,transcriber's ,note ,the title page consists of an image1 which has been transcribed4 ,this version of the text cannot represent certain typographical effects4 ,italics are delimited with the '' character as italic4 ,there are instances of vowels modified by macrons4 ,these are given as1 e4g41 e1 u1 etc4 ,symbols in the form of bold figures are printed as ,t1 ,v1 ,y1 etc4 ,there is one instance of an inverted ,t1 which is represented as inverted,t4 ,the 'oe' ligature is given as separate characters1 that is1 ',,oe' or 'oe'4 ,for consistency1 fractions are usually represented1 for example1 as #b-a_/b for #b4 ,in tabular data1 the available ,latin-#a fractions 1 1 were used on occasion to minimize width4 ,superscripted characters are indicated using the carat ''4 ,the few footnotes have been positioned following the paragraph where their references appeared4 ,there are many invaluable illustrations1 most without captions1 which could not be included in this version4 ,these are almost always referred to and described in the text4 ,the positions of sketches without captions are usually indicated in-line as ,illustration1 except where the reference to its position is obvious4 ,where there is a caption1 the illustration is positioned either before or after the paragraph where it is referenced4 ,many illustrations are composite sketches1 which use numbers or letters to indicate the parts thereof4 ,a caption has been added indicating the number of these sketches as ,illustration3 #a-bj1 to give the reader a notion of which sketch is which4 ,the reader who would like to see these illustration is referred to the following link1 where ,,html1 ,kindle and ,epub versions may be found at3 www4gutenberg4org_/ebooks_/#dfddf ,there are many sidenotes1 or paragraph descriptions1 which are sometimes used as keywords for cross-reference4 ,those which seem to describe the entire paragraph1 or its first topic are given as ,sidenote in a separate line at the top of the paragraph4 ,other notes1 which are usually brief1 are placed in-line in the text1 again enclosed in brackets as above4 ,please see the notes at the end of this text for a more detailed list of specific issues encountered and the resolutions of each4 ,illustration3 ,,swinging ,,the ,,packs ,,of ,,the ,,north ,,australian ,,expedition ,,over ,a ,,branch ,,of ,,jasper ,,creek ,,victoria ,,river #ahef4 ,illustration3 ,,shifts ,,and ,,expedients ,,of ,,camp ,,life ,,travel ,,exploration ,,by ,w4,b4 ,,lord ,,royal ,,artillery ,t4 ,,baines ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,,london ,,horace ,,cox #ci ,,strand ,,wc #ahga ,,contents4 ,,page4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,outfit ,,to ,,take ,,abroad #c ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,boats1 ,,rafts1 ,,and ,,make-,,shift ,,floats #ia ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,working ,,in ,,metals #aib ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,huts ,,and ,,houses #bfh ,,chapter ,v4 ,,extempore ,,bridges ,,and ,,makeshifts ,,for ,,crossing ,,rivers ,,or ,,ravines #cag ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,timber ,,and ,,its ,,utilisation #cee ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,sledges ,,and ,,sledge ,,travellers #cid ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,boots1 ,,shoes1 ,,and ,,sandals #dab ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,waggons ,,and ,,other ,,wheeled ,,vehicles #dcb ,,chapter ,x4 ,,harness ,,and ,,pack ,,animals #deg ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,cattle ,,marking #dgh ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,hints ,,on ,,hygeens ,,and ,,camels #dhc ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,water1 ,,and ,,the ,,sap ,,of ,,plants #dia ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,camp ,,cookery #ece ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,fish ,,and ,,amphibious ,,animals #ehe ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,poisoned ,,weapons1 ,,arrows1 ,,spears1 ,c4 #fai ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,tracking1 ,,hunting1 ,,and ,,trapping #fbh ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,palanquins1 ,,stretchers1 ,,ambulances1 ,c4 #fhb ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,on ,,sketching ,,and ,,painting ,,under ,,the ,,ordinary ,,difficulties ,,of ,,travel #gaf ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,the ,,estimation ,,of ,,distances ,,and ,,hints ,,on ,,field ,,observing #gbf ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,hints ,,to ,,explorers ,,on ,,collecting ,,and ,,preserving ,,objects ,,of ,,natural ,,history #gfa ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,ropes ,,and ,,twine #ghh ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,bush ,,veterinary ,,surgery ,,and ,,medicine #gih ,,appendix #hjh ,,index #hae ,,directions ,,to ,,the ,,binder4 ,,swinging ,,the ,,packs ,,of ,,the ,,north ,,australian ,,expedition ,,over ,a ,,branch ,,of ,,jasper ,,creek1 ,,victoria ,,river1 #ahef ,frontispiece4 ,,camp ,,scene ,,in ,,africa ,to face page #ee ,,boat ,,building ,,on ,,the ,,logier ,,river #abe ,,sending ,,line ,,from ,,wreck ,,to ,,lee ,,shore ,,by ,,means ,,of ,a ,,kite #ahe ,,lead ,,smelting ,,in ,,the ,,forest #bbh ,,searching ,,for ,,gold #bea ,,indian ,,lodges #cji ,,the ,,treatment ,,of ,,timber ,,by ,,steam ,,and ,,saw #cgf ,,sledging ,,over ,,rough ,,ice #djb ,,the ,,wilson ,,mule ,,waggon 7,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america7 #ddc ,,group ,,of ,,harness #dfe ,,indian ,,well #ejh ,,hippopotamus ,,trap #fac ,,traps ,,for ,,small ,,game #fgc ,,various ,,modes ,,of ,,carrying ,,the ,,sick ,,or ,,wounded #fhh ,shifts and ,expedients ,,of ,,camp ,,life1 ,,travel1 ,,and ,,exploration4 ,,introduction4 ,like two voyagers returned from a long cruise in far-off seas1 we throw together our joint gleanings in many lands4 ,these do not consist of jewels1 gems1 gold1 or furs2 no piles of costly merchandise do we lay at the reader's feet as offerings from distant climes1 but simply the experiences of two roving ,englishmen who have roughed it4 ,by those who have to pass through a campaign1 travel wild countries1 or explore little known regions1 shifts must be made1 and expedients of many kinds had recourse to1 of which the inexperienced in such matters would but little dream4 ,as necessity is the mother of invention1 so is self-reliance the father of its practical application1 and it is with a strong desire 7by explaining how constantly recurring wants may be overcome1 and apparently hopeless difficulties surmounted7 to strengthen that quality in those who roam that we write this volume4 ,in our travels and adventures we have not been associated1 the paths trodden by us being widely separated4 ,whilst one was exploring in the wilds of ,north ,australia1 the other was dwelling in a canvas-covered hole in the earth before ,sebastopol4 ,the scenes change2 ,southern and ,tropical ,africa is visited by the late ,australian traveller1 whilst the ,crimea1 with its rugged hills and wild ravines1 is exchanged for the jungles of ,central ,india by the other4 ,so the two barques have drifted here and there on the world's tide1 but are anchored side by side1 and have compared logs at last2 and if amongst the heterogeneous odds and ends therein contained the reader can find the aid he seeks1 our shifts and expedients will not have been made in vain4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,outfit ,,to ,,take ,,abroad4 ,equipment to be purchased in ,england4 ,in dealing with this portion of our subject we can but generalise1 as the destination of the traveller and the objects he has in view will materially modify the nature and extent of his equipment4 ,the military officer who is bound on a long march1 through a comparatively wild country1 needs a very different outfit from that which a hunter or trader of experience would procure for himself before starting for the home of the elephant and the savage4 ,the man who1 with his wife and family1 seeks a new home beyond the border line which divides the unreclaimed wilderness from civilised society1 needs an infinitely more voluminous store of requisites--not to say comforts--than the small band of hardy explorers or hunter naturalists1 who1 with horse1 mule1 pack and rifle1 wend their way over prairies and mountains without path1 and thread the forests and thickets where no traveller has penetrated4 ,there are other members of the human family who prefer prosecuting their wanderings alone1 carry all their worldly possessions with them1 and whose equipment is usually of a particularly simple and practical character4 ,the sea1 the inland lake1 and the rivers flowing through little known regions1 each have their explorers1 for whose use a variety of contrivances are needed4 ,some of these are best made at home2 others it will be found most convenient to prepare in the localities in which their aid are required2 whilst at times adverse circumstances will render it necessary to improvise rough and ready appliances to save life and prolong its duration when saved4 ,we shall therefore endeavour to give such hints and directions as will enable our readers who intend visiting far-off countries to select such matters as may be best purchased before quitting ,england1 and to avoid encumbering themselves with useless impedimenta4 ,as we have first made mention of the military officer about to depart on service1 we will suppose that he is in ,london1 or any other large town1 gathering together his traps for a start4 ,we will then accompany him on his shopping expeditions1 and give him a few hints as to what will prove most useful4 ,on matters of uniform we can have nothing to say further than to advise1 as we do in every case of purchase1 that it be obtained from some tradesman of well-established reputation4 ,the raiment calculated to meet the requirements of refined society1 when the uniform is for the time cast aside1 must also be left to the dictates of the prevailing mode and the good taste of the wearer4 ,shirt making and clothing4 ,where fashion and the dress regulations of the army end there do we begin1 and as flannel is1 perhaps1 the most important as an article of under clothing1 we will first make a few remarks on shirts of that material1 of which plenty should be taken4 ,first1 then1 have them made to measure from flannel which has been previously well shrunk1 of thoroughly good quality1 of medium substance1 and unobtrusive pattern or colour4 ,it will be well to order them of extra length1 both of sleeve and body1 so as to allow for the shrinkage which is certain to take place after a few washings1 in spite of all precautions4 ,two breast pockets should be made in each4 ,these are very convenient for holding a variety of small matters when no waistcoat is worn4 ,for outer clothing nothing can surpass good heather-coloured tweed1 or ,waterford frieze1 for ordinary wear2 jackets of shooting-coat pattern1 made with plenty of pockets1 formed from much stronger materials than are usually made use of by tailors for that purpose1 will be found most useful for knocking about in4 ,one or two pairs of trousers may be strapped up the inside and bottoms of the legs with leather1 after the cavalry rough-rider pattern4 ,a pair or two of ,oxford cord hunting breeches will also be found useful to wear with long boots1 with ankle jacks and gaiters4 ,the waistcoats should be cut rather long1 made with four pockets1 two breast and two bottom4 ,all these should have flaps or salt-box covers to them4 ,each half of the waistcoat1 from about the level of the bottom button and button-hole to where the back is joined in1 should be lined with a strip of leather4 ,a long loose gaberdine of woollen stuff1 made to button up the front1 and secured round the waist by a long narrow scarf or cummerbund1 is an immense comfort in camp or quarters1 let the climate be hot or cold4 ,a good supply of reddish-brown woollen socks should be laid in2 a moderate number of long stockings1 of the same material1 to wear with the breeches2 and a few dozen pairs of the heelless cotton socks1 for use on board ship1 or when the weather is hot2 nothing can be more agreeable to wear1 except silk1 and the cost is a mere trifle when compared to that of other hosiery4 ,white cotton pocket handkerchiefs1 as a rule1 last their owners very much longer than silk1 being less tempting to native servants or followers4 ,braces should be always ordered of the saddler1 and made from the material used for the surcingles of racehorses4 ,one pair of these lasts longer than half-a-dozen of the flimsy affairs usually sold ready made4 ,there are those who dispense with braces1 find great relief by the practice1 and wear an ordinary waist-belt instead2 but to some persons much discomfort is caused by so doing4 ,a soft felt hat1 with a moderately wide brim1 is a convenient head dress in most temperate climates4 ,with the head gear made use of in the tropics and the far north we shall have to speak hereafter4 ,the best gloves for general and moderately rough usage are those sold under the name of driving gloves4 ,they should be obtained of the regular glover1 and have buckskin let in between the fingers4 ,a pair of common hedging gloves well repays the trouble of taking1 when the brush of the thicket has to be handled and firewood arranged4 ,hats1 ground sheets1 and india-rubber garments4 ,take a blue cloth pilot coat1 cut long enough to reach just below the knees2 have it lined throughout with woollen material2 let the pockets be made extra strong1 and order the buttons to be large1 of black horn1 and sewn on with double-waxed thread4 ,the left hand breast pocket should be deep and lined with leather1 as it not unfrequently becomes a resting-place for the revolver when you do not wish to make an ostentatious display of it4 ,get a couple of real ,scotch caps1 such as the ,highland shepherds wear2 nothing can equal them for sleeping in when camping out1 and they form a most convenient head-covering for camp use1 or when the sun is not too powerful4 ,get from some sailors' outfitter a regular seagoing sou'wester hat1 with ear and neck flaps1 and a pair of oiled canvas overalls to match4 ,procure also from some first-class maker a thoroughly good india-rubber coat2 long enough to come well below the tops of the butcher boots4 ,buttons should be sewn in at the back and sides of the collar1 in order to admit of a hood of the same material being put on when needed4 ,an arrangement of this kind we have found most useful for boat work and in heavy tropical rains4 ,order also a piece of the best ,russia duck1 #i;ft4 by #h;ft42 have this subjected to the waterproofing process2 have the edges turned in to form a #b;in4 hem2 and at every two feet1 at both sides and ends1 have good sized wide flanged brass eyelets punched in4 ,then in the centre of the piece have a longitudinal slit made #af;in4 in length1 have the raw edge bound with a broad strong tape1 and at every #c;in4 on each side have an eyelet of less size than those at the edges put in4 ,this arrangement admits of the slit being laced close when it is not required4 ,a waterproof square of this kind is useful for an almost endless number of purposes4 ,in the first place it can be used as a ground sheet to sleep on2 it can1 by thrusting the head through the unlaced opening1 be converted into an excellent cloak2 it can by fastening strings and pegs to the sides1 and cutting a ridge pole1 be converted into a very fair substitute for a small tent2 it forms an excellent carpet to lay by the side of the tent bed1 when you are fortunate enough to be able to use one1 keeping down insects1 and protecting the feet from sharp grass1 stumps1 and twigs4 ,if during rain the tent should admit water1 as it sometimes will 7especially if heedlessly touched when saturated with moisture71 this universal square of duck can by the aid of some upright sticks or canes1 one at the head and another at the foot of the bed1 and a bit of rope stretched like a clothes line from one to the other1 be at once made use of as a roof to the bed1 the sides being made to slope and stand out by attaching pieces of twine to a few of the side poles4 ,clothes and other matters can be securely carried when rolled up in this1 even in the heaviest rain4 ,on a pinch1 even a river might be crossed with its assistance1 but the method adopted for constructing extempore rafts1 boats1 canoes1 and floats1 will be fully treated on when that subject comes under consideration4 ,boots and shoes4 ,boots and shoes for real work are in no part of the world equal to those made at home1 and a thoroughly good stock should be laid in before quitting ,england2 butcher boots1 so made as to fit the leg compactly just below the bend of the knee1 with low heels1 and broad heel seats2 several pairs of shooting boots of the regular ankle-jack gamekeeper's pattern1 tipped at toe and heel4 ,a pair or two of high shoes made from soft undressed russet leather will be found very useful to wear instead of slippers1 or for camp use when the ground is dry4 ,a pair of ,cording's wading boots will be found invaluable4 ,they occupy little space1 are comparatively light1 and keep the legs and feet dry and warm when nothing else will4 ,the late ,mr4 ,wheelwright--better known in the sporting and scientific world as the ,old ,bushman--thus speaks of them in a communication to the ,field3 ,i can add the testimony of five years' experience to all you can say in their favour4 ,for wading1 flight shooting1 boat fishing or punting1 and all winter water work1 they are invaluable4 ,they are a little too heavy for a hard day's walking1 and soon cut through in the leg or foot among stakes or bushes2 but use them carefully1 and they will be found by far the best water boots ever made4 ,they are very warm1 stand a long while1 are perfectly water-tight to the last1 and they have this advantage over a leather boot--they want no dressing4 ,only never keep them near a fire4 ,i lost three or four pairs in the bush by neglecting to draw them off before ,i lay down for the night before a camp fire4 ,and what is worth all the rest1 they never get hard1 but are always as easy to draw off and on as a glove4 ,it will be well also to provide two or three pairs of brown leather shooting boots without heels and with single soles1 free from nails1 and flexible enough to admit of the wearer walking softly and with perfect freedom4 ,foot gear1 adapted to the nature of most countries to which the traveller is likely to proceed1 will be fully described when bush shoemaking is under consideration4 ,it will be well also to procure from a saddler a good supply of bootlaces4 ,these should be cut straight and in the way of the grain of the hide4 ,the white leather used by carters for mending their harness is by far the best for the purpose4 ,strips of this cut to about the eighth of an inch square1 and well greased with mutton suet1 are next to indestructible1 and are available for all sorts of purposes apart from that of lacing boots or shoes4 ,slightly burning or roasting the ends in the candle or fire hardens them sufficiently to pass freely through the lace holes without a tag4 ,trunks and ,boxes4 ,illustration3 ,,two ,,boxes ,,on ,,ends ,,of ,,pole4 ,for ordinary travel the solid leather bullock trunks1 of regulation size1 will be found both convenient and durable4 ,all strap guides1 loops1 and handles must be riveted as well as sewn to the body of the trunk4 ,spare keys should also be fitted to the locks4 ,in countries where it is customary for baggage to be carried by porters through narrow bush paths1 and where destructive insects are numerous1 we recommend the use of sheet copper boxes1 #af;in4 long1 #ab;in4 wide1 and #ab;in4 deep1 made with copper wire strengthening rods1 worked in the edges of the plates or sheets4 ,ring handles1 also of copper1 should be fitted to both sides and ends1 as iron when wet would corrode the copper4 ,these serve to pass straps1 cords1 or lashings through4 ,in making these boxes great care should be taken to fit the joints and cover so as to render them rainproof4 ,the insides should be tinned just as coppersmiths tin cooking pots4 ,the above illustration will serve to show the manner in which one porter carries two of these cases1 which1 to be transported in this way1 should not1 with their contents1 weigh over #bjlb4 each4 ,if one box is carried1 as shown in the annexed engraving1 from #celb4 to #djlb4 weight may be placed in it4 ,boxes for ,cape waggon travelling should be about #c;ft4 long by #af;in4 wide and deep4 ,they are best made of well-seasoned ,memel deal1 #a;in4 thick1 dovetailed and angle plated4 ,such packing cases as are taken will require lining2 thin sheet lead is convenient for this purpose1 as it serves for bullet-making when the boxes are taken on shore4 ,illustration3 ,,resting ,,pole ,,for ,,burdens ,,on ,,tue ,,zambesi4 ,shooting ,gear4 ,bullets4 ,to the traveller whose means of transport confine him to the possession of one gun1 we say1 without hesitation1 purchase a plain1 strong1 muzzle-loading1 double-barrelled smooth bore of #aa or #ab gauge4 ,length of barrel1 #b;ft4 #f;in41 weight #h-a_/blb4 without the ramrod1 a front action bar1 side locks1 and ramrod pipes large enough to carry a rod of extra large size and power4 ,two pairs of spare nipples1 and one pair of fitted main springs1 in addition to those in the locks4 ,a bell-metal or iron spherical bullet mould must be selected with the greatest care1 as it by no means follows that because the figure #ab or #aa is stamped on it1 that1 like a wadding punch1 it is calculated for a gun of the same gauge4 ,our plan1 when about to purchase a new mould1 is to form1 with beeswax1 heated in warm water or before the fire1 a ball1 and to trim1 mould1 and finally to roll it on a polished table under the hand1 until1 when placed on a piece of thin1 soft1 greased kid1 and gently pressed down1 it fits the bore accurately2 then1 with this ball as a guide1 we search the moulds until one is found just the size to contain it without undue pressure being used in entering the hardened wax ball4 ,this mould we secure1 caring nothing for the conventional numbers placed on it4 ,the spherical leaden ball1 when encased in kid1 should fit the bore just tight enough to require one steady downward thrust of the rod to force it home4 ,if it travels on without pressure1 it is too loose2 if1 on the other hand1 tapping with the rod is needed1 it is too tight1 and liable to welt or disfigure the barrel4 ,we have seen many much injured1 and rendered very unsafe1 from this cause4 ,if several guns can be taken1 then it will be well to purchase one or more breech-loaders of ,no4 #ab gauge4 ,rifles and guns4 ,in the choice of rifles1 our readers must be mainly guided by the character and size of the game they intend pursuing4 ,a poly-groove muzzle-loader1 ,no4 #ab bore1 #b;ft4 #d;in4 in the barrels1 and of about #ajlb4 weight1 will be found a generally useful and reliable gun4 ,there are1 without doubt1 many advantages attendant on the use of breech-loading guns and rifles4 ,there are also drawbacks1 which1 except under peculiar circumstances1 more than outweigh them4 ,that the breech-loading form of construction1 varied as it is1 is of less strength and durability than that of an equally well made muzzle-loader1 few will be disposed to dispute4 ,the hinge joints1 levers1 and slides1 should they chance to become bent1 loose1 or1 worse still1 broken1 would require repair by an experienced gunsmith2 whilst1 as will be seen as the work proceeds1 nearly all the common accidents to which even the strongest and best made muzzle-loaders are liable in the bush1 can1 by the exercise of a little ingenuity1 be readily made efficient weapons by their unskilled owners4 ,gunpowder1 lead1 and percussion caps1 such as they are1 can1 when your own store is expended1 destroyed1 or lost1 be readily procured even in very out of the way corners of the earth2 whilst the cartridges calculated for breech-loaders could be only procured in towns or trading posts of importance1 where the cost would1 as a matter of necessity1 be great1 and their efficiency questionable4 ,strong flint muskets 7old army regulation7 will be found best calculated for the use of native servants4 ,a bit of agate1 common quartz1 or iron pyrites1 answers the purpose of a flint1 should one be lost4 ,nevertheless1 some breech-loaders so perfectly combine the qualities of simplicity of construction1 excellence of shooting1 and facility of re-loading1 that we forbear to put too general a veto upon them1 especially when1 by inserting a metallic wad1 they can be converted in case of need into muzzle-loaders4 ,terry and ,calishers1 ,westley ,richards1 and others1 are favourites in the ,cape colony2 and we carried for four years in tropical ,south ,africa one by ,t4 ,wilson1 of ,birmingham3 it was compact and simple in action1 devoid of hinges and levers4 ,we have loaded with facility while running from a wounded elephant1 and turned to fire again within eighty yards4 ,the cartridge was easily made with wads of the proper size and a bit of tissue paper saturated with common fat2 each shot ejected the greased wad of the previous charge1 cleaning the barrel as it went4 ,it could1 if necessary1 have been used as a muzzle-loader1 and is now1 after #afjj rounds have been fired from it1 in as good condition as could be desired4 ,the long sword bayonet we never used1 but1 instead1 cut down a smaller sword to the proportion of a bush knife1 and1 by a little smith's craft and patience1 fitted it to be used as a bayonet if needed4 ,a breech-loader has this advantage1 that with a small bayonet a man1 even in a sharp skirmish1 is not defenceless while loading1 for he has his point always before him ready for use should his enemy close4 ,we have since had a spring locker let into the stock1 to hold half a dozen cartridges and caps2 so that1 even when snatched up without the belt1 the gun should not become useless after the first discharge4 ,before quitting the subject1 it may not be amiss to give a few hints on the purchase of second-hand guns2 these are often to be obtained for considerably less than their original cost1 and just as good as when perfectly new4 ,there are many establishments in ,london1 where second-hand fire-arms in considerable numbers are regularly kept to select from2 amongst these may be mentioned ,whistler in the ,strand1 ,vaughan in the ,strand1 ,hewett of ,blackman-street1 ,borough1 and ,watson of #cac1 ,holborn4 ,after deciding on the description of gun you require1 and ascertaining the cost1 see that the maker's name is a good one1 take the number of the gun1 and either call1 write1 or telegraph as to identity and original price1 which matters of information the manufacturer will immediately furnish4 ,this is not an unnecessary caution1 as1 unless the would-be purchaser is experienced in style of finish1 and quality of workmanship1 he may possibly invest in an article sailing under false colours2 and here let us most emphatically impress on the reader that at neither of the shops above referred to would he knowingly be allowed to be deceived4 ,but that there are guns in the market with names on them which are forgeries few will deny1 and it requires both the experience of the dealer1 and the caution of the buyer1 to guard against being taken in by them4 ,do not rashly reject a sound useful gun because it is made by a provincial ,irish or ,scotch maker1 as there are many gunsmiths out of ,london who turn out guns equal in quality and shooting powers to any in the world4 ,when examining a gun you are about to buy1 try the locks by cocking and uncocking1 see that the pitch suits your mode of shooting1 draw the ramrod1 lift the hammers to half-cock1 drift out the bolt and reverse the barrels1 when on looking underneath near the breech you will probably see the proof marks and the number of gauge at which the gun was proved2 place the gun gauge in the muzzles and see that the two numbers correspond1 as it occasionally happens that guns are proved at one number and bored out until they represent another--a most reprehensible practice1 which militates greatly against the safety of the owner of the gun which has been thus tampered with4 ,do not1 however1 hastily cast aside a well-made ,irish gun with a known maker's name engraved on it because there are no proof marks1 as1 for some strange reason or another1 the law of proof does not appear to extend to ,ireland2 and we have seen many guns of surpassing excellence made in both ,dublin and ,cork unstamped4 ,the reason for this anomalous state of affairs we never have succeeded in getting clearly explained2 we therefore merely speak of matters as we have found them4 ,before removing the locks1 see that they are neatly and compactly fitted into the wood of the stock2 see also that the timber of the stock in the bed of the barrels immediately in front of the false breech is sound2 some makers lay in plates of metal at this joint1 which is an excellent plan4 ,on removing the bolt and taking off the locks1 see that all the cavities into which the projections and springs fit have been cleanly and evenly cut out with the tool4 ,see also that the triggers work freely and have back springs to them4 ,see that the interiors of the locks are well fitted together1 and if you can find the name of ,joseph ,brazier1 ,ashes1 engraved on the inside of the plate1 you may discontinue your scrutiny so far as the lock department is concerned1 as it is a guarantee for excellence of quality which we have always found beyond question4 ,have the breeches and nipples removed2 see that both male and female screws are perfect2 look carefully through the barrels1 and see that the inner surfaces are clear1 bright1 and free from rust or honeycombing4 ,cast a general glance over the gun furniture to see that all is firm and sound4 ,see that there are no shakes or cracks in the stock1 and if there is no varnish on it so much the better4 ,whether the barrels are to be of ,damascus or laminated steel1 or twisted stubs1 we must leave in great measure to the taste of the purchaser4 ,each kind has its advocates4 ,we do not advise having guns without ramrods1 as we have seen much inconvenience arise in wild countries from having the loading rod to carry and depend on4 ,it is well to have one with a large powerful worm inside the driving top or end1 but it should be regarded rather in the light of an auxiliary than an instrument to be depended on4 ,testing firearms4 ,it will also be advisable1 before concluding your purchase1 to test the shooting powers of the weapon selected4 ,if a smooth bore1 experiment on it first for accuracy of shooting with shot1 in order to ascertain if the barrels are accurately fitted together4 ,this is very easily done by trying a few shots from both barrels1 at two or three different ranges1 at a small object such as a visiting card4 ,by fastening this to the centre of the target1 and shooting steadily at it1 you will at once ascertain if both the barrels perform their work satisfactorily1 and do not shoot to the right or left4 ,with such a gun as we have recommended1 #c;drs4 of powder and #a-a_/doz4 of ,no4 #e or #f shot will be found a fair average charge4 ,equal quantities by measure of powder and shot form a charge almost universal in its usefulness4 ,the next test should be for pattern or regularity of distribution1 at different distances1 which may begin at twenty paces and extend to sixty1 using the same charge4 ,a large piece of sheet iron1 painted over with a mixture of pipeclay or whitening and water1 should1 in the absence of one of ,government pattern1 be made use of4 ,form a round black space in the middle1 and1 as in the case of the former experiment1 shoot steadily at it1 at the different ranges indicated4 ,it will then be seen whether the shot are equally and evenly distributed over a moderately large space of the metal4 ,there are two modes of testing penetration usually had recourse to4 ,the most common is to fire the gun1 at different ranges1 at a number of sheets of paper4 ,old books1 with the covers removed1 answer the purpose as well as anything4 ,these1 when firmly secured against the target1 a door1 or tree1 are fired at with a fair average charge1 in order to ascertain the number of leaves the shot has found its way through4 ,to carry an experiment of this kind out satisfactorily1 it will be well to test the intended purchase against some gun of known excellence1 as no arbitrary rule can be laid down as to the number of sheets which should be penetrated1 no two surfaces of paper being exactly alike in quality1 substance1 and mode of arrangement4 ,tin powder canisters are also used as a test of penetrating power4 ,some guns will riddle them from side to side1 whilst others1 with the same charge1 and at the same distance1 merely throw the shot through one thickness of the tin plate4 ,powder canisters are not always of the same substance2 therefore1 we recommend a competitive trial with them4 ,the accompanying table of results1 which were some time since arrived at and communicated to the ,field by an experienced correspondent1 will serve to show what varied results follow the use of particular guns and canisters of more than ordinary strength4 ,i was struck with the strength and sharpness of shooting of the #g-a_/blb4 #aa-;gauge gun at the trials1 of which ,i sent you the report1 and decided on trying the canisters again4 ,the first was a very hard1 strong canister of ,curtis and ,harvey's1 nearly square1 being #d-c_/d;in4 by #d-a_/b;in4 and #a-c_/d;in4 nearly through4 ,i fired eight barrels1 two or three pellets of each barrel going clean through both sides1 and such as did not go through both sides deeply indenting the second side4 ,i tried another of ,curtis and ,harvey's #f-a_/b;in4 by #c-a_/d;in4 by #a-c_/h;in41 with like results--,no4 #e shot #dj yards 7by tape71 and the canisters standing loose on the top of a post4 ,i then tried my heavy gun1 #ilb4 #aa-;gauge1 barrels #e-a_/blb41 #ca;in4 long4 ,i have drawn out a table of charges and results4 ,the patterns with ,no4 #e were very good--first-rate many of them--and the strongest2 with the #c-a_/b;drs4 and #a-a_/boz4 very great1 the other charge would not do4 ,with ,no4 #d the strength is very great1 but ,i cannot rely on the pattern4 ,i then put up a ,curtis and ,harvey tin canister 7apparently like the last in size and substance71 #f-a_/b;in4 by #c-a_/d;in4 by #a-c_/h;in41 and let go my right barrel at #dj yards with ,no4 #e2 to my amazement1 five pellets stuck in the first side1 but none went through4 ,i then examined it1 and it was very clearly a tough and strong subject4 ,my keeper tried the other barrel with the same results4 ,he was1 however1 quite sure that my other gun would send ,no4 #e through both sides4 ,i tried several shots the next day with the other gun at this same canister1 but could not get through the first side2 the shots stuck in1 and so hard that a strong clasp knife would hardly extract them4 ,i was astonished1 ,i confess1 for the shots which struck the stone gate-post were flattened as thin as the edge of a knife2 and1 standing about #e yards wide of the mark1 the strength seemed sufficient to go through anything4 ,however1 facts are facts2 and the three canisters are now lying on the ground before me4 ,i have since been experimenting with the light gun and ,no4 #f2 the day was not very favourable1 being windy1 but ,i did not like the patterns4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,right ,left ,dr4 ,oz4 ,no4 ,yds4 ,barrel4 ,barrel4 ,,light ,,gun1 #g-a_/blb41 barrels #d-c_/dlb4 #cj;in4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #c #a-a_/d ,no4 #f #dj #aaf #aaj ,very good4 ,very good4 #aaj #ajg ,very good4 ,very good4 #aab #ic ,good4 ,left went to the left4 #fj #df #da ,tolerable4 ,left low4 ,no4 #e 444 #db #ca ,good pattern1 and very hard4 ,targets #f;ft4 by #d-a_/b;ft41 with circle #cj;in4 in diameter2 shots on circle not counted4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,i do not like ,no4 #f2 it comes up hard1 too--very hard4 ,i stood behind the target while my keeper shot at it1 both at #dj yards and #fj yards1 so ,i could judge well2 but the patterns had not the killing regularity of ,no4 #e2 a part was thick as dust shot1 and another like ,no4 #e1 but without its broad splashes1 though the pellets were all as flat as wafers at #fj yards4 ,i would have backed the bird for ever4 ,i cannot help thinking that1 in windy weather1 very little execution could be done at #dj yards with ,no4 #f4 ,i have since tried other charges--#c;drs4 #a-a_/hoz41 #c;drs4 #a-c_/ajoz41 both ,nos4 #e and #f2 also #c-a_/d;drs4 #a-c_/hoz41 but ,i do not find any charge beats #c;drs4 and #a-a_/doz4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,right ,left ,dr4 ,oz4 ,no4 ,yds4 ,barrel4 ,barrel4 ,heavy ,gun4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #c-a_/d #a-c_/h ,no4 #e #dj #fe #ff ,right good4 ,left excellent4 #ff #hh ,right two holes or spaced4 ,left first rate4 #ej #df #ci ,not good4 ,not good4 #ca #dj ,moderate4 ,moderate4 ,want of strength1 not the charge4 #c-a_/b #a-a_/b ,no4 #e #dj #hd #ha ,right very good4 ,left first-rate4 #hj #ha ,right good4 ,left excellent4 #hc #hd ,right first-rate4 ,left first-rate4 #ej #db #ej ,right excellent4 ,left excellent4 #df #dd ,right not regular4 ,left very good4 #ec #ea ,right first-rate4 ,left first-rate4 ,very regular1 very hard1 very close4 #c-a_/b #a-a_/b ,no4 #d #dj #dg #eb ,very good4 #ej #bg #ai ,not good at all4 ,targets #b;ft4 square1 iron1 tape measurement2 gun #ilb41 without ramrod2 barrels #e-a_/blb4 and #ca;in4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,rifle sights4 ,a rifle1 before purchase1 should also be carefully tested as to accuracy of shooting2 this can be best done on some rifle range4 ,for sporting purposes1 accuracy of delivery and power of penetration at moderate distances are much more valuable qualities than length of range4 ,accuracy of shooting is best ascertained by firing steadily from increasing distances at an ordinary target centre1 up to #bjjyds4 ,a generally useful charge for spherical balls consists of the bullet-mouldful of the very best powder4 ,use a greased kid patch for the ball2 see that it has no defects or faults in it2 and never strike it with the driving end of the rod when it has once reached the surface of the powder in the barrel4 ,send the ball well home with a steady pressure from above1 and then withdraw the rod4 ,should it be found that the balls are sent to the right of the object1 in all probability it will be found on examination that either the hind sight is placed too far towards the right1 or the fore sight too far in the opposite direction4 ,so with rifles which shoot to the left4 ,if the hind sight has been shifted in its slot1 and driven too far to the left of the exact line1 or the front sight in a direction towards the right1 the balls will be found to assume an untrue flight2 and the greater the distance they have to travel1 the more marked will the error become4 ,the handle of an old tooth brush1 fashioned with a file into the form of an elongated wedge1 will1 with the aid of a mallet or hammer1 serve to drift the slides into their proper position4 ,this1 when once found1 should be noted by making a small but deep cut with the point of a penknife across both slide and barrel rib1 so that if moved the two ends of the cut will not correspond4 ,gunmakers usually either cut a notch or punch in a piece of platinum1 with the same view4 ,rifles will not unfrequently need re-sighting from accidents in wild countries1 but this subject will be treated of at length hereafter4 ,the penetration of rifle balls is best ascertained by firing them at a number of thin elm boards1 placed one on the other like a pack of cards4 ,the number of layers or boards penetrated is at once ascertained by taking off the planks one by one until the ball is reached4 ,ammunition4 ,we are not unfrequently asked to advise as to the quantity of ammunition a single sportsman should take abroad in order to enjoy a fair amount of shooting4 ,the duration of the proposed excursion1 nature of game about to be followed1 and the proclivities of the intending traveller1 will all influence the bulk of the store he should provide himself with4 ,still1 a hint or two may at any rate serve for a basis for him to regulate his purchases by4 ,supposing1 then1 that a ,no4 #ab or #aa muzzle-loader1 an #aa or #ab bore muzzle-loading rifle1 and either a brace of double pistols or a revolver1 are taken2 #dlb4 of best sporting powder1 #blb4 of rifle ditto1 #bjjj best caps for guns1 which should have nipples alike1 and #bej pistol caps2 two #bhlb4 bags of ,no4 #f shot1 one bag ,no4 #d1 and one bag ,,bb4 ,have sail-canvas bags made to go outside the ordinary shot bags1 as these are sure to burst with rough travelling4 ,take six bags of ordinary mercurial gun wads1 and six of extra thick felt ditto as powder wads4 ,these can be split in two if you run short4 ,wads of this kind are invaluable1 as they keep the gun clean1 improve its power of shooting considerably1 and are less liable to rise in the barrel than those of thin material4 ,get a stout elm box made2 have it lined with sheet lead2 have a division of stout plank made in the middle1 so that the shot may rest at one end and the powder1 wads1 and caps at the other4 ,pack in every crevice with tow1 as that will come handy for cleaning purposes1 solder down your lead cover1 and then screw on your elm box-lid4 ,a stout pair of elm cleets or bars should be secured to both bottom and top of the box4 ,they not only strengthen it1 but prevent the planking from coming in contact with the earth or wet decks4 ,they also serve to prevent ropes used in slinging or fastening the case in its various haulings up and lowerings down from slipping4 ,cleets of this kind are useful appendages to all wooden boxes used by travellers4 ,pistols4 ,the most efficient and powerful pistol we have used is the holster revolver of ,colonel ,colt1 but its weight 7#dlb4 #boz47 is far too great to admit of its being generally carried except on horseback4 ,there are not so many objections to the use of breech-loading revolvers and pistols as there are to guns and rifles made on that plan4 ,in the first place1 they are less liable to breakage or derangement2 and in the next1 from the very limited number of cartridges which would be actually fired1 a sufficient number may be very easily taken to last through a long campaign or expedition4 ,it is an immense advantage being able to instantly load or unload the chamber without discharging it4 ,it is customary with many travellers1 ourselves amongst the number1 to fire the revolver off every ,saturday to clean1 re-load1 and re-cap them1 thereby sacrificing six charges1 six caps1 and some little labour4 ,notwithstanding all the ingenuity which has of late been devoted to the production of breech-loading revolvers1 we have not seen one which we can recommend without reservation--the great fault in every case being smallness of bore4 ,long range is1 as a rule1 not required in a pistol1 but that which is required is the power of inflicting a severe shock to the system at comparatively close quarters4 ,numerous cases might be cited when1 after lodging two or even three of the tiny pellets fired from small revolvers in the body of an enemy1 the enemy has had decidedly the best of it1 and coolly finished off the owner of the mechanical popgun with some old-world weapon of greater power4 ,until a large-bored and handy breech-loading revolver is produced1 we recommend for use on horseback1 either double-barelled smooth-bore ,lefaucheux-pattern pistols with #g-a_/b;in4 barrels and #ad bore1 or muzzle-loaders of the same size and gauge1 with bar side locks and swivel ramrods4 ,the over and under double pistol is an excellent weapon1 and is carried by many soldiers and travellers of great experience2 but for our part1 we prefer the barrels mounted side by side1 precisely as they are in a double gun4 ,to carry in the belt for use on foot1 the ,tranter breech-loader is perhaps as good as any1 although as a rule the trigger pull is too heavy2 but this is an evil which admits of correction4 ,powder flasks1 barrel rods1 c4 ,take three ,sykes powder-flasks1 one to hold a pound and the others of medium size2 have them of tinned copper stitched over with saddle pig-skin4 ,we prefer for carrying shot a double shot-belt with patent side springs to any of the lever cut-off contrivances2 it is a very old-fashioned plan we know1 but a very effective and useful one for all that4 ,two sizes of shot can be carried in it2 it can be worn much more comfortably than a pouch1 which is always getting in the way1 and there is no loss of shot from chance blows on the lever3 a still greater advantage lays in your being able to see that which goes into your gun4 ,if only one size shot can be taken1 select ,no4 #f for general use2 but ,no4 #h1 ,no4 #d1 and ,bristol ,b4 should be added if practicable4 ,gunpowder of excellent quality is now to be obtained of all the first-class makers4 ,for percussion caps1 thick felt gun-wads1 and ordinary mercurial ditto1 go to either ,joyce or ,ely4 ,the wire cartridges of the latter maker are invaluable if they can be carried3 we have done wonders with them4 ,when having your shooting gear put in order1 have two well-seasoned deal rods made1 so that they may fit tightly into the barrels of the gun when covered with two layers of flannel1 which must be firmly stitched on2 the sticks are cut exactly the length of the barrels1 and connected at the muzzle ends by a short piece of strong tape2 this serves to draw them out by4 ,before placing the sticks in the barrels for final packing up1 rub them over with mercurial ointment1 as should be done to both the outsides of the barrels and the gun furniture2 there is little fear of rust attacking your firearms when treated in this way4 ,a brass mould for casting buck shot will be found very useful4 ,one we have found of infinite service is thus made3 ,two long narrow cheeks of brass are fitted at one end with a hinge1 each cheek has the halves of fifteen shot sockets at each edge1 making1 when the two halves are closed1 thirty perfect spherical moulds for shot4 ,a groove and row of inlets run along each edge1 and two movable steel plates cut off the necks of the shot when cool4 ,there are two handles1 and the whole affair is not unlike a long narrow pair of nutcrackers4 ,the shot thus cast are about the size of garden peas1 and an ounce of them1 with #c-a_/b;drs4 of powder behind it from a ,no4 #aa gun1 forms a charge which will be found most formidable if used at moderately close quarters4 ,when defending a camp or waggon fort against the attacks of savages nothing is equal to it4 ,stationery and ,artist's ,materials4 ,it is to be supposed that most persons visiting little-known regions will at least keep a diary for private gratification1 if not for public use2 and now that drawing from nature is so essential a branch of education1 they will most likely also wish to sketch such objects or scenes as may be most interesting4 ,some who aspire to more exactitude of detail than an artist can hope for in a hasty sketch may wish to practise photography2 and in this beautiful art the greatest possible facilities are offered to those who practise it4 ,we have lately seen in ,london many most beautiful pictures taken by ,dr4 ,kirk on the ,zambesi with a small and inexpensive camera1 carried as a mere supplement to his private equipment2 but unless the traveller possesses1 as ,kirk did1 chemical knowledge enough to enable him to contend successfully against the various contingencies of changing climate1 impurity or scarcity of water1 and innumerable other new and unexpected difficulties1 we are inclined to think that the pencil1 guided with what artistic skill the individual may be able to command1 will afford1 if not the best1 at least the most certainly available results2 and1 without undervaluing photography1 we may in this preliminary chapter notice principally the appliances which will enable a man to keep his journal and illustrate it with sketches of interesting scenes or objects4 ,the journal4 ,first1 then1 as to the journal4 ,of course1 for purposes of correspondence1 a traveller will take care to supply himself with some one of the substantial and economical portable desks in which pens1 ink1 note-paper1 and envelopes are always at hand to enable him to write a creditable letter from almost any part of the world4 ,but the journal or diary is another matter2 its value consists chiefly in its being what its name indicates--a diary or diurnal record4 ,it must be written while the events described are fresh on the memory1 or there is neither life nor spirit in it4 ,if the journal of to-day is put off1 the events of to-morrow will confuse and dim the impressions that ought in all their pristine vigour to have been committed to paper2 procrastination is the thief of time1 and we may well say that it will rob the journal of the traveller of all that freshness and vivacity which alone can make it interesting4 ,illustration ,the question1 then1 is1 how shall he carry with him material so that each night1 by the blazing camp-fire1 the scantily-fed oil lamp1 or the last half hour of the quickly waning twilight1 he may record his impressions of the events of the day8 ,we will suppose that the chase has occupied him2 or he has been engaged1 as we have1 in desultory warfare in ,kaffirland or ,india2 or even1 it may be1 passing through a peaceful country1 with no other than the common difficulties of exploration and objects of interest in botany1 zoology1 or any of the innumerable departments of science crowding on him at every hour4 ,he will1 perhaps1 wish to send home one or more copies of his diary as correspondence1 and it is absolutely necessary that he himself should retain a perfect copy4 ,ink he cannot at all times carry1 nor could he use it1 for the drying up of the fluid1 the clogging and corroding of his pens1 would be insuperable difficulties2 and1 beside this1 as his time is not sufficient for him to write in detail1 even for the first time1 all that he wishes1 how shall he obtain a copy8 ,in answer we will simply state the plan we have successfully adopted4 ,pen and ink we discarded altogether1 and trusted simply to the powers of a good ,,hh4 pencil and a supply of thin white foolscap interleaved with semi-carbonic paper1 as shown in the illustration here given4 ,by this arrangement we were able at any time to record all needful remarks or observations in duplicate1 and could have extended this if necessary to five copies1 while all the labour of re-writing was saved and all chance of error obviated by this simple process4 ,artist's materials4 ,with regard to artist's materials1 until we have an opportunity of going farther into detail1 perhaps all that need be said is that the traveller1 knowing his own capabilities and requirements1 should supply himself with material from some respectable colourman--,reeves1 ,winsor and ,newton1 or others--with such materials as he requires4 ,to one who has real facility in sketching1 the black-lead pencil and a few quires of sketching cartridge paper will be the means of affording illustrations which1 compared with the simple means employed1 may be accounted marvellous2 but if he has skill in colouring and will add to this a water-colour box1 with tubes1 or moist colours in porcelain pans1 in assortments 7always kept by the best colourmen71 with a few sable or other pencils1 and brushes of the best quality 7for there is really no saving in buying cheap goods71 he may obtain results that will in after years more than repay the cost and labour he has expended upon them4 ,details of our own outfit and expenditure will hereafter be given2 and we may now briefly mention that1 for pure and careful painting1 white paper--say ,whatman's--is indispensable2 but where strict accuracy of tint is not essential1 it is very soothing to the eye1 especially under the fervid rays of an almost vertical sun1 to have the paper slightly tinted with pearl1 warm grey1 light drab1 or neutral colours1 which1 if well chosen1 will enable the artist to make very effective drawings in sepia1 or colours heightened with ,chinese white4 ,for persons wishing to employ their leisure in pleasing mementoes of the scenes they visit1 perhaps the following brief list--amplified1 should they desire it--will afford sufficient guidance2 and they will also do well to choose one or more of the shilling handbooks published by ,rowney and ,co41 or ,winsor and ,newton4 ,a sketching portfolio1 with folding tin frame to confine the paper while in use1 and pocket for spare paper--quarto size4 ,do not take sketching blocks where they have to stand rough usage4 ,one of folio size1 if desired4 ,a good strong havresac of canvas1 with leather slings for each folio4 ,stout canvas is almost waterproof4 ,this should have pockets for colour box1 water bottle1 pencils1 and penknife4 ,half quire ,whatman's drawing paper 7white74 ,some of it should be cut to the size of the folio4 ,half quire sketching cartridge for less finished work4 ,half quire tinted drawing paper 7pearl1 light drab1 cool and warm greys74 ,a proportion of all these papers should be cut to the size of the sketch book when purchased2 but a few sheets should be kept whole1 as a larger drawing may be required4 ,two dozen drawing pencils--#h ,,hh41 #ab ,h41 and #d ,,hb4 ,in practice1 it will be found ,,hb4 is black enough1 and it should be used sparingly1 as1 unless a drawing is fixed immediately1 the deep shades are very apt to smear when the backs of other sketches are packed against them4 ,two single bladed penknives4 ,very compact sketching boxes with assorted colours in cakes1 in porcelain pans1 or in collapsible tubes1 are provided2 and the amateur can hardly do better than select one of these with any number of colours from two to twenty-four4 ,we prefer to use the collapsible tubes1 as from them any amount of colour may be placed upon the palette ready for use1 without the trouble of grinding from the cake or washing up from the moist pan4 ,another advantage is that the colour remaining in the tube cannot be spoiled by the admixture of any other--the tubes might be carried loose in the pocket of a white waistcoat without fear of spoiling it4 ,there are1 however1 a few which do not keep well1 as1 from their weight1 they separate from the medium they are mixed with and become hard4 ,some of these are seldom used2 but1 where they are necessary1 we should advise that they be taken in cakes4 ,on tinted paper very nice effective sketches may be made with one tube of sepia and a cake of ,chinese white4 ,with these we should advise three brown sable pencils in flat ,german silver ferrules--,nos4 #a1 #c1 and #f4 ,with the addition to these of the three primitive colours--red1 blue1 and yellow--a considerable range of subjects may be painted2 indeed could we obtain these in perfect purity1 we should require no other4 ,but1 as this is impossible1 we subjoin a list of colours1 placing first in order those that we have found most useful 7,chinese white and sepia have been already mentioned73-- ,indian yellow1 ,carmine1 ,french blue1 ,yellow ochre1 ,light red1 ,prussian blue1 ,gamboge1 ,rose madder 7perhaps in cake71 ,cobalt1 ,raw sienna 7cake71 ,burnt sienna1 ,indigo1 ,yellow lake1 ,mars orange1 ,payne's grey1 ,vermilion 7cake71 ,vandyke brown1 ,emerald green1 ,scarlet lake 7cake71 ,crimson lake1 ,purple lake1 ,cadmium yellow 7cake71 ,brown madder 7cake71 ,purple madder 7cake74 ,with these1 the whole set from #a to #f of the sables in flat albata will be needed1 and we advise two each of #a1 #b1 and #c1 as well as one or two large swans' quills for washing in the sky or flat tints4 ,a tripod sketching stool folding to the size of a special's staff would be useful1 but the rivet should be strong and well clinched4 ,let the watercolour box have divisions on the edge of the palette for every colour it contains4 ,if you take an easel1 do not trust an india-rubber collar joint2 it will not stand tropical heat2 let the joint be brass4 ,the tripod easel1 folding up like a single rod1 is most portable4 ,we have in this said nothing of oil colours2 amateurs will hardly need them in a wild country2 but when we treat more at length on this subject our own equipment will be given4 ,scientific ,instruments4 ,instruments for mapping the route4 ,if the traveller aims at exploring and approximately mapping the country he passes through1 astronomical instruments are indispensable1 and of these none are more useful than the compass2 the sextant1 with artificial horizon2 the note book1 conveniently ruled1 for recording observations2 and the protractor1 the scale1 and the dividers1 for laying them down upon the map4 ,if merely a pleasure excursion in a sufficiently known country is contemplated1 a pocket compass will be all that is needed2 and even that is dispensed with by hunters and traders1 who push farther every year into the wilderness without fear of either mistaking their way or being unable to return upon their own tracks4 ,a great amount of detail may be filled in with the following simple outfit3--,a pocket compass1 not only showing the points as in common use1 but graduated on the outer circle with degrees1 reading uninterruptedly from zero all round to #cfj3 this will give the direction of the road1 the bearings of any two objects1 and the angle between them4 ,a waistcoat-pocket ivory #f;in4 folding rule3 this will serve the purpose both of scale and protractor2 the eighths of an inch may be conveniently taken to represent miles1 and by laying the rule upon the compass1 so that its joint coincides with the centre on which the needle turns1 and opening the legs to the degrees marked upon the circumference1 the required angle may be approximately transferred to the note book4 ,for observing latitudes a sextant is indispensable4 ,if great accuracy is not required1 a pocket or box sextant of from three to four inches diameter1 and reading to half miles1 will answer2 but for more precision one of at least #h;in4 radius should be taken1 framed entirely of metal1 as wood will shrink and warp2 it should read to #ae or even to #aj seconds1 or sixtieths of a mile4 ,there are many forms of artificial horizon1 but of these the mercurial is the best1 and1 in fact1 the only one we can confidently recommend4 ,the trough should not be less than five inches long by three broad1 and we prefer an oval form1 with a convenient spout for pouring off the quicksilver when done with4 ,a glass roof is used to protect the surface of the mercury1 should there be any wind1 and this may be made to fold into a very small compass1 if desired4 ,six1 or at least four1 pounds of mercury should be provided2 and this should be kept in an iron bottle1 with screwed stopper and cover1 serving as a funnel1 which should be further protected by a piece of washleather tied over it4 ,we have used as a substitute a common stoneware ink bottle1 with leather securely tied over the cork1 but wooden bottles are sure to split and leak when taken to hot countries4 ,with this equipment1 a superior compass1 for the more accurate determination of bearings1 will be required4 ,a prismatic compass is very useful1 but we have used1 with great convenience and accuracy1 a flat one with a card of three inches diameter1 divested of everything but the slit and hair line sights1 which are used just as those of a rifle are1 and protected only by a stout glass1 which saved the trouble of removing and replacing the cover4 ,a small pouch on the waist belt was appropriated exclusively to this4 ,the note book may be of good non-metallic writing-paper1 such as is in common use4 ,this may be written on very conveniently with a ,h4 or ,,hh4 drawing pencil1 which is practically indelible4 ,it would be convenient to have lines ruled along the side of the page for the courses and time or estimated distance2 4 s4 d4 columns will do very well for this4 ,for mapping1 paper may be purchased ruled with squares of almost any desired size2 the inches are marked with strong lines1 and the subdivisions1 eights or tenths1 with fainter4 ,this should be cut to fit one of the quarto sketching folios1 with folding frame to confine the sheet in use1 and pocket for spare paper as commonly used by artists4 ,the instruments absolutely necessary for plotting the result are a semicircular1 or1 still better1 a circular protractor1 marked like the compass with degrees from #j to #cfj1 and made of brass1 or preferably of some transparent material4 ,a #f;in4 scale1 with the usual divisions1 and a good pair of compasses or dividers1 with points as fine as possible1 but somewhat obtuse1 to prevent the possibility of their piercing the paper and breaking off in it4 ,for heights of mountains1 the simplest and most reliable instrument is the hypsometrical or boiling-point apparatus1 which1 though not so accurate as the mountain barometer1 is sufficiently so for ordinary purposes1 and has this great merit--it cannot easily be put out of order4 ,the rainfall1 should the country be blessed with any1 may be measured by a ,casella rain gauge1 which we have also used very successfully on a pinch as a funnel for drawing off rum from a barrel4 ,thermometers reading up to boiling point ought to be carried1 and in addition to these the traveller may provide himself with a self-registering maximum and minimum1 and a wet and dry bulb thermometer4 ,illustration ,one of the greatest difficulties that an observer working on shore with the artificial horizon can meet with is--that the actual angle to be observed is doubled by reflection in the quicksilver4 ,few sextants read higher than #abj or #acj1 consequently1 when the sun is #gj high1 it is beyond the reach of ordinary instruments4 ,to meet this1 ,captain ,c4 ,george1 ,r4,n41 of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 has invented a very beautiful little instrument1 in the form of a double box sextant1 and the object of which is either to take two angles at one observation1 by referring two distant objects to a common centre1 and completing at once a perfect triangle1 or1 by the increased power of the instrument1 to take any required angle that may be too great for those in ordinary use4 ,the instrument is best described as being a special arrangement of two sextants placed one over the other4 ,each sextant is complete in all its essential details1 and1 if so required1 can be detached and separately used4 ,the ,improved ,double ,sextant is capable of being applied to the following uses3-- 7#a47 ,to the measurement of angles of nearly double the arc which can be measured by the ordinary sextant4 7#b47 ,to the simultaneous measurement of two angles4 7#c47 ,to laying out a direct line between any two objects1 thus acting as a substitute for a ,raper's instrument4 7#d47 ,to laying out curves for railways1 harbour works1 c41 c4 7#e47 ,it can be used as an optical square4 7#f47 ,it can be used as a dip-sector4 7#g47 ,it can be used on shipboard to measure the supplement of the meridian altitude1 in cases where the land intervenes between the observer and the direct meridional horizon4 7#h47 ,it can be used on shore with the artificial horizon in obtaining altitudes of objects near the zenith4 7#i47 ,it is also available as two distinct sextants1 one of which can be used in case of the other being damaged1 or one can be used by an assistant1 and the other retained by the observer4 ,a pocket compass is now made in which the northern half is black with white points1 and the southern white with black points2 the advantage of which by night or twilight is obvious4 ,we prefer that the card should travel with the magnet1 as all the points then come naturally into position1 and the excessive liveliness of the needle which renders a rapid observation so difficult is obviated4 ,we have carried a pocket compass with a swivel ring1 so that it could be worn on the left thumb1 while we held the note book and kept the right hand free for writing or guiding the horse4 ,it is easier to make pencil notes on horseback than in a waggon4 ,for the proper registration of the time and distance travelled1 a good well-going hunting watch is necessary2 and if it has a black dial and white figures so much the better4 ,this will serve sufficiently well for taking time in the observation of lunar distances4 ,unless under very exceptional circumstances it would be useless for an explorer to trouble himself with a chronometer4 ,a good binocular field glass for day and night will be found useful4 ,illustration3 ,,portable ,,observatory4 ,illustration3 ,,triangular ,,compasses4 ,illustration3 ,,sliding ,,beam ,,compasses4 ,portable observatory4 ,we give a sketch of a very convenient arrangement made for us by ,mr4 ,casella1 in which the roof of the artificial horizon1 slung with its point downward in a leather case1 with pieces of tin let in to protect the glass from injury1 was filled up with a block of light cedar1 with hollows cut in it for the reception of the pocket sextant1 iron-stoppered bottle of mercury and funnel cap1 prismatic compass1 note book with tables of declination cut from ,hannay and ,dietrichsen's ,almanac pasted in it1 pencil1 skin of chamois leather1 and over all the horizon trough4 ,lieutenant ,skead1 ,r4,n41 who accompanied the expedition to the ,zambesi1 frequently used it1 and called it a portable observatory4 ,if the traveller intends to be long absent1 he should supply himself with the ,nautical ,almanac for three years in advance1 as well as with ,norie's or ,raper's ,epitome1 or ,kerigan's ,navigation4 ,in addition to the instruments we have described1 triangular compasses are very useful for taking the exact relative position of three points1 and sliding beam compasses for long distances4 ,proportional compasses are also very useful in plotting the result of observations2 we were accustomed to pin down half a dozen sheets over each other on the drawing board1 and with a fine needle point prick the course through the whole of them2 then by underlaying them with semi-carbonic paper1 and writing the names on the upper sheet with a ,,hhh4 pencil1 three or even more copies at a time might be obtained1 the number1 of course1 depending much on the thinness of the paper we worked on4 7,see accompanying illustration47 ,illustration ,measurement of distances4 ,bear in mind that what an explorer wants is the means of approximately laying down his course and distance travelled1 and his latitude precisely2 the sextant and artificial horizon will do the last within a mile4 ,the compass will give the course very nearly if he walks or rides2 no instrument can be perfectly depended on4 ,a pedometer will do for short distances1 but when he becomes weary it counts his feeble steps just as it did his vigorous strides at the beginning1 and thus shows more than the truth4 ,if wheel carriages can be used1 take a trochiameter1 and contrive if possible to have the wheel on which it is fixed exactly five yards in circumference2 it saves no end of trouble if there are no odd half inches to calculate4 ,for mapping1 do not take a case of instruments unless they are really good2 have rather a few good ones wrapped in a chamois skin1 a small ivory rule on which the eighths of an inch serve for miles1 a pair of good dividing compasses1 a good circular protractor transparent marked1 from #j to #cfj1 a small parallel rule1 ,,hhh4 pencils1 a cake of blue for rivers1 and carmine for roads1 with a couple of sable pencils and a fine incorrodible metallic pen1 will enable you to make a very complete and reliable map4 ,in the map room of the ,royal ,geographical ,society a small selection of practical works is kept1 a list of which1 by the courtesy of ,captain ,c4 ,george1 we are enabled to insert here4 ,it is as follows3-- ,the ,traveller's ,library4 ,astronomy4 ,outlines of ,astronomy4 ,sir ,j4 ,herschel1 ,bart4 7,longman and ,co4 #aheh47 #aas4 ,astronomy and ,general ,physics4 ,w4 ,whewell4 7,w4 ,pickering4 #aheg47 #ds4 ,illustrated ,london ,astronomy4 ,j4 ,r4 ,hind4 7,ingram and ,co4 #ahec47 #as4 #f;d4 ,handbook--,descriptive and ,practical ,astronomy4 ,g4 ,f4 ,chambers4 7,j4 ,murray4 #ahfa47 #ajs4 ,elements of ,plane ,astronomy4 ,j4 ,brinkley1 ,d4,d4 7,hodges and ,smith4 #ahde47 #fs4 ,orbs of ,heaven2 ,planetary and ,stellar ,worlds4 ,o4 ,m4 ,mitchell4 7,n4 ,cooke4 #ahef47 #bs4 #c;d4 ,navigation4 ,navigation and ,nautical ,astronomy4 ,rev4 ,j4 ,inman4 7,rivingtons4 #ahfb47 #fs4 #c;d4 ,complete ,epitome of ,practical ,navigation4 7,j4 ,w4 ,norie4 #ahfd47 #ads4 ,n4,b4 ,the latest edition should be asked for4 ,lunar ,time ,tables4 ,j4 ,gordon4 7,imray4 #ahec47 #gs4 ,handbook for the ,stars4 ,h4 ,w4 ,jeans4 7,levey1 ,robson1 and ,co4 #ahdh47 #cs4 #f;d4 ,mathematics1 ,trigonometry1 and ,spherics4 ,manual of ,mathematical ,tables4 ,galbraith and ,houghton4 7,longman and ,co4 #ahfj47 #bs4 ,mathematical ,tracts4 ,g4 ,b4 ,airy4 7,j4 ,w4 ,parker4 #ahdb47 #is4 #f;d4 ,treatise on ,practical ,mensuration4 ,a4 ,nesbit4 7,longman and ,co4 #ahfd47 #es4 #d;d4 ,practical ,introduction to ,spherics and ,nautical ,astronomy4 ,p4 ,kelly1 ,,ll4,d4 7,baldwin and ,co4 #ahbb47 #gs4 ,treatise on ,trigonometry4 ,g4 ,b4 ,airy4 7,griffin and ,co4 #ahee47 #bs4 #c;d4 ,for ,travellers4 ,what to ,observe2 or1 ,travelling ,remembrancer4 ,col4 ,jackson4 ,revised by ,dr4 ,norton ,shaw4 7,houlston and ,wright4 #ahfa47 #is4 #f;d4 ,geodesy and ,surveying1 ,military1 ,nautical1 and ,land ,surveying4 ,treatise on ,military ,surveying4 ,lieut4 ,col4 ,jackson4 7,allen and ,co4 #ahfj47 #abs4 ,outline of ,method of conducting a ,trigonometrical ,survey4 ,col4 ,frome4 7,weale4 #ahfb47 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,practical ,geodesy4 ,j4 ,w4 ,williams4 7,parker and ,son4 #ahce47 #gs4 #f;d4 ,trigonometrical ,surveying1 ,levelling1 and ,engineering4 ,w4 ,galbraith4 7,blackwood and ,son4 #ahdb47 #fs4 #i;d4 ,engineering ,field ,notes on ,parish and ,railway ,surveying and ,levelling4 ,h4 ,j4 ,castle4 7,simpkin and ,co4 #ahdg47 #hs4 ,practice of ,engineering ,field ,work4 ,w4 ,d4 ,haskoll4 7,atchley and ,co4 #aheh47 #ags4 #f;d4 ,treatise on ,nautical ,surveyings4 ,com4 ,belcher4 7,richardson4 #ahce47 #abs4 ,weights and ,measures4 ,weights and ,measures of ,all ,nations4 ,w4 ,woolhouse4 7,virtue ,bros4 #ahfc47 #as4 #f;d4 ,foreign ,measures and their ,english ,values4 ,r4 ,c4 ,carrington4 7,potter4 #ahfd47 ,construction of ,maps4 ,manual of ,map-making4 ,a4 ,jamieson4 7,fullarton4 #ahdf47 #bs4 ,manual of ,topographical ,drawing4 ,lieut4 ,r4 ,smith4 7,j4 ,wiley4 #ahed47 #es4 ,projection of the ,sphere4 ,projection and ,calculation of the ,sphere4 ,s4 ,m4 ,saxby4 7,longman and ,co4 #ahfa47 #ds4 #c;d4 ,use of ,instruments4 ,treatise on ,principal ,mathematical and ,drawing ,instruments4 ,f4 ,williams4 7,weale4 #aheg47 #cs4 #b;d4 ,the ,sextant and its ,applications4 ,simms4 7,troughton and ,simms4 #aheh47 #ds4 #f;d4 ,treatise on ,mathematical ,instruments4 ,j4 ,heather4 7,virtue ,bros4 #ahfc47 #as4 ,geography4 ,geography ,generalised4 ,r4 ,sullivan4 7,longman and ,co4 #ahfc47 #bs4 ,in addition to these1 every one ought to possess the ,admiralty ,manual of ,scientific ,enquiry1 which is a series of papers written for the direction of explorers by men of the highest standing in various sciences2 and no better general work can be recommended4 ,illustration3 ,,north ,,australian ,,expedition ,,saddle ,,equipment4 ,,namaqua ,,gun ,,bucket4 ,horse ,equipment4 ,saddles4 ,a good roomy hunting saddle1 turned out as only an experienced ,english maker can1 or1 at any rate1 so far as our experience has gone1 ever does1 we look on as the very perfection of that on which a horseman should sit2 and we strongly advise every one leaving ,england for any country in which he has to ride1 to provide himself with at least one4 ,the various saddles used abroad will be described farther on4 ,it will be requisite to have a number of ,ds fastened on in the most convenient situations for attaching by straps the various matters which it is at times requisite to carry4 ,two soft leather holsters should be fitted to the front1 and a wallet 7see engraving71 made to rest behind the off saddle flap and thigh of the rider1 suspended by straps from ,ds sewn firmly on for that purpose4 ,at the rear of the saddle should also be attached a double row of ,ds for the purpose of securing a sort of leather cover or envelope 7see engraving71 within which1 when on the march1 the head and heel ropes1 with their pins1 are secured4 ,the mode of using these1 as well as knee halters1 c41 will be described when treating on that subject4 ,two numdahs1 or saddle cloths1 should accompany the saddle4 ,the best we have seen of late are composed of a thick species of felt2 but1 during the most rapid and fatiguing forced marches through ,central ,india1 at the time of the mutiny1 we used two of quilted cotton of native manufacture1 which were put on alternately1 one getting dry whilst the other was becoming saturated with perspiration from the horse1 and so1 by a constant change of these1 avoiding one of the worst misfortunes that can befall the horse of the traveller through a wild country1 viz41 a sore back4 ,the skin of the klip springer1 prepared with the hair on1 forms an admirable numdah4 ,saddles are greatly protected during rough travel1 and their durability much increased1 by having cases made for them of soft russet leather1 or that which is infinitely better1 when it can be obtained1 saumber skin4 ,we have had covers for all our saddles made of it1 to protect the pig skin from the tremendous thorns of tropical forests1 as well as the numerous other sources of injury to which saddles are liable4 ,the stirrup-iron should be of large size1 so as to admit of the free passage in and out of a thick boot with some mud or clay about it4 ,two or three pairs of substantial hunting spurs1 with wide straps1 will be found the most reliable kind of persuader4 ,bridle4 ,the most useful bridle we ever had was of the shifting bead collar pattern1 so constructed that1 by unbuckling a pair of side straps1 both bits1 with the reins attached1 came off1 leaving a strong head collar1 with a chin strap1 on which was an iron ring for a coil of rope to be suspended from1 as shown in the illustration on page #cg4 ,numerous opinions exist touching bits1 and much diversity of opinion must remain after all the arguments which have from time to time been expended on the subject2 as the temperaments of horses and men vary1 and as the peculiar purposes to which the horse1 in the number of phases or conditions in which he is called on to minister to the wants and pleasures of his master1 are changed1 so will some modification of the means used for his control and direction be required4 ,pall-mall is one place and the forest another2 and it by no means follows1 because the equipment one has used with ,english hunters in an ,english hunting-field has been found all that could be desired1 that native bred or colonial horses1 ridden in pursuit of game1 require no other4 ,we do not think it would be profitable to the reader to enter here on a description of the bits used by various nations and tribes4 ,we advise as nearly as possible adhering in this1 as well as in many other customs1 to the mode adopted by the particular race or nation amongst whom the traveller may chance to sojourn4 ,still1 we recommend him to take out from ,england 7besides the bit fitted on the head collar bridle1 which may be a plain strong snaffle7 two segundras of medium power4 ,have no more buckles in either heads or reins than are absolutely needed4 ,nothing tends to weaken a bridle so much1 during the exposure consequent on an outdoor life1 as the rusting out of buckles and the breaking or pulling through of their tongues--both sources of endless trouble and annoyance4 ,pack saddles4 ,for simple and efficient equipment both for pack and saddle horses we do not know a better model than that adopted by ,augustus ,c4 ,gregory1 ,commander of the ,north ,australian ,expedition1 and now ,gold ,medallist of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 with whom we had the honour of serving from #ahee to #aheg4 ,the pack saddles1 elaborately constructed in ,england1 which we took out to him were at once condemned for two reasons2 first1 that they were unnecessarily heavy1 and next that the points of suspension for the load were so high that the least swaying of the saddle would severely wring the horse's back4 ,the large flaps were saved as a reserve of useful leather for emergencies1 and the thick felt saddle cloths were gladly appropriated to their proper use2 but the complicated arrangement of wood and iron1 combining the undesirable qualities of weakness1 weight1 and inconvenience1 was left in store to await the sale of surplus equipment on our return4 ,the pack saddle1 made under the direction of ,mr4 ,gregory1 consisted simply of two boards of ,australian cedar1 about twenty inches long by seven broad1 inclined at such an angle as to sit fairly on the horse's ribs1 and at such a distance from each other that the spine should remain uninjured between them4 ,these were connected by two stout bows of iron1 #a-a_/b;in4 broad by #c_/h;in4 thick1 arching well clear of the horse's back1 and having on each side hooks firmly riveted into them for the suspension of the bags in which our provisions1 c41 were stowed4 ,the crupper was buckled round the aftermost bow1 and the straps for the attachment of the breasting1 breeching1 and girths were screwed on the outside of the cedar planks4 ,we hope the illustration on the next page is sufficiently clear to indicate the position of these without further description2 it will be seen that the girths cross each other as they pass under the belly4 ,illustration3 ,,north ,,australian ,,expedition ,,packhorse ,,equipment4 ,a pair of pads1 sufficiently large to prevent not only the saddle but also the packs chafing the horse1 were attached to the boards by thongs passing through holes bored in either end1 so that upon occasion we could easily remove them to re-arrange the stuffing1 and tie them again in their places4 ,one of the thick felted saddle cloths before mentioned was invaluable as an additional protection4 ,the form of the bags will also be readily understood by a glance at the frontispiece4 ,they were of stout canvas1 as wide as one breadth of the material1 and the ends were formed by a pear-shaped piece let in1 and strongly roped round the seams2 the loops at the upper part were bound with leather1 and iron cringles or grummets were let in1 by which to hang them on the hooks4 ,no other fastening was used1 so that if a horse fell in the rugged mountain paths1 or in fording a rough and swollen torrent1 it was an advantage to him to shake off his bags at once1 while we were generally able to fish them up again before even such perishable stores as sugar could be reached by water1 through the pack and double bags of canvas in which we kept them4 ,nothing whatever was allowed to be fastened to the bows above the suspension hooks2 indeed there was a general order that the horse should carry nothing that was not contained in the side bags4 ,the smaller bags for flour1 sugar1 and other stores1 were also the length of one breadth of canvas4 ,one end was formed by a circular piece of canvas about eight inches in diameter1 and the other was left to be closed when they were filled4 ,the inner bag was of plain canvas1 and this was covered by another that had been well saturated with boiled linseed oil2 these held about fifty pounds of flour1 c41 and in each flour bag two #a_/blb4 tins of gunpowder were kept perfectly secure from fire or water2 we generally ate the flour as fast as we wanted the powder4 ,each pair of side bags was numbered1 and carefully balanced one against the other1 the stowage of each being from seventy to seventy-five pounds1 so that the total load of the horse should not much exceed #afjlb4 ,illustration ,all the horses were furnished with a stout headstall and halter1 which may be readily understood from the above engraving1 and to which1 when requisite1 the bit and bridle could be buckled by short straps attached to the ring for that purpose4 ,our riding saddles were provided with stout ,ds1 the straps of which were not stitched to the leather1 but either firmly screwed into the wood1 or passed round the frame of the saddle4 ,three of these in front served to receive the straps for buckling on the swag1 or a couple of stout red or blue blankets1 which1 with the extra shirt and trowsers serving as a pillow1 formed our sole bedding4 ,this was formed into a roll a little more than #c;ft4 long1 and #f;in4 diameter1 and carefully adjusted so as to arch well clear of the horse's withers4 ,in front of the saddle bar1 on the off side1 was a stout ring1 through which passed the slings of the gun bucket1 which was made quite roomy enough to allow a double barrel to be withdrawn or again inserted without trouble1 and was kept from collapsing by a ring of iron stitched into its upper edge2 and the tedious process of unbuckling the strap usually passed round and round the grip of the gun stock was obviated by the very simple spring and swivel catch shown in the sketch4 ,it may be mentioned that we found the spring bar a very convenient arrangement1 and only once we lost a stirrup leather when a rider had dismounted to allow his horse to descend more easily a difficult hill2 but for such contingencies spare stirrups1 c41 had been provided by the commander4 ,two ,ds on either side supported such saddle pouches as were required2 we preferred the nearly square form shown in the sketch of saddle on page #cf1 as being more roomy1 containing in one the quarto sketch book actually in use1 and in the other1 a store of paper1 c41 for further supply4 ,small loops1 the attachment of which is just indicated on the inside of one of these bags1 led forward for the girth to pass through and keep the pouches from flapping4 ,some of us carried a valise1 such as is separately represented1 and others would make a roll of spare clothing2 but it was imperative on all that nothing whatever should be allowed to rest on the horse's spine1 but should be padded or otherwise arranged so as to pass clear over it4 ,the hobbles were formed of a band of stout leather1 double the required width1 turned up and stitched so as to form a flat edge and a round one4 ,in use1 the sewn edge was always uppermost1 so that the fetlock might not be chafed4 ,they were connected by a short chain1 having a swivel in the centre1 and a double hook at each end1 the hooks having holes pierced in their extremities for the reception of thongs1 by which one end of each hobble was moused or secured from falling off4 ,the hobbles were carried on the off side of the saddle1 behind the pouches2 and were not unfrequently balanced by the pannikin and tin quart1 so essential to an ,australian1 that ,henry1 our commander's brother1 declared his conviction that no one could become a successful traveller till he reduced his equipment to a clasp knife and a quart pot4 ,bells were hung to the headstalls of the horses most apt to stray1 but thongs were fastened to the clappers1 that they might be tied up during the day's march4 ,our personal equipment consisted of a brown leather waist-belt1 with snake fastening1 carrying a small ammunition pouch1 a revolver1 and a compass2 the naturalist1 geologist1 botanist1 or artist adding to this such instruments as they required4 ,some few of us favoured braces1 but with the majority they were at a discount4 ,a cabbage-tree hat1 or one of soft felt1 a striped cotton shirt for fine weather1 serge for wet1 moleskin trowsers1 light woollen socks1 and ankle boots1 completing our general costume4 ,some hundred fathoms of small rope formed an essential portion of our equipment1 the use of which will be best understood on reference to the frontispiece 7which illustrates an expedient strictly within the range of actual travel1 and is here introduced chiefly to show the form of pack-saddle bag which we found convenient1 and can1 therefore1 recommend to intending explorers74 ,this shift will hereafter be more fully described when we have to treat of those which must be improvised by every traveller on such emergencies4 ,illustration3 ,,namaqua1 ,,with ,,gun1 ,,on ,,riding ,,ox4 ,gun slings4 ,an excellent method of carrying the gun on horse or ox back we have seen in common use among the semi-civilised ,hottentots of ,namaqua land2 it consists simply of a bag or bucket of tolerably stout leather1 large enough to contain the stock of the gun butt downward1 nearly as far as the lock2 it can be fastened to the saddle in exactly the same manner as that in use among us1 or it can be fastened to the saddle bar on the near side and thrown over to the off4 ,it is generally made of the softened but untanned leather of the country1 and fastened by a thong and noose where we should1 for more convenience and neatness1 use a buckle4 ,its merits are that the gun lies easily before the thigh1 pointing upward behind the right arm1 so that an accidental discharge1 if such a thing were possible1 could hurt no one2 it is easily removed by shifting the arm within and lifting it from the bag without the trouble of casting off any secondary fastening2 and above all1 it is impossible that even in the roughest riding the charge could be jerked forward in the barrel to the imminent danger of bursting it1 as we ourselves have witnessed at the first discharge1 where the gun has been carried muzzle downwards4 ,the illustration below shows another very convenient form of gun sling1 which we have found to answer admirably4 ,when in use1 the muzzles of the gun are above the left shoulder1 and the stock behind the right thigh4 ,by bringing the right hand back the toggle securing the loop round the grip is instantly released1 when the gun drops into the right hand1 releasing itself from the ring by its own weight1 and is ready for instant use4 ,illustration3 ,,gun ,,sling4 ,cutlery4 ,knives4 ,do not be induced to encumber yourself with one of those ornamented1 highly polished1 useless abominations popularly known as hunting knives2 they are worse than useless1 and only serve to exasperate the owner4 ,for general rough and ready work1 nothing is better than a strong well-made butcher's knife4 ,the blade should be continued through the handle1 which is formed by pinning two cheeks of hard wood or horn together4 ,the hand grip should be long1 and the steel sufficiently soft to be cut by a common hand saw file2 and we strongly recommend our readers to apply the file test to every cutting tool they provide themselves with1 as the hard woods of tropical countries cause endless breakages and notchings when highly-tempered instruments are made use of4 ,in the purchase of a pocket knife1 choose one that is small enough to be a constant companion2 one1 or at most two blades will be found sufficient for one handle4 ,a very convenient description of knife is to be met with in most hardware shops4 ,the handle is straight and flat4 ,a stout stick-cutting blade is at one end of the haft1 and a strong scalpel-shaped pen blade at the other4 ,the miniature tool chests sold under the name of pocket knives to emigrants are jacks of all trades in their way1 having all sorts of supposed capabilities1 associated with a general tendency to uselessness4 ,a pair of stout large bowed scissors will be found very useful1 as well as a small piece of ,turkey or ,washita oilstone4 ,this should have a little wooden box with a slide cover made for it1 in order to preserve it from breakage4 ,a few tools1 well selected1 can scarcely be dispensed with4 ,tools4 ,the following list we can recommend1 but our readers must of course be guided as to the number they will take by the purposes of their proposed journey3-- ,illustration ,small hand axe1 felling axe 7,american pattern74 ,belt tomahawk4 ,hand saw 7medium size74 ,three chisels 7#c_/d;in41 #a_/b;in41 and #a_/d;in471 and one cold chisel4 ,three gouges 7of the same sizes as the chisels74 ,three gimblets 7from ten-penny nail size downwards74 ,six bradawls 7assorted71 to fit in one boxwood handle4 ,six saddler's awls1 ditto ditto4 ,six shoemaker's awls1 ditto ditto4 ,one #a_/b;in4 shell auger 7without handle74 ,one screw driver 7#a_/b;in74 ,one engineer's riveting hammer 7#a_/blb74 ,one pair of carpenter's pincers4 ,one pair of strong pliers 7bell-hanger's pattern74 ,three hand-saw files 7one rat-tail2 one flat2 one half-round74 ,one rasp1 one soldering bolt1 one pair of tin snips1 ingot of solder1 a lump of resin1 and small ladle for lead melting4 ,a few nails1 screws1 pump tacks1 and coils of copper and iron wire1 will be found useful4 ,billhook1 as in illustration4 ,billhooks4 ,one or more billhooks will be found of great value when traversing the tangled thickets1 for dividing vines1 lianas1 briars1 and entangled branches4 ,we have found the following form of hook extremely powerful1 and capable of cutting through most formidable impediments4 ,the following illustration represents the two sides of the hook1 which1 as will be seen on examination1 are not alike4 ,illustration ,the near side of the blade1 or that which would1 when the instrument is used by a right-handed man1 lay towards the left1 is slightly hollowed1 and the edge1 instead of being bevelled1 remains perfectly flush with it1 like the front of a very large gouge4 ,the off-side edge is bevelled1 and exactly like that of a chisel4 ,the plate of the blade should be #aj;in4 long1 and stouter at the back than most ordinary ,english billhooks4 ,instead of terminating in a tang or spill1 the metal should be continued throughout the handle as far as the point at which the curved knob at its end is carved out4 ,handles for these hooks are best made from natural-grown sticks of suitable bend4 ,the wood must be tough1 strong1 durable1 and well seasoned4 ,when nearly finished1 a saw cut must be made the exact length of the continuation of metal from the blade1 and this must be opened and widened with a flat file until the plate fits exactly in it4 ,a strong wide ring must now be driven on at the upper end1 and three stout soft iron pins passed through both the wood and iron of the handle1 riveting the ends securely in countersunk holes prepared for their reception4 ,the handle may now be finished1 and made to fit the grip of the hand by the use of the rasp1 and some pieces of broken glass as scrapers4 ,the temper of these tools must be regulated by the file test4 ,leather sheaths should be made for them1 with guide straps for the belt to go through4 ,illustration ,tool hold-all4 ,all the small tools can be conveniently packed and carried in a leather or canvas hold-all4 ,this is merely a long strip of either canvas or leather1 with longitudinal bands sewn on the inside4 ,the tools are arranged side by side under these1 and then rolled up and tied carefully together with a wide tape string4 ,all the edge tools should be tempered or let down to meet the file test1 ground and set1 before being finally packed4 ,the axe handle should be of well-seasoned hickory1 and so made as to admit of being knocked forward through the eye of the blade1 and so removed from it1 as shown in the illustration of the group of tools on the next page4 ,illustration ,a grooved strip of wood should be fitted to the edge of the saw1 in order to preserve the teeth and keep the blade straight4 ,a leather bag may be also made for it with advantage4 ,to those who do not require such tools as we have described1 and yet wish to provide themselves with a very few1 of small size1 we can confidently recommend the following arrangement4 ,portable tool chest4 ,order from a tin-plate worker a stout1 wire-edged tin box1 with wire hinges4 ,let it be #g;in4 long1 #c;in4 wide1 and #b-a_/b;in4 deep4 ,in this1 several small files1 one or two small chisels1 a number of both straight and curved awl blades1 a screw driver1 hammer head1 pliers1 a few sail needles1 a small hand vice1 a watchmaker's drill and bits1 a jointed blowpipe1 some bits of solder1 a little lump of resin1 bits of brass and copper wire1 some pieces of watchspring for cutting metal1 a narrow cold chisel1 and several other odds and ends1 may be conveniently stowed away4 ,a watch-spring saw needs no teeth2 it is only requisite to occasionally run the face of a file from end to end1 flat on the edge1 as if in the act of blunting it1 to renew its cutting power4 ,a gun barrel1 or a bar of iron the thickness of a walking-stick1 can be cut through in an inconceivably short time with one of these little instruments1 aided by a little sweet oil4 ,camp ,furniture4 ,beds4 ,the best camp bed we ever possessed was made on the stretcher principle4 ,the side bars were of birch wood1 and ferruled in the centre1 so as to admit of their being taken into four lengths4 ,the legs1 also of birchwood1 shut and opened like two pairs of scissors4 ,the centre piece of the bed was of stout canvas1 sewn into pipes at the sides1 through which the side bars passed4 ,the head of the bed was formed by fixing two uprights in holes made for them1 and then fixing a cross bar on their ends to keep them in place4 ,a very thin cocoa-fibre mattress1 cocoa-fibre pillow1 and three thoroughly good brown blankets1 are conveniently packed in a painted canvas bag1 with the framework of the bed4 ,camp beds1 of endless variety1 are sold by all outfitters2 but we describe that mentioned above as having stood the test of no ordinary wear and tear most satisfactorily4 ,the various modes by which beds1 hammocks1 and litters are extemporised by travellers will be fully dealt with when that subject comes under consideration4 ,in this section of our work we merely point out that which is best purchased at home1 leaving the multiplication of the various objects1 in some measure1 to the judgment of the intending traveller4 ,illustration ,hammock4 ,a hammock is a very luxurious sort of bed1 but most people are alarmed by the very elaborate system of clews and rings by which it is suspended1 and in very deed1 even with the most scrupulous cleanliness1 these are apt1 in places where vermin abound1 to harbour a great many2 but this might be avoided by having the canvas #aj;ft4 or #ab;ft4 long1 and gathering it at the ends so as to dispense with clews altogether4 ,it would then have the advantage that1 when it could not be suspended1 it might be folded as a double sheet upon the ground to lay the rest of the bedding on4 ,a hammock can be slung in very unpromising places4 ,we were accustomed to keep two 7washed1 clews and all1 every fortnight71 stretched to a bamboo pole1 which we slung from the beams overhead4 ,one end may be fastened to a tree or to the waggon wheel1 and the rope attached to the other may pass over forked sticks set up as shears1 and lead to a tent peg driven firmly into the ground4 ,a sheet may be thrown over the pole or ridge rope1 to serve as a tent or curtain4 ,wrapper4 ,it is a very favourite plan in ,south ,africa to have the blanket covered on both sides with chintz or printed cotton1 quilted to it4 ,this keeps it clean for a long time1 and makes it much more efficient as a coverlet4 ,most countries have some peculiar wrapper of their own1 as the buffalo robe of ,north ,america1 the opossum rug of ,australia1 or the ,vel ,komboars or sheepskin blanket of the ,cape colony4 ,we have used as a pillow an inflated swimming belt1 but in all cases when india-rubber goods are used1 they must be kept from much exposure to the sun1 and1 above all1 from contact with grease4 ,we have had a waterproof overcoat so heated when folded away that we could not again open it2 but one of these lined with calico1 and covered with thin non-adhesive stuff1 we should think would be useful4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following statement will serve to show approximately the nature and quantity of stores1 c41 required for an expedition such as that to which we were attached in ,australia3-- ,the ,party4--,commander1 ,a4 ,c4 ,gregory2 ,assistant1 ,h4 ,c4 ,gregory2 ,geologist1 ,j4 ,g4 ,wilson2 ,artist and ,storekeeper1 ,t4 ,baines2 ,surgeon and ,naturalist1 ,j4 ,r4 ,elsey2 ,botanist1 ,f4 ,mller2 ,collector1 ,natural ,history1 c41 -- ,flood2 ,overseer1 ,j4 ,phibbs2 ,farrier and ,smith2 ,harness-maker2 ,stockmen1 ,european 7#i72 ,shepherds1 ,native 7#b7--,total1 #ba4 ,provisions1 c4 for #ah months4--#ag1jjjlb4 flour1 #ejjjlb4 salt pork1 #bjjjlb4 bacon1 #bjjjlb4 preserved fresh meat in #flb4 tins1 #bhjjlb4 rice1 #bejjlb4 sugar1 #djjlb4 tea1 #cejlb4 tobacco1 #cejlb4 soap1 #ejlb4 pepper1 #ejjlb4 salt1 #ajj galls4 vinegar1 #cjj sheep1 #bjjlb4 sago1 #fdj pints peas1 #b cwt4 coffee1 #ejjlb4 lime juice1 #f galls4 lamp oil1 #alb4 cotton wick1 #c cwt4 preserved potatoes4 ,land ,conveyance4--#ej horses1 #ce pack saddles1 #ae riding saddles1 #ej horse blankets1 #hjj fathoms tether rope #a-a_/b;in4 and #b;in41 #bj horse bells with straps1 #ajj pair hobbles1 #c light horse drays2 #c sets harness1 #c horses each2 #ej spare girths1 #ejyds4 strong girth web1 #ej bridles1 #aj pair holster bags1 #aj pair stirrup leathers1 #e pair stirrup irons1 #dj pair canvas pack-saddle bags1 #ajj straps1 #bjj buckles1 #d leather water bags1 #bj pair spurs1 #aejlb4 leather for repairs1 #fjj horseshoes and nails1 #bdj provision bags1 #cjj yds4 canvas1 #bjlb4 sewing twine1 #ajj needles1 #f palms1 #bd saddler's awls1 #dh balls hemp1 #a_/blb4 bristles1 #flb4 resin1 #flb4 beeswax1 #ab hanks small cord1 #f currycombs and brushes1 #be tether swivels4 ,arms and ,ammunition4--#af double guns1 #d rifles1 #aj revolvers1 #aj pistols1 #bjjlb4 gunpowder1 #ajjjlb4 shot and lead1 #cj1jjj percussion caps1 #bj belts and pouches1 #ae gun buckets1 straps1 locks1 spare nipples1 moulds1 punches1 #d ladles1 powder flasks1 shot pouches1 c41 for each gun4 ,camp ,furniture4--#e tents #h;ft4 square calico1 #aej yds4 calico1 #ab camp kettles 7#a_/b to #c galls471 #f doz4 pannikins1 #d doz4 tin dishes 7small71 #a doz4 large1 #d doz4 knives and forks1 #d doz4 iron spoons1 #f frying pans1 #f leather buckets1 #f water kegs 7#f1 #d1 and #b galls471 #f spades1 #d socket shovels1 #d pickaxes1 #b spring balances 7#be and #ejlb471 #a steelyard 7#aejlb471 #a sheep net 7#aej yds474 ,instruments4--#b sextants 7#e;in4 and #f;in471 #b box do41 #b artificial horizons1 #ajlb4 mercury in #b iron bottles1 #d prismatic compasses1 #aa pocket compasses1 spare cards and glasses for compasses1 #c aneroid barometers1 #d thermometers to #ahj1 #b telescopes1 #a duplex watch1 #a lever watch1 #a case drawing instruments2 #b pocket cases1 pillar compass1 and protractor2 surveying chain and arrows1 #b measuring tapes1 #a drawing board 7#cj #dj inches71 #b pocket lenses4 ,stationery and ,nautical ,tables4 ,tools4--#a portable forge1 #a anvil 7#a_/b cwt471 #b hammers and set of tongs1 #ajlb4 cast steel1 #aalb4 blister steel1 #ajjlb4 bar and rod iron1 #c smiths' files1 #c large axes 7,american71 #f small do42 #a large tool chest4 ,clothing4--#abj pair moleskin trowsers1 #abj serge shirts1 #abj cotton shirts1 #fj pair boots1 #dj oiled calico capes1 #dj hats 7,manilla71 #dj blankets4 ,artists' ,materials4 ,miscellaneous4--#e yds4 mosquito net1 green2 #ejj fish-hooks1 #be fishing-lines1 #b gross matches1 #a gross tobacco-pipes2 #b strong cases1 or instruments1 stationery1 c42 #h doz4 pocket-knives1 #h doz4 pocket-combs1 #bj yds4 red serge for presents to blacks1 #bjlb4 iron wire1 #elb4 brass ditto1 grindstone and spindle1 coffee-mill1 #c iron saucepans1 #b iron kettles1 #f galls4 linseed oil1 #f pints olive oil1 #blb4 red lead1 #bclb4 alum1 #alb4 borax4 ,forage for ,horses and ,sheep from ,moreton ,bay to ,victoria ,river1 #bbjj miles1 at #adlb4 per diem4--#ac tons pressed hay1 #i tons bran1 #bjj bushels maize or barley1 #ejj bushels corn for horses after landing4 ,medical ,chest for #b years and #bj men4 ,naturalists' ,stores4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,north ,,australian ,,expedition ,,inflatable ,,double ,,boat4 ,boats4 ,we took1 for conveyance across rivers1 or navigation of any inland waters1 a portable canoe of inflated canvas1 in four sections1 each of which1 when inflated and laced to a frame1 formed half a boat2 the whole forming a double canoe1 on which could be laid a platform of #ae;ft4 by #g;ft4 ,inflated canvas boat4 ,the boat was made by ,messrs4 ,edgington from a model which we had previously constructed and tested as to its buoyancy and sailing qualities4 ,the framework was of ash battens1 #c;in4 wide and #c_/d;in4 thick4 ,the uprights at stem and stern were mortised into the keel1 as well as into the corresponding fore-and-aft batten above2 they were secured by cross lashings passing through holes properly bored for the purpose4 ,the gunwales were lashed on2 and then the thwart pieces1 #f;in4 wide1 were secured in the same manner4 ,the four canvas bags1 each cut so as to form half a whale boat1 #ae;ft4 long and #ah;in4 in the half breadth1 were then laced in and inflated4 ,each rowlock was formed of two pieces of ash screwed to the gunwale1 as seen in the preceding engraving2 and two oars and a lug sail completed the equipment4 ,the whole might be used either as a double canoe or as two separate boats1 and ,mr4 ,gregory was much pleased with them when put together2 but1 in consequence of a technical difficulty at home1 they were not so efficient as they ought to have been4 ,we had agreed with ,messrs4 ,edgington as to the quality of canvas and of the sewing to be used in every part1 but on applying to the ,waterproofing ,company he found they would not waterproof his work1 nor allow him to do it4 ,he had therefore to give over the whole of the work to the company4 ,when finished1 we found that the seams were not stitched at all1 but cemented together2 and1 though warranted to stand #agj of heat1 we found that with the strain of actual use upon them they softened and gave way4 ,if the sections in their proper form were made of stout canvas1 with the india-rubber bags1 so large that they should bear no strain1 inclosed within them1 this would be a serviceable boat--for the india-rubber did not actually melt with the heat1 but just softened1 so that it was unable to resist the strain upon it4 ,we had taken them up the river1 about thirty miles1 in the schooner's gig1 to fill with fresh water1 and instead of standing a heat of #agj they burst at #abj4 ,although1 as we have stated1 our double inflatable boat partially failed in ,australia1 from the inability of the waterproof cement to bear the intense heat to which it was subjected1 we believe that1 had ,messrs4 ,edgington been allowed to waterproof their own work1 or had the company consented to waterproof the sections1 properly seamed by practical tentmakers1 according to the directions we gave1 the finished boat would have been as successful in every respect as was the model4 ,when required for an exploring trip up the river1 we decided to use them not as a double boat1 but as two single ones1 and we spent some days in securely stitching round every seam that should have been so treated by the original maker4 ,every one will understand how the fibre of the waterproof cloth would no longer close up round the threads1 as would that of the new canvas1 so that1 notwithstanding all our care1 there was always a little air leakage2 however1 spare bellows had been provided1 and one was apportioned to each boat4 ,four or five #flb4 tins of preserved beef were thrust in between the sections in each boat1 so as to rest along the keel1 our lighter stores were laid as might be said on deck1 and with two small oars in each we started1 pulling up wherever there was sufficient water1 and when we came to the dry intervals1 slinging the boats one at a time under two oars1 and carrying them easily with all their cargo to the next water4 ,the voyage lasted some days1 and the boats1 therefore1 occasionally required re-inflating4 ,canoe for one man4 ,if the traveller only wishes for the means of ferrying himself over rivers1 he might take a couple of waterproof tubes1 not less than #g;ft4 long and #h;in4 in diameter1 inclosed in unprepared covers of canvas so tight as to relieve them from any strain1 and connected by one breadth of canvas for him to sit upon4 ,a small frame should keep these parallel to each other1 and about #bj;in4 or #b;ft4 apart2 and the frame should be kept just above the water1 so as not to impede the motion4 ,it is a great thing to be independent of native help4 ,if a man has his own canoe1 however small1 the people will come to offer theirs2 but if he has none1 they will make a hard bargain with him4 ,metal boats4 ,perhaps as good a material as any for a boat1 if the explorer is able to carry it1 is pure sheet copper1 of about #alb4 to the square foot4 ,it is flexible1 easily worked1 will turn and bend in any form and at any angle2 it may be folded down to a sharp edge like a sheet of paper1 and opened again1 a test which no iron ordinarily procurable could stand2 it is nearly indestructible1 and retains a proportionate value as old copper however much it may be worn4 ,we have heard of an officer who had the two ends of a yawl or whale-boat built of copper1 and1 though the stem would frequently be doubled up by touching the ground in crossing the bar of some ,african river1 no leakage took place1 and half an hour's skilful hammering brought it into shape again4 ,we believe that the boats1 or at least one of them1 on the expedition of ,mr4 ,lynch to the ,dead ,sea and the ,jordan1 were of copper4 ,if we remember rightly a copper boat was carried in sections upon camels to ,lake ,chad4 ,captain ,burton took to ,zanzibar a boat of corrugated iron1 which was so speedy that the ,arabs called her the ,runner-away2 it would be interesting to know the details of her construction4 ,we at one time experimented with galvanised iron1 but did not find it sufficiently flexible to bend so sharply as we required4 ,in consequence of this--when preparing1 in conjunction with a long-known friend1 ,mr4 ,james ,chapman1 for a journey across ,africa1 from ,walvisch ,bay1 on the west coast1 to the ,victoria ,falls1 from which we hoped to navigate the ,zambesi to the ,eastern ,sea--we decided on building one of copper2 and many reasons induced us to make this on the principle of a double canoe or twin steamer3 in the first place1 it would be difficult to carry a boat of more than three feet in breadth or depth1 in an ox waggon1 and these dimensions would afford room only for the closest possible stowage of our own persons1 and a very scanty equipment4 ,it was also1 probable1 that the boats would have1 at rapids like ,chicova or ,kebrabasi1 to be taken out of the water and carried over rugged and intricate country1 where their length would render it impossible to manage them4 ,it was necessary1 therefore1 to build each boat in six watertight compartments1 of #d;ft4 in length1 of one sheet of copper1 each of which overlapped the one behind it1 just as the scales of a lobster are arranged1 making the actual length of the boat #bb;ft4 ,the skin of each section was made of three sheets of copper1 #b;ft4 wide1 laid side by side with their edges doubled over each other1 so as to make a perfectly turned joint that required no riveting1 and was only soldered to render it more certainly watertight4 ,the ends of each section were marked to the curve required1 but cut three inches larger1 the extra circumference being cut with snips directed toward the centre1 so that they might be turned outward to fit the curve of the skin1 thus leaving a flange of #c;in4 at each end of the section1 a strip of copper #f;in4 wide was doubled and slipped over both parts1 riveted and soldered1 the necessary surfaces having been previously tinned4 ,we hope the engraving on the next page will make this plan tolerably plain4 ,the end to the right is left unfinished1 with the separate pieces a little apart ready to be put together2 the farther shows the manner in which the flange of the foremost section overlaps the after1 and is bolted to it with copper screws and nuts1 leaving a space between1 into which the hand and arm could be thrust if it were needful to reach the bottom2 the water would flow in or out of this narrow space freely1 the compartments only being guarded against leakage2 the nuts were all on the inside1 and the iron key shown in the sketch was for the purpose of turning them on or off1 while the heads were held outside by the screw wrench4 ,the copper was kept in shape by an inner frame of wood1 and strengthened externally by seven rib-bands or stringers of good straight grained red deal1 running the entire length1 of which two served for gunwales and one for the keel1 the ends of this being let into sockets formed in the pieces of copper which were doubled over the stem and stern post4 ,one of the connecting beams is shown in this sketch1 and also the rings by which the sections were to be carried when separated for overland conveyance4 ,illustration3 ,,method ,,of ,,building ,,and ,,connecting ,,section ,,of ,,copper ,,boat4 ,illustration3 ,,copper ,,boats ,,adjusted ,,side ,,by ,,side4 ,for the purpose of keeping the cargo dry and secure from pilfering1 it was necessary that each section should have its own deck1 and this1 to bear the weight of people standing on it1 had to be made of #c_/d;in4 plank1 covered like the other parts with copper4 ,around each hatchway were two mouldings1 #c_/d;in4 high1 the hollow between which1 in heavy rains1 we intended to fill with wax or grease1 so that when the corresponding moulding of the hatch fitted into it it might be watertight4 ,the connecting beams were #ab;ft4 long1 and made each of two pieces of #c_/d;in4 red deal1 #b;in4 wide1 so as to afford us1 with the platform laid on them1 an available deck space of #ab;ft4 by #bj;ft41 on which1 when the river was broad and open1 we might live or work with comfort2 while1 if it narrowed1 as we expected it would at ,kansalo1 ,chicova1 or ,kebrabasi1 we could separate the boats and take each through singly1 towing the deck-raft1 or even1 if necessary1 casting it adrift and trusting to pick it up as the current brought it down4 ,two #c_/d;in4 planks1 #i;in4 deep and #d;ft4 long1 so as to catch the bolts at either end of the section1 served to support the rowlocks4 ,each boat was provided with her own rudder1 and we purposed1 if necessary1 to connect the tillers by a light rod1 although we believe she would have steered by one alone4 ,the masts were shipped in a wooden case1 between the foremost and the next section1 and the mode of setting the lug sails and awning will1 we trust1 be made sufficiently plain by the engraving4 ,care had to be taken that no iron or other metal capable of exerting a corrosive action came in contact with any part of the copper that was likely to be wetted4 ,and the reader will pardon us if1 while stating that the whole was built piece by piece in a little bedroom scarce #h;ft4 by #ab;ft41 we take this opportunity of paying a slight tribute of gratitude to our warmhearted friend ,frederick ,logier1 to whose hospitality we were mainly indebted for the means of completing our equipment1 and who fell a victim to the fever so fearfully prevalent in ,cape ,town in ,october1 #ahfg4 ,the ensign1 kindly made for us by a lady of that town1 after having floated over our house at ,logier ,hill1 on the ,zambesi1 and served as the flag of our little artillery corps at ,otjimbengue1 we still preserve as a relic of the journey4 ,the difficulties of the road1 and deficiency of carriage1 which compelled us to leave behind eight out of the twelve sections1 and our expedients to replace them1 will be more fully described hereafter3 we1 therefore1 append only an abstract of the materials employed in building3-- #gf sheets copper1 #d;ft4 by #b;ft4 #afoz4 to the foot1 at #as4 #f;d4 per foot 7but1 as the supply was limited1 we had to take some heavier1 and consequently more #ea #ab #j expensive71 one sheet same size #aflb4 for stem1 and stern post and rudder fittings #ajj;in4 copper1 screwed bolts and nuts1 #c;in41 at #as4 #a;d4 #e #h #d #hj ditto ditto ditto #e;in41 at #as4 #e;d4 #e #ac #d #e ditto ditto ditto #g;in41 at #as4 #i;d4 #j #h #i #cjj leather washers #a #e #j #agdlb4 solder1 at #as4 #f;d4 #ac #d #d #elb4 fine tin1 at #bs4 #c;d4 #j #aa #c #ag #aj #h ,extra quantity not specified #c #ae #a-a_/b ,men's time for soldering #ag #ag #f ,coke #a #b #f #b nut wrenches #j #aa #c #dlb4 of sal ammoniac1 at #as4 #f;d4 #j #f #j #dlb4 of resin1 at #d;d4 #j #a #f #a bottle of spirit of salts #j #a #d #flb4 of lead1 at #d;d4 #j #b #c #clb4 of copper boat nails1 at #cs4 #f;d4 #j #aj #f #blb4 of nails and #blb4 of rivets1 at #cs4 #j #ab #j #c steel punches1 at #as4 #j #c #j #b pair of rowlocks1 with sockets and screws #j #g #f ---------- ,total #ajc #ac #e ,illustration3 ,,camp ,,scene ,,in ,,africa4 ,it is impossible1 at this distance of time1 to collect every item used1 nor is it necessary to do more than to give an approximate idea of the cost and proportion used of the principal materials4 ,perhaps the wood1 with a lad to assist in working it1 cost about #ajl42 paint1 oil1 sails1 and other extras1 about #ajl4 more2 and #ajl4 freight from ,cape ,town to ,walvisch ,bay4 ,we think #f;d4 per lb4 was allowed on such old copper as was brought back4 ,tents1 ,canvas ,buckets and ,articles made of ,canvas generally4 ,tent-pitching4 ,in an army where men are plentiful and tents very few1 the eighteen or twenty fortunate fellows to whom a bell tent may be allotted1 can pitch it easily and rapidly enough2 one1 standing inside1 will hold up the central pole1 while the others1 driving pegs all round1 draw out and affix the cords to them4 ,we found1 however1 when accompanying the division in ,kafirland under ,general ,somerset1 that we could set up our own tent1 shared by ,mr4 ,hoole1 the interpreter1 almost as quickly alone1 leaving our friend's servant at liberty to prepare our meal4 ,our plan was to make two knots on the cord used for lashing up the tent1 one marking the radius of the inner line of pegs and the other that of the outer1 setting a central peg into the ground and looping over it the end of the line2 we held another at the knots1 and with it drew the two concentric circles4 ,twenty pegs are necessary for each4 ,we1 therefore1 threw four on the quarters of each circle1 and distributing four between each1 drove them all into the ground2 then spreading the tent in the space1 we looped on all the lines1 and inserting the pole1 raised it up1 its division into two pieces much facilitating this1 and tightened the cords at leisure4 7,see illustration1 ,camp ,scene in ,africa47 ,patrol tent4 ,our patrol tent was just three yards of double width calico2 a small cord was stitched along the middle and loops of tape along the sides4 ,the diagonal pieces cut out of one end were stitched on to form the flaps of the other1 and a couple of small sticks for the supports1 the size of ramrods1 were easily secured with the straps of our gun-bucket on the right side of the saddle4 ,illustration3 ,,calico ,,patrol ,,tent4 ,illustration3 ,,calico ,,patrol ,,tent4 ,our little tent weighed next to nothing2 it was seven feet in length1 thirty inches high1 and nearly thirty inches wide4 ,we rolled our blankets in it1 and so kept them clean4 ,the package was carried strapped across the front of the saddle1 and the latter1 when set in one end of the tent1 formed an additional protection to the head1 and no rain ever penetrated our little dwelling1 unless when a violent side wind would force through the interstices of the calico a slight sprinkling of minute drops1 which would lie like dew outside the blanket in the morning4 ,waterproof material is not required for a tent2 oiling the canvas or calico would only rot it2 stout well-woven canvas is nearly waterproof in itself1 and no matter how porous or open the material1 the power of a tent to keep out rain depends more on the pitch of its sides or roof than anything else4 ,let a plate of glass lie in a sloping position1 and let a drop of water be touched upon its under surface1 if that surface makes an angle of less than #de with the horizon the water will drop off it1 but if the angle be above #de it will run from top to bottom along the lower side2 in like manner if the sides of the tent are pitched at a higher angle than #de with the horizon1 the heaviest shower will run down them instead of penetrating4 ,a piece of waterproof is1 however1 very convenient to lay upon the ground to spread the blankets on4 ,gipsy tent4 ,most of our readers who have visited the by-lanes and breezy downs of ,england1 will be familiar with1 at least1 the exterior of the gipsy's tent4 ,its mode of arrangement is both ingenious and thoroughly practical4 ,we know of no plan by which a comparatively comfortable resting place can be extemporised equal to it4 ,blankets1 skins1 mats1 canvas1 or old rugs1 serve to form a covering4 ,the thicket furnishes the hazel wands or benders1 of which there are usually eight1 of #g;ft4 long1 and almost any description of tough wood1 the hole piece and farmer's gate shivers are not unfrequently purloined by the ,romany ,rye to be thus utilised4 ,a red hot poker serves to bore the holes4 ,a few pieces of odd cord keep the framework in place1 and a set of pegs is readily cut from the nearest hedge4 ,illustration3 ,,gipsy ,,tent ,,frame4 ,the ends of the benders intended for insertion in the earth are usually fire-hardened1 and one set will1 with care1 last a whole season4 ,the above illustration will better explain the mode by which the contrivance is arranged than would any further description4 ,tente d'abri4 ,the tente d'abri1 as used by the ,french army1 is an extremely useful arrangement for a small band of travellers or explorers to provide themselves with4 ,it is composed of a number of sheets or pieces of canvas4 ,each of these has a row of buttons and button-holes sewn along the sides and upper edges1 in order that they may be joined to each other1 much on the principle of a double-breasted waistcoat1 as shown in the engraving on the next page4 ,the corners of the sheets are provided with strong short loops of rope1 through which the heads of the tent pegs pass when the tent is pitched4 ,the sheets are #e;ft4 #h;in4 by #e;ft4 #c;in4 ,each member of a party of four or six is supposed to carry his share of the tent1 which consists of one sheet1 three tent pegs1 and the half of a round wooden staff ferruled in the centre like a fishing-rod4 ,this1 when put together1 measures #d;ft4 #d;in4 in length1 and is #a-a_/b;in4 in diameter4 ,the total weight of each share is #c-a_/blb4 ,tents of this description can be arranged by either buttoning four or six sheets together1 one sheet being considered as representing the accommodation of one man2 but when it is considered necessary to close the two ends of the tent four sheets only are used as a covering1 the other two being used as doors4 ,a centre tent pole is also set up1 so that a tent for six men has1 when pitched1 three poles1 ten pegs1 and six sheets of canvas4 ,when both ends are suffered to remain unclosed1 as they would be when shade alone is sought1 four tent poles or sticks and fourteen tent pegs are required2 there would1 then1 be two spare poles and four pegs4 ,by digging out a cavity in the earth as described at page #fb1 the comfort and internal capacity of the tente d'abri is much increased1 and it forms a very convenient and portable shelter4 ,we remember seeing a ,french line regiment1 which was for some considerable time stationed on the heights above the ,inkerman ,valley1 most comfortably domiciled in this way4 ,illustration3 ,,tente ,d',,abri4 ,lancers' tent4 ,the ,lancers1 in ,kafirland1 used to form very commodious tents by sticking upright in the ground one lance and two swords2 a second lance was passed as a ridge pole through the becket or loop of the first and the hilts of the two swords1 as seen in illustration1 ,camp ,scene in ,africa4 ,one blanket was stretched over it as a tent1 and another1 with the saddle cloths1 c41 formed a comfortable bed for two soldiers4 ,a simpler form of tent may be made at a moment's notice4 ,if rain comes on1 sit upright1 joining the hands above the head as if you were about to dive1 supporting the blanket on them1 and allowing it to hang down on all sides that the rain may run off4 ,if you have no blanket1 you may still keep your gun1 ammunition1 or sketch-book dry by sitting on them4 ,illustration3 ,,tent ,,extemporised ,,from ,a ,,blanket4 ,australian tent4 ,the tents we used on the ,north ,australian expedition were very light1 convenient1 and easily set up4 ,they were simply four-sided pyramids of calico1 eight feet square in the base1 and from #i;ft4 to #aj;ft4 in height 7see p4 #fe74 ,they were lightly roped at the angles1 and would set up with four principal pegs1 though there were loops for intermediate ones along the sides4 ,poles could not conveniently be carried on the packhorses1 but there were few places in ,australia where we could not cut them if needed2 and in fine weather1 we mostly dispensed altogether with the tents1 except as mere sun-shades1 and slept only in our blankets4 ,their weight1 dry1 was trifling1 but1 on account of their bulk1 they formed the greater part of the load of one horse1 and when we had to travel--after a rainy night1 without drying them--we found that two wet tents1 with the farrier's tools and a few horseshoes1 were quite heavy enough as a load for one animal4 ,cape-waggon tent4 ,a very favourite form of tent in the ,cape colony is made like the longitudinal half section of a ridge-pole tent4 ,this is fastened to the roof of the travelling waggon and stretched beside it4 ,when the traveller has two of these1 one on each side his vehicle1 he will find it of the greatest possible convenience4 ,the waggon1 with its own aristocratic kap-tent1 or humble but more durable wattled roof1 serves as the sleeping chamber2 while the half tent on one side may serve as a dining or general reception room1 and the other as a working or retiring apartment4 ,these may either be raised or lowered according to the position of the sun or wind1 or may be completely closed in at night2 or1 if required1 the two halves can be taken away from the waggon altogether1 laced together1 and1 with poles cut upon the spot1 set up at once as a double-pole tent1 as shown on p4 #fe4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cape-,,waggon ,,tent4 ,extemporary tents4 ,we have found in ,australia and ,africa1 that the possession of a large square of duck or canvas1 eylet-holed at the corners and sides1 or a couple of good sized sheets of stout unbleached calico1 with loops of tape or cord stitched at the sides and angles1 have enabled us to construct extemporary screens from sun or wind1 or even rain1 and when not so required have served admirably as the basis for our bedding4 ,in boat parties the sails or awnings of the boat may be stretched upon the mast or oars1 two oars at each end may be lashed crosswise1 and set up as shear legs1 while the mast is used as a ridge pole1 and the sail drawn across them2 there is1 however1 the objection that the blades of the oars if projecting upward will hold wind1 and they should therefore be feathered toward the quarter whence it may be expected to blow2 but never forget that the making of a tent is only a secondary and exceptional use for a boat's gear2 if the sail is chafed or cut1 its proper usefulness will be much deteriorated2 and if the oars are allowed to sag or bend1 by undue strain1 they become worse than useless4 ,you can no more pull effectively with a warped or twisted oar than you can shoot well with a crooked gun4 ,in a boat voyage on a river1 or where you can make fast and shelter your boat at night1 if you set up two stanchions three or four feet higher than the gunwale1 one at the after and another at the bow thwart1 and then make fast a line to the ringbolt in the stern post1 and lead it over the stanchions to the other ring in the stem1 it will form a ridge rope on which the boat's awning with the yards or stretchers removed may be laid1 and the sides sloped down tent fashion to the gunwales1 and made fast either to the rowlocks or1 still better1 to a stout line passed tightly all round the boat outside of and just below the gunwale streak4 ,if you build a hut1 and have not time or material to make it weather proof1 the tent may with great advantage be pitched as a lining to it1 and it is wonderful what effective shelter may be obtained from very imperfect hutting done in this manner4 ,we have frequently heard of officers and men setting up their tents or marquees1 then building the framework of their hut over them1 covering it roughly1 and finishing at their leisure1 so that1 by the time the tents have been worn out1 very efficient thatched houses have taken their places4 ,we should think that a bell tent 7such as may be purchased at any town where military stores are kept71 cut in half1 and supplemented with a couple of squares of canvas1 eylet-holed at two inches or more from the edge1 so as to lace between the two halves of the bell tent1 and used as a double-pole tent1 either with a ridge pole or with a rope extended at either end as a stay1 would form a very commodious habitation1 and would be specially useful where the number of occupants is subject to changes4 ,illustration3 ,,section ,,of ,,crimean ,,tent4 ,fitting up of tent4 ,when a tent is to be occupied for any length of time1 it will be advisable to dig a hole in the earth to pitch it over1 doing so not only adds materially to the space inside the tent1 but makes it much more comfortable to reside in1 from the shelter afforded by the sides of the excavation4 ,many of the huts built by the ,russian soldiers in the neighbourhood of ,sebastopol were sunk to a very great depth1 being in fact merely large holes in the earth with roofs to them4 ,the roofs were of poles thickly laid over with brushwood1 and then covered with earth1 light was admitted through holes in the low framework of the sides1 oiled paper being used as a substitute for glass4 ,about #b;ft4 #f;in4 will be found a good depth for the excavation for an ordinary military tent to stand over4 ,in digging it see that the sides are cut down evenly1 and that the bottom is level4 ,if planks can be procured to floor and line it so much the better4 ,some persons leave a round bank of earth in the middle for the pole to rest on1 but we much prefer fixing a log of wood1 cut from a tree trunk1 in the centre of the floor4 ,the habitation we formed for ourselves in the ,crimea1 when encamped before ,sebastopol1 was thus arranged4 ,we first made a hole in the earth a little less than the diameter of the bottom of the tent1 and of the depth before referred to2 we then made a pit in the centre about #ah;in4 in depth4 ,in this we sank the lower end of a piece of old tree trunk1 #d;ft4 long and #g;in4 in diameter4 ,in its upper surface we cut with a gouge a cup-like cavity4 ,we then nailed a spiral strapping of forage hoop round a boat mast we were fortunate enough to hunt out at ,balaklava2 we then rounded the lower end so as to make it loosely fit into the cup on the head of the block4 ,the bell or upper portion of an old tent was then raised on our mast tent pole1 and over it our own new and complete tent1 forming so to speak a double roof1 having about a couple of inches of space between the two surfaces of canvas4 ,this1 by holding a certain portion of air1 added in an extraordinary degree to its sheltering properties4 ,we next dug a deep drain completely round the tent1 and placed a quantity of broken stones in its bottom4 ,an old wooden packing case was then let in1 by digging into one of the sides of the excavation immediately under the doorway4 ,this not only answered the purpose of a step to enter by1 but formed an excellent storehole for all sorts of stray matters4 ,the pipe from a small ,maltese stove was carried out through the earth1 and discharged its smoke outside a low wall of rough stones which encircled the tent4 ,we drove two strong posts deeply into the earth beside the door1 across their tops we nailed a strong bar1 which served to hitch horses to1 rest gun against1 c42 whilst across their lower portions we stretched a piece of forage hoop1 edge upwards1 to perform the part of a bootscraper4 ,towards the end of the war we were enabled to procure plank enough to both floor and line the tent throughout1 thereby adding much to our comfort4 ,the lining is carried out by placing boards the height of the side banks on their ends1 all round the tent1 like the staves of a barrel1 and then nailing the flooring boards here and there fast to them4 ,the upper ends are kept in their places by nailing short battens of wood across the joints4 ,the illustration on page #fb is a section of the tent referred to1 and shows the manner in which many of the arrangements described are made4 ,many tents we have seen have been dug out to a sufficient depth to admit of a sort of cellar or lower room being formed2 this can only be done at the expense of much trouble and labour4 ,the arrangement of the interior of a tent admits of the exercise of a considerable amount of ingenuity4 ,cart1 waggon1 or gun wheels are extremely useful1 both for forming a secure base for the pole to rest on1 and for a table and gun rack4 ,the tent pole1 as shown in the engraving on the next page1 rests on one wheel1 whilst it passes through the centre of the nave of another4 ,the hooks for hanging various objects from are formed by the natural branches of the tree from which the pole has been made4 ,we seldom make use of the ferruled pole furnished with the tent when we have young forest trees at hand2 in the absence of these1 the conventional deal stick serves to fall back on4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,utilization ,,of ,,wheels4 ,illustration3 ,,tent ,,peg4 ,illustration3 ,,modes ,,of ,,securing ,,tent-,,pole ,,and ,,ropes ,,in ,,loose ,,ground4 ,tent peg4 ,much of the efficiency of a tent depends on the way in which it is pitched4 ,an experienced hand will so adjust his pegs and lines1 that the gale of wind which prostrates the canvas houses of the inexperienced1 passes his harmlessly by4 ,much has been said and written in praise of iron tent pegs1 and1 under some circumstances1 they may be found highly useful1 but there are very serious objections to their use in wild countries4 ,if of sufficient size and length to be efficient1 their weight becomes a matter of considerable importance4 ,their value to natives is so great that to prevent loss by theft is next to impossible2 added to which1 it is almost certain that one or two will be left in the ground1 every now and then1 on striking camp4 ,we therefore prefer wooden pegs1 made from some tough sound wood4 ,burn the points in the fire in order to harden them1 and keep a good stock always on hand4 ,the timber of the oriental plane makes excellent tent pegs4 ,a strong and useful form of peg is shown in the annexed illustration4 ,the mallet used for driving the pegs should be made of some heavy and hard wood1 such as mimosa or baubul thorn4 ,the handle should be made larger at one end than the other1 so that it may be removed from the head of the mallet1 just as the axe handles before described are separated from the blades4 ,it not unfrequently happens1 during tropical rains1 or in sandy soil1 that pegs driven in the ordinary way will not hold4 ,modes of securing tent ropes1 c4 ,it then becomes necessary to dig a moderately deep pit at the point at which the peg should stand4 ,bind together a small faggot of brushwood1 reeds1 or weed stalks2 fasten a loop of rope or thong to it long enough to come #c;in4 or #d;in4 above the level of the pit where the faggot is buried4 ,place your prepared faggot in the bottom of the pit crosswise1 and then well stamp in the earth over it4 ,a bag of sand1 a stone1 or a bundle of old hide answers the same purpose4 ,in rough stormy weather1 it is sometimes necessary to back your pegs2 this is done by driving in an additional one in a line with the first1 and then forming a couple of half hitches with the tent rope over its head4 ,it was a common practice in the ,crimea to employ an old ,russian bayonet in this way1 driving it into the earth until the curved neck alone remained above the surface for the hitch to pass round4 ,all tent ropes should be relaxed on the approach of rain1 or the tightened cord will1 in all probability1 draw the pegs1 and thus allow the wet canvas to come flapping down about your ears1 causing no end of discomfort and confusion4 ,a tent may be securely pitched1 even on the sands of the desert1 by laying a waggon wheel flat on the ground1 fixing the pole over the hole through which the axle passes on the head of a plug driven far enough into it to prevent the pole from passing through2 secure your ropes to bags of sand buried in the manner before described1 and no ordinary weather will blow down a tent thus arranged4 ,selection of ground for tent pitching4 ,in selecting a spot on which to pitch your tent much will depend on the period of time you are likely to spend in the locality4 ,the nature of the country through which you are passing will also influence the choice4 ,when travelling onwards1 and merely resting for one or two days at a time1 a dry1 raised1 level spot1 in the vicinity of wood1 grass1 and water1 may safely be selected4 ,do not1 however1 encamp too close to water in countries where venomous snakes are met with1 as they generally congregate where it is to be found most abundantly4 ,it is not wise1 either in ,australia or ,texas1 to encamp beneath certain trees1 as the branches at times drop suddenly off and fall with a crash to the earth4 ,in ,india or ,africa we have always sought the friendly shade afforded by some wide-spreading forest giant1 as we have never known an instance of branch-fall in those countries4 ,in clearing the ground of stray stones1 tufts of weeds1 c41 look well about for holes in the earth1 and1 when any are discovered1 stamp suitable stones or pieces of broken wood well into them4 ,reptiles of many kinds are not unfrequently found in these underground burrows4 ,we have found a large square of tarpauling invaluable as a tent carpet4 ,when about to set up your tent for a long sojourn additional precautions are requisite4 ,see well to the lay of the land as regards the flood level of the nearest river or lake2 the stray bits of driftwood and weeds washed into the branches of waterside trees will be a useful guide4 ,see that no flags or rushes are growing near your proposed resting-place1 as they are certain indications of a boggy soil1 unfit for camping on4 ,choose1 if possible1 an elevated position1 well above the influence of the miasma and night mists of the low grounds and rivers4 ,we have often seen a slightly raised hill standing bare and island-like in a sea of humid vapour4 ,see also that no dry grass is allowed to stand in the vicinity of the camp1 lest it should be ignited by a stray spark or a hostile native4 ,umbrella tent4 ,a stout carriage umbrella1 with a curtain of #c;ft4 #f;in4 buttoned or laced round the edge1 would make a very convenient shelter for one person4 ,if the curtains were gored so as to give more room below1 two persons might sleep under it comfortably4 ,an extra joint would be required to give sufficient length to the handle4 ,a similar frame made proportionately strong1 and with a curtain or wall of six or seven feet1 might be found useful in cases where the height of a bell-tent or marquee is objectionable4 ,malacca cane would be a good material for such a frame4 ,we have heard of an adventurous ,american traveller who had his umbrella tent made of starred and striped material1 so that he might be always under the protection of his country's flag4 ,canvas buckets4 ,stout canvas buckets answer very well to carry water in for almost any distance1 and if stiffly roped will retain their form when filled1 and collapse when empty2 if a little flour is rubbed into the canvas1 it will render them somewhat tighter1 and will not materially affect the taste of the water1 but we prefer to take the stoutest canvas4 ,keep it perfectly clean1 and trust solely to the natural contraction of the threads when wet1 to thicken up and tighten the material so as to render it for all practical purposes nearly waterproof4 ,india-rubber bags1 especially if carried into a hot sun1 and not quite full1 always make the water taste badly4 ,when we served on the ,north ,australian expedition1 we always had a canvas bucket hanging in the doorway of the hut1 just shaded and exposed to a free current of air4 ,the partial evaporation through its sides kept the water deliciously cool4 ,illustration3 ,,canvas ,,bucket4 ,mosquito nets4 ,if the traveller can afford such a luxury1 and is likely to have plenty of tent room1 and a sufficient train of well ordered and obedient servitors1 we should advise him by all means to take plenty of mosquito net1 gauze or tarletan1 green or blue4 ,this should be suspended around his bed so as to form an inner tent1 pervious in every direction to the cooling breeze1 but having no aperture whatever by which a single insect could gain admittance4 ,if the nights are cool1 so that he can bear plenty of bedclothing1 the face alone may be protected by the net2 but if they are likely to be warm1 so that he lies with the thinnest possible coverlet1 and frequently throws off even that1 it must be large enough to inclose the whole bed1 and be tucked in or otherwise secured all round2 in all cases it must be capacious enough to give him plenty of room to sleep1 without touching its sides1 for if an unfortunate limb should by any accident touch the gauze1 the infinitesimal tormentors would assuredly not neglect to improve their opportunity4 ,the net may be simply a large square1 a portion of the centre may be gathered in the hand1 and a cord knotted to it by which to suspend it from above1 while the edges are brought round and tucked under the mattrass4 ,if two points of suspension1 one near the head and the other at the feet1 can be obtained1 with a light rod or ridge pole between them1 the material may be used to more advantage1 and it may1 if convenient1 be distended by a hoop1 square or oblong frame of light canes or twigs1 lashed together with a bit of cord4 ,we had one when in ,india1 cut1 and stitched into a cone1 or crinoline shape1 suspended from above1 and tucked around under our bedding1 and found it exceedingly serviceable--of course1 when the real hard work comes on1 all these luxuries go to the rear2 but it is wise to enjoy them when you can4 ,in many parts of the world1 we might say in all1 where flies are found1 dense swarms are sure to seek the shelter of the traveller's tent1 causing endless annoyance to the inmates by settling on1 or buzzing about1 their faces1 hands1 or the work they may be doing--drinking up every drop of moisture from the angles of the eyes1 inserting their probosces into any cut or open sore on the hands for the same purpose4 ,odds and ,ends4 ,the ditty bag4 ,there are a number of articles which1 although not strictly found under either of the heads we have before dealt with1 will be found of very considerable service in wild countries4 ,a ditty bag should be made of some tough strong material1 such as fustian1 velveteen1 or canvas4 ,it should contain a large assortment of needles1 especially of the larger and stouter sizes2 half-a-dozen medium-sized sail needles1 three roping needles1 two packing needles1 half-a-dozen duck needles1 sailmaker's thimble and palm1 sail hook1 rubber1 and piercer2 roping1 sail1 and duck twine4 7,learn how to use the palm from a sailor on the voyage47 ,a dozen skeins of black thread1 ditto brown2 one dozen skeins of carpet thread1 brown2 six slips of black silk1 six white ditto2 six hanks of worsted1 the colour of the socks and shirts4 ,all these skeins should be wound off on cards1 as endless entanglements follow the attempts made by the inexperienced to use thread from the uncut skein4 ,we also advise winding on cards1 as cut thread is not so well adapted1 from the number of short lengths in it1 for splicing broken fishing-rod joints1 c4 ,a few reels of strong white sewing cotton1 a little bag of buttons of all sorts1 a lump of beeswax1 six pieces of strong tape1 a packet of pins1 a bodkin1 and a pair of strong large bowed scissors4 ,a little ingenuity will enable the traveller to perform an endless number of repairs with the contents of a bag thus furnished4 ,the more needles you can take the better1 as they are at all times eagerly sought after by natives4 ,bellows4 ,a small pair of common bellows can be bought for about a shilling4 ,do not fail to provide at least one of these useful contrivances4 ,it is perfectly surprising to note the number of valuable ends they serve to answer4 ,stubborn fires1 formed of saturated brushwood and damp moss1 are1 by their aid1 forced into a blaze1 when ordinary coaxing and fanning only produced suffocating smoke and grievous loss of temper4 ,the fine sand and almost impalpable dust which1 in some regions1 finds its way in some strange manner into your very gun locks is best removed by the aid of your bellows4 ,laid flat on the knees a capital board for writing1 drawing1 or the examination of minute objects1 is formed4 ,when cutting out leather thongs with the knife1 or fashioning raw hide covers for various things1 they may be used for a cutting-board4 ,when snatching a hasty meal at the camp fire at early dawn1 before starting on the march or hunt1 we do not sit on the damp earth1 but usually place our bellows on the ground and sit on that4 ,most of our small job work1 such as fileing1 soldering1 fish-hook tying1 and tackle making1 is performed on the ever-ready surface of the bellows2 and when small objects of iron or steel require heating1 either to be worked1 tempered1 or case-hardened1 a hole in the ground1 a little charcoal and dry cow dung1 by the aid of the bellows1 enables us to extemporise a small forge4 ,larger forges will be described when smith's work comes under consideration4 ,canteens4 ,do not on any account be induced to encumber yourself with what is called a canteen1 a contrivance which is in our opinion much like the many-bladed knife we have before referred to4 ,a few months since1 when the expedition in search of ,dr4 ,livingstone was about being sent to ,lake ,nyassa1 two contrivances for cooking were brought to the ,royal ,geographical ,society for approval1 and of these1 were they to be used by a man who would take proper care of them1 we could only speak in terms of unqualified praise4 ,but they were declined simply because it would be impossible to teach a native cook how to use them1 and it would be easier to give him a fathom of calico to buy half-a-dozen earthen pots1 and to buy more when these were broken4 ,it is1 no doubt1 vastly ingenious to make a pepper dredge fit into a tea-canister which belongs in the teapot1 which in turn should go into the saucepan1 only unfortunately the class of persons to whom utensils of this kind are usually entrusted in wild countries are slow to appreciate mechanical puzzles1 and usually throw the whole lot into the first bag they can get1 when the spout of the teapot gets knocked off1 and the pepper becomes hopelessly amalgamated with the tea1 to the decided detriment of both4 ,table necessaries4 ,rather provide yourself with a few plain useful articles for table use4 ,in giving a list of these1 we will suppose that one person has to be catered for3 a well-made strong quart tin pot1 with both hook and handle1 is better for making tea in than the conventional teapot2 it is also useful for an endless number of other cooking purposes4 ,a knife1 fork1 and spoon1 should be packed in a leather hold-all1 like that filled with small tools1 which we have already represented on page #dc4 ,the knife and fork should have the steel of their blades carried through the handles in a flat plate1 to which the cheeks of the haft are riveted2 those made with tangs are always shifting round or coming out from being washed in hot water or placed in the sun2 the spoon should be of iron1 tablespoon size4 ,we have1 on more than one occasion1 had to melt lead in ours for bullet making1 which could not be done if it had been made of any other metal4 ,get two small wooden bowls1 such as bankers keep gold in1 take them to a tin-plate worker's1 and have narrow copper hoops let into the wood just below the edges1 this prevents splitting4 ,nothing is equal to these for drinking hot tea out of2 metal cups of all sorts scald the lips if the tea is moderately heated1 and earthenware vessels are too liable to be broken4 ,a half-pint horn cup will be found very useful1 and is next to indestructible4 ,we have one which we extemporised from an old ,russian powder horn we picked up in the ,redan4 ,this has travelled many thousands of miles with us since its conversion1 and is just as capable of containing good liquor as ever4 ,pots and pans4 ,a frying-pan is worth anything to a campaigner2 fish1 flesh1 or fowl are all equally well cooked in it4 ,coffee can be roasted1 pancakes made1 stews prepared1 and a whole host of useful offices performed4 ,do not forget your frying-pan4 ,it is a good plan to have a parasol joint1 as it is called1 made in the handle close to the pan1 this will1 by bending the handle a little1 admit of its being folded across the pan1 and thus more easily stowed away4 ,it may be well to observe1 perhaps1 that the parasol joint is formed by cutting two slots in the divided ends1 fitting in a short plate1 running two rivet-pins through them1 and then sliding a ferrule over the joint1 which keeps it stiff4 ,take two dinner plates of enamelled iron2 these are best kept with the hold-all1 in a flat leather pouch with partitions4 ,a leather loop1 or ,d1 at each corner enables you to attach the plate pouch to either your own or the pack saddle4 ,have a tin canister made2 it should be of cylindrical form1 and should have a division in the middle1 a cover at each end1 and be capable of holding #boz4 of ground pepper and #doz4 of fine salt4 ,the most useful kind of cooking pot we know is the common cast-iron crock of ,meg ,merrilies pattern4 ,use it with moderate care1 and it will last a lifetime4 ,a wooden cover is easily fitted to it in event of the iron pot lid being lost2 and should by any misfortune one of the legs get broken off1 and a hole made in the bottom of the crock1 a good thick pledget of cotton cloth drawn through it will stop the leak1 and remain unconsumed during the boiling process4 ,bread1 meat1 birds1 fish1 vegetables1 or fruit can be baked readily in or under the crock1 as will be seen when bush cookery is treated on4 ,it is also useful for a variety of other purposes1 as will be seen as the work proceeds--take a crock1 therefore1 by all means4 ,an all-blaze pan is another most useful utensil4 ,it is thus made3 ,have two deep copper bowls made of a size sufficient to hold about three pints each4 ,these should each have two lugs or handles riveted to them1 and a flange raised round the edges should admit of the mouths of the two bowls fitting closely into each other like a box and its cover4 ,the insides must be tinned in the usual manner1 and the handles so adjusted that when the two bowls are joined they are opposite to each other and near enough together to be lashed fast with twine4 ,the formula for preparing food by the use of these pans will be given under the head ,camp ,cookery4 ,leather buckets4 ,a leather bucket1 such as firemen use1 will also be found of great service for an endless number of purposes4 ,we invariably carried1 when in ,central ,india1 a miniature bucket composed of leather1 attached to the pack saddle2 it held a quart1 and by the use of twenty yards of ordinary sea-fishing line1 which was always coiled away in it1 we have often been enabled to obtain water from deep native wells when other travellers not so provided have been destitute of this priceless treasure4 ,in some portions of the ,east1 the wells are very deep and narrow1 so that1 without some such contrivance as the above1 it is impossible to reach their contents4 ,when collecting specimens of natural history in ,turkey1 we were on one occasion in much distress for want of water1 and after a long search discovered one of these tantalising excavations4 ,there lay the longed-for fluid1 glittering like silver down below1 but far too deep to reach without some shift or expedient1 so we betook ourselves to the sea beach1 which was not far off1 to see what good fortune would cast in our way4 ,an empty univalve shell1 not unlike that of an overgrown whelk1 soon rewarded our search2 we fixed a stick across its mouth1 dragged forth the trailing vines and creepers from a neighbouring thicket1 knotted them together1 fastened on our shell in company with a goodly stone to give it weight1 lowered away briskly1 drew up cautiously1 and thus treated the parched palate and dry tongue to that which they so much needed4 ,again and again did our good sea shell travel up and down until1 having satisfied the cravings of nature1 we resumed our journey2 and to the sea shell and vine are we indebted for the design of our miniature bucket and cord which now invariably accompany us on our wanderings4 ,we advise1 therefore1 that one common fire bucket of leather1 and one to contain a quart be provided4 ,guttapercha buckets are very neat and pleasant to look at1 but the sun of the tropics has an awkward habit of causing their bottoms to fall out2 we1 on one occasion1 saw six rendered perfectly unserviceable in one day from this cause4 ,get a good stock of leather straps and buckles of different sizes from a saddler1 these are useful for a variety of purposes4 ,it will be well also to provide a goodly number of padlocks1 of two sizes2 let the largest be iron rim1 say three inches in diameter1 and the smaller size of brass1 such as are sold at one shilling each--sixpenny ones are useless2 keep one key for each size attached to your watch guard1 and carefully lock away all the rest4 ,a butcher's steel1 of good quality1 is well worth taking4 ,a selection of fishing gear1 too1 is of the greatest value1 of this subject we shall treat at length under the head ,fishing4 ,a corkscrew should be provided1 the best pattern we know is that in which the worm fits by a screw into a hollow tube4 ,other odds and ends4 ,when required for use1 the tube is passed through a flat ring in the end of the shank1 and forms a cross handle2 screws of this kind are conveniently carried in the waistcoat pocket4 ,tin boxes of wax vesta matches are exceedingly useful2 take a good number of these2 get also a tube and cap strike-a-light with a chain1 striker1 bit of agate1 and spare cotton cord slow match4 ,medicine and ,dressings for ,wounds4 ,medical stores4 ,on one of ,nelson's boat expeditions up a tropical river1 the medical chest was unanimously voted a piece of lumber2 but1 before the arduous voyage had been completed1 the only regret was that sufficient medicine had not been taken4 ,an unmanly fear of fever1 or other sickness1 would probably aid in bringing it on1 but reasonable precaution ought never to be neglected4 ,many countries have an unenviable notoriety for the prevalence of peculiar and local diseases3 some are perfect hotbeds of fever in various forms2 and wounds from gunshot1 sharp-edged tools or weapons1 bruised and fractured bones1 are casualties that may befall the traveller in any country1 and therefore a few articles for the dressing of these should certainly find a place among his stores4 ,in case of wounds1 cleanliness and repeated washing in cold or tepid water as may be best for the particular case1 is the most generally successful treatment1 and for this purpose plenty of sponge or flannel should be provided2 the sponges should be of moderate size1 perfectly clean from grit or bits of shell1 close grained1 and soft4 ,flannel is a good substitute2 but if a piece of either is used for washing an unhealthy wound on one person1 it should never again be used upon another1 as it might convey infection1 and1 indeed1 it would be much safer to destroy it utterly4 ,lint is1 of course1 well known to be one of the best coverings for an injured part1 and a good supply ought to be taken as1 although the underclothing1 or sometimes even the bedding1 of the party1 may supply bandages1 very few travellers going on a serious exploration in a wild country would think of taking linen shirts1 while sheets would be equally scarce among their bedding4 ,cambric or lawn handkerchiefs would be good substitutes4 ,calico1 for bandages or rollers1 would be more likely to be at hand in some parts of ,africa1 such as the ,portuguese stations on the ,zambesi1 or at ,great ,fish ,bay1 where a wrapper of six feet square forms the dress of the native who borders on the possessions of the white man2 while in ,kafirland or ,damaraland1 where soft untanned leather is the prevailing dress1 it would be less certain to form any considerable part of the equipment4 ,adhesive plasters4--,of these perhaps common diachylon is the best2 but in a hot country1 like ,africa1 we have seen a roll of it soften during the journey1 and1 in exemplification of its name1 sticking so fast together that it looked more like a field marshal's baton than anything else1 and the spreading out of it again into a sheet was a hopeless task4 ,it would therefore be better to carry the diachylon in a gallipot1 and spread it when required on thin cotton4 ,isinglass and court plaster are useful for keeping clean small hurts--the fluid obtained by boiling tendons in water spread on silk makes a very useful plaster--though1 in trifling cases1 we are in favour of letting the coagulated blood form the natural covering while the cut heals up beneath it4 ,cerate1 which may1 on occasion1 be made of beeswax and pure fat or oil1 in such proportions as the temperature of the country may require1 is very useful1 spread on lint or linen1 as a cooling ointment for sores that require to be kept soft4 ,spongio pilene1 a material composed of small fragments of sponge1 attached to a backing of india-rubber sheeting1 will be found valuable in applying hot or cold water to injured surfaces4 ,it can be cut with readiness to any required size or shape4 ,during the ,zambesi expedition1 ,dr4 ,kirk was provided with a good store of gutta-percha tissue1 in sheets1 for the purpose of covering poultices1 moist applications1 c4 ,the tissue should be cut much larger than the lint or other material1 the moisture of which is to be confined4 ,other sheets were of various thicknesses1 from that of writing paper up to cardboard or millboard1 so as to give support1 if necessary1 as well as covering4 ,he also carried gutta-percha splints for the leg or arm1 properly fitted1 for inside or outside1 right or left2 and cases might occur in which the possession of one of these1 at the moment it was required1 would be invaluable4 ,they packed very easily one within the other1 occupying little more room than so many flat sheets4 ,millboard in strips1 #ah;in4 long and #f;in4 wide1 for leg splints1 or #ae;in4 by #d;in4 for the arm1 would stow easily1 and by moistening would be easily moulded on the limb of a healthy person to the shape required4 ,a few bandages1 #c;in4 wide and #f;ft4 or #h;ft4 long1 should be kept rolled up in the medicine chest2 but if a store of calico is carried1 there is no need to tear off more till they are wanted4 7,n4,b4 ,they should always be torn--not cut47 ,it is not to be expected that every traveller should carry or be able to use the formidable array of deadly looking keen-edged knives1 of saws1 and other instruments of torture2 nevertheless1 it would be prudent that a small selection should be taken1 and we extract from a clever little work1 ,first ,help in ,accidents1 the following list3-- ,lint1 ,compressors1 ,rollers1 ,sticking plaster1 ,silk1 ,small sponge1 ,tourniquet1 ,scissors1 ,tenaculum1 ,suture needles1 ,lancet1 ,dressing forceps1 ,scalpel4 ,small pocket cases containing all the requisite instruments are to be obtained of any surgical instrument maker4 ,among medicines quinine stands pre-eminent as an effectual1 though perhaps not always an infallible1 febrifuge2 it is1 however1 so excellent a tonic that its moderate and occasional use may safely be recommended1 and we do not know of a better remedy in case of fever4 ,it is best dissolved in wine1 if the traveller should be fortunate enough to be able to carry any4 ,it may be given in rum or other spirit1 which is more portable and likely to be at hand1 and which is also useful for preserving insects2 but if a man wants any peace while passing through most wild countries1 or is doubtful of his own powers of self-denial1 we would recommend him to convert all his wine into a strong solution of quinine before starting1 and to do the same with half his rum or spirit of wine1 having the rest strongly methylated for use1 either in a spirit lamp or preservation of specimens4 ,let both these be labelled with a death's head and cross bones1 such as is used by chemists in the ,cape and other countries1 where many of the native population cannot read1 or do not understand1 ,english1 to signify poison4 ,a proportion of wine or spirit may1 of course1 be reserved for prudent and moderate use1 as a glass1 or even a bottle judiciously given may go very far to gain the good will of a native chief1 or to induce either the proper servants or occasional assistants of the traveller to work heartily in helping him out of some difficulty4 ,we have generally found a good pannikin of hot coffee accepted readily enough by the people after a long night journey2 but there are times when a fire could not be made1 and a drop of spirit1 imparting a momentary sensation of warmth1 even if it produces no other good effect1 has1 at least1 that of showing that their employer cares for them1 and does what he can to cheer them after their labour4 ,in most tropical rivers there are extensive deltas1 intersected with netlike labyrinths of shallow impracticable channels1 alternated with shoals1 which the advanced guard of mangroves is just reclaiming from the sea1 and where tangled1 dank1 and unwholesome wildernesses and swamps are formed1 there fever1 in its most deadly forms1 is sure to prevail4 ,the delta of the ,zambesi is also a place of danger from this cause2 and persons of a full stout habit are said1 and we believe with some reason1 to be more liable to fever than others of a spare and meagre build2 indeed1 the ,portuguese1 when they see a well-framed athletic man1 in prime condition1 enter the river1 prophetically mark him as one of the first victims4 ,we have ourselves suffered severely and continuously from this malady1 which generally came on with a cold shivering or ague1 and was succeeded by the fever1 accompanied by intense perspiration1 prostration of strength1 nausea and inability to eat1 or even to retain the necessary medicine or cooling drink2 an immoderately exaggerated idea of the length of time2 short uneasy slumbers1 disturbed by incongruous dreams--generally of some difficulty previously experienced--or total want of sleep1 total failure of memory1 and in bad cases delirium while awake4 ,when the ,pearl first entered the ,zambesi ,dr4 ,kirk ordered that a glass of spirit with quinine in it should be served to the men every morning2 and we would frequently1 as the large doses administered were intensely bitter1 make up the quinine into pills1 with chocolate or cocoa paste1 or sometimes place the quinine powder dry on the tongue1 and then swallow a copious draught of water to wash it down4 ,we give1 first1 ,dr4 ,livingstone's remedy for fever2 but1 useful and effective as it really is1 we cannot say1 from experience1 that it is infallible2 and the fatality among the gentlemen of the mission proves that we do not1 as yet1 possess a remedy for the fever that will supply the place of a sufficient and generous diet1 total cessation of exposure to the malaria1 and removal to a more elevated and healthy country1 even though it be but a few hours' journey from the infected district4 ,the doctor's receipt is as follows3-- ,linyante1 #abth of ,september1 #ahee4 ,a pill composed of three or four grains of resin of jalap1 three or four of calomel1 and an equal number of quinine2 a drop or two of tincture of cardamoms to dissolve the resin to form the bolus4 ,i have had a great many cases in hand1 and never met with a single case of failure2 it ought not to purge2 the quantity of resin must be regulated to produce only a gentle movement1 which1 when felt1 is accompanied by perspiration and a sound sleep4 ,a check to this perspiration has1 in my own experience1 given rise to vomiting large quantities of pure blood4 ,in another letter3-- ,we make a pill of equal parts of resin of jalap1 calomel1 rhubarb1 and quinine2 say for a powerful man eight grains of resin of jalap1 eight grains of calomel1 four or six grains of rhubarb1 and four or six grains of quinine2 make the whole into pills with tincture of cardamoms4 ,this relieves the very worst cases in a few hours4 ,we then give quinine till the system is affected with cinchonism,a1 the calomel is removed at once from the system1 and1 curiously enough1 decreasing doses serve4 ,in some of us half a grain of the mass produces as much effect as twenty-four grains did at first4 ,a ,singing in the ears4 ,a friend in ,capetown1 who had travelled in the ,brazils1 gave us the following receipt1 used1 we believe1 by an ,italian doctor2 there he tells us it was efficacious1 but we have not had opportunity to put it to the test3-- ,to one bottle of water add #cf;grs4 of sulphate of quinine1 #b teaspoonfuls of ,epsom salts1 #cd drops of sulphuric acid1 and #dj drops of ether2 this mixture is called antiperiodic water2 a wine-glassful three times a day as soon as the first symptoms are perceived1 and continued for three or four days after recovery4 ,if delirious1 an injection of #a tablespoonful of vinegar to #aj of this water4 ,warburg's fever drops are well spoken of4 ,very large doses of quinine are given in ,india and ,africa1 sixteen or twenty grains at a time2 and we have frequently taken in powder as much as would lie upon a shilling4 ,sometimes violent exertion1 producing perspiration and exhaustion1 if practised in time1 may avert an attack4 ,we have heard of a doctor visiting a man when the shivering fit was about to come on1 who locked the door1 mixed two glasses of stiff hot grog1 put on the gloves1 and engaged his patient in a boxing match1 which1 at least1 for that time averted the fever4 ,we do not give our unqualified recommendation of this treatment2 but we have often found that1 during a period of severe and long sustained labour1 we have remained in health1 but that an attack of fever has accompanied the reaction induced by an intermission of the work4 ,simple aperients should be taken2 we have used ,cockle's anti-bilious pills1 salts1 senna1 or jalap2 and their opposites in case of diarrhoea4 ,with a little opium and a bit of carpenter's chalk1 we have been able to give almost marvellous relief to a poor coloured woman in excruciating agony4 ,take a good supply of ,chlorodyne4 ,opium both in gum and tincture4 ,a few drops of the latter1 placed within the eyelids of those suffering from snow blindness1 often prove of the greatest advantage2 chloroform must be used with caution2 still1 in cases of great suffering1 it is worth while to try it4 ,we have known one exceedingly severe case of illness in which messengers had to be sent to every white man within #bdj miles for medicines1 and letters were written on the chance that some passing vessel might take them to a port whence by some other agency a supply of drugs might be forwarded4 ,emetics1 which are commonly sold in doses1 white and grey1 and of different degrees of strength4 ,sudorifics--among which we have used ,dover's powders as a convenient form4 ,eyewashes4--,weak solutions1 sulphate of zinc and diacetate of lead1 or weak brandy and water1 may be used4 ,it may be needful to carry a small quantity of blistering plaster--or rather the materials of which to make it--soft wash-leather1 ointment of ,spanish fly1 c41 or mustard4 ,tincture of arnica1 used in the proportion of one part tincture to eight parts water1 is a valuable application for strains or contusions4 ,glycerine1 or cold cream1 may be used as cooling applications to irritated surfaces4 ,effervescing powders4--,the blue paper contains carbonate of soda1 #cj;grs42 the white1 tartaric acid1 #be;grs4 #alb4 of carbonate of soda1 and #ac-a_/boz4 of tartaric acid1 make #bef powders of each sort2 or1 #a-a_/boz4 of carbonate of soda1 and #coz4 of tartarised soda1 packed in blue1 and #g;drs4 of tartaric acid1 in white1 will make twelve sets4 ,all salts must be kept in bottles closely stoppered1 and only put in paper for immediate use4 ,antiscorbutics4--,almost any vegetable2 plenty of sugar2 fresh fruit2 dried tamarinds2 good lime juice1 vinegar1 or citric acid2 raw potatoes1 with the strong earthy taste as fresh as possible2 the pulp of the cream of tartar tree or ,baobab in ,africa1 or of the ,gouty-stem 7,adansonia ,gregorii7 in ,australia4 ,dr4 ,kane1 in his ,arctic voyages1 found fresh raw meat a remedy4 ,it will be well for the traveller to limit his equipment to a few simple and really useful medicines1 of which a sufficient supply for the maladies to be expected in the country he is bound for should be taken4 ,a complicated assortment would serve only to confuse him1 and it is better even to trust solely to nature than to tamper unskilfully with dangerous remedies4 ,poisons and antidotes4 ,poisoning1 whether from accident or otherwise1 should always be provided for1 and it will be well to be supplied with a few antidotes4 ,some poisons are best ejected by vomiting--draughts of salt or mustard and warm water1 half a wine-glassful of ipecacuanha wine1 or a glassful of warm water with twenty or thirty grains of sulphate of zinc4 ,antimonial preparations1 as tartar emetic1 are too depressing1 and not controllable4 ,in others1 the action on the stomach may be diminished by mucilaginous or oily drinks1 as milk1 barley water1 white of egg1 and salad oil4 ,for poisonous acids use no emetics2 alkaline remedies are proper4 ,soda or potash in water1 given plentifully2 carbonate of magnesia1 ,dinneford's solution1 common whitening1 or chalk in water1 followed by some mucilaginous fluid1 as milk or barley water4 ,against alkalies1 as potash1 soda1 c41 acids must be used--diluted vinegar1 citric or tartaric acid1 lemon juice or sour beer2 soothing drinks as before1 after the poison has been neutralised4 ,for metallic poisons an emetic may generally be tried4 ,for arsenic1 avoid emetics4 ,take a mixture of milk and lime water1 or soda water in equal quantities4 ,light magnesia diffused in water may be taken4 ,common animal charcoal may be tried4 ,for corrosive sublimate give white of egg and plenty of milk2 if eggs are not at hand1 use flour mixed with water4 ,vegetable irritants4--,give an early emetic and demulcent drinks4 ,narcotic poisons4--,opium4 ,give an emetic2 pour cold water on the head and neck and shoulders2 place mustard poultices on the calves of the legs or feet2 give hot strong coffee and free air2 keep the patient moving till drowsiness passes off4 ,prussic acid in small doses4--,give ammonia or strong coffee2 pour cold water on head and chest1 rubbing dry with warm towels1 and give free air2 in large doses no treatment will avail4 ,strychnine4--,in ,australia1 ,south ,africa1 and some other countries strychnine is extensively used2 and a correspondent thus writes in the ,field concerning it3--,it sometimes happens that dogs are poisoned1 accidentally or otherwise1 by nux-vomica1 or its alkaloid4 ,it may not1 therefore1 be useless to inform the reader what treatment should be adopted in such a case4 ,the poison acts very rapidly1 tetanus comes on1 and the dog soon dies1 exhausted by the violence of the fits4 ,if the poison have only been just taken1 and no fits have occurred1 the best remedy is tannin1 in the form of pounded galls1 or the areca-nut powder so much used in kennels4 ,but if the dog be already seized with tetanus1 the only remedy is the permanganate of potash4 ,i have found1 in several experiments on animals1 that1 when once the tetanic spasm has set in1 permanganate of potash is the only remedy giving any chance of recovery2 if administered in time it is most successful4 ,condy's fluid1 now so much used in the stable and kennel1 is the most convenient form for its administration4 ,a wineglassful of ,condy's fluid1 slightly diluted1 may be given4 ,during the treatment the dog must be kept quiet1 and touched as little as possible4 ,this treatment1 which has never yet been suggested 7to my knowledge71 ,i beg to offer to those readers who may be in need of it2 but ,i cannot speak of its effects on the human subject4 ,alcohol in excess4--,evacuation of the stomach1 followed by hot coffee1 external stimulants and friction4 ,suffocation by gases1 c4--,removal to pure air1 cold water on face and chest1 artificial inducement of respiration1 friction of surface1 followed by hot coffee or brandy and water4 ,animal poisons--stings of insects1 snake-bites1 c4--,if a sting remains in the wound1 extract it1 and apply a strong wash of ammonia in spirit or water1 or1 in its absence1 warm oil2 if faintness follows1 some stimulant1 as brandy and water1 may be given freely for snake-bites2 in addition to this cauterise the wound with nitric acid or a white-hot iron4 ,the trappers of ,america place great dependance on strong whisky2 if great exertion can be maintained1 so as to produce excessive fatigue and perspiration1 the system may throw off the poison4 ,in the ,cape colony an antidote for snake-bites is sold under the name of ,croft's ,tincture of ,life4 ,this was analysed1 when we were in ,grahamstown1 by the faculty1 and the ingredients they found were pronounced good2 but there were others which the maker would not reveal4 ,we have seen several testimonials as to its efficacy4 ,the medical men1 however1 arranged a case somewhat larger than a fifty-likeness carte-de-visite album1 containing lancet1 ligature1 cupping-glass1 a bottle of ammonia1 lint1 and a piece of lunar caustic2 but it was much too large to be carried about by any traveller in expectation of being bitten by a snake4 ,we therefore took a small tin vesta match box1 put a lancet1 small bottle of ammonia1 lunar caustic1 in a stoppered bottle1 lint1 and ligature in it1 and kept it in the waggon4 ,we are happy to say we never had to put it to the test1 for we were never bitten by a serpent4 ,sometimes a little judicious humouring of the patient does as much good as medicine4 ,in the ,bushman country around ,lake ,ngami1 where the entrails of the ,ngwa or poisonous grub are used to give such fatal effect to the insignificant-looking arrows1 a small plant with a yellow star-like flower1 called the ,kala-haetlwe1 is used as an antidote4 ,fat is also rubbed into the wound and also given internally till the effect of the poison is neutralised4 ,the snake-stone of ,india1 if it has any good qualities1 seems to owe them entirely to its absorbent properties1 and these would be more efficiently performed by scarification and the cupping glass4 ,ipecacuanha1 applied as a poultice1 has been by some considered a most valuable antidote to snake-bites4 ,this antidote is equally effective in the stings of scorpions and other venomous reptiles4 ,the fiction of the cup of rhinoceros horn1 which caused all poisonous drink to effervesce and bubble over1 is so firmly believed1 that we have known a ,cape trader offer to drink any poison we could give him out of such a cup2 but we declined the experiment4 ,a preparation of the guaco plant is highly esteemed on the ,spanish main as an antidote against bites of snakes of all kinds4 ,acetic acid rubbed on the wound caused by the bite of scorpions or centipedes is very efficacious4 ,in the absence of this1 chewed tobacco is often made use of2 but the natives are of opinion that the scorpion inflicting the wound crushed between two stones and laid on the injured part is a certain remedy1 and1 from what we have been enabled to learn from them on the subject1 there seems to be some foundation for the belief4 ,imaginary ailments of natives4 ,the imaginary ailments of natives are neither few nor far between2 but it is not at all times wise to disregard them4 ,we have known our followers come1 night after night1 with small sicknesses1 when we had but a few doses of fever mixture left1 and1 by some chance or other1 a little currie powder4 ,now1 had we sent away a man with his little sickness1 he would have been really ill next morning4 ,we therefore looked as wise as possible1 felt his pulse1 looked at his tongue1 read a paragraph or two1 and sent him to boil some water and bring it to us2 we then carefully measured out a spoonful of currie powder1 mixed it1 saw him drink it off1 and sent him to make himself as warm as he could till next morning4 ,horse ,medicines and ,farrier's ,stores4 ,if an expedition is about to be undertaken where the services of many horses or mules are required1 a list of medicine stores should be furnished for them1 which may be approximately as follows1 the quantities being arranged for twenty animals for six months3-- ,raw linseed oil1 #d galls4 ,olive oil1 #b galls4 ,spirits of nitre1 ether1 #dlb4 ,nitrate of potash1 #flb4 ,barbadoes aloes1 #blb4 ,potassio tartrate of antimony1 #alb4 ,camphor1 #alb4 ,ginger1 in powder1 #flb4 ,palm oil1 #flb4 ,tincture of opium1 #dlb4 ,spirits of ammonia1 #dlb4 ,spirits of turpentine1 #a gall4 ,cantharides1 in powder1 #alb4 ,lard1 #flb4 ,linseed meal1 #hlb4 ,compound tincture of myrrh and aloes1 #blb4 ,calomel1 #aoz4 ,nitrate of silver1 #a_/boz4 ,sulphate of copper1 #blb4 ,alum1 #blb4 ,sugar of lead1 #alb4 ,sulphate of iron1 #blb4 ,powdered gentian1 #dlb4 ,prepared chalk1 #flb4 ,stockholm tar1 #ajlb4 ,tow1 #flb4 ,old flannel and sheeting for bandages1 two or three sponges1 a packet of pins1 a hank of fine twine1 six pieces of coarse tape1 a pestle and mortar1 set of scales and weights1 palate knife1 graduated measure1 a quire of whitey-brown paper1 two pairs of scissors1 one straight and the other curved2 a drenching-horn1 phleam1 lancet 7horse size71 glyster syringe 7quart size71 and blood can4 ,hoof picker1 searcher1 drawing knife1 buffer1 pincers1 shoeing hammer1 hoof rasp1 and set of hobbles4 ,the use of these matters will be treated on under the head of ,veterinary ,surgery4 ,lamps1 ,lights1 and ,lanterns4 ,lamps4 ,about the most simple and effective lamp we have ever seen is that used by the ,portuguese at ,tette1 in their illuminations2 it consists of a shallow pan of clay1 as big as the palm of the hand1 slightly baked1 or1 perhaps1 merely sun-dried--to contain the oil--a spoonful of salt is tied up in a piece of rag1 the ends being left just long enough for a wick1 and this cheap and simple arrangement serves all the purposes of out-door illumination4 ,sticks about three feet high1 with their upper ends cleft into three parts1 which are kept open by the insertion of a wedge1 are planted in lines along the streets1 and the lamps supported on these1 or ranged along the porticoes or fences of the various houses1 burn brightly and steadily for many hours1 defying even a tolerably stiff breeze to blow them out4 ,the oil used is that of the ground nut1 which1 beside being cheap and plentiful1 is so pure that it may be used for almost any purpose1 scarcely an article of food in ,tette being prepared without it2 in fact1 the nut itself1 which may be eaten plain1 roasted1 treated as a confect in various ways1 or infused as a substitute for coffee1 contains so much essential oil that it will burn for more than a minute with as bright a flame as a good candle2 when arranged one over the other on a stick or wire they give a good permanent light4 ,illustration3 ,,make-,,shift ,,lamps4 ,it is often necessary1 however1 for the traveller to supply himself with light when the grease at his command is neither liquid enough to rise through the fibres of a wick1 nor hard enough to be moulded into a candle4 ,in this case1 the wick should be allowed to rest on and overhang a little the sides of the vessel used as a lamp--a cup of earthenware1 a common tin cap box1 or even a bit of tin or sheet iron bent up will answer well enough2 the flame soon heats the side sufficiently to melt a portion of the fat1 and a constant supply is thus kept up as the wick requires it4 ,almost anything will serve as a wick--a bit of old rag1 or the flax-like fibres of the various plants used as cordage by the natives2 strips of bark beaten to separate the fibres1 or even small twigs may be used2 rushes with enough of the outer covering removed to expose the pith1 while on one side a strip of bark is left sufficiently strong to support it1 are also worth looking to in case of need2 but it is best to be provided with a sufficiency of cotton which is cheap1 easily carried1 and useful for many other purposes4 ,if possible1 a good supply of the best sperm candles1 or others of material not likely to be affected by changes of climate1 should be carried4 ,on the ,australian expedition1 we used ,price's vegetable wax candles2 and some of these--after having twice crossed the line1 gone round ,australia and part of the ,indian archipelago1 and made the circuit of the globe--are now in ,kew ,museum in as good condition as when they were issued from the factory4 ,the common bull's-eye or police lamp is very useful if only required by one person for a specific purpose1 such as reading off a sextant after observation of a star1 but it does not diffuse light enough for general purposes4 ,in fact1 if wood is plentiful1 a roaring fire will give greater facility for reading1 writing1 or such other occupations as are likely to employ a traveller's evening than anything else4 ,if you want warmth1 let your fire be on the ground and sit round it2 if you want light to work by1 make it on a slight elevation1 say from eighteen inches to two feet high4 ,if you want wood1 and your native attendants1 when called on1 make excuses1 or ,jem tells ,sambo and ,sambo tells the old woman to fetch wood for the master1 do not put yourself to the trouble of scolding them1 but take the wood off their fire and put it on your own1 and let them settle whose duty it is to bring more4 ,experto crede4 ,a horn lantern is good to keep the light from going out2 but then1 perhaps1 the operator may desire that the light should not be so literally kept in2 and it is said that a piece of rag dipped in salt and water1 and wrapped round a candle1 will answer the purpose of preserving it from extinction in windy weather without lessening its illuminating powers4 ,this1 however1 requires continuous attention1 in order that it may be cut down as the candle burns low4 ,the ,esquimaux lamp is a piece of soft stone with a slight groove along the front edge2 in this is laid a wick of moss or other material1 and1 the heat imparted to the stone being quite sufficient to melt the fat laid on it1 it is fed with very little trouble4 ,one who has made a turnip lantern in his youth will seldom be at a loss to extemporise a shelter for his bit of candle4 ,a calabash or gourd1 with perforations to allow the passage of the light1 covered or not with oiled calico or paper2 a worn-out pannikin or preserved meat tin2 the body of a quart bottle1 the more transparent the better2 or1 what is best of all1 one of the oblong tins in which fancy biscuits are generally sold1 will answer admirably2 the polished surface of the latter serving also as a powerful reflector4 ,we had one of these slung from the roof of the waggon1 the bowl of a broken ladle was secured in the bottom of it1 and with a bit of cotton wick and a few pieces of hard fat1 a light steady enough to work by was secured for the evening2 the common forecastle lamp used on board our merchantmen is a useful form1 and the shadowless railway lamp we found very servicable1 as long as the glass could be preserved4 ,we have constructed a very powerful reflecting lamp from a large sheet of tin1 nearly two feet in height1 curved round so as to form half a cylinder1 six or eight inches in diameter2 about eight inches from its base1 we made a shelf to sustain the oil lamp1 and a socket to contain the candle if we should be fortunate enough to have one1 and behind this we arranged a couple of sixpenny trade looking-glasses at an angle of #ij with each other1 and by the light thus thrown forward we were able to write or sketch with facility during many hours of the weary night4 7,see p4 #he47 ,a lamp commonly used in ,india is a tumbler half full of water with oil on the top1 and a wick wrapped round a stone or bit of lead1 with its end projecting above the oil2 but it has this disadvantage1 that rats may upset the glass while drinking the oil1 carry off the burning wick1 and so expose the house to great danger4 ,a float may easily be made of bottle wire and three bits of cork1 in which half an inch of wick is enough to last all night4 ,candles4 ,it is often desirable to make candles1 and for this purpose the hard fat and tallow of any animal that may be killed should be preserved1 that is1 if it can be spared from the no less important purpose of greasing the axles2 or beeswax1 if it can be obtained1 may be used either in combination with it or separately4 ,if you wish to make dip candles1 take a sufficient number of strands twice the length you require1 twist them slightly and double them1 and let the parts twist together2 pass a small rod through the bights of as many of these wicks as you find convenient1 say half a dozen2 take a bucketful of hot water1 throw the fat or wax in1 and it will soon melt and float upon the surface2 let the wicks absorb as much as they will1 straighten and let them harden2 then1 holding the rod by the end left for that purpose1 dip them quickly to their full length1 withdraw and allow them to cool1 and repeat the operation till your candles attain the desired size4 ,if you have fat enough you may have half a dozen or more sets of wicks and can keep on dipping in rotation1 thus allowing each plenty of time to cool before its turn comes round again4 ,if you aspire to mould candles1 nothing is better for your purpose than a piece off the end of a gun-barrel--and very few ,african hunters make a journey without shortening some lengthy weapon by eight or ten inches4 ,in this case1 pass a small stick an inch or two in length through the bight of the wick1 bring the end out through the mould and make it fast to another1 or pass it through a gun wad or section of a cork1 so as to stretch it fairly and evenly in the centre1 and stop the lower end2 then pour in the tallow or wax1 and1 when cool1 warm the mould slightly and the candle will draw out4 ,in some countries wood may be found sufficiently resinous to be used as candles1 but a supply of sticks cut to a convenient size must be prepared and a rest of some sort contrived so that they may be easily placed in it or withdrawn when nearly burnt out2 the angle they ought to make with the horizon varies with the quality of the wood1 if very combustible they may be set nearly upright1 if less so they must be more nearly horizontal4 ,all candles1 however1 waste rapidly unless screened from the wind1 if the traveller can carry a spring burner1 this inconvenience is in a great measure obviated2 but often this is impossible1 and he must make the best shelter he can with a bit of bent tin1 a joint of bamboo1 or whatever material may be at hand4 ,if the candles have to be packed in bags where stowage is of importance1 and cases must be thrown away1 it is best to cut them in two1 as the risk of breakage is much reduced by the diminution of their length2 in cutting them the knife should be warmed slightly1 as it divides them without chipping off fragments4 ,in lighting the lower half1 if you have wax vestas1 and stick one of them in alongside the wick that has been cut1 you avoid the necessity of cutting down the wax to expose the end1 and so may save three quarters of an inch of candle4 ,torches4 ,we have seen the ,malays1 in the ,island of ,timor1 take a soft porous stick1 or the pith of a peculiar rush1 and then wrap round it a coating of beeswax1 to serve as a torch or candle4 ,the natives of the shores of ,british ,columbia and ,vancouver ,island use a fish known as the ,eulachon1 or ,north-,west ,capelin1 as a source of light4 ,the leaf of the cocoa-nut palm possesses strong illuminating power4 ,the pine knot and birch bark of ,north ,america and ,canada are extensively used for giving light in deer-hunting1 fish-spearing1 and on other occasions4 ,the bog deal of ,ireland is also used4 ,the ,damaras1 who have a custom of obtaining their fire only from that kept burning at the hut of their chief1 carry with them dry flakes of ,kraal mist or cattle droppings1 ignited and held between the forks of a cleft stick2 and the ,indian matchlock men carry fire in the same way4 ,the mussalchees or torch-bearers of ,central ,india1 who commonly accompany troops during night marches1 use long sausage-shaped rolls of cotton cloth2 the ends of these they from time to time moisten with oil poured from a vessel carried for the purpose4 ,the hill guides usually employ large splinters cut from the ,deodar cedar4 ,in ,mexico1 the brilliant fire-flies are sometimes caught and used for giving a temporary light3 the direction of a letter1 or the points of a compass1 may be read by them4 ,the sparks from a flint and steel1 a bit of quartz1 sulphuret of iron or agate1 and a pocket knife1 will give light enough to read the compass1 or to form a night signal4 ,there are many very nice arrangements for the purpose of light giving and cooking1 which may be obtained from any military outfitter2 but their chief defect is1 that they will only answer their purpose under tolerably convenient circumstances1 and become useless when the real hard work of travel begins4 ,samovar4 ,travellers1 both on sea and land1 often require to cook a small allowance of coffee or tea when1 from severity of weather1 scarcity of fuel1 or the impossibility of halting long enough1 it is impossible to kindle a fire in any of the ordinary methods1 and frequently when1 from the pitching of a small vessel or the jolting of a waggon1 it would be dangerous to use a spirit lamp1 an ,etna1 or an uncovered fire of any kind4 ,under these circumstances we should think the principle of internal heat1 as applied in the ,russian samovar or tea urn1 might be successfully adopted4 ,this1 with various modifications in outward form1 may be described as a small furnace for burning wood or charcoal in that part which serves as the base of the urn1 with a funnel or stove pipe1 wide at the bottom1 but tapering rather sharply upward1 leading straight up through the water1 and having at top a telescope joint1 by which the funnel can be lengthened and the draught increased when requisite4 ,illustration3 ,,samovar4 ,our own idea is to have an upright cylinder of copper tinned inside1 and from about a couple of inches above the lower part of this an internal cone1 like an inverted funnel1 exactly fitting the cylinder at its lower edge1 and tapering up to a small aperture at top4 ,a double floor would be let into the cylinder about an inch from its base1 so that it might be set upon a plank without danger from the fire4 ,the cover would have a central hole for the funnel or smoke pipe to rise through2 a small lip spout would serve to pour off the water1 and ring handles1 with chains long enough to obviate all danger1 would serve to suspend it from the waggon roof1 or from the beams of a small vessel1 while others on either side would help to stay and steady it4 ,a broad cap or roof of copper hooked on to links of the chains an inch or two above the end of the smoke pipe would prevent any possible risk from fire reaching any woodwork from which the samovar might be suspended4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,boats1 ,,rafts1 ,,and ,,make-,,shift ,,floats4 ,stopping leaky boats4 ,in traversing wild countries1 or examining their coasts1 lakes1 or rivers1 boats of some kind are indispensably necessary4 ,the traveller may1 perhaps1 be fortunate enough to possess one or more sound and seaworthy4 ,more frequently1 however1 it will be his lot to have either some sun-dried leaky craft1 crank canoe1 or unstable raft1 on which to entrust his life and equipment1 when his ingenuity and powers of resource must be exercised in order to successfully contend with the various shortcomings and failings he will certainly discover4 ,if a boat be very leaky1 and is so rotten as not to be reparable by ordinary means1 cover the whole bottom with canvas to above the water line1 and paint it1 she will then be perfectly tight1 and also very much strengthened and protected against external injury4 ,should the canvas even be left unpainted1 it will be found to reduce the leakage very considerably4 ,turn the boat bottom upwards1 take a breadth of canvas for each side1 or1 if one breadth be not wide enough1 increase it as much as necessary by stitching on another4 ,lay one edge of this against the keel1 just below the garboard streak2 fasten it with copper tacks1 or if with iron pump tacks1 dip them previously in thick white paint1 varnish or boiled oil1 to prevent them rusting the canvas4 ,wet the canvas1 and stretch it tightly1 tacking it on the stem and stern post1 so as just to cover the insertion of the planking2 then stretch the upper edge to the moulding1 just below the wash-streak1 and nail it on there4 ,it might1 if necessary1 be carried right up to the gunwale2 but1 in this case1 it must be defended by a moulding or ribband of plank from chafing against the side of a vessel or pier4 ,in the case of a gig1 or long sharp boat1 the canvas will give or stretch sufficiently to adapt it to the required form2 but in one with a short bluff bow and stern1 it must be fitted either by neatly folding the parts necessary to be reduced1 or by cutting and stitching it to the shape required4 ,make-shift outrigger4 ,if a small boat crowded with passengers has to leave a wreck in a heavy sea1 she may be preserved from sinking or overturning by lashing across the gunwales a couple of oars 7cut1 if there is time for it1 to a suitable length71 and fastening to them1 outside the boat1 four small water-casks or breakers2 these would somewhat impede her progress1 but buoyancy and safety1 and not swift sailing1 are the chief requisites in leaving a wreck4 ,breakers lashed under the thwarts1 or bow and stern sheets1 are sometimes used2 but1 though they impart buoyancy to a water logged boat1 they take up room1 and do not give the additional stability which is afforded when they are placed outside4 ,illustration3 ,,boat ,,with ,,breakers ,,or ,,small ,,casks ,,as ,,outriggers4 ,rafts4 ,the cumbrous mass of spars1 water-casks1 and other stores1 which want of stowage under hatches often forces small vessels to carry upon deck1 may easily be converted into a perfectly safe and buoyant raft1 ready for instant use on an emergency1 by the following arrangement of the lashings4 ,the spars1 amongst which will generally be found one fit to make a topmast1 another for a lower yard1 and1 perhaps1 one or two more of equal length1 are laid fore and aft on either side the main hatch2 the water-casks1 perhaps half a dozen on each side1 are lashed to them2 while the space between is occupied by the long boat1 and1 perhaps1 one or two casks of meat or other stores1 the whole being secured to the deck2 but all this floating power is neither connected in itself1 nor easily detachable from the sinking vessel4 ,it would not be much more difficult1 when securing the row of casks and spars on either side the hatch1 to connect all these by short spars lashed across the ends1 as shown in the engraving1 with a couple more crossing near the bow and stern of the long boat1 and bearing others passing fore and aft beneath her bilge1 to which she might be secured by lashings perfectly independent of the gripes by which she is fastened to the deck4 ,indeed1 the chief requisite is to keep all the lashings that connect the parts perfectly clear of those which hold the raft to the vessel1 so that1 in case of need1 it could at once be cut clear1 and allowed to float bodily off from the sinking hull4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,spars ,,and ,,water-,,casks ,,carried ,,on ,,deck ,,with ,,the ,,long ,,boat1 ,,used ,,as ,a ,,raft4 ,we have stated the absolutely necessary points as simply as possible2 but many improvements might easily be suggested1 such as the four casks1 at the ends1 being pointed like conical buoys1 so as to offer less resistance to progress through the water2 or that in two or more of the aftermost casks a quantity of salt or preserved meat1 biscuit1 or groceries should be kept in store for any emergency4 ,the smaller spars1 of which there are generally plenty on board1 might be crossed upon this framework1 so as to make a platform1 and a studding-sail spread over would prevent small things dropping through1 or help to support the crew or passengers4 ,the boat1 however leaky or battered1 would always be a place of security and comparative comfort for the ladies or children1 as the power of floatation would be in the spars and casks4 ,we believe the ,spaniards always endeavour to secure a boat on any raft they are obliged to make1 using her1 no matter how much she may be stove or broken1 as a place of rest or refuge for the helpless or the weary4 ,it would be superfluous to give directions for the rigging of a mast or steering apparatus4 ,seamen in emergencies would improvise these according to the means at hand4 ,two or three small spars set up as a triangle would carry sail1 where1 perhaps1 a mast could not be stepped2 and the oars of the long boat1 assisted by the trimming of such sail as could be set1 would be most likely the readiest appliances for steering4 ,sometimes the bridge of a paddle steamer is made like a caisson1 and shipped in grooves1 so as to float off should the vessel sink4 ,small craft trading in the ,indian islands1 which carry a quantity of bamboo as small spars1 are thus provided with a natural substitute for life-buoys1 and a material for constructing rafts1 or rendering boats1 though leaky as so many sieves1 perfectly unsinkable4 ,rafts of the large hollow stems of the bamboo are frequently used by fishermen in the ,indian archipelago4 ,life-belts4 ,it may1 perhaps1 be of little use to suggest that before a vessel leaves port attention should be given to the means of saving life should she go down at sea4 ,the possible foundering of a seaworthy vessel is about the last thing a sailor thinks of2 he trusts more to his presence of mind and ready application of the means at hand4 ,nevertheless1 provision against danger would cast no imputation on their manliness4 ,the law compels a proportionate number of boats to the complement of crew or passengers4 ,some owners provide cork belts or jackets for the men1 with mattrasses1 pillows1 or cushions of cork1 for the berths or sofas in the cabin2 and it would be well if every passenger making a sea voyage were to provide himself1 and each of those depending on him1 with a life-belt1 either of cork or of inflatable material1 and likewise see that these were not stowed away in chests below the hatches1 but kept at hand in the berths so as to be available when wanted2 and also that their use was perfectly understood by those for whom they were provided4 ,we have seen a waistcoat with inflatable lining carried far into the interior by one of the boldest elephant hunters in ,south ,africa2 and it is stated that1 after the sinking of the ill-fated steamer ,arctic1 some of the passengers provided with belts floated on the surface of the ,atlantic for some days1 giving1 with a kind of desperate humour1 the names of different hotels to the piece of floating wreck at which they had put up last night1 or intended to do so for the next4 ,it is a pity that none of the waterproof materials at present in use are comfortable in ordinary wear1 so that some common article of dress1 as a neck-tie1 a belt1 or sash1 might be made so as to be inflatable when an accident occurs4 ,of all that we know at present1 we should say the most effective1 simple1 and secure from damage1 is the ordinary cork jacket1 of the pattern supplied by the ,life-boat ,institution2 it is sufficiently buoyant1 does not impede the exertions of the wearer1 and cannot be damaged by collision with rocks or other hard objects4 ,life-buoys4 ,perhaps the circular life-buoy now in common use is as good as any1 but it requires some address and strength on the part of the swimmer to get it over his head to its proper place beneath his arms2 it also lies low on the water when thrown overboard1 and if at any distance is not easily seen by the swimmer or by the boat's crew who eventually go to his assistance4 ,in the navy a breaker or small cask is used1 with a staff six or eight feet long passed through it1 the lower end projects say three feet1 and is loaded with lead2 the upper will stand from four to six feet above the water1 carrying a small red flag by day1 or a port-fire by night4 ,the slings of the buoy are brought up to the taffrail and looped over a small pin1 which is withdrawn by pulling the trigger of a gun lock1 and a quick match led to this at night serves at the same time to ignite the port-fire1 so that the swimmer1 the boat's crew1 and the commander of the vessel1 have a conspicuous object to make for and are so prevented from losing each other4 ,in larger vessels1 we believe1 two breakers are used1 connected by saddle-shaped iron bars2 these enable one1 or perhaps two men to sit1 with their shoulders considerably above the surface2 while beckets of rope all round would enable a greater number1 say the crew of a capsized boat1 to support themselves with a fair chance of safety4 ,the size1 however1 of a life-buoy must always be limited4 ,it is mostly required to save one person who has fallen overboard2 and1 though perhaps sufficient to support more1 it should never be so large as to be dangerous or inconvenient when taken into the boat put out in a heavy and dangerous gale to the rescue4 ,several fathoms of small line should be and often are attached to the buoy1 so that if it is let go in time the swimmer may catch it1 and be saved without the necessity of lowering a boat4 ,we have seen a life line of coir or cocoa-nut fibre1 which is very buoyant1 successfully veered away to an overladen and endangered boat at a considerable distance1 when a hempen rope1 which sinks by its own weight1 would have been of no service4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,calabash ,,float1 ,,makoro ,,or ,,makara1 ,,of ,,central ,,africa4 ,calabash float4 ,nearly similar in principle to this last-named life-buoy is the calabash float1 described by ,dr4 ,barth as being used by the natives of ,central ,africa2 it is simply a bar or plank of light wood1 so laced to the bottom of two large calabashes1 that a man sitting on the bar1 as he would upon a saddle1 will sink about waist deep1 and may use his hands to paddle himself across the stream4 ,reed boat4 ,our illustration shows how any buoyant article in the traveller's possession might be used in this manner4 ,the boxes shown on pp4 #h and #i are designed expressly for such emergencies4 ,small water vatjies1 barrels1 or tin cans1 wooden boxes1 even though somewhat leaky1 wrapped in canvas or two or three thicknesses of calico1 which need not be cut1 would become sufficiently tight for a short voyage4 ,to make a reed boat1 take reeds of any length you wish1 a foot or two more than half the length of your boat1 lay them lengthwise on level ground1 with their small ends toward the ends of your intended boat1 and their butts overlapping each other by a foot or two2 take cord or other material for lashing1 and interweave it with the reeds till the part in the centre resembles a flat cheese-mat1 then bend it round the hoop which you intend for the midship frame4 ,insert smaller frames toward each end1 and finally gather up the ends of the reeds into a point1 cover this with some waterproof material1 oiled calico or canvas1 c41 or canvas simply pasted with flour and water1 and you will have a boat buoyant and more or less durable according to the strength of the material4 ,illustration3 ,,reed ,,boat4 ,about #ahdd we made such a boat in ,cape ,town1 using what are there called ,spanish reeds1 which run between #aj;ft4 and #ae;ft4 in length1 three quarters or an inch in their greatest diameter1 tolerably strong and very buoyant2 these were lashed on wooden barrel hoops with a light deal keel and gunwale1 and covered with two thicknesses of oiled calico4 ,there was no leakage1 and our little skiff was so light that with the assistance of a friend we easily carried her to and from the house in which she was built4 ,we often ventured beyond the shipping anchored in ,table ,bay1 our guns being secured by lanyards to the boat in case of accident4 ,reed raft4 ,on parts of the ,nile where reeds abound1 the natives make them up into bundles of perhaps #h;in4 or #aj;in4 in diameter at the larger end1 and tapering almost to nothing at the smaller2 three or four of these are fastened side by side1 their points are made to curve up a little1 and they form a portable and convenient vessel for crossing the river or conveying small cargoes of grain or other produce to market4 ,the stoutest part of the fan-shaped leaf of the doum palm is used as a paddle4 ,the float is not a heavy load for one man1 when carried overland1 and one supported by a forked stick1 or three or four with their larger ends set on the ground and the smaller resting against each other1 form very good sun-shades1 or huts to protect the inmates against more inclement weather4 ,illustration3 ,,reed ,,raft ,,as ,,used ,,on ,,the ,,nile4 ,we have seen very useful and commodious rafts made by cutting very large quantities of marsh reeds1 fastening them up roughly in bundles1 laying these side by side1 and then arranging another layer of bundles across the lower tier4 ,a few vines1 or twisted reed bands1 serve to keep the bundles in their places1 whilst a thick layer of loose reeds on the top makes a level surface for the traveller and his baggage to rest on4 ,as the lower reeds become saturated with water others can be cut1 and added to the top4 ,long river voyages1 floating with the stream1 have been accomplished on rafts of this description4 ,bamboo canes1 when they can be obtained in sufficient number1 form excellent rafts4 ,they are also extremely valuable as outriggers1 and outrigger beams for canoes1 adding greatly to their stability4 ,in other parts1 where reeds are not so common1 floats of wood are used as an assistance to swimmers4 ,floats4 ,when swimming our horses over many of the wide and rapid rivers of ,central ,india1 the natives who were employed in guiding the animals1 first swam across with them without any artificial assistance1 and then returned for others with billets of a peculiarly light wood held between their left arms and sides1 under the shoulders2 with these appliances1 they floated with extraordinary buoyancy1 and made rapid progress across the stream4 ,the inflated skins or intestines of animals1 hollow gourds1 earthen pots1 bladders1 or bundles of bark1 may be used as aids in crossing rivers where canoes or rafts cannot be constructed4 ,cattle boat4 ,on some of the great ,indian rivers1 large dish-shaped boats are used for the conveyance of horses or cattle4 ,a boat of this description is very quickly made by first forming a basket-shaped framework of bamboo1 here and there interwoven2 this is securely lashed together with strips of raw hide1 twisted cane1 or common cord4 ,when completed1 the basket1 or frame1 is turned upside down1 on the ground1 pegged fast with hooked pegs cut from the branches of the nearest tree1 and then covered with raw bullock hides1 which are sewn fast to the frame1 and to each other1 grease being well rubbed into the seams4 ,when complete1 the boat is not unlike a common tea-saucer--measures between fourteen and fifteen feet in diameter1 and is about two feet eight inches deep2 made to these dimensions1 the hide boat will safely carry from three to four tons of cargo4 ,there is no possibility of upsetting it4 ,when horses or bullocks have to be conveyed in contrivances of this kind1 it will be necessary to lay branches of trees1 and a good layer of reeds1 or sedge grass1 on the bottoms1 in order to prevent the animals from thrusting their hoofs through the hides4 ,the water-draught of hide boats is surprisingly slight1 from five to eight inches being sufficient to float one with a full load on board4 ,long-handled shovel-shaped paddles are used to propel them with1 and a store of raw hide1 and some tallow1 and an eyed awl1 or large needle1 for patching1 enables the boat voyager to execute with expedition all the repairs his leather craft may need4 ,all hide-covered boats1 or floats1 should be occasionally placed bottom upwards1 on shore1 to dry1 in order to render the skins more durable4 ,coracle4 ,the coracle1 so much used by ,welsh fishermen1 is made much after the same fashion4 ,a smooth level piece of turf being chosen1 the frame-sticks1 just such as coopers use for making into hoops1 are bent and interwoven until the requisite form of the frame has been arrived at1 the bottom being upwards4 ,the edge1 which afterwards becomes the gunwale1 is formed by making a border of hazel-wand basket-work1 the ends of the frame-sticks are trimmed off even with this1 and a covering of ,russia duck1 or light canvas1 is neatly sewn over all4 ,the coracle is then paid over with tar1 or some other water-proofing material2 one thwart1 or seat1 is secured from each end to the framework1 holes are made in this for a leather strap to pass through1 which enables the fisherman to carry his coracle on his back4 ,a single-bladed paddle1 like a baker's oven pile1 is used to paddle with4 ,some considerable practice is needed to enable a new hand to conduct1 or1 as it is called1 drive a coracle--not a little caution is required in both getting in or out4 ,it is best1 if possible1 to depart from some shallow sand-spit1 or gravel bed1 where the coracle may be shoved off into deeper water1 after the tyro has taken his seat1 and established the proper balance4 ,in landing1 it will be well to observe the same caution until practice and experience give the confidence and dexterity which they alone can confer4 ,there is a peculiar stroke of the paddle much used in coracle driving1 to which the canoe man seldom has recourse4 ,this is gained by turning the left arm round the handle of the paddle1 until the hand is a short distance above the blade1 and the shaft rests against the shoulder4 ,the paddle blade is then worked in a figure-of-eight direction4 ,illustration3 ,,skin ,,boat4 ,skin boat4 ,the size of skin or canvas-covered boats will usually be determined by the available amount of skin or covering material4 ,any waggon ox requires #h;ft4 of room to work in1 and his skin would give a square of leather of very little over #f;ft42 the ,african buffalo would be about the same1 the eland somewhat larger1 the black or brindled gnoo1 the koodoo1 and some of the larger antelopes1 rather less4 ,suppose you have two ox skins2 cut them straight across where the neck is at its widest1 and let the natives or waggon-drivers stitch them together with strong sinews or thongs of hide1 using a round awl or piercer1 to make a round hole that will close again1 and not a sharp-edged one that will cut the hide and so leave holes that will afterwards become leaks4 ,the sheet should be kept damp1 not wet1 by spreading ox-dung or damp earth upon it till the frame is ready4 ,suppose it now to be #ab;ft4 long and #f;ft4 wide2 you may make your boat of from #c;ft4 to #d;ft4 in width1 and #aj;ft4 in length and #b;ft4 deep4 ,if you care to have definite stem and stern posts1 it is very likely that poles may be found with branches projecting at the required angle1 but practically it is best to let them curve more or less gradually into the line of the keel1 and for this purpose to choose two long straight poles2 bend their thick ends round a tree to rather more than the requisite curve1 as they will always straighten again2 then1 having chosen a flat piece of stiff ground1 make two holes #aj;ft4 apart1 for the thick ends of your poles to rest in1 bend down their thin ends1 let them overlap1 the farther the better1 and lash them together2 then take another of about #h;ft4 7or a foot longer on each side than the width of the skin71 and having curved this1 stick the ends into the ground1 about #c-a_/b ft4 or #d;ft4 apart1 and lash it where its centre passes under the keel2 do the same with two others1 #ah;in4 on either side1 and you will have the three midship frames2 take two poles for each gunwale1 join them by overlapping their thin ends as before1 lash them to these central frames1 so far from the keel that the edge of the skin will just cover them1 bend them till they come together at the bow and stern1 let them cross each other by a few inches1 lash them tightly1 and do not be in a hurry to cut their ends too closely2 the curve they take will guide you in the insertion of the other frames4 ,as you come nearer to the bow and stern1 forked branches of the proper angle may be advantageously used1 and along the sides1 where the rowlocks come1 forks may be left on the extremities of the ribs to serve for them2 a fork may also be lashed in at either end for steering or sculling4 ,lay two or more ribbands or bilge pieces along each side2 fasten in such boards or poles as you have for thwarts1 and1 when the whole is firmly lashed together1 spread over it the prepared hide and stitch it all round to the pole that serves for gunwale1 the hair1 if you have not already scraped it off1 being inwards2 grease plentifully while it is still wet1 and then let it dry2 look carefully to the seaming2 give this as much grease as it will absorb1 or you can afford2 and when it is quite stiff1 saw off the superfluous timber ends1 not too close2 turn it up1 and it is ready for use3 never let your boat lie in the water longer than is absolutely necessary1 and turn it bottom upwards whenever you haul it ashore4 ,the quagga hide is proverbially rigid2 and we should think that if taken off by merely making one slit along the belly1 distending with dry sand and letting it harden in the sun1 it would make a tolerably safe boat in smooth water for one person1 without any other fitting4 ,we have heard of mules or transport animals being killed when water carriage became available2 their flesh jerked for future provision1 and even their ribs pressed into service to do duty without even a change of name in the canoes for which their hides served as coverings4 ,russian cargo boat4 ,in the ,united ,service ,museum is a very carefully-constructed model of a ,russian cargo boat from the ,aleutian ,islands1 ,commander ,pike1 ,r4,n41 the donor1 states that it carries #c-a_/b tons of fur sealskins4 ,no metal is used in it1 the wooden frame is pegged or lashed together1 and covered with walrus hide4 ,no dimensions are given2 but1 as very nearly three feet are required for one oarsman1 it is probable that the boat would be #be;ft4 long and #h;ft4 wide near the stern2 it will be noticed that there are but single thole pins1 and therefore grummets of rope or iron must be fastened on the oars4 ,esquimaux boats4 ,the other boat is the oomiak1 or woman's canoe1 of the ,esquimaux4 ,the frame is made of drift wood and bone1 often in very small pieces1 but so tightly pegged and lashed together with hide thongs1 that the compound seems fully as strong as a single piece2 it is very neatly covered with sealskin4 ,illustration3 ,,russian ,,and ,,esquimaux ,,skin ,,boats ,the method of constructing the frames of both these varies but little from that we have just described1 and we think will be made sufficiently plain by the drawings copied by permission from the models in the ,museum4 ,the kayak1 or man's canoe1 is longer1 sharper1 and narrower1 and is completely covered with sealskin1 with the exception of a circular aperture in the centre1 and from the edges of this a skin comes up so as to tie tightly round the waist of the daring walrus or seal hunter1 so that not a drop of water can enter his little vessel2 while even if by any accident she should capsize1 a vigorous stroke of the double-bladed paddle will suffice to right her2 the harpoons or other weapons cannot possibly be lost1 for bladders are attached to the lines of those prepared for use2 while the reserves are not cast adrift till they are wanted4 ,marvellously ingenious as these fur-clad boat-builders are1 their frail craft are so difficult to handle that no ordinary explorer can1 without long practice1 hope to use them with much success4 ,still there are many points connected with their construction well worthy of imitation4 ,the small sledge in the background has a screen of skins suspended across it1 in which a hole is made for the seal-hunter to fire through4 ,dug-out canoes4 ,canoes1 hewn and dug from the solid tree trunk1 are general and valuable2 and there are few portions of the earth where forest trees grow to the requisite size that dug-out boats of some kind are not in use4 ,the natives of ,british ,columbia construct very large and powerful boats from the trunks of the huge cedar trees found in that country4 ,to the fortunate possessor of the axe1 the adze1 the gouge1 and the mallet1 the formation of a dug-out canoe is a matter of comparative ease2 but to the ,indian1 unprovided with efficient tools1 it is a task of no ordinary magnitude1 still he undertakes it boldly1 falling back on shifts and expedients to aid him in his toil4 ,with such rude implements as he may chance to be possessed of1 he fashions the exterior1 flattens the