
meteors4 ,the  problem set before       
astronomers is to identify the meteors4 
,a theory  that they are connected with 
the asteroidal zone1 or mass of meteors 
of which the known and numbered         
asteroids are conspicuous examples1     
has1 according to ,professor ,barnard1  
much in its favor1 but there  are       
objections to the theory which can not  
easily be reconciled with  the observed 
facts4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,evershed1 of ,kenley1  
,england1 assumes the  ,gegenschein to  
be a tail to the earth1 produced by the 
escape of  molecules of hydrogen and    
helium away from the globe in a         
direction  opposite to the sun--much as 
a comet's tail is formed4 ,other        
observers  suppose it to be connected   
with the zodiacal light or band1 which  
is  regarded as a body of meteors       
connected with the earth and            
accompanying  it1 and is plainly visible
 in the western sky after sunset in the 

spring1 rising from the place of the sun
 toward the zenith2 and ,mr4  ,william  
,anderson1 of ,madeira1 publishes a     
figure with a demonstration1  in ,the   
,observatory1 to show how its place and 
appearance may be  accounted for on this
 supposition4 ,the ,gegenschein has been
 compared  in a homely way to the       
radiance which may be seen around the   
shadows of  our heads cast by the sun   
upon the dewy grass early on a bright   
summer  morning4      ,literature for   
,children4--,mr4 ,richard le ,gallienne1
 in an article  published in the ,boston
 ,transcript1 laments the flood of      
rubbish that  is poured out under the   
guise of children's books4 ,the subject 
of  literature for children is discussed
 in the ,studies of the ,colorado       
,scientific ,society by ,prof4 ,e4 ,s4  
,parsons1 who remarks that three  of the
 greatest classics of childhood were not
 written for children  at all4          
,pilgrim's ,progress was a new type of  
sermon written by the  tinker preacher  

in his prison cell at ,bedford2         
,robinson ,crusoe was a  pseudo-history 
from the pen of one of the first great  
,english realists2  ,gulliver's ,travels
 was a political satire by the greatest 
of ,english  satirists4 ,the same thing 
is true of the stories of the ,bible1 of
 the  ,arabian ,nights1 of the folklore 
which strikes a sympathetic chord at    
once in the child's nature4444 ,child   
study1 then1 reveals the fact that  the 
child nature is the counterpart of what 
is best in books--that  children can    
appreciate literature4 ,a friend of     
,professor ,parsons  wrote him of her   
daughter1 nine years old1 being very    
fond of her  father's library1 and      
simply devoted to the ,bible and the    
plays  of ,shakespeare4 ,harriet        
,martineau1 when a child1 devoured all  
of  ,shakespeare1 sitting on a footstool
 and reading by firelight1 and  making  
shirts1 with ,goldsmith or ,thomson or  
,milton where she could  glance at them 
occasionally4 ,another of ,professor    

,parsons's friends  read all of         
,goethe's ,faust with his little        
thirteen-year-old girl1  to her great   
enjoyment1 and the little girl afterward
 read alone  all of ,chaucer's          
,canterbury ,tales4 ,many teachers have 
found young  children delighted with    
,dante4 ,these incidents and others     
point to the  inference that it is not  
necessary to go outside of the world's  
great  literature for fit material for a
 child's imaginative and emotional      
nature4 ,one of ,mr4 ,le ,gallienne's   
main conclusions is that it is very     
hard to guess beforehand what the child 
will like4      ,geography and          
,exploration in #ahii4--,no great       
geographical discoveries  were recorded 
during #ahii1 but much good work was    
done in exploration4  ,considerable     
interest has been taken in preparing    
expeditions of  antarctic research1 of  
which a ,belgian expedition has returned
  with some important results1 and ,mr4 
,borchgrevink has begun work  at ,cape  

