---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,transcriber's note3 ,all ,plates and their captions have been moved to the end of the chapters to which they belong4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,illustration ,a ,,handbook ,,of ,,pictorial ,,history4 ,illustration ,,some ,,other ,,history ,,and ,,geography ,,publications4 ,,historical ,,illustrations4 ,in ,four ,sets4 ,by ,h4 ,w4 ,donald4 ,price1 each set1 #a_/f ,,history ,,teaching ,,by ,,biographies4 ,in ,two ,volumes4 ,by ,alice ,eve1 ,b4,a4 ,price1 each1 net1 #c_/-2 post free1 #c_/d 8,,britannic0 ,,historical ,,geography4 ,in ,two ,parts4 ,price1 each1 net1 #e;d4 ,details of the above will be found on pages at back of this book4 ,a ,handbook of ,,pictorial ,,history ,containing #fhj ,illustrations from ,original ,contemporary ,sources treating upon ,architecture1 ,arms and ,armour1 ,antiquities1 ,costumes1 ,customs1 ,shipping1 ,heraldry1 ,the ,church1 etc4 with ,notes and ,descriptive ,articles on ,these ,subjects for the use of ,students ,teachers4 ,written and ,illustrated by ,,henry ,w4 ,,donald ,compiler of the ,britannic ,historical ,geography the ,suggestions ,historical ,drawing ,cards etc4 ,illustration ,,london3 ,charles and ,son1 ,ltd4 #aj1 ,,paternoster ,,square1 ,e4,c4#d4 ,,and ,,glasgow4 ,made and printed in ,great ,britain4 ,,preface4 ,it has been felt that in the study of ,english ,history1 to the ordinary student and teacher1 there are great difficulties in the way of consulting the numerous standard and other excellent works1 on the subjects dealt with in this volume4 ,many have not sufficient leisure1 and many are unable to make use of the facilities for study and research offered by our great national and provincial libraries and museums4 ,and1 to most1 the prohibitive cost of a representative collection of these standard works is an effectual bar to the acquisition of a personal collection4 ,an acquaintance with these subjects is necessary to an intelligent appreciation of the life history and development of our nation1 and of the conditions of life of our ancestors1 and this work has been undertaken for students and teachers with regard to these matters1 with the hope that1 by its means1 the path of study will be illuminated1 and the interest shown in the study of history correspondingly increased4 ,too often1 in the past1 has history been taught as a series of dry lessons on facts and dates1 and although in late years there has been a great improvement in this respect1 to many the living facts around us1 as bearing on our history1 in our churches1 our historic buildings1 our museums1 and our national collections1 are still disregarded4 ,what eloquent tongues they have1 and yet1 on what deaf ears do their voices fall6 ,mr4 ,fairholt1 in his well-known work on 8,costume in ,england10 says3 8,a knowledge of costume is1 in some degree1 inseparable from a right knowledge of history4 ,we can scarcely read its events without1 in some measure1 picturing in the mind's eye the appearance of the actors40 ,what is true of costume1 which includes1 of course1 civil1 military1 and ecclesiastical costume1 is equally true of architecture and other matters associated with the daily lives of our forefathers4 ,how they lived and died1 how they worked1 how they dressed1 how and where they worshipped ,god1 and the influences brought to bear upon them by the ,church1 must be realized as factors in the development of the nation4 ,it is hoped that this work may prove useful to the student1 to the pupils in our schools and colleges1 and to teachers who have not been able to make a special study of these things4 ,several plans of arranging the subject-matter have suggested themselves1 and the writer has thought--though it is open1 of course1 to criticism--that the work would be most usefully and most easily consulted by arranging it under the heads of our historic periods4 ,it will be readily understood that this is merely an arbitrary arrangement1 and that there must be overlapping at times4 ,the aim has been to make each section as complete as possible in the given space1 and yet to avoid tedious details4 ,to experts the food may seem very light1 but it is to the average student and teacher1 to whom the subjects are new1 that the work must appeal4 ,every effort has been made to secure accuracy and truthfulness1 both in the matter and in the six hundred and eighty drawings which illustrate it4 ,very many works have been consulted1 and1 as all the illustrations are from authentic and contemporary sources1 it is hoped that the usefulness of the work will be very considerable4 ,the writer wishes to express his great obligation to the following writers and books1 whom he has laid under contribution3-- ,greenwell's ,british ,barrows1 ,dawkin's ,early ,man in ,britain1 ,evans's ,ancient ,stone ,implements of ,great ,britain1 ,strutt's ,horda1 ,grose's ,military ,antiquities1 ,wallis ,budge's ,roman ,antiquities at ,chesters1 ,jewitt's ,ceramic ,art of ,great ,britain1 ,fairholt's ,costume in ,england1 ,mrs4 ,ashdown's ,british ,costume during ,nineteen ,centuries1 ,planche's ,cyclopdia of ,costume and ,history of ,british ,costume1 ,cutt's ,scenes and ,characters of the ,middle ,ages1 ,barnard's ,companion to ,english ,history1 ,middle ,ages1 ,traill's ,social ,england1 ,green's ,short ,history 7,illustrated ,edition71 ,parker's various works on ,gothic ,architecture1 ,rickman's ,gothic ,architecture1 ,boutell's ,monumental ,brasses of ,england1 ,suffling's ,english ,church ,brasses1 ,macklin's ,brasses of ,england1 ,ashdown's ,british and ,foreign ,arms and ,armour1 ,hewitt's ,ancient ,armour and ,weapons in ,europe1 ,boutell's ,arms and ,armour1 ,fox-,davies's ,complete ,guide to ,heraldry1 ,boutell's ,english ,heraldry1 ,bloom's ,english ,seals1 ,abbot ,gasquet's ,english ,monastic ,life1 ,commander ,robinson's ,british ,fleet1 ,oman's ,history of the ,art of ,war1 ,fowkes's ,bayeux ,tapestry1 ,gardiner's ,history of ,england1 ,the ,journals of the ,british ,archological ,association1 and of various ,county ,associations4 ,the writer1 too1 wishes to thank the ,library ,committee of the ,city of ,london ,corporation for permission to make drawings of objects in the ,guildhall ,museum1 and ,mrs4 ,ashdown for permission to make use of illustrations in her 8,british ,costume40 ,,henry ,w4 ,,donald4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,the ,,stone ,,age4 7,plate #a7 #g ,,the ,,bronze ,,age4 7,plate #b7 #i ,,prehistoric ,,pottery ,,and ,,funeral ,,customs4 7,plate #c7 #aa ,,the ,,roman ,,wall4 7,plate #d7 #ac ,,roman ,,pottery1 ,,etc4 7,plate #e7 #ag ,,roman ,,antiquities ,,found ,,in ,,london4 7,plate #f7 #ai ,,roman ,,architecture ,,in ,,britain4 7,plate #g7 #ba ,,roman ,,arms1 ,,etc4 7,plate #h7 #bc ,,saxon ,,weapons4 7,plate #i7 #be ,,saxon ,,costume1 ,a4,d4 #dfj-;,a4,d4 #ajff4 7,plates #aj-aa7 #bg ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,architecture4 7,plate #ab7 #ca ,,saxon ,,customs4 7,plate #ac7 #cc ,,saxon ,,farming4 7,plate #ad7 #ce ,,saxon ,,antiquities4 7,plate #ae7 #cg ,,danish ,,vessels1 ,,etc4 7,plate #af7 #ci ,,norman ,,costumes4 7,plate #ag7 #da ,,norman ,,arms ,,and ,,armour4 7,plate #ah7 #dc ,,the ,,bayeux ,,tapestry4 7,plate #ai7 #df ,,early ,,norman ,,architecture4 7,plate #bj7 #ea ,,later ,,norman ,,architecture4 7,plate #ba7 #ec ,,norman ,,castles4 7,plate #bb7 #ee ,,norman ,,seals ,,and ,,coins4 7,plate #bc7 #ei ,,the ,,joust ,,and ,,the ,,tournament4 7,plate #bd7 #fa ,,english ,,archers4 7,plate #be7 #fc ,,early ,,cannon4 7,plate #bf7 #fg ,a ,,fifteenth ,,century ,,ship4 7,plate #bg7 #ga ,,brasses4 7,plate #bh7 #gc ,,heraldry4 7,plate #bi7 #gh ,,the ,,tudor ,,navy4 7,plate #cj7 #hc ,,plantagenet ,,costume4 7,plates #ca-cb7 #hf ,,mail ,,armour4 7,plate #cc7 #ic ,,early ,,english ,,architecture4 7,plates #cd-ce7 #ih ,,mixed ,,mail ,,and ,,plate ,,armour4 7,plate #cf7 #ajc ,,lancastrian ,,and ,,yorkist ,,periods4 ,male ,costumes4 7,plate #cg7 #ajg ,female ,costumes4 7,plate #ch7 #aac ,plate ,armour4 7,plate #ci7 #aae ,decorated ,architecture4 7,plates #dj-da7 #aai ,,tudor ,,period4 ,male ,costumes4 7,plate #db7 #abf ,female ,costumes4 7,plate #dc7 #aca ,plate ,armour4 7,plate #dd7 #acf ,perpendicular ,architecture4 7,plates #de-df7 #ada ,,stuart ,,period 7,,to ,,william ,,iii474 ,male ,costumes4 7,plate #dg7 #add ,female ,costumes4 7,plates #dh-di7 #aea ,arms and ,armour4--,to end of ,charles ,,ii4 7,plate #ej7 #aee ,,anne1 ,,george ,i4 ,,and ,,george ,,ii4 ,male ,costumes4 7,plate #ea7 #aei ,female ,costumes4 7,plate #eb7 #afc ,,george ,,iii4 ,male ,costumes4 7,plate #ec7 #afe ,female ,costumes4 7,plate #ed7 #afh ,,the ,,monastic ,,orders4 7,plate #ee7 #agc ,,general ,,plan ,,of ,a ,,monastery4 7,plate #ef7 #agd ,,the ,,friars ,,and ,,canons4 7,plate #eg7 #agg ,,military ,,monastic ,,orders4 7,plate #eh7 #aha ,,ecclesiastical ,,costumes ,,and ,,vestments4 7,plate #ei7 #ahe ,,pilgrims4 7,plate #fj7 #ahi ,,the ,,stone ,,age4 ,the ,flint ,weapons of ,prehistoric ,man in ,britain4 ,when ,britain was joined to the continent of ,europe 7at the time when the mammoth lived71 it was inhabited by the ,palolithic or ,ancient ,stone men4 ,they were ignorant of the use of metals1 and used implements of bone and of rudely chipped stone and flint1 which they did not know how to fasten to handles4 ,these implements and weapons1 of a different type from those of later periods1 are found in the river beds of drifts1 and these early people are spoken of as the 8,drift men40 ,cave-dwelling ,palolithic men succeeded these4 ,their weapons were still very rude1 but they made handles and fixed them to the flints1 so forming arrows1 lances or javelins1 and axes4 ,these were followed by a race called ,neolithic men1 or men of the ,new ,stone ,age4 ,their stone implements were better shaped1 more highly finished1 were often ground smooth1 and even polished4 ,they also made a rude kind of pottery4 ,these men were1 doubtless1 of the race called ,iberians4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #a4 7,fig4 #a73 ,flint hand-hammer or axe found in ,gray's ,inn ,lane4 ,this was the earliest form1 roughly chipped into shape1 with unsharpened edges4 7,figs4 #b and #c73 ,a dagger in the ,british ,museum 7front and side views74 ,the dagger is one of the commonest weapons of the ,stone ,age1 being simple in form and easy of construction4 7,fig4 #d73 ,a javelin head2 a simple1 elongated splinter of flint1 shaped to a small stem1 which was inserted in the end of a shaft and fastened by means of ligaments4 7,figs4 #e and #f73 ,a stone celt 7pronounced selt7 or axe of the simplest form4 ,this is ground1 probably by the use of sand and water into a regular and sharp edge4 7,fig4 #g73 ,a flint flake1 probably used as a scraper4 7,fig4 #h73 ,a stemmed arrow-head4 7,fig4 #i73 ,a barbed arrow-head 7a later development74 7,fig4 #aj73 ,a lozenge-shaped arrow-head4 7,fig4 #aa73 ,a polished stone axe1 fixed in a stag's horn socket4 7,fig4 #ab73 ,a perforated hammer found at ,scarborough4 7,figs4 #ac and #ad73 ,a perforated axe 7two views7 found in ,yorkshire4 7,both ,figs4 #ab and #ac show a very high degree of skill in the shaping of the form1 in the drilling1 and in general finish47 7,fig4 #ae73 ,a polished celt fixed in its original handle1 found in ,cumberland4 7,fig4 #af73 ,a flint chisel-shaped tool4 7,fig4 #ag73 ,a flint borer1 used for making holes in wood1 bone1 or stone1 found in the ,yorkshire ,wolds4 ,,the ,,bronze ,,age4 ,the ,iberians were succeeded by the ,celts1 who conquered1 and probably intermarried with1 the former4 ,they had a knowledge of the use of metals1 and employed copper first for the manufacture of their weapons and tools4 ,then they learned that1 by mixing tin with copper1 a harder metal was obtained1 which we call bronze1 and this period is1 consequently1 called the ,bronze ,age4 ,the early bronze weapons were of the same form as the flint weapons1 for probably the latter were used as 8patterns0 for forming the mould4 ,later1 in the case of the celt1 flanges were formed at the side1 and1 finally1 a socketed celt was made1 showing a considerable skill in its manufacture4 8,the knowledge of bronze must have affected the warfare of the time in the same way as the introduction of gunpowder affected the warfare of the ,middle ,ages40 ,it has been estimated that the ,bronze ,age commenced in ,britain about #aejj ,b4,c4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #b4 7,fig4 #a73 ,a bronze spear head--,later ,celtic--in the ,british ,museum4 ,it is probable that the flint spear-head continued in use into the ,bronze ,age1 and that the spear-head with a socket was not invented until socketed celts were made4 7,fig4 #b73 ,an ornamental bronze celt or axe found in ,suffolk4 ,the simpler form of the celt has been improved upon by the addition of flanges4 7,figs4 #c and #d7 show how they were probably fixed in handles4 7,fig4 #e73 ,a bronze knife dagger found in the ,isle of ,wight 7,british ,museum74 7,fig4 #f73 ,a bronze arrow-head4 7,fig4 #g73 ,a bronze socketed celt4 7,fig4 #h73 ,the same1 with the probable method of fastening to a handle4 7,fig4 #i73 ,a bronze cauldron found in ,ireland4 7,fig4 #aj73 ,a late ,celtic ,helmet1 ornamented and showing generally in its structure a very advanced skill in manufacture2 found in the ,thames2 now in the ,british ,museum4 7,fig4 #aa73 ,a bronze dagger in the ,british ,museum4 7,fig4 #ab73 ,a bronze spear-head 7elongated form71 found at ,stanwick in ,yorkshire2 now in the ,british ,museum4 ,both the spear heads in ,figs4 #a and #ab tend towards a leaf form4 7,fig4 #ac73 ,a bronze sword1 narrow and leaf-shaped1 in the ,guildhall ,museum1 ,london2 showing rivet holes4 ,the sword of the ,bronze ,age is remarkable for the beauty of its form4 ,the average length of the blade was about two feet1 the handle being made of horn or wood1 split and rivetted on either1 side4 ,the sword was probably encased in a scabbard of leather1 wood or bronze4 ,,prehistoric ,,pottery ,,and ,,funeral ,,customs4 ,neolithic men 7of the ,later ,stone ,age7 buried their dead in the caves which they had used for dwellings1 or in stone chambers1 probably representing the huts in which they lived4 ,each of these was used as a vault1 common to the family or tribe1 for they are found containing skeletons of all ages4 ,the dead were buried in the tomb as they died1 in a contracted or crouching position1 laid upon their sides1 probably due to their sleeping in that position1 and not at full length on a bed4 ,implements of various kinds1 arrow heads1 celts and pottery1 were frequently placed in the tombs1 and were probably intended for the use of the dead4 ,the tombs were then covered with stones and earth1 forming mounds 7also known as barrows and tumuli71 which were usually long and oval in plan4 ,domestic animals were slaughtered1 and a feast was made after the interment in honour of the dead4 ,in the ,bronze ,age1 there was a striking change in the custom of burial1 probably the sign of the introduction of a new faith4 ,the dead were burned on a funeral pile1 and with them were burned their belongings--the various articles and implements of daily use--and the burnt remains were gathered up with the calcined bones and ashes and placed in an urn4 ,sometimes this urn was placed upright1 and at other times it was inverted over the ashes4 ,as in former times1 a mound was carefully raised1 covering the urn and its contents1 and the memory of the dead was preserved by periodic feasts1 after each of which earth or stone was added to the top of the mound1 each feast being represented by a layer of the broken and burnt bones of the animals consumed4 ,these barrows of the ,bronze ,age were generally circular in plan4 ,cremation did not1 however1 altogether abolish the older practice of burying4 ,it is evident that both customs were carried on simultaneously4 ,hundreds of these mounds have been carefully opened at various times and the contents investigated1 and1 in almost every case1 earthen-ware vessels of various forms and sizes have been found4 ,it is entirely to these grave mounds that we are indebted for the examples of prehistoric pottery that are preserved in our museums4 ,there are four classes of pottery of these early times3-- #a4 ,sepulchral or ,cinerary ,urns1 which have been made for1 and have contained or been inverted over1 calcined human bones4 #b4 ,drinking ,cups1 which are supposed to have contained some liquid to be placed in the grave4 #c4 ,food vessels 7so called71 which are supposed to have contained an offering of food1 and which are more usually found with unburnt bodies than along with interments by cremation4 #d4 ,immolation ,urns 7or ,incense ,cups71 very small vessels found only with burnt bones1 and usually containing bones and ashes also1 placed in the mouths of1 or close by1 the larger cinerary urns4 ,it has been suggested that these were simply small urns1 intended to receive the ashes of the infant1 perhaps sacrificed at the death of its mother4 ,they are also known as incense cups1 and are supposed by some to have been used to carry the sacred fire with which to light the funeral pile1 or as censers in the funeral ceremonies4 ,these vessels differ much in size and ornamentation1 and in the quality of the clay from which they are formed4 ,in the examination of barrows1 the spot where the funeral pyre has been made can often be detected by the burnt soil there4 ,it is considered probable that1 while the body was burning1 the clay urn was placed on the funeral fire and then baked4 8,drinking ,cups0 are usually burnt much harder than the other vessels4 ,most of the vessels are decorated in a rude fashion with lines or figures1 probably drawn by a pointed instrument or comb whilst the clay was soft4 ,they were made by hand1 and are often very uneven and crudely formed4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #c4 7,fig4 #a73 ,food vessel of the prevailing type1 ornamented with dots and lines1 forming saw-like patterns around it4 7,from ,greenwell's ,british ,barrows47 7,fig4 #b73 ,immolation urn or incense cup1 covered with a pattern4 7,british ,museum47 7,fig4 #c73 ,food vessel of a rather uncommon type1 of good form and elaborately ornamented4 7,from ,greenwell's ,british ,barrows47 7,fig4 #d73 ,a large drinking cup1 the outer surface being almost covered with ornament1 formed by the point of a sharp instrument 7found in a barrow at ,east ,kennet74 7,fig4 #e73 ,drinking cup1 found in a barrow near ,goodmanham1 ornamented with patterns formed with lines4 7,from ,greenwell's ,british ,barrows47 ,,the ,,roman ,,wall4 ,much difference of opinion has been expressed between archologists as to who built the ,roman ,wall1 it being severally attributed to both ,hadrian and ,severus4 ,a recent writer of authority says3 8,no one really knows who built the ,roman ,wall1 and the evidence now available is1 in the present writer's opinion1 wholly insufficient to enable us to decide the difficult problem4444 ,a commonsense and probable view is that ,hadrian caused the vallum 7earthen rampart71 which may have been there before his time1 to be supplemented by walls and forts1 built of stone1 in such extremely exposed and commanding positions as we find at or near ,borcovicus 7,homesteads71 and that1 about #hf years after the ,emperor left ,britain1 ,severus ordered these to be repaired1 and the whole of the ,roman fortifications to be built of stone1 and the wall to be carried across from sea to sea40 ,it stretches from ,wallsend1 near ,newcastle1 to ,carlisle4 ,a section of its general structure is shown in ,pl4 #g1 ,fig4 #aa4 ,it was very strong1 and consisted of a ditch on the north side1 about #ae ft4 deep1 and then a broad stone wall about #ah ft4 high and #h ft4 thick4 ,south of the ditch was a broad road1 and next to that a rampart or earthen wall4 ,in some parts1 however1 there were two roads made1 parallel to one another4 ,at fairly regular intervals along the wall were fortified military 8stations10 variously computed at from #ah to #bc in number4 ,between them1 at intervals of about a mile1 were rectangular towers1 called 8mile castles10 and smaller towers or 8turrets0 were placed about four to the mile between these4 ,the ,stations were small1 rectangular towns1 the inhabitants of which lived probably under martial law4 ,they varied in extent from one to six acres1 were always strongly fortified with walls six to nine feet thick1 surrounded by a ditch4 ,each ,station had1 at least1 four gateways1 one on each side1 and its area was crossed by two main streets1 which bisected each other at right angles4 ,the larger ,stations were provided with a ,forum1 serving as a marketplace and a place for public assembly2 a ,pretorium1 or residence for the ,commandant2 baths1 barracks1 and numerous smaller dwellings for the minor officials and others4 ,the ,mile ,castles were rectangular in form1 and measured about sixty feet by fifty feet4 ,the ,wall formed the northern wall of the ,castle1 and each had two gates1 north and south4 ,the ,turrets were also rectangular1 but much smaller than the ,mile ,castles1 measuring about twelve feet by ten feet1 and had walls nearly three feet thick4 ,they served the purpose of look-out towers4 ,the ,wall required a garrison of from #aj1jjj to #ab1jjj soldiers to man it1 and these were of many nationalities1 being drawn from different parts of the ,roman ,empire4 ,borcovicus1 one of the ,stations1 was garrisoned for about #bjj years by a cohort of #a1jjj ,tungrian 7,german7 ,infantry4 ,other cohorts consisted of ,astures 7,spaniards71 ,batavians 7,dutch71 ,gauls1 ,dalmatians1 ,moors1 and ,thracians4 ,it must be remembered that the soldiers themselves built the ,wall and the various structures on it1 and kept the masonry in repair1 as the numerous inscribed wall tablets testify 7,figs4 #a and #b74 ,after the ,romans left ,britain1 the ,wall was used for many centuries as a convenient quarry1 with ready-prepared stones1 by neighbouring landowners and farmers1 and many farmhouses1 walls and outhouses in the vicinity of the ,wall are built entirely of stones from it4 ,during excavations on the sites of the ,stations1 many ,roman remains--altars1 ornaments1 coins1 utensils1 etc4--have been found1 particularly through the public-spirited work carried on by ,mr4 ,clayton1 of ,chesters4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #d4 7,fig4 #a73 ,a wall tablet1 sculptured in relief1 with the figure of a boar1 the badge of the #bjth ,legion4 ,the tablet is #bj in4 in length1 and was found at ,vindolana 7,chesterholm74 7,fig4 #b73 ,another tablet1 inscribed with a record of the building of a portion of the ,wall1 #bd paces long1 by the ,thruponian ,centuria2 from the ,wall at ,procolitia4 7,fig4 #c73 ,an altar1 dedicated to the god ,mihr1 or ,mithras1 by ,litorius ,pacatianus1 a consular beneficiary1 on behalf of himself and his family2 found in the temple of ,mithras1 at ,borcovicus4 7,mihr was a form of the ,sun-god1 who was worshipped in ,persia in very early times1 and about #ajj ,b4,c4 the worship of this deity was adopted by the ,romans47 7,fig4 #d73 ,small plan of ,procolitia 7,carranburgh71 probably the seventh ,station on the ,wall1 from east to west4 ,the northern rampart is formed by the ,roman ,wall4 ,procolitia was about #adc yards long and #aah yards wide1 measuring about #c acres1 and was garrisoned by the #ast ,batavian ,cohort 7,dutch74 7,fig4 #e73 ,plan of ,cilurnum 7,chesters71 the sixth ,station on the ,wall from the east4 ,it was #ahf yards by #acg yards1 and measured about #e acres4 ,the ,roman ,wall does not1 in this instance1 coincide with the northern wall of the ,station4 ,the walls1 surrounded by a ditch1 are about five feet thick1 and the corners are rounded off4 ,it was garrisoned by the #bnd ,ala of the ,asturians 7,spanish71 a famous cavalry regiment4 ,the ,stations had usually four gates1 but ,cilurnum has six4 ,,roman ,,pottery1 ,etc4 7,in the ,guildhall ,museum1 ,london47 8,after the ,roman occupation of ,britain1 glass and pottery were made here in large quantities1 so that the importation of glass1 which was carried on at first1 ceased to be necessary40 ,samian ware1 which was a red glazed ware1 was used ordinarily throughout the western half of the ,roman ,empire4 ,it was manufactured first in ,etruria1 but afterwards its manufacture was imitated in ,gaul4 ,very little of the genuine ,samian ware from ,etruria found its way into ,britain1 but the ,gaulish ,samian ware was imported in large quantities1 and was used throughout the province4 ,the finer specimens are decorated with design in low relief1 of a pictorial character1 and the ware was of very good quality1 for1 #a1ejj years after its manufacture1 it preserves its colours and its lustre perfectly4 ,castor ware1 a native product1 was made at ,castor 7,durobrivae71 near the ,river ,nen1 and includes small vases of rusty copper or slate colour1 with white ornament in low relief4 8,castor ware is not ,roman in character1 but rather a local survival of late ,celtic art40 ,illustration3 ,,plate #e4 7,fig4 #a73 ,a ,roman tablet of wood4 ,this was covered with a thin coating of wax1 upon which the writing was done with a stylus of metal or bone4 ,when the inscription was no longer needed1 a hot iron was held over the surface1 and a new surface formed on the wax4 7,fig4 #b73 ,a ,roman stylus of iron4 7,fig4 #c73 ,a ,roman amphora4 7,fig4 #d73 ,an ornamented vase of ,cologne ware4 7,fig4 #e73 ,a bowl of ,cologne ware4 7,fig4 #f73 ,an ewer or water bottle1 with indented mouth4 7,fig4 #g73 ,a deep bowl of ,roman pottery4 7,fig4 #h73 ,a cinerary urn of grey ware for containing the ashes of the dead4 7,fig4 #i73 ,a decorated urn of ,cologne ware4 7,fig4 #aj73 ,a vase of ,castor ware1 red1 with black glazed neck ornaments1 decorated with pinkish-white slip4 7,fig4 #aa73 ,a ,roman glass hemispherical bowl4 7,fig4 #ab73 ,a drinking cup of thick ,samian ware1 #c in4 high4 ,,roman ,,antiquities ,,found ,,in ,,london4 7,guildhall ,museum47 ,the ,roman influence in ,britain was directed to the civilizing of the inhabitants4 ,it gave the people better conditions of life2 it guaranteed protection against the tyrannies of petty chieftains2 and it gave to them the resources of ,roman civilisation4 ,the ,roman remains that are to be found in our museums1 unearthed after centuries of oblivion1 show how definite was the influence of the ,romans in the comforts and