surface of the log1 and hews out the bow and stern2 then fire1 kept within due bounds by the assistance of clay1 is brought to bear on the mass of timber1 and as the wood ashes form1 and the wood becomes charred1 a sharpened stone or thick sea-shell is used to remove the mass and expose a fresh surface4 ,by dint of labour1 patience1 care1 and perseverance1 the shell of the boat is at length formed1 but lacking the curves and contour needed to render it stable and seaworthy4 ,indian ingenuity again steps in to meet the difficulty4 ,the boat is filled to the brim with water1 a huge fire is lighted1 and a number of stones heated to redness4 ,these are one by one dropped into the unfinished canoe1 until the water is raised almost to the boiling point2 then when the wood is under the full and softening influences of the heated water and steam1 transverse bars of wood are driven in one after the other1 until the requisite breadth of beam and bilge are gained4 ,the water is then removed1 and the canoe allowed to dry with the bars in it1 when the shape thus given remains as long as the boat lasts4 ,the removal of the bars and a little polishing up renders the canoe fit for sea4 ,it is not uncommon for craft of this description1 manned by crews amounting sometimes to as many as thirty1 to brave the turbulent and formidable seas of the ,pacific ,ocean1 in pursuit of the sea-otter1 fish1 c4 ,we have seen many canoes of this description on the large rivers of ,central ,india1 ,australia1 and on the ,zambesi4 ,the aborigines of ,australia are also in the habit of using bark canoes of the most primitive form of construction4 ,a sheet of bark of suitable size is stripped from the nearest tree1 the ends are guarded by little walls of clay1 and with a rude stick for a paddle1 and a lump of moistened clay for a fire-place1 ,corry1 armed with his unerring spear1 starts on a fish-hunting expedition on the pond or river4 ,models of platform boat4 ,during the years #ahfc and #ahfd1 while enjoying the hospitality of our late friend ,charles ,john ,andersson1 the chief1 as he may be called1 of the persevering explorers of ,south-,west ,africa1 we devoted considerable attention to the construction of models of boats for the purposes of discovery and river navigation1 and of substitutes for them4 ,the first essential in the case before us was that of portability of the boat or of the materials to make it2 the second1 facility of construction when it reached the water1 equal facility of separation into its original parts at any interruption of the river course1 and also of reconstruction after it had been carried to a point where navigation could be resumed4 ,another1 and not less important condition1 was1 that the materials should be such as were obtainable either in ,damaraland1 or1 at farthest1 from some of the vessels that occasionally called at its bays or harbours from ,cape ,town4 ,the conversion of the usual waggon gear into a float will be presently treated on2 and we will now describe the model we constructed for our boat1 suggesting to explorers that when they find themselves under the necessity of building1 they will save much time1 trouble1 and anxiety as to the result of their labour1 by proceeding nearly in the same way4 ,illustration3 ,,double ,,boat ,,of ,,iron ,,or ,,copper ,,convertible ,,into ,a ,,single ,,boat ,,when ,,needed4 ,in the first place1 we had decided on the use of sheet metal1 plain or galvanised iron in sheets of #f;ft4 by #b;ft41 or copper of #d;ft4 by #b;ft41 with screwed bolts and nuts in either case of exactly the same metal as the sheets1 so that any galvanic action should be impossible4 ,next1 the framework must be of wood2 and as to form1 it was absolutely necessary that the boat should have beam and buoyancy enough to launch1 without fear of submersion through any rapid that had water enough to bear her clear of rocks1 and was not steep enough to be considered as a waterfall4 ,we purposed to put the materials together on the spot2 and1 therefore1 their weight only1 and not the dimensions of the boat1 were taken into consideration with regard to waggon carriage4 ,for the mere purpose of passing from the head of the river navigation to the sea1 and thus proving that such navigation was possible1 nothing more than a single boat would be required4 ,but for observing1 mapping1 sketching1 or otherwise improving to some useful result the various opportunities of the journey1 sufficient room must be provided for the voyager to work comfortably on deck instead of sitting cramped up in the stern-sheets1 and we1 therefore1 decided on making ours capable of being used as a double boat when the breadth of the river permitted it4 ,the advantage of being able to use each part when separate1 as an independent boat1 so that the sharers in the voyage might trace separate branches of the river1 had to be balanced against the disadvantage of having to take each of these singly through rapids1 which their dimensions might not insure their passing in safety1 and also against the fact that if the double is formed of two perfect boats1 they cannot attain great speed either in sailing or rowing1 from the fact that the volume of water admitted between the stems1 which may be1 for example1 #h;ft4 apart1 must be compressed as it passes the midship section1 to #d;ft4 or #e;ft41 according to the breadth of beam of the boats1 and will again have to expand as it passes the gradually increasing space between their run1 or after section4 ,and the loss of power thus expended in heaping up water1 although imperceptible at a low speed1 would become enormous if a higher rate were attempted4 ,therefore we made our model so that when not required as a double1 she should become one single yawl or whale boat of #cj;ft4 in length1 and #f;ft4 beam1 with #b-a_/b;ft4 internal depth in midships1 rising to nearly #d;ft4 at either end to enable her to shoot a tolerably strong rapid without shipping water2 the two sections were therefore each made like half a whale boat1 the outer sides having their proper curve and the inner being perfectly flat1 so that when used doubly the water might pass without resistance between them1 and when singly they might be clamped together as one boat by screwed bolts through the keel1 stem1 stern posts1 and the inner gunwales4 ,our first care was to seek out a block of soft1 fair grained wood1 #cj;in4 long and #c;in4 wide1 and to shape this truly to the form required for one half section of our boat4 ,we next provided a sufficiency of planking1 ribbands1 c41 also on a scale of #a;in4 to the foot1 and then cut out from the thinnest tin case linings1 forty pieces of #f;in4 by #b;in41 to represent our sheets of iron4 ,the dimensions of our boat had been previously so arranged that in the midship section the depth of nearly #b ft4 on the flat side should leave rather more than #d;ft4 of the iron available to form the curve on the outer1 necessary to give a half beam of #c;ft4 ,in building our model we adopted slightly different plans with each of the two sections4 ,in that intended for the starboard side we laid along the flat or inner side of our block or wooden mould a batten1 #a_/d;in4 square 7representing one of #c;in47 and #bd;in4 long 7each inch being understood to represent #a;ft472 to this we fitted the stem and stern post1 each #f;in4 in length1 both exactly alike1 curving and raking forward and aft like those of a whale boat1 so as to have an actual height1 before the keel was added1 of #c-c_/d;in4 ,we then laid along the top of the flat side the inner gunwale #a;in4 deep1 but as this would be an impediment to the rowers when the sections were clamped together to form a single boat1 we cut out a piece 7marked ,a1 p4 #ajf7 #c_/d;in4 deep and #ah;in4 long1 so as to be removable at pleasure1 the remaining quarter then forming the stringer on which the thwarts would afterwards be laid1 the bottom of the three-quarter piece 7,a7 having checks cut in it to allow it to fit over them4 ,we then took the piece of tin representing the midship sheet1 and drawing a line across it1 #a-a_/b;in4 from its edge1 bent it over the keelson1 bolting the short end to the thwart stringer1 and bringing the longer one of #d-a_/b;in4 round the curve to the outer gunwale2 nine sheets were required aft and nine forward of this1 and the only difference in laying them was that1 as we proceeded forward1 the edge of each sheet overlapped by nearly #a_/d;in4 the one behind it1 while in working aft1 the edge of each had to be inserted beneath that which lay before it4 ,when the curves of the stem and stern were reached1 the sheets had to be cut to the required form instead of being bent1 and were bolted in their proper places4 ,the outer gunwale1 #a_/h;in4 thick and #c_/d;in4 deep1 was now laid on and bolted to the metal sheets2 another batten1 #a_/b;in4 wide1 was laid from stem to stern along the bilge1 and the keel1 #a_/d;in4 thick and deep1 was fitted in its proper place and bolted through the metal to the keelson4 ,our half boat was now sufficiently firm to be taken off the mould4 ,a short stringer of #ah;in4 was laid internally upon the floor1 and another the whole length along the inside on which to lay the outer end of the thwarts2 and timbers1 #a_/d;in4 thick1 were bolted in with their heads projecting #a;in4 above the gunwale1 so as to receive cross-beams of #a_/b;in4 in thickness and #ae;in4 long1 by which the sections were kept apart when used as a double boat4 ,we considered it better to secure the beams by cross-lashings than by bolts1 which1 if the boats worked much in troubled water1 would probably rend the parts they served to connect4 ,along the gunwales1 at short intervals1 we intended to use lighter cross-beams1 probably of bamboo1 that is if it were procurable2 but having carried out our model sufficiently to establish the general efficiency of our principle1 we did not think it needful to spend time in completing every little detail1 and this called forth the free but friendly criticism of ,mr4 ,charles ,bell1 the ,surveyor-,general of the ,cape colony1 whose valuable and practical advice we take the liberty of giving 7see p4 #aae74 ,the only difference of plan adopted in building the other or port section was that we built the whole of the inner or flat side of plank #a_/h;in4 thick1 by which we were enabled to cut #a-a_/b;in4 off each sheet1 and this method in building a full-sized boat would have enabled us to use copper sheets of #b;ft4 by #d;ft4 instead of iron of #b;ft4 by #f;ft4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,sections ,,clamped ,,together ,,as ,a ,,single ,,boat1 ,,or ,,used ,,with ,,connecting ,,beams ,,as ,a ,,double4 ,full-sized platform boat4 ,in building a full-sized boat on this model1 our plan would be to make the flat side all of #c_/d;in4 plank1 with the stem1 stern post1 and keelson all fast in their proper positions1 and the keel left slightly apart1 so as to allow the sheets of metal1 whether iron or copper1 to be inserted between it and the keelson4 ,then1 laying the whole flat on its side1 we would cross cut with a fine tenon saw our wooden model into eight pieces of equal length1 and carefully enlarging the section of each length would make as many temporary frames1 and set them upon the flat side1 cutting checks in them to let in the stringers1 which when bent down to the flat at either end would very effectually give the form of the boat4 ,we would then fit the ribs1 keeping them as light as possible with due regard to strength1 cutting them1 if requisite1 out of wood selected with the proper natural curve2 or1 preferably1 using flexible wood1 such as ash1 in pieces #b;in4 broad1 and #a_/b;in4 in thickness1 and placing them not quite #b;ft4 apart1 so that the overlapping edges of the sheets might coincide with the ribs1 and the bolts might pass through them and also through the inner stringers1 and the outer ribbands and gunwales at all their points of intersection4 ,the ends of seven of these ribs1 at nearly equal distances 7as at sheets #b1 #e1 #h1 #aj1 #ac and #af1 on p4 #ajf71 we would leave standing six or eight inches above the gunwale1 and about four inches from each we would set up another of equal height1 so that the cross-beams might lie between them when required1 and be secured by lashings passing down to the first stringer 7p4 #aaj71 or so that when the two parts were connected as a single boat they might serve as rowlocks4 ,short struts from the foremost pair of these would give great additional stability to the masts4 ,in laying the deck1 we should by all means endeavour to avoid injuring the planks by boring needless holes in them1 as they might on an emergency be required for building a smaller boat4 ,we should1 therefore1 lash them with raw hide to the foremost and aftermost crossbeams1 and then laying lighter beams across near two or more of the intermediate ones1 fasten them down where requisite by strips of the same material 7p4 #aaj74 ,for connecting the two sections1 so as to form a single boat1 we should use screwed bolts #a_/b;in4 thick1 and #g;in4 long1 passing at intervals of about #af;in4 through both keels1 stems1 stern posts1 and inner gunwales1 thus firmly clamping both the flat sides together4 ,the two removable portions of the inner gunwale 7marked ,a7 previously mentioned would1 in this case1 be unshipped to allow the oars free play1 as in illustration on opposite page1 and on page #ajf4 ,copper is the only metal we should wish to use or recommend to others1 and all fastenings used with it must be of the same metal4 ,we recommend in this case1 screwed bolts and nuts1 presuming that the boat would be built for a journey1 the exigencies of which might oblige the traveller frequently to take her to pieces and rebuild her2 but as our own means were at that time inconveniently limited1 we made a calculation of the comparative cost of plain and galvanised iron and of wood4 ,the mode of setting the sails1 spreading the awning1 c41 will be sufficiently clear from the engraving 7p4 #ajf74 ,our little model1 when tried upon the flooded flats at ,walvisch ,bay1 sailed like the wind1 but had a tendency to bury the lee-bow1 which was easily remedied by ballasting the weather quarter2 an oar was the readiest and most convenient means of steering4 ,estimate of material if the boat be built of copper1 the flats or inner sides being of plank3-- s4 d4 #dj sheets copper1 #b;ft4 by #d;ft41 #alb4 to the foot1 at #as4 #f;d4 per lb41 or #abs4 each #bd #j #j #bjj square-headed bolts1 #a_/d;in4 thick 7with nuts71 #a_/b;in4 grip for the skin and ribs1 #ahj ditto ditto #a_/b;in4 thick1 #a-a_/d;in4 grip for skin1 ribs1 and stringers1 #ahj ditto ditto #c;in4 grip1 for ribs1 stringers1 and timber heads1 #bg #j #j #ij ditto ditto #f;in4 grip1 for keel and keelson and for clamping the two sections together when used as a single boat1 ,equal to #fej bolts1 averaging perhaps #aj;d4 each #dlb4 copper rivets1 assorted sizes1 for repairs #j #ab #j #flb4 copper nails1 from #a;in4 to #c;in4 #j #ah #j #alb4 rooves1 for clinching nails #j #c #j #b red deals1 straight and clean1 #ba;ft4 long1 #i;in4 by #c;in41 cut into six pieces of #c;in4 square1 of which five will suffice to make the two keels and keelsons2 the remaining piece would cut four stringers #c_/d;in4 thick4 7,if these deals could be procured #bd;ft4 long1 four pieces would do this1 and there would be no necessity for scarfing47 #c deals of #ba;ft4 each1 cut into four #c_/d;in4 planks2 and #a deal1 cut into one #a-a_/b;in4 and two #c_/d;in4 #d #j #j planks1 would give fourteen #c_/d;in4 planks1 of which nine would suffice for the two flat sides1 two for the gunwales1 #d-a_/b;in4 wide1 and three with the spare piece mentioned above for the stringers and ribbands1 while the #a-a_/b;in4 plank1 by careful adaptation of the requisite curves1 would cut for the four stems and stern posts1 ,or equal to #f deals1 say #b galls4 boiled linseed oil1 in tin cans of #a gall4 each #j #ab #j #d galls4 raw linseed oil1 in tin cans of #a gall4 each #j #af #j #bhlb4 white lead1 in iron kegs of #glb4 each #j #ad #j #adlb4 red ditto ditto ditto #j #g #j 7,the cans and kegs will be useful as cooking or water vessels when emptied47 #cjlb4 resin #j #aj #j #f paint-brushes and tools assorted #j #f #j ,tinsmith's small shears or snips #j #d #f ,engineer's hammer #j #d #f #f punches1 from #a_/h;in4 to #a_/b;in4 #j #i #j #b screw-drivers1 large and small #j #c #f #b screw-wrenches #j #i #j #a-a_/b;in4 auger #j #a #f #a brace1 and set of bits1 including rymers1 countersinks1 and bits for metal #a #d #f #clb4 brass screws1 assorted1 up to #c;in4 #j #i #j #c pieces unbleached calico1 double width1 for lug sails1 awning1 c4 #ab copper or composition cringles1 small sizes1 for sails and various purposes ,manilla rope1 #aj fathoms1 #c;in41 for mooring ,ditto #ej fathoms1 #a-a_/b;in4 #b #j #j ,ditto #ej fathoms1 #a;in41 for running gear1 c4 ,if the boat be built of iron the same size-- ,forty sheets of plain iron1 #b;ft4 by #f;ft41 at #ds4 #f;d4 #i #j #j ,all the bolts1 screws1 nails1 and other fastenings1 must be of plain iron1 and none of them must be galvanised4 ,galvanised iron would not be much cheaper than copper1 and would be very intractable in working4 ,we should not recommend it to a traveller who intends to build his own boats in the wilderness and expects to have to take them to pieces and rebuild them two or three times4 ,tinned charcoal iron would be nearly as expensive as copper1 and the fastenings would also have to be tinned4 ,plain iron is the only metal on which any saving could be effected1 even at the cost of additional labour4 ,in this case1 perhaps1 three times the amount of paint should be taken4 ,a mixture of red and white lead1 with half boiled and half raw linseed oil1 should be used rather thickly for painting the inside of every joint1 and all the bolts1 screws1 or nails1 should be thrown into boiled oil1 then taken out and allowed to drain and dry before they are used4 ,the boat must be thoroughly well painted after completion1 and the paint allowed to harden before she is put into the water4 ,if the boat is built of wood the same size-- ,two deals and a half1 as before1 for keels1 keelsons1 stems1 and stern posts4 ,four deals1 each to be cut into four #c_/d;in4 planks1 for flat sides1 gunwales1 and stringers4 ,five deals1 each to be cut into six #a_/b;in4 planks1 or equal to #bcj running feet of plank1 to stand1 when cleaned1 not less than #e_/h1 and #fcj feet not less than #c_/h4 #ejjj copper boat nails1 #a-a_/d;in41 with rooves4 #bhlb4 iron nails1 assorted1 from #a-a_/b;in4 to #c;in4 #bjjj iron screws1 from smallest size to #c;in4 #ij #a_/b;in4 screw-bolts and nuts1 #f;in4 grip4 #bjj #a_/d;in4 screw-bolts and nuts1 #c;in4 grip4 #f rods of #a_/d;in4 iron1 to cut into lengths for bolts1 as required4 ,paint1 oils1 c41 as before4 ,if the traveller can afford to carry two or four good #ab;ft4 ash oars and one of #ad;ft41 by all means let him do so4 ,nothing is equal to them for pulling or steering1 but let him carefully preserve his treasures1 and not put them to any use that will twist or warp4 ,if he engages natives as a permanent crew1 they may be taught to pull very well2 but if he hires temporary helps1 let them bring their own paddles1 and they will make the boat go well enough4 ,for the connecting beams1 the masts1 yards1 c41 we should prefer bamboo1 as being exceedingly strong in proportion to its weight4 ,in the ,indian islands we have seen oars made of bamboo poles1 with a disk of wood about as large as a dinner plate lashed on the outer end1 and the men pulled very well with them4 ,if bamboo cannot be obtained1 poles may generally be cut in the vicinity of a river2 but the traveller in ,africa or ,australia must not expect to find any wood that will possess all the valuable qualities of good red deal1 therefore we would say take as much of this as you can carry1 without inconveniently incumbering your vehicles4 ,the battens we were able to take to the ,zambesi astonished the natives there1 they had never seen wood so light1 so strong1 and so even of grain throughout its length2 while the fresh smell it gave out when cut was their constant theme of wonder4 ,illustration3 #a-h ,in #ahfd ,mr4 ,charles ,bell1 the ,surveyor-,general at ,cape ,town1 who has built and used double boats since #ahej1 favoured us with the subjoined description of his method of construction3-- ,my boats are only #ab;ft4 long by #i;in4 wide1 and #i;in4 deep1 and #ab;ft4 by #ad;in4 ,i have never made them more than #ae;ft4 long1 with a bearing power of about #hjjlb4 ,i have now built or directed the building of about five good boats on the principle1 easy and swift under oars or before the wind under sail1 and not very faulty even on a wind without any false keel1 but you can never sail quite close without one4 ,mine were built to go through heavy surf all fore and aft1 so that the wave could strike nothing except sharp edges1 and in surf they are first-rate4 ,iron is objectionable both on account of weight for carriage1 and liability to oxidisation in heat and moisture2 nothing like canvas4 ,a bolt of ,no4 #c1 #blb4 of tin tacks1 and a few needles and hanks of twine1 would be all ,i would bother myself to carry a mile4 ,my first boat had not an ounce of metal in her barring rowlocks and rowlock sockets1 and she cost me #ags4 #f;d4 and some old plank1 and carried me safely through wall-sided breakers that would have troubled a whale-boat's crew4 ,say you want a pair of #cj;ft4 boats of #c;ft4 beam and depth1 tolerably safe even against snags and rocks4 ,for each take a #cj;ft4 batten1 #c;in4 by #b-a_/b;in4 for keel2 strut and erect on it knees' planks and stem pieces as in ,figs4 #e and #f1 and section in ,fig4 #b 7p4 #aaf74 ,trust greatly to lashing the frame2 let the knees diminish in beam from the centre to each end as in ,fig4 #a 7p4 #aaf73 draw in your side pieces and planks1 or rather press them down to your vertical side laid on a flat surface1 and you will have lines that will astonish you4 ,of course you can raise stem and stern for the look of the thing1 as ,i have done1 but it gives more trouble than it is worth4 ,if you want to make a safe lifeboat1 tack tight over each knee-frame a piece of canvas 7,fig4 #c1 p4 #aaf71 leaving an edge loose and broad enough to be sewn on to the outer canvas1 loosely 7so as not to interfere with the lines it will naturally take71 and be tacked to boards and battens where they come in contact with it4 ,i should have first said cover bottom and sides with tightly-stretched canvas1 in which operation a cobbler's pinchers are most useful1 but any others will do1 then grease outside and in4 ,if you prefer tar and have it1 well and good2 then cover the deck in the same manner1 stitching knee-piece canvases as you go4 ,you will thus1 if the workmanship be perfect1 have in each half boat ten watertight compartments1 which it will be no easy matter to damage2 snags will be your worst enemies1 and they cannot damage more than one at a time under ordinary circumstances1 whereupon the first landing and a crooked needle with patch of canvas1 twine1 and grease1 will make all right4 ,in the deck of each such compartment you should pierce a marlinspike hole1 button-hole the edges1 and fit a plug1 and as a large boat cannot be so easily turned upside down as ours1 you may have a pipe1 and any simple means of sucking out such bilge water as may get in4 ,next as to connection of the boats4 ,if you wish it sliding1 so as to increase or diminish the width between them when necessary1 make it on the lattice girder or rafter principle1 and avoid weight1 as in ,fig4 #g2 each not more than #f;ft4 from the centre4 ,stay and strut them to points near the stem and stern1 and they will be quite strong and firm enough to support the mast and the awnings1 with the other fittings4 ,the knee-pieces may be left projecting when required to meet the sliding rafter2 #a;ft4 between the boats will be quite enough1 so #aj;ft4 of rafter will be quite enough4 ,the sail may be a long low lug1 split if you like1 to let it pass the mast when on a wind 7,fig4 #d74 ,an oar will steer1 and easily control the extra face of sail on one side when before the wind with the yard squared4 ,but on a wind you must have a keel1 one that will slide over sunken rocks1 and not be damaged even when it takes them side on4 ,it may fix with free play in the front beam1 and lay loose in cleats on the after one with a projecting arm to be held upright by rope1 as in ,fig4 #h4 ,of course there must be an opening between the deck planks1 to allow of its rise4 ,such a boat will carry at least a ton and a half of cargo1 if made sufficiently flat in the bottom1 and it will require a very stiff breeze and large sail even then to submerge the lee boat4 ,there is this advantage1 too1 that it cannot be done so quickly as to prevent the remedy by luffing up or otherwise with ordinary vigilance4 ,your goods and tarpaulins will be quite safe #f;in4 above the gunwale4 ,yours very truly1 ,charles ,bell4 ,just before returning from ,south ,africa we found that the clever author of ,a ,painter's ,camp in the ,highlands had also gone through nearly the same course of experiments1 and had arrived1 like us1 at the conclusion that the double form of boat was the most safe1 convenient1 portable1 and roomy on deck2 and also that it was objectionable to have the inner sides rounded1 for the reasons before given4 ,he therefore finally adopted the flat inner side1 and making his boats #cj;ft4 in length and #d;ft4 apart at the stem1 increased the width to #d;ft4 #a;in4 aft1 so as to let the inclosed body of water glide away more easily4 ,he found1 however1 that after working out his own idea for his own use1 he was served with a notice for infringing a patent of which he had not previously heard2 and in like manner1 after our return from ,africa1 a description of a patent tubular life raft was submitted to ,captain ,george1 at the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 and he immediately saw that this was nearly identical with our own plan4 ,making inflatable boats safe4 ,about #ahec1 a friend in ,graham's ,town1 with whom we left our model of the inflatable boat1 subsequently used in ,australia 7see p4 #dh71 made one for his own amusement1 on a small river4 ,he had but two tubes1 each of them with a flat side toward the centre1 with a small platform between raised on crossed struts1 one pair of which on each side were very ingeniously made to carry the rowlocks1 as in the next sketch 7,fig4 #i74 ,and1 as he was doubtful of keeping the canvas of his boats sufficiently air-tight1 he either filled them1 or proposed to do so1 with the bladders of oxen previously inflated1 so that1 even were air to escape from the tubes which formed the boats1 they could not collapse4 ,this1 in itself1 would be a hint which a traveller1 who must either shoot game or kill domestic animals for his followers1 would do well to bear in mind4 ,skiff of iron or copper4 ,iron1 whether plain or galvanised1 is sold in sheets of #b;ft4 by #f;ft41 while those of copper are #b;ft4 by #d;ft4 ,we recommend only the copper2 but economic or other reasons may very possibly compel the traveller to use iron4 ,we have1 for facility of construction1 chosen the form of a ,norwegian praam1 or wherry1 with both ends alike4 ,a semicircular section slightly flattened at the bottom1 without a keel1 and rising with an easy sheer to a sharp point at either end4 ,eleven sheets of iron would be required2 the central one being left of its original shape and size1 while the five at either end are cut to the forms shown by the outer lines1 and to the dimensions indicated by the figures marked along the lower edge3 thus1 in ,no4 #a1 from the centre there is no perceptible curve along the #f-;foot side1 but the ends are sloped off1 with straight although diagonal lines1 so that the side nearest the centre remains #f;ft41 while the farthest is reduced to #e;ft4 #i;in4 ,in the next sheet1 or ,no4 #b1 the side nearest the centre curves very slightly2 the segment taking off only one inch at either end1 the curved side 7supposing we are now working from the centre forward7 overlaps the edge of ,no4 #a two inches1 and it is therefore cut1 not to #e;ft4 #i;in41 but to #e;ft4 #aj;in41 as ,no4 #a would be of that breadth1 a couple of inches back2 the front side is left straight1 but is reduced in breadth to #e;ft4 #e;in41 and the after side of ,no4 #c is so much more curved that the segment cuts off three inches4 ,the figures in the diagram will render the progressive diminution to the end sufficiently plain4 ,it will be seen that the end remains one foot wide2 this is usually filled in with a semicircular piece of plank1 being quite sharp enough for all practical purposes1 and affording room for a rowlock for a steering or sculling oar1 or for a hole through which the boat's painter may be passed4 ,but1 if desired1 another piece of iron1 which may be called sheet ,no4 #f1 may very easily be let in to continue the curve quite up to a point1 as in the dotted end of ,fig4 #b4 ,the half section is given on the side marked iron of ,fig4 #c1 the outer line standing for the two edges of the central sheet1 where the skiff is #d;ft4 wide and #a;ft4 #aj;in4 deep4 ,the next line1 #a-a_/b;in4 smaller all round1 is the section at the overlap of sheets ,nos4 #a and #b2 the third line1 two inches within the last1 is at the edges of ,nos4 #b and #c2 the fourth1 three inches smaller1 is at the contact of ,nos4 #c and #d2 the fifth1 six inches less1 is at ,nos4 #d and #e2 and the sixth1 diminishing by nine inches1 is the end of ,no4 #e1 which is filled in by a semicircle of plank about five inches in diameter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #a-c ,the eleven sheets laid side by side would1 of course1 present a length of #bb;ft41 but the overlap and the segment of the curve cut from those near the ends would reduce the length of the boat to #ai;ft4 ,our diagram is on a scale of a quarter of an inch to a foot1 but this is somewhat small for the needful accuracy2 therefore if anyone intends to build1 we would advise him to copy it on a scale of at least one inch to a foot1 in which case the halves will represent six inches and the quarters three1 and if he has a rule divided to one-twelfths1 his work will be much facilitated4 ,it would be better to make1 as we have done in preparing this description1 a model block on which to test his work2 indeed we would advise this in all cases of intended boat building4 ,if the boat is to have a bow and stern distinct from each other1 the model must be of the whole length1 but may be of only half the breadth4 ,if both ends are to be alike1 it may be half the length and breadth1 or one quarter of the boat4 ,illustration ,in the present instance1 take a piece of deal1 as clean and straight-grained as possible1 #ai;in4 long 7or #ba;in4 if you wish the ends to come to a point71 #d;in4 wide1 and #c;in4 deep4 ,having smoothed this1 draw a line along the centre of the top and bottom1 connecting them by perpendiculars at the two ends2 then on the top set off the line of one-quarter of the gunwale1 or outer line1 taking the breadths from the section in ,fig4 #c 7p4 #aai71 and their distances from the centre1 from the elevation in ,fig4 #b 7p4 #aai71 bearing in mind that the centre means not either of the edges1 but the middle of that marked as the central sheet4 ,it will save trouble to cut out a piece of card to the size of this quarter1 and trace the corresponding ones on the top and bottom of your block2 then copy the elevation given in ,fig4 #b1 and trace this1 as before1 on both sides4 ,now fix the block1 with one end up in a bench vice1 and with a narrow frame saw cut along the gunwale lines nearly to the centre1 but do not cut them quite off1 or you will lose your elevation lines 7if a friend helps you by guiding the other end of the saw to the line on his side1 you will be more certain to cut truly72 then turn the block one-quarter round1 and cut the line at top and bottom4 ,now place the other end uppermost1 and repeat the process2 and lastly1 finish the cuts1 and detach the superfluous pieces4 ,take a piece of card or thin stuff1 and draw on it the midship section1 and cut this away1 leaving a corresponding hollow2 round off the edges of your model until she fits this hollow1 and of this size #b;in4 of the centre must be left4 ,do the same with the diminishing sections1 forward and aft2 then cut eleven sheets of card #b;in4 by #f;in41 mark a central line across each1 and also along the bottom of the model2 lay one sheet uncut across the midship section1 and tack it there2 mark each of the others after the outlines given in the diagram 7,fig4 #a1 p4 #aai71 but test them in their places before cutting them4 ,take care also that as you go forward each sheet overlaps that which is behind2 but as you work aft1 insert the front edge under the one before it4 ,you may think this operation would be tedious2 but having once gone through it1 you will build your full-sized boat with confidence4 ,and let us again assure you that time spent in obtaining a preliminary certainty of your plan is saved over and over again when you come to actual work4 ,the sheets having been cut to the proper shape1 set the two points of the gauge #a_/d;in4 apart1 and so that the centre of the space between them shall be exactly #a;in4 from the shoulder1 and gauge these lines all round the sheets1 then1 commencing from the centre of the longest side1 mark off spaces of #c;in41 and with a flat-ended punch1 and a dolly or matrix1 or1 in lack of that1 a hard block of end wood1 drive #a_/d;in4 holes on all the sides except those which are cut with a curve4 ,then lay the centre sheet on the rib or mould1 which1 like the rough frame on which bricklayers construct an arch1 gives it its proper curve1 and1 under one edge1 lay the curved edge of the next sheet4 ,mark where the holes should come2 remove it and punch them1 and fasten the two sheets together temporarily with three or more of the screw bolts4 ,do the same with the successive sheets towards each end1 and you will find that the copper shell1 even without ribs or strengthening of any kind1 will assume its proper form and will be tolerably stiff4 ,if the sheets are truly cut1 the result may be attained1 even without a mould1 by driving one hole in the centre of the curved side1 bolting it to the straight edge of the other sheet1 and then bending both round till the curved edge coincides with the straight one4 ,in this condition you may decide on increasing the width of your boat by forcing the sides farther apart2 this will increase her sheer or elevation at either end1 and will diminish her depth1 or you may incline to reduce her beam1 which will give her greater depth and will reduce the sheer till the elevation of the gunwale presents nearly a straight line4 ,it would be better1 however1 if circumstances permitted1 to adhere very nearly to the form given in the drawing1 and set up such a frame for working on as is shown in the illustration on the next page4 ,illustration ,drive as many rough stakes into the ground as the number of sheets in your intended boat requires4 ,let these near the centre be three and a half or four feet high1 and these at the ends slightly lower4 ,stretch a chalk line fore and aft1 and see that all their centres are in true alignment and #a;ft4 #aj;in4 apart4 ,the line should be fastened to two posts in the same line as1 but beyond these required for1 the boat4 ,let it come low enough just to touch the central posts1 then measure downwards from the line the amount necessary to be cut off those towards the ends1 so as to give the proper sheer4 ,next1 commencing from the centre1 face off with a saw1 or otherwise1 as much of each post as is needful to let each frame lie truly against it1 noticing that as the bottom of each is farther from the next than the top or part near the gunwale1 it is more convenient to face that side of the post which looks towards the centre2 then1 with any rough slabs or planks1 form two moulds the exact size and form of your midship section1 just as bricklayers would do if they were building an arch4 ,nail these to their proper supports1 and on them bend the strips1 #b;in4 broad by #a_/d;in4 thick1 you intend for ribs1 letting only one edge rest on the mould1 while the other projects so far that you may have clear space to bore through the centre the holes for your screw-bolts4 ,do the same with all the others towards the two ends1 confining them with a temporary ribband where the gunwale is afterwards to be2 or1 still better1 leaving their ends #f;in4 too long1 so that this ribband may not interfere with the completion of the boat4 ,have a chalk line stretched near the ground1 along either side1 parallel with the centre one above1 so that any deviation from the proper form can be measured and corrected4 ,then lay on the sheets1 insert the bolts1 and screw them up1 adding a keel or centre batten1 bilge streaks1 and gunwales1 externally1 and bottom boards to prevent the occupant treading on the copper1 and stringers for the thwarts inside4 ,the projecting ends of the ribs can be left where required for rowlocks1 or cut off where they are not4 ,the same process1 with attention to the different dimensions1 will make you a copper boat1 consisting of nine sheets1 #b;ft4 by #d;ft42 and this will be #af;ft4 long1 #c;ft4 #c;in4 wide1 and #aj;in4 deep2 but if the gunwales were made of plank1 #d-a_/b;in4 wide1 or half the width of a deal1 the skiff would be quite deep enough to carry three or four persons in moderately smooth water4 ,if you wish to build the same boat of wood1 #c_/h;in4 planks 7not more than #d;in4 wide7 will be stout enough4 ,the lines radiating from the centre in the sectional drawing are given for the purpose of showing the progressive diminution of the planks in width1 from the central section towards each end4 ,these should be tested by cutting strips of card and tacking them1 like planks1 on the block that serves as your model4 ,this would be a very handy form for a dingy for the traveller's personal use1 as it might be taken to pieces1 and the sheets laid flat1 occupying a space of #b;ft4 by #d;in4 in extent1 and less than #a;in4 in depth1 or they might be rolled up in three bundles1 of which each must weigh less than #bdlb41 as the weight of the whole nine sheets of copper before being cut would be only #gblb4 ,the screw-bolts would weigh probably more than the sheeting1 but they could be divided into packets of any convenient weight for carriage by native porters or otherwise2 and we should think that half a day would be quite sufficient to put the whole together when wanted1 or take it apart when done with4 ,the boat would pull or paddle1 and would sail well enough off the wind1 but would not compete with a keeled boat close hauled2 if the iron sheets were used1 she would1 of course1 be larger and heavier1 and the material would be less portable4 ,in the boat built for ,mr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,young1 for use on the ,shire river and ,lake ,nyassa1 thin sheets of steel were at first proposed1 but as these could not be readily obtained1 the best iron was used1 and the edges of these being turned upward and inward1 formed the ribs of the boat1 each sheet being connected by bolts passing through this inward edge to the next sheets before and behind it4 ,this form of construction combines all the elements of lightness1 simplicity1 and strength2 but we do not recommend it to a traveller who has to work up his own material1 because none but a skilled workman could turn inward a broad segment of a sheet of metal1 the outer surface of which has to present a curve4 ,if anyone doubts this1 let him try it by folding half an inch of the edge of a sheet of paper to a right angle with the other part1 he will then find it impossible for him to impart a curvature to the sheet without tearing the upturned edge if he bends it outward1 or wrinkling it if he gives the contrary curve4 ,if he wished to adopt this form of joining the parts1 his plan would be to cut up his sheets of copper into planks #d;ft4 long1 and #h;in4 broad1 then gauging a line all round #b;in4 within the edge1 cut out the squares at the four corners and turn up the borders all round1 he would thus have out of one sheet of copper #d;ft4 by #b;in41 three planks #d;in4 wide1 and #c;ft4 #h;in4 in length1 a waste of material that hardly any circumstance could justify4 ,metal boats4 ,in #aheh we made a model of a metal boat1 about thirty feet long1 by six feet beam1 to carry a crew of sixteen men1 each of whom1 when it was taken to pieces1 should not find his share of the load to exceed #ejlb4 each of the thwarts2 and the bow and stern sheets were continued downward so as to form a water-tight box1 the lower outline of which coincided with the section of the boat1 so as to supply the place of ribs and convert her into a lifeboat4 ,indeed1 we would advise that in all metal boats some such portions should assume the form of lockers or of reservoirs of air1 so that1 should the boat be swamped or become leaky1 she might not sink even when filled with water4 ,our model was approved by ,captain ,washington1 ,r4,n41 the ,secretary at that time of the ,lifeboat ,institution1 and the builder to whom we submitted it estimated the weight of the sheet copper and bolts of the same to be employed in the hull at #bfjlb4 and the cost at #fjl41 while the internal fittings1 somewhat less in weight1 would cost #djl4 ,this expense ,dr4 ,livingstone considered to be too great2 but1 when we reached the ,zambesi1 it was a matter of frequent regret that we had not some form of boat portable enough to be carried over rough country to rivers we wished to explore4 ,illustration3 ,,boat ,,building ,,on ,,the ,,logier ,,river4 ,one of the most beautiful little vessels we ever saw was built by the wrecked crew of a ,french steamer4 ,she was #dj;ft4 long and #h;ft4 or #aj;ft4 beam1 clinker-built1 with thin and narrow planks1 without a joint in their whole length1 sawed out of the mainmast1 and flexible ribs about a foot apart and not more than one inch in breadth or thickness4 ,her deck beams were1 of course1 somewhat more rigid1 to sustain the weight of the men who crowded her4 ,she was said to have sailed eleven knots4 ,wattled boat4 ,our friend1 ,mr4 ,wilson1 an experienced ,african traveller1 recommends a wattled or basket-work boat1 and in a country where rattans1 osiers1 or flexible twigs1 or green reeds1 are obtainable1 such a boat would be both light and durable2 but it would be open to objection on the score of unavoidable roughness1 and inequality of outer surface1 which would impede its progress through the water1 and expose parts of the canvas covering to constant liability to chafe whenever it touched the ground4 ,even if a traveller intends to purchase or hire native canoes1 it is indispensable that he should have some small portable boat of his own1 sufficient at least to show the natives that he is not totally helpless on the water and dependent on them4 ,in the case of our copper boat1 illustrated at page #ec1 we have already remarked that the difficulties of the road1 and the mortality among ,mr4 ,chapman's cattle1 obliged us to leave behind eight of the sections4 ,the method we adopted with the other four is shown in our full-page illustration1 representing boat-building on the ,logier ,river4 ,on account of the danger from the tsetse1 or poisonous cattle fly1 our friend's waggons could not be taken to the banks of the ,zambesi1 and everything had to be carried by the ,damara servants and hired natives to ,logier ,hill1 about eighty miles below the ,victoria ,falls1 which we had selected as the first place from which continuous downward navigation was possible4 ,the building of the house will come more properly under its own heading1 and we will now only treat of what concerns the boat4 ,about the #crd of ,october1 or towards the close of the dry season1 we cut down a motchicheerie tree1 which divided a little above the ground into two tolerably straight logs of manageable dimensions4 ,these were first notched with the axe on the side we intended to fall them2 the cross-cut saw was then put in as far as it would go without nipping from the pressure of the wood1 and a notch being made on the other side1 the saw was used freely1 the weight of the tree on the falling side opening the cut as the work proceeded4 ,fresh reports1 however1 caused us much uncertainty whether the ,falls of ,moambwa1 or the rocks1 were not still below the station1 and some time was therefore spent in exploring the river down to ,sinamane's ,island1 when1 having ascertained that the rapids and other difficulties appeared not quite impracticable1 we set up the bow and stern sections of one boat1 connecting them by the ribbands of red deal we had been able to carry up1 and fitting at short intervals a series of frames on central posts1 as described at p4 #abb1 and further supported by shorter posts on either side1 in a line with the gunwale streak1 testing the accuracy of all parts where correctness was required with plumb line and level1 and leaving the rest rough4 ,our bench consisted of ten stakes1 nearly #c;ft4 high1 driven into the ground1 and two long straight poles laid fore and aft in their forks2 smaller poles were laid across these as closely as possible1 and lashed with the inner bark of the young branches of the kookomboyon--a kind of stercuhia1 which1 while still moist1 answers very well1 but becomes brittle in drying4 ,the large smith's vice was firmly lashed to the stoutest upright with raw hide1 and forked poles were set diagonally to resist the forward strain to which the bench was subject when wood was being planed up4 ,it was just possible to get thin poles that would bend1 but none were sufficiently flexible to take the true curve required for the ribs1 and at the same time strong enough to bear the strain when they became dry4 ,therefore we had to cut crooks out of the motchicheeries1 the wood of which looked something like coarse short-grained cedar2 and first burning away the light stuff from the tree cut down a month ago1 we found a great many available forks and curves4 ,we had great difficulty in selecting wood of a suitable size for plank2 trees too small1 or too crooked1 or of unsuitable wood1 were in abundance2 while those of the wood we wanted were mostly too large and unmanageable4 ,sometimes1 at a distance1 one would appear to be small enough1 but when we came near it would prove three or four feet thick and sixty or eighty feet high1 and had only seemed small by comparison with those around it4 ,one group of motchicheeries had grown to maturity1 throwing a wide-spread shadow around them2 and a young sapling had shot straight up from near their roots towards the air and light2 this was #i;in4 thick at the base1 and #d;in4 at nearly #cj;ft4 up2 it proved impossible to fall the top outward1 and it was very difficult to clear from the other trees4 ,we would have saved labour by floating it down stream to our building-yard1 but the wet season was coming on1 and the sap had by this time risen in the wood1 so that a small piece sunk when thrown into the water4 ,the labour of sinking a saw-pit would have been great1 and besides this the expected rains would have kept it always wet4 ,we therefore erected trestles of primitive construction2 two triangles of forked poles1 #f-a_/b;ft4 long1 supported the ends of a stout cross-beam1 firmly lashed to them with buffalo hide1 and for greater security lashed also to the stem of a tree4 ,the second trestle was destitute of this support1 and therefore had to be shored by longer poles1 the forks of which took the necks of the opposite triangles1 while their hands were stopped by wedges driven into the ground2 for additional firmness1 lashings were passed at the points of intersection4 ,two stout poles were laid fore and aft upon the trestles1 and shorter pieces across served to rest the log upon2 there was some difficulty in lining the lower side1 but by cutting notches in the cross-pieces large enough to let the chalk line pass freely1 and springing it only by short lengths at a time1 this was accomplished4 ,it was difficult to teach a young ,dutch lad1 strong as an ox1 and nearly as stolid1 to saw with us2 but at length the sapling was cut1 and one of the larger logs lifted gradually up by forming an inclined plane with strong poles1 and supporting it whenever we gained a few inches of elevation by forks of various lengths lying ready for that purpose4 ,this having been felled before the sap was up proved much easier to saw1 and we had so far overcome the difficulties in our way1 that we had commenced laying the bottom plank of the first boat1 when the difficulty of providing food1 owing to the retreat of the wild animals to the pools which the rainy season was filling all over the desert1 and the fever among the people1 seven ,damaras1 mostly women and children1 having died in ,chapman's camp1 and one of the most useful men in ours1 obliged us1 for the sake of saving the rest1 to retreat to the highlands of the desert1 and on the #crd of ,february1 #ahfc1 we hauled down our colours at ,logier ,hill1 and commenced our return journey4 ,general hints on boat building4 ,two general rules in boat building should be borne in mind4 ,first1 that clumsiness is not necessarily strength2 and1 secondly1 that it is much easier to build a sharp swift boat with moderate sheer1 and clear lines of entrance and run1 than a short one with great beam1 bluff bows1 and wide overhanging stern4 ,the stem and stern post should rake considerably1 or even form parts of a curved line connected by the keel1 as if they are made too upright1 not only is the boat more difficult to steer when sudden alteration of the course is necessary1 but1 if she is built of wood1 so much curvature is required in the ends of the planks that it is difficult for an inexperienced hand to lay them4 ,a rudder cannot be nicely fitted to a curved stern-post1 but if you decide to steer with one instead of an oar1 make the stern-post straight1 and if you wish to diminish its rake or inclination1 make it one foot wide below and only a few inches at the top4 ,a rudder is much more convenient in ordinary cases2 but1 when great quickness and power is required1 nothing is equal to the steering oar4 ,in constructing a clinker-built boat some practice is required in clinching the nails4 ,first1 a hole is bored with a gimlet of such a size that the nail requires some driving1 but very little1 to force it through4 ,this prevents any lateral curvature1 which would be fatal to any attempt at clinching4 ,a roove is then put over the joint and driven home to the surface of the plank1 and the end of the nail is nipped off nearly close with a pair of cutting pincers4 ,if you have a spring-handled hammer to screw on to the plank so that the face of it just rests on the head of the nail1 so much the better1 if not1 you must hold your heavy hammer with your left hand or get a mate to do so2 while with the edge of your little clinch hammer you tap as sharp and lightly as possible on the centre of the cut end of the nail1 causing its sides to overspread the edges of the roove1 when it can be nicely smoothed off with the face of the hammer4 ,when one plank has been laid1 the outside of its upper edge should be bevelled off so as to let the lower edge of the next lie truly against it in the position required by the curvature of the boat's side2 and1 to retain it in its place1 several pairs of nippers should be used4 ,these are made of two pieces of wood--say sixteen inches long and two inches square--cut a mortice #a_/b;in4 wide by #c;in4 long in each1 and pass through them a piece of hard wood fitting the mortice loosely and #ab;in4 long1 so as to project #d;in4 at either end1 in each end of this bore three #a_/b;in4 holes1 not quite in the central line1 but one a little on one side of it1 and the next on the other1 so as to avoid the risk of splitting two into one2 have pegs of hard wood or iron to put through these at the distance you may require1 then having adjusted one end of the nippers on the planks you wish to hold together1 drive a wedge between the other ends till the grip is tight enough4 ,a pair of these is shown in our illustration at page #ajf4 ,we believe that the traveller will find it generally most advisable to build his boat bottom upwards4 ,cape-waggon boats4 ,we should think that a traveller in ,south ,africa1 using the common ox-waggons of the country1 might easily1 and without additional weight1 carry up with him all the wood necessary for the purposes of boat building4 ,the floor or bed-plank of the waggon is about thirty-six inches in width1 and from twelve to eighteen feet in length4 ,four deals might be laid down for this4 ,if they were twenty-one feet long1 they would project considerably behind4 ,it is not considered expedient to have the fore and hinder wheels too great a distance apart2 but then the projecting ends need not be loaded4 ,the usual holes for the fastenings of a waggon bottom should not be bored in them1 but they should be secured by lashings of raw hide1 and the parts liable to be chafed should also be protected with the same material4 ,they might be previously sawed into planks or battens of the required size1 and then tightly lashed together by thongs of raw hide1 especially near the ends1 which would otherwise be liable to split with changes of weather and rough usage4 ,the waggon sides are usually a little more than two feet high in front and three or more behind1 and the framing of these is an elaborate piece of work4 ,three deals #i;in4 wide would give #bg;in4 in height all along4 ,these might be cut into #c_/d;in4 or #a_/b;in4 plank1 and again bound up with raw hide1 like those of the floor1 and thus the traveller would have in one waggon nine deals1 or more than sufficient1 if he built his boat of copper2 while1 by raising the sides to #cf;in4 with a couple more1 he would have enough to construct her entirely of wood4 ,in building the waggon-tent or tilt1 as it would be called in ,england1 two methods are adopted in the ,cape4 ,the first is the kap-tent 7,e on next page71 which is regularly framed by the waggon builder with stanchions about five feet high from the floor1 neatly fitted to the sides1 at intervals of two feet or thirty inches2 with bows of flexible wood1 forming a flattened arch about nine inches higher1 across them1 and fore and aft battens1 half-checked in1 so that the whole presents a smooth external surface to receive the inner sail1 or cover of painted canvas1 which is laid on before the outer sail1 or snow-white neatly-fitted tilt1 is drawn over all4 ,the second is that which any competent waggon driver can extemporise for himself with a sufficient quantity of bamboo split into laths two or three fingers broad1 stout ,spanish reeds1 common hogshead hoops1 or an adjacent forest1 in which flexible poles can be cut4 ,his first care is to lift and shore up his waggon so as to set free one or both of the hinder wheels1 on the circumference of which the flexible rods he intends for his bows are bent and fastened down1 and in doing this some care is requisite4 ,the rod must not be grasped by both ends and suddenly forced into the curve1 for one part may be weaker than the rest1 and it may break there1 or be forced into an unsightly prominence2 but1 after having been steamed1 if possible1 or1 as is more commonly the case1 laid for two or three days in water or wet earth1 the part intended for the centre of the arch should first be bound tight and flat upon the tire of the wheel1 then the ends should be gradually pressed down by two assistants1 the principal watching the inequalities of the curvature1 and reducing them by passing turns of raw hide tightly over any parts that have a tendency to irregular projections4 ,the bows1 which should be about twelve or fourteen feet in total length1 are now set up4 ,care having been taken that the waggon sides stand truly1 the front and aftermost are first fixed1 and the driver1 if a man of average height1 stands on the centre of the waggon floor1 holding the bow as fairly as he can1 with the crown of its arch about the level of his eye1 say five feet six from the floor1 while his assistants1 standing outside1 fasten the ends with screws or thongs of raw hide1 to the styles or stanchions of the waggon sides4 ,the lifter1 the dissel-boom1 or other straight and heavy pole1 is now laid fore and aft upon the bows to keep them in a level line1 and also somewhat to flatten the crown of the arch and expand it laterally4 ,the laths or battens1 fore and aft1 are now lashed on1 and the result is a less sightly but stronger and more durable roof for the exigencies of travel than the kap-tent4 ,in the rear of the tent 7letter ,n7 are shown the ribs of an ox or buffalo slung to the roof to hang the saddles on4 ,illustration3 ,,cape ,,waggon ,,tent 7,e7 ,,to ,,be ,,taken ,,off ,,and ,,used ,,as ,a ,,boat 7,g74 ,such a tent as either of these might be easily constructed so as to be available for a boat whenever it might be required4 ,first let the stanchions1 screwed or lashed to the waggon sides1 rise to the usual height of about five feet1 and let the bows forming the flattened arch across them be of any flexible material1 but preferably of straight-grained ash1 such as is used for the better kind of tubs or casks4 ,the hoops of ,american flour barrels would answer well2 they are somewhat thin1 but three might be laid together1 and would be much more flexible and strong than if one piece only was used4 ,of these1 supposing nine bows were used1 three in the front and three in the rear might be permanently secured to the stanchions1 as in the illustration 7,e1 p4 #aca71 while the three central ones should be so fastened as to be readily cast off4 ,the laths or battens1 on the contrary1 should be securely fastened to the central bows1 so as to lift off with them1 and only slightly to those at either end4 ,when the boat is required1 it would be but an hour's work to cast off the temporary fastenings4 ,take off the movable part of the top frame1 draw the ends of the battens together1 as shown in the illustration 7,g1 p4 #aca71 inserting at pleasure three or four smaller bows at either end1 and then taking the under sail--which is generally of oiled canvas--fold down the corners so as to narrow it at either end to the shape of the boat1 and stitch or lace it with eyelet-holes to the gunwale4 ,a second thickness of unpainted canvas might always be kept upon the roof between the inner and outer sail2 and if this were also laced on the boat1 previously reversing the ends of the two parts of canvas1 so that if any portions had been chafed while on the waggon they might not coincide with each other1 the boat would be as impervious to water as wooden boats generally are4 ,a few spare laths1 previously lashed beneath the front and aftermost bows of the tent1 so as to remain there when those required for the boat were removed1 and perhaps two or three duplicate bows1 would prevent the necessity of leaving the vehicle destitute of cover while the boat was being used4 ,sculling4 ,very often the explorer may find himself alone in a boat1 or he may wish to cross a river or pass from ship to shore or back again without calling other men from their duties1 and in such cases he who has the power of managing a boat with a single oar1 has a great advantage over one who must ask the aid of another4 ,we have been on boat trips where the scientific officers have cheerfully manned the oars and pulled against the stream all night1 and when we volunteered to take our turn1 the answer was1 ,no2 you can scull1 and none of us can4 ,keep the steering-oar1 and help us onward with it4 ,the first great difficulty of the novice is to get the blade of his oar under water and keep it there1 and to make the loom rest firmly in the rowlock2 the natural tendency of the wood to float will at first seem insuperable1 but as soon as he has acquired the proper motion of the wrist he will wonder that he ever had the slightest trouble in keeping the oar to its duty4 ,to learn to scull1 go into a boat that is either fast to the shore or vessel1 or have a comrade to pull the other oar with you should you fail4 ,then stand on the stern-sheets on the starboard side1 so that the right hand may be toward the bow of the boat2 plant the left foot on the starboard side seat1 and advance the right to the middle of the aftermost thwart2 grasp the small end of the oar with the right hand1 and the loom with the left about eight or ten inches from it1 so that when the blade of the oar is horizontal the back of the hands and arms may be uppermost and also in a horizontal line4 ,you will find that when the blade is supported by the water1 the loom will not lie in the rowlock2 but now depress the wrists a little1 raise the hands till the blade forms an angle of #dj or #de with the horizon1 the edge farthest from you being the highest2 push the oar from you as far as you can without losing your balance1 then1 as your first stroke ceases1 drop the hands and raise the wrists till the blade inclines as much the other way1 the raised edge being then nearest you2 pull the loom towards you1 bending backwards at the same time as far as you safely can1 and you will find the arms in the proper position1 with the elbows at the side1 the wrists lowered1 and the hands ready to rise for the stroke from you4 ,make short strokes at first1 and do not hurry4 ,never mind which way the boat goes1 or whether she goes at all2 stick her nose in a mudbank1 if you like1 till you can keep your oar below the surface1 then give her her head2 if your oar keeps under water she must go forward1 and by making a stronger sweep to starboard or to port1 you may steer her at your will4 ,if you have a long narrow boat1 she will keep a straight course1 but with a short dingy1 she will incline at each stroke a little to the right or left1 and if you use the oar regularly1 her wake will show a series of graceful and equal curves4 ,in default of an oar1 the bottom board may be taken up and used by being laid on the point of the stem1 the boat going then stern first4 ,lightermen1 on the ,ouse1 frequently scull their horse boats in this manner4 ,we have sculled a whale boat with one oar over the quarter1 i4e41 in the crutch of the stroke oar1 much as a gondolier does2 but tholes or rowlocks cut in the streak above the gunwale would not admit of this4 ,we give no directions for this or for the use of the plank4 ,when the novice can keep his oar blade under water1 he can easily learn how to adapt his new power to any emergency4 ,paddling4 ,in paddling a canoe sit near the stern1 looking forward1 and with the paddle on your right side make a long fair stroke2 never mind the deviation of her head to the left2 but just before you lift your paddle from the water1 feather the blade of it by turning the right hand inward from the wrist1 turn the right elbow outward1 and draw the left hand inward across your breast2 this will port your helm and bring her to her course again4 ,if you have a mate who handles another paddle this is less needful2 but it is well to learn to paddle your own canoe practically as well as metaphorically1 single handed4 ,the kroomen about ,sierra ,leone use a canoe pointed at both ends and with a great sheer2 this1 to a novice1 is much more difficult to keep to a true course1 but a single krooman tossing his paddle from hand to hand1 without missing a stroke1 will make her fly direct as an arrow the way he means to go4 ,in the gunning boats on the ,norfolk coasts1 when strict silence is not needed1 and in canoes of some other countries1 a double-bladed paddle is used4 ,the pole is grasped by both hands1 like the balance-pole of a rope-dancer1 and equal strokes are given alternately1 or the course is changed by a more powerful stroke on the other side4 ,we have occasionally found that the power of handling the native paddle has been of great service1 for when we have wished to cross a river to secure some specimen of wading bird1 and the bargaining over the hire would have occupied half a day1 we have cut the matter short by stepping into the canoe1 paddling to the other side1 shooting our bird1 and making the owners a sufficient present on our return2 and1 while we advise that all travellers should most scrupulously regard the rights of the natives1 we must also intimate that they will not gain the respect of savages by submitting tamely to extortion1 or showing themselves in any way afraid to maintain their own4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,proa4 ,proas4 ,the proas1 or outrigger canoes1 of the ,malays and ,indian islanders1 are so proverbially swift that they have fairly earned the title by which they are generally known1 of flying proas4 ,we have seen and admired many varieties of these1 as well as their fan-shaped sails1 sometimes of matting--bright and yellow while new1 and deepening to browner tints with age1 and sometimes of snow-white cotton1 or of white alternated with cloths of blue or pink1 and gay streamers floating from the bending yards4 ,the most common1 and we may almost say the most beautiful of these1 were the little proas sailed by one man only1 as represented in our sketch4 ,the hull consisted of a single log1 perhaps twenty feet in length1 and hardly as many inches in depth and breadth2 the mast was about six feet in height2 and the sail1 of triangular form1 was laced to a couple of bamboos nearly as long as the canoe2 the thick ends of these crossed1 and were lashed together at the tack of the sail1 and were made fast1 loosely enough to give them sufficient play1 a little before the mast thwart2 a loop attached to the upper bamboo1 or yard1 at about six feet from the tack1 was hitched over a knob on the mast-head1 instead of hoisting the sail by halyards1 and the sheet was attached by loops like kite loops1 or bowline bridles1 to the lower bamboo or boom2 in hauling to the wind1 the simple gathering in of the sheet trimmed the sail nearly down to the gunwale1 as seen in the distant proa1 while in going free the slackening of it allowed the sail to rise to the wind1 till in the distance it reminded us of the beautiful fan-shaped sea-shells1 so often found upon the coast4 ,stability was imparted under this enormous press of sail by two bamboos twelve or fifteen feet long1 and from four to six inches thick1 kept parallel to the boat at six or eight feet from her sides by two beams of the same lashed across her gunwales1 bending slightly downward1 but the foremost less so than the after1 so that the fore end of the outrigger might be raised slightly above the water1 and not impede the boat4 ,the rudder was just like that of our own boats1 except in its fittings1 which consisted simply of a rope grummet at its neck1 by which it could be hitched on to a timber head on either quarter1 and we believe it made so little difference that the boatman seldom gave himself the trouble to shift it from one to the other4 ,of course a tiller was used1 as yokes and lines would have been inapplicable4 ,we cannot tell exactly their rate of sailing1 but they passed our swift and handy little schooner the ,tom ,tough with ease1 even when the breeze was at its freshest4 ,the hull is generally whitened with a mixture of chunam1 or coral lime1 and cocoa-nut oil1 and the raised ends are ornamented with devices in red or green1 and sometimes a red streak runs along the side4 ,the tambanga1 or waterman's boat for passengers1 has more beam1 no outrigger1 and a smaller though similarly shaped sail4 ,some of these proas were much larger1 being fifty or more feet in length1 and then the sides of the log forming the bottom of the canoe would be raised either by other planks sewn on or by a framework of bamboo1 with pieces cross cut from the leaves of the fan-palm1 so that the leaf ribs should stand vertically1 stitched to them to form the extra height of side1 while a roof of the same was built over the centre where cargo would be stowed1 or over the after end1 to form a kind of cabin4 ,when planks are used for raising the sides1 they are not sawn like ours1 with economy of time1 labour1 and material1 but are laboriously chopped out of the solid2 and1 instead of being bent1 are patiently dubbed down to the requisite curve with numberless strokes of the keen little ,malay adze1 projections being left on the inner side through which holes are bored to lash them to the timbers1 while rows of holes along the edges admit of their being sewn together with strips of rattan1 and shreds of palm leaf laid along the seam and confined by the tightening of the stitches1 help to reduce the leakage1 which1 if the vessel works at all in a sea-way1 can never be entirely stopped4 ,they have two large sails similar in form to those of the smaller proas1 and sometimes a third1 as a mizen4 ,this is small enough to be hitched over the mast-head1 as before2 but the others have to be hoisted by halyards1 and the long yards supported by propping them at some distance from the slings by bamboo poles4 ,the stays were formed of slips of bamboo1 and sometimes even of the poles1 which1 being well fastened1 would not only resist tension on the weather-side as well as ropes1 but on the lee would1 by their rigidity1 help to support the masts4 ,the outriggers of these were more elaborately framed with a lighter set of beams1 which supported stanchions and hand-rails1 so that1 when the wind freshened1 men might run out upon the weather outrigger and1 holding on by the hand-rail and stays1 which lead from the mast-head1 serve as a counterpoise to the immense sails as the boat dashed through the water4 ,reefing seemed never to be thought of1 and our own men soon got into the habit of speaking of a one-man or two-man breeze1 according to the number seen on the weather outriggers of the proas that flew past us4 ,the appearance of these vessels when going wing and wing before the wind was very pretty4 ,and others1 in the fashion of the ,chinese junk1 or in every modification of ,european1 engrafted on native form1 afforded picturesque contrast1 but need not be here described4 ,the professional pirate has the outrigger only on the weather-side1 and this is frequently a log of light wood trimmed sharp at either end1 so that while its specific gravity is small enough to keep it buoyant1 it is still so heavy as not to be easily lifted out of the water1 like a bamboo1 and when requisite1 men sent on it1 as in the former case1 will give it additional weight4 ,but the chief peculiarity is in the hull of the vessel1 which is only half a boat1 the lee-side being perfectly flat1 while the weather1 or that toward the outrigger1 is rounded as usual2 they will be frequently more than fifty feet in length1 and six or eight in breadth4 ,we speak of the lee-side1 because when the course has to be changed--say in beating to windward--they do not go about like a ship1 that must go with her bows forward and be steered from the stern1 and therefore turns to receive the wind on the other side4 ,this would be fatal to the proa1 as the buoyancy of the outrigger would not prevent her from capsizing2 and therefore1 while the steersman lets that end which is temporarily her bow fall off from the wind1 the men who have charge of the tack run round with it on the platform to windward of the mast1 the sheet is brought round to leeward1 a steersman takes his place at the other end1 and that which has been the stern now becomes the bow1 and cleaves the waves at the rate of twenty miles per hour4 ,but no one need fear a proa with a double outrigger1 for she is not intended to lay alongside and board4 ,illustration3 ,,proa ,,with ,,outrigger ,,on ,,weather-,,side ,,only1 ,,to ,,sail ,,with ,,either ,,end ,,first1 ,,as ,,required4 ,the engraving represents a proa with an outrigger only on the weather-side2 and not only would the sail be made to traverse by shifting the tack to that end which1 for the time being1 was intended to go foremost1 but the mast is also fitted to be inclined forward by slackening that which happens to be the back stay1 and tightening that which is pro tempore the fore4 ,those which serve for shrouds1 being exactly abreast of the mast1 are so arranged for the purpose of facilitating this4 ,the commander of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ,charles ,wilkes1 ,u4,s4,n41 gives the following description of the ,fejee canoes3-- ,fejee canoes4 ,they are superior to those of other islands4 ,they are generally double1 and the largest are #ajj;ft4 in length2 the two canoes are of different sizes1 the smaller serving as an outrigger to the other1 and are connected by beams on which a platform is laid1 #ae;ft4 wide1 and extending #b;ft4 or #c;ft4 beyond the sides4 ,the bottom of each canoe is a single plank2 the sides are fitted to them by dovetailing and by lashings passed through flanges left on each piece2 the joints are closed by the gum of the bread-fruit tree1 which is also used for smearing them4 ,they have a depth of hold of about #g;ft41 and the ends are decked for #bj;ft41 to prevent their shipping seas4 ,amidships,b they have a small thatched weather house1 above which is a staging on which several people can sit4 ,the canoes of the chiefs are much ornamented with shells4 ,the sails are so large as to appear out of proportion with the vessel1 and are of tough and pliable mats2 the mast is half the length of the canoe1 and is stepped on deck in a chock2 the yard and boom are twice as long as the mast2 the halyards are carried over a crescent on the mast-head1 they are bent on to the yard at a distance from its tack or lower end nearly equal to the length of the mast4 ,the natives manage these vessels very expertly2 they require much skill in beating against the wind1 for it is necessary that the outrigger should be always on the weather-side1 as1 if it gets to leeward1 no vessel is so easily capsized2 in tacking1 therefore1 the helm is put up instead of down1 until the wind is brought abaft the beam1 then the tack of the sail is carried to that end which was previously the stern1 but which has now become the bow1 and the canoe is steered from the other end2 they carry sail even when it blows heavily1 by sending men on the outrigger to counterbalance the force of the wind4 ,the canoes are of logs hollowed and built upon2 they make long sea-voyages1 and are provisioned only with yams2 they are ornamented with ,cypra-ovula shells1 and carry white pennants2 they carry water in cocoa-nut shells1 and1 with fire and an 'ava' bowl1 are equipped for sea4 ,the chief holds the end of the sheet1 and it is his duty to prevent the canoe capsizing2 the steer oar has a large blade4 ,in smooth water they sail very swiftly1 but the force of the sail strains them1 and they leak badly1 so that the men are constantly baling4 ,the planks are kept in shape by small ribs as with us4 ,the principal tool used is an adze1 which is now made by lashing a ,european plane iron to a crooked handle2 they are anxious to possess our tools1 and especially the ,american axe4 ,their knives are made of bamboo1 cut into form while it is still green2 after being dried it is charred1 which makes it very hard and sharp2 a second charring1 followed by grinding on a smooth stone1 will even fit it for surgical operations4 ,b ,on the platform4--7,ed47 ,the balsas4 ,the balsas1 at ,guayaquil1 as described by ,sir ,e4 ,belcher1 in his journal of the voyage of the ,sulphur1 are rafts of ten logs #ad;in4 in diameter1 and #fj;ft4 long4 ,the wood is a kind of bombax1 called balsa wood1 they bear fifteen or twenty tons independent of their crew1 and bring fresh water down the river in jars of seven gallons each4 ,houses thirty or forty feet long1 and twelve feet wide1 are built on some of them1 and families take passage or live permanently on board4 ,the balsas1 at ,arica1 in ,peru1 are differently constructed2 they are simply skins1 stripped off the animal1 with as little cutting as possible2 the absolutely necessary incisions are then securely closed1 the hides are inflated and allowed to dry and harden1 and two being laid alongside each other a platform is laid across them1 on which the cargo is kept sufficiently high above the spray or ripple1 and brought dry ashore even through a heavy surf4 ,two ox-hides would make a very serviceable balsa1 as would also a pair of the large seal1 the sea-elephant1 porpoise1 or other marine animal of suitable size4 ,cape waggon chests as rafts4 ,we will now endeavour to show how the chests that are usually carried in ,cape waggons might be converted into a buoyant1 roomy1 and manageable raft4 ,these chests are generally about three feet in length1 and sixteen inches wide and deep2 two of them1 the fore and after chests1 are indispensable1 as the waggon cannot be kept in shape nor the cargo properly secured without them2 sometimes more are carried1 and others of smaller size are affixed to either side1 but the objection to these is that in a densely-wooded country1 stumps and stout branches are apt to catch the angles of the side chests1 and damage or carry them away4 ,illustration3 ,,cape ,,waggon ,,boxes ,,so ,,fitted ,,as ,,to ,,be ,,available ,,for ,a ,,raft4 ,we propose that1 in the waggon used by the traveller for his own conveyance1 as many of these chests should be stowed as will stand fairly on the floor beside each other1 say ten1 as in the illustration 7,a1 p4 #adb74 ,then1 instead of the two usual square-ended side chests1 we would advise that four should be fitted 7,nos4 #aa to #ad71 each of them having one end #af;in4 square like the other chests1 but tapering at the other end to the mere thickness of the plank1 and with the bottom also sloping1 so that the narrow end should be only #h;in4 deep4 ,two of these with the broad ends together could be fitted on each side the narrow points passing well clear within the wheels4 ,care should be taken to have them water-tight2 and1 if made of well-seasoned plank and well oiled1 they would remain so for a long time4 ,when they are required for a raft1 take them from the waggon and place them in two rows about three feet apart1 and also with an interval of #c;in4 between the ends of the boxes in the same line--as shown in the illustration 7,b1 p4 #adb7--with the tapered side boxes1 as indicated by the numbers1 forming the four ends4 ,if you have been able to carry a couple of long stout bamboos1 lay them along the inner side of each line of boxes1 and if you have lighter ones to lay along the outer sides so much the better2 if you have not bamboos1 the dissel-booms and lifter poles of the waggons must be pressed into service1 or poles sought in the nearest forest1 as long and as straight as possible2 then take the yokes of the oxen and lay them across in the #c;in4 spaces between the boxes1 and passing the reims or other thongs cut from raw hide through the holes made for the yoke skeis1 lash each yoke to the fore and aft poles1 securing the boxes each in its own compartment by passing a few turns through the handles in the ends and round the yokes4 ,when this is completed1 you will have a very serviceable raft or double canoe4 ,the hinges of the chests will1 of course1 be towards the centre1 so that when opened the lids will fall inwards2 and if other poles are now laid fore and aft upon the yokes1 they will support the lids so as to form the deck1 leaving the chests open1 so that1 if any of them should leak1 the water may be at once seen and baled out2 but should it be thought preferable to keep the boxes closed1 the buik plank or floor of the waggon1 or even its sides1 may be made use of for the deck4 ,if the traveller contemplates a long voyage1 and requires a sharper boat so as to attain more speed1 he may make four of his boxes 7marked ,d #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj7 tapering diagonally to #h;in4 at one end2 but he must take care that they are made in pairs1 so that he may be able to place the straight and the diagonal side of each in its proper position in the raft4 ,he will then also find that they will be easily arranged so that each pair will stow square in the waggon2 then the side boxes 7,d #aa to #ad7 must be made only #h;in4 wide at the larger end1 tapering as before at the smaller1 and1 with a slight diminution of floating power1 he will have a sharper and more speedy boat4 ,the figures in the central spaces of ,b indicate the changes of position in the numbered boxes1 and the dotted lines show the increase of sharpness at the ends4 ,it is of importance that in the boxes which taper1 one side should be straight and square with the end1 and one only diagonal1 as it might be necessary in a narrow stream1 to place both the lines of boxes close together1 and then the line of the inner sides being perfectly straight and the outer tapering1 the whole would form one boat sharp enough at either end4 ,some of the yoke skeis might be left in their sockets where required1 as shown in the elevation1 or other pieces might be cut to a proper length1 to serve for tholes or rowlocks1 awning stanchions1 or belaying pins4 ,if a mast were needed1 it might be stepped by cutting jaws like those on the gaff of a cutter1 and setting them across one of the yokes4 ,the fork of a branch might serve2 but as poles generally become thinner upward1 and the natural position would be thus reversed1 it would be less laborious to cut or fit on jaws to the butt of the pole1 and leave the fork at top for the halyards to run over4 ,two back stays would be required1 spreading at a considerable angle2 and one or two fore stays1 with sufficient spread not to interfere with the free motion of the yard2 two1 three1 or four poles1 set up as a triangle or sheer legs1 would also serve1 and then only one stay1 stretching perpendicularly downwards between them1 would be required4 ,in ferrying wheels over1 the readiest way 7if the breadth of the boat permits7 is to keep each pair on their own axle1 which is laid across the boat1 with the wheels overhanging each side4 ,even if the traveller be not provided with a waggon1 he must have with him a quantity of stores1 or materials for whatever scientific pursuit he is engaged in1 as well as beads1 calico1 or other currency of the country1 to pay for service1 or purchase food2 and if his boxes for containing these were all of uniform size1 they would serve equally well as a raft2 the copper boxes described at pages #h and #i are expressly designed for this service4 ,to float waggons4 ,in floating a waggon over without extraneous assistance1 the buik plank or floor1 the water cask1 the fore and after chests1 and the side boxes1 will be sufficient1 if tolerably water-tight--and if not1 they may easily be made so1 either by covering them with canvas1 by caulking them or even laying them in the river all night to let the wood swell1 which will generally have the desired effect4 ,but it would be well1 if this is at all doubtful1 to remove the drag-chains1 reim-schoens1 and all easily detachable ironwork1 and first float over only the under carriage and its wheels4 ,if a line can be previously stretched across the river1 and the oxen ready in their yokes on the other side attached to it1 they may save much trouble by towing it across1 while one or two men steer till the wheels take the ground1 and it is drawn on shore in the natural way4 ,the buik plank1 with the casks and chests still fast to it1 can be taken back for the rest of the heavy gear1 and as much of the cargo as it will carry4 ,if large hollow reeds--the drier the better--can be obtained1 faggots of these can be fastened fore and aft1 within the side chests1 filling up nearly the whole space1 except sufficient for the men to stand on in the centre2 and a light platform can be laid above the top of the chests1 on which to lay light goods which require to be kept dry4 ,but bear in mind that the cargo a raft can carry above water is always small1 and not at all like the mountain of treasure invariably represented on that of ,robinson ,crusoe4 ,about #ahdi or #ahej1 while staying with our fellow-traveller1 ,joseph ,macabe1 at ,vaal ,river1 an extraordinary drought prevailed2 the great river could be crossed dryshod at the drift by means of stepping-stones1 though there were long reaches above and below in which a good-sized vessel might have floated1 and on one of the sand-banks then laid bare appeared an upright pole1 belonging to a waggon which the owner had attempted to float over with bundles of green reeds1 leaving the rein-schoems and drag-chains on as ballast1 and previously removing the sides1 the chests1 buik plank1 and everything else that could impede its passage to the bottom4 ,illustration3 ,,extempore ,,shears4 ,extricating waggons from quicksands1 c4 ,whilst gazing at this odd landmark1 ,mynheer appeared2 with him came a goodly staff of tall athletic sons and nephews1 attended by a numerous train of native helpers4 ,on digging for the waggon1 it was found to have settled so far below the sand that when the tallest of the family stood on the tire of the wheel his shoulders were barely at the surface of the water1 and ,mynheer had yoked his oxen and was attempting to draw out the waggon by a horizontal strain4 ,we forbore to offer advice which would certainly have been rejected1 but retired to the house1 and when one of the sons visited us after the day's fruitless labour1 we rigged a pair of miniature shears1 and1 letting them incline over a weight1 showed how easily it might be lifted by applying a horizontal strain to cause the shears to rise to a vertical position4 ,the result of this was that ,mynheer sent up a request that1 as een groote zee-water's men1 we would come and give him a bit of advice4 ,we accordingly suggested that1 as the sand was not firm enough to set the shear legs upon1 he should cut three good-sized beams1 and laying one horizontally1 cut mortices in the ends1 while tenons were cut on the other two to fit in them1 the apex of the triangle being firmly lashed with the reims or thongs of softened hide1 used for spanning in the oxen4 ,the triangle was now set up1 sloping somewhat over the fore-stell or carriage of the buried waggon1 and one of the drag-chains was fastened to the wheel and led over the top of the shears1 whence1 lengthened out by the other chain and spare rope1 it was bent on to the trek-touw1 to which the oxen were already yoked4 ,at length the cattle bent them to the yokes1 the gear tightened and strained1 the dissel-boom1 that so long had been our beacon1 began to rise1 when some fastening gave way and all came down by the run2 the pole1 however1 remaining a foot higher than it was before4 ,a native was desired to refasten the chain2 and1 sticking two fingers of his left hand into his nostrils in a manner no ,european could imitate1 he settled down below the water1 and worked with his right hand only4 ,piece by piece the waggon was hauled out during the succeeding days1 after having been three years and three days imbedded4 ,in exploring countries covered with dense forests or difficult to be traversed1 rafts are wonderfully useful for navigating lakes and rivers1 or for conveying your goods4 ,dr4 ,r4 ,brown1 commander of the expedition in ,vancouver's ,island1 favours us with the following note3-- ,trenneled rafts4 ,we travelled long distances by rafts in ,vancouver's ,island1 and1 in order to have facilities for making them1 we caused an auger 7#b;in47 to be constructed with a ring-head instead of the usual spike with a nut1 so that1 by a piece of wood being put through it1 a handle might be extemporised4 ,generally speaking we could find dry fallen cedar 7,thuja gigantea1 ,natl47 by the borders of lakes or rivers1 or if not living cotton wood 7,salix ,scouleriana7 will do2 and in fact any wood1 though pine is rather too heavy and apt to get waterlogged4 ,cutting two lengths of logs1 the length of the raft required1 sharpening the 'bows' off roughly1 we laid them on the ground1 parallel1 and as far apart as we wished them4 ,then two cross-pieces1 composed of a log split in two1 were pegged by means of the auger across near the ends1 over them was built a floor of split cedar boards4 ,two rowlocks were pegged in here and there according to the number of rowers required1 and one pair at the end for a steering oar4 ,oars were soon extemporised by means of the axe1 and the raft moved lazily along at about one and a half or two miles an hour on a lake1 but the labour was infinitely easier than working through the wood with a seventy or eighty pound load on your back4 ,sometimes we constructed even ruder rafts than these4 ,mr4 ,frederick ,whymper and ,mr4 ,ranald ,m',donald once descended twenty miles of a river on a little raft composed of the boards out of an ,indian's hunting lodge1 tying it together with withes of cedar twigs1 which are very tough1 and used by the ,indians for sewing their canoes and fastening their lodge planks together4 ,the holes they made with pistol bullets4 ,principles of raft building4 ,the general principle on which all rafts are or ought to be constructed is nearly the same2 that is1 if they are intended to be worked or to make progress through the water1 as in most cases is desirable4 ,the exceptions to this are generally when it is merely desired to float down a stream1 abandoning the raft as worthless when the voyage is completed1 or when produce or manufacture of any kind has to be brought down from a higher country to a lower1 and1 from its buoyancy it may be collected into a raft1 which1 on reaching its destination1 may be reduced to its component parts and sold2 or where1 as in still more exceptional cases1 it is necessary to provide floating habitations for families or small communities without reference to locomotion1 which is effected by other means4 ,in the first and most general case1 the object is to obtain sufficient carrying power with as little resistance to progression as possible2 and to this end the larger spars1 on which the buoyancy of the whole depends1 ought to be laid parallel to1 and at such a distance from1 each other as seems necessary either to insure the requisite stability1 to give sufficient room on deck1 or to suit the length of those that are to be used as cross-beams2 but they should never be laid close together so as to present a broad united surface to be forced through the water1 nor even so close as to convert that portion of fluid between them into dead water to be dragged like a solid body with the raft4 ,we would say1 if there be two or more spars of equal size1 let the interval between them be at least three times as broad as their diameter1 and generally let the width of your raft be not more than one-sixth of its length4 ,if you have only one large spar1 let that form the centre1 or1 as it may be called1 the keel1 and let the smaller ones1 either singly or lashed together in bundles of convenient size1 be laid parallel to it at proper distances on either side4 ,endeavour as much as possible to keep your cross-beams as high above the water as possible1 for if these are submerged1 their sides will offer as much resistance to your progress as if the whole raft had been filled up with solid logs4 ,on this account1 therefore1 it would be advisable to lash or pin on the top of each of the main beams either a smaller one to increase its height1 or short pieces at intervals1 as chocks on which to lay the cross-beams4 ,let the ends of the spars that form your floats be pointed to an acute angle by either sawing off wedge-shaped pieces of about #ae or #bj in the sides1 or chopping them with axe or adze4 ,the cross-beams at each end and one in the centre must be securely fastened4 ,do not have too many1 nor keep them too close together2 but let the others cross diagonally in opposite directions1 or even brace the frame thus formed by stout ropes stretched diagonally from corner to corner1 and seized together with smaller lines where they cross each other in the centre1 which will give great firmness and rigidity to the structure4 ,let us suppose1 for instance1 the case of a stranded or waterlogged brig of about #bjj tons1 of which the lower masts and the wreck of some of the other spars are still available4 ,if the masts can be got out so much the better1 for they would be in the whole not much short of #fj;ft4 long2 but it is much more probable they would have to be cut by the board1 and perhaps also below the hounds1 which would still leave clean spars between #cj;ft4 and #dj;ft4 in length1 and most likely #ad;in4 thick4 ,if the mast-heads were left on they would be at least #aj;ft4 longer1 but the tops should be removed1 and the projecting portion of the hounds chopped down so as to offer as little impediment to progress as possible2 the masts should be laid parallel to each other about #h;ft4 apart1 and the main boom1 lower yards and jib boom1 or spare topmast1 if available1 lashed together as a faggot1 and laid between them as a central spar4 ,a short1 stout spar1 such as the heel of a broken topmast1 should then be laid across at #f;ft4 or #h;ft4 from either end1 and firmly lashed to them1 and one1 or at most two1 more may be laid across in like manner near the centre2 the intervals between these should be occupied by small spars laid across diagonally1 or by cross bracings of rope as before described2 it is of little use to peg or treenail the parts together1 unless the water is very smooth1 for the pegs would be sure to break with the working of the raft in a heavy sea4 ,we have suggested the heels of the topmasts as crossbeams1 because their thickness would help to raise the platform above the level of the sea1 and this might be farther raised by laying a couple of studding sail booms fore and aft upon the masts under them1 and laying the deck with short spars or pieces of plank across the booms4 ,if tools can be got at or used1 mortices may be sunk in the masts1 or fore and aft spars1 and handspikes or capstan bars set upright in them at intervals of #f;ft42 these will carry a light rail to prevent men being washed off1 and will serve to spread an awning when such a luxury can be attempted1 and also as supports to which rowlocks can conveniently be fastened4 ,if the vessel is provided with sleeping bunks1 which are sometimes lashed to ring-bolts on the deck1 it might be well to secure at least one of them2 if not an empty hogshead or anything that can serve as a place of temporary shelter for a wearied man1 or for the commander to consult his charts and compass in1 should be fitted on the platform4 ,a sheet of iron1 or non-combustible material of any kind1 should be taken to form the foundation of a fire-place2 and if there is choice of provisions1 preserved fresh meat should be taken in preference to salt1 with as much biscuit1 vegetables1 vinegar1 sugar1 tea or coffee1 and fresh water1 as circumstances permit4 ,if canvas is at hand1 sails will be easily made1 if not1 any flat surface1 sheets of iron or planks1 either separate or framed together1 may be set up that the raft may sail free1 or trimmed for her to go as near the wind as she will lie4 ,if three casks are available as floating power1 make a triangle of studding sail booms1 and lash each angle firmly on the top of one of the casks1 taking care to keep their heads pointing forward to that which is intended to be the bow2 then on these spars build such platform as you need1 and erect your mast and sail4 ,illustration ,a couple of spare topmasts brought together at their heads1 and extended by a shorter spar at their heels1 so as to form a triangle more or less acute1 form a good foundation for a raft2 the space between may then be filled with whatever buoyant material you possess1 whether casks1 boxes1 or smaller spars4 ,no rules can be considered absolute in raft making2 anything that will float1 and can be lashed together in any manner1 must be used2 if a portion of the vessel's deck can be cut out by axe or saw it may form a good foundation2 if the raft can be built on board the wreck1 or on the beach beside her1 so much the better1 but it would be better to throw the materials overboard1 and1 at the cost of any extra labour1 construct it in the water1 than not be able fairly to launch it when completed4 ,we have seen the waist stanchions of a waterlogged vessel cut away for such a purpose1 or in extreme cases the hull may be expected to go down1 and then the only anxiety will be to complete the raft so that it may be capable of floating off the sinking vessel4 ,in the water a rectangular raft is best built alongside the vessel1 but the triangular one must be built astern4 ,pot raft4 ,of buoyant merchandise formed into rafts for the purpose of floating down rivers to the markets1 we have an example in the pottery floats upon the ,nile1 where a number of jars having been made1 are bound together1 and a platform of reeds laid on them4 ,tho long timber rafts upon the ,rhine and on the rivers of ,canada and ,north ,america are also examples of this principle4 ,sedge-grass rafts4 ,on some of the larger rivers of ,africa1 as the ,okovango1 discovered by our late friend ,c4 ,j4 ,andersson1 the ,teoughe and others1 rafts of sedge grass are used2 sometimes these1 if only intended to carry a few persons across a river1 are small and comparatively manageable1 and have even an attempt at comfort and security in a kind of rail raised round them of faggots of the same material4 ,others1 used in hippopotamus hunting1 are mere floats on which the small canoes are drawn up1 and their chief merit is that they are so like natural accumulations that the animal does not think of getting out of their way4 ,on a still larger heap of these ,mr4 ,andersson descended the tortuous course of the ,teoughe for many miles2 and ,mr4 ,oscar ,t4 ,lindholm1 who accompanied the eminent but unfortunate ,swedish naturalist ,wahlberg1 gave us a most graphic account of a similar voyage4 ,immense quantities of sedge was collected1 and bundles of it were thrown upon the water in some quiet nook1 without any regularity and with no other fastening than its own natural cohesion and entanglement when one layer was thrown almost at random across another4 ,a small hut was built upon the heap when it had acquired sufficient size1 and the whole1 when ready1 was forced out into the stream1 which brought it down at an average rate of two and a half miles per hour4 ,if it took the ground1 the only consequence was the loss of a few reeds from the bottom layer as the mass swung round and cleared itself4 ,snags1 projecting points1 or other impediments might tear off more1 but nothing could stay the quiet but irresistible movement of the great raft1 which1 as the grass below became densely pressed and sodden1 began to draw nearly #f;ft4 of water1 and sank deeper every day2 to remedy which1 fresh grass was cut and thrown daily upon the upper layers4 ,frequently overhanging trees tore off portions1 and once a large trunk lay so close to the water that it fairly swept the decks fore and aft2 the occupants saved themselves by climbing over the tree1 but the hut1 with many valuables1 was carried right away4 ,with this exception the voyage was accomplished safely1 but it was a task of great difficulty to prevent the unwieldy mass being swept by the stream into ,lake ,ngami1 in the still waters of which it might have floated for an indefinite period without coming nearer to the shore4 ,the obelisk of ,luxor was removed by laying a vessel ashore1 with her head towards it1 when the river was at its highest2 the masts were lifted and shored up from the deck1 so as to allow an immense packing case to be built upon the keelson2 ways like those for launching a ship were built1 and on them the heavy monolith was forced onward till it lay at length fairly in the vessel1 occupying nearly her entire length2 a deep channel cut from the vessel to the river1 and at the next rise of the water she floated off4 ,but without forgetting this1 we do not remember a case of more ingenious and persevering adaptation of apparently insufficient means to great and important ends1 than that of the conveyance by our countryman ,layard of the great human-headed bulls and lions from the magnificent ruins in which he found them to the point of embarkation on the ,tigris1 and thence1 by rafts so frail that we almost wonder how the ponderous masses were supported1 to a place where vessels more adequate to the carriage of such a burden could receive them4 ,it would be a pity to curtail the brief and graphic description1 and we therefore give it in his own words3-- ,i did not doubt that the skins1 once blown up1 would support the sculptures without difficulty as far as ,baghdad4 ,the journey would take eight or ten days1 under favourable circumstances4 ,but there they would require to be opened and refilled1 or the rafts would scarcely sustain so heavy a weight all the way to ,busrak2 the voyage from ,baghdad to that port being considerably longer1 in point of time1 than that from ,mosul to ,baghdad4 ,however carefully the skins are filled1 the air gradually escapes4 ,rafts bearing merchandise are generally detained several times during their descent to enable the raftmen to examine and refill the skins4 ,if the sculptures rested upon only one framework1 the beams being almost on a level with the water1 the raftmen would be unable to get beneath them to reach the mouths of the skins1 when they require replenishing1 without moving the cargo4 ,this would have been both inconvenient and difficult to accomplish2 ,i was1 therefore1 desirous of raising the lion and bull as much as possible above the water1 so as to leave room for the men to creep under them4 ,it may interest the reader to know how these rafts1 which have probably formed for ages the only means of traffic on the upper parts of the rivers of ,mesopotamia1 are constructed4 ,the skins of full-grown sheep and goats are used4 ,they are taken off with as few incisions as possible1 and then dried and prepared4 ,the air is forced in by the lungs through an aperture1 which is afterwards tied up with string4 ,a square framework1 formed of poplar beams1 branches of trees1 and reeds1 having been constructed of the size of the intended raft1 the inflated skins are tied to it by osier and other twigs1 the whole being firmly bound together4 ,the raft is then removed to the water and launched4 ,care is taken to place the skins with their mouths upwards1 that1 in case any should burst or require filling1 they can be easily opened by the raftmen4 ,upon the framework of wood are piled bales of goods and property belonging to merchants and travellers4 ,when any person of rank or wealth descends the river in this fashion1 small huts are constructed on the raft1 by covering a common wooden takht1 or bedstead of the country1 with a hood formed of reeds and lined with felt4 ,in these huts the travellers live and sleep during the journey4 ,the poorer passengers seek shade or warmth by burying themselves amongst bales of goods and other merchandise1 and sit patiently1 almost in one position1 until they reach their destination4 ,they carry with them a small earthen mangal1 or chafing-dish1 containing a charcoal fire1 which serves to light their pipes and to cook their coffee and food4 ,the only real danger to be apprehended on the river is from the ,arabs1 who1 when the country is in a disturbed state1 invariably attack and pillage the rafts4 ,illustration3 ,,inflated ,,floats4 ,the raftmen guide their rude vessels by long oars--straight poles1 at the end of which a few split canes are fastened by a piece of twine4 ,they skilfully avoid the rapids1 and1 seated on the bales of goods1 work continually1 even in the hottest sun4 ,they will seldom travel after dark before reaching ,tekrit1 on account of the rocks and shoals which abound in the upper part of the river2 but when they have passed that place they resign themselves1 night and day1 to the sluggish stream4 ,during the floods in the spring1 or after violent rains1 small rafts may float from ,mosul to ,baghdad in about eighty-four hours2 but the large rafts are generally six or seven days in performing the voyage4 ,in summer1 and when the river is low1 they are frequently nearly a month in reaching their destination4 ,when the rafts have been unloaded1 they are broken up1 and the beams1 wood1 and twigs are sold at a considerable profit1 forming one of the principal branches of trade between ,mosul and ,baghdad4 ,the skins are washed and afterwards rubbed with a preparation of pounded pomegranate skins1 to keep them from cracking and rotting4 ,they are then brought back1 either upon the shoulders of the raftmen or upon donkeys1 to ,mosul or ,tekrit1 where the men engaged in navigation of the ,tigris usually reside4 ,illustration ,in one of the sculptures thus brought to our own country by the energetic traveller1 an army is represented crossing a river1 and the soldiers are supported each by an inflated goatskin held under the chest1 while one of the legs being led upwards to the swimmer's mouth enables him to keep it distended1 should any air escape4 ,in making these bags1 the only sewing necessary is at the aperture through which the animal is skinned2 the neck1 cut close to the head1 may be tightly bound up with a thong1 and an over-hand knot cast in the three legs2 the fourth being left with a tube for re-inflation4 ,sir ,samuel ,baker says1 when speaking of crossing the ,atbara ,river1 ,i had eight inflated skins attached to the bedstead1 on which ,i lashed our large circular sponging bath1 #c;ft4 #h;in4 in diameter4 ,this was perfectly safe for my wife1 and dry for the baggage2 the watertight iron box that contained the gunpowder was towed as a pinnace behind the raft4 ,four hippopotamus hunters harnessed themselves as tug steamers1 and there were relays of swimmers4 ,the raft answered well1 and would support about #cjjlb42 the sponging bath would carry #aijlb4 ,american portable boat4 ,colonel ,r4 ,c4 ,buchanan1 of the ,united ,states service1 is the inventor of a very useful form of portable boat4 ,it was used in several expeditions1 in ,oregon and ,washington territory1 with much advantage4 ,it is thus described3-- ,it consists of an exceedingly light framework of thin and narrow boards1 in lengths suitable for packing1 connected by hinges1 the different1 sections folding into so small a compass as to be conveniently carried upon mules4 ,the frame is covered with a sheet of stout cotton canvas or duck1 secured to the gunwales with a cord running diagonally back1 and put through eyelet holes in the upper edge4 ,when first placed in the water1 the boat leaks a little1 but the canvas soon swells1 so as to make it sufficiently tight for all practical purposes4 ,the great advantage to be derived from the use of this boat is1 that it is so compact and portable as to be admirably adapted to the requirements of campaigning in a country where the streams are liable to rise above a fordable depth1 and where the allowance of transportation is small4 ,it may be put together or taken apart and packed in a very few minutes1 and one mule suffices to transport a boat1 with all its appurtenances1 capable of sustaining ten men4 ,should the canvas become torn1 it is easily repaired by putting on a patch1 and it does not rot or crack1 like india-rubber or gutta-percha2 moreover it is not affected by changes of climate or temperature4 ,illustration3 ,,collapsible ,,boat4 ,collapsible boat4 ,we have not seen ,colonel ,buchanan's boat1 but we remember one perhaps not very dissimilar1 it was1 in fact1 a collapsible boat--the gunwales1 the keel1 and all the intermediate pieces being exactly alike1 and made of #c_/d;in4 plank from #d;in4 to #f;in4 wide2 these were hinged together at the two ends1 just as are the frames of the oval reticules1 and covered with stout canvas2 the thwarts have hinges below the centre1 from which also the third board1 serving as a stanchion1 reaches downward to rest upon the keel4 ,there is a ring-bolt near the centre of each of the midship thwarts1 and when the boat is hoisted out of the water by tackles at either end1 a couple of small lines from these rings jerk up the centre of the thwarts and allow the gunwales and all the corresponding boards on either side to fall down beside the keel1 as shown in the upper figure of our illustration 7p4 #aee74 ,there are also ring-bolts to the gunwales1 and a couple of lines from these are held fast while the boat is lowered2 the gunwales rise1 and a man sitting upon the thwarts presses them into their place and the boat assumes its proper shape3 of course the segments of plank below the gunwales have to be cut a little shorter at each end as they come nearer to the keel1 or the boat would not shut up on its hinges4 ,a boat #d;ft4 wide would collapse into a width of not more than #a;ft4 ,such a frame could be readily taken to pieces by withdrawing the bolts of the hinges1 and if each piece1 supposing the boat to be #d;ft4 wide and #af;ft4 long were hinged in its centre1 it would not be much too long to carry on a mule1 except the country were more than ordinarily difficult1 when it might be hinged in three lengths4 ,at the meeting of the ,british ,association1 in ,birmingham1 we saw some model boats of good form1 but with very little projection of keel or stem or stern post1 so that one might be fitted into the other without rising more than a few inches above the gunwale of the first2 the thwarts of the lower one are stowed between the two very conveniently1 and three or four may be thus packed1 the uppermost1 however1 retaining all her fittings in readiness for immediate use4 ,canoe birch4 ,the aborigines of many countries make use of the bark of certain trees for the purpose of canoe building4 ,the most important of these is the canoe birch 7,betula papyracea72 its range may be estimated at #cg north to #dc south4 ,trees of this description not unfrequently grow to #gj;ft4 in height1 and are proportionately thick1 so that sheets of bark of very large size can be readily stripped from them4 ,the bark canoes of the ,canadians and ,indian traders are often of a very large size4 ,in the absence of forest conservators1 economic considerations go for very little4 ,it may be convenient1 when canoe building or repairing is the object1 to fall the tree1 and1 in doing so1 care must be taken that the bark shall not be rent or bruised1 either by fracture of the tree or by falling across a rock or stump1 while the log ought to lie with both ends somewhat supported1 so that the required sheet of bark may not be crushed between it and the ground4 ,perhaps it will be found generally easier to detach the bark while the tree is standing1 and in this case a cut must be made all round the tree at the lower end of the sheet2 the most perfect side should be left for the bottom of the canoe1 and the longitudinal slit should be so made as to cut right through any defective portion which may thus be cut out with the least possible waste of material4 ,if the tree has an inclination1 it will be easier work to make the slit on the upper side4 ,the bark should be detached by broad round-edged spuds of soft wood1 thrust gently and cautiously between it and the tree2 and it may also be previously loosened by striking it with a broad log or mallet on the outside1 taking care not to break its texture4 ,steps may be cut in the wood to stand in1 and hand-holds also as the work proceeds2 and the lower part of the bark should be made fast with cord or slips of bark1 passed loosely round1 so that it may not swing clear of the tree and split the upper part before it is finally detached4 ,illustration3 ,,canadian ,,bark ,,canoe4 ,canadian bark canoe4 ,the sheet should now be taken to a plot of level ground1 carefully spread out with the inside downward1 and the outside should be cleaned from any knots1 excrescences1 or hard and brittle layers that increase its weight without adding to its strength2 and it should then be cut nearly to the form shown in the sketch 7,fig4 #a74 ,a sufficient number of ribs or hoops of light flexible wood should be provided1 and great care should be taken1 in bending it1 not to split or unduly to force any part so as to make an unsightly protuberance1 which would also most probably become a leak4 ,the holes should be carefully bored along the edges that come in contact1 and they may be sewn with fibres from the roots of pine trees or from small cedar twigs1 and rendered water-tight by the use of pine-tree gum4 ,flexible poles or laths are then stitched in for gunwales or thwart stringers1 and the canoe is more or less tastefully trimmed off and ornamented1 according to the taste of the builder1 as in ,fig4 #b 7p4 #aeg74 ,nothing can be lighter or handier than these canoes1 but their very lightness and want of hold on the water makes them difficult for ,englishmen to handle until experience has been their instructor4 ,queen ,charlotte's ,island canoe4 ,canoes of this description are wonderfully buoyant1 and draw very little water2 and1 when managed by skilful hands1 few boats are more reliable4 ,our friend1 ,mr4 ,f4 ,poole1 who has spent many years among the ,indians of ,north-,west ,america1 and is a canoeman of no ordinary skill1 has recently completed a tour of extraordinary extent and interest1 paddling fearlessly1 and alone1 far out to sea4 ,the dimensions of the canoe he uses1 which was made expressly for him by the ,indians of ,queen ,charlotte's ,island1 are as follows3 ,length1 #ae;ft42 width across beam1 #c-a_/b;ft42 depth1 #ae;in42 weight1 #ajjlb4 ,illustration3 ,,birch ,,bark ,,canoe ,,of ,,queen ,,charlotte',s ,,island4 ,in her ,mr4 ,poole started from ,liverpool1 paddling to ,new ,brighton1 from thence to ,southport1 ,blackpool1 ,fleetwood1 ,dutton ,sands1 ,whitehaven1 ,kirkcudbright1 ,whitehorn1 ,port ,william and ,glen ,luce4 ,from thence by the use of wheels--two pairs of which1 composed of iron1 mounted on iron axles1 are kept1 until required1 stowed away in the canoe--,mr4 ,poole proceeded overland to ,stranraer2 from thence paddled along the coast and up the river to ,glasgow2 then by canal to ,grangemouth1 and by sea to ,leith4 ,for two nights and the greater part of two days ,mr4 ,poole was out of sight of land1 and the voyage was prosecuted during the prevalence of the equinoctial gales4 ,such of our readers as may contemplate canoe voyaging will do well to borrow a few hints from ,mr4 ,poole's equipment4 ,a powerful bull's-eye lamp was always carried1 lashed fast to the stem at night1 and a mariner's compass was provided to steer by4 ,the wheels before referred to are extremely useful in many ways4 ,they are like those of an ordinary perambulator1 only of light wrought iron2 they are #a;ft4 in diameter2 the axle is also of wrought iron1 #c_/d;in4 square1 and long enough to carry the wheels clear of the canoe's sides when mounted on them4 ,to travel the canoe on dry land1 the axles1 each covered with a strong common pillow1 are brought under the fore and after portions of the canoe1 like the axles of a long narrow carriage4 ,rope lashings are now brought from the thwarts down to the axle bars1 through which iron belaying pins pass2 these keep the lashings from shifting1 and keep all secure when the canoe is pushed or drawn onwards4 ,the wheels are an immense assistance in beaching the canoe and getting her above high-water mark1 when there is but one voyager4 ,they also serve as ballast1 and are useful for a number of camping and make-shift purposes4 ,illustration ,the paddle shown in the accompanying illustration1 kindly furnished by ,mr4 ,poole1 is of the exact form requisite to obtain perfect efficiency4 ,it is composed of red cedar1 and is exactly one-tenth1 diminished scale4 ,illustration3 ,,cedar-,,bark ,,canoe4 ,cedar-bark canoe4 ,the bark of the cedar 7,thuja gigantea7 is also much used by certain ,indians of ,north-,west ,america for canoe building2 but the form usually made from it differs materially from that just described4 ,the cedar-bark canoes are in shape much like some of our iron-clad rams1 having projecting beaks1 or prows1 almost in a line with their keels4 ,the ,indian paddling one of these frail craft1 sits1 or rather squats1 at one extreme end of the bottom1 which has the effect of tilting the bow end up in the air1 burying the stern end deeply in the water4 ,the sharp tail-like point thus immersed seems to impart speed and capability of evolution to a remarkable degree2 much practice is required before the exact poise and adjustment of weight are acquired4 ,the ,indians1 who half live in their canoes1 manage them with extraordinary dexterity1 ascend and descend rapid rivers1 and cross wide stretches of lake fearlessly4 ,illustration ,the form of these canoes1 and of the bark sheet used for making them1 is shown in the above illustration4 ,the mode of sinking the stern of a canoe is also had recourse to by the ,rockingham ,bay savages1 who manage the so-called shoe canoe with much skill4 ,the frame is of rough wicker-work1 the covering of hide1 and the two short shovel-shaped paddles made use of are shown in our illustration4 ,a canoe of this kind is very easily made1 and is not difficult to manage4 ,illustration3 ,,shoe ,,canoe4 ,illustration3 ,,fuegian ,,canoe4 ,fuegian canoe4 ,we have just seen a small canoe sent from ,terra del ,fuego by the ,governor of the ,falkland ,islands to the ,royal ,geographical ,society4 ,it is small1 and was paddled by a girl eight years of age2 it is chiefly interesting as showing how small pieces of bark may be utilised4 ,it is about #h;ft4 long1 #bb;in4 wide1 and #ah;in4 or #bj;in4 deep2 the centrepiece of the bottom is nearly #c;ft4 long and #aj;in4 wide1 and to this are stitched two pieces1 each about #d;ft4 long1 tapering to a point1 and curving upward to a high peak at either end4 ,the sides are pieces of bark nearly #h;ft4 long and #ah;in4 deep1 straight on the upper edge1 and cut to the curve of the bottom on the lower4 ,the whole are stitched together with wood fibre1 for which sometimes strips of whalebone are substituted1 and caulked with the fibre of the wild celery4 ,the boat is kept in shape by ribs of winter bark twigs1 not thicker than the little finger1 and packed closely side by side through the whole length2 nine small sticks lashed athwart the gunwales keep them in their proper shape1 and a sheet of bark midships serves to sustain a patch of clay on which to keep a small fire4 ,a bundle of weapons of the chase accompany this canoe4 ,the spears are pointed with bone1 and the barbed one used for fish and cetaceans is only shipped loosely into the shaft1 to which it is attached by a lanyard1 so as to remain fast during the struggles of the animal2 while that used for birds is serrated1 and is firmly fastened into the shaft4 ,illustration3 ,,australian ,,bark ,,canoe4 ,australian bark canoe4 ,the tea-tree bark is sometimes used in ,australia for canoes4 ,we have seen a length of it roughly tied up at the ends1 and strengthened a little by poles along the gunwales1 in use at ,moreton ,bay1 as shown in our illustration4 ,it is just possible to make the bark of the gum tree answer the purpose in the absence of better material4 ,we have often searched in ,africa for a tree with bark fit to make a canoe of1 but never succeeded in finding one4 ,along the eastern coast of ,australia1 especially towards ,torres ,strait1 we frequently fell in with canoes1 some with outriggers and others double4 ,they were generally long straight logs1 of very little breadth or depth2 and the advantage of this seemed to be that though the ripple would frequently wash into them1 yet1 if they pitched ever so little1 their great length and shallowness would tilt out the greater portion of the water4 ,the outriggers were mostly logs of wood sharpened at either end1 and with pegs set up in them1 so that the outrigger beams might not dip into the water and impede the motion of the canoe4 ,illustration3 ,,mangrove ,,floats4 ,when we reached the ,victoria ,river we found that the natives were accustomed to support themselves in crossing on logs of the light mangrove wood1 either singly or tied up in bundles4 ,the part near the roots seemed to be the favourite1 as the stumps of the roots formed pegs on which to hang their spears1 skins1 or other possessions4 ,the wood of the milk bush1 which is about half the specific gravity of cork1 is much used by the natives of equatorial ,africa for the above purpose4 ,long canoes4 ,at ,shupanga1 on the ,zambesi1 we have seen dug-out canoes1 #ej;ft4 long and about #e;ft4 wide and deep2 at all events1 a tall man standing beside them did not stoop much when he rested his arms upon the gunwale4 ,these were hollowed and roughly shaped in their native forests1 and hauled along nearly thirty miles1 on rollers1 by the long rope-like stems of the vines and creepers common in tropical forests4 ,they were made only for the ,portuguese4 ,the upper part of the bows expanded into a platform sufficiently large for the chief boatman to stand on1 while the stern was cut into an imitation of a run and dead wood1 with a couple of holes in the after part1 to which a rudder was secured by lashings4 ,nothing can be better for hollowing a canoe than the adze1 but our ,kroomen used a broad spud or chisel on a staff about #f;ft4 long1 driven in a manner which will be best understood by a glance at the statue of ,michael overthrowing ,satan4 ,the ,krooman's method of baling is characteristic4 ,should the canoe fill1 all hands jump overboard1 seize the gunwales1 and sally her fore and aft till the water flies out at either end and leaves her absolutely free4 ,we have seen a canoeman1 near ,lake ,ngami1 walk to one end of his leaky craft and1 thus depressing it1 cause the water to flow towards him1 when1 making his broad foot do duty for a scoop1 by a succession of vigorous kicks1 he soon had his canoe as free as he desired4 ,illustration3 ,,massoolah ,,boats4 ,massoolah boats4 ,in many parts of the world1 boats of almost any size are built without metal fastenings1 and the ,massoolah boat of ,madras may be taken as a fair type of those which are sewn or laced together4 ,it will be seen in our illustration1 copied by permission from a model in the ,united ,service ,museum1 that the bottom boards are flat and form an oval elongated and pointed at the ends1 so that the side planks curve naturally to meet the stem and stern-post1 and give the boat an easy sheer4 ,they are sewn together with coir yarn 7or cocoa-nut husk fibre71 the stitches crossing over a wadding of coir or straw1 which presses on the seam and prevents much leakage4 ,they are very elastic and give to the shock as they take the ground in the surf1 which runs sometimes nearly #af;ft4 high2 they are from #cj;ft4 to #ce;ft4 long1 #aj;ft4 or #aa;ft4 wide1 and #g;ft4 or #h;ft4 in depth2 they pull double banked1 six oars on a side1 made of long rough poles with oval pieces of board lashed on the ends2 they are steered by an oar4 ,our illustration shows also the catamaran or log float1 on which the natives will pass to and from the shore when no other craft1 not even the ,massoolah boat1 would venture4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that the men are themselves nearly amphibious1 and care as little for being washed off their rafts as so many frogs2 while the letters or small parcels they carry are kept dry only by being worn in a kind of oil-cloth turban4 ,illustration ,norwegian boats4 ,we have seen very nice boats built in ,norway with dowels instead of nails2 they were clinker built1 and the dowels were about #a_/b;in41 or fully as thick as the planking4 ,a number of rods1 from #c;ft4 to #d;ft4 long1 are planed up to the required size1 and cut into lengths say1 when two thicknesses of #a_/b;in4 plank are to be clinched1 to #a-a_/b;in41 or1 when the two planks and a timber of perhaps #a;in4 are to be fastened1 to #b-a_/b;in41 so that both ends may project a little beyond the wood they are to fasten2 the dowel is then split at each end with a sharp chisel1 taking care that the cut is made at right angles to the grain of the plank or rib1 wedges are driven in1 and the end1 being slightly spread out by the use of the clinch hammer1 is trimmed off not too close2 the wedges should be all neatly cut with a fine saw1 and by sawing them in breadths from a board1 and then splitting them to the required size1 labour may be greatly economised4 ,the holes should be bored with a sharp centre-bit2 and if the dowels fit tightly the wedges may be dispensed with1 as the ends will spread sufficiently under the clinch hammer without breaking the grain4 ,in building1 if any difficulty should be found in drawing down the end of the plank to the stem1 it will be advisable1 after having fitted it carefully1 to slack up the centre1 let the end come to its place1 fasten it1 and then again bend the plank downwards4 ,in some boats1 especially in the navy1 the planks do not run fore and aft1 but two thin layers are crossed over each other diagonally1 and clinched together2 this leaves the outside perfectly smooth1 and is perhaps the strongest known method of boat building4 ,in planing up the edges of planks1 c41 it is absolutely necessary to have a vice of some kind1 and nothing is better than a tree vice1 unless you have a blacksmith's4 ,saw off a young tree from #f;in4 to #h;in4 thick1 at about #c-a_/b;ft4 from the ground2 saw the stump down the middle as low as you can2 bind the lower part tightly with thongs of raw hide to prevent its splitting1 then insert wedges to open the upper part1 put your planks in1 withdraw the wedges1 and it will hold tight enough4 ,it is as well to cut the upper part of the opening sufficiently wide to admit an inch plank1 as short pieces can easily be put in to fill up should you wish to hold a thinner one4 ,illustration ,portable steel boat4 ,we have already mentioned the principle on which ,mr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,young's portable steel boat for the ,livingstone ,search ,expedition was built2 and although1 as we then said1 none but a skilled workman could hope to turn up the edges of a curved sheet of metal1 we think the principle might be applied to a flat-bottomed boat by merely snipping the flanges at the turn of the bilge1 and bending upward the sides at any convenient angle2 by cutting these more and more diagonally from the centre1 the boat might be tapered to each end--not1 indeed1 in a true curve1 but in a succession of short straight lines1 which would tolerably represent one4 ,illustration ,the number of pieces composing the ,search--the boat used in the expedition sent in quest of ,dr4 ,livingstone--were as follows3 ,thirty-six side pieces of steel1 each being a load for one man2 the midship piece required #b2 the stern piece1 #c2 the bow piece1 #c2 the mast1 #b2 the boom1 #b2 the sails1 #b2 chain cable1 #f2 anchor1 #a2 and the whole with provisions1 luggage1 c41 made up #ahj loads4 ,captain ,faulkner1 who1 as a volunteer1 accompanied ,mr4 ,young on the ,search ,expedition1 has determined on returning with a party of ardent hunters and explorers1 and an engineer1 to ,lake ,nyassa1 and for this purpose an iron steamer has been built #ej;ft4 long1 #e-a_/b;ft4 deep1 and #aa-a_/b;ft4 broad4 ,the little craft1 appropriately named the ,faugh-a-ballagh1 is composed of #ge sections1 put together with #hjjj screws1 so that she may be carried1 as was the ,search1 past the rapids and cataracts of the ,shire ,river4 ,illustration ,american life raft4 ,the ,american life raft ,nonpareil1 which recently made the voyage across the ,atlantic1 may be taken as a successful application of the tubular system4 ,it will be seen that she was constructed of three parallel inflatable tubes1 covered with stout canvas1 connected by breadths of the same1 and with a rectangular frame laid over all to support the masts and rudder fittings2 but the sketch is introduced here also to show the use of the droge1 by which the little craft may in effect be anchored in the open sea1 or at least may have her drift effectually checked1 while the sea itself is broken before it reaches her4 ,the droge in the present instance is of canvas1 stretched on a large hoop with four lines1 so attached to its circumference that when the strain comes on it it stands vertically in the water1 and opposes the resistance of its entire surface4 ,the oars or mast1 and sails of a boat1 will also answer this purpose2 and we have heard of one instance in which the imperilled crew added also a number of the skins of freshly-killed seals1 the oil working out of which calmed the water for a considerable distance4 ,it is necessary to watch the length of the sea1 so that the boat may be veered as far from the droge or raft as it will serve to protect her against the breaking waves4 ,we have heard the captain of a vessel say that he would never incur the risk of wearing in a gale1 but would rather sacrifice some spar or piece of lumber to bring the ship's head to the wind4 ,in doing this1 the hawser would be carried round from the droge on the weather bow1 under the bobstays and bowsprit rigging to the lee bow1 and finally to the quarter2 the droge would be thrown over1 sufficient line paid out1 and then held on to till the ship's head came to the wind2 the strain would be then changed for a moment to the lee bow1 and then to the quarter1 whence it would be cut away as the ship fell off upon the other tack4 ,a spar held by a hawser and bridle1 with a stout sail bent to it--the clews1 or lower corners1 being weighted with shot1 lead1 or iron1 to make them heavy--forms an excellent droge for a small craft to lie to under4 ,temporary repairs of vessels4 ,although this subject may seem almost beyond the province of our work1 it is by no means improbable that explorers may have to turn their attention to it1 or that shipwrecked crews1 or dwellers on a lonely coast1 may have to repair or build small craft for themselves4 ,we have seen first-class waggons built by missionaries1 and others have built vessels2 and the reader may remember with advantage the description given by ,ulysses of his laying down side by side ten or a dozen pine trees more or less smoothed off as a foundation on which to build his upper works4 ,during the progress of the ,north ,australian ,expedition1 we were ascending the ,victoria ,river with our little schooner1 the ,tom ,tough4 ,there was little or no wind1 and with the boat ahead towing and the lead going we were drifting up with a strong flood-tide1 and the captain1 elated by success1 and anxious to make the most of his opportunity1 kept going onward instead of prudently anchoring while the tide was still rising4 ,in consequence of this1 when the vessel touched the ground1 there was no subsequent rise of water to float her off2 indeed1 it was remarked that the water began to fall while the tide was still running upward1 and she was left at low water on the #bgth of ,september1 #ahee1 on a mud bank1 with her bows uncomfortably propped up by a projecting rock4 ,on the #bith she floated2 but the flood-tide was so nearly done1 that we had no time to choose an anchorage1 and the schooner grounding with the ebb1 parted her chain cable and heeled over with the force of the tide till we could barely stand upon her decks4 ,day after day the schooner drifted to and fro upon this sand-bank1 sometimes moving a length or two1 and sometimes only a few feet during a tide2 the sand scoured out from beneath her bow and stern1 leaving holes with #f;ft4 or more of water there1 while hillocks accumulated under her in midship2 and the sand seemed to travel so evenly with her1 that the usual criterion--a hand lead1 allowed to trail upon the ground--was of no service in enabling us to estimate the distance she had moved4 ,on the #ajth of ,october the decks had rifted1 the combings of the main hatch had started up1 the starboard side between the masts was hogged up #ah;in41 and at the turn of the bilge1 where the floor timbers join the ribs1 one of the planks had split for #ae;ft4 or more1 leaving spaces into which the flat hand might easily be passed4 ,we laid broad strips of blanket and sheepskin well tarred on the principal rents1 and nailed thin planks over them 7,fig4 #h1 p4 #agj71 but in another day or two she was just as bad on the other side2 her stern was peaked into the air1 while her bows dipped about #g;ft4 into a hole1 the water pouring out of the fresh rifted planking as the tide fell4 ,the mainmast rose up through the partners1 so that we were obliged to slack off the rigging1 and it became a question whether the stanchion under the main hatch should be knocked away to prevent its bursting up the deck1 or whether it should remain so that the strength of the deck might keep the bottom a little longer from breaking4 ,on the #beth we again floated1 after nearly a month of straining to and fro upon the sand-banks1 and drifted rather than navigated the vessel up to the camp we had established below ,steep-head4 ,captain ,gourlay with his crew1 and some of the expedition men1 found suitable trees some little distance up the river at ,timber ,creek1 which1 however1 after a rather exciting adventure with some wandering natives1 acquired the name of ,cut-,stick ,creek instead4 ,two long heavy gum trees as straight as possible were selected1 brought to the vessel1 and laid as sister keelsons 7,fig4 #b7 alongside the real one1 which1 as well as all the original framework1 is marked ,fig4 #a in our illustration4 ,three or four pair of heavy crooks1 each representing the half of a floor timber 7,fig4 #c71 were then laid on the inner skin1 with the inner ends abutting on the sister keelson1 and the outer reaching up above the junction of the ribs with the floor heads4 ,heavy riders 7,fig4 #d7 were placed upon them crossing the three keelsons1 and were secured by clamps 7,fig4 #e7 made of the tires of our dray wheels1 which we had no hope of being able to put to their proper use4 ,being now above the rise and fall of the tide we could not beach the vessel1 and1 therefore1 the frame could only be bolted to the true sides above the water line 7,fig4 #f71 but it was pressed down upon the bottom not only by its own weight but by stanchions 7,fig4 #g7 between it and the deck beams4 ,illustration ,the schooner being detained for repairs1 it was decided to undertake an expedition to the ,albert ,river in the long boat2 and thus1 by reaching ,mr4 ,gregory in time to assure him that a vessel was coming1 prevent his starting for the colony with insufficient supplies2 ,mr4 ,george ,phibbs1 the overseer of the expedition1 and ,mr4 ,graham1 the mate of the ,messenger1 volunteering for the trip1 we commenced our preparations4 ,the boat was cleaned1 repainted1 the leaks stopped2 and two inflatable tubes were made1 each of them of one piece of canvas1 #ad;ft4 long1 lined with waterproofed calico1 folded so that the two sides should come together1 a rope along the seam1 with eyes turned in at the corners1 to make it fast by1 and1 with one of the screw valves from our worn-out boat 7p4 #dh71 let into the after end1 to receive the nozzle of the bellows4 ,these we at first intended to stretch beneath the thwarts1 inside1 but eventually laced them outside each gunwale1 where they were less in the way1 and1 when kept in a state of semi-inflation1 projected sufficiently to prevent a great deal of the ripple of the sea washing into the boat1 and this advantage we made the most of when we were fairly at sea1 by fitting light bamboo stanchions forward1 and securing the tubes to them1 so as to make a kind of raised wash streak round the bows4 ,illustration3 ,,boat ,,fitted ,,with ,,inflated ,,tubes4 ,we left the vessel on the #bcrd of ,october off ,new ,year's ,island1 and at first had fine weather with good working breezes1 but in a few days strong adverse gales came on4 ,on the #bnd of ,november we worked all day clawing off a lee shore1 the sea raging furiously over the shallow bottom2 but our boat1 though only #ah;ft4 long and #f;ft4 beam1 behaved well1 and we weathered the rocks by less than a quarter of a mile after sunset4 ,darkness came on at once1 and1 as we dare not run in for shelter1 we made the boat snug and hove to under foresail and mainsail all night4 ,we ran through between the ,crocodile islands1 the crest of the short sea behind us foaming around our quarters1 while our bowsprit was actually dipping in the next1 and began to fear that we should have to pass the islands without finding a shelter1 when ,phibbs volunteered to swim ashore4 ,we let go our carronade as an anchor1 and ran in to the full length of the line2 he sprang overboard1 and with some difficulty reached the shore1 where he soon found a quiet little nook to which he beckoned us to steer4 ,we will only add that on the #agth of ,november1 after having sailed nearly #gej miles1 we reached the mouth of the ,albert ,river1 in the ,gulf of ,carpentaria4 ,sails and their substitutes4 ,we cannot dismiss the subject of boats without appending a few remarks on such simple forms of sails as are likely to be of service in such small craft as a traveller might possess1 and we shall take1 as the maximum1 one of those swift and handy fore and aft schooners in which the ,americans push their trade in all quarters of the world4 ,each lower mast and topmast would most likely be in one piece1 combining great strength with neatness1 and obviating the necessity for much staying4 ,the bowsprit is also of a single piece2 the sails are a jib from the foremast head to the bowsprit end1 a forestaysail set to the stem head1 a foresail and mainsail on gaffs made to lower when the sail is reefed or taken in2 the foot of the mainsail is always extended by a boom1 and that of the foresail sometimes2 if they are laced to the boom1 as in the yacht ,america1 which had booms even to the foot of her jibs1 the sails sit flatter and better on a wind1 but if they are not1 there is the advantage of being able to reduce the sails without the trouble of reefing1 by tricing up the foot2 gaff topsails may be either jib-headed1 like the fore1 or on a gaff1 like the main1 in ,fig4 #a4 ,the mainstay causes some little difficulty2 if it goes from mast to mast1 the tack and sheet of the fore gaff topsail must be passed over to leeward of it when the vessel goes about2 if it leads down to the deck there must be two parts1 one on each side the foresail1 and the lee one ought to be slacked1 and the weather one set up on each tack4 ,if a foreyard1 or rather a cross-jack1 is carried1 a flying squaresail1 half the width of the yard1 may be sent up on the weather side1 and a topsail may be set in the same manner1 the fore and aft sails supplying canvas enough on the lee side4 ,the cutter 7,no4 #b7 has a jib1 a foresail on the stay1 and a mainsail2 the jib topsail runs with grummets on the topmast stay1 but the halyards only reach the lowermast head2 a lug-headed gaff topsail gives opportunity for a greater spread of canvas4 ,the boat 7,no4 #c7 is rigged with foresail and spritsail4 ,an eye in the peak of the latter receives the upper point of the sprit1 while the lower end is set into the eye of a snorter1 a bight of rope passing round the mast and tightened chiefly by the strain of the sail upon it4 ,sometimes it is pushed up by hand while the sail shakes1 so as to set it properly up1 but it is better to have a small tackle as seen on page #aga to set it up with4 ,illustration3 #a-d ,no4 #d has shoulder-of-mutton sails1 the peaks of which are bent on to small taper yards which slide up and down on and abaft the lower masts like gunter topmasts2 this facilitates the reefing of the sails1 and also the setting of the jib from the foremast head4 ,no4 #e is a lugger1 the yards are slung in the thirds1 the shortest and thickest arm is forward1 and the longest tapers aft2 the foremost leach of the sail is very strongly roped1 so that the tack holds down the forearm and elevates the peak4 ,sometimes in well-manned vessels the lugs are dipped so as to pass to leeward of the mast whenever they go about1 and in this case the tack may be bowsed down considerably in front of the mast and a large sail carried2 but in short-handed craft the tacks are brought down to the mast1 and the foresail and mizen are set on one side and the mainsail on the other1 and are not dipped4 ,the after leach of the jib must be cut so as to go clear of the foreyard1 the topmasts to slide abaft the lower masts2 and there is always some difficulty in setting a fore topsail1 as there must either be a double tack to pass the sail over the jib halyard in going about1 or its fore leach must remain to leeward of it4 ,the lateen 7,no4 #f7 has triangular sails with very long taper yards1 the head and fore leach becoming one2 indeed1 if there be any distinct fore leach1 the sail becomes an ill-shaped lug1 and not a lateen4 ,the masts are somewhat short2 sometimes mere stumps1 but then the halyards and the tacks must be enormously strong to counterpoise the immense length of the yard4 ,the proa sail 7,figs4 #g and #h1 p4 #agc71 a triangle spread upon two bamboos1 hitched upon a stump mast in small boats1 we have described at p4 #ace4 ,no4 #i is a modification of it1 by which a boat sets jib and mainsail in one1 the angle formed by the yard and boom becomes more acute at each reef as indicated by the lines4 ,it would be difficult1 however1 to work the boat without a small mizen to help her round in staying4 ,no4 #aj is the shoulder-of-mutton sail1 set on a single taper yard or mast4 ,illustration ,palm leaves are sometimes used as sails2 our sketch represents three or more cocoanut leaves1 so woven together as to present a surface to receive the wind4 ,blankets and articles of clothing are used in emergencies4 ,oars are set up1 and a boat will gather considerable way under them4 ,planks1 the broader and flatter the better1 are excellent substitutes1 and may be trimmed at pleasure4 ,it must not be forgotten that1 however graceful in art and poetry the bellying canvas may be1 the chief object of the sailmaker is to get it to sit like a board4 ,illustration ,reefing of sails from the sides4 ,sometimes when a sail is split1 or otherwise rendered unserviceable1 it is desirable to use another for a substitute without spoiling it by cutting4 ,we remember reading of a vessel in which the topsail was split in a heavy gale2 a spare foresail was got out and stout bands sewed on it1 from the clews to the reef-band1 diminishing upwards to the width the topsail head ought to be2 eyelet holes were worked in1 points or lacings inserted1 and the sail1 thus reduced1 sent up to do duty as a topsail4 ,illustration ,captain 7now ,admiral ,sir ,e47 ,belcher1 when in command of ,h4,m4,s4 ,sulphur1 made use of a very clever expedient for imparting motion to his vessel when the wind failed4 ,he constructed a couple of bolts1 with stout umbrella framework covered with canvas at their heads1 and with their butts so thickened as to fit loosely into the bow guns4 ,a line was attached to each butt1 and one was given in charge to the port and the other to the starboard watch2 the first was fired to a good distance ahead1 and as soon as the line was hauled upon the frame expanded and opposed its full resistance1 so that1 as it could not be drawn backwards through the water1 the vessel must begin to move4 ,before this was hauled in the next was fired1 the ship would increase her rate of progress1 and1 the impetus being once acquired1 she would hold her way1 so that eventually the men would have little more to do than gather in the slack of the line4 ,no sailor likes the inaction of a calm1 and besides this the captain had judged rightly in exciting the emulation of his men by giving one to each watch1 and further stimulating it by an occasional glass of grog to the hardest working side1 so that the cry of the port watch would be1 ,haul away1 and run her up to the umbrella before the starbowlines get theirs laid out1 and vice vers1 till sometimes a speed of four knots an hour was obtained4 ,thus was the good ship hauled out of many a belt of calms1 and brought into the region of the winds1 which might be only a few miles distant1 while other vessels not so provided might have lain becalmed for weeks2 and not only this1 but her position in a bay or anchorage could be shifted at pleasure1 and she became almost independent of wind or extraneous assistance by this ingenious expedient4 ,paddles worked by mill sails have been proposed2 but of these it will be sufficient to remark that the power of the paddles to drive the vessel's head to wind will be less than that of the wind to drive her backward by the full amount of all that is expended in overcoming the friction of the machinery2 in every other position the wind on the sails would do its work without the paddles4 ,hints in emergencies4 ,a ,prussian vessel1 with the leaks gaining on her and her crew exhausted1 was saved by lashing a spar across the mainmast1 with one end projecting overboard with a barrel half full of water fast to it1 so as to rise and fall with the sea4 ,the pump brakes were made fast to the spar1 and the vessel was thus kept afloat1 while the crew were relieved from their labour4 ,a boat has been known to come ashore safe through a heavy sea by means of a handful of oil judiciously thrown over by one of the men whenever a wave threatened to break near her2 and ,captain ,basil ,hall relates how one of his boats was hove to all night under a droge of all her spars and sails and two or three seal skins1 the oil of which working out calmed the water for a considerable distance4 ,instances of this kind might be indefinitely multiplied2 but we note only a few as suggestions4 ,no amount that we could give would supply the want of presence of mind and the ready power of adapting the means at hand to the emergency4 ,our space will not allow us to go into all the details of boat sailing1 but we must find room for one or two general rules4 ,in seeking to land through breakers1 which must always be effected by the oars1 wait just outside them till you find the heaviest roller coming in2 then give way1 and come in upon it1 with your boat's bow all but overhanging its crest1 and1 as it lands1 you jump out and haul your boat beyond the power of its reflux4 ,some crews are in the habit of giving two or three powerful strokes just before they reach the shore1 and then pitching their oars simultaneously as far from them as possible1 picking them up again when they have secured their boat4 ,it is well1 however1 to know that there is no current to set the oars out to sea before doing this4 ,in coming off face the breakers boldly1 but judiciously watch the smaller waves1 and give her good way through them4 ,keep your boat's head on to the sea1 and never let her take a breaker more than two points on either bow4 ,trim the sails so that when brought to the wind the boat will very nearly steer herself1 and she will attain her utmost speed4 ,the action of the rudder has always a slightly-retarding influence1 but if there is any want of balance let it be on the side of ardency or tendency to fly up in the wind1 so that she may carry a little weather helm rather than want helping up by a lee one1 and thus1 in case of sudden squalls1 the boat will1 as if by instinct1 obey the first touch of the lee helm1 and1 shaking the wind out of her sails1 will right herself4 ,the main sheet of an open boat should never be made fast1 but held either by the steersman1 or some one near him1 in readiness to ease off4 ,a squall seldom comes so suddenly that the first puff1 if well watched1 will not help the boat into the wind before the full strength comes2 but on the coast of ,australia we have known a squall come so suddenly through the dead calm of the night that it struck us at once like a blow from a sledge-hammer1 and1 though we had taken all the usual precautions1 the sea was pouring like a jet-black cataract flecked with diamonds over #h;ft4 of the lee gunwale before the boat came to the wind2 and we would say1 therefore1 if there is not an air to bring the boat's head up when you expect a squall1 help her with the sweep of an oar into the best position to receive it4 ,if you want to carry on sail do not attempt to stiffen the boat by making all the crew sit to windward2 for1 should the mast break1 as is not unlikely with the increased strain1 nothing can prevent her capsizing2 let them sit in the bottom4 ,in the way of ballast1 nothing can be better than bags nearly filled with fresh water4 ,they will assume the form of any place you want to stow them in1 and will not sink the boat if she should fill2 in fact1 being lighter than salt water1 they would impart a trifling buoyancy4 ,temporary rudders4 ,the loss of the rudder1 an accident which is by no means so unfrequent at sea as may be imagined1 involves also1 for a time at least1 the loss of control over the vessel's course4 ,even in the open sea this must be attended with considerable peril2 but when it happens in the vicinity of rocks or shoals1 and the vessel has not sea-room1 the danger becomes appalling4 ,the careful and vigilant trimming of the sails is the readiest means of regaining command of the vessel1 and we believe the ,wager was extricated from a most perilous position by this alone2 but it is a work of immense labour1 and harasses the crew severely4 ,a stream cable payed out astern1 and veered to either quarter1 is sometimes used2 or1 if the accident should occur in moderate weather1 by striking on a bar1 the jolly boat with the plug out may be lowered and towed astern1 but both these plans check the speed of the vessel1 and are only useful when they can be made to impede one side more than the other2 and that this is not the true principle of steering is known to every butcher's boy1 who apologises for wearing but one spur by saying if one side of his horse goes the other must4 ,the rudder may be considered as a continuation of the keel1 capable of moving on a hinge to an angle of #bb-a_/b on either side1 and when the vessel moves forward1 and the helm1 for instance1 is put to port1 the water impinging on the starboard side of the rudder is reflected from it at an equal square to that of its incidence1 and the resulting force tends to drive the stern to port and incline the head to starboard4 ,but as the force acts in the direction of a line midway between the angles of incidence and of reflection1 it has also a retarding tendency1 and if the helm were put over to an angle of #de the greater part of the power would be expended in stopping rather than in steering the vessel4 ,if a ship could be made so flexible as to be converted like a fish into the segment of a circle either way at pleasure1 the very perfection of steering would be attained1 and the rudder is merely the best imitation of this that can be devised4 ,illustration ,our illustration shows one expedient for the remedy of the misfortunes we have named4 ,a warp or cable is faked down upon the deck in lengths equal to that of the required rudder1 all the parts are then so closely pressed together that it resembles a board of the required breadth2 it is then stiffened by longitudinal and cross bars1 a weight is attached to the bottom1 and a tiller projects aft1 from the extremity of which the steering tackles 7,a7 lead in over each quarter4 ,when lowered into its place1 the heel is confined to the stern-post by chains or hawsers leading to the gangway on either side1 and in the present instance ropes are reeved through the gudgeons on the stern-post4 ,sometimes two parts of the cable are left longer than the rest to come up the rudder trunk and form the neck of the rudder1 a short spar passed through the bight on deck serves to suspend the whole4 ,very frequently1 however1 when the rudder goes1 the gudgeons1 and perhaps also part of the stern-post1 are carried away1 and it then becomes necessary to devise some plan which shall supply their loss4 ,illustration ,several expedients are given in the ,nautical ,magazine for #ahcf1 and from these we extract two or three examples4 ,a spar1 such as the spanker-boom or jibboom1 is first passed over the stern1 secured to the centre of the taffrail by temporary partners1 and to the heel of the stern-post by stout guys leading forward to the gangways on either side2 the gaff is then fitted on this1 just as it would be on a mast1 and one of the smallest and stoutest storm staysails is laced1 with the head downwards1 to the upright spar1 and also to the gaff1 the foot of the sail being cut off1 if it be too large4 ,it is then hauled down to the lower end by a halyard previously reeved1 and the gaff1 which should go a little below the surface of the water1 is hoisted until the sail sits as flat as a board4 ,if greater power is thought necessary1 the outer end of the gaff can be sawn vertically down the centre1 and boards clinched in1 as shown in the sketch 7,fig4 #c72 or either the sail or boards might be used separately4 ,the ship is steered by guys leading from near the end of the gaff over each quarter4 ,sometimes the principle of the steering oar is adopted3 a spar1 with planks fastened on its outer end1 is got over1 and the foremost end is fitted to the stern by ring-bolts or lashings1 so as to allow it to work freely without too much play4 ,the outer end is kept down either by a lower guy or by a piece of pig ballast or other weight2 and if a topping-lift be attached1 leading to a boom over the stern and thence to the mizen topmast-head1 the oar may be lifted out of the water when one stroke has been completed1 carried back again to the other side1 and thus bring the ship's head round by a succession of sweeps4 ,sometimes it is necessary to make a temporary stern-post1 and the spare lower cap 7which1 however1 we may remark1 is generally stowed away where it is least likely to be found on an emergency7 can be fitted on this by enlarging the masthead hole and securing it1 as before1 by lower guys4 ,a topmast1 with its heel upwards1 may be passed down through it1 and such additional spars or planking bolted on as will give the needful increase of breadth4 ,the surface should be as smooth as circumstances permit1 so that the water may glance off readily2 the fid-hole will then receive the tiller1 but the spar must be well banded or lashed round to prevent its splitting with the strain1 or perhaps breaking off where the sheave-hole weakens it4 ,illustration ,scarfing or fishing of broken spars4 ,the captain of our battered little vessel had always some rough and ready expedient at his finger-ends4 ,when one of the iron davits of the quarter boat was bent by a collision1 he extemporised a forge with some pig ballast1 on deck1 and1 though the planks beneath were somewhat scorched1 he rendered the davit again effective4 ,once1 when running before the wind1 the mainsail jibed in consequence of careless steering1 and the boom1 being fastened by a lazy guy1 a slovenly shift a little too common among us1 broke short off2 however1 a good stout plank was found1 cut into four pieces1 which were laid round the fractured part so as to inclose it in a kind of packing-case1 of which the four sides did not meet at their edges2 wooldings of rope were passed round at intervals and tightened by driving in wedges1 and the boom1 though somewhat clumsy1 was again fit for duty4 7,see illustration47 ,if a spar1 with both ends alike1 breaks at either end1 a very neat and effective scarf may be made by sawing it down the centre and reversing the two parts1 end for end1 so that the fracture in one half may come against the unbroken part of the other1 as in our sketch 7p4 #aha74 ,if the fracture is long1 there may be no need for that unsightly appendage called a fish1 and1 even if it is short1 a very small one will serve the purpose4 ,illustration ,if a mast breaks1 much above the deck1 it may be again used1 with little or no diminution of its strength1 by reversing it1 and stepping what used to be the masthead upon the keelson1 so that the fractured part may come below the deck1 while that which was the heel is shaped and fitted to become the head4 ,it will be evident from the sketches we give that in a ship with a very deep hold1 where very nearly half the mast is below the deck1 this plan is more likely to be of service than in a shallow one1 where the part below bears but a small proportion to that above4 99 99 99 99 99 ,kites4 ,as a substitute or as an auxiliary to the common sails1 or as a means of sending up a signal or effecting communication between a ship and a lee shore1 a kite of sufficient power would frequently be useful4 ,every voyager knows how frequently all the lower and larger sails of a vessel are becalmed1 the uppermost and smallest catching only a gentle air1 while at a little height above them the wind1 as indicated by the fleecy clouds1 may be blowing much more briskly4 ,in this case1 when even the flying kites1 as the upper sails are figuratively called1 have become useless1 real kites flying at a sufficient elevation would do good service2 and even though the wind might not be fair1 still so long as it was a little abaft the beam the vessel might be steered to her course4 ,one thing must be kept in mind1 and that is1 that when it has once fallen calm below the kites cannot be raised to the breeze that is blowing above1 therefore it would be well either to send them up before the breeze fails1 or at least to send up in preparation a small one1 to the line of which the larger could be hitched1 and jerked clear when it had been carried to a sufficient altitude4 ,a kite of #ab;ft4 in height spreads about #ej;ft4 square of canvas1 and will pull1 in a fresh breeze1 with a strength of about #bjjlb41 if the height were doubled the strength would1 of course1 be fourfold2 and as it would act as a lifting or buoyant instead of a depressing sail1 the only risk in carrying on would be the parting of the line connecting it with the vessel2 on this account it would be the best possible form of sail to rig in an open and over-crowded boat when leaving a wreck1 for its tendency would be to lift the bows over the seas instead of depressing them4 ,and even if a man about to risk the passage by swimming from a stranded ship to a lee shore could send up a small kite1 such as he could make with a cotton shirt1 a couple of sticks1 and a few fathoms of fishing line1 it would most likely buoy him over the crests of the breakers in which he would otherwise be overwhelmed4 ,but the greatest objection to the general use of the kite is1 that in the usual mode of flying we have no command of it except that of letting it go higher or hauling it in at the risk of breaking the line2 this has been met by a very ingenious invention1 and although it is patented1 we think that we may do the public some service1 and ,mr4 ,pocock1 the patentee1 no harm1 by describing it4 ,illustration3 ,,pocock',s ,,kite4 ,the common form of kite is best4 ,the standard is made into two or three equal lengths1 connected either by fishing-rod1 by tent-pole1 or by parasol joints2 the wings have hinges at the head of the standard1 and1 if large1 joints in each pinion4 ,the flight band consists of two lines1 the uppermost of which has an eye upon it through which the lower1 called the brace line1 reeves1 and both come down to the hand of the conductor1 and by these the deviation of the standard from the perpendicular is controlled4 ,by hauling on the brace line the surface is opposed fairly to the full strength of the wind 7,fig4 #a72 by slackening it the kite floats more horizontally1 allowing the wind to pass gently beneath it1 so that even in the strongest gale the power may be regulated at pleasure 7,fig4 #c74 ,the power may be increased by backing the first with a second kite as in ,fig4 #b1 all the lines of the second kite being made fast to their corresponding places on the first1 so that both assume the same relative position in all cases4 ,two smaller lines from the wings1 also passing through eyes on the upper line1 act as braces by which to trim the kite upon a wind2 and it appears from a diagram given by the inventor that a vessel braced sharp up will lie within about five and a half points of the wind1 or as close as most vessels can with their usual sails1 and1 therefore1 may turn to windward4 ,with a kite the operation of tacking would be very easy4 ,even should the boat not answer her helm1 the kite line taken aft would bring her head up to the wind1 and1 being carried round on the other quarter1 and again forward to its proper place1 would help her to her proper course2 and in manoeuvring the absence of masts would be an advantage rather than not4 ,a carriage with the fore wheels capable of being turned by a tiller would also turn to windward1 and the draught power might be increased at pleasure by backing one kite with another1 the connecting lines all being fastened in their proper places1 as in the illustration 7p4 #ahc71 so that whatever change of position was imparted to the lowermost kite might be also assumed by all that were harnessed to it4 ,signals by day or night might be sent up with great facility by hitching the halyard block upon any part of the kite line1 when the flags or lanterns might be sent far above any spars or sails that could obstruct the view of them4 ,in case of shipwreck1 even a common kite extemporised with the roughest materials would very generally be useful4 ,illustration3 ,,sending ,,line ,,from ,,wreck ,,to ,,lee ,,shore ,,by ,,means ,,of ,a ,,kite4 ,when the ship is on a lee shore1 a common kite1 flown from on board1 could not fail to bring a line to land1 and1 with this communication once established1 all hands could probably be saved4 ,their own boat might be veered ashore1 or the men sling themselves with grummets and warp themselves hand over hand2 or if passengers are on board1 a cot or hammock1 slung to notched blocks running on a hawser with a line to haul it back to the vessel1 and one to bring it again towards the shore1 might be employed4 ,but with kites rigged as we have described1 there would have been a greater chance of safety1 for they may be braced to fly three and a half points either way from the direction of the wind1 and if they are employed to carry a grapnel or small kedge1 they may be braced and veered within a limit of seven points of the compass towards a suitable spot2 may be lowered gradually by the slacking of the brace line1 and1 if the hold is not good1 again elevated by hauling it in1 to drop the anchor in a more suitable spot4 ,in our full-page illustration the extemporised kite is not so completely rigged1 but the flight line is led through a block1 so that the wrecked crew could make fast to one end a stronger line2 and1 having hauled that through1 could next bend on a sufficiently stout hawser4 ,the inventor states that he has travelled in a carriage1 at twenty miles per hour2 that a boat so drawn outsailed the speediest vessels of the usual rig2 that a lady ascended to a height of a hundred yards2 and that his son1 with a #cj;ft4 kite1 scaled a cliff #bjj;ft4 high4 ,tho main and brace line of a kite of this size were #a_/b;in4 in diameter1 the braces 7proper7 were somewhat smaller4 ,the discovery that a statue once stood on ,pompey's ,pillar was made by some merchant captains who ascended it by means of a line carried over by a kite4 99 99 99 99 99 ,weather signs4 ,the canoe or boat voyager should at all times pay particular attention to the instructions which foretell the approach of storms2 these are not at all times so unmistakable as to enable him to surely count on the kind of day or night which he has to pass through2 still1 the remarks of the late ,admiral ,fitzroy1 published by the ,board of ,trade1 are of much practical value3 ,whether clear or cloudy1 a rosy sky at sunset presages fine weather2 a red sky in the morning1 bad weather1 or much wind 7perhaps rain72 a grey sky in the morning1 fine weather2 a high dawn1 wind2 a low dawn1 fair weather4 ,soft-looking or delicate clouds foretell fine weather1 with moderate or light breezes2 hard-edged oily-looking clouds1 wind4 ,a dark1 gloomy blue sky is windy2 but a light1 bright blue sky indicates fine weather4 ,generally1 the softer the clouds look1 the less wind 7but1 perhaps1 more rain7 may be expected2 and the harder1 more 'greasy1' rolled1 tufted1 or ragged1 the stronger the coming wind will prove4 ,also1 a bright yellow sky at sunset presages wind2 a pale yellow1 wet2 and thus1 by the prevalence of red1 yellow1 or grey tints1 the coming weather may be foretold very nearly1 indeed1 if aided by instruments1 almost exactly4 ,small inky-looking clouds foretell rain2 light scud-clouds driving across heavy masses show wind and rain2 but1 if alone1 may indicate wind only4 ,high upper clouds crossing the sun1 moon1 or stars1 in a direction different from that of the lower clouds1 or the wind then felt below1 foretell a change of wind4 ,when sea-birds fly out early1 and far to seaward1 moderate wind and fair weather may be expected2 when they hang about the land1 or over it1 sometimes flying inland1 expect a strong wind with stormy weather4 ,there are other signs of a coming change in the weather known less generally than may be desirable1 and1 therefore1 worth notice2 such as when birds of long flight1 rooks1 swallows1 or others1 hang about home1 or fly up and down or low--rain or wind may be expected4 ,also1 when animals seek sheltered places1 instead of spreading over their usual range2 when pigs carry straw to their sties2 when smoke from chimneys does not ascend readily 7or straight upwards during calm71 an unfavourable change is probable4 ,dew is an indication of fine weather3 so is fog4 ,neither of these two formations occur under an overcast sky1 or when there is much wind4 ,one sees fog occasionally rolled away1 as it were1 by wind1 but seldom or never formed while it is blowing4 99 99 99 99 99 ,waterproofing4 ,the traveller will not unfrequently wish to render sailcloth1 duck1 calico1 and other materials water-proof2 few handy methods surpass that of the ,chinese4 ,they proceed as follows3 to every ounce of melted white wax is added one quart of spirits of turpentine4 ,the mixture must be stirred with a stick until quite cold1 when the material to be treated is thoroughly dipped1 allowed to drain out1 and then finally hung by the corners in a current of air to dry4 ,in making common tarpaulins it is well to soak the canvas thoroughly in sea-water before laying on the dressing1 and as the water evaporates the tar penetrates the fabric4 ,in ,africa we used the acrid milky juice of the ,euphorbium1 mixed with a little boiled oil1 on calico4 ,it was very flexible1 and perfectly protected a common open packing-case1 with books and papers1 on the deck of the vessel from the ,cape to ,london4 ,boiled linseed oil1 when allowed to soak into linen or cotton cloth1 much increases its power of resisting the action of water4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the deep-water glass4 ,to those who are engaged in boat expeditions1 researches along the sea-coast1 or lake investigations1 it is of the greatest importance to be able to see far down into the depths below2 as1 for example1 for the recovery of sunken seals1 which often go to the bottom like lead when struck dead by a shot1 the examination of rocks1 and the detection of lost objects4 ,the late ,mr4 ,wheelwright gives such a thoroughly practical account of his deep-water glass that we insert it in his own words3 ,i have had a little experience myself in seal-shooting off our north-west coast1 and when ,i first began ,i had the mortification of seeing many a seal which ,i had shot stone dead go down like a plummet1 and we lost him4 ,but afterwards we used a seal-glass1 a kind of machine very similar to a small hand-churn1 like a bucket1 about one yard high1 tapering towards the top1 about #i;in4 wide at the top and #ah;in4 at the bottom4 ,of course the top was open1 and in the middle of the bottom was fitted a square piece of glass 7,i believe common window glass74 ,as soon as a seal sunk dead1 we cast over a small buoy1 kept in its place by a grapnel1 as near the spot where the seal sank as possible1 and then we examined the bottom after this fashion3 ,we sunk the glass over the boat's side 7just where we fancied the dead seal lay7 into the water1 within about two inches of the top 7glass downwards71 and by steadily looking down through the little glass window we could distinctly see the bottom of the sea and what lay on it4 ,as soon as we saw the dead seal we hooked him up with a line and a drag4 ,i don't know what is the greatest depth of water in which such a glass is available1 and it is now some time since ,i used one2 but ,i am sure ,i have often seen a dead seal lying in eight or ten fathoms2 and just round the rocks where we shot the seals the water was never very deep1 but still we rarely could see the bottom with the naked eye4 ,i do not believe the glass at all has any magnifying properties1 but ,i suppose the focus of vision is better concentrated below the surface of the waves in the comparatively still water4 ,i was at this time living with one of the ,customs' officers on the coast1 who often used such a glass with great success in finding kegs that were sunk by smugglers off this coast4 99 99 99 99 99 ,treatment of the apparently drowned4 ,our remarks and directions concerning the various means which may be had recourse to for traversing rivers1 lakes1 and the sea would be incomplete without instructions for the restoration of the apparently drowned4 ,none that can be drawn up are more perfect than those given by the authority of the ,royal ,lifeboat ,institution1 which were published1 with some of the following remarks1 in the ,field newspaper some short time since3--,hanging the body up by the heels to drain out the water which is supposed to have been swallowed1 is not one of the least injurious of the popular expedients in cases of suspended animation1 and it is1 in itself1 sufficient to keep up the engorgement of the brain1 which is one of the chief dangers to be apprehended4 ,so1 also1 warm baths1 tobacco smoke1 and other depressing influences1 should be strictly prohibited2 and also that horrible practice of rolling the body over and over1 which is so frequently adopted by those who are ignorant of its effects4 ,the ,royal ,national ,lifeboat ,institution and ,humane ,society constantly circulate printed papers containing cautions against the adoption of these expedients2 but1 unfortunately1 they are seldom to be met with when they are wanted1 and1 on that account1 we venture to impress upon our readers the importance of making themselves intimately acquainted not only with the objectionable practices to which we have alluded1 but also with the methods which scientific men are agreed upon as those most likely to restore the circulation and respiration4 ,in the first place1 it may be observed that for several hours after the submersion all hope of recovery should not be given up1 unless it is declared by a medical man of experience that life is extinct4 ,the signs by which this opinion may be formed are pretty clear to him1 but by an ordinary spectator they are liable to be mistaken1 since they are all more or less comparative in their nature4 ,when1 however1 for half an hour there is not the slightest evidence of breathing1 or of the action of the heart--when the eyelids are half closed1 with the pupils turned upwards and dilated1 the jaws clenched1 and the fingers semi-contracted--there is little doubt about the result1 especially if the tongue is partially protruded1 and the lips and nostrils are covered with frothy mucus4 ,the temperature of the body is often not a reliable sign1 because that is kept up by artificial means2 but if1 in spite of these1 and in addition to the existence of the above symptoms1 the coldness of the surface is very manifest1 even if there is no medical authority for the relaxation of all efforts at restoration1 it can serve little purpose to persevere4 ,still it is better to err on the safe side1 and in this country there is seldom a long interval of doubt4 ,but supposing a body to be brought out of the water1 it becomes a question1 ,what shall be done8 ,shall it be taken to the nearest house1 or at once be treated on the spot8 ,the answer is1 proceed at once in the open air1 whether on shore or afloat1 and lose not a moment in the attempt to restore breathing1 and keep up the temperature of the body by the application of dry heat4 ,the first of these is the main object1 and the second must be for a short time sacrificed to it1 but only for a few minutes1 after which the two objects must be jointly pursued4 ,these efforts must be continued energetically till they are either found to be successful1 or declared to be useless4 ,should the breathing be restored1 the circulation should next be encouraged by rubbing the limbs in the direction of the heart1 with firm and steady pressure1 and with the aid1 if possible1 of warm flannels or silk handkerchiefs1 protected by a blanket over all4 ,beyond these general directions1 however1 it is necessary to give others more minute1 and this will be best done in the words used in the printed directions of the ,royal ,national ,lifeboat ,institution1 which are given in a succinct tabular form1 and should be hung up in every public place near which accidental drowning is at all likely to occur4 ,these directions are as follow3 ,,to ,,restore ,,breathing4 ,,to ,,prevent ,,any ,,further ,to clear the ,throat4 ,,diminution ,,of ,,warmth4 #a4 ,place the patient on the floor or ,n4,b4--,these efforts must ground with his face downwards1 and one be made very cautiously1 of his arms under the forehead1 in which and must not be such as position all fluids will escape by the to promote ,warmth and mouth1 and the tongue itself will fall circulation rapidly2 for forward1 leaving the entrance into the if circulation is induced windpipe free4 ,assist this operation by before breathing has been wiping and cleansing the mouth4 restored1 the life of the patient will be endangered4 #b4 ,if satisfactory breathing commences1 ,no other effect1 therefore1 adopt the treatment described below to should be sought from promote warmth and natural breathing4 ,if them1 than the prevention there be only slight breathing1 or no of evaporation1 and its breathing1 or if it fail1 then-- result1 the diminution of the warmth of the body4 ,to excite ,breathing-- #a4 ,expose the face1 #c4 ,turn the patient well and instantly neck1 and chest1 except on the side1 and-- in severe weather 7such as heavy rain1 frost1 or #d4 ,excite the nostrils with snuff1 snow74 harts-horn1 smelling salts1 or tickle the throat with a feather1 c41 if they #b4 ,dry the face1 neck1 are at hand4 ,rub the chest and face warm1 and chest1 as soon as and dash cold water on it4 possible with handkerchiefs or anything at hand2 #e4 ,if there be no success1 lose not a and then dry the hands moment1 but instantly and feet4 ,to imitate ,breathing-- #f4 ,replace the patient on the face1 raising and supporting the chest well on a folded coat or other article of dress4 #g4 ,turn the body very gently on the side and a little beyond1 and then briskly on the face1 back again2 repeating these measures deliberately1 efficiently1 and perseveringly about fifteen times in the minute1 or #c4 ,as soon as a blanket once every four seconds1 occasionally or other covering can be varying the side3 obtained1 strip the body2 but if no covering can by placing the patient on the chest1 be immediately procured1 the weight of the body forces the air out2 take dry clothing from when turned on the side1 this pressure is he bystanders1 dry and removed1 and air enters the chest4 re-clothe the body1 taking care not to interfere with #h4 ,on each occasion that the body is the efforts to restore replaced on the face1 make uniform but breathing4 efficient pressure with brisk movement1 on the back between and below the shoulder-blades or bones on each side1 removing the pressure immediately before turning the body on the side3 the first measure increases the expiration1 the second commences inspiration4 stars ,the result is--,respiration or ,natural ,breathing2 and1 if not too late1 ,life4 ,cautions4 #a4 ,be particularly careful to prevent persons crowding round the body4 #b4 ,avoid all rough usage and turning the body on the back4 #c4 ,under no circumstances hold the body up by the feet4 ,n4,b4 ,the directions are printed in parallel columns to avoid confusion1 and to insure that the efforts to obtain both objects shall be carried on at the same time4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,working ,,in ,,metals4 ,it would be of great advantage to every traveller if before starting on an expedition he were to spend a few hours in learning from a blacksmith how to weld together two pieces of iron1 and from a tinman how to solder tin or copper4 ,in the absence of this experience1 a man who is determined to help himself need not despair of success if he will bear in mind that the chief essentials in both cases are proper heat1 strict cleanliness1 and sufficient quickness of manipulation without hurry4 ,if the traveller possesses a portable forge1 it is most likely he will have learned how to use it before starting2 if not1 he may in many countries1 ,south ,africa especially1 find almost in every tribe some native who could make one2 or if not1 he might adopt some of the expedients described under that head4 ,his first care should be to see that his fire burns clearly and with sufficient intensity1 and this he may aid by occasionally dashing in a little water1 which1 by the decomposition of the gases1 will increase the heat under the direct blast1 while the surplus1 falling on the surrounding coal1 will prevent the fire spreading farther than is requisite4 ,the broken ends of the iron to be rejoined should then be placed in the fire1 one of them in the centre of the heat1 and the other near enough to acquire a preparatory warmth2 the first1 heated to a bright orange red1 should be taken out and thickened by stamping the broken point upon the anvil till it is considerably shorter than before2 if the heat is sufficient1 the scarf1 or smooth diagonal surface which is to form one part of the welded joint1 may be worked upon it2 if not1 it must be returned to the fire while the other part is taken out and driven up in the same manner4 ,in using the hammer1 some care is needful to proportion the force of the blow to the size and comparative heat of the metal you are working1 and also to turn the iron under the hammer so that each stroke shall help to consolidate the mass instead of splitting it into fibres4 ,when the surfaces of the scarf are worked smooth1 fair1 and perfectly free from scales or dirt of any kind1 place them side by side in the fire and bring them to an intense white heat1 so that when drawn forth they may almost spontaneously give off small white sparks4 ,we would add a caution against burning the iron1 or partially fusing it1 by too much heat1 but we do not think a traveller with an extempore forge is in much danger of doing this4 ,the anvil should now be perfectly clean2 the smith1 with his hammer ready in his right hand1 should grasp with his left one of the pieces while his attendant draws out the other and lays it with the scarfed side uppermost on the anvil2 prompt action without hurry is now the one thing needful3 the smith withdraws his piece1 lays it with its scarf turned downwards on that of the assistant's1 and with one decisive stroke of the hand-hammer unites them2 a few more smart and rapid strokes while the iron is slightly turned to and fro to receive them properly1 complete the union2 and when the first heat is lost the iron is again put into the fire1 and the joint which1 owing to the thickening and shortening previously described1 should present a clumsy appearance1 may be trimmed and hammered down to its proper dimensions1 the iron1 if this is neatly done1 having lost but little of its original length2 and it is now for the operator to judge whether he will restore this by beating the metal a little thinner or sacrifice a little of it for the sake of retaining the original thickness4 ,among the ,kafirs a rock is most frequently used for an anvil1 and a smaller stone for a hammer4 ,the ,west ,africans use a conical block of iron1 about the size and shape of the link extinguishers1 some of which may yet be seen before old houses in ,london4 ,the work has1 in consequence1 a slightly indented appearance1 which distinguishes it from the smooth-faced hammer-work of ,england2 but their weapons are of excellent metal1 and so flexible1 that they will almost tie in a knot rather than break4 ,the ,abyssinians also use weapons of this temper2 for they say if a steel sword breaks1 who can mend it1 but if it bends we can sit on it and straighten it4 ,scrap and hoop iron4 ,we have often made very good knives for skinning or cutting up animals from the handles of broken gridirons1 frying-pans1 stout hoop1 or other bits of iron4 ,broken sheep-shears are also excellent substitutes4 ,the hoop iron used to bind the bundles of compressed hay issued to troop horses can be made use of for an immense number of useful purposes4 ,the walls of many of the stables we erected in the ,crimea were composed entirely of this material1 closely interwoven1 like basketwork4 ,excellent gabions can be made from it1 as can the framework of hut roofs4 ,a piece a couple of yards long1 doubled forward and back in zigzag form1 makes an excellent gridiron4 ,short pieces1 straightened out by hammering1 form useful make-shift knife blades for the use of native servants4 ,tent poles are greatly strengthened by having a spiral strapping of this iron nailed to them4 ,saws for cutting or rather fretting blocks of stone can be made by stretching a strip of this material edgewise in a wooden frame1 aided by water1 sharp sand1 and a suitable balance weight1 such as marble masons use4 ,excellent eel traps are made by arranging long strips of hoop for a body1 and then securing them by small nails1 as rivets1 to hoops made from the same material4 ,eel traps will be fully described under the head of ,fishing4 ,we once made a complete set of bars for the bottom and front of a camp stove entirely of forage hoop iron1 made a scraper for the door1 a set of hooks for a gun rack1 and a set of cross hooks to hang meat on4 ,never heedlessly throw away forage iron4 ,trimming and filing up are matters which may be left very much to the taste and opportunities of the traveller1 but it should be remembered that1 cteris paribus1 a neatly finished piece of work1 besides being more satisfactory to the eye1 is in itself stronger1 as the inequalities1 flakes1 flaws1 or roughnesses of the surface1 which1 under any strain1 might form the commencement of a fracture1 are removed2 and besides this1 especially in wet climates1 a well smoothed piece of work is less liable to rust in patches than one of unequal surface4 ,if you intend to file-finish your work1 remember to let it cool slowly1 and do not harden it by immersion in water4 ,the use of cold or of joiners' chisels4 ,in some cases incisions may be required1 too sharp or clean to be cut with a file1 and1 if proper care be taken1 a fine1 sharp1 joiner's chisel may be used without more injury than may be set right by fresh grinding it2 it is advisable1 however1 first to render the angle at which the edge is set a little more obtuse1 so as to lessen the danger of flawing it1 taking care at the same time to keep it as keen as possible4 ,tires and wheels4 ,in all expeditions in which wheeled vehicles are used1 nothing causes more trouble than the loosening of the tires1 owing to the shrinking of the woodwork1 and possibly some slight expansion of the metal1 from the heavy pressure on the rough roads1 as well as from the intense heat of a tropical climate4 ,if sufficient skill be available1 the proper course is to cut and shorten the tire1 for all other make-shifts have the disadvantage either of being insecure1 or positively injurious to the fabric of the wheel4 ,supposing the shortening to be determined on1 the tire must be taken off1 and if1 as is frequently the case1 it be fastened with rivets through the felloes1 the clinch on the inner ends of the bolts must be first cut or filed away1 the washers or iron rings taken off1 and the rivets themselves driven back with a long punch or drift pin2 the band or tire will then either fall off or require but a few blows to detach it4 ,the streaks used to protect the wheels of field artillery guns and waggons are removed and replaced separately4 ,it is impossible to measure the relative circumference of the felloes and the inner side of the band without an instrument similar to the perambulator2 i4 e4 a wheel or disc of wood or metal1 mounted on a handle4 ,a chalk mark is made on the felloe and a corresponding one on the edge of the disc2 the two are set together1 and the disc--say #a;ft4 #f;in4 in circumference--will then revolve perhaps ten and a half times in going round the hinder wheel of a ,cape waggon of about #e;ft4 diameter4 ,as soon as the disc has again reached the starting point another chalk mark is to be made upon it1 and the distance between the two marks on the disc1 say #i;in41 is to be added to the number of revolutions counted2 it is then to be applied to the inner side of the band1 the ten revolutions counted off1 the additional #i;in4 to be run1 and the distance between the starting point and the finish of its course is the amount by which the band is too long4 ,some judgment is required to decide whether more or less than this piece shall be taken out4 ,if the wheel looks very firm and close in its joints1 perhaps a little less should be cut1 as the overlapping of the weld will take up a trifle--especially if it be not very skilfully and neatly done2 if the wheel is loose and the spokes not firmly shouldered up to the nave1 a little more may be taken away2 and in this case it is proper to estimate whether the felloes will close up sufficiently to force the spokes home upon the nave2 if not1 the ends of four or more felloes opposite each other should be cut a trifle shorter with a fine tenon saw1 great care being taken not to cut the dowels by which the ends of the felloes are kept true to each other4 ,a smooth1 hard place must now be sought out1 on which the wheel can be laid flat1 the front downwards1 a hole being dug1 if necessary1 for the reception of the nave2 flat stones1 plates of iron1 or slabs of hard wood1 laid evenly under the circumference1 would be of advantage when the shortened band is to be driven on4 ,the next essentials are plenty of water and abundance of heating power4 ,the ends of the band must now be heated1 and the smith will bevel off each of them1 one from the inside and the other from the out1 so as to form the scarf2 an attendant or two holding the band1 as he directs1 upon the anvil4 ,the tire should now be reversed1 and the curvature increased by resting it on two points of support and striking heavily between them on its inner surface till the scarfed ends close upon and begin to overlap each other4 ,it is again placed in the fire with the ends equally exposed to the intense heat1 and at the proper moment is lifted out by two attendants and promptly1 but carefully1 placed upon the anvil2 a few smart decisive blows are given1 and the joint is made4 ,the hammer man now comes to the assistance of the smith and consolidates it by striking alternate blows with the sledge1 under his direction4 ,the circumference is again tried with the revolving disc1 and if it be too short1 as it ought rather to be1 it is again heated and hammered out1 the weld1 if this be rightly done1 gaining solidity in the process4 ,the band is then laid upon the ground and a fire of wood1 dry cow dung1 or other material made1 so as to heat it to redness through its whole circumference4 ,it is then lifted by tongs or other means 7if hooks are used they must be applied from the outside71 and placed upon the wheel1 and1 as quickly as possible1 hammered down nearly into its true position4 ,the workmen will soon find what smoke to the eyes is like1 but they must disregard this1 and1 before the wood is too much burned away1 quantities of cold water must be dashed on1 the hammer men all the while beating down the shrinking band to a level with the felloes2 before it is quite cold the wheel should be caught up and brought to the anvil1 or a smooth rock1 where the tire is faced up true to the felloe front by heavy blows1 and finally cooled off and tightened by another deluge of cold water4 ,everything depends upon prompt action2 and the tiring of a set of waggon wheels at some out station is really an exciting event1 at which all hands are required to work with a will4 ,repair of perch-bolts4 ,not unfrequently the schammel-bolt or perch-bolt will give way in the grip1 and if this flaw be detected in time1 and the bolt be long enough1 the evil day may be staved off by removing it1 boring a hole through the buik plank or floor of the waggon1 right above1 and dropping the bolt down through it so that its head remains #c;in4 or #d;in4 higher than before1 and the nip is brought upon a fresh place1 as shown by the dotted line above ,h 7p4 #baf74 ,extempore anvils and vices4 ,for small work1 the reim schoen1 or drag1 turned up upon a block of wood1 will form a very decent anvil2 and the next essential is a vice1 which ought to be as large and powerful as can be carried4 ,a weak inefficient vice is worse than useless4 ,the means of attaching it ought also to be good1 for if it is not firmly fixed no work can be properly finished in it4 ,no part of the waggon ought to be used as a holdfast for the vice1 unless indeed it were properly fitted with iron guards for that purpose before starting1 for the claws and screw-bolts would speedily tear and split the wood1 and only damage the vehicle to no purpose4 ,it would generally be better to cut down a convenient tree1 leaving a stump about #c-a_/b;ft4 high1 and in this to cut a niche1 partly to let the vice in3 it might then be secured by hoops of iron1 if available1 such as the nave bands1 or anything similar1 tightened with wedges1 and lashed in its place by thongs of raw hide1 which1 when they dry1 acquire almost the rigidity of iron4 ,if the vice cannot be fixed firmly1 it is better to cut with the saw a deep groove down into the solid stump1 and1 having inserted the iron you wish to file1 to tighten it with wedges1 screws1 lashings1 or such other appliances as you may have at hand 7p4 #aff74 ,the tapping of screws on bolts or nuts1 especially if of any size1 requires that the work be firmly held2 but we should rather advise that duplicate bolts and nuts of the principal sizes used in waggon work--#a_/b;in41 #c_/d;in41 #g_/h;in41 and #a;in4--be carried1 as a set of taps and dies could not be had even in ,cape ,town for much less than #e1 and an unskilled hand would be more likely to break the instruments than use them to advantage4 ,for the smaller sizes1 suitable for gun-locks1 c41 a plate and set of taps might advantageously be carried4 ,illustration ,illustration ,cutting bolts and gun-barrels4 ,sometimes a bolt1 rod of iron1 or a gun-barrel1 has to be cut off to a given length1 and the most convenient way of doing this is to file a row of small teeth upon the back of a handsaw1 and with it to saw off the superfluous iron3 the first illustration shows the manner of cutting the teeth1 and their exact size and shape4 ,always put in a bit of copper1 lead1 or leather to protect the gun-barrels from the grip of the vice4 ,it may1 perhaps1 be well to remark here1 that nearly all ,russian saws are made to cut backwards1 and all the gun breech-screws made in that country are cut the reverse way to ours4 ,for repairs of guns1 it is well to have sufficient wire of different thicknesses2 but when a hardened pivot is required1 a broken gimlet or a bradawl will often supply the material2 and we have before now earned a goat or sheep for dinner by supplying in this manner some deficiency in the arms brought to the white man to be repaired4 ,it is convenient to buy a musket-lock or two before starting1 and to save all sorts of screws1 tumblers1 springs1 c41 out of old locks4 ,we were once asked1 far away in ,namaqualand1 to perform no less a service for a friend than to put a new hammer on his gun4 ,modest disclaimers of ability were not received1 and there was nothing left but to do our best4 ,we found a bit of flat iron1 which1 fortunately1 had a hole in it3 this we first squared up with a small three-square file1 and then fitting it to the tumbler1 and making sure that the flat surface of the hammer should strike upon the nipple1 laboriously cut and filed away the intermediate parts1 and before morning the hammer was fixed4 ,mr4 ,rae1 the engineer of the ,zambesi expedition1 proceeded more scientifically2 he employed a native to weld up a quantity of iron hooping into a plate quite thick and large enough to make the hammer1 then1 drawing the outline1 he bored small holes close together all round it1 broke off the superfluous iron1 and finished with the file4 ,on one occasion we were unfortunate enough to break the little ,s-shaped bridle which connects the claw of the mainspring with the arm of the tumbler4 ,most of our readers will remember that this portion of a gun-lock is of a most peculiar form1 being not only ,s-shaped1 but flat-cheeked and ,t-ended4 ,notwithstanding the apparently complicated nature of the undertaking1 a new one had to be made2 so we proceeded as follows3--,one of our small mining picks chanced to have an iron wedge 7which had originally been cut from an old patten iron7 in the handle4 ,this we softened in the fire1 worked into form on the head of an upturned hammer with one of smaller size1 and then roughly finished it up with a handsaw file4 ,the screw hole had then to be made1 and1 as we had no drill1 we took the scissors from our fishing-book1 ground down the point on our bit of ,turkey hone1 tempered it in the candle1 and then1 by dint of hard labour and persistent boring1 made a hole through the end of the bridle4 ,we then gave our work a few finishing touches1 tied it up in a bit of old leather1 heated it in the fire1 plunged it in water to case-harden1 and then secured it in the lock1 where it performed its work well until we parted with the gun so repaired4 ,sighting guns4 ,most of the hunters in ,south ,africa find that ivory1 from its agreeable creamy white1 is better adapted for the korel1 or front sight of a gun1 than the polished metal used for that purpose by the maker4 ,sometimes the sight is accidentally lost1 and has to be replaced2 but more frequently the dazzling bit of metal is purposely knocked off4 ,illustration3 #a-i ,a broad flat groove1 say #a_/b;in4 broad1 or as wide as a handsaw file1 and #a_/af;in4 deep1 is cut across the midrib of the gun 7,fig4 #a71 and the edges of this are under cut1 either with a sharp-edged file1 or1 if the operator is expert in the use of tools1 with a chisel and mallet4 ,a piece of ivory 7,fig4 #c71 cut so that the grain runs with the length of the barrel1 and with an elevated ridge left in the centre1 is then fitted tightly in1 adjusted as nearly as possible1 and the metal clinched down upon it2 then the central ridge is filed on either side until1 by occasionally firing at a mark1 the gun is found to shoot without lateral deviation4 ,it should1 in the beginning1 be considerably too high1 and should then be filed down so as to carry the bullet point blank to its mark at a hundred yards4 ,if the back sight is lost1 cut a notch across the midrib as before1 and fashion a piece of iron 7,fig4 #b7 to the same shape as you did your ivory1 only let the elevated ridge in this case be across the barrel4 ,file a notch in the centre1 and leave the iron a little wider than the rib1 so that it may admit of being driven a little to either side1 and the superfluous metal filed off when the adjustment is nearly perfected4 ,mark it1 and take it out to do this2 then put it in again1 clinch it1 and test it by firing at a mark4 ,figs4 #d and #e represent the position of the two sights4 ,if the gun shoots to the right1 shift the back sight 7,fig4 #f7 to the left and the front sight 7,fig4 #g7 to the right2 if to the left1 shift the back sight 7,fig4 #h7 to the right1 and the front one 7,fig4 #i7 to the left4 ,if the gun shoots too low1 file down the front sight2 if too high1 file down the notch of the back sight4 ,in one of our own rifles the front sight was1 as usual in military patterns1 based on the block of iron which forms the check for the bayonet 7,fig4 #aa74 ,we did not remove this1 but cut behind it a very shallow groove an inch broad1 and in this fixed and soldered a piece of iron with a longitudinal groove1 to carry a knife-edged sight of ivory1 as seen in ,fig4 #aj4 ,illustration3 #ab ,,day #ac ,,night #ad ,,day #ae ,,night #af ,,night #ag ,,dutch ,,roer ,for night shooting1 we used the only sixpence to be found amongst our party2 bending and polishing it and clinching it on to a saddle of zinc painted black4 ,holes were punched in this for leather thongs1 and in front was a notch cut to fit the actual sight1 and so insure the central position of the silver one when in use 7,fig4 #ac74 ,by day the saddle was turned beneath the barrel 7,fig4 #ab71 and the little flat thongs of antelope hide were not at all in the way4 ,with guns not of military pattern the sight could not so conveniently be turned under1 but would have to be removed by day2 but we should think a broad silver sight might be fixed on a steel spring on the rib behind the sight1 with a broad ring to slip over and keep it down by day1 as in ,fig4 #ae1 or to draw back and let it rise into view by night as in ,fig4 #ad 7p4 #bja74 ,for the same purpose our late friend1 ,c4 ,j4 ,andersson1 used to wrap a bit of white paper round the muzzle of his gun1 pinching it up in the centre1 or laying a cord under it to give it a little elevation 7,fig4 #af74 ,as a protection1 and also for the contrast of the colours1 the ,dutch1 and many of the ,english colonists1 stitch very tightly over all a bit of skin from the inside of the elephant's ear 7,fig4 #ag74 ,this is very fine1 exceedingly strong1 and1 when rubbed with a little grease1 intensely black2 it is then very carefully cut1 to allow the front sight to appear through1 and left to dry4 ,another advantage of this plan is1 that it corrects the errors often caused by the mirage or refraction of the sun's rays from the polished barrel1 which1 especially in the tropics1 causes the object aimed at to become indistinct1 to assume the appearance of motion1 and to be seen sometimes considerably above its true position1 thereby causing the marksman to miss by shooting over it4 ,sheath knives or bayonets4 ,no wise traveller ever encumbers himself with a long sword or bayonet of ordinary pattern2 but every one carries a sheath knife1 of from #f;in4 to #ab;in4 in the blade2 and the handle of this ought to be made so that it may fix as a bayonet on his gun4 ,we have seen natives considerably astonished by this sudden conversion of our gun into a spear to kill a wounded animal4 ,if the knife handle were simply made round1 so as to stick into the barrel1 like the bayonet of old times1 it would be better than nothing2 but if the side-springs were generally adopted1 it might be well to arm our troops1 intended for service in wild countries1 with a good serviceable sheath knife1 of #h;in4 or #aj;in4 in the blade1 to be used for general purposes1 and fixed as a bayonet when wanted1 rather than with the orthodox triangular needle1 that is only of use in opportunities that occur but rarely4 ,we remember a party of a certain line regiment coming upon a number of ,hottentots1 when their officer ordered them to fix bayonets1 forgetting for the moment that as usual they had been left at home--just as were the swords and steel scabbards of the ,cape ,corps--lest their rattling should give warning to the crafty foe4 ,it is a common custom in ,india1 when real work has to be done1 to throw aside the steel scabbards and replace them with wooden ones1 which have the double advantage of being noiseless and a preservative to the edge of the sword4 ,we have heard a man of the ,rifle ,brigade say1 he should not fear even though lost in the bush4 ,shoot the first ,kafir that attacks you1 said he1 and arm yourself with his assegai1 and no other will come near you4 ,our allies1 the ,fingoes1 in the war of #ahej-ec1 generally carried one or more assegais1 using the shaft as a ramrod1 or holding two of them crosswise in the left hand as a rest for the musket4 ,the ,kafirs1 when hard pressed1 retain the largest assegai1 and1 breaking off the shaft1 use it as a sword or dagger4 ,the contest is often prolonged by picking up the assegais thrown by the other party1 and sending them back again4 ,to prevent this1 sometimes a tribe1 bent on a sharp decisive conflict1 will cut the shaft half through1 so that it may break when it strikes1 and become useless to the enemy4 ,the ,dutch ,boer sits down1 rests his elbows on his knees1 and extending his left arm1 with the ramrod grasped firmly and planted on the ground1 obtains an almost immovable rest for his heavy roer4 ,many of them shoot from the left shoulder1 and some few can shoot from either shoulder equally well--an immense advantage if a man on horseback is surrounded by enemies4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,assegai ,,gun ,,rest4 ,illustration3 ,,ramrod ,,gun ,,rest4 ,watch-key1 to make4 ,in an out-of-the way corner of ,central ,india we were so unfortunate as to lose our watch-key--the last of three4 ,this we replaced as follows3 ,we first routed out a piece of soft steel about the size of a small black-lead pencil4 ,after filing off one end perfectly flush1 we placed it in the fire1 whilst we prepared the square end of a saddler's awl by grinding it to the exact size of the key-square of the fusee of the watch4 ,when the steel was heated to a cherry red1 we fixed it upright in the vice1 and then supporting the bit of awl with a pair of pliers we1 with a light hammer1 drove it a fair distance into the steel bar4 ,when it cooled1 it was reheated1 and the bit of awl driven deeper1 until a square hole of sufficient depth was formed4 ,the bar was then filed down to the size of the key-hole of the watch4 ,the requisite length was then cut off2 the end flattened out for a thumb-piece2 and a hole drilled in it to pass a thin strip of tendon through4 ,a few finishing touches were given with a fine file2 the work was heated to a blue heat on a bit of red-hot iron1 and was then dropped into a cup of water4 ,so we made our watch-key1 which did its work well through about #djjj miles of travelling1 and was as good as new when we returned to ,england with it hanging at our whip-cord watch-guard4 ,tools1 to temper4 ,in all cases in which heat is required for iron work care should be taken that the fire is perfectly clear1 especially if it has been previously used for melting lead1 when any dross or other extraneous matter should be scrupulously cleared out4 ,sulphur in any form is most destructive4 ,it would be well that the operator should learn before starting how to work up and fresh temper a cold chisel1 or punch1 or even to make one if needful out of a broken file or rasp2 of course1 the punch is round1 square1 or octagonal1 according to circumstances1 and generally flat at the end to drive back the nail or bolt that is to be withdrawn4 ,sometimes a tapered point on a triangular instrument1 such as a handsaw file1 with the edges sharpened1 is useful for driving into a broken nipple1 and by turning it against the sun to extract it when sufficient hold has not been left for the usual nipple key4 ,the cold chisel is first forged to a chisel edge1 more or less finely tapering according to the strength required1 the two sides forming an angle of about #ae to #bj with each other2 the cantle is then filed or ground till its sides form an angle of from #de to #ij2 it is then heated to a cherry red1 and dipped in water cautiously at first1 being frequently taken out and watched during the process till it assumes a pale straw colour1 a deeper tint or even a deep blue or purple1 according to the degree of hardness required1 and is finally ground sharp upon a stone with plenty of cold water4 ,small tools may be tempered by laying them on a piece of red-hot iron1 such as a bit of waggon-wheel tire2 the changing colours should be watched1 and when the desired tint appears the tool may be plunged into water4 ,should it be too hard the temper may be reduced by dry grinding2 when a temper not quite so hard and less liable to fly is required1 it may be given by cooling the steel in grease or oil4 ,the tools carried for this purpose must vary according to the means of conveyance4 ,on the ,north ,australian ,expedition we had a portable forge1 which remained at the main camp1 but on our inland journeys with packed horses we took as many horse-shoes as were thought requisite1 a small hand hammer1 a pair of tongs1 a few files1 rasps and punches1 and a supply of nails4 ,case-hardening4 ,it not unfrequently happens that some object1 such as a fish-hook1 key1 portion of a gun-lock1 or gun furniture1 will require being so treated as to harden the surface whilst toughness of texture is retained4 ,this process is known as case-hardening1 which is1 as its name implies1 one by which a hard case or crust is formed over the surfaces of the articles operated on4 ,there are numerous instruments and contrivances in constant use in the construction of which the toughness of iron combined with the hardness of steel1 communicated by the process about to be described1 is taken advantage of4 ,gun furniture1 fish-hooks1 and handcuffs are examples1 the latter most remarkedly so1 as1 were they composed of ordinary iron1 nothing would be more easy than to file or saw them through2 if of steel1 a blow with a stone1 or any other heavy substance1 would break them as though made of earthenware4 ,when case-hardened neither of these devices is available4 ,too hard to cut1 too tough to break1 the metal is all that can be desired4 ,having fashioned1 filed up1 and finished the article or articles in hand1 procure a fair quantity of leather cuttings1 or horsehoof parings4 ,these should be roasted crisp1 and pounded up until a sufficient quantity of coarse powder is obtained to bury the work when laid in a little iron box1 which can be conveniently made by doubling up the edges and ends of a bit of sheet iron4 ,in the absence of iron1 clay may be used to form the box4 ,this1 when filled and gently pressed down1 must be placed1 when dry1 in a clear bright fire1 and heated up to a blood red heat1 at which temperature it should be allowed to remain for a short time1 taking care not to increase it4 ,the box and its contents may then be withdrawn with the tongs1 and thrown into a pail of cold water4 ,the work may1 when cold1 be washed and brushed clean1 made thoroughly dry1 oiled1 and put aside for use4 ,ferrocyanide of potassium is also extensively used for case-hardening1 being either sprinkled over the work when hot1 or mixed with some convenient substance1 such as dried cow dung1 and placed in the box2 but1 unless in the hands of those accustomed to use it1 the surfaces of the work at times become pitted from the contact of stray particles of the salt4 ,to platinise iron1 c4 ,professor ,church gives the following directions for covering the surfaces of metallic objects with a film of platinum3 ,dissolve in #aoz4 of distilled water #fj;grs4 of bichloride of platinum and #fj;grs4 of pure honey4 ,add to the above solution #c_/doz4 of spirits of wine1 and #a_/doz4 of ether4 ,the mixed liquids1 if not quite clear1 must be filtered through a piece of white blotting-paper4 ,the objects to be platinised1 which may be of iron1 steel1 copper1 bronze1 or brass1 are to be thoroughly cleaned by washing them in soda1 then in water4 ,when they have been dried they require heating over a lamp to a heat below redness4 ,for this purpose they may be suspended1 by means of a fine wire1 over a spirit or an oil lamp1 in such a way as not to touch the flame4 ,suddenly1 before they have had time to cool1 the objects are to be completely plunged beneath the surface of the platinising liquid4 ,one immersion for a single minute generally suffices1 but the process may be repeated if necessary1 care being taken to wash and dry the pieces operated upon before re-heating them4 ,the composition of the solution may vary considerably1 and yet good results be obtained4 ,sometimes the addition of more honey improves it2 sometimes the proportion of bichloride of platinum may be increased or diminished with advantage4 ,indeed1 it will be found that the appearance of the platinum film deposited upon the objects may be altered by changing the proportion of the bichloride present4 ,the solution may be used several times2 gradually1 however1 it loses all its platinum1 the place of this element being taken by the iron or copper dissolved off the immersed objects4 ,if the film of platinum deposited by this method is found to be permanently adherent1 the plan promises to be very valuable4 ,it would be a great boon to travellers in warm1 damp countries to be able to protect iron and steel articles by so simple a process4 ,in the same article ,professor ,church describes a new and very simple plan of inlaying iron with silver1 and also for enamelling metals with different colours4 ,both these processes really come within the scope of amateurs1 and we can strongly recommend the entire paper to those interested in the chemical arts4 ,we may now appropriately mention a few examples where this platinising process seems to furnish desirable results4 ,articles made of iron or steel--watch-chains1 seals1 sword-handles1 keys1 and similar useful or ornamental objects--are greatly improved in appearance1 and1 moreover1 preserved from all chance of rusting1 by this treatment4 ,the colour of the platinum film is of a neutral greyish black1 and it often shows at the same time a faint iridescence4 ,iron or steel which has been inlaid with gold or silver1 forming what is known as damascene work1 is greatly improved by platinising4 ,neither the gold nor the silver are in the least degree affected1 and they will be found to afford a better contrast with the colour of the platinised than with that of the original iron4 ,to preserve iron from rusting4 ,iron which has become deeply rusted cannot be platinised by our process4 ,in order1 however1 to preserve from further destruction objects of steel or iron having an archological or artistic interest1 a very excellent plan may be used as a substitute4 ,the purest white paraffine is to be melted in a clean pan1 and maintained at about the temperature of boiling water4 ,the rusted and corroded specimens are to be immersed in this paraffine bath till they cease to froth from escape of moisture4 ,they are then withdrawn1 wrapped in blotting-paper1 and kept in a warm place till the excess of paraffine has been absorbed4 ,the objects thus treated1 while preserved from further decay1 do not acquire that disagreeable greasy aspect which the varnish ordinarily used imparts4 ,we have been obliged to tar our saw blades1 which was very inconvenient in working1 but this was better than having them spoiled by rust4 ,smith's tools4 ,if the traveller has a waggon1 as in ,south ,africa1 he may either carry a portable forge or trust to finding natives capable of building one and supplying bellows of their own manufacture4 ,if he thinks the weight of a small anvil too great1 he should carry a heavy sledge hammer1 which will serve as an anvil for ordinary purposes2 two hand hammers of different weights2 half-a-dozen pair of tongs1 of such form and size as will enable him conveniently to hold the different sizes of work he may find necessary to do2 at least a dozen files or more--square1 flat1 half-round1 or rat-tail2 and of these the temper should never be destroyed by working with them on iron that has not yet become cool1 though occasionally time may be saved by using a worn-out file to work on iron while it is yet hot and comparatively soft2 cold chisels of different sizes1 from small ones of #a_/d;in4 or #a_/b;in4 wide1 to be tapped with a small hand hammer1 to others of #a-a_/b;in41 to be held by pieces of rod iron coiled round them1 or still better by rods of osier1 and to be struck with the sledge hammer2 if there is an anvil1 of course a chisel to fix upright in the hole provided will be taken with it2 punches of various sizes1 and a stock and set of drills for boring holes up to #a_/b;in4 in diameter1 with rymers1 or tapering four-edged tools for gradually enlarging them1 and countersinks for letting in the heads of screws1 c41 to the surface level4 ,for small work1 such as gun-locks1 c41 an ,archimedean drill and set of bits are very convenient1 a hand-vice and set of gunsmith's small files--triangular1 square1 flat1 half-round1 round1 and knife-edged--should accompany them4 ,muskets1 to repair4 ,a traveller will frequently have occasion either for his own servants or for the natives of the country to put fresh fire into the pan cover of a musket2 for this purpose nothing is better than the blade of an old saw1 the thinner the better2 a piece is broken off1 softened and filed down to the exact size2 it is then bent so as to fit the face of the pan-cover1 and is bound on to it by several turns of iron wire1 not drawn so tightly but that bits of copper wire may be thrust beneath them all round the edges that are to be joined2 borax1 dissolved in water1 is now laid on with an old brush1 and1 if necessary1 small lumps are also added1 and the whole is placed in the fire and heated till the copper melts and brazes the two parts firmly together2 let it cool slowly1 finish it carefully with the file1 heat it to a dull red1 and temper by cooling it in water4 ,half-civilised ,hottentots frequently do this4 ,fish-hooks1 to make4 ,the snoek-hook used in ,table ,bay is a bit of brass wire as thick as a quill and #g;in4 long2 the point is filed sharp1 and the barb is merely such a triangular notch as might be made with a handsaw file4 ,it is not bent in a true sweeping curve1 like our fish-hooks1 but turned sharply up at about #b;in4 from the point1 