,adar1 on the antarctic mainland4 ,the  
search for ,andre has  helped increase  
our knowledge of parts of the arctic    
coast4 ,in ,asia1  ,captain ,deasy has  
laid down the whole of the before       
unknown course  of the ,yarkand ,river1 
and has furnished other information     
concerning  little-known regions2 and   
other surveys and explorations have been
  diligently prosecuted4 ,about as much 
may be said of ,africa1 where the  want 
of adequate exploration of the          
mountainous regions on the borders  of  
,cape ,colony and ,natal has been only  
too forcibly brought home to  the       
,english4 ,expeditions sent out by      
,canadian surveys are constantly        
opening up new countries and producing  
maps of great geographical and          
industrial value4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,p4 ,low     
finds ,labrador not quite so bleak  and 
hopeless a country as had been generally
 believed4 ,sir ,martin  ,conway has    
done some very creditable exploration in
 the ,andes and in  ,tierra del ,fuego1 

the scientific results of which are of  
considerable  value4 ,in ,chile1 ,dr4   
,staffer and his colleagues have been   
exploring  the wonderful fiords of the  
coast and the rivers that come down to  
them from the ,andean range4 ,dr4       
,moreno has described the results of    
twenty-five years' exploration of the   
great ,patagonian plains1 and of  the   
lakes and glaciers and mountains on the 
eastern face of the ,andes4  ,one of the
 most important scientific enterprises  
during the year1 the  ,london ,times    
says1 was the ,german oceanographical   
expedition in the  ,valdivia1 under     
,professor ,chum1 which went south      
through the ,atlantic  to the edge of   
the antarctic ice1 and north through the
 ,indian ,ocean to  ,sumatra1 and home  
through the ,red ,sea4      ,royal      
,society ,medalists4--,the ,copley medal
 was conferred1 at the  recent          
anniversary meeting of the ,royal       
,society1 upon ,lord ,rayleigh  for his 
splendid service to physics1 his        

investigations1 the president  said in  
presenting the award1 having increased  
our knowledge in almost  every          
department of physical science1 covering
 the experimental as well  as the       
mathematical parts of the subject4 ,his 
researches1 from the  range of subjects 
they cover1 their abundance1 and their  
importance1  have rarely been paralleled
 in the history of physical science4 ,a 
summary account of the principal ones   
was given in the sketch of him          
published in the twenty-fifth volume of 
the ,popular ,science ,monthly          
7,october1 #ahhd74 ,at the same meeting 
of the ,royal ,society the ,royal       
medals were conferred upon ,prof4 ,g4   
,f4 ,fitzgerald1 for his brilliant      
contributions to physics1 and ,prof4    
,william ,c4 ,mc,intosh1 for his very   
important labors as a zologist4         
,professor ,fitzgerald's investigations 
have been in the field of radiation and 
electrical theory1 and in a  manner     
complementary to those of ,j4 ,clerke   

,maxwell4 ,among his works is  a memoir 
presenting a dynamic formulation of the 
electric theory of  light on the basis  
of the principle of least action1 which 
concludes  with a remark upon the       
advantage of emancipating our minds from
 the  thraldom of a material ether4     
,professor ,mc,intosh was spoken of as  
one  of a distinguished succession of   
monographers of the ,british fauna1     
who1 beginning with ,edward ,forbes1    
have1 during the last fifty years1  done
 work highly creditable to ,british     
zology4 ,he is author of a  great       
monograph of the ,british ,annelids1    
which is still in progress  of          
publication by the ,royal ,society1 and 
of an important contribution  to the    
,challenger reports1 and was the founder
 of the first marine  biological station
 in ,great ,britain--the ,gatty ,marine 
,laboratory at ,st4  ,andrews4 ,the     
,davy medal was bestowed upon ,edward   
,schunck for researches  of very high   
importance in organic chemistry4 ,these 

works include a  remarkable series of   
contributions to the chemistry of the   
organic  coloring matters1 particularly 
those relating to the indigo plant and  
to the madder plant4 ,of late years he  
has studied1 with distinguished         
success1 the chemistry of chlorophyll4  
,anglo-,saxon ,superiority4--,the       
question of the superiority of the      
,anglo-,saxon race is at present        
interesting economists of other stocks1 
especially of the supposed ,latin races4
 ,the fact of superiority  seems to be  
conceded4 ,the problem is to account for
 it4 ,a ,french  writer1 ,m4 ,dumoulins1
 attributes it to the superiority of    
,anglo-,saxon  educational institutions4
 ,signor ,g4 ,sergi1 the distinguished  
,italian  anthropologist1 thinks it is a
 result of the mixture of ethnic        
elements  of which the ,english people  
are made up1 and he goes over the       
history  of the colonizations which have
 overtaken ,britain1 to show how upon   
the first neolithic settlers of the     