necessities of daily life4 8,keys and steelyards1 roofing tiles and hairpins1 glass bottles and spoons1 statues and bells1 represent wants and comforts strange to the #8savage and shivering ,britons1' dressed in skins1 whom earlier writers knew40 ,the manufacture of glass1 chiefly beads1 was carried on at ,glastonbury in ,roman times1 but most of the glass found is ,roman in character4 ,the large green jars which were used for containing the ashes of the dead were generally made here1 but the best specimens came probably from ,gaul1 where the manufacture of glass was carried on to a considerable extent4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #f4 7,fig4 #a73 ,a square bottle of green glass1 found in a grave with cinerary urns4 7,fig4 #b73 ,an unguentarium1 or bottle for unguents1 perfumes and other toilet requisites1 of ,roman glass4 7,fig4 #c73 ,a ,roman lamp of earthen-ware4 ,the wick was inserted in the spout1 and the central hole was for the purpose of feeding the lamp4 7,fig4 #d73 ,another ,roman lamp1 viewed from above4 7,fig4 #e73 ,a ,roman pole-axe1 with expanded blade1 oval shaft-hole1 and pointed projection behind1 #i in4 long4 7,figs4 #f and #g73 ,two forms of ,roman keys of bronze4 7,fig4 #h73 ,a ,roman shoe or buskin1 with ten large holes stamped out on each side4 7,fig4 #i73 ,an axe with crescent-shaped blade and tang for handle4 7,fig4 #aj73 ,a ,roman spoon of copper 7#e in4 long74 7,fig4 #aa73 ,a ,roman steelyard of bronze1 with hooks and rings4 7,fig4 #ab73 ,a sacrificial knife 7#g in4 long74 7,fig4 #ac73 ,a ,roman iron knife with ornamented bone handle4 ,,roman ,,architecture ,,in ,,britain4 ,roman architecture in ,britain1 judging from the remains of buildings1 was generally of an inferior description1 for ,britain was a remote and half-civilised province1 and little attention appears to have been paid to make the buildings very ornate4 ,there are two principal varieties of masonry employed in their construction4 ,the first1 which is very characteristic1 consists of layers of irregularly shaped stones and flat tiles embedded in mortar1 generally arranged in alternate layers of tiles and stones in mortar1 forming a kind of concrete 7,pl4 #g1 ,fig4 #c74 ,the ,mint wall at ,lincoln1 the ,jewry wall at ,leicester1 and the walls at ,richborough and ,colchester are built in this manner4 ,the other variety consists of walls formed of regular courses1 with wide joints of outer facings of square stones or ashlars1 the interior spaces being filled with a rubble embedded in mortar4 ,the blocks1 which were of hewn sandstone1 were about #h in4 by #aj in4 on the face1 and as much as #bb in4 long in the bed4 ,the whole rests on a course of larger foundation stones 7,pl4 #g1 ,figs4 #a and #b74 ,roman mortar may generally be distinguished by the fact that it was mixed with powdered brick1 and it is extremely hard4 ,it is often easier to break the tile or stone than the mortar1 and this hardness arises largely from the fact that the ,romans always burnt the lime on the spot1 and used it hot and fresh1 for on the freshness of the lime the strength of the mortar largely depends4 ,the walls of ,burgh ,castle1 ,suffolk1 and ,richborough1 ,kent1 are among the most perfect ,roman walls in ,england4 ,there are vestiges of ,roman towns and villas throughout the country1 but they consist of foundations only4 ,the upper story of these ,roman houses was usually of wood1 and all the innumerable ,roman towns and villas of which foundations have been discovered bear marks of destruction by violence1 fire having been usually the agent of destruction4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #g4 7,fig4 #a73 ,section of ,roman masonry1 showing the outer facing of regularly shaped stones and the interior of rubble and mortar4 7,fig4 #b73 ,view of outside of wall4 7,fig4 #c73 ,roman arch at ,colchester ,castle1 ,hampshire1 showing alternate layers of tiles or flat bricks and stones4 7,figs4 #d1 #e and #f73 ,fragments of ,roman ornamental mouldings built in at ,hexham4 ,roman building material is often used again in other buildings near the site of the ,roman ,station1 as at ,colchester ,castle 7,essex71 ,st4 ,martin's ,church1 ,canterbury1 and ,st4 ,alban's ,abbey 7,herts474 7,fig4 #g73 ,basement of ,station on the ,roman ,wall4 7,fig4 #h73 ,arch of ,roman gate at ,lincoln4 ,it was the north gate of the ,roman city of ,lindum1 and still forms the principal entrance into the city from the north4 ,there was a smaller arch on either side1 but only the one on the east remains4 ,it appears to have been without ornament of any kind4 7,fig4 #i73 ,a stone capital1 probably from the portico of a temple1 found at ,cilurnum 7,chesters74 ,it is elaborately sculptured with acanthus1 is #ag inches in height1 with a diameter1 at its widest part1 of #ah inches4 7,fig4 #aj73 ,a portion of the ,roman ,wall passing over a hill4 ,the ,roman ,wall consistently passed in a straight direction over the country1 and only swerved from a straight line to take1 in the route1 the boldest elevations4 7,fig4 #aa73 ,section of the ,wall in ,northumberland4 7a7 ,ditch of the ,wall2 7b7 the stone wall2 7c7 the military way2 7d7 the ditch of the vallum2 7e7 the vallum 7of earth74 ,,roman ,,arms1 ,etc4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #h4 7,fig4 #a73 ,a ,roman galley 7from ,pompeii74 7,fig4 #b73 ,a ,roman ,eagle4 ,this was mounted on a pole and carried before the ,legion4 ,the soldiers rallied round it and fought for its honour4 ,it corresponded with the regimental flags of our time4 7,fig4 #c73 ,a ,roman sword4 ,this was remarkable for the shortness of its blade4 ,it was suspended from a shoulder belt passing over the left shoulder1 so that the sword hung on the right side1 a custom which was possible on account of the shortness of the blade4 ,the length was about twenty-two inches4 ,the blade was straight1 of uniform width1 double-edged1 and cut at the end in an obtuse angle to form the point4 7,fig4 #d73 ,a short sword or sword dagger4 7,fig4 #e73 ,scabbard of the same4 7,fig4 #f73 ,a ,roman ,centurion1 with an oval shield1 such as was generally carried by horse soldiers4 ,the body was protected by a metal cuirass formed of back and breast plates1 strapped together at the sides1 and fastened by broad belts passing over the shoulders4 ,at the lower part of the cuirass were two bands of leather1 one showing underneath the other1 the edges of both being tagged or scalloped4 ,below this double border there was a kind of leather skirt1 reaching nearly to the knee4 ,a military cloak or mantle was picturesquely draped over the shoulder4 ,metal greaves covered the shins1 and sandals1 which were often highly ornamented1 covered the feet4 7,fig4 #g73 ,a ,roman laminated cuirass worn by the heavily armed troops4 ,it consisted of lames or plates of steel encircling the body1 with curved lames passing over the shoulders1 and several lames hanging vertically over the lower part of the trunk4 ,they were sewn or rivetted to a tightly-fitting leather garment4 7,figs4 #h1 #i and #aj73 ,roman helmets1 all fitted with neck pieces to guard the neck--,figs4 #h and #i with cheek pieces1 hinged and fastening beneath the chin4 7,fig4 #aa73 ,another form of shield1 differing entirely from that in ,fig4 #f4 8,it is elongated and convex oblong1 somewhat resembling a hollow watercourse tile40 ,it was carried by the legionaries1 and was about #b ft4 #f in4 long4 ,it was strengthened1 at the top and bottom only1 or all round1 with additional bands of metal4 ,with this form of shield1 the well-known testudo or tortoise formation was made4 7,fig4 #ab73 ,a ,roman sandal of leather4 ,,saxon ,,weapons4 ,the ,saxon arms were the spear1 the axe1 the sword1 the dagger1 the long-bow1 and the arrow4 ,the defensive armour consisted of helmet1 shield1 and byrnie4 ,the ,spear was the chief weapon of the ,saxons4 ,it was of two forms3 7#a7 #i or #aj ft4 long1 for use against cavalry or as a cavalry weapon1 and 7#b7 about #f ft4 long1 for use as a javelin or throwing spear4 ,when the latter was used1 it was generally carried in pairs4 ,the spear1 or1 rather1 the spear-head is always found in ,saxon graves1 as it was buried with its owner4 ,the shaft was generally of ash4 ,the ,axe was a very characteristic weapon of the ,saxon and kindred races1 but it is very seldom found in graves4 ,there were several forms1 particularly a long1 tapering blade 7,fig4 #f7 and a broader blade 7,fig4 #g74 ,sometimes the axe-head was mounted on a short handle1 and at other times on a long shaft1 to form a pole-axe1 as shown in the ,bayeux tapestry4 ,the ,sword was essentially the cavalry weapon1 and was the weapon of the upper classes1 no person below the rank of ,thane carrying it4 ,the earliest swords which have been found have no quillon or cross guard4 ,the sword was usually about #c ft4 long1 the blade being #cj in4 long and about #b in4 wide near the hilt4 ,it was double-edged1 and tapered slightly towards the point4 ,it usually had a wooden scabbard1 and was often ornamented with gold and precious stones on the hilt4 ,the dagger or knife was a very general weapon1 and has been found in many graves4 ,it varies considerably in size4 ,the soldier probably carved his food with the same weapon with which he stabbed his enemy4 ,the long-bow was not in general use among the ,saxons4 ,our knowledge of it1 and of arrows also1 is mainly from ,,mss4 ,it is a disputed point whether the ,english used the bow at ,hastings1 for only one archer is depicted on the ,english side4 ,for defensive purposes1 the soldier wore a helmet of metal1 or of leather strengthened with metal bands and rims1 and he carried a shield4 ,the latter was of wood1 and was circular or oval in form4 ,the centre was formed of metal1 and was called a boss or umbo4 ,as the shield was buried with a warrior1 many umbos have been found in the graves1 the wooden portion of the shield having decayed4 ,in early ,saxon times1 a protective garment called a byrnie was worn by the leaders4 ,it may have been mailed or quilted and padded4 ,in later times1 when the nation was in a more prosperous condition1 the use of this garment probably became much more general4 ,at the time of the ,norman conquest1 there was very little difference in arms and equipment between the ,normans and ,saxons1 on account of the intercourse between the two ,courts4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #i4 7,fig4 #a73 ,a ,saxon spear-head1 #aj in4 long1 with a socket for the shaft1 found in ,southwark4 7,guildhall ,museum1 ,london47 7,fig4 #b1 #c and #d73 ,saxon spear-heads1 from ,,mss4 ,the lateral projections from the shaft were probably guards1 to prevent the shaft being severed by a sword cut4 7,fig4 #e73 ,a spear-head of different form4 7,fig4 #f73 ,a ,saxon taper axe-head1 #c in4 wide and #f in4 deep1 found in the ,thames4 7,guildhall ,museum1 ,london47 7,fig4 #g73 ,another and broader form of axe-head4 7,fig4 #h73 ,a ,saxon sword from an #hth century ,,ms4 7,figs4 #i and #aj73 ,sword handles1 found in ,cambridgeshire4 7,fig4 #aa73 ,umbo of ,saxon shield4 7,fig4 #ab73 ,saxon dagger or knife1 with ornamental wooden handle4 7,figs4 #ac1 #ad and #ae73 ,saxon arrow-heads4 7,figs4 #af and #ag73 ,saxon helmets4 7,fig4 #ah73 ,saxon bow1 from a ,,ms4 ,,saxon ,,costume1 ,a4,d4 #dfj-;,a4,d4 #ajff4 ,the main sources from which we obtain our knowledge of ,saxon ,costume are the illuminated ,,mss4 remaining to us4 ,the earliest ,,ms4 we have was written ,a4,d4 #gbj1 about #bjj years after the ,saxon ,conquest4 ,of this long period we have no reliable record4 ,we know1 however1 that on their first appearance in ,britain1 they were not so advanced in civilisation as the inhabitants1 who had gained a considerable advantage1 in this respect1 from the ,roman occupation4 ,the only reliable source from which information can be gained of this period is in the tumuli or graves4 ,in these have been found weapons and many personal ornaments of a rich character4 ,saxon ,male ,costume4 ,a kind of shirt1 reaching to the knee1 worn next to the skin1 was the universal1 and1 in the case of the humblest1 the only garment1 and it was always made of linen4 ,over this was worn a tunica1 which was generally short1 but1 in the case of persons of high rank1 it was worn longer4 ,it fitted closely around the neck1 and was cut open in front1 being also often open at the sides from the hips to the hem4 ,sleeves were worn to this garment1 and for many years were worn rucked upon the fore-arm in a very peculiar manner1 probably so that the sleeves could be drawn down over the hands in cold weather4 ,the hem was often decorated with embroidered work4 ,a short cloak1 or mantle1 was generally worn over the tunica1 fastened by a fibula or brooch upon the right shoulder or in the centre of the chest4 ,in the case of a person of high degree1 a larger cloak was also wrapped around the figure4 ,the head was generally uncovered1 except in time of war4 ,the hair was worn long1 reaching down to the shoulders1 parted carefully in the centre1 and tucked behind the ears4 ,when the head was covered1 a cap of the ,phrygian shape 7,fig4 #h7 was worn4 ,persons of distinction1 like the members of the ,witan1 wore a sugar-loaf shaped cap4 ,the beard was worn either round or long and flowing4 ,in the latter case1 it was divided in the centre like a fork1 and was called the 8bifid0 beard4 ,the breeches were tight to the leg1 and sometimes wide at the bottom1 reaching to the middle of the thigh4 ,stockings were worn1 either long enough to join the breeches or short1 reaching nearly to the knee4 ,the rustic frequently wore no stockings4 ,civilians often bound strips of coloured cloth1 and soldiers strips of leather1 around their stockings1 forming what is called cross-gartering4 ,their shoes were generally low1 and had an opening up the instep4 ,female ,costume4 ,the female costume was also very simple1 and consisted of a long1 tight-sleeved garment1 the gunna or gown1 reaching to the feet1 with a tunic over this1 reaching to the knees4 ,the tunica was girdled at the waist1 and had wide sleeves extending to the elbow4 ,a wide mantle1 a characteristic feature of the costume of both men and women1 covered the upper part of the body1 and a head-rail or hood consisting of a piece of material adjusted over the head1 was always worn4 ,when making a journey1 a large travelling cloak was also worn4 ,no illustration shows the complete arrangement of the hair1 but1 as the women of ,continental nations at this period wore it in long plaits1 we may conclude that the same fashion was followed here2 but the hair was always covered4 ,a kirtle was also probably worn1 corresponding in form to the garment now known as a 8princess petticoat40 ,military ,costume4 ,there was but little difference between the civil and military costume of the men4 ,in ,,mss41 soldiers are often represented with no other weapon than a shield or spear1 or an axe or a bow with arrows1 and attired in ordinary costume4 ,occasionally1 one is represented wearing a kind of cuirass formed of scales1 made of overlapping slices of horn sewn upon coarse linen4 ,during the reigns of ,edward the ,confessor and ,harold ,,ii41 owing to the constant intercourse between the ,english and the ,norman ,courts1 the ,english adopted many of the customs and much of the costume of the ,normans1 so that1 among the upper and military classes1 at any rate1 when ,william of ,normandy invaded ,england1 the members of the two opposing armies were armed and attired in a very similar manner4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #aj4 7,fig4 #a73 ,a ,saxon rustic1 wearing only a solitary garment1 with a pointed cap which has a comb1 and shoes4 7,cott4 ,,ms41 ,claudius ,b4 iv47 7,fig4 #b73 ,a ,saxon lady1 attired in 7#a7 the gunna1 7#b7 the tunica1 7#c7 the mantle1 7#d7 the head-rail4 7,harl4 ,,ms41 #b1ijh47 7,fig4 #c73 ,a ,saxon1 dressed in 7#a7 the tunica1 7#b7 the mantle1 7#c7 breeches1 with cross-gartered stockings1 and shoes1 and 7#d7 a banded ,phrygian cap4 7,after ,mrs4 ,ashdown47 7,fig4 #d73 ,saxon1 showing the bifid beard and the arrangement of the hair4 7,cott4 ,,ms41 ,claudius ,b4 iv47 7,fig4 #e73 ,an ,english ,freeman1 wearing a tunica1 with short stockings and shoes1 and armed with sword1 spear1 helmet1 and shield4 7,from a ,,ms47 7,fig4 #f73 ,a ,saxon soldier1 wearing a tunica covered with a mantle1 stockings1 and shoes1 with spurs4 7,note the manner in which the mantle is fastened on the right shoulder47 ,he is armed with a spear1 and has his head covered with a conical helmet4 ,as is pointed out above1 the military costume did not differ from the civil costume1 except as regards the helmet and the arms4 7,figs4 #g to #ab73 ,saxon head-dresses4 7,fig4 #g73 ,a form of the square helmet4 7,fig4 #h73 ,a ,phrygian-shaped cap of leather1 bound with metal2 the bifid beard is also shown again4 7,fig4 #i73 ,another form of the square helmet1 with a kind of crest or comb4 7,fig4 #aj73 ,a pointed helmet of simple form4 7,fig4 #aa73 ,a pointed hat serrated along the back like a cock's comb4 7,fig4 #ab73 ,the commonest form of helmet1 a conical cap with a rim1 probably of metal4 7,the other form of beard is shown in this figure47 7,figs4 #ac1 #ad and #ae73 ,saxon shoes1 from ,,mss4 7,figs4 #af and #ag73 ,saxon crowns1 from ,,mss4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #aa4 7,fig4 #a73 ,a ,saxon monarch represented as seated on a throne1 wearing a square crown1 and holding a sceptre in his right hand4 ,he is attired in a richly embroidered tunica and a mantle of ample proportions1 gathered up with a brooch on the left shoulder4 ,his stockings are cross-gartered and ornamented at the knees and in the lozenges formed by the gartering4 7,cott4 ,,ms41 ,tiberius ,cvi47 7,fig4 #b73 ,a fiddler1 wearing the tunica1 long stockings and shoes4 7,,ms41 ,tib4 ,cvi47 7,fig4 #c73 ,a gleeman or juggler1 attired similarly to the fiddler4 7,from the same ,,ms47 7,fig4 #d73 ,a husbandman1 engaged in digging4 7,from ,,ms41 after ,strutt47 7,fig4 #e73 ,a blacksmith1 working at the anvil4 7,from ,,ms41 after ,strutt47 7,fig4 #f73 ,a ,saxon king1 with a bifid beard1 on the seat of judgment1 crowned and attired in a tunica1 covered with a short mantle1 which is fastened in the centre of the chest by a brooch of rectangular form4 7,fig4 #g73 ,a ,saxon noble1 with long hair and a bifid beard1 holding a sword of characteristic ,saxon form4 ,he is wearing an ornamented tunica reaching to the ankles1 and over it a voluminous mantle4 ,his head is covered with a conical helmet4 ,the rucking of the sleeve on the fore-arm is plainly shown4 7,figs4 #f and #g from a ,,ms41 after ,strutt47 7,fig4 #h73 ,a ,saxon horn-blower1 attired similarly to the fiddler and gleeman 7,figs4 #b and #c71 from the same ,,ms4 7,fig4 #i73 ,a carpenter at work with an axe4 7,from a ,,ms41 after ,strutt47 7,note4--,in ,figs4 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #h and #i1 all the heads are bare47 7,figs4 #aj to #ad73 ,saxon personal ornaments1 buckle1 rings1 etc41 found in tumuli4 ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,architecture4 ,buildings erected from about #ejj ,a4,d4 to #ajej ,a4,d4 are called ,anglo-,saxon1 or simply ,saxon1 in their style4 ,the ,romans built in stone and brick1 but the ,english1 when they conquered ,britain1 razed the ,roman buildings to the ground1 and built their own structures of wood4 ,it is interesting to note that the ,saxon word for 8build0 was 8getimbrian10 to construct of wood4 ,from the middle of the #eth century1 for nearly #gjj years1 until the time when the ,norman ,castle arose1 well-nigh every building of architectural merit was in some way or other connected with the ,church4 ,the ,english were essentially workers in wood1 and profoundly ignorant of masonry4 ,the churches that sprang up all over ,england after the conversion of the country to ,christianity were1 no doubt1 of wood1 and even in the #ith and #ajth centuries we hear of 8the worm-eaten walls of cathedrals40 ,they were decorated internally with paintings in various bright colours1 and the ornamentation was of metal work1 bronze or the precious metals4 ,before the end of the #gth century1 stone churches were built at ,york1 ,ripon and ,hexham1 the latter being largely built of materials from the ,roman ,wall1 which passes within a short distance of the place1 and ,roman inscribed slabs have been used in forming the roof of the crypt4 ,bede tells us that ,benedict crossed the sea to ,gaul1 and carried back with him masons to build churches of stone1 8after the manner of the ,romans that he loved10 at ,monkwearmouth and ,jarrow1 about #fhj ,a4,d4 ,each of these churches contains portions which are1 without doubt1 from their rude construction1 parts of the original fabrics of ,benedict4 ,anglo-,saxon stone churches were small1 rectangular or cruciform in shape1 and without aisles4 ,a lofty tower1 without buttresses1 stands at the west end1 or at the intersection of the nave and transepts4 ,the walls were usually of rubble or small stones1 of very irregular shape1 covered with 8rough cast0 or plaster4 ,the kind of masonry termed 8herring-bone0 is often used1 and ,roman bricks1 taken from the ruins of earlier buildings1 seem to have been freely used4 ,it is probable that the sides of the towers terminated in acutely pointed gables1 from which the roof is carried up1 as at ,sompting ,church1 in ,sussex4 ,the towers were without staircases1 the different storeys being reached by means of ladders4 ,the old church at ,bradford1 in ,wiltshire1 is one of the most perfect specimens of the ,anglo-,saxon class4 ,it is probably the small1 original church of the ,abbey1 built by ,adhelm1 in the #hth century 7,a4,d4 #gje74 ,it is constructed of ,bath stone1 and it is considered1 on account of the fineness of the building1 that there may have been a certain amount of later restoration4 ,in the #ith century1 many churches were destroyed by the ,danes1 and ,canute rebuilt many churches which his father and his followers had destroyed4 ,but1 for a period before the year #ajjj ,a4,d41 the building of churches stopped on account of the expected millenium4 ,after that date1 when the hopes and fears of the people had proved groundless1 the building of churches commenced again with renewed vigour4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ab4 7,fig4 #a73 ,the ,anglo-,saxon tower of ,earl's ,barton ,church1 ,northants4 ,at the angles1 there are 8quoins10 or corner-stones1 formed of long stones set upright1 alternately with others laid horizontally1 and technically known as 8long and short work40 ,the surface of the walls is also divided up by 8pilaster strips10 which are an imitation in stone of wooden construction1 and are evidently intended to bind together the rude masonry of the walls4 ,it is 8the design of a carpenter executed by a mason40 ,the parapet is comparatively recent in construction4 7,fig4 #b73 ,tower arch of ,anglo-,saxon character at ,barnack1 ,northants4 ,barnack was one of the places where the old church was burnt by the ,danes1 in their raid through that part of the country1 and rebuilt by order of ,canute after the settlement of the ,danes4 ,the impost mouldings 7b7 appear to have been suggested by a pile of boards overlapping4 7,fig4 #c73 ,an enlargement of the belfry window 7a1 ,fig4 #a74 ,double windows are usually round-headed or triangular-headed4 ,the lights or single windows are not separated by a stone moulding1 but by a kind of shaft or 8baluster10 set in the middle of the wall1 and supporting the impost4 7,fig4 #d73 ,belfry window in the tower of ,deerhurst ,church 7#ajej ,a4,d474 ,the windows are triangular-headed1 the head being formed of two straight stones placed obliquely1 and meeting at a point4 7,fig4 #e73 ,a window at ,caversfield1 ,bucks1 with small opening and very wide 8splay40 ,this window is splayed1 or widened out1 both outside and inside1 the window itself being set in the middle of the wall1 so that the wicker-work or oiled parchment1 that did duty as a glass1 was protected from the weather4 7,fig4 #f73 ,section of ,anglo-,saxon wall1 which consisted of two rows of fairly regular stones1 the intervening space being filled with irregularly shaped stones1 embedded in mortar1 the latter comprising nearly half the substance of the wall4 ,the layer of stones in the interior of the building was generally plastered over4 7,fig4 #g73 ,an ,anglo-,saxon triangular-headed doorway4 7,figs4 #h1 #i and #aj73 ,different forms of ,anglo-,saxon balusters4 ,,saxon ,,customs4 ,at meal-times the company sat down in the hall1 the master1 mistress1 and honoured guests taking their places at a 8high0 table placed on a dais at the upper end of the apartment4 ,dinner was generally served either at noon or at about #c o'clock in the afternoon4 ,the walls were decorated with coloured and embroidered curtains1 for ,english ladies and their maidens were famed for their skill with the needle in embroidery and decorative needlework4 ,the tables consisted of boards laid upon trestles1 which could be easily removed when1 the meal being over1 the ladies retired to the bower and the men settled down to drinking4 ,sometimes the tables were bare1 at other times covered with a table-cloth4 ,some ,,mss4 show a circular table arranged for the meal4 ,on the table appear the round cakes which served the ,saxons as bread1 also dishes containing meat1 fish1 and other food4 ,a few spoons and razor-shaped knives1 and drinking vessels of varying sizes and shapes1 were also placed upon the table4 ,while the meal was in progress1 wandering minstrels played on their instruments and sang2 jugglers and conjurers delighted their patrons with feats of balancing and sleight-of-hand2 while others danced and postured1 or exhibited the feats of dancing bears and other animals that they led about4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ac4 7,fig4 #a73 ,a dinner party standing at a long table4 7,after ,strutt47 ,,ms41 ,claud4 ,b4 v4 7,fig4 #b73 ,a dinner party seated around a circular table with embroidered curtains behind them1 and serving men waiting upon them4 7,after ,strutt47 ,cott4 ,,ms4 ,tiberius ,cvi4 7,fig4 #c73 ,a ,saxon bed4 7,after ,strutt47 ,,ms41 ,claud4 ,b4 iv4 ,an apartment called the bower or bur was used chiefly by the women and children for sleeping and dwelling in4 ,sometimes there were recesses in the wall1 covered by curtains1 and in these the beds were