so that when the lip is pierced1 it slips at once into the sharp bend of the hook1 and the struggles of the fish are less likely to break it than they would be if it afforded the leverage that the usual form of fish-hook gives4 7,see ,fig4 #bj1 p4 #baa47 ,fish-hooks can be made by taking a wire or rod of the required size and softening it by heating it to a bright red and letting it cool very slowly in sawdust or leaving it till the fire dies out2 let the soft end abut against something solid1 and1 with a sharp chisel and mallet1 make a deep cut at such an angle as to form the barb2 file up the point1 heat it again1 and bend it round a stick of the proper size so that the curve may be true4 ,we have1 before now1 broken up a gridiron at the galley fire1 and with a hook thus formed from one of the bars caught a young shark1 whose flesh formed a very desirable addition to our fare4 ,on another occasion1 while exploring a branch of the ,victoria ,river1 in ,north ,australia1 we halted1 as usual1 at noon1 with scanty rations1 which ,mr4 ,gregory improved by taking from his hat a stout sewing needle1 softening it in the fire1 and bending it into a fish-hook1 baited with grasshoppers2 a few strands of thread made a sufficiently strong line1 a small sapling formed a rod1 and1 in a few minutes1 he had caught three fish1 resembling mullet1 nearly #ah;in4 long4 ,the needle had done good service1 but was too precious to be thrown away1 so ,mr4 ,gregory carefully restored it to its pristine straightness1 tempered it1 and again stuck it in his hat1 to be used1 when required1 for its legitimate purpose4 ,brass1 and its treatment4 ,it is rather curious that with brass the softening process is the very reverse of that we use with iron4 ,heat a bit of brass and plunge it into cold water1 and1 with a sharp knife or chisel1 you may carve it almost like pewter2 heat it again when finished1 let it cool slowly1 and it becomes as hard as before4 ,a traveller in ,africa should be well provided with brass1 the best form being that of stout wire as thick as stair carpet rods2 this will serve for many useful purposes3 hooks1 rings1 ramrods for guns1 or almost anything can be made of it4 ,while1 in lengths sufficient to make armlets1 it is always a convenient medium of barter1 or payment for the services of the natives1 who1 though they will give nothing for hollow lacquered curtain rings1 will always appreciate solid metal1 that may be cut1 worn away1 or broken1 and remains the same throughout4 ,tinning ,copper4 ,to tin copper3 first clean the surface carefully by rubbing it with sandpaper or stone1 or washing it with diluted nitric acid or aquafortis2 heat it till it is rather too warm to handle1 by placing a hot iron or pan of fire under the part to be tinned2 rub on1 with a feather1 a little hydrochloric acid 7commonly called spirits of salt7 with zinc dissolved in it2 then1 with a soldering bolt previously rubbed on sal-ammoniac1 touch the bit of tin you hold upon the copper1 and1 as you melt it1 spread it evenly with a bit of rag over the surface you wish to tin2 this ought to be done with the insides of all copper vessels that are to be used for containing liquids or for cooking1 and also for the edges of sheets that are afterwards to be soldered together4 ,even if the edges were to be riveted1 it would still be advisable to tin them1 as they might then also be soldered by slightly heating them and running a little tin into the joint1 by means of the heated bolt rubbed on sal-ammoniac1 as before4 ,small iron nails1 tacks1 fish-hooks1 c41 are protected from the effects of rust by tinning4 ,the process is carried out as follows3--,first cleanse the objects to be operated on in diluted sulphuric acid1 then place them with broken fragments of tin and sal-ammoniac in an earthenware bottle over a strong charcoal fire4 ,when the coating of tin is found to be complete1 they are first washed in clean water1 and then dried in hot bran or sawdust4 ,illustration3 #a-bj ,sheet metal1 to join4 ,a very strong joint may be made by turning up1 say #a_/b;in41 more or less1 of the edge of one sheet 7,fig4 #a71 then laying in it the edge of the other 7,fig4 #b71 and turning up the edges of both 7,fig4 #c72 then1 keeping the joint pressed down1 lift up the second sheet as you would open a book1 and press it out flat and open 7,fig4 #d74 ,you cannot make this joint in the two edges of the same sheet1 turned round upon each other 7,fig4 #e71 unless you first nearly flatten the two parts 7,fig4 #f71 when they may be doubled upon each other1 and the sheet restored to its cylindrical form by the insertion of any pointed cylinder1 such as1 for instance1 the horn of the anvil or a block of wood rounded and tapered at the end 7,fig4 #g74 ,suppose it is required to make a pannikin1 this joint1 whether previously tinned so that it may be soldered or not1 is the only proper one1 but the corners should previously have been cut away1 so that only a single or1 at most1 a slightly overlapping double thickness may be left at top and bottom 7,fig4 #h74 ,the bottom edge is now turned outwards by gently tapping it on the block or anvil edge with a hammer till it resembles a narrow flange 7,fig4 #i74 ,a circular piece is now cut for the bottom so much larger as to allow a rim to be turned up all round 7,fig4 #aj71 and to admit the flange within it 7,fig4 #aa72 then setting it flat upon the anvil1 and forcing into it a block of wood that has been cut perfectly to fit it1 clinch down the rim of the bottom upon the flange 7,fig4 #ab71 and turn them both up against the side together 7,fig4 #ac74 ,the top edge may now be rolled over in the same manner1 and it will give additional strength if the rim is strengthened by the insertion of a piece of wire4 ,if the foregoing joints have been carefully made you will have a water-tight and1 what is more1 a fireproof pannikin with or without the aid of solder1 and a handle can be riveted on or not just as suits your convenience4 ,one great advantage of the folded joint is1 that if it is not too tightly hammered down1 the parts will slide freely on each other1 and advantage may be taken of this for making an opening in one side of a cannister to be closed by a sliding lid2 or1 if you are making a pannikin or other vessel1 and your metal is not large enough to make the whole circumference in one piece1 cut a small strip 7,fig4 #ad7 of the breadth you wish the joint1 say #c_/af;in4 or #a_/d;in41 and fold the edge of the metal twice over it 7,fig4 #ae71 then draw it out2 do the same with the other edge1 and also with the edges of the piece you intend to insert 7,fig4 #af71 and you may then1 with a little care1 slip the parts together1 and clinch down the joints as closely as you wish 7,fig4 #ag74 ,if the corners have previously been snipped off1 or smoothed with a file1 it will considerably increase the facility of doing this4 ,utilisation of meat tin cases4 ,during the ,north ,australian ,expedition1 when ,mr4 ,gregory was preparing for the journey from the ,victoria ,river to the ,albert1 in the ,gulf of ,carpentaria1 he collected all the emptied preserved meat tins1 and burning off the old paint by placing them above the forge fire1 smoothed down the tin upon the surface with a piece of greasy rag1 trimmed up the ragged edges1 and1 in most cases1 obtained sheets of tinned iron nearly equal to new2 from these he made pannikins of graduated sizes1 in fact a nest of them1 one fitting into the other from the largest to the least1 thus securing comfort and convenience to his party1 and utilising material which many persons would have thrown away as useless4 ,in opening a packing case lined with tin1 care should be taken to cut the edges as clean as possible1 for not only are ragged points liable to tear the hands very disagreeably1 but if you wish to make use of the tin in any other manner1 it is of great importance that it should be kept quite clean1 flat1 and free from unsightly wrinkles2 a smooth sheet of tin may be cut1 turned1 or bent almost at will1 but if it has previously been wrinkled1 it is absolutely impossible to restore it to flatness1 and to make a true joint in it is as much out of the question as to write freely on note paper fall of unsightly folds or creases4 ,for cutting tin or other sheet metal1 a pair of small tin snips1 say #h;in4 or #i;in4 in total length1 will be found exceedingly useful3 stout copper or sheet-iron may be cut with them4 ,dishes and plates1 to make4 ,to make plates or dishes of sheet iron or other metal1 cut out a disc or oval1 of the size you wish1 and then draw a line parallel to the edge all round it 7,fig4 #ah72 then draw lines radiating from the centre1 like points on a compass card1 as many as you please1 say twelve1 which will divide each quarter into three parts1 answering to the hours on a clock face4 ,make a small hollow across the end of a block of wood1 the stem of the nearest small tree cut off at a convenient length for instance1 lay the edge of your plate on it with one of the radiating lines corresponding with the hollow2 strike it with the edge of your hammer till you have slightly indented it1 do the same on the opposite side1 and then with the other two quarters2 repeat this all round1 and you will have a very neat and useful plate1 with scolloped edges like the patty pans usually sold by tinmen 7,fig4 #ai74 ,rivets4 ,a few rivets of various sizes1 of iron1 tin1 and copper1 should be taken2 but1 if the work is to be exposed to the action of the water1 care should be taken not to fasten iron sheets with copper rivets1 as the action of the metals on each other will be most destructive4 ,tin rivets may be used to fasten any other metal where great strength is not required1 and they are very advantageous for many purposes1 as handles of tin or copper pannikins4 ,by these we mean rivets of tin1 not of iron tinned over1 which also are useful1 but not so easily worked4 ,make-shift forge and bellows4 ,to extemporise a forge and bellows1 the natives of ,africa and ,india1 who invariably squat down to their work1 simply make their fire on the ground1 which is previously smoothed and clayed over2 behind this is raised a bank or fence of clay1 perforated for the admission of a tube1 either of wood of the bark of a small tree1 or of the horn of an ox1 or other large animal4 ,their bellows are variously formed1 but in every instance a pair are used1 being worked alternately1 one with the right hand and the other with the left1 so as to keep up a continuous blast4 ,they are generally formed of goat or antelope skins of about the same size1 which are skinned off as sacks1 and braiied or softened in the usual manner4 ,illustration3 ,,native ,,indian ,,blacksmith4 ,the sack is made by cutting the skin of the animal along the inside of the thighs1 and then1 without making any other incision1 stripping it over the fore part of the body1 the head being previously cut off1 the skin of the legs is sewn or knotted up to prevent the escape of air4 ,in one of the hinder legs of each bag is fitted a smaller tube1 frequently of gemsbok horn1 and to the sides of the aperture of the neck are sewn two pieces of stick with loops upon them for the insertion in one of the thumbs1 and in the other of the fingers1 so that by expanding the hand the neck can be opened while it is raised to inflate the bag1 and closed up by grasping it tightly when it is pressed down to force the stream of air upon the fire2 then by inflating and compressing the bags alternately1 the primary object of a continuous and sufficient supply of air is obtained4 ,there are various modifications of form1 in some of which more or less wood is very ingeniously used2 but as the power of the whole depends entirely on the amount of air that can be inclosed in and forcibly expelled from the skin bags1 we think the foregoing description will sufficiently answer the purpose4 ,if the traveller wishes--as an ,englishman generally does--to stand up to his work1 he can build up for his forge a square of rough stones1 and then smooth over the top with a mixture of cattle dung and clay1 of which last anthills broken up afford the finest quality2 or if the hills are sufficiently large1 he may at once smooth off the top of one and shape the embankment in the rear4 ,but in this case he will also have to raise another platform1 not only to carry his bellows1 but for the blower to sit upon2 for we doubt whether a native in the wilderness could be prevailed upon to blow them in any other position4 ,one of the most important portions of a waggon1 and at the same time one most liable to damage1 is the axle1 and it is therefore of vital consequence that the traveller should understand properly how to set about repairing it4 ,new axles4 ,suppose it be necessary to condemn the broken axle and make a new one2 the first care is to seek out a tree of good hard wood--kameel doorn 7,acacia giraff7 is about the best a traveller is generally likely to find1 though many other varieties may be used--and in thinly wooded countries this may imply a day or more spent in searching for miles around1 for the trunk should be of tolerably straight grain1 solid1 and capable of affording a log #f;ft4 or #g;ft4 in length1 #aj;in4 in depth1 and #d;in4 in thickness4 ,a yoke of oxen may be sent to draw it home1 and it should then be truly1 however roughly1 squared up to the above dimensions4 ,the size of the aperture in the nave1 both at the back and front of the wheel1 should then be taken1 they will generally be about #d;in41 tapering to #c;in4 or #b-a_/b;in42 the length of the arm will probably be from #ad;in4 to #af;in4 ,in cutting the arm nothing is to be tapered off from the front 7,fig4 #a7 or from the lower part 7,fig4 #b71 all the taper being cut from above and from behind1 so that the wheels may incline a little inward in front and below1 and if the axle arms should bend a little with the weight of cargo and with the forward draught1 they may only have a tendency to resume a true position4 ,the arms should be carefully lined off in accordance with these rules1 and in cutting the shoulder 7,fig4 #c7 it should be squared1 not from the edge of the axle1 but from a line 7dotted in the illustration7 drawn along the centre of the arm1 so that the back of the nave may bear truly against it4 ,in cutting the shoulder be sure not to weaken the arm by letting the saw go1 however little1 beyond the proper depth1 for where so great a pressure has to be borne the slightest cut would become the beginning of a fracture4 ,when the arms have been cut and roughly rounded by saw and adze or axe1 trim them with the spoke-shave1 and occasionally try on the wheel1 whirling it round to test the truthfulness of the work--there is almost sure to be sufficient grease or tar left in it to mark all the undue projections1 and to leave clean the hollows on the arm1 and the marks should be carefully examined that you may know what parts require to be trimmed away4 ,it is now time to take off the iron work from the condemned axle2 and sufficient notice should be taken of every piece1 to know exactly to what portion of the woodwork it is to be restored1 for much extra difficulty is occasioned by any uncertainty on this point4 ,bolts1 though of the same apparent size1 should not be transferred at random from one side to the other1 and every nut1 when once removed1 should be scrupulously restored to the individual bolt it belongs to4 ,these injunctions may seem needlessly strict2 but we speak from experience1 and if the reader has to attempt the work now under consideration he will do well to attend as strictly to them4 ,illustration ,the iron skeins1 or friction guards 7,fig4 #d71 should be removed from the arms of the old axle and carefully let into the corresponding ones of the new2 and when nearly fitted they may be slightly heated so as to char and smooth the bed for themselves1 as well as to grip more tightly1 in cooling1 the wood they are meant to protect4 ,before fastening them with their proper bolts the wheels should be tried on to ascertain that they have been truly fitted4 ,note4--,the sketch above shows1 on one side1 the kap tent1 or properly-built roof1 and on the other1 the wattled substitute4 ,o is the front of the kadel1 or swinging bed frame1 ,l1 #h1 ,m1 on the next page1 are the yokes1 skeis1 and trek gear1 drawn to the scale given at the side4 ,if1 as is most frequently the case1 the new axle is a front one1 it must now be fitted under the rest of the fore stell or carriage 7,h71 the holes for the connecting bolts and perch-bolt marked and truly bored1 and the clamps which bind it to the upper portion heated1 driven into their place1 and tightened by being suddenly cooled with water4 ,illustration ,sometimes1 when it is not necessary1 or wood sufficiently large cannot be procured1 to make a new axle1 a new arm 7,i7 may be let in1 and this should be scarfed and checked in1 and the inner end 7,fig4 #e71 which reaches nearly to the centre of the axle1 cut1 not square1 but diagonally across1 so that the after side is somewhat longer than the front1 and this1 preventing the inner end from coming forward1 will also counteract the natural tendency of the draught to force the arm backward4 ,if the longitudinal cut 7,fig4 #f7 for the scarf is also made not square across1 but a little inclined upwards in front1 it will also help to resist the backward pressure of the wheel4 ,no fastening beyond the bolt which passes through the quarter of the axle and the band at the shoulder is absolutely necessary for the fixing of a new arm4 ,we have1 upon one occasion1 not only made a new axle1 but when1 from unsoundness of timber1 a new arm was necessary1 have put in one on which the heavily-loaded waggon ran nearly #ajjj miles2 and besides this1 the fore tong 7,j71 or socket in which the dissel-boom or pole 7,k7 works being much broken1 we cut off the jaws on either side1 and fitted new ones in a manner that will be much better understood by the above sketch than by description2 and these1 after running from the ,zambesi to ,otjimbengue1 were still so firm that the professional waggon-wright1 deemed it necessary only to secure them by the addition of a couple of bands put on hot1 and shrunk down on them with water4 ,repairing poles4 ,frequently the dissel-boom or pole will break1 but the cutting and fitting of a new one is too simple a matter to need much more instruction than a careful inspection of the old one will afford2 it was our practice1 however1 to bore a hole perpendicularly downward behind the dissel-bolt 7,fig4 #g71 and by means of a #a_/b;in4 bolt and nut1 tightly screwed1 preserve the pole from splitting when subjected to a heavy strain4 ,mr4 ,reeder1 whom we met near the ,zambesi1 showed us a very ingenious plan of staying the dissel-boom when the fore tong was weakened4 ,chapman went out and shot a rhinoceros1 and ,reeder first nailed a chock upon the dissel-boom1 and fixed on it a grummet of rhinoceros hide as tight as possible1 then1 taking a long1 stout strip of the same1 he hitched the middle of it on in front of the grummet1 leading the parts to each side of the splinter bar1 and thence under the axle to the bolts behind it1 where the ends were thinned off sufficiently to admit of their being easily made fast4 ,these stays did not come forward enough to gall the after oxen4 ,the great virtue of raw hide is that1 instead of slackening like rope when it dries1 it shrinks1 and becomes as hard as iron4 ,suppose a dissel-boom sprung where another could not be procured1 the skin from the leg of an ox1 or a wild animal of corresponding size--say a buffalo or quagga--drawn on while wet and allowed to dry1 would make the joint firmer even than the unfractured part 7,fig4 #h74 ,the skin from the tail of an ox will1 in the same manner1 mend a broken waggon whip2 and that of a calf's tail is in like manner used by the ,kafirs to bind the part where the iron of their assegais or light javelins is inserted into the shaft4 ,quagga skin1 indeed1 is especially used for this purpose1 and hardly for any other1 as it is so rigid that the ordinary means for softening leather are of no avail4 ,sometimes the ,dutch farmers use the skin1 just as it is stripped off1 as a jar or barrel to hold corn or other produce4 ,illustration ,the repair of wheels4 ,a long journey over rough roads and in an intensely hot country1 like ,africa in the dry season1 will tell upon the best-made wheels1 and the spokes and tires will become loose most frequently where it is impossible properly to rectify the defect4 ,in such cases a number of wedges of dry1 straight-grained wood must be prepared1 and for this purpose some box or packing-case1 made of deal1 must be sacrificed1 as it will be almost impossible to procure anything so suitable in the bush2 the plank must be cut into pieces between #c;in4 and #d;in4 long1 and1 if these are again sawn diagonally along their length1 material will be saved by the production of two wedges1 where only one could have been made by the whittling process4 ,these must be driven tightly in from back and front1 between the felloe and the tire1 and as equally as possible all round the wheel2 if they are then wetted with1 and allowed to absorb1 a strong solution of salt in water1 they will swell1 and will not again shrink as they would if wetted with water only4 ,we knew one very practical ,englishman who used to soak his wedges in salt and water before driving them in1 but what he gained by thus previously swelling them we never were able to learn4 ,if the spokes become loose in the nave the temporary remedy is to cut two stout bars1 in length just equal to the diameter of the wheel2 half check them so as to give them a better hold on the felloe2 lay them parallel to each other on the front of the wheel1 one on each side the nave1 and bind every spoke as firmly as possible to them with thongs of raw hide1 taking care to keep the lashings quite close to the centre of the wheel2 the drying up of the thongs will shrink them so much that the fabric of the wheel will be as firmly bound together as if clamped with iron4 ,if a spoke be broken1 cut a new one much thicker than the rest1 half check it on to the back of the felloe1 and let the other end abut upon the nave1 filling up nearly the space between the sound spokes on either side2 it should need to be driven in tightly1 and1 when in position1 should be secured by thongs of raw hide1 both at the nave and at the felloe1 to sticks laid across the front of the spokes on either side1 and securely lashed to them4 ,lead1 and its uses4 ,lead is useful for a multitude of purposes2 its great specific gravity1 and the ease with which it can be melted1 cut1 hammered1 moulded1 and bent1 render it especially valuable as a handy metal4 ,our space will not admit of our giving more than a few of the most noteworthy purposes to which it can be applied by the hunter and explorer4 ,projectiles of all sizes can be made from it1 from the ponderous cannon shot to the small sizes used by the hunter naturalist4 ,cannon shot4 ,round shot for artillery1 of excellent quality1 can be manufactured from lead2 and there is no doubt that for certain purposes it is far superior to the iron missiles in general use1 the cheapness of the latter material being its great recommendation4 ,it will sometimes happen in wild countries that although regular cannon balls are not obtainable lead is1 and to make round shot from it two or three methods may be adopted4 ,the first is to form a ball from well-mixed clay1 or carve one from wood1 of size to fit the bore of the piece easily1 but not too loosely4 ,the clay ball will require thorough drying in the sun or before a slow fire before use4 ,the wooden one will merely require sprinkling over with fine ashes from the camp fire to fit it for use4 ,two large calabashes1 wooden boxes1 bowls1 or cooking pots1 are now to be rather more than filled with well-kneaded clay1 which has been carefully freed from stones or grit1 pressing it well down with a flat board until it is quite even at the surface and is perfectly compact4 ,the clay round the edges of the two clay holders must now be trimmed off with a knife even with the sides of the holders1 but projecting about an inch beyond the brim4 ,the surface of each is now to be sprinkled with very fine ashes1 and the ball pressed into the centre of the clay until it is half imbedded4 ,it is then to be carefully removed1 and pressed in like manner on the other holder4 ,the ball is then taken out and laid aside1 the two holders being allowed to dry slowly1 care being taken that the clay is not cracked by the too sudden application of heat4 ,when thoroughly dry1 the vessels or holders are to be placed mouth to mouth1 and so fitted1 by scraping the clay1 that the two indentations formed by the ball fit exactly facing each other2 when this has been done1 a funnel-shaped inlet must be cut for the admission of the molten lead4 ,the two holders may now be put together1 secured with a lashing of cord or strips of hide1 and the metal run in at the inlet4 ,some time must be allowed to elapse before the mould is disturbed1 or the lead will not have sufficiently settled to admit of the shot being removed without injury to the apparatus4 ,the tail of lead formed by the inlet serves to lift the shot out by1 and is then cut off flush with the surface4 ,a number of balls may with care be made with the same pair of holders1 only the greatest caution is needed in this1 as with all other operations in which molten lead is used1 to guard against the presence of moisture in the mould1 or most serious accidents will happen4 ,we were busily engaged one night over the camp fire casting heavy bullets for our large smooth bore1 making use of an iron ladle for the lead1 and a large pair of iron moulds for the balls4 ,these had become rather hot and were laid aside to cool2 and whilst this was doing1 as the lead was beginning to run rather short1 we started for the tent to get more1 desiring one of the ,indians1 who was keeping up the fire and generally aiding in the operations1 to go on casting so soon as the moulds were cool4 ,that no time might be lost1 our dusky assistant plunged the hot mould in a pot of water1 closed it up1 and proceeded to pour in the charge of heated metal1 when a violent explosion instantly took place1 scattering the boiling lead broadcast over the naked legs and bodies of the unfortunate natives1 sending the ladle one way1 the mould another1 and causing a perfect panic and dire dismay throughout the party4 ,soft stones of many kinds can be conveniently made use of for casting in1 taking two of equal size1 scooping out the cavity in each stone of the form intended to be given to the casting1 and then cutting an inlet4 ,common ,bath scouring bricks answer this purpose admirably4 ,we constantly use them for casting fishing leads1 plummets1 bodies for artificial baits1 c4 c4 ,two bricks1 or portions of brick1 are made use of4 ,the surfaces are rendered smooth by rubbing them together4 ,the intended cavity is then marked with a sharp point on each half1 and scooped neatly out with a knife1 chisel1 or other convenient instrument2 when finished1 notched1 and the inlet cut1 the two halves are tied together with tape and the lead poured in4 ,objects of six or seven pounds weight can be made by the use of two common scouring bricks4 ,balls of large size are often made in the ,east by hammering square masses of lead1 or iron1 on an anvil until sufficiently round for use4 ,great labour and no little skill are required to perform the operation1 which after all leads to very unsatisfactory results1 the balls being rough and untrue1 corresponding with the interiors of the barrels they are intended to be fired from4 ,we have seen heavy stones and bits of iron covered with lead fired from the most unpromising looking matchlocks1 which1 somehow or another1 deliver their charge with greater force and accuracy than would be anticipated on a first examination4 ,the best moulds for casting bullets of all sizes and forms are those made from gun-metal1 bronze1 or brass4 ,buck-shot mould4 ,a buck-shot mould of either of these materials will be found of great value4 ,we have one which has proved on many occasions of the greatest service2 it is constructed to contain two rows of cavities for the shot1 seven in each row1 one above the other2 so that when the groove leading to the inlets is filled with lead1 and all the cavities are charged1 the second row is turned upwards and treated in the same manner4 ,the shot1 when cold1 are cut from their necks with a knife or strong pair of scissors1 and are then fit for use4 ,they should be about the size of common peas1 and a charge of them from a large powerful gun is tremendously effective2 they are extremely useful for deer jumping1 antelope shooting1 wild goose or bustard stalking4 ,at very short distances1 and in close encounter with a large animal1 they may be used with destructive effect1 but must be only considered in the light of a makeshift when the true large game of the forest has to be dealt with4 ,against attacking hordes of savages1 in a bush fight1 or canoe encounter1 they are invaluable4 ,the charge must be proportioned to the size of the guns2 those of heavy metal and large bore generally deliver them best4 ,slugs1 to make4 ,slugs are to be made by filling a box or large pot with fine clean sand1 forcing it down tight1 and then with a smooth round stick1 about the size of a small pencil1 making a number of holes from the surface to the bottom of the vessel or receiver in which the sand has been placed4 ,when as many are made as the space will admit of1 pour the molten lead steadily into them until they are filled2 when cold1 the sand can be thrown out1 and the leaden rods or pencils separated from it4 ,these1 when laid on a board in rows1 can be cut up into short junks by placing a strong knife on them1 and striking it on the back with any convenient instrument4 ,thick sheets of lead are cut up into dice in much the same manner4 ,these are usually shaken about in a tin box or an iron pot1 in order to round off the corners4 ,illustration ,shot1 to make4 ,the manufacture of shot by the amateur1 although not quite as easy of accomplishment as the preparation of slugs1 may be1 with the exercise of a little ingenuity1 successfully carried out2 and although the produce of his labours will not equal the perfect spheres produced by the professional shot manufacturer1 by the aid of his costly tower1 yet it will be good enough for the description of shooting he will be likely to obtain in situations where the making of shot is rendered necessary4 ,we were driven to the necessity of devising the plan we are about to describe by the impossibility of obtaining shot1 coupled with the urgent want of that to be procured with it4 ,thus is the operation to be conducted3--,a piece of iron1 such as horse-shoes are made from1 is to be obtained if possible1 if not1 any other piece of iron1 about #b;ft4 long and of moderate width and thickness1 will answer the purpose4 ,about an inch from the end of this drill a wide-mouthed1 funnel-shaped hole1 of the form known as a countersink1 until within about the eighth of an inch of going through the bar2 then1 with a drill about the size of a knitting-needle1 extend the hole quite through2 next1 get a piece of dry plank1 about #c;ft4 long1 and in it1 with a handsaw1 cut as many longitudinal cuts as the width of the board will admit of1 making them a little over the eighth of an inch deep and the thickness of the saw wide4 ,the board1 when placed slightly on the incline1 must be so treated with a charge of molten lead that all the cuts are filled with it from the upper end2 the result will be the formation of a great number of long lead wires4 ,these are to be taken from the grooves and fresh batches run1 until as many pounds have been made as it is intended to make shot4 ,a preserved-meat tin1 or an ordinary tin pot1 must now be about one-third filled with water1 and the remaining two-thirds filled up with oil2 the pot must be placed on a plate or dish1 in order to catch any oil which may run over as the work proceeds4 ,the end of the iron bar which has the hole in it is now to be placed in the fire and heated to a bright-red heat3 when the other end1 round which a piece of cloth may be bound1 is grasped with the left hand1 and the bar quickly withdrawn from the fire1 struck smartly against some solid body1 in order to remove adhering dust and ashes1 and then held with the wide mouth of the hole upward1 a short distance above the surface of the oil in the pot4 ,a lead wire is now to be quickly taken up in the right hand and its end pressed well down into the hole 7as shown in the above illustration72 if the iron is well heated1 the wire will melt away very rapidly and run in a succession of drops into the oil3 wire after wire is to be thus melted1 until the iron requires reheating4 7,it is a good plan to have two or more irons at work1 but it is not essential47 ,this wire-melting process must be continued until all the stock has been expended1 when the solid contents of the pot may be taken out4 ,if the operation of dropping has been properly performed the result will be shot of about three sizes--,no4 #g1 ,no4 #d1 and duck shot4 ,certain conditional circumstances somewhat alter these sizes1 but approximately they are to be expected1 and a certain number more or less tailed will generally be found amongst the rest4 ,to separate the three sizes of round shot two flat tin boxes or empty sardine tins are required4 ,with a piece of nail filed down1 so as to make a hole the size to just let ,no4 #g shot through1 punch a number of holes in the bottom of one of the boxes1 so as to make a sort of sieve of it2 then with another nail make holes in the bottom of the second box1 just large enough to let your ,no4 #d through4 ,when these are prepared1 wash your mixed shot in water1 with wood ashes in it2 this removes all the oil in the form of soap4 ,the shot1 when dry1 is ready for sifting with the boxes4 ,the first box lets only ,no4 #g or a size or so smaller through1 keeping back the ,no4 #d4 ,the second box lets the ,no4 #d through1 retaining the duck shot4 ,each size may now have its own respective tailers1 or pear-shaped shot1 mixed with it2 these can be got rid of by allowing the shot to run down over a sloping board1 when the round shot run straight to the bottom1 whilst the tailers run off at the sides1 and can be collected to melt up again4 ,lead plates1 to make4 ,plates of lead for writing inscriptions on can be cast by turning up the edges of a piece of sheet copper1 iron1 or tin1 just high enough to form a sort of shallow tray to hold the molten lead4 ,in the absence of sheet metal1 the surface of a box of sand1 or a flat stone with a little wall of clay round it1 may be made use of4 ,lead pencils and stock whip handles4 ,lead pencils1 for rough carpenter's work1 can be made by filling joints of small cane1 marsh reeds1 or weed stalks1 with melted lead1 and then pointing them with a knife4 ,the handles of stock whips and some other implements are weighted1 and prevented from splitting1 by having lead run into them2 some of the former are occasionally very elaborately ornamented4 ,the operation is performed by first cutting out the intended pattern on the handle with a sharp-pointed knife or other instrument1 taking care that the cutting penetrates the wood deeply1 that the form of the groove is slightly undercut1 and that each ring of the pattern communicates with the one below it4 ,the first ring on the stick must have an inlet made in it2 strips of stout brown paper are now1 after being slightly moistened and touched over with paste1 rolled round the stick1 layer after layer in spiral form1 until its whole length has been thickly covered like the case of a rocket4 ,when thoroughly dry the lead is run in at the inlet1 and when cold the paper can be stripped off1 and the handle finished off and polished with sand-paper or a bit of fish-skin4 ,bruised gun-barrels1 to repair4 ,indentations in the sides of gun or rifle barrels can be taken out by the following process3--,take the barrel out of the stock2 cut a cork so as to fit the muzzle tightly1 and then force it down three inches1 ram in about a quarter of an inch of dry powdered clay on the cork1 twist a cloth dipped in cold water several times round the barrel in order to prevent the rib from becoming unsoldered by heat1 and then fill up the space above the clay with molten hardened lead4 7,see ,to harden bullets1 p4 #bbh47 ,you will then have a metal plug exactly fitting the barrel4 ,remove the cork and clay1 and fashion from strong hardwood a rod just long enough to reach a few inches beyond the indentation4 ,a bar of iron is now to be heated to a red heat1 and placed against the indented spot on the outside of the barrel2 the wet cloth being at the same time wound above and below it4 ,the metal plug is now to be forced down the tube with the rod until it rests on the obstruction1 when a few blows with a piece of heavy wood on the upper end of the rod will generally pass the plug onwards by forcing the tube back to its proper position4 ,it will be well to reverse ends with the plug and force it up and down several times1 until it travels quite freely past the point of obstruction4 ,make-shift rifle shells4 ,rifle shells may be extemporised by having little tin tubes the length of the conical bullet and the size of the gun nipple made4 ,these1 when their ends have been plugged with wood1 are placed one by one in the mould1 held upright by a bit of very fine brass wire1 and the lead cast round them1 so that the lead at the base of the bullet may extend beyond the end of the tube and cover it4 ,the thin end of the tube should project just a trifle beyond the apex of the cone1 as a rest for the cap4 ,the wooden plug at this end is now taken out2 the tube filled with the best sporting powder1 and a strong1 well made percussion-cap put on the tube1 and secured there with strong varnish1 sealing-wax1 or pitch4 ,the loading of a breech-loader with these is accomplished with no danger1 but with a muzzle-loader the very greatest caution is required4 ,the end of the ramrod or loading stick should be very deeply countersunk1 in order to take all pressure off the cap2 and even with this precaution it is well to make use of an overhanging branch of a tree to place the rod against1 whilst the rifle is thrust muzzle upwards until the ball is home4 ,shells somewhat on this principle were first brought into notice by the late ,general ,jacob1 of the ,scinde ,irregular ,horse4 ,they are tremendously destructive when skilfully used3 destroying large animals by exploding in them1 and blowing up magazines of gunpowder at all but incredible distances2 but we have known them explode outside the elephant and other large pachyderms1 thus failing completely in the object they were used for4 ,mr4 ,metford's improvement on the ,jacob shell is worthy of remark4 ,finding that it did not always explode1 he mixed equal parts of chlorate of potass and sulphate of antimony2 the two can be mixed on a plate with a bone paper-cutter or a quill pen4 ,the more they are mixed1 the more sensitive is their detonating power4 ,the bullets are moulded with a hole from point nearly to base1 as for ,jacob's shells1 but no copper tube is used4 ,the powder is filled in with a quill to the top1 and settled down by a few taps of the base of the bullet on a table1 and the end is then stopped with wax4 ,but it is very questionable whether1 in close encounter with large animals1 it is not better1 after all1 to rely on the more certain effects of heavy balls of ordinary construction1 with strong charges of powder behind them4 ,with the numerous improvements in rifle shells we cannot deal1 as many of them are too complex in their component parts for a wandering hunter or explorer to be able to imitate successfully4 ,ladles1 spoons1 and other substitutes4 ,small ladles or iron spoons are usually used to melt lead in1 but1 in the absence of these1 bullets and other small matters may be cast in the following manner1 which is a favourite one amongst the ,indians3--,a piece of dry hard wood1 about #af;in4 long1 #c;in4 broad1 and #b;in4 thick1 is prepared2 on one end of this a spoon-shaped cavity1 with a lip-shaped groove in the end1 is made2 in the bottom of this a few red-hot wood embers from the fire are placed on these same fragments of flattened lead1 and on the lead some good-sized pieces of red-hot embers4 ,a bit of bark is now twisted into a blow-pipe1 from which a steady stream of air is directed to the miniature furnace1 which almost instantly melts the lead1 and fits it for running by the lip into the mould1 just as it would from a spoon4 ,clean1 excellent bullets are to be made in this way4 ,lead ore smelting4 ,it sometimes happens that lead ore or galena is discovered4 ,lead as a metal1 except in very rare instances1 is not found in a native or malleable form2 and as the ore is a sulphuret1 brittle1 and easily pulverised1 some method must be had recourse to in order to smelt and render it fit for use4 ,some ,indians do it in the following manner3--,after reducing a large quantity of the ore to powder1 between heavy stones1 they seek out a hollow tree stump1 clear out the bottom flush with the ground1 and dig a pit just outside it4 ,then on the bottom or floor of the stump a thick layer of dry wood is placed1 evenly on this a layer of the powdered ore1 then another layer of wood1 then one of ore1 and so on until the stump is quite full4 ,a small hole is then chopped with a tomahawk through the side of the stump1 level with the ground and opposite the pit4 ,through this orifice fire is introduced1 and the stump soon becomes a mass of glowing heat as the air rushes in at the hole at the bottom2 so fast as the galena 7which is usually very pure7 is reduced to melted lead it trickles through the interstices of the heated pile1 and runs out into the pit1 where it is allowed to settle and cool4 ,the ,dutch-,africans like to have their bullets of such a size that when one is put into a clean barrel it passes slowly down without rattling1 the slight noise of the escaping air being heard as it descends4 ,in a skirmish they load very quickly2 the powder is poured from the large ox-horn into the hollow of the hand1 and thence into the gun3 a number of bullets are held in the mouth1 one is dropped in1 and the moisture cakes the powder round and holds it in its place with a very slight tap from the ramrod1 or sometimes perhaps without2 though we should never advise any one to incur so great a risk of bursting his gun4 ,illustration3 ,,lead ,,smelting ,,in ,,the ,,forest4 ,to harden bullets4 ,for such game as the elephant or rhinoceros the hunters harden their bullets with a little tin--not more than one-tenth2 if too much is added it makes the bullet brittle1 and detracts from its specific gravity2 it should be just hard enough to show a slight indentation when bitten4 ,the lead must be first melted as requiring the greater heat1 and the tin added afterwards4 ,type metal1 or worn-out type from printing offices1 is much used for this purpose2 but quicksilver1 which1 from its own great specific gravity1 does not detract from the weight of the bullet1 is the best alloy4 ,sir ,s4 ,baker says3--,the lead is melted in a pot1 which is kept at red heat4 ,enough to make three or four bullets is taken in a smaller ladle1 and one-tenth of quicksilver added and stirred into it with a bit of iron1 as if the quicksilver is exposed to the great heat of the larger pot it will soon evaporate4 ,the rifle bullets used in the army1 being compressed instead of cast1 are hard enough without alloy2 and in breech-loaders1 where the bullet has to pass through a barrel which is generally a trifle smaller than the chamber1 it would be unsafe to harden it too much4 ,illustration ,cleft bullets4 ,the ,fingoes and ,kafirs cut a small piece off two bullets1 so as to produce flat surfaces 7,fig4 #a72 then1 while the lead is still clean1 press them strongly together1 giving them a half turn to expel the air and bring them perfectly in contact4 ,they will adhere so strongly as to bear throwing on the ground1 and when fired at a hundred yards will separate only a few inches4 ,a bullet cleft very nearly through with two cuts1 so that it spreads into four parts 7,fig4 #b71 makes a fearful wound at close quarters--a conical cut from its base 7,fig4 #c7 particularly so4 ,sometimes two bullets are connected by a bit of bell wire rolled up spirally as a spring 7,fig4 #d74 ,we have seen bundles of nails bound together with wire by the rebel ,hottentots in imitation of conical bullets4 ,the ,kafirs use bits of the legs of iron pots4 ,some of the native hunters use iron bullets1 or rather bolts twice as long as their diameter2 but they creep so close that they cannot miss1 and follow the wounded animal till he dies1 so that they always recover their bullet4 ,extemporising bullet moulds4 ,bullet moulds may be extemporised in many ways4 ,two shallow boxes may be made and filled with loam or clay1 much as the moulds for cannon shot1 before described1 are made 7of which last no material is better than a pounded anthill71 and the surface of the lower one must be smooth4 ,a piece of stiff paper pierced with holes the size of the bullet laid on it1 and as many bullets as convenient pressed half way into the clay1 the other half must then be pressed down upon it1 and when nearly dry the bullets must be taken out1 holes made through to the outer surface1 on which a small channel should be cut1 so that the lead may run to the entrance and not waste itself by spreading4 ,most likely the mould would be damaged after two or three castings1 but it is easy to make a new one4 ,the ,dutch boers frequently use blocks of steatite or soapstone1 with half the bullet cut into each1 and pegs or projections on one half1 with corresponding hollows in the other1 keep the two parts in true position 7,fig4 #e74 ,in ,sydney we required a conical bullet mould2 and1 as such things were not generally kept for sale1 we engaged a founder to make a solid block of brass1 as in ,fig4 #f1 and in this to bore a cylindro-conical hole1 point downwards1 about #a_/b in4 deeper than the length of the bullet2 another piece was made with a handle at one end1 and at the other a projection 7,fig4 #g71 to fit into the block and give the form of the hollow back of the bullet2 a hole was bored through this a little smaller above than below1 so that when the superfluous lead was cut off the bullet would come away with a tail about #a in4 long1 tapering to the end2 this was easily cut off with proper pincers2 there was a small notch cut up the side of the inserted block so as to allow of the escape of air as the lead was poured in4 ,in some conical moulds the lead is poured in from the side1 and in others from the point4 ,we do not approve of either of these methods4 ,the greatest hardness1 weight1 and density should be at the point1 and therefore this should be downward in the mould1 while the metal is poured in at the base4 ,of course the great range acquired by some of our most perfect rifles with cylinder conical bullets is an immense advantage1 for if animals cannot be approached they may be shot at long ranges2 and very frequently during the last ,kafir war1 while parties with the common musket have been defending themselves against savages who occupied almost impregnable positions1 those among the colonists who possessed long ranged rifles would occupy a hill perhaps a couple of thousand yards off1 and send bullets among the enemy with quite sufficient accuracy to create a very uncomfortable feeling of insecurity4 ,a very favourite form of gun was a double-barrel1 with one barrel rifled1 and very carefully sighted for long ranges1 and the other plain1 and capable of throwing a good charge of buck shot1 which we have seen very effectively used at thirty or forty yards4 ,sporting rifles4 ,when the elephant hunters lie at the water by night1 and shoot at very close quarters1 they find that a sharp-pointed conical with very high velocity1 pierces so suddenly and sharply1 that the animal feels no shock to the nervous system1 and gets away for many miles1 and dies beyond their reach4 ,they therefore choose a short1 smooth-bore gun1 with a very large round bullet4 ,we have seen them as large as half a pound2 and this1 with a comparatively small charge of powder1 say #i;drs4 or #aj;drs41 bruises rather than pierces1 communicating such a shock to the adjacent parts that the creature is stunned as well as wounded1 and is not able to make those marvellous last efforts that in the former case would enable him at least to die in peace far out of reach of his pursuers4 ,we1 after a fair trial of the conical ball in ,india1 abandoned it on account of the quantity of wounded game lost1 and returned to the old spherical projectile4 ,cartridge making4 ,improvements in guns are long before they are generally adopted in wild and distant countries4 ,the old flint musket is to this day the favoured weapon of most of the border tribes of ,south ,africa1 ,america1 and the ,east2 it will shoot quite well enough for them1 and1 if of military make1 it lasts a long time in comparatively good order4 ,percussion guns found their way very slowly even among the ,dutch colonists2 many admitted their superiority1 but there was always the uncertainty of being able to obtain a supply of caps1 and1 in the same way1 many excellent forms of breech-loaders cannot be adopted by persons travelling or residing far from civilisation1 because complicated and expensive cartridges are required1 and when the supply runs short the gun is useless4 ,and sometimes1 because however perfect the gun may be while well taken care of1 its delicate adjustments soon give way under the rough wear and tear of actual hard service4 ,the advantages of facility in reloading1 especially on horseback1 or while running after or away from the game or enemy1 are so great that if a breech-loader can be made sufficiently strong and simple in all its parts1 capable of being used as a muzzle-loader on emergencies1 or with cartridges so simple that a person of ordinary skill can make them for himself1 it will surely commend itself to men whose lives1 in many cases1 depend upon the effectiveness of their guns4 ,it would be invidious in us to compare the merits of the various forms4 ,we have already mentioned the satisfaction with which we used the single-barrelled ,wilson breech-loader1 the simplicity and strength of which1 combined with facility of loading1 were all that could be desired1 unless1 indeed1 it were made self-capping1 which we believe could easily be done4 ,a metal breech-plug1 to be inserted when required1 converts it into a muzzle-loader2 but then a smaller size of bullet must be used1 and the cartridges are so simple and inexpensive1 that we found it more easy to make them on the spot4 ,the materials required were a few sheets of tissue paper1 a quantity of felt wads1 tolerably stout1 half of them the exact size of the bore1 and the rest a little smaller4 ,illustration3 #a-aa ,a piece of tin of the form and size indicated by the diagonal lines 7,fig4 #a7 in our illustration was used as a pattern by which to cut the paper4 ,the straight edge that was to surround the bullet1 and the farthest diagonal side1 were touched with a little gum1 gathered from the nearest mimosa4 ,a small cylinder of wood 7,fig4 #c7 was then taken by the knob1 in the left hand1 and1 with the right1 the hollow base of the bullet 7,fig4 #b7 was fitted on to the convex end1 laid fairly on the paper 7,fig4 #f7 and rolled forward until the cartridge case was formed4 ,the wood was then withdrawn1 and the paper1 adhering to the bullet1 left to dry4 ,when a sufficient number were completed1 they were set upright in any convenient trough1 or in a block of wood 7,fig4 #g71 #c;in4 deep1 bored with holes of the proper size 7,fig4 #aa74 ,the charge of powder was poured into each and covered with a small disc of card or paper4 ,one of the small wads1 saturated with grease1 was next put in 7,fig4 #h71 the superfluous paper folded down on it 7,fig4 #i71 and a full-sized wad was then affixed to the end with a drop of gum 7,fig4 #aj74 ,the tissue paper was quite strong enough to confine the powder1 and a military cap1 of fair average quality1 never failed to drive the fire through it to the charge4 ,we found it best to saturate our wads by melting1 or rather heating1 our hardest fat nearly to boiling point1 throwing them in and letting them absorb as much as possible1 and then spreading them out on a clean surface to cool4 ,of course we carried a couple of wad punches of the proper size in case our supply should run short4 ,illustration ,in making a cartridge for a muzzle-loading rifle1 the wooden roller should have a hollow to receive the point of the bullet2 the bullet is placed on the paper with the base towards the right hand1 just so far within the edge as to allow a wad to be put behind1 and the paper turned down over it4 ,the powder is then measured into the case on the point1 and1 in loading1 the powder is first poured into the gun1 then the bullet is reversed and the paper torn off before it is rammed down4 ,it is questionable1 however1 whether any form of single-barrelled rifle or shot gun can compete with a double barrel for general usefulness and efficiency4 ,whilst on the subject of cartridges1 it may not be amiss to refer to the tallow cartridges used for shot guns4 ,they add greatly to the length of range1 and are extremely valuable for wildfowl shooting4 ,illustration3 ,a-,c ,the following communication to the ,field newspaper will serve to explain the mode to be observed in their manufacture3-- ,grease cartridges1 to make4 ,a represents a piece of common cartridge paper2 ,b a roller of boxwood1 or any hard wood1 turned to the size to admit the paper ,a being rolled once round it1 and then fitting into the chamber ,c2 ,c a chamber turned out of a solid piece of wood1 the chamber to be the exact size of bore of gun the cartridges are intended for4 ,to make the cartridges1 cut a piece of paper in the shape of the drawing ,a1 cutting the top to the width requisite1 to allow the paper at top to overlap nearly a quarter of an inch2 then gum the edge of the paper to about the eighth of an inch1 as marked by the dotted line on the drawing ,a4 ,place the roller ,b on to the paper at ,d1 and roll up firmly2 wind round it a little thread1 to keep the paper from slipping4 ,in a few minutes it will be dry4 ,you can then push the roller out of the case1 and proceed in the same way till you have enough cases4 ,secondly1 take the roller and return it to the case1 excepting that you leave the roller exposed at the top1 say for #af-;gauge about #c_/h;in42 place the case and roller in the chamber1 bottom upwards1 then take some fine strong twine and place round as in drawing ,no4 #a4 ,when drawn tight1 tie firmly1 and it will appear as in ,no4 #b3 then reverse the roller and case1 bringing the tied end down to bottom of chamber1 press down hard to flatten the bottom of case1 draw out the roller1 pour into the case some melted tallow of about the consistency of cream1 and then put in your charge of shot1 having sufficient quantity of tallow to just cover the shot4 ,put by until cool2 when set firm1 place on the top of the tallow a leather wad 7the size for #af-;gauge cartridge will be #ah-;gauge74 ,any leather not too thick will do1 and you can cut the wads out with a punch4 ,turn down the case neatly over the leather wad1 and make fast with sealing-wax4 ,when loading place the tied end of cartridge next to the powder4 ,these directions are for both muzzle and breech-loaders1 the only difference being in the roller1 which for muzzle-loaders must be made #a_/af;in4 smaller at the bottom end1 as marked by the dots in drawing ,b4 ,after a little practice the cartridges do not take long to make4 ,illustration ,makeshift cartridges4 ,wherever the means of transport will permit1 take plenty of ,ely's wire cartridges1 but when they cannot be obtained1 a makeshift form1 well adapted for general use1 may be made as follows3--,prepare a stick1 about #ah;in4 long1 by rounding it carefully and making it fit the bore of your gun loosely4 ,round this take two or three turns of oiled silk1 such as chemists sell4 ,then draw off the end of the stick tube enough to hold the charge of shot and admit of two ties being made round it4 ,now1 with a piece of fine twine1 put on the first tie close to the stick2 then put in your charge of shot1 and when it is shaken into place1 put the other tie on the outer end1 just as sausage skins are secured4 ,the cartridge is now complete1 and can be cut off next the stick1 when you proceed as before until all the tube has been used4 ,we manufactured a great number of these in ,tartary1 and found them hard-hitting and durable4 ,we usually carried a waistcoat pocket full of them1 and rammed one down on each charge of powder without any wad between the cartridge and powder1 but always placed one over the cartridge1 in order to prevent it from rising in the barrel4 ,cartridges of this description kill considerably farther than a loose charge1 and are exceedingly handy when shooting from the horse's back4 ,we1 with #aoz4 of ,no4 #d1 killed in this way1 near ,phoros ,pass1 an eagle1 which we gave ,captain ,blackiston1 ,r4,a41 who1 we believe1 deposited it in the ,royal ,artillery ,institution at ,woolwich4 ,the fingers of old kid gloves should always be kept1 as they serve as excellent covers both for shot and ball4 ,shot will require one tie to keep it in2 balls will remain in without fastening4 ,a little grease or oil should be smeared over them when first made4 ,hints on firearms4 ,on many occasions we have been obliged to fire shot from a rifle1 for the purpose of obtaining birds1 when the smooth-bores were not at hand4 ,either the oiled silk or glove-finger cartridge is very far superior to a loose charge4 ,in loading ordinary guns with loose shot1 it sometimes happens that a few grains get dropped into the loaded barrel between the ramrod head and the barrel4 ,when this happens1 invert the gun1 pass the rod upwards1 and the shot will fall out1 when the rod can be withdrawn4 ,the ramrod will also at times get firmly fixed in a foul barrel1 and defy every ordinary effort to get it out4 ,a little water1 spirit1 or any other fluid poured down the barrel almost instantly releases it4 ,should a gun or rifle miss fire1 or be exposed for any time to damp1 cut a small peg of dry1 soft wood1 hammer it well down into the nipple1 cut it off flush1 put on a new cap1 and pull the trigger1 when the weapon is almost certain to go off4 ,we first saw this plan in use among the ,sardinian ,bersigliari1 and have since found it answer perfectly4 ,when hunting through wet jungles1 or the reeds of the marsh1 percussion caps can be rendered almost waterproof by melting a little beeswax on a piece of tin and then dipping the mouth of each separate cap in it4 ,these1 when cold1 are set aside for use4 ,when placed on the nipple1 the wax forms a shield between the cap and nipple1 which prevents the water from working its way up4 ,all vegetable oil used about gun-locks should be prepared as follows3--,partly fill a common vial with oil1 throw in a half charge of shot1 hang it in the air with the cork out1 and in a few days drain off all the clear oil from the top for use4 ,gun cleaning4 ,spirits of turpentine1 when it can be procured1 is very valuable for cleaning the interiors of guns1 pistols1 and rifles4 ,when water is used1 wash the barrels out thoroughly with cold water1 making use of a tough wooden rod with a number of notches at the end4 ,round this a piece of woollen cloth may be twisted until of a size to act as a sucker in the barrel4 ,woollen is better than tow1 linen1 or cotton1 as there is no danger of ignitable threads being left behind1 and it can be used repeatedly by washing and drying it4 ,when the barrels are thoroughly clean1 fill them with boiling water4 ,when this has all run off through the nipple holes1 commence with a fresh strip of cloth to dry out the barrels1 which must be held in a folded cloth1 in order to guard the hand from the heat of the water4 ,when quite dry1 and before the barrels are cold1 finish off with a little spirits of turpentine4 ,lead may be removed by the use of a little quicksilver4 ,the cleaning of fire-arms in a wild country is a matter of the very greatest importance1 and should never be entrusted to servants1 unless1 from long service and great experience1 they may be implicitly depended on4 ,even with such followers about us1 we always1 however fatigued1 clean our own guns4 ,it not unfrequently happens that white men residing alone or in small communities in the vicinity of numerous and powerful native tribes possess cannon of some kind or other1 generally small signal guns from merchant ships1 perhaps recovered from wrecks upon the coast1 or field-pieces abandoned as not worth the trouble of bringing away when some military outpost has ceased to be occupied4 ,mounting cannon4 ,during #ahfc and #ahfd the barbarous and desultory war between the ,namaqua ,hottentots and the ,damaras1 whom they had so long oppressed1 was keeping the country in a state of alarm for many hundred miles around1 and we were requested to take charge of a couple of brass yacht guns4 ,it was necessary to mount them1 so that they might be easily moved from point to point on the plain around the village2 and for this purpose we took for each the hinder wheels and axle of a ,cape waggon1 inserting a pole to serve as the trail into the socket of the lang-wagen in the centre of the axle2 we then took a plank of stinkwood1 #a;ft4 wide1 #c;in4 thick1 and about #d;ft4 long4 ,about #a;ft4 from the foremost end a stout bolt passed through it and the centre of the axle so as to let it work freely1 the after end was tapered to a point and travelled on a quadrant1 made from the felloe of an after wheel4 ,on this1 as a swivel bed1 we bolted down a pair of cheeks of #b;in4 stinkwood to carry the guns4 ,the quoins and wedges ran in grooves1 formed by #a;in4 slips of stinkwood nailed upon the bed1 to which they were secured by lanyards of raw hide2 the boxes for ammunition on either side were covered with raw hide1 and that containing the powder was thickly lined with green baize2 the matches were kept in a small box in front of the gun-carriage2 the fuze-holder was made from the segment of a hollow brass curtain ring fixed to a handle of hard wood2 the fuze itself was a strip of calico #a;in4 broad1 doubled and loosely twisted into a two-stranded rope2 it was steeped in a solution of gunpowder1 and the colour indicated its strength--light grey was slow match1 and dark grey was quick4 ,as we did not contemplate moving the guns farther than necessary for the defence of the village1 we made no provision for yoking draught oxen1 but this could easily have been done if needed4 ,it was enough for our purpose to provide man ropes1 one pair behind the gun and one before1 so that1 either in advance or retreat1 its muzzle might be towards the enemy4 ,the bullets were all tied up in calico1 with wads made by cutting off sections of soft deal rods1 and cartridges of twelve or fourteen musket balls or fifty revolver bullets were made up4 ,time guns4 ,one use to which one of our guns was put is shown in the illustration4 ,we were asked to repair the clock1 but this is always difficult1 and it is uncertain how long it may go correctly afterwards4 ,we therefore erected a frame over the gun1 and fitted the lens of a camera on an axle placed due east and west1 so that it could turn in the plane of the meridian1 and so be adapted to the sun's gradual change of declination4 ,below the lens we fitted a piece of tin with its edges turned downwards1 to hold a piece of quick match1 a strip of calico1 steeped in a strong solution of gunpowder1 beneath it2 a small slit in the tin was then so adjusted as to let the focus of light fall through it exactly at #ab o'clock2 a small clip of tin confined the other end of the match over the vent4 ,the moment of noon was announced with a regularity that no clock in our possession could have attained2 and one great advantage was1 that if by the interposition of a cloud1 which would not happen once in nine months1 the gun should fail to fire at the proper moment1 it could not go wrong1 for the speck of light would pass the narrow slit1 and no discharge would take place till the next day4 ,illustration3 ,,time ,,gun4 ,illustration ,the absence of the cap squares of a gun can be remedied by lashing the metal firmly down to the carriage with a raw hide rope1 and then twisting it up tight with a stick1 as shown in the above illustration2 which also exhibits the mode of raising a gun by making use of the trail as a lever4 ,a heavy gun may be mounted by letting its muzzle into a hole in the ground while the carriage is run under it4 ,percussion caps and substitutes4 ,during the continuance of the ,damara and ,hottentot war we were becoming exceedingly short of percussion caps1 and were obliged not only very carefully to husband the few that were left1 but to turn our attention to the manufacture of substitutes4 ,the tips of ,congreve matches1 with the wood cut to a point so as to stick in the nipple of the gun1 proved very effective1 but were liable to be brushed or shaken off1 or to become damp if carried for any length of time before firing4 ,we1 therefore1 first inclosed the end of the match in the shell of an expended cap1 and finding this answer1 we dissolved the composition1 and put a drop into the cap without the wood2 we then dissolved it off a whole box of matches at a time1 and with a camel-hair pencil put small drops into as many cap shells as it would serve4 ,this answered admirably2 but our next fear was that the supply of matches would run short1 and therefore1 drawing on our own artificial horizon for the quicksilver1 on the photographic stores for nitric acid1 and on our friends1 the missionaries1 for a supply of alcohol from their natural-history department1 we set about the manufacture of fulminate of mercury according to the following recipe3--,dissolve #aj grs4 of mercury in #a-a_/b oz41 by measure1 of nitric acid2 the solution is poured cold into #b oz41 by measure1 of alcohol in a glass vessel1 and gentle heat is applied till effervescence is excited1 though it ordinarily comes on at common temperatures1 a white vapour undulates on the surface1 and a powder is gradually precipitated1 which is immediately to be collected in a filter1 well washed1 and cautiously dried4 ,it detonates by gentle heat or slight friction4 ,two grains and a half1 with one-sixth of gunpowder1 form the quantity for one percussion cap4 ,we used a conical twist of blotting-paper for the filter1 and mixed the fulminate1 while still moist1 with a small palette knife upon a plate with the gunpowder1 treating it very gently1 and in small quantities4 ,we collected all the shells of expended caps1 and for new ones cut out a cross of thin copper2 then1 making a hole in a piece of iron and a punch the size of the nipple1 we drove the centre of the cross in1 and the shell was formed4 ,stiff cartridge-paper stiffened with gum would have answered for dry weather1 but would not have been secure against wet4 ,brass guns and their charges4 ,the block-houses erected by the ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 as depts and forts in connection with the fur trade1 usually have guns mounted in them4 ,brass field guns and howitzers are also at times to be met with at the border stations of wild countries1 and it may1 therefore1 be well to know the charges and ranges of the ordinary kinds1 which are as follows3 ,,brass ,,field ,,guns4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #f-,,pounder ,,gun4 ,,weight1 #f;,,cwt4 ,,service ,,charge1 #a-a_/b,,lb4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,ranges4 ,elevation4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,round ,shot4 ,shrapnel4 ,case4 ,length of fuse4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,p4,b4 #caj -- #ajj #c #a_/b #dgj #dej #aej #d #a #fbj #fjj #bjj #e #a-a_/b #gfj #gaj #bej #f #b #hij #hbj #cjj #g #b-a_/b #ajjj #ibj -- #h #c #aajj #ajbj -- #i #c-a_/b #aaij #aaaj -- #a #d #abhj #aahj -- #a #d-a_/b #acgj #abej -- -- #e #adej #acbj -- -- #e-a_/b #aecj #achj -- -- #f #afjj #addj -- -- #i-,,pounder ,,gun4 ,,weight1 #ace;,,cwt4 ,,service ,,charge1 #b-a_/b,,lb4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,ranges4 ,elevation4 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,round ,shot4 ,shrapnel4 ,case4 ,length of fuse4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,p4,b4 #cjj -- #aej -- #j-a_/b #ejj -- #bjj -- #a #fhj #fgj #bej #c #a-a_/b #hcj #hjj #cjj #d #b #ifj #iaj -- #e #b-a_/b #ajhj #ajbj -- #f #c #aaij #aabj -- #g #c-a_/b #acjj #abbj -- #h #d #adjj #acbj -- #i #d-a_/b #aejj #adaj -- #i #e #aeij #aejj -- #j #e-a_/b #afhj #aeij -- #aj #f #agfj #afhj -- ,,brass ,,howitzers4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #ab-,,pounder ,,howitzer4 ,,weight1 #fe;,,cwt4 ,,service ,,charge1 #a-a_/d,,lb4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,ranges4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,elevation4 ,common ,shrapnel4 ,case4 ,length ,shell4 of fuse4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,p4,b4 #bjj -- #ajj -- #j-a_/b #caj -- #aej -- #a #dbj #djj #bjj #c #a-a_/b #ecj #ebj #bej #d #b #fcj #fcj #cjj #e #b-a_/b #gae #gbe #f #c #hjj #hbj ------------------------- #g #c-a_/b #hhe #iaj #h #d #igj #ajjj ,ricochet4 #i #d-a_/b #ajej #ajij #aj #e #aace #aahj ,charge #foz41 el4 #g 4#fjj #aa #e-a_/b #abbj #abgj #hoz41 #f 4#fjj #ab #f #abij #acej #ajoz41 #e 4#fjj #ac #bd-,,pounder ,,howitzer4 ,,weight1 #abe;,,cwt4 ,,service ,,charge1 #b-a_/b,,lb4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,ranges4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,elevation4 ,common ,shrapnel4 ,case4 ,length ,shell4 of fuse4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,p4,b4 #bgj -- #aej -- #j-a_/b #cij -- #bjj -- #a #ebj #ejj #bej #c #a-a_/b #fdj #fcj #cjj #d #b #gfj #gfj #e #b-a_/b #hfj #hgj ------------------------- #f #c #ifj #ihj #g #c-a_/b #ajfj #ajij #h #d #aafj #abjj ,ricochet4 #i #d-a_/b #abfj #acjj #aj #e #acej #adjj ,see ,table ,b4 #aa #e-a_/b #addj #aejj #ab #f #aebj #afjj ,,table ,b4 ------------------------------------- ,,ricochet4 #bd-,,pounder ,,howitzer4 ----------------------------------- ,charge4 ,elevation4 ,pitch4 ----------------------------------- oz4 deg4 #f #ge #djj #i #dch -- #h #i #ejj #aj #ge -- #aa #f -- #aa-a_/b #ee -- #ab #ebe -- #ad #e -- #i #gge #fjj #ab #fe -- #af #dge -- ----------------------------------- ,cartridges and wads for cannon4 ,cartridges for either brass or iron guns are best made of some woollen material2 trade serge or old blanketing answers very well for the purpose4 ,bags should be made a little less than the bore1 and into these the charge of powder is to be poured4 ,a piece of woollen thread1 double worsted1 or twine should now be used to close the end of the bag1 after which it is to be passed two or three times round the bag1 giving it at the same time a compact cylindrical form by rolling on a board or table under the hand4 ,passing the thread through the substance of the cartridge aids much in keeping its form and facilitates loading4 ,a cartridge needle should be used to perform this operation4 ,this needle can be easily made from a piece of stout copper or brass wire4 ,flatten out one end1 drill or punch a hole in it to form the eye1 and file the other end sharp for a point4 ,fourteen inches is a convenient length for a cartridge needle4 ,it is said that a sailor's wife enabled a ,british vessel to continue a long and desperate fight by pillaging the officers' quarters of all the stockings she could find1 and handing them up to be filled for cartridges4 ,the intestines of animals1 according to their size1 would make as good cartridge cases as could be desired4 ,wads may be made of picked oakum twisted in a flat spiral to the proper size of the bore1 when they are made to retain their shape by being secured here and there with fine twine passed through with the needle4 ,in the absence of oakum1 wooden wads may be made by first spokeshaving a stout pole to the size of the bore1 and then sawing it up into convenient lengths4 ,guns to unspike and repair4 ,old guns which have been laid by will not uncommonly be found spiked1 by having a common nail driven into the vent4 ,if efficient tools are at hand this may be drilled out1 if not1 put a charge of powder in the gun1 bore a gimlet hole in one of your wooden wads1 through which pass a loosely-twisted string well impregnated with dissolved gunpowder1 and afterwards dried4 ,cut the end of your prepared string just at the muzzle of the gun1 light it1 and get out of the way1 when the explosion1 which soon takes place1 will not unfrequently expel the spike4 ,a gun which has had its trunnions knocked off1 with a view to rendering it useless1 may be made nearly as effective as ever by cutting with the axe or adze a bed for it in a stout piece of log1 of such a form that the cascabel of the gun and the breech end are rather more than half buried in solid wood4 ,the log may now be trimmed off to convenient dimensions1 and all made secure by a lashing of wet raw hide rope1 which rests in a broad shallow notch cut in the log to receive it4 ,the gun and its bed are thus1 as the rope dries1 held together by a material little less rigid than iron4 ,priming cups1 to make4 ,the bed log and gun may now be mounted by placing a very strong round bar of hard tough wood across the slide or carriage immediately below where the trunnions would have rested4 ,this receives a deep semicircular notch1 cut to exactly correspond with it on the under side of the bed log4 ,the gun can now be elevated and depressed in the usual manner by placing wedges under the log4 ,the common mode of priming a gun from a flask or horn1 when there are no percussion or friction tubes to be obtained1 is1 to say the least of it1 inconvenient and dangerous4 ,it is far better to keep on hand a few priming cups4 ,these are made as follows3 ,from the joints of a bamboo cut a number of little cups1 the bottoms being formed by the knots of the cane2 in the centre of the bottom bore a hole1 with a gimlet or red hot wire1 large enough to admit a piece of marsh reed1 hollow cane1 weed stalk1 or quill1 about #c;in4 long1 and small enough in diameter to pass down into the vent of the gun easily2 stop the small end with a bit of melted sealing-wax2 secure the large end in the cup by the same agency4 ,the cup becomes now a sort of funnel1 through which common fine sporting powder should be poured until both tube and cup are full1 when a piece of oiled paper is strained over the top of the cup like the head of a drum1 and is tied fast with twine4 ,when the gun is to be fired1 the cartridge is pierced in the usual way with the priming wire4 ,the tube of the priming cup is now to be inserted at the mouth of the vent1 and pressed down until the bottom of the cup rests on the metal of the gun1 when on the port fire or linstock being applied1 the paper lid is instantly burned through1 and the gun discharged4 ,in windy weather1 heavy tropical rains1 or at night1 these cups are extremely useful4 ,makeshift firearms4 ,a cannon1 of very tolerable efficiency for close quarters1 and slug or bullet charges1 may be made by boring a hole partly through a piece of tough strong log1 with a pump auger2 bore a vent with a gimlet1 put on one or two hoops or rings of iron or raw hide1 and the gun is ready for use4 ,we have seen several of these1 which were effectually used during the rebellion in ,canada4 ,in #ahch1 at the siege of ,herat1 ,mahomed ,shah brought up a quantity of metal on the backs of camels1 and had a heavy bronze gun cast1 and completely finished before the town2 and when the siege was raised the king had his gun sawn to pieces and taken to ,teheran4 ,shah ,abbas1 of ,ispahan1 had a heavy piece of artillery1 but said it would delay his march1 and he would much rather carry metal on camels and cast artillery before the enemy's town4 ,during the ,indian mutiny1 the rebels pulled down the telegraph-posts which had iron tube sockets fitted to them in order to keep off the white ants4 ,these sockets were taken off1 and vents drilled in them4 ,they were then loaded with powder1 and charges of slugs made from doubled up and hammered pieces of the telegraph wire4 ,we have seen a piece of common iron gas-pipe1 a piece of wood1 and a few bits of sheet copper1 converted into a very formidable matchlock pistol4 ,in our ,australian boat voyage we had a small #alb4 swivel carronade4 ,we jammed a pole about #f;ft4 long into the fork of the swivel1 and had we met any of the ,malay trepang fishers1 who go in companies of a hundred or more1 we should have made the swivel-bolt fast to the bowsprit just outside the stem of our boat1 and1 letting the trail rest on the mast thwart1 have defended ourselves with heavy charges of musket bullets4 ,of course the fishers might have been friendly1 or1 if not1 the knowledge that we had a gun would have made them so1 and we should not in any case have been the aggressors4 ,the ,zemboureks1 or dromedary artillery4 ,light guns mounted on dromedaries or camels are valuable for the defence of caravans1 c4 ,the ,afghans first used these in an emergency against the ,persians4 ,a number of pivoted arquebuses were mounted on the saddles of dromedaries1 which were taught to kneel while the pieces were fired from their backs4 ,the ,persians1 profiting by the lessons of their defeat1 also organised a similar force1 the guns weighing not more than #gelb4 ,the saddle was originally constructed of two-forked branches connected by wooden bars1 and if the gun was slightly overloaded the recoil would injure the fittings1 and disturb the animal2 but subsequently the saddle was much improved1 and wheels were added1 so that it might be taken from the animal's back and used as a field gun4 ,it will be seen that the staff of the bannerol carries a little tent1 and this covers the ammunition bags4 ,a skin of water hangs under the belly of the camel4 ,the ,persians have sought out with eagerness and perseverance the best form of artillery to be carried on the backs of animals2 and1 as it seems that dromedaries have been successfully imported into ,america and ,australia1 it may be of advantage to know that they are capable of being utilised in this way4 ,other animals1 perhaps oxen1 might be trained to carry smaller guns4 ,illustration ,very efficient common case shot can be made by filling empty preserved-meat tins with rifle or pistol balls4 ,a bag of cooper's iron hoop rivets is a very favourite charge among the ,south-,sea whalers4 ,round shot can be made as directed under the head ,lead1 and its ,uses4 ,grenades and rocket arrows4 ,extempore grenades can be made from empty soda-water bottles or old ink jars4 ,on one occasion we made a number from the latter vessels by filling them with a mixture of buck shot and strong sporting powder2 stoppers of wood were then fitted by notching the upper ends1 and fastening them down with wire1 like the corks of champagne bottles1 a gimlet hole was then bored in each1 and a few inches of quick match put in4 ,when the fuse has been lighted1 these vessels are either hurled from the hand or fired from large powerful cross-bows1 when they1 by exploding in full flight or on the ground1 cause no trifling confusion among an undisciplined enemy1 a pack of wolves1 or a sounder of hog in a cactus brake4 ,an unarmed merchantman was chased by a pirate galley2 she hove to1 and pretended to surrender1 but two men stood at the gangway with a cask of powder4 ,as soon as the long low open boat came alongside they threw it into her1 and the cook1 running out of the galley1 threw a shovelful of hot coals after it4 ,the ship forged ahead before the smoke had cleared away1 and escaped1 leaving the desperadoes to their fate4 ,large arrows tipped with strong paper cases1 such as are made for rockets1 only choked at the bottom1 become most formidable projectiles4 ,the cases are partly filled with powder1 a wad1 with a hole in it1 is rammed down on the charge1 a quill is put in the hole1 about thirty buck shot are deposited round the quill1 which is filled with meal powder4 ,the case and quill head are then capped with paper which has been soaked in dissolved gunpowder or nitre4 ,arrows thus made are to be fired from powerful hand-bows1 after the match has been lighted4 ,in the true rocket arrow the touchpaper is ignited just before the arrow is fixed in the bow1 and it is shot just before the fire reaches the composition2 the combustion then aids the flight rather than retards it4 ,the head is strongly barbed1 so that it may not easily be drawn from thatched roofs1 c42 the ,chinese and ,indian tribes often use these4 ,gunpowder1 to make4 ,it sometimes happens that the hunter or explorer has1 like many members of the ,algerian1 ,tartar1 and ,mongolian tribes1 to turn gunpowder manufacturer4 ,to make gunpowder three ingredients are requisite3 viz41 saltpetre 7nitrate of potash71 sulphur1 and charcoal4 ,the two former ingredients should form a part of the equipment of an expedition 7see ,farrier's ,stores1 p4 #hd74 ,still1 where such stores are not carried1 sulphur and saltpetre are usually to be obtained1 more or less pure1 from the natives of all but the most unfrequented and isolated countries4 ,the saltpetre will require recrystallisation1 which is carried out as follows3 ,take equal quantities1 by measure1 of the saltpetre and boiling water1 stir them well about with a stick until all the lumps are thoroughly dissolved2 strain the resulting fluid through a coarse cloth in order to get rid of sticks1 chips1 and stones1 and set it aside to crystallise2 when the process is complete drain the water from the crystals1 set them to dry on a skin or a cloth4 ,the sulphur1 if in lumps as imported1 will require purification by melting4 ,this operation must be conducted over a very slow fire1 and immediately the mass becomes liquid in the pot it should be put to stand for a few minutes in hot wood ashes in order that impurities may settle to the bottom4 ,the neck of the vessel may then be held fast in a twisted stick1 and the contents poured dexterously out into a convenient mould until the sediment at the bottom1 which is useless1 is left4 ,flour of sulphur will not require this treatment4 ,the charcoal 7see ,charcoal ,burning1 p4 #bfg7 should1 for gunpowder making1 be prepared from some light1 clean-grained wood4 ,in this country willow1 withy1 alder1 hazel1 linden1 c41 are held in high esteem for the purpose2 but in wild countries the nearest approach to these within reach should be obtained4 ,the three ingredients must be first separately ground1 either in a native quern or stone handmill1 between two conveniently-formed stones1 or in an extempore pestle and mortar1 until reduced to perfect powder1 quite free from lumps or grit4 ,the three powders are to be now weighed out carefully in the following proportions3 ,one part sulphur1 one part charcoal1 and six parts saltpetre4 ,mix these on a skin pegged out on the ground1 and rub the mixture together with the palms of the hands until most intimately and thoroughly blended2 then1 with an empty percussion-cap box or drinking cup1 measure your mixture1 and for every ten cups or boxes of powder put down a stone or make a mark1 and for every mark put aside a cup full of warm water1 so that you have just one-tenth of fluid4 ,this you sprinkle with a bunch of feathers or grass1 a little at a time1 on the powders1 until1 by constant and persistent working and kneading1 a smooth homogeneous paste is formed4 ,two well-selected stones much facilitate this stage of the process2 one should be large and flat1 the other water-rounded and oval2 in fact1 a water-worn pebble of about #blb4 weight4 ,by sitting on the stretched skin with the flat stone between the legs1 the water and sprinkler at the side1 and the pebble between the hands1 the paste can be effectually worked up2 and it is well to bear in mind that on the perfect homogeneity of this paste depends1 in great measure1 the quality of the gunpowder4 ,illustration ,the paste--or devil as it is sometimes called--being thoroughly elaborated1 make square flat cakes of it #f;in4 square and #b;in4 thick1 and wrap them compactly up in cotton cloth or old sheeting four or five times doubled2 then stitch up a stout hide bag just large enough to contain all your cakes and their coverings when built in compactly one on the other1 and sew up the opening2 then1 with a chisel1 scoop out a cavity in the end of a log just deep enough to half bury your case of cakes2 then1 with the aid of a neighbouring tree1 and a few suitable pieces of wood1 which are easily fashioned with the axe1 prepare such a press as is shown in the above illustration4 ,the weight should be increased gradually1 and the pressure intensified until the cakes are pressed into compact masses4 ,the coverings are now to be removed1 and then the process of coming begins1 and the help of a corning sieve is required4 ,this is made as follows3 ,make a wide stout hoop of any pliant wood1 and over one of its edges stretch a head of parchment1 like that of a banjo1 nail or lace it on wet1 and when dry it will become perfectly tight1 like the head of a tambourine4 ,now1 take a very small-sized key1 file off the wards and bow1 sharpen the lower edges round the tube with the file until it is converted into a sharp hollow punch4 ,turn your tambourine upside down on a smooth-faced log of suitable size1 and1 with a small hammer and your little punch1 proceed to perforate the parchment until the head is covered with small round holes4 ,now fashion from any dry1 hard1 heavy wood a flat disc #a-a_/b;in4 thick and #d-a_/b;in4 in diameter2 this1 with the broken cake1 is put in the sieve and rattled about forward and back until the small broken granular fragments are in numbers forced through the holes in the parchment1 and fall on the skin stretched to receive them4 ,it will be found that among the grains thus formed there will be a certain quantity of fine dust2 this can be separated by sweeping the grains over a sloping board on which flannel has been stretched1 the grains pass on1 the dust remains amongst the fibres of the wool1 and can be collected to work up again4 ,the granules can now be placed in a little wooden box and shaken about until rubbed smooth against each other4 ,to finish them off it is well to place a large sheet of iron1 copper1 tin1 or any other metal over a pot of boiling-hot water1 throw the now all-but-finished gunpowder on the plate and stir it about until completely dry4 ,a clean frying-pan is by no means a bad instrument for powder drying2 take care that it is only placed on hot water1 and not subjected to fire heat1 or a blow-up will probably follow4 ,too much caution cannot be used after the powder has been subjected to the granulating process2 before that there is little to fear1 after it a great deal4 ,illustration3 ,,searching ,,for ,,gold4 ,geology for travellers4 ,in travelling through little known or comparatively undescribed countries1 it will be well for the experienced traveller to closely investigate and carefully study the geology of the region he is passing through2 outcropping rocks and the stones of the river beds should be closely investigated4 ,sand should be gathered on the borders of the deep pools1 dried1 spread out on paper1 and examined under the lens4 ,thus will the formation of inaccessible mountain regions be often brought to light4 ,the winter ices and spring floods1 by breaking up and disintegrating the rocks they flow through1 gradually1 by friction and the grinding power of water-moved boulders1 reduce the detritus which accompanies them to sand1 more or less ponderous according to the metallic elements of which it is formed4 ,thus1 by the breaking up of quartz veins by the agencies just referred to1 gold is released from its matrix to enrich the sands and shingle beds of certain rivers4 ,alluvial tin is in the same way set free in grains and nodules from the granitic or other formations in which it resides1 and1 water borne1 travels onward until arrested by some deep pit or crevice in the river bed1 where it remains until disturbed by floods of more than ordinary magnitude1 or the pick and shovel of the miner4 ,our space will not admit of our dealing at length with the indications of gold or other metals1 or of the regions in which the precious metals and gems are to be sought4 ,metals1 to identify4 ,we shall1 therefore1 content ourselves by giving a few plain1 and we trust practical1 hints for the finding and identification of such metals1 stones1 c41 as the traveller is likely to meet with4 ,first in importance we class gold2 and1 although precarious and uncertain in the bulk of its deposits1 is more generally distributed throughout the earth's surface than any other metal4 ,hints to gold searchers4 ,clay slate formations1 traversed by iron-stained quartz dykes1 are well worth investigating2 and most of the streams which flow through such formations will be found1 on careful examination1 more or less auriferous4 ,in prospecting a stream1 or river bed1 choose localities where the stream1 after a sharp descending run1 has impinged against a perpendicular bank1 forming an eddy before flowing onward4 ,dig away boldly all the top deposit until the bed rock is reached4 ,rout out all the depressions1 crevices1 and holes in this1 scooping up all the clay1 gravel1 and grit they may contain4 ,place all this in convenient quantities in a broad shallow metal pan or dish1 add water to it1 rub it about briskly with the hand1 pour away all the dirty water1 add more1 shake it about1 give a sweeping rotatory motion to your pan1 pick out all large lumps of stone or quartz1 giving a sharp look at the latter2 still add water1 and work the pan until nothing but fine clear sand remains in it4 ,a dexterous rolling1 tilting motion is given by the initiated1 which at once clears away the baser fragments1 and reveals the colour1 as the gold dust is called by the miners4 ,a broad shovel is at times used somewhat in the same manner1 the handle being held as shown in the full-page illustration ,searching for ,gold1 when the process is called vanning4 ,illustration ,mining and miners' tools4 ,to carry out a regular system of investigation among quartz reefs1 mineral veins1 and metalliferous rocks1 certain tools and appliances will be needed--picks of ,cornish pattern1 such as is represented in the above illustration1 sets of steel borers1 with cockscomb ends1 sets of steel gads or wedges1 borer1 steel and gad steel in bars1 blasting powder1 safety match in coils1 some heavy hammers1 a portable forge 7such as is here represented71 ,illustration set of smith's tools1 shovel blades1 spare pick-heads1 and hilts of ash1 c4 ,when it is deemed requisite to blast a portion of rock1 the borer and hammer are used much as shown in the annexed illustration4 ,illustration ,one man1 sitting on the ground1 holds the borer upright and turns it freely round1 whilst his assistant strikes it with the hammer4 ,a little water dropped from time to time down the hole keeps the bit cool1 and facilitates the operation4 ,as sludge collects1 it is removed with a species of scraper1 fashioned from the end of an iron bar4 ,a small rod or stick1 with its end fibres frayed and set up like a mop1 is used for drying out the hole4 ,should it be in wet ground1 where moisture remains in spite of swabbing out1 a cartridge composed of tallowed cotton or oiled paper1 may be used to inclose the powder in4 ,according to the old-fashioned plan1 which some miners still follow1 a long pointed copper rod or needle was pressed into the charge after it had been rammed into the bottom of the hole4 ,round this rod clay1 pulverised clay1 slate1 c41 was closely packed1 and driven with a copper tamping rod until the hole was compactly filled up4 ,the needle was now withdrawn1 and a match1 composed of a long marsh reed filled with mealed powder1 thrust down the orifice until the charge was reached1 when the upper end was held in its place by clay4 ,a bit of rag1 smeared with moistened powder1 was attached to the head of the reed1 which1 when fired1 burned long enough to afford time for the miners to shelter themselves from the effects of the explosion4 ,since the introduction of the so-called patent safety match1 it has been with great advantage substituted for the reed2 the burning of this match or fuse is generally so uniform1 that it has only to be cut according to the distance between the hole and the place of shelter4 ,even this great improvement in the means of ignition falls very short of exploding by voltaic electricity1 which should always1 when practicable1 be had recourse to4 ,the wandering miner and explorer will1 however1 seldom be able to avail himself of its valuable aid1 or the use of gun cotton or nitrate of glycerine1 which agents have of late been much lauded as substitutes for gunpowder in mining operations4 ,it not unfrequently happens that diamonds and other precious stones are found in river beds1 and such other localities as miners are in the habit of examining4 ,we therefore offer a few hints and directions for the identification of these in their rough state1 as given by ,professor ,tennant3 ,illustration3 #a-bb ,precious stones1 to identify4 ,fig4 #a is an octahedron2 ,fig4 #b an octahedron having six planes on the edges2 ,fig4 #c1 dodecahedron with rhombic faces2 ,figs4 #d1 #e1 and #f are rarer forms4 ,out of #ajjj diamonds ,i have generally found about one of the form of ,fig4 #f2 about ten like ,fig4 #e2 fifty like ,fig4 #d2 and the remainder like #a1 #b1 #c1 in about an equal proportion4 ,with regard to the size and weight of diamonds1 #ejj out of #ajjj which came in the same parcel were found smaller than ,fig4 #a1 which is the exact size of a diamond weighing half a carat2 #cjj were of the size #c1 #d1 #e1 and #f--none of these exceeded a carat in weight2 eighty of the size #b weighed a carat and a half2 only one was as large as ,fig4 #af--this weighed #bd carats4 ,the remainder varied from #b to #bj carats1 a carat being equal to three grains and one-sixth troy4 ,fig4 #g consists of a conglomerated mass of quartz pebbles rounded through having been water-worn1 a crystal of diamond1 the size of a small pea1 and various grains of gold1 the whole cemented together by oxide of iron4 ,this specimen is peculiarly interesting at the present time1 as showing the association of diamonds with gold4 ,in #ahdd a slave was searching for gold in the bed of a river in the province of ,bahia1 and discovered diamonds4 ,it being a new locality for diamonds1 #big1jjj carats were collected in two years1 which produced upwards of #cjj1jjjl4 ,i see no reason why diamonds should not be found in ,australia1 ,canada1 ,california1 as well as in those other gold districts from which they have hitherto been obtained4 ,the value of the most inferior diamonds1 unfit for jewellery1 is #ejl4 per ounce4 ,could they be found in sufficient abundance to be sold at #el4 per ounce1 the benefit to the arts would be incalculable4 ,not only would the seal engraver1 watchmaker1 lapidary1 glazier1 c41 be able to procure them at easier prices1 but numerous substances would be rendered useful which at present cannot be profitably worked owing to the high price of diamonds4 ,figs4 #h to #aa represent four crystals of corundum4 ,this substance is commonly found in six-sided prismatic crystals1 and frequently terminated at each end by six-sided pyramids4 ,when transparent1 and of a blue colour1 it is known in jewellery as the sapphire2 when merely of a red colour1 it is called ,oriental ruby2 and when this colour is of a rich depth1 the stone is more valuable than even the diamond4 ,figs4 #ab to #ad4 ,three crystals of spinel-ruby4 ,it is of various shades of red1 and is easily distinguished from corundum by the peculiarity of its crystalline form and inferior hardness4 ,figs4 #ae and #af4 ,crystals of garnet4 ,these are chiefly found in the form of the rhombic dodecahedron2 are occasionally of a beautiful red colour2 when semi-transparent1 are called by the jewellers carbuncles4 ,they are of comparatively little value4 ,figs4 #ag and #ah4 ,two rhombic prisms of topaz4 ,it is found in rivers1 frequently with all the edges and angles of the original crystal worn off1 and presenting a round appearance1 in which state it is often mistaken for the diamond1 owing to the colour and specific gravity of each being the same4 ,it may1 however1 easily be distinguished from it by the difference of the hardness and fracture4 ,the diamond yields readily to mechanical division parallel to all the planes of the regular octahedron1 the topaz only at right angles to the axis of the crystal4 ,fig4 #bj4 ,tourmaline4 ,a crystal having six sides1 deeply striated in the longitudinal direction1 and terminated by a three-sided pyramid2 colour varying from black to brown and green4 ,transparent specimens are useful to the philosopher in experiments on polarised light4 ,fig4 #ba4 ,crystal of transparent quartz or rock crystal1 frequently called a diamond in the mining districts1 as ,bristol diamond1 a ,cornish diamond1 c4 ,the crystal represented by this figure was brought from ,california by a person who refused #bjjl4 for it1 under the impression that it was a real diamond1 because it scratched glass and could not be scratched with a file4 ,its real value1 however1 is not more than #bs4 #f;d4 ,fig4 #bb4 ,beryl1 presents a six-sided prism1 and is usually of a green colour4 ,river pearls1 to find4 ,when substances are found which are supposed to be precious stones1 the file test should be at once applied2 if the teeth of the instrument bite1 as it is called1 or cut into the substance1 it will be at once fair to infer that some inferior mineral has been discovered4 ,the bit of sapphire from the case may also be called into use1 and if the stone you have found is of white colour1 and a corner of your sapphire bites or scratches it1 there is no hope of its being a diamond4 ,if on weighing it the specific gravity of the specimen is found to be less than #ci1 it will not turn out to be a ruby or sapphire4 ,the application of heat is another test1 as if no electricity is manifested it will not turn out to be a gargoon or a topaz4 ,if1 on testing it on your piece of flint glass1 the surface of that is bitten by the specimen1 it will probably be found to be either rock crystal1 quartz1 or perchance beryl4 ,the rivers of many countries1 our own amongst the number1 not unfrequently contain large mussel-like shells2 these are the fresh-water pearl mussels 7,unio margaritiferus71 and the pearls which these at times contain are of considerable value1 and well repay being looked for when the rivers are low4 ,all is not gold that glitters4 ,sulphuret of iron and yellow mica are not unfrequently mistaken by the inexperienced for gold1 and we have not unfrequently had some little difficulty in convincing the sanguine discoverer of his error4 ,sulphuret of iron1 pyrites1 or the mundic of the miners1 is a bright yellow glittering mineral1 which sometimes has gold associated with it4 ,the differences between it and gold are sufficiently marked4 ,strike the suspected fragment on a hard substance with a hammer1 and if mundic1 it at once becomes reduced to minute fragments1 whilst gold would be only slightly flattened4 ,gold is malleable2 mundic is not4 ,gold can be cut with the pocket-knife just as easily as copper2 mundic resists the knife1 turns its edge1 and will strike fire against its back1 giving out sulphurous fumes4 ,mundic1 after being made red hot1 is attracted by the magnet2 gold never is4 ,hot nitric acid causes it to decompose with much effervescence1 leaving such spangles of gold as it may contain free in the bottom of the test tube4 ,gold dust is readily taken up by quicksilver2 mundic is not4 ,yellow mica is so much lighter than gold that its comparative want of ponderability should at once distinguish it2 a small portion placed on an iron bar1 and heated in the fire to redness becomes1 on cooling1 flakey and lustreless1 whilst gold would remain unaltered2 it floats on the surface of mercury1 refusing to unite with it1 whilst gold is immediately converted into an amalgam4 ,sulphuret of copper1 or copper ore as it is usually called1 breaks freely under the hammer1 but can be cut easily with the knife1 only instead of producing a solid metallic chip it crumbles into powder1 just as soft stone or chalk would4 ,alluvial tin can in no case be mistaken for either gold1 silver1 or copper4 ,it is dark coloured1 breaks into powder under the hammer1 and is exceedingly ponderous4 ,with the so-called rosin and wood tin we cannot deal here1 as the explorer is not very likely to find them4 ,minute fragments of stream tin are to be easily distinguished from small bits of iron ore by first heating them red hot1 and then subjecting them to the magnet2 iron will be attracted1 tin will not4 ,iron ore1 to smelt4 ,many wild countries produce iron ore of remarkable purity1 and a number of native tribes1 by a rough system of smelting1 contrive to obtain enough metal for the manufacture of their weapons1 implements1 c4 ,the greater the purity of the metal1 the less difficulty will be experienced in dealing with it4 ,should the explorer at any time be called on to smelt a little iron ore1 he may proceed as follows3 ,build a turret-shaped furnace1 proportioned to the quantity of ore to be treated1 line it with ant-hill clay1 or common clay and sand1 leaving a hole in the front near the bottom1 which has a temporary stopper of clay placed in it1 and another orifice about #b;ft4 up the back for the air blast to enter at4 ,either a large pair of double bellows1 compressible skin air-bags1 such as we have before described1 or blowing cylinders1 such as are represented in the annexed illustration ,illustration1 must be set up at a convenient distance from the back of the furnace4 ,these cylinders are used by the inhabitants of ,new ,guinea instead of bellows1 and answer remarkably well4 ,they are composed of two hollow tree trunks1 placed side by side2 a wooden tube1 which serves to let the air out1 unites them2 and a man or boy sits on the tops of the tubes1 and works alternately up and down a couple of mop-shaped pistons1 which are made from poles armed at the ends with bundles of fibre1 feathers1 or dry grass1 so adjusted that they expand on being thrust down and collapse on being drawn up4 ,as one piston man gets fatigued1 another takes his place2 thus a continuous stream of air is kept up4 ,whatever method of blast is decided on1 it must be so arranged as to be continuous and powerful4 ,when the interior of the furnace is quite dry1 throw in a good quantity of well-burned charcoal2 then a layer of split dry wood until it reaches about #a;ft4 above the entrance of the blast2 then another layer of charcoal and dry cow dung a few inches deep2 then sprinkle in loosely a layer of broken iron ore1 mixed with a little limestone if you can get it2 then another layer of charcoal and dry cow dung1 and another of ore2 and so on until the furnace is all but full1 only one layer of wood being used4 ,now through the blast entrance introduce some well-ignited and glowing embers from your fire2 put in the tube of your blast1 which may be of baked clay2 lute it fast in its place1 so as to prevent any escape of air2 and proceed to blow1 when your furnace will soon be in a state of active ignition and glow4 ,keep up the blast steadily1 and as the contents of the furnace sink down add to them from above layer by layer as before directed1 until it is considered that enough metal has been cast in4 ,so soon as it is thought probable that the iron has melted1 a small portion of the clay of the tap-hole may be removed with an iron bar1 when1 if in a sufficiently fluxed condition1 the iron will run freely out into long shallow pits dug to receive it4 ,the iron thus procured is called bloom1 and has to be heated in pieces in the forge fire1 and thoroughly roasted and thumped about until it is soft and tough enough for general use4 ,the natives do not as a rule wait for their iron to flow1 but open the furnace when it cools down1 and then drag out such bloom as may have settled to the bottom4 ,excellent steel is made from iron thus procured by the natives of the hill districts of ,india1 by putting it in small earthen crucibles with charcoal1 rice1 chaff1 peroxide of manganese1 and green leaves4 ,these pots are then luted down with clay1 and placed in a clay furnace heated with dry cow dung and charcoal4 ,here they remain for a considerable time1 when the fire is allowed to burn out2 the pots are then1 when cool1 removed1 and the steel taken out to be fashioned by the hand of the smith into any form required4 ,we have used a great deal of both iron and steel prepared as above described1 and found both of admirable quality4 ,chemical tests for minerals4 ,a common horse-shoe magnet1 such as can be bought for a mere trifle at any toyshop1 will be found very useful for extracting particles of iron from other mineral4 ,whenever the means of transport will admit1 it is well to take a small compact case of simple appliances1 tests1 and reagents4 ,the whole1 by a little ingenuity1 may be easily packed in a solid leather case very little larger than an ordinary sandwich box4 ,its contents should be as follows3 ,small glass-stoppered and capped bottle of nitric acid1 ditto hydrochloric acid1 ditto liq4 ammonia1 ditto quicksilver1 small corked bottles of ferrocyanide of potassium1 bi-chromate of potash1 fused borax1 and common salt2 a small jointed blowpipe1 a pair of forceps1 a small pair of scales1 fitted for taking specific gravities1 and a set of weights1 a bit of flint glass1 a piece of sapphire1 which can be obtained from any lapidary2 half a dozen test tubes to nest one within the other2 half a dozen old watch glasses1 to be obtained for a few pence from any watchmaker2 half a dozen narrow strips of window glass1 cut to a thickness little greater than stout wire1 and #e;in4 long 7these are for stirring up hot acids1 c472 a piece of stout copper wire1 shaped like the figure #i1 to hold the watch glasses on whilst they are over the lamp or candle flame2 a small fine file and a few narrow slips of well burnt light charcoal2 a common wire cigar-holder1 to hold the test tubes in whilst heated2 and a very small bright-faced hammer1 such as watchmakers use4 ,it is truly astonishing how much qualitative analysis can be carried out with these comparatively limited means4 ,we will suppose that a little bag of sand has been obtained2 that it shows1 on being spread out1 a number of particles of a glittering yellow substance1 as well as black-coloured grains1 mixed with common quartz and minute fragments of stone4 ,we first place our sand on a sheet of white paper1 and with our pocket lens have a thorough examination of the various constituents4 ,should any grains of sufficient size and questionable character present themselves1 they may be at once taken up on the moistened point of a pin4 ,if one of them should look like gold1 place it on some hard substance and give it a blow with your hammer4 ,if it flattens without powdering1 drop it into one of your test tubes1 pour in a little nitric acid1 and hold it in the flame until it boils thoroughly4 ,if your particle gives off a train of minute bubbles and gradually dissolves1 pour a little of the contents of your tube into two separate watch glasses placed side by side1 add a little water to each4 ,add a little common salt to ,no4 #a2 if the particle is silver1 you will at once have a thick white precipitate--chloride of silver4 ,drop a few drops of your liquor ammonia into ,no4 #b2 and if copper1 the beautiful and well-marked blue colour of ammonuret of copper will at once appear4 ,should the particle have crushed under the blow1 it is probably either sulphuret of iron or copper ore4 ,to distinguish these two substances when in a minute state of division1 proceed with the acid as just described1 and test one watch glass with a small fragment of ferrocyanide of potassium1 when1 if sulphuret of iron or mundic1 you will have a dense cloud of ,prussian blue in your watch glass4 ,treat the other with your liquor ammonia1 and you will have the same brilliant ammonuret of copper colour as if the particle had been native or malleable copper4 ,having satisfied ourselves as to the selected particles--for should the flattened grain resist the action of the hot acid and remain bright1 it is surely gold--we place our sand on a shovel1 and hold it there until the whole is red hot2 it may then be taken from the fire1 and allowed to cool on the shovel4 ,the magnet will now take out all the bits of iron4 ,now with a hammer-face or smooth water-worn pebble proceed to crush all the substances on the shovel fine4 ,then at the nearest stream of water1 or in a large tub1 carefully van and wash your sample until all the earthy and worthless matters have been washed away2 then the practised eye will instantly distinguish the gold1 if any4 ,the utterly inexperienced may1 however1 be deceived by remaining fragments of mundic or copper ore before referred to2 therefore1 to make assurance doubly sure1 let him dry his washed metal powder on the shovel over the fire1 then carefully place it in a small1 clean1 dry vial-bottle with a little quicksilver4 ,shake and rattle it well about until all the particles have been brought well in contact with the mercury4 ,such fragments as it will not take up are not gold2 but to find that which it has converted into an amalgam1 place the mercury in a piece of clean chamois leather1 press it carefully1 and the mercury will force its way in minute globules through the leather1 leaving the gold in a soft mass within4 ,this1 by being heated to redness1 throws off the remaining quicksilver1 and can be estimated as gold4 ,silver will also amalgamate with mercury1 but can always be distinguished from gold by the nitric acid and salt test before described4 ,lead ore is rarely mistaken for anything else1 its peculiar colour1 cubical form of crystallisation1 and gravity being generally sufficient to identify it4 ,a small quantity1 reduced to a fine powder and mixed with a little fused borax1 readily fuses on a charcoal slip before the blowpipe1 and is then ordinary lead4 ,the silver often associated with lead ores can alone be estimated by a regular assay1 requiring the use of crucibles1 cupels1 furnace1 c4 ,sulphuret of antimony1 although massive and somewhat lead-coloured1 leaves a thick rough deposit on the charcoal1 and fuses into a brittle crystalline regulus1 in no way resembling lead4 ,small specimens of galena1 or lead ore1 should always be preserved for future investigation1 as it is at times extremely rich in silver1 whilst at others a mere trace only remains4 ,we have analysed lead ore from ,cornwall which yielded between #ijoz4 and #ajjoz4 of silver to the ton1 whilst other samples1 raised in ,wisconsin1 although yielding #he per cent4 of lead1 did not contain enough silver to render its extraction remunerative4 ,the points of distinction between minerals and metals we have thus been briefly laying down do not properly apply to the investigations of the regular gold-digger1 but are mainly intended for the use of those who are engaged in exploration and research4 ,the professed gold-seeker1 as a rule1 casts all aside save the one great centre of his hopes and pursuit4 ,he1 in his prospecting expeditions1 makes use of the broad shallow metal pan shown in the illustration which represents ,searching for ,gold4 ,the quantity of gold brought to light by its aid guides him in his choice of a locality4 ,if it is considered rich enough1 he1 with his mates1 sinks down to the pay dirt1 or deposit containing the gold2 this is either washed out at once on the cradle1 or piled in heaps for future treatment4 ,with gold quartz-crushing1 amalgamation on a large scale1 or the washing down of drift by hydraulic power and the use of flumes as practised in ,california1 we cannot deal here1 as the appliances are far more complicated and ponderous than the mere traveller could carry with him4 ,base metal1 to detect4 ,it sometimes happens that imposition is attempted in far-off lands1 and imitation gold ornaments offered to the traveller4 ,to test the quality of these1 it will be requisite to have a bit of black terra-cotta pot1 or a fragment of any hard smooth black stone4 ,rub the suspected ornament on this until a metallic streak is left1 dip one of your bits of glass rod in your nitric acid1 and let a drop or two fall on the track left by the metal4 ,if of base material1 the particles will rapidly turn green and dissolve2 if gold1 they will remain unchanged2 and if an alloy1 the combined metal will be removed1 and the gold wall remain stationary on the black surface4 ,the exact standard of mixture or combination can only be arrived at by the use of a set of touch-needles1 which are rubbed and compared with the doubtful marks on the stone4 ,illustration ,stone1 to quarry4 ,there are many situations in which stone may be advantageously used for the erection of houses1 forts1 or defensible depts4 ,on the discovery of a bed of rock adapted for the purpose1 the head or covering earth should be removed1 either by the agency of water obtained by diverting some neighbouring stream for the purpose1 or by digging with the spade or shovel4 ,careful examination will now generally disclose veins or seams traversing the stone1 such of these as run in favourable directions should be selected1 and the gads or wedges before described had recourse to4 ,it is well to have1 at least1 a dozen of these for stone splitting4 ,they should be about #e;in4 long1 #a-a_/b;in4 wide1 and #a_/b;in4 thick1 tapering to the edge1 which should not be too sharp4 ,all gads should be made of the best gad steel1 carefully pointed and tempered4 ,in entering the gads1 it will be well to insert them in the selected seam at about #a;ft4 apart2 then1 with the heavy hammer or pick-head1 strike each gad a blow or two in succession1 which will serve to open the seam1 and not unfrequently detach the required fragment4 ,when large square or oblong blocks are required1 it is well to first mark out the size required on the rock with the pick's point1 and then with either the borer before described1 or a jumping bar 7of form shown in the annexed illustration71 drill a row of holes about #h;in4 apart on the line before marked out1 in depth proportioned to the intended thickness of the stone1 in each hole should be placed a pair of gad cheeks--these are pieces of half-round iron bar4 ,the rounded sides rest against the sides of the holes as the gad is driven between the flat surfaces1 thus forcing open the grain of the rock without breaking away the sides of the holes by gad clinching4 ,as in the former case1 each gad is gradually driven home until the line of holes run into one long fissure and the block is detached4 ,in breaking out flat slabs of comparatively thin stone1 it will be found a good plan1 after measuring and marking the size decided on1 to sink a shallow groove either with the pick's point or a stonecutter's chisel across the extreme length of the slab2 then1 by inserting the gads at the outer face or edge of the deposit1 the slab will not only be raised but evenly broken off4 ,fire is a most powerful agent and aid in stone-breaking1 especially when assisted by water4 ,the huge and massive boulder of rock which bids defiance to the sledge-hammer may very soon be reduced to fragments by making a strong fire round it1 and1 when thoroughly heated1 throwing buckets of water over it4 ,the treatment of stone4 ,some ,indians are particularly clever in the art of stone dividing4 ,they build a double wall of clay the whole length of the stone1 leaving about six inches of bare rock between them4 ,they then lay more clay on the outsides of the walls1 nearly the width of the stone4 ,then between the walls of clay they make a long line of fire with dry cow dung and chips of hard1 dry wood4 ,an incredibly short space of time elapses before the division of the stone is completed1 when the fire is carefully extinguished with earth or sand1 and the stone allowed to cool4 ,rocks1 so placed as to prevent recourse being had to either of the expedients described1 may be split out by the action of a small charge of powder1 fired1 as before directed1 in a hole made by the jumping bar4 ,to drill a hole with this no hammer man is required1 but the weight of the protuberance on the instrument1 when aided by a jumping and rotatory motion1 is sufficient to cut away the rock4 ,water swab1 shell scraper1 c41 are used with these implements1 just as they are with the miner's borer1 which can be used in confined spaces and under outlying works1 where the jumper would be useless4 ,a crowbar or two will be found very useful for lifting out broken pieces of stone1 c4 ,there is also an instrument much used in ,america called a canthook1 which is here represented4 ,it is extremely valuable for moving both stones of large size and logs of unwieldy dimensions4 ,the handle1 or lever1 is made of tough1 well-seasoned timber1 and is usually from #f;ft4 to #g;ft4 long4 ,the claw is of sound1 tough1 wrought iron1 and proportioned in weight and spread to the bodies it is applied to4 ,two or three sizes of claws fit one handle1 just as a dentist's key is adapted to the size of the tooth it is to grasp4 ,an oblong square hole is cut through the lever for the claw's end to pass through1 and a stout iron pin1 with a hole in the end for a split stop to go into1 keeps the claw at its proper point of adjustment4 ,the boulder claw is another most useful implement4 ,it is used for turning over and rolling out large boulders of rock1 lifting out logs1 c4 ,these claws1 and the chains and rings to which they are attached1 should be made of the best ,swedish iron2 the claw point should be of gad steel1 welded in4 ,the form of the hook or claw is very important1 as1 if not turned to the exact bend1 it will not grip or hold4 ,the above illustrations will serve to show both the form of the claw and its mode of action when in use4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,the ,,boulder ,,claw4 ,miners' pump1 to make4 ,when water settles in a comparatively shallow pit1 too large to be conveniently emptied by the aid of buckets1 a very simple form of pump will be found useful4 ,nail four long planks together in the form of a narrow square box or tube1 say #a;ft4 square2 now procure a stout pole a little longer than the box1 nail a flat board to one end of it just as a table is attached to its stand1 cut away the edges until it fits the box loosely1 then nail a bordering of old boot leather or hide round the edges until it fits tight enough to suck2 cut a large square hole in it1 and fasten over this with tacks a piece of tapping leather or raw hide backed with wood for a valve2 bore a hole in the upper end of the pole to put a cross handle through2 bore an auger hole through the lower end of your box about #a;ft4 from the opening1 and through this drive a stout stick to keep the sucker from coming too far down2 your pump is now complete4 ,place it in a slightly slanting direction in the pond1 and secure it with a crooked stick driven in by its side2 push the sucker to the bottom1 pour a bucket of water or so in to make it draw1 and you will1 by working the piston steadily up and down1 soon have the water pouring in a flood over the upper edge of the box1 where it can be caught in a hollow log or a pit lined with clay4 ,one of these box pumps is shown in the full page illustration ,searching for ,gold4 ,charcoal burning4 ,the traveller will find it extremely useful to be able to manufacture his own charcoal4 ,there are several methods by which he can do this1 all depending on the same general principles4 ,pieces of wood of suitable length and convenient size are prepared4 ,we show here the most effective arrangements4 ,illustration ,the pile1 when evenly and completely built up1 is covered with turf and a little sand or earth--leaving one fair-sized orifice as a draught hole4 ,fire is introduced either at the bottom of the pile through a hole left for it1 or dropped down through the space left by the withdrawal of the centre post4 ,the orifices of all charcoal pits or chambers should remain open until the fire has become well distributed through the mass of wood1 but should be covered with a stopper of turf or clay directly the light grey smoke of active combustion shows itself4 ,the contents of the pile may from time to time be tested by removing a small portion of the stopping or covering turf and inserting a hooked iron rod1 by the aid of which a sample of the baking may be withdrawn for examination4 ,immediately on being satisfied that the charcoal has been sufficiently burned1 more earth1 turf1 sand1 c41 should be heaped on the top of the pile1 until every crevice is stopped completely4 ,the fire will then soon die out1 and the contents of the pile can be removed4 ,illustration ,illustration ,we also represent a contrivance for preparing charcoal for gunpowder making4 ,illustration ,a small cask has one head removed1 a stout pole run through the bung-hole1 and is then evenly packed with selected billets of light suitable wood4 7,see ,gunpowder1 to make1 p4 #bdg47 ,the head is then replaced1 the cask covered with well-worked clay1 and then sunk in a pit prepared for its reception4 ,the pole is then withdrawn1 and a good quantity of red-hot embers thrown down the hole4 ,the cask1 after being used for charcoal making1 is very useful for an oven1 as will be shown when cookery is under consideration4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,huts ,,and ,,houses4 ,timber felling4 ,before proceeding to give directions for building huts and houses1 it may not be amiss to give a few hints on felling trees4 ,hints they can only be1 as it is just as impossible to teach the art of wielding the backwoodsman's axe by writing as it is to communicate the faculty of tracking wild animals through the forest by verbal directions4 ,experience and close observation are the only two true masters in both cases2 still1 we may be enabled to give such general directions as may save our readers from some of the humiliating predicaments we have seen the inexperienced wood-chopper placed in4 ,nothing is more common than to see one of this class hopelessly pinching his axe at every cut1 from having commenced his chop too narrow4 ,the length of the chop1 or chip as it is sometimes called1 will1 of course1 depend on the size of the tree2 but in all cases it should be made in a long wedge form1 as shown in the annexed illustration4 ,illustration ,by cutting in this way1 the surface of the stump is left as level as a planed board1 and the log which is separated from it has1 when it falls1 a wedge-shaped end4 ,it will1 in most cases1 be found that the tree which you are about to fell will lean more or less in one direction4 ,station yourself1 axe in hand1 on the side towards which the tree leans2 then measure your distance by placing the edge of your axe on the centre of the boll of the tree1 at such a height from the ground that the axe lays in a straight and true line according to the stature of the axe man4 ,the check or flange at the end of the axe helve should rest in the hands as the arms are extended towards the tree4 ,this will give the distance at which the axe blade may be best brought to bear on the tree trunk4 ,in delivering the cuts1 which should follow the distance test1 the axe should be dexterously and powerfully whirled round the head2 sometimes obliquely from above downwards1 and at others in a straight and direct sweep across the line of the log4 ,the horizontal form of the lower cut and the wedge shape of the upper will be thus preserved until the tree is half cut through1 when exactly the same system of operation should be followed out on the side of the tree opposite to that on which the first incision was made4 ,on the second chop being nearly completed1 the tree will fall directly away from the axe man in the line of its inclination4 ,on all the tops1 lops1 and branches being removed1 and the log cleared from surrounding impediments1 it may become a question as to what purpose it is to be applied4 ,if it is of great length1 and comparatively short pieces are required1 the process known as logging up must be had recourse to4 ,this is carried out as follows3 ,after measuring the length of the log1 and dividing it into the requisite number of pieces by marking it with the axe1 stand on the tree trunk1 with your feet pointing across the grain of the wood1 then with your axe proceed to cut two sloping or wedge-shaped cuts1 as shown in the annexed illustration ,illustration1 carrying them into the log until half through it2 then face about1 and make two on the other side1 which1 when finished1 should meet the others at their widest diameter1 which will be that of the tree4 ,some settlers in wild countries burn down the trees in order to save labour2 others girdle them4 ,to perform this latter process1 it is necessary to cut a wide band of bark from the butt of the tree near the ground4 ,this prevents the sap from ascending1 and thus quickly destroys vegetation4 ,where timber is scarce and valuable1 the cross-cut saw may be made to aid the axe1 and the tree taken off almost level with the ground4 ,it sometimes1 although not frequently1 happens that trees are found too large to be felled by the axe or saw4 ,this was the case with the so-called big tree1 one of the mammoth trees of ,california4 ,it was felled by boring a complete circle of holes round and into its immense trunk with augers4 ,five men were occupied during twenty-two days in completing the final overthrow of the tree1 which was effected1 after all the holes had converged1 by the introduction of a number of wedges4 ,its period of growth was estimated at #cjjj years2 it measured #cjb;ft4 high1 and was #if;ft4 in circumference at the butt4 ,the bark measured nearly #a;ft4 in thickness4 ,when to cut timber4 ,the quality1 strength1 and durability of timber are much influenced by the season of the year in which it is felled4 ,in all temperate regions the autumn or winter season should be chosen1 as at that time little sap is flowing through the vessels of the tree4 ,in this country it but too often happens that well-grown oak timber is all but sacrificed in order that the bark may be procured4 ,early spring1 the season for bark rending1 is the very worst that could by any possibility be chosen for cutting timber4 ,charged as it is with vegetable juices1 rich in saccharine matter and albumen1 the seeds of dry rot and decay are carried with it1 which no after treatment will serve to eradicate4 ,in tropical climates it is well to fell such timber as is intended to be kept for future use at the end of the dry season and before the setting in of the rains2 all logs intended for rails1 posts1 c41 should be split up1 immediately after felling1 into the rough forms of the objects into which1 when fully seasoned1 they will be converted4 ,the bark should be all stripped off1 and the rough timber placed under cover in such a situation as will admit of light and air penetrating freely through it4 ,timber cut and thus treated one season1 should not be used until the next4 ,the durability of seasoned timber is infinitely greater than that of green4 ,timber1 to split4 ,for efficient timber splitting1 a set of thoroughly well-made and correctly-formed iron wedges1 and a number of equally well-shaped wooden wedges or gluts1 are needed4 ,the iron wedges should be made of the very best tough iron1 tipped with gad steel1 as in the form of the annexed illustration4 ,illustration ,all the edges and corners should be slightly rounded off in order to give freedom in driving2 the length1 from head to point1 should be #aj in41 the width across the wedge #b-a_/b in41 and the thickness of metal across the edge at the head #b in4 ,some judgment is required in tempering wedges1 as they must be hard enough at the point to prevent bending1 and yet not hard enough to break4 ,the file test is as good as any4 ,the edge of the wedge point should never be hammered thin before tempering1 but left rather thick to be reduced to the proper degree of sharpness on the grinding stone4 ,the wooden gluts are usually considerably larger than the iron wedges2 these are to be made from hard1 tough1 well-seasoned timber--round stout poles are convenient for making them4 ,the proper lengths1 which are mainly dependent on the size of the logs to be operated on1 are sawn off4 ,the sides or cheeks of these pieces are then chopped off with the axe in approximately true wedge form1 an even surface and exact pitch is afterwards given to them with a cooper's drawing knife or a spoke shave4 ,wedges1 whether of iron or wood1 should never be driven with an iron hammer4 ,illustration ,a wedging beetle1 of form shown in the accompanying illustration1 should be always made use of4 ,the hardest and toughest wood to be obtained should be used to form the head2 the ends are usually hooped with flat iron rings1 and the handle fashioned from some tough elastic wood1 such as ash or hickory4 ,scarcely any two men use the same size beetle1 but the following will be found fair average dimensions from which to make one3 ,length of beetle head #i;in41 binding hoops #a-a_/d;in4 wide and #a_/b;in4 thick1 diameter of beetle head #e-a_/b;in41 length of handle #b;ft4 #h;in4 ,great care should be taken in fitting in the handle1 as it is essential to the efficiency of the instrument that it and the head should be exactly true with each other4 ,a slightly flattened handle lies in the hand more compactly1 and works more freely1 than a perfectly round one4 ,nearly all logs split best from the small or crown end towards the butt4 ,if it is intended to divide the log into four pieces1 the wedges must be inserted as shown in the annexed illustration 7,a71 if into three they are placed as at ,b4 ,when rails1 c41 are to be made1 the log must be divided into quarters1 by first making a cross-shaped cut in the end of the log1 and striking the back of the axe with the beetle until the edge enters deep enough to afford a hold for the iron wedges4 ,longitudinal cuts with the axe are now to be made1 the whole length of the log corresponding with the cross4 ,the wedges1 gluts1 and beetle do the rest when the latter implement is properly wielded4 ,logs for shingle making are quartered much in the same way1 only instead of being split out in the full length1 the log is cut up into short lengths before quartering4 ,the shingles may be #ae;in4 long by #i;in4 wide1 and in form like that represented in the above illustration4 ,the axe and beetle may be used for splitting off these wooden flakes1 but the lath render's froe is a far more convenient instrument for the purpose4 ,illustration ,illustration ,the diagrams in the next page will serve to show the mode by which the long log quarters are split up into rails1 c4 ,some particular species of tree will split without the aid of wedges2 the axe alone being used to cleave them4 ,two axe men attack a log1 one chops in his axe blade in the line of grain1 the other follows behind and chops in his1 when the first man becomes the second1 and so on until the cut is complete and the log is split4 ,illustration ,such posts as are intended to be driven into the earth require accurate and careful pointing4 ,each cheek of the timber should be smoothly and evenly sloped off to about the proportion shown in the illustration representing the wedge4 ,the centre of the post will thus become the point4 ,illustration ,illustration ,the accompanying illustration represents a log clip for holding a post whilst undergoing the process of pointing4 ,the side wedge holds the post securely in the notched piece of log laid to receive it4 ,a camp1 garden1 or cattle inclosure may be easily and expeditiously fenced in by either of the plans shown in the following illustrations4 ,the first system of railing consists in driving double posts into the earth at equal distances1 and then dropping trimmed poles and pieces of wood or stones alternately between them4 ,a wooden pin driven through the heads of both posts at each nip keeps all compact and secure4 ,to erect a fence by the second plan1 posts are driven into the ground singly1 in the position shown in the diagram on the next page1 and then poles are laid with their ends crossing at a sufficient inclination to rest against and be held by the posts4 ,the rails can be adjusted to any distance apart1 by fitting in short pieces or junks of pole between the ends of the long bars4 ,a very simple and useful fence for marking the bounds of a camp1 or piece of cultivated ground1 is formed by planting short stout poles obliquely in the earth1 so that they may cross each other like the letters ,,xx4 ,the points at which the poles cross are secured with a twisted withy1 a bit of raw hide1 a strip of twisted bark or root4 ,fences of this kind are very useful to show natives the nearest point to which they may stray towards the packs and bales of goods4 ,illustration ,the natives of ,british ,columbia and some other countries laboriously hew and chop away the two cheeks of a log with their primitive hatchets until they form a plank by the reduction of a whole tree4 ,in ,india and ,china the natives make use of a long cross-handled saw1 not unlike our pit saw1 for the division of a log into planks4 ,they do not1 however1 sink a sawpit as we do in this country1 but set up a pair of cross legs or shears1 and run the log obliquely across the upper fork until it is some distance in the air4 ,they then saw down to the fork of the shears1 and1 when that is reached1 reverse the log1 end for end1 by tilting it1 and commence at the other extremity4 ,the hunter or explorer will1 as a rule1 be mainly dependent on his skill as a woodsman1 and wielder of the axe1 for a comfortable dwelling amongst the forests4 ,the number of a party and the duration of a visit to any particular locality will influence the kind of structure it will be best to erect4 ,a single trapper or hunter naturalist can content himself with very moderate accommodation4 ,board wigwam4 ,a simple form of wigwam can be thus built with the aid of the axe only1 in a very short time2 search out and cut four stout fork ended posts between #f;ft4 and #g;ft4 long1 sharpen their ends1 drive two of them into the earth firmly at #i;ft4 apart1 then cut a couple of straight strong poles of about #a;ft4 girth and #aj;ft4 long1 lay one of these in the forks of the two posts and fasten it there with a twisted withy or a bit of raw hide2 then measure off #e;ft4 from one of the posts1 and1 parallel with it1 set up one of the others1 plant the remaining one at the other end1 lay in the second pole1 secure it as before1 and the framework is complete4 ,now look out for a free splitting tree1 log it up into #ac ft4 lengths1 split these into boards1 place them in a sloping direction against the poles which rest in the forks1 and arrange them so that the upper ends do not meet1 but leave a good wide opening for the smoke to come out4 ,split up a log or two the length required to board up the ends of the wigwam2 this can be done by setting the boards upright1 leaving a wide one movable to form a door1 drive in a few hard wood pegs so as to catch the bottoms of the boards and all is made secure4 ,during the day a board or two to leeward may be slid aside to let in light1 by night air enough comes in through the chinks4 ,log house1 to build4 ,as a more permanent home for a party who are about wintering in the woods1 it is best to construct a log hut of the description represented in the following illustration ,illustration2 its size must1 of course1 depend on the number of its proposed occupants2 it can be made either oblong or square4 ,when a sufficient number of trees of convenient bulk for handling have been felled and logged up into proper lengths1 the ends should be notched with the axe1 as shown in the illustration4 ,illustration ,the four ground logs are then laid and keyed together by their notches2 the second row are then placed on these1 either by the aid of skid bars placed in a slanting direction on the lower logs1 or by manual labour4 ,when all the walls are high enough1 the doorway must be cut in the following manner3 ,begin on the upper log and chop through at each end1 the exact width of the proposed opening follow down1 cutting log by log until the ground log is reached2 cut this nearly half through and then split out the piece1 the other portion below forms your threshold4 ,take a fresh log1 and in it split out a space exactly to correspond with that in the ground log1 place this as a crowning log with three others1 uncut1 to form your wall plate1 the split-out piece will form the top of your doorway2 the square hole for the window or shutter is chopped out in the same way4 ,the gable ends and ridge log must be adjusted at such a pitch as to insure a free run for rain water or melted snow2 the four ends or butts of the gable angles should rest and be firmly wedged in four holes axed out for them in the ends of the upper row of wall-plate logs2 where the gable peak crosses1 the logs should be notched together and pinned2 the ridge log will then rest in the crutches formed by the intersection4 ,now1 after having selected the most convenient spot for a fire-place1 chop a hole through the logs1 including that on the ground1 about #c;ft4 wide and #d;ft4 #f;in4 high4 ,there are several ways of forming a chimney and fire-back2 one is to build a beehive-shaped wall outside the opening1 plastering the inside with clay1 and forming a rough chimney stack with turf and stones4 ,all chinks or crevices between the logs are stopped with clay and moss4 ,some ,american trappers and hunters proceed as follows3 ,they cut a number of poles long enough to reach the top of the proposed chimney1 which is1 of course1 a little higher than the ridge of the roof2 they then plant the sharpened ends of the poles in the earth in such a way as to form a semicircular hedge surrounding the back of the hole in the logs1 and about #f;ft4 at its widest part from them4 ,an inner hedge of sticks about #f;ft4 long is now planted within the row of long poles1 at about #h;in4 from them2 a number of bushy twigs are now collected and interwoven between the poles and sticks until a sort of double wall of basket work is formed between these wicker partitions2 a quantity of wet clay and small gravel is firmly impacted1 and rammed down until the space will hold no more4 ,the long poles are then gathered together into a sort of inverted funnel form1 a hole being left where their small ends meet for the smoke to pass through2 a thorough slap-dashing with thin wet clay within and without finishes the affair4 ,the inner layer of basket work consumes in time1 but leaves the clay and stone hard enough to resist an ordinary heat4 ,huts of this description are either half log-roofed or shingled2 that represented in the illustration is covered by the former mode4 ,logs of fitting size and length are split in halves2 the surfaces of one-half of these are slightly hollowed with the axe or adze1 and then placed side by side with the round surface downward on the ridge bar and wall plate2 on the hollowed faces of these over every interval is laid face downward one of the flat-faced pieces4 7,see illustration1 p4 #bge47 ,temporary wigwams4 ,to roof-in one of these log huts with the shingles we have before described1 the builder must proceed in a different manner2 rows of rafters must be pinned on to catch the shingles4 ,the first row1 or that at the wall plate1 should project some inches beyond it2 on the heels of these a long flat lath or batten of wood is secured by wood pegs driven in here and there1 this nips the row of shingles and keeps them in place4 ,the second row is laid over and beyond the batten and so on1 much as slates or tiles are laid for the roof of an ,english house4 ,doors and shutters for log houses are usually made of boards obtained from split logs pinned together with cross-bars1 and are generally called dowel hinged2 an auger hole is bored a few inches into both frame and door1 a hard wood peg placed half-way into each hole gives perfect freedom of motion1 and will last as long as the house4 ,a flooring is very easily made by splitting a large log into rough boards1 and much increases the comfort of the establishment4 ,illustration ,the above illustration represents a rough temporary wigwam1 which may be easily made as follows3 ,select either a large fallen log or high bank for a back2 drive two stout forked pieces sufficiently far from the back and far apart to give space for the interior2 lay another pole across the crutches for a front wall plate1 and two side poles from the back1 long enough to rest on and be secured to this4 ,thatch with hemlock or balsam fir branches1 arranging them layer upon layer1 butt end upwards4 ,the gable ends can be closed with either branches or grass-covered hurdles or frames4 ,another kind is made by placing all the posts double1 and then dropping the planks down between them1 so that they are nipped by the uprights1 as shown in the accompanying sketch4 ,illustration ,the huts of savages4 ,as an almost invariable rule1 the huts built by savage nations are round1 or approximate more or less to the circular form4 ,but sometimes they are shapeless things1 like the rude gunyah of the ,australian1 which consists merely of a sheet of bark of the tea-tree 7one of the ,eucalypti7 broken across the middle and set up in a triangular form to shelter the body from the inclemency of the weather2 while small fires are lighted all around for warmth and defence against the mosquitoes1 or a dry log1 #f;ft4 or #h;ft4 long1 is laid on either side1 and set on fire in several places4 ,equally simple is the hut of the desert bushman4 ,a few sticks are set up against each other1 so as to form an irregular cone1 with one side left open to admit the body of the sleeper1 as shown in the illustration on p4 #bgi4 ,in almost all tribes the commencement is made in the same manner4 ,a circle is traced or imagined on the ground1 and the women1 squatting down1 with sharp pointed sticks work holes a foot or more apart all round it2 long flexible wands are inserted1 and their tops bent over and lashed together1 and if the hut be large1 one or more poles are placed inside the circle as supports4 ,in ,kafirland the fire-place is simply a flat hearth1 occupying the centre1 so that the poles1 when there are any1 are arranged round it4 ,smaller rods are wattled all round1 or bound tightly to the ribs with strips of the inner bark of the mimosa1 or other tree1 and the hut is thatched with reeds1 grass1 or whatever may be the favourite or most convenient material of the country4 ,illustration ,in ,kafirland the huts are hemispherical1 like beehives1 or rather like inverted bowls1 slightly flattened on the top4 ,the thatching is very neatly and compactly done1 and generally small ropes of grass are carried many times round and round outside the hut1 and laced with smaller strips through the thatching to the inner frame4 ,the floor is nicely clayed with a compost of kraal mist or cattle dung1 and the fine clay of ant-hills broken up and well mixed4 ,sometimes the inner wall for #b;ft4 or #c;ft4 high is plastered with the same1 and pumpkin seeds stuck into it in fanciful patterns1 and picked off again1 when the clay is dry1 leaving a glazed film sparkling in the hollow4 ,in one of our sketching trips through ,kafirland in #ahdh we had been advised by ,captain ,roper1 of the ,rifle ,brigade1 who commanded at the ,buffalo ,mouth1 always to go to a hut or village at night1 as should any accident befall us our spoor could be traced1 and the owner of the hut or headman of the village be held responsible2 while1 on the contrary1 should we sleep in the bush1 and our horse be stolen1 and the thieves act on the principle that dead men tell no tales1 it would be very long before we were missed1 and tracing might be impossible4 ,there is one fault in these ,kafir huts4 ,they resemble an inverted bowl2 the door is cut out of the edge1 and there is no other aperture whatever4 ,the consequence is that if one stands up his lower extremities may be absolutely chilled1 while from the waist upward he is immersed in a bath of smoke or heated air2 and when the fire has gone low1 and the intensely cold air of the early morning fills the lower part1 driving the warm air above the level of the doorway1 the sleeper is glad to wrap himself more closely in his mantle4 ,illustration ,in countries where stratified rocks1 as sandstone1 c41 which split easily into flat slabs1 abound1 huts are frequently built of stone4 ,a circle of blocks is laid on the ground1 then another on them1 with the edges projecting a little inward1 so that the circumference of each course is less than that of the one immediately beneath it2 a large slab covers the top1 and finishes the building4 ,such huts are found in the north-eastern part of the ,free ,state in ,south ,africa1 formerly the ,orange ,river ,sovereignty4 ,among the various ,bechuana tribes in and beyond the ,free ,state1 the building of a hut is a more elaborate and artistic affair2 in fact1 it deserves rather to be called a house1 consisting1 as it does1 of walls and a roof perfectly distinct from each other4 ,in its simplest form it consists of a row of stakes from #d;ft4 to #g;ft4 high1 set up in a circular form1 and of a conical roof1 the frame of which is mostly made separately on the ground1 and then lifted into its place1 and bound firmly upon the upright wall4 ,in the larger huts a smaller concentric circle of stakes 7of course much longer than the first1 as they have to reach the roof at a higher point7 forms an inner chamber1 and generally the eaves of the roof are extended1 so as to form also a verandah1 or shade1 all round2 and1 besides this1 there will be a larger circular wall inclosing a courtyard1 frequently of considerable dimensions4 ,illustration3 ,,chief',s ,,hut1 ,,vaal ,,river4 ,sometimes1 as on the ,lower ,zambesi1 the row of stakes forming the outer wall of the house is plastered round with a broad central horizontal band of red or yellow clay1 leaving about a third above and below it open for ventilation1 and sometimes the whole is elaborately smoothed with a mixture of the fine clay of broken ant-hills and cattle dung1 which1 being left of its natural colour1 has the appearance of a light greyish stone4 ,all this is performed by the women1 who put it down and smooth it with their hands1 finishing not only the house1 but the outer walls and even the floor of the courtyard1 with so much nicety that1 as good housewives say at home1 you might eat off it4 ,raised seats are generally built in the form of segments of a circle1 and these are as carefully smoothed over as the rest4 ,the hut of a ,bechuana chief at ,vaal ,river was a model of neatness in its way2 the walls had been marked off into blocks1 zigzag lines had been traced on them1 and uncouth patterns were painted in black or coloured clay over the low door of his inner chamber1 which1 hung round with antelope skins1 was1 as he said1 very nice and warm--in fact1 insufferably hot4 ,the outer apartment was #c;ft4 or #d;ft4 broad1 and ran all round the inner4 ,the part nearest the door served as a reception room1 and the remoter regions were used for the stowage of rough skins1 household gear1 the musket and ammunition1 and large pots and calabashes of outchulla or native beer1 which kept up a constant simmering as it fermented1 and to the taste seemed very like spoiled vinegar4 ,large frames are made of wattled work1 and coated with clay till they resemble capacious jars2 in these the corn is stored1 small roofs are raised over them1 and the timber around is wastefully heaped up to form a kind of shelter from the sun for the chief and council to sit under4 ,the hartebeeste hut shown in the full-page camp scene in ,kafirland1 mostly used by colonial ,hottentots1 is simple and easy enough to make4 ,it has one straight side1 and one lean-to1 and derives its name from its resemblance to the sloping back of the animal4 ,the huts of the ,damaras are generally of very rude construction4 ,a circle of sticks is planted in the ground1 and the tops bent over and lashed together1 generally with their own bark2 they are then roughly wattled1 and plastered over with clay and kraal mist4 ,rain so seldom falls that they seem to take no precaution against it1 preferring rather to risk the few drenching showers of the wet season than to take the trouble of making their huts waterproof4 ,sometimes the hides of the few cattle they slaughter are spread over their huts1 and kept in their places by stones or heavy poles laid on them4 ,in one respect only they have an advantage over the ,kafir hut1 and that is1 the smoke escapes through the cracks and interstices of the roof4 ,internally there may be a dried hide to sit or sleep on1 an earthen pot for cooking1 a calabash or two1 or a bambuse or wooden bowl for milk or water2 two or three skins stripped off whole1 as sacks for uintjies or earth nuts2 and it may be an axe1 of ,ovampo1 or more rarely of ,european1 manufacture4 ,illustration ,the box made of stiff leather1 in which they carry grease and red ochre1 may also be here2 but1 with the exception of their cattle1 the ,damaras seldom possess much more property than can be carried on the person4 ,the huts of the ,berg ,damaras are still more primitive2 and sometimes they seek no other shelter than one or two small bushes1 the lower branches of which are cut away1 while the upper ones are brought together and interwoven--others being added if needful--and grass thrown loosely over all4 ,indeed1 small trees1 with the lower branches cleared away1 and the upper ones drawn together and interlaced1 form very convenient huts or arbours4 ,the ,bechuana women1 in making a kraal1 beat the mimosa branches on the ground till they flatten them into a fan-like form1 then they plant them side by side and interlace the branches4 ,illustration ,the ,namaqua ,hottentots1 the ,makobas or canoemen of the ,bo-tlt-te ,river1 and many of the ,bechuana tribes in the ,orange ,river ,sovereignty and elsewhere1 build hemispherical frames of flexible wands1 and cover them with mats of rushes like cheese mats4 ,these are very neatly made4 ,the ,hottentots use flat awls1 #ah;in4 or #bj;in4 long1 for this purpose1 but the ,makoba awl is not more than #e in4 or #f in4 ,small thongs of dressed antelope skin1 or cords twisted from the fibres of different plants1 are used for sewing the mats4 ,these might be easily made by a traveller needing them1 and he could best do it by having two or three needles of any convenient length1 from #d;in4 or #e;in4 to #bj;in42 they should be flattened at the point1 and pierced with an eye to carry the cord on which the reeds are strung4 ,the most convenient method would be to fix the needles upright at the proper distance from each other1 and then press upon them as many rushes as their length would allow2 these1 with the strings drawn through1 should then be removed1 and a fresh set threaded on1 care being taken to see that the strings are kept clear1 so that they reeve consecutively through all the rushes1 and make a smooth uniform mat4 ,generally1 however1 it will be found that1 where the proper materials grow1 the natives will make and sell them cheaply enough4 ,mats of this description are much used by the natives of ,north-,west ,america in hut building2 the needles used in that country are not unfrequently #e;ft4 long4 ,crook and prong house1 to build4 ,it often becomes necessary for the traveller1 if he contemplates a stay of a few months1 or even weeks1 in any one place1 to build his own hut2 and it is as well that this should be1 if possible1 somewhat superior in size and form to the dwellings of the natives around him4 ,if the nature of the ground and the materials at hand will admit of it1 this may as well be a house regularly walled and roofed1 and at least the four corner posts1 as well as the two which support the gables1 should be firmly let into the ground4 ,if care is taken to cut all these with a fork1 so that the ridge pole of the roof may rest in the forks of the gable poles1 and the wall plates in those of the four corner posts1 the building will be much stronger1 and the work greatly facilitated4 ,the rafters may also have forks1 which can rest upon the wall plate1 but this would leave the thickest part of the branches upward2 a little labour in thinning them off would remedy this1 or they might1 in favourable localities1 be so chosen that it would be of very little consequence4 ,every alternate rafter should be reversed1 so that its forks might help to support the battens4 ,all the poles forming the side walls should have forks to help to support the wall plate1 and those which form the sides of the doors or windows should be so selected that smaller forks1 at the proper height1 would serve to receive the sills of the door and windows4 ,such a frame as this would present the greatest amount of strength and firmness with the least possible necessity for lashing1 pegging1 or other fastening4 ,illustration ,the sketch of the framework of a house indicates the manner in which the forks and branches may be used to the best advantage4 ,if trees of proper size are abundant1 the builder will be able to choose them so as to suit their places1 with as much regularity as indicated in the drawing2 if not1 he must make the best of the materials4 ,the smaller framework beside it represents that of a hut we built at ,dept ,creek4 ,we set up three forked poles as a triangle at either end1 laid a ridge pole between them1 and lashed it firmly there4 ,rafters and battens were added1 and we stripped off large sheets of tea-tree bark 7,eucalyptus melaleuca87 to cover it4 ,we also obtained some of the white-barked red-gum tree 7,eucalyptus resinifera72 but this is more brittle1 and did not answer so well4 ,illustration ,the roof may be covered with the reed mats already spoken of1 one or two thicknesses of which1 if the roof has a pitch of not less than #de1 will suffice to keep out rain2 or it may be thatched with grass1 reeds1 or the broad leaves of the fan palm-remembering that1 whatever material is used1 it will cast off water much better if the point of the leaf is downward4 ,the lowest course will be laid and securely fastened first2 then the next1 overlapping it2 and so on to the top4 ,this may be done by simply lashing the stalks of each course to the proper batten2 or a thatching needle may be made of wood1 smooth and flat1 an inch or more in breadth1 and pierced near the point with an eye to carry the lashing4 ,the inner bark of many trees1 though unfit to make cord which is to remain permanently flexible1 will answer very well for this purpose2 for if stripped as required1 and used while still wet1 it will tie in any knot1 and bear straining tightly4 ,it will hold well enough when dry1 though it would not again bear working up1 on account of its brittleness4 ,the leaves of the ,phormium tenax1 of ,new ,zealand1 which grow much like those of the common flag1 are very generally used in that country1 just as they are gathered1 for binding various matters4 ,excellent twine1 thread1 cloth1 and rope are made from the fibre1 as will be seen as our work proceeds4 ,the walls may be filled up1 according to taste or necessity1 with mats or reeds2 or1 if permanent shelter from bad weather is required1 nothing is better than wattle and daub1 and if the wattling is carefully done1 and good clay or broken ant-hills and kraal mist used for the daub1 a very neat job may be made of it4 ,we have shared the hut of a sergeant of ,sappers in the forest of the ,pierie ,hills in ,kafirland1 where he had a clay hearth1 and wattle and daub chimney1 and1 though a roaring fire was kept up1 he did not anticipate any danger4 ,he had charge of a party who were cutting timber1 and one noble yellow wood they had just felled was no less than #g;ft4 diameter at its base4 ,the bush vines hung in long straight lines1 like ropes from the upper branches of this tree2 and on one of these1 #fj;ft4 or #hj;ft4 long1 and not more than an inch thick1 the sergeant1 who was a heavy man1 raised himself1 and swung to and fro without fear of breaking it4 ,in fact1 these vines may be used while green for many of the purposes of rope or cord4 ,we have disentangled nearly #cj;ft41 as fine and almost as tough as a small fishing line1 from the forest in front of the ,victoria ,falls1 and rolled it into a small coil2 but once dry1 it becomes brittle1 and cannot be straightened4 ,some of these vines bear fruit1 which1 though not equal to the cultivated grape1 is by no means to be despised4 ,when looking for a spot along the banks of the ,zambesi on which to establish a camp and rebuild our boat1 in ,september1 #ahfb1 ,ave were warned by the natives who came to meet us against the pretty little sequestered spots beside the tributary rivulets1 as they were certain to be infested by mosquitoes4 ,we1 therefore1 having in view also the probability of being obliged to stay far into the unhealthy season1 tried back about a mile1 and selected a limestone spur which had a small valley between it and the higher range in its rear4 ,illustration ,roof1 to raise4 ,this we named ,logier ,hill1 after our old and steadfast friend in ,cape ,town2 and1 setting to work with a keen ,american felling axe1 cut down the thorns and brushwood on the top1 while the people assisted us in cutting or dragging the fallen bushes to the verge4 ,three mimosas1 which were in a good position1 we left standing1 and added one for the fourth corner post4 ,then selecting flexible branches1 we framed upon the ground an oval of corresponding size2 on this with lighter poles 7most of them the young straight branches of the kookom boyou1 a gigantic sterculia in general appearance1 somewhat resembling the baobab71 we framed a roof similar in form to that of a marquee1 using for lashings the inner bark1 stripped from the branches just mentioned4 ,to lift this1 as its weight was considerable in proportion to its strength1 and all the people were away collecting poles or grass for the completion of our huts1 was rather difficult1 but we had fortunately a small coil of manilla line and a few blocks4 ,with two of these we made a tackle1 and lifting one side of the roof #b;ft41 supported it by a forked branch while we raised the rest1 shoring it in the same manner all round1 and then lifting it again and supporting it on longer forks till it was high enough to be fastened securely in its place4 ,we placed forked uprights under it at proper intervals1 but as the eaves projected considerably we did not find it necessary to close in the walls1 but when the rain came on laid fresh poles upon the roof and thatched it with grass and reeds to the ground4 ,for central supports we took two forked poles1 and instead of setting them upright at the two ends of the ridge pole gained additional rigidity by crossing them like an ,x1 and lashing them together in the centre4 ,at one end1 raised upon forks above #ah;in4 high1 we made a platform of small poles as straight as we could get them to serve for a bed1 and when a buffalo was shot spread over it the dried hide to level it a little more4 ,this platform was continued all round between the uprights and the eaves1 and various stores were laid on it4 ,one advantage here was the immunity from the ravages of the white ant1 which is seldom found in a limestone country4 ,but as the rainy season came on hosts of the destructive little white-shouldered beetle that feeds on skins1 preserved hides1 and specimens of all kinds--seeming rather to enjoy arsenic soap and other preservatives--ravaged everything made of untanned leather2 while other kinds1 larger and still more unpleasant to the eye and touch1 would actually commence eating the velschoens off our feet during the short meal time4 ,we should have preferred reeds for thatching1 as when laid at a sufficient angle1 say anything above #de1 they cast off water perfectly1 although if laid at a lower angle they might be by no means water-proof4 ,of course the cut ends of the stems must be upward1 and the leaves pointing down1 or the water will be retained1 and allowed to leak through instead of being thrown off2 and this rule holds good when grass or such like material is used4 ,if the roof of the hut be conical1 the ends may simply be brought up and tied tightly together1 or they may be worked into an ornamental form like those of the ,bechuana 7see p4 #bha74 ,if it has a ridge as ours had1 it must be covered with a horizontal layer1 sufficiently thick to keep the water from insinuating itself between the meeting of the two sides4 ,in our own house we stretched the sails of our boat and calico tent within the roof to keep off any leakage during heavy showers1 and added fresh poles and grass to the outside4 ,sir ,richard ,glyn1 who visited the hill after we had been compelled to abandon it1 and who returned to ,england before us1 reported that our house was the strongest building of the kind he had ever seen4 ,bamboos1 for building4 ,in countries like the ,indian islands1 where bamboo can be obtained in any quantity and of any size1 from a reed fit for a lady's arrow to one big enough for the mast of a small sloop1 it is easy enough to build a house2 the extreme strength and lightness of the material1 with its glossy surface and neat and uniform appearance1 rendering it in every sense most valuable for such purposes4 ,poles of uniform size may be planted closely so as to form a wall1 or pillars may be placed more or less apart1 and mats or blinds of smaller reeds1 or larger ones split up1 may occupy the intervals4 ,balconies1 strong and sufficiently ornamental1 may be formed2 and the eaves of the roof may be made to project to any distance1 so as to form an effectual verandah2 while palisades or fences of any form or height may be constructed ad libitum4 ,bamboo1 from its polished siliceous covering1 is1 externally at least1 proof against the ravages of the white ant1 which destroys without mercy all the softer kinds of wood and vegetable or animal fibre1 whether in the form of boxes1 furniture1 books1 clothing1 specimens of natural history or botany1 drawings1 or articles of necessity or luxury of any kind4 ,if thunderstorms are frequent or dangerous1 a glass bottle on the highest point of the roof will act as a non-conductor1 and may not unfrequently avert the flash that might otherwise destroy the building4 ,it is not always1 however1 effectual4 ,doors and gates1 to make and hang4 ,doors or gates may be made as closely worked or as open as may be desired2 and1 while upon this subject1 it may be as well to mention a very convenient way of hanging them in the absence of regular hinges4 ,the hinge side of the door or gate should be a standard of some strength1 to which all the rest is framed and securely fastened with pegs or lashings2 round this and the corresponding doorpost a strap or thong of leather or cord should be passed in figure of #h fashion to form each hinge1 or it may simply be passed round both and seized between them with smaller cords4 ,this1 however1 will not hold the door with sufficient stiffness to let it swing true and easily2 therefore1 take a common ale or porter bottle1 bury it neck downwards in the ground1 leave the lower end of the standard somewhat longer than the door1 point it a little1 and insert it in the hollow at the bottom of the bottle--the gate will swing fairly on such a pivot1 as it never gets out of order1 and it may almost be said will never wear out4 ,illustration3 #a-aa ,the gate itself 7,fig4 #a7 may be built of rough branches--one tolerably stout limb1 for the hinge or swinging side1 should have a good branch projecting from its lower part diagonally upwards to the upper part of the latch side2 another fork1 with its branches as nearly at right angles as possible1 will form the latch side and top rail2 and a third will make the lower one4 ,never be in a hurry to trim off small branches2 generally they will weave in and add to the strength2 and1 if not1 they are easily cut off afterwards4 ,when the posts are set up on the ground1 it is as well to char the ends as a protection against damp or wood-destroying insects2 cut notches near the ends1 and in them wedge good heavy stones--they will keep the posts firm1 and in countries where there is frost nothing else can prevent their rising out of the ground4 ,we found this arrangement very valuable in the ,crimea4 ,it is not necessary that the bottle should be whole2 if the cup under the bottom is perfect1 the broken edges of the sides will give it additional firmness4 ,in ,fig4 #b the gate post has a fork1 and another on the branch serving as the top rail makes the upper hinge4 ,one of the other branches has a fork projecting from the lower angle and working on the gate post as a cutter's gaff does on the mast4 ,this is easy to make1 can be unshipped at a moment's notice1 and hung up again as readily4 ,fig4 #c is a more regularly made gate on the same principle4 ,the top rail has a hole working on the thinned upper part of the gate post1 which is pierced with holes1 and has a peg so that the gates may be raised or lowered as required2 the lower part works on the gaff principle4 ,it is generally desirable to hang a gate so that it may shut of itself after it has been opened2 and to ensure this1 if iron hook and staple hinges can be had1 let the hook of the upper hinge project a little farther from the gate post than the lower one1 as in ,fig4 #e4 ,if it is requisite that the gate should remain open--which is sometimes1 though not often1 the case--the upper hook should project less than the lower1 as in ,fig4 #d4 ,generally1 if the hinges be equal1 the gate will hang in whatever position it may be left2 but if the post inclines from the perpendicular to right or left1 the gate will swing to the same side4 ,very good standards for fences may be made by cutting half mortices in the opposite sides of a squared log1 #d;ft4 or #e;ft4 long1 as in ,fig4 #f1 then cutting it into planks1 and1 before these are quite detached1 sawing it down in the direction of the diagonal line2 a pair of these are matched together1 as in ,fig4 #g1 and the lower end morticed into a flat plank so far as to let one hole come below it to receive a key to fix it there4 ,the horizontal plank should rest upon a short log at each end1 and it may be held in place by a couple of notched pegs driven into the ground4 ,walls1 to build4 ,many of the natives of ,south ,africa are very handy at building rough stone walls2 but they require an overseer to insure the proper binding of the stones as they are laid4 ,some of their own countrymen may be found with skill enough for this4 ,it is no use to build up two fair faces1 as in ,fig4 #h1 and then fill up the middle with loose stones--their weight would be sure to force out the sides and bring down the whole structure2 but large flat stones should be chosen1 as in ,fig4 #i1 to reach either quite through the wall1 or at least so far that the stones on the other side may meet and have a bond with them4 ,such walls1 miles in length1 are built without cement of any kind4 ,if galvanised iron wire is to be used for fencing1 to support upright rails1 it is a good plan to have two rail-heads fixed at the proper distance1 and to make the turns of the wire on these to insure each loop being equidistant1 as in ,fig4 #aj4 ,chalk lines and measuring lines of all kinds suffer from being coiled or rolled up by hand--turns and kinks are put on or taken out of them2 and it is much better to have reels1 either like the log-reel of a ship1 or like ,fig4 #aa 7see p4 #bij71 where a peg in the circumference of the disc serves as the crank by which to wind it up4 ,illustration ,plank screens to make4 ,effective screens can be readily extemporised with planks of any kind and ropes2 the simplest plan is to double the rope1 making one part somewhat longer than the breadth of all the planks to be used1 and leaving whatever spare end may be upon the other to hoist the screen by when finished4 ,the first plank is laid in the bight of the rope1 the two parts of which are then crossed and the next plank laid between them2 they are crossed again for the third plank1 and so on till all are inclosed4 ,if there is not an eye on the shorter end of the rope1 make a bow-line knot or two half hitches on it 7see ,knots and ,hitches71 and pass the longer end through2 then lead the spare line at each end of your screen over the forks of trees1 or sheer legs1 or whatever support you mean to use1 and hoist away simultaneously and carefully2 for this arrangement1 though perfectly strong and secure while every part remains in its proper place1 is most easily disarranged2 and in fact the great advantage of it is that1 when no longer required1 it can be shaken to pieces like a house of cards1 leaving neither holes or imperfections in the planks nor kinks or knots in the rope4 ,we have shown the boards rather far apart in our illustration for the sake of distinctness1 they will lie closer1 but they must always be separate by more than the thickness of the rope4 ,they may be made to lie closer by omitting to cross the ropes and stopping them together with small cord1 as in ,fig4 #b2 or a perfectly weather-proof wall with overlapping edges may be obtained by looping the rope into a chain1 as in ,fig4 #c1 taking care to make the lower link well fast1 for on this the security of the whole depends4 ,to take this to pieces nothing more is necessary than to slip each loop off the end of the plank2 let go the fastening of the lower end1 and all the links of the rope chain will shake out4 ,illustration ,great firmness may be imparted to any of these arrangements by placing a small pole inside1 and securing every plank to it by successive hitches of a smaller line1 as in ,fig4 #d2 or1 if stouter poles be used1 the walls may be built up in this manner1 commencing from the bottom plank and fastening the upper ones as you go on4 ,each plan will have its advantages under peculiar circumstances4 ,in the ,indian islands1 large hollow bamboos are either split into three or four parts1 making somewhat rounded narrow planks1 or an incision is made in the side of the cane1 when it is opened out1 laid flat1 pressed1 and converted into a single plank4 ,movable screens of considerable size are made in the same manner as in ,figs4 #a and #b already referred to4 ,makeshift shelves4 ,a shelf is easily made by piercing holes in the four corners of a plank1 passing lines through1 and suspending it to a beam4 ,a very neat set of bookshelves may be obtained by doubling two cords of sufficient length1 working an eye in the bight of each1 passing the ends down through the holes in the first plank1 and turning double knots on them1 so that it hangs fairly2 then passing them through the next and knotting them1 and successively through as many more planks as you require shelves4 ,reed houses1 screens1 and sheds4 ,we have seen houses built by traders or missionaries almost entirely of reeds1 some of which grow from #aj;ft4 to #bj;ft4 long and more than #a;in4 thick4 ,bundles of these1 with the thin ends and butts reversed1 and overlapping each other so as to equalise their strength as much as possible1 are laid on the ground to serve for top1 bottom1 and centre battens2 then across these the reeds are distributed in two or three layers1 according to the required thickness of the wall2 other battens are laid on the upper side to correspond with those below1 and the cords--slips of bark1 palm leaf1 twisted grass rope1 or thin and flexible forest creepers--are passed through to bind the whole tightly together4 ,if a number of these are made say #ab;ft4 or #ae;ft4 square1 they may easily be arranged on the framework of a house1 or set up as a continuous fence4 ,a trench is dug about #a;ft4 deep1 the screen inserted in it1 the earth well pressed down1 and support is given either by shores1 if needful1 or by the next screen forming an angle with the first4 ,if the wood of the country is more available for making hurdles1 they can be used in the same manner4 ,illustration ,we have had very excellent temporary stables and sheds erected in ,central ,india1 composed entirely of poles1 cords1 and grass1 forming what is called chupper screens4 ,these are formed by laying together double poles2 in the space left between these poles long tufts of jungle grass are arranged1 until the whole frame is filled up1 when the sticks or poles1 being tightly drawn together with cord1 the grass is nipped between them1 as shown in the above illustration4 ,when in the ,tartar country1 we saw a number of very comfortable huts made by cutting out a kind of notch in the hill side4 ,the space thus formed was first framed over with strong poles1 and then covered with brushwood2 a layer of turf covered all1 and soon took root1 forming feeding grounds for whole families of goats1 which walked about on the houses quite at home4 ,the fronts of these hill dwellings were composed of wicker work1 plastered with clay4 ,logs were hollowed out by the ,tartars almost as thin as paper1 when their ends were stopped with clay4 ,in those the bees laid up their stores of honey1 which was taken as required1 without disturbing the industrious swarm in the next log4 ,the annexed illustration represents one of these huts and a pile of bee logs4 ,illustration ,illustration ,defensible farm-houses4 ,during the ,kafir war we visited the homestead of a ,scottish farmer1 who1 although upon the very border1 had gallantly determined to stand his ground1 and to that end he had built a small defensible tower2 the flat roof covered with raw hides1 and surrounded by a loopholed parapet1 and the only door fronted by a solid shield of brickwork1 with a small aperture on one side1 so that an enemy attempting to enter must do it in a stooping position1 and before he could turn and straighten himself in the doorway1 must present his head in the most convenient possible position to have it split by the defenders4 ,a large water cask was kept filled in the fort1 and even should the enemy gain possession of the lower room the women and children could still be tolerably safe in the upper1 except from random shots fired upwards through the floor1 and which of course could be returned in the same manner from above4 ,against fire their only defence lay in the supply of water we have already mentioned1 but care was taken to have nothing inflammable in the lower room4 ,there was no staircase2 the ladder would be drawn up through the trap4 ,the beams and flooring would require a considerable blaze to ignite them1 and against any quantity of material being brought in for that purpose the defenders relied upon their rifles1 or no less deadly smooth bores1 loaded with loopers or buck shot4 ,blockhouse4 ,blockhouse1 among military edifices1 is1 as its name implies1 a building constructed chiefly of timber4 ,if alone1 it constitutes an independent fort2 if formed in the interior of a field-work1 it becomes a retrenchment or redoubt1 and serves to protect the defenders from the inclemency of the weather when the work is occupied during a considerable time1 or to prolong the defence when the work is attacked1 and after it is taken to enable the garrison to obtain a capitulation4 ,when the blockhouse is to be employed only as a retrenchment1 its plan is generally a simple rectangle1 and its walls consist of a single row of piles placed upright in the ground4 ,these are pierced with loopholes at the distance of #c;ft4 from each other1 in order that the building may be defended by a fire of rifles from within4 ,the roof is formed by laying timbers horizontally across the inclosed area and covering them with fascines and earth4 ,the interior breadth of the building may be from #ah;ft4 to #bj;ft41 in order to allow a passage between the two rows of bedsteads4 ,these are placed with their heads to the side walls1 and serve as stages on which the men may stand to fire through the loopholes when the latter are much elevated above the floor4 ,in a mountainous country the blockhouse possesses great advantages over an ordinary field fort1 inasmuch as the interior of the latter would be incessantly ploughed up by the fire of artillery directed into it by the enemy from the surrounding heights4 ,here1 then1 the blockhouse may with propriety be constructed as an independent work2 its plan may have re-entering angles1 or be in the form of a cross1 in order to allow the faces to be defended by flanking fires from the rifles and revolvers from within2 and the walls may be thick enough to resist even the shot from #i-pounder guns4 ,for this purpose they must be made by planting parallel to each other1 at a distance of #c ft4 or #d;ft41 two rows of strong piles1 those in each row being close together1 and the interval between the rows being filled with earth up to the height of the loopholes1 which should never be immediately under the roof of the building4 ,the roof must be made shell proof1 as before2 but it has been recommended1 when the work is not overlooked by the enemy1 and when its breadth will permit1 to have the piles forming the side walls long enough to arise above the roof1 and1 either alone or with a mass of earth behind them1 to serve as a parapet4 ,where blockhouses have to be constructed among hostile or doubtful ,indian tribes1 who are not the possessors of artillery1 the fascine and earth roof and double rows of piles may be easily and safely dispensed with4 ,logs1 squared with the axe and laid on each other1 may be substituted for piles with advantage1 as the labour of planting firmly in the earth so many ponderous beams of wood is considerable4 ,it is well1 in building a blockhouse1 to construct a raised breastwork of small logs round the margin of the roof2 these may be roughly squared and doweled together with short wooden pins4 ,the roof itself should1 after shingling1 have a goodly layer of sand1 earth1 or raw hides laid over it in order to guard against the fire-tipped arrows of hostile savages4 ,a few auger holes here and there serve to carry off rain water or melted snow1 and the log breastwork can be both loopholed and fired over with ease4 ,frontier blockhouses are usually built of squared logs of timber dowelled together2 loopholes are made for firing rifles through1 and portholes for one or two iron guns4 ,some frontier posts are merely squares of heavy log palisades1 with all the requisite offices and buildings erected within them4 ,a banquet runs from end to end of each side of the square in order that the defenders may command the attacking force4 ,all trees and bushes within long shooting range are carefully removed so that there shall be no cover4 ,waggon burgs1 to make4 ,bands of travellers in ,africa not unfrequently so arrange their waggons as to form substantial defences against the attacks of hostile natives4 ,we have often assisted in forming these so-called waggon burgs4 ,they are made as follows3 ,one waggon1 with all the women1 children1 and ammunition1 is placed in the centre4 ,others are drawn up1 each with its inner fore wheel nearly touching the outer hind wheel of the one before it1 and forming just such an angle with it that the dozen or thereabouts of vehicles form an almost perfect circle1 their poles and trek gear extending on the outside1 so that the oxen can again be yoked to each without disorder or confusion4 ,there is room inside for the horses and cattle beside the defenders2 and1 should danger be imminent1 the waggons can be locked together by the drag chains1 and all the interstices choked with thorn bushes1 the stems of which thrust inward would be securely fastened by pegs driven into the ground1 or by lashing branches1 cut short for the purpose1 to the inner wheels1 or by reims or thongs reeved through the bifurcations2 while the tangled branches would oppose a barrier that no enemy could force in the face of the bullets or the small shot that would be poured through4 ,the gear of the oxen would also be brought in and used in strengthening the defences4 ,illustration ,farm and village1 to fortify4 ,in rendering a farmhouse defensible regard must be had to the character of the expected enemy4 ,in countries like ,south ,africa1 where the main object of the ,kafir is the acquisition of cattle1 the house ought to command and protect the kraal1 the fence of which will often of itself form a shelter for the crafty foe4 ,it is usually circular1 as this form is most easily made1 and will inclose the greatest number of cattle1 with a given amount of material2 but1 if it were made triangular1 with bastions on the two angles nearest1 the guns of the defenders would sweep the other two sides1 their fire crossing at the farthest angle1 and leaving no place for an enemy to conceal himself4 ,the house itself1 with its outbuildings1 should if possible be in the form of a square1 inclosing as large a courtyard as is convenient for the accommodation of the defenders and their allies1 and on emergencies for their horses1 with a few sheep or oxen4 ,if there be a spring or well in it so much the better2 a ledge or bank1 #ah;in4 or #b;ft4 high1 should run along the inside of the wall1 so that the loopholes may be too high for the enemy to look in at or fire through2 and there should be small chambers projecting from the angles1 or at least from two diagonally opposite loopholed1 so that each can enfilade two sides of the wall4 ,illustration3 ,,entrenched ,,village ,,of ,,objimbengue4 ,but perhaps it will be better1 instead of describing an ideal defensible homestead1 to give an example of a real one1 which1 though not quite perfect in a military view1 was as nearly so as the accommodation required for the traffic and the work carried on there would allow4 ,our illustration is a plan1 drawn from memory1 of the village of ,objimbengue1 to the south of which 7,fig4 #a7 is the flat sandy bed1 #djjyds4 wide1 of the ,swakop ,river1 filled only during the flooded season1 but in the dry retaining a vast amount of water beneath the sand1 while a little rivulet represented by the faint line appears here and there upon the surface4 ,fig4 #b is a low bank or foreshore1 overgrown with wild tamarisks or dabbie bushes1 and partly cleared for a garden 7,fig4 #c7 in which is a well1 and used in other places for corn land1 care being taken to reap the crop before there is any possibility of its being swept away by the floods of the next season4 ,on the east of the village is a small tributary1 generally dry1 called the ,artip 7,fig4 #d71 and beyond this1 and the limits of the picture1 would be the ,mission ,house of ,regterveldt and the ,damara village1 with its curious entrenchments scattered without order1 but not without great judgment1 over the face of the hill wherever a few men could find a place to shoot from4 ,the trench 7,fig4 #e71 fronted by the mound of earth thrown out of it1 and by a breastwork of dabbie logs1 made by the ,damaras1 formed the outer line of defence of his homestead1 and he could in emergency have depended on a thousand men to man it4 ,fig4 #f is the opening for the southern road leading across the river from the country of the hostile ,namaquas4 ,fig4 #g1 the road leading from ,walvisch ,bay2 and ,fig4 #h1 the continuation of it toward ,lake ,ngami1 and ,fig4 #i is the steep edge1 #ae;ft4 or #bj;ft4 high1 of the plain1 on which the village is built4 ,fig4 #aj is a small breastwork for a brass #a-pounder gun commanding the southern road1 and ,fig4 #aa for another sweeping the open space to the south-east1 where1 in fact1 an attack actually took place4 ,the guns were1 however1 usually kept beside the house1 where one served as a time gun1 and they could easily be moved whenever they were wanted4 ,fig4 #ab was a dwelling-house2 the central space is open and would serve as a shelter for native fugitives1 for horses1 sheep1 and a few of the most valuable working oxen2 the front is composed of a voor-house or entrance-hall1 usually occupied for general family purposes and reception of visitors1 and before it is a verandah4 ,at each angle are rooms used as sitting or bed chambers2 on the western side are spare chambers for the reception of guests2 in the rear are kitchen1 bath-room1 and other offices2 and on the east are store-rooms and the entrance gate4 ,fig4 #ac is the wheelwright and waggon maker's shop2 ,fig4 #ad1 the smithy2 ,fig4 #ae1 the sawpit2 ,fig4 #af1 the tiring plate2 ,fig4 #ag1 small trenches with angular mounds before them1 commanding the eastern gate of the village2 ,fig4 #ah1 the graveyard2 ,fig4 #ai1 the workmen's cottages2 ,fig4 #bj1 the slaughter-house and waggon-shed2 the walls of all these buildings being musket-proof1 and the windows more or less convenient for firing from4 ,figs4 #ba and #bb are stoutly stockaded cattle kraals2 they were both square1 but the triangular outline of ,fig4 #ba shows what would be gained in defensibility and lost in accommodation by adopting that form2 ,fig4 #bb has small scherms at the angles protected by the fire from the house1 and commanding the other two sides2 ,fig4 #bc is a storehouse1 adding but little to the strength of the position1 but indispensable for its use4 ,the dotted lines indicate the directions of effective fire from the dwelling-house4 ,in most frontier villages the church1 as the most substantial building1 is used as a place of refuge1 and as a last stronghold against savage assailants2 and on the east coast1 the natives1 when they throw up a rough tower of defence1 always call it by the ,portuguese name1 ,egregia1 or church4 ,churches1 to fortify4 ,we have seen the church at ,shiloh converted into a very pretty little fortification by one of our own engineer officers4 ,bastions were raised at the angles of the outer wall1 the building itself was unthatched1 and a breastwork1 with loopholes1 raised upon the walls4 ,we have known friends who have had to entrench their waggons for months among tribes whose friendship was dubious2 and they seemed to prefer that1 especially for a night attack1 or for a sentry's accommodation1 the embankment should be behind the trench1 and not before it1 so that they might look from the very edge of the pit and see the dark figure of an approaching enemy against the sky1 whilst they would be invisible against the mound behind them2 whereas1 if the mound were in front1 they would have to raise their heads to look over it1 and an enemy creeping close to the ground1 would be absolutely invisible1 and would1 moreover1 be able to see clearly the elevated figure of the sentry4 ,mission churches1 plans for building4 ,we have on several occasions been asked to draw plans for churches on remote stations1 and for defensible farmhouses2 in the former case1 regard must be had to the nature of the materials at the disposal of the missionary1 to the number of the congregation he wishes to accommodate1 and also to the number and skill of the assistants1 whether ,european or native1 he can employ or persuade to join in the work4 ,generally1 it is better so to draw the plan that a portion of the church may be commenced1 and sufficiently furnished for almost immediate use2 while the remainder is left to be finished as the congregation increases1 and as the tribe become more and more alive to the benefit conferred on them by religion and civilisation4 ,some regard must also be had to the doctrinal views of the missionary requiring the plan4 ,if1 as is frequently required1 the men and women of the congregation are to be separately seated1 the best form is that of the ,greek cross1 and the seats of the men must be placed in one arm and those of the women in the other2 while the position of the pulpit1 with its back against the angle of the other two1 gives every individual a fair opportunity of seeing and hearing the minister4 ,where this regulation does not prevail1 the ,latin cross is the best form2 the longest limb lying east and west affords space for the congregation and the preacher4 ,the wings or shorter limbs on the north and south give very great support to the walls1 and serve for vestries or other offices2 the tower and porch at the eastern end form the continuation of the longer limb1 and it should also be capable of increase if necessary1 by the addition of a smaller continuation at the western end4 ,in this case1 too1 it is the part intended for the congregation that should be first built4 ,it is most probable that the materials would be rough unhewn surface stones1 for powder to blast out more solid material would be expensive4 ,tools for quarrying would be unattainable1 and men with skill or industry to work them even still more so1 while ant-hill clay would be the only available cement1 unless the erection should be in a limestone district1 or near a beach1 where shells in abundance could be procured and burnt into lime4 ,bricks are often made1 but they are frequently of inferior clay1 and often merely sun-dried1 or inefficiently burned1 and are in no case equal to the well-squared and hardened article known by the same name in ,england4 ,it would1 therefore1 be prudent not to make the walls more than #aj;ft4 or #ae;ft4 in height1 and to allow at least #b;ft4 of thickness at the base for every #aj;ft4 of height1 and even then they ought to be supported by buttresses not more than #bj;ft4 apart2 the top should not be less than #ab;in4 or #ae;in4 in width1 and if good planks for wall plates cannot be procured1 they ought to be rather more to allow for the proper bedding in of rough substitutes4 ,the roof must have a pitch of #de to enable it to throw off water in the rainy season1 and each rafter must be two-thirds the width of the building to the outside of the walls1 and so much more as is required for the projection of the eaves4 ,if1 therefore1 rafters can be procured #bj;ft4 in length1 of which #b;ft4 are required for projection1 this will leave #ah;ft41 and the possible width of the church may be found by adding half the length of the rafter thus--#ahibg--bg;ft4 to the outside of the walls1 or about #bd;ft4 in the clear2 this1 with #d;ft4 of passage down the centre will give two benches of #aj;ft4 capable of accommodating six persons each4 ,each sitter ought to have #c;ft4 of space from front to rear1 although it is possible to sit in #b;ft42 thus1 a space of #fj;ft4 would accommodate a congregation of #bdj or #cfj persons1 according to the room allowed4 ,in many cases the fitting-up of benches may be deferred1 as the natives will sit naturally on the ground1 or will bring their own seats with them4 ,at least #ae;ft4 or #bj;ft4 ought to be reserved for the pulpit and the communion table1 and this would give an aisle of #hj;ft4 long by #bd;ft4 wide4 ,a high gable and ,gothic window is doubtless a great ornament to a church1 but it would be dangerous to build the wall #ae;ft4 higher for that purpose2 and it is much better1 therefore1 to make the end no higher than the sides1 and let the roof incline at an angle of #de instead of having a gable end4 ,illustration ,the windows must be small1 and it is better to make them lancet-shaped and narrow2 if the buttresses are #bj;ft4 apart there may be two windows1 #b;ft4 wide between each4 ,the rafters ought not to come over the windows1 even if the wall plates be good1 but ought to rest on the solid space between them4 ,the rafters are half checked at each end to the cross-beam and let into checks on the king-post2 thus 7,fig4 #a7 struts to the beam will considerably strengthen them1 and if these are fitted into checks nailed on instead of being mortised or half checked in1 the strength will not be impaired4 ,fig4 #b shows more clearly the manner in which the square ends of the rafters abut on the king-post4 ,if it should be desirable to avoid having cross-beams the rafters may be framed as in ,fig4 #c2 but unless this is very substantially done the weight of the roof is apt to expand them and force the walls outward4 ,we1 therefore1 advise the common form1 at least until the assistance of skilled workmen can be procured4 ,the upper part of the king-posts may be a forked branch1 and the ridge pole will lie very nicely in this4 ,makeshift houses1 foundations1 and fences4 ,in extemporising rough frame-houses in dry countries1 the foundation is a matter of small importance2 generally1 when the ground is cleared1 a place sufficiently hard and smooth1 and a little elevated so that rain may not flood the house1 is easily found4 ,but sometimes a foundation must be formed1 not only to afford a support to the fabric1 but to raise the floor above the influence of damp or of low-lying noxious vapours4 ,we have heard of barges or vessels being grounded and houses built upon them1 and have in fact seen instances of this as well as of the deck houses being removed from wrecks and set up1 sometimes raised on low walls1 forming very comfortable habitations ashore1 and of tents being set up as roofs over walls of rough stone4 ,we have heard of the foundations of a house in ,san ,francisco being laid with the #balb4-sized oblong boxes of tobacco with which the market had been glutted4 ,in ,cape ,town1 when meat was a few halfpence a pound1 we have seen bullocks' heads used as stop-gaps in the fences near ,green ,point4 ,the cores of bullocks' horns are not unfrequently used for the same purpose in this country4 ,in ,walvisch ,bay we saw bags of coarse salt used as part of the foundation of the original wooden shed in which1 notwithstanding its lowly appearance1 many a traveller has found so hospitable a reception4 ,we wondered a little at first at the use of such a material on a beach overflowing for miles at every spring tide1 but found it was protected from actual contact with the sea by an embankment of sand1 supported by posts and planking4 ,rain would not occur perhaps once in two years1 and the fresh water from the ,kuisip overspread the flats so rarely that such a contingency was hardly taken into account4 ,the bags and their contents seemed to be in a normal state of dampness1 but did not appear to waste in consequence of it4 ,when more commodious houses were required1 the samphire1 that formed the only vegetation on the flats1 was collected by the ,hottentot women1 spread in layers alternated with sand well trodden down into it until mounds were formed about #d;ft4 high4 ,on one of these a store was erected of corrugated iron1 and on another the ,rhenish missionaries built a wooden house they had brought out in frame1 so solid and substantial1 as to prove that timber in the land it came from was of far less value than metal or any other material4 ,perhaps for parties who can afford the carriage1 corrugated galvanised iron houses offer as convenient a method as any of obtaining accommodation sufficiently permanent1 and yet easily removable4 ,the rigidity imparted by the corrugation could not be attained by any thickening of plain sheets1 while scarcely more room is required in packing2 for although one sheet of plain iron occupies much less room than one of corrugated1 the sheets of the latter fit so closely one upon the other that a dozen or twenty require not much more space than one4 ,dr4 ,livingstone took a house of this kind to the ,zambesi in #aheh2 it formed a very efficient shelter for our stores on ,expedition ,island1 but1 as we never made any permanent camp beyond the ,portuguese town of ,tette1 it was not again required4 ,the sheets1 however1 used separately or together in any number according to the weight they were to support1 formed excellent bases for tables1 beds1 settees1 as well as benches1 raised a few inches from the floor1 on which to store such things as we wished to preserve from the white ants4 ,buildings of the ,portuguese in ,africa4 ,at ,tette1 on the ,zambesi1 there are ridges running parallel to the banks of the river1 with hollows between them1 which may have served as supplementary channels during extraordinary floods2 and1 to avoid the low-lying malaria1 which is of greater specific gravity than common air1 the ,portuguese colonists erect their houses on these ridges4 ,the hollows serve as streets or roadways1 and also as channels to carry off the deadly exhalations1 which1 being heavier than air1 naturally seek the lowest level4 ,the dwelling rooms are also further elevated by being built over a basement1 which serves as a store-room1 the elevation of a few feet frequently making all the difference between the chance of catching fever and of escaping it4 ,in these store-rooms they build isolated platforms about #c;ft4 high1 on forked posts of hard wood1 which are carefully swept every morning1 while salt is strewed around their base to prevent the white ants approaching4 ,probably tar or turpentine would have the same effect1 but in remote regions these are not always at command4 ,the tarred wood of our iron house was never touched2 and the camphor wood of ,india is valued very much on account of its immunity from their attacks4 ,illustration3 ,,portuguese ,,house--,,zambezi ,,river4 ,when the ,portuguese on the ,zambesi build large houses that are to be divided into rooms1 they build into the central and side walls a row of pillars1 into the thickness of which stout poles are built1 with the forks left upon them1 and perhaps other rows of pillars without the connecting walls are built for the verandah4 ,dr4 ,kirk1 when consulted as to the best method of colonising the ,shire1 or ,sheeree ,river1 gave it as his opinion that the estates lying low in the fertile valleys should be cultivated by natives only 7who in their own country do not seem susceptible to the deadly influence of fever1 though when removed to another locality that is not perceptibly worse1 they are as liable to be attacked as ,europeans71 and that the proprietors should have their residences upon the hills1 as far as possible above the level of the malaria1 with a small military force at their disposal1 to keep order when necessary among the inhabitants of the valley4 ,this certainly appears to be the only feasible plan of occupying such a country with any benefit to the various parties concerned4 ,rio ,negro huts4 ,an ,indian cottage1 on the banks of the ,rio ,negro1 has been thus described3--,the main supports are trunks of some forest tree1 of heavy and durable wood2 but the light rafters are the straight1 cylindrical1 and uniform stems of the ,jar palm4 ,the roof is thatched with the large triangular leaves of the ,caran palm in regular alternate rows1 neatly bound with sipos or forest creepers4 ,the door is a frame of thin strips of wood neatly thatched over4 ,it is of the split stems of the ,pashiuba palm4 ,in one corner is a heavy harpoon for cow-fish2 it is of the black wood of the ,pashiuba barriguda4 ,by its side is a blowpipe1 #aj;ft4 or #ab;ft4 long1 and a little quiver of small poisoned arrows hangs near it4 ,with these the ,indian procures birds for food or for gay feathers1 or shoots the hog or tapir2 and it is from the stem and spines of two palms that they are made4 ,his great bassoon-like musical instruments are of palm stems2 the cloth to wrap his valued feather ornaments is a fibrous palm spathe1 and the rude chest for his treasures is woven from palm leaves4 ,his hammock1 his bowstring1 and his fishing line are fibres of palm leaves2 the first from the miriti1 and the other two from the tucum4 ,the comb on his head is the hard bark of a palm4 ,he makes fish-hooks of the spines1 or uses them to puncture on his skin the peculiar markings of his tribe4 ,his children eat the agreeable red and yellow fruit of the pupunha or peach palm1 and from the assai he has prepared and offers you a favourite drink4 ,a carefully-suspended gourd contains oil from the fruit of another1 and the long elastic-plaited cylinder used for squeezing dry the mandiocca pulp to make his bread is of the bark of one of the singular climbing palms which alone can resist for any considerable time the action of the poisonous juice4 ,in each of these cases a species is chosen adapted to the special object to which it is to be applied1 and often having different uses which no other plant can serve so well4 ,papuan tree houses4 ,the arboreal dwellings of the ,horaforo tribe in ,new ,guinea have been thus described by ,dr4 ,j4 ,coulter3--,against each tree rested a notched pole1 and at a whistle from the chief1 answered by hundreds of similar sounds in every direction1 natives with flambeaux flitted down the poles till the whole forest was brilliantly illuminated4 ,in fact1 they had their houses1 or rather nests1 in the trees1 and when they retired for the night the pole was hauled up to prevent surprise4 ,these abodes were made by thinning away some of the branches1 and laying horizontal poles on others sufficiently stout to bear them2 the uprights are cut with forks1 which rest on the lower branches1 while their upper ends are lashed with cocoa-nut fibre to those above2 the sides are formed by bamboos lashed closely together2 the roofing is also of cane covered by sheets of thick bark sewed together1 and perfectly proof against the heavy rains4 ,the flooring is laid with split bamboos and light wood1 and the walls are lined with stout matting1 which gives sufficient shelter against the piercing winds4 ,the shape varies according to the spread of the tree2 sometimes when they extend all round an extensive house is made to inclose the whole tree2 the smallest will measure #af;ft4 square1 but sometimes they are longer and less wide2 and when the whole tree is built in they are three times as large4 ,they are perfectly safe1 for the lower branches are as thick as an ordinary tree4 ,illustration3 ,,papuan ,,tree ,,house4 ,american ,indian lodges4 ,the lodges of the ,north-,american ,indians are perhaps the most convenient residences which could be devised for people of their nomadic habits4 ,the lodge poles1 or supports1 are made from tough durable wood1 well-grown young saplings being selected for the purpose4 ,on the line of march they are1 by fastening them to a sort of pad1 secured on each side of a horse1 or even dog4 ,the ends trail on the ground like the skids of a sledge1 and are packed with various odds and ends1 which are prevented from falling off by cross-bars and a lashing of hide or twisted bark rope1 as shown in the full-page illustration4 ,when the camp is about being formed1 the poles are freed from their attachments and set up in a circle1 forming an irregular cone1 the apex of which consists of the converging and collected ends of the poles1 through which the smoke escapes4 ,the lodge covers are made from prepared skins1 on which are depicted1 in rough outline1 some of the most noteworthy achievements and events in the life of the owner4 ,the lower borders of the skin covers are secured to the ground with pegs1 whilst thongs are made use of for binding the poles in places and uniting the skins4 ,the tracks of the trailing lodge poles in the sand1 or across the plains1 may be looked on by the traveller as peaceful indications1 as1 where the lodge gear is1 the squaws and papooses will be found4 ,on the war path all such impedimenta are left behind in some place of safety4 ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,lodges4 ,the full-page illustration1 representing ,indian ,lodges1 will serve to explain the manner in which dwelling places of this description are set up4 ,fuegean pole houses4 ,some of the natives of ,terra del ,fuego construct small but tolerably comfortable huts from straight trimmed poles2 these are arranged in a shallow pit1 the exact size of the floor of the intended hut2 they are arranged side by side in conical form1 the tops of all the poles being brought together become self-supporting4 ,all the interstices1 except those where the heads of the poles come together 7which form exits for the smoke71 are filled in tightly with a mixture of clay and thick soft moss4 ,huts thus built will resist the action of the heaviest storms1 and are tolerably dry4 ,peat1 when cut in slabs or blocks1 makes a valuable building material4 ,we once built a shooting house1 or rather hut1 near the banks of a large river with this substance4 ,we thatched it with reeds laid over willow poles4 ,the door was made of wicker work covered with clay2 the hinges were twisted willows4 ,the window was made of oiled paper2 the fireplace was plastered with clay1 and we mounted a small barrel in lieu of a chimney pot4 ,the fuel used was peat1 so there was no danger of its taking fire4 ,hutting in the ,arctic regions4 ,in a continuous ,arctic winter the usual relations of fluids and solids are so completely changed that entirely new necessities arise1 accompanied by as novel means for supplying them4 ,water1 either for drinking or other purposes1 is as scarce as in the driest parts of ,india or ,africa2 for though in temperate countries it may be a luxury to let a piece of ice melt in the mouth1 the expenditure of animal heat in thawing a mouthful of snow in the ,arctic regions would be greater than even the most robust constitution could afford4 ,water1 in fact1 unless kept in constant agitation1 loses its fluidity4 ,a sheet of ice is as dry as a piece of glass1 and snow seems to have no more moisture in it than the dust of the highway on a ,derby day4 ,owing to this quality snow does not accumulate on small surfaces elevated and exposed to the wind4 ,captain ,parry found that from the roof of his vessel a fresh breeze invariably carried off any snow that had settled on it in calm weather1 and also from the masts1 yards1 sails and rigging4 ,his opinion is that in high latitudes the less the ship is dismantled the better1 for the frost does not hurt the gear1 and no harm can occur from thawing till the season for refitting arrives4 ,should you at any time be so situated as to be compelled to winter on board ship in the ,arctic regions1 it will be well to follow the plan pursued by ,dr4 ,kane to render his ship and cabin as cold proof as possible4 ,he procured large quantities of moss and turf1 with which the quarter-deck was thickly covered4 ,down below he inclosed a space about #ah;ft4 square1 and packed the walls forming it1 from floor to ceiling1 with the same materials4 ,the floor was carefully caulked with plaster of ,paris and common paste1 on this was laid a stratum of ,manilla oakum #b;in4 thick1 and over this deposit a canvas carpet was spread4 ,the entrance was from the hold1 by a long moss-lined passage or tunnel1 formed after the manner in which the ,esquimaux arrange the topsut1 or rabbit-burrow like passage which leads to their huts1 as shown in the illustrations at pp4 #cac and #cae4 ,a number of doors and curtains were then constructed at such points as afforded a chance for the ingress of cold4 ,this moss nest1 or den1 was constructed to accommodate ten men4 ,the outside of the ship was banked up with moss1 and over that a thick bank of snow was made4 ,the snow1 indeed1 when lying in proper thickness1 and sufficiently compressed1 forms the best possible material for building4 ,cold as it is in itself1 it seems to act as a non-conductor of heat2 and if an internal structure1 however slight1 can be set up1 the thicker the outer wall of snow is made the better4 ,captain ,parry's men proceeded in the following manner3 ,in banking the snow against the ship's sides1 a wall of sufficient height was built about #d;ft4 from them1 and loose snow was thrown in till it covered nearly the whole of the upper works2 about #h;in4 of snow was also laid on the decks and hatches1 and above this a layer of sand cemented by water1 for the double purpose of preventing the escape of heat from below1 and saving the planks from being rifted by the frost2 and the waste heat of the galley fire was utilised by making the funnel pass up through a tank1 which was kept filled with snow1 thus without any extra fuel producing #fe;galls4 of water per diem4 ,a wall of snow1 #ab;ft4 high1 was built at a distance of #beyds4 all round the ship1 to afford a comfortable shelter from the wind4 ,it is also essential to make and keep always clear of ice a 'fire-hole1' from which water can be procured at any moment in case of need4 ,the observatory was built on shore3 first of planking lined with canvas1 with a layer of turf outside1 and completed by an extra thickness of solid slabs of snow2 it was flat-roofed1 and as small as possible1 the instrument room being #h;ft4 square1 and the working room #e;ft4 by #h;ft41 thus economising either natural or artificial heat4 ,in fact1 it seems that the primary object in building a house is to make the actual dwelling room as small as possible1 and the passage to it so long and narrow1 that it requires almost a long journey to reach the external air4 ,dr4 ,hayes describes a snow house1 or rather cave1 dug by an ,esquimaux in a snow drift that had collected in a sheltered hollow4 ,he dug downward first about #e;ft41 then horizontally about #aj;ft4 more1 tossing the detached snow blocks out behind him1 and then began to excavate his cavern1 to which1 when finished1 he built a doorway just large enough to crawl through4 ,the floor was covered with a layer of stones1 and then with several layers of reindeer skins2 the walls were also hung with skins2 two native lamps lighted1 a skin hung across the doorway1 and he and his family were at home1 the temperature soon rising to the freezing point4 ,illustration3 ,,snow ,,hut--,,arctic ,,regions4 ,the doctor's temporary encampments were thus formed3 ,a pit is dug #ah;ft4 long by #h;ft4 wide and #d;ft4 deep2 over the top are placed the oars to support the sledge2 over the sledge is the boat's sail1 and on that is thrown loose snow4 ,in one end of this den is a small entrance hole1 closed with blocks of snow2 over the floor is a strip of india-rubber cloth2 over this two buffalo skins1 between which the whole party of twelve pack themselves as closely as possible1 the only change of costume being to take off the boots and stockings and replace them with sleeping hose of reindeer skin4 ,a pot of hot coffee1 or a hash of dried meat and preserved potatoe1 cooked over a lamp of oil or alcohol1 forming the repast1 of which the most estimable quality is its warmth4 ,captain ,parry1 being rather surprised at the short time in which an ,esquimaux village sprung up near the vessel1 induced some of the natives to build a hut1 and found that two or three hours were enough to complete the establishment4 ,the only materials are snow and ice1 the latter being only used for windows4 ,a number of slabs of compact snow1 #f;in4 or #g;in4 thick and #b;ft4 long1 are cut and laid edgewise in a circle1 on a level spot1 covered with snow1 from #h;ft4 to #ae;ft4 in diameter2 on this is a second tier1 sloping a little inward1 each slab made to fit closely by running a knife along its edges1 the top is then smoothed off with the knife1 and the builder1 standing in the centre1 receives the slabs for the successive tiers from the men outside4 ,when the walls are #d;ft4 or #e;ft4 high they begin to lean inward1 so that it appears as if the blocks laid on them would fall2 but the workman still goes on raising and closing in the hemispherical walls1 and when they have become too high for the slabs to be handed over to him he cuts a hole at the bottom with his knife and has them passed through4 ,the dome is often #i;ft4 or #aj;ft4 high1 and it is carefully finished by the men outside dropping the nicely rounded block that serves as a keystone1 to be received and fitted by the man within4 ,the outside workers heap snow round the foundations1 and carefully stop up any accidental holes between the blocks4 ,the builder lets himself out by cutting an arch #c;ft4 high and #b-a_/b;ft4 wide1 and from this they construct two passages--end to end--each #aj;ft4 or #ab;ft4 long and #d;ft4 or #e;ft4 high1 the lowest being next the hut1 as shown in the outline ground plan4 ,the roofs of these passages are sometimes arched1 and at others covered with flat slabs4 ,if a single apartment is required the hut is now complete1 but if several families are to reside together the passage is made common to all1 the first hut becoming a kind of antechamber1 and is commonly a little smaller than the rest1 which are entered by arched doors #e;ft4 high4 ,sometimes the ground plan assumes the form of a cross1 as in the instance we now illustrate4 ,a hole is cut into the side of each compartment1 and a circular plate of ice #c;in4 or #d;in4 thick1 and #b;ft4 in diameter1 let into it4 ,the light is like that transmitted through ground glass1 and is quite sufficient4 ,illustration3 ,,ground ,,plan ,,of ,,snow ,,hut4 ,a bank of snow1 #b-a_/b;ft4 high1 round the interior of each room1 except near the door1 forms the bed and fireplace1 the former occupying the sides and the latter the end opposite the door4 ,the beds are made by covering the snow with a layer of stones1 on which are spare paddles1 tent poles1 whalebone1 pieces of network1 and a quantity of birch twigs1 reindeer skins in profusion are heaped on these1 creating not only a comfortable but a luxurious resting place4 ,the fireplace is a shallow vessel of stone1 the wick is of moss rubbed dry between the hands1 disposed along the straight edge for about #ah;in41 it supplies itself from a long strip of blubber hung near enough to be melted gradually1 and drop slowly into the hollow of the stone2 over the lamp is a network1 on which wet boots or mittens are usually laid4 ,frequently there are two other lamps in the corners next the door1 for no married woman or widow can be without her separate fire4 ,with all the lamps lighted1 and the room full of people and dogs1 the thermometer on the net over the fire stands at #eh2 #b;ft4 or #c;ft4 away it falls to #cb1 close to the wall it is #bc1 the temperature of the open air being at the same time #be below zero4 ,if the temperature is raised higher than