,mediterranean stocks came a small      
emigration of the ,asiatic ,aryan or    
,indo-,european peoples4 ,csar's        
conquest brought in a ,roman infusion   
with some ,african elements1 which  did 
not last long1 but left their mark4     
,next the ,anglo-,saxon tribes of       
northern ,germany made the principal    
contribution to the formation of  the   
,english people4 ,a portion of          
,scandinavian blood was added to the    
composition1 and on top of all came the 
,normans4 ,these elements1 none  of     
which were extremely discordant with the
 others1 became thoroughly  mixed in the
 course of time1 and matured into the   
,english people as it  is4 ,the ,english
 resemble the ,romans in their methods  
of colonization1  political tact1       
practical sense1 persistence1 religious 
tolerance1  the magnitude of their works
 and the boldness of their undertakings1
  and in their egotism working together 
with the principle of social            
solidarity4 ,both readily established   

themselves in new colonies1  carrying   
there the civilization of the mother    
country and their systems  of           
administration4 ,the great roads and    
wonderful bridges constructed by  the   
,romans are paralleled by the great     
,anglo-,saxon railway systems4 ,as  the 
,latin language became almost universal1
 so the ,english language is  diffusing 
itself everywhere4 ,but ,signor ,sergi  
fails to show why1 if the  ,english have
 taken so much from the ,romans1 the    
,italians1 their direct  descendants1   
have lost so much of what they once had4
 ,he reserves that  question1 after     
raising it1 for future consideration4   
,carbonic ,acid and ,climate4--,the     
great importance of the carbonic  acid  
in the atmosphere as a factor in        
determining the climate of the  earth   
has been confirmed by the researches of 
a considerable number  of investigators4
 ,its work appears to be that of an     
absorbent of the  sun's radiant heat1   
retaining it and preventing its passing 

by us and  leaving us in the cold       
temperature of space4 ,tyndall computes 
that it  has in this capacity a power   
eighty times that of oxygen or nitrogen1
  while it is excelled by water vapor   
with ninety-two times that of those     
gases4 ,lecher and ,pretner1 on the     
other hand1 believe that carbonic  acid 
is the only agent concerned in the      
service4 ,mr4 ,cyrus ,f4 ,talman1  ,jr41
 in view of the fact that carbonic acid 
is an important factor  among geological
 agencies1 has published1 in the        
,journal of ,geology1  a study of the   
conditions of the content of that gas in
 the ocean1 a  study that leads to the  
consideration of the chemistry of the   
ocean4  ,it seems to be clear that with 
falling temperature the ocean will      
dissolve carbonic acid from the air4    
,dr4 ,t4 ,c4 ,chamberlin has shown  that
 the amount of carbonic acid in the     
atmosphere at any one time1 and         
therefore the climate of the earth at   
that time1 depends upon the value  of   

the ratio of the supply of the gas to   
its depletion4 ,besides the  continuous 
supply that the atmosphere receives from
 the interior of the  earth and from    
planetary space and the continuous      
depletion due to the  formation of      
carbonates in place of the igneous      
alkali earth silicates1  there are      
variations in the ratio of supply to    
depletion dependent  upon the attitude  
of the land and the water4 ,a large     
exposure of land  surface is correlated 
with a rapid solution of calcium and    
magnesium  carbonates1 which1 becoming  
bicarbonates1 represent a loss of       
carbonic  acid to the atmosphere4 ,on   
the other hand1 the formation of the    
normal  carbonate by lime-secreting     
animals causes a direct liberation of   
the  second equivalent of the           
bicarbonate4 ,therefore extensive oceans
 and  abundant marine life are          
correlated with warm climate4 ,after a  
somewhat  more minute discussion of the 
action1 ,mr4 ,talman concludes that the 