placed4 ,the bed furniture consisted of bolster1 pillows1 coverlets1 and sheets1 and1 as far as can be gathered from the ,,mss41 the sheets were wrapped about the naked body4 7,fig4 #d73 ,a dancing girl with musicians4 7,after ,strutt47 ,cott4 ,,ms41 ,cleopatra ,c4 viii4 ,in ,,mss41 women are represented almost invariably with the head covered by a hood or head-veil even when they have retired to rest 7,fig4 #c71 and we may assume that it was considered disgraceful for a woman to appear in public with the head bare4 ,when women are represented with the head uncovered they are people whose calling was considered more or less of a questionable character1 as dancers1 strolling players1 etc4 7,fig4 #e73 ,a labourer threshing corn with a flail4 7,from a ,,ms4 after ,strutt47 ,,saxon ,,farming4 ,both these figures are taken from an ,old ,english calendar of the eleventh century 7after ,strutt74 ,cott4 ,,ms41 ,julius ,a4 vi4 ,this calendar is arranged as in a modern almanack1 with a page to each month and a line to each day4 ,at the foot of each page there is a drawing1 typical of the work carried on during that month4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ad4 7,fig4 #a73 ,january4 ,this month was called by the ,english1 when heathen1 8,wolf-monath10 because the wolves were most troublesome at this period of the year4 ,when the ,english became ,christians it was called 8,aefter-,yule10 i4e41 ,after-,christmas4 ,here there is a ploughing scene4 ,four oxen yoked together in couples are drawing a plough of a very solid-looking type4 7,in those days horses were not employed in farm work47 ,a farm-hand1 bare-headed1 bare-footed1 and wearing only a single garment1 is goading the oxen with a sharp-pointed ox-goad1 similar to a long spear in appearance4 ,a man in superior attire is guiding the plough1 while another is scattering seed as the plough passes4 ,a good representation of the plough of that period is shown here4 7,fig4 #b73 ,august4 ,this month was called by the ,english 8,arn-moneth0 or 8,barn-moneth10 i4e41 8harvest-month40 ,this drawing gives a representation of a farm wagon of good construction1 and of the costumes of the workers1 who appear to be of at least two grades--some bare-footed1 wearing a single garment1 while others have better-cut garments1 and wear shoes and stockings in addition4 ,at the head of a party is a man with a spear in his right hand1 blowing a horn1 who may be either superintending the work or may be the 8advance guard0 of a hunting party entering the field4 ,the implements1 sickles1 and forks appear to be very similar to those in use at the present time4 ,,saxon ,,antiquities4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ae4 7,fig4 #a73 ,a long ,saxon drinking glass1 ornamented with raised and decorated ribbons of glass4 ,the bottom is rounded1 so that when filled with liquid it had to be emptied at one draught4 7,british ,museum47 7,fig4 #b73 ,another form of ,saxon drinking vessel4 7,british ,museum47 7,fig4 #c73 ,old ,english bronze vessel found in a barrow at ,taplow1 in ,bucks1 in #ahhc1 now in the ,british ,museum4 7,fig4 #d73 ,a silver spoon 7,anglo-,saxon7 found at ,sevington1 in ,wiltshire1 in #ahcd4 7,british ,museum47 7,fig4 #e73 ,great ,seal of ,edward the ,confessor4 ,the ,king is represented crowned and seated upon the throne1 bearing the sceptre in his right hand and the orb in his left4 ,edward here calls himself 8,by the ,grace of ,god1 ,king of the ,english10 using the ,greek and not the ,latin term4 7,figs4 #f and #g73 ,a silver penny of ,alfred the ,great1 minted at ,london--7#f7 the obverse bearing ,alfred's portrait and name2 7#g7 the reverse with the word 8,londini0 7as a monogram74 7,figs4 #h and #i73 ,a silver penny of ,edgar the ,peaceful--7#h7 the obverse2 7#i7 the reverse4 7,figs4 #aj1 #aa1 and #ab73 ,three views of ,king ,alfred's jewel4 ,this was found near the site of ,athelney ,abbey1 ,somersetshire1 in #afic4 ,fig4 #aj1 the obverse1 is faced with an oval plate of crystal1 having under it a miniature of a man1 in enamelled mosaic 7probably ,st4 ,neot1 ,alfred's special protector71 holding in each hand a fleur-de-lys4 ,fig4 #aa1 the reverse1 is a detached plate of gold bearing a fleur-de-lys ornament4 ,fig4 #ab1 the edge1 on which is inscribed 8,,aelfred ,,mec ,,heht ,,gewyrcan0 7,alfred bid me be wrought74 ,the stalk end bears a grotesque figure1 apparently the head of a sea monster4 ,it may have been the head of a stylus or pen1 or have served as a standard in battle4 7,ashmolean ,museum1 ,oxford47 7,fig4 #ac73 ,an ornamented fibula or brooch at ,goldsborough1 ,yorkshire4 7,british ,museum47 7,fig4 #ad73 ,an ,anglo-,saxon comb--,st4 ,cuthbert's comb1 at ,durham ,cathedral4 ,,danish ,,vessels1 ,etc4 ,illustration3 ,plate #af4 7,fig4 #a73 ,a ,norseman's boat found in a peat bog at ,nydam1 in ,south ,jutland1 in #ahfc4 ,it is clincher-built of oak1 is large1 open and pointed at both ends1 and is designed only for rowing1 as there is no trace of a mast and no arrangement for stepping one4 ,it is #gh ft4 between the high points at the stem and the stern1 and #aj ft4 #i in4 broad amidships4 ,it was rowed with fourteen pairs of oars1 which are like those still used in the ,north1 and are #aa ft4 #b in4 long4 ,the rudder is narrow1 and was fastened to one side of the boat near the stern end4 ,during the latter part of the heathen times1 boats were drawn up on land for the winter or when they were not wanted for some time4 ,this boat has holes at the ends for the ropes by which it was hauled up on land4 7,montelius' 8,civilization of ,sweden407 7,fig4 #b73 ,a ,danish vessel reconstructed from a representation of a ,danish ship from the ,,ms4 of ,caedmon ,bodl4 ,junius ii41 c4 ,a4,d4 #ajjj4 ,it is steered1 like the one in ,fig4 #a1 by a rudder fastened near the stern of the ship on the side still called the starboard or steer-board4 7,fig4 #c73 ,noah's ,ark4 ,another drawing from the same ,,ms4 ,the ,ark is represented in the form of a ,danish ship1 showing the dragon's head at the bows and the stern4 ,it is interesting1 also1 as it illustrates the fact that when the old illuminators wanted to represent any circumstance--,biblical or classical--pictorially1 they made use of the material they saw around them1 copying the buildings1 the ships1 the persons1 and the costumes of their own time1 so that ,,mss4 form very reliable contemporary evidence of these things4 7,fig4 #d73 ,a ,danish sword found in the ,river ,withalm1 very similar in general design and construction to the ,saxon sword illustrated on ,plate #i4 7,fig4 #e73 ,a ,jutish or ,danish shield1 made of wood with a bronze rim and a boss or umbo of bronze in the centre1 of the period before ,a4,d4 #dej1 found in ,jutland4 ,,norman ,,customs4 ,the ordinary costumes of people in early ,norman times differed little from that of the ,saxons4 ,at first the ,norman warriors were clean-shaven1 but after settling in ,england the courtiers gave way to a love of finery4 ,they wore long1 embroidered garments with long white sleeves1 and they allowed their hair and beards to grow long so that they incurred the reproach of the clergy1 who called them 8filthy goats40 ,the ,norman ladies also changed from the simplicity of their costume to a great extravagance of shape and material4 ,the gowns were very ample1 and were sometimes worn with a kind of train4 ,the general garments of the men were the tunic1 the super-tunic1 and the mantle4 ,the upper classes wore a garment next to the skin1 under the tunic1 called the just-au-corps2 but amongst the lower classes the tunic was worn next to the skin4 ,the ,tunic was made of linen or cloth1 had short sleeves1 and reached at first to the knees1 but later to the ground4 ,over this was worn a super-tunic corresponding to the ,saxon tunica1 with tight sleeves1 reaching to the wrist1 and subject to the same modification as the tunic4 ,the mantle was similar to the ,saxon mantle1 but was fuller4 ,in later ,norman times it was made of the finest cloth1 and was lined with rich furs4 ,there were several forms of cap1 as illustrated in the plate4 ,the lower limbs were covered with a kind of trousers called chausses4 ,the shoes in early ,norman times were quite plain1 but later they were very elaborate1 coloured1 and had pointed toes4 ,the costume of ,norman ladies consisted of a robe1 a mantle1 and a couvre-chef4 ,the robe was worn with long sleeves1 and in later times with long pendulous strips at the wrists1 often of such a length that they had to be tied into knots to keep them from trailing on the ground4 ,the skirt of the robe was long1 full1 and hung in folds on the ground4 ,the mantle was worn over the robe1 and the head was covered1 as in ,saxon times1 with a head-veil1 which was now called the couvre-chef4 ,the hair was worn plaited into two long tails4 ,from illustrations in ,,mss4 it is seen that the costumes of the lower classes during ,norman times were similar to those worn during the three preceding centuries4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ag4 7,fig4 #a73 ,the figure of ,queen ,matilda1 wife of ,henry ,i4 ,the sculptured effigies of these two sovereigns are the earliest of those of ,english sovereigns in existence1 and are at ,rochester ,cathedral4 ,they are mutilated1 but still show clearly the details of royal costume4 ,in the figure of ,matilda the hair is plaited into two tails4 ,she wears a long robe girded at the waist and having long sleeves4 ,over this she wears a long mantle4 7,fig4 #b73 ,costume of a young man of the middle classes4 7,representing ,david with a sling in ,cott4 ,,ms41 ,nero ,c#d47 ,he wears a long tunic reaching to the ankles1 having a collar1 long cuffs extending nearly to the elbow1 and an embroidered border along the bottom4 ,he also wears tight-fitting chausses1 and the lower parts of his legs are covered either with high boots or with leg bandages4 7,fig4 #c73 ,costume of an older man4 7,from the same ,,ms41 representing ,noah with an axe about to build the ,ark47 ,he wears a ,phrygian hat with a band around it1 a long1 full tunic with hanging sleeves1 and a green mantle bordered with gold thrown over it4 ,he appears to be wearing stockings reaching to the knees1 and his shoes are ornamented with diagonal lines crossing each other4 ,he has long hair and a moustache and beard4 ,this is considered to be a good example of the ordinary costume of the time4 7,figs4 #d and #e73 ,examples of a covering for the lower part of the leg4 7,from the same ,,ms47 7,fig4 #d73 ,a swathing for the leg worn by shepherds1 similar in appearance to the hay bands of the modern carter4 7,fig #e73 ,shows a leg of the breeches ornamented with diagonal stripes ending at the ankle1 where there is a band or garter4 ,no shoes are worn1 as frequently appears to have been the case when persons were on a journey4 7,fig4 #f73 ,a sock or half-boot ornamented around the top4 7,fig4 #g73 ,a ,norman shoe with stocking4 7,fig4 #h73 ,a shoe of later ,norman times1 decorated with bands and coloured4 7,fig4 #i73 ,pointed military shoe from a seal4 7,figs4 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac73 ,the four commonest forms of head-dress in use4 7,fig4 #ac73 ,shows that called the cowl4 7,fig4 #ad73 ,figure of a ,norman lady showing the robe with long sleeves1 the mantle1 and the couvre-chef4 ,,norman ,,arms ,,and ,,armour4 ,the military costumes of the early ,normans and the ,saxons were very similar on account of the intercourse between the ,courts of ,england and ,normandy at the time immediately preceding the ,conquest1 and much of our knowledge of ,norman military costume is obtained from the ,bayeux ,tapestry4 ,the arms in use among the ,normans were the sword 7which only soldiers of superior rank were allowed to carry71 the axe1 the lance or spear1 the mace1 and the bow and arrows4 ,the sword was1 as might be expected1 of the same type as the ,danish or ,norse sword--straight1 long1 and double-edged1 with a slight taper to the acute point4 ,the scabbard was worn on the left side1 and was suspended by a cord or strap around the waist4 ,the axe was of various forms1 as may be seen from the plate4 ,the lance or spear was generally similar to that used by the ,saxons1 but had a pennon with several points4 ,sometimes several lances were carried1 and were probably thrown as javelins4 ,the mace is depicted several times in the ,bayeux ,tapestry4 ,the bow and arrows played an important part in the ,battle of ,hastings1 and were of the form used by the ,saxons4 ,the defensive armour consisted of the helmet1 the hauberk1 and the shield4 ,the helmet was generally conical in shape1 with a nasal or nose-piece of iron to guard the forehead and nose against a horizontal stroke4 ,the nasal was fixed or movable4 ,sometimes there was a peak behind the helmet to protect the neck4 ,the nasal was generally discarded about #aadj4 ,the hauberk1 or military tunic1 was a garment in one piece1 fitting almost tightly to the person and reaching to the knees1 with sleeves reaching to the elbow4 ,occasionally it appears to have ended in close-fitting trousers at the knee4 ,the hauberk was of quilted and padded material or of leather1 covered with metal rings or plates or studs of metal and leather1 and formed a very effective body armour4 ,the plated or mailed tunic of ,william ,i4 and his followers was superseded early in the twelfth century by a defensive hauberk1 covered1 as before1 with various straps and plates of metal1 or more generally formed of interwoven ring or chain mail4 ,the legs and feet were enveloped in simple bandages or fillets bound around them4 ,the shield completed the defensive equipment1 and was generally long1 rounded or oval at the top1 with a pointed base1 so that the shape resembled that of a kite4 ,many of them were decorated 7according to the ,bayeux ,tapestry74 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ah4 7,figs4 #a and #b73 ,the ordinary costumes of ,norman soldiers4 ,each is clothed in a military hauberk1 which fitted the body very closely1 and was probably slit a little before and behind4 ,in the case of these two the hauberk ends in close-fitting trousers to the knee4 ,the heads are protected by conical helmets with nasal pieces1 fitting over hoods of mail4 ,in ,fig4 #a the warrior is armed with a sword1 an axe1 and a spear4 ,the shield is of the kite shape4 ,the hauberk is covered with ringed mail1 and the sleeves reach to the wrist4 ,in ,fig4 #b the sleeves reach to the elbow only1 and are covered with rings1 but the body is covered with what is known as 8trellised0 armour1 formed of strips of leather fastened on a body of quilted cloth and crossing each other diagonally1 with knobs of steel fastened in the angular spaces as an additional protection4 ,he holds in his hand a gonfanon or lance with a small flag--carried only by the leaders of the army4 7,fig4 #c73 ,a ,norman sword4 7,from the ,bayeux ,tapestry47 7,fig4 #d73 ,two ,norman soldiers1 each carrying a decorated shield and spear1 one being armed with a sword4 ,each wears a flat-topped helmet1 one only being fitted with a 8nasal40 ,the shield of the right-hand one is curved to the form of the body4 ,the hauberks of mail are shown1 and also the tunics worn under them reaching nearly to the knee4 7,figs4 #e and #f73 ,norman axes4 7,from the ,bayeux ,tapestry47 7,fig4 #g73 ,a ,norman archer4 7,from the ,bayeux ,tapestry47 ,dressed in a close-fitting vest with narrow sleeves1 and full breeches1 gathered apparently above and below the knee1 and ornamented with large red spots4 ,he carries a quiver of arrows slung over his back4 ,other archers are represented in the ,tapestry fully dressed in ringed mail4 7,fig4 #h73 ,the head of a mounted soldier4 7,from the ,bayeux ,tapestry47 ,a peculiar custom existed among the ,normans at the ,conquest of shaving the back of the head as well as the face4 ,when spies sent by ,harold reconnoitred the ,norman camp1 they saw the ,normans with shaven heads1 and they returned with the news that 8the ,duke had far more priests than knights or other troops40 7,fig4 #i73 ,guy1 ,count of ,ponthieu4 7,from the ,bayeux ,tapestry47 ,he is armed with an axe1 and wears a hauberk of scale armour4 ,these scales were either of iron1 bronze1 or cuir bouilli4 7,the latter was leather which had been softened by boiling in oil and stamped or moulded into a definite form while in that condition4 ,when it was dry it became very hard and tough47 ,he also wears a mantle gathered on the right shoulder1 but has no head covering4 ,,the ,,bayeux ,,tapestry4 ,the ,bayeux ,tapestry is a valuable picture of the manners and costumes of the ,normans and the ,english about the time of the ,norman ,conquest4 ,it is traditionally recorded to have been worked by ,queen ,matilda 7the wife of ,william the ,conqueror7 and the ladies of her ,court1 to commemorate the invasion and conquest of ,england by her husband4 ,there is no evidence to prove this1 and consequently there is much doubt about it2 but it is held on the best authority that though the ,tapestry is a contemporary work1 ,queen ,matilda had no part in its manufacture1 since it was probably ordered for his cathedral by ,bishop ,odo 7the half-brother of ,william ,i471 and made by ,norman workers at ,bayeux4 ,it is preserved in the ,hotel-de-,ville at ,bayeux1 and consists of a long band of linen about #bca ft4 long and #bj in4 wide4 ,it is divided into #gb scenes or compartments1 separated from one another by trees or buildings1 worked in the material in a conventional manner4 ,on it are represented #fbc people1 #bjb horses and mules1 #ee dogs1 #eje other animals1 #cg buildings1 #da ships and boats1 and #di trees1 making a total of #a1eab objects4 ,it has always been known as 8tapestry10 but it is really an enormous piece of woolwork or embroidery1 yet it has been known so long by the previous name that it will probably continue to bear it4 ,no attempt has been made to depict the figures in their natural colours1 for we find horses coloured yellow1 red1 blue1 and green1 and perspective has been totally disregarded4 ,but 8if the drawing be rude1 the composition is bold and spirited1 and is always rendered with great truth of expression1 which is1 at times1 exaggerated40 ,the narrow border which runs along both the top and the bottom of the ,tapestry 7,pl4 #ai1 ,fig4 #c7 is for the greater part not connected with the thread of the story1 and is decorated with animals1 real and fabulous1 and scenes of husbandry and the chase2 but in some parts it contains allegorical allusions to the scenes depicted4 ,over most of the scenes are worked ,latin inscriptions in ,roman capitals about an inch high1 explaining the pictures4 ,the reasons for supposing that1 although not made by ,matilda1 it is nevertheless contemporary work1 are3 7#a7 ,the accurate representation of the civil and military costumes of the eleventh century4 7#b7 ,the attempt to represent ,edward the ,confessor and ,william ,i4 as they appeared on their seals4 7#c7 ,certain words used in it suggest an ,english origin1 but admit of the explanation that the dialect spoken in ,bayeux was a mixture of ,saxon and ,norman4 7#d7 ,the prominence given to ,odo and to less-known persons4 7#e7 ,the introduction of the local form of wine barrel and certain dialectic peculiarities of the district4 ,the ,bayeux ,tapestry is not mentioned in any historical document until #adgf1 when it appears among an inventory of the ornaments of the ,cathedral of ,bayeux4 ,in #aebb its safety was threatened by the ,calvinists who pillaged the cathedral1 but it was restored to the authorities and was used to decorate the nave on festive occasions4 ,it remained forgotten till #agbd1 when1 a drawing having been made of it by an antiquarian1 public interest was aroused in it1 both in ,france and in our own country4 ,in order to preserve it1 it was lined and strengthened1 for it was used to decorate the nave for eight days at the time of ,st4 ,john's ,day4 ,it has passed through many vicissitudes1 and once or twice it was nearly destroyed1 but a number of the leading inhabitants of ,bayeux formed themselves into a committee to protect it4 ,napoleon ,i4 went to see it1 and was much impressed by it when it was exhibited in ,paris4 ,it was afterwards returned to ,bayeux1 where it was visited by ,mr4 ,charles ,stothard1 a clever and accurate young artist1 and at the request of the ,society of ,antiquaries of ,london he made drawings of it1 the work occupying him for two years4 ,in #ahdb the ,municipal ,council of ,bayeux provided a permanent resting place for the ,tapestry in the ,hotel de ,ville1 where it is still exhibited under glass1 and where it has been visited by artists and archologists from every part of the world4 ,during the ,franco-,german war it was taken down1 sealed in a zinc cylinder1 and hidden away till all danger was past4 ,in #ahga permission was given to the ,english ,government to make a photographic reproduction of the ,tapestry1 and a copy of this full-sized reproduction1 coloured after the original1 is now preserved at ,south ,kensington4 ,the ,tapestry commences with a picture of ,edward the ,confessor1 and continues with scenes illustrating ,harold's visit to ,normandy2 his capture and appearance before ,william2 his taking the oath of allegiance to ,william2 his return to ,england and to ,edward the ,confessor2 the death of the latter2 the crowning of ,harold2 the preparations made by ,william 7building ships1 assembling soldiers1 collecting food and arms7 for the invasion of ,england2 the passage of the ,english ,channel2 the landing at ,pevensey2 the march to ,hastings2 the preparations for the fight2 a long and spirited picture of the battle1 illustrating various incidents in it and culminating in the death of ,harold and the flight of the defeated ,english4 7,the writer wishes to express his great obligation for the above to ,mr4 ,frank ,r4 ,fowke's very complete work on ,the ,bayeux ,tapestry4 ,geo4 ,bell and ,sons47 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ai4 ,the figures illustrate the following scenes3 7,fig4 #a73 ,duke ,william came to ,pevensey4 ,a very clear idea is obtained of the general character of a ,norman ship and the manner in which it is steered by an oar on the starboard 7steer-board7 side1 etc4 ,this ship1 the ,mora1 bearing ,william1 was given him by ,matilda1 his wife1 and bears on the stern an effigy of his little son ,rufus1 blowing a bugle and holding a banner4 7,fig4 #b73 ,harold made an oath to ,duke ,william4 ,william is shown seated on a throne while ,harold1 one hand on an altar and the other on a reliquary containing the sacred relics1 is taking the oath4 7,fig4 #c73 ,a scene in the ,battle of ,hastings4 ,the ,english ,army withstanding the charge of the ,norman horsemen after receiving a flight of ,norman arrows4 ,most of the ,english are armed with javelins and shields1 few with axes and swords4 ,one figure is shown using the bow1 and he is the only one thus armed on the ,english side4 ,it has consequently been asserted by some authorities that bows were not used by the ,english in the battle1 but1 as ,mr4 ,fowke says1 8this seems to be hardly correct literally 444 though 444 the use of the bow as a weapon of war in our country was then probably rare40 ,this scene shows the whole width of the ,tapestry with the two borders1 the upper containing allegorical figures1 and the latter displaying the fallen warriors4 ,it may be noted that throughout the picture of the battle the arms and accoutrements of both ,normans and ,english are similar1 probably accounted for by the close intimacy that existed between the two countries4 7,fig4 #d73 ,here is seated ,harold1 ,king of the ,english2 ,archbishop ,stigand4 ,harold was crowned in ,westminster ,abbey on the same day that ,edward was buried in the same building4 ,he is represented seated on the throne1 wearing the crown on his head and holding the sceptre in his right hand and the orb in the left4 ,stigand1 who1 the ,normans allege1 crowned ,harold1 is shown standing at his left side4 ,,early ,,norman ,,architecture4 ,norman1 ,anglo-,norman1 or ,romanesque architecture was called by the former name because it followed the ,norman style4 ,it is found in ,normandy itself1 in ,england1 in ,italy1 and ,sicily--in fact1 wherever the ,northern conquerors established themselves4 ,its chief characteristics are solidity and strength--walls of enormous thickness1 huge masses of masonry for piers1 windows comparatively small1 and a profusion of peculiar ornaments4 ,the earliest ,norman work in ,england--as the transepts of ,winchester ,cathedral--is almost as plain as ,anglo-,saxon2 but the ,norman churches are larger and higher than those of the ,anglo-,saxon period4 ,they are generally cruciform in shape1 with a square tower over the intersection of the nave and transepts4 ,the towers are not lofty1 but are very solid1 and usually contain windows with two lights4 ,in a number of instances the choir ends in a semi-circular apse after the ,roman style4 ,early ,norman work was much plainer than that of the later period2 the arch is not recessed1 or only once recessed1 the edges are square1 or have a plain round moulding cut in them1 and the zigzag ornament 7,pl4 #bj1 ,fig4 #ad7 is used1 though not so abundantly as at a later period4 ,windows are generally plain1 small1 and round-headed1 and consist of single lights except in belfry windows4 ,doors are square-headed under a round arch4 ,the simplest form is a narrow1 round-headed opening with a plain dripstone4 ,but ,norman windows are not met with as frequently as doors1 since they have1 in many cases1 been destroyed to make room for those of later styles4 ,in ,england the ,norman style is usually assigned to the eleventh century1 and in the latter half of it the transition to the ,early ,english style took place4 ,it was introduced into ,england in the reign of ,edward the ,confessor1 who was more ,norman than ,english1 and who himself founded the ,abbey of ,westminster4 ,some buildings were of a mixed character 7,anglo-,saxon and ,norman71 some in the old style1 others altogether in the new4 ,soon after the ,norman ,conquest1 the ,norman ,bishops who supplanted ,englishmen in ,english sees and abbacies in very many instances commenced to rebuild the cathedrals and churches from their foundations4 ,the entire ,english fabric was usually pulled down1 and a new building was erected on a much larger plan and in a