this1 the melting of the roof causes great inconvenience2 but when an inclination to drip is observed1 a patch of cold snow is plastered on to absorb the superfluous heat4 ,in the time between the extreme cold of winter1 and the season when it is possible to live in tents1 the natives suffer much from this melting of their walls4 ,the cooking is done in pots of hollowed stone 7lapis ollaris71 slung over the lamps4 ,many of these are cracked1 but are joined by lacings of sinew1 or rivets of copper1 iron1 or lead1 which1 with a sufficient coating of dirt1 makes them again watertight4 ,their knives are sometimes of ivory1 but the best are of iron1 obtained from the ,hudson's ,bay ,company4 ,they procure fire by striking two pieces of iron pyrites over a leather case with dried moss in it1 and a little floss from the seed of the ground willow helps to convey the flame to a bit of oiled wick--sometimes the wick for the lamp is made of asbestos4 ,at times1 especially in the commencement of the winter1 the huts are built of ice instead of snow4 ,they approximate to a circular form1 but from the flatness of the material necessarily present a number of flat sides and obtuse angles4 ,they are cemented entirely with snow and water1 and roofed with skins1 which are replaced by snow as winter advances4 ,the entering tunnels are also of slabs of ice1 as are the kennels for bitches and puppies4 ,the skin canoes are propped up on slabs of ice high enough to be out of the reach of the dogs4 ,the semi-transparency of the walls give these huts a strange effect1 and some of our later voyagers have called them crystal palaces2 but all the purity1 either of ice or snow1 disappears1 and whatever cleanliness the ,esquimaux possess is forced upon them by the annual thawing of their houses4 ,illustration3 ,,esquimaux ,,hut ,,of ,,ice ,,slabs4 ,the summer tents are made of several seal or walrus skins1 the former without the hair1 and the latter with the thick outer coat taken off1 and the rest shaved down so thin as to admit light through them4 ,they are irregularly sewn together1 forming a kind of oval bag1 supported in the middle by a pole of several deers' horns or bones of other animals lashed together4 ,on the top of this is a cross or ,t-piece1 which serves to extend the top of the tent1 #f;ft4 or #g;ft4 from the ground the lower part of the tent pole rests loosely on a large stone1 from which any accident will knock it off4 ,the borders of the skins are kept down by stones laid on them1 and the top is stayed by a thong on the outer side1 stretching to a heavy stone at some distance4 ,the door is merely two flaps1 one of which overlaps the other1 secured by another stone4 ,sometimes a little shelter from the wind is given by an outer wall of stone4 ,if a larger tent is required1 two of these bags are made to overlap at the edges1 and are set up with a couple of poles4 ,the accumulation of seal and walrus flesh and blubber during the summer months makes these habitations disgustingly filthy2 but it is to be remembered that the great necessity of the ,esquimaux is to keep himself warm1 and he cannot afford to lower the temperature of his skin by washing off the grease and dirt which encrust it4 ,on one experimental trip ,captain ,parry was compelled by a sudden decrease of temperature to shelter his party in a small tent4 ,they attempted to warm themselves by smoking1 and found the temperature at their feet to be #a below zero1 while overhead the smoke had raised it to #g1 the outer air being -#e1 soon falling to -#ae4 ,it was then found possible to dig a kind of cavern in the snow1 the spade being lent as a favour to the men who most required to warm themselves1 a small fire and a pot of soup were made1 and by confining the smoke and hot air the temperature was raised to #bj1 while outside it was -#be4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,extempore ,,bridges ,,and ,,makeshifts ,,for ,,crossing ,,rivers ,,or ,,ravines4 ,the solitary traveller in a wild country will be very rarely compelled to construct his own bridge1 for1 as a general rule1 he will only have to pass once1 or at most to return by the same route4 ,the labour of making a bridge would be greater1 and more time would be lost1 than by seeking for a practicable passage at some distant point1 or1 in case a river was the impediment1 forming a float of some kind4 ,swamp roads1 to make4 ,there are1 however1 occasions when there is no alternative but bridge-making1 as when exploring expeditions1 accompanied by pack animals1 or a field force on the march1 have rivers1 swamps1 ravines1 or1 perchance1 rotten ice1 to pass over4 ,where there is not water enough to float a canoe1 but where there is sufficient to cause the formation of deep pools and dangerous mire1 over which few animals used for the conveyance of baggage could pass without the aid of some artificial footway1 narrow deep channels may be very often rendered comparatively easy to cross by filling them up with bundles of brushwood or marsh reeds4 ,we were constantly in the habit1 when engaged in making forced marches through ,central ,india1 of making use of the stalks of the recently cut juhari for this purpose4 ,unsafe ice can be rendered firm and secure by strewing a thick layer of reeds over it1 and then throwing water enough to cause the whole to freeze into a compact mass4 ,before1 however1 proceeding to describe the various modes usually had recourse to for rendering trees available for bridging purposes1 it will be well to give a few plain and practical directions for ascertaining the width of rivers1 ravines1 and the arms of swamps1 without the aid of scientific instruments1 and also for finding1 by makeshift modes1 the altitude of trees4 ,,to ,,find ,,the ,,width ,,of ,a ,,river ,,without ,,instruments4 ,fig4 #a4 ,if you have a pocket compass1 and the river runs1 say east and west1 and you are on the south side1 choose a well-defined tree1 ,a1 or other object on the opposite shore1 and bring it to bear north of you2 mark your position by putting in a stake or peg1 ,b1 turn to one side1 say the left1 and walk westward till ,a bears north-east1 which will be the case at ,c2 then ,c ,b will be exactly equal to ,b ,a1 or the breadth of the river1 because from the point ,c1 ,a will bear north-east1 and ,b will bear east1 subtending an angle of #de1 and as the line ,c ,b is east1 and ,b ,a is north1 they subtend an angle of #ij1 or a right angle1 and must be of equal length2 the triangle you have formed being the half of a square1 divided by a diagonal line from corner to corner4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a ,if you have room repeat this by walking east till ,a bears north-west from ,d2 and if the first operation has been correctly performed1 the second will confirm it2 or if the first be in error1 it is likely that the second will be exactly as much in error the opposite way1 and the mean of the two observations will be approximately correct4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b ,fig4 #b4 ,if you have not a compass1 choose ,a as before1 set in a stake at ,b1 and prolong the line to ,c2 then on this line erect a perpendicular by looping a cord on the stake at ,c1 and with a sharpened peg held at the other end of it drawing the arc1 ,d ,e2 then1 making ,d and ,e equidistant from ,b1 draw through these three points the line ,d ,b ,e ,f2 on this line retire toward ,f till ,a and ,b form an angle of #de1 which may be measured either by folding a square of paper diagonally1 or by pegging out a piece of string divided into two lengths of #bd;in4 and one of #cb;in4 ,see that the longest or diagonal side bears truly upon ,a1 and one of the shorter sides on ,b1 which will take place at the point ,f1 then ,f ,b will be equal to ,b ,a1 or the breadth of the river4 ,repeat this also if the ground allows1 on the opposite side ,g1 and take the mean of the two observations4 ,the correctness of all these observations may be greatly increased by resting your rifle on each successive point1 and carefully sighting all the lines with it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c ,fig4 #c4 ,another excellent and simple plan is--choose ,a2 set in ,b2 from ,b erect the perpendicular ,b ,c1 ,c ,d1 divided equally at ,c2 from ,d erect the perpendicular ,d ,e2 retire along it till the stake ,c bears truly upon ,a1 which will be at ,f1 then ,f ,d will equal ,b ,a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d ,fig4 #d4 ,if the river bank is so curved that you cannot draw ,b ,c ,d at right angles1 you have two alternatives4 ,if there is plenty of room retire as far as you please from the bank before planting the stake ,b1 and deduct from the result the distance you retire from the bank4 ,or1 if there is not room1 you may draw ,b ,c ,d1 as in ,fig4 #d1 diagonally1 and contrive to keep ,d ,e as nearly parallel to ,a ,b as you can2 but any defect in parallelism will greatly affect the correctness of your measurement1 as will be evident from the dotted line ,g4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e ,fig4 #e4 ,if the river is wide1 choose ,a as before2 set in ,b1 and retire any measured distance1 say #fyds41 to ,c2 then from ,b and ,c erect perpendiculars of equal length1 and draw the square ,b ,c1 ,d ,e2 test it by stretching a cord from corner to corner2 then1 prolonging the line ,c ,e1 bring the stake ,d in one with ,a1 and produce the line ,a ,d till it intersects ,c ,e at ,f2 then divide ,f ,e into six parts1 measure as many of them as you can on the line ,e ,d1 and you will find as many of them as there are yards on the line ,b ,a2 therefore1 in the present instance1 #aayds4 will be the breadth of the river1 and one may be deducted because the marks are not close to the edge of the banks2 or say1 as ,e ,f is to ,e ,d so is ,b ,d to ,b ,a4 ,fig4 #f4 ,to erect a perpendicular on a given point on any line1 measure equal distances on either side2 set in pegs1 loop a cord on them alternately1 and strike two arcs1 their intersection will be perpendicular to the given point4 ,to cross the end of a line by another at right angles1 set a peg some distance back1 loop a cord on it1 and strike an arc4 ,measure equal distances from the end of your given line to the arc1 then a line drawn through the three points will be at right angles to the first4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f ,a scale of equal parts may be made by folding a slip of paper in half1 then folding each part in half1 and so subdividing it as much as you wish1 but do not fold it in half1 and then double the two parts to get the quarters at one operation1 and then double the four parts to get the eighths1 or you will find them come out very unequally4 ,a measuring tape may be made by taking a narrow white tape1 say #a_/d;in41 and winding it on a slip of card barely an inch wide1 just so little spirally that each turn may not half cover the preceding one1 then carefully blacken the edges1 and1 when you unwind the tape1 mark every twelfth inch with figures to denote feet1 and every sixth with an extra line4 ,a square is made by taking a sheet of paper1 folding the corner down so that the edge of the end coincides with the edge of the side1 and then cutting off the superfluous length1 each corner of the square is an angle of #ij1 i4 e41 a right angle or a quarter of the compass1 say from north to east4 ,the diagonal fold makes at each corner an angle of #de1 or four points of the compass1 say from north to north-east2 fold this again1 and it will give #bb-a_/b1 or two points of the compass1 from north to north-north-east1 and this may again be subdivided if needful4 ,we have often tried the breadth of rivers by firing a rifle ball at some well-defined mark on the other side1 with the sight adjusted to #ajjyds4 or more1 according to the estimated distance1 and noticing whether the ball reached beyond or fell short of the mark4 ,the habit of doing this very greatly corrects and assists the eye in forming estimates of distance4 ,a good stone thrower ought to know the range he can make with pebbles of different sizes4 ,if a native is near buy one of his least valued arrows or spears1 and get him to throw it across1 and then ask him to throw a similar one on ground where you can recover it and measure the distance1 but never ask a savage to throw away weapons of the chase for nothing4 ,in calm weather1 we have fired a rifle ball1 with its utmost range1 on the surface of a lake1 and have counted seconds from the time we saw the splash till we heard the sound of its fall4 ,sound travels #aadb;ft4 in a second1 or about a statute mile in #d-c_/d seconds1 or a geographical mile--or rather one minute of latitude1 or of longitude on the equator--in #e-c_/d seconds4 ,,to ,,find1 ,,without ,,instruments1 ,,the ,,height ,,of ,a ,,tree ,,or ,,other ,,object1 ,,whose ,,base ,,is ,,accessible4 ,fig4 #a4 ,fold down a square of paper from corner to corner1 and you will obtain a triangle1 of which two of the sides form a right angle1 and the third1 or diagonal1 forms an angle of #de with each of them 7see next page74 ,make a mark upon the tree #e;ft41 or the height of your eye1 from the ground1 and retire from the tree till1 holding the paper steadily with one short side horizontal and the other vertical1 you can take sight along its lower edge at the mark1 and along the diagonal side at the topmost branches2 then pace or measure the distance from the tree1 add #e;ft4 for the height of the eye1 and you will have the height of the tree2 because1 if the two angles of the diagonal be #de1 the base and the perpendicular must be equal4 ,a piece of thin board1 with pins set in at each angle to serve as sights1 would be better than the paper1 but is not so readily extemporised4 ,if you split the end of a wand so as to hold the paper or board quite up to the height of your eye1 it will give additional steadiness4 ,the observer in our illustration is unavoidably represented a little too near his work1 but he is probably taking the height of the first bifurcation1 which is often more important than the height of the tree4 ,illustration3 ,,finding ,,the ,,height ,,of ,a ,,tree ,,by ,,rifle ,,or ,,folded ,,paper4 ,fig4 #b4 ,or1 sticking a branch into the ground1 select one of its forks1 or lash on a cross piece which shall pass through the trigger guard behind the trigger1 so that the gun may be about the height of your eye when you aim horizontally at the mark on the tree1 the trigger finger grasping the stick for greater steadiness4 ,take another stick1 with a fork or cross rest of equal height with the first1 and connect them by a smaller stick of any length1 say #ah;in4 or #b;ft41 and at exactly the same height above the lower rest lash another on the second stick1 so that1 the base and perpendicular being equal1 the gun1 when its muzzle is laid on the higher rest1 shall form exactly an angle of #de with its line when previously laid upon the lower one4 ,now retire until from the lower rest you can sight the mark upon the tree1 and from the upper its highest branches2 then the distance from your pivot stick1 plus #e;ft41 will be the height of the tree4 ,our illustration purposely shows this operation in the simplest possible form2 but the frame might be steadied by lashing on other cross bars 7,x fashion71 and a friend to help in moving it to a greater or less distance from the tree would greatly assist the observer4 ,it would be inconvenient to make this observation kneeling4 ,a telescope1 a long straight reed1 a roll of paper1 or a straight tube of any material1 will answer almost as well as the rifle4 ,even a clasp knife 7,fig4 #c71 with a bit of reed stuck into the handle where the point should reach1 and resting on the point of the half-opened blade1 is better than nothing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c ,if the ground is perfectly level1 and you have a looking-glass1 lay it down and level it by setting on it a basin full of water2 retire till you see the top of the tree reflected in it1 then if your distance from the mirror equals the height of your eye1 the distance from the mirror to the tree will be equal to its height4 ,in perfectly calm weather the basin of water will do without the mirror1 or a shallow pool or river will give an approximation2 but1 as the ground is always depressed where water settles1 there will be some uncertainty about the height of the eye1 which will more or less vitiate the observation1 and this will also be the case if thirsty animals rush in to disturb it1 as in our sketch4 ,or if the sun or moon is shining1 set up a stick1 and watch till its shadow is equal to its height1 or note when your own shadow equals your height1 and the height of the tree and the length of its shadow will also be equal4 ,but1 as it may not be always convenient to wait for this moment1 the height of the tree may be found by proportion4 ,if the stick is #e;ft4 and its shadow #g;ft41 then if the shadow of the tree be #gj;ft41 its height will be #ej;ft42 or if in looking at its reflection in the mirror1 the height of your eye be #e;ft41 and the distance #h;ft41 then if the distance from the mirror to the tree be #hj;ft41 its height is #ej;ft4 ,in either of the first two methods the same rule must be observed2 the paper may be folded to a greater angle if you cannot get far enough from the tree1 or a smaller one if you must go farther1 and the same with the elevation of the rifle4 ,in these cases1 carefully measure the base and perpendicular of your smaller angle1 and say1 as the base of the small angle is to its perpendicular1 so is the distance from the tree to its height4 ,thus1 as in ,fig4 #d on next page1 if the distance between the two rests is #b;ft4 and the elevation of the rifle #a;ft41 the distance from the tree must be equal to double its height4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,all these observations will apply to any object of which the highest point is perpendicular to the accessible base1 such as a precipice1 the wall of a fort1 or the gable end of a house1 but not to the peak of a mountain1 two or three miles beyond its base1 nor to the pitched roof of a house seen sideways1 nor to the spire of a church1 or flagstaff on the central tower of a castle1 unless the doors of these buildings be opened so that you can continue to measure your base to a point exactly beneath that which you have taken the angular height4 ,still1 if the base be not accessible1 it is not impossible to measure the height1 for the distance of the object may be taken by any of the plans for ascertaining the breadth of a river1 or any of the above methods may be performed twice over1 as in ,fig4 #e2 first1 at any convenient distance1 b1 and secondly1 at a measured distance1 c1 nearer to or farther from the object2 and the easiest way of obtaining the result is to lay down on paper the obtained angles1 d1 e1 f1 and g1 h1 i1 in due proportion to the measured distance1 b1 c1 between them2 then from them to protract the angle1 d1 g1 a1 and continuing the base line1 find on it the point j1 from which a perpendicular would meet the top of the object1 a4 ,the distance1 b1 c1 being known1 that of the base1 b1 j1 and the height of the tree1 j1 a1 will be best found by measurement of equal parts1 but bear in mind that the result can only be an approximation to truth1 for every additional operation involves an increase of possible error4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,,cordway ,,and ,,one-,,tree ,,bridge4 99 99 99 99 99 ,one-tree bridge1 to make4 ,in passing extensive marsh tracks1 few expedients surpass the so-called ,american cordway1 the subject of the illustration on p4 #cbe4 ,it is constructed as follows from the description of material usually abounding in marsh tracks3 ,trees and poles of almost any description will be found to answer4 ,cut as many as is thought requisite4 ,divide them into three classes--ground poles1 cross poles1 and stringers4 ,the ground poles should be the largest and heaviest4 ,the cross poles are comparatively short lengths1 and lay across the ground poles with their ends projecting some distance beyond4 ,they are laid closely together1 and then secured and bound down by the stringers which lay on them4 ,a treenail driven in here and there serves to keep all in place by nipping the cross poles tightly4 ,the ends of the ground poles and stringers may be either scarfed and treenailed1 or laid side by side and tied with withies or strips of suitable bark4 ,it will be seen1 on examining the illustration1 that where the roadway ends a bridge begins4 ,this is of the description known as a one-tree bridge1 and is made as follows3 ,select a tree of sufficient length to reach1 when felled1 across the stream1 and of fair average girth1 say #i;ft42 fell it with the axe in the manner before directed1 and then walk out on the trunk and cut away all the branches from the upper surface2 then log it up into lengths of about #aj;ft4 a sufficient number of transverse pieces to reach1 when placed side by side1 from one end of the bridge log to the other4 ,then in the centre of each of these make a shallow notch by delivering right and left cuts with the axe4 ,next with your auger bore two holes as wide apart as the diameter of the bridge log will admit of4 ,lay your transverse piece on the main log1 so that it shall rest in the form of a true cross1 with the notch in the centre resting on the main log2 then1 whilst keeping the cross piece steady with one foot1 bore down the auger holes about a foot into the solid timber4 ,treenails 7see ,treenails1 to make7 are then to be placed in the holes and driven home with a mallet or the head of the axe4 ,illustration3 ,,tree-,,nailed ,,swamp ,,bridge4 ,swamp bridge1 to make4 ,another form of tree-nailed bridge1 calculated for very wet or dangerously swampy ground1 is formed by laying down two lines of stouter ground logs than those used to form the cordway just described1 scarfing and tree-nailing the ends together as they are laid down4 ,the transverse bars for the footway have a right and left chip taken out each end from the surface which is to lay next the ground log4 ,they are then bored with the auger1 one hole at each end being sufficient4 ,they are then placed closely side by side4 ,one man completes the hole which passes down into the log1 whilst another drives home the treenails1 as shown in the annexed illustration4 ,earth or sand thrown with a shovel between the cross pieces increases the stability of the arrangement4 ,treenails1 to make4 ,treenails have been1 and will be1 frequently mentioned in the course of this work2 it will1 therefore1 be well here to give directions for making and using them4 ,to the shipwright they are invaluable1 as by their aid he unites the various planks and timbers made use of in the carrying out of his art4 ,in ,england they are usually made from straight-grained oak1 which1 after being sawn into proper lengths1 is split up into the rough form of the required treenail4 ,this1 after being faced and hewn with the adze1 is passed through a double-handed cutting instrument known as a treenail tool4 ,a skilfully-handled axe1 a spokeshave1 or a drawing knife1 will1 although less expeditiously1 produce with ease well rounded and serviceable treenails4 ,in wild countries any tough straight-grained wood may be selected for treenail making4 ,for bridge and roadway work pine wood will answer the purpose very fairly4 ,a dead log is best when it can be obtained for making these wooden holdfasts4 ,cut it up into pieces the length of the proposed treenail1 chop off the bark1 and split them into either three or four 7as directed at p4 #bgb71 according to the size of the log2 then1 with the froe or axe1 split them into rough squares the length of the required treenail1 round off the curves and corners1 chop off the edges at the end1 so that it may enter the auger hole freely1 and the treenail is ready for use4 ,illustration3 ,,gabion ,,bridge4 ,gabion bridge1 to make4 ,rivers which are too wide to be crossed by the one-tree bridge1 and yet of inconsiderable breadth1 may be crossed by the use of the gabion bridge1 which is thus constructed3 ,first1 prepare as many strong wicker gabions as the width of the stream will render necessary4 ,about #ad;ft4 apart will be found a convenient distance to place them4 ,their height will depend on the depth of the water4 ,three feet at least should be allowed between the surface of the stream and the upper edge of the gabion4 ,where suitable poles and sticks for gabion making cannot be obtained trees should be felled and split up1 as for rails 7see p4 #bgc74 ,the bars thus obtained should be cut up into proper lengths1 and1 by the use of the axe and auger1 converted into large deep crates1 such as are used for packing earthenware4 ,these are made by boring rows of auger holes in strong wooden bars1 and then driving the sharpened ends of the lesser bars into them until the crate is finished1 no nails or metal fastenings being required4 ,whether the crate or gabion is used1 the principle of construction observed in making the bridge is the same4 ,the first gabion1 after being secured to the end of a stout rope1 is launched from the bank1 and then guided1 end upward1 by the aid of forked setting poles1 to its proper position4 ,stones1 pebbles1 or pieces of broken rock1 are now cast pell-mell by hand into the open mouth of the gabion1 which is held down by the setting pole until fixed in its position by the weight of the mass within it4 ,when quite full two or three stout poles are laid side by side for a man to walk over4 ,he takes up his station on the gabion1 and aids in arranging the ends of two side logs which are pushed out to him from the shore1 and placed wide enough apart to give sufficient width to the intended bridge4 ,transverse bars formed of split logs are now rapidly treenailed on1 as shown in the accompanying illustration4 ,the second gabion is now launched from the first1 the stone collectors with bags and baskets walk out1 cast their loads1 and return for more1 proceeding in the same manner until the bridge is finished4 ,tartar bridges1 to make4 ,when travelling among the ,tartars we had on more than one occasion to pass our mules and horses over rather insecure-looking bridges formed by the natives4 ,they were alike in construction1 and were made by laying three long strong poles1 or rather small tree trunks1 side by side from bank to bank4 ,across these alternately 7butt-end and top71 as shown in the engraving on next page1 was laid a close row of tightly-bound bundles or faggots of small brushwood4 ,on these bundles of twigs large flat slabs of turf1 grass side upward1 were placed and stamped compactly down1 forming serviceable and really good bridge ways4 ,a small river can be easily crossed by men on foot by simply felling a tree of sufficient girth and length across it4 ,should there be a number of packs or loads to pass across1 it will be well1 if the party is a large one1 to so station men along the tree trunk that they can pass the bundles or articles from hand to hand1 just as firemen hand buckets of water1 thus saving unnecessary labour4 ,a rope stretched across greatly aids the men in keeping their balance4 ,illustration3 ,,tartar ,,pole ,,and ,,faggot ,,bridge4 ,extempore jetty1 to build4 ,we1 on one occasion1 when encamped on the banks of a large ,indian river1 were called on to provide for the immediate transport of a battery of field guns1 waggons1 horses1 c41 to the opposite side4 ,some large native boats were procured1 but they1 even when empty1 drew so much water1 that they could not be made to approach within some distance of the shore4 ,we therefore felled two trees1 which fortunately stood side by side1 letting their crowns fall from the bank1 well out into the stream4 ,we soon foraged out three large dug-out canoes1 which were concealed among the reeds hard by4 ,these1 with our own axe1 and those of two stalwart-limber gunners1 we split into lengths of uneven plank4 ,whilst we were doing this1 a party had been at work forcing down large heavy branches between the two tree trunks1 and on these compactly-bound faggots of brushwood 7which a number of natives attached to the expedition prepared close at hand7 were rammed and stamped down4 ,tho boards procured by cutting up the canoes were arranged side by side on this bed1 their ends being secured by burden ropes knotted together and hitched over them1 as shown at ,fig4 #a1 p4 #bib4 ,we now employed the natives in throwing buckets and bags of earth and sand thickly over and between the planks4 ,over this extempore jetty--which reached out to the boats1 on some of which platforms had been erected--all our battery1 consisting of two #ab-pounder howitzers1 and four #f-pounder guns1 with all their equipment1 passed in perfect safety4 ,the work was not commenced until late in the afternoon1 and all had crossed long before morning4 ,extempore baggage derrick4 ,it not unfrequently happens that there is greater difficulty in transporting the baggage of an expedition across a river than in getting over the men and animals4 ,this was the case in the following instance4 ,we were exploring the ,victoria ,river1 in ,north ,australia1 when we came to a branch of one of its tributaries 7,jasper ,creek7 so much swollen that it was unsafe to attempt crossing it with loaded horses4 ,we found1 however1 a passage to an island1 on which stood a couple of tall overhanging gum trees4 ,we had with us several fathoms of ,manilla line1 about #a_/b;in4 in diameter1 this was passed over a fork of one of the highest and most projecting branches4 ,mr4 ,gregory swung himself across1 we followed2 and while our head stockman1 with a fatigue party of five horses1 brought the packs to the island1 one man lifted the pack that had been bent on to the line as high as possible2 another gave an extra pull upon the other part to lift it as clear of the water as possible during its passage1 letting go by the run as it swung to the other shore1 where one of the party stood ready to catch the pack1 while we1 making a sharp run with a small line1 helped it across1 and checked any tendency to swing back again4 ,in this manner we brought over a ton and a half of provisions and stores in between two and three hours2 the unloaded horses found a practicable ford a little higher up4 ,tree footways4 ,sometimes the interlacing of overhanging branches answered our purpose2 or we found it possible to fell a tree so that its head might fall on the other shore1 or into the water pointing up stream1 so that it would drift and jam against the opposite bank4 ,on another occasion1 coming to the ,lua1 a tributary of the ,zambesi1 rushing through a narrow place1 we went to the edge of the forest1 and with a small tomahawk cut down the best tree we could find1 and1 assisted by three or four ,makololo1 carried it to the brink1 raised it1 and let it fall across4 ,chain bridges1 to construct4 ,in many of the colonial streams it is necessary to provide the means of passage1 for the fords may be inconveniently far apart4 ,in such cases the general expedient is to purchase the chain cables of some wrecked ship1 and stretch them across1 securing the ends either to stout posts or bars wedged into clefts in the rocks1 or to tolerably broad surfaces of timber buried #f;ft4 or #h;ft4 in the earth4 ,of course strong purchases are required to stretch the chains1 especially if the distance between the river banks is great2 but the buyer would most likely take care also to provide himself1 when he obtained the chains1 with a pair of large double blocks with iron-hooked straps1 and twenty or thirty fathoms of stout rope2 so that1 when such a tackle is hooked on1 and the fall made fast to the trek gear of a span of well-trained oxen1 the chain must come or something give way4 ,two parts of the chain must be stretched so as to assume perfectly parallel curves1 and on these the planks for the roadway are laid1 the lashings passing conveniently through the links and preventing any possibility of slipping2 other chains or ropes are stretched as hand-rails1 and for the supports of these it is a good plan to cut young trees1 say #ab;ft4 long1 sling them about #d;ft4 from the top1 and fasten them to the chain1 so that the upper part will support the rope1 while the #h;ft4 of butt hanging below serves as a counterpoise to keep it upright4 ,this1 however1 must depend on the height of the bridge2 for if the water catches any part of it during the rainy season1 there is great danger of the whole being swept away2 and it is therefore advisable to make all the fittings as light as is consistent with the safety of passengers1 so that in case of extraordinary floods they may be swept off before they communicate strain enough to break the chain--just as the masts of a vessel ought to be of such strength as to be carried away before they capsize the ship4 ,we have seen a bridge built of planks and trestles1 very slightly fastened together1 but every part was moored by a long line to one or other of the banks4 ,the whole affair would go to pieces when the floods came1 and when they subsided the pieces were hauled in1 and the bridge reconstructed4 ,fly bridges and ferries4 ,in broader rivers the chain is carried across1 and a barge is built with a winch at either end1 round the barrels of which a turn of the chain is taken2 the waggon about to cross is drawn upon the platform by two or more of its own oxen1 the winches are hove round1 and the oxen draw the waggon up the other shore1 without even having been unyoked during the passage4 ,illustration3 ,,flying ,,ferries4 ,in strong rapid streams an anchor and cable is laid high up the stream1 and the lower end terminates in a bridle4 ,the boat is alike at either end1 and when about to leave the shore the end of the bridle which happens to be forward is gathered in1 while the after one is somewhat slackened4 ,the boat shoots over to the other shore1 and is kept there by the force of the stream1 so long as the bridle nearest the bank keeps her head more up than the farther one allows her stem to be4 ,to bring her back again1 haul in that which is farthest from the shore2 slack off the other1 and she will recross the river as if of her own volition4 ,the same may be effected by means of the rudder4 ,have a short mast1 to which the cable is attached just high enough to clear the heads of passengers1 c41 and about one-fourth or one-third from the bows4 ,then1 if the boat be lying on the right bank of the river1 her port side will be to the shore2 and as long as the helm is to starboard1 or away from the shore1 the rudder will incline the boat's head inward1 and the force of the stream will keep her there4 ,but put the helm aport1 her head will fall off1 she will shoot over to the left bank1 and remain there4 ,in fact1 this flying bridge1 or ferry--for it partakes of the nature of both--acts in the water on the very same principle that a kite does in the air4 ,the line being made fast1 not to the stem of the boat1 but to a point about one-third aft1 would allow her to ride straight on end with the stream only so long as by careful steering her head was kept exactly to it2 but the moment an inclination is made1 by putting the helm1 say aport1 the boat's head inclines to starboard2 she receives the stream upon her port side1 which should make an angle of about #bb with the line of the current1 and she at once sheers to starboard or to the left bank--remembering always that1 in speaking of a river1 the observer is supposed to face down stream1 and the banks are named as they are on his right or left hand4 ,a wire rope ferry of this kind is stretched across the united rivers ,moola ,moola and ,moola ,moota1 near ,poona4 ,we have crossed by it often1 and found it to answer admirably4 ,illustration3 ,,wire ,,rope ,,ferry4 ,sometimes it may be of importance to bridge a ravine1 which1 though not impassable for an active man1 is difficult for average passengers4 ,the first requisite is to get a line across4 ,if the nearest bank is a precipice a man may be lowered down with a rope1 and he may then climb the opposite cliff1 taking the rope with him2 but if the farthest bank is precipitous also the case is more difficult1 as the rope will not help him to ascend4 ,perhaps by walking up or down the bed of the gorge while his friends above follow him with the rope1 he may find a practicable route2 or another party may be sent many miles up or down to find a crossing1 and1 by lowering another rope1 haul him up with the first still fast4 ,line slings and lobsticks4 ,if neither of these plans is possible1 a stone or leaden weight may be slung over with a small line1 much as sailors heave the lead4 ,we usually employ for this purpose a contrivance known among hunters as a squailer1 or lobstick4 ,illustration3 ,,lobsticks4 ,there are several ways of making a lobstick2 the best1 perhaps1 being those represented by ,figs4 #b and #c in the engraving below4 ,an oval ball of lead1 with a hole through the centre1 and about #foz4 in weight1 is prepared4 ,a strong1 tough1 and slightly flexible stick is now fitted to the hole in the lead1 in which it is held by a wedge driven into its cleft end4 ,a long light line1 either twine or fishing line1 is now coiled evenly down on the bank1 one end is firmly knotted to the extremity of the handle of the lobstick1 and the other to a peg driven into the ground4 ,the end of the stick where the twine is made fast is now held lightly in the hand with the ball downwards2 two or three rapid and powerful turns round the head are now taken in such a way as to cause the stick to bend4 ,it is then hurled1 at a good elevation1 across the stream or gorge1 where a man who has previously crossed is waiting for it4 ,the string once across1 a rope attached to it follows4 ,no one unacquainted with the use of these implements would believe that they could be thrown to the incredible distances which they at times reach4 ,fig4 #a is an extempore lobstick1 made by splitting the handle1 inserting a pebble or suitable stone1 and then lashing the divided stick fast with twine4 ,a line may be sent over by an arrow or rocket1 taking care that the attachment is made with wire or raw hide1 so that it may not be burned through4 ,or1 if the ravine be wide1 it may be carried over by a kite1 and if materials are at hand this kite may be made large enough to carry a man also4 ,there is no fear of the kite line breaking4 ,if there is rope enough to make a bridge1 there must be enough to fly a kite strong enough to carry a man4 ,illustration3 ,,pole ,,chains4 ,makeshift fastenings4 ,the communication being effected by any of these means1 the next thing is to haul ropes of increasing weight and power across till they are strong enough to haul over the actual cables1 and these may be made of various indigenous materials3 the bark of the mimosa1 of the baobab1 and other trees2 the fibre of yucca or aloe leaves1 or1 still better1 of those of the ,phormium tenax2 bush vines1 bind weed1 or creeping plants2 rattans1 grass1 or strips of palm leaf1 may be twisted into ropes2 or poles of any straight wood1 of nearly even thickness1 may be cut and used as links of a chain1 by being strongly1 yet somewhat loosely1 attached to each other by shorter links of rope4 ,sometimes1 if a hole be cut in the butt of one tree1 the young branches of the other will be found pliant enough to pass through it1 and weave around the stem and the few forks that may be left on it for that purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,cable ,,and ,,twig ,,bridge4 ,bamboo maybe partially cut away nearly up to a joint1 leaving long strips on either side1 which being doubled back on themselves form excellent links2 or they may be split up and spliced together like the strands of a rope2 and1 from the great number of very small1 long1 and pliant branches growing from every joint1 bamboo offers great facility for the attachment of other fastenings at every foot of its own length4 ,cane and twig roadways4 ,the cables having been stretched across and securely fastened1 the next requisite is the construction of the roadway4 ,if bamboo is the material1 the large stems may be cut into lengths of about #e;ft41 and split into four1 giving pieces of1 perhaps1 from #d;in4 in width42 these should be laid with the convex side upwards1 projecting about #a;ft4 beyond the cables on each side1 and securely lashed to them--the small shoots already mentioned will very materially assist this process4 ,if smaller bamboo is about to be used1 it can be split into three or four parts1 or put in place without splitting4 ,small ropes should be provided as hand rails or safety lines1 and these must be confined to the sides of the bridge by upright stancheons about #c;ft4 or #d;ft4 high1 and placed tolerably close together4 ,twig ropes stretch very unequally in use4 ,rattans and creepers are often of very great length1 and pieces #ajjyds4 long1 and not above #a-a_/b;in4 in thickness1 may be disentangled in the forest4 ,these can be utilised in a variety of ways4 ,sometimes a roadway is made of short pieces of wood suspended at either end from the cables1 but in this case the amount of small line required is greater2 and1 what is of more importance1 the safety of the traveller depends at every step on the fastening of the piece he treads on1 while in the former case1 even if the fastening were insecure1 the cable would support his weight4 ,besides this1 in order that they may not swing apart1 every piece must be lashed to its neighbour2 and it seems more safe and economical to build the roadway on the cables1 and stretch lighter ones above them for safety lines4 ,bridge shears1 to construct4 ,if the ravine is not very broad1 a tree1 such as the stem of a tall palm1 which will often be #fj;ft4 high1 and #a;ft4 in thickness2 or a bamboo1 which will be sometimes #hj;ft4 or #ij;ft41 may be raised1 and secured by stays and guys in a vertical position2 or1 still better1 two may be lashed together as shear legs and then raised4 ,if the ground is good this need not be done at the very edge of the cliff1 for when once the shears are nearly upright1 smooth planks may be put under the butts of the spars1 and they may be pushed or hauled in any direction4 ,if men can find a passage to the other side1 and carry over some of the stays and guys there1 the work will be much facilitated4 ,if not1 make another pair of shears exactly like the first1 and lay them horizontally on the ground1 with their butts resting against and fastened to those of the upright ones2 let the stays come to the head of these1 slack them a little till the uprights incline forward #bj or #cj over the gulf1 then keep all fast1 and allow the horizontal shears to rise as the others are lowered1 keeping a check upon them all the while1 until the first are laid fairly across4 ,if the gulf is wide1 this operation might be carried on from both sides till the shears meet1 and could be secured together in the middle1 as in our illustration2 and the roadway could then be constructed between them4 ,illustration3 ,,bridge ,,shears4 ,guano stages at ,ichaboe ,when vessels first went to the island of ,ichaboe for guano1 it was customary to require every new comer to bring two or three stout spars for the purpose of extending the landing jetty2 and as each had the benefit of the spars left by former vessels1 so each was expected to leave her own for the use of those who followed4 ,owing to the irregularity of the rocky bottom1 thickly covered with seaweed1 the depth of water1 and the distance from shore at which the surf began to break1 all the ordinary methods of constructing a jetty were impracticable1 especially when the object of each captain was to load his vessel as quickly and easily as possible1 and to get away without expending the labour of his crew on works more than sufficient for his own service4 ,besides this1 even had holes been bored1 piles driven1 and a staging laid down upon them1 the platform1 if permanently spiked down1 would inevitably have been torn up by the surf in even a moderate gale2 or1 if loosely laid1 would have been liable to such constant derangement as to be practically useless4 ,it was necessary1 therefore1 that the base1 while strong4 enough to support the traffic1 should present little or no surface for the waves to act upon1 and that the roadway should be so elevated that breakers could not touch it4 ,even under these conditions1 it was found that the first structures were washed away1 and other forms had to be adopted2 these could only be built on the north and east sides of the island2 they were not less than #bjj;ft4 or #cjj;ft4 in length1 and seldom or never in a straight line4 ,a heavy bower anchor1 sometimes weighted by several lengths of chain frapped round it1 was laid down well outside the surf1 with one or two fifteen fathom lengths of chain1 and to the end of this a stout hawser was bent on and carried to the shore1 passing over and lashed to the intersection of a pair of stout poles set up as shears1 and with its shore end leading to another anchor or secure fastening1 to which1 when the structure was completed1 it could be tightly set up by means of tackles4 ,the first pair of shears having been erected1 it was comparatively easy to erect others1 and often as many as a dozen or sixteen pairs were fixed1 the hawser passing over and serving as a ridge rope to them all4 ,at about #ab;ft4 above high water smaller spars were lashed fore and aft1 so as to connect all the shear legs on either side through the whole length of the jetty1 and others were laid across and well secured by cleats and lashings between each pair of legs1 with some at shorter intervals1 on which the roadway was constructed of planks and spars1 sometimes nailed1 but more generally securely lashed4 ,at the end of this staging was a small platform1 slung by tackles to the outermost pair of shears1 and capable of being raised or lowered1 so that boats might lie alongside it either at high or low water4 ,the flying railway4 ,other vessels1 not so well provided with spars as to entitle them to share in the accommodation of these stages1 adopted a kind of flying railway1 such as is used on the rocky coast of the ,cape ,verdes for the shipment of salt4 ,a stout spar1 #dj;ft4 or #ej;ft4 long1 or sometimes1 if the vessel was totally unprovided1 her own mainboom was taken ashore4 ,smaller spars were set up as shears1 and by these the large one was erected1 and stayed in a perpendicular position as a derrick4 ,the heaviest bower anchor1 with several fathoms of chain1 was laid outside the surf1 in thirty or forty fathoms of water4 ,a stout hawser was bent on to the end of the chain1 carried to the derrick head1 and hitched round it or otherwise secured2 and the shore end was extended inland toward another anchor1 to which it was hauled taut by a powerful tackle4 ,another tackle served to raise the guano bags to the derrick head1 and on the hawser travelled a large snatch or natch block 7so called because one of its sides is notched to admit any part of a line1 the end of which cannot conveniently be reeved through74 ,a man1 seated on a kind of cross-tree1 would pass the hook of the travelling block into the slings of the bags when they were hoisted1 and would detach the hook of the tackle1 and the bags were eased down to the boat lying out1 where the hawser nearly reached the sea by a stout line passing through a single block at the derrick head4 ,generally1 the travelling block alone had to be brought back2 but if provisions or other stores were to be landed1 they were hooked on before it returned4 ,passengers would be landed or embarked in the same manner2 sometimes in a stout basket1 or in a cask cut into the fashion of an arm-chair2 but more generally1 in disdain of such luxuries1 in the loops of a double bowline--the bolder spirits glorying in being let go by the run1 and gliding down the hawser just as the ,russians do in their sledges on artificial ice hills4 ,illustration3 ,,guano ,,stage ,,and ,,flying ,,railway ,,at ,,ichaboe4 ,it will often happen that in the erection of some makeshift contrivance1 or the laying out of a ground plan for future operations1 some rough and ready mode of levelling will be needed4 ,levelling4 ,the ,dutch ,african farmers use a very simple and effective level in laying out water furrows for the irrigation of their farms1 and1 when it is understood that even on very favourable ground these furrows are often two miles long1 it will be seen that some little engineering is required4 ,they take a table1 the longer the better1 and having tested its surface by the eye1 and by lines stretched across1 they place on each end a large basin filled to the brim with water4 ,when these are perfectly full without overflowing1 the sight is taken over them at a staff set up upon the next station1 and the height of the mark on this1 less the height of the table and basin1 gives the difference of level4 ,illustration3 ,,south-,,african ,,levelling ,,table4 ,we had a tube of tin #d;ft4 long and #a;in4 diameter1 with two pieces of glass tube bent upward1 passing through corks in either end1 so that1 by using water coloured with charcoal or mud1 we could at once observe the true level4 ,a long bamboo or reed closed at the ends1 but open in all its intermediate length1 will do just as well1 and there is no necessity that it should be straight4 ,smaller pieces of reed1 #c;in4 or #d;in4 long1 should be set up in each end1 and the bore of these must be large enough to allow the water to flow freely to its natural level4 ,the top of these may be notched for sights like those of a rifle1 or sliding sights may be fitted on the side of them4 ,this instrument may be used for taking vertical angles by fixing the eyesight upon a pivot1 marking the place of the foresight on the staff1 when the level has been taken2 then pouring away the water1 sighting the top of the object1 marking the elevation upon the staff1 and then either drawing the obtained angle on paper1 or taking the difference between the base and perpendicular1 and then working out the result by the rule of three4 ,illustration3 ,,deodar ,,beam ,,bridge4 ,deodar bridges4 ,one of the bridges over the ,sutlej is formed of lengthy deodar cedar beams1 supported at either end by piers formed of very strong timbers wedged for half their length in the solid rock1 the next timbers overlapping those on which they rest by #b;ft4 or #c;ft41 these in turn being overlapped by others1 till the space between is so much diminished1 that it can be spanned by the long deodar beams4 ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,rope ,,bridge4 ,rope bridges4 ,the ,jhula1 or rope bridge1 has a kind of seat slung to it1 capable of being hauled to and fro by lines to either bank1 and the live stock1 as well as the baggage of passengers1 is secured to this and sent across4 ,other bridges are made of ropes of birch twigs1 two of which are stretched across from rude piers upon the banks1 and from these1 hang cradle like1 a continuous hurdle of the same frail material serving as a footway1 and attached to the ropes by a sort of open basket work1 a couple of smaller ropes stretched beneath helping to support the roadway4 ,this1 apparently1 by its own weight and the unequal stretching of its parts1 soon gets out of order1 and the passage is a somewhat hazardous feat 7see illustration1 p4 #cce74 ,deris1 to make4 ,sometimes the rivers are crossed on deris1 or skins of bullocks1 which are thus prepared3 ,one cut is made along one hind leg1 the skin is then turned forward and stripped off uncut1 except at the hocks and knees2 it is buried a few days to facilitate the removal of the hair2 it is then again turned inside out1 and the openings of the eyes1 mouth1 c41 sewn up2 it is then turned back again1 and the incision stitched together with thongs of raw hide2 the open ends of the limbs are tied1 except one1 which is left as a tube to inflate the skin2 the thin tar of the deodar1 or other pines1 is poured in and shaken about till the flesh side is well charged with it1 and the outside is tanned with an infusion of pomegranate husks4 ,a double cord is fastened round the inflated skin1 across which the waterman lies on his chest1 holding the string with his left hand and working a short paddle with the right1 assisting himself also with his feet4 ,the passenger1 with as much baggage as he can carry1 sits astride on the ferryman's back1 with his knees on the skin4 ,when heavy goods are to be carried1 two skins are brought together1 each man laying hold of a projecting leg of the other skin1 and a frame--often of a charpai1 or ,indian bedstead--is laid upon their backs to receive the load4 ,horses or mules are made to swim1 the ferryman leading them by the halter4 ,the appearance of the inflated skin1 when carried by the waterman1 is most ludicrous 7see p4 #ccc72 but when the air is let out it packs very conveniently4 ,it is exceedingly serviceable1 costs about #cs41 and weighs about #aflb4 ,rafter1 plank1 and slab bridges4 ,very neat and effective bridges may be made on the rafter principle1 which our engraving at p4 #cjc will sufficiently illustrate4 ,the roadway1 either horizontal1 as in ,fig4 #a1 or with more or less rise in the centre1 as in ,fig4 #c1 being supported by the king-posts1 a tolerably broad river may be spanned by a bridge supported on latticed-worked sides1 like a number of ,,xxxx's set up without intervening spaces2 but this would require skilled workmanship and secure fastening4 ,arches of great strength may be made of thin planks laid one upon another2 a dozen inch planks would thus give an arched beam #a;ft4 in thickness1 and when properly clamped1 or bound together1 exceedingly strong4 ,this beam may be easily lengthened1 no joining or scarping of the individual planks is required1 their ends may simply butt against each other2 but care must be taken that no two joints come even nearly together1 or much of the strength will be thrown away4 ,illustration3 ,,plank ,,arch4 ,illustration3 ,,chinese ,,slab ,,and ,,trestle ,,bridge4 ,many ,chinese bridges are constructed with slabs of stone1 set up much in the manner of those at ,stonehenge4 ,a number of bridges of this description1 formed entirely of granite1 are to be seen on the ,cornish moors4 ,an ,indian army was once sent to act against an enemy accustomed to a colder clime4 ,a broad river checked the advance of the ,indians1 who had to remain day after day shivering from cold which their enemies bore with impunity2 but their leader observed that ice was forming on the river1 and1 though the strong current kept the centre clear1 he found a place some miles below the hostile camp where it had nearly united4 ,by pushing forward poles and faggots into the water he made a nucleus on which fresh ice was formed1 and before morning he had sufficiently bridged the river to allow of the passage of a few men who held their position till the rest could cross4 ,hints on fording rivers4 ,in fording deep and rapid streams1 the tendency of the body to float greatly diminishes the power to resist the force of the current4 ,we have seen a short and compactly built man1 struggling against this difficulty1 when a couple of tall aborigines came to his assistance1 and with mistaken zeal put their hands under his arms to hold him up1 till he explained that he wanted them rather to press upon his shoulders and keep him down4 ,a detachment of our troops found themselves before a ford where the stream was deep and strong1 and while they hesitated1 the tall guide picked up a heavy stone1 placed it on his head1 and walked safely through4 ,it is to be remembered1 however1 that the ford which is safe for the first man is not always so for the last4 ,an ancient general attempted the passage of a river1 but the trampling of the men and horses loosened the sand1 the stream swept it away1 reinforcements were unable to come up1 the advance was beaten1 and in attempting to recross the river1 numbers were drowned1 owing to the increase in the depth of water4 ,in most countries native paths will lead to the practicable fords1 and very frequently villages will be established near them1 so that information and guides may generally be obtained4 ,in the ,cape colony1 people who live near the drifts or fords of large rivers frequently keep spans or teams of powerful oxen for the sole purpose of drawing the waggons of travellers across1 and these are generally led by some stout young fellow on a horse that is also well accustomed to the locality4 ,it will often happen in the course of exploration that the traveller will have to find the shallow places for himself4 ,reefs1 or edges of strata1 running across the river are1 of course1 obvious enough1 but to find moderate shallows in a river of more even depth is not quite so easy2 the best way1 therefore1 is to follow the windings1 bearing in mind generally it is better to seek up the river than down where fresh tributaries increase it4 ,in all the hollows where the stream impinges strongly upon the banks they are generally very steep1 with considerable depth of water1 while the points will be found to slope downward with shoals extending from them1 and there is generally an eddy or return current on the upper side2 therefore1 if a point can be found1 with another somewhat below it on the other side1 a ford may reasonably be looked for1 especially if the width between the points seems greater than usual4 ,a ford seldom leads straight across a river1 and there is little use in looking for one in a hollow or under a steep bank4 ,abyssinian mule platforms4 ,mr4 ,percival1 who has travelled much in ,abyssinia1 tells us that he used what he calls portable inclines to facilitate the passage of his long and heavily-laden mule trains over difficult places1 especially such as the perpendicular edges of stratified rock #b;ft4 or #c;ft4 in thickness1 which to laden mules would be as impassable as precipices of a thousand times the height4 ,to obviate this difficulty1 he employed one or more mules in carrying roughly-made platforms of stout poles about #aj;ft4 long1 with others lashed across them1 ladder fashion1 so as to present a surface of about #aj;ft4 by #b;ft4 ,it would be the duty of the drivers of these mules to have1 at least1 one of them well to the front in anticipation of any difficulty2 the platform would then be laid down1 the train would walk over it and pass on1 leaving it in the rear to be loaded up again and brought on1 while one of the other platform mules would pass to the front in order to be ready for the next difficulty4 ,illustration3 ,,portable ,,inclines ,,used ,,in ,,abyssinia4 ,the length of these would depend on the height of ledge of rock to be mounted4 ,suppose the strata were #c;ft4 in thickness1 then a platform of #d;ft4 #f;in4 would present a surface lying at an angle of #de1 while one of #g;ft4 #f;in4 would lie at #bb2 this1 for short distances1 would not be at all a difficult incline either to descend or to climb1 and platforms of #aj;ft4 would give plenty of spare end to rest on the supporting edges1 and would not be very inconvenient in carriage4 ,mr4 ,percival says he has made them of wattled or hurdle work from #ab;ft4 or #ae;ft4 up to #bd;ft4 in length1 and yet so light that one mule has carried two of them2 and in following what are called the torrent roads1 at the bottom of deep ravines1 these would come into requisition at every few hundred yards4 ,it was in such ravines as these that most disastrous events were anticipated by travellers who knew the difficulties of the country1 without being at the same time aware of the skill and resources of our military engineers4 ,in native warfare an army might be watched into a place from which escape is hopeless1 and in the dry season the grass would be then fired at the entrance and the exit2 or in the rains1 some small river might be partially dammed up so as to accumulate a quantity of water1 which being let loose at the proper moment by the dragging out of a pole that serves as a trigger to let go the rest of the impediments1 would sweep down upon and overwhelm the helpless enemy4 ,illustration3 ,,miners' ,,swing ,,and ,,ladder4 ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,escape ,,pole4 ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,scaling ,,ladder4 ,illustration3 ,,rope ,,and ,,chain ,,ladders4 ,natural bridges4 ,besides the modes of crossing rivers or ravines before described1 there are various methods of passing over comparatively narrow impediments to the onward journey4 ,a chance tree1 storm felled across the stream or gully1 not unfrequently affords the requisite footway without the expenditure of labour4 ,there are1 however1 localities in which old hollow logs1 cast in this manner across water1 are to be looked on with some degree of suspicion1 as the following incident of travel will serve to show3 ,an old friend of ours chanced one day to arrive much fatigued at the brink of a tropical stream1 which had one of these natural bridges thrown by some storm across it4 ,before passing over1 he lit his fire1 cooked his food1 and indulged in a quiet smoke2 happening to cast his eye along the fallen tree trunk1 he perceived something of rather sinister appearance1 in slow motion1 on its surface4 ,on looking more closely1 he saw a huge python1 half in and half out of a hole in the log1 apparently enjoying the rays of the mid-day sun4 ,the bark of the tree near to the bank1 on which our friend was sitting1 was worn quite smooth by the passage of numerous animals1 and there is no doubt that this formidable toll collector had long enjoyed the monopoly of his tree bridge4 ,our friend selected another crossing place less carefully guarded4 ,small streams1 or the narrow channels of swamps1 may be easily and expeditiously crossed by the aid of the leaping pole4 ,leaping poles4 ,tall bamboos or tough1 straight1 well-grown poles are suitable for the purpose4 ,in soft fen ground1 it is a good plan to shoe the bottom of the pole with a piece of flat1 strong wood1 formed somewhat after the manner of a half ball1 with a hole in the middle for the reception of the end of the pole4 ,in exploring the cliffs at the edges of ravines1 the metal seeker not unfrequently swings himself from ledge to ledge by the aid of a rope attached above1 as shown in the accompanying engraving4 ,the cliff climbers1 who search for the eggs of sea-fowl1 roam about at times in much the same manner4 ,in descending from points of danger1 where a leap for life affords the only hope of escape1 advantage may be taken of the contrivance which was used by the rebels at ,kotah1 in ,india1 during the mutiny4 ,they1 on being pushed hard by our troops1 who had gained possession to the approaches to their fortified works within the town1 bolted like rabbits in a warren1 and made for an embrasure1 or rather casemate1 in one of the bastions of the outer wall2 from this they thrust out a strong1 but flexible bamboo pole1 from the end of which a rope depended4 ,the inner end of the bamboo was secured by heavy weights being placed on it4 ,the fugitives worked their way out by clinging under the pole1 until they in turn reached the rope at the end1 when they slid down to the end1 and then dropped off into the dry ditch4 ,judging from the immense height of the bastion1 and the rocky nature of the ground1 we should have had but faint hopes of escape with life2 but there is little doubt that many who braved the peril of the fall escaped more or less injured4 ,makeshift ladders4 ,we had no means at hand of measuring the bamboo1 but should judge it roughly at #dj;ft4 ,the illustration on p4 #cdg will serve to show the manner in which it was made use of4 ,not far from the bastion just referred to1 we found a number of ,indian scaling ladders4 ,they were much in appearance like large bamboo hurdles4 ,the canes composing them were bound at their intersections with strips of twisted cane4 ,they were1 for their size1 remarkably light2 and the nature of the material of which they were constructed1 and the way in which they were put together1 made them immensely strong4 ,a number of men abreast might have ascended them easily4 ,there are many forms of makeshift ladders1 amongst which1 perhaps1 the following are the most noteworthy4 ,the ordinary rope ladder is too well known to need more than a passing comment4 ,the rope and batten ladder is perhaps not quite so well known1 but is far more easy to mount and dismount2 its form is shown at ,a in the accompanying illustration4 ,two strong chains1 and a set of suitable sized bars1 form a very useful kind of ladder1 much in use among miners2 its mode of arrangement is shown at ,b in the annexed illustration4 ,in ,south ,america and some other countries1 the notched log ladder is much used both in mining and surface operations4 ,it is1 as its name implies1 a log notched deeply to receive the feet and hands of the climbers4 ,another form of log ladder is made by boring a row of auger holes at equal distances1 say #b;ft4 apart1 and then driving long stout treenails through them1 so that each end of the treenail may project beyond the side of the log1 for a hand and foot hold4 ,long forked branches may have their lateral shoots cut off at convenient distances apart1 so as to form a footway of short prongs4 ,a row of spikes or treenails may be driven into the side of a cliff1 a wall1 or the trunk of a tree to climb up by4 ,the natives of many wild countries adopt this method1 about which we shall have more to say when the subject of tree-climbing is under consideration4 ,illustration3 ,,peg1 ,,branch1 ,,and ,,log ,,ladders4 ,illustration3 ,,landing ,,by ,,swinging ,,derrick4 ,landing derrick4 ,in some parts of the world1 the operation of landing from a boat1 or embarking from the quays or jetties built out into the sea1 is rendered both difficult and dangerous by the great range imparted to the boat by the roll of the swell1 which in the ,eastern seas is at times very great4 ,in such situations1 it is a good plan to have a stout post set in the masonry1 or in a hole made in the rock1 and to the top of this post a swivel crutch1 which holds the trunnions of a long projecting arm1 like that of an ,egyptian well lever1 to the small end of which a rope and cross-bar are securely fastened4 ,to the short1 heavy end1 several more ropes are attached1 by which when the person to be landed has either grasped the cross-bar1 or seated himself on it1 the contrivance is at once raised aloft1 and turned steadily but rapidly inward1 when by easing off1 the man is allowed to drop easily to his feet on solid ground4 ,there used to be such a contrivance as this at ,st4 ,helena1 by the aid of which we have often landed4 ,the illustration on p4 #cdi will serve to show how the apparatus is managed and constructed4 ,a barrel1 stoutly lashed with rope1 fitted with a seat1 and cut away at the side1 so as to admit of the traveller sitting in it1 as in a chair1 is used for ladies or invalids1 who are slung in it at the end of the arm1 and hauled in as above described4 ,bridges of boats4 ,sometimes it is necessary to construct bridges of boats2 and these are often works of great magnitude1 requiring a considerable amount of material1 especially when an army with artillery and baggage waggons has to cross4 ,whether large or small1 the method of proceeding must be nearly the same4 ,first1 a number of stout beams must be collected1 sufficient to make a double line across the river1 with their ends overlapping each other by more than the breadth of the boats that are to support them4 ,the boats should be brought to the shore and moored a little above the site of the intended bridge4 ,if anchors are procurable1 they should be laid at regular intervals across the river2 a buoy should be attached to the end of each cable1 and a small line should lead from the farthest to each nearer one in succession1 till they are all connected with the shore4 ,a substantial frame of beams should be constructed at the edge of the bank1 and a boat brought alongside it riding by the first cable1 and secured by a temporary mooring to the shore4 ,two beams must be launched across her near the head and stern1 and firmly lashed to the thwarts and stringers4 ,the boat must now be swung out to the full extent of the beams2 the second cable must be laid hold of1 and the first cast off and hauled to shore for the next boat1 which is dropped down stream under the shore end of the beams1 which are laid upon her gunwales and made fast there2 while two others are pushed from the shore and fastened to her as the first pair were to the first boat4 ,intermediate beams1 if requisite1 can be laid1 and planking lashed or pinned upon them so as to complete that part of the platform4 ,then other beams and planking1 sufficient for a similar platform1 should be brought on board1 for the purpose of finishing the bridge when this pair of boats reaches the other shore4 ,the outermost boat should now pick up the third cable1 and pass the second to the inner one2 while the first cable should be taken by a third boat1 which will drop down between the others and the shore1 to receive her portion of the platform2 and so on in succession until the bridge1 completed as it goes on1 extends so nearly to the other shore that the loose material carried by the first pair of boats serves to complete the connection4 ,illustration3 ,,expedients ,,for ,,boat ,,bridges4 ,anchors may be extemporised from forked branches of trees--the harder and heavier the better4 ,these should have stones or iron lashed to them1 in order to give weight4 ,several forks should be left on the main stem1 and pointed to insure their holding4 ,if charred in the fire1 so much the better1 as their durability and strength are much increased by the process4 ,if there is but one fork1 care must be taken so to balance the anchor with the stone below and the cable above1 or a stock lashed across1 that this fork or arm shall be sure to take the ground4 ,the bridge may be also shored against the stream by branches1 with their forks taking the beams1 while their lower ends1 weighted by stones1 rest against the bed of the river4 ,stones are of no use as anchors1 as they lose so much of their specific gravity when immersed2 but if a heavy stone can be dropped beyond a cleft in the rock1 as in our sketch1 it will hold well4 ,if no anchors or substitutes can be had1 the cables may be made fast to a stout tree as far up the stream as possible2 and being brought in upon the inner bow of each boat1 she will take the stream upon that side and be forced outward4 ,the rudder1 if she has one1 will assist in this1 but it is not material1 as she can be kept at the proper angle by making the foremost beam a little longer than the after one4 ,if the bridge is constructed so low down the river as to be within the ebb and flow of the tide1 anchors are indispensable1 and each boat must be moored head and stern1 as shown in one of the examples in our illustration2 or1 if there be but one cable to hold her against the ebb1 shores may be set so as to counteract the influence of the flood1 unless a great rise and fall1 or violent rush at the turn of the tide1 should render it unsafe to use them4 ,if boats cannot be had1 two or three large casks1 placed end to end and firmly lashed to poles laid parallel to their length1 may be used at each junction of the beams2 or if a number of small ones can be obtained1 they may be collected within a triangular frame of poles2 but in any case each float must be sufficiently buoyant to keep the bridge at least #c;ft4 clear of the water1 if there is any current2 if there is none1 the platform may even touch the water1 and be partially sustained by it4 ,in our sketch we have omitted all but a small portion of the planking1 in order to show more clearly the manner of connecting the framework4 ,illustration3 ,,bamboo ,,carrying ,,frame ,,and ,,parbuckling ,,log4 ,carrying1 rolling1 and parbuckling heavy spars4 ,in some parts of ,india and ,china very heavy weights are carried by an ingenious framework of bamboo4 ,a stout pole is crossed at its ends by two lighter ones1 and each of these again by two others1 each of which is again crossed by smaller ones #b;in4 or #c;in4 in diameter and #f;ft4 or #h;ft4 long2 the sixteen ends of these are raised on the shoulders of as many men2 the weight is slung to the centre of the larger beam1 and borne with ease and comfort on the elastic frame4 ,in our illustration 7p4 #ceb71 two gangs of coolies are represented carrying a tree1 but more could be employed if requisite4 ,for rolling1 the tree should be cleared of projecting stumps as much as possible2 long skids should be placed under it1 and if the ends from which the tree is to be rolled can be elevated by wedges or otherwise1 so as to make an inclined plane for it to roll down so much the better2 at all events1 get the thick end under the tree and let the thin end be in the direction that you wish to roll it4 ,parbuckling is effected by making fast the end of a line to a stump or other holdfast in the required direction1 then bringing the end of the line under the log1 and taking one or more clear turns1 bringing the end back over it and hauling on4 ,a few hands judiciously using handspikes or levers will greatly assist this operation4 ,ladders4 ,there are times when the principle of the common step-ladder might be advantageously remembered2 and a traveller who expected to have much climbing might have one of those in which a groove is run in the inside of each standard1 and the rungs1 working on pivots1 are shut up into it1 the whole forming a light and compact pole1 which a man might easily carry on his shoulder4 ,it would1 however1 be cheaper and better to purchase this at home than to make it abroad4 ,a rope and batten ladder is more easily made4 ,the rope is doubled1 an eye is turned in to the bight1 holes are bored in the ends of the steps or rungs1 the ends of the rope are passed through1 and double knots turned on to keep each step in place4 ,a light ladder1 either of this kind or that previously described1 with a coil of rope to fling over the lower branches1 would enable a botanist or collector of birds or insects to climb many trees otherwise inaccessible4 ,fire-escapes4 ,in case of fire in a town1 if anything--say the end of a sofa or part of a bed frame--could be projected only #a;ft4 or #b;ft4 from a window1 and weighted by a chest of drawers on its inner end1 it would form what persons unskilled in climbing so much require--a clear point of departure2 and the blankets1 sheets1 and coverlets torn into strips of not less than #d;in4 or #f;in4 wide1 and twisted into a two-stranded rope1 could be fastened to this and used--first1 to lower the more helpless persons into the street1 and1 finally1 for the active to glide down by4 ,it would be too much to expect1 as has been proposed1 that every house should have a coil of rope1 but it is well to remember that if there be only a ball of string it may serve to haul up stronger lines1 brought by volunteers from without4 ,if infants are to be lowered1 it is better to put them in a bag than to tie a rope round their bodies2 a couple of pillow cases would be strong enough1 and there would be no fear of suffocation during the minute or two of their descent4 ,a man may tie a child on his back or descend with it in his arms1 but it is much safer to lower it separately4 ,if flames are bursting from the windows beneath1 perhaps the rope may be taken to the next lower story of the opposite house so as to avoid the danger of burning the rope or scorching those who descend4 ,of regular fire-escapes we need say nothing1 as where they are provided competent persons1 very frequently seamen1 are appointed to work them2 but it is well to bear in mind that1 as the property of flame and heated air is to ascend1 a man creeping close to the floor may often traverse in safety a chamber the upper part of which is impracticable4 ,a towel or piece of sheeting dipped in water and tied round the mouth and nose will prevent heated smoke and particles of burning matter from entering the air passages1 and thus enable a person to struggle for life in situations where suffocation would be inevitable without some such expedient for its preservation4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,timber ,,and ,,its ,,utilisation4 ,extraction of sap4 ,we have before stated that timber should never1 except in cases of emergency1 be felled with the sap in it2 still1 during the vicissitudes of rough travel1 it will frequently happen that1 in order to execute repairs imperatively needed1 the trees must be cut down1 hewn into form1 and made use of at once4 ,when this is done1 the object will be to get rid of the sap which fills all the minute pores and tubes of the wood as quickly as possible4 ,to do this1 a trench1 proportioned in length and depth to the quantity and size of the timber to be treated1 must be dug in the earth4 ,lay in the logs1 after denuding them of their lateral branches1 fill the trench with water1 and let them soak in it whilst you build a strong hard wood fire4 ,when this is thoroughly ignited throw a number of large heavy stones into it1 and as they become red hot withdraw them with twisted sticks1 and throw them into the trench until the water boils actively4 ,continue to do this until there are a number of heated stones in the already boiling sludge2 throw then a thick layer of clay1 turf1 and earth1 over the whole mass1 and leave it to steam and stew for the night4 ,a large log1 intended for the axle of a waggon or other heavy work1 may be1 with advantage1 subjected to a second application of the same process1 when it will be found much more tough and durable than if converted with the raw sap in it4 ,seasoning wood4 ,before proceeding to fell a growing tree for immediate use1 it is well to search carefully about for a dead storm-cast trunk of the kind required1 which will1 as a rule1 be found in tolerable condition4 ,when a dept is formed1 or a point selected as a rendezvous1 it is advisable to fell a few trees1 and let them lay in store1 so to speak1 until they are wanted4 ,cutting a deep notch round the whole circumference of a tree1 and letting it stand until required for use1 much improves the quality of the wood4 ,when practicable1 and time will allow1 it is well to leave logs of timber intended for seasoning to soak in rivers1 lakes1 or arms of the sea2 but it is wise1 at the same time1 to ascertain1 by the examination of pieces of wood which have fallen accidentally into the water1 whether any of the creatures addicted to timber boring are found in the locality4 ,the rivers flowing into the ,black ,sea abound with the ,teredo navalis1 or ship worm1 to such an extent that floating logs very shortly become so perforated as to be perfectly useless except for firewood4 ,much of the timber we obtained in that part of the world was defective on account of the depredations of this pest1 whose range1 unfortunately1 is a pretty wide one2 and his works1 and those of other borers1 are therefore to be jealously looked for in the neighbourhood of a proposed salt or brackish water timber pond4 ,in countries where hot springs are met with1 they may be utilised for timber seasoning and other purposes4 ,sticks or poles intended for bending into ox bows1 or other curved forms1 should be placed either in boiling water or the hot embers of the camp fire until thoroughly heated through4 ,they may then1 after being properly shaped1 be tied in the required form with cords1 and hung in the air to dry4 ,several long crooked sticks may be straightened at once by forcing them side by side into the hollow of a large bamboo cane from which all the knots1 except that at one end1 have been removed4 ,when a sufficient number of sticks are arranged in the cane1 place it mouth upwards1 and fill it to the brim with boiling water4 ,when the first charge is cold add a second1 and so on until the sticks have been about an hour in their hot bath4 ,they can now be forced separately into smaller bamboos without water1 or lashed between battens of stiff wood until cold1 when such small irregularities and curves as remain may be removed by heating the part requiring treatment over the fire and carefully straightening it over the knee4 ,nearly all the spear handles1 whether of cane or forest wood1 found among wild tribes are straightened and rendered fit for use by the agency of fire4 ,strong and perfectly straight tubes for blow-pipes1 c41 are formed by inserting a small cane into the hollow of a larger one and turning it round till any deviation from the straight line in one counteracts that of the other4 ,steaming log4 ,the elegant curve given to many of the bows found among the ,northern ,indians is given by first heating them in the camp fire1 and then1 after bending them carefully to the desired shape1 keeping the curves in position by the aid of thongs4 ,we have one of these bows now1 which was even charred in the course of making1 but has never lost its contour or elasticity4 ,the bending of ships' planks is effected by a process very similar in principle4 ,in the absence of a properly constructed steaming chamber1 the planks of a makeshift vessel may be efficiently steamed in the following manner4 ,a long hollow log should be set horizontally on trestles of convenient height1 one end must be stopped with a plug1 and the other have a tight wooden stopper and cross-bar fitted to it4 ,when the required number of planks are thrust down the log1 steam is admitted through a bamboo1 or hollow tube of wood1 from a large covered cauldron placed on a fire beneath the log4 ,all the joints of the bamboo should be luted fast with clay1 and kept tight until the planks are sufficiently steamed for bending1 when they are dragged out with wooden tongs1 and put in place on the vessel4 ,the full page illustration shows the mode of using a steaming log4 ,hardening wood4 ,wood1 which does not require straightening1 is rendered much more hard and durable than it would otherwise be by the action of carefully applied fire-heat4 ,the clubs and grubbing sticks of natives are generally fortified in this way4 ,spear1 arrow1 and blow-pipe darts have their points so hardened by the action of heat1 that they more closely resemble the texture of bone than aught else1 and perforate almost as readily as sharpened iron4 ,we have seen the tough1 dense scales of a large fish penetrated with the greatest facility by a spear prepared in this way4 ,flat strips or laths of bamboo cut to a fine edge1 and fire-hardened1 are used by many of the inhabitants of the islands of the ,eastern seas as substitutes for knives2 some of these truly makeshift blades are as keen as surgical instruments1 and are at times used in the performance of minor operations of surgery4 ,many of the trees of tropical countries will be found to possess heart wood of great strength and density1 whilst the outside or sap is light coloured1 weak1 and next to useless4 ,hard wood4 ,in such cases1 all the outside layer of timber should be cut away with the axe or adze1 and the central core alone made use of4 ,in selecting poles or sticks for purposes where toughness and durability are matters of importance always1 when practicable1 take young seedling trees4 ,next in quality to these are the shoots which spring up from the underground roots of large trees4 ,when either of these kinds are intended to be put aside to season1 they should be pulled up by the roots rather than cut2 the earth may be beaten out from among the fibres by striking the roots of the sticks together2 they can then be hung in an airy place to dry3 late in the autumn or in the winter are the best seasons for rooting up saplings4 ,larch trees4 ,in countries where the larch fir grows abundantly1 a number of tall young trees will be found from some cause to have died as they stand1 to have withered and become perfectly dry4 ,these will be found extremely tough and well seasoned4 ,bamboos4 ,bamboos must be selected according to the purpose they are intended for4 ,the female bamboo1 as it is called1 is remarkable for the largeness of the cavities placed between the internodes2 this quality renders it buoyant1 light1 and well adapted for splitting up into planks4 ,we have seen a very large bamboo slit from end to end by making one long cut in the side4 ,the cane is heated and carefully opened4 ,the knots are then all smoothed off1 when the hollow shell is laid between boards on which heavy stones are placed1 until it is pressed perfectly flat1 and becomes a bamboo board4 ,the knots of large female bamboos make excellent pails or water vessels4 ,a joint of bamboo cut longitudinally in half1 and supported on feet formed from another joint of the same cane1 after the manner of a pen tray1 makes a most convenient receptacle for pins1 steel pens1 pencils1 sail needles1 and a host of other matters which are required to lay parallel to each other4 ,illustration3 ,,bamboo ,,pipes1 ,,buckets1 ,,etc4 ,water pipes1 for irrigation1 can be made from a train of canes with their ends thrust into each other1 and secured by transverse pegs1 as at ,fig4 #a1 on opposite page4 ,all long bamboos1 intended for pipes or tubes1 must have their internodes removed4 ,this we used to do as follows3 ,we prepared some short pieces of round bar iron of a size just to fit the bore of the canes easily4 ,we then pointed one end of the iron chunk and sloped the upper end1 by hammering on the anvil1 to a wedge form4 ,through the centre of the upper edge we punched a hole1 through which we passed a wire long enough to reach the entire length of the cane to be treated4 ,the chunk was then heated red hot in the fire and dropped down1 like a bucket in a well1 on the first knot1 through which it would rapidly burn4 ,it was then lowered away until it reached the second knot1 and so on until all were entirely removed4 ,when the chunk became cooled by contact with the wood1 it was reheated and entered again4 ,fig4 #b shows the form of the knot chunk1 c4 ,excellent tar buckets 7,fig4 #c7 or water pails 7,fig4 #d7 are to be made from the ends of large cane joints4 ,boxes for wheel grease 7,fig4 #e71 drinking cups1 boxes1 and a whole host of other receptacles for various matters1 solid and fluid1 are made from the same material4 ,the mode of cutting and bending bamboos is shown by ,figs4 from #f to #ac4 ,in ,eastern countries one occasionally meets with specimens of the female bamboo of such gigantic proportions and huge growth that no little wonder is excited as to the mode of cultivation had recourse to in their production4 ,we were for a long time quite at a loss for a solution of the mystery1 but at length discovered that among the stools or root clumps of the canes one of promising appearance was by the natives selected for treatment4 ,this was dug up and carefully replanted in a favourable locality4 ,all the shoots which sprout up save one are cut away4 ,this is allowed to grow up until it has reached a fair average size4 ,it is then cut off to within about #f;in4 of the ground1 leaving a hollow projecting stump4 ,into the bore of the cane thus left1 a mixture of sulphur and stable litter is tightly rammed1 just as you would charge a hole for blasting or would load a gun4 ,for a period of three years every shoot which shows above the ground is cut away4 ,the best shoot of the fourth year is allowed to grow to its full altitude and bulk1 which at times is truly prodigious1 leading to the false conclusion that some cane of peculiar species was the subject of wonder and investigation4 ,from the lesser members of the bamboo family water-wheels1 bows1 arrows1 spear heads1 paper1 bow strings1 pens1 baskets1 brooms1 brushes1 shoulder poles1 buckets1 masts1 spars for boats1 c41 are made4 ,the male bamboo differs from the female in having scarcely any cavity running through it4 ,canes of this description are peculiarly well adapted for the handles of hog spears1 waggon whip handles1 and a multitude of other purposes where great strength and elasticity are required4 ,cocoa-nut palm4 ,the cocoa-nut palm is a tree which1 on the score of usefulness1 is perhaps second to none4 ,on the uses of its fruit1 leaves1 gum1 fibre1 and sap we shall have more to say further on in our work4 ,the wood is extensively used for canoe building4 ,it is hewn into form by the small sharp adzes of the islanders4 ,clamps are left on the inside and bored through4 ,dowels of hard wood are inserted in the edges1 and the planks are sewn together with rattan or fibre of the cocoa-nut husk1 while the timbers are bound to the clamps by lashings of the same material1 as shown in the full page illustration4 ,much of the coir1 or cocoa fibre1 used in the manufacture of this and other descriptions of twine1 and for caulking seams and crevices in the canoes when finished1 is obtained by the natives of the islands which dot the ,eastern seas and ,pacific ,ocean from the underground burrows of the great cocoa-nut-eating crab 7,birgus latro71 whose subterraneous workings are at certain seasons abundantly stored with this useful material1 which is sometimes hooked out with long flexible sticks armed with a species of barb1 and at others procured by digging out the crab1 nest and all4 ,canoe paddles and clubs are often made from the stalk of the cocoa palm4 ,illustration3 ,,wooden ,,swivels4 ,wooden swivels4 ,a great number of useful and almost indispensable articles called into daily use by the traveller and explorer can be made from wood4 ,swivels of one kind or another are in constant demand1 as the ropes used for tethering animals would without their aid soon become masses of hopeless entanglement4 ,a very neat and useful form is shown in ,fig4 #a2 it consists of two bars of flexible wood1 bent by steaming or otherwise into the requisite curve4 ,the parts which form the neck of a are thinned off1 but the ends are left of their full thickness2 the neck of b is also left thick1 and in each of its parts a groove is cut1 forming a hollow through which a passes2 b is then closed by a lashing1 and the swivel is ready for use4 ,fig4 #b is very effective1 and easily made4 ,a bit of wood has three holes bored in it2 a short piece of rope is passed through the end holes1 and double knots turned upon its ends4 ,this forms a bridle2 and1 if it is requisite to attach a longer line1 this should not be looped through so that one cord may saw upon the other1 as at c1 but properly hitched1 as shown at d4 ,the other line is passed through the central hole2 and it will work more easily and wear out less quickly if a small ring or washer 7f7 of hard wood or sole leather is put on before the knot is turned upon its end4 ,fig4 #c is a plain form of swivel1 and easily made1 but is apt to chafe the rope4 ,fig4 #d is a very neat and useful form4 ,a longitudinal hole is bored in a block of wood1 two larger ones are bored across it1 and with a knife or chisel these are cut into one large opening2 the ends of the lines are passed in towards the centre1 washers are put on1 the knots are made1 and the swivel is complete4 ,fig4 #e is a useful pattern4 ,the swivel is made of the joint of a fir tree1 and any number of lines may be hooked on to it4 ,the collar is made of two parts1 lashed together and suspended from each end2 the washer is also in two parts1 like the collar4 ,fig4 #f is easily made with two pieces of wire4 ,fig4 #g would form either a crutch for a rowing or sculling oar1 or a swivel rest for a gun or telescope1 c4 ,fig4 #h is a rod of flexible wood1 with the two ends passed through the collar and fore-locked1 leaving the loop to turn freely4 ,fig4 #i is simply a broad-headed nail passed through a piece of wood1 and with its point bent into a hook3 a washer of iron saves wear and tear4 ,this is very similar to the swivels used by rope-makers4 ,illustration3 ,,flail ,,swivels4 ,the common flail swivel is excellent for many purposes4 ,sometimes it is made with two pieces of stout hide or sole leather1 shaped like ,fig4 #a4 ,one of these is turned so that the narrow part in the middle forms a loop2 while the broad ends are nailed1 tightly stitched1 or lashed to the thick or swinging arm of the flail 7,fig4 #c72 the other piece1 being linked through this loop1 is also bent till the broad ends meet2 and their edges are then securely stitched together so as to form a collar1 which works freely on the handle 7,fig4 #b71 at the end of which is a knob to prevent the collar slipping off4 ,occasionally two flexible rods 7withies7 are bent for this purpose3 one is firmly fastened by a leather band nailed or lashed to the extremity of the swinging arm 7,fig4 #e72 the other has small knobs left on its ends to prevent the leather collar slipping off1 and this works freely on the handle 7,fig4 #d74 ,either of these arrangements may be thrown out of gear by taking hold of the knob and drawing the thin end of the handle out of the collar4 ,a slice of bullock's horn1 shaped as ,fig4 #a1 after softening it in hot water1 makes an excellent collar4 ,extemporary measurements4 ,every traveller ought to carry with him the means of measuring feet and inches1 and as instruments for that purpose are so cheap and portable there is hardly any excuse for being without something of the kind4 ,we have a little waistcoat-pocket ivory rule1 folding into lengths of #c;in41 and occupying no more room than a small penknife1 and with this1 even if an elephant were killed1 we could mark off #e;ft4 or more upon a stem of grass1 and use it as a measuring rod1 with the little rule ready for the fractional parts4 ,we had at one time half-a-dozen rules 7sold at a penny each71 #c;ft4 in length1 and folding on pivot joints into lengths of #f;in41 and they were quite correct enough for common carpentry4 ,tape lines for #f;ft4 or #ab;ft4 may be had in cases not larger than a ,geneva watch4 ,chesterman's patent1 shutting with a spring1 is a good form4 ,and even if a traveller should 7as he may often be obliged to do7 disburden himself of every incumbrance1 he ought to have inches marked upon something he is sure to carry with him1 say upon the ramrod of his gun1 or perhaps on the rib of the gun itself2 but let this be done neatly by a skilled workman before leaving home1 for we should esteem the companion of the chase too highly to let it be recklessly disfigured4 ,the inside of the waist-belt may be marked also in inches4 ,it is at all times well to know the length of the different joints of the limbs4 ,suppose the nail-joint of the forefinger be #a;in41 the next joint will be #a-a_/d;in41 the next #b;in41 and from the knuckle to the wrist #d;in42 in this case the finger is bent1 so that each joint may be measured separately1 though when held straight the distance from the tip of the forefinger to the wrist would be only #g;in4 ,the span with thumb and forefinger would be #h;in41 and with the thumb and any of the other three #i;in41 or equal to the length of the foot2 from the wrist to the elbow would be #aj;in41 and from elbow to forefinger #ag;in41 and from collar-bone to forefinger #b;ft4 #h;in41 height to the middle of the kneecap #ah;in4 ,from the elbow to the forefinger is usually called a cubit1 but it is seldom strictly so1 a cubit being #ah;in4 ,in like manner the full stretch of the extended arms is called a fathom1 but it is generally somewhat less1 a fathom being #f;ft42 and in paying ,africans with calico1 we found it best to let every man measure off his own fathom1 even though he protruded his chest and threw back his arms to the utmost1 he generally took a trifle less1 and was much better pleased than if we had measured it strictly with a rule4 ,if a man stands with his back to a flat wall1 and extends his arms1 his fathom will be nearly equal to his own height2 but if he tries to measure the girth of a tree by placing his breast against it1 and as it were embracing it1 he will find his fathom many inches short1 and on an average perhaps not more than #e;ft4 ,the ,dutch farmers at the ,cape clench both fists1 making the extended thumbs meet1 and they call the whole #a;ft41 when it is sometimes nearer #ae;in42 and an elephant measured in this manner would be reported unduly small were it not that they also measure from the edge of the foot round the curve of the shoulder to the wither instead of taking a straight line1 so that one error nearly balances the other4 ,this is a very useful measure1 but every man should grasp a foot rule1 as in our sketch1 and ascertain for himself how much his thumbs overlap in doing so4 ,illustration3 ,,fist ,,measure ,,and ,,pacing ,,stick4 ,the step is commonly supposed to be #c;ft41 and the pace #e;ft41 but this is a most uncertain mode of measurement2 a man may step #c;ft41 measuring from the heel of one foot to the toe of the other1 but even if he does so two steps must be less than #f;ft4 by the length of his own foot1 and very few men can take with any correctness a hundred consecutive steps or paces4 ,besides which so many travellers confound the terms step and pace that it is impossible to tell which they mean2 it is much better1 therefore1 to use the word yards and to measure them by a military pace stick2 this may be two light sticks like a walking-cane sawed down the middle and riveted at the head like a pair of compasses2 then if1 at #a;ft4 from the joint1 a stick of #a;ft4 in length be fastened across the opened legs they will form an equilateral triangle1 and the points will be #c;ft4 apart2 with these1 used like a pair of compasses1 a man may measure off #ajjyds4 almost as fast as he could walk it1 and would be certain of his distance4 ,a forked branch cut on the spot and trimmed1 so that the ends are #c;ft4 apart1 answers the same purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,hitches ,,on ,,measuring ,,line4 ,for measuring a base for rough triangulation1 a fishing line of #ajj;ft4 is easily carried2 three measurements will give #ajjyds41 and six will give as many fathoms4 #abj fathoms is a cable's length1 a common and useful unit in maritime surveying4 ,to measure successive lengths let your line have a little stray end beyond the marks1 and as the hanks are usually sold in lengths of #abj;ft41 an overhand knot may be turned1 #aj;ft4 from each end1 to mark the #ajj;ft4 ,stick a perfectly smooth peg in the ground1 without projecting head or catch of any kind1 make a loop in the end of your line1 and put it over the peg1 carry out the #ajj;ft4 and put in another peg1 then jerk the line upward1 and you will cause a wave to run along it which will lift it off the end of the first peg 7,fig4 #a72 but1 as a permanent loop might catch thorns or projecting branches1 it is well to make it with a hitch 7,fig4 #b71 so that it may shake out as it comes off the peg1 and leave only a free end to be hauled in4 ,several hitches1 or a sheepshank 7,fig4 #c71 might be used for this purpose1 but probably none would answer better than the signal halyard hitch 7,fig4 #d71 and with this the end may be made fast to any convenient tree or bush that stands fairly in the line you wish to measure4 ,pass the end twice round the branch or peg1 then taking the end and a small bight of the measuring part1 hitch them as if you were going to tie a reef knot1 pull the first hitch tight1 but do not complete the knot by making the second hitch2 this will hold quite fast enough1 and a slight jerk will be sufficient to set it free when you wish to haul in the end4 ,hitch it to another branch1 and so in succession you may measure any number of lengths you wish1 taking care always to keep the several pegs or points of fastening in a straight line4 ,a measuring line should merely be straight upon the ground1 and never be subjected to any tension1 still less should it be lifted up and then stretched to a straight line in the air2 slopsellers know this when they ask sailors to hold up a length of serge while it is being measured1 but any experienced hand meets this by insisting that his cloth be laid fairly on the deck and measured there4 ,to make or build wheels4 ,the first step in diminishing the labour of dragging a heavy body along the ground is to put rollers underneath it1 and the use of these is exemplified in the earliest ,assyrian monuments2 but these are left behind as the mass moves onward1 and have to be constantly carried forward and replaced beneath4 ,the next step is to connect them with the mass1 or with the carriage supporting it1 by axles1 forming either integral parts of the rollers and turning with them1 or by fixed axles1 on which the rollers or wheels revolve4 ,it is probable that many of the ancient vehicles were supported on axles revolving with the wheels2 but we now only retain this form in that of the wheelbarrow1 and the simplest way of making this1 where timber is cheap and plentiful1 is to cut a log of sufficient length1 then to saw or chop down the ends so as to leave a disc of sufficient size and thickness in the centre1 with two arms projecting from it to form its axle1 as shown in ,figs4 #b and #c4 ,the barrow itself may upon occasion be made of a forked tree1 of which the single part is thick enough to have a space cut in it to receive the wheel1 while the two branches serve as the handles1 and minor ones from them perhaps answer the purpose of legs2 otherwise a rough frame1 as shown in our sketch1 may be built1 and pegged or treenailed together4 ,illustration3 ,,solid ,,log ,,wheels4 ,in ,mexico1 ,chili1 ,tartary and elsewhere1 rough discs of timber 7,fig4 #a7 are sawed or chopped off from large trees4 ,a hole is made in the centre to receive the axle4 ,these wheels answer well enough for countries where time is of no value1 mercy to draught oxen unthought of1 and where the inhabitants would rather hear a dry wheel grate on its axletree than take the trouble to grease it4 ,evil spirits dread a creaking wheel1 say they1 and so the primitive contrivance is allowed to revolve noisily4 ,a wheel of this kind might be made much more efficient by leaving a nave or boss in the centre1 sheathed with hard wood or raw hide1 and by binding it with the latter material let into a groove cut round the circumference in place of a tire2 an endless band cut out of the hide of a rhinoceros1 hippopotamus1 elephant1 or giraffe1 put on wet1 and allowed to shrink and dry before it was much used1 would be almost everlasting4 ,illustration3 ,,wheel ,,built ,,in ,,segments4 ,a very neat and serviceable barrow wheel may be thus built3 ,take a piece of deal #d;in4 wide1 #c;in4 thick1 and #ad;in4 long2 set a pair of compasses to a radius of #h;in42 and1 fixing the centre leg #d;in4 from the block1 describe on it the segment of a circle2 draw this on both sides1 and cut the block truly to the outline2 then saw it down into six thicknesses of somewhat less than #a_/b;in42 lay three of these together1 so that their chords form an equilateral triangle1 each angle being #fj1 and their segments will complete the circumference of a true circle4 ,then take the other three1 and lay them on so that the centre of each shall cover the ends of each pair of the lower series2 then bore holes and screw or nail them together 7inch copper boat nails1 with rooves for clenching them1 are the best for this purpose71 and you will have a wheel #c_/d;in4 thick1 and #af;in4 diameter4 ,take a #a;in4 bar of wood #c;in4 broad1 half check it into the opposite triangles where there is but one thickness of wood1 strengthen it by bars from the other angles1 bore a hole in the centre1 and insert an axle of hard wood or iron4 ,if you have a piece of iron hoop1 reduce it1 and rivet the ends together1 so that it forms a tire that will just not go on2 punch half a dozen holes in at intervals1 heat it1 put it on quickly1 hammer it into place1 and cool it with water2 then put nails or screws through the holes1 to keep it from working off1 or tire it as before with an endless band of raw hide2 or bore holes through it #a;in4 or #b;in4 apart all round1 at about #a;in4 from the edge1 and lace thongs of raw hide through these and round the edge1 so as to preserve it from splitting1 or being worn by contact with the ground4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,construction ,,of ,a ,,waggon ,,wheel4 ,to build a waggon wheel1 clear a smooth place upon a floor1 levelled with ant-hill clay1 or preferably smooth planked4 ,take a #a_/b;in4 straight-edged batten of rather more than #e;ft4 in length1 and #c;in4 or #d;in4 in width2 clench or screw a cross piece on this1 so as to form a boss in the centre1 as in the figure on next page2 and through this1 at the edge of the batten1 bore a hole with a bradawl1 which being also bored into the floor forms a pivot for it to work on4 ,at #a;in4 from the centre1 bore a hole1 through which a pencil or a pointed scoring iron can be passed1 to draw the first circle for the bore of the nave4 ,at #d-a_/b;in4 bore another1 to mark the circumference of the nave4 ,if a front wheel is required1 bore two holes at #ae;in4 and #ah;in4 for the inner and outer circumference of the felloes1 or make them at #b;ft4 #b-a_/b;in4 and #b;ft4 #f;in4 for a hind wheel4 ,having drawn these circles1 decide upon the number of spokes you intend to use1 which will most likely be eight or ten for a fore wheel and twelve or fourteen for a hinder1 such as is shown in our example 7,fig4 #a74 ,divide #cfj1 the number of degrees in a circle1 by the number of spokes1 thus--#cfj divided by #h is #de2 in like manner1 #aj spokes would form angles of #cf1 #ab of #cj1 and #af of #bb-a_/b4 ,to obtain these angles1 strike a circle on a good-sized sheet of writing or cartridge paper2 fold it across the centre1 exactly in half1 open it and fold it in half the other way1 taking care that the two parts of the previous fold perfectly coincide with each other2 you will thus have angles of #ij1 which may be called north1 south1 east1 and west4 ,fold it again between every two of these1 and you will obtain angles of #de2 these again divided will give angles of #bb-a_/b2 and the next subdivision would give the thirty-two points of the compass1 equal to #aa-a_/d each4 ,to obtain angles of #aj1 divide each angle of #ij into three parts1 and subdivide each of them into three4 ,the strong lines in our next figure indicate angles of #bb-a_/b for a sixteen-spoke wheel1 and the faint lines angles of #aj4 ,our diagram of the wheel was drawn with a bit of card cut to the exact size shown in our figure1 pivoted on one pin1 while the point of an ,,hh pencil was passed through other pin-holes to draw the circumference4 ,if two of these lines should come very close together1 it will be seen that the pin-holes are not pierced in the same radial line1 or they would break one into the other2 but by placing them a little on either side concentric circles can be drawn as closely as requisite4 ,illustration ,now1 cut a piece of thin board or stiff paper to the angle at which the spokes are to be set--in this instance #bb-a_/b--;and with the aid of your straight-edge draw a line across1 through the centre1 to both sides of the circumference of your wheel2 draw another across this at right angles1 and test the lines by trying whether each quarter will contain four times the mould you have cut to the angle of #bb-a_/b2 then draw two other lines of #de1 and subdivide each space into the required angles of #bb-a_/b4 ,suppose your spokes are to be #a;in4 thick1 withdraw the bradawl that has served you as a pivot1 and bore two holes1 each #a_/b;in4 from the central line1 and1 pivoting the batten on each of these in succession1 you will be able to draw the lines showing the thickness of your spokes1 a1 the original line still indicating the direction of their centre4 ,then divide the circumference of your felloe into eight segments of #de1 and draw short lines across it as at d 7p4 #cfh71 to indicate the length of the felloe pieces1 each of which must contain one pair of spokes1 while its ends come fairly in the centre of the space between two others4 ,take a thin piece of board and cut a mould for the felloe pieces1 marking on it the lines for the dowel holes1 d1 and those for the insertion of the spokes1 c4 ,then in like manner cut a board with a circumference of #i;in4 as a mould for the nave1 and on it draw the lines which mark the mortices for the insertion of the spokes1 b4 ,the nave should be turned of some good solid even-grained wood1 not too hard2 elm is well calculated for the purpose4 ,it is generally #i;in4 or #aj;in4 long1 and it should have a hole #a;in4 in diameter through its centre4 ,a narrow pit1 #c;ft4 in depth1 is dug1 and two stout beams1 #i;in4 apart1 laid along its edges2 a #a;in4 rod of iron is passed through the hole in the nave1 which1 with its iron bands already driven on1 is placed between the beams1 supported by the ends of the rod which rest upon them 7stout trestles1 #c;ft4 high1 are sometimes used instead of the pit74 ,in one of the beams at the back of the nave is a stout upright1 with a line marked upon it as a guide in boring the holes truly4 ,illustration ,naves1 to turn4 ,to turn a nave to the proper form without the assistance of a turning lathe1 the following makeshift contrivance will be found useful and efficient4 ,fit up four strong planks1 or a strong stool1 of form shown in the accompanying illustration4 ,cut out two upright cheeks1 which must be fitted by mortices to the upper surface of the stool4 ,then make a ,t rest1 and fit it in the centre of the stool1 in one of a train of square holes cut behind the line of the cheeks4 ,the block of wood intended to form the nave must have an ordinary auger hole bored through its true centre1 and in this must be firmly wedged an iron bar1 with a crank or handle bent at one end2 this bar rests on bearings prepared for it in the cheeks1 one bearing is formed by boring a hole just large enough to let the plain end of the bar through1 and the other by sawing out a deep notch for the handle end to drop into1 when it is prevented from becoming displaced by a pin passed in above it4 ,the man about to officiate as turner sits astride on the stool1 presses a long-handled gouge or chisel by the action of his shoulder firmly down on the rest1 with its cutting edge against the nave log1 which is turned steadily round by an assistant who has charge of the handle2 the whole operation being conducted much on the principle of tool grinding1 only that the motion of the log is always towards the man who manages the chisel4 ,the rest is advanced as the log decreases in diameter4 ,wheels1 to build4 ,if the wheel is to have what is called a dish1 cut a small piece of wood 7,fig4 #c1 p4 #cfh7 to the angle at which the spokes are to project forward2 and1 having marked off all the mortices1 which will be #c_/d;in4 wide by #a-a_/b;in4 long1 take a brace and #c_/d;in4 bit1 or a #c_/d;in4 screw auger1 and bore two holes in the space marked for each mortice1 as in ,fig4 #b1 taking care to centre most accurately the spot at which the point of your bit or auger is inserted1 and to keep its true direction by the aid of the upright line and the small angled board4 ,the mortices will then be finished with a #c_/d;in4 mortice chisel and mallet4 ,the holes in the felloe 7,fig4 #d7 will be bored at the same angle with a #a;in4 auger2 for1 as the spoke will be #a-a_/b;in4 from back to front1 there will be shoulder enough in those directions without weakening it by cutting a shoulder on the sides4 ,of course1 the shoulders1 both at the felloe and at the nave1 will be cut to the same angle at which the holes are bored4 ,the tenon should be less than #c;in4 in length1 so that it may allow of the subsequent boring of a #c;in4 hole in the nave to receive the bush or iron sheathing in which the axle turns2 and in like manner the ends inserted in the felloes should be less than #c;in4 long1 so that they may not receive any pressure from the tire4 ,fig4 #e shows the centreing of the felloe ends to bore the dowel holes4 ,now1 resting the nave on its iron rod upon the beams of the pit or trestles1 drive in the first spoke1 testing it by the upright line and by your angled board4 ,then1 boring a hole in your upright1 drive in a peg and cut it off at such a length that the first spoke may just touch it in passing4 ,drive in all the other spokes so that they also touch the end of the peg1 and then in the end of each spoke make a cut #a;in4 deep1 with a fine tenon saw1 to receive a wedge of hard wood when the wheel is built4 ,then in one end of each felloe drive a dowel 7d7 rather stiffly1 but so that it does not bottom in the hole2 leave half its length projecting4 ,take a screw clamp and compress two of the spokes together till their ends will enter the holes in one felloe piece2 drive it about #c_/d in4 on1 and slack off the clamp4 ,if you have not a clamp1 pass three or four turns of rope or thong round the two spokes1 and twist them tightly with a hammer handle or other lever4 ,do the same with the next pair1 and fit on the next felloe piece1 taking care that it receives fairly the dowel of the first4 ,proceed in this manner all round1 then look carefully to the fair insertion of all the spoke ends and dowels1 and1 being satisfied of this1 keep the wheel turning slowly1 and strike the felloe pieces homeward by smart blows of a mallet as each spoke passes you4 ,when they are all fairly home1 drive in the wedges to the spoke ends1 trim off the felloe as neatly as you wish1 insert the bush in the nave1 and have the wheel tired in the manner described at pp4 #aie1 #aif4 ,illustration ,to make a steering wheel4 ,a ship's wheel differs from that of a waggon in being1 not a roller moving freely on its axle and supporting the carriage and its load1 but rather a series of levers arranged as spokes1 connected and supported by the felloe for the purpose of turning the axle and gathering in or slacking off on either side the ropes or chains by which the tiller is moved2 the spokes1 therefore1 project #f in4 or #h in4 beyond the circumference of the felloe1 and are smoothed and rounded off so as to be easily and conveniently grasped by the steersman's hand4 ,the diameter of the felloe should not be less than #cj in41 or it will not give sufficient leverage2 nor more than #d ft41 or a man cannot command it easily4 ,neither the nave nor the felloe are made solid1 but are built up in the following manner3 ,the lines of circumference are traced1 and the angles of the spokes set off in the manner already described4 ,a disc of hard wood #i in4 in circumference1 about #b in4 thick1 and with a hole #c in4 square in its centre1 is laid upon the floor4 ,the spokes are arranged on this1 and screwed or clenched firmly to it2 the interstices are then filled up1 and another disc of similar size is screwed or clenched over all to form the front4 ,the bush1 or axle box1 which of course is square1 is fitted in1 and an ornamental boss1 generally covered with brass1 is screwed over to conceal it4 ,the felloe pieces are #c;in4 or #d;in4 broad1 and #a;in4 thick3 the back pieces are laid so that their centres come upon the spokes and their ends between2 the next set1 exactly as thick as the spokes1 are laid in the intervals2 and the front pieces are laid so that their ends meet upon the spokes1 where they are generally confined by an ornamental lozenge1 a cross1 or an oval of brass1 screwed down upon them4 ,the axle is supported in a true fore and aft line by a couple of stancheons1 with bushes for it to work in2 and on some part of it1 behind the wheel1 is fixed the drum1 over which the tiller chains or hide ropes are passed with two or three turns1 so that as one is gathered in by a turn of the wheel1 the other may be slacked off4 ,windlass4 ,a windlass may be of any size1 from that of the old crossbow1 to one fitted to weigh the anchor of a vessel1 although in large ships the capstan is thought to afford the best and steadiest means of applying the continuous exertions of the men4 ,a windlass may be roughly formed by setting up a couple of forked logs1 or still better1 if possible1 choosing two forked trees firmly rooted in the proper place1 and laying across them another log1 thinned off as much as possible where it rests in the forks1 to reduce the friction without too much impairing the strength4 ,the central part ought to have paul notches cut in it1 and a heavy paul log may be hinged or pivoted to a stout staple1 nearly level with the ground1 so that its end1 acting as a paul1 catches the paul notches and prevents the windlass giving way to the strain of the cable while the men are shifting their handspikes4 ,the barrel of the windlass ought to be chopped or adzed down to an octagonal form 7expressively though erroneously called #h-square71 and holes should be morticed right through in each face so that each man1 without change of position1 should have eight opportunities of inserting his handspike4 ,a ,spanish windlass may be extemporised with the boat's oars4 ,two of them are lashed together as sheers with legs of unequal length1 the longer leg being in the direction of the strain4 ,a pair are set up in each side of the boat and lashed to the thwarts1 care being taken to put some piece of wood or other dunnage under the ends1 so that they may not hurt the planking4 ,another oar is now laid across1 with its loom resting in the forks2 a grummet strop or a short piece of rope is made fast to the middle of each of the boat's stretchers2 if the end is frayed out1 so much the better4 ,the end is applied to the loom of the oar that represents the windlass1 and the stretcher is turned round and round it until the rope tightens so much as to make it an efficient handspike4 ,it should then be stopped in position with a bit of yarn4 ,if there is a davit in the boat1 the buoy rope is carried over the sheave1 three or four turns are passed over the windlass oar and the end is carried forward and held by one of the boat's crew1 who gathers in all he can and loses none as the men heave round4 ,when the boat's stern is hove down as low in the water as is prudent1 all the men go in the bow1 and sometimes jump there1 to jerk the anchor from the ground4 ,illustration3 ,,spanish ,,windlass4 ,the gunner's capstan is made by sinking one end of a waggon or gun axle in the ground1 placing a wheel on it upside down1 and lashing handspikes to the spokes to act as capstan bars4 ,the rope to be hove on is passed round the nave of the wheel below the line of the spokes1 as shown in the annexed illustration4 ,illustration3 ,,gunner',s ,,capstan4 ,anchors4 ,in many countries where navigation is not very far advanced1 wooden anchors are commonly used4 ,we have seen and sketched these on the coast of ,java1 and elsewhere4 ,in tropical countries the hard heavy wood that sinks of its own weight is peculiarly suited for this4 ,a forked tree of suitable size is chosen1 and sometimes1 but not always1 the fork or fluke of the anchor is strengthened by a cross lashing to the shank4 ,a heavy stone1 as long as possible in proportion to its thickness1 is lashed across underneath the shank1 serving the purpose of a stock4 ,a loop for the attachment of the cable is made above it1 so that the anchor1 when cleared for letting go1 may hang in the position shown in ,fig4 #a1 and may take the ground fluke downward4 ,a many-forked tree of heavy wood1 with stones lashed on 7,fig4 #b7 for additional weight1 is more certain to hold1 but does not stow so snugly when not in use4 ,this1 in a lighter form1 may be used as a creeper for dragging over the bottom to recover a lost cable1 c4 ,canoes1 in shallow1 sluggish waters1 are often moored by one or more of their poles stuck into the mud4 ,a stone lashed to one of these and a guy carried aft1 as in ,fig4 #c1 will give additional security2 or a couple of poles may be put over the sides and crossed under the bottom1 the lower ends being guyed in the same manner1 but this would be dangerous in a strong tide-way4 ,if the boat is dropping down with the tide1 a pole over the stern1 about a foot longer than her draught of water1 will take the ground and either prevent her running ashore or at least give warning before she does so4 ,where heavy wood cannot be obtained1 a couple of holes may be bored in a slab of sandstone 7,fig4 #d71 the ends of a forked branch thrust through and forelocked1 another stone being jammed into the fork at right angles with the first4 ,we have often seen anchors of this description in use among ,indians4 ,illustration3 ,,makeshift ,,anchors4 ,working in timber4 ,a pump1 or nave auger1 may be advantageously worked with what are called slinger sticks4 ,set the log upright1 either in a hole in the ground by shoring it1 or by a combination of both methods4 ,above it rig a stage1 on the forks of trees1 with a firm socket for the stock or shaft of your auger to work in4 ,then fit a waggon wheel on the top of it1 lash an upright pin to one of the felloes 7do not spoil a good wheel by boring holes in it74 ,the sticks have broad1 flat ends1 with holes to work upon the pivot1 and crutch handles for the men to take hold of4 ,in some parts of the ,indian ,archipelago even gun barrels are bored out in nearly similar fashion1 only two boys walk slowly round with a kind of capstan bar1 the drill being weighted with a basket of stones4 ,illustration3 ,,boring ,,with ,,slinger ,,sticks4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,treatment ,,of ,,timber ,,by ,,steam ,,and ,,saw4 ,saws and drills4 ,we have seen ,africans1 in ,portuguese service1 working a common handsaw very efficiently by fixing a cross handle to the end of the blade2 then two men would sit opposite each other1 and holding the log between the soles of their feet1 as shown in the full page illustration1 would work the saw between them4 ,for rough work this serves well enough4 ,in such case let them have a saw with teeth widely set1 and pretty much their own way2 but if you want anything well done do it yourself4 ,saws for natives need not have much temper1 and the teeth should be set very wide1 so as to do a great deal of what carpenters call sawing wood4 ,the ,germans are very fond of using frame saws1 like that shown in the same illustration--a long1 narrow strip of soft steel1 stretched tightly in a heavy rectangular frame of wood4 ,such a saw could be extemporised with a few feet of iron hooping1 with teeth filed on it4 ,it would do for soft wood1 but on hard wood would wear out quickly2 nevertheless1 it might last long enough to do the required work4 ,we had three small web-saws1 assorted sizes2 they are very handy to carry1 frames 7like that in our full page illustration--,boat building at ,logier ,hill7 are easily made when wanted1 and they should not be neglected if weight or bulk in carriage is objectionable4 ,stock and bow drills may be easily made1 as in ,fig4 #a4 ,the arm of a tree will afford a socket above1 and the wood or iron to be bored must be firmly fixed below2 a good sized disc of heavy wood1 the sheave say of an old block1 or a piece sawed off a hard tree1 acts as a fly wheel4 ,for smaller work a cotton reel 7,fig4 #b7 does well for the bow strings to work on2 in this case the stock ought to be of iron1 purchased at home4 ,the ,bowditch islanders lash their drill on alongside the stock 7,fig4 #c71 but we can hardly sanction this plan1 though it might exceptionally prove useful4 ,if weight and not rapid motion is desired1 make the drill stock of a heavy log 7,fig4 #d71 with the pivot going up through the upper socket1 and fit a crank on it4 ,illustration3 ,,stocks ,,and ,,drills ,illustration3 ,,hooping ,,and ,,bucketing ,,of ,,casks4 ,coopers' work4 ,we have had at times not actually to make casks ab initio1 but what comes to very nearly the same thing1 to pick out the materials of old ones shaken out1 when we abandoned a camp1 to tie them in bundles1 and carry them as best we could till they were again required4 ,sometimes it is impossible to gather all the individual parts of one cask1 and heads and staves must be taken as they come4 ,in this case1 pick out two heads of the same size1 or pieces which will make two4 ,measure their diameter1 and as the circumference is1 for practical purposes1 three times as much1 measure across the ends of the staves on the inside of the chine groove1 until their united widths fully equal three times the diameter4 ,if you have another cask a little larger1 set up the staves inside it2 or if you have one somewhat smaller1 arrange them outside1 and put on temporarily a larger hoop1 or lash them with a turn or two of rope4 ,then take the hoops which you have selected for the cask1 and get the larger ones over the end1 drive them down tolerably tight1 nearly to the centre4 ,then1 taking one of the heads1 bore a couple of gimlets into it to hold it by1 or screw on it a clamp1 across the grain1 so as to hold all its pieces fair and level4 ,let this down edgewise into the belly of the cask1 then1 drawing it up1 enter one edge of it into the chine groove1 and1 slacking the hoops if necessary1 lift it till it fits in all round4 ,if you find any difficulty in this1 take a knife blade1 or thin piece of hoop iron1 pass it through one of the interstices of the staves under the head1 and lift it till it enters the groove4 ,if this is done at the four quarters1 it will be impossible for the head to fall down inside4 ,drive the lower hoops down1 and when the staves begin to close up1 take out the knife or hoop iron and tighten the hoops with the hammer and driver4 ,then turn up the cask1 and if you wish to close it at once1 do the same with the other end1 if not1 drive the hoops on leaving it open1 and slack them up when you want to put the head in4 ,put knives or thin iron between the staves1 as before1 to keep the head from slipping down1 and withdraw them before you tighten up4 ,if you have not another cask to set up the staves in or upon1 take one of the hoops and support it as a horizontal ring by tying it to small trees or posts1 or set up the head itself on a pole1 breast high1 for the staves to lean against1 or dig a circular trench a few inches deep in the ground to set the staves in4 ,remember that if iron hoops are worn or rusted or bent much1 and have to be straightened out1 they are very easily broken or burst by driving too tightly4 ,of course they can be mended by punching holes and riveting a piece in2 but they require good punches and a matrix1 for which a piece of hardened wood may be substituted1 and some skill and patience4 ,always heat both the iron and rivets1 and do not punch holes or clench rivets cold4 ,wooden hoops are generally withies or saplings1 split down the middle1 and left with one flat side and one round4 ,the ends are thinned a little1 and notches cut on the upper edge of one and the lower of the other4 ,these are made to catch each other1 either with a short overlap1 as in ,fig4 #a1 in which case the two parts lie parallel with each other1 or with a long joint 7,fig4 #b71 in which each takes a half turn round the other1 between the notches4 ,the joint is then served either with slips of osier or split rattan1 or other substitute for cord4 ,if it is necessary to make a cask1 the pieces forming the discs used for the heads should be dowelled together1 with a bit of pith of reed1 or other caulking material between them1 and the circumference must be thinned off to an obtuse edge4 ,the staves1 to look neat1 ought to be nicely rounded as segments of a circle1 and the ends should be narrower than the centre if belly is to be given to the cask2 but if it is not essential that the cask should be perfectly round1 the staves may be of flat plank4 ,it is1 however1 indispensable that their edges should be cut to the proper angle1 or they will not fit closely nor support each other when hooped up2 the diagram we give will facilitate this4 ,if there are to be #bj staves in a cask their edges must be cut at an angle of #ah1 thus #cfj divided by #bj is #ah1 and the angle of any other number may be found by dividing #cfj by the number of staves4 ,the chine groove may be cut with a saw1 and it is better that the staves should be always a little narrower at the ends than in the middle1 so that the hoops may tighten in being driven on4 ,water casks1 to embark4 ,to becket a cask1 slacken off one or more of the hoops1 take a strip of raw hide1 slip one end under1 twist the middle a little1 then turn it1 slip the other end under1 nick them that they may not draw out1 and tighten up the hoop4 ,a kind-hearted ,american1 captain of the ,mechanic1 of ,boston1 who filled our water casks when we were on scant allowance1 off the coast of ,australia1 taught us this expedient4 ,in towing a number of casks from shore to the vessel becket them in this manner at both ends1 and on two sides2 then put them end to end1 and pass a rope on each side through all the beckets4 ,if there are two boats let one tow ahead of the other1 so as to leave but one wake2 let the bung-hole be downward1 for if the cask leak1 the salt water being heaviest1 will not run up into the fresh1 nor will the fresh run down into the salt2 whereas1 if the bung is up1 the fresh water may splash out and the water of the sea run in and spoil the remaining contents4 ,illustration3 #a-g ,bent wood4 ,hoops may be made by taking thin strips of any flexible wood1 three or four times as long as the circumference of the required hoop1 coiling them as it were1 and then binding or clenching them together4 ,these are very strong and flexible 7,fig4 #c74 ,jib stay hanks 7,figs4 #a and #b7 are made of any tough wood1 in bars #ad;in4 or #af;in4 long1 #a;in4 wide1 and a little more than #a_/b;in4 thick at one edge1 and somewhat less at the other4 ,these are notched about #b;in4 from the ends1 so that when they are bent the ends may cross each other and afford a hold for the lashing that attaches them to the leach of the sail4 ,they are not fastened as the sailor opens them to put them on the stay1 and the lashing to the leach rope fastens them sufficiently4 ,hanks may be made of the fork of a branch 7,figs4 #d1 #f and #g71 and if a double hank is required1 a branch with two forks 7,fig4 #e7 will serve the purpose4 ,illustration3 #a-e ,in ,south ,america stirrups are very neatly made by taking a bar of tough wood 7,fig4 #a71 #a;ft4 or #ad;in4 long1 notching it so as to leave in the centre a piece of the full thickness #d;in4 long1 and leaving the ends of the full thickness1 thinning down from them to the notch on each side till the wood can be safely turned up so that the ends meet and form the bow of the stirrup 7,fig4 #b74 ,the ends are cut to the proper bevel1 and fastened by a thong in a hole bored through them4 ,a couple of horizontal bars1 #b;in4 long1 fastened above1 form a slip for the stirrup leather to pass through4 ,this is a very neat arrangement1 but its only fault is its extreme lightness1 as1 when the horse is in rapid motion1 the foot cannot readily find the stirrup if it should be lost for a moment4 ,in this respect1 the block of wood1 sometimes richly carved and ornamented1 used by the ,chilians 7,fig4 #c71 is1 notwithstanding its clumsy appearance1 far superior4 ,three bars1 so lashed as to form an equilateral triangle of at least #e;in4 inner measurement1 will make a good stirrup4 ,the fork of a branch1 with a cross piece lashed on it1 or suspended so that one of its arms forms the tread or bottom piece1 a thong of hide making the other side of the triangle1 will answer if sufficiently heavy4 ,the hide of the hippopotamus1 rhinoceros1 or giraffe1 when sufficiently dried1 may be cut into stirrups1 and left to harden4 ,sometimes the block which forms the stirrup is cut with a projecting spike to form a spur2 but the ,mexican wooden spurs1 consisting of two sticks a little thicker than a pencil1 #d;in4 long1 armed with small iron points1 and provided with straps as in ,fig4 #d1 are about the neatest and most easily extemporised form we know4 ,makeshift axes or adzes4 ,among the native tribes of ,south ,africa1 where iron1 owing to the small scale on which they smelt it1 is very scarce and valuable1 considerable ingenuity is shown in the mounting of an axe blade4 ,this is generally a triangular piece of iron1 with one of its sides thinned down and ground to a rounded edge1 and the other two tapered to a spike4 ,it is well known that weight is an essential quality in all chopping instruments1 and the deficiency of iron has therefore to be made up with wood4 ,a stout branch1 with another projecting from it at an angle of from #gj to #hj1 is so cut as to leave a block of the larger limb attached like a mallet head to the smaller one1 as in the uppermost figure of our illustration 7p4 #chb74 ,the spike of the axe head is made red hot1 a hole is bored through the knob in the direction of the grain1 and the axe is ready for use1 and has besides the advantage of being convertible into an adze by simply taking out the iron and inserting it again athwart the hole instead of keeping it parallel with the handle2 the two lower figures will give a sufficiently good idea of this4 ,we have seen these tools very efficiently wielded by honey hunters and by native woodsmen and carpenters1 who1 when tired of work1 convert the axe handle into a pipe by taking out the iron1 partially stopping the middle of the hole with a few green leaves1 putting the tobacco into one end1 and applying their broad lips to the other4 ,illustration3 ,,makeshift ,,axes ,,or ,,adzes ,the other two figures represent the manner in which a broad chisel may be converted into a serviceable axe or adze1 by smoothing off and channelling the front of the knob1 and firmly lashing the chisel to it with raw hide either fore and aft or athwartships as required4 ,a plane iron 7p4 #adj7 is often made to answer the same purpose4 ,the hoes used by the women in ,africa are made in nearly the same manner as the axes1 but larger2 sometimes they are flat1 thin1 and oval2 sometimes chisel or adze shaped2 and sometimes a gouge like form is given to the blade1 but in all cases a spike is left at the top for insertion into the heavy knob of the handle4 ,at times this knob is cut where two branches project from it1 so as to form a double-handled hoe1 an example of which is shown in our engraving of a ,bechuana hut on p4 #bha4 ,hurdle or wattle work4 ,it may not be amiss here to give an example of the manner of making a piece of wattled work for a door1 a window shutter1 a table1 a bedstead1 or any other purpose4 ,as many stakes as are required are planted firmly in the ground1 either in a trench or1 which is better1 in holes separately made with a grauwing stick for the purpose4 ,rattans1 osiers1 twigs1 reeds1 or grass1 are then wattled in in the manner shown in the sketch1 their ends being either cut off1 if they are not flexible enough to bend well1 or returned round the outermost stake1 and wattled in again if they are4 ,in doing this1 care must be taken not to draw the outermost stakes unduly together2 and to prevent this it is a good plan to cut a strong stick1 with a fork at one end and a notch like gaff jaws in the other1 and set it between the stakes to keep them apart1 removing it when it is necessary to put fresh wattles over the top1 and replacing it when they are to be forced down4 ,baskets1 crates1 or gabions of any size1 may be made by setting up squares or circles of stakes1 and removing them when wattled2 or houses may be built by fixing them more permanently and using them as the walls4 ,illustration3 ,,wattled ,,work4 ,we have often admired the simplicity of the equipment of a ,javanese ship carpenter2 the ponderous maul or heavy axe and adze of our workman is unknown to him2 all his tools1 axe1 adze1 maul1 hammer1 and augers1 are made so as to fit successively on one handle about #b;ft4 in length 7see p4 #dd71 and are carried in a canvas haversack slung upon his shoulder4 ,we have seen1 perhaps1 a hundred ,javanese workmen squatting about the decks and sides of our little schooner busy as bees1 and tapping away like so many woodpeckers1 where one-fourth the number of ,english carpenters could not have worked without injuring each other4 ,blocks or pulleys4 ,the attention of the traveller is too seldom directed to blocks and tackle4 ,these useful and unpretending economisers of labour are thought to belong to a ship1 and therefore to be out of place on an inland journey4 ,nevertheless1 we have found that the possession of eight or ten blocks of different sizes1 and two or three coils of rope to suit them1 has often done us most essential service2 and as a traveller may unexpectedly find them necessary1 where perhaps nothing but rope of hide or native vegetable fibre can be obtained1 we subjoin directions for making the simplest forms1 which we believe will meet most of the probable requirements3 ,illustration3 ,,single ,,and ,,compound ,,blocks4 ,to make a single block1 take a piece of good sound wood of medium density1 and of a kind that will not easily split4 ,elm is much used at home3 oak will do very well2 so will also the stinkwood of ,africa1 and others of like quality in other countries4 ,let it be1 for instance1 #g;in4 long1 #d;in4 wide1 and #c;in4 thick2 suppose it is to carry a rope of #a;in4 in diameter1 properly called a #c;in4 rope1 all ropes being measured by their circumference4 ,gauge along each of the narrow sides two parallel lines #a;in4 apart and #a;in4 from each edge1 and draw lines across at #a;in4 from each end2 then1 taking a brace and an inch centre-bit1 insert the centre so that its cutter shall just come within the cross-line at either end2 bore the holes half through1 and between them bore two other holes with the same bit1 thus taking out nearly all the wood between the lines3 reverse the block1 and bore in like manner from the other side2 take a chisel and mallet and clean away all the intermediate parts1 and you will have a sheave hole #e;in4 long and #a;in4 wide4 ,clean it up with a file or rasp4 ,then1 drawing a longitudinal line along the centre of each of the broader sides1 mark it at #c;in4 from one end and #d;in4 from the other on each side1 and1 placing the centre of the bit on these marks1 bore through each side for the pin-hole4 ,then for the sheave select a log of the hardest wood conveniently obtainable2 lignum vit is generally used1 but many kinds of acacia would answer very well4 ,see that it is large enough to cut away all the sap wood1 and leave a heart #d;in4 in diameter2 trim this to a circular form1 saw off a disc #a;in4 thick1 fix it in a lathe1 and with a gouge or half round rasp or file sink a hollow all round the edge4 ,if you have not a lathe1 saw the disc not quite off1 and1 while it is still attached to the log1 make the hollow on the edge and saw it off when finished2 bore an inch hole in the centre1 place it in the shell1 drive a pivot of hard wood right through1 and you will find that at one end of the block the sheave very nearly fills the hole1 while at the other a vacancy of about an inch is left to reeve the rope through4 ,then1 with a gouge or half round rasp1 sink hollows in the outside of the shell along the centre line toward each end1 and across the ends1 to receive the strop2 round off the corners and edges as neatly as you wish1 and you will have a serviceable block like ,fig4 #a 7p4 #chd74 ,sometimes iron pivots are used1 but these are a trifle smaller than the wooden ones2 #c_/d;in4 iron would do1 but then an iron socket ought to be let into the sheave as in ,fig4 #b4 ,some sheaves have small iron rollers let into them to run round on the pivot1 and so diminish the friction2 but a traveller need not work to such a nicety as this4 ,the snatch-block4 ,the snatch-block has already been two or three times mentioned1 and perhaps this is a good opportunity to show its form1 which is given in ,fig4 #c4 ,the shell is longer and stouter than that of a common block1 and in one side of it is cut the natch from which it takes its name2 it is iron bound1 but part of the strop is fashioned into a hasp1 which is opened when the bight of a rope is to be passed into the natch and shut down upon its staple and forelocked to keep the rope from coming out should the strain be suddenly released4 ,signal block4 ,fig4 #d is a very useful kind of block for signalling2 it has ten or more sheaves side by side1 and as many lines running over them2 in fact it ought to have as many sheaves as there are flags4 ,it is kept in the signal locker with the halyards always rove1 and each flag bent on to its own line4 ,when required for use one end of the peak down-haul is bent on to the cleat in the centre1 as shown in the figure1 and it is hoisted to the peak end2 the flags required are then sent up1 care being taken to hoist each to such a height that they may read properly one under the other in the required order4 ,these being done with are hauled down and others sent up1 and much confusion and loss of time is saved by thus avoiding the necessity of bending on and unbending the several flags from one pair of halyards4 ,double block4 ,we give also figures of two useful forms of double block4 ,no4 #e1 on which the sheaves are side by side1 is called a sister block4 ,no4 #f1 in which they are one above the other1 is a fiddle block4 ,notice that in this form the lowermost sheave is the smallest1 and thus the rope passing over it is not jammed by the one that passes over the upper4 ,illustration3 ,,makeshift ,,lathes4 ,makeshift lathes ,in the manufacture of a number of wooden articles1 such as the sheaves of blocks1 bowls1 round balls1 c41 the aid of a makeshift lathe will be required4 ,there are several forms of lathe made use of in different countries4 ,no4 #a in the annexed illustration is the best we know of for the use of the traveller or explorer4 ,to make a contrivance of this kind proceed as follows3 ,prepare three squared posts1 bore an auger hole through the top of each at about #e;in4 from its head2 to these holes fit a spindle made of some hard tough wood1 in such a way that it will just easily play round in the holes without shaking about2 cut a slice from a log about #g;in4 in diameter2 trim it until it is quite round2 cut a tolerably deep groove round the edge1 and bore a hole in the centre for the spindle to come through4 ,now1 from a piece of pointed iron rod or bar make a pivot pin1 as shown passing through the head of the post which stands alone2 fit this in the hole so tightly that the driving of a single wedge prevents it from sliding forward or back4 ,all the posts must be firmly fixed in the ground at an even depth1 and at the relative distances shown in the engraving4 ,in the end of the spindle opposite the pivot pin three sharp iron spikes1 made from nail points1 must be driven2 these hold the work in its place when revolving4 ,this it is made to do by the action of the spring overhead1 which is usually made from a tough elastic pole or bamboo cane4 ,the end of the spring is fitted with a long strip of hide or a rope1 which1 passing once round the grooved slice of log1 is attached to the end of the treadle4 ,this is made from a naturally-forked branch1 with a bit of plank lashed fast to it for a foot board4 ,the chisel rest is made by driving a post into the ground in front of the work1 making a saw-cut in its head1 and then driving a bit of thin board or a piece of broad hoop iron into it1 in the form of the letter ,t4 ,the spindle is prevented from moving too far back by having pins driven through it before and behind the tail-post4 ,the lathe represented at ,fig4 #b is common throughout the ,east4 ,it is by the use of this contrivance that we have seen the long and beautifully straight pipe tubes1 for which ,stamboul is so justly celebrated1 made4 ,we have also seen the turners of ,poona1 in ,india1 making their wonderful nests of almost air-tight boxes by the aid of the bow-lathe 7,fig4 #b74 ,it is erected much on the principle of ,fig4 #a2 but is usually placed so close to the ground that no one but an ,asiatic could work conveniently at it4 ,illustration3 ,,grinding ,,stones4 ,grinding stones1 to mount4 ,few border stores will be found without a ,newcastle grinding stone1 and very few expeditions of any magnitude omit including one or more in their list of useful matters4 ,there are several modes had recourse to for setting up a grinding stone1 but we usually adopt one of the plans shown in the accompanying illustration4 ,fig4 #a represents a natural fork set up in a slanting direction1 and then treenailed against the trunk of a tree4 ,to mount the stone1 a straight bar of wood or iron1 squared in the centre1 must be wedged tightly in the square hole of the stone4 ,if the axle is of wood1 the two ends must be rounded1 in order that they may revolve freely in the notches cut for their reception in the support4 ,a wooden winch handle must then be fitted to one of them4 ,if the axle is to be of iron1 it should be first heated in the fire to a red heat2 the form of the handle bent in it by hammering2 the centre squared1 and roughened at the edges by the use of a cold chisel2 and the two bearing or revolving surfaces made round by the use of the hammer and file4 ,wooden pins or iron staples will serve to keep the axles from rising out of the notches and becoming displaced4 ,a suspended bullock's horn1 with a hole in the small end1 through which a wisp of tow or moss is loosely pulled1 makes a very good water drip1 to prevent the tools from losing their temper when being ground4 ,some prefer putting a wooden trough1 to contain water1 under the stone4 ,this is a mere matter of taste4 ,illustration3 ,,pack-,,saddle ,,crooks4 ,the use of forked sticks4 ,a vast deal of trouble may be saved when various useful articles are being made from wood1 by a judicious selection of such branches as nature has already fashioned to the hand of the bush carpenter4 ,the above illustration will serve to give an example of this2 it represents a set of pack-saddle crooks4 ,to make these1 it is only necessary to cut with the axe four stout hooks and two straight bars2 bore or burn a hole through the upper end of each hook1 lash them together in pairs with strips of raw hide or rope1 and lash on the side bars as shown in the engraving4 ,the hooks are then ready to be placed on the pack saddle1 to which they are secured by a girth1 which is attached at each end to the side bars of the hooks4 ,we have found these contrivances most useful for carrying dead game1 packs1 or bundles of poles4 ,hand-barrow4 ,a very useful description of makeshift hand-barrow can be made from four forked branches arranged as shown in the following illustration1 and lashed together with strips of raw hide4 ,we first saw these contrivances in use on the borders of the ,mena country1 where the natives used them for the purpose of carrying a peculiar description of clay1 which was collected among the ravines between the hills1 and used for the manufacture of pottery4 ,these barrows1 from their lightness1 elasticity1 and great strength1 answer admirably4 ,illustration3 ,,makeshift ,,hand-,,barrow4 ,illustration3 ,,camp ,,table ,,and ,,stool4 ,camp furniture4 ,excellent camp tables and stools can be made by selecting such branches or tree trunks as have grown in either three or four prong form1 as shown in the engraving 7,figs4 #a and #b represent a table and stool74 ,the tops are made from slices cut from convenient-sized logs4 ,the table top is supported and strengthened by having natural grown knee pieces treenailed to the sides of the main upright or pillar4 ,a small stool is best made by cutting away the top of the pillar until it is made to fit1 a large auger hole bored in the centre of the seat1 when driven in1 the pillar head is split with a chisel1 and then wedged tight4 ,should a larger table leaf be required than an ordinary log slice will afford1 one may be built up by boring holes in the edges of boards1 and treenailing them together1 as shown in ,fig4 #c 7p4 #chi74 ,illustration3 ,a1 ,b ,gate latches4 ,latches for gates and doors can be made entirely of wood1 as represented in the illustration ,a1 in which ,fig4 #a shows the latch in use1 and ,figs4 #b to #g the form to which each part must be cut before being put together4 ,the illustration ,b represents another form of wooden door latch well adapted for cupboard fastenings1 and three makeshift modes of forming box hinges4 ,fig4 #a is the swivel hinge2 ,fig4 #b the salt-box hinge2 and ,fig4 #c the claw hinge4 ,their mode of construction will be at once understood on reference to the illustration ,b4 ,illustration3 ,,native ,,plough4 ,the knee-like bends and forks so often found to exist in the branches of trees are often taken advantage of in the manufacture of makeshift ploughs4 ,the preceding and following illustration represent a native and settler's makeshift plough4 ,illustration3 ,,settler',s ,,plough4 ,illustration ,agricultural implements1 c4 ,many useful agricultural and other implements can be made by the use of forked sticks1 some of which are shown in the above illustrations4 ,a strong fork1 with treenails driven through holes bored in its ends1 makes a very convenient yoke for carrying pails of water or other heavy weights1 as shown in the accompanying illustration4 ,illustration ,it not unfrequently happens that pigs1 when the settler is fortunate enough to have any1 are apt to cause much mischief among the young canes or maize plants4 ,to prevent them from doing so1 prepare a good number of hogs' cravats from stout forked sticks1 as shown in the annexed illustration1 put them on1 and a fence of very moderate strength will keep the pilferers out effectually4 ,illustration ,many descriptions of trees will be found on which the branches grow in a species of crown at each joint of the trunk4 ,the holly and some kinds of pines are familiar examples1 and are commonly found in this country4 ,from a piece of the main stem of a young tree of a suitable size1 a contrivance called a supple jack can be made by cutting off the radiating branches to a convenient length1 removing all the bark1 and then pointing each projecting spine like a skewer4 ,illustration ,when the jack is hung up by its small end it forms a most convenient contrivance from which to suspend dead game1 fish1 or odds and ends4 ,to hang a bird to the jack pass one of the pointed hooks up through the angular space between the lower mandible1 and bring it out at the beak4 ,a fish is best suspended by entering the hook at one of the gill covers1 and bringing it out of the mouth2 hares or rabbits by passing one hind leg through a space formed by cutting a slit behind the back tendon of the other4 ,the legs thus form a loop to slip over one of the hooks of the jack4 ,the foregoing illustration shows the jack in use4 ,illustration ,saddle rests1 wall and tent pole hooks1 c41 can be made from knee1 elbow1 or hooked branches of trees4 ,they can be attached to any fixed point either by the use of treenails or lashing1 as shown in the preceding illustration4 ,the maple and some other kinds of trees are not unfrequently found with large projecting excrescences growing on their trunks2 these1 when carefully chopped off with the axe1 will be found to have a hard1 dense crust or shell next the bark1 whilst the main body of the wood is soft and easily scooped out4 ,from these abnormal growths excellent bowls may be made4 ,some of them are sufficiently large to admit of vessels capable of containing from eight to ten gallons being made from them4 ,very excellent platters or shallow trays can be obtained from the same source4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,sledges ,,and ,,sledge ,,travelling4 ,the use of the sledge in some of its various forms is general throughout the greater portion of the known world4 ,the northern regions may1 however1 be fairly considered the great field for the performance of sledging operations4 ,men1 animals of various kinds1 and the wind are all at times made available as means of applying either traction power or propulsion to the sledge2 and as the build and rig of ships and boats are found to vary according to the seas they are sailed over1 and the requirements of those who sail in them1 so will sledges differ in form1 size1 capacity1 weight1 and the material from which they are constructed according to the nature of the climate and country they are used in4 ,the far north1 and in regions where long and rigid winters lock the earth1 the rivers1 lakes1 and even at times the sea itself1 in ice1 and covers the whole with a thick mantle of snow1 such travelling would be next to impossible1 without the aid of the sledge1 which1 although apparently simple in design1 requires much care and judgment to construct successfully4 ,dimensions of sledges4 ,dr4 ,kane1 the ,arctic explorer1 thus writes on this subject3-- ,the dimensions and structure of the sledge are of vital importance1 almost imperceptible differences cause an increase of friction equal to the draught of another man or dog4 ,the curvature of the runners must be determined experimentally4 ,the ',faith' was even preferable to the excellent model of ,captain ,mc,clintock2 the dimensions of both are as under3 ,,mcclintock',s4 ,ft4 ,in4 ',,the ,,faith4' ,ft4 ,in4 ,length of runners #ac #j ,length of runners #ac #j ,height of ditto #j #aa ,height of ditto #j #h ,horizontal width of ,horizontal width of all parts #j #b rail #j #b ,base of runners #j #c ,other parts #j #b ,thickness of all parts #j #a ,thickness of all parts #j #a ,length resting on a ,length resting on a plane surface #e #j plane surface #f #j ,cross-bars1 six in number1 ,cross-bars1 five in number1 making a width of #c #j making a width of #c #h ,the shoeing of large ,english sledges was burnished #a_/h;in4 iron1 ours were annealed #c_/af;in4 steel1 as light as possible to admit slightly countersunk rivets4 ,sealskin lashings1 applied wet1 were used for the cross-bars1 the wood was hickory and oak1 not the ,canada elm used by the ,lancaster ,sound parties4 ,a sledge like this1 with a canvas cover on which to place and confine the cargo1 would load from #aejlb4 to #bjjlb4 per man4 ,the ',faith' has carried #afjjlb4 ,sledges1 to draw4 ,when manual labour is brought to bear on the sledge it is usually applied through the medium of traction1 propulsion1 or the two combined4 ,the men who propel a sledge simply push behind1 whilst those who draw do so by the aid of track ropes and shoulder bands1 which latter contrivances are called rue ruddies1 and are used as shown in the illustration4 ,illustration ,the track lines are best made from twisted horsehair1 but in the absence of that material ,manilla rope is the next best4 ,each man of the tracking party should be provided with his own track line and rue ruddy1 for which he should be held responsible4 ,the sledge to be drawn is fitted at its front end with a species of bridle loop1 to which all the lines are attached by rings1 in such a way that as the sway or motion of the sledge inclines to either side1 the rings travel forward or back on the bridle4 ,it is well1 however1 to attach one line on each side without a ring to the sledge runner outside the attachment of the bridle1 in order that when the sledge has to be turned1 or its line of direction suddenly changed1 the power of one man on each side may be brought directly to bear4 ,the sliding lines must be so adjusted with regard to length that the whole party of trackers may use their full powers without coming in contact with each other4 ,the longest lines may be from #af;ft4 to #bj;ft4 from ring to end4 ,illustration ,the rue ruddy4 ,the rue ruddy is a broad band of double canvas or skin with the edges sewn in1 and the bearing joints padded and stuffed with hair4 ,a loop is formed at the point at which the track rope is attached1 through this the toggle of the line is passed4 ,when an extra man is attached to a line1 a spare toggle is attached to it by a timber hitch1 as shown in the illustration here given4 ,a short mast and small square sail can be used with great advantage when the wind is fair4 ,kites would also facilitate the passage of sledges over comparatively smooth ice4 ,illustration ,dog sledge and harness4 ,the dog sledge is a most valuable and important accessory to northern travel1 and without its assistance the ,esquimaux hunter and ,arctic explorer would be at times almost helpless4 ,the form of the dog sledge1 and the manner of harnessing the dogs1 varies according to the customs of the countries in which it is used and the period of the year when its aid is required4 ,we shall1 therefore1 confine ourselves to a description of such as are most likely to be of value to the ,european traveller1 leaving him to select the form of harness best suited to his particular tastes4 ,dog harness is usually made from strips of sealskin sewn together with threads formed from sinew4 ,some drivers make use of one trace1 others prefer two4 ,the most common plan is to lead two traces1 so to speak1 into one1 as shown in the above illustration4 ,many drivers of great experience work their dogs abreast when the single trace arrangement is adopted4 ,others use a leader1 harnessed ahead of the other dogs4 ,dr4 ,hayes1 the ,arctic explorer1 thus writes regarding his dogs3 ,we harness them each with a single trace1 and these traces are of a length to suit the fancy of the driver1 the longer the better1 for they are then not so easily tangled4 ,the draught of the outside dogs is more direct1 and if the team comes on thin ice and breaks through1 your chances of escape from immersion are in proportion to their distance from you4 ,the traces are all of the same length1 and hence the dogs run side by side1 and1 when properly harnessed1 their heads are in a line4 ,my traces are so measured that the shoulders of the dogs are just #bj;ft4 from the foremost part of the runners4 ,illustration3 ,,helping ,,the ,,dogs4 ,speed and the whip4 ,with a twelve-dog team1 harnessed in this manner1 a high rate of speed may be gained4 ,six measured miles have been run over a tolerably good surface in twenty-eight minutes4 ,the direction and speed of the team are regulated partly by the voice1 but mainly by the whip2 and1 as this instrument is so important and difficult to handle1 we cannot resist giving the reader the benefit of the experience of ,dr4 ,kane1 than whom few have had greater experience in dog-sledge management4 ,he thus describes the whip he used for his teams4 ,the whip is #fyds4 long1 and the handle but #af;in41 a short lever by which to throw out such a length of seal hide4 ,learn to do it1 however1 with a masterly sweep1 or else make up your mind to forego driving a sledge1 for the dogs are guided solely by the lash2 and you must be able1 not only to hit any particular dog out of the team of twelve1 but to accompany the feat also with a resounding crack4 ,after this1 you find that to get your lash back involves another difficulty1 for it is apt to entangle itself among the dogs and lines1 or to fasten itself cunningly round bits of ice so as to drag you head over heels into the snow4 ,the secret by which this complicated set of requirements is fulfilled consists in properly describing an arc from the shoulder1 with a stiff elbow1 giving the jerk to the whip handle from the hand and wrist alone4 ,the lash trails behind as you travel1 and when thrown forward is allowed to extend itself1 without an effort to bring it back4 ,you wait patiently after giving the projectile impulse until it unwinds its slow length1 reaches the end of its tether1 and cracks to tell you that it is at its journey's end4 ,such a crack on the ear or forefoot of an unfortunate dog is signalised by a howl quite unmistakable in its import4 ,the mere labour of using this whip is such that the ,esquimaux travel in couples1 one sledge after the other4 ,the hinder dogs follow mechanically and thus require no whip1 and the drivers change about so as to rest each other4 ,illustration3 ,,smoothing ,,rough ,,runners4 ,esquimaux sledges and expedients4 ,many of the ,esquimaux sledges are most ingeniously constructed--some being formed of light slabs of bone1 lashed together with sinew and shod with runners composed of highly-polished walrus ivory4 ,should the surface of the runners become roughened from any cause1 the ,esquimaux fills his mouth with water1 and then1 by contracting his cheeks as in the act of blowing a trumpet1 forces the water in a strong jet over the face of the runner4 ,a coat of thin ice instantly forms1 and becomes frozen firmly to the bone1 producing a coating like that of glass4 ,the above illustration will serve to show how this operation is conducted4 ,illustration ,sledge log1 to make4 ,to estimate the speed at which a sledge is travelling1 a log must be used4 ,this is constructed as follows3 ,a wooden reel and spindle1 such as shown in the annexed engraving1 must be made2 round this the log line is coiled1 leaving a free end for the log or weight1 which may consist of a piece of scrap iron or a stone1 to be attached to4 ,about #bjyds4 from the log a bit of red rag should be knotted to the line2 then at every #ej;ft4 knot in a bit of seal hide4 ,when about to use the log line1 cast the weight well clear of the sledge1 let the reel give off the line freely until the red rag is free4 ,directly that is off the coil1 turn your half-minute glass up1 and let the sand run1 and when it is all down1 stop the reel4 ,it will be then seen1 by the following calculation1 what the speed has been4 ,as #abj times half a minute make one hour1 and #abj times #ej;ft4 make very nearly a geographical mile1 so many bits of hide will run clear of the revolving reel as the sledge travels miles in the hour4 ,illustration ,illustration3 #a-c ,sledge equipment4 ,when fitting up your sledge equipment procure some large-sized marrow bones1 and saw them up into a number of tolerably stout rings2 then1 from other bones of solid texture1 make toggles to accompany the rings4 ,these contrivances1 shown in the above illustration1 are invaluable for attaching leather straps to each other4 ,a simple slit in the end of each strap admits of the toggle being passed through them1 when its notched form prevents it from coming out again4 ,knots in dog harness tend to endless hitches and entanglements2 and buckles1 from being composed of metal1 would be stolen to a certainty4 ,three modes of attaching strips of hide to each other are shown above4 ,figs4 #a and #b illustrate how the bone rings before described can be made use of4 ,fig4 #c shows two loops twisted over each other4 ,a good-sized bladder1 or skin bag1 forms a convenient receptacle for both rings and toggles1 of which make plenty4 ,camping4 ,when about to pitch camp1 or whilst resting1 drive the spears into the ice to secure the dogs to by short neck ropes4 ,most sledge dogs are trained to lie down when the whip handle is passed lightly along their backs4 ,never heedlessly quit your sledge whilst on the march1 unless you have fast hold of the upstanders1 or without first bringing it to an anchor4 ,this can be done by thrusting a seal spear or lance down into the snow between the first two transverse bars of the sledge bottom4 ,should you neglect these precautions1 you stand a good chance of seeing your runaway team go rattling off in the far distance1 leaving you to follow as you best may4 ,to check the speed of your sledge when you are on it1 plant your heels on the snow and sit fast4 ,the habits of sledge dogs4 ,it will be generally found that in every team there will be one master dog1 who1 by the use of a sharp set of teeth and a strong will1 contrives to keep all the rest in subjection1 and not unfrequently quells disorders among the quarrelsome pack by dashing in among them at the height of their constant skirmishes1 and sending them head over heels to the right and left1 thereby aiding his master in maintaining due discipline4 ,food for the dogs4 ,frozen or dried fish1 and the offal of such animals as may be captured in the chase1 are used as dog food4 ,the ,esquimaux usually feed their dogs but once in two days2 it is better1 however1 to feed every day1 but not until the work is finished1 the journey ended1 and the camp pitched4 ,no dog works well on a full stomach4 ,great care should be exercised in the feeding of your dogs in order that all may share alike1 as some are so desperately artful and cunning1 that they do all in their power to delude their master into a belief that1 instead of having had their full allowance1 it is yet to come4 ,no northern traveller ever willingly allows his dogs to eat any portion of the liver of the polar bear1 as it is pronounced by all the ,esquimaux to be most unwholesome and injurious to dogs2 they1 therefore1 either bury the bear's liver under the ice1 or1 if practicable1 cast it into the sea4 ,no sledge or portion of the sledge equipment in the construction or repair of which1 thongs or tendons have been used should be left in reach of the dogs during the night1 or they will be pretty sure to reduce the whole to a wreck before morning4 ,with such makeshift sledges as have their runners made from rolls of frozen hide this precaution is especially necessary4 ,hints on sledges4 ,the following hints on the subject of sledges1 given by ,dr4 ,kane1 are most valuable1 being the result of no ordinary experience4 ,to encounter broken ice in the midst of darkness1 and at a temperature destructive to life1 everything depends upon your sledge2 should it break down1 you might as well break your own leg--there is no hope for you4 ,our sledge1 then1 is made of well-tired oak1 dovetailed into a runner shod with iron2 no metal is used besides except the screws and rivets which confine the sledge to its runners4 ,in this intense cold1 iron snaps like glass1 and no immovable or rigidly fastened wood-work would stand for a moment the fierce concussions of a drive4 ,everything is put together with lashings of sealskin1 and the whole fabric is the skeleton framework of a sledge as flexible as a lady's work-basket1 and weighing only #djlb4 ,on this we fasten a sacking bottom of canvas1 tightly stretched1 like its namesake of the four-post bedstead1 around the margin4 ,we call this ticking the apron and cover2 the apron being a flap of #af;in4 high surrounding the cover1 and either hanging loose at its sides1 like a valance1 or laced up down the middle4 ,into this apron and cover you pack your cargo--the less the better--and then lace and lash the whole securely together4 ,rules for the march4 ,the following rules to be observed on the march or during a halt are valuable and practical to a degree4 ,keep the blood in motion without loitering on the march2 and for the halt raise a snow house1 or1 if the snow lie scant or impracticable1 ensconce yourself in a burrow1 or under the hospitable lee of an inclined hammack-slab4 ,the outside fat of your walrus sustains your little moss fire2 its frozen slices give you bread2 its frozen blubber gives you butter2 its scrag ends make the soup4 ,the snow supplies you with water1 and when you are ambitious of coffee there is a bagful stowed away in your boot4 ,spread out your bear bag1 your only heavy movable1 and stuff your reindeer bag inside1 hang your boots up outside1 take a blade of bone and scrape off all the ice from your furs4 ,now crawl in1 the whole party of you1 feet foremost1 draw the top of your dormitory close1 heading to leeward4 ,illustration3 ,,sledging ,,over ,,rough ,,ice4 ,useful odds and ends4 ,when about to start on a sledge journey1 a certain number of useful matters will be required in addition to those already mentioned4 ,a few green or blue gauze or tarlatan veils1 to protect the eyes from the glare of the snow1 will be found of the greatest value4 ,in the absence of these1 sledge men not uncommonly collect a quantity of the deposit of black found in the sconces of the lamps4 ,this they mix with grease1 and with it black the eyelids and upper part of the face4 ,this expedient1 although not equal to a veil1 is far better than nothing4 ,we have made use of green glass spectacles1 but found them next to useless1 as the glasses soon became coated with ice1 formed from the condensed vapour given off with the breath4 ,never travel without a small pocket mirror2 by its aid you can discover at once whether your nose or ears are becoming frost bitten1 and can act accordingly4 ,directions for the treatment of frost bite will be given further on in our work4 ,never go without your possible sack1 which should contain lots of hide strips1 of all lengths and sizes1 awls1 needles1 cord1 leather1 knife1 whetstone1 and any number of bone rings and toggles4 ,a large fine-toothed rasp is of great service in fashioning bone2 take one1 or more2 one handle will serve for all1 and the sharp1 tang ends serve to bore holes with4 ,few men have managed to reduce their sledge equipment to more simple elements than the doctor4 ,he says1 ,my plans for sledging1 simple as ,i once thought them1 and simple1 certainly1 as compared with those of the ,english parties1 have completely changed4 ,give me an #hlb4 reindeer fur bag to sleep in1 an ,esquimaux lamp1 with a lump of moss1 a sheet-iron snow melter1 or a copper soup pot1 with a tin cylinder to slip over and defend it from the wind1 a good pice de rsistance of raw walrus beef1 and ,i want nothing more for a long journey if the thermometer will keep itself as high as minus #cj4 ,give me a bearskin bag1 and coffee to boot1 and with the clothes on my back ,i am ready for minus #fj1 but no wind4 ,during long journeys over rough and uneven ice the paws of the dogs are liable to become worn and sore4 ,dogs' boots4 ,it is well1 therefore1 before encountering such hindrances to travel1 to protect them with mocassins4 ,these are made by rounding a piece of soft hide1 with the hair side in1 and then cutting all round its edge a number of small slits2 through these a strip of hide is passed4 ,the dog's paw is placed in the centre of the round4 ,on the string being drawn home1 the foot will be fitted as shown in the annexed illustration4 ,tolerably well-fed dogs will rarely eat these protections off1 as they seem to know perfectly well what they are put on for4 ,mocassins are especially needed when there is a thin sharp crust of ice on the surface1 and the pace rapid4 ,illustration ,the tobogun sledge4 ,when the snow is soft1 the form of sledge known as a tobogun is very useful1 not only as a dog sledge1 but as a convenient means of carrying packs1 traps1 or dead game2 when used for these purposes1 the hunter1 who usually travels on snow shoes1 draws it after him by a track line4 ,the tobogun is made by either bending up the end of a tough plank by steam1 or cutting the desired form of wood out of the solid with the axe4 ,ice boards4 ,there is another kind of sledge somewhat on the tobogun principle1 known as an ice board4 ,this is made from exceedingly tough1 elastic wood4 ,it is turned up at the bow end like the toe of a skate1 and usually measures about #a;ft4 wide by #h;ft4 long4 ,it is made thus in order that it may freely pass along the narrow ,indian trails across the lakes4 ,this board1 although tough and flexible enough to pass over the inequalities of the uneven way without breaking1 is stiffened at the upturned prow by a piece of wood1 which1 being fastened inside the curve1 preserves its bent form4 ,several cross bars1 disposed at intervals in the line of the sledge1 serve to add to its strength4 ,the bridle or drawing point of the sledge is formed of hide1 and is secured to the beak or stiffener4 ,the team of dogs used in drawing this kind of conveyance is harnessed to two stiff tough poles1 which project to the front4 ,the load is so packed as to admit of its being divided equally throughout the entire length of the board to which it is secured1 by passing two hide ropes along its sides from end to end4 ,these side cords are attached by lashings to the cross bars1 and form a series of points of attachment for the lashings which pass forward and back1 and from side to side over the load4 ,after being hauled up as tight as possible1 there should be rope enough for two tail pieces to trail behind2 these are useful to seize on when going down a slope1 if the sledge requires turning1 or in event of the dogs taking it into their head to bolt on a steep incline1 the sledge1 load and all1 is turned on its side1 and allowed to drag to the bottom1 where it is set right1 and proceeds as before4 ,illustration ,illustration ,common dog sledge4 ,the common runner dog sledge is better adapted for travelling over tolerably hard snow1 and the mode of harnessing the dogs is shown in the annexed engraving4 ,the bearing points1 chest band1 and collar piece of the harness1 should be made of thin soft hide1 sewn double like an old fashioned shot belt1 and then stuffed with hair-wool1 pounded bark1 fibre1 or moss4 ,a seal should be always drawn head first1 as it travels thus with less than one-half the traction power4 ,the travail sledge4 ,when the ground is hard1 or in the absence of snow1 dogs are frequently used to draw a contrivance known as a travail2 this is made by attaching two long tough sticks1 slightly turned up at the hind ends1 to the neck collar of the dog4 ,the small ends of the sticks should rest nearest the head of the dog2 by some dog drivers these are made to just cross each other over the dog's neck1 where they are bound to each other by a lashing of hide2 others prefer attaching each stick in a line with the body of the dog1 as in the above illustration4 ,the travail sticks are padded at their points of contact1 and kept asunder before and behind the load by cross bars of different lengths1 the shortest being next the dog's hind legs4 ,horses are frequently equipped precisely in the same manner1 as will be seen on reference to the engraving representing ,indian lodges4 ,a horse of fair average power will carry a travail load of about #bablb4 twenty-five miles per day1 and a good dog will draw #gelb4 in the same way over prairie land4 ,illustration ,dog packs4 ,such dogs as are not employed in pulling very often carry packs on their backs1 as shown in the annexed illustration2 these should be at all times very light1 and the girths and breast strap wide enough to prevent undue pressure4 ,we have seen the ,tartars pack their dogs by placing a broad band of sheepskin with the wool inside round the dog1 fasten it with loops and toggles1 fit on a breast strap of the same material in the same way1 and then secure the load to the girth by passing thongs through a set of bone rings sewn in for the purpose4 ,the thongs pass across the load1 and go through the rings on the opposite side1 and thus secure the pack without compressing the dog1 as shown in the accompanying illustration4 ,illustration ,horse sledges4 ,when horses are used for sledge drawing it is no uncommon practice to attach them to a conveyance formed by mounting a common carriage body on runners4 ,we have seen the ,russians use a most convenient and durable sledge body2 it was formed of strong wicker work1 strengthened by stringers of light wood1 bound with lashings of raw hide4 ,the runners were faced with steel1 and the horses1 three in number1 worked abreast2 that in the centre having a sort of arch or hoop over his neck4 ,bells should be used on all sledge teams1 as the sledge glides along so noiselessly that collisions would be frequent without the cheerful warning note of the bells1 which can be heard at a great distance in the clear frosty air4 ,it is not our intention here to enter on the subject of sledges1 as used by the sledge clubs for amusement or display1 as they are not within our province4 ,field artillery sledges4 ,field artillery can be easily worked on the surface of frozen lakes and rivers1 by attaching runners instead of wheels to the guns and waggons4 ,the recoil of guns1 when fired from sledge runners1 is often considerable1 and many modes are adopted to govern it4 ,the best makeshift plan we know is to prepare two long thick straw mats for each gun sledge1 and before laying the gun1 raise the breech ends of the runners by handspike power1 to a sufficient height to admit of the mats being drawn well under them1 when the handspike may be withdrawn1 and the runners allowed to rest on the mats4 ,a species of rough basket work formed from pine branches will answer the same purpose4 ,the reindeer sledge4 ,the reindeer is a most valuable animal for sledge drawing1 and1 from the immense number of animals of this description kept in a state of partial domestication in the north 7it has been roughly computed that in ,lapland alone there are #ajj1jjj71 extensive use is made of them as beasts of burden1 some being used as pack animals1 and others worked on the snow in the form of sledge 7represented in the opposite illustration7 known as the kerres4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,reindeer ,,sledge ,,or ,,kerres4 ,the mode of harnessing the deer is peculiar1 the bridle loop1 formed of tendons1 being under the front of the sledge2 this arrangement gives lifting power4 ,then a single trace1 attached to this bridle1 passes between the deer's hind legs1 and is attached to the collar 7which is well padded with hair71 after passing through a loop in the back band1 where it meets under the chest4 ,the guiding rein is single near the sledge1 where the driver holds it1 but double near its termination2 one part is fastened to the collar1 whilst the other is secured to the deer's head4 ,this rein is used much as our ploughmen use a plough rein2 it is composed of strips of plaited hide1 and1 by a dexterous turn of the wrist and elbow1 can be made to do the duty of a whip1 and1 although little control can be exercised over a wayward animal1 a tractable one will perform journeys of surpassing length in a wonderfully short space of time2 from seven to eight miles an hour over tolerably good ground may be considered average travelling4 ,it is recorded1 however1 that an officer charged with important dispatches once travelled from ,umea1 which is situated in the ,gulf of ,bothnia1 to the city of ,stockholm in forty-eight hours with one deer 7the distance is little short of #ejj miles72 but the life of the deer was sacrificed in the performance of the journey4 ,the weight of a deer's load will depend much on the nature of the work he is engaged on2 when employed in bringing in dead game1 produce1 c41 at a slow pace1 he can easily draw #c cwt41 but when equipped for a rapid journey the weight drawn should not amount to more than from #bcjlb4 to #bdelb4 ,english4 ,sledge deer not unfrequently perform some curious and inconvenient freaks with their drivers4 ,should they from any cause think themselves unfairly dealt with or harshly used1 they immediately turn back on the conductor1 who1 to save himself1 at once turns over the sledge and gets under it4 ,the deer now tries to make use of his horns1 but finds them of little avail against the mummy-like clothing of his skin-clad master1 who usually settles the matter by the production of a lump of salt1 which1 when licked by the eager tongue of the irritated and cantankerous deer1 acts like a charm in restoring order and a good understanding1 when on he goes again as fresh and willingly as ever4 ,in some parts of ,siberia reindeer are regularly ridden1 just as horses are in ,england and bullocks in ,africa and the ,east4 ,illustration ,summer sledges4 ,summer sledges of various forms are common to the whole world4 ,we shall only deal with the most noteworthy and valuable to the settler or explorer4 ,the most common of these1 known as a wishing bone sledge1 is made from a curved and forked branch cut off to the required length1 a deep notch is cut at the point of the angle at the union of the fork to fasten the horses to1 transverse pieces are treenailed across the prongs1 the tail ends are slightly rounded up like the runners of a sledge1 and the head is also curved in an upward direction with the axe1 as seen in the above illustration4 ,sledges of this kind are very useful for the conveyance of rough heavy substances1 such as building stone or mineral ores1 packed in skin bags4 ,another useful form of farmer's or emigrant's sledge is also shown in the annexed illustration4 ,illustration ,auger holes are bored through the ends of the runners1 through which a strong wooden bar is passed1 to this the traces are fastened4 ,snow shoes4 ,the description of snow shoe used by the natives of different countries and localities vary just as much as the sledges4 ,we can1 therefore1 only deal with the general principles of their construction and use4 ,the racquet or snow shoe of the ,canadians varies in length with the degree of supporting power of the snow4 ,the form of the snow shoe is shown in the accompanying illustration4 ,illustration ,the frame or outside rim of the shoe is made from tough1 light wood2 ash is much used for the purpose4 ,the network is often made from strips of moose skin1 deer skin1 or some other untanned hide4 ,there are two modes by which the network is secured to the frame4 ,one is to bore a train of gimlet holes at proper distances apart all round the frame1 and with thin strips of hide or tendon passed alternately backward and forward through them1 the side loops of the racquet work are taken up and tied fast to the frame4 ,the other method consists in winding a long thin thong round the frame1 and so binding the interlacing to it4 ,the annexed illustration shows some other forms of the snow shoe4 ,illustration ,the snow shoe is not strapped to the foot like the skate1 but is fastened in two ways4 ,first1 there is an arrangement of strap through which the foot is thrust without the aid of the hands2 the length and attachment of the thong being proportioned to the foot of the wearer2 then there is an orifice left in the middle of the network in the centre line of the shoe1 but nearer to the toe than the heel2 into this hole the front part of the foot is thrust1 much as one would put on an old heelless slipper4 ,in the adjustment of the shoe fastenings1 the ball of the great toe is made to rest on what the ,indians call the bimikibison1 or walking strap4 ,this is secured by its ends to the frame of the shoe1 and by its sides by means of short straps to the front cross bar4 ,in addition to these1 a small loop is attached to the walking strap of just sufficient length to allow the toes to pass through1 but narrow enough to keep back the ball of the foot1 which acts as a sort of stopper1 and by its pressure lifts and pushes the shoe upwards and forwards4 ,in order to prevent the foot from working its way backwards1 a strap or sling1 the adiman1 passes round the back of the heel4 ,with this arrangement the foot works1 so to speak1 like a scale beam1 the bearing part being the ball joint of the great toe1 and as either end of the beam tilts up or down1 so the shoe is dragged on or becomes a resting spot until its fellow passes skimmingly forward1 leaving a well-marked pair of grooves behind the traveller4 ,makeshift snow shoes are often made in the forest from light1 tough boards4 ,these are hewn into the rough form of a fish--broad before and narrow behind4 ,the toe hole1 or eye of the shoe1 is cut as in the more perfect shoe1 and an indentation is hewn out of the solid to admit of the foot always dropping into its proper position4 ,these are generally used over very soft snow or swampy unsafe ground4 ,the curved snow shoes shown in the illustration on p4 #dji are at times over #f;ft4 long1 and are used on open ground2 the shorter kinds being better adapted for walking the forest1 where roots and other impediments to travel abound4 ,illustration3 #a-c ,snow-shoe boots4 ,such boots as are worn for ordinary travelling1 are utterly useless to the snow-shoe runner1 who could not perform his work in them4 ,here1 again1 customs vary with countries4 ,the ,esquimaux1 after covering his feet well with birds' skins1 encases them in coverings of sealskin1 chewed pliant and soft by his loving spouse2 over these he draws a pair of fur boots1 made from the skins of bears' legs1 with the feet left on4 ,the mocassin is the form of foot gear best adapted for the use of the ,european traveller1 and to put it on properly requires some little practice and management4 ,the following directions will at any rate show the form and nature of the materials best calculated to insure comfort in walking and prevent frost bite4 ,first make a pair of thick flannel cap socks1 as shown in ,fig4 #a4 ,these are merely flannel soles or socks with a toe cap sewn to them4 ,these are put on just as you would put on slippers1 over the crossed ends of the long flannel bandages which fold evenly under the toes on each side1 and lap over each other4 ,the long ends are now brought round the foot1 over the sole1 round the heel1 and are wound evenly and spirally over and under each other until brought well up under the calf of the leg4 ,here they are fastened off by passing the free ends two or three times under the coil4 ,the mocassin may now be fastened on over this arrangement1 as shown in ,figs4 #b and #c1 when a good thick pair of blanket leggings makes all complete for a tramp4 ,illustration ,norwegian skidor4 ,unlike the snow shoes1 the skidor of ,lapland and ,norway have no racquet work1 but are merely long1 narrow1 upturned runners1 to which the feet of the skid lpare or traveller are strapped4 ,illustration ,a peculiar staff1 with a projecting rim round it1 is carried to aid in propelling1 guiding1 c41 when ascending or descending uneven surfaces4 ,the annexed illustration will serve to give some idea of the way in which the skidor are used1 but an immense deal of practice is required to make even a tolerably good skid lpare4 ,skates and their substitutes4 ,in some localities the shin bones of animals are used as aids in passing over frozen surfaces4 ,one is securely strapped under the sole of each boot and made to act somewhat after the manner of a small sledge runner4 ,on the use of skates we shall have little to say1 as the art of plain1 straightforward skating is too general to need more than a passing remark4 ,we show in the accompanying illustration the mode of fastening which we have found most reliable for use on rough ice1 and for hard work4 ,illustration ,we were many years ago advised to use it by a ,dutchman who was celebrated for his feats in pace and distance2 we adopted his plan and adhered to it4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,boots1 ,,shoes1 ,,and ,,sandals4 ,we have already advised the traveller to include in his outfit a good store of ,english made boots and shoes--suited to the work he is likely to engage in--in warm countries such as ,africa or ,india4 ,we prefer shoes1 and like them as light as is consistent with durability2 but1 for wear in the jungle or by the river side1 we have never found any foot gear to equal moderately stout1 but flexible1 laced shooting boots and saumber-skin gaiters4 ,the chief defects of a shoe is1 that if it is too low1 or ill made1 so as to open at the sides1 it may admit dirt or small stones1 and that it does not protect the ankle or shin in walking through sharp grasses1 such as the spear grass of ,india 7the seeds of which are like the heads of ,liliputian arrows71 the ,triodia spinifex of ,australia1 or the low haak doorns of ,africa4 ,medical and military writers recommend shoes either without or with only very low heels1 and say that the so-called military heels give #b;in4 of additional height at the expense of all other good qualities2 and this will at once be evident if we consider that the proper use of the foot in springing1 walking1 or running1 depends upon its being able to move from a perfectly horizontal position1 till the line of the sole from toe to heel forms an angle of #de or #ej with the ground4 ,if then1 by the interposition of a block of leather1 we prevent the heel coming within #ae or #bj of the horizontal line1 we diminish the power of the foot just as much as we should the power of a bow1 when1 knowing that the archer could draw at #cf;in4 we were to insist that the bow should be made with a curve of #ah;in41 instead of being1 as it ought1 very nearly straight4 ,the so-called support to the ankle is not only unnecessary but positively injurious4 ,opera dancers do not usually perform in boots1 but shoes as light as possible4 ,the ,zouaves simply wear gaiters to keep dirt out of the shoe1 and they detest the tight leggings1 and on a march pitch them away1 and let the knickerbockers lower down upon the leg4 ,men1 in the constant habit of wearing tight or heavy boots1 are not likely to have good legs1 and none march better than ,highlanders in their kilts and shoes2 or natives of wild countries1 who only put on sandals when the expected march is so long1 that the hard skin of the foot would wear through faster than the natural growth could replace it4 ,we suppose that it will be sufficiently definite to consider boots as having the upper leathers sufficiently high to cover the ankle1 or as much of the leg or thigh as may be requisite4 ,shoes1 as covering a part1 or the whole of the foot up to1 but not above1 the ankle1 and sandals as being merely soles fastened on by laces or thongs1 but not covering or inclosing the foot4 ,illustration3 #a-b ,the form we have found most useful is that called the oxonian 7,fig4 #a71 coming just high enough to cover the whole instep without interfering with the action of the joint1 and fitting closely round beneath the ankle4 ,fig4 #b represents the ,irish brogue1 a good serviceable foot covering4 ,elastic sides do not stand hard wear in tropical heat1 and therefore we use a front lacing4 ,we object to bluchers1 because after some wear the flaps of the quarters become loose1 and bits of rotten stick or stiff grasses frequently are forced in in walking4 ,african boots4 ,most countries have some form of shoe easily made from materials obtainable upon the spot1 and in ,africa the velschoen of untanned leather is the general wear4 ,illustration ,sometimes these are very clumsily made1 the naked foot is planted on the piece of leather intended for the sole1 and the outline is marked out with the point of a knife1 the blade being held so far clear as to obviate all danger of cutting the foot1 a plan which certainly has the merit of making the shoe sufficiently roomy4 ,the thinner hide intended for the front is then laid on over the instep1 and the edges1 being brought down1 are cut even with those of the sole2 and1 both being bored with an awl1 are stitched through and through with leather thongs1 the quarters are then fitted on in the same manner1 and the only reason that the stitches do not wear out is that the sole is so much wider than the foot1 that no weight comes upon the part in which the seam is made4 ,a couple of holes in the front of the quarters receive another thong which serves as a tie1 and this1 being the only part that is in anyway tight1 must considerably gall the instep4 ,the hides of the giraffe1 the eland1 or the buffalo are used for soles1 and a piece large enough for a pair may generally be purchased for eighteenpence4 ,these are simply dried1 and a native must be hired to beat and soften them1 working grease into them as he does so till they become so soft and supple that1 though they are not waterproof in the sense of absolutely repelling the liquid1 they may be wetted through and dried again without becoming hard4 ,sometimes a native will do this for a knife 7value ninepence or a shilling7 and the grease2 but a sharp look-out must be kept upon the latter1 or he will rub it into his own skin instead of that which he is employed to soften4 ,an ,african can no more be trusted with fat than many of our own countrymen with ardent spirits4 ,for the upper leather the hide of many of the larger antelopes will do1 but that of the koodoo is most universally esteemed1 being somewhat thicker than stout calf1 and very soft and durable2 that of the wildebeeste is too hard and stout1 and those of the springbok and smaller antelopes too thin4 ,this skin is also subjected to a long preliminary rubbing and working in the hands of the natives1 grease being occasionally smeared on4 ,the preparation of a good-sized skin--such as that of a koodoo1 or of an ox1 if it is to be softened so as to be fit for purposes where lightness and pliability are required--is performed as follows4 ,if the hair is to be removed1 the skin is wrapped up with the hair inward1 fresh cattle dung having been previously spread over it to keep it moist1 and if the party be not on a journey1 it is buried for a day or two1 to sweat the hair off2 but if the hair is to be retained1 this preliminary process is dispensed with4 ,if the thickness of the hide is to be reduced1 it is then pegged out tightly upon the ground1 with the hair side downward1 and the flesh1 and as much of the inner side of the skin as requisite1 removed by scraping with the small1 broad-edged1 soft iron blades set like adzes1 across the handle1 and used very much in the manner of the scrapers1 which so much disgust passengers on long voyages when used upon the deck above their berths4 ,the hide having been still kept damp and soft by being covered with cattle dung1 or moist clay1 is next taken in hand by half a dozen or more natives1 who1 sitting around it and grasping each their handful of the edge1 compress and rub it in every possible direction1 ever and anon driving all their hands together towards the centre1 and then simultaneously falling back1 stretching the skin to the utmost4 ,grease has to be applied occasionally1 and the skin1 when put away for the night1 must be carefully rolled up and kept under moist earth till morning4 ,most of the native tribes also have some species of mimosa1 generally a small variety1 the bark and young roots of which they pound as fine as possible in their wooden mortars1 and1 by rubbing in the powder during the dressing of the skin1 they partially tan it1 and impart to it a reddish brown colour4 ,shoemakers' wax4 ,before proceeding to make or repair boots or shoes1 shoemakers' wax will be required4 ,it is a good plan to take a hornfull out from ,england4 ,the wax horn may be made from the horn of a common cow2 fill it with softened wax until nearly full1 put in a wooden bottom1 secure it in its place by driving in three or four wire pins1 and all is made secure4 ,when the wax is required for use1 saw off the small end of the horn far enough down to reach the contents4 ,apply heat to the exterior until the wax runs out in sufficient quantity on a greased stone2 take up as much as is needed for use1 work it into a ball1 and put it to swim in a little water4 ,if you have to make your own wax proceed as follows3 ,take #doz4 of resin1 grind it to a fine powder between two stones1 #a_/doz4 of beeswax chopped up small1 and #boz4 of common pitch2 mix these substances with the resin1 and place the whole in a small native chatty pot4 ,then put the pot in a bed of hot wood ashes1 and with a long flat-pointed stick work and stir the mass about until thoroughly melted2 then add #c_/doz4 of good clean fat1 and keep the whole in a state of solution for about a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes4 ,grease the bottom of a calabash or bowl1 half fill it with cold water2 take your pot off the fire with a twisted stick1 and pour the molten materials into the water4 ,when cold enough to handle1 grease your hands1 and work the wax about2 pull it out into long strips1 double these back on themselves1 and so proceed until all the materials are well amalgamated2 then work it out into a long stick or rod1 take a greased knife1 and divide it up into pieces large enough to make convenient-sized balls for use4 ,these are best kept floating in water until wanted4 ,lasts4 ,in making a pair of shoes the mode usually adopted is that previously described1 and1 by dint of patience and careful fitting1 some persons will make them very neatly and effectively in this manner2 but1 after all1 there is always an uncertainty as to their fitting properly1 and we found it much better to take the trouble in the first instance of making a pair of lasts4 ,for this purpose it is best to take the length of the foot1 its extreme breadth and height at the instep1 and cut two logs of tolerably hard even-grained wood 7we used the sweet gum71 rather larger1 and square them up to these dimensions--say1 length #aj;in41 breadth #c;in41 and height #d;in41 more or less4 ,then1 placing the foot upon a piece of soft ground1 trace its outline1 and then1 holding a board vertically against the inner side1 trace off on this the profile1 and removing the foot trace also the outline of the print it has made upon the ground4 ,the inner side and the bottom of each block ought to be nicely and truly squared up1 even though1 from scantiness of wood or other causes1 the other sides should not be so4 ,take all the measurements for breadth from the straight line made by the edge of the board upon the ground1 and measure them from the inside edge1 right and left1 upon the bottom of the blocks2 draw the outline1 and inside it draw also the actual tread of the foot1 measured in the same manner from the impression on the ground4 ,then1 measuring from the bottom of the board1 transfer the profile of the foot to the inside surface of each block1 and with axe or saw cut them to the outline of the heel and instep1 taking care not to attempt to round them till you have also cut them to the outline of the breadth2 then1 having ascertained that all your measurements are true1 and that both lasts are of similar size and form1 begin to round them as nearly as possible to the natural form of the foot1 lowering them more on the outer side toward the small toes than on the inner1 where the line of the instep extends from the ankle to the great toe2 then1 having ascertained the arch of the foot1 commence rounding away the edges of the sole from the inner line1 observing that in the waist of the foot the tread runs very nearly along the outer edge1 leaving nearly all the hollow to be cut away on the inner side4 ,let the sole rise from the ground a little also under the toes1 as their pressure downward will make the shoe fit better1 and it will be less liable to catch small impediments in walking4 ,illustration3 #a-c ,bear in mind that in the natural foot the great toe is as nearly as possible parallel to the straight line drawn along the inside of the foot1 and if it is forced from this position by ill-cut shoes1 such as some years ago were inappropriately called straights1 or by the wearing of high heels1 not only is the beauty of the foot sacrificed1 but its elasticity1 its strength1 and usefulness are materially diminished4 ,in ,figs4 #a1 #b1 and #c we have represented the natural form of the foot1 distinguishing by the flat shadow the part that actually touches the ground1 and by a lighter outline along the hollow1 that which may be considered as the average limit of the sole4 ,these are one-fourth the natural size1 and1 by using inches for the quarter inches in our drawings1 the enlarged outlines will be a sufficient guide in cutting the lasts1 the average proportions of feet being very nearly the same1 though of course dimensions will vary4 ,in ,fig4 #a of the next illustration we give the forms of sole that may be used4 ,if the ground is bad1 and it is necessary to defend the foot against thorns1 sharp stones1 c41 the outer lines may be adopted2 but on tolerably fair ground1 it is only the actual tread that requires protection from the sole4 ,however1 as the foot is constant in its size1 the smaller the sole is the larger must be the upper leather4 ,of this last we have represented two forms4 ,they are both shown1 folded and stitched1 so as to be ready for lasting2 but the smaller figures within show the form of each part before it is folded4 ,illustration3 #a-c ,in ,fig4 #b the whole upper is cut out from one piece1 folded in the centre of the front1 and stitched at the heel4 ,the edges should not be cut off too close to the seam 7otherwise neatness will be gained at the expense of strength71 and they should always be outside2 for1 if they be turned in1 it would be very difficult to flatten them so perfectly as not to gall the heel4 ,tho front is split #b-a_/b;in4 or #c;in4 down the instep1 and a piece of stout leather1 with its edges thinned down1 is stitched on and pierced with holes to receive the lacing4 ,it is split not quite through1 but about #a_/b;in4 is left to strengthen the front of the shoe1 and prevent the thinner leather tearing4 ,the edges in which the holes are pierced are1 of course1 left the full thickness4 ,a tongue of soft leather ought to be stitched in1 that the lacing may not gall the instep1 but the edges of this must be carefully thinned down1 and no knots or ends of thread should be left inside4 ,the ends may be fastened off very neatly without knots by merely taking one or two stitches backward along the already finished seam1 and even if the fastening should show outside1 it will still be better than that after a long march the instep should be found chafed and bleeding1 and a sore established which will be very difficult to heal4 ,in ,fig4 #c the front is in one piece and the quarter in another1 and this is a convenient arrangement when1 though you may have plenty of leather1 it is not of sufficient size to cut the upper in a single piece4 ,generally1 the edge of the quarter is laid over that of the front1 and stitched1 leaving the upper part loose as a flap or ear to receive the tie or lacing4 ,in this case1 the centre of the front is left long enough to come up as a tongue to defend the instep1 but this method has the disadvantage of leaving a space on either side the foot1 opening forward as in the case of bluchers1 and liable to receive in walking broken sticks1 reeds1 or grass stems1 which are often forced in with considerable violence4 ,we1 therefore1 prefer to stitch the front edge over that of the quarter1 inserting a tongue as neatly as possible1 and stitching on1 as before1 edgings of stiff leather to receive the lacing1 taking care1 also1 that all edges inside the shoe are trimmed off to nothing1 and that no fastenings off are made inside4 ,all these should be sewn with saddlers' seams--that is1 the two parts should be laid together1 and holes being pierced with a fine straight awl1 the two threads should be passed through from right and left simultaneously1 and drawn tight with an equally firm pull on either hand4 ,the seam will thus show no difference on either of the sides2 but1 if a section were made1 it would present the appearance of a chain1 as in ,fig4 #e of the engraving on p4 #dba1 each link inclosing the thickness of leather left between the holes4 ,although the threads should be tightened with a firm hand1 they should not be hauled upon so as unduly to contract the leather1 and so make the seam grip the foot like a cord when the shoe is finished4 ,the dorsal sinews of the springbok1 or the domestic goat1 separated into fibre of the proper size1 will answer very well for this purpose1 the points being cut sharp1 wetted1 and twisted a little1 will be quite rigid enough to pass through the holes previously bored2 but while we have a stock of good whity-grey thread1 we prefer to use it doubled and well waxed1 in a couple of stout tailor's needles1 always1 however1 boring the holes with a fine awl to insure regularity4 ,clamps4 ,a pair of clamps are necessary to hold the work1 as both hands are employed in sewing4 ,they may be made of two staves of a powder barrel1 or an ,american flour cask1 or any other light elastic boards that can be made to curve inward1 and grip with a fair edge with tolerable firmness4 ,these are held between the knees1 so that the work may be in a convenient position for eye and hand4 ,if barrel staves cannot be had1 two small bits of plank1 with fair edges1 may be fitted in the smith's vice4 ,a young sapling1 #b;in4 or #c;in4 thick1 may be cut off about #cj;in4 from its root1 and the stump slit down with a sharp axe1 the edges being trimmed off thin and fair2 or the boat nippers described at p4 #abi may be pressed into service4 ,illustration ,thread4 ,the orthodox material for sewing on the sole is1 of course1 the waxed thread1 made by taking from three to six or eight thicknesses of the flax sold in balls for that purpose1 twisting them loosely together1 and waxing them with the mixture before described4 ,the ends of the threads are thinned to a fine point1 and1 a bristle being split part of its length1 the fine end of the thread is laid between the parts1 and then rolled several times round both of them2 and the fastening is made by opening the strands of the thread1 and passing the perfect end of the bristle through them4 ,it is much more easy to do this than to describe it1 and in five minutes' practice almost anyone ought to be able to learn it4 ,we prefer1 however1 fine reimpjies1 or thongs1 rather less than #a_/h;in4 broad1 cut from the skin of a steinbok1 and nicely rubbed up1 stretched1 and smoothed4 ,the points of these cut sharp1 wetted a little1 twisted1 and allowed to dry1 will be quite fine and hard enough to be passed through the awl holes2 but we have upon occasion taken a bit of fine brass rabbit wire1 and passing it through a hole in the end of the thong1 as far as the middle have doubled the two ends together1 and twisted them into one1 to obtain a more rigid point4 ,illustration3 #a-e ,illustration3 ,a-,c ,stitching4 ,of the several methods of stitching1 the simplest1 as has been mentioned1 is to lay the edges of the sole and upper leather together1 and stitch them through and through 7,fig4 #a74 ,in this case1 however1 either the thread appears outside1 and is exposed to be chafed upon the ground1 or the sole itself must be cut so as to let the stitches in1 and sometimes a cut is made in the edge of the sole1 as in ,fig4 #b1 but this has by no means a neat and finished appearance4 ,some of the ,dutch farmers use what is called the binnen naaid1 or inside seam4 ,this is made by turning the edge of the upper leather 7,fig4 #d7 in upon the sole 7,fig4 #c71 and sewing it with a kind of backstitch1 which will be better understood by reference to the figure than by description4 ,it must be begun in the waist of the foot and worked round the front to the other side4 ,the heel is finished last of all1 as1 when the shoe is once closed1 the fore parts of it could not be reached4 ,this seam is very neat1 but a last cannot be used in making it4 ,the plan we adopted is that used by shoemakers for pumps or single soled shoes1 and we believe this to be the easiest1 the neatest1 and1 at the same time1 the most durable4 ,the sole 7,fig4 #a7 is cut with the heel toward the thickest part 7if there be any difference7 of the leather1 and if greater thickness is required1 another piece 7,fig4 #b7 should be cut to the shape of the heel and thinned away to nothing in front1 as it must be placed on the inside of the true sole1 and a thick edge would of course give pain to the foot4 ,a small groove or channel 7,fig4 #c71 just deep enough to bury the stitches1 should be cut about #a_/b;in4 from the edge upon the upper surface1 and a similar one 7,fig4 #c;a7 in the edge of the true sole2 then1 the holes being pierced with a curved awl1 the two parts should be firmly sewn together4 ,fig4 #d represents the channel cut all round the sole and heel for stitching on the upper leather1 and ,fig4 #e the bevelled edge against which the upper leather is laid4 ,b is a sectional view1 with all the parts similarly numbered1 the upper leather being stitched on2 and ,c another with the upper stitched and turned into its proper position when the shoe is finished4 ,the sole1 with its inside uppermost1 must then be laid upon its proper last1 and tacked to it with nails or pegs that will easily draw out when no longer required1 and care must be taken that the waist fits well down into the hollow of the last4 ,the edge must then be bevelled off1 at an angle of #de all round1 reducing its apparent thickness by about one-half4 ,in very fine work the edge is thinned down almost to nothing in the waist1 but is left nearly of its full thickness in the heel4 ,the object of this1 however1 is to present an inclined surface for the upper leather to rest against and be stitched to4 ,the upper is then turned inside out1 and placed upon the last2 its height at the heel1 at the sides1 and on the instep1 is measured1 and these points are first secured by small tacks1 driven about half in1 so that they can be withdrawn when no longer wanted4 ,the edges are then drawn tightly over the edges of the sole1 and tacked to it1 beginning at the toe and proceeding equally along the sides as far as the beginning of the heel4 ,the last is then taken1 with the sole upward1 between the knees1 where it may be confined by a strap long enough to pass round the feet2 holes are pierced with a sharp curved awl1 through the upper leather1 and the bevelled edge of the sole1 to the channel previously cut4 ,the thread or thong of steinbok hide1 being pointed at both ends1 is drawn as far as its middle through the first hole1 the two ends are passed simultaneously from right and left through each successive one1 and the seam1 commencing from the fore part of the heel on one side1 goes forward round the toe1 until it comes as far back on the other side4 ,in commencing the sewing of the heel1 if an inner thickening piece has been put on1 care must be taken that in front1 where it is yet thin1 the stitches take up also a portion of the thickness of the true sole1 and do not depend only on the inner heel1 until they have passed the end of the seam that connects the two thicknesses together4 ,if the stitches of the connecting seam have been set far enough into the substance of the leather1 there will be no danger of cutting them in boring the holes for sewing on the upper4 ,illustration ,in fastening off1 take two stitches back upon the seam1 and a hole may be bored through one part of the thong to pass the end of the other through1 but no knots must be made2 inside they would gall the feet1 and outside they would look clumsy and unworkmanlike4 ,our sketch will sufficiently illustrate the foregoing description4 ,fig4 #a;,a is the sole2 ,fig4 #d1 the channel and stitching2 ,fig4 #d;a1 the stitching seen through the upper leather1 and ,d the last2 ,b shows the relative position of the parts when the shoe is taken off the last1 and turned ready for use4 ,no inner sole or lining is needed1 for the leather itself is softened sufficiently in the native processes4 ,we generally preferred to turn the outer side1 or that from which the hair had been stripped1 inward1 as it was smoother to the foot2 and besides this1 if left outside1 would soon have looked shabby from contact with grass or thorns1 whereas the inner or fleshy side would suffer no change of appearance by casual abrasion4 ,the shoe first finished should be kept in a cool moist place1 and not suffered to dry till both are done1 when they should be taken off the lasts1 turned right side outward1 and each put upon the last on which the other was made1 and allowed to dry1 a very little fat being rubbed upon them1 that it may be absorbed as the water dries out1 to prevent their becoming hard4 ,in one pair of shoes thus made1 with soles of buffalo hide and koodoo uppers1 we have performed three journeys of eighty miles each1 with quite enough intermediate walking to make up the #cjj4 ,it may be thought that we have insisted too much on the lightness and pliability of foot gear1 but it must be remembered that we now speak of what1 under particular conditions1 we have found useful4 ,a change of circumstances might render large and heavy boots an absolute necessity4 ,the ,american ,indian wears the lightest possible mocassin2 the ,south ,african1 when he comes near his game1 takes off his sandals1 that he may step as noiselessly as a cat4 ,the ,european hunter will do well to follow their example as closely as he can1 and whatever the form of the foot gear he adopts may be1 let it be light and flexible enough to walk1 jump1 climb1 or run with facility4 ,illustration ,mocassins4 ,the principle of the mocassin appears to be that in almost universal use among all the ,esquimaux and ,north ,american ,indians1 the leading difference in form of construction being that the former usually carry the upper leather up over the leg to form a species of boot1 whilst the latter covers the foot only with the mocassin4 ,unlike the shoes we have described1 the ,indian mocassin has far more sole than upper leather1 as the so-called sole extends up over the sides1 front1 and heel1 to be united with the border leather and front flap by a gathering seam4 ,when about to undertake a journey over very hard or rough ground1 a sort of supplementary sole of green hide1 with the hair left on the outside1 is not unfrequently put on4 ,the leather used in the manufacture of the best and softest description of mocassins requires an immense deal of rubbing1 dressing1 and manipulation2 that used by the ,esquimaux tribes is chewed by the women until beautifully supple and pliant4 ,different tribes of ,indians adopt different styles or fashions in the cut and finish of their foot gear1 as shown in the illustration on p4 #dbd1 which represents the mocassins of distinct tribes2 thus it is by no means difficult to detect attempted imposition by closely investigating the foot coverings of a spy or secret enemy4 ,illustration ,makeshift foot coverings4 ,various makeshift foot coverings are used by different nations4 ,some of the bushmen and half-civilised ,hottentots1 when they have killed an animal of suitable size1 such as a buffalo1 quagga1 or any of the larger antelopes1 will cut the skin all round above and below the hough1 and1 having stripped it off1 will draw it upon their own foot1 so that the heel comes where the hough of the animal used to be2 the toe is then closed with a few stitches1 a slit for a small tie or lacing is made on the instep1 and1 by walking in it before it dries or hardens1 it is trodden into the shape of the foot4 ,we have chosen the quagga skin for our illustration because the stripes help to identify the parts used for the hough-skin shoe2 but it is1 perhaps1 the least eligible for the purpose1 as it dries so hard and rigid that it must be very unpleasant wear4 ,the ,north ,american ,indians use the hough-skin of the moose in the same manner4 ,the peasantry and brigands of ,calabria and many other portions of the ,south of ,europe1 wear a very simple and useful kind of makeshift shoe4 ,a piece of soft