ocean very greatly intensifies the      
secular variation of the earth's        
temperature1 although acting as a       
moderating agent in the minor cycles4   
,pearl ,mussels4--,in his report to the 
,united ,states ,fish ,commission  on   
the ,pearly ,fresh-,water ,mussels of   
the ,united ,states1 ,mr4 ,charles  ,t4 
,simpson speaks of the great variety of 
conditions under which they  live4 ,they
 show great capacity for adaptation4    
,most of them are found  in shallow     
water1 but certain forms live at        
considerable depths4 ,some  bury        
themselves among the fibrous roots of   
trees1 some in the muddy1  sandy banks  
just below the surface of the water1 and
 some1 as in ,lake  ,tiberias           
7,palestine7 and ,lake ,tanganyika      
7,africa71 under six hundred  or more   
feet of water4 ,ordinarily they die in a
 very short time if  taken out of the   
water--in from twenty-four to           
forty-eight hours1 as a  rule--and they 
generally die in a few hours when       

exposed to the sun4  ,but many species1 
thus tender in the open air1 will lie   
buried in dried  mud for a long time4   
,in ,june1 #ahej1 a living pond mussel  
was sent to  ,london1 from ,australia1  
which had been out of water for more    
than a  year4 ,along a small stream near
 ,braidentown1 ,fla41 which runs only   
during about three months in summer and 
is dry the rest of the year1  thousands 
of a large colony of ,unio obesus may be
 found just buried  in the sandy banks  
or among the flags and rushes of the    
bottom1 where  there is very little     
moisture1 all in healthy condition4 ,mr4
 ,simpson  has laid these mussels in the
 sun for months without killing them4   
,the  specimens which live in perennial 
water seem to die soon if removed  from 
it1 while those which inhabit streams or
 ponds that often dry up  will live a   
long time out of water4 ,some species in
 rocky streams live  in the crevices of 
the rocks4 ,in the ,big ,vermilion      
,river1 in ,la ,salle  ,county1         

,illinois1 a swift1 rocky stream1 the   
author has found living  mussels that   
had been so washed about that nearly all
 the epidermis was  destroyed4 ,the     
shells in such streams are usually      
heavier than those in  more quiet water4
          ,,minor ,,paragraphs4         
,prof4 ,frederick ,starr1 of the        
,university of ,chicago1 has made two   
excursions to ,mexico for the purpose of
 establishing the physical types  of the
 aborigines by means of measurements1   
photographs1 and casts4 ,he  studied    
twelve tribes1 half of which were almost
 unknown to science1  and made          
measurements of more than eleven hundred
 and fifty men and  three hundred women4
 ,on his last trip he rode one thousand 
miles among  the mountains on horseback4
 ,in a recent paper in the ,open ,court 
he  takes notice of frequent and curious
 survivals of pagan belief to be        
remarked among these peoples1 although  
they are all supposed to be  devout     
,christians4 ,in one instance1 which is 

specially described1 an  idol bearing   
some resemblance to those found among   
the ruins of the  ancient cities        
occupied a station in the church by the 
side of the  crucifix1 sharing the      
honors with the statue of the ,virgin on
 the other  side4 ,grief and            
consternation prevailed among the       
,indians when the idol  was taken away  
by the ecclesiastical authorities4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,the question of the increase of        
insanity in ,england during the last few
  years is regarded as assuming a       
serious aspect1 and the report of the   
,commissioners of ,lunacy for #ahih1    
showing the largest annual increase  yet
 recorded1 the ,lancet says1 reveals the
 gravity of the situation4  ,other      
collateral facts given in the report add
 to the seriousness of  the outlook4    
,the increase in the number of inmates  
in institutions for  lunatics is        
attended with a falling off in the      
recovery rate1 which  is lower for #ahih