better manner4 ,it is chiefly in remote places1 where the inhabitants were too few and too poor to rebuild and enlarge their churches1 that we find remains of the original ,anglo-,saxon work4 ,early ,norman masonry is very rude1 the joints between the stones being filled with a great thickness of mortar1 from one to three inches thick 7this is called 8wide-jointed0 masonry71 and the stonework was usually rubble4 ,in the later work the joints are comparatively fine 78fine-jointed0 masonry74 ,the ,normans were very active builders4 ,william ,i4 and his son1 ,william ,,ii41 built one hundred and ninety-five religious houses during their reigns1 and all the cathedrals and great churches in the eleventh century were rebuilt1 while many new ones were founded2 though it is said that of the many churches commenced in the reigns of these two kings but few were completed until after #aajj ,a4,d4 ,gundulph built the ,cathedral of ,rochester1 while certainly ,st4 ,albans and ,ely were also commenced in the reign of the ,conqueror4 ,in the earliest work the ornament was not characterised by the same profusion so common in later work4 ,it was shallow1 and cut with the axe1 as the chisel was little used at that time4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bj4 7,fig4 #a73 ,pillar with spiral fluting in ,waltham ,abbey 7founded by ,harold ,,ii47 ,the spiral grooves were originally filled with chased and gilt metal4 ,of the twelve pillars in the ,abbey two are indented spirally and two with chevrons4 ,the others are plain4 7,other instances of this work on the pillars may be found at ,durham1 ,lindisfarne1 and ,kirkby ,lonsdale74 ,the arches are decorated with the indented zigzag ornament4 7,fig4 #b73 ,flat ,norman buttress 7,iffley1 ,oxfordshire74 ,the buttresses at first were merely flat1 pilaster-like projections1 wholly devoid of ornament4 7,figs4 #c to #h73 ,norman capitals4 ,these were either plain1 cubical masses with the lower angles rounded off1 forming a rude cushion shape 7,fig4 #c71 or they have a rude kind of volute cut upon the edges of the angles 7,fig4 #h1 from ,st4 ,john's ,chapel in the ,white ,tower74 ,the scalloped capitals 7,figs4 #f and #g7 belong to a later period4 ,this form of capital is most common in all the first half of the twelfth century4 ,the capital is the member by which the styles are more easily distinguished than by any other4 ,the abacus 7,a1 ,fig4 #d7 is square in section4 7,figs4 #i to #ad73 ,norman mouldings1 which were almost endless in variety4 ,they were most abundantly used in doorways and other arches and in horizontal strips4 ,the most general is the zigzag 7,fig4 #ad74 7,fig4 #i73 ,the star4 7,fig4 #aj73 ,the round billet 7a square billet is also used74 7,fig4 #aa73 ,the billet and lozenge4 7,fig4 #ab73 ,the beak-head4 7,fig4 #ac73 ,the bead course4 7,fig4 #ad73 ,the zigzag or chevron4 7,fig4 #ae73 ,early ,norman pier1 recessed at the angles1 and square edges1 in ,st4 ,alban's ,abbey1 #ajhj ,a4,d4 7,fig4 #af73 ,norman doorway with recessed pillars and decorated head1 at ,st4 ,mary's1 ,shrewsbury4 7,fig4 #ag73 ,norman chamfer4 ,,later ,,norman ,,architecture4 ,the ,earlier period of ,norman architecture may be approximately closed in #aabj ,a4,d4 7fifty-four years after the ,battle of ,hastings74 ,in the ,later period the chisel took the place of the axe in the cutting of the ornament4 ,consequently there is a fineness and a more finished style of work1 which could not be executed with the latter tool4 ,the ,later or rich ,norman style is chiefly characterised by the abundance of the ornament and the deep cutting4 ,sculpture1 which was sparingly used in the earlier work1 was frequently added to it at a later period1 and as the style advanced1 greater lightness and enrichment were introduced4 ,it is said that through the ,crusades men saw the architecture of many cities1 and their return from the wars was marked by a striking change not only in the masonry1 but in the character and feeling of ,norman work4 ,it is said1 also1 that the ornaments in ,later ,norman work and in the ,transition period which followed often partook very much of a ,greek1 ,byzantine1 or ,oriental character4 ,st4 ,bartholomew's ,church1 ,smithfield1 is a good specimen of ,norman work4 ,it was the church of the ,augustinian ,priory1 founded #aabc ,a4,d4 by ,rahere1 the ,king's minstrel4 ,the rich doorways of this period form one of the most important features of ,later ,norman work4 ,they are considered to be the most beautiful and characteristic specimens which remain to us1 and the most elaborate workmanship was bestowed upon them by the ,normans4 ,they are generally round-headed and very deeply recessed1 and frequently have several small shafts at the sides of the doorway4 ,the tympanum or semi-circular space above the door within the arch is frequently filled with rich sculpture 7,pl4 #ba1 ,fig4 #b74 ,the mouldings are richly overlaid with ornament1 which1 though of a peculiar and rude character1 produces great richness of effect4 ,the west door of ,rochester ,cathedral is a very striking instance of this4 ,the windows are1 in general1 long and rather narrow1 round-headed openings4 ,many of them were ornamented very richly in the same manner as the doors with zigzag and other mouldings4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ba4 7,fig4 #a73 ,very rich ,norman sculpture from ,shobdon ,church1 ,herefordshire1 about #aahj ,a4,d4 7,fig4 #b73 ,south door1 ,kilpeck ,church1 ,herefordshire1 showing the richly ornamented arch1 the decorated tympanum1 and richly sculptured pillars at the sides4 7,figs4 #c and #d73 ,ornamented capitals from ,york ,minster4 7,fig4 #e73 ,ornamented capitals from ,st4 ,john's ,abbey1 ,chester4 7,fig4 #f73 ,capital preserved in the ,chapter ,house of ,westminster ,abbey1 carved with the story of the ,judgment of ,solomon4 7,fig4 #g73 ,pointed arch with pure ,norman mouldings and scalloped capitals from ,malmesbury ,abbey1 ,wiltshire1 #aace-aaci ,a4,d4 ,it is generally assumed that all ,norman arches are round1 but the pointed arch1 taken by itself1 is no proof of change of style4 ,the semi-circular arch is the characteristic form of the ,norman arch1 but there are a few ,early examples in which the pointed arch is used1 supported by massive piers4 7,figs4 #h and #i73 ,bases of ,norman columns4 ,,norman ,,castles4 ,when ,duke ,william of ,normandy invaded ,england in #ajff1 the existing type of fortification called a burh was a moated hillock1 either wholly or partly artificial1 surmounted by a timber stockade enclosing a wooden house or tower4 ,he repaired and enlarged many of the existing strongholds1 and also built many new wooden castles4 ,but in order to overawe the conquered ,english he erected in the larger towns square stone keeps or castles1 like the ,white ,tower in the ,tower of ,london4 ,gundulph1 ,bishop of ,rochester1 the great architect in the reign of ,william ,i41 built the latter in #ajha ,a4,d4 ,it is one of the best examples that we have of ,early ,norman work1 and is a huge quadrangular structure more than #ajj ft4 square1 built of rudely coursed rubble1 with a vast amount of mortar4 ,many of the existing ,norman keeps were founded in the reigns of ,william ,i4 and ,william ,,ii41 but were rebuilt at a later period4 ,these keeps were usually square or rectangular towers of stone 7not having much height in proportion to the breadth71 with small1 slightly projecting square turrets at each angle1 and one or more flat buttresses up the centre of each face1 with a dividing wall passing up through the centre of the building from the ground4 7,pl4 #bb1 ,fig4 #c1 ,b ,c47 ,comparatively speaking1 the windows were generally small1 and the walls exceedingly thick4 ,those of the ,white ,tower are #ae ft41 and of ,carlisle ,castle #af ft4 thick4 ,the connecting passages and staircases were constructed in the thickness of the masonry4 ,norwich ,castle1 for its size1 is a perfect type of the square ,norman keep1 and ,castle ,hedingham is another4 ,many magnificent stone keeps were built or rebuilt in the reign of ,henry ,i41 such as ,rochester1 ,newark1 ,corfe1 and ,chepstow4 ,henry ,,ii4 was also a great builder of keeps1 and those of ,dover1 ,canterbury1 ,scarborough1 and ,newcastle are shown by the ,pipe ,rolls to have been his work4 ,the solidarity of the keep made it impregnable against the siege operations of the day4 ,such a building could not be battered down1 and at best it could only be injured by undermining4 ,this was done by removing the earth from an angle of the building and gradually introducing wooden props4 ,a fire was then kindled about them1 and as the props burnt through1 the wall fell4 ,the square keep was followed by the polygonal and the round ones4 ,coningsburgh is circular1 ,berkeley is circular flanked by four towers1 and ,oxford is polygonal4 ,the base of the keep was generally 8battered0--i4e41 sloped outwards 7see ,fig4 #a7--to give a firmer foundation and also that it might better withstand the operations of the sapper4 ,very few of the existing keeps have openings in the lower storeys1 which were used either as dungeons or store rooms1 and were only accessible by a trap-door from above4 ,generally there were two floors1 occasionally three floors above the basement4 ,one of these floors is assumed to have been the hall1 and in the larger keeps the floor above it may have been reserved for the use of the ladies of the household4 ,in the latter half of the twelfth century small mural chambers1 probably for use as bedrooms1 became more frequent4 ,in many keeps there were chapels1 but every one contained a well1 so that when besieged the occupants would not have to depend on outside sources for the supply of water4 ,dover ,castle still has a well which is capable of supplying fresh water1 although the keep is on the summit of a high cliff4 ,there were no kitchens in ,norman keeps1 as the cooking was either done on the roof or in a special building in the yard4 ,fire-places were not invariable4 ,in the ,white ,tower1 where for a long time it was supposed that there were no fireplaces1 holes in the wall have been found which probably answered the purpose of chimneys4 ,there was only one entrance1 perhaps some #bj feet above the ground1 sometimes approached by a removable wooden staircase1 sometimes by a fore-building with elaborate precautions for defence4 ,the only ornamentation to be found is at the entrance doorway1 on the staircase1 or in the chapel4 ,the keep soon had outer defences added to it--ditches1 palisades1 and outer walls of masonry4 ,into the outer defences the cattle and stores from the surrounding country would be brought1 and the dwellings of the soldiers of the garrison1 together with the domestic offices and stables1 were erected within these4 ,it is more usual to find the keep at one end than in the centre of the system of walls1 and the whole was surrounded by a moat4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bb4 7,fig4 #a73 ,newcastle ,keep1 founded in #ajhj ,a4,d4 ,the battlements are of later date4 ,in this keep there is a large room in the thickness of the wall1 known as the ,king's ,chamber1 and another which is assigned to the ,queen4 7,fig4 #b73 ,rochester ,castle1 which was probably entirely rebuilt in the twelfth century on another site4 ,the parapet or battlements are considered to be the original ones4 7,fig4 #c73 ,plan of the middle floor of the ,white ,tower 7,tower of ,london74 ,a is ,st4 ,john's ,chapel1 and the circular stairs are shown in the corner towers1 ,d ,d ,d4 ,b ,c is the parting wall running through the building4 7,fig4 #d73 ,a ,norman castle4 7,from ,grose's 8,military ,antiquities407 ,showing the general arrangements of the buildings1 etc4 ,,norman ,,seals ,,and ,,coins4 ,seals are held in the highest estimation as reliable contemporary authorities in ,english heraldry1 costume1 armour1 etc4 ,the matrix or die was usually of latten or bronze1 and in the case of large seals two dies were used--one for the front1 or obverse1 the other for the back1 or reverse--so that when complete the seal was similar to a coin or medal4 ,in the earlier seals pure white beeswax was used as the medium on which to impress the seal1 and at other times this was coloured--green1 red1 brown1 and nearly black4 ,there were two types of seals--,plaqu seals1 those impressed in wax direct on the document1 and ,pendant seals1 in which the wax impression was suspended by cords1 or a ribbon1 or strip of parchment from the document4 7,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c74 ,great precautions were taken with regard to the ,royal ,seals1 or the ,great ,seals1 as they were called4 ,seals may be classed as3 7a7 ,lay ,seals--7#a7 ,royal ,seal1 7#b7 ,personal ,seals1 7#c7 ,official ,seals1 7#d7 ,common ,seals of ,corporate bodies4 7b7 ,ecclesiastical ,seals--7#a7 ,official ,seals 7,bishops1 ,abbots1 etc471 7#b7 ,corporate ,seals 7chapters1 religious houses1 etc471 7#c7 ,personal ,seals4 ,many of the ,royal ,seals are very beautiful4 ,the ,great ,seal1 or the chief ,royal ,seal1 was1 and is still1 in the keeping of the ,chancellor1 who has to keep it in his personal custody wherever he goes4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bc4 7,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c73 ,pendant ,seals4 7,figs4 #d1 #e73 ,obverse and reverse of silver penny of ,stephen4 7,fig4 #f73 ,seal of ,anselm4 7,fig4 #g73 ,reverse of ,seal of ,henry ,i4 ,the obverse of ,royal ,seals bears a picture of the ,king seated on the throne in robes of peace1 and the reverse the ,king on horseback armed for war4 7,figs4 #h and #i73 ,obverse and reverse of a silver penny of ,william ,i4 ,at the ,conquest there was no change in the monetary system of ,england1 and a coinage of silver pennies only1 continued to be issued of the same character as under the ,saxon ,kings1 and the silver penny continued to be the only coin until the end of the reign of ,henry ,,iii4 ,the weight was about #ba grains4 7,fig4 #aj73 ,reverse of the ,royal ,seal of ,william ,i4 ,he is represented on horseback1 armed in a hauberk of leather on which metal rings are sewn4 ,a conical helmet is on his head4 ,he carries a typical kite-shaped ,norman shield on his left arm1 and bears a long lance with pennon in his right hand4 ,the motto or 8legend10 when translated1 reads3 8,know ye this ,william1 ,patron of the ,normans1 and by this seal recognise him ,king of the ,angles40 ,,the ,,joust ,,and ,,tournament4 ,it was natural that men whose profession it was to bear arms should engage in friendly contests with one another1 and in this way acquire skill in arms as well as indulge in a manly pastime4 ,when only two combatants fought1 it was called jousting4 ,if a friendly trial of skill only were intended1 the lances were blunt1 and if swords were used it was only with the edge which could not inflict a wound on a well-armed man4 ,this was the joute plaisance4 ,if the combatants fought with sharp weapons and put forth all their skill and force1 it was the joute l'outrance4 ,when a number of knights were engaged on each side1 it was called a tournament4 ,sometimes this was played with weapons of lath1 the players being arrayed in gorgeous costumes4 ,sometimes the tournament was a mimic battle1 and was then usually fought between hostile factions4 ,in a contemporary ,,ms4 in the ,british ,museum we have a detailed account of all the preparations for a contest of arms4 ,the heralds of the ,king1 noble1 or lady who designed to give a joust travelled to towns1 castles1 and sometimes from court to court of foreign countries1 clothed in the insignia of their office1 and made public announcements of the event in each place1 inviting knights to come and try their skill against the home champions4 ,in the ,,ms4 there is an account of all the equipment that is required by a knight for such an occasion3 a suit of armour and horse with trappings1 an armourer1 with hammer and pincers to fasten the armour1 two servants on horseback in suitable costume1 who are his squires1 and six servants on foot1 dressed alike4 ,as the fixed day approaches1 the visitors flock from all parts1 and find lodgings in the castle or in the town1 or else pitch their tents in a meadow near the ,castle4 ,a suitable piece of ground is selected1 barriers are put around it1 and 8grand stands0 are erected for the ladies and gentry4 ,on the day1 the knights rise up at sunrise and bathe1 and then are carefully armed1 by their squires and armourers4 ,then they come into the field1 with their helms borne before them1 and with servants 7squires7 carrying their lances4 ,they are announced by the heralds to the assembled company of 8ladyes and gentilwomen40 ,each of the strangers who comes to the field has to satisfy the officer-at-arms that he is a 8gentilman of names and armes10 and to take oath that he has no secret weapons or unfair advantage4 ,when this is satisfactorily completed1 they put on their helms1 and each of the home champions in turn runs two or more courses with a stranger knight4 ,a course is successfully run if each breaks his lance full on the breastplate or helmet of his adversary1 but neither is unhorsed2 and they retire amidst the plaudits of the spectators4 ,if a knight is unhorsed1 or lose his stirrup1 he is vanquished1 and retires from the game4 ,following that1 there is probably a miniature tournament between the home champions and the strangers4 ,at length1 when all have run their courses1 the knights remove their helmets before the ladies1 make their obeisance1 and retire to their lodgings to change4 ,then they return1 and a lady presents a prize to the one who is considered the best 8juster10 and prizes of less value to those who have taken the second and third places in the contest1 making a little speech suitable to the occasion4 ,the herald comes forward and announces3 8,john hath justed well1 ,richard hath justed better1 and ,thomas hath justed best of all40 ,a dance completes the function1 in which the champion knight leads off with the lady of the tournament4 ,there were two distinct ways in which the jousting took place3 7#a7 ,on an open course2 7#b7 with a barrier4 ,in the former1 the combatants usually started from the ends of the lists1 and met about the centre4 ,in the latter1 a wooden barrier was erected down the centre of the lists lengthwise1 and1 when the signal was given1 the combatants charged1 each of them having the barrier on his left4 7,fig4 #a47 ,for these two methods of jousting1 different arrangements of armour were worn2 for some1 the upper part of the body was armed more than the lower limbs1 and sometimes it was vice versa4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bd4 7,fig4 #a73 ,a joust between ,richard ,beauchamp1 ,earl of ,warwick1 and an opponent1 each charging on the left of the barrier4 ,the ,earl of ,warwick has his arms displayed upon his tabard1 and there is also a display of arms on the trappings1 or bardings1 of his horse4 ,this was not the first of the charges1 for a broken lance lies on the ground4 7,from the ,life of ,richard ,beauchamp1 ,earl of ,warwick1 written in ,,ms4 by a ,chantry priest of ,guy's ,cliff1 named ,rouse1 about #adhe47 7,fig4 #b73 ,the combat on foot after the charge4 ,the ,earl of ,warwick is armed with a lance1 and the other knight with a pole-axe4 ,several splintered lances on the ground show that the combat has been going on for some time4 ,the ,earl of ,warwick's crest1 8a bear with a ragged staff10 appears on his helmet1 while his adversary has a single large feather as crest4 ,,english ,,archers4 ,in ,saxon times1 little value was placed upon the bow as a weapon1 but1 after the decisive part it played at ,hastings1 its use was practised generally4 ,from early times1 archers carried long stakes1 sharpened at both ends1 and when they took up their position on the battlefield1 they stuck them into the ground before them1 with the points sloping outward1 to break up a cavalry charge which might be made against them4 ,in the #abth century1 ,english archers became renowned for their skill1 and ,richard ,i4 himself used the long-bow on more than one occasion4 ,by the end of the #acth century1 it had come into great prominence4 ,each archer--in later times1 at least--carried two dozen arrows under his belt1 and archers sometimes carried great movable shields1 which they fixed upright by means of rests1 and so sheltered themselves from the enemy's bowmen4 ,they also carried swords1 so that they could defend themselves1 if attacked1 hand to hand4 ,the great bow1 or long-bow1 was five feet long1 and was formed of yew1 which1 at a range of #bdj yards1 discharged a strong arrow1 sharp and barbed4 ,the arrows were usually 8a yard or an ell long10 but one1 now in the ,united ,service ,museum1 recovered from the 8,mary ,rose10 which sank in #aede1 is six feet long4 ,the archers always began the battle at a distance1 as the artillery do in modern warfare1 to disorganise the enemy before the main bodies came to actual hand-to-hand fighting4 ,the cross-bow1 or arbalest1 had been used in sport for many years1 but in the #abth century it came to be employed in warfare1 though its use was forbidden by the ,pope as 8being unfit for ,christian warfare40 ,it was driven out of use by the long-bow in ,england at the end of the #acth century4 ,in the ,continental armies1 it continued to grow in use in preference to the long-bow1 so that in time the long-bow became essentially an ,english arm4 ,there were several kinds of cross-bows1 which may be classified accordingly as the string was drawn back 7#a7 by hand1 7#b7 by means of a lever1 and 7#c7 by means of a wheel and ratchet4 ,the missiles shot from the cross-bow were short and stout1 and had heads of different forms1 and were called quarrels or bolts4 ,there were several reasons why the cross-bow was superseded by the long-bow3 7#a7 ,a good bowman could shoot about six arrows while a cross-bowman was winding up his bow and making one shot4 7#b7 ,the penetrative power of the arrow1 and the distance which it could travel1 were quite equal to those of the quarrel from the cross-bow4 7#c7 ,long-bowmen1 using their bows when held in a vertical plane1 could stand more closely together than cross-bowmen1 who had to discharge their weapons while holding them in a horizontal plane4 7#d7 ,greater skill and strength were required in handling the long-bow with precision than was the case with the cross-bow2 consequently1 more practice was necessary1 and more enthusiasm and confidence developed with the use of the former than with the latter4 ,of the archers who took part in the ,hundred ,years' ,war1 ,boutell says3 8,in those days1 the archers of ,england were the best infantry in the world2 but then their famous long-bow acquired its reputation1 in no slight degree1 from the fact that1 in peace1 archery was the favourite pastime of the ,english yeomanry40 ,crecy1 ,poitiers1 ,agincourt--indeed1 most of the great victories gained over the ,french--mainly resulted from the unrivalled skill of the ,english long-bowmen4 ,all our old writers are agreed upon the vast superiority of our ,english bowmen over those of other nations4 ,the ,scotch depended on their pikemen and the ,french on their men-at-arms4 ,the ,english archers were held in high esteem and trust by the ,english nobles1 and it was the custom for some ,english barons and distinguished knights always to join the archers in battle1 fighting side by side with them in their own ranks4 ,on the other hand1 the ,french nobles were very arrogant1 and despised the common people1 who were1 consequently1 made unfit to become good soldiers4 ,but the reputation of ,english archers rose so high that several foreign princes1 in the #aeth century1 deemed their armies materially reinforced if they could retain #bjj or #cjj ,english archers in their service4 ,in #acfc1 and again in #achh1 statutes were passed in ,england calling upon people to leave their popular amusements of 8ball and coits0 on their festivals and ,sundays1 and to practise archery instead4 8,servants and labourers shall have bows and arrows1 and use the same on ,sundays and holidays40 ,by an ordinance made in the reign of ,edward ,,iv41 every ,englishman or ,irishman dwelling in ,england was required to have a 8bow of his own height1 either of yew1 witch-hazel1 ash or auburne1 or any other reasonable tree1 according to their power40 ,butts were encouraged in every parish1 and traces of them still remain in the names of places1 as 8,newington ,butts40 ,henry ,v41 who was very proud of his ,english archers1 ordered the sheriffs of several counties to obtain geese feathers for his archers1 plucking six from each goose4 ,the arrows were carried in a quiver1 or bound together into a sheaf1 suspended from the waist-belt4 ,when the battle was about to commence1 the archer placed his arrows under his left foot1 point outwards1 or stuck them1 point downwards1 into the ground1 or into his girdle4 ,he was able to discharge his bow twelve times in a single minute1 at a range of #bdj yards1 and 8he1 who in these twelve shots once missed his man1 was very lightly esteemed40 ,in the reign of ,edward ,,iii41 a painted bow sold for #as4 #f;d41 a white bow for #as41 and sharp-pointed arrows at #as4 #b;d4 per sheaf of twenty-four4 ,as is well-known1 at ,crecy1 and in many other battles1 the ,english archers shot down or wounded the horses of the ,french knights so considerably that1 in their pain and terror1 the maddened horses upset the ranks of the cavalry and quite destroyed its efficiency4 ,at first1 archers were not protected by body armour1 but in later times they wore jazerine jackets1 consisting of overlapping pieces of steel1 fastened by one edge to a garment of canvas1 and then covered over with velvet or cloth4 ,a similar defensive garment of the #aeth and #afth centuries was the brigandine1 a specimen of which may be seen in the ,tower of ,london4 ,archers often wore salades1 or shell helmets1 which covered the head and eyes1 and sometimes had movable visors4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #be4 7,fig4 #a73 ,an ,english archer of the #aeth century1 wearing a salade with movable visor to protect the head4 ,it will be noticed that he has stuck some arrows into his girdle1 so that they may be 8handy0 for shooting4 ,see ,fig4 #h also1 and compare with ,fig4 #g4 7,from ,royal ,,ms41 #ad ,e4 iv47 7,fig4 #b73 ,an ,english salade4 ,this