hide is cut to several sizes larger than the foot1 a number of points or corners are allowed to remain along the edges1 the foot1 after being well swathed in bandages1 is placed on the piece of hide1 which is then gathered up round the foot by looping and knotting a long strip of cotton cloth or tape forward and back to the corners of the hide until all is secure and compact1 as shown in the illustration on next page 7,fig4 #b74 ,the old ,highland caterans shod themselves in much the same manner4 ,we have seen the ,crim-,tartars make excellent winter foot coverings from sheepskin1 with the wool inwards 7,fig4 #a74 ,this was cut much after the ,calabrian plan1 but the corners1 after having slits made in them1 were looped to short flat leather straps1 which1 when crossed forward and back over the front1 were laced together with a long narrow thong of sheepskin1 which served to hold a wider piece of wool-covered skin in place1 as a sort of gaiter4 ,they also make a summer shoe from soft tanned hide1 as shown in ,figs4 #c and #d4 ,illustration3 #a-d ,most of the ,african tribes find the skin of their sole sufficiently hard for their ordinary and daily walks1 but when they expect to make long marches they invariably use some sort of artificial protection2 and there is no surer sign on the frontier of the ,cape ,colony that the ,kafirs intend to make war than to see among them a general preparation of velschoens or sandals2 and often the cattle farmers on the frontier have been thus forewarned1 while the ,government authorities1 deceived by plausible excuses1 have imagined there was every prospect of a continued peace4 ,various forms of sandal are in use among different tribes1 but those used by the ,bechuana 7,fig4 #a1 next page7 may be taken as a sufficiently useful type4 ,the leather is sometimes rendered slightly pliable by being pounded and beaten1 but very often not4 ,the foot is planted on it1 and the outline drawn1 the sole being cut somewhat larger than this4 ,two slits are made1 one on each side the hollow of the foot1 and the two ends of a piece of hide are passed up through them1 as shown in ,fig4 #b2 and in each end of this are cut two slits1 as seen in ,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 for the two parts of a thong of dressed hide to pass through4 ,illustration ,the ends of this are passed through another piece which goes down between the great toe and the next1 then passes through the sole1 and is fastened sometimes by being returned through two other holes1 and the divided ends passed through a hole bored in their own parts1 as in ,fig4 #d1 and sometimes by being simply returned only once in the manner shown in ,fig4 #c1 which represents the very simple arrangement for tightening the side straps2 in fact1 a thong of hide1 with several holes bored in it for its own end to pass through1 may be lengthened or shortened up as conveniently as a strap and buckle1 the sandal being put on or off simply by drawing the loop of the thong over the heel in the same manner as a low shoe4 ,illustration ,the ,damaras wear sandals with the toe and heel pointed1 and elongated #b;in4 or #c;in4 beyond the foot1 like a small snow shoe2 this saves the toes from contact with small thorns1 and they often strap on greaves of stiff hide to protect the shins4 ,illustration ,in ,timor1 we purchased two or three pairs of palm-leaf sandals1 very nicely woven2 these last very well for a few hours' walking1 and1 being very cheap1 may be renewed as often as requisite4 ,on some of the pilgrim roads in ,india1 the poorer travellers seldom provide sandals for themselves1 but pick up those that are thrown away half worn by the more luxurious4 ,illustration ,small rope1 not more than #a_/b;in4 in diameter1 makes a good sole1 and by thinning one end1 and beginning by bending this just before the hollow of the foot1 then coiling it six or seven times round1 and finishing off on the inside of the foot1 so as to leave the front two turns wider than the heel1 a very fairly shaped sole may be made2 this may be fitted either with thongs as a sandal1 or as a slipper with a canvas upper4 ,the ,malays wear a wooden sole1 the heel and tread of which are about #b;in4 thick2 it is held to the foot simply by a peg1 with a knob or button on the top1 which is taken between the great toe and the next1 and thus held on or dropped off at pleasure2 this is1 in fact1 much the same that is worn by the ,turks1 ,japanese1 and ,persians1 only that they use a leather strap instead of a button4 ,sabots and socks4 ,sabots are1 at times1 extremely useful2 they can be made from any light soft wood1 such as withy1 willow1 poplar1 or cotton wood 7,populus tremuloides74 ,cut two blocks from a log with the axe1 fashion them roughly into the form of a high shoe1 and then1 with a mallet and sharp gouge1 proceed to hollow them out to the requisite capacity and thinness1 when the outsides may be finished off with the spokeshave4 ,socks formed of sheepskin1 with the wool on1 add much to the comfort of the wearer4 ,the ,russian soldiers1 before ,sebastopol1 made excellent socks or false soles from plaited straw2 these were worn inside their long boots1 and served to preserve the feet from damp2 no stockings were worn with them4 ,an excellent description of sabot was forwarded to us during the ,crimean war for use in camp2 the sole was of light wood1 the upper leather was like that of a high shoe1 and the lining of thick felt4 ,the leather and wood were connected round the edges by the use of a row of small flat headed tacks1 much like those used in making a pair of bellows4 ,no description of foot gear we have ever seen equals these felt-lined sabots for use during tent life4 ,in ,chinese ,tartary a sort of boot composed of thick felt is worn over both stocking and shoe4 ,when camping in or travelling through tropical countries1 never omit turning your boots or shoes upside down1 and rapping the soles sharply before venturing to put them on1 as scorpions1 centipedes1 and other unwelcome intruders1 are particularly fond of taking shelter in such convenient retreats4 ,we have found it an excellent plan1 when boots or shoes of native leather get thoroughly water soaked1 to fill them tightly with any kind of grain2 the moisture is absorbed rapidly by it1 and the leather is prevented from shrinking by the expansion of the seed4 ,dubbin1 to make4 ,it is well to keep a good-sized pot or canister of dubbin for your ,english boots and shoes4 ,this is best made as follows3--,take of oil1 obtained by boiling ox feet1 half a pint2 beeswax1 #aoz42 spirits of turpentine1 #aoz42 ,burgundy pitch1 #a_/boz42 resin1 #a_/boz4 ,mix all the ingredients1 except the spirits of turpentine1 together in a chatty1 and melt them over the embers of the camp fire until thoroughly dissolved2 then remove the pot from the fire1 pour in the spirits of turpentine1 and stir the whole with a piece of lath until cold4 ,to apply the dubbin properly1 the boot or shoe must be held to the fire until warm1 when every part of it1 sole1 heel1 and upper1 may receive a thorough dressing over1 and subsequent rubbing4 ,this not only preserves the leather from the effects of hot sun and wet ground1 but prevents the white ants1 cockroaches1 and other devouring insects from eating it4 ,one of our naval friends1 who was an ardent naturalist1 had a pair of ,french wooden shoes1 which he found a great protection while wading among sharp rocks in search of specimens1 where india-rubber boots would have been cut and become leaky4 ,a perfectly waterproof boot or garment of any kind is an excellent thing1 but an imperfect one is worse than useless2 and for wading after specimens or working in the water1 if it is not convenient to be naked1 a pair of wooden clogs1 with a flannel shirt and drawers1 and a straw hat or ,tam o' ,shanter bonnet1 is as good an equipment as any4 ,india-rubber boots1 to mend4 ,we have before spoken of india-rubber wading boots1 which1 to be of value1 should be of first-class quality and finish4 ,it will sometimes happen that1 notwithstanding all the precautions you may take to guard them from injury1 that sharp-pointed sticks1 thorns1 c41 will make holes in them large enough to admit water4 ,in order to enable you to repair these injuries when they occur1 it will be well to purchase from the maker of the boots a good supply of sheet india-rubber4 ,get also from a chemist a bottle of coal-tar naphtha fitted with a glass stopper4 ,when about to mend your boots1 take a sharp knife or pair of scissors1 and snip or cut up about #boz4 of the india-rubber sheet4 ,the cut pieces should not be larger than good-sized buck-shot4 ,put these into a wide-mouthed bottle1 such as is used for gum2 now pour in enough naphtha to cover the rubber2 put in the cork1 and let the mixture stand for a few hours to soak2 then shake the bottle1 turn it upside down1 and rattle it from side to side2 repeat this process from time to time until the rubber is thoroughly dissolved in the naphtha1 which it will be in about three days4 ,should it become sticky and thick1 pour in a little more naphtha and shake it about until of a convenient consistency for use4 ,now cut a patch from the sheet rubber1 large enough to extend well beyond the margin of the hole2 give both the patch and the surface to which it is to be applied a good coating of the rubber varnish2 lay on the patch2 press it well home2 place a flat board in the boot under the patch1 and another board on the outside over it1 so as to nip both patch and boot between them2 lay a heavy stone or other weight on the outside board1 and let the whole arrangement remain until the varnish is dry and the union between the parts complete4 ,if the hole is in the leg of your boot1 turn it inside out until the injured spot is reached and the patch is seen through the hole4 ,proceed now with the inside exactly as you did with the outside1 when the mend will be complete4 ,if the hole is in the foot of the boot1 use only the single patch attached to the outside4 ,sore feet4 ,when the sole of a shoe has once been soaked with salt water1 it always retains dampness1 and cannot again be worn with comfort or pleasure4 ,india-rubber shoes cannot be worn in warm countries either alone or over the ordinary shoes1 unless they are cut low and open1 and even then the lengthened use of them is inconvenient and painful4 ,it not unfrequently happens that the feet of those not thoroughly accustomed to hard tramping will become blistered4 ,when the eggs of either poultry or wild birds are to be obtained1 it is a good plan to break one or two1 according to their size1 into each shoe before starting in the morning2 or1 if you have any spirit1 put a little in a cup or dish1 place a lump of tallow on a flat stick1 and hold a hot brand over it until the fat melts and runs into the spirit4 ,the ointment thus prepared may now be taken from the spirit and applied thickly to the sore surfaces and bottoms of the stockings4 ,when large bladders form1 take one of your needles and draw a piece of soft worsted or woollen thread1 obtained by unravelling a bit of old shirt1 directly through the bladders4 ,this acts as a seton1 and causes the fluid to freely discharge itself4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,waggons ,,and ,,other ,,wheeled ,,vehicles4 ,the wheeled carriages made use of in different parts of the world are even more various in their design and construction than the sledges before described2 and1 as a general rule1 it will be found1 when the test of actual use is brought to bear1 that the description of contrivance 7or at least a modification of it7 in use among the civilised and semi-civilised inhabitants of a country or colony will be best adapted for such work as may have to be performed in it by the traveller or explorer4 ,it is1 however1 difficult to overcome home prejudices1 and1 as an almost invariable rule1 the ,british emigrant1 on his arrival at the ,cape of ,good ,hope or ,australia1 commences by denouncing the colonial waggon as clumsy1 unworkmanlike1 and inefficient1 and usually threatens to effect immense improvements1 and just as invariably1 if he has to make a journey of any distance into the interior1 he adopts1 if he be a sensible man1 the vehicle which1 by the experience of many1 has been found the best for the work it has to do4 ,on the well-made roads near ,cape ,town or ,port ,elizabeth1 or on the broad plains of the ,orange ,river ,free ,state1 imported carriages from ,england1 or vehicles upon their model by colonial builders1 may be used with safety and advantage2 and even some of those wondrous combinations of strength and lightness imported from ,america1 under the names of spider or skeleton carriages1 are found to do good service2 but when really hard work comes on1 and densely wooded kloofs or rugged mountain passes1 with rough stretches of road over hill-side or valley1 with fords in which stones of several hundred weight seem to lose their gravitation and become the mere playthings of the torrent1 the ponderous ,cape waggon will be at once appreciated1 as all its parts are so strongly put together that the strain of twelve or twenty oxen cannot draw them asunder1 and yet fitted so loosely that they will give and bend to every inequality of the road4 ,the ,cape waggon is found to hold its position against all rivals as the vehicle best adapted to the wants of a travelling or exploring party1 and the exigencies of the transport service and general carrying trade of the country4 ,we have already1 at pp4 #fj and #fa1 given an example of a ,cape waggon with side tents2 at pp4 #abi-acb1 we have shown how the tent frame or other material of a waggon might be converted into a boat2 at pp4 #adj-add1 we have indicated the manner in which the waggon chests might be made available as a raft2 at pp4 #bae-bai will be found diagrams and instructions for repairing axles1 fore tongs1 dissel-booms1 strengthening wheels when the spokes are shaken loose1 tightening up the tires by driving wedges between them and the felloes1 or making and putting in new spokes without taking the wheel to pieces2 at pp4 #aie-aig are remarks on tiring of wheels and prolonging the efficiency of strained bolts by shifting them so as to freshen the nip2 at pp4 #big and #bih waggon camps are described2 and the method of building wheels is given at pp4 #cff-cgb4 ,illustration3 ,,cape ,,waggon 7,,with ,,diagrams74 ,cape waggon4 ,it is1 therefore1 now only necessary to give a general view of a full-sized kap-tented travelling waggon1 with diagrams of such parts as have not hitherto come under notice4 ,such a waggon is represented in ,fig4 #a1 and the buik plank1 or floor 7a71 will sometimes be #ag;ft4 or more in length1 though in moderate-sized vehicles it does not exceed #ac;ft41 or thereabouts4 ,the sides are generally of yellow wood 7#c_/h;in4 plank71 b1 secured to a substantial ladder-like frame1 the longer pieces of which 7c7 are called leer boomen1 or ladder trees4 ,the sides and bottom are not fastened together1 nor are they fastened to the understell or carriage1 but the bottom plank is simply laid upon the schammels 7d7 and secured from moving by cleats 7e71 which grip the after one4 ,the fore and hinder axles are connected by a stout beam1 called the lang wagen 7f71 working freely on a pivot passing through the aftermost jaws of the fore tong 7g71 and strengthened by a bar of iron 7h71 called the iron lang wagen4 ,the dissel-boom works like a carriage pole in the foremost jaws of the fore tong4 ,in this tong1 also1 immediately behind the axle1 is a stout ring-bolt 7i71 to which are attached the drag chains1 and they1 with the reim schoen and the tar bucket1 are looped up to hooks1 fixed at the attachment of the after tongs 7j7 with the lang wagen4 ,to the back of the after axle is suspended a kind of framework1 called the trap 7k71 for the reception of pots1 kettles1 and general lumber4 ,into the ends of the schammels are set rungs1 or stancheons 7l71 which confine and support the waggon sides4 ,fig4 #b shows the arrangement of the carriage1 clear of the wheels and top hamper4 ,all the parts are distinguished by the same letters4 ,fig4 #c shows how the buik plank 7a7 is laid upon the after schammel 7d71 and kept from shifting by the clamps 7e72 it will be seen that there is room enough between it and the rungs 7l7 for the sides 7b71 and these are kept apart at the after part by the after bar 7m71 as well as by the after chest 7n71 and in front by the fore chest only1 leaving1 in the present instance1 a space available for stowage of rather more than #aa;ft4 long1 #c;ft4 wide1 and #c;ft4 in height2 though frequently the cargo is piled much higher4 ,the kadel1 or bed1 an oblong frame 7o1 p4 #baf71 with a netting of raw hide thongs1 is then either slung above the cargo to the stancheons of the tent1 or laid upon spars placed across the waggon1 with their ends resting on the top rail or leer boom 7c74 ,the tent frame should be first covered with reed matting1 similar to a cheese mat1 and often obtainable from the ,hottentots4 ,above this should be the under sail1 which is very often painted to render it waterproof1 though for durability we prefer to have it of stout unpainted ,no4 #a canvas1 and above this is drawn on the upper sail4 ,in the case of a kap-tent1 this is sometimes in three or more pieces2 first1 the roof2 then the sides1 which are tacked on under a neat border at its edges2 and1 lastly1 the fore and after klaps or curtains4 ,sometimes1 however1 the whole of these parts are made in one4 ,the central breadths of canvas are left #e;ft4 or #f;ft4 longer at each end1 so as to serve for the fore and after curtains1 and the sides are stitched to the roof1 so that the whole may be put on or taken off in one piece4 ,the edges are then either buttoned to brass studs along the leer boom1 or tied down with thongs of koodoo hide1 stitched on for the purpose4 ,a couple of bamboos or forked sticks are lashed to the foremost and aftermost stancheons of the tent frame1 to serve as nicks in which to lay the waggon whip1 which is a well-selected straight-grown vaderlandsche 7male bamboo71 from #aj;ft4 to #ae;ft4 in length1 with a lash of about #bj;ft41 as thick in the middle as the little finger1 and with a voorslag1 or lash of koodoo hide1 about #d;ft4 or #e;ft4 more4 ,this1 in the hands of a practised driver1 is a most formidable weapon4 ,any particular ox in the long team of twelve or fourteen may be gently filliped in any part1 or have the whip cracked next to his ear as a reminder1 or if he show stubbornness or obstinacy1 a cloud of hair may be cut from his sides from hip to shoulder1 or each successive stroke of the long voorslag may be made to draw blood1 until he goes to his duty4 ,the side chests are supported on stout bars 7o71 which cross beneath the bottom of the waggon1 projecting #a;ft4 or #af;in4 beyond its sides1 and these1 besides being bolted to the bottom planks1 are generally lashed tightly to the top rail by reims of raw hide 7p71 which serve to keep the bottom from bending too much with the weight of the cargo1 and help still further to bind the waggon together4 ,on open colonial roads1 the side chests are generally rectangular1 but we have seen them on the waggons of elephant hunters1 brought to a sharp point forward1 because1 in passing through a thickly-wooded country1 trees or stumps would knock off in passing the corners of a rectangular chest4 ,we think1 for economy of room1 a long chest1 tapered at both ends1 as shown in our sketch1 might be adopted2 and if there were a probability of the waggon chests being required for a boat1 as described at pp4 #adj-add1 this might be made in two lengths1 as we have shown it1 so that the ends would serve for the respective ends of the boat or raft4 ,they would be secured either by bolts and nuts1 or by lashings of hide to the cross-bars and to the stancheons of the waggon sides4 ,padlocks and hasps are generally used1 but a very stout branch may tear them off4 ,rim locks would be better1 were it not that the same cause might disarrange the set of the lid1 and prevent its fitting properly4 ,a couple of stout knees and chocks should be screwed or bolted on to the after part of the floor for the water cask to rest in1 and this should be securely lashed1 and never allowed to stand or travel without at least a day's water in it1 both to keep it from shrinking and leakage1 and also as a prevention against any unexpected emergency or failure of supply4 ,fig4 #d is a plan of as much as is necessary to show of the under stell1 or carriage4 ,the same letters are attached to the parts4 ,the junction of the two bars 7j7 of the after tong with the lang wagen is shown more distinctly4 p is the head of the schammel bolt or perch bolt1 which passes down through the schammel and axle1 allowing the latter to turn freely4 ,the top of the schammel is seen partly hiding the arms of the axle1 underneath it2 in its ends are the mortices for the rungs4 q is the lifter1 composed of two parts--the legter voet1 or upright1 with two mortices1 corresponding to the height of the fore and after axles--and the legter hout1 or lever1 which is passed through the required mortice and forelocked by an iron pin4 ,the shorter end is generally armed with one or more iron studs1 to keep it from slipping2 the longer end is tapered and rounded just so as to be easily grasped4 ,sometimes1 when iron reim shoes are not to be had1 or are worn out1 a log of wood is roughly shaped and slightly hollowed 7r7 to receive the tire of the wheel1 and1 instead of chain1 is attached to the fore tong by a stout hide rope4 ,a short end is also left near the reim schoen1 to hook round the felloe of the wheel4 ,illustration ,for rough work1 such as carrying stones or packages of unhandy form or dimensions1 a buik waggon is very convenient4 ,in this the regular lang wagen is released from the fore tong1 and either replaced by a rough beam of any required length1 or the beam is simply lashed under the original lang wagen1 and its end is trimmed down so as to be inserted into the jaws of the fore tong2 but as the bolt might probably split and draw out from the unprotected wood1 the drag chains should be led aft from the ring-bolt1 and hooked on as tightly as possible to the after axle1 a turn or two being taken1 if they are too long1 round both the lang wagen and the pole by which it is lengthened4 ,they may be set up tight by using reims of raw hide as lanyards4 ,the sides consist of a couple of stout planks set on edge--a couple of #ba;ft4 deals for instance4 ,cross-bars are lashed under these at intervals1 to keep the bottom from sagging4 ,illustration ,extemporary waggon4 ,a durable and convenient form of waggon can be extemporised in any wild country where wood and raw hides are procurable by proceeding as follows3 ,first from dead1 but sound1 trees1 or seasoned wood 7see ,wood1 to season71 fashion the pieces for your waggon bed frame1 as shown in the illustration below4 ,both the fore and hind axle trees are composed of two pieces of wood matched so as to lay evenly on each other4 ,on the surface of contact of each piece-half holes are cut for the admission of the pole 7,a71 prong piece 7,b71 and cross prong ends 7,c74 ,the perch bolt 7,d7 should be an iron pin1 but may be a hard wood treenail4 ,either lashings of raw hide or treenails may be used for securing the upper and lower axle pieces to each other4 ,the lower piece of wood1 or axle bar1 should be composed of some hard dense1 yet tough1 wood1 as the axles have to be formed from it4 ,the butt end of the prong piece 7,e7 is so adjusted as to travel forward and backward on the pole1 thus lengthening or shortening the body of the waggon4 ,there are two methods by which the regulation of the prong piece is effected4 ,one is to have a train of holes in the pole and one hole in the butt end of the prong piece for a pin to pass through1 which being driven down through one of the holes in the pole holds it at that length4 ,we1 however1 prefer hollowing out the lower surface of the prong-piece butt with a gouge until it fits on the pole after the manner of a hollow slide or rider4 ,this we lash fast to the pole with a long strip of raw hide1 taking several turns both before and behind the joint4 ,the prong piece must be cut from a natural fork of suitable size and length4 ,the butt end should be left at least #ah;in4 long1 in order that sufficient bearing surface may be left to rest on the pole under the hide lashing4 ,by adopting this mode of regulating the movements of the prong1 a pole of moderate and convenient size may be used without fear of breakage4 ,a very stout pole is required for the pin plan1 as the auger holes bored through it tend greatly to decrease its strength4 ,the four upright posts 7,f1 ,f1 ,f1 ,f7 are fitted into four square holes chiselled out in the upper axle piece for the purpose of receiving them2 and they serve to secure the planks1 hurdles1 wattle work1 or poles forming the sides of the waggon4 ,directions for building and fitting wheels have been given in a former portion of our work2 and we need therefore only repeat that slices cut from suitable-sized log ends form very fair makeshift wheels 7see p4 #cff72 but care should be taken1 if native carts are used in the region where the makeshift waggon is building1 to ascertain the gauge at which their wheels are set and regulate yours accordingly1 or the wheel tracks on these trails will not match with yours1 and so cause strains and breakages4 ,the adjustment of the contrivance just described will entirely depend on the purpose for which it is from time to time required4 ,for the conveyance of the packs and baggage of a large party it may be drawn out to its full length1 as shown in the illustration 7p4 #ddj71 leaving only pole enough for the attachment of draught animals4 ,by bringing the prong piece farther back a short four-wheeled waggon can be formed1 and by slipping the fore axle and prong over the end of the pole you leave the perch and hinder axle to be used as a two-wheeled cart1 whilst an extra pole fitted to the first axle and prong makes a second pair-wheeled cart just as handy as the other4 ,should there be but two available draught animals for the two carts1 shafts can be used instead of poles4 ,these are easily made by lashing on poles with raw hide1 or cutting wide prong-shaped branches which spread out wide at the butt1 which must be left long enough to fit into the pole hole of the axle piece1 when1 if cut with a good curve1 these shafts will somewhat resemble those of a ,hansom cab4 ,acting somewhat on this principle1 the ,californian teamsters make use at times of a sort of train waggon1 which1 with a powerful mule team1 is1 over favourable ground1 worked entire2 but when the vicissitudes of travel require it1 they work each separate compartment of the waggon just as we should an ordinary cart4 ,illustration ,cape wine waggon4 ,about the year #ahdb1 we were accustomed to see the primitive wine waggon of the ,cape ,colony toiling over the dreary waste of shifting sands known as the ,cape ,flats4 ,its wheels were large and broad1 the hinder ones being often #g;ft4 in diameter4 ,the fore and after carriages were connected by a long fir pole1 and the sides and bottom were formed of six or eight trees of the same kind1 so arranged as to form a convenient bed for two or three beakers of wine4 ,at the hinder end would be a tent and sides of wattled work1 or perhaps the sides of an ordinary waggon1 with the tent attached1 would be fitted temporarily on1 so as to form a place of shelter for the owner and his family4 ,it was generally drawn by twenty or twenty-two oxen4 ,the illustration on p4 #ddj represents one of these wine waggons2 and1 as it may so happen that the lot of the settler may be cast in regions resembling the district we have just spoken of1 it may be well that he should know how to construct a conveyance of this kind1 as the fore part of the waggon affords ample space for stowing away barrels or bales4 ,as will be seen1 on reference to the illustration1 the length of the waggon can1 like that before described1 be regulated according to the requirements of the owner4 ,illustration ,indian gharrie4 ,the illustration below represents a vehicle in which we performed some very rough travelling through ,central ,india4 ,its cover1 or tent1 was composed of painted cotton cloth stretched over bamboo hoops and nailed to the framework4 ,on the bottom1 or bed1 of our conveyance we placed a stout matress stuffed with cotton4 ,our rifles1 guns1 water barrel1 and revolvers hung in pouches against the inside of the waggon tent4 ,the door was at the rear4 ,the windows had curtains fitted to them4 ,the bullock teams varied in strength from one pair to three1 according to the character of the country travelled through4 ,conveyances much like this in construction1 and of admirable quality1 are manufactured at ,ahmednugger1 in the ,bombay ,presidency4 ,when travelling in this vehicle our heavy baggage followed in two hackeries1 or country carts1 each drawn by two pairs of bullocks4 ,these hackeries1 like the arobas of the ,tartars1 merely consist of an axle1 a pair of rough strong wheels1 a pole1 and number of odd poles1 sticks1 and pieces of board bound together with hide4 ,our men were much puzzled in ,crim-,tartary when we overtook1 on the only road leading from passes perfectly impracticable for wheeled carriages1 several of the bullock arobas of the country laden with bales of skins and bags of grain4 ,the ,tartars had simply taken their arobas to pieces by casting off the hide lashings1 packed the bullocks1 themselves1 and their wolfish-looking dogs1 with the divided loads and waggon gear1 marched over the passes1 and then put the whole affair in travelling trim again4 ,with our horses and packed mules we had no such difficulty to contend against4 ,much like these in construction is the single-ox cart of ,red ,river4 ,in this the ox is harnessed very much as a horse would be1 working between a pair of ordinary shafts4 ,each driver conducts his own train1 which may consist of a dozen carts4 ,the oxen are driven with a long-handled1 heavy-thonged whip1 which is a sort of compromise between the whip of a ,cape waggoner and that of an ,australian stock-man4 ,each of these primitive carts is capable of transporting about #i;cwt4 of buffalo flesh and hides from the hunting grounds to the dept of the hunters4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,wilson ,,mule ,,waggon 7,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america74 ,horse and mule waggons4 ,horse and mule waggons and carts vary so much in construction according to the nature of the country they are used in1 and to the purpose for which they are intended1 that it would be impossible to describe one-tenth of their number4 ,the mode of harnessing1 too1 differs in almost every country4 ,whilst we1 in ,england1 usually content ourselves with a team harnessed in pairs1 the ,russians not unfrequently work three and four a-breast4 ,the ,spanish and ,portuguese race1 in their devious wanderings about the world1 have taken the enormously high wheel of the ,peninsula with them1 and delight to see a big-booted postilion1 black or white1 acting as pilot to the lumbering old-world conveyance they journey in4 ,scarcely any two artillery services in the world correspond in their draught arrangement--some making use of the pole1 whilst others1 ,england amongst the number1 use the shafts4 ,our province being to deal more particularly with vehicles calculated to bear the rough usage and vicissitudes of travel1 we naturally turn to vastly extensive countries--where long journeys over hill1 plain1 and valley are commonly performed--for the best form of waggon to do it with4 ,experience in these matters is always the best guide4 ,the constant demand almost invariably brings about the required supply4 ,we have no long waggon journeys in ,england2 and1 as neither the artillery or military train waggon of this country1 nor the equipage militaire of ,france1 is in accordance with our notions of what travellers' mule waggons should be1 we go a little farther a-field1 and select the ,wilson waggon of the ,united ,states of ,america1 the subject of the full-page illustration4 ,the ,american mode of harnessing is also shown4 ,all these waggons have wheel friction breaks fitted to them1 as had all the ,sardinian waggons used during the ,crimean war4 ,wheel drags4 ,in travelling over rough passes and steep acclivities great attention should be paid to the application of proper break power to the wheels4 ,the use of the skid and common drag-chain are too well known to need comment here1 only that it may not be amiss to remark1 en passant1 that1 conducting your waggon down the edge of a steep hollow1 or ravine1 you must have your shoe placed on the wheel away from the drop side4 ,never use your drag-chain when you can safely do without it1 as1 by confining the wheel in one position during the descent of steep pitches1 the portion of the tire in contact with the ground will be seriously ground and cut up4 ,all comparatively light carts and waggons should have the lever friction breaks before mentioned attached to them4 ,these contrivances are simple in construction1 powerful in action1 and1 by allowing a certain amount of retarded action to the wheel1 many advantages are gained4 ,illustration3 ,a-,e ,the detail of the break arrangement varies greatly in the different countries in which it is used2 but the illustration on p4 #ddc will serve to show the principle on which it is constructed4 ,the roller 7,a7 has two stout pieces of hide rope wound round it4 ,these are attached to the break-bar 7,b71 which slides forward and back under the staples 7,c74 ,by depressing the end of the lever 7,d7 and hooking down its end1 the friction blocks 7,e7 are drawn against the surfaces of the wheel tires and retained there with just as much force as is thought requisite4 ,the movements of a waggon train furnished with these contrivances are not retarded and rendered irregular by the constant and harassing stoppages consequent on the leading waggoners skidding and unskidding4 ,on the crest of a steep descent being reached1 all the teamster has to do is to heave down his lever to the required pitch1 and hook on without stopping his team4 ,on getting near the bottom he unhooks1 and is prepared to move smartly up on the rise before him1 all the other waggons following his example4 ,in this way there is no check4 ,in going down dangerously-steep inclines it is a good plan to attach a short bushy tree of good weight1 root end forwards1 by a strong rope or chain to the hind axle4 ,illustration ,makeshift break4 ,a very effective makeshift break can be made by cutting a tough1 stout pole1 long enough to extend some distance beyond the diameter of the wheel to be dragged4 ,lash the ends of the pole to the framework of the waggon1 so as to nip the wheel1 as shown in the accompanying illustration4 ,almost any amount of nipping power may be gained by tightening the lashings4 ,a large exploring party1 or troops on the march1 can also1 when requisite1 make use of drag ropes1 by which to ease a load down a difficult place4 ,when it is desirable to completely lock a pair of wheels1 cut down a young tree of suitable size1 trim off the branches1 and cut it to a length sufficient to pass directly across the bottom of the waggon1 through the spokes of each of the wheels to be locked1 and extend a couple of feet or so beyond the nave of each wheel a few turns of rope round both the tree and the felloe of the wheel prevents the arrangement from slipping4 ,this is a very good plan to adopt when a waggon has to be stopped for any time in the middle of a very steep incline4 ,the two wheels on one side of a short-bodied carriage may be locked by applying a rope or chain1 as shown in the annexed illustration4 ,by treating both sides alike all four wheels would be locked1 as when waggons are drawn up to resist attacking ,indians1 only that chain must be used in order to prevent the locking from being cut free1 and the waggon being started out of its place4 ,illustration ,illustration ,substitute for wheels4 ,if one wheel of a four-wheeled carriage gets broken on a journey1 or when some distance out of camp1 and there is no spare wheel to replace it1 make the two fore wheels good1 leaving the deficiency with the hind axle2 then cut down a tree about #h;in4 or #i;in4 in diameter1 cut a deep notch in its large end1 lay this on the axle directly inside the fore wheel on the side towards the absent hind wheel2 measure the length of the tree1 and see that it is long enough to trail on the ground sledge1 runner fashion1 behind the carriage1 round up the ground end1 like the toe of a skate1 with your axe2 cut another notch on its upper surface for the end of the axle from which the broken wheel came to rest in4 ,now lash both the front and hind axles in their places firmly1 as shown in the annexed illustration1 and you will be at least able to get to a convenient place to effect a perfect repair2 and here we would advise the reader never to despair of making a successful mend in almost any case of breakages among wheeled carriages1 provided wood1 a few tools1 and raw hide can be obtained4 ,a raw hide band1 properly fitted on wet1 and allowed to dry gradually1 is little less reliable than good wrought iron1 and far more so than bad4 ,waggon equipment4 ,every wheeled carriage used in exploring or travelling long journeys should have its own grease box secured in a convenient situation2 just above and before the near fore wheel is a good place4 ,the form of the common ,indian bamboo grease box is shown at p4 #cei1 illustration ,no4 #c4 ,a good-sized ox-horn makes a convenient grease box4 ,a mixture of ,stockholm tar1 #flb41 and fat1 #alb41 makes a good grease4 ,if a little common plumbago can be got to put into it1 so much the better4 ,in countries where native vegetable oils are abundant1 they may be used1 instead of the fat1 to mix with the tar4 ,bear in mind that keeping the wheels well greased is a duty of no common importance4 ,in hot countries it is an excellent plan to work the naves of the wheels over with strong twine1 just as boys work balls in some parts of ,england4 ,the twine-work affords a holdfast for a thick layer of wet cowdung1 or clay1 which should be renewed whenever the waggons are stationary for the day or night4 ,we never omit this custom when it can be by any possibility adhered to4 ,by keeping the nave moist the spokes of the wheel remain tight4 ,it is a good plan to well water the ground under each wheel when encamping on very dry ground4 ,the treatment of injured wheels will be found at pp4 #bai1 #bbj4 ,when any of the ironwork of your waggon becomes bent from an upset1 or other accident1 never attempt to straighten it cold4 ,light a fire1 heat it to a red heat1 hammer it back to its proper form1 and then let it cool gradually before putting it in its place4 ,plunging it suddenly in cold water is apt to render the metal brittle4 ,in the purchase of all iron fittings for either waggon work or horse equipment1 about which we shall have more to say as our work proceeds1 insist on seeing it1 without paint or varnish1 bare from the forge1 as you can then see that there are no hollows1 cracks1 or defects in it4 ,it is wonderful what a number of shortcomings a good thick coat of coal-tar will cover when laid on over the hot metal4 ,avoid malleable cast iron as you would a broken limb4 ,it cannot be bent without the danger of nipping off short4 ,when broken1 it cannot be welded or faggoted up4 ,it is not reliable in any way1 and is a mere delusion and snare to the unwary2 and yet1 incredible as it may appear1 not only the greater portion of the cheap horse equipment iron sent to the colonies is made from it1 but we have ourselves seen more than one attempt made by unscrupulous contractors to introduce it in ,government work1 where wrought metal had been specially insisted on and agreed for4 ,an experienced man will generally detect the nature of the material at once1 but the inexperienced requires some rough and ready way of judging of the quality of that which he is about to purchase4 ,buckles1 ,d's1 rings1 hooks1 c41 will not unfrequently show the mark of the mould in which they were cast4 ,if there is no such mark1 take one of the suspected objects in the tongs1 put it on an anvil1 and with a light hammer knock it about a little to see if it breaks up2 as a further test put it in the forge fire1 heat it to a bright red heat1 cut and open out the object to its full length1 and then proceed1 with your hammer1 to draw out the end1 as if you were going to make a long sharp nail from it4 ,if the suspected metal is wrought iron it readily takes the spike form1 but if malleable it will give under the hammer and break up4 ,too much care cannot be exercised in the selection of all matters of iron intended to meet the vicissitudes of rough travel4 ,the iron of ,sweden1 ,russia1 and ,india is excellent when it is obtained of native manufacture4 ,its admirable purity and toughness partly depend on the quality of the ore from which it is obtained1 but mainly from the absence of sulphur in its composition4 ,this arises from charcoal being used as a fuel for smelting instead of the coal made use of in this country1 which1 from its containing considerable quantities of sulphuret of iron 7the mundic of the miners71 is but ill-adapted for the production of iron of high quality4 ,thoroughly good iron is convertible and reconvertible into an endless number of objects of usefulness4 ,thus1 the links of an old chain make excellent staples2 these1 when broken1 can be worked up into nails1 and pieces of these1 when filed up1 are used to make goad points and many other things4 ,every waggon should have its odd and end box for small matters in iron1 such as linch pins1 ,s hooks1 ,d's1 spikes1 union links1 c41 c4 ,all these are worth their weight in gold in a wild country1 and must1 therefore1 be kept carefully out of the reach of natives4 ,field artillery4 ,the settler in the vicinity of a frontier beyond which native tribes1 who may become hostile at any time1 reside will not unfrequently find it useful to know how field artillery and the waggons belonging to it are handled in cases of breakage4 ,well-organised labour will perform more in a few minutes than would double the amount of force in hours expended in ill-directed efforts4 ,works exclusively on artillery matters rarely reach the hands of any save officers in that branch of the service4 ,we1 therefore1 give the following directions for the management of disabled field artillery1 furnished by ,general ,lefroy1 ,r4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 in his handbook of ,field ,artillery ,service4 ,,case ,i4--,,gun ,,without ,a ,,waggon--,,carriage ,,disabled4 7#a47 ,dismount the gun4 7#b47 ,nos4 #b and #c put a handspike in the muzzle1 and raise it4 ,nos4 #d and #e take a prolonge or drag rope1 pass it in the rear of one trunnion and in front of the other1 and sling the gun securely to the limber hook2 then pass the long end of the rope between the boxes to the front4 ,nos4 #f and #g steady the wheels4 ,nos4 #h and #i raise and hold up the shafts whilst #d and #e sling the gun4 ,as soon as the gun is slung1 #h and #i haul down the shafts1 and hold them about the same height they would be if a horse was hooked in them4 ,nos4 #f and #g then take the long end of the rope left by #d and #e1 and bring it down at the end of the box frame1 close to the boxes under the breech of the gun about the vent astragal1 or between the frame and footboard1 according to the length of the gun1 so that the rope will have no tendency to slip off the carriage4 ,when #f has done this and handed the end of the rope to the other side to #g1 and put the first part of a reef knot on it1 #a gives the word ,bear down the muzzle1 when #b and #c bear down4 ,nos4 #f and #g take a turn round the breech1 bring the end of the rope up at the end of the box frame1 and secure it4 ,nos4 #h and #i now let down the shafts and leave them4 7#c47 ,the trail is now thrown round1 and the carriage is dismounted and turned over4 7#d47 ,to lift the carriage4--,nos4 #h and #i place themselves at the breast1 #f and #g at the axletree arms1 #d and #e at the cheeks of the carriage1 close to the axletree1 #b and #c at the trail1 #a in the shafts4 ,at the word ,lift1 the numbers all lift1 and carry the carriage to the rear of the limber1 and rest the breast on the rear of the boxes1 as far on as the front cap square bolts4 ,nos4 #h and #i then mount on the footboard1 and1 taking hold of the breast chains1 the whole of the numbers lift again1 and1 moving forward1 continue to lift until the elevating screw box rests on the rear of the limber boxes4 7#e47 ,no4 #a1 who has been in the shafts during the operation1 gives the proper directions for balancing the carriage4 7#f47 ,placing the wheels4--,nos4 #d and #e put on the washers and linch-pins2 the numbers on each side will put on the wheels dish down2 and the four lowest numbers will lash in rear1 and the four highest numbers in front4 ,nos4 #b and #c will then secure the trail to the handspike in the muzzle by the locking chain4 7#g47 ,lashing the carriage4--,nos4 #d and #e use the box lashings1 #f and #g the drag rope and breast chains4 ,the side-arms are laid on the top of the boxes close to or between the box guard irons and the carriage4 ,,case ,,ii4--,a ,,gun ,,with ,a ,,waggon--,,carriage ,,disabled4 7#a47 ,the gun and carriage are dismounted1 and the gun is slung as in the first case4 7#b47 ,the waggon and gun carriage are so placed that the rear of the waggon will be close to and in front of the carriage2 or1 in other words1 the gun carriage will be brought to the rear of the waggon1 and placed with the trail to the waggon before it is dismounted4 7#c47 ,the carriage is then turned upside down1 as in the first case4 7#d47 ,at the word ,prepare to lift1 #b and #c place themselves at the breast1 #d and #e at the axletree arms1 #f and #g at the cheeks1 and #h and #i at the trail4 ,at the word ,lift1 the carriage is lifted1 and the trail rested on the footboard4 ,nos4 #h and #i then jump up and seize the trail handles1 and at the next heave bring the trail on the rear box4 ,then1 lifting and moving forward1 they bring the trail eye near to the limber boxes1 but not to touch them4 ,in this position the cap square bolts will injure the lids of the boxes1 but by placing a piece of wood about #c;in4 or #d;in4 thick on the boxes it will raise the carriage clear4 7#e47 ,to unlash the waggon boxes and place the wheels4--,nos4 #b1 #d1 #c1 and #e unlash the rear boxes2 #f1 #h1 #g1 and #i the front boxes4 ,then the two extreme numbers and the two centre ones will each take one of the box lashings 7or #b1 #i1 #e1 and #f7 and lay them conveniently to where they are needed4 7#f47 ,placing the wheels4--,the four numbers on each side then lift the gun wheels1 dish inwards1 inside the rear wheels of the waggon1 and rest them on the axletrees4 ,nos4 #b and #c lash the wheels together at the rear4 ,nos4 #d1 #f1 #e1 and #g lash to the box handles4 ,nos4 #h and #i lash together in front1 and then fix the trail to the perch4 7#g47 ,the spare side-arms to be put in their proper places on the gun carriage1 and the others alongside the gun4 ,,case ,,iii4--,a ,,gun ,,axletree ,,arm ,,broken4 7#a47 ,the gun is slung under the limber1 as in ,cases ,i4 and ,,ii41 and the carriage is limbered up4 ,here it may be remarked that a piece of chain would answer best for slinging the gun1 because a rope sling takes up so much room that the trail eye is sometimes prevented from being keyed2 besides a rope may get chafed4 7#b47 ,to take off the disabled gun4--,no4 #b takes a handspike and passes it under the axletree close to the wheel4 ,it is manned at the other end by #h4 7#c47 ,nos4 #d and #f stand ready to take off the wheel2 #c1 #e1 #g1 and #i take hold of the highest part of the opposite wheel1 and place their feet against the lowest part1 to ease #b and #h4 ,at the word ,take off the wheel1 #b and #h lift2 the numbers on the opposite side pull over2 #d and #f take the wheel off the axletree1 but hold it in such a position that the axletree will pass between the spokes1 where it is to rest1 and they remain to keep the wheel steady4 7#d47 ,nos4 #b and #h then take a stout spar1 about #ab;ft4 or #ad;ft4 long1 and pass it under the axletree and secure it to a piece of wood in the trunnion holes and to the cheeks of the carriage4 7#e47 ,the numbers on the opposite side place the wheel1 dish side up1 on the limber boxes2 and all the numbers assist to secure it--#b1 #c1 #d1 and #e in rear1 #f1 #g1 #h1 and #i in front4 ,,case ,,iv4--,a ,,gun ,,and ,,waggon--,,the ,,gun ,,limber ,,disabled4 7#a47 ,this case can only occur when a gun and its waggon are by themselves2 for if two or more guns and waggons are acting together1 a waggon limber would be taken for the gun1 and then the case would be as ,no4 #f4 7#b47 ,unlimber and run the gun in rear of waggon4--,at this word #b and #c bear down the muzzle2 #d and #e man the wheels2 #f1 #g1 #h1 and #i man the trail2 and the gun is run in rear of the waggon1 with the trail eye under the rear axletree4 ,nos4 #h and #i pass the locking chain through the trail eye4 ,if it will not pass through1 it must be brought up at the side2 but it is better through the eye or handspike ring4 7#c47 ,limber up4--,nos4 #b and #c bear down the muzzle2 #d and #e man the wheels2 #f and #g raise the trail4 ,one of the next numbers passes the lock chain of the gun over the axletree of the waggon1 from rear to front1 across to #h1 who will pass it over the axletree from front to rear1 and1 assisted by #i1 will take a turn under the neck of the trail plate and round the returns4 ,it is then secured by its own hook4 7#d47 ,to remove and place the limber boxes4--,the limber will be lashed to the side of the waggon body by the numbers on that side on which the limber stands4 ,no4 #a in the shafts2 #b and #d unlash2 #f and #h untie the boxes1 and slip them a little to the rear4 ,the limber will then be lashed close to the waggon wheel in the centre of the limber1 in line with the axletree of the waggon4 ,no4 #a then lets down the shaft-prop4 ,nos4 #b and #d mount on the waggon1 and #f and #h on the footboard of the limber4 ,nos4 #b and #f lift one box on the top of the waggon wheel1 whence they will be assisted by #c and #e to place it on the rear box of the waggon body4 ,nos4 #d and #h will then lift on the other box1 and1 assisted by #g and #i1 place it on the front box of the waggon body1 the locks front and rear4 7#e47 ,dismount the limber4--,the limber is now moved forward a little4 ,nos4 #f and #g hold up the splinter bar4 ,nos4 #h and #i take out the shafts1 and lay them down2 then relieve #f and #g at the splinter bar1 who will take hold of the front part of the wheels1 and #d and #e the rear part1 #f and #g attending to the linchpins and washers4 ,nos4 #b and #c take hold of the rear of the limber1 and at the word ,take off the wheels1 #b1 #h1 #c and #i lift1 and #d1 #f1 #e and #g take the wheels off4 ,then the whole is laid on the ground4 7#f and #g47 ,the waggon boxes are unlashed and the wheels placed1 as in ,case ,,ii4 7#h47 ,the limber body is now turned upside down and placed on the top of the boxes of the waggon limber1 axletree to the rear by the whole of the numbers1 and secured behind by both of the limber box lashings1 and in front of the splinter bar and pitchells by the prolonges or fitting ropes4 ,nos4 #b1 #c1 #d1 and #e lashing behind1 and #f1 #g1 #h1 and #i in front4 ,the small box of spare linchpins and washers to be laid on the disabled limber by #h4 7#i47 ,the shafts are then placed1 one on each side1 between the disabled limber boxes and the guard irons of the waggon body1 point to the rear1 and secured by the pocket straps4 ,,case ,v4--,,waggon ,,limber ,,disabled4 ,this case is so similar to ,case ,,iv4 that the details would only be a repetition1 except when the word trail is used in ,case ,,iv4 use the word perch in this4 ,the waggon body being secured the same as the gun4 99 99 99 99 99 ,yoking or harnessing draught oxen4 ,in ,south ,africa1 the oxen draw from the neck1 or1 rather1 the yoke is laid upon the neck1 and is prevented from slipping backward by the hump1 which1 when the ox presses forward1 is pushed strongly against it4 ,the form of the yoke and its furniture is shown on p4 #bag4 ,the yoke is about #f;ft4 in length1 and #c;in4 thick4 ,in its centre is a strong staple1 through which are passed several turns of reim or hide thong1 to lace it to a corresponding ring on the dissel-boom 7,k71 or on the trek touw 7#h74 ,near each end are two mortices1 #c;in4 long1 #c_/d;in4 wide1 and about #a;ft4 apart1 through which to pass the jeuk skeis1 or yoke keys1 which keep it in place on the neck of the ox4 ,the ends should be rounded so as not to chafe the animal4 ,a knobbed head1 more or less ornamented1 keeps them from slipping through the mortices1 and on the outside edge of each key are cut two notches1 to receive the throat strap1 which is simply a double thong of softened hide1 so twisted as to leave a loop at each end4 ,this is hitched to the upper or lower notches to tighten or loosen it1 and it may be more nicely adjusted by twisting or untwisting it till it attains the required length4 ,the strap will readily be recognised on p4 #bag4 ,when the oxen are to be inspanned1 the span or team is driven to the waggon1 and the nooses of the reims or raw hide halters are thrown over the horns and tightened on the forehead4 ,the oxen are then arranged in pairs1 and held by one or more assistants1 as seen near waggon ,no4 #i1 on p4 #bih4 ,the driver then leads out the fore oxen1 lifts the yoke over the neck of the farthest1 hitches the throat strap into the nicks1 and then1 holding up the yoke with one hand1 with the other he draws forward the other ox1 and induces him to walk to his proper place under the yoke4 ,the voor looper1 or boy that leads them1 then holds the reims of the fore oxen so as to keep the trek touw tolerably tight1 while the other oxen are yoked1 as seen before waggon ,no4 #b1 on p4 #bih4 ,in outspanning the order is reversed1 the fore oxen being left to keep the trek rope tight till the very last4 ,an ox requires fully #h;ft4 to pull in2 therefore1 a trek touw for twelve oxen must be fully #dj;ft4 long1 as the two after oxen will be yoked to the dissel-boom1 and require no rope4 ,our accompanying sketch of ,cape oxen in their yokes will sufficiently show the arrangements4 ,a ,cape waggon is supposed to be loaded with about #bjjjlb4 of cargo1 but #cjjjlb4 is not uncommon1 and we have seen a waggon with #djjjlb4 start as lightly as could be wished1 though when it came on bad roads it was too heavy for the oxen4 ,the trek touw is usually of hide rope1 but hunters sometimes use chain and sometimes hempen rope1 either of which defy the teeth of jackals and hynas4 ,chain may1 perhaps1 gall the sides of the oxen1 but we have seen it used on long journeys without bad effect4 ,hemp is apt to rot1 from exposure to alternate wet and excessive dryness1 but we have seen it do good service4 ,with a hempen rope1 get a sailor to splice in all the rings before you leave the coast4 ,a ,hottentot will do well with a hide rope1 but not with one composed of hemp4 ,illustration3 ,,cape ,,ox ,,team4 ,in ,australia1 two-wheeled drays1 somewhat like the ,scotch cart1 are used4 ,they will sometimes carry #cjjjlb4 of wool over bad roads4 ,they are very handy1 but strain the necks of the pole oxen rather4 ,illustration ,sometimes1 only two oxen are used1 as in our sketch--sometimes1 six or more4 ,the yoke lies upon the neck1 like the ,african1 but is fastened by iron bows passed up through the yoke and keyed above it1 so that1 when once an ox is yoked1 nothing on earth can free him till the bow is removed4 ,the long bamboo whip of ,africa is unknown in ,australia4 ,the handle is short1 the lash long and heavy1 and is often terminated by a bit of silk1 to produce a more effective crack4 ,in many parts of ,spain1 the yoke is simply laid across the foreheads of the two oxen1 and lashed fast to the base of their horns4 ,this is not only a source of great discomfort to the animals1 but is an absolute waste of their muscular power2 for1 strong as the neck of an ox undoubtedly is1 that part of the spinal column which forms it cannot with impunity bear the continued heavy strain or the occasional concussions which might without injury be received upon the shoulder4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,swing ,,ox ,,goad4 ,in some parts of the world the yoke is laid across the back of the head1 and is lashed fast to the roots of the horns4 ,this plan is followed by some of the ,hispano-,americans1 who make use of an enormously long goad1 hung in a sling1 to drive the cattle with4 ,in addition to the point of the weapon a sharp dropper1 or bob1 is hung on in such a way that1 by lowering the shaft of the goad1 it may fall end downwards on the bullocks1 working too close to be attacked by the point4 ,the preceding illustration will serve to show the nature of this contrivance and the mode of fastening on the yoke4 ,illustration3 ,,german ,,ox ,,harness4 ,some of the ,germans adopt a much better plan4 ,they take a broad band of stout leather1 so stuffed and padded as to form a cushion1 and fit this upon the hump of the ox1 as shown in our sketch4 ,in each end of this are stout rings1 to which the traces are attached1 and there is a slight collar and a belly band to keep it from slipping in its place1 but the whole strain comes upon the part best able to support it1 i4e41 the shoulder hump2 and this simple gear has the advantage of being applicable to one or any number1 while the yokes can only be used for pairs of oxen4 ,remember that the prudent as well as the merciful man is merciful to his beast2 and if you want an animal to work for you1 take especial care that he is not galled nor incommoded by superfluous or ill-fitting gear1 nor fretted and irritated by unnecessary chastisement1 inflicted in such a manner that he cannot understand it4 ,if it is necessary to flog him1 take care to do it in such a manner that he can escape the punishment only by going to his work1 and discontinue it as soon as he really does so4 ,little good could result from our describing the various modes by which bullocks are harnessed in different parts of the world1 as the explorer will1 in great measure1 have to be guided in the selection of the way in which he intends to work his teams by the description of animal with which he is about to deal4 ,illustration2 ,a1 ,b ,humped cattle draw efficiently by either the ,german plan1 before described1 or the yoke and pin plan shown in the annexed illustration 7,a71 because a much larger amount of pressure comes on the anterior point of the hump1 or bearing point of the yoke piece1 than in any other direction1 the pin merely keeping the neck of the bullock in the proper position1 and regulating the line of draught2 whilst humpless cattle require1 in lieu of a collar1 either a neck bow1 as shown at ,b1 or some other mode of adjustment1 by which neck and shoulder power can be brought to bear4 ,the ,indian1 ,african1 and ,eastern cattle work according to the former rule1 whilst the ,english and ,australian draw by the latter4 ,the ,australian ox bow1 as we have before stated1 is usually composed of iron1 bent into the required form2 whilst that in general use throughout the western counties of ,england is made from a pole of tough wood1 commonly elm1 moulded to the requisite shape by the aid of heat4 ,the yoke should be made from some tough light timber1 and the neck bows of some wood not liable to splinter4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,harness ,,and ,,pack ,,animals4 ,whether mules or horses are selected for waggon and cart draught too much attention cannot be paid to the arrangement and fitting of the harness they are intended to work in2 and1 although the pattern will vary somewhat not only in every country1 but in every province1 the traveller passes through1 the leading principles remain much the same1 and whether the traces are of rope chain or leather1 the office they perform remains unaltered4 ,collars1 let the pattern be what it will1 require especial care in fitting1 as nothing tends more effectually to disable a harness animal 7mule or horse7 than a collar carelessly or injudiciously applied4 ,every animal in the team should have its own1 and on first selecting the collar for fitting so put it on that the collar strap can be buckled up to the last hole in the tongue strap4 ,when you have done this there should be room enough at the bottom of the collar in front of the animal's chest to pass the open hand when laid flat freely forward and back between the inside of the collar and the animal's neck4 ,when new collars are found to fit uneasily and chafe in particular places1 it is a common expedient among mule teamsters to lay the ill-fitting collar in water1 and allow it to soak for the night2 it is then taken out wet and fitted to the animal's neck1 to which it at once adapts itself4 ,much trouble is often experienced on long and toilsome expeditions from loss of condition and leanness of the animals causing the saddles and collars to fit badly and1 consequently1 cause severe sores4 ,take1 therefore1 plenty of curled hair stuffing with you1 in order that deficiencies in the padding may be from time to time made good4 ,when a collar is too large to be adapted to a thin neck by stuffing1 it will be well to cut a portion out of its centre at once1 which can be done by first measuring the excess of space roughly1 then take the collar off the animal2 lay it on a board or table1 and cut out evenly as much as is thought requisite1 and if on testing the collar it is found still too large1 cut out a little more from each side of the incision until the collar takes its proper bearing1 but take care that a proper medium is observed regarding the position of the lower end1 or bow1 of the collar4 ,if it hangs too far down the movements of the muscles of the shoulder are interfered with4 ,if it presses too far upwards the windpipe becomes unduly pressed on4 ,some persons use what is called crown pads for the top1 or ridge1 of the neck1 under where the narrow portion1 or crown1 of the collar rests4 ,these are sometimes made from sheepskin with the wool on1 but it will be better to get some moderately stout but smooth and soft leather4 ,cut this into pad pieces1 each of which may be #ac;in4 long and #h;in4 wide4 ,make a cut at each end of the pieces about #b-a_/b;in4 from the end of the pad1 extending it to about an inch from the centre4 ,then turn your pad1 and cut from the opposite side until only the inch of sound leather remains between the two cuts4 ,treat the other end of the pad in the same way1 and it will be fit for use4 ,a very tolerable makeshift collar and pair of hames may be made as follows3 ,collect a good quantity of reed1 either wheat or marsh reed2 cut off all the heads1 or tops1 leaving nothing but the clear shafts of the plant4 ,make these up in a bundle1 and place them to soak in water for one night4 ,measure the horse's or mule's neck for size of intended collar with a piece of cord2 lay this on the ground in the form and of the size of the collar2 then close to the string1 as it is placed on an even spot1 drive in a double row of long pegs at about #f;in4 apart2 then proceed to lay in your reed between the two walls of pegs1 so disposing the reeds that too many ends do not appear at any one place2 continue to lay in reeds1 working them round the ends of the oval and thumping them well down in their places1 until sufficient substance has been gained for the fore part of the collar2 then1 with fine twine1 proceed to bind the reeds firmly together by lashing them spirally4 ,now make a second reed collar just as you did the first1 only let it be larger and more bulky2 and1 with a packing needle and twine1 sew the two collars together1 one on the other--that first made on the top4 ,now try the united collars on the animal1 the large collar being next the shoulder4 ,see that there is plenty of space below the windpipe in front of the chest when it is made to fit at both top and bottom4 ,line the inside of the bearing or large collar with soft pliant leather laid over a layer of soft moss1 fine cocoa fibre1 fur of animals1 or anything else you can get calculated for stuffing purposes4 ,a piece of hide laid on and sewn wet will cover the outsides of both collars2 but whilst it is drying the hames should be fastened in the groove formed by stitching the two collars together4 ,illustration ,the hames are made as follows3 ,get two well-seasoned pieces of tough strong wood2 cut them to the shape of the curve and length of the collar1 and fashion them as shown in the annexed illustration4 ,a is the trace hame-tug1 formed of a loop and several turns of raw hide2 ,b is the hame strap fork1 below which an oblong square hole is cut for the strip of hide forming the hame strap to pass through2 ,c is the lower end of the hame cut into hook form1 to admit of its being securely lashed with hide strips to its fellow on the opposite side4 ,breast straps may be used in lieu of a collar and hames4 ,when starting on an expedition take plenty of harness leather with you4 ,raw hide and strips of sinew are admirable for repairs1 but good tanned and curried leather is needed for the harness itself4 ,the illustration on next page represents a very useful and plain set of mule harness1 and also the way in which a long rope or lasso is used for securing a refractory mule to the side of a waggon whilst the harness is being put on4 ,some mules are so dangerously skilful in the use of their fore and hind feet1 that even an accomplished prizefighter might view their feats in the art of attack with envy4 ,to guard against the effects of this objectionable skill1 we proceed as follows3 ,throw the running noose end of your lasso over the mule's head1 and let it settle well over his neck2 then edge him quietly away until he is standing stem and stern with the waggon on the near or left-hand side2 then1 keeping well before your mule1 pass the free end of the lasso between the upper spokes of the near fore wheel2 draw out your end by walking backwards with it1 keeping up a steady strain until you walk in a wide circle well outside the range of mules' heels2 slip dexterously behind the wheel and tail of the waggon1 keeping your lasso tight all the while2 then pass your lasso end1 from without1 inwards between the spokes of the near hind wheel2 haul taut and belay4 ,there are very few mules that cannot be successfully handled in this way4 ,the guide as to the proper height of the lasso is given by the point of elbow and the line of the stifle joint4 ,if the mule is a small one1 choose lower spokes in the wheel than for a tall1 long-legged animal4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,a1 ,b ,the adaptation of hames to collars is almost as important as the fitting of the collars to the animals4 ,hames are sometimes made of wood fitted with iron work1 but they are far better when made from good tough wrought iron4 ,here we again say1 beware of malleable cast4 ,during the rough work of a campaign hames are constantly getting broken1 particularly at the union of the ring point and the blade of the hame4 ,the old pattern used by our horse artillery and field batteries was especially objectionable1 as the point of union 7shown in the above illustration at ,a7 was so unmechanically effected that incessant trouble and constant breakage was the result4 ,we have submitted to the ,horse ,guards authorities that which we believe to be a far more durable and efficient pattern 7as shown at ,b1 p4 #dfj74 ,the hames now in use are certainly better than they were at the commencement of the ,crimean war2 but those which we used during our long forced marches in ,india during the mutiny were very far from being perfect4 ,illustration3 ,a1 ,b ,we1 some time since1 invented and patented a very simple contrivance1 by which a fallen or disabled horse or mule could be instantly freed from the tension of the traces without cutting or unbuckling4 ,the latter operation1 by-the-bye1 it is next to impossible to perform1 from the strain on the trace4 ,by the use of our slip 7represented in the accompanying illustration7 the trace can be released by turning up the pendulum 7,a7 until it matches with the slot 7,b71 when it drops out to the front1 and forms a cross handle1 like that of a corkscrew1 to draw the lock pin by4 ,the instant the pin is drawn as far as it can be pulled out1 the trace is detached from the ring of the hame4 ,the lock pin cannot be lost1 as it can only be drawn out to a certain distance--in fact1 just far enough to free the trace from its hold4 ,much mischief is done to team animals by having bits of insufficient substance and solidity4 ,see that they are of sufficient diameter to prevent cutting1 and that they are long enough from cheek to cheek to prevent pressure on the angles of the mouth and lips4 ,see also that the bit is so attached to the headstall that the corners of the mouth are not drawn up by it4 ,let the throat latch be long enough to see plenty of daylight under1 or1 by drawing on the headstall1 the poll of the head may be severely rubbed and a poll evil established4 ,the nature of this injury will be fully dealt with under the head of ,veterinary ,surgery4 ,if bearing reins are used at all1 see that they are slack4 ,a good store of anti-friction pads will be found of the greatest value on the march to keep such portions of the harness as are found to rub the skin of any animal in the team from doing further mischief4 ,these are made of very soft pliant leather1 stuffed with soft curled hair4 ,seven inches long by #d-a_/b;in4 wide1 and #b-a_/b;in4 thick1 will be found a convenient size4 ,they are secured between the strap causing irritation and the skin by bits of thong fastened to their backs for the purpose4 ,galls from saddles or collars are not unfrequently caused by some hard and uneven point of bearing4 ,when this is the case1 take a long sharp-pointed instrument1 pass it through the leather or woollen1 and1 by working it about and pushing in every direction1 force the stuffing back until a cavity much larger than the gall is formed2 thump the covering over and into the cavity well with the round end of a tool handle until it fits the injured spot without pressure4 ,never allow teamsters or drivers to tie knots in straps of any kind with a view to shortening them4 ,insist on more holes being punched for the buckle tongue1 or the cutting of the strap to the proper length4 ,knotted straps and serious galls go hand in hand4 ,in adjusting your traces to the swingle trees1 see that there is length enough given them when slack for the swingle tree to reach just sufficiently far down the back of the hind leg to cross half-way between the point of the hock and the hollow of the heel4 ,as the trace is tightened1 there will then be enough space for the animal to move his legs freely in4 ,watch him as he walks off1 and see that nothing touches him behind at full stride4 ,there are more kickers made by ill-adjusted swingle trees than any other cause4 ,the weaker the animal is1 the more liable he is to get his hind legs battered by the bar1 as he lacks spirit and energy to keep well clear of it4 ,the bar is1 however1 his enemy from that time1 and it is difficult to make him forget past sorrows4 ,illustration ,chains and links4 ,waggon chains of one sort and another often snap when it is highly inconvenient to repair them4 ,keep1 therefore1 in your odd and end box a good number of union links1 made as shown in the above illustration4 ,they are forged rather flat1 stouter in proportion than the chain they are intended to unite1 in order to guard them against opening4 ,a leather thong or tie1 with a toggle end1 is passed through the slots at the two ends of the union1 in order that the links may not come out when the chain is slack4 ,the looped ends of ropes are conveniently attached to chains1 or chains to standing rings1 by these union links4 ,the illustration on p4 #dfb represents one of them uniting the ends of two chains4 ,pack animals4 ,pack animals are of the greatest service and value to the explorer1 as they travel easily through tracts of country which are impassable for wheeled carriages of all descriptions4 ,horses1 ponies1 mules1 donkeys1 oxen1 elephants1 camels1 dromedaries1 lamas1 goats1 and dogs are all1 more or less1 used as pack animals in different countries2 and no two can be found in which the pack saddle and its gear will exactly correspond4 ,the nature of the ground to be passed over1 and the description of load to be carried1 will in great measure call for some special arrangement in the form and adjustment of the gear4 ,for the use of a well-organised exploring or hunting party1 provided with horses or mules1 we know of no pack saddle equal to that described and figured at pp4 #be and #cf4 ,saddles of this description1 although admirably adapted for carrying the well-made and evenly-formed bags of the explorer1 would not answer to the requirements of the professional packer1 who carries objects of every imaginable shape1 from a bundle of pick-heads1 or a case of bottled ale1 to a barrel of powder4 ,for the safe transport of such matters as these no saddle is better than the ,hispano-,american pack saddle4 ,no people in the world understand the management and packing of mules as well as the ,spaniards and their descendants4 ,the foundation of the ,spanish pack saddle may be said to be the aparejo1 which is1 so to speak1 a framework for the back of the mule composed entirely of hide4 ,its form is represented at ,a in our illustration entitled ,horse ,equipments4 ,each side flap of the aparejo is composed of a double layer of hide1 with space sufficient between the layers to introduce an efficient stuffing of hay1 dry moss1 fibre1 or other stuffing material4 ,the cushions or side pads1 when stuffed1 should be about #c;ft4 #h;in4 long by #b;ft4 #h;in4 wide4 ,each flap and side cushion will thus constitute one side of the saddle body4 ,these1 when stitched together at the top1 will form a sort of hollow ridge within which the backbone will rest free from pressure and friction4 ,the aparejos of the ,andalusian muleteers who1 with their mules1 accompanied us from ,spain to the ,crimea had layers of small twigs disposed between the stuffing of the panels and the covering of hide1 so that the riata1 or rope used in securing the load1 was prevented from cutting grooves in the padding4 ,each of these aparejos weighed1 when new and dry1 #celb4 ,on the inside of each cushion leather a hole is left1 through which the material constituting the stuffing can at any time be got at4 ,the careful packer will constantly avail himself of this orifice1 in order that such portions of stuffing as may become shifted and worked up into hard lumps by the movements consequent on travel may be redistributed and evenly disposed of4 ,the above illustration represents this aparejo when placed on the back of the mule4 ,illustration ,next the skin of the animal is placed a piece of soft well-washed canvas1 #d;ft4 #f;in4 square2 on this is then laid three layers of thick woollen blanket2 on these layers1 the true saddle cloth--the corona of the packers4 ,this is made of stout woollen cloth1 with fringed1 worked1 and ornamented borders4 ,the corners of each of these cloths bear on them the letter or number of the mule to which it belongs4 ,when removed from the mule1 it is placed with the saddle gear on or under the aparejo1 so that every mule can be at once fitted with his own trappings4 ,illustration3 ,,group ,,of ,,harness4 ,to secure the aparejo1 and the cloths beneath it1 to the mule's back1 a wide girth1 called a synch1 is used4 ,this may be composed either of hide1 grass1 cloth1 or common sail canvas doubled4 ,its edges should be sewn in a broad hem4 ,the width may be about #ac;in41 and the length not sufficiently great to go round the mule's body1 over the aparejo and cloths under it4 ,one end of this girth has a ring sewn into it1 and the other a bent stick of natural growth1 as shown at ,b in full-page illustration of ,horse ,equipments4 ,to tighten the synch by drawing the two ends together1 a long strip of well-greased thong is used4 ,this is passed several times through both ring and wooden eye1 after one end has been made fast4 ,by powerful and continuous hauling on the free end1 the ring and eye are at length drawn close enough together below the saddle to make all secure4 ,a loop is then formed in the free end1 and the bow pulled under the forward and back lashings of the thong4 ,when the synch is to be relaxed1 it is only necessary to pull on the free end to set all free4 ,pack ropes and saddles4 ,two ropes are used for lashing on the load4 ,one is called the riata1 and should be of pliant1 evenly-spun #b-a_/b-;in4 rope1 #gjyds4 long2 the second1 or sling rope1 is best made of stout patent sash line4 ,forty feet will be found long enough for a sling rope4 ,no written directions or pictorial illustration will give the least idea how to lash fast the heterogeneous objects constituting a general pack load2 nothing but experience and ingenuity in the handling of rope will ever teach the traveller how to form the intricate spider-web-like lashing1 interlacing1 and cross-binding1 which by a professional ,spanish or ,mexican packer are woven until as tense as a harp string4 ,cross-tree saddles4 ,the ,hudson's ,bay ,company and many traders and explorers in ,north ,west ,america make use of the so-called cross-tree saddle for transporting their peltries and stores4 ,one of these is shown at ,c in our full-page illustration representing ,horse ,equipments4 ,the girth for that description of saddle has two sets of holes made in it1 so that the ends may be laced together by the use of a strip of hide1 represented at ,d4 ,tightening harness4 ,a good number of narrow flat battens of tough wood and bundles of twigs will be found very useful for placing between the load ropes and load1 as in the case of bags containing soft substances1 or articles likely to be crushed in1 a groove is at once formed by the tension of the strained rope1 and without some interposing medium no little mischief is done4 ,when a rope is found loose from any cause1 it can be tightened by thrusting a short curved stick into the loop formed by the slack part1 when1 by twisting the lever round and round1 the required tension is soon gained4 ,when packing a mule or adjusting a disarranged pack it is well to partially blindfold the animal4 ,this is done by the ,spaniards by the use of a contrivance called a tapajo1 represented at ,e in the full-page illustration of ,horse ,equipments4 ,the hind strap of this is placed behind the ears1 just as the head strap of a halter would be4 ,the leather part hangs before the mule's eyes1 whilst the fringe-like tails hang down at the sides4 ,when not on a mule's head1 the tapajo is used instead of a whip by placing the forefinger through the ring in its middle4 ,bell mules4 ,in travelling through a country tolerably free from large animals of prey or hostile ,indians1 it will not be requisite to hobble a large train of mules during the night1 as they will not stray far from the hobbled bell mare4 ,this animal leads the march by day and keeps the mulada together at night4 ,a gelding not uncommonly takes the place of the mare as the bearer of the bell4 ,white or grey animals should be selected to perform this duty4 ,never1 on any account1 allow a stud mule to accompany your band2 he rarely thrives1 is always ready for a fight1 and is as bad as an enraged wild beast when fairly roused4 ,it is not wise to work mules hard until after three years old--four1 five1 and six are better ages to buy at4 ,hints to mule buyers4 ,examining a strange or ill-tempered mule's teeth with a view to ascertaining his age is at times rather a risky operation4 ,to do this1 put on a blind1 get a halter put on the mule's head2 stand well in against the near fore-shoulder1 pass the right hand gently up the neck1 patting the animal as it goes until you are enabled to take a steady firm grip of the root of the ear with your right hand2 then1 with your left1 seize quickly1 but tightly1 on the upper lip and nose4 ,do this quickly and resolutely1 guarding against a blow from the fore-foot1 and you will probably get a glance of the front teeth1 or incisors1 and see if the corner tooth is temporary or permanent4 ,another piece of important information will be gained at the same time1 and that is whether the dentition of the upper jaw is free from deformity4 ,it sometimes happens that both mules and horses are what is called overhung or parrot-beaked1 which simply means that the upper row of front teeth projects so far beyond the lower that the two rows can by no effort of the animal be brought in contact4 ,this defect is often overlooked1 but when present is a fruitful source of loss of condition and consequent weakness1 as food1 easily gathered by animals with naturally-formed rows of teeth1 is all but lost to the unfortunate possessor of a parrot-mouth4 ,see1 too1 that the tongue is perfect4 ,mules for packing purposes should not be too large or high on their legs4 ,some of those which accompanied us from ,andalusia to the ,east were #af hands and over2 whilst the great majority of the trains we worked in ,central ,india were very little larger than common donkeys1 and certainly less than a great many we have seen in ,egypt4 ,the experience of the last ,american war has shown that the ,hispano-,mexican mules are a most hardy and valuable strain4 ,speaking of these animals1 the superintendent of the ,government mule corral at ,washington says3--,there is in ,old as well as ,new ,mexico a class of mules that are known to us as ,spanish-,mexican mules4 ,these mules are not large1 but for endurance they are very superior1 and1 in my opinion1 cannot be excelled4 ,i am not saying too much when ,i assert that ,i have seen nothing in the ,united ,states that could compare with them4 ,they can apparently stand any amount of starvation and abuse4 ,i have had these ,spanish mules in a train of twenty-five six mule teams1 and starting from ,fort ,leavenworth1 ,kansas1 on ,colonel 7since ,general7 ,sumner's expedition in #aheg1 have travelled to ,walnut ,creek1 on the ,santa ,f route1 a distance of #cjj miles in nine days1 and this in the month of ,august4 ,the usual effects of hard driving1 ,i noticed1 showed but very little on them4 ,i noticed1 also1 along the march1 that with a halt of less than three hours1 feeding on grass that was only tolerably thick1 they will fill up better and look in better condition for resuming the march than one of our ,american mules that had rested five hours and had the same forage4 ,the breed1 of course1 has something to do with this2 but the animal is smaller1 more compact than our mules1 and1 of course1 it takes less to fill him up4 ,it stands to reason that a mule with a body half as large as a hogshead cannot satisfy his hunger in the time it would take a small one4 ,this is the secret of small mules outlasting large ones on the prairies4 ,it takes a large one so long to find enough to eat when grass is scanty that he has not time enough for rest or recuperation4 ,i often found them leaving camp in the morning quite as hungry and discouraged as they were when we halted the previous evening4 ,with the small mule it is different4 ,he gets enough to eat quickly1 and has time to rest and refresh himself4 ,the ,spanish or ,mexican mules1 however1 are better as pack animals than for a team4 ,they are vicious1 hard to break1 and two-thirds of them kick4 ,these observations of the superintendent are highly practical1 and well worth bearing in mind in the purchase of pack mules4 ,we are of opinion1 however1 that there are other qualities to be found in small well-formed animals1 apart from the comparatively small amount of food required to support them4 ,activity1 endurance1 and muscular power do not1 so far as our experience has enabled us to judge1 increase in the ratio of size2 and the great majority of noteworthy and remarkably clever performances under saddle or pack related by hunters and explorers have been achieved by animals of comparatively small size4 ,we do not think that even the ,english hunter will be found an exception to the rule4 ,often have we devoutly wished that it might be our good fortune to possess a #af-;hand horse with going and staying qualities1 equal in proportion1 size for size1 to those of a sturdy1 but very tiny cob we were once 'cute enough to select from a drove fresh from the wilds of ,bulgaria4 ,we conceive that a well-formed mule--that is to say with clear bright eyes1 hocks not inclined to give in like those of a cow1 stout muscular haunches1 a short back1 and dark small compact feet--should1 for average service1 be about #ad hands high1 and weigh about #h;cwt4 ,avoid all spotted1 dappled1 or white mules4 ,these are1 among the packers1 known as painted or calico mules1 and are by no means as hardy as those of dark uniform colours4 ,mares are always to be preferred to horse mules4 ,they are more tractable1 and follow the bell mare better on the march4 ,hints on mule equipment4 ,about #adjlb4 is as much as a mule of average power can travel well with from day to day4 ,never start a mule train without looking carefully at each mule as he passes2 and if you see one of them raising his lips and twitching his mouth and nose depend upon it he is getting galled1 and requires looking to4 ,particular care should be taken that the halter heads fit easily across the back of the head1 and that1 in putting the halter on1 the ears of the mules are not injured or roughly handled4 ,nothing makes a mule so shy and disposed to be vicious as sore ears4 ,the halters used for pack mules are just such as we use in this country4 ,we1 however1 prefer leather head collars with ropes attached to them4 ,illustration ,hobbling cattle4 ,there are many ways of preventing horses and mules from straying from the spot at which they are intended to remain4 ,the ,indian method of picketing horses by the use of head and heel ropes is by far the best and most convenient we have ever had recourse to4 ,the heel hobbles--the subject of the accompanying illustration--are best made of stout tanned leather2 the inside surface should be lined1 and have a slight stuffing of curled hair put in to prevent friction2 one hobble end terminates in a leather loop2 the other1 in a leather toggle4 ,the heel ropes themselves should be made from soft flexible rope 7cotton is often spun into heel ropes72 the strands are opened and untwisted to a short distance1 in order that they may be securely stitched fast to each hobble4 ,at about #f;ft4 from the hobbles the two heel ropes are spliced together and form one tail rope1 which is secured round a peg driven into the earth4 ,two ropes attached to the head collar are also secured to pegs1 as shown in the illustration on p4 #dga4 ,when on the march each horse should carry his own head and heel ropes secured in a leather wrapper behind the saddle4 ,illustration ,head ropes may be conveniently fastened to the head collar by having a strap and buckle like that represented at ,a in the annexed illustration attached to the end of each rope1 if the other end is finished1 as shown at ,b4 ,one head rope left on when the horse is equipped for marching forms a convenient head-collar rope1 which can be coiled up and secured as shown at p4 #cg4 ,the ,cape hunters usually secure their horses during a temporary halt by the use of the knee halter4 ,the manner of adjusting this is shown at ,a in the following illustration4 ,in ,australia1 the hook hobbles1 figured at p4 #cc1 are adjusted as at ,b in the illustration below4 ,illustration3 ,,cape ,,knee ,,halter ,,and ,,australian ,,hobbles4 ,it is a common practice in the army to stretch a long rope between a number of posts1 and then secure the horses to it at intervals by fastening the ends of the head-collar chains4 ,we have seen mule trains in ,india fastened in a similar manner to a long cord stretched out on the ground4 ,although space is economised by the adoption of these plans1 they lead to an endless number of serious accidents from kicks1 bites1 and stake wounds from the splintered posts4 ,the addition in weight to the present scale of military horse equipment may be1 perhaps1 urged as a reason why the head and heel ropes of ,india have not been universally adopted by the troops of this country4 ,the result of our experience is that the very slight addition which is made to the burden by the strapping on of a pair of light strong head and heel ropes to the rear of the saddle is a mere mite in the balance when compared with the constantly recurring and serious evils we have just referred to4 ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,head ,,and ,,heel ,,ropes4 ,horses1 to tie up4 ,if you are without hobbles1 your horse or mule may be prevented from straying far by fastening the fore and hind leg on the same side together with a piece of rope or a couple of leather belts4 ,the two fore feet may be hobbled together in much the same manner1 allowing just a short scope for the animal to move one foot before the other4 ,in countries where the lasso is used either in the form of hide lasso or hair cabresto 7the manufacture of which will be treated of further on in our work71 a horse or mule may be secured by first putting the noose end over the head and adjusting the neck loop just to fit the small of the neck easily1 and then with the free or trail end taking a single hitch knot through the loop4 ,this prevents the noose from running up and strangling the animal should it become suddenly alarmed and hang back4 ,mustangs1 however1 very rarely hang on a lasso after once experiencing its powers4 ,never trust the security of your riding animal1 when either hunting or scouting1 to either the regulation head-collar chain or headstall-rope1 as1 should a sudden alarm from any cause arise1 your steed will in all probability give a sudden snort1 tuck his haunches well under him1 get his fore legs well to the front1 give his head a violent shake1 with one effort send all your head gear to the four winds1 and go scampering away perhaps for ever4 ,lassoes are not so easily broken4 ,if halting among trees or bushes fasten the trail end to a flexible branch2 if there are no bushes1 and you have a peg1 fasten the lasso to it4 ,if out on the prairies without a peg1 dig a deep hole in the earth with your knife2 tie a large knot in the end of the lasso1 force it to the bottom of the hole1 and then stamp the earth and turf well in over it4 ,on sandy desert ground the lasso end may be secured to any odd article1 such as a bag or blanket1 which may be then deeply buried in the sand4 ,an ox may be conveniently secured by passing two or three turns of a rope round the roots of the horns and then making a knot in front4 ,all ropes long enough to admit of the animal walking and feeding in a moderately large circle should have one of the forms of wooden swivel before described attached to it in order to prevent twisting and entanglement4 ,should a party of ,iceland horsemen wish to halt for a short time1 they place their horses with their heads together1 and heels forming the outer border of the circle2 the bridles are then looped and knotted together4 ,horses secured in this way cannot stray because no two animals pull in the same direction4 ,this plan will only answer with very quiet animals4 ,the entire horses of the ,east would fight desperately if thus brought in contact4 ,horses1 to lead4 ,large bands of horses may be driven or led in strings fastened head and tail1 or marched on what is called a waggon line4 ,this is a long strong rope fastened at each end to a cart or waggon1 sufficient distance being maintained between each vehicle to keep the rope moderately tight4 ,the halters of the horses to be led are fastened at convenient intervals along the line of the rope1 and as the waggons travel so the horses march in a line4 ,if there are many stores to be transported at the same time1 put them in the rear waggon1 as the line of marching horses aid greatly in drawing the load4 ,an arrangement of this kind is very convenient when a stampede from ,indians is to be dreaded4 ,embarking horses4 ,horses may be conveniently embarked by the use of the sling shown in the illustration on p4 #dgd4 ,the belly-band is made of very stout sail canvas1 mounted on two straight strong bars of wood4 ,the ropes1 which should be of thoroughly reliable #d-a_/b;in4 or #e;in4 rope1 after passing round under the edges of the belly-band1 are securely fastened to the ends of the bars1 and each terminates in a loop4 ,four strong rope loops are secured to the edges of the band for the breast and breech ropes to pass through4 ,one man holds the horse's head steady by the halter1 and1 if requisite1 adjusts a blind2 two men1 one on each side1 pass the rope loops through each other2 whilst others bring round the breast and breech ropes1 haul them up tight and double knot them4 ,at the word hook on1 the hook of a fall working from a derrick is passed through the upper loop and stopped with a piece of small stuff4 ,at a given signal the men on board at the tail of the fall1 walk smartly away with it1 and the horse moves rapidly aloft guided by two guy ropes until directly over the hatchway1 which should be well padded with bags of straw4 ,at the signal to lower away1 the horse is lowered steadily to the hold or lower deck1 where a deep bed of straw is spread1 and men wait to cast loose and conduct it to the stall allotted for its reception4 ,illustration3 ,,embarkation ,,sling4 ,in regularly-fitted horse transports1 boxes are not unfrequently fitted for the horses to walk into before being lowered in them4 ,sometimes1 when near the shore1 horses are allowed to swim to land4 ,the management of horses on board ship will be treated of under the head ,veterinary ,surgery4 ,illustration3 ,,hold ,,on1 ,,all6 ,pack animals and packs4 ,horses and ponies for packing should be of sturdy short-legged1 cobby breed4 ,a full-sized horse's pack for moderately fast and continuous travelling should not weigh more than about #abjlb4 ,a lively well-formed ox will carry about the same burden4 ,donkeys will carry from #ejlb4 to #fjlb41 according to size and condition4 ,a pair of strong cane or wicker panniers1 with lids made to hinge and lock1 and covered with stout waterproofed duck1 will be found very useful for putting in articles for immediate use4 ,cooking utensils1 food for the day1 and a change of dry garments1 are conveniently stowed away in these receptacles4 ,beware how you pack a number of rattling1 clattering pots1 pans1 and kettles loosely on a timid ox's back4 ,should sudden alarm seize him1 it will most probably lead to such a scene as is represented in the illustration on the opposite page4 ,camels4 ,camels and dromedaries are frequently most valuable to the traveller2 and1 although generally associated with the torrid zone and its belongings1 we see no reason why the camel should not be successfully acclimatised in many countries in which it is now practically unknown to the packer and traveller4 ,camel ,land has been said to embrace the ,canaries1 ,morocco1 ,algiers1 ,tunis1 ,tripoli1 the ,great ,desert1 ,egypt1 ,africa1 ,arabia1 ,turkey in ,asia1 ,persia1 ,cabool1 ,beloochistan1 ,hindoostan1 ,burmah1 ,thibet1 ,mongolia1 ,tartary in ,asia1 the ,crimea1 and a comparatively small tract of country in the neighbourhood of ,constantinople4 ,the camel has been kept and rendered available for general use on the estates of the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany1 at ,pisa1 for very nearly two centuries4 ,australia and ,america are1 we conceive1 particularly well calculated for the utilisation of the labours of the camel4 ,the opinion commonly entertained that the camel can only flourish in tropical lands is most erroneous4 ,the ordinary geographical range of this animal may be roughly stated as being between #ae and #eb of north latitude1 and #ae of longitude west of ,greenwich to about #abj east of it4 ,we have had opportunities of working camels of the ,bactrian1 ,arabian1 and ,saundney breeds1 under more than common vicissitudes of both climate and labour2 we have ridden1 muffled up in fur helmet and gloves1 through the deep snow1 where the woolly-coated ,bactrians1 crouching behind a sheltering rock1 discussed their meal of coarse steepe hay contentedly1 and were hardy to a degree2 we have seen the burden camels of ,egypt1 under huge loads1 trooping across the dry deserts of that land as if they were in their element2 we have performed over #cjjj miles of packing with ,indian camels1 and have taken part in most severe forced marches with ,saundneys1 carrying two men 7an ,englishman and a native71 a heavy saddle1 two sets of arms1 accoutrements1 and ammunition1 over difficult tracts of country bordering on the sandy desert regions of ,central ,india4 ,illustration ,harnessing camels4 ,although we have seen the camel harnessed much after the manner of an ox1 and used in draught1 it will rarely be found of much service to the explorer when used in harness3 as pack animals1 camels are invaluable4 ,a good form of camel pack saddle is given at ,f in our full-page illustration of ,horse ,equipments2 and the above diagrams will serve to show how ordinary camel riding saddles may be made4 ,any strong tough wood will answer for the uprights and side pieces2 the lashings are of raw hide2 the cushions1 or pads1 of leather1 stuffed with wool or curled hair2 the girths are of spun goats' hair2 and the breast strap is a wide band of plaited thongs4 ,some idea may be formed of the courage1 power1 and speed of the camel when we state that1 before the opening of the ,suez ,railway1 the mails were transported on camels' backs twice per month across the ,desert between ,grand ,cairo and the head of the ,red ,sea1 a distance of eighty-four miles1 without halting1 in about eighteen hours4 ,the weight of each camel-load 7four mail boxes1 c47 was about #cjjlb4 ,few matters of animal nomenclature have led to more confusion and misunderstanding than the terms camel and dromedary2 and this has mainly arisen from the distinction laid down by ,buffon1 who states that the camel has two humps1 whilst the dromedary has only one4 ,if this point of distinction were correct1 there would be no camels in ,egypt1 and one would have to travel to ,tartary and some remote parts of ,asia to find them2 and the dromedary1 and that only1 would be found in ,turkey1 ,arabia1 ,grand ,cairo1 ,africa1 and ,india4 ,amongst the ,arabs and ,egyptians the word gimel is applied to all the members of the genus--the term dromedary never being made use of4 ,an animal used exclusively for riding purposes is called a hagine4 ,it will1 therefore1 be convenient to follow their example1 and call a baggage animal of this family a camel1 and that used for riding purposes a hagine4 ,our space will not admit of our entering on the subject of camel breeding1 or the various crosses of breeds found in different parts of the world1 as1 like those of the horse1 they would fill a volume4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,cattle ,,marking4 ,in all large and imperfectly settled countries the use of a private mark1 or brand1 is most important1 not only as a means by which animals can be identified and recovered when lost1 but as the evidence of legal transfer and of particular breed or strain of stock4 ,animals are most commonly marked with either some conspicuous and tenacious pigment1 by slits or cuts of definite form made in the ear1 or by initials or some symbol branded with a heated iron on some part of the body4 ,sheep may be both ear-marked and lettered with either red or black paint4 ,the lettering is easily and expeditiously effected by the use of the cover or bottom of an old biscuit tin4 ,lay your sheet of tin on the table1 and with the point of your knife sketch out the outline of the letter or letters you have determined on as your mark1 taking care that they are of conspicuous size2 then with a mallet and chisel cut out the letters4 ,you will then have a sort of stencilling sheet2 cut it to a convenient size1 nail a piece of wood to it for a handle1 and your marker is complete4 ,place it against your sheep1 paint over the outside of the plate with a large paint-brush1 and your mark is made in an instant4 ,your sacks1 bags1 and boxes can be marked in the same manner with the same contrivance4 ,a herd of cattle can be temporarily marked by a newly-arrived settler in a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes1 as follows3 ,procure a waggon whip handle or a long pole2 then lash to its end a round ball of either hide1 with the hair on1 or a bit of old blanket1 fixing on your ball to the stick just as the striker of a drum-stick is made4 ,dip this in a pot of paint or tar1 and then put it adroitly against the haunch or shoulder of the animal to be marked4 ,give it a sudden sharp twist round1 and there will be instantly formed a round ball-like spot4 ,with a lot of timid newly-purchased cattle1 with which you are anxious to move off at once1 the above plan will be found a good one4 ,a native herdsman would despise such means of recognition2 and many of the colonial farmers would know individually every horse1 ox1 or sheep in their possession1 just as we know by expression of the countenance or peculiarity of figure any person among our own acquaintance2 and we have even heard of a case in which the calf of a cow1 that had been stolen many years before1 was recognised by its resemblance to its mother1 and the theft thus traced out and detected4 ,the cutting of marks in the ear seems to be the more primitive and1 perhaps1 the easier1 as involving less need of tools or apparatus2 but it is difficult to give sufficient variety to enable many farmers to have each a distinctive mark4 ,one slit1 or more1 in the right or left ear1 a swallow-tail in one and a slit in the other1 or a hole punched with a wad cutter1 are among the most common2 but all are liable to be torn off by dogs or wild animals2 and the hole in the ear is especially objectionable1 as the creature itself is almost sure to tear it through by scratching with his hinder foot4 ,moreover1 almost all are liable to be altered should the marked property fall into dishonest hands2 and most farmers1 and1 it may be said1 all traders1 now employ the branding iron--fashioned to represent either their own initials or some arbitrary sign1 as a cross1 a square1 a triangle1 a circle or any segment of it1 a star of any particular number of rays1 the figure formed by crossing two triangles 7as here shown74 ,illustration ,in ,america1 and some other countries1 it is requisite on the purchase of animals--horses and mules especially--that the traveller should not only get a receipt for his purchase money1 but get indorsed on it by the seller his acknowledgment of the new owner's counter-brand1 in manner as follows3 ,received of ,capt4 ----1 the sum of ---- dollars1 in payment for a brown mare mule4 ,seller's brand1 ,o4 ,b42 buyer's brand1 ,w4 ,signature1 c4 ,the new brand should be placed under the old one1 and unless these precautions are taken the new purchaser stands a very excellent chance of having his recently-acquired stock seized on at some frontier post1 and detained until the legality of the transfer has been ascertained4 ,it is sometimes agreed on that the owner shall renounce all claim to an animal by reversing his own brand above that originally made by him1 thus1 reverse,b_/,a--inverted,a_/,b ,there are tales1 however1 of certain dwellers at a distance from the law who have acquired considerable skill in altering the marks of any stray cattle that may fall into their hands1 and this is an operation requiring no little skill1 for should the mark be old1 an iron made too hot will burn the addition in so deeply that it will for a long time display an air of freshness not in accordance with the original4 ,some initials are very easy of alteration2 thus1 ,c may be converted into ,o1 or ,q1 or ,g2 ,i may be made at least into thirteen letters without increasing its size1 which1 when it is used in combination with others1 is a point of considerable importance1 and into several more if a slight increase may be ventured on4 ,p may become ,b or ,r1 and ,l or ,f may be changed to ,e4 ,it may be well for us to point out to those who have charge of ,government stock1 or are likely to have stolen animals offered them for sale1 that the thief not unfrequently sees fit to adopt an anchor as his brand1 as1 if it is of proper size1 the broad arrow1 by the addition of the stock and flukes1 makes a very respectable one4 ,we have heard of an unscrupulous colonist who branded all his cattle with a frying pan1 and had no particular place on which to apply it2 thus1 no matter what the brand on a stray horse or ox might be1 he had nothing to do but to clap the red hot disk above it1 and his own mark speedily and effectually obliterated every other4 ,it is said that he afterwards repented1 and1 in proof of it1 led a most exemplary life in a ,government department for fourteen years4 ,illustration ,it is a good plan to have a small iron and to brand cattle upon the horns1 as it is impossible to efface the mark by any process that would not betray itself4 ,this iron may also be used for branding small articles--such as tent poles1 yokes1 waggon-gear1 or anything in the traveller's possession--not only as a precaution against theft1 but as a means of affording an indication of his fate should he perish1 as many a poor fellow has done in a gallant but fruitless effort to explore an unknown country4 ,illustration3 #a-i ,any man with a few tools and a moderate share of ingenuity can make his own branding iron from a suitable-sized chunk of soft iron4 ,file it to the right form1 give it an even surface2 then with a pencil sketch the letter1 or mark1 on the iron1 only taking care to reverse the object as you would in drawing on wood4 ,when your pencil lines are complete1 scratch them in with a sharp hard point4 ,rub a little gunpowder and grease into them in order that they may show conspicuously1 and then1 with a hammer and small cold chisel1 proceed to chip away the superfluous iron until the pattern stands boldly and sharply out4 ,heat it and try the print on a board1 and1 if requisite1 trim and file again until it is to your satisfaction4 ,a large drill is of great service in making branding irons1 which1 when finished1 can be attached to handles either by leaving a piece of metal on the back of the chunk long enough to weld the hand iron to1 or a screw may be made at the back to hold it in its place4 ,some persons make chunk1 hand iron1 and all from one piece of metal2 others form the letters1 c41 from narrow strips of iron1 bending them to the required figure1 and then riveting them fast to a sort of frame4 ,we1 however1 consider the solid chunk form of iron by far the best and most durable4 ,a clear charcoal or wood fire is best for heating the brand in4 ,it should be heated just hot enough to singe rather than burn into the skin2 so long as the roots of the hair are destroyed the burning may be considered effective4 ,as we have before stated1 the particular strain1 or breed1 of certain animals may be known by the peculiar way in which they are branded4 ,the ,arabs have a great number of private marks1 which few1 save themselves1 understand4 ,horses and dromedaries are marked in an entirely different manner4 ,there is also a distinction drawn by them between large and small horses4 ,the former are known as ,aneezah ,arabs1 and1 if of high cast1 usually bear the peculiar mark of the tribe by which they are reared4 ,all ,arab horses under #ad hands are called ,nedjdi4 ,these1 when found by any tribe to possess more than ordinary purity of breed and excellence1 are marked with an extremely narrow crescent1 like a new moon1 with the horns a little more than an inch apart4 ,in the illustration on p4 #dha we give a few examples of dromedary branding1 as showing the particular class of animal indicated by it4 #a4 ,amadabieh4 #b shows the general mark of a ,bicharieh tribe1 which will be seen to exist on all the other examples4 ,the additions show the private brand of each small community1 or division of the tribe1 thus3 #c4 ,amitirah2 #d4 ,mahomed-,ouzabieh2 #e4 ,menacir2 #f4 ,achabab2 #g4 ,cawarah2 #h4 ,mahazi2 #i4 ,valgat4 ,having shown the marks by which many strains or breeds of camels may be known1 it may not be amiss to give a few general hints on camel and hygeene purchase and management4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,hints ,,on ,,hygeens ,,and ,,camels4 ,the following directions to purchasers of these animals are given by ,linant ,bey1 engineer-in-chief of dykes and bridges to the ,viceroy of ,egypt1 and were translated for the information of the ,president of the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,points in the dromedary4 ,to avoid deception in the choice of a dromedary one must be very much of a connoisseur of the animal1 for ,i think it is more difficult to be skilled in dromedaries than in horses4 ,one must have lived with ,arabs and their dromedaries to appreciate either the one or the other4 ,it may be conceived1 then1 how difficult it is to designate clearly what constitutes a good dromedary4 ,a dromedary should not be too tall1 nor its legs too long1 which would give it a gaunt appearance2 nor should the chest be too wide nor too heavy4 ,the fore-legs should not touch the callosity upon the breast4 ,the two rowels or mullets 7molettes7 of the fore-feet should be far from touching each other when the animal walks4 ,the belly should be round1 without being puffy2 and the hump should not be too big4 ,the neck should be rather wide than narrow1 the head well set on1 the eye large1 and the lips closed4 ,in walking the animal should show suppleness in the neck1 and have a wavy movement of the head4 ,the more suppleness there is in this motion the easier will be the gait4 ,to be highly esteemed a dromedary should not cry when touched2 and1 when bridled1 haltered1 or saddled1 it should give utterance only to a low grumbling4 ,a dromedary should not be taken that has been seriously hurt near the shoulders1 where the saddle rests1 though it does not indicate disease1 but proceeds only from the little care the ,arabs give to keeping their saddles in repair4 ,in a female this is less objectionable2 for1 in giving birth1 if her wounds have caused any disease1 it is almost always cured4 ,fine cautery marks on either side of the callosity1 on the breast1 or on the belly near the navel1 indicate always internal1 incurable disorders4 ,the hind-legs should not be too angular1 but rather straight4 ,the hump should not be too much to the front2 rather to the rear is better1 as then the saddle is more easily adjusted4 ,the hair should not be too short1 as then the animal is more easily injured4 ,the feet should be small1 the nails and the hair round them black rather than white4 ,fawn-coloured dromedaries are more highly prized than those entirely white4 ,when mounted1 the dromedary should instantly and quickly rise and start off4 ,when the dromedary moves1 it should be with such spirit that the rider is obliged to hold him in2 this supports both4 ,to urge him on kick him on the shoulder with the foot4 ,it is very difficult to find a dromedary uniting in itself all these requisite qualities1 and very rarely can such an one1 especially if it is a female1 be purchased2 for the ,arabs love their fine-blooded dromedaries as much as they do their horses1 and it is only as presents1 or else at enormous prices1 that the choicest animals can be obtained4 ,a first-rate ,nomanieh is worth in ,cairo from five hundred to six hundred dollars2 but those ordinarily met with there sell from one hundred to two hundred dollars4 ,the ,bichariehs sell for less2 good ones--that is to say1 such as are for sale--may be had for from sixty to one hundred dollars4 ,at nearly for the same prices as for the ,bicharieh can be purchased also the other breeds of the ,mahazi1 ,cawarah1 and ,ababdi4 ,i will remark here that the ,bicharieh dromedaries do not carry as heavy burdens as the ,nomanieh4 ,these last carry a saddle called 'gabit1' fitted with pads1 and with saddle-bags termed 'krourque1' that hang down on both sides of the saddle and carry the baggage1 provisions1 c41 of the rider and of the dromedary4 ,the ,bicharieh carries a wooden saddle1 laid over two small pads1 which are not fastened to it4 ,this saddle is called 'kyarpah1' 'maraloup1' c41 c41 according to its shape4 ,saddle-bags cannot be carried over it1 on account of its form2 but behind it a small sack of hide called 'bila1' in which a little luggage can be packed1 may be attached after the manner of a valise or portmanteau4 ,often1 in expeditions1 a servant or follower rides behind upon the dromedaries of the two breeds4 ,both riders carry their arms4 ,in a word1 the ,nomanieh generally carries from #bjjlb4 to #bcjlb42 the ,bicharieh1 #ahjlb4 ,at the utmost their burdens are #cjjlb4 and #cejlb4 ,a dromedary1 well equipped1 well ridden1 and in good condition1 can easily make in a day over suitable ground1 level and a little sandy1 about ninety miles1 that is1 between morning and evening2 but it cannot keep on at that rate4 ,it can make fifty miles a day for fifteen or twenty days1 and for a long journey can be counted upon for that4 ,i have myself travelled upon one ninety miles in eleven hours1 and gone twelve miles in forty minutes4 ,the carrying power of the camel will depend in great measure on the stock they came of and the climate in which they are employed1 the ,central ,asiatic camel being1 as a rule1 more vigorous and enduring than that of either ,africa or ,india4 ,the loads of camels will vary greatly with the nature of the work they are employed to perform4 ,where very short distances under burden have to be travelled1 as for instance from the depts of a town to a camp in the immediate vicinity1 a powerful and healthy camel can carry from #aajjlb4 to #abjjlb42 for the march1 or when produce or baggage has to be carried any distance1 from #cjjlb4 to #djjlb4 will be found quite heavy enough to admit of regular and continuous performance of carrying duty4 ,we always roughly estimate our weight of stores and equipments at seven camels to the ton2 for slow ordinary travelling of about twenty miles per day of from eight to ten hours in duration2 for more rapid movements the loads should be proportionately lightened4 ,camels and their loads4 ,the following table of camel burdens made use of in various parts of the world may prove useful to the traveller in many lands3 ,,country4 ,,weight4 ,,description ,,of ,,animal4 ,algeria1 ,morocco1 ,from #cjjlb4 to #djjlb4 ,ordinary camels of the ,tunis1 country4 ,tripoli1 ,egypt1 ,from #cejlb4 to #eejlb4 ,camels of the country4 ,syria1 ,large-sized bull camels ,asia ,minor1 7loks1 as they ,turkey in ,asia1 ,from #ejjlb4 to #fjjlb4 called7 and hybrids ,persia and ,tartary1 7or booghdee74 ,beloochistan1 ,cabool1 ,hindoostan1 ,from #cjjlb4 to #djjlb4 ,ordinary breeds4 ,thibet1 ,birmah1 ,mongolia1 ,crim-,tartary and the borders of ,from #cjjlb4 to #ejjlb4 ,bactrian4 ,southern ,russia1 ,hints on camels4 ,the age of a camel1 like that of a horse or mule1 may be judged of by the teeth4 ,it remains without incisor teeth until the termination of the third year of its life1 when it has two2 at five years old1 it will have four2 at six years old six incisors2 and at eight there will be a full complement--canines and molars4 ,the condition of the hump is a good index of the general well-doing of the animal1 as that structure is the first to fail or diminish from want or overwork4 ,the food of camels may be said to be found everywhere on the earth's surface where vegetation1 of even the most scanty and unattractive character1 is to be found4 ,all is food that comes to tooth with the camel1 and when low trees have been scarce1 we have often sent a native armed with our hatchet or billhook to climb into a large peepul1 neem1 or baubul thorn tree1 and chop down a cartload or two of branches4 ,these1 when dragged with hook-ended sticks to where the camels were picketed1 were received with cavernous rumblings and grunts of satisfaction2 and the same tree1 by the use of the same implement1 yielded not unfrequently the supper for the camels and the fuel to cook our own evening meal4 ,the ,arabs generally maintain that the camel should not drink more frequently than once in every three days1 although in dry hot weather we have known them drink much more frequently without being apparently the worse for the indulgence4 ,we have on many occasions endeavoured to ascertain the quantity of water taken at each period of thirst-quenching1 and the result of our investigations have led us to the conclusion that about five gallons should be allowed as a drink to each camel when he takes in water on the march4 ,the stomachs of the camel1 like those of other ruminating animals1 are constructed so as to admit of a store of both food and water being laid up in them to meet the demand when other sources of supply fail4 ,in cases of extreme necessity1 and when the preservation of human life depends on the obtainment of water1 the supply to be found in the stomach of the camel should not be overlooked or forgotten4 ,during the ,algerian campaign the ,french made some investigations in order to find out the quantity of water a dead camel's stomach would contain1 and the result was that about #ae pints was the average arrived at4 ,this water1 although green and turbid1 had no offensive smell2 and it was at the time asserted by the ,arabs that water of this character required three days to clear itself4 ,this period1 however1 could rarely1 if ever1 be allowed to elapse1 as three days would probably close the scene of suffering1 exhaust the patience of the distressed traveller1 or lead him to more natural sources from which to obtain the precious fluid4 ,in a case of emergency1 we should simply pass the water through our pocket filter1 which will be described under the head ,water1 and the ,sap of ,plants1 and drink it at once4 ,camels1 to embark4 ,the regular purchase1 collection1 embarkation1 and transport of camels has rarely been so carefully and successfully conducted as by the officers appointed by the ,government of the ,united ,states of ,america1 and the report forwarded to ,congress by the officer in charge of the embarkation department will not fail to be of interest and value4 ,he says3 ,in the first place1 the ship is anchored as close as possible to the place of embarkation to save time4 ,the camel boat with the car in it is rowed on shore1 and a force of about ten men sent to get the camels in4 ,there is also sent on shore in the boat a good tackle 7not very large71 a camel harness complete1 spare plank1 hammer and nails1 and about #ej fathoms of #b;in4 rope1 all of which will be of use4 ,illustration3 ,,embarkation ,,tackle4 ,it is requisite to select a place for the boat where she will lie with her bow on a level with the wharf4 ,if this cannot be done1 and it is necessary to 'beach' her1 then a strong bridge made of stout plank1 and about #h;ft4 wide1 will have to be constructed1 strong enough to bear not only the camel's weight1 but to stand their struggling4 ,this ,i was obliged to do4 ,the bow of the boat being secured firmly to the wharf or bridge1 the harness is placed on the camel1 which is led up as close as it will go4 ,if it will walk right into the car1 one end of which is placed on the gunwale of the boat1 so much the better 7in no instance did we find them willing to go without force71 but if it will not go in then hook on the tackle to the breaststrap of the harness on the camel2 let the men keep a steady pull upon it1 and the camel will go in without a hurt1 no matter how much he may resist4 ,four men guide the camel1 and keep it in the centre of the planks1 and one man leads it by the halter into the car1 through which the tackle is led1 one block being hooked to the other end of the boat4 ,after the camel is in it is made to lie down1 the knees tied round with ropes1 a rope across the neck and made fast to the knees1 and two or three ropes across the back to keep it down4 ,it is then hoisted on to the camel deck without fright or excitement of any kind4 ,the opposite illustration will serve to show how the ropes and tackle are arranged for the purpose of urging a reluctant camel onwards4 ,illustration3 ,,prepared ,,for ,,rough ,,weather4 ,when the camels were all on board the report goes on as follows3-- ,having taken in all the camels1 two days we occupied in fitting to each one its proper harness 7for almost every one of them differed in size and form71 marking their numbers on the harness1 and fitting out each one with brush and currycomb--all of which it is necessary to be done before going to sea4 ,hayracks1 made of large open network1 were fitted amidships1 extending the whole length of the camel deck4 ,large bags filled with hay were also placed against the ship's sides for their haunches to rest against1 and two ropes fitted for securing to the harness on each camel4 ,the above engraving will show the manner in which the camels were secured when a gale of wind or a heavy sea prevailed4 ,to enable the camel guard to efficiently watch their charge at night1 four large lanterns with reflectors were put up1 and lighted every evening at sunset2 and1 in case of accidents from fire1 two large water tubs were kept always full4 ,camel journal4 ,the ,american camel journal kept on board the ,united ,states ship ,supply is so thoroughly practical and useful1 that we insert a specimen of its form of construction for the guidance of travellers who may have to perform a voyage with camels newly purchased for an expedition or campaign4 ,,camel ,,journal4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,date4 ,,hay4 ,,water4,,oats4 ,,peas4,,meal4,,medicines4 ,,remarks4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #ah 4,bales4,galls4,bags4,galls4 lb4 lb4 ,jan4 #babhjlb4 #cj #b -- -- sulphur ,received on board #f camels 7#b of them males74 ,washed them and secured them in their stalls4 ,put sulphur in their water4 #bbbbjlb4 #dj #a -- -- -- ,fitted the harness when required1 and rubbed the camels well with curry- combs and brushes4 ,named the camels and lettered the harness4 #bca bale #dj #a -- -- -- ,refilled the net- ting with hay1 as also the fenders for their behinds4 ,went round the camels with sulphur ointment1 and ap- plied it on all suspicious-looking places4 ,ceased to issue oats4 ,lit- tered with hay4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,the treatment of camels when suffering from disease or accident will be given under the head ,veterinary ,surgery4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,water1 ,,and ,,the ,,sap ,,of ,,plants4 ,locality for water4 ,the whole success of an expedition and the preservation of the lives of those composing it have not unfrequently depended on the obtainment of this precious fluid2 and1 as its importance to the traveller is vital1 so the sources from which it is to be obtained are numerous4 ,rivers1 lakes1 springs1 and rain pools are the most common and obvious1 needing no comment here4 ,showers of rain often yield a considerable quantity1 which may be caught in sails or sheets spread for the purpose1 selecting those which are free from the perspiration of men or animals4 ,deep clefts among rocks and ravines often contain a great deal1 and the cliffs by the sea-shore1 although there are no rivulets to be discovered1 frequently contain cracks and crevices1 through which water runs and loses itself in the sand4 ,the beds of apparently dried-up watercourses should be always explored carefully1 as high up as possible1 and the stones at the bottom of the deepest pools lifted out1 and their resting places examined4 ,a piece of woollen cloth1 a sponge1 or a bunch of soft moss1 will much facilitate the withdrawal of chance finds in such places4 ,spots of low ground1 on which reeds1 rushes1 or other water plants are found1 should be carefully examined1 and their depths probed with a strong sharp-pointed stick4 ,the tracks of wild animals are often valuable guides to water2 but careful examination is needed lest the searcher should take the back track1 and go from1 instead of towards1 it4 ,a sharp lookout overhead towards evening will often be rewarded by a sight of the flocks of wild-fowl or other birds winging their way towards the drinking places4 ,baggage animals and dogs at times show extraordinary instinct in finding pools and springs where they are least expected to exist4 ,we have also seen ,indians apparently guided by some singular faculty to its neighbourhood4 ,in most countries some particular kind of tree will be met with generally associated with the presence of water1 and growing near it4 ,illustration ,should moisture be discovered a hole should be at once dug by loosening the earth and gravel with the stick1 and then clearing out the hole with the hand1 a small well as deep as the arm is long1 may be very rapidly made in this manner3 ,well hardening the point of the digging stick in the fire will add much to its efficiency1 and is much better than a mere pointing with a sharp instrument4 ,where the soil is of a loose character and the sides of the well likely to fall in1 a long bundle of reeds or rushes should be bound together and thrust down4 ,holes of this kind may be long preserved as drinking places by making up a round ball of slender twigs just sufficiently large to fit the hole1 ramming it firmly to the bottom1 then placing a bamboo or other hollow tube long enough to reach a couple of feet or so above the surface1 and then filling in the hole with earth and pressing the whole well down4 ,the water is thus preserved from evaporation1 and can be sucked freely through the tube4 ,at times it will be found to flow up the tube and run over1 or a second tube may be put in to blow through1 when the water can be caught in any convenient vessel by boring a hole through a bit of bark for the upper end of the tube to fit into1 thus forming a shoot for it to run off through1 as in the above illustration4 ,when horses or cattle have to be watered from a pool or well of any size1 and the water is any distance below the surface1 the old expedient of the lever and post1 so common all through ,egypt and most ,eastern countries1 will be found an exceedingly useful one4 7,see the following full-page illustration47 ,when travelling through ,central ,india1 where the wells are often very large and deep1 we used to find our small brass lota pot1 which was carried strapped fast to the front of the saddle1 with a long coil of whipcord stowed away in it to lower and raise by1 of great service4 ,drinking troughs for cattle are conveniently made from hollow tree trunks1 sheets of bark with the ends nipped up1 or by digging a trench in the ground and placing a piece of canvas or an indiarubber ground sheet in it4 ,in watering cattle from contrivances of this kind two separate herds should be formed1 consisting of those which have to drink and those which have drunk1 letting them up one at a time1 and keeping back the rest4 ,much confusion and irregularity are thus avoided1 and you are sure that each animal has had its share4 ,water1 to find4 ,we can only give a few general hints on searching for water4 ,perhaps the surest way is if there are natives in the country to make friends of them1 not by hurriedly and lavishly forcing upon them presents--costly1 it may be1 to the giver1 but valueless to them--but by quietly waiting to see what they value1 and giving it in moderate quantities1 as if the donor knew its worth as well as they4 ,half a stick of tobacco1 a short pipe1 a sixpenny knife1 or cotton handkerchief1 blue spotted with white1 or a few strings of beads of the kind they value--generally white1 red1 blue1 or black opaque seed beads--will gain their good will better than useless tinsel or gewgaws of ten times the cost2 while a ,dutch brass-barrelled tinder-box1 with flint and steel1 value #as4 or #as4 #f;d41 becomes far in the interior an article of such value that it ought not to be given except as a reward for real service4 ,extravagant liberality will only be attributed to fear1 more especially if haste accompanies it2 therefore1 it is wise to spend a little time before making even the preliminary offer of a pipeful of tobacco1 and more before giving the real present and making known what is desired in return4 ,but in reality the traveller will save time1 and when he does ask for water the native will bring him a supply1 or point out where to obtain it2 whereas1 were he to open the negotiations by hurriedly demanding information1 the natives would become suspicious of his motive1 and would in the first instance tell him a lie in order to throw him off the scent and gain time to discover his supposed intentions4 ,in the absence of native guides1 converging footpaths of men or animals will probably lead to a pool4 ,most antelopes drink every day1 but this is not the case with the gemsbok or the eland1 the last of which never drinks1 or1 if it ever does1 the instances are quite exceptional4 ,as before stated1 the flight of birds morning and evening should also be watched1 but this1 however1 is not always an infallible sign1 as we have seen cockatoos drinking water so black that we could not use it2 but when1 as we have also seen1 even the parrots desert an island before sunset it becomes tolerably certain that no water will be found upon it4 ,depressions on the ground should be followed1 and additional freshness of vegetation carefully sought for4 ,an iron ramrod may be thrust into the ground when there is any chance of dampness below the surface1 and the traveller should make himself acquainted with the peculiar plants of the country which grow near the water4 ,the pandanus1 or screw pine of ,australia1 is one of these4 ,in savage countries the labour of seeking and digging for water falls principally on the women1 who usually make use of a fire-hardened grubbing stick for working a hole in the ground4 ,the stick is loaded with a perforated stone of several pounds weight to give additional force to each stroke1 and as the soil is loosened it is cleared out by the insertion of the hand and arm1 using the bent fingers as a scoop4 ,use is also made of a stick split to about #ab;in4 or #ae;in4 from the end1 and this1 when worked down into soft soil1 catches and brings up a quantity in the cleft1 and this being shaken out upon one side the stick is again clear and fit to bring up more4 ,a bamboo cane1 with the end split up into several filaments1 is used for the same purpose by the natives of ,india4 ,where only salt or saline water is to be obtained recourse may be had to distillation1 which may serve1 as it has done in many well-authenticated cases1 to at least save the lives of the human beings and dogs of a party4 ,little hope could1 however1 be entertained of being enabled by this means to supply the wants of cattle or horses4 ,makeshift still4 ,a still may be very easily made from any vessel which will stand fire1 such as one of the copper water barrels hereafter described1 or even a common cooking pot and a gun barrel 7single or double71 a hollow bamboo with the knots removed1 or1 in fact1 any hollow tube4 ,if a pot is used1 a stout heavy wooden cover must be fitted to it1 through which two holes are to be cut--one at the side for the barrel or tube1 and the other a bung-hole at the top1 which must have a stopper fitted securely to it1 and is used to introduce the water as it becomes exhausted4 ,this saves the trouble of removing the cover1 and thus disturbing the other arrangements4 ,the annexed illustration will serve to explain the nature of a contrivance of this kind4 ,the boat-shaped box resting on the forked sticks is made of bark1 pinned at the ends with wooden pins4 ,this is filled with a couple of woollen blankets or a quantity of moss1 or even seaweed4 ,the barrel passes directly through the centre1 and is kept cold by constantly throwing cold water over it4 ,the fresh water runs out through the hole from which the nipple is unscrewed1 and is caught in any suitable vessel2 and the waste salt water through holes bored in the bark for the purpose4 ,many modifications of this plan might1 of course1 be had recourse to1 but this will be found about as convenient as any4 ,barrels1 or hooped vessels of any kind1 are about the very worst that can be taken into a wild country1 as the hoops come off as the wood shrinks1 causing leaks and endless trouble4 ,illustration ,copper water flasks4 ,for carrying water on the backs of animals a pair of thin sheet copper flasks 7#bj;in4 long1 #ab;in4 broad1 and #h;in4 thick7 will be found exceedingly convenient4 ,these should have broad and strong loops soldered on to pass leather straps and lashings through1 and in using water it should be taken alternately to preserve an even balance4 ,the bung-holes should be at the ends and have a stout raised ring round them1 through which a hole is drilled2 through this a pin is run1 passing through a corresponding hole in the wooden stopper1 thus keeping it secure4 ,these flasks1 when made1 should be thoroughly tinned inside4 ,they are useful for a number of purposes4 ,water can be boiled in them as well as carried4 ,they can1 on an emergency1 be converted into a still1 as before stated1 and when corked up air-tight are a great support to a raft4 ,one at each end of an outrigger pole renders the upsetting of a canoe or float log next to impossible4 ,no knocking about hurts them1 and should at any time a leak be discovered a bit of solder puts the matter to rights at once4 ,water skins and pails4 ,next in value to flasks1 perhaps1 come leather mussacks1 of the description used in the ,east4 ,they can be made of any size1 and1 when injured or pricked1 as they sometimes are by sharp sticks or thirsty niggers1 they are readily repaired for the time by pinching up a piece of leather at the orifice and passing a sharp-pointed stick through1 over which a clove hitch 7see ,knots and ,hitches7 may be secured4 ,a patch may be sewn on when there is time to do it1 just as a cobbler mends a shoe4 ,but bear in mind that1 instead of the ordinary thread or hempen cord used in mending or making leather utensils or articles in this country1 a dry carefully-cut leather thong should be used instead1 as when once in place it swells from the action of the water on it1 and completely fills the holes through which it has been passed1 thereby preventing leakage4 ,in ,mongolia they use a very useful pail or bucket for carrying water4 ,it has a head fixed into it much like that of an ordinary barrel1 and there are two openings or bung-holes2 one tolerably large on one side1 just below the edge of the head1 and another through the head itself4 ,in these orifices wooden plugs or stoppers are fitted1 and1 when water is to be poured out1 the stopper in the head is just eased like the vent peg of a cask1 so that air may be admitted2 when the stopper is taken out the larger hole freely discharges the water1 which would not run without the vent-peg arrangement4 ,during the year #ahfe1 when we had entered the ,victoria ,river1 ,north ,australia1 and the ,tom ,tough was still drifting1 in daily danger of breaking up upon the sand-banks1 we had become tired of carrying water overland from distant pools to supply #adj sheep2 and1 considering that if our inflatable boat 7p4 #dh7 would hold air to float upon the water she would also hold fresh water to float in salt1 we determined to seek supplies farther up the river2 and putting the four sections into the schooner's gig1 we sailed or pulled alternately thirty or forty miles up the river1 till the entire cessation of the mangroves and the appearance of the pandanus1 or screw pine1 upon the banks and islands showed that we were above the influence of the tide and in a stream of permanently fresh water4 ,canoe water-transport4 ,we halted at ,palm ,island1 and1 choosing a place where the water was a little more than knee deep1 we threw the inflatable sections overboard1 and1 fixing the bellows in the valves1 held them beneath the surface and pumped water into them1 just as we would have pumped air had we required them for boats4 ,we did not quite fill them with water1 but forced in a little air to give them buoyancy1 and1 at the same time1 to preserve their shape4 ,in towing them1 however1 the pressure of the water caused the foremost ends to assume a wedge-like form1 while the water and air1 being forced aft1 carried all the buoyancy thither1 and they went down head-foremost4 ,we remedied this by cutting a long spar and lashing them to it1 making fast also an indiarubber mattress to the parts most liable to go down4 ,tedious enough was our voyage down the river4 ,to make anything like speed with such a drag astern of the boat was impossible1 either with oars or sails2 and during the heat of the day we found the cement of the bags beginning to soften and give way4 ,they had been warranted to stand #agj2 but1 testing them by the thermometer1 the internal heat was only #abj4 ,we gathered up the defective part1 knotted it with a bit of twine1 and laced the bag along the gunwale of our boat--keeping her in trim by lacing its fellow on the other side--leaving only one pair to be towed astern4 ,the extensive shallows1 where for half a mile on a stretch the river percolated through rather than flowed over broad banks of angularly-broken stones1 caused us considerable labour and anxiety lest some sharper point than usual should pierce our bags and deprive us of the fruit of all our toil4 ,we found1 however1 that they yielded kindly to the varying pressure2 and we rolled them1 one by one1 over the successive reaches--working for hours together through the night1 and frequently in pools in which we saw alligators1 and sometimes sharks of considerable size4 ,our week's work1 however1 toilsome as it was1 resulted in a supply of #fjj or #hjj gallons of fresh water1 tasting somewhat of indiarubber1 but still available for the sheep4 ,this supply we could have obtained in no other manner4 ,ships' water-bags4 ,water-bags for ship use may be made of stout ,no4 #a canvas4 ,they should be of oblong form1 about #b;ft4 long by #ah;in4 wide4 ,they should be in two thicknesses--the inside or lining being kept perfectly clean1 and the outer one previously oiled with good boiled linseed oil and allowed to dry before it is made up1 so as to keep the inner canvas as free from taint as possible4 ,generally the canvas is wetted with salt water1 and then hung up till it is wind dry1 or just so damp that no water will drip from it4 ,it is then considered to be capable of absorbing just so much oil as will suffice to render it waterproof without clogging it or making it unpleasant to handle when it is dry4 ,a sufficiently stout rope should be stitched round the seam of the bag2 beckets or loops should be left in it at the four corners for convenience of handling2 and a wooden tube or stopper should be inserted1 and firmly seized in with small cord at one corner4 ,these bags are most convenient when a supply of water is needed on any emergency1 especially if the landing be difficult or dangerous1 or the inhabitants hostile4 ,they occupy no room in the boat while empty4 ,the oarsman may pull in unencumbered through the surf2 or1 if it is necessary to fight1 the riflemen may use their weapons4 ,when the landing is effected each carrier may seize his bag1 sling it over his shoulder with a lanyard1 and experience no hindrance until he actually fills it1 when1 of course1 the weight of the water will become a burden4 ,the bags will lie flat in the boat's bottom1 accommodating their form to that of the space they occupy4 ,if it is necessary to carry sail they serve as ballast2 and even were the boat to fill1 they would not sink her1 but1 as fresh water is of somewhat less specific gravity than salt1 would1 if secured by bottom boards laid over them and beneath the thwarts1 help to keep her up2 and on this account they would form the most eligible ballast for boats on separate service1 and even for pleasure boats on excursions1 where they might not be in actual need of a large supply of fresh water4 ,calabashes1 horns1 and egg-shells4 ,cattle horns serve in ,south ,africa for powder-flasks or water vessels1 some1 especially among the ,bechuana tribes1 being #ac;ft4 from tip to tip1 and capable of containing several gallons each2 while the ,hottentots use them to hold honey beer1 and the ,abyssinians for tedge or mead4 ,a calabash1 or gourd1 is used by most of the natives of ,south ,africa1 as well as many other countries1 as a water vessel4 ,it is light1 water-tight1 not very easily broken1 and even if an unfortunate fracture should take place the natives repair it by boring holes on either side the crack1 pointing them diagonally towards each other1 so that1 by giving a slight turn to the point of the sinew used for thread1 they either pass it through the next hole or bring it so near that it may be caught1 crochet fashion1 by a fine thorn or a crook-pointed needle4 ,the leakage is stopped by a little grease and clay rubbed into the holes4 ,a calabash with a long neck may be cut so as to form a spoon or ladle4 ,others of smaller size are used as snuff-boxes1 or receptacles for many trifles2 and in some parts of ,turkey calabashes are used for powder flasks4 ,an ostrich's egg-shell with a net worked tightly round it makes a good water-bottle4 ,bladders and paunches4 ,the bladders1 or paunches1 of slain animals are very generally used as water vessels4 ,if an animal has drunk recently water may be found in its stomach4 ,we have quenched our thirst with the milk of a blesbok doe as she lay dead1 though not yet cold1 upon the plain4 ,we have often seen our followers1 when a buffalo or other animal has been killed1 take out the paunch1 shake out its contents1 and hasten with it to the nearest stream1 where1 with barely a preparatory rinsing1 they would fill it with water quite clean enough for their idea of culinary operation2 and1 calling on the nearest native resident1 would invite him to bring his pots with him and assist in cooking the banquet4 ,sometimes the paunch scraped thin is suspended by thongs passed through like purse strings4 ,occasionally two mimosa thorns1 which are not unfrequently #d;in4 or #e;in4 long1 or a couple of skewers1 are thrust through and the cord tightened round under them4 ,if a small hole should be found1 it may be stopped by putting a somewhat larger pebble upon the place1 gathering the skin around it1 and then tying the neck firmly with a cord2 or the edges may be skewered together with a thorn1 and the neck bound tightly with cord4 ,when a rhinoceros has fallen we have seen the ,damara women carefully extract the long intestines1 distend them with air1 and bring them home coiled round their bodies1 to be used thereafter as water vessels4 ,waterproof baskets4 ,the ,kafirs on the frontier of the ,cape ,colony plait baskets of so fine a texture that they employ them for holding milk and even water2 but it is better that they should become saturated with the first before they are used for the latter1 as1 though they swell while wet and are perfectly tight1 pure water would dry out with the heat from the fibre of an empty basket1 and the consequent shrinking of the texture would make it leaky4 ,we have seen most elegant and serviceable baskets made in ,timor of the leaves of the fan palm4 ,the ends of all the spreading leaflets are gathered together in a point1 and a cord of twisted fibre is passed as a handle from this point to the stump of the footstalk4 ,a pair of these baskets1 holding two or three gallons each1 are slung to the ends of a bamboo1 and the bearer taking this across his shoulder carries water1 or sometimes palm juice1 about the town4 ,the latter refreshing beverage is sold at a doit per cup2 the cup itself being made of a smaller palm leaf1 and also purchasable for a doit or two4 ,at ,walvisch ,bay1 in ,south-,west ,africa1 where rain falls perhaps once in two years1 and the river runs with fresh water once in ten1 there is a small water hole called ,sand ,fountain4 ,this is about four miles from the landing place1 and the water was1 and perhaps still is1 brought by two or more ,hottentots dragging a cask fitted up like a garden roller1 with the pivots set firmly into stout cross-pieces nailed or screwed upon each end of the cask4 ,shafts of wood1 with holes bored in them to fit upon the pivots1 may be used as means of traction1 or1 if more convenient1 ropes with thimbles or grummets turned in the ends for the same purpose2 but in this case the trek ropes should be kept apart by a horizontal bar that they may not chafe upon the chine of the cask4 ,it will also be advantageous to fit on felloe-pieces1 near each end1 so as to form a substitute for wheels1 on which the cask may travel1 and this will save a great deal of wear and tear should the country be rough or stony4 ,a larger cask mounted on the after wheels of a waggon1 and fitted with chocks on a frame lying on the axle is useful4 ,camp filter4 ,filtering bags can be made of woollen or other cloth4 ,an excellent and convenient camp filter is thus made3 ,take a wooden box or barrel1 long and deep4 ,bore a number of holes in the bottom1 fasten in a blanket bag1 and then place a layer of grass1 small twigs1 or moss on the bottom1 over the holes2 then a layer of sand2 then a thick bed of coarse lumps of charcoal2 then fresh layers of grass or moss1 until the box or barrel is about half filled4 ,then fashion a false head or cover1 making it just large enough to move up and down the cask or box freely2 burn or bore a number of holes in it1 and1 when fitted in1 press it firmly down on the arrangement below1 and drive a few nails in above to keep it from rising4 ,when this contrivance is partially sunk in a pond or lake the water will ascend to the upper compartment above the false head1 from which it can be dipped or drawn for use4 ,illustration ,another useful barrel filter can be made by knocking both the heads out of a small cask1 boring it full of gimlet holes1 placing it on a thick layer of charcoal and pebbles in a larger cask1 also bored full of holes1 and then filling in all the space between the outer and inner barrels with the mixture1 as shown in the above illustration4 ,illustration ,the following is an expedient easily extemporised and frequently used in damp soils1 where water is scarce4 ,a quantity of grass is tied up in a wisp1 or plaited into a bag2 two reeds are inserted in this--one as a suction tube1 and the other to admit air2 and the apparatus is buried wherever a sufficiency of moisture is likely to permeate the soil4 ,illustration ,the annexed illustration shows a very common expedient4 ,suppose the waters of a river to be excessively turbid3 a well may be dug in the bank at any convenient distance1 and the water that collects in it will at least be much clearer than that of the river4 ,of course none of these modes will correct chemical impurity4 ,hints on springs4 ,we have heard it said that even sea-water by filtration through a considerable mass of sand will lose much of its saltness and become drinkable1 and that1 by digging wells at some distance from the margin of the beach1 it may be obtained with a very small amount of brackishness4 ,we should like to hear a well-authenticated instance of this1 in which there could be no doubt that the sea-water had been thus purified1 and that the diggers had not in fact struck upon a stratum moistened by the inland drainage1 and rendered more or less brackish by meeting with the sea-water4 ,we have known a remarkable instance of the discovery of a spring of fresh water in the immediate vicinity of the salt4 ,in #ahee1 while attached to the ,north-,australian ,expedition1 we had great difficulty in supplying the sheep carried by our schooner1 ,tom ,tough1 with water4 ,we made one trip up the ,victoria ,river1 with indiarubber bags--and this we purpose to notice more fully under its proper heading--and searched the country on either side the river in all directions4 ,we found many little pools in shady hollows of rock1 or of alluvial soil1 marking the course the rivulets would take in the rainy season1 and many of them decked with waterlilies4 ,but these were too distant to be of service to us1 and we again examined the country in our vicinity4 ,in one cleft of rock we found a pint or two of water1 and with a long twig and the broken shell of a gouty stem fruit we drew up enough to allay our thirst2 but after traversing the arid ridges for hours we were returning unsuccessfully1 when1 passing at half-tide along the muddy margin of the river where a bold projecting headland forbade us any other path1 ,mr4 ,gregory noticed a little water collected in a hollow of the mud around a boulder4 ,we thought at first it was only the drainage of the retiring tide1 but on tasting it1 we coincided in his opinion that it was not salt water4 ,we set to work with our hands and cleared away the mud and brackish slime till1 having reached a stratum too hard for our fingers' ends1 we rested1 and soon had the satisfaction of seeing a small threadlike streamlet of clear water forcing its way through the muddy sediment4 ,in a few minutes nearly half a pint of fresh water had collected1 and1 having satisfied ourselves of the value of our discovery1 we returned to our schooner1 and1 putting a couple of puncheons in the long boat1 waited till the turn of the next tide1 and dropped down with the ebb to the headland4 ,our well was not yet uncovered1 but we began to work as soon as the water fell below our knees1 greatly to the astonishment of our ,dutch sailor1 who could hardly find terms strong enough to express it4 ,allamagtig1 said he over and over again1 have ,i lived so long in this world that ,i must come to dig for fresh water underneath the salt6 ,we made a fire on the uncovered boulder to give us light1 at no small risk of injury from the splitting off of heated fragments2 and1 removing as many large stones as we could1 cleared out a spring of perfectly pure fresh water1 abundant enough to fill both our puncheons before the tide again rose high enough to cover it4 ,nor was this a transient phenomenon1 for the next year1 before we left the river1 we again cleared out the ,gregory well and filled all the casks of our vessel for her voyage4 ,the sketch represents very nearly the locality in question2 the high-water level is shown by the upper horizontal line1 and the half-tide by the lower one1 and that of the well is observable between them4 ,illustration ,a makeshift filter can be made as follows3 ,a small reed is inserted into a walnut shell1 or any other receptacle of about the same size1 pierced with small holes1 and packed1 not too tightly1 with hemp1 cotton1 coir sponge1 or other porous material2 it is then placed in the shell of a cocoa-nut1 an ostrich's egg1 or tin pannikin of any kind1 and the interval between the two moderately packed with charcoal made either from wood or1 still better1 bones1 with any fibrous material1 and a mixture of sand or gravel4 ,this is plunged beneath the water1 and the tube being taken into the mouth1 a little suction does all the rest4 ,the shank or wing-bone of a crane1 a stork1 or albatross1 may be used as a tube in the same manner4 ,the ,bushmen of ,south ,africa always carry one or more suction reeds in the quiver with their arrows1 and1 whenever the water is surrounded by banks so steep that the lips cannot conveniently reach the surface1 lie down and suck the water through the tube4 ,when there is only damp soil they dig a hole1 and1 wrapping up the end of the reed in a tuft of grass1 they bury it1 and suck the water that filters through4 ,but as the ,bushwoman fills the ostrich's egg-shells1 to be carried away for home consumption1 she takes another reed1 or often merely a bit of grass or straw1 as a conductor1 and spirts the water along it from the other side of her mouth into the shell4 ,the orifice is then plugged with a wisp of grass2 and1 a dozen or more of the shells being packed in a net1 she takes them on her back and marches1 perhaps1 many a mile to deposit them wherever the men require water4 ,grass filters4 ,sometimes the ,bushmen take a good handful of grass1 and lash it very tightly up at the taper end1 leaving the butt spreading and at liberty2 in fact1 they tie it on exactly the opposite principle to that on which a broom or birch rod is made4 ,they dip the large end into the muddy pool1 and then allow the water to drip from the taper end into their mouths if they have no other vessel at hand to receive it4 ,often1 when the mud is composed mainly of vegetable matter1 and is too light to separate and fall to the bottom of a pannikin as sediment1 this is about the best way of clearing it4 ,many plants1 like the aloe in ,south ,africa1 or others whose leaves point upward and have a cup-shaped cavity at their junction with the stalk1 retain a considerable quantity of water after rains2 and some seem to have the power of imbibing moisture from the air1 even though no rain falls4 ,rain-water is collected at sea by spreading the ship's awnings1 and hanging buckets under them by means of sail hooks2 these1 of course1 depress that part of the canvas to which they are hooked on2 the water flows towards it1 and runs down the lanyard into the bucket4 ,in situations where a good supply of reeds is to be obtained a tolerably effective contrivance for water-clearing may be made as follows3 ,cut enough reeds to form a bundle as large as a six-gallon barrel2 lay them evenly1 with their heads one way and their cut ends the other4 ,now cut three long slender poles or rods2 form them into hoops by lashing their ends with cord1 raw hide1 or a few creepers1 and then secure them round the bundle of reeds1 as shown in the following illustration4 ,the reed cylinder1 if properly made1 should be firm1 compact1 and capable of standing alone like a cask4 ,it should now have a bowl-shaped depression cut in its centre1 and be placed in the foul water1 and secured there by driving a stout rough pole down through the centre of the depression4 ,the bottom of the reed cylinder may or may not touch the bottom4 ,in deep water it remains hung1 or1 rather1 impaled on the pole in such a way that about #f;in4 of the cut ends of the reeds are above the surface4 ,the water will quickly fill the depression1 out of which it may be dipped with a cup or other vessel4 ,illustration ,the ,indian water-carriers spread a piece of thick native cloth over the mouth of an earthen chatty pot1 and then pour the tank water on it until the vessel is full1 when the contents are transferred to the leather mussac1 or water-bag4 ,we have often had recourse to this expedient on a small scale1 and made use of our brass lota pot1 with a double silk handkerchief spread over its mouth1 to strain off impurities4 ,clearing nut4 ,turbid water is cleared to some extent by placing a piece of common alum in it4 ,a lump the size of a common nutmeg will be found sufficient to throw down a heavy sediment from a pailful of foul water4 ,in ,india a species of nut or seed is made use of in the same way1 and appears to act much in the same manner1 although from different chemical affinities4 ,in speaking of this water-clearing nut1 the late ,sir ,emerson ,tennent1 in his admirable work on ,ceylon1 says3 ,to correct the impurity of the tank water when intended for their own use1 the natives employ a horny seed 7the production of a species of 'strychnos'7 about the size of a coffee bean1 called by the ,tamils 'tettan kotta1' and by the ,singhalese 'ingini' 7,strychnos potatorum74 ,this they rub round the inside of the unglazed earthen chatty in which the muddy water is held till about one-half the seed is ground off1 which1 mingling with the water1 forms with it a delicate mucilage4 ,in the course of a few minutes the impure particles1 being seized by this1 descend1 and1 on their subsidence1 form an apparently viscid sediment at the bottom1 whilst the clear fluid remains at the top2 and1 although not altogether bright1 is sufficiently pure for ordinary purposes4 ,the curious and valuable plant ,s4 potatorum1 or the 'clearing nut bush' is abundant in the woods and mountains of the ,east ,indies4 ,it bears a shining fruit1 which becomes black as it ripens4 ,the trinal name is derived from the use which is made of the seeds1 which1 when dried1 are sold by the native dealers in the bazaars expressly for the purpose of purifying turbid water4 ,this plant 7,strychnos ,st4 ,ignatii1 or ,st4 ,ignatius's bean7 is a climbing shrub without tendrils1 bearing long drooping white flowers1 which have the perfume of jasmine4 ,the species is identical with the ,ignatia amara of ,linnus4 ,it is a native of ,cochin-,china and the ,philippines1 as well as of ,india proper4 ,illustration ,patent filter4 ,we1 a short time since1 invented and patented a small portable filter1 which can be carried either in the breast pocket or holster4 ,its mode of use will be understood on reference to the illustration4 ,place the end of the tube 7,a7 firmly in the pipe 7,b72 fix the cover securely on the cup1 and then thrust it with the hand beneath the surface of the foul water4 ,hold the mouthpiece 7,c7 between the lips1 and draw the air by sucking from the interior of the flask until the water flows freely into the mouth4 ,if a draught of water is required for immediate use1 the cover may be now removed1 when the cup will be found full4 ,if a larger quantity of water is needed1 one or more flasks may be placed in an erect position in a tub or pail of water1 set in action as before directed1 and allowed to run until the water in the tub has reached the level of the flasks1 which will not require holding under water when once filled by exhausting the air contained in them4 ,to renew or cleanse the packing1 which may consist of sponge1 woollen cloth1 flannel1 wild cotton1 or fine moss1 unscrew the cover of the packing box within the cover1 when it can be easily withdrawn and replaced4 ,the tube1 when not in use1 is carried1 coiled up1 within the flask1 which1 on an emergency1 may be made use of for boiling water1 tea1 soup1 eggs1 or meat4 ,we have had the honour of exhibiting this simple but useful contrivance at meetings of the members of both the ,royal ,united ,service ,institution and the ,royal ,society4 ,illustration ,we have now applied the same principle to stoppers for bottles1 or any other vessels1 so that a common beer or sodawater bottle can be instantly converted into a syphon filter1 as shown in the annexed illustration4 ,by the use of our invention we effectually get rid of the ova and larv of water insects1 and the thousand and one living and dead impurities which are so abundant in the lakes1 streams1 and ponds of tropical countries4 ,to get into the water contained in the flask or bottle1 they would first have to pass through metal grating ,no4 #a2 then through the pores of closely-impacted sponge1 woollen1 or fine fibrous matter2 and1 lastly1 through another grating1 or strainer ,no4 #b4 ,there is scarcely any possibility of foreign substances of any kind passing through the stuffing box1 so that water1 unless chemically tainted or poisoned by mineral solutions1 can be rendered fit for use in two or three minutes by the use of either the metal flask or stopper4 ,we extemporised a camp filter in the ,crimea by knocking out the bottom of a common claret bottle1 turning it large end upwards1 fastening a piece of doubled rag over the orifice intended for the cork1 stuffing the neck tightly with sponge and sand in alternate layers1 hanging it up with twine over another bottle1 and then filling it with the by-no-means clear fluid brought to the tents by the water carriers4 ,ice1 even when taken from a very dirty puddle1 is comparatively pure1 as in freezing most of the impurities are set free4 ,very impure water from stagnant pools should1 before use1 be boiled in the camp-kettle with a good netful of charcoal4 ,this process not only tends much to purify it1 but kills all water insects1 their ova1 and the legions of animalcul which inhabit the pools of the tropics4 ,in some parts of the world1 ,central ,india for example1 the waters in certain wells1 although perfectly bright and clear1 is so highly charged with saline matter as to be perfectly undrinkable4 ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,well4 ,water raising4 ,the accompanying full-page illustration represents one of the modes by which ox-power is1 in the ,east1 brought to bear on water raising4 ,the greater number of the extensive tracks of irrigated land devoted to the growth of the opium poppy1 the cotton plant1 and the various native grains are watered by its aid4 ,the form of the water-bag1 or bucket1 differs somewhat in particular localities4 ,by some makers it is formed from tanned hides fastened to an iron frame2 by others1 the hides are merely tanned 7according to directions given further on71 spread open at the top1 and tapered off to a long narrow open bag at the end4 ,to explain the use of this contrivance1 we will suppose that the bag is at the bottom of the well1 at the end of the well rope and point guide1 which latter cord is fastened to the taper end or delivery mouth of the bag4 ,now this guide being shorter than the main well rope1 on which all the strain falls1 draws up the tapered point like a doubled coat-sleeve above the level of the bag's mouth4 ,at a signal 7usually a shrill yell7 from the well boy1 the well-trained ox walks away down an inclined plane1 hauling on the main well rope1 which works over a smooth round stick fitted above the well1 whilst the point guide rope works over another fitted at the side4 ,now it will be seen that as the great leather sack1 with its doubled-up sleeve bottom1 reaches the mouth of the well1 the point guide will draw the cuff of the sleeve out over the round stick1 which will then be considerably lower than the mouth of the bag1 or bucket2 all the water will then gush out through the sleeve1 which will be as the small end of an enormous funnel4 ,the water thus poured out is usually received in a sort of pond made from pieces of matting filled with earth4 ,a large hollow tree trunk is then fitted to one side1 or the end1 for the water to flow through into the main canal of the system of irrigation4 ,in ,tartary1 water is raised in much the same manner2 but a man on horseback makes the line fast to his girth or saddle1 and gallops from the well up to a mark previously made at a proper distance from the well1 and which should be a trifle more than the actual depth from which the water is to be raised4 ,in almost all countries1 from the earliest times to the present1 levers1 heavily weighted on the shorter arm1 and with a bucket attached to the longer1 have been used for raising water from deep wells4 ,the pictorial records of ,ancient ,egypt attest the antiquity of this method4 ,the shadoof of modern ,egypt is the same1 and we have seen it used both in that country and on the remotest mission stations in ,southern ,africa4 ,the mode of applying it will be seen by a glance at our full-page engraving4 ,the water raised by the shadoof is commonly used for irrigation4 ,we1 however1 found it very valuable during the ,crimean war for raising water for both men and horses4 ,when used among the crops1 the water is received sometimes in a reservoir with embankments1 guarded by matting1 and at others1 into troughs which lead direct to the main irrigating channel1 from which smaller furrows lead off to every part of the field4 ,these are stopped with lumps of clay or earth1 and when the water is required in any direction1 the irrigator removes the obstruction by thrusting his toes beneath and lifting it out of the way4 ,in ,egypt1 ,india1 and other countries1 wheels and machines1 more or less elaborate1 are used for lifting water4 ,there must be1 for this purpose1 at least one vertical wheel of sufficient diameter to carry an endless band1 on which are fastened a series of buckets1 in such a manner that they will retain very nearly their perpendicular position1 until they surmount the highest portion of the circumference of the wheel1 and will then tip and discharge the water into a trough or reservoir4 ,these buckets may be wooden bowls1 earthen chatty pots1 bags of leather or canvas1 joints of bamboo1 or anything that is moderately water-tight2 but1 of course1 the less leakage there is the better4 ,the band should run round a similar wheel the axle of which is nearly level with the water1 so that the band is kept tight and the buckets forced beneath the surface2 but this may be dispensed with if the band and upper wheel are sufficiently rough1 or if there be studs or points to catch the full buckets and prevent their slipping4 ,the wheel may be turned either by a crank1 by manual labour1 or oxen or other animals may be employed4 ,in this latter case there may be another larger wheel or drum upon the same axle1 and several turns of rope being taken over it1 the ox may be driven away1 unwinding it as he goes2 or an endless screw1 sloping at an angle of #de1 may be cut upon the axle1 while a similar one working in it is cut upon a vertical shaft4 ,or cogged wheels of the same angle 7as shown in our figure7 may be used2 the vertical pillar will then be turned by an ox yoked to a cross-bar and walking round it in a circular path2 but it will be necessary that the discharging trough should pass beneath a little bridge in this path1 and that the communication with the water to be drawn up should either be by a well within the circle1 or by a channel to the river passing under a similar bridge4 ,the stancheons of the frame which supports the vertical bar must stand outside and well clear of the path4 ,illustration3 ,fig #a1 #b ,illustration3 ,a1 ,b ,we give1 also1 an example of a box pump4 ,four deals or boards1 of any length or breadth1 are nailed together1 but their lower ends for about a foot or more should be left a little wider than the rest of the length2 two wheels of nearly equal diameter should be fixed1 one with part of its circumference below the water1 and the other somewhat higher than it is requisite to raise it2 an endless band of canvas or other material must pass round both wheels1 and one side of it through the trough4 ,on this band must be fastened by one edge a number of boards or floats of such size as nearly to fill the inner diameter of the trough1 without being so tight as to stick in any part of it2 a hole should be bored in the centre of each1 and a small line run through and knotted1 so as to keep the floats always at right angles to the band4 ,there should be a spout near the top of the trough1 to lead the water off in any required direction4 ,fig4 #b on the same illustration shows part of an endless band1 with pockets or bags stitched on it2 these may be of almost any stout material of tolerably close fibre--,no4 #a canvas would answer very well4 ,they would discharge the water over the wheel into a reservoir1 and no tube1 as in ,fig4 #a1 would be needed4 ,illustration ,we give1 also1 an example of wheels driven by water power over and undershot4 ,it would be superfluous to mark these with distinctive figures4 ,in the first the water is conveyed by a pipe or trough1 and allowed to fall upon the wheel into buckets or receptacles formed in its periphery by fixing boards across between the two rims1 at such angles as are indicated by the dotted lines1 which may be taken to represent the heads of the nails driven into their edges2 and thus they will retain water until1 by the revolution of the wheel1 they have sunk so far as to be below the level of the axle1 when they allow the water to escape1 and come up light and empty on the other side4 ,some of these wheels are as much as #cj;ft4 or more in diameter2 indeed1 the larger they are1 the greater is the leverage obtained from a given amount of water2 and1 the wheel once set in motion1 the power thus gained may be applied by connecting gear to any mechanical purpose4 ,the undershot simply has boards or floats fixed across it with their edges coinciding with the lines of the spokes4 ,indeed1 if a paddle steamer were anchored in a tideway1 and her wheels disconnected and allowed to revolve with the force of the tide1 they would furnish a good example of the undershot wheel2 and the paddle of a wrecked steamer would be better than anything a colonist with scant appliances could make for the purpose4 ,still1 with a few tools and a moderate share of ingenuity very fair makeshift water-wheels may be constructed in situations where they may be found most valuable4 ,we have1 when among the ,tartars1 seen them erect a small wooden hut over a narrow rapid mountain stream1 leave a sort of trap in the floor1 fix in some rough forked tree trunks and beams1 and on them mount a little water-wheel made of hewn planks and bars treenailed together on the double-cross system1 like that adopted in building up the wheel a in the illustration on p4 #eaa1 which is supposed to be erected for mining pumps1 and is fed by a two-plank shoot4 ,the ,tartar wheels were invariably undershot1 like that at ,b1 and were used for setting in motion the trip hammers used in fulling their coarse native woollen4 ,in the beautiful valley of the ,kowie ,river1 a few miles below ,grahamstown1 we saw a rather ingenious application of wind power to a horizontal wheel4 ,the principle will be best shown by calling to the reader's memory the well known nautical toy which consists of four or more cutters1 or fore and aft rigged vessels1 sailing in a circle on a mast-head or flag-staff4 ,in the fore and aft sails the foremost leach1 or edge1 is attached by rings1 or otherwise1 to the mast or stay of the respective sail1 and is stretched tight1 while the after leach is left more or less free1 according as the sheet is hauled in or eased off4 ,in consequence of this when the vessel is before the wind the sails fill1 but as their surface catches it obliquely they do not exert their full force till the vessel receives the wind upon her quarter4 ,when the wind is a-beam1 or blowing across her at right angles1 the sails are still helping her forward1 and continue to do so1 even when her head comes up so near as just not to shake the wind out of them4 ,when this happens1 the sails lose their power1 as they present only their foremost edge to the wind1 and not a broad surface like those of a square-rigged ship when she is taken aback4 7,we will therefore suppose four cutters1 a1 b1 c1 d47 ,the cutter a is before the wind1 b has the wind somewhat on the quarter1 while c1 having come up several points1 is now nearly head to wind with her sails shaking1 and d has taken the wind on the other tack4 ,thus1 there are always three vessels whose sails are helping them round in one direction1 while the fourth1 for the moment that she is in the wind's eye1 is powerless to resist them4 ,this power can be applied to a large horizontal wheel4 ,there should be two wheels1 one #ah;in4 or #b;ft4 above the other2 they are made as light as possible1 and each has a smaller rim or felloe1 say #ah;in41 within the other4 ,the sails are in this instance flat boards1 with a dowel left on each end for a hinge4 ,these dowels work in holes in the upper and lower spokes1 midway between the inner and outer felloes4 ,it will be seen that the sails marked will receive the wind on one side until1 coming so far before it that they jibe1 they assume the position of those which receive it on the other4 ,when they come up to the wind on the other side the wheel they present their hinged edge to the wind1 and shift like the sails of cutter c1 but without shaking4 ,the best angle for them to make is #bb-a_/b on either side the central line1 and this is also the angle at which the sails of a windmill should present their surfaces4 ,well sinking4 ,the explorer1 or settler1 will not unfrequently have to sink wells for the obtainment of water for himself and his animals4 ,it will often happen that ,nature has commenced the formation of a well1 which merely requires the labours of man to complete4 ,the crowbar and pick will1 in such cases1 very quickly enable the traveller to deepen it sufficiently to meet his temporary needs4 ,where a long-continued residence is intended1 and a regular and continuous supply of water is required1 apart from that obtained from rivers or lakes1 wells of greater or less depth1 according to the nature of the ground and water supply1 must be undertaken4 ,the ,indians manage to construct walled wells of great depth in loose sandy soil in the following ingenious manner3 ,they first mark a circle1 the size of the intended well1 on the earth4 ,they then dig a groove1 or trench1 of the width of the intended thickness of the lining wall of the well1 much as our masons sink a foundation for a house4 ,they now proceed to build a circle of masonry in the groove1 and carry it up to a few feet in height above the surface4 ,other ,indians now get inside the wall1 and1 with short-handled hoes and fire-hardened sticks1 dig away the sand from beneath the foundation of the wall round the entire circle4 ,as the sand is loosened and dug out1 it is taken up in cane baskets and thrown outside4 ,as the wall sinks into the earth by being undermined1 it is constantly added to by building above until the required depth is reached4 ,the ,chinese sink very narrow and deep wells by the use of a kind of jumper1 or boring bit4 ,this is hung suspended from the end of a long bamboo spring beam1 which is constantly worked up and down1 thus causing the bit to constantly drop and pick1 so to speak1 on one spot4 ,the bit is hollow1 and when it becomes full of sludge produced by its incessant tapping1 it is withdrawn from the hole1 cleared out1 and entered again4 ,a little water added from time to time much assists the operation1 and tends to keep the bit from becoming heated4 ,as it will be seen this method1 although very useful as a makeshift1 is tedious to a degree4 ,illustration3 ,a-,f ,much fear was entertained at the commencement of the ,abyssinian war that there would be a great scarcity of water in consequence of the comparatively limited number of wells and indifferent quality of the water to be found in that portion of the country over which our troops had to march shortly after their arrival2 and there is little doubt but that serious inconvenience1 if no worse1 would have been experienced1 had not a contrivance1 known as the ,american tube well-borer1 the invention of ,mr4 ,norton1 been brought to the notice of the ,government authorities4 ,the wells formed by these deeply-penetrating sets of tubes were found to supply water freely and expeditiously in that country4 ,how far the perforated end of the tube would be effective1 if driven through clay1 we have had no means of ascertaining2 but we are of opinion that for reaching deeply-buried water-yielding deposits of ordinary character the tube-borer will be found most valuable4 ,its action is simplicity itself4 ,the foregoing illustration represents the contrivance fixed on the ground and ready for use4 ,b1 ,b1 ,b are the legs of a triangle1 ,c is the striking point for the monkey 7,d71 which is raised by the pulley ropes 7,e1 ,e7 until it reaches the head of the triangle when it is allowed to fall on ,c1 which is secured to the joint of tube ,f1 which1 having a sharp arrow headlike point1 readily enters the earth4 ,joint after joint are added1 like those of a fishing rod1 until the required depth has been reached1 when a small pump is attached1 as in the annexed cut1 which shows the position of the set of tubes in the earth after the water-yielding bed1 or deposit1 has been penetrated4 ,illustration ,when very large quantities of water are needed1 as for the use of troops1 troop horses1 and baggage animals1 several tubes can be driven in at one spot and coupled together at the top1 when one pump can be made to draw from all4 ,the weight of such an arrangement as that represented would be by no means great1 and the cost a mere trifle when compared with the costly process of ,artesian well boring as usually carried out4 ,should it be decided on to abandon a well1 the tubes can be drawn up and driven elsewhere4 ,with regard to the quantity of water which tube wells of a certain diameter of bore are capable of bringing to the surface1 ,mr4 ,norton informs us that some of his #a-a_/d;in4 wells yield as much as #ijj gallons of water per hour1 whilst some of the large bores have poured forth as much as #aj1jjj gallons per hour4 ,the modes by which water can be raised from common pit or shaft wells are numerous4 ,some of them we have described2 others1 such as the old-fashioned bucket and rope1 are too well known to need description4 ,illustration3 ,a-,e ,the miner's pump will be found described at p4 #bff4 ,a very useful and effective pump may be readily made by boring an auger hole through a tree-trunk1 mounting it with a brake-piece and handle as at ,a in the annexed illustration2 fixing on a valved sucker and plunger1 as represented at ,b4 ,c represents a barrel pump4 ,this is made by fixing a short square wooden box in the bottom of a large strong cask in such a manner that a large bung-hole may be bored where the centre of the box comes4 7,the accompanying engraving will serve to show the nature of the arrangement47 ,then outside the hole attach a long tube made of stout sail canvas4 ,wind a stiff rope into a spiral1 round a spar or pole1 which can be withdrawn when the coil is complete1 and attach it here and there with stitches of twine4 ,this spiral coil will keep the tube from collapsing when in use4 ,then in your square upright box fix a valved sucker1 made as shown at ,d1 and another valve in the bottom of the box1 as at ,e4 ,a brake and handle may be fitted to the side of the barrel1 and a hard wood or iron plunger attached1 when the pump will be ready for use4 ,as the water flows out over the rim of the box it is caught in the barrel1 to which a spout of leather1 tin1 or bark may be attached4 ,there are numerous trees and plants to be found in various parts of the world which yield1 in addition to their fruits1 large quantities of sap and other products1 which often prove of inestimable value to the traveller4 ,it would be next to impossible to separate arbitrarily the fruit-yielding members of the vegetable world from those which furnish juice or sap only4 ,we shall therefore in this work treat of the most valuable and noteworthy1 dealing with them as they happen to come under notice4 ,even in the most desert parts of ,south ,africa the traveller ought not to despair of finding means to quench his thirst1 even though water may not be obtainable4 ,in some parts he may1 perhaps1 catch sight of small antelopes pawing the hard red soil1 or may at least come on places that have been so scratched2 and though in many instances this may have been done only to clean the hoofs1 he will find that in others holes of several inches in depth have been made for the purpose of obtaining succulent roots looking very like small turnips4 ,sometimes these may be found partially eaten1 or left behind entire1 when the timid animal has been startled from his repast4 ,the form of these roots should be carefully noted1 together with that of their leaves1 as the traveller can only discover the whereabouts of other roots by external indications1 and cannot be guided--as the antelope probably is--by the scent of moisture beneath the ground4 ,the natives of nearly every separate district know of some peculiar root that is1 perhaps1 confined to their own locality2 and it is always well to encourage them to bring a supply1 not only of the root1 but of its leaves1 and to ask them to point out the plant1 so that its appearance may be observed before it is disturbed4 ,some of these are small tubers1 about the size of a pigeon's egg1 on a long underground stem2 others are much larger2 and we have seen one of the kind called marqu1 which measured in its longest circumference #c-a_/b;ft41 and #b-a_/b;ft4 in its shortest4 ,the marqu1 or markhw1 is properly of a flattened spherical figure1 with an indication of tap-root below and a small conical protuberance above1 from which the slender stem springs up4 ,its seeds are strung upon a skein of fibres in long round tapering pods1 #d;in4 to #f;in4 long1 and thicker than a goose-quill4 ,the taste and appearance1 when cut1 would be something like that of a very fibrous watery turnip2 but when thirst-quenching plants are sought for1 we believe that the more tasteless they are the better4 ,the smaller roots are more agreeable than those of larger size2 and we have frequently found that the mastication of even a small portion of such a root affords more relief than the drinking of any quantity of water4 ,in certain countries1 where rain seldom falls and the night dews are heavy1 a very considerable quantity of water may be obtained from the grass and low bushes before sunrise1 by shaking them over some wide shallow vessel2 or a piece of waterproof cloth stretched across the prong end of a wide-forked stick4 ,when properly put together an implement of this kind is not unlike a large dustpan4 ,sponges1 or soft porous cloths1 absorb a large quantity of water when brought in contact with wet plants or moist surfaces of any kind4 ,they can be squeezed out as fast as they become charged with water4 ,after a long journey1 when the throat is parched1 the skin of the lips dried and cracking for want of moisture1 the teeth fouled1 and the tongue1 with all its papill1 dry and hard as the teeth of a rasp1 rattling against them1 there is no immediate relief in drinking water4 ,we have at times halted in a melon patch1 and have selected and cut into slices the tasteless melons for our horses4 ,the ,hottentots and ,bushmen collect these in quantities1 and with a stick mash up the inside until it becomes a pulp2 and1 as the water exudes from the broken cells1 they obtain perhaps a mouthful from each melon4 ,in some parts of the ,kalahari ,desert it is noticed that there are individual elephants1 rhinoceroses1 or other animals1 that never drink water1 having attached themselves to a locality in which they find melons and succulent roots as substitutes4 ,indeed1 we believe that at least one tribe of ,namaqua ,hottentots live very comfortably in an absolutely waterless country1 subsisting chiefly on the milk of their cattle1 which in turn quench their thirst solely by eating water melons4 ,our fellow traveller1 ,joseph ,macabe1 in his arduous journey to ,lake ,ngami1 travelled long distances without water2 and one day he had to drive his oxen ten miles to eat water melons1 and then to drive them back to the waggons to perform their day's work4 ,this privilege was duly purchased from the ,bushmen who lived near1 and who therefore might be supposed to look upon these wild fruits as their own4 ,a line was traced upon the ground2 but it required all the efforts of the ,bushmen1 and the herdsmen too1 to make the thirsty cattle understand that they were only to eat within a certain limit4 ,the beautiful traveller's tree of ,madagascar collects and retains through almost the driest seasons a welcome store of water4 ,its ample leaves point upward to the heavens2 and all the rain1 dew1 or atmospheric moisture from their broad surfaces1 is conducted down until it lodges in the hollow formed just above the junction of the midrib with the stem4 ,the natives pierce the leaf-stalk with a spear2 the water gushes out1 and is caught in a vessel held under to receive it4 ,so unfailing is the supply from these trees1 that where one of them is seen no native will trouble himself to walk even a short distance to a river4 ,the most valuable property1 however1 of this tree is that it may be tapped again and again without vital injury4 ,it is most likely that the orifice will close1 and the wounded leaf will again collect water2 or1 at most1 the injured leaf will die off1 leaving the others in full vitality4 ,it is different with the collection of palm juice1 in which the tree itself is materially injured and often completely destroyed4 ,illustration ,on the low lands at the ,delta of the ,zambesi1 where the various species of mangroves have fulfilled their office in winning from the dominion of the ocean the broad sand-banks annually deposited by the river1 an abundant growth of the ,doum palm and wild date begins to occupy the new formed land4 ,the natives seek those that have grown to not more than a man's height1 and1 cutting off all the leaf-stalks with the exception of the merest sprout in the centre to continue the vitality1 make a deep incision where the leaves should be1 stick in it a bit of folded leaf as a spout1 and hang an earthen pot under it by a strip of leaf1 sheltering it from the sun by a kind of basket1 loosely but ingeniously woven from another leaf in the manner shown in our sketch on p4 #eai4 ,in connection with the subject of water we may here appropriately notice the expedients used by many nations for the separation of juices from the fruit containing them1 or for expressing from grain or fibrous substances the water in which they have been washed or steeped1 and which may either be collected as holding in solution some nutritious matter1 or thrown away as carrying off something distasteful or even poisonous4 ,in ,kafirland the stem of a species of ,zamia is laid for several days in a running stream1 and we have generally seen it pointed in the direction of the current so that the moisture with which it is surcharged might drain gradually from the lower end1 carrying with it the acrid or unpleasant juices1 while the impact of the stream from above would force more water into its pores and continue to dislodge all that it was desirable to remove1 leaving the farinaceous matter between the fibres4 ,another plant1 commonly known by the appropriately descriptive name of elephant's foot 7,testudinaria of ,burchell1 or ,tamus elephantopus71 is used as an article of food by the ,hottentots1 and on this account is often called ,hottentot's bread4 ,we have not actually seen the preparation of it1 but believe that very little is required beyond cutting out the internal pith1 which resembles the inside of a turnip1 and baking it on the embers4 ,the remarkable lump which rests upon the surface of the ground bears1 in general shape and colour1 some resemblance to the foot of an elephant1 and averages nearly the same size2 but we have seen some nearly #c;ft4 in diameter4 ,it is covered with rough angular projections1 reminding one of the scales on the shell of a tortoise4 ,on the ,zambesi1 near ,logier ,hill1 we have seen the native women frequently washing a kind of cassava1 cut into discs across the grain so thin as to leave the fibre as short as possible4 ,these were put into the closely-woven baskets of the country1 which1 being about half immersed1 were worked with a rotatory motion similar to that of gold washing--removing some acrid juice1 and leaving what little nutriment might be contained in the fibre4 ,in many countries great and long-continued pressure is employed4 ,some vegetable substances contain1 in addition to their nutritious properties1 juices so acrid as to destroy almost every other fibre that might be used to contain them2 and therefore1 as in ,south ,america1 particular kinds of palms or other trees are valued because pressure bags can be woven of them that will resist this action4 ,these bags are of various shapes2 but a very favourite one is that of a long double cone1 loosely woven with the slips1 which represent the threads1 crossing each other in a long lozenge-like form1 so that when the bag is filled it shortens up and greatly enlarges its central diameter2 but when it is hung by one end to a tree1 and a considerable weight is attached to the other1 its elongation contracts its diameter and squeezes out the juices of whatever is placed inside it4 ,we have seen various forms of these bags1 which were in use amongst the ancient ,egyptians for expressing the remainder of the juice after the grapes had already been trodden in the wine-press4 ,both the ancient and modern contrivances appear to have been matted bags of elongated form1 and with a very stout eye or loop at either end2 and the chief difference is in their size4 ,the upper one is worked by two men1 who1 inserting staves into the loops at the ends1 twist them opposite ways2 while the lower is worked by five--four of whom1 having twisted it as tightly as they can1 haul the staves apart1 while the fifth1 throwing himself between the upper ends1 forces them apart still farther4 ,the effect in each case is the flow of a copious stream of second quality wine1 which pours from the twisted bag into the receptacle placed for it4 ,there is a plant1 which much resembles the bachelor's pillow of our hothouses1 found growing in ,mexico and some other countries4 ,when it is rooted in the earth it is more like a vegetable hedgehog than aught else1 being covered with long pointed thorns1 like those of the cactus4 ,hunters and travellers often collect these unpromising-looking productions for the sake of the water they contain4 ,when freed from their attachment to the ground1 they are taken on a forked stick1 which is held in the left hand1 whilst the thorn-covered rind is sliced off with a hunting-knife held in the right4 ,the pulp1 thus laid bare1 affords enough moisture to quench the thirst of either man or horse4 ,the agave 7,agave ,americana7 yields a very large quantity of sap4 ,to obtain this1 the crown is cut off1 and a deep hole scooped out in the substance of the plant4 ,this1 in a short time1 fills with fluid1 which1 when collected1 fermented1 and properly prepared1 is the celebrated pulque of the ,mexicans4 ,large-sized bamboo canes not unfrequently hold bottled-up between their internodes a considerable quantity of water1 the presence of which can be detected by giving the canes1 one after another1 a sharp sudden shake1 when the imprisoned fluid gives out a hollow1 gurgling sound easily recognised4 ,to obtain the cane-water1 it is only necessary to tap the joint or cut down the cane4 ,this juice is not only an agreeable and refreshing drink1 but is by the natives believed to be particularly wholesome and sanitary in its effects on the constitution4 ,it is somewhat curious that the silicious element found covering the outside of the cane like a hard varnish should be held in solution by this fluid2 but that it is so there can be no doubt1 as1 when the liquid1 or sap1 is allowed to remain for any length of time in the tubular cavity of the cane1 it either becomes absorbed altogether1 or leaves a hard concrete substance far more like a mineral than a vegetable substance2 possessing1 in fact1 all the attributes of an earth product4 ,it is not acted on by any of the ordinary acids2 it remains unaltered by fire2 and forms1 with the alkalies1 a clear glass1 just as flint would4 ,this curious substance is the celebrated tabascheer1 which is renowned throughout the ,east for its marvellously curative qualities2 and it is not improbable that this1 like many other ,oriental productions1 may contain virtues little dreamed of by the medical practitioner at home4 ,in some of the forests of the tropics a large description of pitcher plant is found4 ,the natural cups found on it not only contain a considerable quantity of water1 but have the disadvantage of being natural traps for insects and all sorts of small creeping things1 which1 attracted by the moisture1 fall in1 and are drowned4 ,sometimes1 however1 a pitcher is found with perfectly clear and deliciously cool water in it1 which well repays the thirsty searcher4 ,in many nations1 the palm trees peculiar to them supply an almost inexhaustible variety of the necessaries or the conveniencies and luxuries of life1 from timber for house or ship building to fine cloth for wearing apparel1 as well as many articles of food and refreshing1 or often intoxicating1 drinks4 ,nearly all the palms contain what is called a cabbage1 or in other words a mass of young vegetable matter in taste1 nearly resembling the heart of a cabbage stalk1 and both in ,australia and ,africa we have occasionally availed ourselves of this4 ,we do not advise it1 except in cases of necessity1 because the cutting of it out even from a young tree involves considerable labour1 and it is always with some regret that a man feels himself obliged to destroy a noble tree1 perhaps #dj;ft4 or #ej;ft4 in height to obtain hardly vegetable matter enough to serve him for a single meal4 ,at ,coepang1 in ,timor1 we have seen the leaves of the fan palm converted into buckets or pails by simply drawing the points or leaflets together and securing them2 while the lesser leaves or fronds were in the same manner made into exquisite little drinking cups1 capable of containing one doit's worth of palm juice1 which1 when perfectly fresh1 is most delicious and refreshing4 ,the large leaves of the palm may be used for the collection of dew or occasional showers4 ,the water casks of one of the ,dutch gunboats were set out upon the beach near her anchorage1 and the stems of three or four palm leaves inserted in each bung-hole to conduct thither all the moisture that might fall upon their broad surface4 ,palms1 to climb4 ,the tall palm tree is usually climbed by the aid of a loop of loosely-twisted rope1 or a hoop of any sufficiently strong and flexible material large enough to encircle the tree and the body of the climber1 allowing him to lean back in it at such an angle that the pressure of his feet against the trunk is sufficient to support him4 ,short steps are taken upward1 and the rope is jerked up skilfully a little at a time2 but great care must be taken duly to proportion these motions1 for if the feet be too high1 the head and shoulders will project so far that the power of the arms will not suffice to bear the strain1 while if they are too low they will not be pressed with sufficient force against the tree1 and will slip downward4 ,the northern limits of the palms are--in ,europe #dc1 in ,asia #cd1 and in ,america #cd of latitude2 the southern are--in ,africa #cd1 in ,new ,zealand #ch1 and in ,america #cf4 ,the known species amount at present nearly to #fjj1 but it is supposed that at least from #ajjj to #abjj will be found4 ,the stems of some do not rise above the ground1 while others are #bjj;ft4 high2 some are no thicker than a goose-quill1 while others are as large as a hogshead2 some are climbing plants1 with long flexible stems2 some are covered with fibrous network1 and some have spines or thorns #h;in4 or #aj;in4 long1 that may be used for needles or arrows4 ,some of the leaves are #ej;ft4 long and #h;ft4 wide--these are composed of numerous leaflets on a strong midrib2 some are undivided1 and yet are #cj;ft4 long and #e;ft4 wide2 and others again are fan-shaped4 ,the fruits are generally small1 the cocoa-nut being the largest of the family2 the kernel is often too hard to be eaten1 and the covering fibrous or woody2 but in some the seeds are covered with a pulpy or farinaceous mass that offers sweet and nutritious food2 one species on the ,zambesi reminded us of gingerbread4 ,the cocoa-nut1 especially in its green and immature state1 is a most agreeable fruit1 and the water1 or milk as we call it1 is then most cooling and refreshing2 when it more nearly approaches to ripeness the kernel may be scraped or pounded upon its own liquor1 and it then forms a very efficient substitute for milk in a cup of tea4 ,a large amount of oil and other valuable products may be obtained from the tree and its fruit4 ,each young nut1 when in the true milk stage of its growth1 will yield about a pint of fluid1 cool1 and of slightly acid taste4 ,the younger nuts contain a soft1 rich substance1 not unlike blanc-mange1 which can be easily scooped out4 ,from the juices of these immature nuts the natives manufacture an indelible black dye4 ,toddy1 cocoa-nut wine1 arrack1 or rack as it is sometimes called1 is made from the sap of the cocoa palm4 ,in favourable seasons the plumes of cocoa-nut blossom are shot out from amidst the fronds of the tree crown about every six weeks4 ,immediately on the appearance of the new flower spathe the toddy maker ascends the tree after the manner before described1 or1 as on the ,malabar coast1 by cutting a train of notches in the tree trunk4 ,on arriving at the cluster of young fronds and the sheath containing the blossom1 he binds the whole together with twine4 ,he then makes a puncture in the stalk of the spathe with his toddy knife1 raps the part well with the handle1 and then hangs a chatty pot to receive the juice as it drains out during the night4 ,before sunrise he reascends the tree1 lowers the full pot1 which may contain from two to six pints1 and replaces it with an empty one4 ,immediately on obtainment this juice is extremely cool and sweet to the taste4 ,in the course of a very few hours fermentation sets in1 and it becomes slightly acid4 ,in twenty-four hours it becomes quite sour4 ,before too great a change takes place1 however1 the toddy man properly treats his brew by the aid of the true vinous fermentation1 and then distils it in a rough1 makeshift still1 which among some of the ,easterns is extemporised from a hollow stone1 rock1 or piece of hollow tree trunk1 which forms the head of the still4 ,a long hollow cane for a tube1 and piece of bark1 and some coir saturated with cold water for a condenser1 almost any pot or jar will1 with a little ingenuity1 form a tolerably efficient still4 ,excellent vinegar is made as follows from the palm juice3 ,after collection1 the toddy or sap is placed in earthen pots and covered down for about four weeks4 ,at the end of that time the fluid is strained and returned to the pots1 with a few pods of capsicum1 a piece of the fruit of the gamboge tree1 and a pod from the ,indian horseradish 7,hypertanthera moringa7 are thrown into each pot of fluid1 which is then allowed to remain at rest for five weeks1 when excellent vinegar1 well adapted for the use of the settler1 is the result4 ,if1 instead of toddy or vinegar1 sugar is required1 it can be readily made from the palm sap1 which1 for this purpose1 is treated before fermentation4 ,it is1 on being drawn from the tree1 boiled in a suitable pot or other vessel until it becomes thick and stringy2 a little lime is added2 rough crystallisation takes place1 and jaggery1 or palm sugar1 is the result4 ,cocoa-nut oil is valuable for a great number of purposes4 ,it is obtained from the ripe or mature nut in a variety of ways4 ,the natives of many of the islands of the ,eastern seas cut the kernels of the nuts in pieces1 boil them with water in a large kettle2 collect such oil as rises to the top with a sea-shell mounted on the end of a stick2 then pound the boiled nut in a mortar made from a piece of hollow log with a wooden pestle2 reboil the paste thus formed2 skim again1 and so on4 ,the mills used for the expression of this and other oils1 and the crushing of sugar-canes1 we shall describe as our work proceeds4 ,the shell of the cocoa-nut makes excellent cups and bottles4 ,to extract the kernel to form the latter1 the natives bore out one of the eyes1 pour out the milk1 fill the nut with sea-water1 and bury it in the sand exposed to the sun's rays4 ,in a short time decomposition is set up1 and all the contents of the shell can be easily shaken out at the eyehole4 ,the fibrous husk from time immemorial has supplied the native craft of ,india1 as well as our vessels trading there1 with a cheap and generally useful kind of rope1 called coir1 which possesses the valuable property of being so light as to be of much less specific gravity than water1 and which is1 therefore1 much used for buoy ropes1 life lines1 warps1 and cables1 and the ropes for the upper edges of fishing nets4 ,hats1 bags1 baskets1 sandals1 and many other things1 are made from it2 its leaves form the covering of huts1 and its leaf-stalk form their framework1 and serve any purpose for which light elastic wands are required4 ,the date palm1 both wild and cultivated1 furnishes fruit more or less delicious according to the species from which it is taken4 ,the ,arab and his horse1 and camel too1 upon emergency1 will live upon it2 and without it the deserts1 to which it is indigenous1 would be uninhabitable4 ,an ,african species 7,o,eleis guianensis7 affords palm oil1 which is the basis of our candles4 ,a vessel taking in palm oil once started it into a tank built in the hold1 but the task of digging it out when it reached ,england was so arduous that nothing was saved by not providing casks4 ,sago is the produce of a palm1 which in the ,east yields the food of thousands2 it is the pithy centre of the stem1 requiring scarcely any preparation to fit it for food1 and a single tree sometimes yields #fjjlb4 weight4 ,those which furnish the so-called cane for chair bottoms are a species of calamus2 they hang on trees by long hooked spines1 and are sometimes #fjj;ft4 or #ajjj;ft4 long4 ,these are often used as stays or standing rigging among native vessels1 and sometimes we believe as cables4 ,when split into smaller sections and twisted they form tolerable1 but not perfectly flexible1 ropes2 and slips of them1 as is well known1 are commonly used by the ,chinese for tying up various packages4 ,the helmet which we wore through the ,indian campaign is composed of this material closely woven4 ,many varieties all over the world yield a sugary sap from their yet unopened spathes or from their stems1 and this1 when partly fermented1 is the palm wine of ,africa and1 as we have shown1 the toddy of the ,east ,indies2 while similar beverages are obtained by the ,south ,americans from the ,mauritia oinifera and others4 ,a nation at the mouth of the ,orinoco ,river live almost entirely on a palm 7probably ,mauritia flexuosa72 they build their houses elevated on the trunks1 and live upon the fruit1 sap1 and such fish as the waters around them may afford4 ,resins and wax are produced by some species4 ,the fruits of a calamus1 in the ,eastern ,archipelago1 are covered with a red resinous substance1 which1 in common with the produce of other trees1 is the dragon's blood of commerce1 and is used as a colour1 a varnish1 and in tooth powder4 ,the ,ceroxylon audicola1 a lofty palm growing in the ,andes of ,bogota1 secretes in its stem a resinous wax1 used for making candles4 ,in the north of ,brazil1 the ,carnauba 7,copernicia cerifera7 has the underside of its leaves covered with pure white wax1 with no admixture of resin4 ,thatch for houses1 awnings for boats1 and even the upper streaks of large canoes1 umbrellas1 hats1 baskets1 water buckets1 cordage1 and numberless other things1 are made of palm leaves4 ,in ,cuba the ,chamrops argentica1 and in ,sicily the ,chamrops humilis1 is used for making hats and other fine work4 ,in ,india the place of the papyrus was supplied by palm leaves1 on whose hard and glossy surfaces ,pali and ,sanscrit characters were inscribed with a metal point2 the leaves of ,corypha talieri1 strung together1 form the ,hindoo volume4 ,the fruit of ,areca catechu is the betel nut1 the favourite stimulant of the ,eastern people1 which they chew with lime4 ,the fibre of the piassaba palm is made into cheap and durable cables on the ,amazon1 and is introduced into ,england in the form of brooms1 c4 ,although the settler or explorer who directs his steps to ,north ,america has no palms to supply him with food1 drink1 and clothing1 he will find other members of the vegetable kingdom ready to his hand4 ,maple sugar is of vast importance to the settler in the backwoods1 as it serves not only as a substitute for cane sugar1 but is not unfrequently used instead of salt4 ,it is obtained by treating the sap of the ,acer saccharinum1 or sugar maple4 ,the range of this valuable tree is very extensive4 ,it is met with1 in greater or less abundance1 from the neighbourhood of ,st4 ,jean in ,upper ,canada to ,virginia4 ,it abounds in ,nova ,scotia1 ,new ,brunswick1 ,vermont1 and ,new ,hampshire1 some of the trees being found to reach #hj;ft4 in height4 ,sugar-making may begin early in the month of ,april1 or1 in fact1 directly the sap begins to rise4 ,frosty nights1 followed by warm1 genial days1 are the most favourable for the process of sap drawing1 which is proceeded with as follows3 ,one or more auger holes1 up to four1 are made1 at a convenient distance from the ground1 in the trunk of each tree to be treated4 ,into each of these holes a little hollow shoot or tube of bark is thrust1 which conveys the sap as it flows into vessels placed for its reception4 ,each tree will produce from #ae;gals4 to #bj;gals4 of sap1 and #e;gals4 of sap will yield about #alb4 of sugar4 ,when the vessels under the spouts are nearly full the sap should be ladled from them into pails and carried to a shed1 in which a large barrel1 with the upper head removed1 has been set up as a reservoir4 ,in this it is allowed to remain at rest until all foreign substances have settled to the bottom4 ,it is now quickly drawn off and conveyed to the boiler1 which1 in the absence of a proper arrangement1 may be a large camp kettle1 in which it is heated steadily until evaporated down to the consistence of treacle1 when it is again removed and placed in an open vessel to cool4 ,when cold1 it is strained through a flannel bag into a second boiler1 where it is again heated1 clarified with eggs1 a little bullock's blood1 or new milk4 ,the boiling is now continued until a little of the syrup1 taken on the point of a clean chip and held in the air1 shows a disposition to assume a crystalline appearance1 when the heating process is stopped and the charge withdrawn from the pot4 ,it is now in the candy state1 and is cast into a variety of quaint forms by the use of small moulds prepared for the purpose4 ,if granulated sugar is required1 a small barrel is set up at a moderate distance from the ground2 the upper head is removed1 and the lower one bored full of gimlet holes4 ,on the charge of candy being thrown into this1 all the fluid portions drain away in a state of thin molasses through the holes into a tub or box placed below the barrel1 in which the sugar is soon found fit for use4 ,gum sugar is made by throwing the candy when hot from the pot out on the snow4 ,this treatment has the property of checking crystallisation and converting the sugar into a tough material much used for chewing4 ,a settler's family in a good maple district can1 by the use of proper sized boilers1 c41 make upwards of #gjjlb4 of good serviceable sugar in one favourable season4 ,manna1 to prepare4 ,manna is a substance well worth the attention of the explorer1 as it is1 curiously enough1 produced by trees and shrubs of totally different orders in different geographical ranges4 ,the ,arabs and ,persians obtain a kind1 known as ,guzunjbeen1 from a species of tamarisk called the ,guz bush4 ,the description known on the ,arabian coast1 and in the district surrounding ,mount ,sinai1 by the name of ,toofra1 is also procured from the tamarisk thickets1 where it drains from the ends of the thorns1 and falls on the dry leaves1 small twigs1 and sticks which have fallen to the ground2 it there congeals into hard masses1 and is in that condition gathered for use4 ,it is by the ,arabs consumed as a substitute for honey1 and is eaten on bread or other food4 ,the camel thorn of ,india and ,syria is manna yielding1 producing the description known in the ,east as ,al haj4 ,the so-called ,beiruk honey is in reality a kind of manna which is yielded by a low stunted tree1 not unlike a dwarf aspen1 which is known as the ,ghrab bush4 ,in the ,uzbec country manna is obtained from a small tree whose trunk is divided into knots by a series of annular rings4 ,in ,arabia1 the ,ashur is the manna-bearing plant4 ,in ,mesopotamia1 it flows from a species of oak1 and is most abundant on such trees as have the largest share of gall nuts4 ,a medicinal and highly valued manna is obtained in some districts in ,persia from a peculiar willow1 which grows in moist ground4 ,a kind of larch furnishes the ,manna ,brigantica1 and in the ,lebanon district it flows from the cedars4 ,in ,europe1 the ash is the manna bearer1 and three kinds are found to produce it more or less abundantly4 ,the two most commonly treated for its obtainment are ,fraxinus rotundifolia and ,ornus ,europa4 ,to obtain the manna from these trees incisions are made in the bark with a knife2 the first cut is made near the ground1 and the others at #b;in4 or #c;in4 apart1 the cuts being #a;in4 long and #a_/b;in4 deep4 ,these cuts are made at the rate of one per day1 mounting upward1 cut by cut1 in each row4 ,immediately below these perpendicular cuts inverted,t-shaped incisions are made in such a way that each cross cut may receive and hold fast the end of a leaf gathered from the tree1 which serves to conduct the sap away from the trunk and allow of its dropping into ,indian fig leaves placed on the ground for its reception4 ,the ,indian fig leaf1 cultivated for the purpose1 has the peculiar property of drying with its edges curled up1 rendering it extremely useful as a sap receiver4 ,august is the month usually selected for tapping the manna trees1 and dry warm weather is most favourable for the operation1 as rain dissolves and destroys the congealing mass of produce4 ,the manna collected from the bark by scraping1 after having run in long tears down the trunk1 is considered very inferior to that caught in the fig leaves1 and is1 consequently1 sold at a much lower price4 ,a great number of fruit1 berry1 and nut bearing trees and bushes are to be found on various portions of the ,north-,american territories4 ,further south1 the productions assume a more tropical character4 ,here we are merely dealing with some of the forest stores of the north and north-west4 ,the following is but a brief list1 as our space is limited3 ,american wild fruits4 ,the pagessaveg of the ,indians1 ,prunes sauvages of the ,french-,canadians1 or wild plum of the trappers1 is usually collected late in the month of ,october4 ,it grows abundantly on the river sides and lake shores4 ,the ,indians either dry or boil it with maple sugar1 when it is converted into a sort of cake by boiling and stirring the fruit about in the kettle until the mass is thick enough for treatment1 when it is thrown from the pot and spread out to about an inch deep in a flat layer on a piece of birch bark1 when it is exposed to the sun until it becomes quite tough and tenacious4 ,it is then rolled up like soft leather1 placed in a birch-bark box1 and buried in the earth until wanted4 ,during the winter season1 when dried meat is in use1 large pieces of this preparation are cut off with a knife and boiled with it4 ,the sand cherry of the trappers1 or la cerise grappe of the ,canadians1 grows abundantly about the borders of sugar-maple groves1 on the edges of old clearings1 and about the borders of the prairies4 ,it is fit to gather in the month of ,august4 ,the ,indians gather large quantities1 crush them between flat heavy stones1 stir the mass well together with deer fat1 and then boil it in a kettle until it becomes a thick tenacious cake or paste1 when it is1 like the wild plum cake1 buried until required4 ,the small red forest crab apples can be thoroughly prepared by drying1 when they are both wholesome and nutritious4 ,the wortleberry of the trappers1 or bellois of the ,canadians1 is extremely abundant in a great number of localities4 ,to prepare the fruit a thick close basket-work tray1 or hurdle of white cedar1 is used4 ,this1 when covered with a layer of ripe berries1 is suspended over a slow steady wood fire until dry1 when they are packed away in bark boxes4 ,they are either mixed with dough to form cake1 or boiled with meat or fish4 ,the mashkigimin of the ,indians1 les ottakas of the ,canadians1 the cranberry of the trappers3 this fruit1 although commonly known among trappers and ,english settlers as the cranberry1 is much larger than the ,european variety4 ,swampy ground is most congenial to its growth4 ,it is fit to gather as early as the month of ,october1 but remains on the bushes even after being thickly buried by snow in the winter season4 ,immense quantities of these berries are annually gathered by the ,indians1 not only for their own use1 but as a branch of trade with the ,united ,states traders1 who readily purchase them for preserving4 ,for ,indian use1 they require no treatment1 as they do not readily decay2 but by settlers they are usually boiled in syrup1 or preserved in maple sugar4 ,wild hazel nuts are found in great abundance4 ,these are best kept by first packing1 and then burying them in an earthen jar or bark box4 ,swan potatoes are found growing on the shallow margins of rivers1 lakes1 and streams4 ,these1 when dug from the soft ooze and washed clean1 are strung on a long thin strip of white cedar wood1 and hung up over the fire to dry4 ,they are boiled for use1 when they become plump and palatable4 ,wild raspberries1 strawberries1 c41 are to be met with in many parts of ,america4 ,butter nuts1 hickory nuts1 and pinons1 or cone nuts1 are all1 more or less1 deserving of the attention of the hunter or explorer4 ,sago-making4 ,in some islands of the ,indian ,archipelago nature has so bountifully provided for the wants of the human race that it seems as if a remnant of ,paradise yet lingered upon earth1 and man had never been sentenced to eat his bread in the sweat of his brow4 ,at all events1 the inhabitants of these islands are relieved from that necessity1 and to all appearance they are little better for it4 ,the man who1 by chopping down a tree and washing its pith for a week or two1 can provide himself with a substitute for bread for a whole year is not likely to be1 nor is he really equal either in physical