 than that of the previous year1 and    
even than the  average of the last ten  
years4 ,a steady diminution in the      
recovery rate  has appeared also during 
each period of five years since #ahgc4  
,the  attempt to account for the        
increase of lunatics in public and      
private  asylums by supposing that it is
 made up by removals thither from       
workhouses or from the care of relatives
 fails1 for it is shown that  this class
 of insane is increasing too1 though    
slowly4 ,the subject is  regarded as of 
so much importance that it was          
considered and discussed  in the        
,psychological ,section of the ,british 
,association at its ,bristol  meeting in
 #ahii4           99       99       99  
99       99    ,a process by which      
calcium carbide can be continuously     
produced  more cheaply than by the      
process at present in use is reported1  
in  ,industries and ,iron1 to have been 
discovered by ,professor ,freeman1 of   
,chicago4 ,in the new process a huge arc

 lamp inclosed in brickwork in  the     
interior of a furnace is employed4 ,the 
upper electrode of the lamp  is hollow1 
and through it is fed a powder composed 
of common lime and  coke4 ,this powder1 
being carried through the upper carbon  
directly into  the electric flame1 is   
melted by the intense heat1 and molten  
calcium  carbide runs away from the     
furnace4 ,it is estimated that the      
carbide is  produced at a cost of half a
 cent per pound4      ,,notes4    ,a new
 method of securing more perfect        
combustion1 described by ,mr4  ,paul ,j4
 ,schlicht before the ,franklin         
,institute1 is based on the fact1       
described by the inventor1 that if a    
current of air is properly  introduced  
into a chimney flue through which hot   
products of combustion  are escaping1 it
 will flow in a direction contrary to   
theirs1 and1  becoming heated in contact
 with them1 will reach the center of the
  fire in a condition highly favorable  
to the most complete union of  oxygen   

with the combustible elements of the    
fuel4 ,suggestions are  made in ,mr4    
,schlicht's paper for the construction  
and regulation of  furnaces1 so as to   
secure the condition described4         
99       99       99       99       99  
,mr4 ,edward ,orton1 ,jr41 has been     
appointed ,state ,geologist of ,ohio1 to
  succeed his father1 the late ,dr4     
,edward ,orton4 ,he has been connected1 
as an assistant1 with the survey1 in    
which he studied the distribution  of   
the coal measures1 and has also prepared
 reports on the clay and  clay          
industries of the ,state4           99  
99       99       99       99    ,from a
 moral if not from a scientific and     
industrial point of view1  incontestably
 superior to that of the ,european      
peoples1 is the  characterization a book
 reviewer in the ,revue ,scientifique   
gives to  ,chinese civilization4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,sir ,william ,turner is the            
president-elect for the ,bradford       

meeting  of the ,british ,association1  
#aijj4 ,he is head of the great medical 
school at ,edinburgh1 and ,president of 
the ,general ,medical ,council1 and  was
 pronounced by ,lord ,lister1 in        
nominating him1 the foremost human      
anatomist in the ,british ,islands1 and 
also a great anthropologist4            
99       99       99       99       99  
,a gold medal is offered by the ,society
 of ,agricultural ,industry and         
,commerce of ,milan to the inventor of  
the best apparatus or the person  who   
will make known the best method for     
protecting working electricians  against
 the accidents of their profession4 ,the
 competition is open to  all nations4   
99       99       99       99       99  
,the statue of ,lavoisier1 called by the
 ,french the founder of  chemistry1 is  
to be erected1 during the ,universal    
,exposition in  ,paris1 on the square of
 the ,madeleine1 at the intersection of 
the ,rue  ,tronchet4 ,the work is in    
charge of the sculptor ,barrias4 ,the   

sum of  ninety-eight thousand francs1 or
 nineteen thousand six hundred dollars1 
has been subscribed to pay for it4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,the death list of the last few weeks of
 men known in science includes  a       
considerable proportion of important    
names4 ,among the number are  ,john ,b4 
,stallo1 formerly of ,cincinnati1 author
 of ,general ,principles  of the        
,philosophy of ,nature1 ,the ,concepts  
and ,theories of ,modern  ,science1 and 
numerous contributions to scientific    
publications1  recently ,united ,states 
minister to ,italy1 in ,florence1       
,december  #cjth1 in his seventy-fifth  
year2 ,sir ,james ,paget1 for many years
 the  leading surgeon in ,england1 and  
author of books relating to surgery1  in
 ,london1 ,december #cjth1 in his       
eighty-sixth year2 ,dr4 ,thomas ,c4     
,egleston1 ,emeritus ,professor of      
,mineralogy and ,metallurgy in ,columbia
  ,university1 in ,new ,york1 ,january  
#aeth2 ,prof4 ,henry ,allen ,hazen1 one 