was worn by archers1 and it also formed the usual head-piece for soldiers about the time of ,henry ,,vi4 7,wars of the ,roses47 7,fig4 #c73 ,a ,brigandine1 from a specimen in ,warwick ,castle4 7,figs4 #d and #e73 ,quarrels1 quarells1 or bolts1 for shooting from the cross-bow or arbalest4 ,fig4 #d is feathered2 ,fig4 #e is from the ,tower of ,london4 7,fig4 #e;a73 ,a bird-bolt1 used for shooting birds from a 8sporting0 cross-bow4 7,fig4 #f73 ,an ,english arrow of the ordinary form during the ,middle ,ages1 showing the sharp projection of the barb1 which rendered the extraction a difficult and painful matter4 7,fig4 #g73 ,an ,english archer using the long-bow1 and cross-bowman winding up his cross-bow4 ,it will be noticed that the former is left-handed1 as the arrow was usually drawn back with the right hand and shot from the right shoulder4 ,he has arranged his arrows for shooting by sticking them1 point downwards1 into the ground at his side4 ,both he and the cross-bowman are wearing jazerine jackets1 but the former has a camail and a chain mail jacket beneath it4 ,the cross-bowman has1 hanging from his girdle1 a leathern bag1 to contain the quarrels for his cross-bow4 7,fig4 #h73 ,a sea-fight1 showing four archers using the long-bow1 one cross-bowman1 and one soldier using the military flail4 ,one of the archers has placed his arrows in his belt1 as in ,fig4 #a4 7,from the ,cambridge ,,ms4 of the 8,greater ,chronicles10 by ,matthew ,paris1 who died #abei ,a4,d47 ,,early ,,cannon4 ,the discovery of gunpowder1 which1 by degrees1 totally changed military tactics and the constitution of armies1 was the event that most powerfully influenced warfare in the ,middle ,ages4 ,very little is known about its actual invention4 ,it is supposed that ,greek fire1 which was used with such terrifying and destructive effect in warfare1 particularly in sieges1 consisted of the three ingredients of gunpowder1 with resin and naphtha in addition4 ,roger ,bacon1 an ,english friar1 discovered the secret of the composition of gunpowder in the latter half of the #acth century2 but ,schwartz1 a ,franciscan1 at ,cologne1 perfected it about a century later4 ,the use of cannon for siege purposes commenced in ,england in the armies of ,edward ,,iii4 ,froissart says that the ,english army used them against ,calais1 when besieging it in #acdg4 ,but there were very few made at first2 an important fortress like the ,tower of ,london1 in #acfj1 only mounting four guns1 while ,dover ,castle1 in #acgb1 had six4 ,when first introduced1 cannon were small and vase-shaped2 they were slow in fire1 and very liable to accidents4 ,they were called 8bombards10 and were mounted upon a wooden cradle or frame4 ,towards the end of the #adth century1 they had become of large dimensions1 firing heavy stone shot of from #bjj to #dej lbs4 weight4 ,all the shot were stone until1 because they did not do sufficient damage in battering down a wall1 it became the practice to bind and otherwise strengthen them with iron4 ,the earliest cannon were of the rudest possible description4 ,they were made of bars or thin sheets of iron1 arranged longitudinally over a wooden core1 in the form of a tube1 around which were welded iron hoops to hold them together4 ,in #acch there existed breech-loading guns1 with one or more movable chambers1 to facilitate loading1 but1 even then1 the fire was very slow2 8three shots an hour was fair practice for a big bombard40 ,it is not certain when wheeled carriages were introduced1 though mention is made of two-wheeled bombard carriages in #acgf2 but it must be remembered that the gun at first was looked upon as a substitute for the balista and other war machines employed in the siege of a fortified place4 ,its value as an effective and movable weapon on the battlefield was not realised for some time4 ,the powder was fired at first by the insertion of a red-hot wire1 but this was often very dangerous to the gunners1 because the gun was so liable to burst4 ,james ,,ii4 of ,scotland was killed by the bursting of a gun at the siege of ,roxburgh in #adfj4 ,it became the custom1 in the case of large bombards1 for a small train of powder to be laid from the ground leading to the touchhole4 ,the gunners fired the train1 and then hastily betook themselves to a place of safety4 ,the earliest known representation of a gun in ,england is contained in a ,,ms41 8,de ,officiis ,regum10 at ,christ ,church1 ,oxford1 of the time of ,edward ,,ii4 7#acbf74 ,it shows a knight in armour1 firing a short1 primitive weapon1 shaped something like a vase1 and loaded with an incendiary arrow--that is1 one charged with an inflammable substance4 ,firearms of this type were evidently very small1 as only #b lb4 of gunpowder was provided for firing forty-eight arrows4 ,from the beginning1 contrivances had been made to resist the recoil of the gun when it was fired2 heavy timbers1 etc41 were packed up against the breach to prevent the gun from flying backwards1 but this plan often brought about the bursting of the gun4 ,about the middle of the #aeth century1 trunnions 7small cylinders of solid metal projecting from the sides1 at right angles to the axis of the gun7 were formed with the gun1 and by means of these the recoil of the gun could be transferred to the carriage1 and the pivoting of the gun up and down on the trunnions made the laying and sighting an easier task4 ,stone cannon shot were employed until #aebj1 and1 when it was considered necessary to use very heavy projectiles1 correspondingly enormous guns had to be built4 ,mons ,meg1 a well-known gun in ,edinburgh ,castle1 of this large type1 is a wrought-iron gun of the #aeth century4 ,it is built of iron bars and external rings1 with a calibre of #bj inches1 and it fired a shot weighing #cej lbs4 ,bronze guns1 of a great size1 were cast in #adfh at ,constantinople1 and one of them is now in the ,rotunda at ,woolwich4 ,it was actually used in warfare against the ,english at the ,dardanelles1 in #ahjg4 ,to show the destructive power of such a large piece of ordnance1 even though a crude and ancient construction1 it may be mentioned that the stone shot1 weighing #gjj lbs41 which was fired from it against the ,english fleet1 cut the mainmast of the ,british flagship in two1 and another killed and wounded sixty men4 ,these old #aeth century guns in the battle altogether accounted for six of our men-of-war damaged and #abf men killed and wounded4 ,the gun at ,woolwich is in two pieces screwed together4 ,the front part has a calibre of #be inches for the reception of the shot1 and a rear portion1 forming a powder chamber1 #aj inches in diameter4 ,the whole gun weighs nearly #ah tons1 and was presented to ,queen ,victoria by the ,sultan of ,turkey4 ,late in the #aeth century1 guns began to be more regularly employed on the battlefield4 ,in the #afth century1 the extremely large guns were discarded1 and small1 wrought-iron guns were made1 this change being due to the use of cast-iron shot1 which was as destructive as the more bulky stone shot formerly used4 ,in #aeba the first bronze gun was cast in ,england1 cast-iron cannon being made also in #aedj1 by foreign workmen1 introduced into this country by ,henry ,,viii4 to teach the ,english the art4 ,the first foundry was at ,uckfield1 in ,sussex1 and ,sussex iron was used1 smelted with charcoal4 ,the small gun of this period was made very long1 and a specimen is to be found in ,dover ,castle4 ,it is known as ,queen ,elizabeth's ,pocket ,pistol1 and is #bd feet long1 with a bore of #d inches4 ,it was cast in #aedd1 and was presented to ,henry ,,viii4 by ,charles ,v4 ,generally speaking1 the ,english were much behind other nations in the use of artillery until the end of the #ahth century4 ,the quality of the gunpowder used in the early days of the cannon was very poor4 ,the ingredients were often mixed on the spot at the time of loading1 and the powder burnt slowly1 with but little strength1 and naturally varied from round to round4 ,when the more fiercely-burning granulated powder was introduced into ,england1 in the middle of the #aeth century1 it was often too strong for the larger pieces of that date1 and could only be used for small firearms for more than a century afterwards4 ,in the #agth century1 bronze and cast-iron guns were strengthened1 and were more adapted to the use of grained powder1 and1 at the same time1 more energy and greater range were obtained4 ,illustration3 ,plate #bf4 7,fig4 #a73 ,bombard or mortar of a very early date4 7,from a ,,ms47 7,fig4 #b73 ,vase-shaped bombard of a date posterior to the reign of ,henry ,,iv4 ,it is fastened to a wooden bed or trough1 which rests on a movable pivot in a stout square timber frame4 7,from a ,,ms47 7,fig4 #c73 ,a soldier with a hand-gun fitted to a stock4 7,from a treatise1 8,de ,re ,militari10 printed #adgb47 7,fig4 #d73 ,an early gun1 in a primitive gun-mounting4 ,it is supported on a massive timber framing at each side1 while the flat breech is resting against a strong wooden support1 driven into the ground1 to prevent recoil4 7,from ,mallet's 8,construction of ,artillery407 7,fig4 #e73 ,a gun as used during the chief part of the #aeth century4 ,it is fixed on the swivel principle1 being suspended between the branches of an immense fork of iron4 ,the elevation or depression of the gun was effected by means of a large iron bar1 in the form of a scythe1 standing in a vertical position4 ,the whole thing is fixed on an iron plate fastened on a massive bed of oak4 7,fig4 #f73 ,a hand-gun of the reign of ,edward ,,iv41 fired by means of a match4 7,from ,roy4 ,,ms41 #ae ,e4 iv47 7,fig4 #g73 ,a gun called a ,peterara1 of the time of ,edward ,,iv41 in the ,rotunda at ,woolwich1 made of bars of iron laid longitudinally1 and bound together with iron hoops4 ,the powder chamber is seen1 with the handle to raise it1 and there is a locking arrangement1 so that it cannot be blown out when the gun is discharged4 ,it has trunnions1 and is fastened into the metal frame1 which supports it on the wooden carriage4 7,fig4 #h73 ,a cannon of the #aeth century1 more of the form of the mortar1 supported in a wooden framework4 7,from ,roy4 ,,ms41 #ad ,e4 iv47 ,a #aeth ,,century ,,ship4 ,illustration3 ,plate #bg4 ,this engraving1 taken from ,rouse's ,,ms4 #8,life of ,richard ,beauchamp1 ,earl of ,warwick' 7,british ,museum1 ,julius ,e4 iv471 of the latter part of the #aeth century 7#adhe7 gives a very clear representation of a ship and its boat4 ,the ,earl is setting out on a pilgrimage to the ,holy ,land4 ,in the foreground1 we see him1 with his pilgrim's staff in hand1 stepping into the boat which is to carry him to his ship1 lying at anchor in the harbour4 ,the costume of the sailors is illustrated by the men in the boat4 ,the vessel is a ship of burden1 but such a one as kings and great personages had equipped for their own use1 resembling an ordinary merchant ship in all essentials1 but fitted and furnished with more than usual convenience and sumptuousness4 ,in ,earl ,richard's ship1 the sail is emblazoned with his arms1 and the pennon1 besides the red cross of ,england1 has his badges of the bear and ragged staff4 ,the ragged staff also appears on the castle at the masthead4 ,the castle1 which all ships of this age had at the stern1 is1 in this case1 roofed in and handsomely ornamented1 and1 no doubt1 formed the state apartment of the ,earl4 ,there is also a castle at the head of the ship1 known as the forecastle1 though it is not very plainly shown in the drawing4 ,it consists of a raised platform2 the round-headed entrance to the cabin beneath it is seen in the picture2 the two bulwarks also1 which protect it at the sides1 are visible1 though their meaning is not at first sight obvious4 ,incidentally1 also1 are shown the costumes of the men-at-arms1 with the small1 round1 close-fitting cap1 and the various forms of shafted weapons4 ,no one is in armour4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,laird ,clowes1 in 8,social ,england10 describing this picture1 says3 8,the ship is clincher-built 7i4e41 the planks overlap one another71 with a rudder and roofed stern-cabin or round-house4 ,in the bulwarks of the waist are apertures 7not portholes71 through which cannon are pointed4 ,the mainmast has shrouds1 a top and one large square sail4 ,the mizen is much smaller1 and has one sail1 which is reefed4 ,the top is ornamented with the ,earl's device1 a ragged staff4 ,from above it floats what in the bill 7still preserved7 of ,seburg 7painter70 and ,ray 7tailor7 is described as 8a grete stremour of forty yards length1 and seven yardes in brede1 with a grete ,bear and ,gryfon holding a ragged staff1 poudrid full of ragged staves and a grete ,crosse of ,st4 ,george40 ,,brasses4 ,as many references have been made in this work to 8,brasses10 and a number of the illustrations of armour and costumes are taken from them1 it is fitting that a section should be devoted to so important a series of national records4 ,monumental ,brasses are plates of brass1 embedded in stone slabs1 which have been placed over graves in the floors of our churches and cathedrals4 ,their use began early in the thirteenth century1 and took the place of the carved stone slabs1 which had1 up to this time1 served as sepulchral monuments4 ,their value is as great as their interest1 for they represent very accurately1 and with the weight of contemporary authority1 the costumes and armour of our ancestors4 ,they are found from the reign of ,edward ,i4 down to the time of ,cromwell1 and may be seen in many churches throughout the length and breadth of the land4 ,there are between three and four thousand that are known to exist at the present time1 these forming1 however1 only a small proportion of the number originally existing4 ,at the ,reformation1 particularly in the reigns of ,henry ,,viii4 and ,edward ,,vi41 and during the time of ,cromwell1 when the fanatical ,puritans ravaged our churches and cathedrals1 many thousands were torn up and sold as old metal2 while during the misguided 8restorations0 of many of our churches very large numbers have disappeared or have been destroyed4 ,in most cases where the brasses remain they are in excellent condition1 notwithstanding the fact that they have been trodden over by generations of worshippers4 ,on account of the great hardness of the metal of which they are composed1 they are almost as fresh and 8sharp0 now as when they left the hands of the engravers4 ,there is an additional advantage which the brass possesses over the stone monument1 and that is that the brass is found as a memorial of members of every class of society--the knight1 the noble1 the bishop1 the abbot1 the priest1 the nun1 the lord of the manor1 the judge1 the lawyer1 the ,university don1 the merchant1 the wool-stapler1 the yeoman1 women of every rank1 and even the schoolboy1 have their brasses4 ,in speaking of their value as historical records1 ,mr4 ,macklin says3 8,brasses give a complete pictorial history of the use and development of armour1 dress1 and ecclesiastical vestments from the thirteenth to the end of the seventeenth century4444 ,all these 7members of every class of society7 we see1 not in fancy sketches1 but in actual contemporary portraits40 ,perhaps one of the greatest values of the brass is that it is a great and authentic record of middle-class costume during the ,middle ,ages4 ,light1 too1 is thrown by them upon the social conditions and customs of the people1 for example1 when1 during the ,wars of the ,roses1 practically every noble was ranged under one or other of the rival banners1 we find there was a great increase in the number of brasses of the middle classes1 showing that in the midst of civil strife not only were they unaffected to any appreciable degree1 but that the property and wealth of the middle and trading classes were actually on the increase4 ,the material of which the brasses were made consisted of #fj parts of copper1 #cj of zinc1 and #aj of lead and tin4 ,this gave a very hard alloy1 which would stand very hard usage4 ,it was called latten or laton1 and until the reign of ,elizabeth was manufactured exclusively in ,flanders and ,germany--particularly at ,cologne1 whence they were often termed ,cullen plates4 ,they were imported into ,england in rectangular plates of the required thickness4 ,when the plates were manufactured in ,england1 they were very much thinner1 and consequently more liable to injury2 so that though they are not nearly so old as the earlier brasses1 they are yet in a much worse condition4 ,in the fourteenth1 fifteenth1 and sixteenth centuries brasses were manufactured in great quantities1 and the work gave employment to many people4 ,it is probable that the engravers worked in guilds established in ,london1 ,norwich1 ,ipswich1 and ,bristol4 ,the figure was drawn 7generally in a recumbent position1 with the hands in the attitude of prayer7 upon the flat brass plate1 and then the lines of the armour1 the folds of the drapery1 and the features1 etc41 were deeply cut into the metal4 ,after these lines had been engraved1 the whole figure was cut out of the plate just as a child cuts out a figure from a picture4 ,a brass consisted of the following parts3 7#a7 ,the figure or figures2 7#b7 heraldic devices and armorial bearings on shields2 7#c7 mottoes or epitaphs2 7#d7 other subsidiary figures or ornaments 7angels1 canopies1 etc474 ,in the ,english brass each of these elements was cut out separately and placed in position upon a stone slab4 ,the outline was then marked round each1 the brasses were lifted off1 and the stone cut away in the portions thus marked out1 to a depth equal to the thickness of the brass4 ,the plates were then placed in position in this stone matrix1 the surfaces of the brass being level with the surface of the stone1 and each piece was fastened down by means of metal screws4 ,in a number of cases1 part or even the whole of the brasses on a slab have disappeared1 but the empty matrix clearly shows the general form of the missing parts4 7,fig4 #a47 ,we have in ,england a few magnificent brasses of a different kind that were manufactured and engraved entirely in ,flanders or ,north ,germany1 and they are known as ,flemish brasses4 ,the great difference between the ,english and ,flemish brasses is that in the former the figures were cut out of the rectangular sheets of metal1 and the lines of the drawing were bold and few in number as was compatible with clearness2 whereas in the latter the brass was kept in a rectangular form1 and the whole plate was engraved as the plate of a picture might be4 ,the figures were incised upon a background which was entirely filled in with diapered ornaments and suitable heraldic devices and patterns1 while the inscription was engraved around the edge of the plate4 ,in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the inscriptions on all brasses were in ,norman ,french2 in the fifteenth century they were in ,latin2 and in the sixteenth century in ,english4 ,in the reigns of ,edward ,i41 ,,ii41 ,,iii41 and ,richard ,,ii41 the brasses rose to their highest quality and magnificence4 ,the figures were usually life-sized2 the lines were deeply and boldly cut1 and there was an absence of 8shading10 the brass being usually a pure1 outline1 incised drawing4 ,in the reign of ,edward ,,ii41 architectural canopies were often introduced 7,fig4 #a71 and then the figures were consequently made less than life-size4 ,at first only knights and ladies were represented1 but in the reigns of ,edward ,,iii4 and ,richard ,,ii41 members of the great middle classes1 which were increasing in power1 wealth1 and public influence1 were included4 ,from the time of ,henry ,,iv4 to ,richard ,,iii4 the brasses were not of so high an order1 and at the latter part of the period they began to deteriorate in quality and size4 ,the ,tudor period may be called the decadent period of brasses1 for the drawings were often disproportionate and lightly cut1 the figures crude1 and the plates thin4 ,there is often an excess of 8shading0 in them which detracts from the beautiful simplicity of the drawing4 ,the practice of laying down these brasses1 probably through these very causes1 began to decay1 the last known being laid in #aggc ,a4,d4 ,copies of brasses1 or rubbings1 are made in a very simple and interesting manner by taking a sheet of white lining paper 7plain wallpaper71 laying it upon the brass1 and carefully rubbing over it with a piece of shoemaker's heel-ball4 ,the flat portions of the brass 8catch0 the heel-ball during the process1 while the incised lines are left white1 and if care be taken that the paper does not shift1 a very faithful copy of the brass can be made4 ,the rubbing should be continued until a deep black tone is obtained1 for the heel-ball does not smear on the paper4 ,most clergymen are proud of the brasses in their churches1 and readily give permission for rubbings to be taken from them if a courteous application be made4 ,brasses are not scattered at random throughout the country4 ,they are met with most frequently in the eastern and home counties4 ,probably this is because these parts are nearest to ,flanders1 and the cost of transporting the sheets of brass far inland would be a considerable addition to their cost4 7,for those who wish to pursue this subject1 ,macklin's ,brasses of ,england 7,methuen7 and ,suffling's ,english ,church ,brasses 7,upcott ,gill7 will be found most useful1 as in addition to other matter they contain a register of all brasses known in the ,british ,isles47 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bh4 7,fig4 #a73 ,the despoiled slab of ,bishop ,beaumont of ,durham1 about #acce ,a4,d41 showing the matrix for the brass in the slab1 and also the form of a canopy brass4 ,the place where the inscription was fixed is shown in the white band just inside the edge4 7,fig4 #b73 ,the brass of a ,notary 7name lost71 about #adge ,a4,d41 in ,st4 ,mary ,tower ,church1 ,ipswich4 8,notaries wore a plain gown1 with an ink-horn and pen-case suspended from the belt1 and a scarf and cap on the left shoulder40 7,macklin47 7,fig4 #c73 ,the brass of ,dame ,elizabeth ,harvey1 ,benedictine ,abbess of ,elstow1 ,bedfordshire1 about #aebe ,a4,d4 ,figs4 #b and #c show the actual appearance of 8rubbings0 of brasses4 ,,heraldry4 ,heraldry has been called the 8shorthand of history10 and 8the critical desire for accuracy1 which fortunately seems to have been the keynote of research0 during recent times1 necessitates an inquiry into the history and practice of ,heraldry1 which played such an important part in the life of the ,middle ,ages4 ,it is not believed that the ,normans at the ,conquest bore any 8arms0 on their shields4 ,there are certain markings shown on the shields in the ,bayeux ,tapestry1 but they were probably bands and bosses used for the purpose of strengthening them4 ,as a system1 heraldry was not organised until the twelfth or thirteenth century4 ,it was probably introduced into ,england from ,france1 as all the terms used in the practice are ,french4 ,the two great factors in the extensive and almost universal practice of heraldry were the tournaments and jousts1 and the ,crusades4 ,all the sovereigns of ,europe1 and particularly the ,kings of ,england1 encouraged the former1 because of the excellent practice in the use of arms and the rigorous training they gave4 ,clothed1 as the combatants were1 in their armour1 their features concealed within the heaumes or helmets1 it became a necessity for them to bear some distinctive marks or devices1 either as 8crests0 on their helmets or as armorial bearings or 8arms0 upon their shields1 their surcoats1 their pennons and banners4 ,the retainers of a knight followed their master1 and rallied around him1 recognising him by these features1 and their battle cry became1 in many cases1 the family motto1 and has so remained until this day4 ,at first the crest1 which was of large size1 was made of leather1 but later on it was made of wood or steel4 ,originally the devices upon the shields were few and simple1 and consisted of bands fastened to the shields in various positions 7,figs4 #a to #ah7 to strengthen them4 ,these were termed 8honourable ordinaries40 ,when the surface of the shield was coloured1 these bands would be coloured differently4 ,as the custom of bearing these devices became more universal1 and the number of knights increased1 it became necessary to add many others and to modify and differentiate in many ways the existing ones4 ,the simplest 8arms0 are consequently held to be the most honourable1 as they imply greater antiquity4 ,many devices were granted and borne in recognition of feats of arms or of important duties performed1 as1 in later days1 the ,douglas family were privileged to bear on their shield a heart 7later on surmounted by a crown71 in commemoration of the fact that a ,douglas had the honour of bearing the heart of ,robert ,bruce to the ,holy ,land4 7,fig4 #ba47 ,often1 after the performance of a particularly heroic deed on the battlefield1 knights were rewarded by being granted the right to wear some suitable commemorative device upon their shields4 ,these had a similar significance to the ,v4,c4 or ,d4,s4,o4 awarded nowadays1 with the additional advantage that they were hereditary4 ,in the ,crusades1 which formed the other great factor in the growth and practice of heraldry1 it became necessary to distinguish the knights of different nations from one another4 ,the ,english wore a white cross on the right shoulder of their cloaks4 ,similarly the ,french wore a red one1 the ,flemings a green one1 and the warriors from the ,roman ,states two keys crossed as in a ,st4 ,andrew's cross or ,saltire4 ,as a special inducement to the warriors of the ,west1 the ,pope promised that any soldier1 whatever his rank or station1 who slew an infidel in battle1 should be declared noble1 and be at liberty to adopt any device he might choose as a memento of the part he had taken in the ,wars of the ,cross4 ,hence1 many devices connected with the ,holy ,land and the ,crusades were introduced into and remain in heraldry--e4g41 the scalloped shell1 the palmer's staff1 bezants 7gold coins of ,byzantium71 water bougets 7leathern water-bottles71 crescents1 stars1 scimitars1 ,saracens' heads1 and the numerous forms of the cross4 ,probably from the same source came such mythical creatures as the dragon1 the wyvern1 and the cockatrice4 ,in time1 the arms of knights became hereditary4 ,a man1 on the death of his father1 received proudly his father's sword and his shield1 and appreciated the dignity of thus being associated with the honourable achievements of his parent4 ,before this practice had become general1 a young knight commenced his knightly career with a perfectly plain 7argent7 shield1 and he achieved or won the right to bear devices upon it2 hence the arms which were displayed on it were called his achievements4 ,the whole surface of the shield was called 8the field0 because he performed his deeds1 recorded on the shield1 on the 8field of battle40 ,sometimes a knight adopted arms representing his name--e4g41 the arms of ,lucy were 8three luce or pike02 the family of ,colthurst had 8a colt0 as crest4 ,these were called 8canting arms10 and were obviously not granted for any feat of daring4 ,symbolism played a prominent part in the selection of arms and crests1 for kings and leaders displayed on their shields lions and eagles--the emblems of courage and power and kingly authority4 ,the castle was an emblem of stability1 and this device was also granted to knights who successfully defended or reduced a castle4 ,the followers of knights and nobles adopted the habit of wearing a device called a badge1 taken from the arms of their lord1 and they wore costumes of the chief colours of his shield4 ,these were called liveries1 and from this is derived the modern custom of the liveries of men-servants4 ,most famous of these liveries were the ,plantagenets--scarlet and white2 the ,lancastrians--blue and white2 the ,yorkists--blue and crimson2 the ,tudors--white and green4 ,the common people1 at the time when heraldry was most generally practised1 were quite illiterate1 but everyone could read and understand the devices of heraldry4 ,among the most famous badges worn by retainers were the ,planta genista1 or broom plant of the ,plantagenets1 and the roses1 red and white1 of the ,lancastrians and ,yorkists4 ,the ,tudor family fittingly adopted as a badge a double rose1 consisting of a white rose within a red one1 to signify the union of the two great families4 ,village inns were named after a prominent device borne upon the shield of the local lord of the manor1 and in this way we get such names as the ,red ,lion1 the ,blue ,boar1 the ,white ,hart1 the ,rose and ,crown1 etc4 ,many knights were spoken of by their badges--e4g41 ,henry ,tudor speaks to his followers of 8the wretched1 bloody1 and usurping boar10 meaning ,richard ,,iii41 one of whose badges was the boar4 ,the surcoat1 or sleeveless coat1 was adopted1 worn over the armour1 to lessen the discomfort caused by the sun's rays striking directly on the armour4 ,it became a magnificent garment of velvet or silk1 elaborately embroidered with the armorial bearings in silk and gold 7hence the origin of the word 8coat-of-arms074 ,this garment still survives in the ,tabard of the ,royal ,heralds1 on which are embroidered the arms of the sovereign4 ,during the reigns of ,edward ,,iii4 and ,henry ,v41 owing to the ,french ,wars and their effect upon the martial population of ,england1 heraldry was practised most extensively and had its noblest application1 but during the reign of that butterfly king1 ,richard ,,ii41 it reached its most fantastic heights4 ,after the reign of ,edward ,,iv41 the value and importance attached to the correct practice of heraldry declined1 for during the ,wars of the ,roses many noble families became exterminated1 and ,henry ,,vii4 ennobled many of the upper middle classes to take their places4 ,to this1 and the profuse creation of knights' bannerets or baronets by ,james ,i41 may be attributed the gradual decline of heraldry1 and the ridiculous grants of arms made in the ,georgian period contributed still further to that effect4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #bi4 ,the various tinctures 7or colours71 metals1 and furs are represented by lines1 etc41 in black-and-white drawings4 7,figs4 #a to #h73 ,showing those most commonly in use4 7#a73 ,gold 7or74 7#b73 ,silver 7argent74 7#c73 ,red 7gules74 7#d73 ,blue 7azure74 7#e73 ,black 7sable74 7#f73 ,green 7vert74 7#g73 ,ermine4 7#h73 ,vair4 ,nos4 #a and #b are metals1 #c-f colours1 #g and #h furs4 ,the heraldic names are given in brackets4 7,figs4 #i to #ah73 ,honorouble ordinaries 7bands upon the shields74 7#i73 ,a chief4 7#aj73 ,a pale4 7#aa73 ,a fess4 7#ab73 ,a bend dexter4 7#ac73 ,a bend sinister4 7#ad73 ,a chevron4 7#ae73 ,a cross4 7#af73 ,a saltire or ,st4 ,andrew's cross4 7#ag73 ,a pile4 7#ah73 ,a bordure4 ,the shields were also divided or 8parted0 into differently coloured portions by lines following the position of these ordinaries--e4g4 7,fig4 #ai73 ,shows a shield 8parted per pale0 7see #aj47 7,fig4 #bj73 8,parted per chevron0 7see #ad74 7,fig4 #bj73 ,also shows the different portions of a shield--,a1 the chief2 ,b1 the base2 ,c1 the dexter 7right7 side2 ,d1 the sinister 7left7 side2 ,e1 the dexter chief2 ,f4 the sinister chief4 7,fig4 #ba73 ,arms of the ,douglas family4 7,fig4 #bb73 ,a lion rampant--typical of animals borne upon the shield4 7,fig4 #bc73 ,a castle--typical of inanimate objects4 7,fig4 #bd73 ,the banner of the ,knights ,templars1 the renowned ,beauseant1 black above and white below1 to denote that while fierce to their foes they were gracious to their friends4 7,fig4 #be73 ,badge of ,henry ,,viii41 typifying the union of ,england 7the rose7 with ,spain 7the pomegranate7 in the persons of ,henry and ,katherine of ,aragon4 7,fig4 #bf73 ,a ,tabard from a brass of #addd4 ,the arms3 ,argent1 a chevron between three crosses pate sable4 7,in describing a coat of arms1 the colour of the shield or field is always given first1 in this case being argent or white47 7,fig4 #bg73 ,crest of the ,duke of ,hamilton1 8an oak tree covered with golden acorns1 the trunk being cut transversely by a frame saw1 on the blade of which is inscribed the word #8,through'40 ,this commemorates the fact that an ancestor of the ,duke of ,hamilton1 when fleeing before his enemies1 was pursued closely into a wood1 accompanied only by a faithful retainer4 ,he bribed two woodcutters1 who were sawing the trunk of an oak tree1 to let him and his servant take their places4 ,soon after the fugitives had commenced sawing1 their pursuers came up and questioned them 7thinking them to be woodcutters7 as to the whereabouts of the men they were pursuing4 ,the servant1 frightened1 began to falter1 but ,hambledon sternly bade him go on with his sawing and cut 8through40 ,after reaching a place of safety1 ,sir ,gilbert de ,hambledon adopted the above crest and motto1 and they have continued in the family to this day4 7,fig4 #bh73 8,shield for ,peace0 of the ,black ,prince1 described heraldically as 8sable1 three ostrich feathers1 two and one1 the quill of each passing through a scroll argent40 ,the ,black ,prince was1 according to ,mr4 ,fox-,davies1 probably so called on account of black being his livery colour1 and that his own retainers and followers wore the livery of black4 7,fig4 #bi73 ,badge of ,richard ,,ii4--a white hart4 7,fig4 #cj73 ,upper part of a heraldic achievement4 ,over the shield is placed an esquire's helmet surmounted by a crest upon a torse or wreath1 with a lambrequin or mantling between the wreath and the helmet4 ,the torse1 representing two twisted silken scarves1 was worn to hide the junction of the crest with the helmet4 ,it must consist of six links alternatively of metal and colour 7the livery colours of the arms74 ,the mantling was a 8little mantle0 depending from the crown of the helmet and hanging over the back of the neck as a protection against heat4 ,in the course of a fight it would become rent and slashed4 ,hence it has become the custom to make it very ragged as a sign of honour4 7,fig4 #ca73 ,crest of ,william ,earl of ,salisbury1 c4 #acdd1 from his seal4 ,,the ,,tudor ,,navy4 ,henry ,,vii4 founded the first ,english permanent dockyard at ,portsmouth1 and built in #adie the first dry dock in ,england4 ,during his reign #he vessels at least were added to the ,navy1 some being purchased1 some taken as prizes1 and others 7about #df7 built4 ,the first great ship in medival times was the ,great ,harry1 built by ,henry ,,vii4 in #adhh1 and costing #ad1jjj2 but up to this time vessels had no portholes from which the guns could be fired4 ,this was the invention of a ship-builder of ,brest1 named ,descharges1 in #aejj1 and by its adoption1 guns could be fired from the lower decks4 ,the early portholes1 however1 were so small that the guns could consequently only be worked in one direction4 ,this did not matter very much1 as it was usual1 on account of the difficulties of loading1 only to fire the guns once or twice1 and then to run alongside the enemy and board him4 ,in #aeae the great ,english man-of-war1 ,harry ,grace ,dieu1 was built by ,henry ,,viii4 ,she had two decks1 and carried #ad heavy guns on the lower deck1 #ab on the upper deck1 and #df other guns arranged in different quarters of the vessel--a total of #gb guns4 ,the heavy guns weighed from #b1jjj to #c1jjj lbs41 and gave the ,english ships a distinct advantage over their less heavily armed enemies4 ,she had four masts and a bowsprit1 all square rigged4 ,there were two sails on each of the first and second masts 78foer0 and 8mayne071 and a lateen sail on each of the other two masts 78mayne mizzen0 and 8bonaventure074 ,the ,harry was estimated at #a1jjj or #a1ejj tons1 the system of measuring a ship at the time being to estimate how many tons or tun casks of wine she could carry4 ,the other ships of war built in this reign were constructed on similar lines to the ,harry1 but on a smaller scale4 ,at this time the larger ships of the ,navy were divided into two classes1 8ships0 and 8galliasses10 the latter being huge galleys propelled by sweeps or large oars4 ,as progress was made1 the height of the fore-castles was lowered1 and the keels of these ships were covered with a lead sheathing4 ,in the reign of ,elizabeth there was a considerable improvement in the general construction of the vessels4 ,they were not made of large size1 but under the direction of ,sir ,john ,hawkins they were built on longer keels1 with finer lines and lower superstructures than before1 and on account of these improvements they were capable of carrying more sail and sailing more swiftly4 ,the sides of ships were painted black and white or green and white or timber colour4 ,figureheads 7lions or dragons7 at the bows and the ,royal ,arms in gold and colours at the stern were used to decorate them4 ,it is interesting to note that the cooking galley was solidly built of bricks and mortar upon the gravel ballast down in the hold4 ,the large vessels continued to have four masts1 and the armament was the same as in the reign of ,henry ,,viii41 the largest guns1 8great ordnance10 being #ab feet long1 with a bore of #h inches1 and an extreme range of about one mile4 ,the largest ships had from #dj to #fj of these 8great ordnance10 and there were also provided for each ship #bjj arquebuses or cross-bows1 #dj longbows1 and #ahj sheaves of arrows4 ,it had been the custom for many years to carry a great many soldiers in each ship1 in addition to the crew of sailors4 ,the ,great ,harry carried 8soldiers #cdi1 marines #cja1 and gunners #ej40 ,the soldiers consisted of musketeers and archers1 allotted to each ship under their own officers4 ,the captain was not selected for his skill as a sailor2 in fact1 he was also the ,king's ,master of the ,horse and a soldier by profession4 ,the actual handling of the ship was left to the ,master4 ,at the end of the sixteenth century the war vessels no longer carried soldiers1 the sailors being trained to fight and sail the ships themselves4 ,in the reign of ,elizabeth1 too1 the custom of putting landsmen in command was modified1 and seamen-captains1 such as ,drake1 ,hawkins1 and ,frobisher1 commanded some of the fighting ships of the ,royal ,navy4 ,after any special service on which the vessels had been engaged was completed1 the ships were laid up1 the captains retired to private life1 and the seamen1 who were paid by the week or the month1 were discharged2 only a small body of officers and men1 ship-keepers1 being retained to take charge of the vessel in harbour4 ,it is interesting to find that the following was the pay of some of the various ranks of the ,navy about #aehh3 ,admiral1 from #c #fs4 #h;d4 to #aes4 per day2 ,captain1 #bs4 #f;d4 per day4 ,all the other ranks were paid by the month3 ,lieutenant 7one only on each ship71 #c2 ,master1 #a to #c #bs4 #f;d42 ,preacher1 #b to #c2 ,boatswain1 #acs4 #i;d4 to #a #ajs42 ,master ,carpenter1 #ags4 #f;d4 to #a #es42 ,surgeon1 #a2 ,cook1 #acs4 #i;d4 to #ags4 #f;d42 ,sailor1 #ajs4 7,in the time of ,henry ,,viii4 the sailor only received #es4 per month47 ,as an instance of the religious feeling that existed in those times1 the ,preachers said prayers twice a day1 8and there was1 besides1 the singing of a psalm at watch setting1 a very old custom in the ,english sea service40 ,with regard to the clothing of the sailors1 ,edward ,,iv4 is said to have provided 8jackets10 probably a kind of uniform1 and the practice was continued by ,henry ,,vii4 ,henry ,,viii4 also1 as long as he had ample funds 7from his late father's treasury71 clothed the sailors in the ,tudor colours 7white and green71 cloth being worn by the sailors and damask and satin1 by the officers4 ,sailors were allowed a gallon of beer a day1 as water was not carried on men-of-war until the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,henry ,,viii4 is said to have 8refashioned the ,navy in the direction of shipbuilding1 armament1 and administration4 ,he may be said to have created it1 since from his reign it has been recognised as the special national arm40 ,in ,elizabeth's time the standing strength of the ,navy was about #b1jjj to #c1jjj men4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #cj4 7,fig4 #a73 ,the ,ann ,gallant1 a man-of-war constructed in the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 7#aedf74 ,the lofty forecastle and poop were still found in the ships of this reign4 ,vessels were now built 8carrel0 fashion1 i4e41 with the planks laid edge to edge1 instead of 8clincher0 built1 where the planks overlap one another2 for it was considered that the former style of building gave greater strength4 7,fig4 #b73 ,an ,elizabethan man-of-war4 ,the ,st4 ,george's ,cross1 which was the national flag1 and was only permitted to men-of-war1 is carried at the main-top1 while the ,tudor flag of green and white is carried at the stern4 ,fighting tops will be seen on all the masts2 the high poop is very noticeable1 while the forecastle has almost disappeared4 ,,plantagenet ,,costume4 ,during the ,plantagenet period1 for the first times the effigies of ,english sovereigns give authentic representation of regal costume in form and colour 7having been painted to imitate the actual clothing74 ,the ,royal ,robes of ,henry ,,ii41 ,richard ,i41 and ,john consist of 7#a7 an undergarment with close-fitting sleeves2 7#b7 a tunic-like garment with loose sleeves1 called a dalmatica1 which is girded round the waist by a belt2 7#c7 a mantle1 richly embroidered1 covering all4 ,the costume of the nobles was similar in form and style to these1 stockings and chausses being worn1 and the habit of 8cross-gartering0 the leg from the toe to above the knee was continued2 but during the reigns of these soverigns1 splendour of appearance was studied rather than quaintness of shape4 ,the costume of ladies consisted of 7#a7 an under robe with sleeves1 close-fitting at the wrist2 7#b7 a loose garment1 like the dalmatica1 but without sleeves2 7#c7 a mantle4 ,a head-dress1 called the wimple1 was worn4 ,this consisted of a piece of silk or linen passing under the chin1 with the ends gathered overhead1 and was first mentioned in the reign of ,john4 ,it was worn with a veil hanging down by the sides of the face and over the back of the head4 ,a purse to hold money for the giving of alms was suspended from the girdle4 ,it is worthy of note that the general costume of nuns at the present day is1 in all but colour1 the usual dress of women of the thirteenth century4 ,the dress of the lower classes did not vary much from that of the preceding period4 ,it consisted of a plain tunic1 strong boots1 and a hood or hat for the head1 with coarsely made gloves without separate fingers4 ,a cap called a coif1 fitting close to the head and fastened under the chin1 was often worn by men of all classes4 ,during the reign of ,henry ,,iii4 the general costume of men consisted of the tunic1 open in front to the waist1 chausses or stockings and drawers4 ,mantles and cloaks were only used for ,state or for travelling1 the materials used for these being very rich4 ,a garment called a super-totus 7over-all71 acting as an overcoat1 was commonly worn4 ,it consisted of a circular piece of cloth with a hole in the centre1 through which the head was passed1 and to it was often attached a hood or capuchon1 which became very popular and held its own for about #cjj years4 ,the costumes of women and of ordinary citizens were essentially the same as in the preceding reigns1 but the hair of the ladies was gathered up into a network or caul of gold and silver filigree1 instead of being arranged in plaits4 ,edward ,i4 dressed in a very plain manner1 differing little from an ordinary citizen1 and consequently there was little extravagance of dress in his reign4 ,the ladies1 however1 wore their garments unconfined at the waist1 very full1 and with long trains4 ,on account of their extravagance in this respect1 they were very much satirised by contemporary writers4 ,they also wore a very ugly form of the wimple4 ,there was no change in the dress of the lower classes excepting that a kind of smock frock1 made generally of canvas or fustian1 was worn by both sexes4 ,edward ,,ii41 with his favourites1 ,gaveston and the ,despensers1 made the ,court 8a wild debauch of costume and foppish eccentricities40 ,the costume of ladies changed very little during this reign1 but the practice of wearing the head uncovered became more general4 ,in the costume of men1 the greatest change was the displacement of the loose tunic or dalmatica by a garment called the cte-hardi1 fitting tightly from the neck to the waist1 with a skirt below4 ,the hood or capuchon was modified by the tail or point at the back1 being extended until it reached to the waist1 this tail being often wound round the neck in cold weather as a kind of muffler4 ,a similar kind of hood was also in use1 covering the head and shoulders and reaching to the elbow4 ,in this reign a new source of authentic information is available in the brasses which are found in our churches4 ,they are very well preserved1 and show the details of costume very clearly and accurately4 ,for this reason they are invaluable4 ,edward ,,iii4 has been called 8the ,king who taught the ,english people how to dress10 and it is worthy of note that the costumes worn during his reign followed the lines of the body itself4 ,the use of the cti-hardi increased4 ,it was often made of very expensive materials1 and long narrow strips of white cloth called tippets were added to the sleeves1 reaching from the elbow to the knee4 ,many garments were parti-coloured1 i4e41 one side was one colour and the other side of another colour4 ,it is interesting to note that black came into use as a mourning colour during the fourteenth century4 ,a mantle was worn by men over the cti-hardi1 reaching to the ankles and fastened on the right shoulder by several buttons1 while the hood was fastened to the mantle4 ,in this reign the chausses were made like trunk hose1 and fitted tightly to the limbs4 ,pointed shoes were worn1 and a curious form of hat with turned-up brim and tall feathers was introduced4 ,the lower class of labourers dressed as their fancy guided them1 so that all the fashions of preceding reigns may be recognised in their attire4 ,the ladies dressed very sumptuously during the reign of ,edward ,,iii4 ,an innovation in their costume was a kind of spencer or waistcoat1 faced and bordered with fur1 to which sometimes sleeves reaching to the waist were worn4 ,the cti-hardi was also adopted as a feminine garment4 ,in the reign of ,richard ,,ii4 the costumes were ever changing1 the ,king himself being the greatest fop1 and extravagances in form and sumptuousness of material was carried to a remarkable excess4 ,holinshed says 8he had one cote which he caused to be made for him of gold and 7precious7 stones1 valued at #cj1jjj marks0 7a mark being #acs4 #d;d474 ,the famous portrait of ,richard ,,ii4 in ,westminster ,abbey is a fine example of the dress of an extravagant ,king of that time4 ,the fashion of embroidering the dress with heraldic devices1 family badges1 initials1 and mottoes became common during this period4 ,the edges of the garments were also cut and scalloped1 very richly decorated1 and often set with precious stones4 ,the servants of the nobility were sumptuously attired1 and there was universal extravagance throughout the nation4 ,so extreme was the dress of the courtiers that it was said to be difficult to distinguish the sex of the wearer if the face were turned away4 ,costumes were not only worn wide and flowing1 but they sometimes went to the other extreme1 the garments being worn very short and tight-fitting4 ,the shoes were made with very long points called crackowes 7so named from ,cracow1 in ,poland74 ,sometimes the points were so long that they were fastened to the knee by chains of gold and silver4 ,ladies' dresses in this reign did not differ much from those of ,edward ,,iii4's1 but tippets were discarded1 and the dresses were ornamented1 like the men's1 with heraldic devices1 initials1 etc4 ,chaucer has given us the best information regarding the costumes of the different grades of ,english society during this reign4 ,the upper classes wore a short jupon1 or tight-fitting vest1 parti-coloured1 with narrow waist belt and tight sleeves4 ,a loose body garment1 with full-hanging scalloped sleeves1 was also worn4 ,over all was worn a great gown1 trailing on the ground1 with full1 long sleeves and a high collar fitting tightly under the chin4 ,both hoods and felt caps were worn1 and a peculiar variety of the latter was in fashion formed of strips arranged in fan fashion4 ,the hair of the men was worn long1 and was curled with great care4 ,the beard was forked1 and the moustaches were long and drooping4 ,the lower orders varied little in their dress from that of the reign of ,edward ,,iii4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ca4 7,fig4 #a73 ,a nobleman of the thirteenth century4 7,,ms4 ,bod4 ,auct4 ,d41 iv4 #ag47 ,a good example of the costume of the nobility of the time4 ,the dalmatica is plainly shown1 open up the front4 ,in the ,,ms4 it is red1 decorated with groups of spots1 with a white lining4 ,the mantle is blue2 the long gloves are green4 ,red chausses are worn on the legs1 with a cross-gartering of gold from the toes upwards4 ,the hat is blue1 and a small portion of the knickers is also shown4 7,fig4 #b73 ,the hood or capuchon1 with a long tail as worn in the reign of ,edward ,,ii4 7,fig4 #c73 ,costume of a man in the reign of ,edward ,,iii41 from the brass of ,robert ,braunche1 #acfd1 at ,king's ,lynn4 ,he is dressed in the plain costume of the period1 while a hat with a feather is worn over the hood4 7,figs4 #d and #e73 ,hats of the time of ,edward ,,iii41 probably made of white felt1 with coloured turned-up brims and long feathers4 7,fig4 #f73 ,costume of a youth in ,early ,plantagenet times4 ,he wears an ornamental tippet round the neck1 with a plain1 bordered tunic1 tight at the waist1 and closed all round4 ,he also wears chausses and high boots4 7,fig4 #g73 ,costume of a lady in the reign of ,henry ,,iii41 from ,matthew ,paris's 8,lives of the ,offas40 7,cotton ,,ms41 ,nero ,d #a47 ,the dress is very simple1 there is an absence of ornament or decoration1 and the gown is loose1 falling to the feet in ample folds4 7,figs4 #h and #i73 ,hoods at the time of ,edward ,,ii4 7,fig4 #h73 ,shows the hood1 closely fitting to the head and neck1 with the point that usually hangs down drawn up over the head4 7,fig #i73 ,shows the long tail of the hood wound around the head4 7,figs4 #aj and #aa73 ,the ordinary costume of the labouring classes during the time of ,edward ,,ii4 7,royal ,,ms41 #ad ,e #c47 ,the man wears a long gown1 buttoned from the neck to the waist1 with loose hanging sleeves below the elbow1 showing the tight sleeve of the time4 ,the head and shoulders are covered by a hood hanging down4 ,the shoes reach to the ankle1 are slightly ornamented1 and have pointed toes4 ,the woman carries a distaff1 and wears a hood or kerchief swathed round the head and knotted at the side4 ,she has a wide1 short gown1 which1 being caught up under the arm1 shows the under garment and high buttoned boots4 7,fig #ab73 ,bronze figure of a daughter of ,edward ,,iii41 from his tomb in ,westminster ,abbey 7#acgg74 ,she wears a dress1 however1 which was in vogue twenty years earlier4 ,the hair is arranged in square plaits at the sides of the head4 ,there is an absence of any decorative material round the low-cut neck1 and she has vertical front pockets in her tightly fitting gown1 with long streamers hanging from the arms down to the feet4 7,figs4 #ac and #ad73 ,two methods of 8doing the hair0 in the time of ,edward ,i4 7,fig4 #ad73 ,shows the hair enclosed in a caul or net1 and is spoken of as 8the reticulated head-dress40 7,fig4 #ae73 ,head-dress from the ,braunche ,brass4 7,king's ,lynn1 #aced47 7,fig4 #af73 ,the ,coif4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #cb4 7,fig4 #a73 ,bronze figure of ,lionel ,duke of ,clarence 7a son of ,edward ,,iii471 from the tomb of the latter in ,westminster ,abbey 7#acgg74 ,it illustrates the ordinary costume of a gentleman at the end of the fourteenth century4 ,he is attired in the cti-hardi or jupon1 fastened down the front with buttons1 and wears an ornamented girdle around the hips1 while a large1 full mantle reaches down to the ankles4 ,the chausses are very similar in appearance to trunk hose1 and fit tightly to the limbs2 while the beard is forked after the fashion of the period4 7,fig #b73 ,brass of ,joan1 ,lady de ,cobham1 #acbj1 at ,cobham1 ,kent4 ,she wears a kind of wimple under the chin called the gorget 7which copies a part of the knightly