strength1 activity1 or intelligence to him who must earn his food by cultivation of the soil1 by chasing wild animals in their forest haunts1 or by launching his little craft upon the waters1 and ensnaring or doing battle with the denizens of the ocean4 ,illustration ,our sketch represents the principal processes of sago-making4 ,the palm which yields the sago is cut down2 a slab is chopped off from the upper side of the trunk1 leaving the pith which occupied the large internal hollow exposed2 this is beaten out in fragments1 rather than chopped1 by a club of heavy wood1 in the end of which a sharp angular fragment of quartz or other stone is set4 ,the pith is then washed in a trough composed of the swelling portions of the leaf stems1 where they embrace the trunk on which they grow1 just as the jaws of a cutter's gaff go round the mast4 ,two of these are placed with their broad ends together1 supported by stakes and cross-bars1 so as to form a long trough widest in the middle1 and out of level4 ,a third is set with its narrow end meeting that of the next piece1 whilst the wide end rises at a slight elevation4 ,across this is placed a screen of fibrous cloth1 supported by another stick1 elastic enough to keep it always tolerably tight without undue strain1 and a mass of the pith being placed behind this is washed by water poured repeatedly upon it and allowed to percolate through and run off till all the superfluous matter is washed away1 and the sago alone is left4 ,the different members of the banana and plantain family1 too1 lend their aid in furnishing a larger quantity by far of life-supporting elements than the finest descriptions of wheat grown on the same area of ground4 ,whether eaten in a ripe state as a fruit1 or boiled green as a vegetable 7when it is not a bad substitute for the potato71 this production is both palatable and wholesome4 ,a good store food is made by cutting the fruit into slices1 hanging it up to dry1 and1 when required for use1 boiling it into a pulp4 ,useful roots4 ,plantain flour is made by thoroughly drying the fruit1 and then grinding it in one of the native mills hereafter described4 ,then the root of the ,taro 7,calandium esculentum71 that of the sweet potato 7,battata convolvulans71 and the roots of certain edible ferns 7,pteris esculenta amongst the number71 are valuable as yielding food4 ,many of these productions furnish drink as well4 ,the plantains before referred to yield a very palatable cider1 which is made as follows3 ,a deep hole is dug in the earth1 and a number of plantains stripped from the main stem is thrown in2 straw and earth are cast on1 and the plantains are allowed to remain at rest for eight days4 ,the peel is then stripped off1 and the pulp is placed in a large open trough with water1 where it is thoroughly washed and mixed with it4 ,at the end of two days the cider may be strained off for use4 ,whisky may be made from sweet potatoes in the following manner3 ,dig up as many of the tubers as you may find it convenient to treat2 boil them until quite soft2 place them in large jars1 or other vessels1 with about their own bulk of water2 stir this mixture well about1 and then to each jar add a little merissa barm 7obtained from native beer-brewing71 which may be placed on a small bundle of cocoa-fibre or cotton4 ,when fermentation has taken place1 erect your still1 which may be of the kind described and figured at page #die2 or a large native pot may be mounted on a hollowed-out ant-hill to serve as the still boiler2 a smaller pot inverted and placed on the open mouth of this forms the still head or dome4 ,when the lower pot is charged with the fermented wash1 the upper pot is luted fast with clay4 ,a small hole is bored near its top for the reception of the end of any hollow tube you can get2 this is also secured with clay4 ,the condensing process is carried out by keeping the tube cold with cloths or mats and cold water4 ,the depending end of the tube should discharge itself into any convenient vessel partly sunk beneath the surface of cold water4 ,a native pot1 or a common tea-kettle1 will make a good receiver2 and an ordinary pail1 or tub1 a convenient water tank in which to place it4 ,by the use of such a contrivance as this1 half-a-dozen bottles of very good spirits may be made in one day's distilling4 ,milk-spirit4 ,the ,mongols make their milk-spirit--known as kumis--in the following manner3 ,a large quantity of milk of any kind 7mare's milk is considered best7 is first turned sour1 and then allowed to ferment4 ,it is then poured into a large iron camp-kettle or pot2 one of the wooden bowls or dishes in use among the ,tartars is now fitted closely into the mouth of the kettle or boiler1 and luted fast round the edges with wet cow-dung or clay2 an elbow-shaped1 hollow branch of a tree1 or a curved tube1 is now fitted into a hole in the convex surface of the bowl1 and more cow-dung or clay is applied4 ,into the mouth of this bent pipe a wooden tube is fixed1 which is kept cold by the constant contact of a wet sheepskin4 ,as the pot boils the spirit passes over1 and is collected for use in some suitable vessel placed as a receiver4 ,this is also kept cold by the aid of sheepskins and water4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,camp ,,cookery4 ,after the obtainment of food1 the art of preparing it in its most nutritious1 wholesome1 and palatable form ranks next in importance4 ,it is well1 when travelling with a large party1 to ascertain the qualifications of a couple of steady men1 and regularly appoint them to the cooking department1 taking care that exemption from guards1 with a few other privileges1 may make the office of cook one to be rather envied2 and1 in order that his operations may be successfully conducted1 he should fully understand the art of fire-making4 ,fire1 to make4 ,the natives of ,australia1 the ,bushmen of ,south ,africa1 and the tribes along the whole course of the ,zambesi1 as well as many other wild nations1 kindle fire by the friction of two pieces of wood against each other2 there are of course varieties of method1 but the principle1 that of whirling the point of a moderately hard stick in a hollow1 cut in one of a somewhat softer character1 is very generally the same4 ,the ,bushmen carry these fire-sticks in the quiver with their arrows2 and when they need fire1 two men sit opposite each other1 and one1 laying his sandal on the ground1 places on it the fire-stick1 perhaps as thick as the little finger1 and holds it between the soles of his feet1 or between his toes1 which for many purposes can be used by the natives with little less effect than the fingers4 ,in the end of this stick a small notch is cut1 and in this is placed the pointed end of another stick1 about the thickness and nearly the length of a common ramrod4 ,one man1 taking this between the palms of his hands1 rubs them so as to communicate to it a rapid whirling motion1 keeping at the same time a gentle1 steady1 downward pressure4 ,in a few seconds1 this causes his hands to reach the bottom1 and his companion therefore sits ready to clap his hands to the top and continue the motion till they also come down1 and he in turn is relieved by the first4 ,very shortly fine wood dust is produced1 and soon after the end of the whirling stick and the hollow in which it turns become charred1 and smoke rises from the little heap of dust4 ,a small nest of very carefully prepared dry grass or fibrous bark1 rubbed very fine1 has already been provided1 and in our illustration a third man is applying this to the smouldering wood-dust1 some ignited particles of which he will try to catch on the nest of fibre1 the whole will then be enveloped in coarser material1 and whirled rapidly round1 at arm's length1 until it bursts into a blaze4 ,illustration3 ,,obtaining ,,fire ,,by ,,the ,,aid ,,of ,,the ,,whirling ,,rod4 ,where two or three men assist each other in this manner1 a couple of minutes suffices to obtain fire2 but if one man attempts it alone1 he cannot keep up a continuous friction1 for he loses speed and heat every time he has to shift his hand from the bottom to the top of the whirling rod1 and1 even when he has produced the first ignition1 he is more liable to lose the spark than a third man who would watch his opportunity for catching it while the other two were keeping up the heat by the vigorous motion of the whirling rod4 ,among many tribes the producing of fire in this manner is a thing of daily occurrence4 ,the inhabitants of some of the ,pacific ,islands obtain fire by placing a piece of bamboo1 which has been previously split in half1 convex side upwards1 on the ground2 a small cut is then made in it as a sort of holding-point for the end of a flat piece of bamboo1 held somewhat after the manner of a chisel1 to work on4 ,the flat piece1 on being driven by the hands rapidly forward and back on the surface1 or back of the long hollow piece of cane joint1 rapidly works a hole through it2 the wood dust1 formed by the friction1 falling through the orifice soon begins to smoke1 smoulder1 and burn1 when it is placed in a tuft of dry fibre1 like an egg in a nest4 ,a small creeper or vine is now fastened to the nest1 which is then rapidly whirled round the head until it flames4 ,there is a very convenient and portable means of carrying fire1 sold under the name of a strike-a-light1 or chucknuck2 it is formed from a brass tube of #a;in4 calibre and #c;in4 in length1 which has a cap and a sliding bottom to it2 it is filled with tinder1 made as usual by setting fire to a piece of rag and extinguishing it as soon as it has ceased to blaze2 it contains also a gun flint or bit of agate1 and its chain passes through an oval of steel or case-hardened iron4 ,when fire is required1 the cap is taken off1 and the box held in the left hand1 with the flint so held against its edge that any sparks struck from it by the steel1 which is taken in the right1 must fall upon the tinder4 ,when it is done with1 the flint is put in again1 the cap put on1 and the movable bottom is pushed up so as to leave no vacant space1 but to exclude all the air1 and to extinguish the burning timber4 ,these tinder-boxes are highly prized2 and one of them1 value one shilling or so1 is by no means a despicable present to a native in the remote interior4 ,the shank bone of any small animal is easily converted into a chucknuck tube4 ,slow match and tinder are important matters to the explorer4 ,loose cotton1 or almost any other vegetable fibre twisted into a cord1 and then soaked in water in which a little saltpetre or gunpowder has been dissolved1 will serve for a slow match4 ,the large puff-balls1 or devil's snuff-boxes as they are called by hunters1 found growing about the borders of the forest1 form excellent punk or tinder4 ,after being gathered they should be hung on a string to dry1 then cut into thin slices1 and beaten on a board with a stick until all the powder or snuff is driven off1 when it will be fit for use1 either as tinder or to smoke wild bees from their holes4 ,the soft1 partially-decayed wood found in dry dead logs or hollow trees makes a very good description of tinder4 ,in default of a tinder-box1 most persons carry a pocket-knife and a gun-flint4 ,if a bit of rag1 with a little dry gunpowder bruised into it1 is rolled up tightly1 and held with the flint in the left hand so that the sparks may fall on the end of the roll1 it is very likely to take fire4 ,many stones1 as quartz1 agate1 jasper1 iron pyrites1 c41 will give forth a spark1 so that if the traveller has a knife1 a bit of steel1 or case-hardened iron about him1 he need not despair if he can only find a stone4 ,the ,malays not unfrequently obtain a spark by striking a piece of broken chinaware sharply against the hard flinty surface of a well-developed bamboo joint4 ,lucifer1 congreve1 or vesta matches are now so common1 that few travellers think of carrying anything else2 yet it is not safe to trust to them alone1 as a little accidental damp may spoil the whole stock4 ,if they ignite by simple friction there is danger of accident2 if they ignite only on the box1 a supply of friction tablets should be carried1 for the box will soon go to pieces with rough usage4 ,the trappers of ,north-,west ,america make use of the ,german matches1 such as are packed in round wooden boxes being preferred4 ,the composition ends of these are dipped in a varnish composed of shellac and a little methylated spirit1 which1 when dry1 as it will be in about half-an-hour1 renders them perfectly damp-proof4 ,in countries where the sun shines continuously1 a burning glass1 such as the lens of a telescope or a ,stanhope microscope1 will obtain fire at any time during the day4 ,the ,parsees1 when serving on board ,european ships1 carry their own fire2 and we have seen a boat's crew with #c;ft4 of good stout rope1 used as a slow match to retain it4 ,a man armed with a gun or pistol has always the means of obtaining fire4 ,if it be a flint lock1 he need not even draw the charge1 but1 throwing out the priming on some dry surface1 he may plug up the touch-hole with a bit of wet clay1 wet or greasy rag1 string1 or wood2 in fact any of these materials1 even though dry1 if rammed in tightly1 become incombustible4 ,the end of a bit of packthread wetted1 or of raw hide reimpjie1 is better than any1 because the remainder can be used to pull it out with4 ,the priming can then be rubbed on a bit of rag--dry or slightly moistened--a corner of it stuck into the pan1 the gun full cocked and the trigger pulled1 when most likely the sparks will be found to have ignited the tinder4 ,with a percussion gun the charge1 if it be loaded1 must be drawn or fired away so as to leave the barrel empty1 then a little powder must be put in1 and a bit of dry rag1 with powder rubbed upon it1 rammed loosely into the barrel2 the gun should be fired with its muzzle downwards or towards a rock or stump1 that the rag may not be blown too far away4 ,the fire being obtained by any of these means1 and secured by being communicated to a small collection of inflammable material1 the next process is to build up and ignite the fuel that is to serve the traveller for warmth or culinary purposes4 ,this will1 of course1 have been already collected4 ,prudent cooks generally tie a dry thorn branch behind their waggon on leaving their outspan1 so as to have it ready as soon as they again halt2 or1 if fuel be scarce1 they keep a bright lookout upon the way for dry sticks or the dung of tame or wild animals4 ,such fuel should be broken up1 and the sticks roughly assorted into sizes4 ,a small elevation will be chosen or made on a dry patch of ground1 and the fire being laid on a little faggot of small sticks1 others are carefully piled round it pointing upward1 at an angle of #de or more towards the centre--just as if a conical roof or a church steeple were to be built--and round these the larger ones are arranged in the same manner1 and in successive sizes4 7,see ,fig4 #b1 p4 #eea47 ,thus1 the property of heated air being to ascend1 the flame is led naturally up along the twigs1 and through the interstices1 and when sticks as thick as the thumb are well kindled1 others may be piled on with less attention to regularity4 ,if the intention is to make a transient blaze as large as possible1 perhaps for a night signal1 dry thorn branches of the mimosa1 with their large thorns and loose twigs1 thrown on as lightly as possible1 will answer excellently4 ,we have seen in the ,karroo veldt of ,south ,africa a bush or shrub of which the leaves blaze up with almost a resinous flash1 but of which the stem is almost incombustible4 ,this would serve well for such a signal2 but when wanted for the purposes of cooking1 the fire requires constant replenishing1 and from the repeated calls for fresh supplies1 the shrub has acquired the expressive name of the ,bring on bush4 ,a species of prolea1 locally called ,waggon bush1 is also highly in request1 as its resinous blossoms maintain a more steady heat4 ,if the fire is required as a day signal1 large quantities of green wood1 leaves1 c41 should be heaped on to make as much smoke as possible2 and vice vers if concealment is desired--green wood should be avoided1 and only small quantities of dry wood used4 ,we have often1 during a night halt among the date-palm jungles1 selected a tree at a convenient distance from its fellows1 to form a sort of gigantic torch4 ,the dry fronds give off in burning sufficient heat to make the whole crown of the tree inflammable2 this1 in turn1 ignites the trunk1 which burns for some time1 and gives a most brilliant light4 ,the lighting of a fire in a hot dry climate is a matter of comparative ease when compared with the obtainment of one in the damp woods of a cold inclement region4 ,an experienced campaigner will generally contrive to carry with him a few pieces of dry resinous wood1 known as kindling chips1 with which to start his fire4 ,in the absence of these1 look out sharply for a dead tree or hollow log1 and from the lee side of it1 if rain is falling1 chop out a good supply of wood as a foundation for your fire4 ,if you cannot find a dead tree or log1 select the dry side of a living one2 chop off the bark with your axe1 and then from the exposed timber remove some long thin chips4 ,now1 under the shelter formed by spreading your blanket or coat1 proceed with your hunting knife to cut these chips into long1 thin1 narrow shavings1 much like those used in making the ,bavarian toy brooms4 ,when a good quantity of these has been prepared gather a bundle of the very finest and most slender brushwood you can find4 ,the largest sticks should not be stouter than wheat straws2 cut these up into foot lengths2 place your bunch of shavings on as dry a spot as you can find4 ,if there are stones to be obtained1 place one on each side of it4 ,now1 with your small sticks1 build a sort of cone loosely over the shavings1 each stick being arranged end upwards1 just as hop poles are stored for the winter2 lay over and outside these a few stouter sticks and bits of bark4 ,when your cone is complete introduce your fire to the centre of the cone's base4 ,a tube of bark or hollow reed1 a piece of curled up dry hide1 or a gun-barrel with the nipple taken out1 serves for a blowpipe to gently urge on the fire with4 ,we--as stated in the early portion of this work--endeavour1 if possible1 to have a small pair of bellows as part of our travelling kit4 ,it is well1 however1 to know how to manage without them4 ,small quantities of gunpowder cautiously sprinkled in will aid considerably in setting up the first flame of a sluggish fire4 ,the greatest care must1 however1 be exercised in order to guard against accidents from explosion4 ,we in our early days narrowly escaped the loss of a hand by strewing a little powder from the flask on some damp moss1 which we were endeavouring to coax into a fire4 ,the instant the grains of powder reached the fire they ignited1 communicated with the contents of the flask1 and1 fortunately1 blew the brass top from the copper body1 without bursting the metal4 ,on another occasion1 nearly a half-charge of powder exploded in the left hand1 whilst we were strewing in the powder with the right finger and thumb in a manner which we are to this day utterly at a loss to account for4 ,when making use of gunpowder as a fire stimulant1 we now invariably pour the quantity about to be used on a leaf or a piece of bark1 and place the flask in a place of perfect safety1 some distance from the fire1 which1 when once fairly established1 may be treated with more boldness1 and supplied with sticks of larger size4 ,if you intend camping down for the night with your party1 the first thing to do1 after seeing that your fire is burning strongly1 is to collect a good and sufficient store of fuel to last through the night and well up into the morning4 ,one of the elements of fitness in the locality for camping purposes will be the close vicinity of proper firewood2 and here we must caution the inexperienced against the choice of soft wood trees for a true camp fire4 ,pines1 and other members of the conifer1 are very ill adapted to the purpose4 ,ash1 maple1 beech1 birch1 and other hard woods are the sorts to be sought for4 ,trees of about #a;ft4 to #ad;in4 in diameter are the best for the purpose4 ,when felled with the axe1 they should be cut into logs of about #ab;ft4 in length1 and all the branches chopped up short to feed the fire with4 ,prepare two strong heavy stakes of about #e;ft4 in length1 sharpen the points and drive them into the earth just behind your fire1 in such a way that they may stand at about #f;ft4 apart4 ,cut a notch in the rear of each near the top for the support or back stake to key into4 ,now place three of your fire logs one on the other1 as if you were building a log wall4 ,this forms your fire-back2 now take two shorter logs and fix them at the ends as log rests1 and on these lay another long fire log1 when the arrangement will be complete4 ,a fire of this kind1 when once thoroughly established1 will burn during the longest night1 form a perfect wall of fire1 and cause little trouble1 as all the feeding fuel is cast in between the front log on the log rests and the fire-back4 ,a pot1 to be boiled on a fire of this kind1 is conveniently suspended from a stout green pole1 so placed as to rest above the fire-back1 whilst its point is forced into the ground behind4 ,to keep a small fire steadily burning1 let three logs as large as possible be laid end to end1 diverging at an angle of #fj from each other 7as in ,fig4 #a1 p4 #eea71 push their burning ends occasionally together1 and they will last many hours1 with but little attention4 ,the natives of ,australia take dry logs1 #f;ft4 or more in length1 and laying them down #c;ft4 or #d;ft4 apart1 set them on fire in several places4 ,letting shorter logs meet them from the outside1 and laying good-sized pebbles around them1 they then stretch themselves on the ground and sleep between the two lines of fire1 and when the wood is consumed the stones continue for some time to radiate the heat they have previously absorbed4 ,many tribes of ,american ,indians have their own especial fashion of fire-building1 so that a deserted camp fire will not unfrequently reveal the identity of the tribe by whom it was made4 ,in ,south ,africa1 when the flats are swamped with heavy showers1 and it would seem almost impossible to kindle the scanty fuel that can be obtained1 the ant-hills with which the plain is covered prove the greatest imaginable boon to the traveller4 ,one of these hills1 #c;ft4 or #d;ft4 high1 is selected1 its top cut flat off1 and a hole dug like an oven in its side4 ,in this the fire is kindled1 the flame rushes up through the galleries1 the clay becomes red hot1 and the kettle or frying-pan soon begins to feel its influence4 ,but this is not all1 for the galleries are most likely full of vegetable matter as well as of ants' eggs1 and larv1 and these help to increase the flame4 ,of course it is cruel1 but the traveller and his followers must have food4 ,by the exercise of a little ingenuity1 hollows can be cut in it for convenience of baking bread1 c4 ,most farmers build a clay oven at some little distance from their houses to avoid the necessity of having a fire actually under their roof4 ,in the ,zuur veldt1 in ,tartary and ,central ,india1 where fuel is scarce1 we have seen the cattle-dung collected and piled along the tops of all the walls and other enclosures to dry4 ,when camping down for any length of time a stack of logs and split hard wood should be formed4 ,straight logs are easily split by wedges1 but stump ends1 which form excellent fuel1 are so tough that they require blowing open with gunpowder4 ,to do this1 we bore an auger hole into the substance of the stump1 pour in our charge of powder1 and then screw into the hole a tapered iron plug1 on which a very deep rough screw thread has been cut4 ,this plug has a ring made in its upper end to admit of the passage of an iron pin used in screwing it in1 and the ring of a bit of old ox chain1 the other end of which is secured to the log under treatment by a large staple1 or a screw bolt1 in order to prevent the plug from being blown away and lost4 ,illustration ,the annexed illustration represents a section of the stump2 and it will be seen1 on examination1 that the plug has a hole running longitudinally through it for a slow-match to go through4 ,the inside end of this match is allowed to remain long enough to reach the powder in the bottom of the hole1 and that at the outside of sufficient length to enable you1 after lighting it1 to get behind a tree1 or in some other safe place1 until the explosion takes place1 and the flying splinters and fragments settle4 ,in the absence of one of these iron blasting plugs1 a hard wood treenail may be used to stop the auger hole1 and the vent may be bored with a gimlet4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,quern4 ,makeshift mills4 ,in dealing with many of the food1 drink1 and oil yielding products with which we shall have to deal1 mills or crushing contrivances1 more or less complicated1 will be required4 ,the most simple and primitive of these is formed by placing the substance to be treated between two stones1 and grinding it by working them forward and back with the hands4 ,the tortillas or thin pancakes of ,spanish ,america are made from flour prepared by the aid of a contrivance of this kind4 ,the maize or ,indian corn used in their manufacture is first steeped in water to soften it4 ,handfuls of the prepared grain are then thinly scattered over the surface of the lower or bed stone4 ,the top stone is then brought into play until the whole is reduced to a species of paste4 ,this1 when flattened out between the palms of the hands1 and rapidly baked over the fire1 forms a description of bread in general use throughout ,mexico and other countries where the ,spanish races have formed settlements4 ,most of the ,eastern races and tribes make use of the ancient quern or hand-mill to crush their grain4 ,this primitive mill1 the subject of the annexed illustration1 is1 with trifling modifications of arrangement1 almost world wide4 ,a bed stone1 slightly convex1 is capped by a running stone somewhat concave4 ,a hole in the centre admits of the grain being poured in with the left hand1 whilst a second hole out of centre receives the end of the handle used in causing the upper stone to revolve on the lower4 ,as the grain is reduced to powder it falls out on a cloth placed to receive it1 and by repeatedly passing between the stones a meal of sufficient fineness for practical purposes is soon formed4 ,when two or more persons work at a mill of this description1 supplementary handles are attached to the upright turning stick by strips of raw hide4 ,the chupatees or aps of ,india are usually made from meal ground in mills of this description4 ,chupatees1 like tortillas1 are not unlike pancakes1 and form a most important element of an ,indian hunter's diet4 ,our native followers always contrived to bear with them in some way or another the pair of stones necessary to form a quern1 and a piece of sheet iron to bake the aps on1 so that1 wherever grain of any kind was procurable1 we were at least sure of bread4 ,when a sufficient quantity of meal has been ground out1 it is1 by the aid of a little water and much manipulation1 converted into dough or attar4 ,this is divided into balls1 each ball being sufficient to form one chupatee4 ,the balls are then one by one taken between the palms of the hands and dexterously slapped and patted until quite round and as thin as an ordinary pancake1 and then adroitly transferred to the piece of sheet iron which rested on a small fire close at hand4 ,a little ghee1 or native butter1 was then added4 ,the aps1 when baked brown1 are taken off the plate1 and eaten hot or stored away for future use4 ,when attached to the expedition sent into the jungles for the capture of the ,nahwab of ,banda1 we saw our native hunters and followers1 when particularly short of grain1 gather the seed of a thin wiry grass called nardoo for meal-making purposes4 ,this nardoo must not1 however1 be confounded with the ,australian seed of the same name1 as that grows on a plant not unlike our ,english wood sorrel1 the hare-bell1 or a long-stemmed clover2 whilst that of ,india is a true cereal1 with a head furnished with many grains1 like very diminutive barley4 ,in ,africa and many other countries the pestle and mortar are extensively made use of for grain and seed crushing4 ,a hard wood log is easily hollowed out by the aid of fire and cutting tools1 and a pestle is extemporised from any suitable piece of heavy wood4 ,illustration ,a powerful and simple description of mill is made by making a round and somewhat tapering hole in a large slab of sandstone or grit4 ,in this a conical block of stone is fitted in such a manner as to admit of its being turned round by a cross-handle1 as shown in the annexed illustration4 ,the corn or other grain to be crushed is thrown into a groove which surrounds the hole in the bed stone4 ,a generally useful oil or sugar-cane mill is in general use throughout ,india and ,ceylon4 ,its main bed or cylinder is formed from a solid block of hard stone1 which is hewn out until of the form of an upturned mortar2 in the bore or barrel is fixed1 at an angle1 a piece of hard1 heavy1 and massive baubul thorn tree1 which acts as a pestle or crusher2 to this is attached1 by lashings of raw hide1 a head bar1 which serves to guide its movements and direction4 ,this head bar is in turn connected with the travelling bar1 which runs round the cylinder much as the jaws of a boom might be made to run round a mast4 ,the illustration below will serve to show the manner in which the arrangements are made4 ,one or more bullocks are made use of to turn the pestle of the mill2 and such liquid as may be forced out of the substance under treatment runs through an orifice1 like the vent of a cannon1 into a cane tube1 which conducts it into a pot sunk in the earth4 ,the greater portion of the native cane sugar made in the ,east is manufactured by the aid of this description of mill4 ,illustration3 ,,native ,,mill4 ,illustration3 ,,sugar-,,cane ,,mill4 ,whilst at ,tette1 in ,africa1 we had an opportunity of seeing the process of cane sugar making carried out by the native cultivators1 which is conducted as follows3 ,early in the morning a quantity of canes1 minus their tops1 were brought in1 and a couple of men1 armed with thin double-edged soft iron knives1 #b;ft4 long and #c;in4 wide1 caught up the canes in their left hands and chopped off pieces about #b;ft4 long1 letting them fall in heaps1 whence they were taken by others1 who dressed off any knots or young shoots that might impede their progress through the mill4 ,as soon as this was completed1 the parts of the machine1 which are always taken asunder and cleaned after a day's work1 were set up1 the whole consisting of eight pieces of wood--first1 the trough1 or canoe as the natives call it 7an oblong block #e;ft4 long1 #b;ft4 #f;in4 wide1 with a hollow #c;in4 deep to catch the juice1 and three circular holes or sockets in the centre1 cut not quite through1 to receive the lower ends of the rollers72 secondly1 two posts1 one at either end of the trough1 with their upper ends tenoned to carry another log with corresponding sockets for the upper end of the rollers2 thirdly1 three vertical rollers1 #d;ft4 long and #h;in4 diameter1 their upper parts being cut into the form of a long screw1 the worm of the centre one running in the usual direction1 and those of the two others in the opposite4 ,the head of the central roller projects above the framework1 and is squared so as to fit into a mortice in the middle of a long beam1 the two ends of which are used as levers1 and1 when turned1 the deep-cut worm1 acting on those of the other rollers1 causes them to revolve in the opposite direction4 ,a heap of cane was laid by the mill2 and1 while eight or ten men ran round with the lever bar1 a native1 squatting on the receiving side1 fed the canes by handfuls between the centre and the right-hand roller2 while another1 catching them as they came out 7as shown in the above illustration71 sent them back again between the centre and the opposite roller on his own right4 ,this was repeated till the canes were crushed dry and the trough filled4 ,the juice was baled out with a calabash2 and when it became shallow was scooped up by the hand1 strained through a basket into two large copper pans #cj;in4 wide and #h;in4 deep1 and boiled on open wood fires1 a couple of women stirring it till sufficiently evaporated4 ,the pans were then placed on small heaps of soft earth1 and the stirring continued till the whole mass assumed the consistency of dough or toffy1 and eventually crystallised into a fine bright yellowish brown sugar1 leaving no treacle1 molasses1 or refuse of any kind4 ,the green cane chewed to express the juice is pleasant and nutritious2 the fresh sap is a most luxurious draught2 the syrup1 thickened by boiling1 but not yet crystallised1 is of a bright golden colour1 and better in taste than what we call treacle2 the pap or toffy is by no means bad4 ,next morning1 as the friction of the rollers had worn the outer side of the sockets and thus increased the space between them1 a native carpenter let in pieces of hard wood across the grain of the beam1 and in them cut hollows to the proper outline of the sockets4 ,this is frequently necessary2 and1 if it is too long delayed1 the rollers separate so much that the thread of the centre screw catches the edge instead of the hollow of the others1 and is liable to break both4 ,a set of rollers will last from one to three seasons1 according to the amount of work required4 ,the panellas1 or earthen sugar jars1 are made by women4 ,sugar pots1 to make4 ,a shallow wooden dish1 of about #ad;in4 internal diameter1 is chosen1 and in this the clay1 previously kneaded into a long roll1 is so coiled as to make a circular wall2 this is next pressed and patted into a compact mass1 with a smooth surface2 it is then built upon1 tapering into a kind of pear shape towards the top1 which is #d;in4 in diameter1 and is finished in a smooth edge 7a woman will do this in about ten minutes72 it is then gently lifted from the dish and set aside to dry4 ,next day it is turned up1 and the wide part1 which had previously been the base1 is gradually built upon with fresh clay1 till it arches over so as to leave a very small aperture2 the fingers of the left hand are introduced to support the work1 while the hole is being diminished by applications of fresh clay until it becomes so small that the last finger has to be withdrawn1 and it is finally closed by the dexterous application of a small piece1 quite moist1 dabbed on with correct aim1 and slightly smoothed off at the edges by gentle application of the fingers4 ,a hemispherical cap is then made for the finished panella1 which appears beside it4 ,the jars are then baked to a dull red4 ,from #aelb4 to #bjlb4 of sugar is put in each1 making the gross weight from #bglb4 to #bilb41 a pad of grass to give a flattened base is laced to each jar with strips of palm leaf1 a couple of loops or beckets are left to lift it by1 and each jar is sold for about three fathoms of calico4 ,cakes1 to bake4 ,in cooking an as-koekie1 or ash cake1 a fire is made upon a smooth flat piece of ground1 and when this is well heated1 and there are plenty of glowing embers1 the fire is swept away2 the cake1 generally of meal or of seconds flour and water1 with a pinch of salt in it1 is laid upon it1 the ashes are then strewed over the cake1 and the embers raked over all1 fresh wood being heaped over if necessary1 and it is left for two or four hours according to its size and the intensity of the fire4 ,the ,australian damper is made in the same manner1 except that the finest flour is used and kneaded with as little water as possible2 in fact the flour is merely damped sufficiently to make it adhere1 and then by dint of hard kneading is converted into a solid mass1 the object being to have no moisture in it that would cause it to become mouldy if kept or carried for several days upon a journey4 ,as this article of breadstuff is such a general favourite with old bushmen1 it may not be amiss to give full directions for its preparation4 ,the size of the damper of course depends on the numerical strength of the party for which it is about being prepared4 ,the first thing to do is to obtain a flat1 broad1 dried sheepskin1 or slab of bark1 large enough to constitute a kneading-board2 on this pour from your flour sack enough flour for use2 sprinkle in some salt2 work a wide basin-shaped hole in the middle of the flour1 keeping the right hand moving round it whilst water is thrown in a little at a time from any convenient vessel held in the left4 ,continue to do this until a thick1 strong1 adhesive dough is formed2 work this well about on the board with dry flour until a large pudding-shaped ball is formed2 strew your board with fresh flour1 dust over your ball with a little1 and proceed to press and flatten it out until a round1 even1 pancake-shaped mass is formed--about #b-a_/b;in4 in thickness will be found a convenient substance4 ,this may be ascertained by cutting a notch in a sharp stick at #b-a_/b;in4 from the joint1 and thrusting it through here and there1 working away in the meantime until the thickness is uniform4 ,the red hot embers of your camp fire1 which should be good1 clear1 and well-burned1 must now be scooped aside with a shovel1 flat-pointed stick1 or a sheet of green bark1 leaving a clear even surface of hearth4 ,now1 deftly taking the damper in the palms and outspread fingers of your two hands1 drop it evenly and lightly on the heated ground1 making all flat and compact with your hands1 and then with your shovel or makeshift spade rake back the heated embers over your damper until it is deeply buried in them1 and in between one and two hours1 depending on the weight of the batch1 it will be cooked to a turn1 be of a light rich brown1 and a feast for a king4 ,hungry men not unfrequently satisfy their hunger by making dough nuts1 or beggars on the coals as they are called1 whilst the damper is cooking4 ,these are merely small lumps of dough hastily twisted off and cast on the embers to grill4 ,the dried yeast powders prepared by some good makers are well worth taking on an expedition1 when very superior bread can be made by their aid4 ,we have made good bread with and without them1 by placing the loaf under an upturned copper or iron cooking pot1 heaping on the ashes until the baking process was completed1 and then dusting the loaf well with a bunch of fresh green twigs4 ,we made an excellent oven in the ,crimea from an old powder canister4 ,this we buried in an horizontal direction in the bank at the back of the cook house4 ,clay was well rammed in round it1 and after it had been sufficiently heated by a charge of vine roots and aught else we could obtain1 it was swept out1 the bread pies or tarts 7for we even arrived at that stage of the baker's art at last7 were put in1 the copper cover of the canister was luted fast with wet clay1 and the baking proved most satisfactory4 ,a small iron-hooped barrel makes an excellent oven4 ,lay it on its bilge in a deep groove1 scooped in a convenient bank1 cover it with a complete and thick coating of strong clay1 leaving one head1 the outer one1 open2 then fill in the earth above the cask1 and well stamp it down2 now lay a few stones in the cask1 and light a fire on them1 letting it smoulder the whole of one day and a night1 in order that the clay may dry4 ,now remove the stones1 and light a strong fire of dry wood in it4 ,this will burn out all the staves1 and leave the clay oven fit for use4 ,a large flat stone and some clay makes a good oven stopper4 ,illustration3 #a-g ,if a light cake for present use is required1 and the ashes adhering to the outer surface are thought objectionable1 a frying-pan1 of which the handle had been broken off1 may be inverted over it1 or a plate of iron may be supported upon four stones1 and the fire piled over all as before4 7,see ,fig4 #c47 ,the three-legged iron pot1 or ,meg ,merrilies 7,fig4 #d71 forms an excellent oven2 light bread may be baked in it1 or joints may be roasted1 or pastry made to suit the most fastidious taste4 ,a fire must be made underneath it1 and a sufficient quantity of clear glowing embers raked out and piled upon the iron cover1 which ought not to be lifted until the moment when the contents are judged to be properly cooked4 ,flesh meat4 ,but it is when the larger animals of the wilderness fall before the hunter's rifle that the resources of the ,african chef de cuisine are really called into requisition4 ,suppose an elephant has been laid low1 and1 after an extemporised supper of steaks1 or carbonatjies1 the party determine to have a foot for breakfast1 the fire1 which has already partially dried the ground1 is swept away1 or perhaps a new spot is chosen1 and a hole #cj;in4 in width and depth is made1 a fire is lighted in this1 and a quantity of dry wood thrown on and allowed to burn until the sides of the hole and the earth immediately surrounding it are thoroughly heated2 the fire is then raked out1 the foot1 generally a fore one1 which has been amputated at what may be called the wrist-joint1 and answering to the knee of the horse1 is placed in its natural position in it 7,fig4 #e71 the ashes are shovelled in1 the hot embers above them1 the hot earth over all1 and a roaring fire is lighted on the top and left to burn all night4 ,in the morning this is cleared off1 the foot is dug out1 the upper parts soiled by the contract of the ashes are cut away1 and the rich gelatine and other morsels are left to be dug out by the stout keen pointed knives of the expectant hunters1 the tough skin serving all the purposes of a dish4 ,very frequently a piece of the trunk is put in at the same time1 and this is generally left as a stand-by1 to be eaten cold1 when it looks and tastes almost like coarse tongue2 the foot1 on the contrary1 being best while still warm4 ,the hump of the white rhinoceros1 treated in nearly the same manner1 is in reality a most delicious morsel1 the rich juices accumulating in the dish formed by the thick skin1 while the upper part and adhering ashes is cut off and thrown away2 but1 if proper care has been taken1 another flap of skin slightly larger will have been cut out and skewered1 as in ,fig4 #f1 for a dish cover1 and this will not only prevent the annoyance caused by dirt and ashes1 but will prevent the absorption of the juices which would otherwise take place4 ,a mode of cooking a dish of hippopotamus1 discovered by ,sir ,samuel ,baker1 is well worth bearing in mind4 ,speaking of it1 he says3 ,i tried boiling the fat flesh and skin together1 the result being that the skin assumed the appearance of the green fat of the turtle1 but is far superior4 ,a piece of the head thus boiled1 and then soused in vinegar1 with chopped onions and cayenne pepper and salt1 throws brawn completely into the shade4 ,the rump steak from an eland is also a delicacy hardly to be surpassed4 ,the side of the rump1 skin and all1 with as much flesh as can be dug out with it1 is cut off2 the edges of the skin are then gathered together and skewered like a pudding bag 7see ,fig4 #g71 and it is then put into the heated hole1 or a fire is built around and over it upon the surface1 the advantage being that the juices have no chance of escape and the meat is most deliciously cooked2 in fact1 if the quantity be insufficient1 all the inner portions of the skin may be pared away and eaten1 leaving only the scorched cuticle4 ,the gipsies' method of rolling up a fowl in a ball of clay1 putting it into the fire till it becomes red hot1 and then breaking it open1 with all the feathers scorched so as to be no longer recognisable1 and the fowl itself deliciously cooked1 is well known4 ,fish when dressed in this way are delicious4 ,in some countries the natives appear to have a taste for boiling or stewing their food1 although at the same time they do not possess vessels of iron1 or even of clay1 that will bear the action of the fire3 nevertheless their case is not hopeless4 ,we have frequently seen the cooking holes of the ,australians--generally beside some rivulet1 where fish and fresh-water mussels were easily to be obtained1 and even an alligator might occasionally be killed4 ,a hole 7see ,fig4 #h1 p4 #eea71 #b;ft4 in diameter and #a;ft4 in depth1 is dug in the ground1 and the inside nicely clayed2 the fish or flesh1 carefully wrapped in grass or in the leaves of the pandanus1 is put in and the hole filled with water4 ,in the meantime large stones have been heated at a fire not far off1 and these are dropped one after another into the water1 being removed by means of crooked sticks as they cool to make room for others more thoroughly hot2 then1 when the water boils1 or is as nearly boiling as it is possible for hot stones to make it1 the hole is covered with grass2 earth is heaped on it1 and the food is left to steam until it is considered sufficiently cooked4 ,should the mess be large1 and require longer boiling1 a fire may be lighted above the cooking hole1 less for the purpose of imparting fresh heat than for that of preventing the loss of the heat already produced below it4 ,the ,new ,zealanders1 ,sandwich ,islanders1 and some of the ,indian tribes of ,north ,west ,america1 cook most of their food in this manner4 ,in the ,pacific ,islands a pig1 with the potatoes1 yams1 or other vegetables1 is nicely wrapped in several folds of mat or native cloth and left to stew all night2 and we have heard it said that flesh may be boiled by this process in a sufficiently water-tight basket4 ,salmon and other fish are commonly boiled by ,indians in birch bark by the aid of hot stones4 ,makeshift furnace4 ,while coasting along the shores of ,north ,australia we were often at a loss for something like a warm meal2 fortunately1 we had as a compensation a case of gin with us1 and1 as long as it lasted1 we thankfully availed ourselves of it as a means of restoring the animal heat after we had been chilled and wearied by a night of exposure and incessant labour4 ,when the weather moderated a little1 we took a #flb4 preserved beef tin 7see the following engraving71 cut out the top of it1 and then1 after making a number of triangular cuts in the sides about half-way down1 we turned the tongues inwards so as to make at the same time supports for the piece of tin we had cut out from the top1 and holes by which the air could enter freely2 the upper edge we cut into van-dykes1 turning alternately one point inward and one a little out1 so as to make a firm rest and secure hold for another tin of the same size1 which we used as a boiler4 ,we set the whole upon the bottom of our upturned baling tub1 and lighted our fire upon the false bottom with coir1 or fibre of cocoa-nut husk1 steeped in cocoa-nut oil1 and with chips of deal cut off the trail of our little carronade4 ,in this manner we not only made tea and coffee1 but warmed up our preserved meat1 and fried our salt pork4 ,illustration ,during this voyage we fell in with one of the very few so-called edible things we have been unable to eat1 and this was the trepang 7beche le mer1 or sea-slug72 this1 with the scanty boiling or roasting we could afford it1 was about as tender and well tasted as the sole of a shoe well saturated with sea-water2 but1 after having been parboiled and dried by the ,malay collectors1 sold by them for #ael4 per ton to the ,chinese1 and subjected to the elaborate culinary operations of that people1 we have no doubt that1 with sufficient condiment1 it produces a soup quite worthy of the praises they bestow upon it4 ,illustration ,when we were left with a couple of ,krooboys in the pinnace of ,h4,m4,s4 ,hermes1 on the ,zambesi1 we took an empty preserved potatoe box1 composed of sheet iron1 between #af;in4 and #ah;in4 square1 and1 cutting out the top as in the case before described1 we made half-way up the sides a series of triangular cuts1 turned the points inward as supports1 and let the top sheet previously punched full of holes down upon them2 above this we cut a good-sized hole for the admission of fresh fuel1 and another below for access to the ashes accumulating there4 ,this proved a first-rate portable furnace2 it was large enough to accommodate the coffee kettle and a moderate-sized stew pot or frying-pan4 ,the bottom being made with a flange riveted to the sides1 as shown by the rivet heads in the sketch1 was sunk nearly #a in4 within the edges1 and therefore left just that amount of vacant space between it and the boat's thwarts or other plank that it might be set upon1 thus preventing any danger of burning the plank should even the falling embers heat the iron before they died out4 ,for additional security1 we put a couple of chocks under to raise it2 but there was no necessity for securing it by cleats or lashings2 still we have drawn them to show how they might be applied1 if requisite4 ,a piece of the iron wire netting1 now commonly sold for fencing1 if neatly turned up at the sides1 would make a very efficient fire-basket2 and1 if the meshes prove too large1 a couple of pieces so cut or folded that they cover each other unequally would reduce the size of the apertures to something less than half4 ,this might be slung by wires 7as in ,fig4 #a71 set upon legs1 or supported according to convenience4 ,the form of the old cresset1 which may be well enough imitated with a few bits of iron hoop 7,fig4 #b71 with or without rivets1 is worth bearing in mind4 ,light may be obtained by sticking a pole into the ground1 splitting the top of it1 and sticking in the cleft a slip of red pine or other resinous wood2 the burning may be accelerated by depressing the lighted end 7as in ,fig4 #c71 or retarded by raising it4 ,illustration3 #a-f ,fuel4 ,when wood is scarce1 almost any animal substance may be used as fuel2 the dung of all graminivorous animals1 the dried flesh1 cartilage1 fat and bones1 will all burn4 ,dr4 ,livingstone once burnt the dried bones of an elephant in the furnace of the little steamer ,ma ,robert2 and in trying down the blubber of a whale1 the scraps from which no more oil can be extracted are used as fuel to melt the rest4 ,arctic explorers constantly burn bones to obtain heat4 ,parties away from a vessel on boat service frequently have blue lights or rockets with them4 ,a blue light is usually provided with a percussion cap1 so that it bears its own means of ignition2 but1 if there should be no need to burn it1 the sulphur may be removed and used in small quantities to tip the ends of bits of paper1 wood1 or any light combustible matter to serve as matches4 ,a candle may be saved from guttering by being placed in a tube large enough to contain it with a small aperture to let the wick come through2 if a spiral spring is at hand to force the candle gradually up1 so much the better2 if not1 have the tube long enough to allow a stick of the same size to be inserted under the butt of the candle1 then weight the tube heavily 7see ,fig4 #d1 p4 #eee71 and it will of itself press downwards as the candle burns away4 ,fig4 #e is a clay mould used by the natives of some of the islands of the ,eastern ,archipelago for cooking sago2 it is heated nearly red hot1 the sago paste is ladled into the hollows shown in it1 and1 when cooked1 taken out in the form of very palatable biscuits4 ,in ,south ,africa we make very excellent fritters by mixing a stout batter of meal or flour with a little sugar2 then setting a pot of sheep's-tail fat upon the fire1 we keep it boiling1 and taking up a spoonful of the batter drop it into the boiling fat4 ,when a ,south ,sea whaler is trying out blubber1 the men take biscuits1 saturate them thoroughly with water1 tie them in a cloth to which a line is made fast1 and throw them into the boiling oil4 ,they also tie up fish in a cloth and throw them into the pot1 secured in the same manner4 ,hints on food4 ,commander ,e4 ,belcher says that farmers throw a bag of flour into the water to keep it cool2 the outer layer only forms paste half an inch in thickness4 ,the ,american whalers put their flour casks into salt water to prevent weevils getting in2 the outer paste dries as hard as flint1 and resists their attacks4 ,and lastly1 speaking from his own experience1 he says the flour balls washed ashore from a wreck1 dirty-looking and studded with sand1 gravel1 and pebbles till they seemed almost like plum puddings1 were most carefully gathered up and preserved2 they were broken when required1 and the dry flour inside made into cakes2 this1 with a little rum from the wreck and a scanty supply of salmon purchased from the natives1 supported him and his crew for ten days2 even the flour which had been reached by salt water was not quite spoiled1 if the gravel and sand could be extracted4 ,what we rather absurdly reject as the offal of an animal contains in reality some of its tenderest and best parts1 and the natives who follow a white man for the game he kills are well aware of this2 and they know that he has a prejudice in favour of cleanliness1 which to them seems groundless4 ,however1 they do not fail to take advantage of it1 and1 in cutting up an animal1 generally contrive to break up the interior in such a manner that1 without actually spoiling the tit bits1 they give them a very unsightly appearance4 ,if the traveller is content with the solid flesh1 of course he can let them do as they like2 if not1 he must look out in time4 ,it is quite well to know that the marrow-bones slightly warmed afford most delicious food2 the marrow of the ox is good1 that of the buffalo is better1 but that of the koodoo is the ne plus ultra4 ,the bones of the quagga--at least1 so far as our experience goes--afford no marrow2 indeed1 there is no hollow for it1 the inside being a cellular structure filled with oil4 ,the flesh1 also1 being rather rank1 persons of very delicate taste do not relish it4 ,the wild ,hottentots1 however1 not only eat it1 but use the name quagga as the general term for food4 ,we have frequently eaten it1 and can safely say that it only requires a good appetite to make it palatable enough4 ,the head of this or any other animal is best cooked in its skin--a good fire being made round it and earth heaped over the embers all night4 ,the skin of most animals will afford nutriment--of course1 the thicker it is the better2 that of the hippopotamus1 which varies in different parts from half an inch to two inches1 is very good4 ,it may be roasted1 or broiled1 or boiled down to a soft jelly or even to a soup or gelatine1 and in all these various forms it is good4 ,we have saved large slabs of the hide after killing a hippopotamus2 and after the flesh was gone the skin served us well1 the ,damaras washing it and pounding it between a couple of stones till it was tender enough to eat4 ,when that was done1 however1 and we had to come down upon the hides of buffaloes shot three months before1 and at that time dried so hard in the sun that we had to cut them up with a hand-saw1 we found that1 even after a couple of days' soaking in the pool and two days more of boiling1 nothing but the simple fact that we had nothing else would have induced us to eat them4 ,the quagga skin is even harder2 but our native followers cut it out piecemeal from under a ,dutch lad who was using it as a bed till they barely left him enough to lie upon4 ,we had used the hide of a black rhinoceros to make side chests for the waggon1 and these1 though much harder than the hardest wood we know1 were taken off1 roasted1 pounded between stones1 and eaten4 ,meat that has been cut into small pieces and exposed to the heat of the sun1 so as partially to dry without allowing it to become tainted1 may be eaten without further cooking4 ,in ,tartary it is said to be common for a rider to cut a thin steak of beef and lay it under his saddle before he sets out on his journey1 and after some hours he finds that the combined effects of constant pressure and warmth have1 if not cooked it1 at least rendered it palatable enough to be eaten4 ,in ,norway1 the stew-pot1 after having stood for some time upon the fire1 is taken off and wrapped in a thick covering of felt1 which1 being a bad conductor1 prevents the escape of the heat1 and forces it to expend itself on the continued cooking of the meat4 ,a very neat arrangement of this kind was recently exhibited at the ,polytechnic under the name of the ,norwegian cooking stove4 ,it consists of a small wooden box1 thickly lined with felt1 in which there is just room to deposit a stew-pan4 ,after it has been brought to boiling heat upon the fire1 it is then shut close1 and in three or four hours the dinner is thoroughly cooked4 ,we should think this1 in waggon travelling in ,africa1 for soldiers on the march1 or on board fishing boats or small vessels1 would be a very desirable acquisition4 ,in ,australia we constantly ate our ration of salt pork uncooked2 and1 even when recently taken from the cask1 it was very good in this manner1 with a little lime-juice and sugar4 ,per contra1 however1 the pork1 with the bone cut out1 and packed in canvas bags for carriage by pack horses1 soon became dried by the sun2 the fat all melted out of it1 and was used to grease our boots or harness2 and the once juicy1 succulent1 full-sized four-pound piece of pork became1 after a few months' carriage1 a semi-fossilized bit of nondescript matter1 not much bigger than our fist1 and weighing just three-quarters of a pound4 ,nevertheless1 we had to take it at its nominal value1 as we had no opportunity of replenishing our stores until our return to camp2 and we found experimentally that we could not afford to diminish our scanty rations any further by boiling it4 ,it may be of interest here to give the scale of rations on which we travelled1 and on which1 though we could certainly have consumed more1 we lived and worked for several months without finding our health or strength in any way impaired3 ,salt pork1 per diem1 #a lb4 7nom47 ,flour1 #a lb4 ,coffee1 roasted and ground1 #c_/d oz4 ,or tea1 #a_/d oz4 ,sugar1 #c oz4 ,tobacco1 #a_/d oz4 ,soap1 #a_/d oz4 ,in camp1 if we killed a sheep1 the allowance was #a-a_/d lb4 of fresh meat instead of salt2 a pint pannikin was also used as holding an equivalent to #a lb4 of flour4 ,but on the journey we were never able to issue a full pound1 because drying it in the sun diminished its weight2 and1 beside this1 as we carried two #a_/b-lb4 tins of gunpowder in each #ej lb4 bag of flour1 their weight1 as well as that of the double canvas bag1 had to be deducted1 leaving a net weight of very little over #dh lb4 ,in serving the weekly rations1 our plan was to weigh every man's bag of flour against our own1 and1 if he thought his was in any way deficient1 to give him the option of changing2 also1 when the pork was laid out1 to let every man choose his ration1 and to take that which remained for ourselves2 and we found1 as we believe will generally be the case1 that the men1 seeing that they were fairly treated1 did not abuse the confidence we placed in them4 ,sheep killing4 ,in times of scarcity1 it may be well in killing a sheep to follow the example of the ,tartars1 who are perhaps the most dexterous sheep butchers in the world4 ,when they kill a sheep nothing is wasted2 even the blood is most carefully preserved for use4 ,instead of cutting the throat of the animal in the usual way1 they pass a long slender knife in by the side of the breast-bone in such a way that all the large vessels above the heart are instantly severed4 ,all the blood therein contained is poured out into the cavity of the chest without the escape of any4 ,when requisite1 it is ladled or scooped out1 and placed in some convenient vessel4 ,to skin the animal1 the knife is first run along the whole abdominal line1 from the top of the throat under the chin to the inside of the root of the tail1 lines are then cut up each leg to the hoof1 and the skin is dexterously stripped back from each side until nothing but a mere line of adhesion is left from the top of the tail1 along the middle of the back1 and up the neck4 ,the sheep is now turned on its back1 and the skin spread evenly out1 like a mat1 under it4 ,the process of division into convenient joints now takes place1 each piece being arranged in order on the skin1 whilst the offal is secured in a wide basket4 ,when all the joints have been duly cut out1 the skin is taken by two men1 one before to grasp the skins of the fore-legs and the other those of the hind1 just as a hand-barrow is carried2 and in this way the meat is carried to the tents for use4 ,economy in food4 ,once1 in ,australia1 after having emptied a #ejlb4 bag of sugar1 we rinsed out the bag with half a pint of water1 making a strong syrup1 which we poured into a small iron bucket2 then1 rinsing it again with another half pint1 we obtained a like quantity1 somewhat less sweet2 and this we repeated till the bag was washed clean and we had about three pints of sweetened water in our bucket4 ,we then drew from the store half a ration of sago for four persons--i4e41 #a_/blb4 each--boiled it in the syrup1 and thus produced a mess which everyone who tasted it declared to be delicious4 ,one of our party devoted a spare hour to fishing1 and1 with hook and line1 caught a large water tortoise and some fish2 and shot a bird4 ,the first of these when killed--i4e41 so far as the division of the jugular would kill it--was laid upon its back upon the embers1 served up in its own shell1 and was a most palatable addition to our meal4 ,the large lizards of ,australia1 sometimes from #d;ft4 to nearly #f;ft4 long1 are most excellent and delicate food1 but the proper method is to roast them in the skin2 and we have known the most intense anxiety felt lest we should require the skin of a particularly fine one as a specimen of natural history4 ,this was somewhat calmed by the assurance that we only wished to sketch it1 but the operation was most jealously watched1 and1 when we had completed our picture1 we divided the body into quarters and the tail into four junks1 for the four members of the party2 and these dainties1 carefully spread upon forked branches cut for the purpose1 were set up above the embers of an ample fire1 raked out into glowing heaps under each junk or quarter4 ,in about twenty minutes they were thoroughly cooked1 and proved1 indeed1 a delicacy1 the flesh being white as chicken1 and the taste reminding us rather of turkey than anything else4 ,the various cockatoos1 parrots1 wood-pigeons1 storks1 and cranes are all good4 ,the dawn or rose-breasted cockatoo 7,cacatoa eos71 the white variety with the sulphur-coloured crest1 or the black cockatoo1 each form a very tolerable1 though not an ample1 meal for one man4 ,various species of hawks or kites1 though not so delicate1 may also be eaten2 and in ,australia1 where carrion is not so plentiful as in ,africa1 and the hawks feed principally upon insects or small fish1 their flesh1 though dark in colour and tough1 is by no means bad4 ,we have eaten the white-headed ,african fish-eagle and the large horned owl1 which1 though somewhat tough and rank1 were better than going upon scanty fare4 ,we first ate the flesh of a snake at ,graham's ,town1 ,south ,africa4 ,a friend had brought us a puff-adder as a specimen2 and1 when we had skinned it1 the flesh looked so white and firm that we cut out a junk1 about #f;in4 long and as thick as our wrist1 and desired the ,kafir girl1 who acted as cook1 to fry it4 ,an acquaintance who partook of it acknowledged that it was good1 and that only the thought of eating snake prevented his enjoying it more fully4 ,the ,australian blacks eat snakes of every kind1 as well as any small animals they can catch2 and we have often seen fellows whose sole apparel consisted of a snake girded round their waist1 with two or three rats hitched by their tails to it4 ,we were taught the orthodox way of cooking them by a first-rate fellow1 ,john ,fahey1 an ,irishman1 who had been nearly fourteen years among the blacks4 ,he first let the flame expend itself1 and then spread out the embers1 on these he coiled up the snake until the scales were slightly scorched2 then taking it by the tail1 he drew it repeatedly through his hand1 brushing the crisp scales off toward the head1 and again coiled it on the embers till it was thoroughly cooked2 then opening it and throwing away the offal he picked out the tit bits and offered them to us1 and afterwards divided the body4 ,the flesh of the alligator while young1 and not more than #f;ft4 in length1 is very good2 but when larger1 it becomes very strong1 and acquires a musky flavour4 ,we once killed an alligator of #aa;ft4 on the ,horseshoe flats1 near ,curiosity ,peak1 ,victoria ,river1 ,north ,australia4 ,the smell was to a degree rank2 yet when we took the carcase to the vessel next morning1 and the second overseer cleaned the skin and skeleton1 we found that excellent cutlets were to be obtained from the muscular portion of the tail2 and after breakfast1 when the prejudices of the crew had given way1 claimants were found for the flesh as fast as it could be stripped from the bones4 ,considerable seasoning was required1 but still it was better than salt junk4 ,white ants4 ,in ,south ,africa1 just when the white ants are about to swarm and take the half-hour's flight which is allowed them before their wings drop off1 the natives collect with torches2 the ants1 being attracted by the light1 assemble1 and are swept up by basketsful4 ,after being scorched1 they are kept in mat bags1 holding two or three gallons each1 and are really delicious food4 ,they are pleasant to the taste1 and very nutritious2 for if one be left on a sheet of note-paper when the sun is shining brightly on it oil enough will exude to make a spot a couple of inches in diameter4 ,the chief convenience of these is that they require no cooking1 but any quantity may be carried in a bag1 and a handful taken out and eaten when wanted4 ,the vast clouds of locusts1 which in some countries both darken the air and devastate the land1 are eaten greedily by nearly everything possessing life--men1 animals1 birds1 fish1 and insects1 all join in the locust feast4 ,the provident savage lays by a store merely smoke dried1 to consume at his leisure with such tuberous roots or other underground productions as his sable spouse1 armed with her sharp pointed grubbing stick1 can procure for him4 ,the inhabitants of many of the islands of the ,eastern ,archipelago consume certain insects as food1 wherever they can procure them4 ,mr4 ,wallace1 who resided some time among the ,dyaks1 says3 ,every day boys were to be seen walking along the roads1 and by the hedges and ditches1 catching dragon flies with birdlime4 ,they carry a slender stick1 with a few twigs at the end1 well anointed1 so that the least touch captures the insect1 whose wings are pulled off before it is consigned to a small basket4 ,the dragon flies are so abundant at the time of the rice flowering1 that thousands are soon caught in this way4 ,the bodies are fried in oil1 with onions and preserved shrimps1 or sometimes alone1 and are considered a great delicacy4 ,in ,borneo1 ,celebes1 and many other islands1 the larv of bees and wasps are eaten either alive as pulled out of the cells1 or fried like the dragon flies4 ,in the ,moluccas the grubs of the palm beetles 7,calandra7 are regularly brought to market in bamboos and sold for food2 and many of the great horned ,lamellicorn beetles are slightly roasted on the embers1 and eaten whenever met with4 ,in many districts where the cocoanut palm grows abundantly1 the curved and tightly rolled up immature fronds are perforated by the workings and burrowings of the ,tucuma or ,grugru1 the larv of ,oryctes rhinoceros4 ,these are large plump grubs1 with black hard heads1 and are esteemed a great luxury1 being either fried in cocoanut oil1 or seized by the head1 dipped in a little lime juice and disposed of without further preparation4 ,the nests of the white ants are often broken by the natives in search of the eggs1 and even of the insects1 for scarcity of animal food compels them to eat anything1 and the grubs that lurk under the bark of the gum trees are accounted delicious fare4 ,john ,fahey was an adept in searching them out2 and in fact1 when we first made our camp1 girdled several trees in order that they might die1 and that grubs might accumulate under the bark4 ,the grubs are eaten fresh1 raw and living1 just as they are taken from the tree4 ,in most countries there will be some vegetable product or other available for food4 ,in ,australia we have cut out what may be called the cabbage from the roots of the pandanus leaves1 and found it1 when boiled1 almost as good as a very inferior turnip4 ,the seeds from the large globular fruit were also worth looking for1 because in the pencil of fibre1 by which they are attached to the base1 is contained a quantity of sweet and farinaceous matter2 this we found also was highly relished by the small fish and fresh-water tortoises in the rivulets1 and we frequently baited our hooks with them4 ,in ,africa1 if we were accompanied by a ,damara on a shooting trip1 and were unsuccessful1 we returned hungry1 but if we took a ,makalaka1 he would be sure to dig up roots or gather wild fruit1 or vegetables of some kind or other2 and perhaps catch a lizard or other small creature1 or occasionally discover a bees' nest in a hollow tree4 ,once when we were much exhausted with long-continued want of food1 the man who accompanied us saw a few of the small ,african bees around the branch of a tree1 he forthwith climbed it1 and chopping off a piece of bark1 bruised up the ends with the head of his axe1 till he had formed a kind of trough1 which he set his assistants to hold1 and chopped away till he had sufficiently enlarged the hole to allow him to extract the honeycomb4 ,the roots of the lotus or blue water-lily are very good1 and have a taste1 when roasted1 something between that of a chesnut and a potatoe4 ,lotus roots are obtained from the bottoms of some of the ,eastern lakes and rivers by making use of a very long and soft leather sack4 ,into this the lotus gatherer gets until the top of the sack is on a level with his neck4 ,he then walks1 or rather hobbles1 into the water1 wades by short steps out to the lotus beds2 and1 when he feels the roots beneath his feet1 he digs and works with his toes and heels until they are detached from their hold on the bottom1 and float on the surface1 from which they are readily raked and collected for use4 ,the ,bushmen wade in the shallow pools and pluck them up by hand1 but in the deeper rivers the canoe men have long poles with a hook at the end for detaching the roots4 ,in these pools1 also1 they frequently capture the matamaetlie or edible frog1 which is sometimes nearly as large as a chicken4 ,the ,bushmen grip them by the nape of the neck1 strike them across the thighs and across the spine to disable them1 and then1 placing their lips to the vent1 blow till they force the stomach and all the entrails out at the mouth4 ,the flesh of these frogs is exceedingly good1 more like chicken than anything else1 and we often found a good-sized one make us a very satisfying meal4 ,lotus seed4 ,the seed of the lotus is extensively used as food throughout the ,east2 the ,chinese esteem it highly1 and prepare it in a great number of ways4 ,sir ,samuel ,baker1 in speaking of lotus seed1 says3 ,all the tribes of the ,white ,nile have their harvest of lotus seed2 there are two species of water-lily1 the large white flower1 and the small variety4 ,the seed pod of the white lotus is like an unblown artichoke1 containing a number of light red grains1 equal in size to mustard seed1 but shaped like those of the poppy1 and similar to them in flavour1 being sweet and nutty4 ,the ripe pods are collected1 and strung upon sharp pointed reeds1 about #d;ft4 in length4 ,when thus threaded they are formed into large bundles1 and carried from the river to the villages1 where they are dried in the sun and stored for use4 ,the seed is ground into flour1 and made into a kind of porridge4 ,rice1 to boil4 ,rice is so well known as a food grain that little need be said of it further than that a wild kind is found growing in many of the swamps of ,america2 the grain from this is beaten off with sticks into canoes which are propelled through the shallow water in which the rice stalks grow4 ,some skill is required in cooking rice1 in order that each grain may be separate4 ,our native ,indian cook used to proceed as follows3 ,the rice was first thoroughly washed in a large jar of clean cold water1 two washings being generally required to remove all stain4 ,the water was then strained off1 and the clean rice drained quite dry4 ,a cooking pot full of water was then placed on a brisk fire1 and allowed to boil actively2 when in full ebullition the rice was cast in1 the fire stirred1 and the boiling continued actively for about sixteen minutes1 when the pot was lifted off1 placed on one side1 and a pint lota pot of cold water thrown suddenly into it2 the sudden chill thus communicated divides every grain from its fellow1 and1 when strained dry1 rice prepared in this manner is truly excellent and attractive4 ,ostrich's eggs have often been treated of1 and every traveller speaks of them according to his particular experience4 ,probably1 when a party of half-a-dozen men have plenty of bread and every other necessary for a good meal1 they will find that one egg is quite enough for them2 while a stout fellow1 destitute of everything but a keen appetite1 would find an ostrich's egg not more than enough to satisfy himself4 ,the capacity of a good-sized one is about #b-a_/b pints1 the taste is rich1 and sometimes a trifle strong2 in fact1 we could never eat much of one unless it were in some way diluted1 say mixed with flour and made into a cake4 ,the readiest way of cooking them is to break one end of the shell1 set the other end into the embers on the ground1 and so cook and serve the contents in their own shell4 ,we prefer1 however1 to start the egg into an earthen pot1 and add nearly an equal quantity of flour or meal1 making cakes or fritters1 seasoned or not according to taste4 ,various foods4 ,indeed1 we should think that1 if eggs in plenty could be obtained1 this would be a very economical and effective way of provisioning a small party for a journey where everything must be carried1 and where the means of carriage was scant or perhaps altogether wanting2 but1 in this case1 the eggs would have to be mixed with as much flour as they would take up1 and the cakes baked as dry as possible without burning any part of them4 ,a nautical friend has told us of a plan adopted on surveying expeditions1 when boats are sent for several days from the ship4 ,a rough grater is made by punching holes in a sheet of tin1 and a junk of salt meat grated down tolerably fine2 the meat powder is then mixed with flour with very little water1 rolled up into small balls or cakes1 and dried in the galley4 ,when wanted1 a portion is broken off1 kneaded with a little water1 enveloped in a crust of flour and water1 tied up in a cloth1 and boiled in the boat's copper as a meat pudding4 ,the ,north ,australian expedition was abundantly supplied with preserved fresh meat1 but the tins in which it was packed could not conveniently be carried in bags on pack horses1 and therefore1 in preparation for an extensive inland journey1 estimating the quantity required1 we took out of store equal weights of preserved beef and flour2 then taking the contents of a #flb4 tin of beef and #flb4 of flour1 he kneaded them together1 divided the mass into forty-eight parts of #a_/dlb4 each1 and baked them in an oven built of clay and the schooner's pig ballast for the purpose4 ,nearly #clb4 weight were lost by the evaporation of the moisture in the process of baking1 so that the forty-eight cakes representing #ablb4 of meat and flour1 and forming six days' rations for one man1 could be carried at a weight of #ilb42 the rations of sugar and other groceries making the total weight only about #aj-a_/blb4 or at most #aalb4 ,as long as the biscuits remained whole four of them were considered equivalent to #alb42 but when they were broken up into dust a pannikin about three-quarters full was reckoned an equivalent4 ,in either case1 the best way of using it was to mix it with water and warm it up as a thick soup4 ,this compound has been adopted by other travellers in ,australia1 and found to answer the purpose exceedingly well4 ,we should think that where fresh and really good fruit is plentiful it might be treated with flour nearly in the same manner1 and would form a very agreeable variation in the diet4 ,dried fruit may be had in many countries1 such as ,cape ,colony1 where dried peaches1 raisins1 c4 are constantly in the market1 and these stewed with the meat are not to be despised2 but in some form or other vegetable matter1 as acid as possible1 is absolutely necessary2 for no one who has not been compelled to live for weeks together upon meat alone can imagine how utterly disgusting the smell and taste of even the freshest and most savoury joints become when unvaried by any vegetable1 to say nothing of the injury to health that such a diet must cause4 ,in ,australia we have gathered the young shoots of the wild vine and made what our cook called rhubarb tarts of them2 and when these failed1 a small succulent herb called portulac1 or more popularly potluck1 which could be eaten as a salad1 supplied their place4 ,in ,africa we have found unspeakable relief from a bundle of dry tamarinds brought from a distant tribe2 and when recrossing the desert during the rainy season1 we found abundant supplies of wild grapes growing luxuriantly along our path4 ,no matter that they were not ripe2 the more tart and sour they were the better2 and by the time we had got well within the desert border1 and were beginning to find that the intense sourness1 which had already served its purpose as a corrective1 was beginning to set our teeth on edge1 we also began to find riper clusters on the bushes as we advanced2 they were1 of course1 not equal to the cultivated varieties1 but were by no means a bad substitute4 ,we also gathered daily large quantities of the beer berry1 or ovmbapoov1 about the size of a cranberry1 but nearly filled with a hard stone or kernel2 these were of a pleasant1 sweetish1 acid taste1 and could be eaten as we gathered them and walked along1 or when we halted could be pounded with water in a halwe stamp block1 or modern mortar1 into a very pleasant pulp2 the only drawback was the small quantity of food in proportion to the amount of kernel1 and the difficulty of getting rid of the latter4 ,sometimes we would collect a quantity1 pour boiling water upon them1 let it stand to extract the juices1 and then put it aside to ferment4 ,the liquor thus obtained was not unpleasant1 it was something between inferior beer and second-rate cider4 ,once we boiled the juice down to a thick syrup1 which was so sweet that a spoonful of it served instead of sugar to our tea1 but the quantity produced was so small in proportion to the trouble that we never repeated the process4 ,many other fruits1 roots1 and vegetables might be named2 but if the traveller makes friends of the natives they will find whatever the country produces for him1 and they will never refuse to share what they pick up either with him or with their hungry comrades4 ,indeed their language supplies no title of contempt equivalent to that of the man who eats alone1 or who saves anything for the morrow4 ,we cannot omit1 however1 to mention the fruit of the ,baobab or ,adansonia1 which both in ,africa and in ,australia we have found extremely valuable4 ,the tree will at once be known by its enormous size4 ,we have generally seen young1 well-conditioned trees #cj;ft4 in circumference1 while others have been #ej;ft4 or #fj;ft41 and the largest we know of was actually #aja;ft42 its height1 however1 is by no means proportionate1 it being seldom more than #fj;ft41 or at most #gj;ft4 or #hj;ft4 ,the fruit is generally about the size of an ostrich's egg1 though we have seen it much larger2 the rind is about as thick as the egg-shell1 and easily broken2 the interior is occupied by seeds imbedded in a pleasant sub-acid pulp1 of a white colour1 which when dry resembles cream of tartar1 and has caused the ,dutch ,africans to bestow upon it the name of krem tart boom1 or cream-of-tartar tree4 ,this pulp the ,bushmen pound up with a little water1 and sometimes mix with it a little meal of grass seeds1 to thicken it1 or by adding more water make a very pleasant drink4 ,in ,australia we found even the soft wood so succulent that we could cut out a junk with the axe1 and chew it for the moisture it contained like a wet sponge2 while the fruit of the ,gouty-stem tree 7,adansonia ,gregorii71 when boiled up with a little sugar1 acted as a powerful antiscorbutic among the sailors of our little schooner1 completely curing the disease1 and leaving only the unavoidable weakness1 from which1 with the advantage of better food1 they gradually recovered4 ,millet of various kinds1 known under the general denomination of ,kafir corn1 can be purchased from most of the ,kafir and ,bechuana tribes4 ,it may be eaten boiled with meat1 but should be previously husked in a wooden mortar1 and would be better and more digestible if it were also bruised4 ,we have ground it to a kind of rough meal in a coffee-mill1 but found that it would not knead up into cakes without a little ,european or colonial flour to bind it4 ,sometimes the native women bruise it to meal in their wooden mortars1 and in times of scarcity gather the seeds of several wild grasses1 which they treat in the same manner4 ,this meal will not make bread in our sense of the word1 but it will make a very good mess1 something between bread and pap or porridge1 called maassa4 ,an earthen pot with water is set upon the fire1 and when the water boils a little meal is dropped in and stirred1 more and more is then gradually added and stirred until the mess thickens1 and is served up like a very dense paste4 ,a very little soup or meat gravy makes it agreeable enough4 ,maize or ,indian corn is very extensively grown in ,africa1 and most other warm countries1 and nothing can be more delicious than the young ears1 either boiled or roasted in their sheath1 the leaves of which everyone strips off for himself when it comes to table1 spreading a little butter on the ear according to taste2 it is perfect etiquette in this case to take the ear up in both hands just as you would pick a bone1 and bite the grains off2 indeed1 the young corn cannot be properly eaten in any other manner4 ,maize grains1 when in the milk stage1 can be preserved for future use in the following manner3 ,the heads are first cut from the stalk1 the covering of leaves and the tassel are then stripped off1 and all the grains broken from the cob or core with the fingers into a shallow basket2 a wide pit is then dug in the earth1 and red hot stones and embers are cast in until the bottom and sides of the pit are thoroughly heated4 ,all the stones and ashes are then removed1 and all dust brushed away with green branches4 ,a quantity of maize leaves are now brought and made use of to line the pit1 and form a sort of nest for the reception of the maize1 which is covered with a thick layer of leaves and left until baked4 ,the grain subjected to this process1 instead of becoming parched and dry1 remains sweet1 and when boiled with meat much resembles green peas4 ,the ground nut1 such as is brought from ,sierra ,leone1 is obtainable in many parts4 ,it may be eaten raw1 but is better slightly roasted4 ,the ,portuguese make a very nice confect of it1 and it contains so much essential oil that one nut will burn with a clear flame1 like a wax candle1 for fully a minute4 ,this oil makes it one of the best substitutes for coffee we know of4 ,slightly roasted and ground1 and infused in the ordinary manner1 it is exceedingly good4 ,most of the indigenous grains and grasses are also used1 but some of them only act as a kind of vegetable charcoal to give a toast-and-water like colour to the morning beverage4 ,we have frequently tried the beans of various species of mimosa1 and have found them valuable in exact proportion to the quantity of essential oil contained in them4 ,the dwarf shrubs1 carrying generally the largest beans1 were the best1 and we should think the diminutive tree1 scarcely #ah;in4 high1 and bearing a pod more than a foot long1 called ,eland's boontjie1 would be best of all4 ,at other times we have used burnt pumpkin1 but this produced rather a kind of vegetable soup4 ,uses of tea4 ,tea is one of the most valuable and important stores carried by the explorer or traveller1 and an ample supply should always be taken4 ,we prefer the ,australian method of tea-making to any other2 and1 whether with our brass lota pot or tin quart mug and pint cup1 proceed in the same manner to brew it4 ,we first pour as much water as we think requisite in the pot1 put it on the fire1 and raise it to the boiling point2 then take it off and add tea in proportion to the number to be brewed for1 covering down the vessel with an inverted tea bowl until the tea has drawn2 it is then fit for use4 ,by adopting this plan the tea for the early morning's start need not be made the night before2 a few chips1 sticks1 dead leaves1 or a lamp1 will serve to give heat enough to boil a well-blackened pot2 and a very few minutes will suffice1 while the packs are being arranged1 to prepare a bowl of warm tea1 which1 with a little bread or native cake1 will serve as a stand-by until the regular breakfast hour4 ,for a very long time it was our custom when in ,india to strike tent at #b ,a4,m4 and march at #c1 in order to avoid the heat2 but we never omitted our bowl of tea4 ,among the natives of ,chinese ,tartary extensive use is made of brick tea1 not only as an article of diet1 but as a medium of currency and exchange4 ,this curious preparation is commonly made use of by travellers and the lower orders throughout the length and breadth of ,tartary1 ,tibet1 and the ,kirghis steppes4 ,the bricks vary in size according to the particular district in which they are made2 but to be of convenient and saleable character they should be about #a;ft4 long1 #f;in4 wide1 and from #a;in4 to #a-a_/b;in4 thick4 ,to make tea-bricks1 all the late shoots1 imperfectly-formed leaves1 and immature buds to be found in the tea plantations1 after the tea harvest is over1 are collected2 they are then subjected to the action of water until soft and pliable1 bullock's blood is then added1 the mass is then thoroughly mixed and incorporated1 and1 when of a tough1 firm consistence1 it is divided into portions of convenient size1 which are pressed into brick moulds prepared for them4 ,when turned from the moulds the bricks are laid on hurdles1 and subjected to heat until dry4 ,they are then fit for the market1 to which the finished commodity is usually carried in sheepskin bags4 ,when required for use1 the portion to be consumed is broken from the brick with the head of a hatchet or a heavy stone2 the fragments thus detached are broken up small between two flat stones1 and then rubbed between the palms of the hands until fine enough for preparation4 ,there are several ways of preparing brick tea for consumption4 ,one is to place the rough powder in a pot or kettle with water1 and boil it until a red decoction is formed1 a little salt is then thrown in1 which causes a slight effervescence to be set up2 when this ceases1 and the liquid becomes tranquil1 and of dark colour1 milk is added4 ,if it is desired to make the tea thus prepared more than commonly attractive to the visitor1 butter is added4 ,sometimes a mixture1 called ,imitanka1 is made from it2 this is formed by adding a quantity of clotted cream which has become sour to the boiled tea water1 and when it has boiled a short time1 adding salt and a bowlful of millet seed flour4 ,the whole mixture is then boiled for about three-quarters of an hour1 and is ready for the table1 or rather floor of the tent1 on which it is usual to sit4 ,barley meal and suet added to the tea water makes a kind of gruel1 or stirabout1 which is much relished by the wandering ,tartars1 and appears to agree vastly well with them4 ,brick tea is not only used as we have described1 but is common among ,tartar dealers1 and those who attend the fairs held for the purpose of sale and exchange as a medium of currency1 just as the beaver skin and the ,dentalium shell are by the ,north ,west ,indians of ,america4 ,almost every country has its own peculiar method of preserving animal food for future use4 ,the salting of meat1 and the consequent deterioration of its nourishing properties1 must be well known to all who have made long voyages1 unless1 indeed1 they have always sailed in first-class ships1 where the appearance of salt junk upon the cabin table is quite exceptional4 ,where it can conveniently be carried1 we think that boiled fresh beef1 preserved in air-tight tin canisters1 is by far the best1 as being in effect equal to fresh killed meat cooked in the same manner4 ,we have seen considerable quantities of this meat used after being carried by land and sea about the world for years1 and we do not remember that we have ever opened a tin which was not in good order1 and perfectly fit for food4 ,and we should also think that in many places where immense herds of cattle almost encumber the land they live upon1 this method of transporting their flesh to a better market would be well worthy the attention of their owners4 ,there are many variations in the method of preserving1 but we believe the simplest and most effective to be as under4 ,kill the animal by a rifle shot behind the ear or otherwise1 skin it1 and hoist it by block and tackle to a convenient tree1 then commencing at the hind-legs1 which are of course uppermost1 strip off all the flesh from the bones1 leaving the skeleton still hanging1 cut the flesh into pieces as nearly #flb4 in weight as possible1 put them into a cauldron with very little water1 and boil them well4 ,have a number of cylindrical #flb4 tins1 and set them ready in a trough of boiling water1 kept hot by a steam pipe or other available means2 put a piece of beef in each tin1 with liquor enough nearly to fill it1 and then solder on the top1 which should have a hole in it2 when all the tins of meat are thus far advanced1 pour in at the small hole liquor enough to fill the tin1 clean round the edges of the hole1 and close it with a drop of hot solder1 so as to seal the tin hermetically2 then remove them from the water1 dry the outsides1 paint them with any coarse colour1 mixed with boiled oil1 and they are ready for exportation to any part of the world4 ,where meat in this form cannot be carried1 perhaps the next best method is to cut it into strips or flakes1 and dry it thoroughly in the sun1 with1 or more frequently without1 a little salt upon the surface4 ,meat by this process loses some of its nutritious quality1 but it is so conveniently kept and carried1 and so little liable to damage1 that there is scarce a country in the world having sun enough for the purpose when it is not adopted in ,north ,america4 ,the flesh of the buffalo1 or bison1 and in ,south ,america that of the domestic1 or rather half-wild1 ox1 is used2 and ,sir ,f4 ,head1 in his rough notes of the pampas1 remarks that a man can live longer on dried beef and water than he can on any other unvaried diet4 ,the trappers and traders of ,north ,west ,america make extensive use of a kind of prepared food known as pemmican1 and very large quantities of it are manufactured on the buffalo range4 ,it is thus made4 ,buffalo flesh is cut with the hunting knife into convenient flakes and flat steaks or layers4 ,these are either hung in the sun or near a slow fire until dry1 when the dried meat is ground between two stones until sufficiently fine4 ,a bag is then made of buffalo hide1 with the hair side out1 and the preserved flesh1 after having been thoroughly mixed with hot fat1 is well rammed and pressed in4 ,the bag is then securely stitched up1 and the pemmican allowed to cool and harden4 ,when required for use1 it is cut from the mass like hard sausage meat1 and either eaten cold1 or1 when mixed with flour or meal1 a sort of thick porridge1 called by the trappers robiboo1 is made from it4 ,food to preserve4 ,in many of the ,australian islands and ,new ,zealand vast quantities of sea-fowl 7the sooty petrel or mutton bird1 especially7 are captured for food by the sailors and natives4 ,these birds visit the islands annually in vast flocks1 arriving generally about the latter end of ,november1 for the purpose of depositing their eggs1 of which each hen bird lays one or two1 about size of ordinary goose eggs1 and somewhat similar in flavour4 ,the cock bird takes charge of the nest during the day and the hen by night1 taking in turn the duty of going to sea for food4 ,perfect warrens1 like those of rabbits1 are formed by these birds1 who burrow in the soft ground for a distance of #b;ft4 or #c;ft41 and there form their nests4 ,some of the islands are so thickly and completely honeycombed by these feathered miners as to render walking a very unsafe proceeding4 ,the collection of the eggs and young birds from the depths of the holes is a task usually assigned to the native women1 who not uncommonly find a snake coiled up where the young petrel should be4 ,when a large catch is determined on for preservation and the obtainment of feathers1 a number of bird hunters assemble and construct a sort of hedge or fence a short distance from the beach1 and just before daybreak1 when the birds1 about to proceed to sea to feed1 are out of their retreats1 a sudden rush is made by the whole assembled party of birdcatchers who1 with the most hideous yells and cries1 drive the throngs of waddling1 flapping victims1 who cannot rise from the ground to fly1 towards the centre of the fatal barrier1 where a deep pit has been prepared for their reception4 ,into this they are forced1 layer on layer1 until they literally suffocate each other in their vain endeavours to escape from the treacherous pitfall4 ,the feathers1 when plucked from the birds1 are worth about #c;d4 per pound1 and it requires the joint plumage of about twenty to produce that quantity4 ,thirty bags of feathers1 constituting the cargoes of two trading boats1 were obtained by the sacrifice of #ah1jjj birds4 ,a portion of the birds are preserved by dry smoking1 and are extensively made use of4 ,some of the ,new ,zealand tribes1 by whom this bird is called the ,titi1 have recourse to a most ingenious and effective method of preservation for it and some other articles of food4 ,the petrels1 after having been carefully plucked1 have all their bones removed4 ,they are then cooked over the fire in large shallow dishes or platters1 made from the bark of the ,totara tree1 and when sufficiently done are placed in the natural bottles or flasks formed of a species of seaweed1 like a huge variety of the bladder-wrack 7,fucus vesiculosus7 of our own coasts4 ,the heated fat from the birds is then poured in1 and the sea-bottle securely tied up4 ,provisions treated in this manner remain perfectly good for a very long time1 being completely excluded from both air and moisture4 ,the ,indians of ,vancouver ,island make use of seaweed bottles1 made like those just described1 to store up fish oil in4 ,hints on large game4 ,in ,africa1 the flesh of the ox and of all the game animals--from the antelope and buffalo to the giraffe1 and the rhinoceros1 the hippopotamus1 and elephant--is used under the general name of biltong4 ,the scene1 when one of the larger animals has been shot1 and is found perhaps next morning by the hunter's native followers1 is exciting enough4 ,in the case of an elephant which has lain till ten or eleven o'clock1 when the heat of the sun will have begun to form gases in the stomach1 and to distend the carcase till a man may tread upon it as he would on an unyielding rock1 the man1 whose duty it is to make the first incision1 approaches cautiously1 taking care1 if possible1 not to to come leeward1 and especially to see that his retreat is clear2 then reaching forward at the full length of his arm1 he drives his spear into the abdomen1 leaping backward at the same time to avoid the gaseous and liquid discharge which ensues4 ,the rest wait until the carcase has collapsed1 and the stench is somewhat dissipated1 and then rush in and commence the cutting up4 ,the thick skin is torn in broad planks from the sides1 groups of men mount upon the ribs1 and1 squatting there upon their hams1 use their assegais in cutting down through the flesh2 others1 having effected a breach in the thinnest part of the abdomen1 enter and tear out the internal dainties1 and then1 assegais in hand1 begin to cut the flesh from the inside of the ribs--an operation1 it will be readily believed1 involving no small risk to these who happen to be sitting just above them1 and who not unfrequently receive a hint that the human skin is by no means invulnerable4 ,the surrounding bushes now begin to be covered with blanket-like flaps of skin and meat1 by membranes and sheets of the internal fat1 and from every fire arises the savoury odour of some tit bit1 being hastily grilled to appease the appetite while the pot which has been filled with the first cuttings of the flesh is being boiled4 ,long1 straight poles are next cut1 and laid across like rails from fork to fork of other trees1 and on these the flesh1 cut into strips from #c;ft4 to #af;ft4 long1 and about two fingers thick1 is hung to dry1 care being taken not to hang it so closely as to prevent the air passing freely between the pieces4 ,two or three days will generally be enough to dry the meat1 which is then taken down1 and either tied up in bundles if to be carried by men1 or stowed as loosely as possible in the waggon1 being opened and spread out at every halt for the first few days to guard against the possibility of putrefaction2 further cooking is not absolutely necessary4 ,the biltong may be bruised up with a yoke skei1 or the head of an axe1 and eaten raw1 or it may be broiled and bruised as before1 or if boiled it may be put into a native mortar and pounded with a pestle or a yoke skei until the fibres are thoroughly separated1 and much trouble is saved in the way of mastication4 ,with the addition of a little cinnamon or other spice1 dried peaches1 shreds of dried onion1 or any little thing to vary the taste1 this is by no means a bad dish for hungry men4 ,in all cases1 however1 it is well to make a proportion of the meat carry itself2 and here the traveller will be called upon to exercise great caution4 ,it will never do to purchase at random a number of animals of various species1 because1 in the first place1 the different kinds will not herd together1 and1 therefore1 each will require separate attendants2 and1 secondly1 because the country to be explored may be unfavourable to the existence of some of them4 ,in ,north ,australia we took no cattle1 because we had reason to think that plants poisonous to them abounded there4 ,of our flock of sheep we took none beyond the standing camp1 and even of them we lost more than three-fourths by the disasters of the sea and river voyage before they were landed4 ,if men would make up their minds to eat horseflesh1 we believe it would be more economical1 and would give less trouble to the exploring party1 who might purchase at the outset a considerable additional number of horses1 young of course1 but at least sufficiently docile to carry a pack and travel with the others2 and when the burden of one of these had been eaten off1 to shoot him1 and convert as much of his flesh as could not be eaten in the first two days into biltong4 ,in many of the later expeditions camels have been used more or less successfully1 and their flesh has also served as food to the explorers on emergencies4 ,in ,south ,africa oxen are so generally used that no one thinks of undertaking a journey of any extent without them1 and1 not less as a matter of course1 his vehicle is the ox waggon2 horses1 as many as the traveller can afford1 also accompany him2 but1 if he is really a hunter1 these are seldom or never ridden until their energies are required for active service1 but leisurely driven on by a ,hottentot lad1 and carefully tended1 so as to husband their strength and keep them in good condition till they are really wanted4 ,sheep and goats are taken because most of the native tribes are so essentially pastoral that these animals may be cheaply purchased from them2 and young lads1 willing to drive them1 may be hired for a trifling reward in addition to their food4 ,nevertheless1 all these animals are liable to casualties on the road3 the goats or sheep may die from feeding on the beans that fall from the kameel doorn and various acacias2 the stud may be thinned off by the annual horse sickness1 even though the traveller may have taken the precaution to buy1 at a higher price1 what are called salted horses--i4e41 such as have once had the sickness--for it is well known that if a horse takes the sickness in a district where it prevails in a mild form1 which is generally the case in such as have been for a considerable time colonised1 it will not protect him in the remote wilderness where the disease still maintains its unmitigated strength4 ,it is1 therefore1 always advisable to ask not only whether the horse has had the sickness1 but where he passed through the ordeal4 ,we have known as much as #ajjl4 given by a hunter for a horse up to his weight and warranted to be salted1 with the proviso1 however1 that if the horse died of sickness during the first season his price was to be reduced by #fjl4 ,hints on food gathering4 ,in all cases of extreme scarcity of food1 we strongly advise the traveller to leave no stone unturned which may yield aliment of some kind to help him on his way before he sacrifices his riding horse or mule4 ,where a number of animals accompany an expedition1 a few may perhaps be parted with from time to time2 but we earnestly advise the solitary hunter or explorer to exercise every faculty he possesses for food finding before he makes up his mind to destroy his four-footed friend4 ,different regions not only furnish different food-yielding products1 but possess climates which necessitate the use of appropriate kinds of aliment4 ,food may be viewed in the light of fuel1 and man as a lamp4 ,the more intense the cold and severe the exertion the greater will be the expenditure of elements rich in carbon1 such as oil1 fat1 blubber1 flesh1 c4 ,arctic travellers and those who dwell in the regions of ice and snow find themselves compelled to follow very closely the customs of the ,esquimaux in their diet scale4 ,dr4 ,kane1 the ,arctic traveller1 says3 ,our journeys have taught us the wisdom of the ,esquimaux appetite1 and there are few among us who do not relish a slice of raw blubber or a chunk of frozen walrus beef4 ,the liver of a walrus 7,awuktanuk7 eaten with little slices of his fat1 of a verity is a delicious morsel4 ,fire would ruin the curt pithy expression of vitality which belong to its uncooked pieces4 ,charles ,lamb's roast pig was nothing to ,awuktanuk4 ,i wonder that raw beef is not eaten at home4 ,deprived of extraneous fibre1 it is neither indigestible nor difficult to masticate4 ,with acids and condiments it makes a salad which an educated palate cannot help relishing2 and as a powerful and condensed heat-making and antiscorbutic food it has no rival4 ,i make this last broad assertion after carefully testing its truth4 ,the natives of ,south ,greenland prepare themselves for a long journey in the cold by a course of frozen seal4 ,at ,upernavik they do the same with the narwhal1 which is thought more heat making than the seal1 while the bear1 to use their own expression1 is 'stronger travel' than all4 ,in the far north1 where the explorer has to carefully husband such food as good fortune may cast in his way1 no portion of an animal is wasted4 ,the ,doctor1 when speaking of the value of every part of a beast1 says3 ,the skin makes the basis of soup1 and the claws can be boiled to a jelly2 lungs1 larynx1 stomach1 and entrails are all available4 ,starvation is far less to be feared by an experienced traveller in tropical climates than among the ice of the polar regions1 as1 in the first place1 the large quantities of animal food consumed to sustain vital heat are not needed2 and1 in the next1 the vegetable and insect world far more abundantly contribute their aid in furnishing his larder4 ,here again the explorer will do well to follow1 in cases of necessity1 the example set by the natives1 who not unfrequently manage to sustain life in regions which to the unpractised eye would present nothing but hopeless barrenness4 ,the inhabitants of very extensive tracts of country1 extending through the ,presidio del ,norte1 in ,mexico1 subsist for months together on the large bulbous roots of the ,maguay 7,agave ,mexicana71 which grows in the dry arid soil of these regions4 ,these roots vary in size from the diameter of a #dlb4 loaf to that of a two-gallon jar1 and are not unlike a huge onion in external appearance4 ,when intended for food they are simply dug up and roasted in hot ashes1 when they become palatable and wholesome4 ,it is from these roots that the ,mexicans prepare their celebrated ,mescal1 or aguardiente1 a spirit stronger than the best whisky4 ,to prepare this1 a pit is dug in the ground to about the depth of #c;ft4 and about #aj;ft4 in diameter2 a complete layer of stones is then made on the bottom and round the sides of the pit1 which is then filled with billets of wood and branches of bushes2 these are then ignited1 and the fire is suffered to burn until the stone lining and borders of the pit are strongly heated2 a quantity of freshly-gathered grass is then thrown in and formed into a sort of lining for the stones1 and on this the bulbs of the maguay are cast until the pit is nearly full1 when a quantity of grass is thrown over the top layer1 and the baking or roasting process is suffered to go on until the roots are thoroughly cooked4 ,large leather sacks are then brought to receive the roots4 ,water is thrown in until a sort of gruel is formed1 which ferments for about a week1 and is then distilled in a rough makeshift still1 when the liquor is fit for consumption4 ,this is the plant which produces the pulque1 which we have before described4 ,the fibres of the leaves make excellent ropes and twine2 the young and immature leaves1 when doubled up in the hand1 make an excellent substitute for soap and the fresh crisp sprouts are good for cattle food4 ,the region of the ,gila and the ,sonora district also produce the ,petahaya1 the great candelabra cereus4 ,this curious plant grows in the form of either a fluted column or gigantic candelabrum2 the stem is not unfrequently from #b;ft4 to #c;ft4 in diameter1 and grows to a height of from #dj;ft4 to #ej;ft4 ,mr4 ,t4 ,r4 ,bartlett1 in his exploration of the ,gila1 made extensive use of the fruit of this plant4 ,he thus describes it3 ,the plant probably blooms late in ,may or early in ,june1 and the fruit is matured in ,july and ,august4 ,the flowers1 borne on the summits of the branches1 are #c;in4 in diameter1 and about the same in length4 ,the petals are stiff and curling1 and of a cream-white colour2 the stamens are yellow and very numerous4 ,the fruit is about the size and shape of an egg1 sometimes rather longer than the true egg shape1 having a few small scales without spines4 ,the colour of the fruit is green1 tinged with red when fully ripe4 ,it consists of an outer coat or skin filled with red pulp1 inclosing numerous small black seeds4 ,the fruit when mature bursts at the top1 and exposes the pulp1 which at this time is rather mawkish to the taste2 but a few days' exposure to the sun dries it to about one-third its original bulk1 and the whole mass drops out of the skin4 ,in this state it has the consistency of the pulp of a dried fig1 and the saccharine matter being concentrated by drying1 it somewhat resembles that fruit in taste4 ,the ,pimo and other ,indians collect the pulp and roll it into balls1 in which state it probably keeps the whole year1 as it was offered to our party which passed through in ,january4 ,they also boil the pulp in water and evaporate it to the consistence of molasses1 after which it is preserved in earthen jars4 ,insects1 as well as fruit and fruit products1 contribute largely in some parts of the world to the subsistence of the natives4 ,wild honey not unfrequently proves an acceptable addition to the explorer's larder4 ,to obtain this the movements of wild bees should be carefully watched4 ,sometimes they may be seen high overhead flying in a direct and steady double stream2 one throng bending its way heavily laden to the hive or colony1 and the other departing on a fresh expedition4 ,in some parts of the world--,india1 for example--the wild bees usually construct their combs either beneath the shelter afforded by the bifurcation of the large branches of a timber tree or the stems of the palm fronds as they shoot from the main trunk4 ,in ,america1 ,africa1 and some other countries they generally seek the protection afforded by a hollow and partially decayed tree trunk4 ,to find the stores of a swarm of wild bees1 cast your eye sharply overhead and note the general line of flight4 ,catch a bee and tie a thin filament of down1 wild cotton1 or white floss silk to his leg and let him fly2 he will generally wing his flight homewards1 and can be followed4 ,if there is any uncertainty about the line of direction in which the bees fly1 which may proceed from other swarms being in the neighbourhood1 catch two bees at different points1 plume them1 and carefully note the point at which their line of flight joins4 ,when you have to track a long bee flight1 it is a good plan to dress a piece of bark with honey1 in order that it may act as a lure to the bees4 ,as they take in a store and fly away with it1 note their flight1 taking the line followed by the greatest number2 advance your bark a couple of hundred yards in the line2 take a fresh departure1 and so on until the bee tree is discovered4 ,the honey guide of ,africa 7,cuculos indicator7 will1 by his restlessness and efforts to attract attention1 not unfrequently conduct the traveller to the bees' nest2 but when following this feathered conductor be on the alert and keep both barrels of your rifle at full cock1 as he sometimes brings you face to face with a creature far more formidable than a honey bee4 ,to take possession of the honey few ,europeans like to venture on the bold course followed by many natives1 as from some cause or another1 which we are utterly at a loss to explain1 a naked black fellow will invade the stronghold of the bees and carry off the honeycomb in their very midst1 with little or no preparation4 ,when bees are in a hollow tree the best plan is to fell it with the axe1 light a long line of damp brushwood to leeward1 make as much smoke as you can1 and during the panic caused by the general crash1 split up the log1 chop the bee hole large enough to be practicable1 and get the honeycomb out as fast as you can into some convenient vessel4 ,in ,new ,caledonia we find the large spider there found 7,aranea edulis7 greedily partaken of4 ,it is simply roasted over the fire when required for use4 ,there is another curious description of food made use of by the natives of the lake borders in the neighbourhood of ,chalco and ,texococo2 this is made from the eggs of a species of boat fly 7,notonecta7 and two or three insects of similar habits4 ,the insects deposit their eggs by myriads on the stalks of the reeds growing in and about the margins of the lakes4 ,the natives1 when going on an egg-hunting expedition1 provide themselves with cloths and sticks4 ,the reeds1 when bent to the edge of the spread cloth1 are beaten and shaken1 when the eggs drop off into the sheet placed for their reception4 ,after being spread on other sheets1 and thoroughly dried in the sun1 they are treated just as if they were grains of corn4 ,flour is made from them by grinding2 this is regularly packed in suitable bags1 marked as to weight1 c41 and sold in the native markets4 ,in laying in the stores of an expedition about to start from any large city it is well to obtain1 if possible1 a good supply of ,challet's preserved vegetables1 as they can be made available when nature furnishes no green food4 ,the space occupied by this useful preparation is so small that a very large quantity can be stowed away in a very small compass4 ,it has been computed that #c;ft4 of cubic space will contain #af1jjj full allowances4 ,in pastoral countries there is usually little difficulty in obtaining milk2 and in regions destitute of domesticated cattle the explorer can generally manage to get on without it4 ,goats yield a great deal of excellent milk1 and trot along freely with animals on a march4 ,when it is desirable to carry milk for any distance for the use of children or sick people1 it may be preserved as follows3 ,take a tin canister1 a bottle1 or a large ox horn1 with a bottom and mouth made in it2 fill the vessel with milk2 put it in the camp kettle1 and let it boil steadily for three quarters of an hour4 ,now1 if your vessel is a canister1 solder down the cover2 if a bottle or horn drive in the stopper and wax it down with melted beeswax4 ,the milk will then keep well4 ,in some countries preserved toad-stools are extensively made use of as an article of food2 but here we must give the traveller a caution regarding the mushroom or ,agaricus family when viewed in the light of aliment1 as1 strange to say1 varieties which are found perfectly wholesome in one country are not so in another4 ,thus1 for instance1 we find some of the most poisonous toad-stools found in ,england 7,a4 virosus and ,a4 muscarius7 amongst the number eaten with impunity in some parts of ,tartary and ,russia4 ,there may be said to be only three kinds of true edible ,agarici found in ,great ,britain4 ,a4 campestris1 the common meadow and garden mushroom1 remarkable for its pleasant odour and the colour of its gills2 ,a4 pratensis1 or the fairy-ring mushroom 7which is found growing in the green rings or circles in our grass lands1 attributed by the superstitious to supernatural agency72 and ,a4 ,georgii1 which in some respects resembles ,a4 campestris1 but has lighter coloured gills and less flavour4 ,when driven by necessity to seek mushroom food1 either in this country or out of it1 bear the following rules in mind3 ,avoid every one you see with its cap or head thin in substance as compared to the thickness of the plates or gills--with the upright or stalk attached to one side of the crown--with the plates or gills all of the same length--yielding a juice like thin milk2 and1 if you find any with a sort of band composed of a substance like the webs of spiders surrounding the upright1 have nothing to do with them4 ,we have seen whole strings of dried ,a4 muscarius suspended to dry from the rafters of ,tartar huts4 ,these you may eat safely in ,tartary1 but not out of it4 ,fish roe1 like mushrooms1 when intended for food1 requires care in selection4 ,the large barbel1 found in many of the large rivers and lakes abroad1 yield at times a very considerable quantity of roe or spawn4 ,this we have known on several occasions to prove very unwholesome1 if not absolutely poisonous4 ,herring spawn is collected on some coasts in vast quantities by the natives1 who place long lines of bushes at low-water mark for the ova to collect on4 ,salmon roe is also eaten to a great extent by many ,indian tribes4 ,we have seen great quantities of sturgeon spawn collected for conversion into caviare4 ,to prepare the spawn large bags1 with their ends sewn up1 are made2 a slit is then made in the side1 just large enough to put the hand through2 into this the roe and a good quantity of strong bay salt brine are introduced and the hole is then secured with a wooden skewer4 ,when the brine has nearly all soaked out through the bag1 a pair of hand sticks are fastened to its ends2 these are seized by two men and twisted round until the bag resembles a thick rope4 ,roe pickled and pressed in this way will keep a long time1 and is very nutritious4 ,the eggs of poultry or seafowl can in some countries be collected in considerable quantities and laid in as a store4 ,eggs boiled hard in a strong solution of salt keep well4 ,they may also be preserved by first breaking them into boiling water1 with a little salt dissolved in it1 just as you would prepare poached eggs2 boil for three or four minutes1 and then take them out of the water2 place them to drain1 and when dry heat them on a thin iron sheet over the fire until deprived of moisture2 they are then fit to pack away4 ,to preserve native butter1 first melt1 then strain it through a cloth1 boil it steadily in a camp kettle1 skim off all the froth with a large shell1 set in a stick1 until no more rises2 then pour it whilst hot into leather bags or earthen jars to settle4 ,do not omit the straining process1 or you will find more hairs in your butter than are agreeable4 ,a search among the rocks1 pools1 and over the ledges on the seacoast will generally repay the food hunter4 ,shell fish1 small crustaceas1 and in some localities edible seaweeds1 may be found2 both lavar weed and caragreen moss will help to furnish out a meal4 ,when shooting seafowl to help to fill the larder do not pick them2 open the skin across the vent1 taking care not to cut through into the abdominal cavity2 turn back the skin with your knife1 cut off the projection or oil gland1 known as the parson's nose1 and then strip the skin forward1 cutting off the legs at the knee-joints1 wings at the pinions1 and the head half way up the neck2 now remove the entrails from your bird1 wash it well in the sea1 and if you have an onion or two for stuffing cut them up and put them in the bird1 which may be sewn or skewered up1 and then roasted4 ,a sea bird makes a good grill if split down the back1 pegged open with a stick1 well peppered and salted1 and then broiled over the embers4 ,captain ,bligh found that by keeping seafowl in a hencoop and feeding them with grain that they became fat and of good flavour4 ,snails form nutritious and wholesome food1 as do the ,unios and ,adontas 7popularly known as fresh-water mussels74 ,these shells are to be found in most lakes and rivers4 ,fish of one kind or another will generally repay those who search for them4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,fish ,,and ,,amphibious ,,animals4 ,the sea1 estuaries1 rivers1 lakes1 brooks1 and ponds often yield an acceptable supply of food to the explorer1 who usually adopts the most effective means of securing his prey1 without troubling his head much as to whether the mode of capture is strictly sportsmanlike or not4 ,the inhabitants of little known waters are not1 as a rule1 particularly shy in taking a bait2 but some investigation will at times be needed to discover what description of fish are procurable before a successful plan for capturing them can be put in force4 ,sea fish are generally to be taken with small fish1 pieces of fish1 fish entrails2 shellfish1 such as mussels1 clams1 limpets1 cockles1 c42 small strips of salt pork rind1 the lug worms from the sand1 and the rag worms from beneath stones and drift wood4 ,artificial baits1 too1 are often used with much advantage4 ,the bowl of a common pewter spoon1 mounted with a pair or three strong hooks1 tied back to back1 is an extremely killing lure for most predatory fish in both fresh and salt water4 ,to mount and prepare one of these1 it will be requisite to cut off the handle of the spoon close to the bowl4 ,drill a small hole just inside the point from which the stem has been taken off1 and another at the small end4 ,loop through the hole at the large end a piece of strong fine line1 about #d;ft4 long1 and to this attach a swivel2 then loop on #c;ft4 more line of the same description to the first swivel1 and to the end of this attach a second swivel4 ,a loop fastened to the end ring of this serves to attach the trace and spoon to the main line by4 ,gut or gimp may be used1 instead of ordinary line1 when it is desirable to fish fine4 ,the hooks1 either in the form of a triangle or simple pair1 must be of size proportioned to the description of fish they are intended to catch2 and1 when securely attached to a #c-;in4 piece of very strong double gut1 should be fastened to the hole in the small end of the spoon4 ,when used with a rod the spoon is spun with1 after the manner of any other spinning bait2 but when used from a boat or canoe a lead of sufficient weight must be attached to the trace1 in order to keep it some considerable distance below the surface1 when1 as the boat is urged onwards1 its rapid revolutions and glittering1 flickering play prove most fatally attractive4 ,many of the pearl-shell baits used by the ,south ,sea ,islanders are much the same in principle1 only that the hooks they use are usually of shell1 wood1 or bone4 ,illustration ,boneta and albecore are at times taken in considerable numbers by making use of a rude imitation of the flying fish2 and the form of this contrivance 7represented at ,fig4 #d in the accompanying illustration7 will show that one need not despair of catching fish because he has no fish hook4 ,makeshift hooks4 ,a piece of oak or other hard wood1 about #g;in4 long1 is procured4 ,this is cut slightly tapering towards the tail1 like the body of a fish4 ,about #a;in4 from the tail a hole is bored1 and through this a strong sharp nail1 such as carpenters use1 is driven obliquely4 ,a few turns of twine round the wood and nail serve to prevent shifting or splitting4 ,the head end of the stick has a notch cut round it to fasten the line to1 and secure a couple of strips of white rag in1 so that the free ends may represent the wings or fins of the fish4 ,this affair1 when finished and attached to a strong line1 is cast into the sea1 and kept leaping from wave to wave1 when it is greedily seized by the pursuing boneta or albecore1 who discovers when too late that1 instead of securing a rich and palatable flying fish1 he has swallowed a nail instead4 ,the ,esquimaux make an excellent substitute for a fish hook by scraping a strip of whalebone round and fine1 and then binding on a piece of hard1 finely-pointed bone at an acute angle1 with a strip of sinew or split ground willow1 as shown at ,fig4 #c4 ,a sail needle may be made to do duty for a hook by attaching it to the line1 as shown at ,fig4 #b4 ,the albatross can be conveniently taken when following a ship at sea by the use of a baited sailmaker's hook4 ,the point holds in the curved portion of the bird's beak1 whilst the swivel at its looped end prevents the line from twisting and becoming entangled4 ,fig4 #a1 p4 #ehf1 represents the manner in which this hook is formed4 ,illustration ,the shanks of horse-nails make very good fish hooks4 ,these1 when filed down to the proper thickness1 must be laid1 one by one1 in a narrow groove made in a piece of hard wood1 and the barb struck up with a chisel or the sloped edge of a knife4 ,one smart1 well-directed blow on the instrument usually effects this4 ,the point is now to be filed up sharp1 the wire gently heated in the fire1 and twisted with pliers--or1 in the absence of these1 a split stick--into proper hook form1 when it is to be subjected to the case-hardening process4 7,see ,case-hardening47 ,hooks of any size may be made in this way1 merely taking care to use good tough iron for the purpose4 ,stout1 large-sized needles may be used straight for the capture of eels and some other kinds of fish4 ,when so used1 the line is firmly secured by waxed thread or silk to the centre of the needle1 which is baited by drawing a large worm or other bait over both needle and line1 which1 when so prepared1 lie in a line with each other4 ,on the fish swallowing the bait and the line being drawn tight1 the needle at once becomes fixed across the throat1 and thus holds the captive until dragged to the shore4 ,the needle is then easily withdrawn by pressing back one end with a bit of stick4 ,tackle1 to select4 ,we strongly advise the traveller to include in his list of stores a liberal supply of fish hooks of various sizes1 for both sea and river fish1 together with some strong brass swivels1 a few hanks of stout gut1 and fishing lines for river and sea fishing4 ,the former should be of the kind known as prepared salmon line1 and the latter hemp or cotton sea line4 ,the sea lines should be all barked before use2 any tanner will subject them to that process for a mere trifle4 ,lines so treated are infinitely more durable than those used in a raw state4 ,it will sometimes happen that when separated from your stores1 short of food1 and with very few appliances with you1 a catch of fish proves highly acceptable1 and tackle of some kind has to be extemporised4 ,we have had on many occasions to do this4 ,rods can be made very easily from tough sticks or bamboo canes4 ,fishing lines should never be put away wet1 as they will soon decay1 and become weak and unreliable4 ,the most portable and convenient form of hand reel we have ever used is made as follows3 ,two pieces of well-seasoned wood are cut flat1 like stout round-ended paper knives4 ,illustration ,two holes are burned or bored in each1 as at #a in the annexed illustration2 then two round bars are cut with points and shoulders1 as at #b4 ,a cork bung is then fashioned and bored in the centre1 as at #c2 the hole in this admits one of the round bars1 and serves to stick the points of the hooks in4 ,no4 #d represents the frame or reel put together1 and shows the position of the bung and the loop of the line4 ,the ends or shoulder pieces of the round bars are secured by small pins driven through them4 ,reels of this description afford free ventilation to the lines coiled on them4 ,they can be taken asunder in an instant1 and will pack in a very small space4 ,hints on tackle making4 ,we made an excellent outfit for fly-fishing in the ,crimea as follows3 ,we selected a set of straight tough dog-wood sticks from the fascines for the joints of our rod2 these were feruled with tubes made from preserved-meat tins cut and soldered4 ,the rings were made from wire buttons with the thread covering cut off2 the line from hair pulled from the horses' tails1 twisted or laid up by the aid of a set of quill sticks1 the use of which will be described as our work proceeds4 ,the winch was made from a large-sized cotton reel mounted on a frame of forage hoop iron1 and the handle from a piece of a broken ,russian ramrod4 ,we were often asked by envious fellow campaigners where we had picked up such an excellent fly-rod and fittings4 ,our having made it from the limited means at our disposal was never even suspected by them4 ,a dinner extemporised4 ,the following adventure will serve to illustrate the manner in which a little ingenuity will often procure a dinner4 ,our little party encamped one morning1 after a very long fatiguing night march in ,bengal1 under the shelter of an immense banyan tree which grew on the banks of a deep reed-fringed lake4 ,a small native village1 situated at no great distance1 had been pillaged and deserted some time before1 and a miserable pariah dog or two wandering disconsolately about between the huts1 and a few inquisitive-looking crows perched on the roofs1 were the only living creatures to be discovered4 ,no land of ,canaan was this2 commons of the very shortest kind stared us unpleasantly in the face4 ,still we had some bags of grain of the country1 and a little ghee or native butter4 ,an old corn mill1 of the quern pattern before described1 was foraged out from some forgotten nook or corner1 and set to work preparing flour4 ,a needle from the doctor's instrument case1 when heated in the fire and bent to a proper form1 made a very tolerable hook2 a skein of his suture silk1 a line2 a bamboo cane1 pulled from the roof of a hut1 a rod2 a bit of bark with a stick through it made a float2 a few shot1 split with a knife1 sinkers2 and some beetle larv1 which were routed out of a decayed log1 formed a very toothsome bait4 ,the lake was clearly our larder1 and to it we betook ourselves with as little delay as possible1 the long cane over one shoulder1 a double-barrelled gun over the other1 and a leather bucket swung over the arm in lieu of a fishing creel4 ,no ,waltonian enticements in the shape of ground bait were needed here2 the bait was hardly out of sight before the float vanished1 and then1 on the haul devil1 pull baker principle1 out our floundering victims came amongst the sedges and reeds4 ,a shrill blast on our railway whistle not only brought one of the sable camp followers to carry the welcome capture to the cook1 but roused six or eight large grey wild ducks1 which had lain like so many water rails amongst the tall reeds1 and sent them with outstretched necks and whistling wing wheeling round the lake1 when by dropping under a hollow bank and keeping well down we lulled suspicion1 and the flock come cutting the air right overhead4 ,now is our time1 and1 pitching the heavy double well before them1 we let drive in rapid succession the two charges of big shot4 ,three thumping ducks come like clods to the earth2 a few feathers drift off on the wind far in the rear of the survivors1 who do not linger on the wing2 and little did we care where their flight might lead them--our hunter's dinner had been earned1 and in less than two hours from its obtainment was duly cooked1 eaten1 and its merits discussed4 ,illustration ,alligators1 to catch4 ,a very effective contrivance for taking caymans or alligators was made use of by ,waterton's followers in ,british ,guiana4 ,the annexed illustration represents a modification of it4 ,two or more tough fire-hardened sticks are notched at the large end like the head of a tent peg1 and barbed at the point like a straightened fish hook4 ,the notched ends are bound fast with raw hide lashings to a stout rope1 which has been served for about #f;ft4 or #g;ft4 with stout wire4 ,when this contrivance is to be used1 the barbed tines and rope are thickly wound round with the entrails of some animal1 and then suspended just above the water by supporting the rope on an upright crutch1 which is so adjusted as to give way on the bait being taken4 ,when the whole mass has been pouched by the alligator1 and the rope is hauled on1 the tines open1 catch across the gullet1 and act as a hook4 ,we have heard of alligators being destroyed by inclosing a canister of powder1 with the wires of a galvanic battery attached to it1 in the offal of any animal2 this1 when fitted with a line and float1 was cast into the water1 and1 on a bite being perceived1 the connection of the circuit was made1 when the alligator was shattered by the force of the explosion which followed4 ,illustration3 ,,fish ,,spring4 ,alligators1 to baffle4 ,alligators are incorrigible pests to the fisherman1 waiting until the fish is securely hooked1 and then carrying it off1 line and all4 ,the following plan is the best we know to baffle the greedy marauders4 ,strong flexible sticks1 like small fishing rods1 are to be cut1 taking care to select such as have lateral branches some distance down4 ,one of these is to be cut to about #b;in4 from the main stem1 and a notch made in its end for a button on the line to catch in1 as shown in the above illustration4 ,this1 when freed by the biting of the fish1 allows the rod to spring smartly up1 and swing the fish high enough to be beyond the reach of the prowling pirate4 ,liggers and trimmers4 ,a variety of fish may be taken in ponds and lakes by the use of inflated bladders1 of which several can be used at once4 ,they are thus prepared4 ,the bladder1 after being well filled with air by blowing into it through a quill or bit of cane1 must have its neck securely tied up with twine1 and to this fastening a piece of stick the size of the little finger must be attached1 so that it forms a sort of stem-like appendage to the bladder4 ,the line1 with the baited hook attached1 is now to be knotted fast to the centre of the stem1 and then wound on it just as thread is wound on a reel4 ,the lower end of the stick or stem must now have a slit made in it4 ,the line1 when pulled into this1 should have just a sufficient length to hang freely in the water4 ,the bladder is now to be taken to the windward side of the pond or lake1 and cast adrift4 ,on the bait being seized by the fish1 the line is jerked from the slit4 ,the bladder1 revolving on its own axis1 allows the coil to unwind from the stem1 and from its extreme buoyancy soon tires out the largest captive1 whose position it serves to indicate to the fisherman1 who gathers up his prizes at his leisure from his canoe or reed boat4 ,bundles of rushes1 large corks1 empty bottles1 and a number of other things1 can be used as substitutes for the bladders4 ,contrivances of this kind are commonly called trimmers or liggers4 ,large turnips are often used by poachers to mount lines on for the capture of pike in preserves1 as1 unless rather experienced hands1 the keepers do not suspect the dangerously destructive character of these floating roots4 ,illustration3 ,,barbel ,,line4 ,on the ,vaal ,river1 in ,south ,africa1 we caught barbel up to #bglb4 weight by thus using an empty powder canister2 but it was anchored in mid stream by a stone not heavy enough to prevent a large fish from dragging it4 ,this was left all night1 and if in the morning it was missing from its place1 a black boy was sent up or down to discover it4 ,our canoe was then launched1 and the prize secured4 ,if barbel were fished for1 the hook was allowed nearly to reach the bottom2 if otherwise1 it was kept but a little below the surface4 ,frogs were generally used as bait4 ,if the fisherman is not occupied as we were by other work1 and can spare the time1 or does not possess a canoe1 he may make fast a sufficiently strong hauling line1 and so bring his capture to the shore whenever he wishes4 ,the method of arranging this contrivance is shown in the preceding illustration4 ,otters1 to make4 ,the otter is another contrivance with which great numbers of fish are often taken1 and thus it is made3 ,procure a piece of very light strong wood1 and from it fashion a board #bb;in4 long1 #i;in4 wide1 and #b;in4 thick4 ,trim the ends to a sharp edge1 and round them off in boat form4 ,then1 on that portion which would correspond with the keel of a boat1 fasten a long strip of lead of the same thickness as the board1 and so adjust its weight that1 when your board with its lead keel on is placed in water1 about #a;in4 only of the upper edge appears above the surface4 ,two holes are then to be bored at each end1 and through these two separate strings are to be passed1 and the ends so knotted as to prevent them from pulling through the holes4 ,the loops thus formed must be just long enough to come in contact in the centre of the board4 ,four knots will thus be on one side of the board1 and the loops the other4 ,a #d-;in4 piece of very strong1 stiff brass wire must now be used to connect the two loops1 and on this a stout ring must be placed so that it may travel forward and back on the wire4 ,to this ring the main line on which the hooks are fastened is to be attached by a loop and swivel4 ,to work the otter1 it will be necessary to launch it in the water1 and walk away along the bank until it runs out with the line1 which is coiled on a wooden frame or reel and carried in the hand4 ,the otter travels backward or forward according to the direction in which the string or line is pulled1 and is in principle much like a paper kite1 the loops performing the part of the belly-band4 ,ground lines1 to manage4 ,ground lines often well repay the trouble bestowed on setting them4 ,they are best made of strong1 fine hempen line4 ,a heavy rifle ball or other suitable weight must be fastened to one end1 and a pointed peg to the other4 ,a number of hooks on twisted horsehair traces are to be looped on1 at equal distances apart1 at the end nearest the sinker4 ,the line when duly baited and pegged fast to the bank is to be taken on a long fork-ended stick1 so that the end has a swing of about #h;ft4 or #i;ft4 ,with this the baits and sinker can be cast a very long distance out2 and when it is requisite to take up the line to re-bait or take off fish1 the fork is again made use of to draw it over1 and thus keep the hooks clear of the bank4 ,when using a night line1 it is a good plan to fasten the shore end to a tough branch twisted in the form shown in the annexed illustration1 as by the play it affords when the fish makes a sudden rush the line is saved from being broken4 ,illustration ,traveller1 to make4 ,wide pools in rivers and the stretches of sea beach frequented by fish at the rising of the tide are conveniently fished by the use of a traveller4 ,this is simply a double line with one half only mounted with hooks4 ,it is thus used3 ,at dead low water a heavy stone is procured1 and round it is placed a piece of strong cord1 to the end of which is fastened a link of chain1 the bow of an old key1 a slice from the end of a marrow bone1 or a common curtain ring2 and through this one end of the doubled line is passed1 and brought back to the standing place of the fishermen4 ,as the tide flows and approaches the shore1 that half of the line without hooks is drawn in1 which1 of course1 causes the drawing out of that half provided with them4 ,a small cross stick knotted to the centre of the line prevents the first hook from passing through the ring and causing entanglements4 ,as fish are caught1 or the bait requires renewing1 the line is hauled out and pulled back again to its old position without the trouble of casting4 ,by this method a much larger space can be covered by the tackle than could be commanded by the ordinary method4 ,harpoon arrow4 ,the harpoon arrow is at times a very effective means of securing fish1 especially when they are basking on the surface of the water or among the weeds4 ,the arrow-head is made from a large-sized sea-fish hook1 heated in the fire and straightened4 ,this when cut to the right length is secured to the shaft of the arrow with waxed thread4 ,a small loop is also fastened on1 to attach the harpoon line by4 ,this should be composed of very fine strong line2 and when about to be used it is coiled carefully away in a small wooden bowl or calabash4 ,the bow should be rather short1 and of considerable power4 ,a little practice at floating corks or other light substances will soon serve to teach the method of discharging the harpoon and adjusting the line4 ,basket fish traps4 ,basket traps1 of different forms of construction1 are much used by ,indians for the taking of fish4 ,some are simple in the extreme1 and much resemble a lady's crinoline4 ,with it the native wades about in the wide shallow lakes1 keeping the bell-shaped mouth downwards1 and frequently striking the bottom with it4 ,when a fish happens to become inclosed1 it immediately darts off and endeavours to escape2 but its head coming in contact with the side of the basket1 the shock is at once felt by the wader1 who thrusts his bare arm down through the small or upper opening of his contrivance1 and so secures his victim1 who1 when a strip of vine or ground cane has been passed through his gills1 is allowed to trail after his captor4 ,on the ,zambesi the women wade in the clear shallow water with a funnel-shaped basket1 the smaller end of which is prolonged by a pole or handle4 ,when a fish is seen1 the wide lower end of the basket is at once darted down upon him1 and he is captured at leisure4 ,wicker cages of trumpet form1 constructed much on the principle of the ordinary eel basket1 appear common amongst the aborigines of nearly every part of the world4 ,some we once discovered when hunting in the ,bheel country were of most elegant form1 and woven entirely from the finely-split fibres of single bamboo joints1 the knot being left entire at one end1 to form a ring through which the bait is introduced4 ,by some tribes of ,north ,american ,indians long rods are used to form these1 just as we employ willows4 ,some traps made in this way are very large4 ,huge baskets are often suspended and secured beneath waterfalls in the run of the salmon1 which on missing their leap fall back into these traps4 ,when a sufficient number have been inclosed1 the ,indians1 armed with short clubs1 enter the baskets and despatch the ill-fated fish1 which are then cast out on the rocks to the dusky ladies of the tribe1 who are waiting to receive them4 ,on the ,zambesi1 the ,bo-tlt-le ,river near ,lake ,ngami1 and in ,north ,australia1 the natives are very ingenious in the construction of dams or weirs2 and creels or trap baskets are skilfully placed at the outlets4 ,some of these are of stiff reeds or osiers2 others1 of rushes so flexible as to be merely a bag or net4 ,long semicircular pounds are1 by the natives of some countries1 constructed of sticks and twigs between high and low water marks4 ,the fish1 getting embayed within these1 are left high and dry as the tide falls1 and are gathered up before the return of the waves4 ,illustration3 #a1b ,dams1 weirs1 and spears4 ,dams and fishing weirs are built across streams by the inhabitants of most countries4 ,at these the fish are either entrapped in hutches furnished with bars1 on the eel-basket or sparrow-cage principle1 shot with arrows1 scooped up in hoop nets1 or speared with hand spears of various forms4 ,some of these are perfectly simple in construction1 whilst others are remarkably ingenious and curious4 ,the annexed illustration 7,fig4 #a7 represents one much used by the inhabitants of northern regions for the capture of the salmon4 ,by the ,esquimaux these implements are made principally of horn4 ,the handles are of drift wood1 neatly bound together with strips of tendon4 ,the centre spikes are of sharpened bone1 whilst the barbs in the jaws of the spear are usually made from two common iron nails1 obtained by burning chance fragments of wreck4 ,fig4 #b represents the trout spear of the trappers4 ,the tines are of steel1 set in an iron head-piece4 ,many of the natives of ,africa and ,australia are very skilful in the construction of dams and weirs4 ,we have seen in some rivers the smaller channels effectually blocked against the passage of fish1 which have at first been gently led--by very slight obstructions1 and then forced by impassable barriers1 narrowing like a funnel as they went on--to take the desired course1 at the end of which creels or basket traps1 sometimes of soft rushes1 or in other cases of twigs or cane1 have been set to receive them2 while in sluggish waters1 such as the ,bo-tlt-le ,river at ,lake ,ngami1 long zigzag fences of reeds are set up1 inclosing a considerable space1 and narrowing gradually to several funnel-shaped outlets1 at each of which one or more creels are set1 belonging to various families4 ,openings are left in the lines for the ordinary passage of canoes2 but when a take is to be made these are carefully closed1 and the canoes in deep water1 with a promiscuous medley of waders in the shallows1 form an extended line1 gradually closing in and driving the fish toward the traps4 ,most of the creels are pointed at the farther end1 so that the fish wedging themselves in cannot escape1 and in all the mouth is armed with a set of elastic reeds like the wires of a mouse-trap1 allowing free ingress1 but opposing any return4 ,illustration3#a-c ,fig4 #a shows a ,zambesian creel of this class1 and several of them are annually washed away by some unexpected rise of the river1 and either carried over the falls or washed ashore on rocks or points of land near them4 ,fig4 #b is ingeniously made of a pole of bamboo1 as before mentioned1 which is carefully split in the direction of its fibre1 into any number of thin rods or strips1 care being taken to leave the last joint or internode intact1 so that they all remain connected like branches springing from one root2 they are then opened out1 bent into the proper form1 and either laced together with smaller cross pieces of cord or fine rattan1 or the strips themselves are often interwoven or plaited so as to form a most elaborate piece of artistic basket work4 ,fig4 #c is a creel or trap extemporised with three iron hoops1 four poles to keep them at a proper distance apart1 and sufficient spunyarn to form a net round them2 there is an entrance at each end1 and1 as these are also formed of yarn1 their ends must be kept in form and position by lines stretched tightly between them4 ,fishing lines1 to make4 ,fishing lines can be made of a variety of materials4 ,prepared sea-weed of a particular description is extensively used by some of the coast ,indians of ,north-,west ,america4 ,wild hemp is also made use of by them2 narrow strips of hide are in use for some kinds of fishing amongst the ,esquimaux2 whilst yucca1 aloe1 and pineapple fibres are made available in tropical countries4 ,the inner bark of trees and the hair of animals1 horses especially1 are materials well adapted for the purpose4 ,to twist this into traces for fastening hooks to1 in the absence of silkworm gut1 a common pocket knife can be conveniently used1 as shown at ,fig4 #a in the annexed illustration4 ,when a hair line of many strands1 of considerable length and free from knots1 is required1 recourse may be had to quill sticks1 as they are called 7,fig4 #b74 ,illustration3 #a-d ,these are made as follows3 ,three pieces of deal1 or any other light wood1 are to be cut to the size of common penholders1 and to #d;in4 in length2 one end of each is to be very slightly tapered1 and have a half-inch piece of quill fitted to it like a float cap4 ,supposing a twelve-hair line is wanted1 that number of hairs from an entire horse's tail are knotted together at one end1 and then all the free ends at the other are to be cut to uneven lengths2 four are then placed in each quill1 and a stick put in to hold them fast4 ,the knotted end is then secured to a fixed point by a pin1 and the sticks laid side by side in the left hand4 ,the right-hand stick is now taken up by the forefinger and thumb of the right hand1 the proper twist given to the united strands1 and the stick passed over the other two1 so that it may lay the third in the row4 ,the next stick is now taken up1 twisted1 and passed on in the same way1 drawing out the hairs from under the cap as the strand shortens until a hair is free of the cap1 when another is inserted in its stead1 taking care to keep all the lengths uneven4 ,to taper the line1 drop a hair from time to time until the line is long enough1 when the protruding ends are nipped off4 ,the line will then be fit for use4 ,the above engraving will explain the arrangement of the sticks1 quills1 c41 and the way in which the horsehairs are inserted4 ,many descriptions of fibre admit of being twisted in the same manner4 ,fig4 #c shows the manner in which wires are twisted by the aid of a winch handle and hollow stick2 ,fig4 #d1 the way in which a ring can be taken from the finger by the aid of a bit of twisted line4 ,the finger is bound above the ring1 and the free end used to draw off the ring1 like the worm of a screw4 ,illustration ,silkworm gut1 to make4 ,very strong serviceable lines can be made from almost any of the endless number of vegetable fibres to be obtained by soaking the stems of plants or the inner bark of trees1 and then laying them up1 as it is called1 which is done by forming the number of strands intended for twisting by dividing a small hank of fibres equally1 and then1 after imparting the required degree of twist to the strand nearest to the right hand1 passing it over the other to the extreme left1 and so on1 laying in fresh fibres as they are needed4 ,the ,indians often twist their lines on the thigh under the hand1 as shown in the annexed illustration4 ,the surplus twist may be taken out of all lines by fastening one end to a tree or other fixed point1 and then1 after having taken a turn round a piece of smooth stick1 walking backwards until all the line has been passed under a moderate strain round the stick4 ,in such countries as produce silk-yielding caterpillars1 excellent lines may be made from the silk wound directly from the cocoons1 and then twisted into thread4 ,silkworm gut can also be obtained wherever silk-spinning worms are met with4 ,to make it1 a number of the caterpillars are to be collected just prior to their time of spinning4 ,these are to be placed in a pot or other convenient vessel1 containing a mixture of vinegar and water in equal quantities2 they are then to be covered down and allowed to stand about twelve hours4 ,a worm may be then taken out1 opened1 and tested as to its fitness for drawing4 ,if1 on pulling the yellowish green coils which will be found within it to their full extent and extreme length1 they break from softness of texture1 the worms must be allowed to remain in the vessel some time longer1 temperature having much to do with the condition of the pickled insects4 ,when the coils are found to be tough1 and stand stretching fully out1 one end of the strand must be placed in a slit made in the end of a thin board or sheet of bark prepared for the purpose4 ,the strand is now to be drawn and evenly stretched to the other end of the board1 in which corresponding slits have been made1 when the extremity of the gut is secured in one of them4 ,when all the worms have been thus treated1 the stretching board is to be placed in the sun1 in order that the gut may dry1 which it usually will in about twelve hours4 ,it will now be found that a considerable quantity of yellow substance will remain adhering to the gut4 ,this must be removed1 and in order to do so dissolve a piece of common soap about the size of a musket ball in a gallon of rain water4 ,place this with the gut in it in a boiler1 and boil it for ten minutes1 when the gut must be turned out on a cloth to drain4 ,before cooling each strand must be lightly and smartly drawn through a pledget of cotton held between the finger and thumb1 which will at once strip off the yellow coating2 but great care must be taken not to press the softened strand hard enough to render it flat or curled4 ,as fast as the strands are run through the cotton they must be replaced on the board and again dried in the sun1 after which they can be selected as to size1 quality1 length1 c41 and packed up in hanks by twisting cotton or any other kind of thread round them4 ,illustration3 ,,fishing ,,raft ,,with ,,lever ,,net4 ,fishing nets4 ,nets of various forms have been in general use from periods of the most remote antiquity1 and1 so far as we know1 no aboriginal people have yet been discovered who were ignorant of their use4 ,the material and form of construction are found to vary with the region in which they are had recourse to1 and the character of prey sought to be captured4 ,perhaps the most primitive form is that of the common hoop or landing net1 so generally used on our coasts for catching shrimps4 ,a forked pole1 a net bag1 and a little twine1 are all that is required to construct one of these of efficient pattern4 ,the two sticks constituting the fork are bent round towards each other1 the two ends overlapped1 and then lashed together4 ,the net bag is then fastened on4 ,a great number of modifications of this description of net are used1 some worked by hand1 and others raised from the water by mechanical contrivances4 ,the following illustration represents a fishing raft and lever net as used by the natives of ,ceylon and some other islands of the ,eastern seas4 ,some of the ,chinese fishermen construct engines much on the same principle2 only1 instead of raising the net by a rope and lever1 a long plank is made use of4 ,this runs along the centre of the fishing boat1 and on it sits the fisherman waiting for the shoal to pass over the radius of his trap1 when with a sudden backward movement he throws his whole weight on the extreme end of the balance-board on which he has been crouching1 and thus raises the nets with a smart upward jerk4 ,the trammel is another form of net of much value to the voyager and explorer4 ,it simply consists of two nets--one coarse in the mesh1 and the other comparatively fine--leaded at the bottom and corked at the top1 and so moored with heavy stones that they may hang curtain-like in the water across the run of the stream or tide4 ,the fish in their nocturnal wanderings dart against the first net1 which is forced through the large meshes of the second1 forming a sort of purse in which the fish are secured4 ,many others become entangled by the twine of the meshes1 which in their efforts to escape gets under the gill covers and so holds them fast4 ,incredible quantities of fish are at times taken in nets of this kind4 ,they are especially valuable on account of the ease with which they can be set and taken up1 two men being sufficient for the performance of either operation4 ,when a promising spot has been selected1 the first anchor stone is cast over1 together with a buoy line and large cork4 ,the foot line1 net1 and cork line then follow1 being cast evenly over by one man1 whilst the other either rows or sculls slowly ahead4 ,when all the net has been thus allowed to run out1 the other end is secured by an anchor stone and indicated by a float4 ,the spoils are secured in two ways4 ,one is to raise the first anchor stone by the buoy line1 and then gather in the net fold after fold1 with all it may contain1 in the bottom of the boat4 ,the other is to raise one of the stones1 pass it over the boat and allow it to sink again to the bottom1 thus leaving the foot line and leads in the hands of the boatmen1 who proceed to draw the boat along by it1 clearing the net of fish1 weeds1 or entanglements as they go1 and allowing the net to sink again as they proceed1 until the whole length has been overhauled and re-set4 ,illustration ,tip-up1 to make4 ,a trammel net may be used under the ice by cutting two holes through it at a convenient distance apart4 ,a pole is then passed from one to the other1 as shown in the above illustration4 ,the net is suspended from a set of rings which run freely on the pole1 and ropes are rove so as to haul the net forward or back to either of the holes1 at which the fish are taken out4 ,when clear1 the net is set again4 ,great numbers of fish may at times be taken by fishing with the hook through holes made in the ice4 ,a contrivance known as a tip up is often used4 ,the annexed illustration ,illustration will serve to show the nature of the arrangement4 ,a hole is bored in a piece of flat stick2 through this a cross-pin is driven1 leaving it long enough at the ends to rest across the hole in the ice4 ,the line1 hook1 and bait are attached to one end of the flat stick1 and a bit of coloured rag to the other4 ,when the fish has taken the bait1 the flag end of the stick tips up1 and the little pendant flutters aloft and signals fish caught here4 ,a number of tip ups may be set at once1 and are easily watched4 ,when fishing with a common line at an ice hole it is well to rig up a little wigwam or break wind4 ,strips of cow's udder make excellent baits for use under the ice4 ,seals may be speared in their blow holes by waiting patiently over them4 ,the form of the excavation in the ice made by the animal is shown in the annexed illustration2 an examination of it will show that it is requisite that the harpoon or spear should be very carefully1 yet powerfully1 thrust down or the seal will probably escape4 ,illustration ,the trunk or bow net is extremely useful for catching fish in comparatively narrow streams4 ,these are long tunnel-shaped network bags1 flared out widely at one end1 and tapered to a pocket form at the other4 ,hoops of suitable size are made use of to keep the tube properly distended1 and a mousetrap-like arrangement of meshes and twine prevents such fish as may enter from going back again4 ,the purse end of the net is made to untie like a bag1 and has a piece of rope and a stone fastened to it1 so that the wide end of the net is always down stream and in the run of the fish1 which is upwards4 ,the larger descriptions of nets1 such as seines1 drift nets1 trawls1 dredges1 c41 do not strictly come within the province of this work2 still all vessels1 and even large boats proceeding on surveying or exploring expeditions1 should be furnished with both lines and nets4 ,a small ground seine1 ,cornish pattern1 and a light trammel1 such as are made and sold by the ,french1 will occupy but little space1 and pay well for taking4 ,a few pieces of spare net1 and a good supply of twine1 are matters by no means to be overlooked4 ,when engaged in fishing from a boat on rocky ground1 it not unfrequently happens that the grapnel or creeper1 if simply secured to the end of the painter1 and lowered away1 will1 on an attempt to haul it up again being made1 resist every effort and remain firmly fixed among the rocks4 ,to prevent this pass the painter down the shank of the creeper1 and take a turn with it over one of the claws just at the back of its bend2 now bring your painter up the shank again1 and with a piece of common twine tie it fast to the head ring1 as shown in the accompanying illustration4 ,should the creeper get fast1 the string will give way on being hauled on1 causing the claws or flukes to be upset1 when they are at once set free1 and the creeper can be weighed4 ,illustration ,crustaceans1 to catch4 ,crayfish and some other crustaceans can be taken readily in some situations by stretching pieces of net over hoops of casks1 and then1 when suspended by cords weighted with stones1 and baited with any offal1 these contrivances are lowered down to the haunts of the fish4 ,crayfish are met with in incredible numbers on some portions of the coast of ,south ,america and the adjacent islands1 that of ,juan ,fernandez yielding them1 as well as other fish1 in vast numbers4 ,illustration ,fishing implements1 c4 ,in ,table ,bay crawfish are caught in great numbers in baskets made of rough netting of rope yarn1 stretched upon an iron hoop1 and baited with bits of fish or offal 7as in ,fig4 #a71 let down nearly to the bottom1 and hauled up as soon as the krief is seen or felt tugging at the bait4 ,the crawfish constitutes the food of a great proportion of the ,malay or ,mahometan population4 ,fig4 #b is a crab pot4 ,fig4 #c is a peculiar kind of mace1 with spikes as long and as sharp as possible1 used by the ,malay lads in ,table ,bay4 ,we do not at present remember the name by which it is locally known2 but it is thrown in the manner of a lobstick into the midst of the shoals of small fish that frequent the bay1 and seldom fails to secure one or more of them4 ,hints on the haunts of fish4 ,the haunts of fish will be found to vary considerably1 particular species abounding in situations where other inhabitants of the same waters are but rarely met with2 and1 although no absolute set of rules can be laid down for the discovery of the fish of either rivers1 lakes1 or the sea1 still there are conditions favourable to their congregation4 ,thus the mouths of streams discharging themselves into the sea are usually good fishing pitches1 as are the waters covering reefs and beds of sunken rock1 which crop out and raise their crests above the ordinary sea bottom4 ,on sand and gravel stretches flat fish of most kinds are to be successfully sought for2 whilst a rugged1 rock-strewed bottom1 broken up into deep crevices and yawning weed-fringed gulfs1 is a favourite resort of the larger crustacea4 ,nearly all sea fish are most disposed to feed as the tide rises4 ,in tidal rivers many species of fish come down in force to the coming flood2 whilst others run up from the sea--mullet1 bass1 and many others do this4 ,tributary streams and rivulets discharging themselves into lakes1 rivers1 or ponds1 usually supply a considerable quantity of food suitable for fish1 and form gravel beds on which spawn can be deposited4 ,the mouths of such streams are much frequented by all kinds of fish4 ,the deep1 well-like spots amongst the beds of water plants1 and the still deeps beneath the shade of overhanging trees1 are favourite spots with most of the soft-mouthed fish1 such as carp1 and many others of similar habits and tastes4 ,hints on baits4 ,in some localities the seeds and blossoms of certain plants overhanging the water1 and occasionally falling in1 act as a lure to considerable numbers of fish4 ,in ,north ,australia the large globular fruit of the water pandanus yields seed round which is a sweet1 well-tasted farinaceous pulp1 which may not only be eaten by the fish1 but by the traveller as well4 ,this substance is an excellent bait for both fish and water turtle4 ,the latter are best caught by a short1 strong hook1 which need not be barbed1 as it is not expected to pierce through1 but only to catch in1 the horny bill1 and to bear the heavy back strain as the creature resists the attempt to heave him in4 ,a short1 stiff pin bent into a hook will do for the small kinds1 or a sailmaker's hook for the larger4 ,ship-biscuit dust1 cast by the handful into the water and allowed to sink gradually1 will frequently attract large shoals of many kinds of fish4 ,the fish inhabiting ponds and water holes are at times destroyed by some tribes of ,indians by the use of juices of the euphorbia1 or the ,indian milk bush4 ,the juicy branches of either of these are crushed between stones until a sort of pulp has been formed4 ,this is cast into the water1 and soon poisons the fish1 which float helplessly about1 and are soon collected4 ,a powder made from the ,coculus ,indicus1 when mixed with dough1 is also used for this purpose4 ,small pellets of the paste are broken off and thrown to the fish1 who soon become intoxicated1 and swim round in a circle at the surface1 when they are taken up with a small hand net1 or a piece of cloth stretched on a forked stick4 ,lime is often made use of to destroy fish1 but dire necessity can alone justify the use of either of these latter modes of fish capture1 as they lead to wholesale and indiscriminate slaughter4 ,pools1 wells1 and water holes are often completely drained of their contents by thirsty men and equally thirsty cattle4 ,search should always be made under stones and in sly corners for both fish and water tortoises1 which will frequently repay the trouble of looking for4 ,some chains of ponds in ,australia and water holes in other countries contain enormous eels4 ,these should be well looked after1 as they make a most palatable and nutritious meal4 ,the largest are to be taken with night lines1 the lesser ones in the eel baskets1 before described4 ,when mackerel fishing off the island of ,st4 ,helena1 we provided ourselves with a good supply of biscuit dust1 which1 when sprinkled broadcast in the sea1 brought immense numbers of the small-sized brilliant mackerel usually taken there round our boat4 ,the bait we used was a narrow strip of very white pork rind4 ,the hook was a very small one1 and the tackle as fine as that usually used for trout fishing4 ,there is no limit to the quantity to be thus taken when the fish are off the island4 ,we on one occasion had great sport amongst the bream at the ,cape de ,verds by having recourse to the same expedient4 ,we often attract numbers of sea fish to the neighbourhood of our boat or canoe by placing bran1 biscuit dust1 or pulverised crab shells1 with all the fish offal we can collect1 in a piece of old fishing net1 and then lower the mass1 with a good-sized stone in it1 by a stout cord until within about #f;ft4 of the bottom and directly under the boat1 when the cord is made fast4 ,bait with fish entrails or strips of fish1 and use a lead sinker4 ,when about to fish the waters of little-known lands1 it will at times be requisite to employ baits gathered about the immediate neighbourhood of the scene of operations1 and the naturalist-sportsman will usually discover some kind suited to his purpose4 ,some species of ground nuts when roasted over the fire make a very attractive bait for some members of the carp family1 amongst which is the ,roheta1 or sacred carp of ,india4 ,grasshoppers1 locusts1 mantis1 beetles of various kinds1 and the larv found feeding amongst the leaves or burrowing in the decayed logs1 are all good in their way4 ,small fish1 frogs1 and young birds are excellent for trolling with1 or for baiting night lines4 ,earthworms1 slugs1 snails1 and pieces of meat from any animal or bird which may be shot1 are all available4 ,pieces of beef are in high repute as baits on many rivers of ,south ,america and amongst the ,falkland group4 ,artificial flies of the rudest style of manufacture often prove as destructive as the most elaborately finished specimens4 ,feathers and coloured fur or wool secured to a hook1 in the shape of a rough hairy worm1 form a very killing bait for both sea and river fish4 ,it is hard to say what these anomalous-looking contrivances are taken for4 ,flies they in no way resemble4 ,still they are greedily snapped at by the fish1 and that is the main point after all4 ,the ,indians of the lakes and ,pacific coast of ,america make use of a very singular feather contrivance1 with which they attract the fish within their reach4 ,a shuttlecock-like affair is constructed and loosely attached to the end of a long rod or pole1 which is thrust far down in the clear deep water4 ,the shuttlecock is then detached by a sudden jerk1 and comes spinning and gyrating towards the surface4 ,the fish on seeing it make a rush and endeavour to effect a capture1 but are transfixed by the ready spear of the ,indian sportsman4 ,fish spearing4 ,fish spearing by the aid of fire has been practised in all parts of the world from the very earliest ages4 ,canoes or boats of light draught of water may be used4 ,pine knots1 or any other resinous or fatty fuel1 is usually made use of4 ,a species of grate or fire pan is fixed so as to project beyond the bow1 and the spearman stands ready with his weapon--such as is represented at ,fig4 #b1 page #eif--;and strikes the fish when he sees him4 ,torches of reed or vegetable fibre bound together are often carried along the banks of rivers1 or out on the wide sand shallows of certain seas1 to effect the same object4 ,great numbers of turbot and small sturgeon are speared in this manner by the ,tartars inhabiting the ,russian shores of the ,black ,sea4 ,fig4 #d1 p4 #fjd1 is a set of grains for striking dolphins or small fish4 ,the smaller pair of prongs screw on and off1 or turn on a pivot1 so that they can be laid flat with the others1 and stow in less room4 ,the line is made fast round the neck of the iron close by the barbs1 and the end of the staff is heavily loaded with lead1 so that when a fish is struck the weight turns up the points1 and prevents any chance of its escape4 ,along the shallow beach of ,walvisch ,bay we used frequently to wade with a harpoon1 striking sting-rays1 flat sharks1 fiddle or angel fish1 or occasionally a more dainty sole in the shallow water2 although not unfrequently sharks of larger size would cruise in our vicinity1 and sometimes try to get between us and the shore4 ,we found in striking the smaller fish that the great barb of the common harpoon would frequently either drive them out of its path with a superficial wound1 or would cut through their sides without securing them2 and we therefore took as a substitute a soft iron ,kafir assegai1 or spear 7,fig4 #e1 p4 #fjd71 and1 fitting it into a bamboo shaft1 cut several barbs in each of its edges with a fine tenon saw1 which caused it to hold all it penetrated4 ,the few ,hottentots who maintain themselves in the vicinity of the bay do so partly by assisting in the fishery or in discharging the cargoes of vessels1 and also in a great measure by spearing sand sharks and sting-rays in the shallows of the lagoon4 ,for this purpose they use either sticks pointed and hardened in the fire1 or the sharp straight horns of the gemsbok 7,oryx capensis7 set like a pike-head upon a stick2 and1 because they have to wade a great distance in the shallow waters1 and it would be inconvenient to go ashore with every fish they kill1 they set up a tripod of sticks near them1 and on this they hang their prizes until they have accumulated enough to be worth carrying ashore to the women1 whose task it is to clean and dry them for winter use4 ,the spear or javelin--launched from the hand1 projected from a bow1 dropped from a height overhead1 or in some cases fired from a gun1 and yet secured to a line--seems to be known in some form or other to most nations1 whether civilised or barbarous4 ,the elaborate combinations of mechanical skill and scientific knowledge supplied to our whalers1 and intended in some cases to be fired from swivels or shoulder guns1 sometimes to destroy the creature in whose body they are buried by their explosive power1 and sometimes to paralyse the vital energies by chemical compounds or by powerful poisons1 are beyond the province of this work1 and we shall take1 therefore1 as our type of this species of weapon the harpoon in its most simple and1 as we believe1 its most generally effective form1 as used by whalers in every ocean that has yet been traversed4 ,the weapon itself consists of two parts1 the iron and the shaft1 so fitted as to remain firmly united till the blow is struck1 and then1 when the strain comes upon the line1 to separate from each other1 so that there may be no danger of the barb being torn from its hold by the weight or leverage of the staff when violently swayed by the convulsive struggles of the whale4 ,the head of the harpoon is triangular1 or perhaps more nearly heart-shaped1 the point representing the apex1 and the barbs the two sides of the base4 ,its size is about #c-a_/b;in4 each way1 or as large as the palm of a moderately-sized hand1 and its thickness where it joins the shank nearly three-quarters of an inch1 and from this it rounds off gradually1 rather than tapers1 to the edges4 ,there are various opinions as to the metal of which it should be made2 some prefer iron so soft that the back of a sailor's jack knife will scrape it to an edge1 somewhat rough and anything but permanent1 but yet sufficiently keen to cut through the skin and blubber into the flesh of the whale2 others say soft steel which may be sharpened by a file2 and some insist on having it edged with steel of the finest quality1 and ground and set to as fine an edge as a razor4 ,each has its advantages4 ,the fine keen edge of the last will be more certain to enter1 and will pierce more deeply1 but1 if once blunted1 it cannot be so readily sharpened by the simple appliances at the command of the sailor4 ,against this1 however1 it should be guarded by being kept in a leather sheath of such form that the edges cannot be blunted by contact with any portion of it1 and at the same time cannot damage it by cutting the seams4 ,it is well partially to fill this sheath with grease or tallow1 in which the edge of the harpoon may be embedded1 and so kept perfectly secure from rust4 ,of the material of the shank there can be but one opinion4 ,it should be of #a_/b-;inch iron of the best possible quality1 smooth1 even free from flaws1 tough of fibre1 and so pliable as to admit of being coiled round its own staff1 uncoiled1 and straightened again without breaking4 ,it should be from #bj;in4 to #b;ft4 in length1 and should terminate in a conical socket to receive the shaft4 ,the shaft should be of ash1 hickory1 or other strong and even-grained wood1 #c;in4 in diameter1 and generally about #e;ft4 long2 though in one of full size it would be #f;ft41 and the iron part #c;ft41 making a total length of #i;ft4 ,a lanyard about #c;ft4 in length1 and of #b-a_/b;in4 rope1 is attached to the shank by simply taking two turns of it tightly round the iron1 and then returning and seizing the end down upon itself4 ,the lanyard is stopped to the staff with spunyarn so tightly as to keep the point of the wood firmly pressed down into the iron socket under all ordinary circumstances1 and in its farther end is spliced an eye1 into which1 when required for service1 the line is hitched1 the regular whale line being #b-a_/b;in4 in circumference and #bjj fathoms long2 and when the whale is struck1 and the line checked as the wounded animal darts away1 the increased tension draws the staff from its socket1 and it remains fast by the stops already mentioned to the lanyard1 secure from being lost1 and incapable by its leverage of loosening the hold of the barbed iron upon the flesh4 ,many of the less frequented bays and harbours in our colonial possessions are frequented by whales and cetaceans of various kinds2 and we have seen exciting chases even within the limits of the anchorage in ,table ,bay4 ,the peculiar construction of the whale boat is well known4 ,she is generally from #be;ft4 to #cj;ft4 in length1 #f;ft4 or #g;ft4 in breadth1 and #b-a_/b;ft4 or #c;ft4 deep1 rising with a graceful sheer till the stem and stern would be from #d;ft4 to #e;ft4 high4 ,she generally pulls five oars1 the boat-steerer taking the bow1 while the boat-header steers with a long oar or sweep1 confined by a grummet to the stern-post4 ,a tub1 with the whale line coiled in it1 is placed in the stern sheets2 the harpoons1 each properly sheathed1 are hung in beckets in the bows1 and near them are the lances4 ,these are half-inch rods1 #e;ft4 or #f;ft4 long1 with one end flattened out to the shape and dimensions of the bowl of a large table-spoon1 only that the narrow end is attached to the shank1 while the broad one is forward1 and is sharpened as the cutting edge4 ,the other end of the iron has also a conical socket1 in which a shaft of wood similar to that of the harpoon is fitted1 making a weapon about #ad;ft4 in length1 to which is attached a lanyard of perhaps #bj;ft4 to prevent its loss4 ,the blades are also sheathed like those of the harpoons1 not only to preserve their edge1 but to prevent their accidentally cutting any of the crew2 a broad-bladed knife is also kept handy in its sheath for the purpose of cutting the line should it be necessary4 ,generally the whalers keep a man on watch upon some commanding height1 or agree with the keeper of some signal station to hoist a private signal when a whale is in sight1 and sometimes even to turn the advantage of his elevated position to account by signalising to the men in the boat the movements of the whale4 ,the end of the line is taken from its tub1 led forward over the thwarts between the rowers1 and bent on to the eye of the harpoon lanyard4 ,as the boat approaches1 the boat steerer lays in his oar and stands up1 harpoon in hand1 watching the most favourable moment to drive it with all his force1 through skin and blubber1 deep into the solid flesh1 the boat sometimes actually touching the whale before the harpoon is launched4 ,the oarsmen back the boat off as quickly as possible out of the reach of the sweeping tail1 and the whale generally dives1 then darts forward at full speed1 sometimes below and sometimes at the surface of the water4 ,the boat steerer now makes his way aft1 and takes the steering oar1 while the header goes forward and takes charge of the line4 ,while the whale is strong it is allowed to run out1 checked only by one turn round the bollard1 while the boat is towed with almost alarming swiftness through the water2 but as soon as he becomes weakened or slackens his speed another turn is taken1 and the line checked as much as possible1 or even hauled in1 if it is safe to do so1 water being freely used to keep the rope from burning when the line is running on the strain4 ,as soon as possible the boat is hauled close up to the whale1 the long lances are thrust into his side1 still further weakening him with wounds and loss of blood1 until some vital organ is reached1 and the condensed breath blown from his nostrils is crimsoned with his blood4 ,then the boat backs off till the death struggle is over1 and the carcase of their mighty victim being taken in tow1 is beached upon some convenient spot for cutting it up and trying down the blubber4 ,of course the whale is towed head first1 as in that position the involuntary action of the fins1 moved by the ripple of the sea1 helps the boatmen2 while were they to attempt to tow him by the tail1 the same action would not only neutralise all their efforts1 but would most probably tow them in the opposite direction4 ,illustration3 ,,hippopotamus ,,trap4 ,few sailing vessels bound upon long voyages go to sea without a harpoon1 a dolphin grains1 and a shark hook2 and the former is called into requisition whenever a shoal of porpoises are seen keeping way with the vessel1 ever and anon letting her pass them1 and then darting ahead to recover their position in advance4 ,a rope1 generally the end of the fore bowline1 passing through its own block at the bowsprit end1 is then bent on to the lanyard of the grains4 ,one of the crew goes out on the martingale guys1 and1 having made a line fast about waist high to the martingale or dolphin striker1 to give him a little additional support1 stands watching the movement of the porpoises beneath4 ,at length one comes directly under him1 keeps the same course as the ship1 and perhaps1 for a moment1 the same speed4 ,he launches the grains1 and1 if his aim has been true1 the porpoise is transfixed4 ,the men at the inner part of the bowline haul on1 and raise the victim clear of the water4 ,the harpooner seizes the end of a rope previously laid near him1 and passing it round the harpoon line quickly ties in it a running bowline knot4 ,this he passes over the head of the porpoise1 and tightens it at the juncture of the body with the tail2 and not till then does he consider his prize secure4 ,of course in this case the sport1 the trial of skill1 the opportunity for displaying quickness of eye and skill in the management of the weapon1 is the chief inducement2 yet the capture is not without its value4 ,the flesh of the warm-blooded porpoise is in reality fresh meat1 and is sold as such among the lower classes in many foreign ports4 ,several gallons of oil may be obtained from one of moderate size1 and the skin furnishes good tough leather for making thongs1 or covering any portion of the rigging that needs serving with raw hide4 ,long narrow strips of the fish1 when carefully cut out with a sharp knife1 make a kind of porpoise biltong2 this1 when thoroughly aired by laying it in the sun1 makes a fair kind of food4 ,a kind of rissole is also made from the solid portions of the fish2 these are cut into mincemeat1 formed into balls of suitable size1 and then fried4 ,steaks are also to be extemporised from the best cuts4 ,the hippopotamus harpoon of the ,zambesi differs considerably from that just described4 ,the iron is only #f;in4 or #h;in4 long1 with a small barb at one end and a spike in the other1 to stick loosely into a staff of light wood #b;in4 thick and about #e;ft4 long4 ,the iron has a kind of knob or thickening in the centre to serve as a catch for the line1 which is knotted round it4 ,the line is about the thickness of a small lead line4 ,it is very neatly and firmly twisted by hand from the fibres of plants and shrubs bordering the river1 and is coiled tightly and evenly round the staff of the harpoon from end to end1 so as to increase its thickness1 and make it as large as can conveniently be grasped in the hand4 ,the end of the line is securely stopped to the staff1 which is secured from splitting by being bound round with small cord1 with a kind of ,turk's-head knot turned upon the end that receives the iron4 ,the hippopotami live in families or small herds of from half a dozen to twenty each1 basking upon the sandbanks in the tropic sun1 bathing in the depths and raising their clumsy-looking equine heads above the surface to look out1 or taking nightly walks for miles into the country to crop the herbage of some favourite spot4 ,taking advantage of the prowling habits of the animal1 the natives construct in his path or run1 a harpoon trap or drop4 ,the full-page illustration will serve to show the manner in which this contrivance is arranged4 ,the instant the ground cord is detached from its hold by the advancing foot of the hippopotamus1 the heavy beam holding the barbed iron drops with tremendous force1 and fixes the spear-head deeply in the flesh beneath the tough skin of the victim1 who rarely escapes with his life4 ,a general hippopotamus hunt is not unfrequently undertaken1 which is conducted as follows3 ,the natives1 having decided which herd they intend to attack1 muster about half a dozen canoes1 each carrying two men--a harpooner and a paddler2 they close gradually and cautiously round the herd1 and deliberately select their victim2 closer and closer they draw in1 till1 as the semicircle of canoes narrows round them1 the animals exhibit first curiosity and then alarm1 and extreme caution is necessary to avoid so terrifying them as to make them break the line and take to flight instead of gazing at the advancing boats4 ,when the animals dive1 the canoes come on2 when they rise or appear much alarmed1 they stop1 or approach but slowly4 ,at length a fortunate harpooner finds himself near an animal2 the hippopotamus dives1 the canoe perhaps gains another length and is close upon him2 when he again rises1 the harpooner stands erect and next to naked1 like a magnificent statue1 in the bow1 his upraised right hand grasping the harpoon1 and his left a paddle1 every muscle of his body as rigid and immovable as if he were in reality of bronze4 ,the hippopotamus eyes him suspiciously2 he seems to know that danger threatens him2 but1 like a cunning fencer1 he waits the moment of the blow1 and will not expose himself by prematurely attempting to avoid it4 ,his instinct1 however1 is no match for the cunning of his enemies2 the harpooner makes a feint of striking with the paddle2 the animal starts aside to avoid the expected blow2 and as he does so the hunter delivers the harpoon with all his force4 ,the small barb penetrates the tough thick skin1 and no power can draw it out again2 the line uncoils2 the light staff1 sometimes even with a bladder attached1 floats behind to mark his track2 the wounded animal finds no rest2 other harpoons are delivered2 and as he becomes wearied with exertion1 pain1 terror1 and irritation1 opportunities are found to thrust at him with broad-bladed spears until he sinks beneath his wounds and dies4 ,the harpoon of ,lake ,ngami and the ,bo-tlt-le ,river differs from that of the ,zambesi1 and more nearly resembles our own1 except that1 as iron is scarce and valuable1 the head is still a mere spike1 barbed at one end and pointed at the other1 for insertion in a heavy beam of mimosa or kameel-doorn4 ,the iron draws from the staff as soon as the barb pierces the thick hide1 and the animal springs forward in its efforts to escape2 but it is attached to the staff1 not by a long line like the ,zambesian1 but by a short skein of twenty or thirty small cords of mimosa bark loosely twisted together1 firmly seized or lashed to the iron at one end and to the staff at the other1 and slightly stopped to it in the middle1 still further to prevent any risk of fouling4 ,the staff is of wood too heavy to float2 a hole is bored in the upper end1 and a short loop of strong rope woven or twisted into it1 and to this loop is bent on the end of a stout rope of twisted palm leaves1 which serves as the harpoon line1 and is kept in the canoe1 paid out or hauled in again like ours1 and has beside the advantage of being so light that1 even were the hunter to let go the end1 it would float upon the surface1 and eventually lead to the discovery of the animal4 ,in consequence of this arrangement the chase of the hippopotamus nearly resembles that of the whale1 differing chiefly in the fact that it is carried on in a freshwater river or a shallow lake1 instead of the sea4 ,when hippopotamus hunting on ,lake ,ngami the canoes approach with the same caution as those on the ,zambesi1 until the harpooner finds an opportunity to strike2 then1 when the wounded animal darts away1 the canoe men hold on to the line1 slacking it out when they are obliged1 and gathering in as much as possible at every opportunity1 and endeavouring to haul alongside as soon as they notice the first symptoms of fatigue1 and use the formidable spear they carry for this especial service4 ,this is1 however1 a task of difficulty and danger1 for the irritated animal may turn and crush a tolerably large canoe in his tremendous jaws1 and has been known1 although not carnivorous1 completely to sever the body of a man2 more frequently1 however1 as the natives dexterously avoid his charge1 he champs the staff of the harpoon1 and endeavours to bite through the skein which connects it with the iron in his side4 ,were this a single rope he would soon liberate himself1 but the small cords become entangled between his teeth1 and1 though he may cut through a few of them1 others are sure to remain strong enough to hold him4 ,many canoes join in the chase1 annoy him on every side1 bewilder and weary him1 and drive him at length into shallow water1 where the hunters1 carrying the line ashore1 catch a turn round the nearest tree1 yielding a little if his strength appears yet sufficient to tear out the barb1 but always gathering it in as the assailants1 some in canoes and others wading in the shallows1 drive him nearer and nearer to the shore1 inflicting wound after wound with their broad-bladed spears1 till1 spouting blood from his nostrils like a whale in its mortal agony1 he ceases to resist1 and becomes the prize of the hunters4 ,the carcase of an animal like this is indeed a valuable acquisition2 the flesh of even a moderate-sized one is at least equal to that of three oxen1 even after allowing for the wasteful manner in which wild flesh is generally consumed4 ,his hide1 #b;in4 in thickness on the neck and withers1 is excellent as food1 or profitable as an article of barter with the colonists1 who make the great agter zambocs1 or whips for the after oxen of their waggon teams2 while the tusks1 which will frequently weigh #flb4 or #glb4 each1 and sometimes more1 are1 or used recently to be1 worth about #ahs4 per pound in ,london1 though1 since the introduction of mineral compositions for dental purposes1 we believe the value of ,zeeko ivory has much declined4 ,the natives of ,australia use spears of considerable length1 varying from #aj;ft4 to #ab;ft41 and are also remarkable for the great distance to which they can throw them1 attaining in some instances1 we have been assured1 to a distance of #bgj yards1 a range for which they are indebted to the use of the womera or throwing stick1 an instrument that assumes different forms among various tribes1 though its principle is the same in all4 ,those we had an opportunity of seeing in ,north ,australia were rather narrow boards1 #c;in4 wide1 and little more than #a_/b;in4 thick1 so cut as to be conveniently grasped1 and tapering from the handle till they were barely #c_/d;in4 wide at the point1 on which a little reverted piece of bone about the size of a cock's spur was affixed with gum and lashings of vegetable fibre1 and the point of this just fitted a corresponding indentation in the end of the spear shaft4 ,the womera is about #cj;in4 in length1 and is held in the right hand1 the forefinger of which sometimes grasps the spear also1 to steady it until the moment before it is thrown1 while the left hand supports the centre of the shaft1 prevents the weight from depressing the point1 and steadies and directs the aim4 ,the advantage gained by the use of the womera will be readily understood by anyone who will remember that the length of stroke is an important element in estimating the power of a steam engine4 ,suppose the length of a man's arm1 from collar-bone to fist1 to be #c;ft41 and the chord of the arc through which he is able to swing his body in the act of throwing #d;ft41 we shall have #aj;ft4 as the length of his stroke2 and if we add to this double the length of the womera1 or #e;ft41 we shall find that he is able to apply propelling force to the weapon while it is passing through #ae;ft4 of space1 an advantage which naturally exhibits its corresponding effect in the increase of range4 ,the spear point is generally charred to harden it4 ,the boomerang1 a weapon whose apparently mysterious property of coming back to the hand that has thrown it1 must be now much better understood in ,england than it was before the arrival of the ,australian cricketers4 ,it is a thin blade of wood1 curved either sabre-like in the segment of a circle1 or bent in the centre at an obtuse angle4 ,but its peculiar property is that1 owing to a slight twist or change in the plane of surface on either side the centre1 it becomes in reality a segment of one turn in the flange of a screw of exceedingly small pitch1 and if its length were indefinitely increased it would assume the form of the spiral springs used in candle lamps1 or in the well known toy of ,jack-in-the-box2 and supposing a small segment of one turn cut from the wire of such a spring and flattened1 without altering either its circumferential or its spiral curve1 we should have an exact representation of the boomerang4 ,little more need be said of this weapon1 as no one but a native could ever hope to use it effectively4 ,turtle spears4 ,a very simple form of harpoon is used for spearing turtle by some ,australians we fell in with near the ,goulburu ,islands4 ,they had evidently been alongside ,european ships1 and it was probably from this source that they had acquired the essential part of their harpoon--an iron spike about #f;in4 long1 and pointed at both ends4 ,to this was fastened a small line1 which was also stopped to the staff--a light pole about #h;ft4 long--the remainder of the line being held loosely coiled in the hand4 ,sometimes the ,australians use their paddle as a spear by having the blade end sharpened1 barbed1 and hardened4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,poisoned ,,weapons1 ,,arrows1 ,,spears1 c4 ,poisoned arrows4 ,the arrows of the ,south ,african ,bushmen are worthy of notice1 not only for the ingenuity displayed in making formidable weapons from such apparently insignificant materials1 but for the deadly poison with which in many cases they are imbued4 ,a crooked stick1 a few reeds1 bits of bone1 and the dorsal sinews of any antelope1 are all the materials required in the formation of the weapons4 ,the poisoning is sometimes a more elaborate affair4 ,among the southern tribes1 some of whom still maintain an existence as hunters and occasional marauders on the borders of the colony1 the juices of the bulbs of various species of amaryllis and hmanthus1 mixed sometimes with serpent poison1 and aided by the adhesive acrid juice of the euphorbium1 are boiled down in the hollow of a stone to the tough viscous consistency of birdlime1 and sparingly smeared upon the arrow heads4 ,farther to the north the process is much more simple4 ,the ,bushmen of the ,kalihari ,desert1 and the regions in the vicinity of ,lake ,ngami1 use the entrails of a grub called 'kaa or ngwa1 an almost inarticulate sound1 which it is impossible to write so as to enable the ,english reader to pronounce it with anything like correctness4 ,both forms of spelling are attempts to indicate a click of the tongue against the teeth1 followed by a slight nasal ringing1 and ending in the broad sound of the vowel a4 ,the grub is of a creamy white1 and is soft1 with the exception of its head2 and when full-sized seldom much exceeds three-quarters of an inch in length4 ,it lives chiefly1 perhaps almost exclusively1 upon the leaf of a tree called ,maruru papeerie1 which varies from the size of a small low-growing shrub to that of a moderately-sized tree1 upwards of #bj;ft4 high1 or #ab;in4 or #ad;in4 in thickness4 ,it is covered with thorns1 and its wood in the vicinity of ,lake ,ngami was soft and of a very even texture2 but toward the ,zambesi it seemed harder4 ,when we first saw it it was feeding on these leaves1 and we were rather puzzled by a loose ragged mantle or envelope of green matter1 which seemed to be peeling off like a skin in process of being cast4 ,it lay in loose rolls1 mostly parallel to the muscular rings upon the body1 and was gradually forced forward1 so as to form a hood or shield above the head1 where it dried and broke off as it accumulated1 and was replaced by fresh matter4 ,our highest magnifying power was the microscope of a sextant2 but this at length enabled us to decide that the green matter was merely excrement issuing not only in the usual manner1 but also from pores ranged along the whole length of the body4 ,as the grub attains its full size1 this matter issues more sparingly1 and is of a browner colour4 ,the grub drops to the ground1 buries itself to the depth of a couple of feet1 and forms its cocoon of a thin shell of earth1 cemented by glutinous juices around its body4 ,this is quite hard enough to bear handling1 even rather roughly1 so long as it retains its perfect form1 and we brought several specimens to ,england2 but if it is once broken1 the slightest touch is enough to complete its destruction4 ,in applying this poison to their arrows1 the ,bushmen collect a number of the cocoons1 which they lay near them on a skin1 a leaf1 or on a sandal2 they break one of these1 and1 taking out the grub1 hold it between the thumb and forefinger1 and squeeze the entrails1 or rather the internal juices1 in small drops upon the arrow head1 which is then carefully laid upon any extemporised rest to dry in the sun1 much as an artist lays his brushes on something that will keep the hair from contact with anything capable of giving or receiving damage from the colour with which they are charged4 ,they take the greatest possible care not to let these juices come in contact with any cut or sore1 or abrasion of the skin1 for they would in such case produce the same excruciating agony that is inflicted upon a wounded animal2 and it is said that a man with a wound1 however slight1 so infected1 would become a maniac1 and would probably destroy himself in the extremity of his pain4 ,it is1 however1 believed that fat rubbed plentifully on the wound1 and taken internally in sufficient quantities1 would prove an antidote2 but this is a medicine by no means likely to be always at hand among persons living a nomadic life1 and but occasionally supplied with animal food like the ,bushman4 ,fortunately for them they possess another remedy1 growing plentifully and naturally in most parts of their country4 ,we were aware that they knew of this2 and a friend1 who had been personally acquainted with the chief for a considerable time1 had long attempted to induce him to reveal its name1 but he was unwilling to do so1 till in a conversation with another member of his tribe he mentioned its name2 and our friend1 who perfectly understood the ,sechuana and some of the other native languages1 asked him at the next opportunity if the remedy in question were not the ,kla hatlwe1 and thus surprised him into the confession that white men knew everything1 and that further attempts at concealment were useless4 ,the word kala signifies friend1 but we are not aware of the meaning of the concluding syllables4 ,the ,kla hatlwe is a small1 soft-stemmed plant2 the flower is yellow1 star-shaped1 and has five petals2 the stamens are numerous1 and the calyx is divided into two sepals4 ,the root is something between a bulb and a tuber--rough and brown outside--and1 when cut1 is seen marked with concentric lines of light reddish brown and purple4 ,the leaves are #b-a_/b;in4 in length1 and #a_/d;in4 wide4 ,the mid-rib of the leaf projects on the under surface1 and forms a depression on the upper4 ,there are1 however1 two other plants which bear the same name1 and are used for the same purpose4 ,one of them has a broader leaf and larger flower1 and tastes like sorrel2 and the third has a waved or wrinkled leaf4 ,the root or bulb is chewed and laid on the wound1 and is followed by plentiful application of fat4 ,the natives use an arrow with a bone head dotted over with the ngwa or 'kaa poison1 and loosely inserted into the shaft4 ,this is a slender reed1 seldom more than #c_/h;in4 thick4 ,it is bound with sinew at the end to keep the head from splitting it1 and is also bound for the same purpose near the notch4 ,in fastening this sinew no knots or hitches are used1 but the end is frayed out very fine1 chewed soft1 and1 while still soft1 is firmly pressed down upon the rest1 where its glutinous properties cause it firmly to adhere4 ,the ,bushman makes use of a simple and effectual method of sheathing his arrows1 so as to render any accidents impossible4 ,when not intended for use the point is reversed and enters the socket in the shaft4 ,they make use of a very ingenious expedient for tightening the bowstring4 ,a small knob of hardened sinew is firmly lashed to one end of the bow1 the string made of the dorsal sinews of the springbok or other antelope1 slightly twisted1 has a loop at one end1 which is hitched on to the end of the bow2 the other is brought up and passed between the knob and the wood1 several turns are taken loosely round the latter4 ,when required for use the bow is bent by holding it with the hand and knee1 with the action represented in the beautiful statue of ,cupid1 and then with the other hand turning the coil of sinew around the end of the bow until the string is sufficiently tightened4 ,they also adopt a very simple plan of preserving an ostrich feather4 ,the ,bushman1 it may be after weeks or months of patient stalking1 kills an ostrich4 ,he knows the feathers are valuable1 and that from a white trader he may obtain for them tobacco1 clasp knives1 tinder boxes1 or other articles of value to himself1 but he also knows that he must keep them clean and unbroken4 ,he therefore inserts the quill first into a reed1 and taps it on the ground till the whole feather has vanished1 and he can carry it about in his quiver2 and1 to say truth1 it is at first sight a little astonishing to a ,european when a ,bushman offers for inspection a slender reed1 to see him draw from it a gracefully waving ostrich plume of the finest quality and largest size4 ,the simple apparatus by which the ,bushmen obtain fire is shown at page #ecf4 ,it consists of two sticks of moderately close-grained but not very hard wood4 ,one of these1 which may be called the fire stick1 is somewhat thicker than the little finger1 and may be of any length1 generally about #a;ft4 or #ah;in41 and in this small notches are cut with the point of an assegai1 at about #a;in4 apart1 for the reception of the end of the other1 or the whirling stick4 ,this is about the size and length of the ramrod of a common fowling piece1 and both are carried in the quiver1 with their arrows1 sucking reeds1 and rushes1 for the manufacture of bracelets1 c4 ,the preparation of the wourari poison is usually conducted by natives1 from whom it is best obtained4 ,this substance may be at times of service to the explorer4 ,the sumpitans of the ,dyaks and ,borneans should also be noticed4 ,mr4 ,bates says that salt is put on the tongue of the coati as a restorative from the stupor induced by the wourari poison4 ,we have often heard of poisoned bullets1 and once saw an experiment tried4 ,a hole was bored in a revolver bullet and filled with the juices of the 'kaa or ngwa--the ,bushman's poison grub2 this was fired into the rump of an ox2 the animal showed little or no sign of acute pain1 but seemed to be dull and stupefied for some hours4 ,at length it seemed as if it were likely to recover1 and1 partly because the flesh was really wanted for food1 and partly to end an experiment which seemed likely to lead to no useful result1 the poor creature was shot dead4 ,probably the fire might have neutralised or destroyed the active principle of the poison4 ,we have heard of some native tribes who prepare arrow poison by first making a hollow nest in the liver of a dead animal4 ,they then fill this with living centipedes1 scorpions1 tarantulas1 and other poisonous creatures4 ,these they irritate by striking the liver with a stick1 when the virus of the united assemblage of venom bearers is poured out and at once absorbed by the liver1 which is rubbed over the weapon to be treated4 ,the ,chinese plunge their arrows in a putrid carcase in order to poison them4 ,the ,malays keep their poison preparations strictly secret4 ,poisoned weapons retain their destructive qualities for years1 and should therefore be handled with extreme caution4 ,a square of paper1 folded diagonally across1 may be used as a feather for a blowpipe arrow4 ,wild cotton is also used to make the arrow fit the tube4 ,a cross-bow of peculiar construction is used by the ,chinese2 the action of the trigger is sufficiently simple to need no explanation1 and the chief peculiarity consists in the fact of its having a kind of reservoir above the barrel1 in which half a dozen or more arrows or bolts lie one upon the other2 this is connected with the barrel only at the foremost end1 the string passing beneath it1 and the lowermost arrow resting on the string until the bow is bent2 then the string being pulled back allows one arrow to drop into its place in the barrel1 from which1 of course1 a sufficient length of the upper part has been cut away to admit of the arrow falling in4 ,when the trigger is pulled1 the string drives the lower arrow out from beneath the others2 the next arrow then rests on the string1 and1 when that is again drawn back1 drops like the first into the barrel2 and so on until all are exhausted1 and it becomes necessary to replenish the reservoir4 ,illustration ,the pellet bow1 the subject of the illustration below1 is an instrument with which many tribes make excellent practice with small pellets of hardened clay4 ,for the inexperienced1 a padded glove is necessary for the protection of the left thumb1 and there is also a peculiar knack in so holding the bow that that arm shall be the merest trifle out of the line of flight of the pellet4 ,many semi-barbarous nations are perfectly aware of the advantage to be gained by rifling their arrows1 and this is done sometimes by having rather large barbs1 and giving them a pitch or turn on opposite sides1 or by putting on the feathers spirally4 ,in using the arrow for the capture of tortoises on the ,south ,american rivers1 the archers like to shoot at such a distance that they may give their arrow a good elevation1 and allow it to fall more perpendicularly on the back of the tortoise1 as it has then a better chance of penetrating the shell4 ,it has no barb1 as1 if its broad point once pierces1 there is not much fear of its being dragged out4 ,a thorn wreath is used by the ,uganda and other nations in ,central ,africa1 and is described by ,captain ,speke4 ,the thorns all point to the centre1 and yield just enough to allow an antelope or other animal to put his foot through1 when their points are sure to enter the leg1 and prevent its coming off4 ,a log is made fast to it1 heavy enough to impede the motions of the animal1 but not sufficiently so to tear the wreath off from his leg and allow him to get away4 ,young branches of many kinds of mimosa in ,south ,africa1 which have thorns #e;in4 or #f;in4 long1 would answer well for this4 ,the ancient ,romans and ,greeks made use of this contrivance in deer hunting4 ,we remember seeing1 several years ago1 the foot of a ,vaal rheebok encumbered with a joint of the spine of a horse or ox4 ,the poor creature had literally put its foot in it some time before1 and had worn the painful appendage till the skin beneath was destroyed and the tendons weakened1 which led to its being eventually caught4 ,the manufacture of stone weapons4 ,europeans are very rarely reduced to such a state of destitution as to be entirely without some tool or weapon of iron or steel1 even if it is merely an old jack knife2 yet such cases may1 and sometimes do1 happen4 ,we remember reading with great interest the tale of two seamen who1 during many weeks' sojourn on a small island1 possessed absolutely nothing but one knife1 which served them to cut up the sea birds they managed to catch1 till at length this1 having been wrapped in a bloody cloth and carefully stowed away in a crevice of the rocks1 was found by some bird1 dragged from its hiding place1 and irrecoverably lost2 then they with great labour beat out and ground down upon the rocks an old spike nail4 ,under such circumstances1 the ability to produce a cutting edge from a flint or other pebble of sufficient hardness would have stood them in good stead2 and even1 if we remember how often edged tools are spared by using a piece of glass as a scraper1 we shall be ready to acknowledge that a keen-edged fragment of flint1 obsidian1 or agate may advantageously be used in the same manner4 ,perhaps it may be thought absurd to give directions for the breaking of glass for this purpose1 yet1 simple as the matter seems1 a hint may not be thrown away3 ,take the back of a knife1 or the smooth straight edge of any piece of iron fixed with tolerable firmness for a moment1 then1 taking the piece of glass in both hands1 rest its edge midway between them on the edge of the iron2 let the upper edge of the glass lean from you1 and push it gently along the iron1 so as slightly to indent the edge of the glass2 then1 reversing its position so as to make it lean towards you1 draw it smartly along the iron1 and you will find it separated by a clean fracture directly across1 forming a line more or less curved1 and leaving one edge of the glass much sharper than the other4 ,by a little practice1 and by pressing a little more with one hand than the other1 almost any curvature that the work to be done may require may be achieved4 ,in ,north ,australia we had reason to believe that many of the tribes through whose country we passed were utterly ignorant of the use of iron4 ,fragments of jasper and other stones were found in several localities1 where they had evidently been used for cutting up or skinning animals4 ,spear heads that they had dropped or lost in the chase were occasionally picked up2 and once we came across a considerable area profusely strewn with chips of every form and kind1 indicating that the manufacture of weapons had been extensively carried on there4 ,some of these might be relics of antiquity2 but those strewn upon the surface over an area of #bjjyds4 or #cjjyds4 were quite recent2 while along the river side were holes in the earth surrounded by scorched shells of the freshwater mussel1 of the tortoise and turtle1 besides bones of fish and alligators1 and fragments of charred wood and blackened stones that had been used in cooking4 ,the savages might have been few in number2 perhaps in one instance the cooking holes would indicate the presence of twenty or thirty2 while1 from the number of chips1 from six to eight seemed to have been engaged in making weapons2 and it must be remembered that1 thoroughly as they enjoy the pleasure of doing nothing1 they are neither ignorant nor idle when employed either in the chase or in the preparation of snares or weapons for it4 ,besides this--as only the perfect weapons would be taken away for actual service1 and the failures and imperfect ones would far outnumber them--it is easy to imagine how such chips would accumulate during successive generations4 ,the following explanation of the progress of stone-implement making was given us by a fellow traveller1 and our own examination of the fragments on the spot confirmed his statement3--,the operator1 squatting down before a block large and solid enough to be used as an anvil1 selects a pebble as nearly oval as possible1 and about the size of an ostrich egg or a cocoanut4 ,one end of this he strikes on the large block1 so as to detach a fragment1 which leaves a flattened base2 then1 taking it vertically in his hands1 he strikes the edge of this base upon the anvil1 detaching in succession two ovate chips as nearly as possible equal in form and size2 and this1 if cleverly done1 leaves a sharp and well-defined central rib1 with a slightly hollowed facet on either side4 ,the next blow should1 if successful1 split off another piece1 small at the base1 spreading slightly as it goes upwards1 and finally tapering to a keen point1 with the rib previously formed running truly along the centre2 and this chip constitutes the spear head1 which is fastened to the shaft with gum and lashings of bark or vegetable fibre4 ,if this is well done1 at least three chips must have been made in the production of one head2 but if1 as is most likely1 the failures greatly outnumber the successes1 the proportion of chips must be greatly increased4 ,sometimes1 when a pebble is found well suited for the work1 facets are struck off on all sides1 and spear heads are formed as long as the cleavage of the core remains sufficiently perfect4 ,some of these1 when about half worked out1 present so great a resemblance to a common beer glass with facets on it1 that we hardly know how to convey a better idea of the peculiar form4 ,the stone tomahawks discovered were generally of trap or greenstone4 ,they were first chipped out into a long wedge-like form1 and then with great labour ground up to a uniform rounded edge upon other stones1 and with gum and lashings securely fixed into a branch1 part of which is generally made to bend round them as a handle4 ,blacksmiths in this country secure their cold chisels much in the same manner4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,tracking1 ,,hunting1 ,,and ,,trapping4 ,most readers of works on travel must be familiar with the apparently wonderful power possessed by savages of following the tracks of men or animals1 and yet this is in reality only a habit of closely observing effects1 and referring them to their natural causes4 ,on the roads of a populous country1 passengers1 animals1 and vehicles succeed each other so rapidly that no continuous spoor of any one of them remains2 but it is otherwise in the desert and the wilderness4 ,there it is impossible for man or beast to efface the track that he has made4 ,in countries such as ,kafirland1 where cattle thefts are common1 no evidence is required but the track of the stolen animals entering a village1 and the headman is considered responsible until he shows where the same track has gone out again4 ,kafirs have been known to sweep out the spoor with branches where they were about entering a river2 but such a ruse1 though it might prevent a farmer making oath to the exact place at which they crossed1 would never actually deceive him1 or prevent his finding the track on the other side4 ,sometimes a number of men will tread in each other's footsteps1 or they will walk backward for short distances1 or will put on their shoes heel foremost2 but a practised eye will soon detect the deceit1 and be aroused to double vigilance4 ,it may be thought that a man passing barefooted over a hard rock would leave no trace2 and yet the fine dust of the road he left1 caked by perspiration1 has been sufficient to betray him4 ,sometimes1 in a grassy country1 the track is best seen by looking out ahead1 when it appears as a continuous line1 showing where the grass has been turned1 although it is almost invisible at a short distance2 and this is sometimes the case on plains of coarse sand or shingle4 ,very frequently1 though no actual footprint may remain1 stones or pebbles will have been turned so as to lie with that side uppermost which has for a long time rested on the ground1 and an eye accustomed to observation detects this at once1 and will sometimes see1 by the condition of the upturned side1 whether it has been moved so recently as not yet to be perfectly dried4 ,if a shower has fallen1 it will at once be seen whether the tracks were made before the rain1 during it1 or afterwards2 in the same manner the morning or evening dew upon the tracks will furnish a test of time1 as will the grass withering1 if crushed in the heat of the day or partially restored if bent while the dew was on it4 ,if there has been wind1 it may be known whether the tracks were made during its continuance1 by the position of the grass1 or by the sand or dust drifted from it2 and if the wind has changed at a remembered time1 it may be possible to tell exactly the point at which the track and change took place4 ,if periodical or alternate winds blow1 as1 for instance1 the land and sea breezes near the coast1 it will be easy to tell during which of them the track was made4 ,sleeping places1 or halts for rest1 for food1 drink1 or other purposes1 should be carefully sought for4 ,the condition of the grass cropped by an animal1 and the fragments dropped from its mouth1 must be examined1 as also its dung1 the comparative moisture or dryness of which is an unfailing index to the time that has elapsed since it was dropped4 ,if there are two or more tracks1 and the time when one was made is known1 that of the others may be inferred by looking sharply for any place where they cross1 and ascertaining which overlies the other4 ,we have been followed for many miles at night by a lion1 but though we knew by the panic spreading among the oxen that something was disturbing them1 we were not aware of the fact till our ,hottentot went back next morning and reported the track of a great man lion1 step for step upon our horse's spoor4 ,not only can the period of time at which tracks are made be very closely estimated1 but various circumstances connected with the track will not unfrequently afford most important information4 ,as1 for instance1 where the tracks of naked feet are investigated1 it will generally be found that savages in walking turn their toes in1 whilst ,europeans turn theirs out2 if the track is left by shod men1 the description of foot gear will often tell a tale4 ,a mocassin print with the toes turned out would indicate that a white man in ,indian gear had passed4 ,the army pattern boot or shoe1 the native sandal1 worn by aborigines of