of  the chief forecasters of the ,united
 ,states ,weather ,bureau1 and author   
of improvements in the methods employed 
there1 in ,washington1 from the  results
 of a bicycle collision1 ,january #bb;d1
 in his fifty-first year2  ,dr4 ,wilhelm
 ,zenker1 a distinguished physicist1 at 
,berlin1 ,october  #bast1 aged seventy  
years2 ,augustus ,doerflinger1 an       
engineer who was  engaged in the work of
 the removal of ,hell ,gate in ,new     
,york ,harbor1  at ,brooklyn1 ,november 
#bdth1 in his fifty-eighth year2 ,johann
 ,carl  ,wilhelm ,ferdinand ,tiemann1   
,professor of ,chemistry in the         
,university  of ,berlin and late editor 
of the ,reports of the ,german ,chemical
  ,society1 at ,meran1 ,tyrol1 ,november
 #agth1 in his fifty-second year2  he   
was distinguished for his researches    
upon the constitution of  odoriferous   
principles1 including works on vanillin1
 the aroma of the  violet1 terpenes1 and
 camphor1 and the synthesis of          
amido-acids2 ,dr4  ,birch-,hirschfeld1  

,professor of ,pathology in the         
,university of ,berlin1  aged           
fifty-seven years2 ,sir ,richard ,thorne
 ,thorne1 principal medical  officer to 
the ,local ,government ,board1 in       
,london1 ,december #ahth1 aged          
fifty-eight years2 author of many       
official reports relating to the  public
 health1 of works on the progress of    
preventive medicine during  the         
,victorian era1 and of lectures on      
diphtheria and the administrative       
control of tuberculosis2 ,dr4 ,john     
,frederick ,hodges1 ,professor of       
,agriculture and lecturer on medical    
jurisprudence in ,queen's ,college1     
,belfast1 ,ireland1 and author of two   
elementary books on chemistry1 ,the     
,structure and ,physiology of the       
,animals of the ,farm1 and of several   
papers published in the ,proceedings of 
,scientific ,societies2 ,e4 ,c4 ,c4     
,stanford1 a practical chemist1         
distinguished for the introduction of   
several original methods of manufacture1

 and for the preparation of  several new
 substances1 such as algin and          
thyroglandin2 he was the  author of the 
monograph on the iodine industry in     
,thorpe's ,dictionary  of ,chemistry2   
and ,john ,ruskin1 who1 though not a man
 of science in the  strict sense of the 
term1 did his full share for the        
advancement of  knowledge and comfort   
among men1 at ,coniston ,lake1 ,england1
 ,january  #bjth1 in his eighty-first   
year4          ,,publications           
,,received4      ,agricultural          
,experiment ,stations4 ,bulletins and   
,reports4 ,summary of  ,feeding-,stuffs 
,law in ,force in ,new ,york after      
,december #a1 #ahii4 ,p4  #a4 ,bulletin 
,no4 #aei4 ,a ,pest of ,woodland and    
,grove4 7,the ,forest ,tent             
,caterpillar74 ,by ,f4 ,h4 ,hall and ,v4
 ,h4 ,lowe4 ,pp4 #e2 ,no4 #afj4 ,report 
of  ,analyses of ,commercial            
,fertilizers for the ,fall of #ahii4 ,by
 ,l4 ,s4 ,van  ,slyke4 ,pp4 #ajb2 ,no4  
#afa4 ,popular ,edition4 ,gooseberry    