armour of the period71 with a couvre-chef over the head falling on to the shoulders1 completing the head-dress4 ,she wears an under garment with tight-fitting sleeves1 which are closely buttoned to the wrist1 and a loose robe with loose sleeves terminating below the elbow4 7,fig #c73 ,a fop of the reign of ,richard ,,ii41 when the fashion of 8cutting0 the mantles in patterns reached a very absurd limit4 ,the sleeves are cut at the edges into a number of acanthus-like lobes1 and are lined with another colour4 ,the robe has a high collar1 is very full1 and hangs in loose folds to the ground4 ,the shoes1 which are elaborately pierced and cut1 are of the long-toed variety known as 8crackowes10 and the point of the toe is fastened to the leg below the knee4 ,he also carries a long purse or bag suspended from the girdle4 7,harl4 ,,ms41 #acai47 7,fig4 #d73 ,costume of the early part of ,edward ,,iii4's reign4 ,a semi-military dress with a breastplate worn under the cte-hardi4 ,a very characteristic feature of the costume is formed by the tippets--long strips of white cloth1 which are fastened to the arms above the elbow4 7,,ms4 #ag ,e vi47 7,fig4 #e73 ,costume of a labourer of the better class of the time of ,edward ,,iii4 ,the tail of the hood is worn around the head4 7,fig #f73 ,costume of a nobleman in the reign of ,richard ,,ii41 probably representing one of his royal uncles4 7,royal ,,ms41 #bj ,b vi47 ,it shows another extravagant dress of the period4 ,the gown is abbreviated to the hips2 the sleeves are wide1 and the chausses are tight-fitting to the limbs2 while the shoes have long pointed toes4 ,he wears a jewelled circlet around the forehead4 7,figs4 #g1 #h1 #i73 ,costumes of ladies in the reign of ,richard ,,ii4 7,fig4 #g73 ,shows the sideless garment faced with fur1 terminating in long1 full skirts worn over the kirtle 7or loose gown74 7,fig4 #i73 ,shows a lady with the outer sleeveless garment1 so long as to be gathered up and carried under the arm4 7,figs4 #aj1 #aa1 #ab73 ,various forms of head-dresses of men of the reign of ,richard ,,ii4 7,fig4 #ac73 ,a singular kind of hood covering the head and shoulders1 reaching to the elbows1 and having pointed ends spreading out at each side4 ,this was worn in the time of ,edward ,,iii4 ,,mail ,,armour4 ,pure mail armour1 i4e41 armour worn without additional defence over the mail but the heaume1 was in use from #aaej ,a4,d4 to #acjj ,a4,d41 but its use was finally discontinued about #acej ,a4,d4 ,there were several kinds of mail1 and different ways of representing it on effigies1 brasses1 etc41 viz43 7a7 ,mail apparently formed of rings or mailles1 sewn on to a leather garment by the edge only1 and arranged so that one ring overlapped the next4 7b7 ,mail formed of rows of rings sewn on strips of linen or leather1 the strips being then applied to the garment4 7c7 ,mail formed of rings interlocked with each other 7chain mail74 7d7 ,mail called 8banded mail10 in which double lines separated each row of links4 7e7 ,armour formed of rings or small discs of metal sewn flat all over the garment4 ,another similar kind of armour was formed of scales or overlapping plates of leather or metal1 fastened to a leather or linen foundation4 ,the chain mail or armour formed of interlacing rings was finally adopted throughout ,western ,europe1 being copied from that of the ,saracens in the ,crusades4 ,we have not many contemporary illustrations of the armour and knightly apparel in the period between the ,norman ,conquest and the ,edwardian era4 ,there are but few illuminated ,,mss42 sepulchral monuments are not numerous1 and the valuable series of monumental brasses had not begun4 ,the plaited or mail shirt of the ,early ,norman was superseded by a stout1 quilted tunic1 also called the hauberk1 reaching to the knees and with short sleeves1 and a coif or hood of mail on the head4 ,frequently a metal breastplate or plastron-de-fer1 and a steel cap or chapel-de-fer1 were worn under the mail4 ,sometimes over the coif a close-fitting iron helmet was worn4 ,the hauberk sleeves were lengthened1 covering the hands as mittens or fingerless gloves of strong leather strengthened by mail or pieces of metal4 ,the legs were covered with long leggings or trews of mail called chausses1 protecting all the lower limbs from the thighs to the toes4 ,in the twelfth century the chain mail was made very light1 like that of the ,saracens4 ,it was made of steel rings1 connected with each other1 without being fastened to the leather garment worn underneath--similar1 in fact1 to the ordinary steel purse4 ,on account of it great cost1 this mail was not worn by the common soldiers4 ,beneath the mail hauberk1 as an additional defence1 and to relieve the pressure of the mail1 a quilted tunic was worn1 known as a haketon1 or a gambeson4 ,the haketon was made of buckram1 stuffed with cotton-wool and quilted4 ,the gambeson was a sleeved tunic1 of stout1 coarse linen1 stuffed with flax or wool1 and sewn longitudinally4 ,in the reign of ,richard ,i41 the close-fitting helmet was superseded by the ,heaume1 great helm or tilting helmet4 ,it was large enough to put easily over the head1 and long enough to rest on the shoulders4 ,it was at first nearly cylindrical1 and generally had a flat top4 ,there were openings in front to allow the wearer to see and breathe4 ,during the mail period1 no heaume is represented with a movable visor4 ,in monumental effigies and brasses1 a knight is often represented with his heaume under his head as a pillow1 and it was the custom actually to use it for that purpose when resting after a day's journey or fighting4 ,the heaume was only put on when actual fighting in battle or in the lists was about to commence4 ,at other times1 it was carried at the saddle-bow1 and1 lest it should be dropped or struck off when on the head1 it was fastened to the body armour by a chain1 passing through a ring in front4 ,towards the close of the twelfth century the use of armorial bearings was introduced4 ,each knight assumed a device1 which was exclusively used by him1 by which he was recognised1 and which became hereditary in his family4 ,this device was usually displayed on the shield1 and on the surcoat1 when the use of that garment was adopted4 ,the form of the shield was changed from that of a kite to that of a 8heater10 or flat-iron4 ,it was also made much smaller4 ,the arms of the knight were the sword1 the lance1 the mace1 the battle-axe1 the military flail1 and the martel4 ,the sword belt1 slung over the shoulder in ,norman times1 was now fastened around the waist or hips4 ,the sword varied little in form from that of ,norman times4 ,the lance was never used as a javelin1 but was made strong1 generally of uniform thickness1 and varied in length4 ,the head was very broad1 and without barbs4 ,all knights had a pointed or swallow-tailed pennon fastened to the lance2 but nobles who brought a number of retainers to battle displayed a square banner on the lance4 ,these knights were called ,bannerets4 ,foot soldiers were armed with the cross-bow--a formidable weapon with which short1 stout missiles1 called bolts or quarrels1 were shot--the long-bow1 the halberd1 the bill1 the guisarme 7all shafted weapons71 and the sling4 ,in time1 the chausses were cut into two pieces at the knees2 the lower part1 corresponding with the modern stocking1 protected the leg1 and the upper portion protected the thigh4 ,in order to protect the knee1 a knee-cap1 or genouillire of cuir bouilli1 was fastened over it4 ,the sleeves of the hauberk were similarly cut into two parts at the elbow1 and elbow caps1 or coudires1 of leather came into use over the elbow joint4 ,at the end of the #abth century1 a flowing surcoat of linen or silk was worn over the armour4 ,this generally bore the same heraldic device as the shield1 and its use was probably to lessen the effect of the sun's rays upon the mail4 ,at first1 this surcoat had no sleeve1 but in the second half of the #acth century sleeves were added to it1 and at the same time the hauberk was shortened4 ,about #abgj1 the mailed mittens were divided into fingers1 and the helmet was rounded at the top4 ,the spurs consisted of single spikes1 and were called 8pryck0 spurs4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #cc4 7,fig4 #a73 ,brass of ,sir ,roger de ,trumpington1 in ,trumpington ,church1 ,cambridge1 #abhi4 ,the head rests on the ,heaume1 which is of large size4 ,the latter is fastened to a rope around the waist1 by means of a chain4 ,the knight is represented with his legs crossed4 ,it was thought at one time that this showed that the knight had taken part in the ,crusades1 but it is now considered by some that he was probably a benefactor to the church4 ,others think that it was merely a device of the engraver to lessen the stiff appearance of the figure4 ,all the features of mail armour to which attention has already been directed1 may easily be seen in this figure1 and the knees are covered by genouillires 7probably of cuir bouilli71 which are the first pieces of additional armour worn over the mail4 ,it will be noticed in this plate that there are four ways in which mail armour is represented1 viz41 in ,figs4 #a1 #b1 and #c1 #e1 and #i4 7,fig4 #b73 ,head of the effigy of ,william ,earl of ,pembroke1 which shows very clearly the way in which the coif de mailles was secured to the head1 and lapped round the face1 being fastened to the left side1 near the temple1 by a strap and buckle4 7,fig4 #c73 ,head of an effigy in ,pershore ,church1 ,worcestershire1 in which the lappet of the coif is represented as unloosed4 7,fig4 #d73 ,a great heaume of the #acth century1 found at ,eynesford ,castle1 ,kent4 ,the ring at the bottom is for the attachment of the heaume to the body armour4 7,fig4 #e73 ,the heads of a group of soldiers1 from the ,painted ,chamber at ,westminster4 ,in this will be seen the great diversity of equipment found among knights4 ,in the rear are shown two banners and a pennon4 7,fig4 #f73 ,heaume at ,staunton1 ,notts41 #acab4 ,on the top is seen the staple for affixing the crest to the heaume4 7,fig4 #g73 ,the heaume of ,richard ,i41 taken from his ,great ,seal1 showing a fan-shaped ornament at the top1 with a lion painted upon the crown4 7,fig4 #h73 ,soldiers in a boat1 engaged in siege operations4 ,one has a staff sling1 which is apparently charged with some combustibles4 ,the archer is also discharging either a bag of quick-lime or some combustible4 ,the slingers were generally bare-headed1 and wore no body armour4 ,the archer wears a coif of mail or leather on his head1 and a sleeveless hauberk on his body4 ,the third soldier carries a pole-axe1 a sword1 and a spear4 7,fig4 #i73 ,head from the brass of ,sir ,john ,d',abernoun1 in ,stoke ,d',abernoun ,church1 ,surrey1 #abgg4 ,this is the earliest known example of brass4 ,the chain mail is represented in great detail1 every link being shown4 ,fig4 ,a is a portion of the mail enlarged4 7,fig4 #aj73 ,a spear with pennon1 from the same brass4 7,fig4 #aa73 ,a martel-de-fer1 which was used for breaking or dragging off the rings of the hauberk1 and opening a passage for other deadly weapons4 7,fig4 #ab73 ,a guisarme1 a powerful1 scythe-shaped1 shafted weapon1 used by foot soldiers4 7,fig4 #ac73 ,a banner1 such as was carried by ,knights ,bannerets1 who must have a following of at least fifty men-at-arms before they were qualified to carry this4 ,,early ,,english ,,architecture4 ,the ,transition4--,at the close of the ,norman period1 the quality of the masonry was very good1 and the workmen had learnt how to economise their materials4 ,the improvement continued until the work reached a high degree of perfection4 ,the mouldings1 the ornament1 the sculpture1 and all other details are of a lighter style1 and more highly finished4 ,the architecture that remains of this period is aptly termed 8,transitional40 ,the transition1 from the round-arched ,norman style1 with its heavy and massive appearance1 and its strongly-marked horizontal lines1 to the graceful ,early ,english style1 with its prominent vertical lines1 is very gradual1 and the first step in this direction was the introduction to general use of the pointed arch4 ,this is considered the most characteristic element of ,gothic architecture--its ever-increasing use permitting the slenderness of proportion1 lightness1 and loftiness of effect to be carried out to a marvellous extent4 ,professor ,freeman has traced the adoption of the pointed arch in ,western ,europe to influence of ,saracenic architecture1 which was extended in the ,west through the ,crusades4 ,in the early examples1 the features and general characteristics of the buildings are1 in the main1 the same as in the ,norman style1 but with the pointed arch employed in place of the round-headed one4 ,gothic ,architecture4--,this term was originally applied to the medival styles at the time of the ,renaissance4 ,it was given as a term of contempt when it was the fashion to write ,latin and to expect it to become the universal language4 ,english ,gothic is usually divided into three periods or styles1 viz43 ,early ,english1 ,decorated1 and ,perpendicular1 prevailing 7approximately7 during the #acth1 #adth and #aeth centuries respectively1 although there was no strict division between them4 ,early ,english ,reigns of ,richard ,i41 ,john and ,henry ,,iii4 7,a4,d4 #aahi-abgb74--,the characteristics of this style as compared with the ,norman are1 8the comparative lightness of the structures1 the long1 narrow1 lancet-shaped1 pointed windows1 the boldly projecting buttresses and pinnacles1 the acute pitch of the roof1 and generally the variety1 the beauty of proportion1 and the singular grace and vigour of the ornaments40 ,internally1 we have pointed arches1 supported on slender and lofty pillars4 ,when the style had become fully established1 the builders appear to have revelled in it even to exuberance and excess4 ,church building had received a severe check in the reign of ,john1 during the interdict of #af years that rested upon the kingdom1 but soon after the accession of ,henry ,,iii41 who was himself an enthusiast1 architecture revived and developed very rapidly4 ,one of the chief characteristics of the ,early ,english styles consists in the mouldings1 in which a new principle was embodied4 ,this was the idea of obtaining effective combinations of light and shade by means of 8undercutting40 ,such a combination of projecting rounds and deep hollows would present to the eye the appearance of alternate bands of light and shade1 the depths of the hollows causing them to appear almost black4 ,the most characteristic ornament of this style is the 8dog-tooth0 or 8tooth0 ornament4 7,pl4 #cd1 ,figs4 #i and #aa47 ,it consists of a series of flowers1 each of the four petals1 bent backwards1 the division between the petals being placed in the middle of the sides of the pyramid thus formed4 ,a very striking peculiarity is the foliage used in sculpture1 which is technically known as 8stiff-leaf foliage10 though the stiffness is in the stems rather than in the leaves4 ,the latter take the form of a conventional three-lobed foliage4 7,pl4 #ce1 ,fig4 #a47 ,it copied no individual leaf1 8though it has all the essential qualities of ,nature40 ,its use gives great richness of effect to the building1 and is supposed to have been developed by gradual change from the ,classical ,orders1 chiefly from the ,ionic ,volute4 ,the ,crocket was also introduced as a new feature in this style4 ,it is an ornament used to decorate the edges of the architectural units1 and is supposed to be derived from the crook of a bishop's pastoral staff4 ,in fine ,early ,english work the ,abacus 7,pl4 #ce1 ,fig4 #a;,a7 is circular1 and is deeply undercut4 ,the ,pillars are usually round or octagonal4 ,they are built of large blocks of dressed stone1 and so differ from the ,norman pillars1 which consisted of rubble with a facing of stone4 ,in the more important buildings they are formed of four or more slender shafts of ,purbeck marble1 which are placed around a large circular column of stone1 and their dark colour causes them to 8stand out0 against the paler central stone pier4 ,the ,arches vary in form from a very blunt to a very sharp point1 but they are generally acutely pointed1 and are often richly moulded1 as in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,the mouldings1 however1 are the safest guide to the style1 as the form of the pointed arch largely depends on convenience4 ,as a rule1 they are generally more acutely pointed in the cathedrals and large churches1 whilst they are broader in small churches4 ,the ,windows in earlier examples are plain1 long1 and narrow1 with acutely pointed heads4 ,they are frequently spoken of as 8lancet-shaped40 ,the earliest form is that of a single light1 with arched head and without moulding of any kind1 external or internal4 7,pl4 #cd1 ,fig4 #a47 ,windows of four lights are occasionally met with1 but generally they consist of three1 five1 or seven lights1 rising in height to the central one4 ,they are often included under an arched moulding called a 8dripstone40 7,pl4 #cd1 ,figs4 #b1 #c1 #d;,a47 ,square-headed windows are not uncommon1 but sometimes in these cases there is an arch or a dripstone in the form of an arch over the window4 ,when two lights were combined under one arch1 a blank space called a 8tympanum0 was left between the heads of the lights and the arch2 but in time this space began to be pierced with another small light1 generally in the form of a circle1 a trefoil1 or a quatrefoil1 which both relieved the blank space and admitted more light4 7,pl4 #cd1 ,fig4 #c47 ,when this is done in the stone work1 it is called plate tracery1 and from this is developed the window tracery of later times4 ,the ,normans were doubtful about their skill in making ceilings of stone to cover large spaces1 and consequently they generally built timber roofs4 ,over small spaces1 however1 they erected stone ceilings or 8vaults10 which were quite plain4 ,in this period the vaults are distinguished by having ribs in the angles of the groins1 with carved masses of foliage in stone1 called bosses1 at the intersection of the ribs4 7,pl4 #cd1 ,fig4 #e47 ,the ,buttresses 7,pl4 #ce1 ,figs4 #d1 #e1 and #f71 instead of being merely flat strips of masonry1 slightly projecting from the wall1 as in the ,norman ,period1 have now a bold projection1 generally diminished upwards by stages1 and terminate in a plain slope or a gable4 ,by the use of this form of buttress it was possible to reduce the thickness of the wall4 ,the corner of the building had a pair of buttresses at right angles to the wall1 as if each wall had been continued beyond the point of junction--never one buttress placed diagonally1 as in subsequent periods4 ,flying ,buttresses at this period became prominent features in large buildings4 ,they are arches springing from the wall buttresses to the walls1 and they carry off the weight and consequent 8thrust0 of the roof1 over the central space1 obliquely down to the external buttress1 and so down to the ground4 ,the ,roof was formed of timber1 and was covered with the material most easily procurable in the district4 ,a thatch of straw or reeds was probably the most common2 shingles were procured where oak was plentiful1 and slabs of stone and slate or tiles where they were obtainable4 ,lead was generally used only on very important buildings4 ,spires were also often constructed of timber1 and where the framework has become warped and twisted by the weather1 we have a grotesque appearance1 as in the twisted spire of ,chesterfield4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #cd4 7,fig4 #a73 ,simple lancet window4 7,fig4 #b73 ,a triple-lancet window from ,warmington1 in ,northants 7about ,a4,d4 #abcj74 ,the lights are placed under an arch or dripstone with the 8eye0 solid4 7,fig4 #c73 ,a window of two lights1 with a quatrefoil of plate tracery in the head1 and a dripstone1 terminated by the characteristic ornament called a 8mask0 or a 8buckle10 from ,charlton-on-,otmoor1 ,oxfordshire 7about ,a4,d4 #abdj74 7,fig4 #d73 ,five lancet windows under one arch1 with the spandrils pierced1 forming what are called the 8eyes0 of the window1 from ,irthlingborough1 ,northants 7about ,a4,d4 #abhj74 7,fig4 #e73 ,early ,english vault1 groined1 with moulded ribs on the groins only1 from ,salisbury ,cathedral 7about ,a4,d4 #abdj74 7,fig4 #f73 ,pointed arch in the porch1 from ,barnack1 ,northants 7about ,a4,d4 #abej74 7,fig4 #g73 ,a trefoil-arched doorway4 7,fig4 #h73 ,characteristic ,early ,english moulding 7in section74 7,fig4 #i73 8,dog-tooth0 ornament in profile1 showing how the name probably arose4 7,fig4 #aj73 ,a transitional tower and spire1 from ,st4 ,denis1 ,sleaford1 ,lincolnshire4 ,it shows a band of interlaced1 round-headed arches1 while in the belfry light it exhibits the pointed arch4 ,the four corners are filled up with half-pyramids inclining from the angles4 ,this angle-pyramid1 which marks the transition from the square form of the tower to the pointed form of the spire1 is known as the broach1 and the 8broach-spire0 is quite the characteristic form assumed by the early stone spires in ,england4 7,fig4 #aa73 8,dog-tooth0 ornament1 front view4 7,fig4 #ab73 ,door with 8shouldered0 arch1 from ,lutton1 ,huntingdonshire 7about ,a4,d4 #abjj74 ,illustration3 ,,plate4 #ce4 7,fig4 #a73 ,capitals in ,lincoln ,cathedral 7,a4,d4 #abbj71 showing the moulded abacus 7,a7 with undercutting1 8stiff-leaf0 foliage1 and the 8dog-tooth0 ornament used between the shafts4 7,fig4 #b73 ,transitional ,norman capital1 at ,oakham ,castle1 ,rutland 7built between ,a4,d4 #aafe and #aaia74 ,an excellent specimen of transitional work1 retaining a good deal of the ,norman character1 but late and rich4 7,fig4 #c73 ,moulded capital in the form of a plain bell reversed1 from ,westminster ,abbey 7,a4,d4 #abej74 7,figs4 #d1 #e1 #f73 ,buttresses4 7,fig4 #g73 ,flying buttresses1 from ,westminster ,abbey4 7,figs4 #h and #i73 ,plans of ,early ,english columns4 ,,mixed ,,mail ,,and ,,plate ,,armour4 ,arms and armour1 with all the accompaniments of chivalry1 during the fourteenth century reached a pitch of great splendour4 ,the ,french ,wars and the extravagance of costume at the ,courts of ,edward ,,iii4 and ,richard ,,ii4 encouraged this4 ,from the constant use of armour in the wars and in the tournament1 many modifications were found necessary to render it more comfortable and also more thoroughly protective4 ,towards the end of the thirteenth century additions had been made to the mail for the latter purpose1 and this practice was continued in the fourteenth century by the addition of pieces of 8plate0 or sheet steel1 until in the early part of the fifteenth century1 knights were clothed in complete suits of plate armour4 ,the change was1 however1 very gradual1 and the evolution may be best traced by considering it as taking place in certain fairly definite stages4 ,the following is the usual division adopted3 #ast ,period3 c4 #acjj ,a4,d4--c4 #acbe ,a4,d4 #bnd ,period3 c4 #acbe ,a4,d4--c4 #acce ,a4,d4 #crd ,period3 c4 #acce ,a4,d4--c4 #acfj ,a4,d4 #dth ,period3 c4 #acfj ,a4,d4--c4 #adje ,a4,d4 #eth or ,transition ,period3 c4 #adje ,a4,d4--c4 #adaj ,a4,d4 #ast ,period3 c4 #acjj ,a4,d4--c4 #acbe ,a4,d4 ,during this period the mail armour remained practically the same1 but steel plates were fastened by straps 7#a7 over the back of the upper arm and the front of the fore-arm 7the parts most exposed to a blow72 7#b7 over the shins 7jambarts7 and continued over the front of the feet as a series of metal plates riveted to one another1 called sollerets2 7#c7 in front of the shoulders and to protect the armpits 7roundles47 ,gauntlets or armoured gloves 7with separate fingers7 were introduced about this time4 ,the surcoat was worn shorter and with less fulness about the body4 #bnd ,period3 c4 #acbe ,a4,d4--c4 #acce ,a4,d4 ,the surcoat was superseded by a garment called a cyclas1 which was slit open and laced up at the sides1 and was much shorter in front than behind4 7,see ,fig4 #a1 ,pl4 #cf47 ,it thus shows the escalloped and fringed border of a padded garment or gambeson worn between the cyclas and the mail hauberk1 while below the mail was worn another padded garment--the haketon4 ,the whole must have formed a very cumbersome combination4 ,the plates on the arms were enlarged so as to form cylinders1 encasing the limbs1 opening with a hinge at one side and fastening with buckle and strap or rivets at the other side4 ,those covering the fore-arm were worn under the sleeve of the hauberk1 which was often cut off below the elbow4 ,plates were still worn on the knees1 legs1 and feet4 ,the ,basinet1 a comparatively light and close-fitting helmet1 was worn without a mail coif beneath it2 but to protect the neck a kind of tippet of mail called the camail was fastened by laces to the basinet1 and hung down over the breast1 back1 and shoulders4 ,the basinet was open at the face or had a movable face-piece 7visor or ventaille74 ,in battle it was worn with the face-piece1 but for the tournament the visor was removed and the heaume or great helmet1 with its crest and mantling1 placed over it4 ,the shield was small and of the 8heater0 shape1 and 8pryck0 spurs gave place to spurs with rowels4 #crd ,period3 c4 #acce ,a4,d4--c4 #acfj ,a4,d4 ,splinted armour1 i4e41 armour consisting of small overlapping plates 7like the shell of a lobster71 was introduced1 and a garment called the pourpoint 7like a haketon1 but made of finer material1 faced with silk or ornamented with needlework7 was worn over the hauberk4 ,the surcoat was again worn1 shortened to the knee and shaped to fit the body closely above the waist4 ,the armorial bearings of the wearer were embroidered in silks upon it4 ,it must be remembered that there was no uniform--in the modern sense--for knights and men-at-arms1 but each dressed as he liked2 and there was consequently a great variety of arms and armour in a single troop4 #dth or ,camail ,period3 c4 #acfj ,a4,d4--c4 #adje ,a4,d4 ,this is called the camail period because by this time the custom of wearing the camail had become universal4 ,the legs and arms were now entirely encased in plates of armour1 with sollerets on the feet1 which were acutely pointed at the toes in imitation of the prevailing civil fashion4 ,the hauberk was shortened to the middle of the thigh1 was sleeveless1 and was worn over a globular breastplate4 ,roundles