some countries1 the shooting boot1 and the light buck-skin shoe1 all leave their well-marked and distinctive tracks4 ,the particular manner in which a boot or shoe sole has been nailed or repaired will enable an experienced tracker to follow its print unerringly amongst fifty others2 large or small1 narrow or wide1 the track will in almost all cases retain its individuality1 except when cunning ,europeans put on other men's boots for the purpose of crime4 ,the nature of a footprint will1 by its comparative depth and form1 show whether the person who made it carried a burden1 or was in light marching order2 if in a hurry1 or travelling leisurely2 whether travelling willingly1 or led as a captive2 whether sober or intoxicated4 ,in following horse tracks the pace at which the animal or animals were going can be judged by the impressions left on the ground4 ,a stray horse walking leisurely away1 feeding as it goes1 will usually leave an irregular but well-marked track1 causing but little disturbance of the surface of the ground2 a sudden fright caused by the appearance of a wild animal or an attempt at capture will be shown by a scattering of earth1 sand1 or gravel1 and probably by the casting out of the pellets which collect in the hollows of the feet4 ,a frightened horse starting without a rider will usually leave the deep and disturbed tracks caused by ill-directed speed at the very commencement of the run1 which will in most cases prove rather erratic4 ,had the same horse been galloped away by a rider1 the man's track might be found1 or if not1 the first sixteen or twenty hoof strokes will vary in distance1 depth1 c41 from those farther on1 where the animal had been caused to strike into his regular stride4 ,most hunters can identify the track of their own horse4 ,a defect in either hoof1 a broken shoe1 and the mode of shoeing1 are all matters to be well looked to4 ,the horses of wild tribes1 from not being shod1 are to be distinguished from those belonging to ,europeans1 who either shoe all round or leave the hind feet bare1 and only shoe the fore hoofs4 ,mule tracks are not of the same form as those of the wider and rounder footed horse1 and can be instantly recognised4 ,tracking on snow is usually followed with much greater rapidity than when prosecuted on the uncovered ground2 still no little experience is needed to successfully follow up partly obliterated and wholly filled up footsteps4 ,the impressions left in snow by different animals require some study before the inexperienced hunter can with certainty distinguish one from another4 ,the art of tracking can no more be taught without the aid of the forest and the plain to demonstrate in1 than can a skilful cricketer be made without allowing him to play the game4 ,the hints which are here given are merely intended to form a sort of groundwork1 on which the experienced hunter must himself build4 ,in traversing the woods and wilds let nothing escape the eye1 and never allow the slightest deviation from the common order of things to pass without close scrutiny and the application to the case of a system of inductive reasoning4 ,no living creature acts voluntarily without aim2 and1 although at times much mystery surrounds the doings of some furred or feathered inhabitants of the wilderness1 depend on it a little close scrutiny will not fail to show both plan and purpose in that which at first appeared an enigma4 ,the stranger to the wilds would feel no little compassion for the poor crippled lapwing plover1 who1 crying plaintively1 totters on and struggles to escape from the hunter1 until at length1 on a good space of ground being travelled over in fruitless pursuit1 the cunning bird wheels away aloft with a mocking whistle1 and shortly rejoins her brood of mouse-like little ones among the moss hags4 ,we once saw a hyena near our camp take a piece of old dry goat's hide in his mouth and perform a number of strange and uncouth movements1 as if either lame or drunk2 a second1 however1 crouched1 partly concealed by some euphorbium bushes and stones4 ,their object was to lure away our dogs whilst they themselves remained at a safe distance1 when the pair would have made short work of some of them4 ,in tracking wounded game look out sharply for even the most minute blood specks or flakes of foam1 these1 where found1 are great helps over hard ground4 ,dead or dying animals are discovered in an incredibly short space of time by birds of prey2 and when they are seen curling and wheeling over any particular spot you may rest assured that food is the attraction4 ,nothing requires greater care and circumspection than the approach of the hunter to the lurking place of any animal capable of doing mischief when suffering from the effects of a wound4 ,we have known even antelopes to use their horns freely when unable to escape4 ,no large beast of prey should be approached1 although apparently dead1 until all doubt on the subject is removed by either a shot through the head or a pelting with stones4 ,within the colonies1 of course1 roads are regularly made1 but in the wild country beyond1 and less important places within1 the boundary the so-called roads are merely foot or bridle paths or waggon tracks4 ,we have heard a farmer say1 ,i have made a new road round the mountain to-day1 and we understood by this merely that he had driven his waggon by a fresh route1 leaving others to follow his track if they thought it better than the old one4 ,sometimes the waggon is not employed upon this work1 but the track having been first carefully estimated by the eye a thorn tree is cut down1 dragged along it by the oxen1 and the road is made4 ,a waggon track across the country seems practically indelible1 the wheels are almost sure to crush the side of an ant-hill here and there1 and even if the insects repair the damage the new work will always show4 ,if it passes during the rains1 the clay kneaded by the feet of the oxen1 or furrowed by the wheels1 is baked so hard by the succeeding hot weather that ordinary vegetation for many seasons will not efface the marks4 ,if in the dry season grasses are crushed down1 the stumps of a tuft will show for a long time the passage of the wheels4 ,more especially is this the case if a fire sweeps over the plain immediately after1 or if the waggon passes during or after a prairie fire4 ,we have known a fellow traveller recognise in this manner the tracks his waggon had made seven years before4 ,the lines of charred stumps crushed short down remaining to indicate the passage of the wheels1 though all other impressions had been obliterated by the rank annual growth of grass1 fully #ab;ft4 in height4 ,often when waggons have passed for the first time across a grassy plain1 the vegetation they have crushed down will be partially replaced or mingled with other kinds1 either indigenous1 and only waiting for this opportunity to spring up1 or growing from undigested seeds from other localities deposited in the droppings of the oxen2 or even it may be exactly the same vegetation simply rendered more luxuriant by being thus manured4 ,we have seen a broad grassy plain looking like an immense corn field1 but right across it the road was marked by a broad band of yellow flowers contrasting with the deep green around4 ,points of the compass4 ,in many countries the prevailing winds leave unfailing indices of the direction of the points of the compass4 ,thus all the unsheltered trees on the road from ,cape ,town lean towards the north-west or north-north-west2 and on the sub-tropical plains of ,south ,africa and ,australia we frequently noticed that the continued winds from the south-east had laid the grass towards the opposite point4 ,the rising or setting sun is a useful guide1 so is the moon1 and also the stars2 but the traveller must acquire for himself the habit of observing where any of the heavenly bodies are likely to be at a given time1 by day or night1 and this while he is upon known paths1 and not in actual need of them1 and then his knowledge will serve him if by accident he should lose the road4 ,if the declination is the same as the latitude of the place1 the sun will be vertical at noon1 and therefore of no service as a guide for nearly a quarter of an hour1 but by extemporising a plumb line1 and observing whether its shadow shortens or lengthens1 it may soon be found whether the sun is east or west of the meridian4 ,in using stars select1 if possible1 those that are far north or south1 and as low as possible2 or1 if the pole be far above the horizon--as it must be in all places far removed from the equator--take the star that is nearest to it1 and that consequently revolves with the least possible change of position4 ,in the north the constellation of the ,great ,bear will serve1 but if the pole star can be seen1 it is1 of course1 the best--the two stars called the ,pointers will guide the eye to it4 ,and in the south1 when the southern cross is vertical1 either above or below the pole1 it is due south2 and this may be ascertained by trying when the two stars of the longer beam coincide with a plumb line1 but at any time the position of the pole may be estimated by remembering that it is half-way between the lower star of the cross and the little ,magellan cloud4 ,in travelling with a waggon from almost any civilised colony1 it will generally be found that traders and hunters have penetrated so far1 that for perhaps #aejj or #bjjj miles there is nothing to be done but to let the waggon driver follow their tracks1 which will generally be in every respect the best that could be selected1 while the traveller hunts or explores on either side the path1 or gains experience as to the slope a waggon can climb1 descend1 or travel on without capsizing2 the average size of trees under the branches of which it can pass1 and the density of the grove in which it can continue a gently meandering course between the trees without the absolute necessity of cutting a road1 which1 of course1 he avoids if possible by making even a considerable dtour1 for the labour is excessive and severe4 ,hunting4 ,the professional hunters in ,south ,africa1 and indeed most of the amateurs who are ardent in the pursuit of game1 not only follow the wild animals by day1 but as they become shy1 or few in number1 lie in wait for them at the waters at which they come to drink by night2 for the less dangerous animals they merely throw up a circular wall of loose stones1 #b;ft4 or #c;ft4 high1 to hide the hunter from the view of the approaching animals2 and not unfrequently an experienced hand will even watch in these for the lion1 the rhinoceros1 or the elephant1 trusting for security to a quick eye and ear1 and to skill in handling the two or three spare guns which are kept ready loaded within easy reach4 ,illustration3 ,,south ,,african ,,scherm1 ,,or ,,rifle ,,pit4 ,with the larger animals it is1 however1 more advisable to dig a pit about #aj;ft4 long1 #c;ft4 deep1 and #cj;in4 wide1 and to roof in #e;ft4 or #f;ft4 of the central part of this with stout logs1 that an elephant would not break were he to tread on them in passing over2 the ends are left open1 and a bank of earth is left in each1 large enough for the hunter to sit upon1 with nothing but his head showing above the edge of the scherm4 ,generally two men lie in each pit1 one watching whilst the other sleeps4 ,the pit should be made in a spot carefully chosen to leeward of the path by which the elephants or other animals are likely to come1 and great care must be taken to cover any signs of human work about it4 ,the cut ends of the logs placed across it must especially be hidden1 and if chips have been made in the vicinity1 they ought to be removed1 and everything reduced as nearly as possible to its natural appearance and condition4 ,most hunters carry a pick and one or two spades for this and similar purposes1 but we have found a worn-out adze exceedingly handy and much liked by native servants4 ,the work should be commenced early in the day1 so that it may be finished by a little after noon1 and left to recover its natural quiet1 and the air to purify itself from the taint of man1 for even though the elephant may not be so early on the watch1 smaller animals1 disregarded by the hunter1 are sure to be about him1 and any alarm among them will most assuredly spread itself1 until a general sense of danger pervades the wilderness2 and if this extends to the keen senses of the elephants1 they will not approach till they have assured themselves by every possible precaution that all is safe4 ,we have seen the path marked for a considerable distance by the serpentine track of the extended proboscis1 sometimes actually touching the ground1 and at others moving so closely in contact that the breathing would disturb the dust1 as the leader of the herd deliberately tested the scent for every inch of the way4 ,and the change of elephantine tactics since rifle pits were introduced sufficiently proves that what we call instinct is in reality an intelligence capable of receiving new ideas and guiding its possessors in meeting novel dangers4 ,a few years since1 when all the elephants had to fear was the pitfall of the ,bushmen1 with its sharpened stakes at the bottom1 they would come fearlessly on1 trusting to their leader1 as with extended trunk as above mentioned1 would literally feel the ground inch by inch1 and1 having once detected a frail deceitful covering that masked the pitfall1 would toss aside the sticks and grass1 and the whole herd would follow in contemptuous security along the very edge of the now undreaded snare4 ,far differently do they now act2 if they but suspect the presence of a pit they will not approach until1 by making a careful circuit far to leeward1 they have assured themselves that their chief enemy man1 and especially the white man1 has not recently been near the water4 ,if a taint remains upon the air they act with the extremest caution2 for hours they will remain motionless1 waiting till their keen senses detect the recently tainted breeze1 or their huge expanded ears catch the crackling of a twig or the slightest sound made by the incautious hunter4 ,if their fears preponderate1 they may not only refrain from drinking1 but even desert the locality1 and travel #ej or #ajj miles during the night to another water1 but thirst may overcome their prudence1 and they may approach and enter the water2 the hunter must then1 in perfect quietude1 make himself acquainted with the individuals of the herd1 selecting the male that carries the heaviest ivory1 and wait patiently until he comes near enough and exposes his shoulder1 then1 aiming upwards1 at the lower part of the after lobe of the huge ear1 he reckons either to cripple the animal by breaking its shoulder bone1 or to kill it by sending his bullet to the heart2 then1 judging at once the effect of his shot1 he catches up his spare gun and either fires again at the same elephant or selects another1 and endeavours to cripple him also4 ,if two hunters are together1 they can agree beforehand whether they shall fire together at the word given by one1 or whether one man shall fire both guns4 ,in the latter case at the word1 or rather at the sign signifying be ready1 both set the hair triggers of their rifles1 and the man who is to fire being assured that his comrade is prepared1 waits a favourable moment and fires2 the other does not consciously pull the trigger1 but1 with his gun carefully aligned upon the vital part and his forefinger hardly touching the trigger1 waits patiently till either the concussion of the air or the slight nervous action induced by the report of his friend's gun causes his finger to contract upon the trigger1 and his gun is fired4 ,in elephant shooting it is always well that two men should be together1 for though it is not probable1 it is at the same time possible that an elephant may attack the scherm4 ,an attack of this kind occurred to the brothers ,green1 the well-known ,african travellers and hunters2 the enraged elephant began tearing off the beams and earth that roofed the scherm1 and in a few moments more would have dragged forth his victim1 when the brother fired with deliberate aim and killed the enraged animal4 ,we have already said that the favourite place for the death shot is behind the lobe of the ear1 just where it overlaps the shoulder1 but if the shot can penetrate about #a;ft4 below any part of the spine it may cut the large blood vessels there2 or if fired from behind1 and striking about #a;ft4 below the insertion of the tail1 it may pass through to the vital organs in the chest1 and prove fatal4 ,if an elephant is walking or running in such a manner that the death spot 7dood plek7 behind the shoulder is exposed the shot should be delivered1 if possible1 so as to strike when his leg is thrown forward and the thinnest part of the skin is tightly stretched2 if the leg is backward1 the skin will hang in loose yielding folds1 and the shot will most likely fail to enter4 ,african hunters seldom fire at the head of an elephant unless he is charging and they must check him--he seldom fails to swerve from his course on receiving the bullet--but this rule is not infallible2 we have hit an elephant as fairly as possible in the forehead without effecting this4 ,another rule is to run from the elephant the moment you have fired1 and then look round to see if he is giving chase2 if he is1 you can increase your speed1 if not1 you can easily stop and get another shot2 but if you wait for him to charge before you run you give him the chance of diminishing the distance very materially before you can get up the requisite speed4 ,wahlberg1 the eminent ,swedish naturalist1 held that a man ought to stand like a rock1 and the elephant would be sure to swerve before he reached him2 sometimes the boldest course is the safest1 but in his case at length it failed1 the elephant came right on1 and the career of the brave naturalist was closed for ever4 ,sir ,samuel ,baker1 although he has personally killed ,african elephants by shots in their head1 found that he could by no means depend upon being able to do so1 and remarks that the man who stands to meet the charge of an elephant by a shot in the head cannot feel the proper amount of confidence that his shot will be effective2 indeed1 the probability is that it will decidedly fail to kill4 ,captain ,faulkner1 who volunteered to accompany ,mr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,young in his search for ,dr4 ,livingstone1 told us that he determined to prove experimentally whether an ,african elephant could be killed by a head shot1 and that he1 by walking close up to them1 killed several in that manner4 ,it must1 however1 be remembered that he travelled in a new district1 where never white hunter had been before1 and that the elephants there were ignorant of their danger1 and not prepared to meet or avoid it like those frequenting the old hunting grounds4 ,in hunting the elephant the favourite shot of the hunter in ,india is that in the head2 but in ,africa this is seldom successful4 ,it is related in the early history of ,natal that a party of sailors 7,lieut4 ,farewell's1 we think7 were challenged to go out with the ,zulus to kill an elephant1 chiefly with the desire that their defective weapons or want of skill would render them objects of ridicule to the natives4 ,neither their courage nor their good fortune1 however1 failed them2 they formed front as the elephant came on1 fired at the head1 and killed it4 ,in ,africa1 as we have before stated1 the dood plek1 or death spot1 of all the animals of the chase is considered to be behind or in the shoulder2 and in the case of the elephant this is marked by the posterior and lower edge of the ear1 which is so large that in a male #aj;ft4 #i;in4 high at the shoulder the ear measured #e;ft4 #c;in4 in depth and #c;ft4 #i;in4 from front to rear4 ,the ,african elephant is much larger than the ,indian1 which does not average more than #aj;ft42 while one shot by a friend measured #aa;ft4 #h;in4 at the shoulder1 and probably between #ab;ft4 and #ac;ft4 at the highest part of the back4 ,mr4 ,petherick also tells of one #ab;ft4 #d;in4 at the shoulder1 with a pair of tusks weighing #adjlb42 and of another of #ae;ft4 at the shoulder1 whose pair weighed #ajjlb4 ,in general a bull's tusk will weigh from #eja;b4 to #ijlb41 and a cow's not more than #cjlb4 ,the largest we have ever seen weighed1 one #aeclb4 and the other #afclb4--#ajjlb4 ,dutch being equal to #ajhlb4 ,english4 ,the native methods of killing the elephant seem to alarm the survivors but little1 and would probably never drive them from the country2 but since the introduction of firearms they have gradually been forced so far towards the interior that it is difficult to believe that herds of them had once browsed on the slopes of ,table ,mountain4 ,a few are left in the dense forests of the ,kuysna1 where they may not be shot without special permission1 and some in the ,addo and ,sundays ,river ,bush1 between ,algoa ,bay and ,grahamstown1 and it will be long ere they are thoroughly extirpated from the country to the northward of ,natal2 but in the district of ,lake ,ngami they are becoming scarce1 and the hunters from ,walvisch ,bay have to go yearly much farther to the northward1 and follow them to new districts4 ,under these circumstances the waggons of the hunters have to be fitted out for the season's journey like ships for a long voyage4 ,groceries and meal must be purchased before starting4 ,if bread should be desired1 corn may in general be bought for beads1 and flesh will be supplied by spare cattle1 sheep1 or goats1 driven with the waggons1 or by the hunter's rifle4 ,of working oxen there must be a sufficient number to replace those that die from the deadly sting of the tsetse1 or other causes2 and the stud should also be numerous enough to allow for the ravages of the horse sickness1 for exhaustion1 and for casualties in the field4 ,a salted horse--i4e41 one that has recovered from the sickness1 and is1 therefore1 supposed not to be liable to it again--is worth any money2 but this depends much on the locality1 for if a horse that has passed the ordeal in a district where the sickness is in a mild form be taken to one where it is more severe he is liable again to disease and death4 ,the ,western negroes are very ingenious and clever in hunting elephants4 ,the herds are watched for weeks1 their haunts are ascertained1 their paths carefully traced1 and the possibility of catching them in1 or driving them to1 the thickest parts of the forest debated on2 then the bush vines1 monkey ropes1 lianas1 or bindweed are cut1 so as not quite to fall1 but to hang loosely from the branches4 ,some of the paths are blocked by trees felled across them2 others are left open as entrances and others as escapes2 and in these last1 where two stout trees1 with conveniently forked branches1 narrow the pass between them1 a heavy beam1 pierced with several holes1 into which spear-heads are inserted and tightly wedged1 is raised1 so as to hang as high as possible directly across the path2 a stout rope at each end of the beam is looped over the short thick end of a pole1 which rests on a forked branch1 and of which the longer end is held down by another rope attached to a peg stuck into the ground at the foot of the tree1 the immense leverage afforded by the longer arm making it easy for a small strain to keep it down1 and the shorter end pointed up1 so that the loop cannot slip off4 ,when all is ready another line1 about #af;in4 from the ground1 is stretched from peg to peg across the path4 ,the forest is then surrounded1 the elephants disturbed with loud noises1 driven from their favourite haunts1 and forced to take refuge in the thickest forest2 and here men1 previously stationed in the trees1 cut the remaining bush vines1 and let the tangle fall like a boarding netting among and around the elephants2 spears and assegais are also hurled down on them at every opportunity4 ,this is1 however1 a service of great danger1 for the persecuted animal1 with his far-reaching trunk1 may seize the nearest hunter and dash him to jelly against a tree1 or trample him to death4 ,but while thus engaged1 the others cut and let fall more tangle1 and drive down upon him their broad-bladed spears until he sinks exhausted2 while others that break away are driven with loud shouts into the openings that gradually narrow as the paths approach the beam falls 7contrivances much like those used in the capture of the hippopotamus71 where at the next step the elephant must trip the horizontal line1 draw out or break the pegs1 release the lever ends of the long triggers1 and the next moment1 with wounded body and disabled spine1 lie writhing in the power of his enemies1 some of whom1 if they approach too closely his powerful wide-sweeping trunk1 may yet1 however1 pay dearly for their victory4 ,it is fortunate1 perhaps1 that nearly all occupations necessary for the obtainment of animal food in a wild country not only entail the necessity for the expenditure of sufficient physical force to serve as healthful exercise1 but also afford enjoyment enough to induce men to engage in them4 ,it might be shown that even the daily labour of the mechanic is not always the exception to this rule4 ,but for the present purpose it is enough that the chase1 besides supplying food and raiment to savages and semi-barbarous tribes from the remotest antiquity till now1 has always possessed such charms for the vigorous and healthy man rejoicing in his strength1 and proud of the opportunity of displaying it1 that not only the savage1 confident in his personal address1 and the support of his fellow-hunters1 exults in open battle with the fiercest animals2 in trials of speed and endurance with the fleetest2 or of patience and watchful skill in ensnaring the most wary4 ,but our own countrymen1 led by the love of adventure and excitement1 will leave behind the luxuries of civilised life1 and cheerfully endure the privations of a toilsome journey for the mere chance of engaging single-handed with some fierce creature which1 with their inferior weapons1 a whole tribe of natives would find it difficult to subdue4 ,nor is this love of excitement and adventure to be classed with the cold-blooded cruelty so often attributed to hunters4 ,the battue system1 by which herds of timid1 helpless animals are driven from all quarters into an inclosure before some potentate--who sits in safety in his gallery with ready-loaded rifles1 handed to him by obsequious attendants1 who score off the hundreds he has slain--we surrender freely to the reproach and reprobation it deserves4 ,there may be enjoyment in wholesale slaughter1 but the spirit that could find it is not of the sort which urged a young military friend of ours to chase four lions across the plains near ,bloem ,fontein1 and to regret only that his horse failed to bring him to close quarters before they gained the shelter of the broken rocky hills4 ,of course there are butchers who1 when animals happen to be plentiful and easy of approach1 will kill for the mere pleasure of boasting of the numbers they have shot2 but the true sportsman would turn disgusted from such facile slaughter4 ,some exercise of skill1 endurance1 and more or less personal risk1 is necessary to his enjoyment2 and when to his ardour for the chase he adds the accomplishments of the artist1 the naturalist1 and the geographer1 he deserves the praise instead of the reproach of those who sit at home at ease1 and cannot enter into the enthusiasm which alone has enabled him to endure privation and conquer difficulty1 instead of turning weary and defeated from the hardships of travel4 ,all travellers1 and many missionaries in ,africa1 are from choice or necessity hunters--and those who do not desire in some way to improve the opportunities cast in their way are few in number--and if they enjoy the task of killing savage animals which1 in the interests of humanity1 had better be thinned off1 the cattle farmers1 the agriculturists1 or the hungry natives1 as they satisfy their cravings for animal food1 will thank them1 and hail the hunters as friends in need4 ,the ,cape farmer1 whether ,english or ,dutch1 is seldom so spiritless as not to enjoy the hunting of his own lions1 and the avenging with his own hand the depredations on his cattle4 ,with game more worthy of his lead1 the ,dutch colonist works more methodically2 and though in general he exhibits but little of the dash and recklessness characteristic of the ,british officer1 he lacks not courage or determination when occasion calls it forth4 ,lion hunting4 ,when it becomes known that a lion has established himself in the vicinity1 and his depredations become annoying to the cattle owners1 his spoor or trail is taken up and followed as far as prudent towards his lair2 this ascertained1 a council is held as to the best means of dislodging him and bringing him into position to receive the fire of the hunters4 ,if there be natural shelter so much the better2 if not1 the horses are fastened together in line1 and1 held by the after riders or ,hottentot servants1 are backed down so near as to afford the marksman an opportunity of a fair shot2 one or more1 who can be implicitly relied on for certainty of aim and steadiness of hand in the moment of peril1 are chosen to reserve their fire in case the rest should miss1 and the others are told off to fire in regular order4 ,the marksman1 edging a little clear of the shelter of the horses1 sits down1 rests his elbows on his knees1 and1 grasping his ramrod as an additional support1 takes as deliberate an aim as circumstances permit at the lion1 aiming to hit him1 if possible1 in the breast2 for it is seldom that the animal1 when thus bearded in his den1 refuses to face his foe1 or expose his shoulders to the deadly missile4 ,possibly1 he lies with head extended forward1 so that it would be useless to fire at the sloping skull2 and it is likely also that the fore-paws so cover the chest that there is the chance1 by breaking one of them1 of somewhat crippling1 but at the same time provoking him to a headlong charge1 in the fury of which even the loss of a fore-paw would be unheeded1 and would diminish but little his power of doing mischief4 ,suppose him irritated by a painful wound1 with a roar like thunder he bounds forward1 and the inexperienced hands1 if any such there be1 discharge their guns as he comes on2 but there are always some cool-headed fellows who know that within about five and twenty yards he will stop and gather his energies for a final spring4 ,deliberate as the ,dutchman is1 he knows when time is precious2 the heavy roer is steadily aligned1 and1 if the aim be true1 the monarch of the forest falls dead upon the spot1 or1 collecting his last energies1 springs upon the horses4 ,now is the time for the reserve4 ,at a glance he takes in the exigencies of the situation1 he steps aside for a clear view1 his bullet crushes through skull or shoulder1 and the fierce animal falls helpless to the ground4 ,the restless steeds are brought again to quietude1 the visitors gather round the prostrate foe1 examine the perforations1 and adjudge to each the merit of his respective shot4 ,not always1 however1 is the affair so happily ended4 ,in #ahej1 while passing through the ,orange ,river ,sovereignty1 now the ,free ,state1 on our way to ,vaal ,river1 we heard of a contest that had nearly proved fatal to a brave old boer and his no less gallant nephew2 and as we soon after became acquainted with many of the witnesses and actors in the scene1 and saw the horses deeply scored by five sharp talons on either quarter1 we have no hesitation in relating it4 ,the lion1 after receiving the fire of the uncle1 had sprung upon him1 knocked him down1 and lay upon him1 glaring defiance at his enemies4 ,the young man1 confident of his skill and steadiness of hand1 boldly advanced close up to him1 set his ,sneider or hair trigger1 and aimed deliberately at the forehead2 one gentle touch of the forefinger1 and instead of the expected death shot1 the hammer fell into half-cock4 ,again he proved the edge of his flint1 set his hair trigger1 and again and again it failed him4 ,the lion was growing restless2 his trusted weapon was useless in his hand4 ,what wonder that his courage failed1 and1 dashing it to the earth1 he turned and fled4 ,in an instant the lion was upon him1 and he in his turn lay helpless beneath the monster's weight4 ,for some time he waited patiently1 expecting his comrades to fire2 but only one of them raised his gun1 and that barrel wavered1 so that the rest begged him not to fire4 ,the uncle rose1 and catching up his gun hastened to the rescue1 but it had been discharged2 and with his broken arm he attempted in vain to load it4 ,the young man advised his comrades1 and then entreated them to come on and shoot the lion while he was yet quiet enough to give them a good chance2 but they came not4 ,he cursed them for a set of cowards4 ,next he cursed the lion1 and in the recklessness of despair he kicked him4 ,the astonished beast turned round and seized the left knee1 but this was a false move1 for the young boer now drove his right foot so vigorously and rapidly into the exposed flank that the lion stared around him in bewilderment1 and finally walked off1 leaving the young fellow lamed only for a time4 ,about the same time we became acquainted with a young boer1 who1 while lying in the power of the lion1 had been so mangled that there was not sufficient muscle left upon his right arm to enable him to raise it without the assistance of his left4 ,no one could see him advance to give his hand without a feeling of pity1 yet his grip was as hearty as ever2 and when his fingers closed upon the gunstock1 the needful strength to raise it to the shoulder seemed to return4 ,and notwithstanding his misfortune no man was readier or bolder in the hunting field4 ,of the method adopted by ,english hunters1 so many illustrative anecdotes are before the public1 that in our limited range it is difficult to select one that shall be new and1 at the same time1 sufficiently striking to arrest attention4 ,generally1 if the country is tolerably open1 two or three gentlemen1 with their native servants1 and perhaps a few dogs1 to distract the attention of the lion1 will ride up1 and one1 checking his horse as he passes1 will fire from the saddle1 starting forward if the lion springs1 and trusting to his comrades to relieve him4 ,among the ,bushmen the lion is not much hunted2 in fact1 some of them seem to look upon him as an involuntary benefactor1 who1 after he has killed his prey1 will certainly let some remain for them1 and may1 perhaps1 be scared from his repast1 so as to leave them all4 ,sometimes1 perhaps1 they venture1 if annoyed by one of men-eating propensities1 to track him to his lair1 and as he lies in dreamy enjoyment after a full meal1 to lodge a poisoned arrow in his side4 ,but in general they prefer to enlist the white man in their cause1 partly because they know his weapons to be more instantaneously effective1 and partly because they are sure he will reward them for showing him the sport4 ,the feat of ,gordon ,cumming delivering a village from the persecution of a pair of man-eaters1 by killing them both with two shots from his double-barrel gun was still talked of by the natives when we were in the ,sovereignty4 ,the general introduction of firearms among the half-castes and the native tribes has rendered obsolete many of their customs1 and it is now rare even in ,africa to see some of the weapons they formerly used2 such1 for instance1 as the long spears with which the ,kafirs attacked the hippopotamus or elephant4 ,but a lion hunt on fair and open ground1 by a tribe of savage warriors1 must have been an exciting scene4 ,with them the preparatory tracking up and gathering of information essential to the ,english hunter are needless2 the haunts and habits of the lion they intend to hunt have long been too familiar to them4 ,the hunters with their naked bodies fresh anointed1 and lithe and well-turned limbs1 assemble around with light assegais or javelins1 and with long sticks tufted with black ostrich feathers4 ,a few feints and false attacks are made1 and the lion is drawn or driven from his covers to the open plain4 ,now the fight begins4 ,encircled by the active warriors the lion stands at bay1 perplexed and baffled by their rapid change of place1 and perhaps somewhat confused by shouts from every quarter4 ,at length the irritated beast exposes himself to the attack4 ,some bold warrior rushes past and darts his assegai1 escaping if he can1 while the manoeuvre is repeated by the next4 ,not all are thus successful4 ,the wounded animal charges furiously1 but in the moment of extreme peril the native strikes his plumed staff into the ground1 and1 before even the quick eye of the lion can detect the cheat1 darts off in another direction1 driving home1 perhaps1 another assegai as he passes4 ,many1 perhaps1 are wounded2 but unless he does it at a stroke the lion has no time to kill1 for he is already bristling like a porcupine with spears1 and one moment of inaction would expose him to the fatal shower that would pour in upon him from every side4 ,his fate sooner or later is sealed2 whatever way he charges his foes elude him2 wound after wound exhausts his strength1 till1 bleeding and helpless1 he sinks upon the ground1 and his skin and paws are borne in triumph to the chief2 while the women of the kraal1 with clapping of hands and extemporary songs of triumph1 welcome and congratulate the victors4 ,the elephant1 unfortunately for his love of ease and indolence1 or perhaps rather quiet and undisturbed enjoyment1 is endowed with many qualities which offer peculiar temptations to his apparently contemptible1 yet in reality formidable1 enemies4 ,to savage tribes the amount of flesh acquired by the destruction of an elephant is a sufficient inducement for a small tribe to labour in digging pitfalls1 or unite in the attempt to weary out and irritate him almost to death by numberless light javelins1 till some one1 bolder or more fortunate than the rest1 is able to approach and drive the larger spear with skill and strength sufficient to give a deadly wound4 ,to the ardent sportsman1 who is also a clever artist and lover of nature1 the mere act of engaging with and conquering single-handed this gigantic animal1 affords an almost delirious excitement4 ,but beyond all other considerations1 the paramount inducement to traders1 hunters1 and even to natives among whom white men have already penetrated1 is that1 like the greatest of marine animals1 the whale1 he carries about him that which may be made profitable in a commercial point of view1 and thus repay the hunter for the labour of destroying him4 ,of course1 in the case of the elephant this inducement is the ivory1 with which in ,africa both males and females are provided2 while in ,india the hunters find the females without tusks1 and the males so frequently so that profit from this source rarely enters into the sportsman's calculations1 nevertheless1 great numbers are annually killed in ,ceylon and other parts of the ,indian ,empire4 ,it requires a knowledge of the immense damage a single elephant is capable of doing among the cane or grain fields of the natives to induce those who cannot enter into the enthusiasm of the sportsman1 to return a verdict of justifiable elephanticide4 ,tigers1 panthers1 leopards1 pumas1 c41 are taken in various ways4 ,the former animals1 as we have before stated1 are captured in large cage traps fitted with drop doors and trigger levers1 which are thrown out of gear when the animal seizes a bait suspended from them4 ,the ,malays are very skilful in setting traps of this description4 ,the systems adopted in shooting the large animals of prey just mentioned in the jungles of the far ,east are too well known to need description here4 ,they may be said mainly to consist in shooting from a howdah placed on an elephant's back2 shooting on foot1 aided by beaters2 watching a live or dead bait from a meechaum or scaffolding erected in a tree2 or shooting at night from the rifle pit1 after the manner already described4 ,to hunt antelopes by the aid of tamed leopards1 or to take deer with the bearcoot1 or hunting eagle1 it is necessary to secure the services of a regular staff of native hunters1 keepers1 and trackers--in fact1 a retinue which few mere travellers could support4 ,sword hunting1 as practised by the inhabitants of the ,abyssinian borders1 is a pursuit requiring more than ordinary skill and adroitness--in short1 almost a lifetime may be passed in fruitlessly endeavouring to successfully imitate the feats of the ,aggageers4 ,there are1 however1 many weapons and hunting appliances used in wild countries which the traveller will do well to familiarise himself with4 ,the spear1 the bow and arrow1 the sling1 the lasso1 the bolas1 the sumpitan or blow pipe1 and the club1 may as makeshifts stand him in good stead4 ,a knowledge of the use of the boomerang would be extremely valuable2 but we have never known a white man who could throw it even passably well4 ,the spear1 as cast from the womera1 or throwing stick1 is another weapon marvellously accurate1 long-ranged1 and deadly in the hands of the black fellow1 but resolves itself into a mere sharp pointed stick when the ,european attempts to use it4 ,it is much the same with the ,kafir assegai4 ,very few ,englishmen learn to use it well1 whilst the natives hurl it with astonishing force and precision4 ,there are calls1 too1 which are successfully used by the natives of many countries for attracting game to the lurking place of the sportsman4 ,the birch bark calling trumpet of the ,american and ,canadian moose hunter is an example of these2 but practice alone will enable the traveller to use it successfully4 ,pitfalls4 ,the natives of ,south ,africa excel in the construction of pitfalls1 and there is scarcely a tribe1 with the exception of the pastoral ,kafirs on the frontier1 or the half-castes1 who possess firearms1 that does not more or less supply itself with wild flesh in this manner4 ,the tools used in sinking pitfalls resemble chisels1 perhaps a hand breadth broad1 and #h;in4 or #a;ft4 long2 these are set in stout handles #f;ft4 or more in length1 and used in a manner that may be understood after a glance at the beautiful group of ,michael overthrowing ,satan4 ,the pits will be #aj;ft4 or #ab;ft4 long1 #b;ft4 or #c;ft4 wide1 and more than #h;ft4 deep1 but they taper wedge-like towards the bottom1 which is only a few inches wide1 the intention being that an antelope or other animal shall jam his body immovably between the sides before he can touch the bottom with his feet4 ,about the centre the pit is crossed by a wall of the hard soil1 reaching about half-way to the top1 and left standing for the purpose of catching any animal that1 having once fallen in1 is able to spring forward1 and of holding him helplessly suspended by the belly4 ,the top is carefully covered with small sticks1 over which reeds or grass are laid1 and earth dusted over the whole as naturally as possible4 ,a little water is then sprinkled over all to equalise the surface4 ,of course this has to be very artistically done to deceive the timid game2 therefore there is no wonder that a mounted hunter1 or even a traveller on foot1 should occasionally fall in4 ,sometimes1 to insure the capture of the animal1 a small hole1 also carefully covered1 is made just before one end of the pit1 and the creature stumbling in this1 leaps forward and precipitates itself into the true snare4 ,we have on three occasions fallen into such pits 7unprovided with the little hole last mentioned1 which might have proved a warning to a man1 who1 if possible1 would instinctively step backward71 and once had considerable difficulty in getting out1 because1 owing to the wedge-shaped form1 our hips were tightly jammed between the sides1 while our feet could not reach the bottom2 but1 by vigorously sticking our elbows into the sides above1 we at length extricated our lower extremities4 ,a fellow hunter had a more dangerous adventure than this2 for the one that he fell into had three stakes1 that would certainly have impaled an antelope1 fixed upright in it2 but fortunately a man goes straight down feet foremost1 and seldom or never falls lengthwise4 ,these pits for single animals1 however1 are but petty affairs compared with the extensive hopo or tellekello fences1 built for the purpose of inclosing large herds of game1 that are either driven during the day by extended lines of men from all quarters into the wide entrance1 or suddenly find themselves forced into it when they come by night to drink at the water2 in either case the space between the fences narrows rapidly1 funnelwise1 the fences themselves being made stronger in proportion to the diminution of the space between them1 until this becomes little more than a narrow lane1 and the fences assume the proportions of palisades1 high and strong enough to prevent the escape even of the large animals that crowd into it4 ,at the end of this passage is a low fence1 partially concealing from view the yawning pit beyond1 the apparent size of which is diminished by beams and poles so laid as to cover a considerable portion of each side1 and thus rendering it impossible for any animal attempting to spring out to make his escape4 ,we have often seen these fences2 but the ,bushmen will very seldom get up a drive when white hunters are in the vicinity1 preferring1 very naturally1 to eat game which1 with very little trouble to themselves1 has been shot by the ,european or the colonist1 rather than to assemble their tribe and be on watch all night at the tellekello4 ,on occasions such as we have referred to1 the widest opening of the fences is kept as near as possible to the pool or river where the wild game comes to drink1 without encroaching so far as to interfere with their free access to the water4 ,the ,bushmen dig holes outside the fence1 make in them large fires of hard wood1 and cover the still glowing embers with dry earth1 which absorbs a great amount of heat1 and gives it out gradually during the night to those who come to sleep1 or at least to lie down and watch beside it4 ,in addition to this1 they fashion a number of torches of some dry light wood1 preferring that of a dead baobab2 and at night1 when the herds come down to quench their thirst1 they draw their cordon round in rear of them1 light their torches1 and1 waving them in the air1 rush forward with wild gesticulations and loud outcries4 ,sometimes the larger animals1 such as the black rhinoceros1 or others1 instead of submitting to be driven1 will endeavour to break through the fence1 but the active ,bushmen swarm along the outside1 and meet every attempt by waving their blazing torches1 or throwing them in the faces of the animals2 at length the herd crowded together comes to the narrowing neck of the funnel4 ,the height and strength of the palisade forbids all hope of escape2 the natives1 wild with delight1 are shouting and pressing on their rear1 they rush thundering on to the narrowest part1 the slight fence which hides the pit from view is easily leaped1 others follow1 blindly pushed on by the crowd in the rear1 until at length the pit is filled with perhaps one or two hundred animals1 writhing1 struggling1 and suffocating1 and moreover bruised and stunned by the hoofs of those which rush madly on1 seeking to escape over them4 ,the ,bushmen now assemble near the pass and stab with their assegais1 as many as they can1 but these are few in comparison2 and when the pit is once filled1 the escape of the majority of those that remain is tolerably certain4 ,tsetse fly4 ,the most serious impediment which stands in the ,african hunter's road to success is the tsetse fly1 which haunts the forests and the banks of streams in many parts of southern and subtropical ,africa4 ,horses and dogs are also liable to be fatally affected2 but men1 mules1 and donkeys1 as well as sheep or goats and wild animals1 are not injured4 ,when cattle are bitten by the fly1 as this dreaded pest is called1 par eminence1 they begin to lose condition1 the coat ceases to be sleek and glossy1 and in a period1 proportioned to the severity or number of the bites1 generally from twelve hours to a fortnight or three weeks1 or even a month1 the animals die4 ,if the tsetse infested district is not large1 it is much better to make the circuit of it1 or to pass through it in the night4 ,we have seen a horse thus taken through the belt on the shores of the ,zambesi as a present for ,tekalatu4 ,he would be towed by a canoe across the broad river1 and hurried on to a place of security before the morning4 ,the fly1 as may be supposed from these remarks1 is very local4 ,one of the ,transvaal republicans told us that a mimosa tree1 with bright yellow bark 7probably the sweet gum71 was one tolerably certain indication of its habitat2 but it is best to inquire of the natives what are its particular limits1 and especially to learn whether the tribes in advance keep cattle or dogs1 and if they do not1 to ask why so4 ,have they possessed cattle1 and been plundered of them1 or can they not keep them because of the proximity of the fly8 ,if this is the case1 the oxen must be kept beyond the bounds2 but mules or donkeys may be used with safety4 ,the boundaries of this pest are well defined2 and we have heard the ,dutch colonists speak of ,de ,kant van de ,vleigen1 or the edge of the flies1 with as much precision as a municipal officer in defining the boundary of his parish4 ,frequently one side of a waggon road will be spoken of as infested1 while the other is safe2 and sometimes the hunters speak of riding up to the edge of the fly1 and going in on foot to shoot game4 ,whether the rather more than half-reasoning elephants know that the fly kills horses or not1 we cannot undertake to say2 but they certainly connect the idea of comparative security with the fly country1 just as an ,australian horse knows that the stockyard is the only place in which he is never flogged1 and retreats to it whenever he hears the cracking of the dreaded stock whip4 ,that the fly is local there can be no doubt2 and the only chance1 so far as we have heard1 of this pest being found out of its proper district1 is that a herd of buffaloes or other game may be chased to some distance1 and carry the fly with them2 but if they remain long the insect will leave them and return to its proper range4 ,illustration3 #a1 #b ,the fly1 a little more than half an inch long and more slender in proportion than a common house fly 7the illustrations given below1 ,figs4 #a and #b1 give the true size and an enlarged view of the insect71 hovers steadily over the devoted cattle with a peculiarly rapid motion of the wings4 ,to speak either of its bite or its sting would convey an erroneous idea2 it seems to pierce the skin1 and dilute the blood it wishes to drink by the injection of a fluid1 just as the mosquito does2 the surplus liquid mingles fatally with the blood4 ,we believe neither goats nor sheep are injured by the virus4 ,the piercing apparatus must be of considerable length1 as the insect will penetrate a pilot coat and full suit of underclothing2 the puncture leaves no subsequent pain like that of a mosquito1 but is startling enough at the moment4 ,the description of the fly may be thus summed up3 ,the abdomen is marked with transverse stripes of yellow and dark chesnut1 fading towards the back1 and imparting the appearance of a longitudinal stripe of yellow down the centre of the back4 ,the belly is a livid white2 dusky glassy-brown wings folding over each other2 eyes1 brownish purple4 ,it has six long legs4 ,its proboscis is about one-sixth of an inch long4 ,it has tufts of hair on the body1 which are dingiest about the mouth1 on the back1 and near the tail4 ,it is keen of smell1 quick of sight1 and its flight is rapid and straight4 ,it is said that a peculiar breed of dogs1 known as the ,moscoba1 or ,byly dogs1 remain exempt from injury1 from having from time immemorial been reared in the fly district1 and escaped a cow-milk diet as the natives say4 ,it has no injurious effect upon game whatsoever4 ,the ,cape ,colony1 the ,free ,state1 ,kafirland1 ,natal1 and most of the ,transvaal ,republic1 as well as ,namaqua and ,damara land--the ,kalihari ,desert and the desert between the ,bo-tlt-le and ,zambesi rivers--may be regarded 7speaking generally7 as clear of the fly1 but the hunters on the various tributaries of the ,limpopo suffered very heavy losses2 and ,mr4 ,coqui and party1 who travelled from ,origstadt to ,delagoa ,bay1 lost all their cattle1 we believe1 from the tsetse1 not far from the last-named place4 ,when travellers first began to find their way to ,lake ,ngami many1 for want of local knowledge1 lost sometimes half their cattle4 ,at ,tette1 and the other ,portuguese possessions on the ,zambesi1 very few cattle and no horses are kept1 but ,senhor ,pascoal possessed a few donkeys4 ,the natives in the vicinity have no cattle4 ,we do not remember that we saw the tsetse there1 but possibly this may have originally prevented their introduction1 and the fly may have died out in places where the wild animals have been destroyed4 ,when we travelled from ,walwisch ,bay1 we fell in with no fly all the way to ,lake ,ngami1 but turning thence to the north-west we feared to push too far to the northward1 as the banks of the ,teoughe1 and probably the woods some distance from it1 were known to be infested4 ,from the lake eastward we travelled in comparative safety along the ,bo-tlt-le ,river1 and turned north over the elevated riverless plain towards the ,zambesi4 ,in the valley of that great river system we first felt ourselves in actual proximity to the fly4 ,at ,dak1 the cattle grazed in safety2 but a servant1 who was sent to outspan1 ten or twenty miles to the west1 had to return because he had got into an infested locality2 and when we started with one waggon only to visit the ,falls1 we found that patches of mimosa and other forests on the banks of the ,matietsie ,river were also frequented by these little pests4 ,we tried to save the oxen by rushing them past whenever the edge of the bush approached too closely to the river2 but an accidental delay exposed the cattle to the fatal influence of the tsetse4 ,at the ,anyati1 or ,buffalo ,river1 we had to leave the waggon and cattle as the long bed or sand hill covered with mopani and other trees1 between it and the ,falls1 was known to be infested4 ,mr4 ,baldwin also on his way to the ,victoria ,falls1 from ,natal1 left his waggons in ,moselekatses country1 on account of the fly in the intervening districts1 and made his way on foot4 ,a fellow traveller of ours had a safe camp for several months with cattle at ,boana2 and at ,logier ,hill on the ,zambesi 7lat4 #ah #d #eh ,s42 long4 approx4 #bf #ch ,e47 we do not remember to have seen any1 though we resided there from ,september to the following ,february1 in #ahfb-fc4 ,in the parts about ,chob the fly is found near rivers only1 in or near rich soils1 and marshy spots--generally in mimosa or mopani forests4 ,it sometimes shifts its position1 and has been known to leave a spot which has been greatly hunted with guns--probably because the game had diminished or left4 ,the following are the first symptoms in oxen of being bitten3 ,a swelling under the throat1 which1 if lanced1 emits a yellowish fluid2 the hair stands on end or reversed2 they become debilitated1 and though the herbage is ever so luxuriant1 refuse to fill themselves and become very thin2 their eyes water1 and at length1 when their end is approaching1 a continual rattling in the throat or chest may be heard a few paces off4 ,sometimes one out of the number recovers1 but very rarely1 and only when it has no work to perform after being bitten4 ,horses generally swell about the eyes1 nostrils1 and testacles1 where1 probably1 the bites are most numerous2 the hair becomes reversed1 and pining gradually away1 they die4 ,both cattle and horses live from a fortnight to six months after being bitten1 but generally all die shortly after the first rain falls4 ,after death the heart of an ox is encased in a yellowish and glutinous substance1 which might be mistaken for fat4 ,the flesh is full of little bladders of water1 and the blood is half water at heart1 which1 on cooling1 becomes congealed into a yellow glutinous substance4 ,the vitals are of a livid colour4 ,we do not believe that the flesh is rendered unfit for food if the animal be killed in the early stages1 but when the poison has made much progress in the blood1 and the creature becomes much out of condition1 it must of course be greatly deteriorated4 ,we do not know of any remedy1 and no certain preventive2 it would be a great boon to travellers if any composition1 disgusting to the insect1 innoxious to the animal1 and easy of carriage and application1 could be discovered4 ,we have heard a hunter propose to tar his horse1 and then ride into the fly1 and shoot elephants2 and it is supposed that the anointing of cattle with their own excrement mixed with milk will save them from being bitten1 but both these expedients1 beside being annoying to the animals1 would be liable to lose their efficacy in a short time4 ,catching cattle4 ,the vang-stock is generally used to slip the noose over the hind leg of an ox unwilling to be caught4 ,if a turn can be got round the other leg so much the better2 another noose is thrown over his horns2 men catch him by the tail1 another seizes him by the horns1 using them as levers1 and1 with all his members thus pushed and hauled in contrary directions1 down he must go4 ,if he is meant for a waggon ox the yoke is put upon his neck1 and once fast in the middle of a dozen well-drilled yokefellows his struggles are unavailing1 and he soon begins to feel the necessity of taking kindly to his work4 ,if he is wanted for a pack ox1 a hole is bored through the cartilage of the nose1 and a small stick #d;in4 or #f;in4 long1 with a fork at one end like a ,y pushed through2 this serves as a bit1 to which his halter is made fast2 a long reim is passed very tightly1 with many turns1 round his body1 some old skins are tied upon his back1 and he is forced to stand or walk with these for several hours4 ,next day heavier packages are put on1 and he is thus exercised till he is well accustomed to carry a load4 ,the ,kafirs very frequently tie packages upon the horns of their oxen4 ,for riding oxen1 those that seem of a less gregarious or dependent temper1 and go most freely alone1 are selected1 as they give less trouble to the rider4 ,many of the most highly valued have loose1 pendent horns1 swinging1 like locks of hair1 with every motion of the head4 ,we believe this is malformation1 and is produced by beating and breaking the core of the horn while still young4 ,in riding1 the reim is carried from the nose-bit over the forehead1 and thus the nose can be jerked up into the air at the rider's pleasure1 or the animal guided by a gentle pull from side to side4 ,riding oxen4 ,among completely uncivilised ,kafirs or ,hottentots the ox is ridden with only a few skins lashed on his back1 but after communication with ,europeans they generally improvise some sort of saddle1 perhaps a couple of pads connected by strips of skin1 or a piece of skin with the ends turned up towards the middle and stitched1 so as to form two bags1 which may be filled either with grass or with any soft articles that have to be carried4 ,we have ridden oxen very comfortably with an ,english saddle1 and have used spurs1 which are well enough for gentle admonition1 but the sambok1 or hide whip1 must be at hand as a more convincing argument4 ,the armament of a hunter is expensive4 ,a couple of hundred pounds may very easily be spent upon his rifles1 without subjecting him to the imputation of extravagance4 ,he must have his good1 stout1 plain gun 7smooth-bored7 for general purposes--double-barrel1 of eleven gauge2 then his rifles1 carrying bullets of from #boz4 to #foz4 each2 and most probably one or more smooth bores1 of still heavier metal1 for night shooting at close quarters1 when extreme accuracy of aim is not of much importance1 and where the shock to the nervous system by the concussion of a large round bullet which bruises the parts around1 instead of merely penetrating them like the sharp pointed cylindro-conical1 is much more likely to bring down the animal before he has had time to wander very far from the place where he was shot4 ,powder is required in large quantities1 for1 besides being always liable to waste or injury from damp1 the loading of guns1 with from #f;drs4 to #aj;drs4 to a charge1 the number of shots fired for practice at ant-hills1 ineffectively in the chase1 or shot away by native servants1 counts for something4 ,a liberal stock of shot of various sizes1 caps1 wadding1 and gun requisites should be laid in4 ,of course there must be a proportionate amount of mercury1 tin1 or type metal1 to harden the bullets1 till they can just be indented between the teeth1 when they are supposed to be hard enough1 without losing too much of their weight4 ,spring guns4 ,when engaged in hunting in the forests during the day1 the hunter will not unfrequently find it convenient to set either gun or bow traps for the purpose of destroying mischievous and roving night prowlers4 ,almost any old gun or musket1 provided that it will go off when the trigger is pulled1 and will not burst from the effects of a good heavy charge1 will answer the purpose4 ,the most convenient form of gun trap we have ever used is formed by lashing a piece of horn1 bone1 or polished wood1 to the back of the trigger guard with waxed thread1 as shown in the annexed illustration4 ,illustration ,the trigger string is then brought back1 passed through behind it1 and led forward through the ramrod hoops4 ,the gun1 when heavily loaded1 is lashed fast to some tree or post at a convenient height from the ground4 ,a stout forked stick placed in the ground1 about #ah;in4 from the muzzle1 will1 according to its length1 serve to regulate the line of fire to the height of the animal the trap is intended for4 ,the trap is baited either by attaching a piece of meat of suitable size to the end of the trigger string in such a way that1 as the food is seized and dragged away1 the trigger may be drawn1 and the gun exploded4 ,where jackals or other small animals of prey are abundant1 they are very apt to spring your trap and waste your ammunition4 ,in order to prevent them from doing so1 it is well to form a sort of pass or road up to a large bait staked to the earth with crook posts or pegs1 and then carry your trigger line at a slight strain high enough for a jackal to go under it1 but low enough to be struck on the advance of a larger animal4 ,the outer end must now be tied fast to a tree or post1 as shown in the engraving on the opposite page4 ,illustration ,some hunters we have known adjust their trigger lines on the lever principle1 as shown in the accompanying illustration4 ,the plan is a good one for drawing a trigger with a heavy pull2 but we prefer our own plan1 because it is always available4 ,the bit of horn need never be taken from the guard when once properly secured there4 ,a very good porcupine trap is made from the barrel of an old cavalry pistol1 stapled to a block of wood1 and exploded by the fall of a piece of old spring4 ,a little bone peg or setting pin rests on the top of the barrel1 and supports the spring until the string which is fastened to the middle of the setting pin is drawn4 ,the least pull on the string causes the lower end of the pin to slip off the barrel1 and allows the spring to fly sharply down on the crown of the nipple4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,porcupine ,,trap4 ,arrow traps4 ,bow and arrow traps are in use in many parts of the world4 ,the ,chinese and ,tartars are very clever at constructing them4 ,very large and powerful cross-bows1 charged with poisoned arrows1 and set much after the manner of a gun-trap are often used for the destruction of tigers and other animals4 ,large and very strong bamboo bows1 charged with a number of arrows placed in a row1 are set with a line stretched across the run of the animals in such a manner that a set of trigger sticks1 shown in the annexed illustration1 may be acted on when the line is drawn on4 ,illustration ,there is an arrow trap1 the ,elg-,led1 used for the destruction of elk in the forests of northern ,europe4 ,no bow is used in the construction of this engine4 ,the hunter1 when about to set an elg-led1 seeks for a regularly used elk track4 ,each side of this1 when found1 he plants a post about #d;ft4 in height1 like the posts of a gate4 ,at about #f;ft4 from one of the posts he plants another in the same line1 and on the tops of the two uprights he fixes by pins a fir-pole chopped flat1 just as a hand rail of a bridge is made4 ,he then cuts a long tough spring pole1 and lashes its large end fast to two more uprights in such a way that1 when forcibly bent back like a spring1 its small end may sweep the whole length of the hand-rail1 as we will call it4 ,on the top of this hand rail a deep groove is cut1 and in it rests a heavy-headed arrow4 ,when the spring pole is drawn back to its full extent1 it is held in place by a hard wood pin1 set at a slope in a notch cut in the top of the hand rail4 ,to the bottom or heel of this pin is attached one end of a stout copper wire1 whilst the other end is carried across the elk track and made fast to the other gate post4 ,brushwood skilfully disposed on either side of the track keeps the elk in the direct road1 whilst fresh young branches and elk food lichen scattered freely here and there serve to so attract the attention of the advancing animal that the first intimation he receives of anything being amiss is the passage of the massive steel-pointed shaft through his body4 ,we were first shown how to set an elg-led by an old ,norse skipper1 who as a warning informed us that the best cow he ever possessed1 or was ever likely to possess again1 was found dead within ten yards of the first elg-led he ever constructed4 ,whilst on the subject of traps of this kind1 it may not be amiss to caution our readers against placing any of them in situations where either domestic animals or human beings are likely to stray4 ,when you set gun or bow traps near camp1 warn all your followers that you have done so4 ,in setting a gun trap be sure that the cocking of the gun and putting on the cap are the last two operations performed4 ,in the case of arrow traps never lay in your arrow until every detail of your arrangements have been completed4 ,never cross in front of a set trap1 or you may pay dearly for doing so4 ,in situations where it is not convenient or profitable to construct arrow traps1 deer are often taken in considerable numbers by first forming a rough fence of tree trunks and branches1 and then making openings just large enough for the animals to pass through at intervals4 ,in these pass ways nooses of strong cord are suspended in such a way that1 as the deer endeavours to force its way through1 the slip knot tightens round his neck and holds him fast until dispatched4 ,tough1 elastic young trees are not unfrequently made to do duty as deer traps1 by bending them down until their tops are a few feet from the earth2 a running loop of strong cord is then made fast to the extreme end of the natural spring1 which is held down by a line1 peg1 and trigger arrangement set in the deer path4 ,as the animal1 in straying onward1 catches his leg in the line1 the trigger sets the bow free1 the noose runs home1 and the captive swings aloft4 ,some of the jungle tribes of ,india make use of an ingenious hook arrangement for deer and antelope catching1 which is thus prepared3 ,a pebble from the river bed1 a stout1 sharp1 hook-shaped thorn and a short piece of twisted hide or grass rope are used to make the trap4 ,the pebble has a hole made in one of its ends1 through this one end of the rope is looped1 whilst the other end is securely lashed to the thick end of the hooked thorn1 as shown in the annexed illustration4 ,this contrivance is baited by placing a small round jungle fruit1 of which deer are very fond1 on the hook1 which is1 with its cord and pebble1 laid in the path which the animals follow in going to and from water4 ,on the bait being taken into the mouth1 the hook quickly becomes embedded in the loose skin below the tongue4 ,the deer1 being unable to get rid of it1 strikes impatiently upwards with one of its fore-feet1 stamping furiously1 like an enraged sheep2 in doing this1 the cleft between the two hoof-tips1 being open1 receives the cord1 the pebble runs up to the back of the pastern1 into the hollow of the heel1 holds fast there1 and so compels the deluded beast to caper about on three legs1 when a well-directed arrow soon settles the matter4 ,on the ,american ,continent a sport known as fire-hunting is much followed4 ,this mode of hunting is prosecuted at night4 ,the hunter provides himself with a rifle1 an old frying-pan1 fastened to the end of a pole1 and a good supply of resinous pine knots4 ,these he ignites in the pan1 and as the bright flame leaps up1 he watches carefully for the gleam from the eyes of the deer amongst the dark shadows of the forest4 ,when the two glowing orbs are perceived a ball is directed immediately between them4 ,canoes are not unfrequently used in fire-hunting1 when the deer are lily-root hunting on the borders of lakes and rivers4 ,salt-licks or saline incrustations are powerful attractions to deer1 who will travel long distances at night to indulge their fondness for salt1 when they can be often shot in great numbers by the aid of fire kindled near the lick4 ,trappers and squatters at times manufacture artificial salt-licks by boring a great number of auger-holes in prostrate tree trunks2 these1 when tightly rammed with salt1 seldom fail to attract such deer as may be in the vicinity4 ,care must1 however1 be taken that domestic cattle are not shot at the lick in mistake1 as the salt is much relished by them4 ,illustration ,when a deer is killed by the hunter at some distance from camp1 he either protects it from the attacks of animals or birds of prey until it can be conveniently removed1 or proceeds to prepare it for packing at once on his horse1 pony1 or mule4 ,in countries where there are no vultures1 animals of medium size may be kept in safety by attaching them to a spring-pole1 or riser4 ,this is made by bending down a tough1 elastic young tree until the crown fork is reached2 trim this in such a way with your hunting knife that a sort of hooked crutch is formed4 ,now lock the hind legs of your animal together by making a slit behind one back tendon1 and running the opposite leg through until the hough joint prevents its return2 place the loop thus formed over your hook-crutch1 and then let the tree spring back to its original erect position1 and your game will be safe from ground pilferers4 ,the pole will be too small for bears to climb4 ,birds and wild cats are scared away by attaching a few bits of coloured rag1 or a fluttering pocket handkerchief to the prong4 ,large red deer or moose can be cut up before suspension4 ,when large animals have to be left whole and unskinned in the woods1 lay them longways against the side of a fallen log2 cover them with thorn bushes1 and then proceed to cut some long thin wands1 or small branches2 strip the bark from them1 in order that the white stick may show4 ,plant the ends in the earth1 and bend the upper portions of the rods over the thorn bushes1 amongst which they can be wattled4 ,few wolves will face this arrangement1 as it looks too much like a trap to be safely ventured on4 ,to prepare a deer for packing on a horse which has to carry the hunter as well1 proceed as follows3--,first make an incision directly behind the back of the head1 above what is called the pithing spot1 or joint between the atlas and dentata of anatomists2 cut round the neck until the muscles1 c41 are all divided2 then twist the head round1 using the antlers as a pair of levers2 divide the attachment between the two bones just mentioned1 and the head is separated from the neck4 ,cut the neck from the body just at the last neck joint1 which lays in front of and above the shoulders4 ,cut off all the feet at the pastern joints4 ,now pass your knife directly in through the front line of the breast bone1 and cut forward and back until the brisket is completely divided4 ,then in the same line carry your cut straight down the centre of the belly until the point of your knife rests on the root of the tail4 ,feel for the arch bone of the pelvis1 skin back the tissues from it1 place your knife on its centre with the heel of the blade close to the border of the bone4 ,if the knife is a powerful one1 and in good order1 a little dexterity in its use will suffice to divide the arch at once4 ,when this has been done1 return to the brisket1 force open the cut made in it1 insert the two hands1 and pull right and left until you can bring your knee to bear in flattening out the two sides by the giving way of the heads of the ribs4 ,take the two thighs and spread them open in the same manner4 ,when this is done seek for the end of the windpipe2 when found make a hole through it and pass in a short stick for a cross handle to hold on by1 pull it upwards and backwards1 cutting away right and left above it such adhesions as will be found1 turn out all the intestines by freeing them in the same manner1 taking care not to puncture them during the operation4 ,if the work has been properly done nothing but the kidneys will remain in the body of the deer1 which can be easily lashed fast to the ,ds behind the saddle4 ,the liver and heart can be made a separate package of1 as they are well worth taking home4 ,fall-traps4 ,a great number of forms of the fall-trap1 as it is called1 are to be found in different parts of the world1 and trappers of fur-bearing animals avail themselves extensively of the use of engines of this description4 ,from the largest bear to the tiny ermine the drop or deadfall produces death1 just as we see the common slide-door cage successfully used in taking alive either the royal ,bengal tiger or the pilfering kitchen mouse4 ,deadfall traps are especially valuable to the northern trapper1 who1 with axe1 knife1 and rifle1 penetrates vast solitudes in search of furs4 ,the materials for his traps cost him merely the trouble of cutting them from the surrounding forest2 but no little ingenuity1 forethought1 and deep calculation are needed to so arrange the tree-trunks1 pegs1 sticks1 and baits1 as to successfully impose on creatures so richly endowed with instinct as the fur-coated inhabitants of the wilds4 ,illustration3 ,,figure ,,of ,,four ,,trap1 ,,set ,,and ,,divided4 ,illustration3 ,,bear ,,trap4 ,illustration3 ,,squirrel ,,trap4 ,the martin trap is a contrivance much used for taking small animals of the weasel tribe1 is generally useful1 and is made as follows3 ,when you have reason to suspect the presence of the animals you are in search of1 either from having seen their tracks or noted their movements1 proceed to build your pound wall1 as it is called4 ,this is a horse-shoe or half-tower arrangement1 about #d;ft4 in height1 built up with heavy stones and pieces of hard compact turf4 ,through the centre of the back of your half tower pass a stout1 rounded1 smooth stick1 about the size of a common broom handle1 sharpen the end which comes to the front1 and adjust it so that1 when the wall is completed1 it may project at about #b;ft4 #f;in4 from the ground1 and #d;in4 within the line of the two side walls4 ,now1 with your axe1 fell a good heavy straight young log1 long enough to lay well across the front of your pound when brought up almost in contact with the stones forming the ends4 ,now1 with your knife1 make your figure of four1 the principle of which is shown in the above illustration4 ,when this is completed make your loop-line4 ,this is a stout strand of twisted cedar bark1 with a smoothly-tied loop at one end4 ,this loop is run on the projecting stick in the centre of the pound1 and pushed back until the loop touches the back wall4 ,the other end of the line is made fast1 about #d;in4 from the ground to the bait1 which must be perfectly fresh1 clean1 sweet1 and uncontaminated1 to be of any use4 ,any small pieces of bird or squirrel will do4 ,when the bait is attached1 the figure of four is brought into use4 ,the main stem or king post rests on the sharpened end of the centre projecting stick which holds the loop and bait1 whilst the drop log rests on the crown point at a slant4 ,immediately on the animal taking the bait1 he walks backward with it1 draws the loop along the stick until it draws the king post away1 when down drops the fall log across his back and instantly kills him1 without injuring his skin4 ,in the ,north of ,europe a variety of modifications of the figure of four are used for destroying bears1 gluttons1 and other animals4 ,the woodcuts given on this and the previous page will serve to explain the nature of three of them4 ,illustration3 ,,plank ,,fall-,,trap4 ,great numbers of foxes are taken by the ,swedish hunters by the use of a contrivance known as a tana4 ,this is usually made from the stump end of a small tree1 chopped with the axe to a sloping or wedge-like form4 ,two cuts are then made1 one on each side the centre or highest point1 on which the bait1 usually a cat's head1 or any piece of offal1 is fixed4 ,in performing a series of leaps to get at the bait1 the fox gets one of his fore-paws in a slit1 as shown in the annexed illustration1 when he remains a prisoner until dispatched by the hunter4 ,illustration ,the fox hook is another contrivance for the capture of foxes and wolves4 ,the illustration on the following page shows the hook when set and before baiting4 ,the body or slip of the contrivance is made by pinning two hard wood sheaves or trucks to a block-piece of any tough wood2 a tough young tree is bent down to form the spring2 a loop1 or bellying of the line1 which must be of strong cord1 is placed between the trucks1 and a small wedge inserted to keep it there4 ,the hook1 which is best made from bone or horn1 is next baited with a piece of meat1 and placed on the ground4 ,when a fox or wolf seizes the bait1 the first determined tug he gives draws out the wedge4 ,the block-piece1 with its trucks1 remains attached to a stump1 whilst the pole-spring flies violently up1 and carries with it the prowler1 who hangs like some fur-jacketed and odd-looking fish4 ,assafoetida1 when rubbed against stumps and logs1 is said to attract wolves4 ,illustration ,the professional trapper1 who derives his livelihood from the sale of the skins which good fortune and skill combined may cast in his way1 avails himself largely of the use of the steel trap or gin for the capture of animals of all kinds and descriptions2 and in no country in the world has the manufacture and use of this valuable contrivance reached such perfection as in the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,the steel traps manufactured at ,oneida1 on the ,newhouse principle1 are admirable1 and range from the #j size1 adapted for musk-rat1 to ,no4 #f1 or the great bear tamer1 represented in the annexed illustration4 ,illustration ,when large traps1 such as that just described1 are used1 there will not unfrequently be some risk and danger in setting them4 ,mr4 ,newhouse1 the maker of the ,oneida trap1 gives the following hints on the subject in his valuable work on ,american trapping3 ,all that is necessary to be carried into the woods to do this is four strong leathern straps furnished with buckles4 ,when you wish to set a trap1 cut four levers of a size and length proportioned to the size of the trap1 take two of them2 make a loop of one of the straps and slip it over one end of each1 then bring the trap spring between them1 press them together1 and adjust a loop over the other ends of the levers4 ,serve the other spring in the same way4 ,now spread the jaws1 adjust the dog and pan1 loosen the levers1 and your trap is set4 ,the straps weigh only a few ounces1 and are easily carried4 ,he also gives us a valuable hint or two on the use of so-called sliding poles1 which are contrivances much used by trappers1 and astutely remarks as follows3 ,animals of aquatic habits1 when caught in traps1 invariably plunge at once into deep water1 and it is the object of the trapper1 availing himself of this plunge1 to drown his captive as soon as possible1 in order to avoid his violence1 and keep him out of the reach of other animals4 ,the weight of the trap and chain is usually sufficient for this purpose in the case of the musk rat4 ,but in taking the larger amphibious animals1 such as the beaver1 the trapper uses a contrivance which is called the 'sliding pole4' ,it is prepared in the following manner3 ,cut a pole #aj;ft4 or #ab;ft4 long1 leaving branches enough on the small end to prevent the ring of the chain from slipping off2 place this pole near where you set your trap in an inclined position1 with its small end reaching into the deepest part of the stream1 and its large end secured at the bank by a hook driven into the ground2 slip the ring of your chain on to this1 and see that it is free to traverse down the length of the pole4 ,when the animal is taken1 it plunges desperately into the region towards which the pole leads4 ,the ring slides down to the end of the pole at the bottom of the stream1 and1 with a short chain1 prevents the victim from rising to the surface or returning to the shore4 ,whilst on the subject of steel traps1 it may be well to observe that the bait1 whatever it may be1 should never be placed on the plate of the trap4 ,hang it up on a stick2 strew it round about2 lay it before or behind the trap in a run1 or set the trap without bait1 but do not bait the trap itself1 as doing so with wild forest animals is next to useless4 ,do not secure your trap chain to a fixed object1 as the animal will probably get free4 ,when setting your traps1 cut clogs for them2 these clogs are merely short lengths of pole1 of weight and size proportioned to the size of the trap4 ,do not fasten the clog so that it may drag crosswise1 or it will become fixed amongst the undergrowth4 ,to make it travel end-on place the ring of the chain over the end of the clog1 which should be large enough to fit it moderately tight1 then with your tomahawk 7which should always be at your side whilst trapping7 split the clog end1 insert a stout flat wedge1 and drive it home2 this will effectually keep the ring on and prevent crossing4 ,traps should be rendered perfectly sweet before setting by putting them in the camp fire and heating them up to a point just below that which would tend to injure the springs4 ,boiling hot water and wood ashes are sometimes used for the same purpose4 ,sheepskin gloves with the wool on may be used to handle the traps with in order that no taint from the trapper may remain about them4 ,many baits are prepared by trappers for luring animals to the trap4 ,the much-lauded beaver medicine1 or castor bait1 is a white creamy secretion found in the neighbourhood of a set of glands near the scrotum of the male beaver4 ,foxes are often attracted by laying down some earth taken from a fox den1 or by scattering small pieces of fried meat dressed with honey about the neighbourhood of the traps4 ,mr4 ,newhouse strongly recommends as a fox bait the following preparation3 ,obtain from the female of the dog-fox1 or wolf1 the matrix in the season of coition1 and preserve it in a quart of alcohol tightly corked2 leave a small portion of this preparation on something near the trap1 and then1 putting some of it on the bottoms of your boots from time to time1 strike large circles in two different directions leading round the trap4 ,a very attractive baiting oil for mink and other fish-eating animals may be made by cutting any kind of fish into small pieces1 leaving them in an unstoppered bottle1 and allowing them to be exposed to the sun and air2 putrefaction soon takes place1 and a thick strong oil is formed1 the smell of which is a great attraction4 ,musk rats1 which abound in many of the shallow lakes and river bottoms of ,america1 are either speared through the walls of their winter houses by trappers who travel over the ice in pursuit of them1 or captured in steel traps of the description already spoken of4 ,a musk-rat spear is made by mounting a smooth polished rod of highly-tempered steel in a #c;ft4 or #d;ft4 handle1 just as a chisel is fitted4 ,the blade or tine should be about a yard long and a little under half an inch in diameter4 ,the point should be as sharp as a needle4 ,in using this instrument1 the hunter looks out sharply for a spot of white or hoar frost on the dome of the musk rat house2 through this he plunges his spear1 knowing that the sleeping family is beneath it4 ,the heat given off by the animals causes a partial thaw1 which leads to the tell-tale white incrustation4 ,on the rats being transfixed1 a hole is cut with a tomahawk through which to take them out1 when a steel trap is set for the capture of such fugitives as may have escaped the pointed steel4 ,catching birds4 ,the explorer's larder will not unfrequently depend for a supply on such feathered game1 large or small1 as good fortune may place at his disposal4 ,in many regions animals of the chase1 properly so called1 do not exist2 in others1 they are so thinly scattered over a large extent of country that their capture is at the best precarious and uncertain4 ,few routes1 however1 which the traveller could select on the face of the habitable globe will be found destitute of feathered inhabitants of some kind4 ,we know of no bird which could not1 under the pressure of hunger1 be turned to account4 ,vultures are1 perhaps1 the most repulsive feathered creatures in creation1 and yet instances are not wanting in which starving men have fed on them4 ,our space will not admit of our entering on a description of the various and complex net arrangements made use of in the capture of wildfowl in decoys by the continental sportsman4 ,we shall deal only with such contrivances as may be turned out of hand by the exercise of a little ingenuity and the use of simple tools and common appliances4 ,ostrich catching--the ostrich being the largest known bird--perhaps deserves the first place in our list4 ,illustration ,a variety of methods are adopted for the capture of the ostrich and emu by the natives of the countries in which they are found4 ,the ,arabs and ,cabiles of ,algeria organise regular ostrich hunts1 for which the horses are systematically trained by having their food gradually decreased in bulk1 and being ridden long distances daily in the full heat of the sun4 ,the ostriches1 when found1 are headed towards an ambuscade of mounted hunters1 who1 when the birds approach within the required distance1 dash out from their concealment1 and literally ride down the game1 which1 when thoroughly exhausted1 is knocked on the head with short heavy sticks4 ,the ,bushmen of ,africa lie carefully concealed1 with their bows and arrows1 at a convenient distance from the nests of the birds or the edge of a vley or pool to which they come to drink4 ,stalking is an art the ,bushman excels in2 and1 with a piece of ostrich skin on his back1 a stick roughly hewn into the form of the neck and head of the bird1 together with his short bow1 in the left hand1 and a supply of arrows in his head band 7as shown in the annexed woodcut71 the cunning hunter creeps up wind towards the feeding flock1 and not unfrequently succeeds in shooting down more than one before the alarm is given4 ,the ,australian native1 when emu hunting1 provides himself with a leaf-covered branch large enough to effectually conceal him as he advances step by step up wind towards the birds as they stalk forward and back on the plain in search of food4 ,when within range the native fits the hollow end of his long fire-hardened spear into the tooth of his womera1 or throwing stick1 and sends it whistling on its mission of death4 ,in ,south ,america the ostrich is hunted by mounted men1 who capture it by the aid of the bolas1 which consists of three rounded pebbles sewn up in raw hide cases and attached to strips of hide1 which are united in the centre4 ,in the use of this contrivance the balls are made to whirl rapidly round the head of the hunter as he gallops towards his prey1 and diverge to the full extent of their thong attachments4 ,when sufficiently close to the object of pursuit1 the whole affair is launched forth with extraordinary force and precision1 entangling the legs1 wings1 or neck of the bird1 and not unfrequently inflicting a heavy stunning blow or two as well4 ,in districts where wheeled vehicles are employed by either settlers or natives1 ostriches or emus may be successfully approached by concealing yourself in one of them as they go creaking and jolting slowly in a line with the flock4 ,by a little management the bullock team may be so guided as to edge down until at very close quarters1 when a heavy charge of buckshot under the wing1 or a well-directed bullet through the body1 seldom fails in bringing the game to bag4 ,we have successfully approached bustards in this manner1 both in ,india and ,tartary4 ,before commencing your stalk1 it is well to arrange some straw or reed in the cart1 waggon1 or hackery in such a manner that it shall afford concealment without preventing you1 when within shot1 from instantly starting1 gun in hand1 to a kneeling posture1 which we have found the best attitude to shoot in when subjected to the irregular motion of a vehicle with wheels out of circle1 and travelling over a plain without roads4 ,for this description of shooting1 a strong hard-shooting gun is needed4 ,one of the kind described at page #i of this work will be found well adapted for the purpose1 and is identical in size of bore--viz41 #aa--weight1 c41 with one we always use4 ,when about to commence bustard shooting1 it will be well1 if you have no ,ely's wire cartridges1 which are of the greatest value for all large fowl1 to prepare some from old kid-glove fingers1 or oiled silk1 as directed at pp4 #bce and #bcf4 ,it is seldom1 even when shooting with heavy charges of powder and cartridges1 that standing or running shots at bustards prove fatal4 ,we have found it the best plan to continue the approach steadily1 until the bird1 becoming alarmed1 makes a short rapid run1 as it almost invariably will1 and then spreads its wide wings for flight4 ,then fire well to the front and below the wing1 and the chances are greatly in favour of the sportsman4 ,illustration3 ,,traps ,,for ,,small ,,game4 ,wild turkeys are approached by the aid of a call made from a hollow bone4 ,some skill and experience are needed both to make the call and use it when made4 ,some hunters succeed in imitating the cluck1 or yelp as it is called1 without the aid of the bone2 but to do this it is necessary to study the exact pitch and intonation of the bird's voice1 which can only be done by listening to it4 ,great numbers of wild turkeys are taken in cribbets1 or pens1 which are made much on the same principle as the bird trap shown at the front of our full-page illustration1 only that1 instead of sticks of ordinary size1 poles are made use of4 ,the following directions for making a wild turkey pen or trap are given by ,audubon1 and are thoroughly practical and to the purpose3 ,young trees of four or five inches in diameter are cut down and divided into pieces of the length of twelve or fourteen feet4 ,two of these are laid on the ground parallel to each other1 at a distance of ten or twelve feet4 ,two other pieces are laid across the ends of these at right angles to them1 and in this manner successive layers are added until the fabric is raised to the height of four feet4 ,it is then covered with similar pieces of wood placed three or four inches apart1 and loaded with one or two heavy logs to render the whole firm4 ,this done1 a trench about eighteen inches in depth and width is cut under one side of the cage1 into which it opens slantingly and rather abruptly4 ,it is continued on its outside to some distance1 so as gradually to attain the level of the surrounding ground4 ,over the part of this trench within the pen1 and close to the wall1 some sticks are placed so as to form a kind of bridge about a foot in breadth4 ,the trap being now finished1 the owner places a quantity of ,indian corn in its centre as well as in the trench1 and as he walks off drops here and there a few grains in the woods1 sometimes to the distance of a mile4 ,this is repeated at every visit to the trap after the turkeys have found it4 ,sometimes two trenches are cut1 in which case the trenches enter on opposite sides of the trap1 and are both strewn with corn4 ,no sooner has a turkey observed the train of corn than it communicates the circumstance to the flock by a cluck1 when all of them come up1 and1 searching for the grains scattered about1 at length come upon the trench1 which they follow1 squeezing themselves one after another through the passage under the bridge4 ,in this manner the whole flock sometimes enters1 but more commonly six or seven only1 as they are alarmed by the least noise1 even the cracking of a tree in frosty weather4 ,those within1 having gorged themselves1 raise their heads and try to press their way through the top or sides of the pen1 passing and repassing on the bridge1 but never for a moment looking down or attempting to escape through the passage by which they enter4 ,thus they remain until the owner of the trap1 arriving1 closes the trench1 and secures his captives4 ,great numbers of both capercailzie and blackcock are taken in the forests of northern ,europe by the aid of traps and snares4 ,the former differ in form of construction with the district in which they are used4 ,deadfalls are in common use4 ,they are either made in such a way as to allow one long heavy pole to fall on the bird1 or seven or eight stout poles are battened together as they would be to form a door4 ,a hole is cut in the upper end large enough for the main post or setting stick to pass up through as the flap of the trap falls4 ,the figure-of-four form of release is that usually made use of4 ,the illustrations at page #ffc will serve to show the arrangement when put together and the mode of notching the separate portions4 ,birch or beech wood makes excellent figure-of-four traps4 ,cowberries and other forest fruits are used as baits to strew in and about the traps4 ,a very ingenious form of pen trap is also much used in the ,north for blackcock capture2 it is called the orre tratt1 and is thus constructed3 ,a young pine of about #ab;ft4 high is selected as the centre pole2 all the branches are removed1 and the top of a well-grown young spruce fir tree lashed in a reversed position to the pole about #d;ft4 from the ground2 a crutch or fork is now fastened with cord to the head of the pole2 within about #a;ft4 of the top in this crutch is lashed the tip stick1 which is so tied as to act as a scale-beam or the see-saw used by boys2 a bunch of wheat or other corn in the ear is secured to the extreme end of the main pole4 ,when these arrangements have been made1 a number of larch poles with the bark on are driven in round the main pole in funnel form1 much as young trees are defended from the attacks of deer or rabbits in this country4 ,the top of the funnel should be about #d;ft41 and the bottom about #bj;in4 across4 ,a few tough sticks or vines wattled in here and there give firmness and compactness to the structure4 ,when this is complete1 plant a few poles1 with bunches of partly threshed oat or barley reed tied to their tops in such a way that a good foothold may be afforded to birds on cross branches left for the purpose1 which should be near enough to the tip stick of the main pole for a blackcock to hop easily off when attracted by the bunch of wheat ears4 ,the instant he settles on the tip stick it gives way1 and allows him to drop down into the pen on the fir-branch frill in the centre1 which instantly gives way under his weight1 and lets him down to the bottom4 ,should he attempt to rise1 the barb-like pine branches keep him down4 ,the tip stick1 having fallen back to its original position1 is ready for a fresh victim1 who quickly descends to join his fellow in the bottom of the pen1 which has been known to become well filled during a short winter's day4 ,illustration3 ,a-,f ,snares4 ,snares may be made of annealed brass or copper wire1 or of several strands of twisted horsehair4 ,twisted copper or brass wire makes excellent snares1 but it must be very soft and pliable4 ,iron wire1 when used as a makeshift for the two former descriptions of material1 should be annealed before use3 this process1 which adds greatly to the pliability and tenacity of iron wire1 is conducted as follows3 ,double your wire into a hank or bundle of convenient size2 twist a loose rope made of dried grass or straw round it in all directions until the coil is completely covered2 ignite the straw or hay band1 and let it burn to ashes2 let your wire cool gradually1 and you will find it almost as pliant as a thong4 ,the snoods1 or grains as they are called1 are best made from stout white horsehair1 twisted by the aid of a half-opened pocket knife1 as at ,fig4 #a1 page #eih4 ,immense numbers of these are made in some districts for the capture of snipes and woodcocks1 and are used in a kind of trap known as a springle4 ,as a ground trap for birds1 it is1 perhaps1 the most remunerative that can be set2 its form1 when adjusted for use1 is shown at the front of the full-page illustration1 ,traps for ,small ,game4 ,common hazel is the best material to make all the woodwork of a springle from4 ,the annexed illustration shows the arrangement in a divided form4 ,the parts consist of the riser ,a1 the sweik ,b1 the bow ,c1 the hookpost ,d1 and the button ,e4 ,the riser line--a piece of stout twisted twine--the grains1 and the button in place are shown at ,f4 ,the riser should be planted so as to lay well back1 in order that it may exercise its full power when in action4 ,when setting this description of trap for snipes or woodcocks no bait is used4 ,a convenient spot is chosen on the ground in which they bore for food2 and a roading is then made with small bent twigs1 as in the annexed illustration1 in extended ,v form4 ,illustration ,the sweik is set directly across the narrow pass1 formed by the convergence of the two twig walls or hedges4 ,no woodcock or snipe will ever pass out over the barrier formed by the bent twigs4 ,feeding and running onwards1 they merely touch their beaks against the border hedge1 work their way up the gradually narrowing passage1 until the sweik1 with its surrounding of grains or snare1 is reached1 when the head or feet of the bird1 pressing down the former1 releases the button from its hold on the notch4 ,the riser flies up1 and the neck1 or some other portion of the body of the bird1 is caught within the noose1 which holds the game firmly against the bow1 until strangled or taken out by the trapper4 ,we have seen hundreds of springles set along the lines formed by the wheels of a waggon across an open stretch of plain or moorland4 ,water settling in these forms a sort of water road for snipes to run in4 ,two or three twigs on each side are all that will be needed at each trap1 in such a favourable trapping ground as this4 ,on an open flat or marsh meadow1 #ad;ft4 or #ae;ft4 of twig roading will not be too much for each side or limb of the double or single ,v arrangement4 ,springles set for birds1 requiring a bait such as fieldfares1 blackbirds1 missel thrushes1 redwings1 c41 should have their sweiks placed over shallow oval pits2 hawthorn1 paracanthus or cotoneaster berries1 rotten apples1 or ears of unthreshed wheat or barley make good baits for springles4 ,vast numbers of migratory birds of the thrush tribe are taken for the market on the ,continent and in the north of ,europe by the use of various forms of the dona4 ,this is a trap made by either bending into half-hoop form a stick either growing or inserted in an auger hole bored in a tree4 ,the string used to bend the bow1 and form a head line for the hair nooses or snares1 is usually made of bast obtained from the lime or linden tree2 twine1 or any other cord-like material1 will answer the same purpose4 ,several forms of this kind of trap will be seen suspended from the trees in the full-page illustration1 representing ,traps for ,small ,game4 ,a very excellent form of spring bow trap is made by bending a strong pliant hazel or other stick into the form shown in the annexed illustration4 ,bore a hole through one end with a red-hot wire2 draw the snare or grains through the hole until the two ends of the bow closely approach each other1 then force the end of the tread-fork 7,a71 which must be cut to a truncated conical form1 into the hole 7,b71 until the grains is held by it in such a way that the force of the bow cannot draw it through the hole1 and yet pressure on the tread-fork will displace it1 and set the grains free to be drawn through the hole1 unless the bird which has stepped on the fork is caught1 in which case it is held1 as shown in the full-page illustration4 ,larks1 quails1 finches1 c41 are readily taken in snares1 hung either from bows or stretched lines adjusted so as to hang just above the ground2 several of these arrangements are shown in the full-page illustration4 ,chaff or grain should be scattered about traps of this kind1 which answer best when snow is on the ground4 ,a great number of both birds and small animals are to be taken in cribbets3 these are pyramidal-shaped pens1 or cages1 built up by placing round1 straight sticks1 with the bark on1 one on the other1 just as a log house is built1 only that cribbet sticks are not notched as logs are for building4 ,when the cribbet is built to the required size and height for the description of game to be caught in it1 a string at each corner1 brought to the apex of the trap1 gathered together in a knot1 and made tight by twisting round a stick placed in the loop1 makes all firm and compact4 ,a piece of bent vine or briar serves to set the trap1 which is arranged as shown in the full-page illustration4 ,illustration ,wild geese1 ducks1 widgeon1 teal1 water rails1 coots1 c4 c41 are taken readily by traps properly set for them4 ,on the coasts of ,finland and ,lapland great numbers of wild geese are taken by forming a little fence or hurdle 7which stands about breast high to a goose71 on projecting points or spits of land which stretch out into the bays or harbours4 ,unbarked sticks1 about the size of a common walking-stick1 are thrust firmly into the ground1 at about #aj;ft4 or #ab;ft4 apart1 and then at every third or fourth stick a second is placed at about a foot from the other1 forming1 so to speak1 a pair of gate posts1 and in such a manner as to form an irregular line1 completely surrounding the sea-line of the spit4 ,a string or wire is now stretched tightly from stick to stick1 only omitting the spaces left between the pairs of posts4 ,these are left unfenced1 and are each provided with a running noose1 made of twisted hair or wire1 which is secured to one of the posts4 ,when the arrangement is complete1 barn refuse is scattered inside the fence4 ,the geese1 coming in from the sea to feed1 breast the fence1 until an opening1 formed by one of the gates1 is found4 ,this is quickly entered1 and the noose1 running in round the neck of the intruder1 holds him fast4 ,a sort of trap raft frame is much used for duck catching during winter in the north4 ,some short pieces of board serve to form the side and end floats of the raft4 ,an upright post is set at each corner1 and a top line is stretched round the heads of the side and end posts1 as shown in the annexed illustration4 ,hair or wire nooses are set all round the duck raft1 which is usually floated in a hole made in the ice2 a quantity of water plants1 pulled up by the roots1 are thrown within the barriers4 ,the ducks or other fowl1 in endeavouring to force their way through the loops1 are hung by the neck1 and strangled4 ,illustration ,wooden frames are also mounted with wire snares and cross strings1 as shown in the illustration on page #fgg1 and prepared for sinking1 by the aid of stones1 through holes in the ice1 until they are about #c;ft4 or #e;ft4 beneath the surface4 ,the ducks congregate in these holes1 and in diving after food become entangled in the snares1 and are drowned4 ,the frames are hauled up once or twice during the day1 for the purpose of removing the dead birds4 ,small-sized fish hooks1 fastened to stout line or twine1 and baited with bits of unio1 pond mussel1 or other fresh-water molluscs1 removed from the shell1 make good traps for ducks4 ,herons1 storks1 egrets1 and other wader birds1 can be caught by hooks baited with small fish4 ,sea-fowl are caught in considerable numbers by baiting ordinary fishing hooks and lines with bits of pork rind or fish offal4 ,illustration ,ducks and other wildfowl are captured by the natives of ,australia by the aid of a long rod or wand1 to which a fine strong noose of twisted bark is attached4 ,furnished with this contrivance1 the native proceeds to make for himself a head dress or crown of river weeds1 and then1 wand in hand1 swims and wades out to where the unsuspecting fowl are feeding and disporting themselves2 here1 with the rod resting on the surface of the water1 and pushed forward1 duck after duck is first noosed by the neck1 and then drawn under the surface to the duck-catcher1 who quickly attaches the victims to his belt by slip-loops fastened to it for the purpose4 ,both the ,chinese and ,indians take wildfowl on ponds or lakes by the aid of a gourd shell placed on the head4 ,a few real gourds or pumpkins are first launched well to windward1 and allowed to float amongst the birds in order to allay suspicion4 ,the fowler then1 with his gourd-shell cap 7in which two small peepholes are cut7 on his head and neck1 enters the water at some spot where a clump of reeds or rushes can be found as a concealment1 and then swiftly swims or wades1 as the depth of the water may render necessary1 out amongst the birds4 ,here he proceeds to draw as many as he requires down by the feet1 securing his game just as the ,australians fasten theirs4 ,the shooting or trapping of wildfowl by the white hunter or explorer is often much facilitated by the use of false or decoy birds4 ,these may be either solid blocks of carved wood1 painted so as to imitate the plumage of real birds 7the heads and necks of these should be made to take off71 stuffed skins mounted on wooden or bark floats1 sheet metal1 or gutta-percha models2 many of these are beautifully made1 but are rather costly and troublesome to carry4 ,we prefer1 when making use of a few decoys1 to employ duck1 goose1 or widgeon skins stuffed with bark chips1 and balanced with lead attached to a loop fastened to the breast4 ,bits of lead pipe make good weights4 ,each decoy bird should have an anchor weight and cable string attached to it1 so that it may remain in its proper place until picked up from the canoe by the aid of a long forked pole4 ,ambushes are often made use of in marshes1 on the borders of lakes1 or the banks of tidal rivers1 for the purpose of concealing the sportsman from the quick eyes of the passing fowl4 ,a good sized cask sunk in the ooze1 and then well furnished with straw1 makes a good lurking place4 ,on flats1 where the tide flows1 it is a good plan to plant four stout posts in a square4 ,bore sets of auger holes up each post in such a way that four stout iron or hard wood pins may be passed completely through the holes in the posts1 and project about six inches towards the interior of the square4 ,on these projecting ends a light platform or stage of boards is fixed for the sportsman to stand on2 a few bundles of marsh reeds1 fastened to the frame1 are so spread out as to form an effectual screen4 ,a narrow board to sit on is supported on two bars run through each pair of end posts4 ,when shooting ducks on the marshes of ,southern ,russia we used to form a sort of screen by cutting a bundle of marsh reeds1 fastening their tops together with a piece of twine1 spreading the lower ends out like a large extinguisher or the hat of a beehive1 and then placing the whole arrangement on the head4 ,when seated thus arrayed on a good thick pile of reeds1 with your legs encased in well-greased boots1 and your gun placed well under cover1 the ducks1 geese1 widgeon1 and other fowl1 come fearlessly by on whistling wing1 and are knocked over and bagged accordingly4 ,a contrivance1 known as the crinoline stalker1 may be used with advantage in approaching many descriptions of wildfowl2 this contrivance is made from four bars of wood nailed together in a square1 as a picture frame is made4 ,at each corner a leg is placed1 about knee high4 ,a string serves to sling the arrangement over the shoulders of the sportsman1 just as a falconer's hawk stand used to be carried4 ,a number of short lengths of cord or ropeyarn attached to the frame serve as lashings for bundles of reeds or long green branches1 so that1 when the stalker is adjusted properly1 the sportsman walks as though in a very large and high topped crinoline4 ,when he wishes to remain stationary1 he drops his frame so that the legs may rest on the ground4 ,he can then sit down on the hind bar and remain well concealed4 ,the gun is usually carried slung until required for use1 in order that the hands may be free to manage the crinoline4 ,calls4 ,calls of different kinds are generally made use of to attract deer1 wildfowl1 rails1 plover1 and partridges4 ,the moose deer is called with a trumpet formed from birch bark4 ,duck and goose calls vary in form with the locality in which they are used4 ,the natural windpipe and larynx1 freshly stripped from the bird1 are1 in the hands of a skilled performer1 the best that can be devised4 ,landrails can be brought close to the sportsman by the use of a small thin flat bone 7beef-rib bone is as good as any71 cut into teeth1 like those of a saw4 ,over these a thin flat strip of bone is drawn sharply and repeatedly until the answering bird is within shot4 ,partridge calls are made by stretching a bit of stout parchment or moistened vellum over the mouth of a common bottle neck1 broken off short4 ,when the stretched membrane is dry1 a small pin hole is made in its centre1 and through this a knotted horsehair is passed1 until the knot is drawn against the inside of the drum-head4 ,a little powdered resin is placed on the fingers1 and the hair is drawn sharply through in such a way that the voice of the real bird is closely imitated4 ,woodpigeon1 plover1 and weasel calls can be purchased for a small sum from any respectable gunmaker1 and are far better than most amateurs could hope to make4 ,they occupy a small space1 and can be easily stowed away in the gun case4 ,much might be said on the subject of wildfowl punts1 sunk flats1 fowling canoes1 c41 but a consideration of such appliances can be scarcely entered on in this work4 ,birdlime4 ,the use of birdlime may be often had recourse to for the capture of a great variety of birds1 particularly such as assemble in large flocks about the neighbourhood of springs or water holes4 ,the most expeditious and best mode of preparing birdlime is to place about a pint of linseed oil in an earthen pot or other vessel1 which should be set upright in the hot ashes of the camp fire1 and boiled slowly and steadily until reduced to about a third in quantity1 when1 instead of oil1 birdlime will be left in the vessel4 ,the inner bark of the holly1 some kinds of elm1 a parasitical plant like a mistletoe which grows from the mango tree1 the straight upright shoots of the common elder1 and several creepers or vine-like plants found in tropical countries1 produce birdlime4 ,to prepare it1 the bark1 after being scraped free from the outer shell1 must be boiled in rain-water for at least ten hours2 throw it then in a mass out on a cloth to drain2 dig a pit in the earth in a cool place1 put a flat stone in the bottom of the pit1 throw your bark in on the stone1 letting it rest as a pile or heap4 ,now place another flat stone on the top of the pile1 throw in grass round the edges to keep any earth from getting in1 fill up your pit with earth so as to leave a slight depression in the middle2 throw a little water into this every other day for three weeks1 when the bark will have become stringy and tough4 ,lay it now little by little between two rough stones1 and grind it into a paste4 ,work the paste with clean hands in a clear running stream1 until all impurities and foreign substances are washed away1 and then place it in a clean earthen pot1 covered with a tile or flat stone for a week1 when the lime will be fit for use4 ,when intended for the capture of small birds1 it should be smeared on sets of twigs or branches1 so set that the birds may settle easily on them4 ,when used for crow catching1 it is placed in a thick coat on the inside of paper cones1 which are made as though intended for silkworms to spin in2 each cone is baited by placing a piece of raw meat in its narrow end1 and then thrusting a thorn or sharp splinter of wood through both it and the paper4 ,the crow1 in attempting to get at the bait1 thrusts its head into the cone1 which remains fixed on like an extinguisher4 ,birds thus caught either flap about helplessly or keep mounting in the air until1 becoming exhausted1 they fall to the earth1 and are easily taken4 ,on some of the islands of the ,pacific vast quantities of dragon flies are taken for food by boys1 who1 armed with long wands tipped with birdlime1 lightly touch the insect1 which is at once secured1 and placed in a basket carried suspended from the shoulders4 ,poison4 ,we have always a great aversion to the use of poison as an agent for the destruction of animal life2 and it is only in cases of absolute necessity that recourse should be had to it4 ,the skins of fur-bearing animals so destroyed are very inferior to those obtained in the usual way4 ,the flesh of birds and animals poisoned by strychnine 7the agent commonly made use of by hunters and travellers for poisoning purposes7 is so intensely poisonous1 that any creature partaking of it is almost sure to perish4 ,it is1 therefore1 the best plan1 when it is considered advisable to rid the vicinity of the camp of the presence of furred or feathered carnivora1 to destroy some suffering or worn-out baggage mule or horse with strychnine1 and then place its remains in a position in which access to them is easy2 but see that your own dogs are secured1 or they1 with all the magpies1 crows1 vultures1 wolves1 wild dogs1 c41 c41 in the district1 will stand a fair chance of being destroyed4 ,we remember hearing of two settlers in ,australia who1 finding that their crops were seriously damaged by cocatoos1 tried all in their power to shoot them1 but to no purpose4 ,they at length prepared a quantity of corn with strychnine1 and spread it about the clearings4 ,the cocatoos eagerly devoured the grain1 fell dead in the forest1 and were in due time devoured by the dingoes or native wild dogs1 who in turn fell beneath the powers of the potent vomic nut4 ,it is best to take such strychnine as may be required from ,england4 ,apothecaries' ,hall is the best place to obtain it from4 ,the best way to pack it for travelling is in a stout glass-stoppered bottle1 which has had a strong tin case or jacket soldered over it4 ,the tin cover or cap fitting over all should have a skull conspicuously marked on it4 7,see ,box markings47 ,too much caution cannot be used in handling or dealing with this most deadly and fearful poison4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,palanquins1 ,,stretchers1 ,,ambulances1 ,,etc4 ,in many countries where it is difficult to keep riding or draught horses1 or where the want of roads precludes the use of wheeled carriages1 those who can afford to ride are borne upon the shoulders of men in conveyances more or less simple or elaborate2 and not only do these vary much in different countries1 but the mode of shouldering1 and even the step of the bearers is as various as the fashion of the vehicle4 ,the peculiar short trot of the palkee bearers differs from the elastic spring of the ,zambesians when they carry in single file1 and that again from their swinging walk or run when they carry in pairs--each man embracing his comrade1 while the pole rests on the right shoulder of one and on the left of the other2 while they walk on separate paths1 about #c;ft4 apart1 each man leaning inward1 at an angle of #ae degrees or #bj degrees towards his comrade1 just as the horse and rider lean inward in a circus4 ,the machila1 or masheela1 is simply a couch1 slung by chains or leather thongs to a pole of female bamboo of the largest possible diameter1 so that it may bear easily on the shoulders of the men1 and not cut them1 as a smaller pole would4 ,generally an awning of chintz or calico1 spread on yards like a boat's awning1 with curtains on either side1 is attached to the bamboo2 but sometimes1 when the masheela is intended to be more strictly a private carriage1 a sloping roof or pent-house of reeds is slung saddle-wise over the pole1 completely screening the occupant from the public eye1 while a small window on each side affords sufficient facility of observation from the interior4 ,all the ,portuguese on the ,zambesi keep masheelas and sets of bearers1 who generally have a tolerably easy time of it1 their duty being to convey their master or mistress to and from the corn land1 the church1 or any house in the little town where an evening party is afoot or a morning call to be made4 ,when it is actually necessary to carry a sick or disabled man1 a hammock may be extemporised1 by rolling a small stone into each corner of a blanket1 and thus forming a knob1 or projection which will prevent the slipping of the cords or thongs with which it is made fast to the pole4 ,we saw a young ,dutch lad1 under the influence of fever1 carried by a couple of ,zambesian natives in a skin hammock1 two corners of which were fastened to a short cross-pole1 or yard1 at the head1 while the other end was gathered up and tied altogether to the main or bearing pole4 ,illustration ,the pressure of this pole on one shoulder was partially relieved by a stick held lever-wise over the other1 so as to take a portion of its weight1 as shown in our illustration2 and1 in connection with this1 we may well remember the carrying stick of hawkers and packmen3--,smooth1 round1 and just thick enough to be grasped with comfort in the hand2 then spreading to nearly #c;in4 in breadth as it curves gently over the shoulder1 and again turning more decidedly upwards1 to form a hook for the pack to hang upon4 ,almost anyone with ordinary ingenuity and a little patience could find out the most convenient form for himself4 ,illustration3 #a-h ,fig4 #a1 in the following series of sketches1 is a hammock1 either of canvas1 like a seaman's1 or of ornamental grass rope1 like those of ,south ,america1 ,sierra ,leone1 or other places1 where considerable taste is often shown in weaving in the different lace-like patterns of the borders or in arranging the various colours4 ,the ends are spread by two sticks or stretchers1 about #b;ft4 long2 these may either be stitched or woven into the material1 or simply kept in place by having the ends of the clews knotted round them4 ,it is slung to a pole of female bamboo1 which should be as light and of as large diameter as possible4 ,fig4 #b is a cot1 a most luxurious arrangement1 which may be made up to any degree of simplicity or completeness4 ,the bottom consists of one breadth of stout canvas1 fully #f;ft4 in length1 or more if for a very tall man4 ,a piece about #a;ft4 in depth is then strongly seamed on to each end1 and a similar piece along each side2 and the upper edges of these should be turned down1 and sewn into pipes capable of containing poles or stretchers of about #a-a_/b;in4 in diameter4 ,these pieces should not be stitched together at the edges1 which meet when they are turned up1 but should have eyelet holes and lacings1 so that when not in use1 or when laid down as the foundation for a bed1 or taken apart to be washed1 the canvas may lie like a flat sheet4 ,the eyelet holes for the clews should be so made that each clew may encircle the stretcher in its canvas pipe and tie round it4 ,the ends of the stretchers should have holes bored in them1 so that they may be firmly1 but not too stiffly1 lashed together with small cord2 and those at the bottom may either be secured in the same manner1 or a regular frame of joiner's work may be made to fit it1 and a web of stout sacking or of cords tightly interlaced1 as in ,fig4 #f1 may be substituted4 ,fig4 #c is the common military stretcher1 which may be thus made3 ,take #f;ft4 of #cj;in4 wide stout canvas1 draw a line with chalk or charcoal #f;in4 from each side and parallel to it1 or fold and crease the canvas along a thread2 turn each edge down to one of these marks1 and stitch it so as to make a pipe of #f;in4 in circumference1 into which a pole1 somewhat smaller or a little less than #b;in4 in diameter1 will slip easily in and out2 these poles should be at least #h;ft4 or a trifle more to leave sufficient ends for the bearers4 ,then take two boards1 #e;in4 broad1 #a;in4 thick1 and a little over #b;ft4 long2 bore or cut in each two holes large enough to let the ends of the poles pass through2 and with the nearest parts of their circumference1 just #ah;in4 apart1 put them together1 as shown in ,fig4 #c2 when not in use1 lay the boards in1 as in ,fig4 #d1 and roll them upon the stretcher2 in this figure one of the poles is shown withdrawn from the side pipe4 ,in active service one of these is usually carried by a soldier in the rear of his company2 and if a comrade is wounded1 four men carry him on the stretcher1 while four more carry their muskets1 and act1 if necessary1 as a relief4 ,the wounded man's blanket and great coat serve for his pillow1 and those of his comrades1 if necessary1 are used to cover or support him in any position his injury may require4 ,a plot of ground1 as smooth and as much sheltered from shot as possible1 is selected4 ,the sufferer is laid down1 the poles are withdrawn from the pipes on each side1 so that there may be no impediment to medical examination2 and when the wound is dressed1 the poles are once more inserted1 and the man borne to the temporary or permanent hospital4 ,fig4 #e shows a little addition we improvised in ,damara land4 ,we screwed clamps of wood upon the end pieces1 and in them inserted other poles1 the lower ends of which were short1 and stout enough to serve as legs1 and converted the stretcher into a low bedstead1 while the upper supported a small awning1 and were steadied by stays leading to the ends of the bearing poles4 ,this was constructed for the purpose of bringing home a friend who had been wounded1 at a distance2 and during our journey towards the spot we used it nightly1 and found it a most comfortable bed2 it rolled up like the military stretcher1 and the clamps of the awning poles increased its bulk very slightly4 ,fig4 #f is the kadel1 or bed frame1 usually slung in a ,cape waggon1 with two of the yokes1 or more1 if necessary1 lashed under it as bearers4 ,fig4 #g shows how the muskets of a small party may be used to carry a wounded comrade4 ,the belts serve as lashings1 and overcoats or blankets as bedding2 or if grass1 or small branches are available1 a quantity may be cut1 and a tolerably soft couch made of them4 ,of course it is quite possible that eight muskets could not be spared2 in this case two only might be laid side by side1 with three across them--one to support the head and shoulders1 one under the hips1 and the third under the knees1 the belts passing as much as possible under the other portions of the body4 ,fig4 #h indicates the use of lances and swords for the same purpose2 the sketch is purposely made in the simplest possible form1 in order to show more clearly the principle of construction4 ,if more lances or swords are at hand1 the possessors of them will see at any moment how to suit the comfort of the wounded man better than any details we could give would teach them4 ,illustration ,the form of stretcher indicated in the accompanying engraving is worthy of remembrance3 it resembles two short ladders1 hinged side by side1 and is furnished with stout straps1 being often used with more regard to the security of the prisoner than to his comfort4 ,in some countries a couple of horses or donkeys are harnessed between the ends of two long poles or shafts1 on the centre of which the load is supported1 as shown in the annexed illustration4 ,this arrangement might1 under favourable circumstances1 be made available for the carriage of a wounded man1 or in a case of great emergency the ends of a blanket might be knotted together2 and1 two men being laid in the bights1 the central part might be laid across the back of a horse1 with one man hanging on each side1 and secured with the best means available at the moment4 ,among civilised nations it would1 perhaps1 be better to leave the wounded to the mercy of a victorious enemy than to risk the extinction of life by such rough means2 but in fighting savages no living man ought1 under any circumstances1 to be left in their power1 and a soldier had better die under the rough1 though kindly1 efforts of his comrades to remove him than become a prisoner--to be kept alive as long as he is capable of enduring torture4 ,illustration ,the ,kaffirs1 and we suppose most other savages1 carry off not only their wounded1 but also the dead1 not from any motives of humanity1 but simply to deprive the enemy of a trophy4 ,among some tribes a quantity of reeds are cut and made into a bundle1 with the corpse inside2 this is firmly lashed to a long pole1 and is easily carried upon men's shoulders4 ,when our late friend1 ,c4 ,j4 ,anderson1 was wounded in his gallant and self-sacrificing attempt to free the ,damaras from their ,namaqua oppressors1 we had to adopt a somewhat more elaborate arrangement4 ,the fact that a limb had been shattered rendered it impossible that he could lie with comfort upon the yielding canvas of the stretcher 7,fig4 #e of the group given on page #fhd72 and1 therefore1 when it was found necessary to remove him1 we sent to ,objimbengue for planks1 and with them made a level and unyielding surface1 supported by cross battens1 notched at each end1 so as to lie securely on the bearing poles4 ,on each side we raised one breadth of about #i;in41 making them work upon claw hinges of brass wire1 so that they could either be turned down or entirely removed at pleasure2 on these sides we screwed uprights or stanchions1 with notches in their edges1 so that crossbars could be laid in them 7as may be seen in our full-page illustration71 and raised or lowered from notch to notch as needful4 ,one of these crossbars was near the head of the stretcher1 so that he could occasionally rest his shoulders1 by taking hold of it by partially lifting himself from his bed2 and two others were nearer to the foot1 for the purpose of slightly supporting and steadying a box1 with falling sides1 in which1 for further security1 we encased the shattered leg4 ,when we halted to dress the wound the crossbars were first removed1 the sides let down or taken away1 the sides of the small box containing the limb also removed2 while the awning was left spread1 and occasionally blankets were stretched from trees to shield it from the direct action of the sun4 ,when the dressing was completed everything was easily restored to its place1 and a few points and lanyards1 knotted in their proper places1 made all fast again4 ,the same engraving also shows a rude but not an uncomfortable form of litter1 extemporised for a wounded ,damara1 from a forked branch1 with the smaller twigs lopped off where they were in the way1 or interwoven where they would serve to fill up a gap in the bed2 other boughs and cross pieces were added1 and a few skins1 karosses1 or blankets1 converted it into a very comfortable couch4 ,illustration ,sometimes a man1 though unable to walk1 can sit and practically support himself2 in this case two men may lay their muskets together1 end for end1 and hold them across between them for him to sit on1 with his arms upon their shoulders2 and even if they have no weapons at hand they may make him a very comfortable seat by joining their hands and arms1 as shown in the above illustration4 ,illustration3 ,,various ,,modes ,,of ,,carrying ,,the ,,sick ,,or ,,wounded4 ,thus1 the two bearers stand side by side1 and half facing each other1 ,no4 #a grasps his own right wrist with his left hand2 ,no4 #b does the same2 ,no4 #a then grasps the left wrist of ,no4 #b with his disengaged right hand1 and this brings the right hand of ,no4 #b into the proper position to catch the left wrist of ,no4 #a4 ,in this easily extemporised chair they can bear a tolerably heavy man without undue strain on the muscles of their own arms2 and when they become weary two others can at once take their places1 or they may gain a little relief by interchanging the position of their right and left hands1 while nothing can be more comfortable to a disabled man than the easy chair thus formed for him4 ,fig4 #d shows how a short pole can be used to form a seat-rest for carrying4 ,the mode of carrying used in mountainous countries by a chair strapped on the back of a porter1 and still further secured by a band passing round his forehead1 as shown at ,fig4 #e1 might occasionally be found useful4 ,the principle of the sedan1 or of the electioneering chair1 fastened on two fore and aft shoulder-poles1 in a manner which any sailor could effect with a few bits of cord1 should also be borne in mind1 to be used or not1 according to the necessity of the case4 ,bandages and medical appliances4 ,in our illustration on p4 #fij1 ,fig4 #a represents the cross bandages applied to an injured head2 and here we may remark1 once for all1 that in bandaging1 as in knotting or lashing1 simplicity is the essence of security4 ,let as many turns of the bandages be used as are absolutely necessary to cover and secure the dressings of the wound2 all in addition are not only superfluous1 but detrimental4 ,fig4 #b 7p4 #fij7 shows the support for a dislocated shoulder or broken collar-bone3 a roll or pad of calico is placed under the armpit1 and secured by a bandage over the opposite shoulder2 another bandage is then passed in figures-of-#h fashion round the arm and the body1 in order to confine the arm close to the side4 ,the arm of this figure1 with the palm of the hand placed against the breast1 as at ,fig4 #c 7p4 #fij71 shows the position in which the limb should be placed in cases of fracture of the bones or other injury2 the hand then lying between the prone and supine positions1 and the bones and muscles assuming1 without constraint1 their natural relative position towards each other4 ,this figure also shows the manner of applying a bandage to a taper limb4 ,if the bandage were wound spirally round1 one edge would be unduly tight while the other would be slack2 therefore1 at every turn round the limb a turn more or less decided is taken in the bandage1 which thus accommodates itself easily and exactly to the shape of the limb4 ,illustration3 #a-ac ,in the next figure is shown another form of head bandage 7,fig4 #d71 one part of which forms a loop1 while the next1 passing through it1 is turned upwards at right angles over the head1 and this is repeated until the whole1 or as much of the scalp as is necessary1 is covered4 ,this is a very convenient form when1 from any other injury1 it is not advisable to pass a cross bandage under the chin4 ,fig4 #e is the strapping or bandage for a broken jaw4 ,it is made of sticking plaister1 a hole is cut for the chin1 and the ends are cut in swallow tails1 to allow them to take the shape of the face they are laid on4 ,fig4 #f is the bandage for a broken rib4 ,if the body is at rest1 the bones will assume their natural place1 but the expansion and contraction of the chest in breathing disturbs and disunites them4 ,sometimes1 therefore1 the whole chest is tightly bandaged2 but as it will answer the purpose just as well if the injured side is prevented from expanding1 strips of adhesive plaister may be cut sufficiently long to reach from the sternum to the spine1 and so to confine the wounded side and leave the other free4 ,if the back of the hand should be injured1 it may be necessary to place a ball of calico or other soft substance in the palm of the hand1 then closing the fingers upon it to bind the fist firmly down1 as in ,fig4 #g4 ,if it is required to keep the elbow bent1 a bandage may be applied1 as in ,fig4 #h2 this may be in case of cuts in the bend of the arm or similar injuries4 ,figs4 #h1 #i1 and #aj are ,t and cross bandages in case of injuries in the groin4 ,fig4 #aa is in case of a broken knee-cap4 ,the limb must be supported with the foot as high as possible1 so that there be no possibility of the muscles drawing asunder the parts of the patella1 which must farther be drawn together by bands of sticking plaister1 crossed over1 to prevent the broken edges rising out of their place4 ,fig4 #ab is a many-tailed bandage4 ,it may be made of several slips of calico stitched upon one1 crossing them all in the centre2 or1 if the sore be of such a1 nature that1 it may be necessary to remove one or two without displacing the others1 it is better simply to lay them on a flat sheet of calico or a small pillow made for the purpose1 and gently introduced beneath the limb4 ,in the figure the bands nearest the knee are laid first on the pillow1 the others overlap them as they go down1 then that which is nearest to the toes is first lapped round the foot1 and the others follow in succession to the knee2 the last band alone needs fastening1 and this is perhaps the neatest and most secure bandage known4 ,fig4 #ac is a cross1 or figure-of-#h bandage1 exceedingly useful when applied to the turn of a joint1 as in the sketch4 ,splints1 c4 ,fig4 #a1 in the group of illustrations on p4 #fib1 is in case of injury to the radius close to the wrist joint4 ,it may be necessary to have a crooked splint and bend the hand on it1 as shown in the figure4 ,we believe it will more frequently be found advisable to place the palm of the hand to the splint2 but this must be left in a great measure to the judgment and daily experience of the operator and his patient4 ,fig4 #b is a splint1 in case of fracture of the bones of the lower arm4 ,there will also be a short splint on the inner side1 and the arm must be supported by a sling4 ,fig4 #c is an angled splint for injuries near the joint4 ,it may be carried ready made of gutta percha1 or may be extemporised with the best materials at hand4 ,illustration3 #a-ac ,figs4 #d and #e of the annexed illustrations are splints for the inner and outer bend of the arm2 the outer may support the arm nearly to the wrist2 the inner should be shorter2 others should be ready made in gutta percha4 ,figs4 #f and #g are substitutes for them1 extemporised from the smooth bark of a young tree1 as near the size of the arm as possible4 ,fig4 #h is a piece of bark so cut as to allow of its being bent to the form of ,no4 #f4 ,figs4 #i and #aj are inner and outer splints for the leg1 usually made of gutta percha1 and of course made right and left4 ,sometimes a fully sufficient hollow is left for the ankle1 and sometimes a hole is cut entirely through4 ,fig4 #aa is a leg with a cradle of bark supporting the thigh1 the calf1 and the sole of the foot1 and with a splint or shield of the same covering the instep and the shin4 ,fig4 #ab is a leg which has been broken1 bandaged and supported in the best position to avoid any derangement of the parts by unequal tension of the muscles4 ,of course splints would have to be secured above these bandages4 ,fig4 #ac is a jointed rest1 sometimes used in fractures of the thigh1 to give ease to the limb when there is not much fear of muscular action disarranging it4 ,the pegs at the sides draw out for convenience of dressing1 and serve at other times to keep in position the pads or cushion which are placed under the limb4 ,illustration3 #ad-ai ,fig4 #ad is the full-length splint for a broken thigh4 ,the limb is bandaged1 the splint secured at the ankle and hip1 and the over-all bandage partially passed on4 ,we have had to wear a splint bound over all with starched bandages from toe to armpit4 ,sir ,samuel ,baker mentions one of the ,agageers who broke his thigh1 and whom he bound up in this manner like a mummy with strips of bark and calico1 stiffened with gum1 and who1 after lying on his back a few weeks1 was able to rise and join in the chase as energetically as before4 ,fig4 #ae shows the extension of the leg without a splint1 by folding a long strap of sticking plaister up each side of the calf1 making a line fast in the bight1 leading it over a sheave or roller1 and attaching a weight1 say of #flb4 or #hlb41 to the other end4 ,fig4 #af is a sheet1 or long towel1 or piece of cloth1 with two half hitches made in the middle1 and passed over the ankle for the purpose of extending the limb2 care must be taken that ends on which the pull is made come out on the inner side1 abreast of the hollow of the foot4 ,these last two expedients are useful in case of fracture in a strong and muscular limb2 for1 by keeping up a continued strain1 they weary out the muscles1 and cause them to relax1 when the bone may be set with less difficulty4 ,we once assisted ,dr4 ,kirk to set the thumb of a ,zambesian negro4 ,we had no appliances at hand1 but had to sit behind him1 embracing and holding him back1 while ,dr4 ,kirk grasped and hauled upon the thumb4 ,the involuntary contraction of his muscles was for a long time more than a match for us2 but at length we succeeded in wearying him out1 and slipping the thumb into its socket4 ,fig4 #ag 7p4 #fic7 is a foot-rest we made for our friend ,anderson4 ,it is simply a piece of board about #bg;in4 or #cj;in4 long1 hollow where the calf of the leg comes1 and cut completely through where the heel would otherwise rest4 ,a piece of thin board is then cut nearly to the shape of the foot1 and is fixed by a pivot joint across this space2 a couple of strings leading from holes in the board support it at any angle that is most comfortable for the foot1 which is bound to it2 and a small bracket beneath the end of the principal board raises it so far that the heel cannot chafe or press upon the mattrass1 which1 however slight may be the contact1 becomes1 when endured for hours without a change of position1 more painful to a helpless man than one in health1 and free from constraint1 can readily believe4 ,fig4 #ah 7p4 #fic7 is a box-splint1 with sliding bottom and falling sides1 which we also made on the same occasion4 ,its use was to serve as an external case and protection for the wounded limb4 ,when all the dressings were on1 the hinges were merely pieces of cord1 passed figure-of-#h fashion through the holes1 and the lanyards were strong enough to suspend the whole perfectly clear of the bed when it was necessary to change the linen4 ,fig4 #ai 7p4 #fic7 is a light awning frame to support the weight of the bed clothing1 which might otherwise press painfully upon the toe4 ,the last three articles were made at ,barmen1 a remote mission station in ,south-,west ,africa1 with no more tools than a traveller usually carries with him1 and therefore we presume that they are by no means beyond the power of others who may be similarly situated4 ,the illustration on the opposite page represents the mode of setting a dislocated shoulder4 ,a man takes off his boot1 sitting beside the patient1 places his foot under the armpit1 then taking hold of the wrist he pulls it steadily towards him1 until the muscles relax and the bone slips into its place4 ,a pad must then be secured under the armpit and the arm bound firmly to the side4 ,illustration ,illustration3 #a-c ,sometimes it is necessary to stop the too copious flow of blood from a wound2 and for this purpose a tourniquet 7,fig4 #a71 as shown in the annexed illustration1 must be extemporised3 a handkerchief may be rolled up with a stone in it1 or an overhand knot may be turned in the thickest part1 or any means adopted to insure pressure on the injured blood-vessel2 each end of the handkerchief must be then returned upon itself1 so as to form a bight1 through both loops so formed a short stick must be passed and twisted tightly1 until the compression stops the flow of blood2 if an artery is cut1 the blood gushes forth in regular pulsations1 bright and red2 if only veins are injured1 the flow1 however copious1 is steady1 and the colour is darker4 ,many of the ,south ,african ,kafir and ,bechuana tribes have a very ingenious method of cupping4 ,they take the end of an ox-horn1 about the size of a small wine-glass 7,fig4 #b71 and perforate the smaller end with a small hole communicating with the internal cavity2 they scarify the part to be operated on with a group of perhaps half a dozen cuts1 half an inch long and a quarter of an inch deep1 made with an assegai or rough-edged iron knife2 the large end of the horn is then placed over the wounds1 the operator sucks with all his might1 and as soon as he has produced a partial vacuum dexterously plugs the little hole with a bit of wax1 and allows the horn to remain until the blood drawn from the wounds so far fills the cavity that there ceases to be a vacuum1 and the horn drops off4 ,the clot of blood1 about as large as a florin and half an inch thick1 is then cleared out and thrown aside1 a fresh operation is then performed1 and others in succession1 till the whole surface of the limb1 generally the inside of the thigh or arm1 is covered with groups of little scars1 and blood enough has been extracted4 ,,tailor',s ,,work4 ,although it is in every respect better and more economical for a traveller to take full supplies from home so as to be able to devote all his time to the real objects of his journey1 yet it is quite possible that these may fail1 and that he may have to trust to his own ingenuity to replace them4 ,a cotton or woollen shirt1 worn over all1 and belted round the waist1 is in cold weather a very simple1 and not inconvenient or unsightly1 addition to the clothing4 ,we have taken a navy serge frock1 and folding in and stitching a slight gore down the back1 and turning up the skirts inside towards the waist1 and stitching them there1 have made a very neat and comfortable hip jacket for walking or riding1 without cutting it in any part1 except down the front1 where a couple of buttons1 in addition to those already attached1 were quite sufficient to confine it4 ,a cotton shirt may be treated in this manner for a lighter blouse or jacket2 and for those who wish something more stylish in appearance we give a diagram1 which we think will sufficiently explain itself4 ,illustration ,trousers1 to make4 ,we have1 in cases of need1 cut out a pair of trousers1 and stitched them while sitting on the waggon box during the morning journey1 so as to have them ready to put on at the next station2 and we have done this without intermitting our usual observations for course and distance and notes of the route4 ,these may be made in two pieces1 one for each leg--#b-a_/byds4 or #cyds41 according to stature1 being enough for a pair4 ,the duck1 or other material1 is folded along the centre through its whole length1 and it may then be folded in half1 but should not be cut until the measurements are taken2 if the stuff is scant1 the diagonal line of each part at the waist may cross into the other half1 and thus it may be found sufficient4 ,the duck1 of which trousers are usually made1 is #bg;in4 in width1 and in general this is found to be enough1 with little or nothing to spare2 if stuff is plentiful and time of any importance1 the trousers may be made in two pieces1 each of which forms one leg and half the body2 there is no difference except in the front1 the buttons being sewn on the right side1 while the corresponding holes are on the left4 ,presuming the length from above the hip to the heel to be #dj;in41 #b-a_/dyds41 or #ha;in41 with care in supplementing one part by the pieces cut out of the other1 will just serve2 but we will suppose that we have #b-a_/byds41 or #ij;in41 and are not compelled to such an exercise of ingenuity4 ,each half will now be #de;in4 long1 of which mark or crease off #a;in4 at the end1 l l1 for the hem at the bottom2 from this line1 k k1 measure #dj;in4 along the edge1 #da;in4 along the centre1 and #db;in4 along the other edge2 draw a diagonal line through these points1 and draw another #b;in4 beyond and parallel to it2 this will be sufficient to turn down for the waistband1 and will occupy the remainder of the #de;in4 of stuff4 ,in duck or canvas1 where both sides are alike1 some inches might be saved by cutting it diagonally across the centre2 but in drill moleskin1 or anything that has a right and wrong side1 this will not be the case1 so that it had better be left out of the question4 ,the inner seam of the leg will be #cj;in41 measured from k k to the points a and h1 where the duck will remain of its full breadth2 take the girth of the waist at the point l1 and1 finding it #cb;in41 divide it by four1 and mark off #h;in4 on each side the central line2 then take that of the hips along the line b b1 and1 finding it #cf;in41 divide it by four1 as before1 but instead of marking off #i;in4 on each the centre1 mark #h;in4 before and #aj;in4 behind it2 then on the edge intended for the front draw a curved line from a to the point b1 and continue it in a straight line upward2 then draw the outlines of the piece that is to be folded into the parts c1 d1 and e1 each of which is to be #a-g_/h;in4 wide1 and cut round the outline1 which is strongly marked in the diagram1 folding and creasing sharply1 but not cutting the material along the dotted lines4 ,cut the back of the trousers from the point h with a slight curve1 touching the end of the measured lines b and j4 ,we should then commence by turning down the parts c1 d1 and e1 working button-holes in them as in the diagram1 and stitching them firmly1 but very neatly1 in their places1 and remembering that we are working on the left half of the garment4 ,we should then take the right half1 fold in the parts c1 d1 and e1 as before1 and stitch them1 omitting the button-holes4 ,we should then take the two parts1 and laying them together at a1 stitch them as far as b2 then laying together the point h1 stitch up the back seam1 next bringing a and h together1 stitch down each leg1 turn down the waistband1 and stitch it1 making button-holes as at f1 in the diagram1 and fixing buttons to match1 turning up and seaming the bottoms of the legs4 ,making eyelet-holes for a lacing at the back of the waistband braces we usually make no provision for2 but if the wearer desires1 buttons may be affixed for them in their proper place4 ,jacket1 to cut out4 ,we give also the outlines of a plain and useful jacket1 which may be made in six pieces1 of which three only are drawn3 ,fig4 #a1 half the back2 ,fig4 #b1 half the front2 ,fig4 #c1 one sleeve2 the others of course are exact duplicates of them4 ,our drawing is made on a scale of #a-ab;in4 to #a;in4 ,fig4 #a is half the back1 the first measurement for which is taken from the collar1 so far down the centre as just to clear the saddle--say1 for instance1 #bd;in42 the next is the girth of the chest--say one quarter2 say #h-a_/b;in4 is allowed for the half back1 and a little more1 or #i-a_/b;in4 for the half front4 ,the rectangular figures1 #a and #b1 should be first drawn to these measurements1 and this will much facilitate all future operations4 ,in like manner1 if the circumference of the neck for collar be #ab;in41 the proportions will be for the half back #b-a_/b;in4 and for the half front #c-a_/b;in4 ,from the collar down to the line across the shoulders will be about #f;in41 and from the collar to the line of chest measurement #i;in4 ,the first of these lines drawn on the parallelogram will give the point from which to draw the diagonal line for the shoulder seam1 and the second the bottom of the oval that is to be cut out for the armhole2 the edges are hollowed about #a_/b;in4 for the waist4 ,the diagram1 we hope1 will be sufficiently clear to indicate the few remaining measurements4 ,illustration3 ,,pattern ,,for ,a ,,jacket4 ,from the front of the collar on ,fig4 #b down to the line of the shoulders will be about #e;in41 and from the collar end of the shoulder seam to the same line will be fully #g;in42 the oval for the armhole will be #f;in4 deep and #d-a_/b;in4 across1 of which #a;in4 is to be cut into the half back and #c-a_/b;in4 into the half front4 ,about #d;in4 beyond the front line of the diagram may be allowed on each half of the front for overlapping1 and on this the buttons will be placed according to taste4 ,the dotted lines of ,fig4 #c represent the sleeve1 the measure for which will be from centre of back to armhole2 #g-a_/b;in4 from armhole to elbow2 when the arm is raised and bent inwards1 #aj-a_/b;in4 from elbow to wrist2 #aj-a_/b;in4 the circumference of the arm--loosely taken1 will probably be #aj;in42 and the wrist #i;in42 but more may be allowed1 according to the wearer's fancy4 ,a straight line1 #ba;in4 in length1 must now be drawn1 and at #d-a_/b;in4 from the top it must be crossed by another of #aj;in41 #h-a_/d;in4 of which must project in front1 and #a-c_/d;in4 behind2 on these lines the curve which marks the insertion of the sleeve must be drawn1 beginning from the longer end of the cross line1 and sweeping round by the top2 down again to the shorter1 then continuing downward for the convex seam till it crosses the first line1 about #h;in4 from the bottom1 and farther on the base line1 about #b-a_/b;in4 in front of it2 #i;in4 more forward must be allowed for the width at the wrist1 and a straight line drawn from this point to the longer arm of the cross will give the inner seam4 ,in stitching the parts together1 we should commence with the shoulder seam1 from the armhole upward2 then with the side seam1 from the arm downward2 then1 folding the sleeve piece1 we should stitch the inner seam from the wrist upwards2 and1 placing the termination of this seam on the fore part of the armhole1 #a-a_/b;in4 or #b;in4 below the shoulder line1 stitch the sleeve in2 then1 commencing at the collar1 would make the back seam1 and1 this done1 would trim off all inequalities of the edges2 then turn down1 and hem them1 and finish1 more or less1 according to taste or convenience4 ,we have had but little experience in jacket-making1 as it is a garment we seldom use in ,african travel2 but to our ability to cut one1 in at least endurable style1 for the chief ,moshotlani1 on the ,zambesi1 we are indebted for some of our best views of the falls4 ,at #i o'clock each morning we would say to him1 ,we have fixed enough for your men to sew all day1 now we want the canoe1 and the man to go down with us to the waterfall4 ,,distinctive ,,box ,,markings4 ,illustration ,when a traveller has to employ 7as is most generally the case in wild countries7 servants who cannot read1 it is as well to mark his boxes with some rudely-drawn pictorial sign1 which should1 if possible1 have some relation to the contents2 though this is not a matter of absolute necessity1 so long as the owner himself knows what is in each and what distinguishing mark is placed upon it4 ,we give a few specimens1 which will sufficiently illustrate our meaning2 and any number may be devised if necessary1 such objects being chosen as are most likely to be familiar to the servants employed3 thus1 on maritime or fishing stations1 different vessels1 cutters1 luggers1 schooners1 brigs1 barques1 or ships1 or parts of vessels1 as guns1 anchors1 capstans1 windlasses1 various knots1 as the reef-knot1 bowline1 c41 remarkable and at the same time familiar forms of fish1 or implements used in catching them1 as hooks1 large and small hand-leads1 harpoons1 grains1 nets1 c41 would be appropriate2 while in hunting or pastoral countries various animals--the ox1 the horse1 the sheep or goat1 the elephant1 the camel1 the giraffe1 the lion1 and many others--would naturally be chosen4 ,one box might bear the figure of a man1 another of a woman2 the tool chest might have a saw or an axe2 a powder horn would indicate the box containing gunpowder2 while others1 holding round or conical bullets1 cartridges1 or small shot1 might be marked with their peculiar sign2 clothing might be indicated by a jacket and trousers4 ,illustration ,the late eminent and amiable ,dr4 ,holden1 who perished in the attempt to explore ,south-,western ,africa1 was accustomed to mark all his boxes in this manner4 ,he had left a waggon in the care of the chief ,leshu la tebe1 at ,lake ,ngami1 and when this was received by the agent of the surviving relatives it was found that all the boxes had been broken open1 and plundered of everything of value to the natives2 but one1 after being broken1 had been sent out of the town to a lonely hut near some adjacent village4 ,we insisted that it should be returned1 no matter in what condition or however terrible might be the contents2 and at length the mysterious box1 which for more than two years had been a terror to the country1 was placed before us4 ,it had been broken1 like the rest2 but the plunderers1 on lifting the lid1 and finding themselves confronted by a veritable human skull1 grinning horribly a ghastly smile1 had shut it hurriedly down1 and sent the dreaded box away4 ,they were not a little astonished at our temerity when they saw us quietly lift up the emblem of mortality2 nor were we less gratified to find beneath1 securely guarded by the grisly sentinel1 five bottles of the best ,french brandy1 which the unfortunate doctor had taken this ingenious method of preserving4 ,we ought also to mention that his medicine chest was marked with the figure of a snake1 signifying poison2 and it would be well if all chests1 bottles1 or cases containing either poison or medicines1 which might be hurtful if wrongly used1 were marked with a death's head1 a snake1 or crossed bones1 or some other unmistakable warning4 ,,demeanour ,,towards ,,companions ,,or ,,natives ,,and ,,white ,,servants1 ,,hints ,,on ,,travel1 ,,etc4 ,everything during a journey beyond the limits of civilisation depends upon the good feeling and harmony among the party1 and nothing short of unavoidable necessity should be suffered to interfere with this2 there are1 of course1 cases in which human nature can stand no farther provocation1 but it should be remembered that forbearance is seldom repented of1 while hasty resentment1 even if expressed only in words1 may lay the foundation of ill-feeling1 which becomes all the more bitter because the parties cannot separate from each other4 ,at the same time1 even forbearance should be exercised in a kindly spirit1 for even an outspoken quarrel is better than the habit of nursing the wrath to keep it warm2 the first may admit of explanation1 or the parties to it1 if reconciliation does not follow1 may agree to dismiss the subject and work together till the close of the journey2 and1 if both be honourable1 each will disdain to do less than his duty1 or to throw an unfair share of labour or privation upon the other4 ,but in the second case no such explanation is possible2 the person who feels himself the subject of displeasure has no chance of learning what is the nature of his offence1 and goes on unconsciously1 perhaps repeating it1 till1 like an overcharged thunder-cloud1 the storm bursts1 and the restoration of peace which1 in the first instance1 would have been easy1 becomes impossible4 ,many a tale could we tell of comrades in travel who have freely risked their lives over and over again for each other1 and counted it not even a thing for which they expected thanks1 who have remained fast friends until the close of their journey1 and in most instances1 we are glad to say1 this friendly feeling has remained undisturbed4 ,in one case related to us1 one of the travellers had been called a coward by his comrade because he failed to fire at a lion at the expected moment4 ,his reply was1 ,we will not quarrel over it now2 but we separate at the first opportunity1 and meantime ,i may find a chance to prove that ,i have not deserved your reproach4 ,one day he who had been thus stigmatised remained at home2 and1 when his comrade returned1 said to him--,i thought ,i should be able to show that your words were undeserved3 a lion has attacked the camp4 ,where is he8 asked the other4 ,lift up the covering1 and you will see him here1 was the reply4 ,there was but one wound--it was in the forehead--and from so short a distance had the death shot been discharged that the flash of the gun had singed the hair around the orifice it made4 ,the accuser apologised for his hasty words2 but the breach was never healed1 and the separation took place soon after4 ,the choice of servants must be very much guided by the habits and disposition of the traveller himself2 but if he can1 as ought to be the case1 dispense with many of the luxuries of civilised life1 then we should consider it best for him to engage people accustomed to the duties they are required to perform from among the servants of the colonists or white residents1 who know and can answer for their character and ability4 ,many travellers who start for the ,cape ,colony like to have a white man as an overseer1 and he generally acts also as cook and personal servant4 ,such men as these are to be found in most of the frontier towns1 and one who is really competent to the work in hand is invaluable2 but care must be exercised in the selection1 for however inexperienced the traveller may be he had better command his own attendants than submit to the intervention of a man who is unfit to manage them4 ,in the first case1 they will at least look upon him as the master1 who hires1 who pays1 and feeds them1 and for whom they feel bound to work2 in the latter1 they have no hesitation in saying to an incompetent overseer1 ,you are not our master1 but only a servant like ourselves1 and we care nothing for you4 ,more especially is this the case if they find him ignorant of the management of oxen1 an inefficient hunter1 or too much dependent upon guides for indications of his way in the bush4 ,nor is this to be wondered at2 the discipline of a ship may be carried on1 though the captain be incompetent1 if his first lieutenant be a thorough seaman2 but if that officer is not up to his duty1 even a first-rate captain can hardly atone for the deficiency4 ,if a man who1 in his youth1 has been a soldier or a sailor1 enters the service of a traveller1 he possesses many advantages over ordinary servants4 ,the soldier ought to have learned something of the value of discipline and order1 and to be able to combine respect for himself with obedience to his employers2 while the sailor must have learned1 during his probation1 a thousand shifts and expedients2 and1 above all1 have acquired a habit of self-reliance in difficulty and danger that cannot be too highly valued4 ,efficient men1 however1 must be sought out and well paid2 it is of little use to expect them to flock to the intending traveller and ask employment2 they are not of the class who generally hang about large towns1 but are more likely to be found on the very borders of civilisation4 ,moreover1 they are not too plentiful2 they would be more likely to ask1 as was the case in ,australia1 have you a good character from your last servant8 and inquiry should be made in time among other travellers as to the character and reliability of such persons as they have reason to think fit for the charge4 ,within a colony1 in case of a dispute with a servant1 an appeal to the magistrate is possible2 though if1 as is sometimes the case1 the nearest justice should live from thirty to fifty miles away--not always convenient--the master perhaps inquires of his native herdsman respecting the fate of a missing ox or two or three sheep2 and1 the replies not being satisfactory1 hints his suspicion that they have been killed and eaten2 the herdsman indignantly denies it1 shortens his knobkeerie in his right hand1 and gathers his kaross1 or blanket1 over his left arm1 as a ,spaniard does his cloak4 ,if the master be of quick temper1 he closes with and disarms him1 or perhaps gets knocked down4 ,if otherwise1 he takes the more prudent alternative of riding to the magistrate4 ,if he does the first1 the native1 whose time is of no value to him1 starts off at once to the magistrate1 and obtains a summons against his master for assault4 ,if he chooses the latter1 his herdsman probably takes advantage of his absence to add as many more cattle as he can to the missing list1 and before he can be legally summoned is far away from the power of the law1 seeking refuge among remote tribes4 ,under these circumstances1 it is not to be wondered at that occasionally the colonists took the law into their own hands2 and of their manner of proceeding the following incident1 related to us by a friend1 may serve as a fair example4 ,a native servant having transgressed in this manner1 the people of the farm were assembled1 and he was put upon his trial2 the evidence was against him1 and he was asked1 ,will you be taken before the magistrate8 ,will you receive forty lashes at the waggon wheel1 or will you be shot8 ,they generally1 said our informant1 choose to take the flogging offhand4 ,but how1 said we1 if some cunning fellow should choose to be shot8 ,oh1 said he1 that is not very likely2 but a man once did so1 and he was allowed to run a hundred yards1 when a bullet was fired past him1 but sufficiently near to let him hear the singing of it4 ,it was not very far from the locality where this event happened that a flock-master began to find a steadily-increasing mortality among his sheep1 the very healthiest of which1 without any apparent cause1 sickened1 and in a short time died4 ,now1 when merino or other wool-bearing rams are imported at a cost of #abjl4 each1 it behoves a man to look well after the good condition of their progeny1 but no symptom of disease marked the approaching deaths2 the shepherds asked for the carcases1 and1 finding these1 he proposed to serve them out as rations1 but they refused1 and insisted that sheep should be killed for them as usual4 ,very good1 said he1 dig a pit and throw in the carcases1 and ,i will kill for you4 ,next morning he found the pit had been opened and its contents abstracted4 ,when sheep were again brought in dead he threw quicklime into the pit with them2 the mortality began to diminish1 and a post-mortem examination resulted in the discovery that a very fine mimosa thorn1 specimens of which may be had of all sizes1 from that of a sewing-needle to #e;in4 or #f;in4 in length1 had been thrust under the shoulder1 and left to work its way to the heart of the animal4 ,unless1 in case of gross and insolent disobedience1 which it is necessary to chastise with a strong hand upon the spot1 some form of trial and examination of evidence for and against the culprit ought always to precede the punishment2 and this course1 so far as we have seen1 is generally adopted by ,english travellers1 a love of fair play being1 we are fain to hope1 in spite of occasional excesses1 inherent among us4 ,one of the most marked instances we have known of this occurred not far from ,objimbengue4 ,a train of waggons was passing up country from the ,bay2 wine and spirits were flowing freely2 and1 as is usually the case where long-enforced abstinence is succeeded by opportunities of unlimited indulgence1 some of the party were not quite as judges ought to be before dinner4 ,jealousy--that fruitful source of quarrels--produced one during the night1 and an ,englishman broke a ,hottentot's head--that is to say1 inflicted a scalp wound half an inch wide and as deep as the thickness of the skin would permit4 ,the inflictor of the blow 7we never found out who was the actual aggressor7 was confined in the room that had been assigned to us1 and1 with the exception of a few wild tricks inspired by the waning influence of the liquor1 such1 for instance1 as drawing a sword-bayonet and giving point at a friend who entered1 behaved with remarkable propriety1 till a raad could be duly formed among the rest4 ,of evidence very little was required2 there was the tottie with his wounded head2 the defendant pleaded provocation and the influence of drink1 and expressed his willingness to pay a fair compensation4 ,eight pounds sterling was proposed and consented to1 and a bill drawn out and signed upon the spot4 ,rather exorbitant damages we thought for a wound which disabled the lad but for a day2 but we were fresh in the country then1 and thought the old hands knew best how to manage their own affairs4 ,extravagant and wild as was the scene1 it was nevertheless a proof that wherever a number of ,englishmen1 or their colonial descendants1 can be gathered together1 a spirit of fair play will actuate the majority4 ,with native servants1 very much must depend upon the custom of the country in which they are hired4 ,among some of the superior tribes1 if men are well chosen1 they may be left to perform their own duty in their own way2 an occasional expression of approval from the master1 and half an hour's chat with them now and then1 to show that1 though he trusts them1 he is not careless of his own interests nor unmindful of theirs1 being nearly all that is required2 while the power of withholding a good character or making a deduction from their pay at the end of the journey is enough to restrain any irregularity they might be tempted to4 ,sometimes they may be hired from the chiefs1 who then transfers to the master1 for the time being1 his authority over them1 and looks to him for the safe return of his men at the end of the stipulated time4 ,in this case the traveller becomes pro tempore their chief1 and may exercise his power in summary punishment of a culprit1 or may reserve his right to appeal to the actual chief on his return4 ,in other cases1 as with ,lascars or other natives of ,india1 a gang may be hired with their own ,serang1 or ,tindal1 to whom all orders respecting them should be given1 and from whom they will submit to any amount of punishment1 though they would resent it as an insult1 only to be atoned with blood1 if inflicted by a white man4 ,the ,kroomen of the coast near ,sierra ,leone1 who are usually employed on board our men-of-war1 are generally engaged in this manner4 ,we had twelve on the ,zambesi expedition1 under a very fine head man1 called ,tom ,jumbo4 ,when our little steamer1 the ,ma ,robert 7which1 if not the best constructed1 was certainly the best abused little vessel afloat7 was put together on the ,zambesi1 ,mr4 ,rae1 the engineer1 took some trouble to train ,tom ,coffee 7a ,krooman7 to act as stoker and general assistant4 ,tom had1 however1 a will of his own2 and1 proving refractory1 was brought before ,dr4 ,livingstone1 who1 from motives of humanity1 instead of ordering him corporal punishment1 put him off duty and stopped his pay4 ,the ,kroomen gathered in serious consultation over the sentence1 and at length deputed ,jumbo to appeal against it3 ,the ,kroomen1 said he1 do not understand being put off duty2 they come to work1 and they must work4 ,i will see to that1 and they will expect their pay when this voyage is done4 ,if they are insolent or lazy1 or deserve punishment1 tell me of it1 and ,i will flog them2 they 'savey' that1 but they do not 'savey' stoppage of their pay4 ,mr4 ,rae also felt the sentence press rather heavily upon him4 ,none of the other men were fit1 without fresh instruction1 to take ,tom's place2 and as the duties of chief engineer1 with those of stoker and assistant1 were rather too onerous for one individual1 he was fain to join in the request that ,coffee should be set to work again4 ,in some places it is almost impossible to avoid the employment of slave labour in some form or other2 for even though the master do not1 as of course no ,englishman with proper feeling will1 retain a man in compulsory bondage1 or sell him for profit when his term of servitude is expired1 it is in some countries impossible to hire a free labourer2 and to give a man his liberty immediately after he has been purchased from his chief1 or master1 would only deprive the hirer or purchaser of all benefit during the expected period of service4 ,this is particularly the case in some of the countries bordering upon the upper branches of the ,nile4 ,a well-known traveller in that region was once taxed with slave trading2 he indignantly denied the charge4 ,he had bought men of their chief1 as everyone who required servants was obliged to do2 but he challenged proof that he had ever detained one in bondage or sold him again when his service was completed4 ,an ,english military officer1 in the same dilemma1 bought men2 he was a kind master1 he found them good servants1 and when he required them no longer he made them presents and set them free4 ,a sudden cloud darkened every brow4 ,had they not served him well8 ,what fault had they committed that he should now discard them1 and turn them adrift1 without providing them another master8 ,we once met in ,dielli1 the capital of the ,portuguese settlement in the island of ,timor1 an ,english captain who1 moved by compassion at the miserable condition of some prisoners in the hands of ,malay pirates1 yielded to their entreaties1 and purchased some of them2 and on arrival at the first ,british port he went ashore to consult the magistrate as to the proper manner of giving them their liberty4 ,you cannot give them their liberty1 said he1 they are free already2 and1 though you have acted from motives of humanity1 you had better let them go as quietly as possible1 for not only is your purchase of no effect1 but you have brought yourself into some danger by making it4 ,in ,south ,africa the ,english travellers1 or traders1 very properly refuse to have anything to do with the purchase of slaves1 though men and boys will come to them desiring to be bought4 ,a friend of ours had an offer of this kind made while we were together2 but though it would have been very advantageous to have a couple of lads who1 in a short time1 would have been well qualified to act as interpreters1 he declined the offer4 ,on a previous occasion1 however1 when a boy had begged hard that he would buy him he refused1 but told the lad to go and make the best bargain he could for his own liberty2 the price was handed over to him1 he ransomed himself1 and joyfully returned to enter the service of his new master4 ,frequently a white man picks up some miserable1 neglected child1 lets it sit by his fire1 and huddle among his servants1 getting a share of their food2 and if he be1 as he ought1 a kind-hearted fellow1 an occasional pat upon the woolly head and a tit bit from himself4 ,when its condition is improved1 he perhaps sets it to some trifling work2 but no sooner is it supposed to have become useful than down come the parents or brothers1 or some impostors who represent themselves as such1 and threaten to take the child away unless they are properly paid for allowing him to keep it4 ,in ,damara land especially such cases were common2 and we became quite accustomed to hear the native servant girls telling each other1 as a matter of very little importance1 that such a one had thrown her child into the fire that morning4 ,not that the statement was to be taken literally2 but rather that the mother had just abandoned it1 and the poor creature had crawled towards the fire for warmth1 and so scorched itself4 ,there were also some natives who had a great facility for establishing a relationship with these unfortunates2 and two or three had gained quite a reputation for their skill in discovering some genealogical affinity with anyone that had become the pet of a ,european supposed to be able to afford to pay for the luxury of keeping it4 ,in the ,portuguese settlements on the ,lower ,zambesi a modified form of slavery exists1 totally distinct from1 and unconnected with1 the slave trade1 and rendered much more endurable by the fact that the slaves1 or1 more properly1 serfs or bondsmen1 are subjects of the ,crown1 and may not be removed from the colony1 an ordinance1 however1 respecting which something may be said on both sides2 for1 if it prevents subjects being sold as slaves into foreign bondage1 it is sometimes assigned as a reason for not legally marrying a native woman2 that if a man were to do so1 he could not take her from the country1 and1 not being allowed to leave her1 would thus pass upon himself a sentence of confinement there for life4 ,with regard to the question of servitude under the ,crown1 the position of a slave seems to be that he cannot change his master1 and his master cannot discharge or sell him1 except under certain restrictions4 ,during the ,livingstone expedition we were frequently served by slaves lent or hired to us by their masters4 ,one of these1 ,katura1 lent us by ,major ,sicard1 the commandant1 who always addressed him as ,vossa ,mercee1 or ,mister1 acted as our house steward1 and had under him ,jose1 the cuisinier1 who became highly indignant if any of us razeed his many-syllabled title into cook4 ,katura had a position to maintain1 and he understood it2 he was not only a steward1 but a plucky little fellow1 and the first dead man we sketched there 7whose corpse will be seen in the picture of ,mazaro ,mutu1 in ,dr4 ,livingstone's second book7 was one of his shooting4 ,although a slave he had rights of his own1 and was well aware of them4 ,sometimes he would bring us a few eggs1 and when we offered to pay for them proudly remarked that the ova katura were not for sale1 but he had no objection to accept a present2 neither would he agree to put a price on any service we asked him to do for us2 we made him a present of navy serge--enough to make a frock of4 ,next morning he told us that his master wanted it1 and asked us how much calico he should demand in return4 ,we told him three yards for one of the serge2 the major demurred to this1 and ,katura refused him the serge1 and after a month or six weeks made the bargain on his own terms1 and asked us for a foot rule that he might measure the calico he had received4 ,a queer sort of slavery this6 said a ,yankee friend1 to whom we afterwards related the circumstance4 ,the following valuable hints on travel were communicated by ,captain ,stuart1 the ,australian explorer1 to ,mr4 ,a4 ,gregory1 on his taking command of the expedition before referred to in this work1 and in which we took part4 ,in order to render the directions as concise as possible1 we have1 in repeating them1 avoided the repetition of the leader's name1 c4 ,in other respects we give the directions1 words of advice1 and hints1 in ,captain ,stuart's own words4 ,in communicating them1 he says3-- ,mr4 ,augustus ,gregory1 not being a military man1 and not1 perhaps1 having acquired the habits of caution peculiar to that service1 ,i venture to put together a few hints for his consideration1 which ,i would fain hope may be of use to him1 and for offering which my past experience in the field of discovery1 and my anxious desire to promote the success of the undertaking in which he is embarked1 must be my apology4 ,i would recommend the leader to come to a strict understanding with his men before he engages them to conform to the terms of the agreement ,i have drawn up1 and which is a copy of that which ,i made the men sign who accompanied me on my central expedition4 ,it is the only means1 when at a distance from home1 to keep the men in order and subjection4 ,i found it most efficacious on one occasion2 when1 one of the men having misconducted himself1 ,i struck his name off the pay list1 reduced his supply of provisions1 and only reinstated him at the earnest solicitation of his comrades and on their guarantee that he should not offend again4 ,the commanding officer should have his camp always compact4 ,his sheep in the centre of it1 and the drays flanking the sheepfold with the tents at the angles4 ,i would caution him never to be without a guard4 ,let him give his men to understand that he will never dispense with the guard4 ,i never did but on one occasion1 which might well have been excused1 and on that one occasion ,i was robbed4 ,mr4 ,gregory may rest assured that his safety at all times1 whether in the presence of natives or not1 depends on this necessary vigilance4 ,i have been peculiarly fortunate in my intercourse with the natives4 ,i believe the reason of this is that ,i have always put myself in their position1 and deemed the alarm and vehemence they have exhibited at the approach of men and beasts they had never seen before as only natural4 ,instead of approaching nearer1 ,i have given them time to recover from their amazement before ,i have separated myself from my men1 and walked singly and unarmed towards them1 and sat quietly down on the ground1 until they had lowered their spears and appeared pacified4 ,one of the natives is sure to advance and sit down as ,i had done1 and so1 by gradual approaches1 we at length sat down side by side4 ,but it is long before the native raises his eyes to look at you4 ,i have always respected their customs in this respect1 and am happy to say that ,i never failed4 ,treat the natives kindly1 and they will so treat you4 ,on no account did ,i allow my men to have any intercourse either with the men or women4 ,this ,i interdicted under the severest penalties4 ,the leader should not remain too long in one spot4 ,he will understand that familiarity subdues fear4 ,i would recommend him to have a respectable and responsible storekeeper1 who should have a tent with the overseer of stock4 ,the provision should be weighed out weekly to the men1 and stock taken once a month1 and a return of what has been issued and what remains given by the storekeeper to him4 ,such regularity inspires confidence4 ,if the commander should follow a river into the desert1 he will most probably find it assume a chain of ponds1 and ultimately disappear in a vast plain4 ,i would beg of him in such case not to move on his party until he has ascertained that there is water in front of him4 ,he can have no idea how soon he can place himself in jeopardy4 ,i know not that ,i can give ,mr4 ,gregory any further friendly hint4 ,doubtless he is experienced in all the arrangements of an expedition1 and he may be assured he has my best prayers for his success4 ,the following general rules for the treatment of ,indians1 given by ,dr4 ,brown1 may also be useful in reference to other tribes1 though a traveller's behaviour to a barbarous or savage people must1 to a great extent1 depend on circumstances--his position in the tribe and the customs of the nation1 which ought never to be wantonly outraged4 ,these rules were partially drawn up for me at an early date of my residence among the ,north-,west ,american ,indians by a gentleman whom to mention would be to name1 perhaps1 the most celebrated of all the eeries of the fur trade4 ,i afterwards added and amended them by my own experience4 #a4 ,never pass an ,indian village in the night if you suspect any mischief4 ,they will be sure to find you out1 and then1 like all bullies1 seeing that you are afraid of them1 will act upon that knowledge4 #b4 ,if you suspect mischief1 camp outside at a distance1 and pass in daylight2 you can then see better what you are about4 #c4 ,if you come to a village where you think there is likely to be an attack made on you1 go into the chief's lodge1 and1 if possible1 into one where there are a number of women and children4 ,if their sense of hospitality does not prevent them from molesting you1 they know that when white men are attacked bullets fly about1 and some may strike the women and children4 ,it is an axiom that no man likes to put his head down a gun-barrel4 #d4 ,trust to an ,indian's honour1 and you are tolerably safe--you and your goods2 but not to his honesty1 for he will steal the ears off your head1 unless you are very skilful in making a cache4 ,if in a neighbourhood where there are ,indians1 you had far better leave your goods in their charge until you come back2 you will generally find them safe2 but if they find your cache--their honesty being doubted1 and having no honourable scruples--they will be sure to clean it out4 #e4 ,never appear to be afraid of them4 #f4 ,never give them one cent less or one cent more than you bargained for--as a right4 ,if you do1 they will think it only yielding to them1 and then imagine you have cheated them at first4 ,you may give a small present if you like4 ,it is a custom the ,hudson's ,bay ,company have introduced of giving after a trade has been completed a small potlatch1 or gift1 of their free accord1 according to the value of the goods traded4 ,those ,indians who have traded with the ,hudson's ,bay ,company expect it4 #g4 ,in making presents1 take into consideration their wants2 only make presents where you may expect a return2 they do that with you2 and goodness of heart is only thrown away4 ,never calculate on this last weakness4 #h4 ,in making presents for conciliatory purposes1 always make them to the head people2 never mind the smaller tribes' men4 ,be sure1 however1 that it is the chief you are making presents to1 and not some forward and impudent fellow1 who is usually the first to accost you at the outskirts of a village4 ,the chief generally retires on his dignity1 and wants to be sought out4 ,secure the head man's regard1 and you need not mind the favour of the smaller ones2 but even if you had abundance of goods to distribute1 you would be sure to create red blood and heart burnings by one man's present being better than another1 or supposed to be1 c4 #i4 ,i have generally adopted the practice1 when ,i had not much to give1 of giving it to the children4 ,if you win the children1 you win the mother1 and of course the father4 ,a little present goes a long way with the children4 ,if you give it to the mother1 you often excite the father's jealousy1 and frustrate your purpose4 ,always remember1 in addition1 that a savage values a man's generosity1 c41 according to the size of his presents1 and act accordingly4 #aj4 ,never allow the natives to eat with you as your equal4 ,as a rule1 play the great man with them4 #aa4 ,if a savage is travelling with you1 give him food whenever he wants it4 ,food given when he wishes it is of ten times more value than when he gets it when he does not need it1 or is not hungry4 ,consult his wishes in this respect4 #ab4 ,never attempt to gain anything by force2 always by persuasion1 argument1 and presents4 #ac4 ,notwithstanding all you will be told about the value of a medical knowledge in travelling among savages1 ,i have generally found it of very little benefit1 and frequently1 when put in practice1 of real detriment4 ,an ,indian will never come to you unless when at death's door and he has lost confidence in his own sorcerers4 ,you may give him some medicine1 and perhaps in nine cases out of ten the patient dies1 as he would have done anyhow4 ,their professional jealousy is raised1 and you are accused by the medicine men of killing the person2 and the worst of the matter is1 it is often believed by the credulous people4 ,if the man recovers1 it is rarely that you get the credit of it4 ,it is the medicine men who have done it4 ,with surgery it is somewhat different4 ,if the operation is one not involving any very serious consequences if unsuccessful1 by all means perform it4 ,they then see the working of your superior knowledge before their eyes4 #ad4 ,be just and firm1 patient and equanimous with them4 ,display no anger or violent and passionate gestures1 and never be very prone to notice insults4 #ae4 ,never say you will do a thing and not do it4 ,never threaten to do anything unless you intend to do it4 #af4 ,no people notice the weakness and moral shortcomings of a man quicker than savages2 therefore beware1 especially in re foemin4 #ag4 ,try by all means to learn the customs and social etiquette of the people2 for nothing raises you more in their estimation than this knowledge1 or enables you to see when you are slighted4 #ah4 ,if you are attacked1 and at the last extremity have to fire1 take to the bush4 ,an ,indian does not like to venture in4 ,he knows there is a man there and a gun1 and that somebody may be shot1 and that somebody may be himself4 #ai4 ,if you have a watch at night1 never stand near the fire2 for then you are only giving the man a chance to fire at you4 #bj4 ,always1 and above everything1 remember that the hearts of all mankind are the same1 and that all the difference between one and another is merely the overlay caused by etiquette1 custom1 and education2 at heart they are the same4 ,there are many arts which might be mentioned as useful in treating with ,indians2 but1 as these depend upon a knowledge of the particular tribal customs1 these general rules must suffice4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,on ,,sketching ,,and ,,painting ,,under ,,the ,,ordinary ,,difficulties ,,of ,,travel4 ,for artists making a tour of the ,lake ,districts1 the ,highlands of ,scotland1 or the mountain districts of ,wales1 every possible convenience is supplied by the colourmen of ,london4 ,the explorer-artist must1 however1 have recourse to many shifts and expedients4 ,the talented author of ,a ,painter's ,camp in the ,islands actually fitted out a little studio on wheels1 the front of which was a large sheet of clear plate glass1 so that1 whatever might be the weather1 he would be able to paint upon the spot1 and with all the truthful reality that working in the presence of nature only can impart4 ,every effect of storm or sunshine on the hills1 catching the passing rain cloud while the shower was still falling1 with its misty fragments torn off by the gale1 illuminated by the beauteous rainbow1 or lighted up by rays of sunshine piercing through the gloom2 and when such luxurious appliances can be obtained1 and are used1 moreover1 to so good a purpose1 far be it from us to say a word against them4 ,in fact1 we would advise every one who determines1 as he ought1 to make his sketches as perfect and truthful a realisation as possible of the country they illustrate1 to provide every convenience he can afford or carry for the successful prosecution of his work2 regarding them1 however1 simply as means towards that end1 and casting them aside unhesitatingly when1 from the labour of transportation1 they become hindrances instead of helps to him4 ,we will suppose1 first1 that the intending traveller wishes to take sketches in pencil or in water colours1 as occasion may serve1 of the objects of interest that he meets with1 he should be provided1 as we have said1 with folding sketch-books of folio and quarto sizes1 with drawing paper1 white and tinted1 cut to their respective sizes4 ,he will be able to form a tolerable estimate of the number of sketches he is likely to make in a day1 and had better not encumber his folio with more than a good allowance of paper for the work he expects to do4 ,suppose he reckons six or eight sketches1 and1 allowing margin enough1 takes a dozen sheets--three white1 and two each of the pearl1 the warm and cool grey1 and the drab paper1 putting away at the close of the day his finished sketches in a case specially provided for them1 and replenishing his folio from that in which he keeps his store4 ,the preservation of his folio and its contents from injury by rain1 by the dash of sea water1 or by other causes1 is of the first importance1 and for this purpose he should have a haversack of good stout canvas--i4e41 sail cloth--for each2 this may be slung by a leather strap and buckles1 but we prefer that the shoulder strap should be of double canvas #b-a_/b;in4 wide1 and that the end1 which comes forward over the right shoulder1 when the sketch book is carried on the left side should pass through a loop at the corner of the haversack1 and doubling back upon itself be provided with points or other means of fastening it at the required length4 ,if buckles1 hooks and eyes1 or other such expedients are used1 let them be not of iron or steel1 but of plated or well-tinned material1 so that no rust or oxide of metal shall gather on and rot the canvas4 ,let the part which would then hang next the body of the wearer be of double canvas so stitched with two vertical seams that it may form three pockets1 one large enough for the box of water colours in front1 one in the rear for the japanned or plated water bottle1 and the central sub-divided1 so as to carry a few spare pencils1 a memorandum book1 to which1 if the traveller cares about mapping his route1 may be added1 a #f;in4 scale1 protractor1 and dividers2 in which case he will do well to add a sheet or two of the squared mapping paper to the contents of his folio1 and two or three sheets of foolscap1 with a leaf of semi-carbonic paper and a ,h ,h ,h pencil for his journal4 ,a third thickness of canvas will at once form the pocket for the folio and the front of the haversack2 and we would advise that the double strip1 already spoken of as forming the sling1 should be sufficiently long to form also the sides and bottom of the haversack4 ,the octavo1 #aa;in4 by #g-a_/b;in4 folio1 will be found very convenient and handy on boat expeditions1 horse or foot journeys1 hunting trips1 or when the artist has to carry everything himself1 and must diminish weight and incumbrance as much as possible4 ,in the ,australian exploring trips we were not able to carry any other1 and this hangs easily from the quarter of the saddle on the near side4 ,in ,kafirland1 we slung the sketch-book itself 7covered with skin to keep off the occasional rain7 by short straps and buckles to our waist belt2 and one long strap1 passing over the shoulder to the belt in front1 remained always fast1 so that if a sudden movement1 either of our own troops or of the enemy1 necessitated it1 we could at once throw the sketch-book over our shoulder1 and advance or retreat as requisite4 ,we would advise1 however1 that the imperial1 #ae;in4 by #aa;in41 folio should be carried if possible1 as it gives so much more space for detail in landscape or other subjects than can be gained upon the smaller scale4 ,with the large book the twenty-four tube colour box can be carried1 with the smaller a twelve tube must be taken2 and in either case weight may be economised on short trips by carrying only the lid that forms the palette with the little divisions that should always be found along its edge charged with patches of colour2 in this case a slip of tin or copper must be fitted as a temporary cover to the box left at home4 ,we do not advise the solid sketch-block for hard service2 first1 because it exposes to risk an unnecessarily large quantity of paper1 and next1 because1 with rough usage1 the sheets may become loose1 and cease to be a block4 ,the folio with japanned tin frame1 for confining the sheet actually in use1 is the best4 ,it should be made of strong1 light1 saddlers' leather1 rather than of the flimsy materials2 which serve well enough for lady students a mile or two from home4 ,the millboard surfaces may be varnished with boiled linseed oil1 and allowed to dry thoroughly4 ,do not have them covered with paper pasted on1 but with the plain surface of the milled board4 ,we found it very convenient to mark a scale of inches along the sides of our frame1 and have a movable slip of thin brass fastened upon it by simply bending the ends round1 so as to enable us to draw a truly horizontal line at any height1 and this would be especially useful in mapping1 or the horizon in sea-views4 ,if a sketching-stool can be carried1 it will be found a great convenience1 as1 when the artist has to sit upon the ground1 to say nothing of possible unpleasantness from storms or dampness1 the eye is lowered so much that often the grass in the foreground will hide the greater part of the landscape4 ,the triangular stool1 which folds up into a stick but little larger than a policeman's truncheon1 is the most convenient form4 ,one of the legs may be longer1 with a couple of cross-bars1 on which to rest the sketch-book2 or such a convenience may be made with a couple of thumb-screws to slip on when required4 ,in sketching a landscape it is of great importance to decide1 first1 what you intend to make the principal object1 and how much in the way of accessory you can include beside it4 ,about sixty degrees1 or the sixth-part of a circle1 is all that can be seen horizontally1 without moving the head1 and about forty vertically1 and this may be roughly estimated by holding up the hands like blinkers on each side of the face1 and observing where they shut off the view4 ,photographers have a little frame made specially for this purpose1 and the artist may1 by opening the frame of his folio1 and holding it nearly at arm's length1 see how much of the landscape it includes4 ,it must also be remembered that no one looking at a landscape can see the spot he stands on2 and1 therefore1 if it is desired that this spot shall be the foreground1 he must retire1 say ten or fifteen yards1 so as to bring it within the limit of his vision4 ,in practice1 however--when1 for instance1 he is looking over the edge of a cliff--this might deprive him of the sight of some of the most beautiful portions of the view1 and it might be better to remain on the edge1 leaving a sufficient blank at the bottom of the paper1 and then retiring to sketch the foreground1 choosing such a position as should make its characteristic features enhance the beauty of the view4 ,it conduces very greatly to correctness if the bearings of distant hills are taken by compass and noted in pencil on the upper margin of the sketch1 while nearer features are similarly noted at the bottom--if the estimated distance in miles is added1 this enhances greatly the value of the sketch1 as it becomes then a geographical record1 in addition to its merit as a work of art4 ,holding up the paper steadily at nearly arm's length1 and making on its upper edge the apparent horizontal distances1 and on its side the heights1 assists the drawing very much2 and the pencil may be held up and the distances gauged on it by the thumb-nail1 and measured on the paper4 ,two knots on the ends of a bit of string1 one held on the pencil1 and the other between the teeth1 will ensure the measurements being all taken at the same distance from the eye1 which is of great importance4 ,the angle formed by the side of a mountain may be estimated by making the pencil coincide with it1 and then bringing it down on the paper4 ,the perspective of receding lines may be found in the same manner2 but care must be taken to hold the pencil in the plane of the picture1 and not let it point away from the observer2 the limits being thus ascertained1 the forms may be slightly indicated1 and then1 after a steady and searching gaze at the object1 firmly1 but not heavily1 drawn4 ,when once the paper is indented by the pressure of the pencil1 the line can never be entirely erased2 and the surface1 once injured1 can never be restored4 ,no line should be made at random2 be the touches few or many1 each should definitely represent some form4 ,the merest outline accurately sketched upon the spot is preferable to any amount of indefinite filling up1 which the artist had better leave to his own imagination1 assisted by memory and a faithful sketch1 when he finishes his picture4 ,in a pencil sketch1 little notes1 indicating the nature of the soil1 the foliage1 the colour or condition of the water or the clouds1 may be neatly written in1 in such a manner that1 unless on close inspection1 they blend into the forms of the objects1 and rather assist the drawing than detract from its appearance3 for instance1 the word rocks may run alongside the shadow of a fissure1 and their kind or colour--red1 grey1 basalt1 or sandstone1 c4--grass1 sandy plain1 water1 dark clouds1 cumuli or light cirri1 accidental or cast shadows1 or gleams of light1 are all worthy of notice2 while the direction of a river may be indicated by a small arrow-head4 ,it may also be enough if several objects of a kind are together1 as a crowd of men1 a herd of animals1 or a flotilla of small vessels1 to draw one or more carefully and simply indicate the position of the rest4 ,if there is time1 a few touches of colour on the principal parts--say the grey of distant hills and the stronger tints of the nearer ones in flat washes4 ,if a sketch is to be finished in colour on the spot1 the outlines should be made as before1 with the greatest care2 but no time should be wasted in attempting to shade or finish with the pencil4 ,if the paper is of a light pearl or a warm grey tint1 so that ,chinese white will tell upon it1 it will be less dazzling to the eye when reflecting the rays of a vertical sun2 but it must be remembered that all tinted grounds impart their own character to the work1 and1 if strict fidelity is sought1 nothing but pure white paper1 with a sufficient grain or texture to take the colour well1 and to give that slight broken uncertainty of touch which is of so much advantage in foliage or rough surfaces1 and yet sufficiently fine to admit of the most delicate manipulation where it is required4 ,the right side of the paper is that on which the maker's name1 pressed into its texture1 is properly seen2 and1 if the sheet is cut1 each piece that does not include some portion of this should be marked with an ,r on the right side1 to prevent mistake4 ,the pencil sketch being completed1 wet the paper all over with your largest brush filled with pure water--this somewhat softens1 while it fixes the pencil lines1 and disposes the paper to receive colour more readily4 ,take up with the half-dried brush any drops of water that may hang under the edge of your sketching frame1 which should1 of course1 be perfectly clean4 ,determine now what parts of your picture are to be white1 or of pure and unmixed blue1 and then1 with the large brush1 pass a very faint tint of pale orange over all the rest4 ,the three primitive colours1 red1 blue1 and yellow1 in their greatest obtainable purity1 should now be placed on the pallette1 which ought to be clean1 and if possible unencumbered by other colours4 ,suppose you have ,indian yellow1 carmine1 and cobalt4 ,with a little diluted cobalt wash in the clear blue spaces in the sky1 carrying a tint downward on any part of the ground in which grey is to predominate1 so as to impart depth of colour as speedily as possible1 and reduce the distracting effect of the white paper as seen in opposition to the parts you are painting2 if the lights on the clouds are to be pure white1 form a grey with a little cobalt and carmine and paint their shadow sides1 then with a clean half dry brush soften the harshness of the edges1 and reduce them to the form you wish1 bearing in mind that the more correctly and evenly you can lay the edge of the original wash1 and the less it wants re-touching the better for your picture4 ,if the sky is to be cloudless1 turn the picture bottom up1 take a very faint wash of cobalt and carmine and lay it along the horizon1 letting the lower edge hang full and wet1 so as to give you time to work on it before it dries1 and yet not so full as to run down in a drip1 and so produce unequal lines across the sky2 then take up a little pure cobalt and wash in another line of colour a little deeper than the first1 the wet edge of which will run imperceptibly into your second line1 and thus in succession keep working in lines of deeper blue1 until by an imperceptive gradation you reach the zenith4 ,if sunset or sunrise is to be represented1 keep a pure white space for the sun1 round this lay a wash of ,indian yellow1 round this another of carmine1 and beyond this another of cobalt with a little carmine in it1 keeping the picture still reversed1 so that in graduating the tints the most brilliant colours may run into those that are less so--as the yellow into the red and the red into the blue1 rather than that the colder colours should run into the warm1 and thus impair their purity4 ,the sun may then be tinted as required1 remembering always that the source of light must be brighter than the atmosphere through which it shines--though1 if the sun be setting in a bank of cloud or haze1 great effect may be gained by painting it of a deep and lurid red2 while its clear and nearly white light shines on the light clouds in the zenith above the influence of the haze4 ,calm water will reflect the colour of the sky according to the angle at which it is viewed2 if you look down on it1 it will reflect the dark blue of the zenith1 but at the same time1 if it be transparent1 it will also transmit the broken colours of the ground beneath1 and thus many beautiful effects are produced--the yellow sand of the tropics imparting a brilliant green to the shallow sea1 while rocks or sea-weed will give rich tones of brown4 ,if the spectator is low down1 the water will reflect the colour of the horizon1 and its own local colour will be lost or much diminished2 the reflection of objects on its banks will also appear more perfectly in proportion to its stillness2 but never fall into the error of making the reflection an inverted facsimile of the real object--it is in reality an image as seen from the level of the water at a point midway between the spectator and the object4 ,get a good photograph showing a reflection1 or lay a looking-glass horizontally and place an object on it1 and you will see at once what we mean4 ,the distant hills may either melt into the soft tints of the sky1 partaking of roseate light and faint sky shadow1 or may rise cold and dark against a clear horizon1 or may be shown in full light against a heavy storm cloud2 in any case1 the tone of colour proper to their respective distances must be preserved1 and in this respect there can be no better rule than to copy those that nature herself presents4 ,objects in the middle distance will be more strongly coloured2 and if any particular object be selected as the subject of the landscape1 the attention should be directed to this1 and the remainder made subservient to it1 by having somewhat less finish bestowed upon them4 ,fix the eye steadily upon the chosen object1 and observe how all detail becomes indistinct towards the limits of the vision1 and then in like manner1 having worked up the detail around the centre of interest1 let the colours become a little fainter1 and the work less definite toward the corners of your sketch4 ,in foliage1 take the lightest tint1 say ,indian yellow and ,french blue1 or ,prussian blue toward the foreground where intense green is required1 and lay in the masses1 keeping the forms large and broad1 and blending a little more blue with the parts that are to represent the farthest side of the tree2 then1 when this is dry1 take a darker tint and somewhat more minutely represent the forms of those portions that take the middle tint or local colour2 and lastly1 take a third for the deeper shadow1 strengthening this with touches of rich warm brown or cool grey as you wish the masses to advance or to retire4 ,even pure crimson may be used with advantage as a shadow to cool clear green in the foreground2 in like manner the proper shadow for a yellow sandhill on a beach is not a deeper yellow1 but a cool purplish grey1 composed of the complementary colours blue and red4 ,to give some idea of the work that may be done with three well-chosen colours1 we append the following list1 which might be much enlarged3-- ,yellow and red produce orange4 ,primaries ,yellow and blue1 green4 ,red and blue1 purple4 ,orange and green1 citrine4 ,secondaries ,orange and purple1 russet4 ,purple and green1 olive4 ,when the eye is fatigued by looking at one of the brilliant primary colours it seems to relieve itself by seeing the secondary colour which is complementary to it3 thus if we have looked at red--say at a red light--for some time1 and turn the eye away we shall see a green one of the same size and form1 being seen in fact by that portion of the eye only that has been fatigued by the strong impression of the red4 ,if we have looked at a yellow light we shall behold a purple image1 because this is composed of the other two colours2 blue and red is complementary to yellow4 ,blue1 being a cool colour1 does not so much fatigue the eye2 hence1 though by the foregoing rule we ought to see its image in bright orange1 in practice we rarely do so4 ,from these facts we learn that1 whenever one of the primary colours is used in a picture1 the complementary colour formed of the other two ought to be placed not very far from it1 so as agreeably to relieve the eye4 ,in most cases the landscape actually being copied will afford sufficient facility for this2 sometimes it will not2 but these instances are exceptional1 and probably will occur in the snow wastes of the north1 on the solitude of the ocean1 or in the sandy deserts of the tropics1 where drear monotony or wild and terrific grandeur constitute the charm of the picture1 and fidelity rather than pleasing composition must be the artist's aim4 ,we subjoin also a few combinations of colour which will be found useful in landscape painting3 ,aerial tints for skies1 clouds1 and distance3 for very delicate preparatory wash1 cadmium yellow and rose madder2 strong ditto1 ,indian yellow and carmine2 neutral ditto1 yellow ochre and brown madder2 still darker and less aerial1 light red1 ,venetian red1 or ,indian red4 ,cobalt for delicate blue skies2 ,french ultramarine for stronger4 ,cobalt and rose madder for delicate cloud tints4 ,for golden sunsets3 aureolin1 gamboge1 lemon yellow1 cadmium yellow1 ,indian yellow1 yellow ochre--to be used according to the brilliancy or depth of colour required1 and to be contrasted by cool greys composed of cobalt and rose madder1 or ,french ultramarine4 ,crimson sunsets3 rose madder1 carmine1 crimson lake1 ,indian red1 purple madder1 contrasted with cool grey2 and sometimes greenish tones formed by adding a little yellow to the blue and red4 ,in dark storm clouds1 ,french blue or indigo1 with light red1 ,venetian red1 or ,indian red1 or purple madder4 ,indigo and ,prussian blue require great caution in their use4 ,with any of the beforementioned yellows1 they form rich greens for sea tints or foliage2 with raw sienna or burnt sienna1 they give very deep greens for stormy seas or heavy forest trees4 ,light red and ,prussian blue give a greenish grey4 ,light red with cobalt or ultramarine give greys somewhat less aerial for middle distance1 mountains1 c4 ,indian red1 with the same blues1 gives a more opaque grey4 ,sepia and ,french blue make a cool grey2 raw and burnt sienna are good colours for autumnal foliage1 stems of trees where grey is not required1 rocks1 ,dutch galliots1 and many other foreground objects2 brown madder and vandyke brown afford great depth for foreground shadows4 ,for native complexions1 raw sienna with a little of the burnt will give the colour of a ,hottentot4 ,a ,kafir requires burnt sienna in the half tints1 vandyke brown in the shadows1 and a cool grey like the reflection of the sky in the lights--this is best produced by a little ,chinese white and cobalt laid on thin over the brown4 ,there may be a little blue put into the black of the hair to contrast the better with the brown skin4 ,for a ,negro1 crimson lake and blue-black2 the lights made with ,chinese white and blue as before4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,the ,,estimation ,,of ,,distances ,,and ,,hints ,,on ,,field ,,observing4 ,,on ,,measuring ,,the ,,distance ,,travelled ,,by ,,wheeled ,,carriages4 ,when no instrument for this purpose is obtainable1 the best plan we know of is that adopted by the late ,dr4 ,burchell1 the eminent ,south ,african traveller1 and after him by ,captain ,cornwallis ,harris1 the explorer and naturalist1 in the more distant parts of the same country2 and this is1 to measure the large wheel carefully1 to mark one of its spokes1 and count its revolutions during any given time1 say a minute1 and then convert the result into miles or parts of a mile per hour4 ,thus1 if a wheel be #eyds4 in circumference1 and it makes six revolutions in a minute1 the distance in that time will be #cjyds41 or #ahjjyds41 i4e41 #djyds4 more than a mile per hour2 twelve revolutions will of course be #hjyds4 over two miles2 and1 during former journeys1 when our wheel was making eighteen revolutions1 we used to reckon the waggon was going1 allowing for occasional unavoidable stoppages1 two and a half miles per hour4 ,with a watch having a second hand it is easy to note any fraction of time1 but with one not so provided less than a minute cannot easily be estimated4 ,after a little practice we became so accustomed to this that we seldom used a watch2 but when sitting on the waggon-box would just look over the side1 and estimate the rate at which the wheel was going1 just as a sailor would in like manner make a very fair estimate of the speed of his ship4 ,it will generally be found that an ,african ox-waggon1 not overloaded1 and on tolerably fair ground1 travels about two and a half miles an hour2 and we have also found that with pack horses in ,australia1 if the same rate is assumed1 the resulting measurement of the day's work will be very nearly correct4 ,we tried once to make a trocheameter1 but at the time had never either seen one or read a description of it1 and therefore the principle cost us some thinking out4 ,it was perfectly evident that1 for motive power1 an axle so weighted that it could not revolve in a revolving box would produce the same effect upon the works as an axle made to revolve1 by weights or otherwise1 in a fixed box would have on those of a clock4 ,we therefore made a box of such a form as to fit between spokes of the hinder wheels of a waggon1 and in it fitted an axle with a heavy plummet1 so fixed to it as to prevent its turning when the box revolved2 on this axle was one tooth fitting into the cogs of a sixty-toothed wheel1 which therefore moved one tooth for every revolution1 or once round for every sixty2 the axle of this had also one tooth acting on another of sixty teeth1 so the two were capable of registering sixty times sixty1 or three thousand six hundred revolutions1 which1 supposing the wheel to be only #eyds4 in circumference1 would measure ten miles and a quarter1 the number of revolutions being indicated by a hand fixed upon the axle of each wheel1 each moving on its own dial-plate1 like those of a patent log4 ,we found that the machine answered quite well enough to convince us that we were right in principle1 and to make us regret that we had not the tools and appliances at hand to fit it so perfectly as to insure smoothness and uniformity of action4 ,to all1 however1 who have the means1 we would say do not fail to buy a trocheameter3 it is a small1 compact instrument1 fitted in a copper case1 capable of being strapped on any convenient part of the wheel2 and one of fair quality need not cost above #bl4 #ajs4 or #cl4 ,the instrument is composed of two revolving toothed wheels1 the upper wheel having #aja and the lower #ajj teeth1 suspended from and turned by an endless screw2 there are two indices1 that on the upper wheel pointing out every single revolution1 and that on the lower every hundred4 ,the whole circuit of the instrument is #aj1ajj revolutions1 and the following is an example of its power3 ,one complete circuit of #aj1ajj revolutions1 with a carriage-wheel of #ab;ft4 circumference1 would indicate #bc miles1 minus #hjyds4 ,thus1 #ee revolutions give #bbjyds41 or #a furlong2 #aaj give #ddjyds41 or a quarter of a mile2 #ddj give #agfjyds41 or #a mile2 #gjdj give #af miles2 #aj1ajj equal to #bc miles1 minus #hjyds4 ,to set the instrument unscrew the milled nut from off the steel endless screw1 and move the wheels round until both the indices coincide2 screw the nut firmly in its place1 shut up the instrument1 and strap it securely to the off-wheel in the centre of the nave4 ,in ,africa we cannot literally follow out these instructions1 for the nave is not brass capped1 as with carriage-wheels at home1 but the end of the axle comes through1 and the wheel is secured to it by a washer and a linch pin2 therefore1 we strap the trocheameter between the spokes as near to the nave as possible1 and in our journey to the ,zambesi ,fall we secured a pint pannikin permanently between the spokes as a protection to the trocheameter1 which just fitted nicely into it during this journey4 ,we measured a distance of between #bjjj and #cjjj miles1 and do not remember that this instrument failed1 except once from being choked with fine dry sand1 and once again from equally fine sand and water4 ,we subjoin a table1 by which it will be seen that our waggon-wheel was #eyds4 #b-a_/b;in4 in circumference2 this fraction gave some little trouble in the preliminary computation1 and it looked very absurd to calculate the stages to half an inch1 but if we had thrown it out a considerable error would have accumulated1 and when the table was once formed the trouble was at an end4 ,,trocheameter ,,table4 ,first ,wheel4 -------------- -------------------------- ,no4 ,fur4 ,yds4 ,ft4 ,in4 ---------------------------------------- - #a - #e #j #b-a_/b #b - #aj #j #e #c - #ae #j #g-a_/b #d - #bj #j #aj #e - #be #a #j-a_/b #f - #cj #a #c #g - #ce #a #e-a_/b #h - #dj #a #h #i - #de #a #aj-a_/b #aj - #ej #b #a #aa - #ee #b #c-a_/b #ab - #fj #b #f #ac - #fe #b #h-a_/b #ad - #gj #b #aa #ae - #gf #j #a-a_/b #af - #ha #j #d #ag - #hf #j #f-a_/b #ah - #ia #j #i #ai - #if #j #aa-a_/b #bj - #aja #a #b #ba - #ajf #a #d-a_/b #bb - #aaa #a #g #bc - #aaf #a #i-a_/b #bd - #aba #b #j #be - #abf #b #b-a_/b #bf - #aca #b #e #bg - #acf #b #g-a_/b #bh - #ada #b #aj #bi - #adg #j #j-a_/b #cj - #aeb #j #c #ca - #aeg #j #e-a_/b #cb - #afb #j #h #cc - #afg #j #aj-a_/b #cd - #agb #a #a #ce - #agg #a #c-a_/b #cf - #ahb #a #f #cg - #ahg #a #h-a_/b #ch - #aib #a #aa #ci - #aig #b #a-a_/b #dj - #bjb #b #d #da - #bjg #b #f-a_/b #db - #bab #b #i #dc - #bag #b #aa-a_/b #dd #a #c #j #b #de #a #h #j #d-a_/b #df #a #ac #j #g #dg #a #ah #j #i-a_/b #dh #a #bc #a #j #di #a #bh #a #b-a_/b #ej #a #cc #a #e #ea #a #ch #a #g-a_/b #eb #a #dc #a #aj #ec #a #dh #b #j-a_/b #ed #a #ec #b #c #ee #a #eh #b #e-a_/b #ef #a #fc #b #h #eg #a #fh #b #aj-a_/b #eh #a #gd #j #a #ei #a #gi #j #c-a_/b #fj #a #hd #j #f #fa #a #hi #j #h-a_/b #fb #a #id #j #aa #fc #a #ii #a #a-a_/b #fd #a #ajd #a #d #fe #a #aji #a #f-a_/b #ff #a #aad #a #i #fg #a #aai #a #aa-a_/b #fh #a #abd #b #b #fi #a #abi #b #d-a_/b #gj #a #acd #b #g #ga #a #aci #b #i-a_/b #gb #a #ade #j #j #gc #a #aej #j #b-a_/b #gd #a #aee #j #e #ge #a #afj #j #g-a_/b #gf #a #afe #j #aj #gg #a #agj #a #j-a_/b #gh #a #age #a #c #gi #a #ahj #a #e-a_/b #hj #a #ahe #a #h #ha #a #aij #a #aj-a_/b #hb #a #aie #b #a #hc #a #bjj #b #c-a_/b #hd #a #bje #b #f #he #a #baj #b #h-a_/b #hf #a #bae #b #aa #hg #b #a #j #a-a_/b #hh #b #f #j #d #hi #b #aa #j #f-a_/b #ij #b #af #j #i #ia #b #ba #j #aa-a_/b #ib #b #bf #a #b #ic #b #ca #a #d-a_/b #id #b #cf #a #g #ie #b #da #a #i-a_/b #if #b #df #b #j #ig #b #ea #b #b-a_/b #ih #b #ef #b #e #ii #b #fa #b #g-a_/b #ajj #b #ff #b #aj #aja #b #gb #j #j-a_/b ---------------------------------------- - ,second ,wheel4 ------------------------------------- ,no4 ,miles4 ,fur4 ,yds4 ,ft4 ,in4 ------------------------------------- #a -- #b #gb #j #j-a_/b #b -- #d #add #j #a #c -- #f #baf #j #a-a_/b #d #a #a #fh #j #b #e #a #c #ad #j #b-a_/b #f #a #e #bab #j #c #g #b #j #fd #j #c-a_/b #h #b #b #acf #j #d #i #b #d #bjh #j #d-a_/b #aj #b #g #fj #j #e #bj #e #f #abj #j #aj #cj #h #e #ahj #a #c #dj #aa #e #bj #a #h #ej #ad #d #hj #b #a #fj #ag #c #adj #b #f #gj #bj #b #bjj #b #aa #hj #bc #b #da #j #d #ij #bf #a #aja #j #i #ajj #bi #j #afa #a #b ------------------------------------- ,we give also an example of the work3-- ,december #bg1 #ahfa4--;,from ,christmas ,tree1 south-west angle of ,lake ,ngami1 two miles from ,bolebeng--trocheameter at zero4 ,first halt south of the ,lake3-- ,trocheameter #f #cg m4 fur4 yds4 ft4 in4 #f #a #e #bab #j #c #cg #j #j #ahg #a #h-a_/b --------------------------- #a #f #agi #a #aa-a_/b #bhth4--,north of the ,vlei ,moslenyan3-- ,trocheameter #bb #ia #f #cg ------ #af #ed m4 fur4 yds4 ft4 in4 #aj #b #g #fj #j #e #f #a #e #bab #j #c #ed #j #a #ec #b #c ----------------------- #d #f #aje #b #aa ----------------------- #bith4--,the ,big ,tree1 or ,baobab at ,mamakahooie3-- ,borrow #aja ,trocheameter #ej #gc #bb #ia ------ #bg #hc m4 fur4 yds4 ft4 in4 #bj #e #f #abj #j #aj #g #b #j #fd #j #c-a_/b #hc #j #a #bjj #b #c-a_/b ----------------------- #h #j #afe #j #e ----------------------- #bith1 p4m4--,a hollow1 with water3-- ,borrow #aja ,trocheameter #gf #ec #ej #gc ------ #be #ha m4 fur4 yds4 ft4 in4 #bj #e #f #abj #j #aj #e #a #c #ad #j #b-a_/b #ha #j #a #aij #a #aj-a_/b ----------------------- #g #c #ajd #b #aa ----------------------- #cjth4--,a small ,vlei3-- ,borrow #aja ,trocheameter #ic #dd #gf #ec ------ #af #ib m4 fur4 yds4 ft4 in4 #aj #b #g #fj #j #e #f #a #e #bab #j #b #ib #j #b #bf #a #aj-a_/b ------------------------ #d #g #gh #a #aj ------------------------ #cast4--,outspan in the ,bush4 ,trocheameter #ab #hi ,add #ajj ------ #aab #hi #ic #dd ------ #ai #de m4 fur4 yds4 ft4 in4 #aj #b #g #fj #j #e #i #b #d #bjh #j #d-a_/b #de #j #a #h #j #d-a_/b ------------------------ #e #e #ef #a #b ------------------------ ,as a means of measuring a base line for triangulation of a country the trocheameter is invaluable4 ,suppose the course is north1 and that a mountain bears #ij1 or east2 let the waggon travel till the mountain bears #de more southerly1 or #ace1 i4e41 south-east2 then stop the waggon1 read the trocheameter1 and the length of road travelled will be equal to the distance of the mountain from the starting place4 ,even if the course does not form a right angle with the bearing1 the same method may be followed1 involving only a little more calculation1 or the trouble of laying down the angle upon paper4 ,in places where a waggon cannot travel1 it would be well to have a large wheel1 on the principle of the old perambulator1 and fix the trocheameter upon it2 only let it be loaded1 so as to bear the semblance of usefulness in the eyes of natives1 or even of illiterate white men1 or they will infallibly carry it over the bad places1 as ,captain ,sturt's men did1 to save themselves trouble4 ,the trocheameter may be fitted to any piece of machinery1 as the screw or paddles of a steamer1 the sails of a windmill1 a waterwheel1 or anything capable of turning round4 ,,to ,,ascertain ,,the ,,variation ,,of ,,the ,,compass4 ,illustration ,the rule for ascertaining this by the bearing of the rising or setting sun is given in all epitomes of navigation1 and need not be repeated here2 but this is only practicable in a level country1 where the sun can be seen within at most a few minutes of the proper times1 and cannot be carried out among mountains or thick forests4 ,in such case we were in the habit of setting up two sticks 7,a ,a71 stretching a thread 7,b7 across them1 and from the middle of this letting fall a plumb line 7,c72 then1 taking a flat board1 with a sheet of paper 7,d7 stretched on it and projecting a little over the edge1 make a hole in the projecting part to let the plumb line hang through1 taking care not to vitiate its correctness2 then select an object 7,e71 the small upright stem of a tree1 or set up a stick at a good distance1 #ajjyds4 or #bjjyds41 or more1 as nearly compass north of the plumb line as possible--if it is not exactly so1 note its deviation on either side with the utmost correctness1 and draw on the paper the line ,f ,d1 which1 if prolonged1 would reach the tree at ,e4 ,then1 between ten and eleven in the forenoon1 set out the artificial horizon1 and take an altitude of the sun2 call stop sharply at the moment of observation1 and let an assistant1 with a straight-edged rule and pencil1 draw the line of shadow cast by the plumb line at that moment2 read off1 and let your assistant record your observed altitude beside the line he has drawn2 rest a minute or two at least2 then take another observation1 and so on1 till three or five1 or any odd number of lines have been drawn1 forming a pencil of rays from the plumb line4 ,leave the sextant clamped at the last observation1 and in the afternoon1 before the sun comes down at that altitude1 be ready with the horizon1 and call stop at the moment1 or even just before1 the sun comes into contact1 your assistant being ready1 as before1 to draw the shadow of the plumb line4 ,you will now find that the short interval of rest taken between the morning observation will give you time to set your sextant to the next altitude1 and to wait quietly till the sun comes down to it2 do the same with the rest2 and1 when all are drawn1 take the mean of each pencil of lines1 and between them draw an exact central line1 radiating like the rest from the plumb line2 it will be evident that this must represent the shadow when the sun's centre was exactly on the meridian1 and therefore it must be due north and south4 ,measure the angle between this and the magnetic north line already drawn1 and the result in degrees and minutes will be the variation of your compass2 or1 take the bearing of the line by compass1 and the result in points or in degrees will be the variation1 which call east or west1 as the compass north is to the east or west of the true meridian4 ,take the bearing again of the tree or mark set up in the morning to ascertain that your paper has not been shifted during the observations4 ,if your magnetic line has not been drawn exactly north and south it is not of great importance2 but remember that the exact error must be ascertained and allowed for by addition or subtraction in calculating the angle between it and the true north4 ,an unknown error1 however small1 renders an observation useless2 but a known error1 however great1 involves only the trouble of correction4 ,,to ,,obtain ,,levels ,,or ,,low ,,altitudes4 ,illustration ,in mapping a country1 it is desirable to give as nearly as possible the comparative heights of the hills2 or it may be necessary to take the altitude of a low star1 or the height of a tree or other object4 ,for this purpose take a wide-mouthed jar or glass bottle1 such as is used for the collection of specimens2 round the neck of it splice or tie a cord or thong of leather to carry it by2 then tie or fix by sealing-wax1 gum1 or resin1 two hairs or threads crossing each other at right angles2 and then1 standing over the jar with the face towards the object to be measured1 take a pocket1 or full-sized sextant1 and bring the top of the object to the spot where the threads cross each other1 taking care to keep the eye so perpendicularly above their junction that the crossed lines and their reflected image may appear in one2 then read off the observed angle--for instance #aaj #db #cj4 ,apply the index error1 which suppose to be #cj subtracted1 and subtract #ij from the corrected altitude1 the remainder will be the true altitude2 thus3 ,observed delta #aaj #db #cj ,index error #j #j #cj ----------- #aaj #db #j #ij #j #j ----------- ,altitude required #bj #db #j ----------- ,it will conduce very greatly to steadiness if a rest is used2 the stand of a theodolite1 with the instrument removed1 or of a photographic camera1 or three forked sticks set up so that the sight could be directed downwards through a central aperture1 would answer the purpose4 ,if the sextant is set to #ij1 allowing for index error1 and the horizon is swept round with it1 the eye being kept steadily perpendicular to the cross lines1 it will at once show what objects are above or below the level of the observer's eye4 ,a looking-glass may be used in the same manner1 but it must be very carefully tested in every direction with a spirit level and even then it is but an inefficient substitute for the mercury1 which levels itself1 and which cannot possibly give a false result1 because nothing but agitation can destroy the perfect level of its surface1 and unless it is at rest it cannot reflect an unbroken image1 and no observation can be made4 ,illustration ,a looking-glass may also be suspended vertically1 its surface being tested by two plumb lines1 one on each side its centre4 ,a horizontal line may be stretched at a foot or two from its front2 then1 if the observer1 retiring a few paces1 raises or lowers himself till the line and its reflection appear in one--his eye and the line must be in the same horizontal plane--and he may observe the altitude of the sun1 or other celestial body1 when in the zenith or too high to be observed in the mercurial artificial horizon2 this plan1 however1 is only an approximation to correctness1 and should only be used when the mercurial horizon is not available4 ,,the ,,plane ,,table1 ,,and ,,its ,,use4 ,in making a plane table1 discard all the complicated arrangements of sights1 protractors1 fixed compasses1 spirit levels1 and levelling screws1 each of which has an individual error1 which must be found and allowed for before correctness can be attained2 while the approximation to perfection gained by their most careful use is almost certain to be vitiated by the contraction of the paper when removed from the table on which it has been stretched4 ,illustration3 #a-e ,take any flat board--,fig4 #a 7an artist's drawing-board7 is as good as any--and stretch on it a sheet of drawing or stout cartridge paper3 the best levelling apparatus is a wooden hemisphere 7,fig4 #b71 screwed temporarily on to its back1 and working in a circular aperture 7,fig4 #c7 in the top of such a stand as is used for the photographic camera or theodolite2 there is no necessity that the surface should be truly horizontal2 indeed1 it is much better that it should be capable of alterations of position1 so that objects above or below its horizon may be sighted and mapped at pleasure4 ,set up a needle 7a7 in the centre of the drawing-paper1 and lay against it a straight-edged ruler 7b7 with two other needles 7c c71 set perfectly upright in each end as near as possible to the fiducial edge1 as sights2 then1 choosing some principal object--say a well-marked conical peak1 the bluff edge of a precipice1 or a deep and narrow cleft in distant mountains--and keeping your ruler pressed against the central needle1 bring the others1 which serve as sights1 in careful alignment with the object1 and draw a pencil line along the fiducial edge right across the paper2 then1 with your prismatic compass 7resting on the table for greater steadiness1 if there is no iron in it to affect the magnet71 take very carefully the bearing of the object1 and note it in degrees from north1 or zero1 say #dj1 on the line you have drawn2 then lightly sketch the object on the line1 estimating its distance from the centre1 according to the scale on which you are working1 say one or more inches to a mile4 ,direct the sights to any number of well-marked and recognisable objects1 draw lines1 and sketch them lightly at their estimated distances4 ,then have a mark set up as far off as possible1 say a mile1 or any carefully-measured distance1 direct the sights1 and draw a line towards it2 mark its distance accurately on the paper1 and insert the pivot needle there2 remove the table to the marked spot1 and1 with your prismatic compass1 set the first line again to #dj2 then bring your sights to bear upon the object1 draw another line along your straight edge1 and the point at which this cuts the first will be the true position of your object2 correct your first sketch still lightly1 but do not efface anything2 sight all the other objects1 and sketch them where the second set of lines cut the first4 ,then choose another station1 forming1 if possible1 an equilateral triangle with the other two2 mark its position on the map1 remove the proof needle there1 carry the table to the spot1 set the first line again to #dj1 and sight the same objects a third time all round1 and the third set of lines crossing the other two will give their true distances from the centre with sufficient accuracy for all ordinary purposes4 ,a ball and socket joint for adjusting the table to the necessary alterations of level may be made by nailing on beneath it a hemisphere of wood 7,fig4 #b71 working in a circular hole 7,fig4 #c7 in the top of the stand4 ,,extemporised ,,sight ,,vane ,,for ,,levelling ,,staff4 ,fig4 #e4 ,suppose your staff #a-a_/b;in4 thick3 take a piece of tin about #g;in4 wide1 and of any convenient length1 say nearly square2 line it off as in ,fig4 #d1 so that there shall be three divisions parallel to each other1 as wide as the staff is thick1 and on one side of them leave another division1 about #c_/d;in4 wide1 and on the other mark and cut out two projections #c_/d;in4 square1 and a semicircular eyepiece1 somewhat larger1 with a quadrant-like aperture1 as in the illustration2 bend the tin at the divisional lines1 so as to clasp the staff loosely1 with the sight vane projecting from it2 let a cord be attached to the top of the tin1 and pass through a hole in the top of the staff to draw it up by1 and attach another cord to the bottom to draw it down again if required4 ,upon the edge of the narrowest divisions draw the subdivisions of the measures already marked upon your staff1 letting them commence from the level of the bottom of the aperture in the sight vane1 and read downwards2 then1 directing the telescope of your levelling instrument towards the staff1 let an assistant lower or raise the sight vane according to your signals1 and then read off the number of subdivisions on the vernier until you come down to a line1 marking a division on the staff2 read off this1 and add the fractional parts1 and the excess or deficiency over or below the height of the eye will be the difference of level in feet1 inches1 or whatever measurement may be used4 ,illustration ,movable stands for instruments must be light for the sake of portability1 but steadiness cannot be obtained without weight2 and for this purpose a bucket of water1 a bamboo filled with water or sand1 a bag of stones or sand1 a large stone1 or lashing to a tent peg driven into the ground1 may be employed1 as in our illustration4 ,,makeshift ,,clinometer4 ,illustration ,captain ,lendy recommends a simple form of clinometer1 which is constructed as follows3 ,the clinometer consists of a quadrant of pasteboard or of brass1 having a plummet1 ,a ,h1 suspended at its centre1 and graduated1 as in the diagram1 on both sides4 ,when we require an angle of elevation1 we look along the edge1 ,a ,c1 till ,b is in sight1 when the plummet indicates the angle4 ,for an angle of depression reverse the instrument4 ,this instrument is an excellent substitute for the ordinary form of sextant in case of accident or breakage4 ,the same officer describes an ingenious substitute for an ordinary water level1 which can always be replaced by a little ruler1 ,a ,b1 suspended by strings1 ,c ,a1 ,c ,b1 having a little weight under it to prevent the wind from shaking it4 ,when held by the string the line ,a ,b will give a horizontal direction4 ,to make use of it for levelling along ,a ,b1 start from ,a1 hold the ruler up to the eye1 and1 aiming along its edge1 notice to what point 7,b7 of the ground the visual ray corresponds4 ,repair there1 we shall have ascended a distance--the height of the eye above the ground4 ,start afresh from ,b1 and in this manner the number of stations made between ,a and ,b1 multiplied by the height of the eye above ground1 will give the difference of level required4 ,illustration ,the same author gives the following useful hints on the estimation of distance3 ,pacing is generally resorted to while filling in the details of a survey4 ,the trotting of a horse might also be made available4 ,distances can also be measured by time when we have previously ascertained over how many yards we walk or ride in a given time4 ,this is not a rare occurrence in the field4 ,when distances are measured by pacing or riding a correction is necessary1 owing to the lengthening caused by acclivities and the turnings of roads4 ,on slightly uneven ground we subtract #a-gth of the distance paced1 and #a-eth when the inductions are more important4 ,when the atmosphere is even sound travels at the rate of #aaah;ft4 per second2 therefore a musket fired may serve to measure a distance4 ,a watch gives the number of seconds elapsed between the instant the light is seen and that when the report is heard2 that number1 multiplied by #aaah;ft41 gives very approximately the distance4 ,if no watch is to be had the time is obtained by counting the pulsations of an artery4 ,a sound pulse averages from #ge to #hj in a minute4 ,distances may even be guessed by observing that in clear weather the windows of a house can be counted at #djjjyds4 ,horses and men appear as dots at #bbjjyds4 ,a horse is clearly seen at #abjjyds4 ,the movements of men are perceived at #hjjyds42 and the head is distinctly visible at #djjyds4 ,for the measurement of time1 as we have said before1 a thoroughly well-made ,english lever watch is preferable to a chronometer1 as it will withstand the rough jolts and vibrations caused by being carried on horseback1 or in a waggon1 far better4 ,sun-dials1 properly so called1 are rarely of much use to the traveller2 still the pocket compass may be made to do duty as an indicator of time4 ,there is a small and very portable little instrument to be obtained of most opticians1 in the formation of which a silk cord is so attached to the border of the compass case that on adjusting the compass1 so that the needle shall point to a black stud inserted for the purpose1 a shadow is cast by the silk on the figure indicating the hour of the day4 ,a small equation table is attached to the inside of the cover4 ,when no watch is at hand seconds can be indicated closely enough for practical purposes by suspending a small bag of shot or bullets from the end of a piece of fine fishing line or copper wire4 ,attach the upper end to a cross bar1 laid in the crutches of two forked sticks1 let the bag hang1 and regulate the length of the string until you find that it describes the proper arc in swinging2 your own pulse1 the number of which has been already given1 or that of a horse1 which may be roughly set down as thirty-six beats per minute1 will be a sufficient guide4 ,if great accuracy is sought1 recourse may be had to repeated astronomical observations4 ,an excellent makeshift hour-glass can be made from two empty soda-water bottles1 and a little fine dry sand4 ,a wooden plug of #c;in4 long should be so cut as to fit the necks of the bottles tightly4 ,through the centre of the plug1 from end to end1 burn with a red-hot wire a fine even hole1 then with your pocket-knife make a funnel-shaped or flared-out mouth to each hole1 cutting away until the extreme edge of the plug is reached4 ,see that your sand is free from small stones or lumps1 pour it into one of the bottles1 insert the plug half-way1 and test the quantity by letting it run out at the hole4 ,when you have the proper charge to run for fifteen or thirty minutes1 place the bottles mouth to mouth in such a way that one-half the plug shall be in the neck of each bottle4 ,a bit of raw hide sewn round the union of the bottle mouths makes all secure4 ,the joined bottles can then be mounted in a wooden frame for use4 ,two bits of flat square board1 with holes in the centre for the bottoms of the bottles to come partly through1 pinned at the corners by four bars of wood1 is as good a form of frame as any4 ,the ,malays make use of a very convenient and simple form of time indicator or water clock1 which is made as follows3--,a large-sized cocoa-nut shell is obtained2 this is first scraped perfectly smooth1 and then at the bottom a very minute hole is bored4 ,the nutshell is then set floating in a pail of sea water4 ,as the shell fills it gradually settles deeper and deeper1 and at last sinks to the bottom with a gurgle and a thud4 ,the rapidity of filling1 and consequent duration of time1 is regulated by increasing or diminishing the size of the orifice4 ,thus a man may be set to keep a two-shell watch or a four-shell watch1 and so on4 ,the instant the shell sinks to the bottom of the pail it attracts attention by the disturbance made4 ,it is then immediately taken up1 the water is poured out1 and it is set afloat again4 ,excellent time can be kept by this primitive arrangement4 ,for ascertaining the altitude of high lands1 ranges of hills or mountains1 a thoroughly good compensated aneroid barometer should be taken4 ,this will not only be valuable for measurements1 but will be of considerable service in the observation of weather signs4 ,we have one now in use made expressly for us by ,mr4 ,cary1 of #aha1 ,strand4 ,it is protected by a smooth wooden cover or case1 enveloped in tightly-stretched leather4 ,a sling is fitted to it by a swivel loop1 which admits of its being carried over the shoulder or in the jacket pocket4 ,the ,table of ,altitudes1 given on the next page1 will prove a useful guide when conducting observations with it4 ,,table ,,of ,,altitudes4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,aneroid or ,height ,aneroid or ,height ,aneroid or ,height ,corrected in ,feet4,corrected in ,feet4,corrected in ,feet4 ,barometer4 ,barometer4 ,barometer4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- in4 ft4 in4 ft4 in4 ft4 #cajj #j #bfgf #djjj #bcaa #hjjj #cjid #ej #bfgb #djej #bcjg #hjej #cjhh #ajj #bffg #dajj #bcjc #hajj #cjhc #aej #bffb #daej #bbih #haej #cjgg #bjj #bfeg #dbjj #bbid #hbjj #cjga #bej #bfeb #dbej #bbij #hbej #cjff #cjj #bfdg #dcjj #bbhf #hcjj #cjfj #cej #bfdb #dcej #bbhb #hcej #cjed #djj #bfcg #ddjj #bbgg #hdjj #cjdi #dej #bfcc #ddej #bbgc #hdej #cjdc #ejj #bfbh #dejj #bbfi #hejj #cjch #eej #bfbc #deej #bbfe #heej #cjcb #fjj #bfah #dfjj #bbfa #hfjj #cjbf #fej #bfac #dfej #bbeg #hfej #cjba #gjj #bfji #dgjj #bbeb #hgjj #cjae #gej #bfjd #dgej #bbdh #hgej #cjaj #hjj #beii #dhjj #bbdd #hhjj #cjjd #hej #beid #dhej #bbdj #hhej #biii #ijj #behi #dijj #bbcf #hijj #biic #iej #behe #diej #bbcb #hiej #bihh #ajjj #behj #ejjj #bbbh #ijjj #bihb #ajej #bege #ejej #bbbd #ijej #bigg #aajj #bega #eajj #bbbj #iajj #biga #aaej #beff #eaej #bbaf #iaej #biff #abjj #befa #ebjj #bbaa #ibjj #bifa #abej #beef #ebej #bbjg #ibej #biee #acjj #beeb #ecjj #bbjc #icjj #biej #acej #bedg #ecej #baii #icej #bidd #adjj #bedb #edjj #baie #idjj #bici #adej #bech #edej #baia #idej #bicd #aejj #becc #eejj #bahg #iejj #bibh #aeej #bebh #eeej #bahc #ieej #bibc #afjj #bebd #efjj #bagi #ifjj #biag #afej #beai #efej #bage #ifej #biab #agjj #beae #egjj #baga #igjj #bijg #agej #beaj #egej #bafg #igej #bija #ahjj #beje #ehjj #bafc #ihjj #bhif #ahej #beja #ehej #baei #ihej #bhia #aijj #bdif #eijj #baee #iijj #bhhf #aiej #bdib #eiej #baea #iiej #bhhj #bjjj #bdhg #fjjj #badg #ajjjj #bhge #bjej #bdhb #fjej #badd #ajjej #bhgj #bajj #bdgh #fajj #badj #ajajj #bhfd #baej #bdgc #faej #bacf #ajaej #bhei #bbjj #bdfi #fbjj #bacb #ajbjj #bhed #bbej #bdfd #fbej #babh #ajbej #bhdi #bcjj #bdfj #fcjj #babd #ajcjj #bhdc #bcej #bdee #fcej #babj #ajcej #bhch #bdjj #bdea #fdjj #baaf #ajdjj #bhcc #bdej #bddf #fdej #baab #ajdej #bhbh #bejj #bddb #fejj #bajh #ajejj #bhbc #beej #bdcg #feej #baje #ajeej #bhah #bfjj #bdcc #ffjj #baja #ajfjj #bhab #bfej #bdbh #ffej #bjig #ajfej #bhjg #bgjj #bdbd #fgjj #bjic #ajgjj #bhjb #bgej #bdbj #fgej #bjhi #ajgej #bgig #bhjj #bdae #fhjj #bjhe #ajhjj #bgib #bhej #bdaa #fhej #bjhb #ajhej #bghg #bijj #bdjf #fijj #bjgh #ajijj #bghb #biej #bdjb #fiej #bjgd #ajiej #bggf #cjjj #bcig #gjjj #bjgj #aajjj #bgga #cjej #bcic #gjej #bjff #aajej #bgff #cajj #bchi #gajj #bjfc #aaajj #bgfa #caej #bchd #gaej #bjei #aaaej #bgef #cbjj #bchj #gbjj #bjee #aabjj #bgea #cbej #bcgf #gbej #bjea #aabej #bgdf #ccjj #bcga #gcjj #bjdg #aacjj #bgda #ccej #bcfg #gcej #bjdd #aacej #bgcf #cdjj #bcfb #gdjj #bjdj #aadjj #bgca #cdej #bceh #gdej #bjcf #aadej #bgbf #cejj #bced #gejj #bjcb #aaejj #bgba #ceej #bcej #geej #bjbi #aaeej #bgaf #cfjj #bcde #gfjj #bjbe #aafjj #bgaa #cfej #bcda #gfej #bjba #aafej #bgjf #cgjj #bccg #ggjj #bjah #aagjj #bgja #cgej #bccb #ggej #bjad #aagej #bfif #chjj #bcbh #ghjj #bjaj #aahjj #bfia #chej #bcbd #ghej #bjjg #aahej #bfhf #cijj #bcbj #gijj #bjjc #aaijj #bfha #ciej #bcae #giej #aiii #aaiej #bfgf #djjj #bcaa #hjjj #aiie #abjjj ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,this ,table is intended more particularly for the graduation of aneroids with a circle of measures in feet concentric with the ordinary circle of barometric height measured in inches4 ,the circle of feet is to be read off1 at the upper and lower stations1 by the index2 and the rule for measuring the height will be3 ,subtract the reading at the lower station from the reading at the upper station2 the difference is the height in feet4 ,,example4 ,in4 ,ft4 ,barometer at ,upper ,station1 #bcej #geej ,lower #bdbj #fgej ---- ,actual height #hjj ,there is no correction for temperature required with aneroids which are compensated4 ,in using the instrument here described in the measurement of altitudes1 the movable needle point which is turned by the mill-edged rim is set opposite the index hand4 ,this is to be done at the foot of the mountain or hill4 ,then the difference between the index hand and the movable needle point will be the number of feet ascended 7vide ,table appended1 and ,example74 ,suppose the index hand stand when at the foot of the hill at #cj;in4 #aj_/ajj1 and when you again look at the instrument you find the index hand has gone back1 or has fallen to #bi;in4 #ab_/ajj1 then you would have ascended #ijj;ft4 ,at page #bf of this work we referred to the hypsometrical or boiling-point apparatus used in taking altitudes4 ,since the remark there made was penned we have endeavoured1 and we hope successfully1 to so guard the improved form of aneroid barometer1 referred to at p4 #gda1 from the chance of accident1 that it can be safely carried by the explorer of even the most rugged and inhospitable regions4 ,,on ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,sextant ,,and ,,artificial ,,horizon4 ,we do not propose in this work to trespass on the province of books on nautical astronomy4 ,we take it for granted that every traveller using a sextant will also provide himself with an ,epitome--,norie's1 ,rapers1 or ,kerigan's 7of course the latest possible edition of either71 and with the ,nautical ,almanac1 which may be had for three years in advance1 by persons contemplating a long journey4 ,the most important instrument is the sextant itself1 and in the selection of this the greatest care should be used4 ,ebony or other wood may do for the frames of such as are to be used at sea in temperate climates1 but for tropical use1 even for sea service1 we recommend a brass or gun-metal frame1 and for observing on land no other should be used4 ,the quadrant1 which is quite equal to the observation of altitude at sea1 will take an angle of #ij1 but should read up to #aj or #bj more2 but the sextant1 or sixth of a circle1 is made to take in an angle of twice #fj1 or #abj1 and should also read #aj or #bj higher4 ,when we were at the ,zambesi mouth1 in #aheh1 ,dr4 ,livingstone's sextant reached only #abg1 while our own would read to #acg or #adj1 which1 when the altitude of the sun was increasing daily1 gave us the advantage of observing a week or ten days longer than he could4 ,we left the instrument in the care of the ,portuguese ,commandant of ,tette1 but have no hope of ever seeing it again1 the town having been burnt and the inhabitants massacred by ,landeens1 ,banzai1 or other ferocious savages4 ,the sextant we generally use--and which we have tested by many years' constant use--is brass framed1 reads to #abf #ef1 is of #h inches radius1 and has its arc and vernier on which the figures are engraved of gold1 which has a soft lustre1 exceedingly agreeable to the eye under a tropical sun1 and is equally pleasant to read by lamp light2 a screen of ground glass is placed before it to soften the light still more1 and prevent annoying glitter and reflection2 the degrees are divided into sixths of ten minutes each1 and the minutes likewise into ten seconds2 the microscope travels on a fixed frame1 and a small milled-headed screw brings it to the figures to be read4 ,a small lamp fixed on the axis of the index arm1 with a reflector to shed the light upon the arc and vernier1 is sometimes made use of4 ,for nearly all angular measurements that an explorer is likely to require1 a really good sextant will be found sufficient1 but some1 for the sake of still greater power and accuracy1 provide themselves with a repeating circle2 but although this possesses many advantages1 we doubt whether the expense of such an instrument will not place it beyond the reach of the generality of travellers1 while the extra care required will constitute too great a claim upon the time of any who cannot devote themselves entirely to astronomical observations1 but must1 perhaps1 give the greater part of their time to other avocations4 ,the double sextant invented by ,captain ,george1 ,r4,n41 of the astronomical department of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 described at page #bg of this work1 will be found a portable and most convenient instrument for the use of explorers4 ,the theodolite has also many advantages1 especially in taking a round of angles2 but from what we have seen of it in practice we should be inclined to think that an explorer1 with his sextant and compass1 is more independent1 and can do more than he could possibly effect with the theodolite4 ,the artificial horizon is1 as its name imports1 intended to obviate the difficulties caused by the fact that the real1 or sea horizon1 may be at times invisible1 obscured by fog or clouds1 or that the observer may be absent from it1 and often far inland1 where the unevenness of the earth's surface prevents anything like a reliable real horizon being found4 ,of the artificial horizons used at sea we have not much to say1 the unsteadiness of the vessel forbidding the use of any instrument that can be disturbed by motion4 ,the best we have seen is ,captain ,becher's pendulum horizon1 a little frame swinging near the object-glass of the sextant1 and carrying a couple of horizontal wires1 so arranged that when they appear in one to the eye of the observer they ought to be on a level with the horizon and parallel with it2 a small lamp is so fitted to the sextant as to render these wires visible at night if the altitude of the moon or a star is required2 but we do not think the latitude deduced from such an observation can be more than approximately true4 ,it is on shore1 and most of all in the far interior of the great continents of the world1 that the artificial horizon is most needed1 and that it renders the truest service to the explorer2 and therefore it is of the greatest importance that the instrument should be at once simple in construction1 easy of management1 not easily put out of order1 and1 above all1 perfectly reliable in the result obtained from it4 ,the first requisite is a perfectly flat and horizontal reflecting surface1 in which1 when the observer looks down upon it1 the image of the sun or star may be distinctly seen4 ,now1 it is easy to find flatness3 a disc of silvered glass1 or polished metal1 or even a bit of crown glass1 painted black on the under side1 or a common round shaving-glass would do if this only were required2 but this flat surface must also be perfectly horizontal1 and to attain this various arrangements of tangent screws and spirit levels have been invented1 all of which require great care in levelling1 and have the defect that the slightest accidental touch while they are in use may alter the level1 and so vitiate the observation4 ,by common consent1 therefore1 observers almost universally trust to fluid mirrors1 which must be perfectly level if they are sufficiently quiescent to reflect a perfect image4 ,water1 darkened with any colouring matter--ink2 water with a little treacle1 to render it less liable to be agitated by the wind1 or thin tar will do2 but all these have disadvantages which render them only fit to be looked upon as substitutes when mercury cannot be obtained2 in fact1 long ago we were told by the late ,captain ,washington1 ,hydrographer to the ,admiralty1 to use nothing but mercury4 ,the horizon trough1 as it is called1 is simply a block of wood of oblong form1 about #f;in4 long1 #d;in4 wide1 and #a;in4 thick2 this is hollowed to the depth of about #c_/h;in4 or #a_/b;in41 leaving a sufficient rim to retain the mercury which is poured into it4 ,sometimes a hole is pierced in the rim1 and is continued in the solid wood under the hollow1 so that the mercury1 being poured into a small funnel fitted in the rim1 runs underneath and rises like a fountain in the centre of the trough4 ,the various arrangements of this kind and others more complicated are called fountain horizons1 but they are not really necessary1 their principal object being to insure the perfect purity of the mercurial surface by forcing it to flow downward first through the funnel1 and so to leave the scum behind2 but this object may be just as well attained by inverting the bottle1 so that all the impurities may float upon the surface1 and allowing the pure mercury to run through the perforated stopper into the trough4 ,the bottle is generally of iron1 and has the perforated stopper already mentioned1 which1 when the mercury has to be returned to it1 serves also as a funnel4 ,wooden bottles are also made1 but no traveller ought to depend upon them1 as in hot climates they shrink and split2 and we have found in ,namaqualand all our mercury adrift in a tinned box1 forming an amalgam which did not at all improve it4 ,we have therefore1 for many years1 kept it in a common stoneware ink bottle1 with a bit of washleather tied over the cork1 and have found this to answer admirably2 in pouring out the mercury1 having removed the cork1 we stop the mouth of the bottle with the forefinger1 completely invert it1 and then1 slightly moving the finger1 leave an opening sufficient for a stream of pure mercury to flow into the horizon4 ,our trough is round1 and about #d;in4 across1 which is quite large enough4 ,in perfectly calm weather we prefer to observe on the plain surface of the uncovered mercury2 but if wind comes on1 as it often does in ,africa and ,australia about noon1 we cover it with a roof of the usual form1 i4e41 two small panes of glass fixed in a frame so as to form an angle of #de each with the horizon1 or #ij with each other1 and1 standing like a roof over the mercury1 allow the rays from the heavenly body to pass down to it1 and be reflected to the eye of the observer4 ,various methods of rendering this roof as portable as possible have been tried2 our own is figured in the first chapter of this work4 ,captain ,george's new artificial horizon1 however1 bids fair to supersede all the old forms of arrangement1 as its portability1 strength1 and simplicity of adjustment stand unrivalled4 ,captain ,george's horizon may be made sufficiently large to equal the surface of the one now used2 but the portable or pocket form here alluded to is of the following dimensions3-- ,self-replenishing1 #f;in4 long1 #b-a_/b;in4 broad1 #c_/d;in4 thick1 weighs #a-a_/dlb41 cubic measure #aa-a_/d;in4 ,the wooden one of olden date1 #i-a_/b;in4 long1 #e-a_/b;in4 broad1 #e-a_/b;in4 thick1 weighs #e-a_/clb41 cubic measure #bhg-a_/c;in4 ,improved folding roof1 c41 all iron1 #h;in4 long1 #d-a_/b;in4 broad1 #b-a_/b;in4 thick1 weighs #f-c_/dlb41 cubic measure #ij;in4 ,the improvements herein specified are not only its reduced size and weight1 but its mechanical arrangements1 form1 and moderate price4 ,it consists of two circular disc-like reservoirs1 about #b-a_/b;in4 in diameter1 and #c_/d;in4 in depth1 made of iron1 at the same casting3 one contains the mercury1 and the other is the trough1 fitted with glass cover for observing4 ,the discs are connected at their circumference by a narrow neck1 and in it is drilled a hole1 through which the mercury passes from one reservoir to the other2 and this communication is opened or shut off by a stop-cock1 on the cone principle1 such as is used for water or gas1 so that the mercury can be passed from one disc to the other without removing the glass cover1 or the risk of losing any mercury4 ,the mercurial disc1 ,a1 is fitted with a cylinder-stopper1 ,d1 acting on a spiral spring1 by which air can be admitted or allowed to escape4 ,the trough disc1 ,b1 is fitted with two glasses1 ,g and ,e1 which are ground mathematically parallel3 one of the glasses is fitted to a frame1 and screws on the disc1 and is used while passing the mercury in or out of the trough2 after which operation it is removed and replaced by the other glass1 the edge of which next the stop-cock should be supported by the blade of a pocket-knife and then lowered on the mercury at the opposite side1 and by a gentle pressure1 force out the intervening air1 leaving the glass to float on the surface of the mercury4 ,without this care1 some of the mercury might be pressed over the edge of the disc4 ,the glass then presents a clear reflecting surface1 which is not only protected from the effects of the wind1 c41 but also maintains so great a steadiness as to mark a decided improvement over the old triangular glass roof which is placed over the mercury1 instead of1 as in this case1 being on it4 ,it may be used afloat under favourable circumstances 7the observer and artificial horizon being placed on a pendulum table74 ,another great advantage to this improved artificial horizon is the facility with which altitudes can be observed at #b elevation1 and consequently its adaptation for the measurement of very low stars1 as well as the peaks of mountain ranges4 ,to return the mercury to its reservoir1 remove the glass ,g that floats on the mercury1 by lifting it up with the point of a knife1 and then screw on the other glass cover1 ,e4 ,it is now only necessary to hold the instrument vertically1 the trough end being uppermost 7,fig4 #d71 turn the stop-cock1 and press gently downward on the cylindrical stopper1 and the mercury will rapidly return to its reservoir4 ,the following diagrams 7half the actual size of the instrument71 show the various parts of the instrument1 and the method of filling and emptying the reservoir4 ,illustration3 ,fig #a-d4 ,fig4 #a is the instrument complete4 ,a1 the mercurial reservoir2 ,b1 the observing trough2 ,c1 the stop-cock2 ,d1 the cylindrical stop4 ,fig4 #b is the instrument with the parts of the observing trough removed1 which are shown above it4 ,e1 rim with glass shade2 ,f1 rim without glass shade2 ,g1 the glass that floats on the surface of the mercury4 ,fig4 #c4 ,position of the instrument while filling the observing trough4 ,fig4 #d4 ,position of the instrument while returning the mercury into its reservoir4 ,in moderate weather the glass ,g will be quite sufficient protection against the wind1 but in gusty weather screw on the rim ,f1 but it must not touch the glass ,g4 ,the glass ,e will protect it from any weather1 taking care to level the ground on which the horizon stands4 ,in filling the observing trough1 be careful that the glass cover1 ,e1 is screwed on tight2 by pressing on the cylindrical stop ,d 7,fig4 #a7 the mercury flows quickly3 the trough half filled1 as shown in ,fig4 #c1 is sufficient for ordinary observations2 but for very low altitudes the trough must be three-quarters filled or more as found necessary to raise glass ,g 7,fig4 #a74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a-b4 ,before returning the mercury into the reservoir1 unscrew the short tube near the stop-cock1 tapping it smartly at the same time1 to shake down the globules of mercury that may remain in the tube2 there is a small hole in the screw1 which must be brought in sight1 then turn the stop-cock1 and the mercury will run rapidly into the reservoir4 ,when about to use a sextant and artificial horizon of the common form of construction1 our first care is to select a tolerably level1 and1 if there be wind1 a sheltered spot of ground1 with a clear view to the north or south1 or1 if the stars admit of a north and south observation1 to see that the view is clear both ways4 ,on this we place our artificial horizon1 sometimes on our sextant case1 sometimes on a stand 7wash leather71 but seldom1 if we can avoid it1 on the bare ground1 because then the mercury1 if spilled1 would be difficult to gather up4 ,the horizon roof we keep near to cover the mercury1 in case wind should arise1 but we never use it unless in case of necessity2 then1 sitting either north or south of the horizon1 according to the position of the celestial object1 we look with the naked eye for its reflected image in the mercury1 and so seat ourselves that we can conveniently keep it steadily in view4 ,we set the sextant nearly to zero1 and look up without the telescope to the sun or star1 and then1 gradually moving the index forward1 we bring its image down to meet the reflection in the quicksilver2 then1 screwing on the inverting telescope1 which is the simplest and best for observation1 we move the index by hand1 till the contact is nearly perfect2 then fasten the index by the clamping screw1 and with the tangent screw complete the contact2 and so long as the object is rising1 by gradually turning the tangent screw we keep the images together2 when they separate more slowly1 and at length remain in contact for nearly half a minute1 we know that the meridian altitude has been observed2 we wait another minute to see them separate in the opposite direction as the body begins to descend1 and then read off the observed altitude4 ,our illustration will sufficiently explain that the sextant is held in the left hand and the tangent screw worked with the thumb and forefinger of the right4 ,fig4 #b is the method recommended by ,captain ,george3 the arc is steadied by the forefinger1 and the tangent screw turned by the middle finger and the thumb2 a police or bull's-eye lantern is good to read off by1 and the light1 of whatever nature1 should be placed behind the observer1 so that it may not interfere with his work1 and yet may be ready for him to use when he wishes to read his altitude4 ,,projection ,,of ,,routes4 ,the following directions for the projections of routes by ,captain ,george1 ,r4,n41 are so thoroughly plain and practical that it will be well for the travelling observer to have recourse to them3--,for out-door or field work the easiest method is by the plane projection1 the data thus obtained being transferred to a ,mercator's projection at the first halt or stopping station4 ,in the plane projection one equal length is assigned to all the degrees of latitude and longitude4 ,it was first adopted on the erroneous supposition that the earth's surface is a plane2 it is still the best for the traveller to use in his early attempts to project his journey while the objects are still in sight4 ,this projection is available as far as #bj on either side of the ,equator2 beyond the parallel of #bj and as far as #fj ,mercator's projection is preferable4 ,between #fj and the pole the distortion of both the plane and ,mercator's projection is so apparent1 that a polar or circular projection must be adopted4 ,sheets of paper1 ruled into squares by strong lines1 and subdivided by finer ones1 afford great assistance in map work4 ,for out-door work the scale of #a;in4 to one mile is amply large enough to register every particular of one day's journey on a sheet of #ab;in4 square4 ,the in-door1 or table plan1 may be reduced ten miles to the inch1 and plans for transmission home maybe again reduced to #a;in4 to #a when larger plans cannot be sent4 ,the chief point aimed at in the following directions is to draw more attention than has hitherto been given to the true bearing of objects1 for the following reasons3 ,first4 ,any object whose true bearing is east or west must be in the same latitude as the place of the observer4 ,secondly4 ,any object whose true bearing is north or south must be in the same longitude as the place of the observer4 ,illustration ,while travelling in a northerly or southerly direction1 from a station whose latitude is known1 and carefully noting the distance and direction travelled1 it is only necessary to watch when objects come to the true east or west1 and their latitude is obtained4 ,when travelling in an easterly or westerly direction from a fixed station1 noting distance and direction1 it is only necessary to watch when objects come to the true north or south1 and their difference of longitude can be obtained by using ,table ,b1 from the station left4 ,thus1 suppose a traveller passes from ,a1 whose latitude is known1 towards some distant hill 7,b71 his route making an angle of #be with the meridian4 ,he sets his sextant to #fe 7#fe #be #ij71 or to #aae 7#ahj - #fe72 then as the objects #a1 #b1 #c1 and #d successively come into contact with ,b or ,a1 as the case may be1 he ascertains with precision the moment when they are truly east or west of him1 and so1 knowing the distance he has travelled from ,a1 he can readily calculate or project their latitude4 ,when the traveller1 as will frequently be the case1 has to deviate from the line of route1 his position can be determined by compass1 or true bearing of any object1 and an angle of a second object2 or he may have recourse to transit observations2 that is to say1 wherever two fixed objects come in line1 an angle to a third object will determine the position with great accuracy4 ,illustration ,observe that in travelling along ,x ,y ,z the hills ,a ,b ,c can be mapped for at ,x1 or thereabouts2 the bearing of ,b from ,c can be determined at ,y2 that of ,a from ,b2 and at ,z that of ,a from ,c1 and so on1 for any number of hills4 ,and it is very important to recollect that it is not necessary to catch these lines of sight precisely1 for by taking bearings twice1 and the intermediate course approximately1 there are sufficient data for protracting out upon paper the required bearing4 ,thus1 as soon as the peak of a distant hill is about to be occulted by the shoulder of a nearer one1 a bearing should be taken1 and again another as soon as it has reappeared on the other side1 and the intermediate course noted4 ,the advantage of this method of filling up a field sketch will become more apparent as experience is gained4 ,a third and accurate method of fixing the position is in general use among marine surveyors1 but has hitherto been but little resorted to by land travellers1 viz41 by the angles subtended between three known objects4 ,the instrument called the station-pointer is generally used for this purpose1 but the position may also be found with a pair of compasses and a protractor1 or more simply as follows by means of a protractor and a sheet of tracing paper4 ,draw a line through the centre of the paper1 place the protractor on it1 near to the bottom of the sheet1 lay off the right hand angle to the right1 and the left hand angle to the left of the centre line2 rule pencil lines1 radiating from the point over which the centre of the protractor had been placed1 to the points that had been laid off1 then place the paper on the plan or map1 and move it about until the three lines coincide with the objects taken1 prick through the points that lay beneath the centre of the protractor1 and the observer's position is transferred to the plan4 ,when possible the centre object should be the nearest4 ,,to ,,construct ,a ,,map ,,on ,,mercator',s ,,projection4 ,on a sheet of cartridge paper1 #ch;in4 by #bj;in41 it is proposed to construct a map on ,mercator's projection1 on a scale of ten miles to an inch equatorial1 i4e4 #f;in4 to a degree of longitude4 ,lat4 #ca to #cc ,n4 ,long4 #cd to #cf ,e4 ,draw a base line1 find its centre1 and erect a perpendicular to the top of the paper2 the extremes of longitude #cd and #cf1 added together and divided by #b1 give #ce1 the central meridian1 and which is represented by the perpendicular4 ,on each side of it lay off #f;in41 and erect perpendiculars for the meridians #cd and #cf2 divide the base line into ten mile divisions1 and the part from #ce #ej to #cf into miles for the latitude scale4 ,from ,table ,a take the following quantities3-- ,lat4 #ca to #cb #a #ajd the distance between parallels #ca and #cb ,lat4 #cb to #cc #a #aaa #cb and #cc ------- #b #bae #ca to #cc ,having thus obtained the distance between the required parallels1 divide the map into squares of ten miles each way1 and the map is ready for the projection of the route4 ,a4--,,table ,,to ,,construct ,,maps ,,on ,,mercator',s ,,projection4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #j #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #j #a #jj #a #jjaa #jjaa #jja #a #jjb #a #jjc #a #jjd #a #jje #a #jjf #aja #jjia #ja #a #jaba #jaea #jjg #a #jb #a #jbb #a #jbf #a #jbi #a #jcc #bja #jcfa #jdaa #jdea #jdia #jee #a #jei #a #jfe #a #jg #a #jgg #a #jhb #cja #ji #a #jifa #ajda #aaaa #ab #a #abh #a #acg #a #adf #a #aeg #a #afg #dja #agfa #ai #a #bjaa #bada #bbg #a #bdb #a #bef #a #bga #a #bhh #a #cjf #eja #cbda #cdca #cfda #chfa #djh #a #dcd #a #dei #a #di #a #ead #a #edh #fja #ehcb #jahb #jehb #jiib #ade #b #aiad #b #bdg #b #cje #b #cfh #b #dch #gjb #eacb #eihc #jiac #aifc #cac #c #ddf #c #eih #d #aga #d #cgd #e #jaa #hje #bief #jc #f #dfdg #djch #eaaaj #bgg #ab #dgiaf #bifbc #adcci #dbb ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,use of the table4--,find the required parallel2 the tens at the side1 and the units at the top4 ,at their intersection will be found in degrees and minutes the distance of the required parallel from the next less degree1 to be measured from the scale of longitude on the map in progress4 ,given the parallel of #cj1 required that of #ca4 #cj at the side and #a at the top intersects at #a #jif1 the required distance of the two parallels4 ,given the parallel of #ca1 required that of #cc3 #cb #a #ajd #cc #a #aaa ------ #b #bae the distance between the #ca and #cc parallels4 ,b4--,,given ,,the ,,departure ,,to ,,find ,,difference ,,of ,,longitude4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #j #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #j #ajjjaajjjfajjacajjbf #ajjch #ajjee #ajjge #ajjih #ajabe #ajajaedajahgajbbdajbfaajcjf #ajcec #ajdjc #ajdeg #ajead #ajegh #bjajfdbajgaaajgheajhfdajidf #aajcd #aaabf #aabbd #aacbf #aadcd #cjaaedgaafffaagibaaibdabjfb #abbjh #abcfa #abeba #abfij #abhfh #djacjedacbejacdefacfgcacijb #adadb #adcie #adffc #adide #aebdb #ejaeeegaehijafbdbaffafagjac #agdce #aghhc #ahcfa #ahhga #aidaf #fjbjjjjbjfbfbacjabbjbgbbhab #bcffb #bdehf #beeic #bffie #bgijd #gjbibchcjgafcbcfacdbjdcfbhj #chfcg #daccg #ddded #dhjig #ebdjf #hjegehgfcibegahefhbjegieffdaadge #adccd #aiajh #bhfec #egcjg ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,use of the table4--,find the required parallel1 the tens at the side and the units at the top1 at their intersection will be found a quantity1 which1 multiplied by the departure1 gives the difference of longitude4 ,the departure from the meridian on the parallel of #cd was #be miles1 required the difference of longitude3 #be #abj #cjjj the difference of longitude4 ,in the parallel of #fj the departure was #cj miles3 #cj #b #fj miles1 or #a degree4 ,in the parallel of #ce ,n4 the route was ,n4 #dj ,w4 #cg miles distance4 ,by traverse table1 #dj course1 dist4 #cg dep4 #bch #abb #bijc miles difference of longitude4 ,the following example will serve to show how the traveller's record of progress may be conveniently kept4 ,it was framed by ,s4 ,w4 ,norie expressly for the use of navigators2 but explorers and travellers will find it a simple and useful form for recording the day's work3 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,corrected ,difference of ,latitude4 ,departure4 ,courses4 ,distance4 ------------------------------------ ,n4 ,s4 ,e4 ,w4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,n4,e4 #cf #bee #bee ,n4 by ,w4 #ad #acg #bg ,n4,e4 by ,e4 #a_/b ,e4 #eh #bgc #eab ,n4 by ,e4 #db #dab #hb ,e4,n4,e4 #bi #aaa #bfh ------------ ------------ ,difference #aahh #aaag #bg of ,lat4 #bg -- ,dep4 #ajij ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,the difference of latitude #aahh and departure #ajij give the course ,n4 #db #cb ,e41 and distance #afab4 ,latitude left #eb #cf ,n4 ,merc4 prjctns4 #cgbd ,longitude left #ba #de ,w4 ,diff4 lat4 #a #ei ,n4 ,diff4 lon4 #ahd or #c #d ,e4 -- -- ----- ,latitude in #ed #ce ,n4 ,merc4 prjctns4 #cibe ,longitude in #ah #da ,w4 ------ ---- ,sum of lats4 #b7ajg #aa ,merc4 diff4 lat4 #bja ,mid lat4 #ec #ce ,,to ,,measure ,,the ,,number ,,of ,,cubic ,,feet ,,of ,,water ,,conveyed ,,by ,a ,,river ,,in ,,each ,,second4 ,in traversing regions watered by rivers and running streams1 it not unfrequently becomes important to ascertain the speed at which they flow in their downward course towards the sea1 and the following directions given by ,captain ,george1 ,r4,n41 are so perfectly clear and practical that both time and trouble will be saved by the traveller who follows them out in conducting his investigations4 ,the data required are--the area of the river1 section1 and the average velocity of the whole current4 ,all that a traveller is likely to obtain without special equipment is the area of the river1 section1 and the average velocity of the surface of the current which differs from that of its entire body1 owing to fractional retardation at the bottom4 ,to make the necessary measurements1 choose a piece where the river runs steadily in a straight and deep channel and where a boat can be had4 ,prepare half a dozen floats of dry bushes1 with paper flags1 and be assured they will act4 ,post an assistant on the river bank at a measured distance 7of about #ajj yards71 down stream1 in face of a well-marked object2 row across stream1 in a straight line1 keeping two objects on a line in order to maintain your course4 ,sound at regular intervals from shore to shore1 fixing your position on each occasion by a sextant angle between your starting place and your assistant's station1 and throw the floats overboard1 signalling to your assistant when you do so1 that he may note the interval that elapses before they severally arrive opposite him4 ,take an angle from the opposite shore to give the breadth of the river4 ,to make the calculation approximately1 protract the section of the river on a paper1 ruled to scale in square feet1 and count the number of squares in the area of the section4 ,multiply this by the number of feet between you and the assistant1 and divide by the number of seconds that the floats occupied on an average in reaching him4 ,important rivers should always be measured above and below their confluence1 for it settles the question of their relative sizes1 and throws great light on the rainfall over their respective basins4 ,the sectional area at the time of the highest water1 as shown by marks on the banks and the slope of the bed1 ought also to be ascertained4 ,,on ,,obtaining ,,geographical ,,information ,,from ,,natives ,,or ,,frontier ,,colonists4 ,many highly-accomplished travellers fail to obtain much reliable information beyond the actual limit of their own observation1 because they do not sufficiently allow for the great difference in the manner of expressing a geographical idea between an educated ,european observer and an untutored savage2 and yet it would not be too much to say that the latter has often enough a thoroughly practical idea of the district he actually knows4 ,the man who wants information must not talk latitude and longitude to a native or to an uneducated ,european1 nor must he expect them to shape their answers to the form in which he expects to receive them2 for if he does he may be told that rivers run from the sea to the mountains1 and other absurdities1 which are related as proofs of native stupidity1 when they are in reality no more than discrepancies between the form of question and that of the answer4 ,at the same time he must estimate the mental calibre of his informant1 and avoid wearying him too much2 for sometimes the native mind1 over burdened with a succession of ideas1 becomes confused1 and not unfrequently suspicious1 and in this last case actual falsehoods will be told1 in order to gain time to find out the intention of the questioner1 before the truth is revealed4 ,in all dealings with natives the ,european must remember that they have no idea of the value we place upon time2 there is no use in saying1 ,let us come to the point at once4 ,it is far better1 indeed it is absolutely necessary1 to delay judiciously1 as there is always an implied contest between visitors2 and the man who is in a hurry to speak loses dignity4 ,do not disturb your informant's train of thought1 but try to accommodate your own to it4 ,let him tell as minutely and tediously as he pleases how he has travelled2 how long he walked with the rising sun on his right or left2 how much he turned either way2 where he halted for rest or refreshment2 whether he crossed rivers on foot or in canoes2 induce him1 if possible1 to trace a map upon the ground1 in doing which he will most probably begin by making the direction of all his lines coincide with the actual bearing of the country2 for natives1 though they may be brought to comprehend a map when its north point coincides with the real north1 cannot believe that it is also right when it is placed in any other position4 ,we have frequently tested ,hottentots with regard to the direction of places a thousand miles distant1 and have found them point as correctly as we could take the bearing with a pocket compass4 ,sometimes it will be found that the same individual will give a river a dozen different names2 and this is often because1 in speaking of the different parts of it1 he gives to each the name of the chief who has his village there1 and who drinks water at the place which is called after him2 therefore1 endeavour to ascertain whether the river has a real name1 and do not apply to it the first and1 perhaps1 the most inappropriate name that is given4 ,europeans who have settled in the colonies1 and have become traders or hunters1 frequently push very far into the interior1 and such men have generally very clear ideas of direction and locality1 but are often very modest and diffident when asked to furnish information to be laid down on paper4 ,in #ahdi1 while staying at the ,vaal ,river1 we persuaded our friend ,macabe1 with some difficulty1 to give us the length in hours and the direction of the various stages of his journey on the river ,limpopo4 ,these1 with the rivers1 mountains1 villages1 and other features of the country1 we laid down1 on a scale of one inch to a mile1 on several sheets of cartridge paper1 and tested the correctness of our work by laying it on the floor1 with its north coinciding with the real north1 and requesting our ,dutch visitors to stand as if they were about commencing the same journey1 and indicate how much they turned to the right or left as they proceeded4 ,the following facts relating to time should be impressed on the memory of every traveller3--,the earth is divided in its circumference into #cfj2 the day is divided into twenty-four hours4 ,it therefore follows that #ae of longitude will represent one hour of time2 consequently1 as you travel towards the east1 when you have journeyed over #ae1 you will have gained one hour on the sun1 which will rise just one hour earlier than it did at the starting point4 ,if natives accompany you on a journey1 ask them to point in the direction of places at different times1 and particularly to tell you when you are exactly abreast of them1 as well as before1 and after you have passed1 and thus1 by a kind of rough triangulation1 you will gain their approximate position4 ,if cattle stray to great distances1 ask the men who go after them the reason of their having taken any particular direction1 and you will probably gain some information respecting the form of valleys or mountains1 and perhaps of watering places4 ,in ,north ,australia we were led by the tracks of horses1 which had been lost about a fortnight1 to a considerable stream4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,hints ,,to ,,explorers ,,on ,,collecting ,,and ,,preserving ,,objects ,,of ,,natural ,,history4 ,by the courtesy of ,mr4 ,h4 ,w4 ,bates1 ,f4,r4,c4,s4 and ,asst4 ,sec4 ,r4,g4,s41 we are enabled to furnish our readers with the following valuable and practical information regarding the gathering together and preserving such objects of natural history as he may be fortunate enough to discover3-- ,travellers 7says ,mr4 ,bates7 who intend devoting themselves especially to natural history will generally possess all the requisite information beforehand4 ,it is to those whose objects or duties are of another nature1 or who1 whilst on a purely geographical land expedition1 wish to know the readiest means of collecting1 preserving1 and safely transmitting specimens they collect1 that the following hints are addressed4 ,outfit4 ,double barrel guns with spare nipples1 and a few common guns to lend to native hunters1 especially if going to the interior of tropical ,america4 ,fine powder in canisters1 and fine shot 7,nos4 #h and #aa71 must be taken from ,england2 coarse powder and shot can be had in any part2 a good supply of the best caps4 ,arsenical soap1 a few pounds in tin cases2 brushes of different sizes2 two or three scalpels2 scissors 7including a pair of short bladed ones72 forceps of different sizes for inserting cotton into the necks of birds' skins2 needles and thread4 ,a few small traps with which to capture small 7mostly nocturnal7 animals2 strong landing net for water mollusks1 c42 two stout insect sweeping nets2 cylindrical tin box1 with shoulder strap1 for collecting plants2 a few dozen of small and strong broad-mouthed bottles1 and a couple of corked pocket boxes2 insect pins1 a few ounces each of ,nos4 #e1 #ad1 and #aa2 stone jars1 for reptiles and fishes in spirit1 to fit four in a box1 with wooden partitions4 ,if animals in spirit are to be collected largely1 a supply of sheet tin1 or zinc1 with a pair of soldering irons1 and a supply of soft solder1 must be taken instead of stone jars3 cylindrical cases can be then made of any size required4 ,by means of the soldering apparatus also empty powder canisters or other tin vessels can be easily converted into receptacles for specimens2 a ream or two of botanical drying paper1 with boards of same size as the sheet1 and leather straps2 a few gross of chip pill boxes in nests2 a dozen corked store boxes 7about #ad;in4 by #aa;in4 and #b-a_/b;in4 deep7 fitted perpendicularly in a tin chest2 a few yards of indiarubber waterproof sheeting1 as temporary covering to collections in wet weather1 or in crossing rivers2 a set of carpenter's tools4 ,an outfit may be much lightened by having all the provisions and other consumable articles packed in square tin cases1 and in boxes and jars of such forms as may render them available for containing specimens4 ,if the traveller is going to the humid regions of the ,indian ,archipelago1 ,south-,eastern ,asia1 or tropical ,america1 where excessive moisture1 mildew1 and ants are great enemies to the naturalist1 he should add to his outfit two drying cages1 for everything that is not put at once into spirits is liable to be destroyed before it is dry enough to be stowed away in boxes4 ,they may be made of light wood1 so arranged as to take to pieces and put together again readily2 one for birds should be about #b;ft4 #f;in4 long by #a;ft4 #f;in4 high1 and #a;ft4 broad2 the other for insects and other small specimens may be about one-third less4 ,they should have folding doors in front1 having panels of perforated zinc1 and the backs wholly of the latter material2 the sides fitted with racks to hold six or eight plain shelves1 which in the smaller cage should be covered with cork or any soft wood that may be obtained in tropical countries4 ,a strong fixed ring1 fastened in the top of the cage1 with a cord having a hook attached to the end1 by which to hang it in an airy place2 it will keep the contained specimens out of harm's way until they are quite dry1 when they may be stowed away in close fitting boxes4 ,if this plan be not adopted1 it will be almost impossible to preserve specimens in these countries4 ,the countries which are now the least known with regard to their natural history are ,new ,guinea and the large islands to the east of it1 ,northern ,australia1 the island of ,borneo1 ,tibet1 and other parts of ,central ,asia1 ,equatorial ,africa1 and the eastern side of the ,andes1 from the east of ,bogota to the south of ,bolivia4 ,collecting4 ,in most of the better-known countries botany has been better investigated than zoology2 and in most countries there still remains much to be done in ascertaining the exact station and the range both vertical and horizontal of known species4 ,this leads us to one point which cannot be too strongly insisted on1 namely1 that some means should be adopted by the traveller to record the exact locality of the specimens he collects4 ,in the larger-dried animals this may be done by written tickets attached to the specimens2 in pinned insects a letter or number may be fixed on the pins of all specimens taken at one place and time1 the mark to refer to a note book4 ,the initial letter1 or first two or three letters of the locality1 is perhaps the readiest plan2 and when all the specimens taken at one place can be put into a separate box1 one memorandum upon the box itself will be sufficient4 ,reptiles and fishes can have small parchment tickets attached to them before placing them in spirits4 ,a traveller may be puzzled in the midst of the profusion of animal and vegetable forms which he sees around him1 to know what to secure and what to leave4 ,books can be of very little service to him on a journey1 and he had better at once abandon all ideas of encumbering himself with them4 ,a few days' study at the principal museums before he starts on his voyage may teach him a great deal1 and the cultivation of a habit of close observation and minute comparison of the specimens he obtains will teach him a great deal more4 ,as a general rule1 all species which he may meet with for the first time far in the interior should be preferred to those common near the civilised parts4 ,he should strive to obtain as much variety as possible1 and not fill his boxes and jars with quantities of specimens of one or a few species4 ,but as some of the rarest and most interesting species have great resemblance to others which may be more common1 he should avail himself of every opportunity of comparing the objects side by side4 ,in most tropical countries the species found in open and semi-cultivated places are much less interesting than those inhabiting the interior of the forests2 and it generally happens that the few handsome kinds which attract the attention of the natives are species well known in ,european museums4 ,in botany1 a traveller1 if obliged to restrict his collecting1 might confine himself to those plants which are remarkable for their economical uses1 always taking care to identify the flowers of the tree or shrub whose root1 bark1 leaves1 wood1 c41 are used by the natives1 and preserving a few specimens of them4 ,but1 if he is the first to ascend any high mountain1 he should make as general a collection of the flowering plants as possible at the higher elevations4 ,the same may be said of insects found on mountains1 where they occur in very great diversity2 on the shady and cold sides rather than on the sunny slopes2 under stones and about the roots of herbage1 especially near springs2 on shrubs and low trees1 and so forth2 for upon a knowledge of the plants and insects of mountain ranges depend many curious questions in the geographical distribution of forms over the earth4 ,in reptiles1 the smaller ,batrachia 7frogs1 salamanders1 c47 should not be neglected1 especially the extremely numerous family of tree frogs4 ,lizards may be caught generally with the insect-sweeping net2 the arboreal species1 seen out of reach1 may be brought down with a charge of dust shot4 ,snakes should be taken without injuring the head1 which is the most important part of the body4 ,a cleft stick may be used in securing them by the neck1 and on reaching camp they may be dropped into the jars of spirits4 ,as large a collection as possible should be made of the smaller fishes of inland lakes and unexplored rivers4 ,dr4 ,gnther1 of the ,british ,museum1 has authorised me to say that a traveller cannot fail to make a large number of interesting discoveries if he collects a few specimens of the species he meets with in the lakes and rivers of the interior of any country4 ,it can scarcely be expected that specimens of the larger animals can be brought away by a geographical expedition1 although some species are still desiderata in the large museums of ,europe4 ,additional specimens of all genera1 of which there are numerous closely-allied species 7e4g41 rhinoceros1 antelopes1 equus1 c471 would be very welcome for the better discrimination of the species4 ,if only portions can be obtained1 skulls are to be preferred4 ,in humid tropical regions1 entire skins cannot be dried in time to prevent decay1 and it is necessary to place them1 rolled up in a small compass1 in spirits4 ,the smaller mammals1 of which there remain many to reward the explorer in almost all extra-,european countries1 may be skinned1 dried1 and packed in boxes in the same manner as birds4 ,the smaller birds shot on an excursion should be carried to camp in the game bag1 folded in paper1 the wounds1 mouth1 and anus being first plugged with cotton4 ,powdered calcined gypsum will here be found very useful in absorbing blood from feathers1 on account of the facility with which it can be afterwards cleared from the specimens4 ,all plants1 when gathered1 are placed in the tin box which the traveller carries with him4 ,land and fresh water shells may be carried home in a bag4 ,all hard-bodied insects1 such as beetles1 ants1 and so forth should be placed1 in collecting1 in small bottles1 each bottle having a piece of slightly-moistened rag placed within it1 to prevent the insects from crowding and injuring each other4 ,the hint previously given1 with regard to numbers of specimens1 must be repeated here4 ,take as great a variety of species as possible1 the sweeping-net should be freely used 7except in very wet weather7 in sweeping and beating the herbage and lower trees4 ,in collecting ants1 it is necessary to open nests and secure the winged individuals of each species1 which must be afterwards kept together with the wingless ones to secure the identification of the species4 ,bees and wasps may be caught in the net and then placed1 by means of small forceps1 in the collecting bottle1 and afterwards killed in the same way as beetles and other hard-bodied insects4 ,all soft-bodied insects should be killed on capture 7by a slight pressure of the chest underneath the wings by thumb and finger71 and then pinned in the pocket collecting box4 ,if the traveller has leisure and inclination for the pursuit1 he may readily make a large and varied collection of these1 and will do good service to science if he notes carefully the exact localities of his captures1 altitude above the sea1 nature of country1 the sexes of the species1 if detected1 and information on habits4 ,the delicate species should be handled very carefully and put away into the drying cage immediately on return from an excursion4 ,spiders may be collected in bottles1 and afterwards killed and pinned in the same way as other insects4 ,crustacea 7shrimps1 crawfish1 c47 in rivers and pools may be collected with the landing net1 and afterwards well dried and pinned like hard-bodied insects1 except when they are large in size1 when their bodies must be opened1 and emptied of their contents4 ,preserving and packing4 ,previous to skinning a small mammal or bird make a note of the colour of its eyes and soft parts1 and1 if time admits1 of the dimensions of its trunk and limbs4 ,it facilitates skinning of birds to break1 before commencing1 the first bone of the wings a short distance above the joint1 which causes the members to lie open when the specimen is laid on its back on the skinning board4 ,the animal should be laid with its tail towards the right hand of the operator1 and the incision made from the breast bone nearly to the anus4 ,a blunt wooden style is useful in commencing the operation of separating the skin from the flesh4 ,when the leg is reached1 cut through the knee joint1 and then clear the flesh from the shank as far as can be done1 afterwards washing the bone slightly with arsenical soap1 winding a thin slip of cotton round it1 and returning it to the skin4 ,repeat the process with the other leg1 and then sever with the broad-bladed scissors the spine above the root of the tail4 ,by carefully cutting into the flesh from above the spine is finally severed without injuring the skin of the back1 and it is then easy to continue the skinning up to the wings1 when the bones are cut through at the place where they had previously been broken1 and the body finished as far as the commencement of the skull4 ,a small piece of the skull is now cut away1 together with the neck and body1 and the brains and eyes are scooped out1 the inside washed with soap1 and clean cotton filled in1 the eyes especially being made plump4 ,in large headed parrots1 woodpeckers1 and some other birds1 the head cannot thus be cleansed2 an incision has therefore to be made either on one side or on the back of the neck1 through which the back of the skull can be thrust a little way and then cleansed1 the incision being afterwards closed by two or three stitches4 ,the bones then remaining in each wing must be cleansed1 but so as not to loosen the quill feathers4 ,it is much better to take out the flesh by making an incision on the outside of the skin along the flesh on the inner side of the wing4 ,the inside of the skin must now be washed with the soap1 and a neck of cotton 7not too thick7 inserted by means of long narrow forceps1 taking care to fix the end well inside the skull1 and withdrawing the empty forceps without stretching the skin of the neck and thus distorting the shape of the bird4 ,skins need not be filled up with cotton or any other material1 but laid with the feathers smoothed down on the boards of the drying cage until they are ready to be packed in boxes4 ,in very humid climates like that of ,tropical ,america1 oxide of arsenic in powder is preferable to arsenical soap1 on account of the skins drying quicker1 but it cannot be recommended to the general traveller1 owing to the danger attending its use4 ,in mammals the tail offers some difficulty to a beginner4 ,to skin it1 the root 7after severing it from the spine7 should be secured by a piece of strong twine1 which should then be attached to a nail or beam4 ,with two pieces of flat wood 7one placed on each side of the naked root7 held firmly by the hand and pulled downwards1 the skin is made rapidly to give way generally to the tip4 ,the tails of some animals1 however1 can be skinned only by incisions made down the middle from the outside4 ,the larger mammal skins may be inverted1 and1 after washing with soap1 dried in the sun2 and1 as before remarked1 it is often necessary to roll them up and preserve in spirits4 ,the skins of small mammals and birds1 after they are quite dry1 may be packed in boxes1 which must be previously well washed inside with arsenical soap1 lined with paper1 and again covered with a coating of the soap1 and well dried in the sun4 ,this is the very best means of securing the specimens from the attacks of noxious insects1 which so often1 to the great disgust of the traveller1 destroy what he has taken so much pains to secure4 ,where wood is scarce1 as in the interior of ,africa1 boxes may be made of the skins of antelopes1 or other large animals1 by stretching them when newly stripped from the animal over a square framework of sticks1 and sewing up the edges after being dried in the sun2 they make excellent packing-cases4 ,with regard to reptiles and fishes1 ,i cannot do better than quote the following remarks sent to me by ,mr4 ,osbert ,salvin1 who collected these animals most successfully in ,guatemala3--,almost any spirit will answer for this purpose1 its fitness consisting in the amount of alcohol contained in it4 ,in all cases it is best to procure the strongest1 being less bulky1 and the water can always be obtained to reduce the strength to the requisite amount4 ,when the spirit sold retail by natives is not sufficiently strong1 by visiting the distillery the traveller can often obtain the first runnings 7the strongest7 of the still1 which will be stronger than he requires undiluted4 ,the spirit used should be reduced to about proof1 and the traveller should always be provided with an alcoholometer4 ,if this is not at hand1 a little practice will enable him to ascertain the strength of the spirit from the rapidity with which the bubbles break when rising to the surface of a small quantity shaken in a bottle4 ,when the spirit has been used1 this test is of no value4 ,when animals or fish are first immersed1 it will be found that the spirit becomes rapidly weaker4 ,large specimens absorb the alcohol very speedily4 ,the rapidity with which this absorption takes place should be carefully watched1 and in warm climates the liquid tested at least every twelve hours1 and fresh spirit added to restore it to its original strength4 ,in colder climates it is not requisite to watch so closely1 but practice will show what attention is necessary4 ,it will be found that absorption of alcohol will be about proportionate to the rate of decomposition4 ,spirit should not be used too strong1 as its effect is to contract the outer surface1 and thus closing the pores prevent the alcohol from penetrating through to the inner parts of the specimen4 ,the principal point1 then1 is to watch that the strength of the spirit does not get below a certain point while the specimen is absorbing alcohol when first put in4 ,it will be found that after two or three days the spirit retains its strength2 when this is the case1 the specimen will be perfectly preserved4 ,spirit should not be thrown away1 no matter how often used1 so long as the traveller has a reserve sufficient to bring it back to its requisite strength4 ,in selecting specimens for immersion1 regard must be had to the means at the traveller's disposal4 ,fish up to #i;in4 long may be placed in spirit with simply a slit cut to allow the spirit to enter to the entrails4 ,with larger specimens it is better to pass a long knife outside the ribs1 so as to separate the muscles on each side of the vertebra4 ,it is also as well to remove as much food from the entrails as possible1 taking care to leave all these in4 ,the larger specimens can be skinned1 leaving1 however1 the intestines in1 and simply removing the flesh2 very large specimens preserved in this way absorb very little spirit4 ,all half-digested food should be removed from snakes and animals4 ,in spite of these precautions specimens will often appear to be decomposing1 but by more constant attention to re-strengthening the spirit they will in most cases be preserved4 ,a case 7copper is best7 with a top that can be unscrewed and refixed easily1 should always be carried as a receptacle2 the opening should be large enough to allow the hand to be inserted4 ,this is to hold freshly caught specimens4 ,when they have become preserved they can all be removed and soldered up in tin or zinc boxes2 zinc is best1 as it does not corrode so easily4 ,the traveller will find it very convenient to take lessons in soldering1 and so make his own boxes4 7,for directions for soldering1 see p4 #baj of this work47 ,if he takes them ready made they had best be arranged so as to fit one into another before they are filled4 ,when moving about1 all specimens should be wrapped in calico1 linen1 or other rags1 to prevent their rubbing one against the other4 ,this should also be done to the specimens in the copper case when a move is necessary1 as well as to those finally packed for transportation to ,europe4 ,these last should have all their interstices between the specimens filled in with cotton wool or rags4 ,if a leak should occur in a case1 specimens thus packed will still be maintained moist1 and will keep some time without much injury4 ,proof spirit should be used when the specimens are finally packed1 but it is not necessary that it should be fresh4 ,land and fresh-water shells1 on reaching camp1 should be placed in a basin of cold water to entice the animals out1 and then1 after draining off1 killed by pouring boiling water over them4 ,they may be cleansed of flesh by means of a strong pin or penknife4 ,the operculum or mouthpiece of all shells which possess it should be preserved and placed inside the empty shell4 ,each shell when dry should be wrapped in a piece of paper and the collection packed in a box well padded with cotton or other dry and elastic material4 ,the insects collected on an excursion should be attended to immediately on arrival in camp4 ,when leisure and space are limited all the hard-bodied ones may be put in bottles of spirit1 and each bottle when nearly full should be filled up to the cork with a piece of rag1 to prevent injury from shaking4 ,many species1 however1 become stained by spirit1 and it is far better in dry countries1 such as ,africa1 ,australia1 and ,central ,asia1 to preserve all the hard bodied ones in a dry state in pill boxes4 ,they are killed whilst in the collecting bottles by plunging for a few minutes the bottom half of the bottles in hot water4 ,an hour afterwards the contents are shaken out over blotting paper and put into pill boxes1 the bottoms of the boxes being padded with cotton1 over which is placed a circular piece of blotting paper4 ,the open pill boxes should then be placed in the drying cage for a day or two1 and then filled up with more cotton1 the layer of insects being first covered with a circular piece of paper4,c ,the soft bodied specimens which are brought home pinned1 should be stuck in the drying cage until they are dry1 and then pinned very close together in the store boxes4 ,the store boxes both bottom and sides should each have inside a coating of arsenical soap before they are corked1 and as they become filled one by one should be washed outside with the soap and pasted all over with paper4 ,camphor and other preservatives are of little or no use in tropical climates4 ,in some countries where the traveller may wish to make a collection of the butterfly fauna1 the best way is to preserve all the specimens in little paper envelopes4 ,he should be careful not to press the insects too flat1 simply killing them by pressure underneath the breast1 folding their wings carefully backwards and slipping them each into its envelope4 ,in very humid tropical countries1 such as the river valleys of tropical ,america and the islands of the ,eastern ,archipelago1 the plan of stowing away even hard-bodied insects in pill boxes does not answer on account of the mould with which they soon become covered4 ,there are1 then1 only two methods that can be adopted2 one1 preserving them at once in spirits1 the other1 pinning all those over a quarter of an inch long 7running the pin through the right wing case1 so as to come out beneath between the second and third pair of legs71 and gumming those of smaller size on small sheets of card1 cut of uniform size1 so as to fit perpendicularly in racked boxes like those used to contain microscopical slides but larger4 ,the cards may be a few inches square1 and each may hold several scores of specimens very lightly gummed down a short distance apart4 ,after the cards are filled they should be well dried1 and the box containing them washed outside with arsenical soap1 and pasted over with paper4 ,all the pinned specimens should be placed to dry for a few days in the drying cage1 and afterwards pinned very close together in the cork store boxes4 ,c ,the only preservative needed is a diluted wash of arsenical soap inside the pill boxes1 which1 as in all other cases when soap is used1 must be well dried afterwards before the boxes are filled4 ,plants are dried by pressure1 by means of the boards and straps1 between sheets of botanical drying paper1 the paper requiring to be changed three or four times4 ,when dry the specimens may be placed between sheets of old newspapers1 together with notes the traveller may have made upon them1 each placed upon the object to which it refers4 ,bundles of papers containing plants are not of difficult carriage1 but they require to be guarded against wet1 especially in fording rivers and in rainy weather1 and should be wrapped in skins or ,india rubber sheeting until they can be safely packed in wooden boxes and despatched to ,europe4 ,seeds may be collected when quite ripe1 and preserved in small packets of botanical paper with numbers written on them1 referring to preserved specimens of the flowers4 ,dry fruits and capsules should be collected when in countries not previously explored by botanists1 if the traveller has means of identifying the species to which they belong4 ,the collection of fossils and minerals1 except in the case of the discovery of new localities for valuable metals1 is not to be recommended to the traveller if he is not a geologist4 ,fossils from an unexplored country are of little use unless the nature and order of superposition of the strata in which they are found can be at the same time investigated4 ,in the cases1 however1 of recent alluvial strata on the supposed beds of ancient lakes1 or deposits in caves1 or raised sea beaches containing shells or bones of vertebrate animals1 the traveller will do well to bring away specimens if a good opportunity offers4 ,if the plan of the expedition includes the collection of fossil remains1 the traveller will of course provide himself with a proper geological outfit and obtain the necessary instructions before leaving ,europe4 ,whilst engaged in collecting the beautifully formed and delicate shells found adhering to the minute asperities formed by the process of disintegration on the roofs of the crypts formed by the ancient ,tauro-,scythian tribes1 we proceeded as follows3 ,after the discovery of an almost crystalline specimen we prepared a soft bed for its reception by arranging in nest form a very soft silk handkerchief in our well worn forage cap1 the gold band of which served as a sort of hoop of support4 ,thus arranged1 the nest was held exactly under the fossil shell1 which was in most cases freed from its attachments by a single sharp and well directed blow from our pick head on the heel of a sharp well-tempered steel chisel 7old files make the best74 ,as the specimens were one by one taken from the cap-nest they were arranged carefully layer after layer in old preserved meat tins1 bran being liberally sprinkled in over each distinct layer of shells4 ,on the tin being nearly filled1 more bran was added until the packing was firm and complete1 the round tin cover was then forced in until about a quarter of an inch from the upper rim of the tin4 ,a few cuts here and there in the tin with a pair of cutting nippers admitted of the turning in of a number of clip pieces by bending the cut tin in elbow form over the cover4 ,these tins when duly numbered and noted were packed in a sixty-gallon barrel with fine soft hay made from steppe grass4 ,the collections thus packed reached ,england in a perfect state of preservation4 ,in situations where old preserved meat tins cannot be obtained1 large joints of bamboo1 or the thin earthen pots used by natives1 might be made available for depositing very fragile specimens in4 ,fine sawdust will answer nearly as well as bran for packing powder2 rotten wood from an old decaying log may be rubbed between the hands into fine dust1 and made use of for the same purpose4 ,all collections made in tropical countries should be sent to ,europe with the least possible delay1 as they soon become deteriorated or spoilt1 unless great care is bestowed on them4 ,dry skins of animals and birds may be packed in wooden cases1 simply with sheets of paper to separate the skins4 ,shells and skulls should be provided with abundance of elastic padding1 such as cotton4 ,the boxes containing insects and crustacea should be placed in the middle of large boxes1 surrounded by an ample bed of hay1 or other light1 dry1 elastic material2 if this last point be not carefully attended to1 it will be doubtful whether such collections will sustain a voyage without much injury4 ,travellers have excellent opportunities of observing the habits of animals in a state of nature1 and these hints would be very deficient were not a few words said upon this subject4 ,to know what to observe in the economy of animals is in itself an accomplishment1 which it would be unreasonable to expect the general traveller to possess1 and without this he may bring home only insignificant details1 contributing but little to our stock of knowledge4 ,one general rule1 however1 may be kept always present to the mind1 and this is that anything concerning animals which bears upon the relations of species to their conditions of life is well worth obtaining and recording4 ,thus1 it is important to note the various enemies which each species has to contend with1 not only at one epoch in its life1 but at every stage from birth to death1 and at different seasons and in different localities2 the way in which the existence of enemies limits the range of a species should be also noticed4 ,the inorganic influences which inimically affect species1 especially intermittently 7such as the occurrence of disastrous seasons71 and which are likely to operate in limiting their ranges1 are also important subjects of inquiry4 ,the migrations of animals1 and especially any parts where the irruption of species into districts previously uninhabited by them1 are well worth recording4 ,the food of each species should be noticed2 and if any change of customary food is observed1 owing to the failure of the supply1 it should be carefully recorded4 ,the use in nature of any peculiar physical conformation of animals1 the object of ornamentation1 and so forth1 should be also investigated wherever opportunity occurs4 ,any facts relating to the interbreeding in a state of nature of allied varieties or the converse--that is1 the antipathy to intermingling of allied varieties--would be extremely interesting4 ,in short1 the traveller should bear in mind that facts having a philosophical bearing are much more important than mere anecdotes about animals4 ,to observe the actions of the larger animals a telescope or opera-glass will be necessary1 and the traveller should bear in mind1 if a microscope is needed in his journey1 that1 by reversing the tubes of the telescope1 in which all the small glasses are contained1 a compound microscope of considerable power is produced4 ,skins1 and their treatment4 ,the hunter of the fur-clad denizens of the forest and the field1 who1 for the love of sport and the obtainment of trophies of the chase1 penetrates to little-known regions2 and the hardy and keen trapper--who1 with pack1 traps1 kit1 and rifle1 steers his own course to the most remote and untrodden solitudes--each require a somewhat different mode by which to fit their spoils when gathered for transport to either the cities of ,europe or the trading port of the professional peltry dealers4 ,it would be a hopeless task to attempt giving all the processes had recourse to by both classes of hunters1 as many of them are kept scrupulously secret by their discoverers4 ,indians1 too1 profess to know more of skin-dressing than they care to divulge4 ,we will1 therefore1 content ourselves by communicating to the reader such modes of skin-dressing as we have either practised ourselves1 picked up from experienced and travelled comrades1 or gleaned from the reports and experiences of practical explorers and slayers of large and small game in wild countries4 ,the character of the climate in which the hunter may be pursuing his vocation will determine the necessity for the immediate removal of the skins of the animals killed from the carcases1 or the postponement of the operation until camp is reached and every assistance at hand4 ,in dealing with the larger carnivora of tropical climates1 too much expedition cannot be used in the performance of skinning operations4 ,on no account1 when by any possibility it can be avoided1 should a dead and unskinned animal be exposed to the action of either wet or the sun's rays4 ,immediately on being found to be perfectly dead the animal should be conveyed to a cool shady situation1 and the hide at once removed4 ,the purpose for which the skin is ultimately intended will influence the method to be observed in removing it from the body4 ,if to be preserved for stuffing1 much greater care is required than is usually bestowed on hides merely intended for camp use1 or sale to purchasers of roughly dried skins4 ,great alertness and firmness are also required on the part of the ,european hunter who is engaged in tiger shooting in ,india to prevent the native hunters and camp followers from burning off the whiskers of the slain beast1 and stealing the claws4 ,the whisker singeing ceremony arises from superstition1 and the greatest anxiety exists to possess tiger claws in order that they may be made use of as amulets4 ,keep1 therefore1 a very close watch on your tiger skins4 ,when about to commence skinning a tiger1 lion1 leopard1 or other of the large ,felid1 choose a level spot of ground1 lay the animal on the flat of its back1 with all four legs in the air4 ,prepare four stout sharp pointed stakes and drive them into the ground at about six feet from the animal1 placing a stake opposite each leg in a parallelogram4 ,now1 with some pieces of spare rope1 grass cord1 raw hide thongs1 or twisted creepers1 fasten each paw to the head of a stake1 and stretch the legs well out4 ,with your skinning knife--which should be short in the blade1 half round-pointed1 and very long handled--commence your cut between the two centre lower teeth and carry it directly backwards along the centre of the belly to the vent1 taking great care not to penetrate the abdominal cavity4 ,a line down each leg from the paw joint to the centre line should now be cut2 the hind legs should be first skinned by peeling off the hide completely round beneath the paw joints1 which should be divided and the stumps thus formed fastened to the stake ropes2 the skin can now be stripped and turned down over the thighs2 a cut along the under side of the tail will enable the operator to skin that cleanly out1 when it can be cut off at the root2 the two fore legs may now be treated in the same manner as the hind1 making the bare stumps fast and skinning down to the shoulder joints1 and up the front of the neck and throat4 ,the animal may now be turned on its belly and each leg stump hauled tightly out to the bottom of each stake2 the skin is now turned up over the back1 and stripped up as far as the attachment of the ears2 great care must now be exercised in separating their roots from the head without cutting the skin2 divide carefully round the eyes1 lips1 and corners of the mouth1 and the skin will be free4 ,there are two ways of stretching out skins for the purpose of first freeing them from every particle of fat and adhering matter4 ,one is to lay them on the ground fur side downward1 and then secure them by driving a number of sharp wooden pegs round the margins2 the other is to cut one or two straight tough poles1 lash their ends together1 and make a hoop large enough to take in the skin1 and allow of sufficient space to admit of its being tightly stretched out by being attached to the interior of the hoop by a rough system of lacing1 as shown in the annexed illustration4 ,illustration ,a skin well secured in this way becomes as tense as a tambourine4 ,the hoop can be set on its edge or inclined to facilitate the operation of fat trimming1 which must be most strictly carried out1 without cutting through the skin4 ,a pair of strong broad pointed forceps much facilitate the operation4 ,the point and edge of the skinning knife should be constantly touched up and renewed on a butcher's steel or bit of ,norway stone4 ,on no account allow your native followers to attempt the treatment of your stretched skins1 as they will most certainly ruin them by the caustic nature of the ingredients they employ4 ,many mixtures of substances suitable for skin preservation are recommended1 and we possess a considerable number of them4 ,the following1 communicated to the ,field by a correspondent signing himself ,i4 ,f41 is a thoroughly good one1 and easy of preparation in any part of ,india4 ,after trimming off all fatty matter1 c41 apply the following mixture3 powdered alum1 one part2 powdered turmeric 7the huldee of the natives71 four parts2 powdered kadukai nuts1 eight parts2 to be well mixed1 and diluted with water until just fluid4 ,the kadukai nuts are the fruit of a tree 7,terminalia chebula7 common all over ,india4 ,its vernacular names are1 in ,hindostanee hurra2 in ,tamil1 kadukai marum2 in ,teloogoo1 karkai4 ,the dried nuts are commonly sold in the native bazaars4 ,when no preparation for skin dressing is at hand1 firewood ashes may with advantage be sprinkled over the skins4 ,the ,american trappers make use of no preparation whatever1 but merely expose the perfectly cleaned and trimmed skin to the action of the air4 ,traps1 when set for animals1 should be visited frequently1 in order that the game taken may be perfectly fresh2 tainted skins lose their hair1 and become valueless for fur purposes4 ,the smaller fur-bearing animals taken by the professional fur hunters of ,america1 such as the fisher fox1 raccoon1 c41 are not skinned by being opened from end to end1 but are treated in the following manner3 incisions are made close to the hind paws2 these are carried down to the borders of the vent2 this is circled or cut round1 and the tail opened and skinned out4 ,an orifice will now exist large enough to admit of the skin being stripped from the animal1 by turning it inside out1 as the operation of skinning proceeds4 ,three modes are adopted for stretching skins so prepared3 one is by what is called a board stretcher2 this consists of three pieces of light tough wood1 of the shape shown in the centre figure of the annexed illustration4 ,illustration ,the two flat side pieces are first placed in the pouch or pocket1 formed by reversing the surfaces of the skin2 the centre stick is then passed down between the two sides1 which are nicely rounded off at the edges and point by scraping with glass or a sharp knife4 ,when properly fitted to the stretcher like a glove on a wooden cleaning hand1 a tack or two or a few cuts in the edges of the board will serve to hold the skin fast until dry enough to pack away4 ,a strong flexible rod may be made use of as a skin stretcher1 as shown in the annexed cut4 ,illustration ,the skins should be turned inside out before the bent twig is inserted2 its own spring keeps the skin distended until dry1 when it is removed and the skin packed2 or a long lancet-shaped board1 with a hole in it1 may be used for stretching the skins of marmots1 musk rats1 c4 ,one of these is represented in the illustration representing stretching boards1 and has a hole in it to be used for suspending the skins whilst drying4 ,stretching boards must be made of sizes proportioned to the skins they are intended for4 ,never dry skins either by the fire or in the sun4 ,a variety of methods are had recourse to for preparing the skins of animals useful to the traveller and explorer1 by whom they can be employed either in a raw state1 simply dried1 or as leather4 ,raw hide1 as it is called1 is one of the most valuable and useful materials at the command of the traveller or hunter4 ,it is to him a substitute for metal1 rope1 and twine1 and with it breakages of the most extensive and apparently hopeless character can be effectually repaired4 ,lashings of raw hide for immediate use can be cut from the skin of an animal just killed4 ,this1 when tightly and evenly adjusted over a fractured object1 contracts as it dries1 and binds all firmly together4 ,the hair may be removed from hides by soaking them in lime-water or placing them in the earth for a few days4 ,many of the ,african tribes prepare hides for use as garments1 c41 by first pegging them out on the ground1 trimming them clean1 allowing them to dry slowly1 and then braying their surfaces with a soft sand brick4 ,skins thus prepared wear well1 so long as no water is allowed to reach them4 ,skins may be tawed1 as it is called1 by placing them to steep in a strong solution of alum and common salt4 ,hides collected in large numbers for transmission to the home market are usually salted or pickled4 ,settlers and colonists may find this mode of preserving skins of value1 so we give ,mr4 ,danna's account of the process1 which will be found thoroughly practical1 and can be relied on4 ,speaking of the treatment of hides brought to the sea side for shipment1 he says3 ,the first thing is to put the hides to soak4 ,this is done by carrying them down at low tide1 and making them fast in small piles by ropes1 and letting the tide come up and cover them4 ,every day we put twenty-five in soak for each man1 which1 with us1 makes #aej4 ,there they lie forty-eight hours1 when they are taken out and rolled up in wheelbarrows1 and thrown into vats4 ,these vats contain brine1 made very strong1 being sea-water with great quantities of salt thrown in4 ,this pickles the hides1 and in this they lie forty-eight hours2 the use of the sea-water into which they are first put being merely to soften and clean them4 ,from these vats they are taken to lie on a platform twenty-four hours1 and are then spread upon the ground and carefully stretched and staked out1 so that they may dry smooth4 ,after they were staked1 and while yet wet and soft1 we used to go upon them with our knives and carefully cut off all the bad parts1 the pieces of meat and fat which would otherwise corrupt and affect the whole if stowed away in a vessel for months1 the large flippers1 the ears1 and all other parts that prevent close stowage4 ,this was the most difficult part of our duty1 as it required much skill to take off everything necessary1 and not to cut nor injure the hides4 ,it was also a long process1 as six of us had to clean #aej1 most of which required a great deal to be done to them1 as the ,spaniards are very careless in skinning their cattle2 then1 too1 as we cleaned them while they were staked out1 we were obliged to kneel down upon them1 which always gives beginners the back ache4 ,the first day ,i was so slow and awkward that ,i only cleaned eight2 at the end of a few days ,i doubled my number1 and in a fortnight or three weeks could keep up with the others1 and clean my proportion--twenty-five4 ,skins of animals may be fitted for transport from the hunting grounds to a camp or dept situated at a distance of several days' journey1 by pegging them tightly out2 and then1 when thoroughly freed from adhering fat1 giving them a thorough sprinkling with wood ashes4 ,small quantities of leather may be made by sinking large native jars in the earth1 partly filling them with tan1 which is yielded by an almost endless number of trees and shrubs4 ,water1 when added1 extracts the tanning principle1 and allows of its soaking freely into the pores of the skin under treatment4 ,it is a good plan to make use of several jars arranged in a row2 these should all contain strong bark or tan water1 and as the skin becomes partly tanned in jar ,no4 #a it should1 after being well squeezed and pressed1 be passed to ,no4 #b1 and so on through the set4 ,thus writes ,sir ,samuel ,baker on the subject of skin dressing3 ,my antelope skins are just completed1 and are thoroughly tanned1 each skin required a double handful of the 'garra' or fruit of the ,acacia arabica4 ,the process is simple4 ,the skin being thoroughly wetted1 the garra is pounded into a paste2 this is rubbed into the hide with a rough piece of sandstone until it becomes perfectly clean and free from impurities2 it is then wrapped up with a quantity of the paste1 and is deposited in a trough1 and kept in the shade twenty-four hours--it should undergo a similar rubbing daily1 and be kept in the trough to soak in the garra for four or five days4 ,after this process it should be well rubbed with fat1 if required to keep soft and pliable when wetted4 ,if soaked with milk after tanning1 the leather will become waterproof4 ,the large tanned ox hides used by the ,arabs as coverlets are perfectly waterproof1 and are simply prepared with milk4 ,these are made in ,abyssinia1 and can be purchased from ten piastres to a dollar each4 ,the ,arabs thoroughly appreciate the value of leather1 as they are entirely dependant upon such material for coverlets1 water sacks1 travelling bags1 c4 ,the sac de voyage is a simple skin of either goat or sheep1 drawn off the animal as a stocking is drawn from the leg4 ,this is very neatly ornamented and arranged with loops which close the mouth1 which is secured by a padlock4 ,very large sacks1 capable of containing three hundred pounds of corn1 are made in the same manner by drawing entire the skins of the larger antelopes2 that of the tetel is considered the most valuable for this purpose4 ,the hide of the wild ass is the finest of all leather1 and is so close in the grain1 that1 before tanning1 when dry and hardened in the sun1 it resembles horn in transparency4 ,i have made excellent mocassins with this skin1 which are admirable if kept wetted4 ,most of the water sacks we used in ,central ,india were prepared by withdrawing all the body of the animal--antelope or goat--piecemeal through the orifice left by cutting off the head4 ,the legs were then removed to the hoof joint1 and the tubes so formed so fitted with thongs1 that they could be tied fast or left open at the will of the owner2 burying the skin in the earth for a day or two caused the hair to become loose enough to rub off in water4 ,a charge of pounded pomegranate rind mixed with water was then introduced to the interior of the skin sack1 and well shaken about several times during the day4 ,this process was continued until the substance of the skin became converted into leather1 and was perfectly free from the slightest tendency to taint4 ,the neck orifice was then either sewn up with a thong1 or left with a string round it1 to be closed or left open as might be most convenient4 ,skins thus prepared we have found useful for an almost endless number of purposes4 ,the following directions for the manufacture of gazelle skin girbas1 or water sacks1 as practised by the ,arabs1 given by ,sir ,samuel ,baker1 will not fail to prove of interest and value to the reader3 ,the flaying process for this purpose is a delicate operation1 as the knife must be so dexterously used that no false cut should injure the hide4 ,the animal is hung up by the hind legs1 an incision is then made along the inside of both thighs to the tail1 and with some trouble the skin is drawn off the body towards the head1 precisely as a stocking might be drawn from the leg2 by this operation the skin forms a seamless bag1 open at both ends4 ,to form a girba1 the skin must be buried in the earth for about twenty-four hours2 it is then washed in water1 and the hair is easily detached4 ,thus rendered clean1 it is tanned by soaking for several days in a mixture of the bark of the mimosa and water1 from this it is daily withdrawn and stretched out with pegs1 upon the ground2 it is then well scrubbed with a rough stone1 and fresh mimosa bark1 well bruised1 with water is rubbed in by friction4 ,about four days are sufficient to tan the skin of a gazelle1 which is much valued for its toughness and durability4 ,the aperture at the hind quarters is sewn together1 and the opening of the neck is closed when required by tying4 ,a good water-skin should be porous1 to allow the water to exude sufficiently to moisten the exterior2 thus the action of the air upon the exposed surface causes evaporation and imparts to the water within the skin a delicious coolness4 ,the ,arabs usually prepare their tanned skins with an empyreumatical oil1 made from a variety of substances1 the best of which is that from the sesame grain4 ,this has a powerful smell and renders the water so disagreeable that few ,europeans could drink it4 ,this oil is black and much resembles tar in appearance1 it has the effect of preserving the leather and of rendering it perfectly water tight4 ,in desert travelling1 each person should have his own private water skin slung upon his dromedary2 for this purpose none is so good as a small sized gazelle skin that will contain about two gallons4 ,snake skins can be converted into very useful and highly ornamental leather by tanning them4 ,the ,indians of ,north-west ,america add greatly to the value and durability of their prepared skins by subjecting them to the smoking process4 ,this is conducted by forming a miniature skin tent over a narrow deep hole dug in the earth2 this1 when filled with damp slow burning fuel1 gives forth1 when lighted1 dense volumes of smoke1 which1 acting on the inner or flesh sides of the spread skins1 imparts to them considerable power to resist damp and other deteriorating influences4 ,hides that are under the operation of dressing should never be allowed to become dry1 as it is very difficult to restore perfect flexibility to them by the aid of water4 ,wet cow dung is the best material we know for preserving the moisture of the skins on which it is spread4 ,milk curds are made use of for the same purpose by the ,tartar tribes4 ,we have also seen ground oil seeds1 converted into a paste with milk1 used by some ,indian hill tribes4 ,parchment and catgut4 ,parchment is a material which will be found useful for many purposes1 such as labelling the species collected1 c42 almost any moderate-sized skin can be converted into this substance4 ,the first step is to remove the hair from its follicles4 ,this may be done by burying the skin in moist earth for two or three days2 it should1 when found seasoned1 be spread1 hair side out1 on a barrel or round log1 and well scraped1 until quite clean4 ,four long tough peeled rods or wands should now be passed through a train of small slits1 like button-holes1 in the edges of the skin1 all four borders of the trimmed skin being furnished with its spreading wand4 ,the ends of the wands are now to be cut off flush with the border of the skin4 ,a pole hoop like that figured at page #ggf should now be prepared1 and the stretched skin laced to its centre by cords or thongs passed inside the wand until it is as tight as a tambourine4 ,every particle of adhering membrane should be carefully cut away1 and the skin rubbed down to the required substance with a flat-surfaced sandstone2 pumice-stone1 when it can be obtained1 is excellent for the purpose4 ,when the parchment has undergone preparation1 and is removed from the pole hoop1 it may be fitted for writing on by first thoroughly rubbing its surface with a perfectly smooth water-worn pebble1 and then touching its surface lightly over with ox-gall4 ,catgut can be made from the intestines of almost any animal as follows3 ,after carefully removing all impurities from the surfaces of the gut1 place it in a pot of water for twenty-four hours2 the outer sheath1 or covering membrane1 will more freely come away4 ,now double back a few inches of the end border of your gut tube1 just as you would turn down the top border of a stocking1 catching the bag thus formed between the finger and thumb2 dip water up with it until the double fold is nearly full4 ,the weight of this fluid will instantly cause the gut to become inverted1 and bring its inner surface to the outside4 ,this can now be easily freed from any adhering matter2 and if the gut is intended for twisting1 set up two stiff stout stakes in the earth1 a little wider apart than the length of the gut under treatment4 ,cut a saw cut in the head of each stake4 ,now firmly lash each end of your gut to the notched ends of two narrow flat pieces of wood1 fashioned like stout knife blades1 and thin enough to enter the saw cuts in the stake heads4 ,by alternately twisting these and fixing them in the saw cuts1 to prevent their running back1 the gut may be evenly and neatly twisted after the manner of a single strand cord4 ,the twisted material thus formed becomes1 when dry and after it has been rubbed smooth with a woollen rag and a little grease1 excellent catgut1 fit for drill bows1 bowstrings1 lathe bands1 thread for sewing strong leather work1 c4 ,bladders should always be saved4 ,they only require inflation with air and drying to preserve them4 ,illustration ,holes in hides1 water-bags1 or bladders1 may be repaired by gathering up the lips of the orifice1 pushing a sharp splinter or thorn through both lips1 and then tying a string tightly behind the cross piece thus formed4 ,the holes in large skins can be repaired by placing pebbles or stones1 just too large to pass through1 inside them4 ,a few turns with a strip of raw hide behind the stone makes all secure and perfectly water-tight4 ,a spherical bullet may be made use of in this manner to repair a thorn prick in a water-bag4 ,a reference to the above illustration will serve to show how these repairs are effected4 ,the horns of cattle can be made use of for a number of useful purposes4 ,soaking in boiling water softens them sufficiently to enable the ingenious operator to fashion them into almost any shape4 ,bones should never be heedlessly cast away2 sawn up they make excellent rings for dog harness or the head-lines of fishing-nets2 stilets for splicing cord1 meshes for netting1 c4 ,tendons of animals make excellent glue1 and can be easily split up into sewing thread4 ,the swimming bladders of fish1 when dried1 form excellent isinglas4 ,sole1 shark1 and dogfish skins1 dried and mounted on handles1 make very efficient rasps and files for woodwork4 ,eel-skins make most durable harness ties1 and1 twisted or plaited together1 form very serviceable whips4 ,hides or skins can be cut into long strips for trail rope or lasso making by cutting them spirally with a sharp knife1 just as a cobbler cuts out a leather boot-lace from a circular scrap of shoe leather4 ,hides and objects composed of either prepared hide or leather should be frequently treated with clean1 well-softened grease1 in order that they may retain their flexibility and toughness of texture4 ,hides used in covering the frames of bull boats1 as they are called by the traders and trappers of the north-west1 who often use them1 require to be frequently beached1 dried in the sun1 and then greased1 to render them sufficiently durable to encounter the deteriorating influences brought to bear on them during a long river or lake voyage4 ,fat1 to treat4 ,in cutting up and trimming the carcases of large animals1 considerable quantities of fat will be accumulated1 provided that care is taken to prevent native fellows from appropriating it4 ,fat is useful for an immense number of purposes4 ,its value as fuel has already been explained in that portion of our work devoted to a consideration of lamps4 ,the bones of nearly all large animals may be made to yield a considerable quantity of fatty matter by crushing them to fragments between two heavy stones2 boiling the mass thus obtained in any suitable vessel1 and then skinning off the eyes of grease as they appear on the surface with a large shell fastened to the end of a stick1 or an ox horn fashioned into a scoop4 ,when fat is to be stored up for use it should be first melted1 and1 after all fragments of membrane1 c41 have been separated by a rough system of straining1 poured into hide bags to cool4 ,all blubber-bearing cetaceans yield large quantities of oil1 which is to be obtained by a process known amongst whalers as trying out4 ,convenient sized pieces of the blubber are thrown into large cauldrons1 which are mainly heated by the waste chip or used-up material left as a residue when the oil runs forth4 ,the livers of sharks and other large fish also yield oil freely by treatment in the kettle4 ,besides being useful for wheel lubricating1 leather-dressing1 candle-making1 and a variety of other useful purposes1 fat can1 by proper treatment1 be made available as the principal ingredient in the manufacture of soap4 ,soap1 to prepare4 ,some care and management1 however1 are required to manufacture a really good and useful article4 ,sir ,samuel ,baker thus writes of his experiences in the matter3 ,soap-boiling is not so easy as may be imagined4 ,it requires not only much attention1 but the quality is dependent upon the proper mixture of the alkalies4 ,sixty parts of potash and forty of lime are1 ,i believe1 the proportions for common soap4 ,i had neither lime nor potash1 but ,i shortly procured both4 ,the ,hegleck tree 7,balanites egyptiaca7 was extremely rich in potash2 therefore ,i burned a large quantity1 and made a strong ley with the ashes4 ,this ,i concentrated by boiling4 ,there was no limestone2 but the river produced a plentiful supply of large oyster-shells1 that1 if burned1 would yield excellent lime2 accordingly1 ,i constructed a kiln with the assistance of the white ants4 ,the country was infested by these creatures1 which erected their dwellings in all directions4 ,there were cones from six to ten feet high1 formed of clay1 so thoroughly cemented by a glutinous preparation of the insects that it was harder than sun-baked brick4 ,i selected an egg-shaped hill1 and cut off the top exactly as we take off the slice from an egg4 ,my ,tookrooris then worked hard1 and with a hoe and their lances they hollowed it out to the base1 in spite of the attacks of the ants1 which punished the legs of the intruders considerably4 ,i made a draught hole from the outside base at right angles with the bottom of the hollow cone4 ,my kiln was perfect4 ,i loaded it with wood1 upon which ,i piled about six bushels of oyster-shells1 which ,i then covered with fuel1 and kept it burning for twenty-four hours4 ,this produced excellent lime1 and ,i commenced my soap-boiling4 ,we possessed an immense copper pot1 of ,egyptian manufacture1 in addition to a large and deep copper basin1 called a 'teshti4' ,these would contain about ten gallons4 ,the ley having been boiled down to great strength1 ,i added a quantity of lime and the necessary fat4 ,it required ten hours' boiling1 combined with careful management of the fire1 as it would frequently ascend like foam1 and overflow the edge of the utensils2 however1 at length having been constantly stirred1 it turned to soap2 before it became cold ,i formed it into cakes and balls with my hands1 and the result of this manufacture was a weight of about forty pounds of most excellent soap of a very sporting description4 ,we thus washed with rhinoceros soap2 our lamp was trimmed with the oil of lions2 our butter for cooking purposes was the fat of hippopotami1 while our pomade was made from the marrow of buffaloes and antelopes1 scented with the blossoms of mimosas4 ,we were entirely independent1 as our whole party had subsisted upon the produce of the rod and rifle4 ,sleeping-bags4 ,if the traveller contemplates the prosecution of explorations in cold and inhospitable regions1 it will be well for him to preserve a number of sheep or goats' skins1 with the hair or wool on1 which should be prepared for conversion into coverlets1 sleeping-bags1 mats1 overcoats1 c4 ,a variety of forms of sleeping-bags are in use in various parts of the world2 some1 as in the case of those used by the frontier guard between ,france and ,spain1 are so constructed as to be doubled up1 strapped together1 and converted into a sort of knapsack4 ,the down of waterfowl1 especially that of the eider duck1 when stitched between any suitable fabric and quilted1 forms a most powerful non-conductor of heat4 ,a very useful and cheap form of sleeping-bag can be made by pasting a number of old newspapers together1 giving them a coat of boiled linseed oil1 and then stitching them between two sheets of any tough durable fabric4 ,the person about to be measured for a sleeping bag should have the extreme breadth of the shoulders1 width across hips1 and height taken1 adding eighteen inches to the head of the bag to form a flap4 ,cut out your two main bag pieces1 or top and bottom1 to the shape of two large sleeve boards such as tailors use1 now cut out two long narrow slips1 about twenty inches wide1 and long enough to go the whole length of both sides and round the tapered rounded bottom of the bag1 and up to the end-borders of the mouth1 these strips are sewn in exactly as the leather is attached to the upper and lower boards of a pair of common bellows4 ,sleeping-bags should be made very strong1 in order that they may be used to carry a variety of odd articles in4 ,illustration ,ruck sacks4 ,whilst on the subject of bags1 it will be well to mention a most convenient description of sack used by the ,tyrolese chamois hunters for carrying food1 dead game1 ammunition1 c4 ,it is best made of light tanned canvas or flax cloth4 ,a square bag of the required size is made from either of these materials1 the mouth of the bag is made to draw in the usual way and tie1 but to the loop of the neck string are attached two leather shoulder straps1 to the ends of which wooden toggles and stout line loops have been sewn4 ,each lower corner of the bag should have a wooden or cork ball the size of a billiard ball1 securely stitched into it4 ,when the bag is placed on the back with its burden in it1 the shoulder straps are passed over the shoulders1 under the arms1 and down to the ball-furnished corners1 over which the slip-knots and loops of the toggle strings are now secured4 ,the above illustration will serve to explain the nature of the arrangement1 anything can be conveniently carried in this contrivance1 from a single partridge to a full grown chamois or roebuck4 ,a sack of this kind carefully fitted and made1 is very superior to an ordinary knapsack4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,ropes ,,and ,,twine4 ,ropes and twine of different sizes and lengths should always form part of the equipment of the traveller or explorer4 ,these may be either home-made or manufactured from such suitable materials as may be obtainable in the regions travelled through4 ,a great number of productions1 vegetable and animal1 are available for cord-making purposes2 and not unfrequently it will be found in tropical regions that nature has herself formed the rope ready to the hand of him who will take the trouble to gather it4 ,the rattan1 which is a species of palm1 although commonly and incorrectly called a cane1 is a noteworthy example2 it possesses extraordinary flexibility and toughness1 is light1 porous1 covered with a waterproof glaze1 and grows to a considerable length1 often to the extent of #cjj;ft4 ,rattans1 when simply laid together1 can be at once converted into ropes of almost any length and strength4 ,numbers of native suspension-bridges are supported by cables formed entirely from rattan4 ,warping ropes1 used by the raftsmen of the ,malay coast1 are formed from this material2 these curious ropes are not unfrequently the eighth of a mile in length1 and possess immense strength4 ,the lianas1 monkey ropes1 or parasitical creepers1 too1 which grow in such profusion in the tropical jungles1 need little preparation to suit them for use as cordage4 ,willows and other tough flexible sticks or twigs are readily converted into rope by simply twisting them together2 they should1 however1 be well soaked in water before twisting4 ,an almost endless number of trees1 shrubs1 and plants yield fibre well calculated for cord or rope-making purposes4 ,the bark of some of the mimosas is as tough as the finest hemp1 and can be stripped from the trees in any quantity4 ,bast1 or matting fibre1 as it is called1 is yielded by a number of trees1 amongst which may be mentioned the linden or lime of our own country4 ,for some purposes bast strips may be used without twisting by merely soaking them in water1 and then dividing them into ribbons of the required strength4 ,the inner bark of the elm1 when well soaked1 becomes extremely tough1 and twists well4 ,the long flag-like leaves of the ,phormium tenax1 or ,new ,zealand hemp1 can be used as ties or lashings without any treatment or preparation2 separated from the juices and leaf-pulp by maceration and scraping with a muscle-shell1 the fibre is found to be beautifully fine1 and adapted for either spinning or weaving4 ,illustration ,when gathering bark for rope or twine making purposes it is always well to bear in mind that the outer or true bark1 yielding little useful fibre1 is1 however1 applicable to a variety of useful purposes1 as the above illustration1 representing a number of articles formed from outside bark1 will show4 ,the method by which large sheets of bark are stripped from forest trees is shown in the annexed illustration4 ,illustration ,the so-called ,manilla hemp is not the product of the hemp plant1 but is produced by a vegetable so closely resembling a ,banana tree that it is difficult to distinguish one from the other4 ,it is to be regretted that the names given by early travellers and others to productions of this kind1 should be only calculated to mislead1 instead of being guides to their origin2 the so-called ,china grass is not a grass1 but is obtained from a plant closely resembling a nettle 7,urtica tenacissima74 ,the common stinging nettle of this country contains a fibre out of which very good twine can be made2 straw1 hay1 rushes1 and swamp grass1 make good tough bands1 which are useful for many purposes4 ,the ,esparto grass1 as it is called1 is a dry ground rush1 and was used in very early ages for the manufacture of ropes1 but is now extensively applied to paper-making purposes4 ,cocoa-nut husks1 and the leaves of all the agave tribe1 the yuccas1 and most of the aloe-shaped plants1 yield an abundance of fibre1 as does the pine apple plant by soaking or maceration in water4 ,cotton1 wild or cultivated1 makes excellent cord4 ,smoked sea weed is used for lines by the ,british ,columbian ,indians4 ,no one possessed of even ordinary powers of observation will fail in discovering a host of other fibre sources in travelling through tropical1 or even temperate regions4 ,a number of animal substances will also be found1 which by the aid of ingenuity may be converted into thread and cordage4 ,fine strips of tendon scraped round and pointed make excellent sewing thread4 ,strips of raw hide1 soaked1 twisted or plaited1 and greased1 form ropes or cords of immense strength and considerable durability3 to form long strands for these1 see the directions given at page #ghd4 ,the hair or wool of animals1 and the web spun by the wild silkworms are also available for twisting or working up into cord4 ,many methods more or less simple are had recourse to in different parts of the world1 for so combining and intertwining fibres and other materials that1 united1 they may resist breaking1 strains1 and deteriorating influences4 ,the untutored savage1 as he is called1 proceeds to gather his fibre1 prepare it1 and by the aid of his open palm and naked thigh only 7as shown at page #eii71 twists it into an even1 compact1 and beautifully wrought line of any length1 free from knots or irregularities1 a task which the highly educated white man1 unless tutored by savages1 would vainly attempt to perform4 ,laying up as it is called1 is another simple method by which a two or three strand cord or rope can be made4 ,each separate strand1 when equally divided and secured at one end1 is taken by the finger and thumb1 or the hand1 according to the size of the work1 twisted on itself and passed over to the off side of the operator2 the near side strand is now treated in the same way1 and so on1 fibre being carefully joined in with the fag end of each strand as it becomes too short for twisting3 7vide pages #eih1 #eii47 ,no two strands should be suffered to remain the same length1 in order that no two unions of fresh fibres should take place at the same spot4 ,a common three-plait is an expeditious mode by which three strips of sheeting1 or other fabric1 may be converted into a rope4 ,four strand round plait is formed by making each pair of strands cross each other from right to left alternately1 until the whole length required is completed2 this form of plait is useful for whip thongs1 and will run through the sheeve hole of a block4 ,a single strand cord or twine may be twisted from loose fibre1 by bending a winch handle in one end of a thick iron wire1 and a hook in the other4 ,set up a stiff stake1 waist high1 in the earth1 bore or burn a hole through it large enough to allow your wire to revolve freely in it1 now split your post down to the hole1 enter your wire and allow the cleft stake to retain the wire in the hole by its own spring2 station some person to turn your winch handle1 whilst you1 with a goodly supply of fibre round your body1 first hook on enough to form twine of the required size to the book of the wire1 and then walk backwards as the thread increases in length2 a forked stick set up here and there serves to support the sag or belly of the twine as it is formed4 ,a little thin glue or size rubbed on with a rag prevents the strands from opening too freely4 ,threads thus made may be either laid up by hand or spun into cordage by the regular ropemaker's wheel1 a makeshift form of which may be easily extemporised by fitting a light flat hoop with a hub1 a set of spokes1 a wire handle1 and a set of hook-axled cotton reels4 ,with such a contrivance as this ropes and cords of small size may be twisted2 but1 for the manufacture of ropes of large dimensions1 such an arrangement as that represented in the illustration 7p4 #gia7;,illustration must be made use of4 ,an examination of it will show that an implement1 called a top1 is made use of in order to keep the strands in their proper relative positions4 ,this top is merely a conical block of wood1 with a set of deep grooves1 according to the number of strands to be twisted1 cut in it longitudinally4 ,tops may be made of almost any size1 to suit the character of cord in the course of production4 ,straw-ropes1 to spin4 ,grass or straw ropes may be conveniently and expeditiously spun to almost any length by the aid of an apparatus made as follows3 ,take four narrow flat pieces of board1 say four inches wide1 an inch thick1 and three feet long1 make two equal-sided crosses of them by nailing them together2 take care1 however1 that no nails are used in the true centres of the crosses1 as a two-inch augur hole will have to be bored in each4 ,at one foot from the end of each arm of the crosses bore an inch hole1 and into these fit a rounded stick1 four feet long1 in such a way1 that when pinned fast in the holes the whole arrangement may resemble a large-sized fishing reel without a handle4 ,now fashion a straight1 smooth1 one inch and a half stick in such a way as to leave a head like that of a large nail at one end and a point at the other4 ,the pointed end must project about a foot beyond the hole in the inner cross when the stick is thrust through the centre hole in the crosses1 and the head is brought in contact with the surface of the outer4 ,to use this apparatus1 bore a hole in a tree1 insert the pointed end of the reel axle1 or stick2 the reel formed by the crosses and bars will now1 if properly made1 revolve freely if struck with the hand4 ,gather up a long lock of grass1 hay1 or straw1 and attach it to one of the cross-arms4 ,throw the arrangement round by giving a circular swing to your straw1 keep up the revolving motion1 and keep adding fresh material to the end of your rope until it becomes too long to be easily managed2 wind the surplus length round the bars of the reel1 or drum1 and twist on until you have made as much rope as you require4 ,short hay or straw bands are made by catching a loop of the material over the turned-up thumb in such a way that it may form a loop2 keep turning the hand1 and gathering fresh material from below until the band is completed4 ,thumb bands is the name usually given to short grass ropes thus made4 ,hard rove ropes1 to treat4 ,large ropes are very liable when new to give considerable trouble by their disposition to kink4 ,it is therefore often necessary to take the extra twist out of them by fastening one end high up in a conveniently grown tree1 and suspending a spare waggon wheel from the other1 as shown in the illustration 7p4 #gia74 ,the use of tar in the manufacture of rope tends to impair its strength1 but adds to its power to resist deteriorating influences4 ,weight of rope1 to estimate4 ,it often becomes requisite1 when loading waggons1 packing animals1 or loading boats1 sledges1 canoes or rafts1 to be enabled to form some estimate of the weight about to be placed in them1 and there are few aids to travel more difficult to weigh than rope1 on account of its bulk and peculiar form of construction4 ,it is well therefore to have recourse to a rough and ready system of calculation to arrive at the required information4 ,the strength of ropes should also be approximately known before applying them4 ,robinson gives the following simple rules for calculating the strength of ropes of the ordinary form of construction1 and also their weights4 ,multiply the circumference of the rope in inches by itself1 and the fifth part of the product will express the number of tons the rope will carry4 ,for example1 if the rope be six inches in circumference1 #f #f #cf1 the fifth of which is #g-a_/e1 the number of tons which such a rope will sustain4 ,to find the weight of shroud or hawser laid rope1 multiply the circumference in inches by itself2 then multiply the product by the length of the rope in fathoms1 and divide by #dbj1 the product will be the weight in cwts4 ,example--to find the weight of a six-inch hawser laid rope #abj fathoms long2 #f #f #cf #abj #dcbj1 which1 divided by #dbj1 gives the weight of the rope #aj;cwt4 #a qr4 #dlb4 ,to find the weight of cable-laid cordage1 multiply its circumference in inches by itself1 and divide by #d2 the product will be the weight in cwts4 of a cable #abj fathoms long1 from which the weight of any other length may be readily reduced4 ,example--required the weight of a twelve-inch cable #abj fathoms long2 #ab #ab #add1 divide by #d1 and the product1 #cf1 is the weight in cwts4 ,illustration3 ,a-,k ,knots and ,hitches4 ,to render ropes and cords available for the variety of purposes to which they are applied by the traveller1 knots1 hitches1 splices1 c41 must be had recourse to4 ,these are so numerous in form and mode of construction1 that to describe half that are known to practical riggers and sailors would require a goodly volume4 ,we shall1 therefore1 content ourselves by describing some of the most useful and generally available4 ,it is impossible to teach the art of knot-tying by written directions2 we therefore give a sketch of each mentioned4 ,it will be well for the student who wishes to acquire a knowledge of the manner in which they are formed to provide himself with a moderately stout piece of cord1 and1 by following out the lines of turn1 twist1 and direction1 given in the diagrams1 and repeating the operation1 he will soon acquire proficiency4 ,a1 in the accompanying full-page illustration1 represents a pair of hitches1 which can be caused to run firmly and freely home by hauling on the standing end1 or converted into a useful loop by passing a few turns of stopping round both ends4 ,b is a fisherman's bend1 useful for an almost endless number of purposes4 ,when the two knots in the short ends are pulled home1 they run together by pulling the two main or free ends4 ,c is a reef knot1 used for knotting the reef points of sails or uniting the ends of ropes or cordage4 ,d shows a mode by which the end of a rope may be quickly fastened to a ring4 ,e and ,f are lark knots1 used for fastening the painters of boats or canoes2 it is only necessary1 in case of sudden attack or alarm1 to pull out the stop stick to instantly free the painter without untying4 ,g is a bowline knot1 which is applicable to any purpose where it is requisite to have a loop which will not run home4 ,h is a hawser bend1 which can be expeditiously made use of for joining the ends of large ropes4 ,i is a knot commonly made use of for securing a hawser to a mooring post4 ,j is an arrangement known as a toggle and loops1 useful for a great number of purposes2 the toggle1 acting as a button1 can be secured or released with great facility4 ,k is a ,carrick bend1 useful for uniting tow ropes or large hawsers to each other4 ,the seizing or stopping1 represented as securing the short ends in some of these knots1 may be composed of rope1 yarn1 or stout twine4 ,a4 sheathing1 or parcelling1 composed of old canvas1 or some other stout material1 should always be placed round ropes which are subjected to friction against quay walls or rocks1 in order to protect them from chafe4 ,the annexed illustration also represents a number of useful knots1 and modes of applying ropes and cords4 ,illustration3 #a-aa ,fig4 #a represents a timber hitch1 which will be found most useful for taking a firm hold by cord on a round spar or pole4 ,fig4 #b is another method by which a rope can be secured round an upright post4 ,fig4 #c shows a sling1 useful for raising or lowering packs1 bales1 or boxes4 ,fig4 #d is known as a harness loop2 several of these can be tied in a drag rope1 in order that men may make use of them as shoulder collars to draw by4 ,fig4 #e is a twisted or tail timber hitch1 adapted for securing a log or piece of round timber for lowering or raising4 ,fig4 #f shows how to make a loop in the end of a pack or box lashing2 the knot1 running home1 secures the loop1 and prevents its drawing close4 ,fig4 #g is a sheepshank1 used for shortening a long rope1 and thus rendering cutting unnecessary4 ,fig4 #h is a loop-slip1 used for uniting two looped ends securely4 ,fig4 #i is a weaver's or netter's knot1 much used by those who repair or make nets for fishing4 ,fig4 #aj is a ,tom ,fool's knot1 very useful for forming handles to jars and pots2 the mouth of the vessel is placed in the centre of the knot1 the two free ends tied fast1 and the two loops left for the hand to grasp4 ,fig4 #aa is a brooch knot1 used for forming the loop in rope for casting horses4 7,vide ,veterinary ,surgery47 ,netting4 ,the art of netting with the needle and mesh is so generally understood that it is not our intention to deal with the subject here further than to advise all those who may chance to be ignorant of the manner in which net making operations are conducted1 to take a few lessons before quitting home to explore wild regions4 ,the aborigines of every part of the known world can make nets1 but it is well that the ,european traveller should be capable of manufacturing his own4 ,almost any piece of dry1 tough wood1 can1 by the exercise of a little ingenuity1 be fashioned into a needle and mesh1 and twine1 tendons1 strips of hide1 and a variety of other material1 can be wrought into network1 for hunting1 fowling1 fishing1 c4 ,splicing4 ,splicing is effected by opening the strands of the two ropes to be united1 for some little distance down the cord4 ,the two sets of diverging strands are then thrust between each other1 so that they may be evenly reversed4 ,a sharp bone1 metal1 or hard wood stilet or pricker is now used to raise the strands one by one for the passage of the corresponding strand1 until both sets have been worked far enough down the rope to render the union complete4 ,a loop is spliced by opening the strands of the end1 forming a loop in the rope of sufficient capacity1 and then raising the strands1 in the manner before described1 one by one at the required point of union4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,bush ,,veterinary ,,surgery ,,and ,,medicine4 ,before starting on an expedition in which1 the services of horses1 mules1 bullocks1 and other animals are required it is well to be provided with such a store of veterinary requisites as are given at page #hd of this work2 the nature of the work and the country in which it is intended to operate will mainly determine the necessity or otherwise for a portable forge and regular set of shoeing smith's appliances4 ,when these are requisite it will be well to secure the services of one or more working farriers to take charge of and use them4 ,a loose shoe1 or even a set ready fitted1 can be pretty successfully applied by an ingenious and handy amateur2 but few1 save those practically acquainted with the smith's art1 could undertake the regular shoeing and fitting of an expedition train4 ,still we strongly recommend all those about to cast their fortunes in wild lands to attend frequently1 before quitting ,england1 at some good forge1 in order that as many hints as possible may be gathered and stored up for future use4 ,horse shoeing like horse riding1 cannot be taught by books4 ,every traveller should know how to take off and put on a shoe1 and also how to use the drawing knife and searcher4 ,in some countries horses are not shoed at all2 in others1 the fore feet only have shoes attached to them4 ,and here we would offer a word of advice to travellers4 ,never attempt to alter the pattern of the shoe in which the horses of the country visited are in the habit of working1 or disappointment and vexation are pretty sure to be the result4 ,on our first visit to ,turkey we regarded the round plates of iron with holes in their centres and hobnailed borders1 called in that country by courtesy horse shoes1 in the light of perfect abominations1 and had our newly purchased animals shod in the ,english style4 ,at the end of a week1 however1 we gladly gathered the cast off native shoes together and had them replaced by a native smith in order to avoid a broken neck4 ,should a horse or any other animal of burden1 not excepting even an elephant1 fall lame from any cause not absolutely patent and well known1 look first to the foot of the affected limb and be sure that no stray nail1 piece of broken iron1 thorn1 or other sharp substance1 has found a lodgment4 ,it is not our intention to enter on a consideration of the various diseases and ailments to which the animals of the traveller or settler are subject in different countries1 as our space will not permit of our doing so4 ,we must therefore content ourselves by giving such general hints and directions as may prove useful in the absence of a qualified veterinary surgeon4 ,many diseases to which pack and draught animals are subject are of such a character as to render it requisite that they should be either destroyed or left by the way in the hands of some responsible person for treatment4 ,it is never advisable to travel an animal suffering from lingering sickness4 ,the first loss is generally the least in such cases4 ,severe cases of sore back should never occur in a well-regulated expedition2 as pads or chambering should be had recourse to the very instant the slightest tendency to gall is perceived1 and it is well1 in many cases1 to compel the rider of the animal to walk until the back is sound4 ,galls on the withers and poll of the head are more to be feared than any other injury of like kind1 as matter is extremely liable to burrow in such situations1 and lead to the formation of fistulous cavities and excessively troublesome wounds4 ,hot bathing and poultices formed from bran1 or ground oil seeds and warm water1 should be first used1 with a view to the palliation of the mischief2 but when once matter is formed1 freely opening the pouch formed from top to bottom is the only course4 ,to make a horse-poultice bag sew two pieces of soft tough material together in the form of a common shot-bag1 closing both ends and sides2 fasten a wide soft string to each corner1 cut a straight slit in one face of the bag1 and through it thrust the mixed poultice material until it is nearly full1 when it can be secured over the seat of injury4 ,animals obtained from natives not unfrequently suffer from a peculiar description of gall1 known as a sitfast4 ,examination shows an irregular piece of dry1 hard1 dead skin1 surrounded by a border or channel of sore4 ,the only way to effectually treat such a case as this is to first secure the animal1 and then1 with a sharp-pointed knife1 cut the island of dead cuticle clean from the wound1 which1 if kept clean and properly treated with any simple dressing1 will soon heal4 ,a mixture1 consisting of common nitre1 #aoz41 to a pint of cold water1 we have found very useful in such cases4 ,illustration ,the frightful wounds on the backs of camels1 too often caused by the carelessness of native camel-drivers1 are particularly liable to take on an almost putrid condition4 ,in the treatment of these we have found leather burned to a black1 crisp mass1 and then reduced to a fine powder1 a most valuable preparation4 ,simply strewed over and into the wound1 it quickly causes healthy action to be set up4 ,any sproutings of new flesh which mount above the surface of the skin are known as proud flesh1 and should be reduced to the proper level by the use of nitrate of silver1 blue stone 7sulphate of copper71 nitric acid1 or even the red-hot iron4 ,in order to perform many of the operations for the treatment of diseased or injured animals1 it will be requisite to cast and properly secure them4 ,the horse is best thrown by the aid of hobbles1 a set of which1 as adjusted for use1 are represented in the above illustration4 ,the leather strap attached from the fore to the hind-leg is put on after the animal has been thrown down by hauling on the rope-ended chain1 shown at the front of the fore-foot4 ,when the legs are drawn sufficiently close together1 a spring clip is passed through a link of the chain2 when the horse is to be released1 a small screw-pin is drawn1 which causes all the four hobbles to be set free1 they then fall off as the animal rises4 ,makeshift casting ropes4 ,in the absence of regular hobbles1 a very good substitute may be formed by doubling a very long pliant rope1 knotting it securely far enough down the doubled end to form a collar for the head and neck of the animal to pass through 7see ,fig4 #aa1 p4 #gif72 the two free ends are now carried between the fore legs1 under the body1 inside the two hind legs1 above the hocks2 the ends are then brought forward on each side1 and passed from within outwards1 through the collar rope4 ,when all is adjusted1 the hind-leg rope loops may be evenly and gently shaken down until they rest in the hollows of the fetlock joints4 ,on the free ends being hauled on the horse will be thrown1 when the ends of the rope are secured by half-hitches4 ,illustration ,the annexed illustration will serve to explain the nature of this contrivance4 ,a soft spot should be chosen to cast on2 a halter should always be securely placed on the head1 and in cases of great timidity a folded rug as a blind over the eyes4 ,the head of a cast horse should be firmly held down by a man told off for the purpose1 until the animal is freed from the ropes and about to rise4 ,an ox is cast by catching his hind-leg1 or both if possible1 in a noose in the end of a reim held by means of a vangstock1 or catching stick2 another noose is thrown about his horns1 one or two fellows catch his tail and pull against those who have the legs1 while very likely1 if he has tolerably large horns1 another uses them as levers to throw him off his balance1 and the spare hands assist by pushing with all their might at his broadside1 when1 as a matter of course1 he must go down4 ,hints on camp medicine making4 ,large open gashes from horns1 weapons1 or tusks can be sewn up by separate stitches of either flexible wire or fine1 smoothly-cut strips of raw hide4 ,a very useful dressing for wounds of this character is made as follows3 ,common aloes1 #a_/blb42 gum myrrh1 #a_/dlb42 spirits of almost any kind1 #b quarts2 water1 #a quart2 place the vessel containing this mixture in moderate sun heat for from twelve to fourteen days2 strain and bottle for use2 apply on lint1 tow1 or the plume of a large feather2 myrrh can be obtained in the ,east from one of the ,mimosa tribe1 and aloes from the plant of that name4 ,in ,south ,africa aloes juice is thus collected by the ,hottentots3 a hole is made in the earth1 and a sheepskin forced into it4 ,the leaves of the aloe are all cut off except two pairs of the youngest left in the form of a cross in the centre2 the leaves are then ranged with their cut ends over the hollow in the sheepskin1 and left to drain4 ,if wind arises1 however1 it stops the drainage by coagulating the gum on the surface1 and the labour is lost2 the juice is thickened by boiling1 and sold for exportation to ,england4 ,the farmers use the fresh juice as a varnish for wood-work1 to which it gives a good polish and a brown colour2 it is said1 also1 to be an effectual vermifuge4 ,wherever the aloe plant grows1 the above rough and ready mode of obtaining its juices may be had recourse to4 ,a very useful purgative for mules and horses is made by breaking a pound of aloes into rough pieces2 throw these into seven pints of rain water1 and then add a pint of spirit of some kind4 ,the dose will vary with the size and condition of the animal from #doz4 to #foz4 ,liquids are best given to animals from a small thin horn from which a long tapering slice has been cut1 so as to form a sort of scoop4 ,the water and grain of some districts cause severe attacks of colic or gripes2 these need immediate attention4 ,a dose consisting of linseed oil1 #a pint2 tincture of opium1 #aoz42 nitric spirit of ether1 #aoz42 mixed1 should be given1 and repeated in half an hour1 if the pain is not subdued4 ,warm soapy water enemas should be frequently thrown up4 ,an enema apparatus is easily extemporised from a large bladder or leather bag and hollow stick with its extreme end or mouth cut perfectly round and even4 ,soap suds are best formed by rubbing a piece of soap on a rough brush in a pail of warm water4 ,opium is a most valuable pain-killer1 either in its solid or liquid form4 ,to prepare makeshift laudanum3 ,take of rough bazaar opium #coz42 powder it roughly between two stones2 throw the powder into an earthen pot1 and add a quart of good clear sound spirit2 cover with a flat stone1 and place in the shade for twelve days2 strain through a double cotton cloth1 and bottle for general use of man or beast4 ,animals much fed on barley or other heating grain are very liable to become affected with mange4 ,separate all the diseased from the healthy1 as the disease is exceedingly contagious4 ,dress all your diseased cases with the following mixture1 which may be rubbed in with a brush or piece of hide with the hair on3 ,common oil of tar1 #a quart2 common spirits of turpentine1 #a quart2 fish oil of any kind1 or1 in the absence of that1 native seed oil1 #a quart2 powdered brimstone1 #a_/blb42 mix thoroughly in a convenient vessel with a stick4 ,rub in the mixture every other day for three complete dressings1 and on the day after the last1 wash well with warm water and plenty of rough soap4 #aoz4 of gunpowder and #a_/doz4 of brimstone1 rubbed into an ointment with #foz4 of fat1 is a good makeshift remedy4 ,to prevent attacks of mange and other skin diseases in animals kept much on grain1 it is well to give occasional doses of the following powder in the food3 ,common bazaar antimony 7the kohl of the dealers7 #a_/blb42 brimstone in powder1 #alb42 nitre1 #a_/blb42 mix3 dose #a_/boz4 ,strains or severe injuries to joints or tendons1 are often benefited in their second stage1 that is1 after all the benefit arising from fomentations1 poultices1 c41 has been taken advantage of1 by the action of counter-irritation1 in the form of a blister4 ,cantharides1 or ,spanish flies are commonly used for blistering purposes1 but the spotted fly of ,india 7,mylabris cichorii7 answers every purpose4 ,blistering oil1 which is useful for sprains or to rub into sore throats1 is made as follows3 ,dried flies1 roughly crushed1 #aoz42 good clear vegetable oil1 #a pint2 spirits of turpentine1 #doz42 mix2 place the whole in an earthen chatty pot or jar2 put the vessel in warm camp fire ashes for three hours1 and then strain for use4 ,blistering ointment is made by reducing the dry fly to powder1 taking care to cover the nostrils during the operation1 and mixing #aoz4 of the dust to #foz4 of clear fat2 stand the pot containing the mixture in the hot ashes for eight hours1 and then strain whilst warm through a coarse cloth doubled4 ,horses when blistered should have cane joint necklaces1 or cradles as they are called1 fitted on their necks1 in order to prevent them from biting the blistered surface4 ,it is generally best to remove the hair before applying the blister4 ,when the skin has been well acted on1 the blister may be washed off with warm water and soap1 and fat or palm-oil applied in order to allay irritation4 ,fly-infested animals1 to treat4 ,the flies of tropical countries are much to be dreaded when the wounds of animals are under treatment2 ova deposited by them arrive at maturity in an incredibly short space of time1 when they burrow into the tissues1 and cause much trouble to the attendant as well as pain to the animal4 ,the sheaths of even healthy horses and mules not unfrequently become charged with a living mass of these carnivorous larv1 which cause such irritation as to make the suffering animal kick violently up under its belly1 and manifest other symptoms of uneasiness2 a sharp watch should be kept for these symptoms1 and when observed the animal should be at once cast1 and the intruders routed out by manual manipulation2 warm water and soap will cleanse the part1 and a good dressing of oil will allay the irritation4 ,fly-infested wounds are best dressed with the following ointment3 ,common verdigris1 ground to a very fine powder and sifted1 #aoz42 common resin1 #aoz42 fat or lard1 #ajoz42 first melt the fat in an earthen pot1 and then stir in the powder2 warm for one hour in the ashes1 and stir till cold with a stick4 ,there is an oil prepared from a species of ,indian gum resin called diccimaulieh1 which is a valuable addition to the above ointment1 as flies appear to entertain a rooted antipathy to it4 ,flies are not the only pests one has to guard against4 ,mule leeches1 to destroy4 ,mules1 especially those purchased in ,spain1 are not unfrequently found to have the insides of their mouths1 as far back as the roots of their tongues1 festooned with huge1 bloated1 black and green leeches4 ,a number of our ,andalusian mules were1 on our voyage from ,spain to the ,east1 found by our chief muleteer to be so infested4 ,we therefore brought the mules1 one by one1 to a stout post or stanchion1 placed rope hobbles on their feet1 and rope halters on their heads2 when the head was well secured1 a stout rope loop at the end of a stick was used to keep the mouth open1 whilst a tow-ended stick1 dipped in a strong solution of common salt in sea-water was used to thoroughly wash out the whole cavity of the mouth4 ,the result was most satisfactory2 the leeches tumbled helplessly out into the bucket of pickle held for their reception1 and ultimately found their way into the sea4 ,our mules commenced to thrive from the day of our successful pickle hunt1 and we never discovered another mule-leech during the expedition4 ,teeth1 and their irregularities4 ,both horses and mules will at times be found to quid their food as it is called1 that is1 to form during the process of mastication irregularly formed balls of partially crushed hay1 straw1 or grass4 ,the discovery of these pellets should always be followed by an examination of the molar teeth1 even should it be found necessary to cast the animal before the examination can be made1 as loss of condition too frequently follows quidding4 ,it will generally be found that irregularity of the edges of either the upper or lower rows of teeth have caused the infliction of wounds on the inside surfaces of the cheeks4 ,in other cases1 it will be found that from the decay of one or more teeth1 those which should meet friction and consequent wear have1 in the absence of it1 grown to an inordinate and inconvenient length4 ,these irregularities are best corrected by the aid of the tooth rasp1 which is readily made by welding a worn out flat rasp to an iron rod about two feet in length4 ,bend your rasp1 when united to the rod and still hot1 into the form of a shallow gouge1 and shorten it to about six inches2 reset the teeth with a sharp punch1 retemper1 and insert in a common wooden handle for use4 ,when about to purchase either horses or mules1 see that the upper row of incisor teeth do not overhang the lower1 constituting what is called parrot mouth4 ,animals so malformed rarely thrive well1 from inability to crop their food4 ,cautions regarding glanders4 ,always regard with extreme suspicion any animal suffering from a thin1 glue-like discharge from either one or both nostrils3 look well up the nose1 and be perfectly certain that there are no ulcers on the membrane1 or perchance you may introduce a glandered subject1 which will endanger the lives of both men and animals4 ,should such appearances as those just described present themselves in an animal after purchase1 order it to be instantly destroyed1 together with all the woollen or leather equipment belonging to it4 ,the metal can be rendered free from the glander poison by thoroughly heating it in the camp fire1 and then throwing it whilst fizzing hot into water4 ,never attempt to treat a case of even suspected glanders whilst travelling3 shooting is the only safe method of relieving the animal from its sufferings4 ,horses or mules can be readily shot dead with either ball or small shot4 ,to do this instantly1 stand on the off-side of the animal1 about six feet from and in a line behind the shoulder2 aim well below the ear1 in a direction from behind forwards1 and from below upwards4 ,a charge thus delivered from a gun1 rifle1 or large heavy pistol--not an insignificant popgun revolver--will strike the creature dead on the spot1 and thus save it unnecessary torture4 ,hints on horse and mule purchase4 ,before quitting the subject of ,veterinary ,surgery1 it may be well to caution the intending purchaser against laying out his money in animals affected by cataract4 ,in order to discover whether this defect exists1 place the animal with its head just in a line with the two posts of a stable or shed doorway2 screen the eye under examination from the direct rays of the sun with your cap or felt hat1 look steadily and keenly down into the interior of the eye1 and if a cataract is there it will be perceived in a pearl-tinted spot or patch on the crystalline lens of the eye1 just as though the bull's-eye of a miniature lantern had received a mark from ,french chalk4 ,clouds on the outer surface of the ball of the eye or cornea are in no way to be confounded with cataract2 clouds such as these are caused in a variety of ways--strokes from flexible branches1 whip lashes1 c41 and generally yield to treatment with as much calomel as will fill an ordinary percussion cap1 rubbed up with a half-teaspoonful of honey4 ,place a piece as large as a ,no4 #d shot in the affected eye every other day1 until the opacity passes away4 ,cataract1 on the other hand1 is beyond treatment1 and greatly detracts from the value of the animal suffering from it4 ,bony excrescences round the coronets1 constituting ring bone1 and slits in the wall of the hoof1 called sand-cracks1 also detract much from either a horse's or mule's value for travelling1 and should be carefully looked for4 ,do not1 as a rule1 purchase very young horses or mules1 as they are far more likely to give trouble and fall sick than those of more matured age2 those of from six to ten1 or even eleven years old1 if sound and in good condition1 will do good service4 ,,appendix4 ,,velocity ,,table4 ,the following is a tabular form showing the velocities of moving bodies as given by ,peschel3 ,feet per second4 ,rivers #c-d ,very rapid stream #ac ,wind 7ordinary7 #aj ,storm #ed ,hurricane #hj-abj ,sound 7through air7 #aajj ,sound 7through metal7 #ab1jjj ,air in vacuum #abhj ,ball from air-gun ,air condensed #ajj times #fig ,musket ball #abhj ,rifle ball 7at most7 #afjj ,cannon ball 7#bd-pounder7 #bdej ,earth's rotation 7at equator7 #aebe ,earth's centre in its orbit #aja1jfa ,miles per hour4 ,racehorse #fj ,pigeon #bj-cj ,peregrine falcon #abj ,ocean steamers #ba ,river steamers #bb ,railway train #hj ,sailing vessel #aj ,malay proa #bj ,miles per second4 ,light #bjj1jjj ,electricity #egf1jjj ,,weight ,,of ,a ,,superficial ,,foot ,,of ,,plate ,,or ,,sheet ,,iron4 ------------------------------ ,no4 of ,thickness ,weight the wire in in guage4 inches4 pounds4 ------------------------------ #a #dj #g_/h #ce #c_/d #cj #aa_/af #bge #e_/h #be #i_/af #bbe #a_/b #bj #g_/af #age #c_/h #ae #a #e_/af #abe #b #ab #c #aa #d #a_/d #aj #e #hgd #f #hab #g #c_/af #ge #h #fhf #i #fbd #aj #efb #aa #a_/h #e #ab #dch #ac #cge #ad #cab #ae #bhb #af #a_/af #bej #ag #bah #ah #ahf #ai #agj #bj #aed #ba #adj #bb #a_/cb #abe #bc #aab #bd #a #be #ji #bf #jh #bg #jgb #bh #a_/fd #jfd #bi #jfe #cj #jej ------------------------------ ,,weight ,,in ,,pounds ,,of ,,one ,,cubic ,,foot ,,of ,,the ,,following ,,substances3 lbs4 ,cast iron #dej ,wrought iron #dhf ,steel #dhi ,pine wood #bie ,water #fbe ,air #jjge ,steam #jjcf ,,weight ,,of ,,rod ,,iron ,,one ,,foot ,,in ,,length ,,of ,,the ,,following ,,dimensions3 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,,square ,,iron4 ,,round ,,iron4 ,,flat ,,iron4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,inch4 ,pounds4 ,inch4 ,pounds4 ,inch4 ,pounds4 #a_/d #jb #a_/d #jad #a_/d #a #jh #c_/h #je #c_/h #jd #c_/h #a #ac #a_/b #jh #a_/b #jg #a_/b #a #ag #e_/h #ac #e_/h #a #e_/h #a #ba #c_/d #ai #c_/d #ae #c_/d #a #be #g_/h #bf #g_/h #b #a_/d #b #ag #a #cd #a #bg #c_/h #b #be #a-a_/h #dc #a-a_/h #cd #a_/b #b #cd #a-a_/d #ec #a-a_/d #db #e_/h #b #db #a-c_/h #fd #a-c_/h #e #c_/d #b #ea #a-a_/b #gf #a-a_/b #f #a_/d #c #be #a-e_/h #hi #a-e_/h #g #c_/h #c #ch #a-c_/d #ajd #a-c_/d #ha #a_/b #c #ea #a-g_/h #aai #a-g_/h #ic #e_/h #c #fc #b #ace #b #ajf #c_/d #c #gf #b-a_/d #aga #b-a_/b #ace #a_/d #d #cd #b-a_/b #baa #b-a_/b #afg #c_/h #d #ea #b-c_/d #bef #b-c_/d #bja #a_/b #d #fh #c #cjd #c #bci #e_/h #d #hd #c-a_/b #dad #c-a_/b #cbe #c_/d #d #aja #d #eda #d #dbe #a_/d #e #db #e #hde #e #ffh #c_/h #e #fc #f #abag #f #ief #a_/b #e #hd #g #afef #g #acj #e_/h #e #ajf #h #bafc #h #afii #c_/d #e #abg ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,relative ,,heat-,,conducting ,,power ,,of ,,different ,,bodies4 ,gold #ajjj ,platinum #iha ,silver #igc ,copper #hih ,iron #egd ,zinc #cfc ,tin #cjd ,lead #ahj ,marble #bd ,porcelain #abb ,fire brick #aa ,fire clay #aa4d ,with ,water as a ,standard4 ,water #aj ,pine #ci ,lime #ci ,oak #cc ,ash #ca ,apple #bh ,ebony #bb ,,relative ,,conducting ,,power ,,of ,,different ,,substances ,,compared ,,with ,,each ,,other4 ,hare's fur #acae ,eider down #acje ,beaver's fur #abif ,raw silk #abhd ,wool #aaah ,lamp black #aaag ,cotton #ajdf ,lint #ajcb ,charcoal #icg ,ashes 7wood7 #ibg ,sewing silk #iag ,air #egf ,,relative ,,conducting ,,power ,,of ,,fluids4 ,mercury #ajjj ,water #ceg ,proof spirit #cab ,alcohol 7pure7 #bcb ,,radiating ,,power ,,of ,,different ,,bodies4 ,water #ajj ,lamp black #ajj ,writing paper #ajj ,glass #ij ,indian ink #hh ,bright lead #ai ,silver #ab ,blackened tin #ajj ,clean tin #ab ,scraped tin #af ,ice #he ,mercury #bj ,polished iron #ae ,copper #ab ,,the ,,stone ,,weight4 ,the term stone is often used to indicate weight1 but some confusion is apt to arise if the nature of the object or substance to be weighed is not clearly indicated2 thus1 in weighing men according to what is known as horseman's weight1 #adlb4 avoirdupois are made use of2 in weighing butcher's meat1 #hlb42 iron1 #adlb42 glass1 #elb42 hemp1 #cblb42 cheese1 #aflb4 ,,the ,,qualities ,,of ,,gold4 ,very few terms are more loosely used than that of gold1 and it is therefore necessary that the traveller should make himself fully acquainted with the nature of the alloy made use of under the name of gold in the various countries he may chance to visit4 ,let him not suppose that1 because the glittering chain or ring displayed in an ,english jeweller's window is marked in conspicuous letters ,warranted fine gold1 the ornament is as a matter of course composed of pure gold1 or he will buy experience dearly4 ,fine gold means nothing further than that an alloy of some kind containing some gold is for sale4 ,it is well1 therefore1 to insist on the exact quality of the article 7in carats--#ah carats1 #bb carats1 or whatever it is represented to be7 being stated on the vendor's bill of charge4 ,the nature of gold alloy differs materially in various countries4 ,we have1 therefore1 thought it well to provide the reader with the following useful tables compiled by ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,streeter and used in his ,hints to ,purchasers of ,jewellery4 ,qualities of ,gold manufactured in different ,parts of the ,world4 s4 d4 ,england ,from #a carat1 worth #j #c #f to #bb carats1 worth #c #ag #aj-a_/b ,france #ah carats1 #c #c #h-a_/b only common by special permission4 ,denmark #ah #c #c #h-a_/b ,baden #ad #b #i #f-a_/b ,germany 7all ,states7 #ab #b #b #e-a_/b to #ae carats1 worth #b #ac #a ,russia #ae #b #ac #a to #bb #c #ag #aj-a_/b ,austria #aj #a #ae #d-a_/d to #ah #c #c #h-a_/b ,italy #ab #b #b #e-a_/b to #bb #c #ag #aj-a_/b ,holland #d #j #ad #b to #bb #c #ag #aj-a_/b ,africa #bc #d #c #a-a_/b ,india #bb #c #ag #aj-a_/b to #bc-a_/b #d #c #a-a_/b ,rome ,all #ah #c #c #h-a_/b ,u4 ,states of ,america ,from #a #j #c #f to #ah #c #c #h-a_/b ,norway and ,sweden ,all #ah #c #c #h-a_/b ,belgium ,from #ah #c #c #h-a_/b to #bb #c #ag #aj-a_/b ,spain ,all #ah #c #c #h-a_/b ,switzerland ,all #ah #c #c #h-a_/b ,geneva ,from #ad #b #i #f-a_/b ,watch cases only4 ,china ,from #af #b #af #g-a_/b to #bc-c_/d carats1 worth #d #d #j ,japan ,from #ah #c #c #h-a_/b to #bc-c_/d #d #d #j ,brazil ,all #ah #c #c #h-a_/b ,hamburg ,from #ac-a_/b #b #aa #c-a_/b to #ah #c #c #h-a_/b ,turkey #ah #c #c #h-a_/b ,greece #aj #a #ae #d-a_/d to #af #b #af #g-a_/b ,persia #c #j #aj #g-a_/b to #bc-a_/b #d #c #a-a_/b ,egypt #ah #c #c #h-a_/b ,rio ,janeiro ,imported from #a carat #j #c #f to #bb #c #ag #aj-a_/b ,chili #j #c #f to #bb #c #ag #aj-a_/b ,peru #j #c #f to #bb #c #ag #aj-a_/b ,siam ,nearly pure1 fine work4 ,australia ,same as ,england1 except that made up from the diggings4 ,mexico ,principal manufacture fine4 ,any quality is allowed to be imported into these countries4 ,the following table by the same author will serve to show in a condensed form1 the value of different gold alloys relatively1 and also the extremely low standard at which so called gold articles are manufactured in this country4 ,gold ,value ,table4 s4 d4 #bb-;carat gold is worth #c #ag #aj-a_/b per oz4 #ah #c #c #h-a_/b #af #b #af #g-a_/b #ad #b #i #f-a_/b #aj #a #ae #d-a_/d #i #a #aa #aj #h #a #h #c-c_/d #f #a #a #b-a_/b #d #j #ad #b #b #j #g #a #a #j #c #f ,since writing the early portion of this work1 we have found it requisite1 in order to supply a manifest want1 to have manufactured a small leather case 7on the exact model of our own71 containing all the tests and appliances requisite for the identification of precious metals or precious stones4,d ,we have also caused to be constructed1 from our own pattern1 a small triple branch of gold of different degrees of alloy4 ,each branch1 when rubbed on the touch stone1 and treated with nitric acid1 will leave a characteristic streak1 which may be compared with one formed by rubbing the article to be tested1 and treating it with acid in the same manner2 the nature of the alloy will thus be found by comparison4,e ,,emerson',s ,,table ,,of ,,strengths1 ,,showing ,,the ,,load ,,that ,,can ,,be ,,safely ,,borne ,,by ,a ,,square ,,inch ,,rod ,,of ,,each ,,of ,,the ,,following ,,substances3 lbs4 avoir4 ,iron rod1 #a;in4 square1 will bear #gf1djj ,brass #ce1fjj ,ivory #ae1gjj ,oak1 box1 yew1 plum-tree #g1hej ,elm1 ash1 beech #f1jgj ,walnut1 red fir1 holly1 elder1 plane1 crab #e1jjj ,cherry1 hazel #d1gfj ,alder1 asp1 birch1 willow #e1jjj ,lead #dcj ,freestone #iad ,d ,this1 together with its accompanying instruction book1 can be obtained at the explorer's room1 established by ,s4 ,w4 ,silver ,co41 #ff #fg1 ,cornhill4 ,e ,this test branch can be obtained either at the explorer's room1 or from ,mr4 ,e4 ,streeter1 ,conduit-street1 ,bond-street4 ,emerson's rule is1 that a cylinder1 the diameter of which is d inches1 loaded to one fourth of its absolute strength1 will carry as follows3 cwt4 ,iron #ace d#b ,good rope #bb d#b ,oak #ad d#b ,fir #i d#b ,another of his rules is that a cylindrical rod of well-seasoned clean-grown fir of an inch circumference drawn in length will bear at its extremity #djjlbs4 and a spar of fir #b;in4 in diameter will bear about #g tons1 but not more4 ,a well-made and carefully-kept hemp rope of one inch in circumference1 will bear #ajjjlbs4 being at its extremity4 ,mr4 ,barlow has formed the following table as a mean resulting from experiments on the strength of direct cohesion on a square inch of the following substances3 lbs4 ,box #bj1jjj ,ash #ag1jjj ,teak #ae1jjj ,fir #ab1jjj ,beech #aa1ejj ,oak #aj1jjj ,pear #i1hjj ,mahogany #h1jjj ,he also states as follows regarding the transverse strength of beams1 c4 ,mr4 ,weale thus quotes from ,mr4 ,barlow's essay3 ,the transverse strength of rectangular beams1 or the resistance which they offer to fracture1 is as the breadth and square of the depth2 therefore1 if two rectangular beams have the same depth1 their strengths are to each other as their breadths1 but if their breadths are the same1 then their strengths are to each other as the square of their depths4 ,the transverse strengths of square beams are as the cubes of the breadths or depths4 ,also in cylindrical beams the transverse strengths are as the cubes of the diameters4 ,thus1 if a beam which is one foot broad and one foot deep support a given weight1 then a beam of the same depth and two feet broad will support double the weight2 but if a beam be one foot broad and two feet deep it will support four times as much as a beam one foot broad and one foot deep4 ,if a beam one foot square support a given weight1 then a beam two feet square will support eight times as much4 ,also a cylinder of two inches in diameter will support eight times as much as a cylinder one inch in diameter4 ,the appended table gives data bearing on the subject4 ,teak #bdfb ,english oak #afgb ,canadian oak #agff ,dantzic oak #adeg ,adriatic #achc ,ash #bjbf ,beech #aeef ,elm #ajac ,pitch pine #afcb ,red pine #acda ,new ,england fir #aajb ,riga fir #aajh ,mar ,forest fir #abfb ,larch #aabg ,,index4 ,a4 ,abyssinian mule platforms1 #cde ,accommodation of tents1 to increase1 #fa ,adaptation of hames to collars1 #dfj ,admiral ,belcher's expedient for moving vessels during calms1 #age ,adzes or axes1 makeshift1 #cha ,african boots1 #dab ,aguardiente1 to make1 #egi ,albatross1 catching1 #ehg ,alligators1 catching1 #eij ,securing snared fish from1 #eia ,aloe juice1 extracting1 #hjb ,altitudes1 ascertaining1 #gda ,low1 or levels1 to obtain1 #gcd ,table of1 #gdb ,american cordway1 #cbd ,indian lodges1 #cjh ,life raft1 #afg ,portable boat1 #aed ,wild fruits1 #ecj ,ammunition1 packing1 #ag ,taking abroad1 #ag1 #ai ,amphibious animals1 trapping1 #fff ,anchors1 #cge ,angle at which to pitch a tent1 #ef ,animals1 calls of1 #fgi ,infested with fly1 treatment of1 #hjd ,purgative for1 #hjb ,skin of1 as food1 #eeg ,wild1 observation of the habits of1 #ggc ,antidotes for poison1 #hj ,from arrows1 #fbj ,ants1 locusts1 and other insects and their larv as food1 #efb ,anvils1 #aic1 #aig ,aparejo1 #dfc ,application of wind power to horizontal wheel1 #eab ,aps or chupatee1 #edd ,aquatic birds1 traps for1 #fge ,arctic regions1 hints for the1 #cji1 #caf ,hutting in the1 #cji ,armament1 hunter's1 #fee ,arobas waggon1 #dda ,arrest hemorrhage1 #fie ,arrow-fishing1 #eid ,trap1 #feg ,arrows1 harpoon1 #eid ,poisoned1 #fai1 #fbb ,rifling1 #fbd ,artificial horizon1 #bi ,and sextant1 use of1 #gdc ,artillery1 charges for1 #bda ,cartridges and wads for1 #bdc ,dromedary or ,zembourcks1 #bde ,field1 #ddh ,repairing1 #bdc ,shot for1 #bdf ,sledges1 #djf ,unspiking1 #bdc ,zembourcks1 #bde ,artist's materials1 #bb ,ascertaining altitudes1 #gda ,variations of the compass1 #gcb ,ash cake1 #edi ,assegais1 to render useless1 #bjc ,attachment of straps1 for sledges1 #cii ,australian bark canoe1 #afb ,spears and spear throwing1 #faf ,tent1 #ei ,two-wheel drays1 #ded ,axes or adzes1 makeshift1 #cha ,axles1 to make and repair1 #bae ,b4 ,baggage derrick1 extempore1 #ccj ,bags1 pack-saddle1 #cf ,sleeping1 #ghf ,baits1 fish1 hints on1 #fje ,for traps1 #ffg ,baking bread1 #eej ,cakes1 #edi ,ballast for boats1 #agg ,balsas canoe1 #adj ,bamboos1 building with1 #bhi ,various uses for1 #ceh ,bananas and plantains for food1 #ecc ,bandages1 surgical1 #fhi ,bark canoes1 #aje ,australian1 #afb ,canadian1 #aeg ,for canoes1 mode of stripping1 #aef ,stripping from trees1 #ghi ,uses of1 #ghi ,base metals1 to detect1 #bfc ,baskets1 fish traps1 #eie1 #eig ,waterproof1 #ejj ,bayonets1 #aa ,sheath knives as1 #bjb ,beams1 masts1 c4 for platform boats1 #aad ,bear trap1 #ffc ,bechuana hut1 #bhj ,beds1 camp1 #dd ,beehive hut1 ,kafir1 #bgi ,bees' ,nests1 taking1 #ehj ,wild1 to smoke out1 #ecg ,bell mules1 #dff ,bellows1 #fi ,and forge1 extempore1 #bac ,bell-tent made to hold many people1 #fa ,bent wood1 #chj ,biltong1 #ege ,birch bark canoes1 #aeg ,for canoes1 #aef ,birdlime1 #fgi ,birds1 aquatic1 traps for1 #fge ,calls for1 #fgi ,traps for1 #fgc ,preserving1 #egd ,sea1 cooking1 #ehd ,snaring1 #fgc ,bite of tsetse fly1 #fec ,bits1 #cd ,blackcock trap1 #fgb ,bladders and paunches for holding water1 #dii ,and water-skins1 repairing of1 #ghc ,use of1 #ghc ,blanket used for extemporising a tent1 #ei ,blindfolding pack animals1 #dfe ,blockhouse1 #bif ,blocks and pulleys1 #chc ,double1 #chf ,signal1 #che ,snatch1 #che ,board house1 #bgh ,wigwam1 #bgd ,boards1 ice1 #djc ,boats1 ,american portable1 #aed ,ballast for1 #agg ,bridges of1 #cej ,building1 #aba1 #abe1 #abh ,canvas or skin1 #dh1 #ajj ,cape waggon1 #abi1 #aca ,catamaran1 #afe ,clinker1 #abe1 #abh ,collapsible1 #aee ,connecting beams1 masts1 c4 for platform1 #aad ,copper1 #ej1 #aah ,copper1 materials used in1 #ed ,copper platform1 #aaj ,corrugated iron1 #ea ,esquimaux1 #ajc ,fitted with inflated tubes1 #agj ,indian cattle1 #ii ,inflated canvas1 #dh ,inflated1 to make safe1 #aag ,iron1 #ea1 #aah1 #abc ,leaky1 #ia ,massoolah1 #afd ,metal life1 #abd ,metal platform1 #ajg1 #aaj ,metal1 to connect odd sections of1 #abe ,mixture for painting metal1 #aac ,models of1 #aje1 #aai ,norwegian1 #afe ,paddling1 #acd ,portable canvas1 #di ,portable steel1 #aff ,proas1 #ace ,quagga hide1 #ajb ,reed1 #ig ,rules for sailing1 #agg ,russian cargo1 #ajb ,sculling1 #acb ,skin1 #ajj ,things to be thought of when designing1 #aje ,torres ,straits1 #afb ,wattled1 #abe ,whale1 #faj ,without nails1 #afe ,wooden platform1 materials for1 #aad ,boers' method of loading guns quickly1 #bbh ,boiling meat1 #eec ,rice1 #efe ,water without pots1 #eec ,bolts and nuts1 dies and taps for1 #aih ,bones1 horns1 tendons1 fish skin1 c4 use of1 #ghd ,books for travellers1 #bi1 #ca ,boomerang1 #fag ,boots1 ,african1 #dab ,and shoes1 #f1 #dab ,clamps for1 #dbj ,india rubber1 to mend1 #dbi ,in tropical countries1 hints on1 #dbi ,laces1 #g ,lasts for1 #daf ,making1 #dag ,sledge dogs'1 #djc ,snow shoe1 #daj ,stitching1 #dba ,thread for1 #dbj ,wading among rocks1 #dbi ,boring heavy logs1 #cgf ,botanical specimens1 collecting1 #gfd ,packing and preserving1 #gga ,boulders1 to remove1 #bfe ,buoys1 life1 #ie ,bowls1 wooden1 #cic ,bows1 cross1 ,chinese1 #fbc ,pellet1 ,indian1 #fbd ,strings1 tightening1 #fbb ,box markings1 #gjj ,boxes as floats1 #ig ,copper1 #h ,for ,cape waggon travelling1 #i ,for rafts1 #add ,braces1 #e ,brands of camels1 #dha ,cattle1 making1 #dhj ,branding cattle1 #dgh ,branch1 peg1 and log ladders1 #cdi ,brass guns and their charges1 #bda ,for barter with natives1 #baj ,softening and hardening1 #baj ,bread baking1 #eej ,breakers1 rules for passing through1 #agf ,break for wheels1 #ddc ,brick tea1 #ega ,bridge shears1 to construct1 #ccf ,bridges1 boat1 #cej ,cable and twig1 #cce ,chain1 #cca ,deodar beam1 #cda ,fly1 #cca ,gabion1 #cbg ,ice1 #cdc ,indian rope1 #cda ,natural1 #cdf ,one tree1 #cbe ,rafter1 plank1 and slab1 #cdb ,swamp1 #cbf ,tartar1 #cbh ,bridles1 #cd ,broken masts1 #ahb ,spars1 scarfing1 or fishing of1 #aha ,bruised gun barrels1 to repair1 #bbf ,buckets1 bamboo1 #ceh ,canvas1 #fg ,gutta percha1 #gc ,leather1 #gb ,palm1 #ebc ,buck-shot moulds1 #ai1 #bbb ,buik-waggon1 #dcg ,building1 bamboo for1 #bhi ,boats1 clinker1 #abh ,boats1 hints on1 #abh ,boats of metal1 #aba ,boats of wood1 #abc ,boats1 things to be thought of when1 #aje ,fires1 #eci1 #edj ,jetty1 #cbi ,mission ,churches1 plans for1 #cja ,of the ,portuguese in ,africa1 #cje ,rafts1 principles of1 #adg ,walls1 #bia ,wheels1 #cff1 #cga ,bullet moulds1 #i1 #bbj1 #bcj ,bullets1 cleft1 #bbi ,hardening1 #bbh ,bullock trunks1 #h ,bull's-eye lantern1 #hf ,burning charcoal1 #bff ,bush knife1 #aa ,bushman's hut1 #bgh ,bustard shooting1 #fgj ,butter1 preserving1 #ehc ,buying horses1 #egg ,second-hand guns1 hints on1 #aa ,c4 ,cable and twig bridge1 #cce ,cakes1 baking1 #edi ,meat1 #eff ,sago1 #eef ,calabashes1 float1 #if ,for holding water1 #dih ,calls1 bird and animal1 #fgi ,calming troubled water by means of oil1 #agf ,camels1 #dge ,brands1 #dha ,embarking1 #dhg ,feeding1 #dhf ,harnessing1 #dgf ,hints on1 #dhc1 #dhf ,journal or diary1 #dhi ,loads and distances1 for1 #dhe ,on shipboard1 fastening1 #dhi ,water in stomach1 #dhg ,wounds on backs of1 #hjj ,camp beds1 #dd ,filters1 #eja ,furniture1 #chi ,medicine-making1 hints on1 #hjb ,of ox waggons1 to defend1 #big ,canadian bark canoe1 #aeg ,candles1 #hf ,guttering1 to prevent1 #eef ,making1 #hg ,malay1 #hi ,packing1 #hh ,screens for1 #hh ,cannon1 cartridges for1 #bdc ,charges1 c4 #bda ,mounting1 #bcg1 #bdj ,repairing1 #bdc ,shot for1 #bbj1 #bdf ,unspiking1 #bdc ,wads1 #bdc 7,see also ,artillery47 ,canoes1 ,australian bark1 #afb ,balsas1 #adj ,bark1 #aje1 #aeg1 #afj1 #afb ,birch for1 #aef ,canadian bark1 #aeg ,carriage for1 #aei ,cedar bark1 #afj ,dug-out1 #ajd1 #afc ,fejee1 #aci ,fuegian1 #afa ,inflated canvas for one man1 #ej ,long1 #afc ,mode of stripping bark for1 #aef ,outriggers for1 #ii ,queen ,charlotte's ,island1 #aeh ,shoe1 #afa ,water transport1 #dif ,canteens1 #gj ,canvas boat1 inflated1 #di ,boat1 portable inflated1 #dh1 #ajj ,buckets1 #fg ,canoe for one man1 inflated1 #ej ,or skin boat1 #ajj ,cape waggon1 #dcc ,boats1 #abi1 #aca ,chests as rafts1 #adj ,load for1 #dec ,tent1 #ei ,tent or tilt1 #acj ,wine1 #ddj ,cap squares of a gun1 makeshift for1 #bci ,caps for the head1 #e ,percussion1 and their substitutes1 #bdj ,priming1 to make1 #bdd ,capstan1 gunner's1 #cgd ,cargo boat1 ,russian1 #ajb ,carnivora1 hunting of1 #fdf ,carpenter's tools1 #da ,carriages1 canoe1 #aei ,wheeled measuring distances travelled by1 #gbf ,carrying1 rolling1 and parbuckling heavy spars1 #ceb ,carrying water1 #die ,cartridges and wads for cannon1 #bdc ,making1 #bcb1 #bce ,case hardening1 #bje ,cases for saddles1 #cd ,tin1 utilisation of1 #bab ,casting horses1 #hjj ,oxen1 #hja ,ropes for horses1 #hja ,casks1 water1 to embark1 #cgi ,catamaran float1 #afe ,catching albatrosses1 #ehg ,alligators1 #eij ,cattle1 #fed ,crayfish1 lobsters1 c41 #fjd ,crows1 #fhj ,deer with thorn wreaths1 #fbd ,ducks1 c4 #fge ,fish1 #ehe1 #ehg ,musk rats1 #ffg ,ostriches1 emus1 c41 #ffh ,porpoises1 #fab ,sea fish1 #ehe ,turkeys1 #fgj ,catgut and parchment1 #ghb ,cattle boat1 #ii ,brands1 making1 #dhj ,catching1 #fed ,drinking troughs for1 #dic ,hobbling1 #dfi ,marking1 #dgh ,watering1 #dic ,cautions regarding glanders1 #hjf ,cedar bark canoe1 #afj ,cereals as food1 #efi ,chain and rope ladders1 #cdh ,and links1 #dfb ,bridges1 #cca ,pole1 #cce ,chalk lines1 #bib ,charcoal burning1 #bff ,charges1 c4 for brass guns1 #bda ,chemical tests1 for minerals and metals1 #bfj ,chests as rafts1 ,cape waggon1 #adj ,chinese cross-bow1 #fbc ,slab and trestle bridge1 #cdc ,chisels1 cold1 #bjd ,making incisions in iron with1 #aid ,chucknuck1 or strike-a-light1 #ecg ,chupatee or aps1 #edd ,chupper screens1 #bid ,churches1 fortifying1 #cja ,mission1 plans for building1 #cja ,cider1 plantain1 #ecc ,clamps for boot making1 #dbj ,cleaning guns1 #bcg ,clearing fine sand from gun-locks1 #fi ,nut1 #eje ,cleft bullets1 #bbi ,climb palms1 to1 #ebc ,clinker boat1 #abe1 #abh ,clinometer1 makeshift1 #gch ,clip for holding posts1 c41 #bgc ,clock1 water1 #gda ,cloths1 saddle1 #cc ,coats1 #e1 #f ,cocoa nut palm1 uses for1 #cfj ,shells1 use of1 #ebf ,use of1 #ebd ,cold chisel1 making1 #bjd ,making incisions in iron with1 #aid ,colic or gripes1 remedy for1 #hjb ,collapsible boat1 #aee ,collars1 horse1 #deg ,collecting botanical specimens1 #gfd ,dew1 #eah1 #ebc ,mineralogical and geological specimens1 #gga ,natural history specimens1 #gfc ,water from rain-falls1 #ejd ,colonists and natives1 to obtain information from1 #geh ,common dog sledge1 #djd ,companions and servants1 conduct to1 #gjb ,compass1 pocket1 #bh ,points of1 #fcc ,variation of1 to ascertain1 #gcb ,marking distances with1 #cj ,conduct to companions and servants1 #gjb ,connecting beams1 masts1 c4 for platform boats1 #aad ,contusions1 remedy for1 #gi ,convenient tool hold-all1 #dc ,cooking pots1 #ga ,sea birds1 #ehd ,stove1 ,norwegian1 #eeh ,copper and iron1 to tin1 #baj ,boats1 #ej1 #ea ,boats1 materials used in1 #ed ,boxes1 #h ,or iron skiff1 #aah ,skiff1 #aah ,tinning1 #baj ,water flasks1 #die ,cooper's work1 #cgg ,coracle1 #ajj ,cordway1 ,american1 #cbd ,corrugated iron boat1 #ea ,houses1 #cje ,cost and materials of metal platform boat1 #aaj ,cotton torch1 #hi ,covers for lamps1 #hg ,cravats1 hog's1 #cia ,crayfish1 lobsters1 c4 to catch1 #fjd ,creeper or grapnel1 to trip1 #fjc ,crimea1 tent used in1 #fb ,crook and prong house1 to build1 #bhd ,cross-bow1 ,chinese1 #fbc ,cross-tree saddles1 #dfe ,crows1 catching1 #fhj ,cup lamp1 #he ,cupping1 #fie ,cutting gun barrels1 #aih ,sheet metal1 snips for1 #bac ,timber1 season for1 #bgj ,up large game1 #ege ,d4 ,d',abri1 ,tente1 #eg ,damaras hut1 #bhb ,damper1 #edi ,damp places1 procuring water from1 #dib ,dams1 weirs and spears1 #eif ,dead game1 protecting1 #ffj ,deep-water glass1 #ahg ,deer catching with thorn wreaths1 #fbd ,enticing1 #ffj ,traps1 #fei ,defensible camp with ox-waggons1 #big ,churches1 #cja ,farm-house and village1 #bie1 #bih ,deodar beam bridge1 #cda ,derrick1 baggage1 #ccj ,landing1 #cdi ,deris1 to make1 #cdb ,designing boats1 things to be thought of when1 #aje ,destroy mule leeches1 to1 #hje ,detection of base metal1 #bfc ,dew1 collecting1 #eah1 #ebc ,diarrhoea and its remedy1 #gi ,diary1 c4 in duplicate1 #ba ,or journal1 camel1 #dhi ,dies and taps for bolts and nuts1 #aih ,dimensions of sledges1 #cid ,disabled artillery1 management of1 #ddh ,dishes and plates1 to make1 #bac ,dislocated shoulder1 reducing1 #fid ,distances1 estimation of1 #gci ,for camels1 #dhe ,measurement1 #cj1 #gbf ,travelled by wheeled carriage1 measuring1 #gbf ,distil aguardiente1 to1 #egi ,water1 to1 #did ,ditty bag1 #fh ,dividing and packing venison1 #ffa ,dogs1 boots for1 #djc ,free from the attacks of the tsetse fly1 #feb ,packs for1 #dje ,securing to sledges1 #djj ,sledge and harness for1 #cif1 #djd ,sledge1 food for1 #djj ,doors and gates1 to make and hang1 #bhi ,double boat of copper1 #ea ,block1 #chf ,canvas boat1 inflated1 #di ,metal boats1 #ajg ,sextant1 #bf ,dough nuts1 #eej ,drags for wheels1 #ddc ,drawing sledges1 #cie ,drays1 ,australian1 #ded ,dressing for wounds1 #gc ,skins1 #ggi ,dried flesh1 #eeh ,drills and saws1 #cgf ,drinking troughs for cattle1 #dic ,driving a coracle1 #ajj ,and leading horses1 #dgc ,droge1 the1 #afg1 #afh ,dromedary brands1 #dha ,points in the1 #dhc 7,zemboureks71 artillery1 #bde ,drowned1 treatment of the apparently1 #ahh ,drugging fish1 #fjf ,dubbin1 to make1 #dbi ,duck for ground sheet1 c41 #f ,ducks1 c41 catching1 #fge ,dug-out canoes1 #ajd1 #afc ,duplicates of correspondence1 c41 #ba ,e4 ,economy in food1 #efj ,edible frog1 #efd ,eggs1 ostrich1 #efe ,preserving1 #ehc ,shells of1 horns and calabashes for holding water1 #dih ,elephant hunting1 #fcd ,elg-,led1 #feh ,elk trap1 #feh ,embarking camels1 #dhg ,horses1 #dgc ,water casks1 #cgi ,emus1 ostriches1 c41 catching1 #ffh ,england1 outfit to take from1 #d ,enticing deer1 #ffj ,equipment1 mule1 hints on1 #dfh ,north ,australian expedition1 #ce ,sledge1 #cii ,waggon1 #ddf ,erecting a perpendicular on a given point1 #cbj ,escape1 fire1 #cec ,pole1 ,indian1 #cdg ,esquimaux boat1 #ajc ,ice hut1 #cad ,lamp1 #hf ,sledges1 #cih ,snow hut1 c41 #cab ,summer tents1 #cae ,establishing communication with a lee shore by means of a kite1 #ahe ,estimate distance1 to1 #gci ,strength of ropes1 to1 #gic ,time1 #gdj ,weight of rope1 to1 #gic ,expedients for moving vessels during calms1 ,admiral ,belcher's1 #age ,for saving boats in rough water1 #agf ,for working ships' pumps1 #agf ,expedition by twenty-one men for eighteen months1 stores1 c41 required for1 #df ,extracting gun nipple1 #bjd ,sap from timber1 #cee ,extricating waggons from quicksands1 c41 #ade ,f4 ,fall-traps1 #ffb ,plank1 #ffd ,farmer's stores and horse medicines1 #hd ,farmhouse1 defensible1 #bie1 #bih ,and village1 to fortify1 #bih ,fastening camels on shipboard1 #dhi ,horses1 #dgb ,makeshift1 #cce ,fat1 to treat1 #ghd ,feathers1 ostrich1 packing1 #fbb ,feeding of camels1 #dhf ,feet1 sore1 #dcj ,felling timber1 #bfh ,fences1 #bgc1 #bia ,ferries and fly bridges1 #cca ,ferrying wheels over rivers1 #add ,fever and its remedy1 #gg ,field artillery1 #ddh ,sledges1 #djf ,guns and their charges1 #bda ,figure of four traps1 #ffc ,fijee canoes1 #aci ,filing up and trimming iron after forging1 #aid ,filters1 camp1 #eja ,extemporised1 #eja1 #ejc1 #ejf ,patent1 #ejf ,finding height of a tree or other object1 whose base is accessible1 without instruments1 #cba ,points of the compass1 #fcc ,river pearls1 #bef ,water1 #dic ,width of rivers or ravines without instruments1 #cah ,firearms1 hints on1 #bcf ,makeshift1 #bde ,testing1 #ac ,fire baskets1 #eee ,building1 a1 #eci1 #edj ,escapes1 #cec ,fuel for1 #eci1 #eda1 #edb1 #edc ,maintaining1 #edb ,places1 makeshift1 #eec ,producing1 #ece ,signal1 as a1 #eci ,fish baits1 hints on1 #fje ,catching1 #ehg ,drugging1 #fjf ,haunts of1 hints on1 #fje ,hooks1 makeshift1 #ehf1 #ehg ,hooks1 to make1 #bji ,roe1 preserving1 #ehc ,sea1 ,catching1 #ehe ,securing from alligators1 #eia ,skin1 use of1 #ghd ,spearing1 #fjg1 #fjh ,spears1 weirs1 and dams1 #eif ,torch1 #hi ,traps1 baskets1 #eie1 #eig ,fishing broken spars1 #aha ,implements1 #fjd ,lines1 to make1 #eig ,nets1 #fjj1 #fjc ,tackle making1 and hints on1 #ehh ,under ice1 #fjb ,fitting-up of tents1 #fa ,flasks1 water1 copper1 #die ,flat-bottomed steel boat1 #aff ,flesh1 dried1 #eeh ,preserving1 #egb ,transportation of1 hints on1 #egf ,flint muskets1 #aj ,float for one man1 skin1 #aed ,waggons1 to1 #add ,floats1 calabash1 #if2 boxes1 #if ,catamaran1 #afe ,bark1 #ii ,inflated skin1 #aeb ,mangrove wood1 #afc ,milk-bush1 #afc ,skin1 #ii ,wood1 #ii ,flour1 preserving from weevils1 #eef ,from wrecks1 #eeg ,fly bridge and ferries1 #cca ,infested animals1 treatment of1 #hjd ,tsetse1 #fej ,flying railway at ,ichaboe1 #cch ,food1 economy 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#ccj ,trees1 larch1 #ceh ,stripping bark from1 #ghi ,whose bases are accessible1 to find the height of without instruments1 #cba ,yielding manna1 #ebi ,treenails1 making1 #cbf ,trenneled rafts1 #adf ,trestle bridge1 ,chinese1 #cdc ,trimmers and liggers1 #eia ,trimming and filing up after forging1 #aid ,tripping a grapnel or creeper1 #fjc ,trocheameter1 #gbg ,tables1 #gbi ,troughs1 cattle1 for drinking1 #dic ,trousers1 #d ,making1 #fif ,trunks1 bullock1 #h ,tsetse-fly1 #fej ,preventive of bite1 #fed ,region of the1 #feb ,symptoms of bite1 #fec ,tubes of inflated canvas1 boat fitted with1 #agj ,turkeys1 catching1 #fgj ,traps1 #fga ,turning wheel naves1 #cgj ,turtle spears1 #fag ,twisting fishing lines1 #eih ,ropes1 #gij ,two-wheeled drays1 ,australian1 #ded ,u4 ,umbrella tent1 #fg ,union links1 #dfb ,unspiking cannon1 #bdc ,use of bladders1 #ghc ,horns1 bones1 tendons1 fish skins1 c41 #ghd ,plane table1 #gce ,sextant and artificial horizon1 #gdc ,waggon wheels in tents1 #fc ,useful roots for food1 #ecc ,uses of bamboos1 #ceh ,bark1 #ghi ,bent wood1 #chj ,cocoa-nut palms1 #cfj ,forked sticks1 #chh ,hippopotami1 #faf ,porpoises1 #fac ,scrap and hook iron1 #ajd ,tea1 #egj ,utilisation of tin cases1 #bab ,v4 ,vaal ,river hut1 #bha ,vane1 sight1 extemporised for levelling staff1 #gcg ,variation of the compass1 to ascertain1 #gcb ,various foods1 #eff ,vegetables and fruit1 #efg ,food1 #efc1 #efg ,preserved1 #ehb ,vehicles1 wheeled1 measuring distances travelled by1 #gbf ,velocity table1 #hjh ,vessels during calms1 ,admiral ,belcher's expedient for moving1 #age ,rigs of1 #agb ,temporary repairs of1 #afh ,vices and anvils1 extempore1 #aig ,for holding timber1 #aff ,village and farm1 to fortify1 #bih ,vinegar1 ,palm1 #ebe ,w4 ,wads and cartridges for cannon1 #bdc ,walls1 to build1 #bia ,waggons and other wheeled vehicles1 #dcb ,arobas1 #dda ,australian two-wheeled1 #ded ,buik1 #dcg ,buy1 #big ,cape1 #dcc ,cape wine1 #ddj ,equipment1 #ddf ,floating1 #add ,from quicksands1 c4 to extricate1 #ade ,load for ,cape1 #dec ,indian gharrie1 #dda ,hints on matters connected with1 #ddf ,horse and mule1 #ddb ,makeshift1 #dch ,wilson 7,american71 #ddc ,waistcoats1 #d ,watch1 #bi ,key1 to make a1 #bjd ,wattle on hurdle work1 #chb ,wattled boat1 #abe ,water and the sap of plants1 #dia ,bags1 ships'1 #dih ,baskets for holding1 #ejj ,bladders and panniers for holding1 #dii ,boiling without pots1 #eec ,calabashes1 horns1 and egg shells for holding1 #dih ,carrying1 #die1 #ejj ,casks1 to embark1 #cgi ,clock1 #gda ,collecting from rainfalls1 #ejd ,dew collecting1 #eah1 #ebc ,distilling1 #did ,filters1 #eja1 #ejc1 #ejf ,finding1 #dic ,flasks1 copper1 #die ,from damp places1 procuring1 #dib ,from wells1 procuring1 #dib ,glass1 the deep1 #ahg ,in camel's stomach1 #dhg ,intestines for holding1 #ejj ,level1 substitute for1 #gch ,locality for1 #dia ,pails and skins1 #dif ,plants holding1 #ejd1 #ebb ,substitute1 plants and roots yielding sap as a1 #eaf1 #eah1 #eba ,power wheels1 #eaa ,purifying1 #ejg ,raising from wells1 #ejh ,removing impurities1 #eje ,sacks1 skins1 #ghj ,skins and bladders1 repairing1 #ghc ,skins and pails1 #dij ,skins1 repairing leakage in1 #dii ,transport1 canoe1 #dif ,waterflow of river1 measurement of1 #geg ,watering cattle1 #dic ,waterproofing1 #ahf ,waterspout baskets1 #ejj ,wax1 shoemakers'1 #dae ,weapons1 stone1 manufacture of1 #fbe ,weather signs1 #ahe ,weevils1 preserving flour from1 #eef ,weight of rod iron1 #hji ,of rope1 to estimate1 #gic ,of sheet iron1 #hjh ,weirs1 dams1 and fish spears1 #eif ,welding iron1 #aib ,wells1 making extempore1 #dib ,procuring water from1 #dib ,raising water from1 #ejh ,sinking1 #eac ,whale boat1 #faj ,whaling1 #faj ,wheeled carriages1 measuring distances travelled by1 #gbf ,wheels1 drags for1 #ddc ,horizontal1 application of wind power to1 #eab ,in tents1 use of1 #fc ,making or building1 #cff1 #cga ,over rivers1 ferrying1 #add ,repairing1 #aie ,substitute for a1 #dde ,tires1 to repair1 #aie ,water power1 #eaa ,wheeled vehicles1 #dcb ,whip handles and lead pencils1 #bbe ,sledge1 #cig ,whiskey1 ,potato1 #ecd ,white ants1 locusts and other insects1 and their larv as food1 #efb ,wicks for lamps1 #he ,width of rivers or ravines1 to find without instruments1 #cah ,wigwam1 board1 #bgd ,temporary1 #bgg ,wild animals1 observation of habits of1 #ggc ,bees1 to smoke out1 #ecg ,fruits of ,america1 #ecj ,wind power to horizontal wheel1 application of1 #eab ,windlasses1 #cgc ,womera1 #fag ,wood1 bent1 #chj ,extraction of sap1 #cee ,floats1 #ii1 #afc ,hard1 #ceh ,hardening1 #ceg ,seasoning1 #cee ,steaming1 #ceg ,wooden bowls1 #cic ,dingey1 building a1 #abc ,platform boat1 materials for1 #aaa ,swivels1 #cfa ,working a nave auger1 #cgf ,otter1 #eic ,travellers1 #eid ,trimmers and liggers1 #eia ,wounds1 dressing for1 #gc ,from poisoned arrows1 cure of1 #fbj ,ointment for1 #hjb ,on camels' backs1 #hjj ,wrappers as blankets1 #df ,wreaths1 thorn1 catching deer with1 #fbd ,wrecked ships1 rafts from1 #ib ,wrecks1 ,flour from1 #eeg ,wrought or malleable iron1 test for1 #ddg ,y4 ,yoke1 pail1 #cia ,yoking and harnessing draught oxen1 #deb1 #ded1 #dee ,z4 ,zembourcks or dromedary artillery1 #bde ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,horace ,,cox4 #cdf1 ,,strand1 ,w4,c4 ,,advertisements4 ,,books ,,published ,,by ,,horace ,,cox1 #cdf1 ,,strand1 ,w4,c4 ,,the ,,art of ,,skating1 containing many figures never previously described2 with ,illustrations1 ,diagrams1 and plain ,directions for the acquirement of the most difficult and elegant movements4 ,by ,,george ,,anderson 7,cyclos71 for many years ,president of the ,glasgow ,skating ,club4 ,in large #hvo4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4 limp cloth gilt4 ,post free #bs4 #h;d4 ,,reports on ,,salmon ,,ladders1 with original ,drawings1 ,plans1 and ,sections4 ,by ,,francis ,,francis4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,angler',s ,,diary and ,,fisherman',s ,,guide to the ,rivers and ,lakes of the ,world2 to which is added ,forms for ,registering the ,description1 ,weight1 c41 of the ,fish caught during the year4 ,in crown #dto4 ,price #as4 #f;d4 cloth1 or post free for twenty stamps4 ,,facts and ,,useful ,,hints relating to ,,fishing and ,,shooting 7profusely ,illustrated and with a copious ,index72 being a ,collection of ,information and ,recipes of all descriptions1 of the greatest utility to the general ,sportsman1 to which is added a series of ,recipes on the ,management of ,dogs in ,health and ,disease4 ,vol4 ,i4 of ,,the ,,field ,,library4 ,second ,edition1 enlarged and revised4 ,in large post #hvo4 ,price #es4 cloth4 ,,the ,,country ,,house3 ,a ,collection of ,useful ,information and ,recipes1 adapted to the country gentleman and his household1 and of the greatest utility to the housekeeper generally4 ,illustrated1 and with copious ,index4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 of ,,the ,,field ,,library4 ,second ,edition1 enlarged and revised4 ,in large post #hvo4 ,price #es4 cloth4 ,,the ,,farm3 being ,part ,i4 of the ,,second ,,edition of the ,,farm1 ,,garden1 ,,stable1 and ,,aviary4 ,its contents will be found especially valuable to ,country ,gentlemen1 ,farmers1 c4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 of ,,the ,,field ,,library4 ,price #es4 cloth4 ,,the ,,garden3 being ,part ,,ii4 of the ,,second ,,edition of the ,,farm1 ,,garden1 ,,stable1 and ,,aviary4 ,the contents are adapted as a book of reference for all amateur gardeners4 ,price #es4 cloth4 ,a ,,year ,,of ,,liberty2 or1 ,salmon ,angling in ,ireland1 from ,feb4 #a to ,nov4 #a4 ,being a ,description of and ,guide to the best ,salmon ,angling ,stations in ,ireland4 ,to which is added an ,appendix1 giving full particulars for ,six ,angling ,tours4 ,by ,,william ,,peard1 ,esq41 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,b4 ,vol4 ,,iv4 of ,,the ,,field ,,library4 ,in large post #hvo4 ,price #es4 cloth4 ,,practical ,,falconry3 to which is added1 ,how ,i became a ,falconer4 ,by ,,gage ,e4 ,,freeman1 ,m4,a4 7,peregrine of ,,the ,,field74 ,vol4 ,,vii4 of ,,the ,,field ,,library4 ,large post #hvo4 ,price #es4 cloth4 ,,the ,,arts of ,,rowing and ,,training2 containing complete ,instructions on ,learning to ,row--,on the ,physical preparation of ,oarsmen and ,scullers--and on the ,management of ,regattas4 ,an ,appendix gives the ,laws of ,boat-racing1 ,qualifications1 c4 ,by ,,argonaut4 ,in small #hvo4 ,price #ds4 cloth gilt4 ,post free #ds4 #b;d4 ,,the ,,rail and the ,,rod2 or1 the ,tourist-,angler's ,guide to ,waters and ,quarters #cj miles round ,london4 ,by ,,greville ,,fennell4 ,nos4 ,i41 ,,ii41 and ,,iii4 ready1 price #as4 each2 in cloth1 #as4 #f;d42 post free #b;d4 extra4 ,no4 #a4 ,,great ,,eastern ,,railway4 ,no4 #b4 ,,great ,,western ,,railway4--,n4,b4 ,this number contains particulars of the fishing1 c41 for a further distance of #cc miles1 making a total of #fc miles from ,london4 ,no4 #c4 ,,south-,,western ,,railway4 ,or the three bound in one1 price #ds4 cloth4 ,no4 #d4 ,,the ,,south-,,eastern ,,railway4 ,price #as42 cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,river',s ,,side2 or1 ,,trout and ,,grayling1 and ,how to catch ,them4 ,by ,sir ,,randal ,,roberts1 ,bart4 7,illustrated47 ,in small #hvo4 ,price #cs4 #f;d4 cloth gilt4 ,post free #cs4 #h;d4 ,,the ,,dogs of the ,,british ,,islands2 their ,history and ,characteristics1 with the ,opinions of various ,breeders of ,note4 ,edited by ,,stonehenge4 ,profusely ,illustrated4 ,in crown #dto1 on toned paper4 ,price #afs41 handsomely bound in cloth gilt1 gilt edges4 ,,the ,,silkworm ,,book2 or1 ,,silkworms ,,ancient and ,,modern1 ,,their ,,food and ,,mode of ,,management4 ,this work treats of all the known kinds of silk-producing worms1 the food that should be given them1 and the way they should be managed4 ,it is well illustrated with engravings of the caterpillar1 moth1 and cocoon of the ,oak-leaf ,silkworm 7the ,yama ,mai71 the ,ailanthus1 c41 and illustrations descriptive of the apparatus1 c41 used in the management of the worms1 and the preparation and winding off of the silk from the cocoons4 ,by ,w4 ,b4 ,,lord1 ,r4,a4 ,in demy #hvo4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4 cloth gilt4 ,post free #bs4 #h;d4 ,,ask ,,any ,,traveller ,,whose ,,waterproofs ,,are ,,the ,,best4 ,,cording',s4 ,they have been proved for several years1 and are acknowledged by those who have used them to be the best and only ones to be relied on ,,in ,,all ,,climates4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,idstone ,,boot 7,,registered71 as suggested and recommended by ,,idstone ,,of ,,the ,,field1 well adapted for all purposes of ,,camp ,,life1 ,,fishing1 ,,shooting1 ,,hunting1 c41 ,,manufactured ,,only ,,by ,j4 ,c4 ,,cording4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,cording',s ,,yachting ,,boots1 ,,coats1 ,,and ,,trowsers ,,are ,,highly ,,approved4 ,,fishing ,,and ,,shooting ,,boots ,,and ,,stockings4 ,see ,sporting ,life1 ,jan4 #bgth and ,sept4 #ast1 ,land and ,water1 ,march #bnd1 ,standard1 ,july #abth1 and ,paris ,times1 ,sept4 #ast4 ,,life ,,belts1 ,,air ,,beds4 ,,compressible ,,sponging ,,baths ,,for ,,travellers4 ,,box-,,gig ,,and ,,dog-,,cart ,,aprons4 ,,oriental ,,dreadnought ,,coat4 ,,ladies' ,,waterproofs4 ,,portable ,,boats4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,caution4--,all ,genuine ,goods are stamped with the ,name1 ,j4 ,c4 ,,cording1 #bca1 ,,strand1 ,,temple ,,bar1 ,,london4 ,,established ,,over ,,fifty ,,years4 ,,edward ,,london1 ,,gun ,,and ,,rifle ,,maker4 ,,central ,,fire ,,breech-,,loaders4 ,,double-,,grip ,,snap-,,action ,,breech-,,loaders4 ,,self ,,half-,,cocking ,,breech-,,loaders4 ,,single-,,barrel ,,breech-,,loaders4 ,,rifles1 ,,military ,,sporting4 ,,muzzle-,,loaders ,,converted4 ,,swords ,,of ,,all ,,patterns4 ,,repairs ,,of ,,every ,,description1 ,,and ,,all ,,articles ,,necessary ,,for ,,sportsmen ,,and ,,riflemen4 #ea1 ,,london-,,wall1 ,,london4 ,,arms ,,and ,,equipment ,,for ,,wild ,,countries4 ,,the ,,explorer',s ,,room1 #ff and #fg1 ,,cornhill1 has been by ,messrs4 ,,silver and ,,co4 established in order that officers departing on foreign service1 explorers1 missionaries1 and emigrants1 may1 without the needless expenditure of valuable time1 select from carefully-chosen stores every article of equipment required to meet the exigencies of ,camp ,life1 ,travel1 or ,exploration4 ,amongst other requisites will be found ,firearms of the most approved forms of construction4 ,,the ,,settler',s ,,double ,,gun1 designed by an old hunter1 and constructed expressly for rough and ready work in wild countries4 ,it is a muzzle-loader of #aa-;bore1 weight #ilb41 is #b;ft4 #f;in4 in the barrels1 and shoots either ball or shot4 ,in its production elaborate finish and ornamentation have been dispensed with1 in order that the barrels and locks may be of good and reliable quality4 ,price #gl4 ,these guns are only to be obtained at the ,explorer's ,room4 ,no gun so named is genuine unless marked on the heel plate with the trade mark of the firm4 ,,the ,,settler',s ,,double ,,rifle1 a companion gun to the above4 ,illustration3 trademark ,the ,naturalist's ,collecting ,gun1 ,revolvers1 ,hunting ,knives1 ,axes1 c4 ,the ,explorer's ,tool ,chest and ,portable ,tool ,box4 ,the ,explorer's ,test ,case1 with its accompanying ,key to ,fortune in ,new ,lands1 by the aid of which the precious metals1 minerals1 and gems may be identified4 ,fishing ,tackle1 ,beads1 and other articles of barter with wild tribes in great variety4 ,tents of the best patterns4 99 99 99 99 99 ,tents1 ,saddlery1 ,tools1 ,cooking ,utensils 7including the ,patent ,norwegian ,cooking ,apparatus or ,traveller's ,kitchen71 ,instruments1 ,fishing-gear1 and articles for barter with ,wild ,tribes1 always on view in the ,explorer's ,room4 99 99 99 99 99 ,s4 ,w4 ,s4 ,co4's ,circular1 published monthly1 contains latest colonial news1 prices of provisions1 rates of wages1 statistics1 shipping information1 c4 ,,circular ,,notes 7,s4 ,w4 ,,silver ,,co4',s71 in triplicate1 payable in all the colonies4 ,colonial ,papers filed4 ,directories and ,almanacs for reference4 ,general information supplied4 ,list of necessaries for voyage4 ,goods shipped and warehoused4 ,passages secured4 ,insurances effected4 99 99 99 99 99 ,s4 ,w4 ,,silver ,,co41 #ff #fg1 ,cornhill1 and #b1 #c1 #d1 ,bishopsgate ,within1 ,,london1 ,e4,c41 ,and at #d1 ,norfolk-street1 ,,manchester4 ,,steam ,,mills1 ,,limehouse1 ,e4 ,in post #hvo41 cloth1 price #es4 ,,the ,,experiences ,,of ,a ,,game ,,preserver4 ,by ,,deadfall of ,,the ,,field4 ,,vol4 ,,vi4 ,,of ,,the ,,field ,,library4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in post #hvo41 cloth1 price #es4 ,,popular ,,illustrations ,,of ,,the ,,lower ,,forms ,,of ,,life4 ,,comprising3 ,i4 ,,the ,,protophyton4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,protozoon4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,coelenterata4 ,,illustrated4 ,,vol ,v4 ,,of ,,the ,,field ,,library4 ,by ,c4 ,r4 ,,bree1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,l4,s41 ,f4,z4,s41 ,author of the ,birds of ,europe1 c41 c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in demy #hvo41 cloth gilt1 price #bs4 #f;d4 ,,croquet ,,tactics1 ,,with ,,illustrative ,,coloured ,,figures1 ,,and ,,diagrams ,,of ,,the ,,various ,,croquet ,,strokes4 ,by ,,walter ,,jones ,,whitmore4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,london3 ,,horace ,,cox1 #cdf1 ,,strand1 ,w4,c4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,crane1 #c1 ,,royal ,,exchange1 ,,london1 ,e4,c41 ,,manufacturer ,,of ,,central-,,fire ,,breech-,,loading ,,guns1 ,,rifles1 ,,and ,,revolvers1 ,,on ,,the ,,most ,,approved ,,principles4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,crane',s ,,united ,,service ,,revolver 7,,on ,,the ,,central-,,fire ,,principle74 ,illustration3 ,,crane's ,,united ,,service ,,revolver4 ,,elevation ,,of ,,cartridge ,,section ,,of ,,cartridge ,,end ,,view ,,of ,,cartridge ,in our remarks on the new ,breech-loading ,revolver manufactured by ,mr4 ----1 we noticed as important defects1 first1 the fact that occasionally a missfire occurs2 and secondly1 that the drag on the base of the discharged copper cases is sometimes a serious obstacle to the revolution of the chambers4 ,since that time we have had submitted to us for trial by ,mr4 ,,crane1 of #c1 ,royal ,exchange1 ,london1 a ,revolver taking a central-fire cartridge1 which completely does away with these objections4 ,there is no great novelty in the plan adopted1 it being made up of the best parts of various well-known pistols2 but1 as a whole1 it1 in our opinion1 approaches very closely to absolute perfection4 ,the bore is the same as ---- largest size1 #ddb1 while the weight is a quarter of a pound less--,,crane',s new ,revolver weighing #blb4 #doz4 against #blb4 #hoz4 as in ----4 ,the ignition is exactly on the same principle as the central-fire shot cases now in general use1 the missfires from which are certainly not more than one in a thousand1 and probably not so high4 ,in addition to this advantage1 in consequence of the blow of the hammer being given on the centre of the base1 after the explosion takes place the empty case is driven forward from the face of the false breech1 and not the slightest grind or drag occurs in the revolution4 ,we have shot #ej rounds without a missfire2 but of course1 this test would not be sufficient of itself4 ,as1 however1 the caps1 anvil1 c41 are exactly similar to those which have been successfully tested in the field during the last two seasons1 we need not discuss that question4 ,mr4 ,,crane has succeeded in regulating the action so nicely that1 even when using the self-cocking process1 we have been able to make very fair practice with his pistol4 ,we give an engraving with a section of the ball1 which we understand is likely to be adopted in the service4 ,it is manufactured by the ,messrs4 ,eley1 and we believe will be sold at about the same price as the rim-fire cartridge1 viz41 #gs4 or #hs4 per #ajj4 ,altogether we can strongly recommend this ,revolver1 especially as it is to be sold1 as soon as it can be supplied in sufficient numbers1 at #d #ajs41 in oak case complete4 ,revolver1 double-action2 length of barrel1 #f;in42 total length of barrel and cylinder1 #g-a_/b;in42 weight1 #b-a_/dlb42 bore #dej4 ,,price ,,in ,,case1 ,,with ,,turnscrew ,,and ,,cleaning ,,rod1 #d #ajs42 ,,cartridges1 #gs4 ,,per ,,hundred4 ,,crane',s ,breech-loading ,pin and ,central-fire ,shot ,guns and ,rifles are well known for their simplicity1 strength1 and efficiency4 ,by the use of ,crane's metal ,breech they may be converted into ,muzzle-loaders in a moment4 ,prices of ,shot ,guns1 ,central-fire1 #bj1 #be1 and #ce guineas4 ,pin1 #ab to #cj guineas4 ,rifles1 #be to #de guineas4 ,breech-loading ,sporting ,carbines1 on the ,snider principle1 to take the regulation ,cartridge1 from #e guineas4 ,breech-loading ,rifles for small game1 bores #cbj and #ddj1 range #bcjyds41 #h guineas4 ,if fitted with extra set of fine globe and disc sights1 range #ejjyds41 #a guinea extra4 ,the #ddj is convertible to a ,muzzle-loader by inserting a metal ,breech4 ,smith and ,wesson's1 ,tranter's1 ,adams's1 and all other ,revolvers4 ,foreign orders to be accompanied by a remittance or ,london reference4 ,,contracts ,,for ,,military ,,arms ,,and ,,stores4 99 99 99 99 99 ,j4 ,h4 ,,crane1 #c1 ,,royal ,,exchange1 ,,london1 ,e4,c4 ,,illustrated ,,lists ,,on ,,application4 ,,central-,,fire ,,guns ,,and ,,rifles4 ,illustration ,e4 ,m4 ,,reilly ,,co4 ,beg to acquaint gentlemen that they have always on hand1 for ,home and ,foreign use1 a large assortment of their approved ,,direct ,,action ,,central-,,fire ,,guns1 ranging from #ae to #ce ,guineas4 ,,rifles on same principle for ,large ,game in ,india1 ,africa1 c42 adapted for round and shell bullets1 with heavy charges for low trajectory2 accuracy guaranteed2 prices ranging from #ce to #ej guineas4 ,,pin-,,cartridge ,,guns ,,and ,,rifles ,,in ,,great ,,variety4 ,,breech-,,loading ,,capsule ,,revolvers1 from #ees4 to #acjs4 ,,air ,,canes1 c4 ,,illustrated ,,price ,,lists ,,on ,,application4 ,e4 ,m4 ,,reilly ,,and ,,co41 ,,gun-,,manufacturers1 #ejb1 ,new ,oxford-street1 ,london4 ,,branch ,,establishment3 #b1 ,,rue ,,scribe1 ,,paris4 ,,adams',s ,new ,patent ,double ,action ,illustration ,central-,fire ,breech-,loading ,,revolver1 ,as adopted by ,h4,m4 ,war ,department1 of the finest ,london ,manufacture1 and warranted4 ,,sole ,,manufacturers ,,by ,,steam ,,machinery4 ,,adams',s ,,patent ,,small ,,arms ,,company1 #cia1 ,,strand1 ,,london1 ,w4,c4--,,john ,,adams1 ,managing ,director4 ,contractors to ,h4,m4 ,war ,department4 ,cartridges specially designed for the above by ,col4 ,boxer1 ,r4,a41 ,chief ,superintendent of the ,royal ,laboratories1 ,woolwich4 ,breech-loading ,rifles1 ,guns1 and ,appurtenances of all ,kinds4 ,,this ,,company ,,is ,,now ,,converting ,,the ,,service #ed-;,,gauge ,,revolvers ,,to ,,this ,,system ,,for ,h4,m4 ,,war ,,department1 c4 ,prospectuses and ,lists of ,prices to be obtained on application4 ,see ,pall ,mall ,gazette1 ,july #bb and ,nov4 #bc1 #ahfh2 ,engineer1 ,jan4 #a1 ,may #g1 and ,july #ah1 #ahfh4 ,transcriber's ,note ,obvious errors and omissions of punctuation have been corrected1 as noted in the table below4 ,most obvious spelling errors1 where the printer was the likely source1 have been corrected as well4 ,the many fractions in the text are represented1 for consistency1 as1 for instance1 #b-b_/c for two and two thirds4 ,the ,dutch or ,afrikaans 'remschoenen' 7brakeshoes7 appears on pp4 #ade-adf as 'reim-schoens' and 'rein-schoems'4 ,though the former is more nearly correct1 both are retained4 ,the word 'mattress' is spelled more frequently 'mattrass'4 ,both are retained4 ,on pp4 #ahg-ahh1 the quoted passage beginning ,i have had a little experience444 has no closing quote4 ,it is presumed that it ends with the paragraph1 and the quotation mark has been added4 ,on p4 #bae1 the final closing parenthesis of phrase ending though many other varieties may be used7 is unmatched4 ,either the entire phrase was meant to be parenthetical1 or the punctuation itself is unintentional4 ,it has been removed1 in any case1 as unnecessary4 ,in the table for #i-pounder brass field guns on p4 #bda1 the length of fuse for an elevation of #e is printed as #j4 ,it is most likely that this is a misprint of #aj4 ,on p4 #deg1 the phrase whether the traces are of rope chain or leather may be missing a comma4 ,it is not obvious what a rope chain might be4 ,on p4 #egc1 the passage 444when it is not adopted in ,north ,america4 ,the flesh of the buffalo1 or bison1 and in ,south ,america that of the domestic1 or rather half-wild1 ox1 is used444 seems mispunctuated4 ,it is likely that the passage should read3 444when it is not adopted4 ,in ,north ,america1 the flesh of the buffalo4444 ,the six column table ,table of ,altitudes on p4 #gdb has been reconfigured to four columns to limit its width4 ,as in the original1 the final values of each pair of columns is repeated in the first row of the second pair1 etc4 ,this was done to facilitate its use according to the instructions that follow it4 ,the very wide table of gold quality around the world on p4 #haa et seq4 has been reformated to fit the size constraints of this version4 ,in the ,index1 the major topic was repeated on each column or page break4 ,these have been removed1 and the punctuation and capitalization regularized4 ,one lapse in the alphabetic sort order was corrected4 ,a semi-colon separator is used twice1 with the two items on the same line4 ,these are retained4 ,the hyphen in compound words which appeared on a line break has been removed if that form is most common elsewhere in the text4 ,the following list describes any obvious printer's errors that were detected1 and the resolution of each4 p4 #bh in cases where the land intervenes ,added4 p4 #fc arrangement ,added4 p4 #aed the sponging bath would carry #aijlb4 ,added4 p4 #bae though many other varieties may be used7 ,removed4 p4 #bef ,fig4 #bb4 ,beryl ,added4 p4 #deg the traces are of rope chain or leather sic p4 #dhf ,egpy_/ypt ,transposed4 p4 #ebg ,mauril_/tia flexuosa ,corrected4 p4 #fdb marsk_/ksman ,transposed4 p4 #fec testacles sic p4 #ffj indulgo_/e ,corrected4 p4 #gje or will you be shot8 ,added4 take the flogging offhand4 ,added4 the singing of it4 ,added4 p4 #gaf transportation ,added4 p4 #gbe ,venetian ,added4 p4 #gdd ,dr4 ,livingstone's ,added4 p4 #ghd ,when fat is to be stored up ,added4