,mildew held in  ,check4 ,by ,f4 ,h4    
,hall and ,c4 ,p4 ,close4 ,pp4 #d2      
,newspaper ,summaries of  these ,three  
,bulletins4 ,p4 #a4    ,carter1 ,oscar  
,c4 ,s4 ,coastal ,topography of the     
,united ,states4 ,pp4 #cj4              
,connecticut1 ,state of4 ,fifteenth     
,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,labor
  ,statistics for the ,year ending      
,september #cj1 #ahii4 ,pp4 #bff4       
,densmore1 ,emmet1 ,m4 ,d4 ,consumption 
and ,kindred ,diseases4 7,open-air      
,treatment47 ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y43 ,the   
,stillmann ,publishing ,company4 ,pp4   
#ach4    ,douglas1 ,james1 ,new ,york   
,city4 ,american ,transcontinental      
,lines4 ,pp4 #ef4    ,fry1 the ,right   
,hon4 ,sir ,edward1 and ,agnes4 ,the    
,mycetozoa and some  ,questions which   
they ,suggest4 ,london3 ,knowledge      
,office4 ,pp4 #hb4 #a  shilling4        
,gay1 ,albert1 and ,yeaman1 ,c4 ,h4 ,an 
,introduction to the ,study of ,central 
,station ,electricity ,supply4 ,new     
,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4   

#afg4  #c4    ,johnston1 ,charles4 ,the 
,memory of ,past ,births4 ,new ,york3   
,the  ,metaphysical ,publishing         
,company4 ,pp4 #ej4 #be cents4    ,king1
 ,f4 ,h4 ,irrigation and ,drainage4     
,principles and ,practice of their      
,cultural ,phases4 ,new ,york3 ,the     
,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #ejb4 #a4ej4  
,kunz1 ,george ,f4 ,the ,production of  
,precious ,stones in #ahih4 ,united     
,states ,geological ,survey4 ,pp4 #dh1  
with plate4    ,marine ,biological      
,laboratory1 at ,woods ,holl1 ,mass4    
,announcement for the  ,thirteenth      
,season4 ,july #e to ,august #af1 #aijj4
 ,pp4 #ab4    ,mc,kay1 ,a4 ,h41         
,halifax1 ,nova ,scotia4 ,phenological  
,observations1 ,canada1  #ahih4 ,pp4    
#bj4    ,mc,kim1 ,w4 ,duncan4 ,heredity 
and ,human ,progress4 ,new ,york3 ,g4   
,p4 ,putnam's  ,sons4 ,pp4 #bhc4 #a4ej4 
,michigan4 ,thirty-seventh ,annual      
,report of the ,secretary of the ,state 
,board of ,agriculture1 and ,eleventh   
,annual ,report of the ,agricultural    

,college ,experiment ,station4 ,july #a1
 #ahig1 to ,june #cj1 #ahih4 ,pp4 #gdj4 
,new ,york ,state ,library ,bulletin4   
7,legislation ,no4 #aa1 ,january1       
#aijj47  ,albany4 ,pp4 #cie4 #be cents4 
,parker1 ,t4 ,jaffrey1 and ,haswell1    
,william ,a4 ,a ,manual of ,zology4     
,revised and adapted for the use of     
,american ,schools and ,colleges4 ,new  
,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4   
#afc4 #a4fj4    ,peet1 ,stephen         
,denison4 ,the ,cliff-,dwellers and the 
,pueblos4 ,chicago3  ,office of the     
,american ,antiquarian4 ,pp4 #cih4      
,smithsonian ,institution4 ,list of     
,publications available for             
,distribution4 ,december1 #ahii4 ,pp4   
#ce4    ,sound ,currency4 ,october1     
#ahii4 ,deposit ,currency2 the          
,effective ,currency  of ,commercial    
,communities4 ,pp4 #ab4 ,november1      
#ahii4 ,the ,farmer's  ,interest in the 
,banking ,question4 ,pp4 #h4 ,both by   
,l4 ,carroll ,root4    ,spencer1 ,frank 
,clarence4 ,education of the ,pueblo    

,child4 ,a ,study in  ,arrested         
,development4 7,columbia ,university    
,contributions to ,philosophy1          
,psychology1 and ,education4 ,vol4      
,,vii1 ,no4 #a47 ,new ,york3 ,the       
,macmillan  ,company4 ,pp4 #ig4 #ge     
cents4    ,united ,states ,commissioner 
of ,education4 ,report for the ,year    
#ahig-'ih4  ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,containing     
,parts ,,ii and ,,iii4 ,pp4 #bfdj4      
,united ,states ,commissioner of ,fish  
and ,fisheries4 ,the ,preservation of   
,fishery ,products for ,food4 ,by       
,charles ,h4 ,stevenson4 ,pp4 #egj4     
,united ,states ,department of ,labor4  
,bulletin ,no4 #be4 ,november1 #ahii4   
,foreign ,labor ,laws4 ,pp4 #hj4        
,,footnotes3    #a ,lyell's ,principles 
of ,geology1 eighth edition1 p4 #da4    
#b ,clarence ,king1 ,american ,journal  
of ,science1 pp4 #de-ea1 #ahic2         
,kelvin1 ,science1 vol4 ix1 p4 #ffe1    
#ahii4    #c ,science1 vol4 ix1 p4 #ffe1
 #ahii4    #d ,ibid41 p4 #hhi1 and vols4
 x and xi1 #ahii4    #e ,life and       

,letters of ,sir ,joseph ,prestwich1 pp4
 #abd et seq4    #f ,critical ,periods1 
etc41 ,american ,journal of ,science1   
vol4 xiv1 p4  #ii1 #ahgg2 ,bulletin of  
the ,geological ,department of the      
,university of  ,california1 vol4 i1    
,no4 #aa1 #ahie4    #g ,journal of      
,geology1 vol4 vi1 p4 #eig1 #ahih1 and  
vol4 vii1 p4 #ede1  #ahii4    #h ,views 
similar to those of ,professor ,bautz   
have been advocated by  a ,french       
,jesuit1 ,pre ,f4 ,h4 ,schouppe1 in a   
work entitled ,the ,doctrine  of        
,purgatory elucidated by ,facts and     
,private ,revelations4 ,the facts       
consist of the visions of saints1 and   
the private revelations prove  to be    
apparitions of souls in purgatory to    
hysterical women and other  persons     
blasted with ecstasy4 ,the book has been
 translated into  ,german by a ,tyrolese
 priest1 ,g4 ,pletl1 and just published 
at ,brixen1  with the approbation of the
 ,prince ,bishop4 ,an ,austrian journal1
  the ,ostdeutsche ,rundschau1 printed  

extracts from the volume with           
appropriate comments1 and was           
confiscated by the ,government in       
,vienna  for offense to religion4    #i 
,the manner in which ,the ,pelican makes
 piety profitable is most  extraordinary
 and should win the admiration and      
excite the envy of the  yellow press4   
,the editor informs the public that he  
entered into a  compact with ,st4       
,joseph1 promising to distribute fifty  
books in which  this holy person is     
glorified1 provided the journal receives
 two  thousand subscribers4 ,in less    
than a year the number of subscribers   
was twenty-five hundred4 ,a promise to  
distribute one hundred books of  this   
kind1 if ,st4 ,joseph would procure     
eight thousand subscribers1  raised the 
list of subscribers to twelve thousand2 
and this barter  went on until ,the     
,pelican could boast of ninety thousand 
subscribers4  ,the editor also announces
 that he has engaged two hundred and    
eighty  priests to say masses for the   

readers of his paper and to pray for and
  bless their children1 and concludes   
this astounding piece of puffery as     
follows3 ,experience teaches us that the
 benediction of a single priest  is     
effective4 ,what1 then1 can not be      
obtained if two hundred and eighty      
priests unite in blessing us6    #aj    
,cf4 ,popular ,science ,monthly1        
,november1 #ahie1 p4 #hc4    #aa        
,studies from the ,yale ,psychological  
,laboratory1 vol4 vi4                   
,,transcriber',s ,,notes3    -,obvious  
print and punctuation errors were       
corrected4    -,a ,table of ,contents   
was not in the original work2 one has   
been   produced and added by            
,transcriber4    -,subscripted numbers  
are rendered with an underscore 7e4g4   
,,co#b means   that #b is subscripted74