disappeared from the shoulders and elbows1 and laminated plates took their place1 giving freer movement to the limbs4 ,the sleeveless surcoat was now called the jupon4 ,it fitted tightly over the hauberk1 and was slightly shorter than it1 so that the lower edge of the hauberk showed behind it4 ,the jupon was made of a rich material1 blazoned with the arms of the wearer1 and was escalloped along the bottom edge4 ,the long1 straight sword1 with decorated hilt and scabbard1 was hung on the left side from a richly ornamented belt1 and on the right side was suspended a small1 pointed dagger called the misericorde4 ,after #achj the basinet was made shorter1 but the great heaume still continued to be worn1 often being strengthened by an additional plate on the left side1 where the wearer was likely to receive blows4 ,the sculptured effigy of the ,black ,prince on his tomb at ,canterbury is a typical representation of a knight of the camail period4 #eth or ,transition ,period3 c4 #adje ,a4,d4--c4 #adaj ,a4,d4 ,there are a few examples of knights clothed entirely in plate armour1 with the exception of the basinet and camail1 and this is therefore called the ,transition ,period leading to the time of the complete adoption of plate armour4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #cf4 7,fig4 #a73 ,brass of ,sir ,john ,creke1 in ,westley ,waterless ,church1 ,cambridgeshire1 #acbe4 ,it shows a pointed and fluted basinet with the camail of 8banded mail0 fastened to it4 ,the hauberk1 also of banded mail1 is seen just above the knees1 and the legs and arms are covered with the same kind of armour4 ,the roundles1 taking the form of lions' faces1 are seen at the shoulders and elbow4 ,the upper arms are covered with plates over the mail1 and the fore-arm covered in the same way with plates1 which pass under the short sleeves of the hauberk4 ,the cyclas is seen to be loose1 girded at the waist1 and shorter in front than behind4 ,under it is shown the escalloped edge of the gambeson2 beneath that the pointed ending of the hauberk1 and under that again the folds of the haketon may be seen reaching to the knee-caps4 ,jamberts or shin pieces cover the shins1 and are continued to cover the feet as sollerets4 7,fig4 #b73 ,a heaume or great helmet1 worn in the tournament over the basinet and resting upon the shoulders 7#acge74 7,figs4 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f73 ,shafted weapons of the period4 7,fig4 #c73 ,a bill1 also called a fauchard or guisarme1 of the time of ,richard ,,ii4 7,from a ,,ms47 7,figs4 #d and #e73 ,pikes4 7,fig4 #f73 ,a pole-axe 7the voulge74 7,fig4 #g73 ,a knight wearing a gambeson1 from the monumental effigy of ,sir ,robert ,shurland1 c4 #acjj 7after ,ashdown74 7,fig4 #h73 ,a heaume1 from the brass of ,sir ,hugh ,hastings1 #acdg ,a4,d4 ,it shows the mantling1 or little mantle1 hanging over the back of the helmet1 the crest1 and the torse1 or wreath1 hiding the junction of the crest with the helmet4 7,fig4 #i73 ,a piece of armour1 showing the 8splints0 or small overlapping plates in the elbow joint4 7,fig4 #aj73 ,a basinet1 showing the loops by which the camail is fastened to it4 7,fig4 #aa73 ,heaume and crest of ,sir ,geoffrey ,luterell1 from the ,luterell ,psalter1 #acde ,a4,d4 ,it has a round top1 a movable visor1 and a crest on which are displayed the wearer's 8arms40 7,fig4 #ab73 ,a 8snout-nosed0 basinet with movable visor or ventaille of the time of ,richard ,,ii41 with the visor raised4 7,fig4 #ac73 ,the same with the visor lowered1 as on the battlefield4 7,fig4 #ad73 ,the brass of ,sir ,robert ,symborne1 in ,little ,horkesley ,church1 ,essex1 #acia ,a4,d41 showing the arms and armour of a knight of the camail period4 ,the head is covered with a conical basinet 7without a face-piece71 to which the camail of chain mail is fastened4 ,the lower edge of the hauberk is shown below the close-fitting1 sleeveless jupon which covers the body4 ,the arms1 legs1 and feet are covered with plate armour1 and the laminated plates which superseded roundles are seen at the shoulders and elbows4 ,the hands are protected by gauntlets1 and the knight is armed with long1 straight sword and misericorde4 7,fig4 #ae73 ,a mace1 from a ,,ms41 c4 #acej4 ,,lancastrian ,,and ,,yorkist ,,periods4 ,,male ,,costumes4 ,the effigies of ,king ,henry ,,iv4 and his ,queen at ,canterbury are some of the most splendid of our royal effigies1 uniting richness1 grandeur1 and simplicity4 ,the ,king's crown is particularly remarkable for its magnificence 7,fig4 #a47 ,since there had been very great extravagance in costume during the reign of ,richard ,,ii41 when he came to the throne ,henry revived the sumptuary laws of his predecessors regulating the quality of the clothing to be worn by the various classes of his subjects4 ,four years after that1 all slashing and cutting of garments into various devices was forbidden2 but the people were very fond of display1 and perfect disregard was shown by all classes of the community to any of these laws4 ,a notable decoration that appeared in this reign was the collar of ,,ss4 ,various accounts of its origin have been given1 but the most probable one is that ,s is the initial letter of ,henry's motto1 8,souveraine10 which he had borne while ,earl of ,derby4 ,the houppelande of ,richard's reign1 with its high collar1 huge sleeves1 and full skirt1 was still worn1 and is always depicted scarlet in ,,mss4 ,the 8bag sleeves0 came into fashion during this reign4 ,they were of great size and fulness1 but gathered at the wrist and at the shoulders4 ,in the reign of ,henry ,v4 little change was made in costume1 for the minds of men were occupied with more serious matters in the war with ,france4 ,long and short gowns with large sleeves1 either sweeping and indented at the edge or of the 8bag sleeve0 variety1 were the common upper garments of all classes4 ,in some instances small bells were worn1 fastened to a baldric or belt passing diagonally like a sash across the body from the shoulder to the waist4 ,beards were not worn much during this reign1 and moustaches were only partially worn1 for the fashion was to be clean shaven1 and the hair was cut close above the ears4 ,at the commencement of ,henry ,v4's reign the colour of the surcoat was again changed to white4 ,henry ,,vi4 was invariably plain in his dress1 and we are told that he refused to wear the long-pointed shoes worn by the gentry4 ,it is an interesting reflection on the unsettled condition of the country in the unfortunate reign of this ,king that the costumes were numerous and diverse1 being 8a curious mixture of the costumes of preceding reigns40 ,the most remarkable feature of the fifteenth century was the more common use of caps and hats of fantastic shapes and the change of form of the capuchon or hood into a regularly formed crown1 with a thick roll1 having a long tippet attached to it and trailing on the ground or tucked into the girdle4 7,fig4 #b;a47 ,a single feather is sometimes worn in the cap4 7,fig4 #e47 ,long1 tight hose and short boots or buskins1 and shoes with high fronts and backs that turned over each way1 were worn1 all with long toes4 ,the gown or jacket begins to be cut even around the shoulders1 instead of being made high up the neck4 ,the face was still closely shaven4 ,the state mantles of the ,king and nobles were made of velvet and lined with white damask or satin4 ,legal and other official habits consisted of long1 full gowns1 girdled round the waist and trimmed and lined with fur1 according to the rank of the wearer4 ,during the reigns of ,edward ,,iv41 ,edward ,v41 and ,richard ,,iii41 a very characteristic style of costume begins to come into vogue4 ,the store from which we draw our knowledge--the brasses1 effigies1 and illuminated ,,mss4--is a very extensive one1 and owing to the invention of printing and the use of the wood block for illustration1 we have still another source of information4 ,a very important feature of the costumes of this time was the excellent fit of the garments4 ,as ,mrs4 ,ashdown says1 in her ,british ,costume1 8,broadly speaking1 it had been perfectly possible for a dressmaker to cut out and complete any garment worn by men up to that period2 after the reign of ,edward ,,iv4 the era of the tailor began40 ,in ,edward's reign the jackets and doublets were cut shorter than ever1 the sleeves slit so as to show the large1 loose white shirts1 and the shoulders were padded with moss or flock4 ,men wore the hair long1 and had hats of cloth a quarter of an ell or more in height1 and all wore most sumptuous chains of gold4 ,shoes with long1 pointed toes1 some as much as two feet long1 called poulaines1 were also worn4 ,sumptuary laws were again enacted in this reign against people who dressed beyond their social position1 and both the wearers and the tailors and shoemakers were subject to fines for transgressing them4 ,in the reign of ,richard ,,iii41 gentlemen began to wear the long gowns and more sober costumes that distinguished the reign of ,henry ,,vii4 ,the costumes of the nobility generally consisted of hose or long stockings tied by points or laces to the doublet1 which was open in front1 about half-way down the breast1 showing a stomacher or vest1 over which it was laced like a peasant's bodice4 ,over the doublet was worn a long or a short gown1 according to fancy and circumstances1 the former hanging loose1 the latter full of pleats before and behind1 plain at the sides and girdled tightly about the waist4 ,small caps or 8bonets0 of various shapes were worn4 ,boots reaching to the middle of the thigh are frequently seen in the illuminations of the period4 ,the hair was worn very bushy behind and at the sides4 7,fig4 #i47 ,very rich materials were used for the garments of nobles and others4 ,the costumes of the lower classes during this period followed the more sober costumes of this and preceding periods1 the materials being coarse and the cut simple4 ,the costumes of the retainers of the nobility imitated those of their masters1 and were very often made of rich materials and in the extreme fashion4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #cg4 7,fig4 #a7 ,the ,crown of ,henry ,,iv41 from his effigy in ,canterbury ,cathedral1 #adbb4 ,it is of beautiful proportion and workmanship4 7,fig4 #b73 ,brass of ,ralph ,segrym1 ,m4,p41 ,mayor1 #addi1 ,st4 ,john's ,church1 ,maddermarket1 ,norwich4 ,this is a good example of civilian costume of the time1 the baggy sleeves being very typical4 ,the cloak is fur-lined1 and has a fur collar1 fastening with three buttons on the right shoulder4 7,fig4 #b;a73 ,head-dress of the period1 composed of a thick roll of stuff encircling the head like a turban1 having a quantity of cloth attached to its inner edge which covers one side1 while on the other side a broad band or becca of the same material hangs down to the ground4 7,harl4 ,,ms41 #b1bgh47 7,fig4 #c73 ,male costume of ,henry ,,iv4's reign4 7,harl4 ,,ms41 #b1ccb47 ,the sleeves of the gown are very wide1 and are gathered tight around the wrist4 ,the gown or tunic reaches only to the knee1 where it is scalloped in the form of leaves4 ,tight hose and boots reaching above the ankle complete the costume4 ,the hair is parted in the front and is curled at the sides4 7,fig4 #d73 ,an ,exquisite of the reign of ,edward ,,iv41 wearing a characteristic peaked cap of the time1 called a bycocket1 with a black crown and a white brim4 ,his short1 green jacket has wide sleeves edged with ermine1 and his chausses are red4 7,fig4 #e73 ,a hat of the time of ,henry ,,vi41 from ,gough's ,sepulchral ,monuments4 7,fig4 #e;a73 ,head of ,duke of ,bedford1 from a portrait of the time of ,henry ,,vi41 showing the peculiar way in which the hair was worn in this and the preceding reign4 7,fig4 #f73 ,figure of ,richard1 ,duke of ,gloucester1 afterward ,richard ,,iii4 7,from the ,royal ,,ms41 #ae ,e4 #d47 ,he is attired in the most fashionable dress of the day4 ,his red hat has a gold band and jewelled buttons to secure the feathers4 ,his crimson jacket is furred with deep red1 is very short1 and is gathered in close folds behind1 the sleeves being extremely long4 ,he wears the ,garter around his left leg2 his hose are blue1 and he has the fashionable long-pointed shoe and the clog or patten over it4 7,fig4 #g73 ,another form of the bycocket hat4 7,fig4 #h73 ,hat of black cloth with the long pendant twisted around the neck4 7,harl4 ,,ms41 #d1cgi47 7,fig4 #i73 ,costume of the time of ,edward ,,iv4 7,royal ,,ms41 #ae ,e4 ii47 ,,female ,,costumes4 ,little change was made in the costumes of ladies during these periods1 but there was a more wonderful variety in the head-dresses--many of them striking and even picturesque--than during any other century of ,english history4 ,in the early part of this period the crespine or golden net caul1 into which the hair was gathered 7,fig4 #ab71 partly covered by a veil1 was very common4 ,the cte-hardi was still very popular1 but many ladies wore the full outer garment or mantle1 called the houppelande1 buttoned high up to the neck1 with wide sleeves1 and reaching down to the feet4 7,fig4 #d47 ,long-trained gowns were also worn1 with stomachers1 trimmed with fur and velvet1 and these displaced the super-tunic4 ,fur was very extensively used by all classes1 to the great disgust and contempt of some contemporary writers4 ,sumptuary laws passed in the reign of ,henry ,,iv4 prohibited 8the wearing of furs of ermine1 lettice1 pure minivers1 or grey10 by the wives of esquires1 unless they were noble themselves or their husbands held the office of ,mayor of certain towns4 ,in the reign of ,henry ,,vi4 the previous fashions were continued1 with numerous fantastic additions4 ,towards the end of the reign1 short-waisted gowns were worn1 girded tightly at the waist1 with enormous trains and with turn-over collars of fur or velvet coming to a point in front4 ,sleeves were worn of all descriptions4 ,the different varieties of head-dresses were known as 7#a7 the turban1 7#b7 the horned head-dress1 7#c7 the heart-shaped head-dress1 and 7#d7 the forked head-dress4 ,the ,turban ,head-dress 7,fig4 #g7 was in fashion for some time1 even continuing until the next century1 and was probably based upon the ,turkish turban4 ,it consisted of a light framework of wire1 covered with silk or other rich material4 ,the ,horned ,head-dress 7,fig4 #f7 was probably the most grotesque form of head-dress worn in this reign4 ,the cauls at the side of the head were made very large1 and horns1 from which depended the veil1 extended horizontally on either side of the head4 ,this came in for very severe condemnation and satire by the writers of the time1 being compared to the horns of the snail1 of the unicorn1 of the hart1 and even of the devil himself4 ,the horns were worn so large that in some places 8it was judged necessary to enlarge the doors of the apartments10 and when entering a room the wearers had 8to turn aside and stoop40 ,the ,heart-shaped ,head-dress 7,fig4 #i7 was formed by the cauls being made higher1 so that the pad resting on them was pushed upward at the sides1 and the head-dress assumed the shape of a heart4 ,the ,forked ,head-dress 7,fig4 #aj7 was a variation of the horned head-dress1 in which the horns were placed vertically instead of horizontally4 ,the costumes of the reigns of the ,yorkist ,kings are very amply illustrated from the numerous effigies1 brasses1 and ,,mss41 and from the newly invented wood blocks used in the new art of printing4 ,the ladies' costumes of the reign of ,edward ,,iv4 were modifications of those worn in the reign of ,henry ,,vi41 but they were very splendid and most extravagant4 ,the fashion of wearing tails to the gowns fell into disuse1 and in their room borders of velvet or fur were substituted4 ,the gowns were exceedingly short-waisted1 and the dress was cut very low at the neck4 ,the ,steeple ,head-dress 7,fig4 #aa71 nicknamed 8the chimney pot10 came into use during this reign4 ,it was conical or pyramidal in form1 and was generally about three-quarters of an ell in height4 ,it was placed on the head at an angle of about #de degrees from the vertical1 and in order to lessen the tension on the head1 a kind of framework of wire netting was worn under it4 ,to the apex was affixed a veil1 often of fine texture1 sometimes reaching to the ground4 ,another peculiar form of head-dress was known as the ,butterfly ,head-dress 7,fig4 #h71 introduced about #adgj ,a4,d4 ,it appears to have been a modification of the steeple head-dress1 the cone being truncated1 with wires arranged about it1 to which wings of gauze veiling were affixed4 ,with this head-dress the hair was worn tightly drawn back from the forehead4 ,the ladies of the middle class did not adopt these extravagant fashions4 ,they wore caps of cloth 8with two wings at the side like apes' ears40 ,by the sumptuary laws1 wives of persons whose income was less than #dj a year were forbidden to wear girdles ornamented with gold and silver work1 or any 8corse of silk0 made out of the realm1 or any coverchief exceeding a certain price1 or the furs of certain animals4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ch4 7,fig4 #a73 ,joice1 ,lady ,tiptoft1 from the brass in ,enfield ,church1 ,middlesex1 #addf ,a4,d4 ,she is shown wearing a horned head-dress of very moderate proportions and very elaborately made4 ,she wears a cte-hardi and gown trimmed richly with ermine4 ,the brass1 which is one of the finest of the kind in ,england1 shows the armorial bearings upon the cloak also4 7,fig4 #b73 ,head-dress of a lady in the reign of ,henry ,,vi41 with a veil or kerchief attached to it4 7,harl4 ,,ms41 #f1dca47 7,fig4 #c73 ,head-dress of a lady in the reign of ,henry ,v41 from the effigy of ,catherine1 ,countess of ,suffolk1 showing the golden caul at the sides of the head4 7,fig4 #d73 ,female costume of the reign of ,henry ,v41 showing the horned head-dress covered with a kerchief1 the short waist1 and the gown with very wide trailing sleeves and high collar called the houppelande4 7,fig4 #e73 ,brass of ,margaret1 wife of ,william ,cheyne1 #adai ,a4,d41 at ,hever1 in ,kent1 showing the horned head-dress1 the close-fitting dress1 and the mantle fastened across the bosom4 7,fig4 #f73 ,horned head-dress of the fifteenth century1 from the effigy of ,beatrice1 ,countess of ,arundel1 in the church at ,arundel4 ,this is considered to be the finest illustration of the horned head-dress in existence4 7,fig4 #g73 ,a turban head-dress4 7,harl4 ,,ms41 #b1bgh47 7,fig4 #h73 ,butterfly head-dress1 from the brass of ,lady ,say1 in ,broxbourne ,church1 ,herts1 #adgc ,a4,d4 7,fig4 #i73 ,heart-shaped head-dress4 7,froissart's ,chronicles1 ,harl4 ,,ms41 #d1cgi47 7,fig4 #aj73 ,a forked head-dress with small hanging veil4 7,harl4 ,,ms41 #b1bgh47 7,fig4 #aa73 ,female costume of the reign of ,edward ,,iv41 showing the steeple head-dress1 with kerchief fastened to the apex4 ,the gown is very full1 and both it and the train are edged with ermine4 ,the turn-over collar is also shown1 and the square-shaped under garment with lacing4 7,harl4 ,,ms41 #d1cgi47 7,fig4 #ab73 ,head of a lady1 from a brass at ,sawtrey1 ,hants1 #adjd ,a4,d41 showing the crespine or golden net caul worn by ladies of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 with a small veil hanging down by the side of the face4 ,,plate ,,armour4 ,the various modifications in plate armour were such as were found necessary for greater ease or for more perfect protection1 and were of a progressive character4 ,in order to prevent confusion it is customary to divide this period of #bjj years into five lesser periods1 the first three being roughly coincident with the ,lancastrian and ,yorkist ,periods1 the remaining two with the ,tudor ,period4 #ast ,period3 #adaj--adcj4 #bnd ,period3 #adcj--adej4 #crd ,period3 #adej--aejj4 #ast ,period3 #adaj--adej4 ,this is also known as the surcoatless period1 as the polished breast and back plates were worn without any textile covering4 ,before the ,hundred ,years' ,war had broken1 out again in the reign of ,henry ,v4--just before ,agincourt--the types of armour had completely changed4 ,knights gave up the use of the camail and jupon1 and were clothed in complete armour4 ,additional protections were placed in front of the armpits1 as roundles or pallettes1 resembling small shields1 and fan-shaped plates were placed at the elbow joints4 ,the basinet was made much more globular in form1 and a piece of plate called the gorget or neck-piece took the place of the camail to connect the basinet with the body armour4 ,the lower part of the basinet1 protecting the chin1 was called the beaver 78,i saw young ,harry with his beaver on40 ,h4 ,,iv41 ,pt4 #a71 and was fastened by rivets to the upper part near the temples4 ,the basinet now rested on the gorget1 and was so arranged that the head could be turned to right and left4 ,the breastplate was of globular form1 and there was a corresponding plate over the back4 ,from the waist to the middle of the thigh1 a series of narrow1 flexible1 horizontal overlapping bands or plates of steel1 called taces or tassets1 fastened to a lining of leather1 were worn4 ,they thus formed a kind of armoured kilt or short steel petticoat4 ,the sword-belt was narrow1 and was worn diagonally over the taces1 and the general form of the sword remained unaltered4 ,the misericorde continued to be worn on the right side4 ,the hauberk was sometimes worn under the plate armour1 for the lower edge is sometimes shown in effigies and brasses4 ,all the details of the above description are shown in ,fig4 #a4 #bnd ,period3 #adcj-adej4 ,this is sometimes called the ,tabard ,period1 as a new variety of short surcoat called a tabard was worn with short sleeves over the armour1 bearing the heraldic devices of the wearer1 emblazoned down the front and also on each sleeve4 ,the chief characteristic of the period with regard to the actual armour was the system of adding strengthening or reinforcing pieces of plate to the armour4 ,over the flanks on each side1 depending from the taces1 a small plate1 varying in shape1 called a tuille1 was appended4 ,it was fastened by strings and allowed free movement of the limbs4 ,the sollerets or feet coverings became longer1 and plates like those on the shell of a lobster were added to the gauntlets to cover and protect the backs of the hands4 ,additional plates varying in size and form1 were fixed to the elbows and shoulders on the ordinary armour4 ,it is interesting to note that the right arm and shoulder were accoutred so as to interfere as little as possible with the action when fighting2 while the left side and bridle arm were more fully protected with additional defensive armour4 ,large reinforcing plates called pauldrons extended over the shoulders1 sometimes being made with a kind of standing collar to protect the neck from a direct stroke4 ,one of the finest specimens of the armour of this period is that on the splendid bronze effigy of ,richard ,beauchamp1 ,earl of ,warwick4 7,figs4 #b and #c47 ,the brilliant artist and archologist1 ,charles ,stothard1 when making drawings of the figure1 found to his great delight that it was movable1 and that the armour on the back was represented and finished as perfectly as on the front4 #crd ,period3 #adej-aejj4 ,during this period the practice of reinforcing the armour continued1 and great modifications were made in the existing pieces4 ,the armour became more extravagant in form1 dimensions and adornment4 ,enormous fan-like elbow pieces were worn1 and the pauldrons or shoulder pieces were very large4 ,this period includes the ,wars of the ,roses1 and is1 therefore1 of considerable interest4 ,it has been said that1 before this time1 arms and armour were ,european rather than ,english1 but in this period1 for the first time since the ,norman ,conquest1 ,england was cut off from the rest of ,europe1 and was free to develop along her own lines4 ,distinguishing and party badges1 collars and devices were freely worn1 and incorporated with the arms during this period4 ,the salade1 a light helmet1 was principally worn in the ,wars of the ,roses4 ,the horses of knights in the tournament and on the battlefield were sometimes as heavily armed as the riders4 ,the horse's head was protected by a chanfrein1 or face-piece1 and movable plates of steel1 forming the crinet1 covered the mane1 while burnished shields or plates of metal were fixed on the breast4 ,the weight of armour was so great that1 when a knight was unhorsed1 he was utterly helpless1 and at the mercy of his opponent1 as it was impossible for him to rise without assistance1 and the victor had only the trouble of coolly selecting the best chink in the junctures in the armour in which to insert his sword or his dagger4 ,as ,james ,i4 afterwards said of armour1 owing to its general cumbersomeness1 8,it was an admirable defence1 as it hindered a man from being hurt himself or of hurting others40 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ci4 7,fig4 #a73 ,brass of ,sir ,john ,lysle1 ,thruxton ,church1 ,hampshire1 #adjg ,a4,d4 ,this is the earliest example of complete plate armour in existence in ,england1 but the brass was probably made ten years after that date4 7#a7 ,gorget2 7#b7 ,beaver2 7#c7 ,roundles2 7#d7 ,taces 7#h in number72 7#e7 ,fanshaped coudires4 7,fig4 #b73 ,front view of bronze effigy of ,richard ,beauchamp1 ,k4 ,g41 ,earl of ,warwick1 from his tomb in the ,beauchamp ,chapel1 ,warwick4 ,the ,earl died #adci ,a4,d41 and the effigy was executed in #adec4 ,the following points will be noted3 7#a7 ,the head is bare1 and rests on a crested helm2 7#b7 the breastplate shoulder-guards are reinforced1 the pauldrons having low1 upright neck defences2 7#c7 the coudires1 or elbow pieces1 are large1 and of the same size on both arms2 7#d7 there are five taces1 showing a skirt of mail beneath them1 and there are two large tuilles4 7,fig4 #c73 ,back view of the same4 7,fig4 #d73 ,a skull cap of steel1 called a casquetel1 with large ear-pieces1 of the reign of ,edward ,,iv4 7,fig4 #e73 ,basinet of the reign of ,henry ,v4 7,fig4 #f73 ,basinet from the ,register ,book of ,st4 ,albans1 ,a4,d4 #adag4 ,it rises to a point1 upon which is placed a hollow tube to receive the panache1 or crest of feathers1 and has a movable visor4 7,fig4 #g73 ,salade with movable visor4 7,fig4 #h73 ,round salade with a jewelled plume4 7,from ,rouse's ,life of the ,earl of ,warwick47 7,fig4 #i73 ,effigy of ,sir ,thomas ,peyton1 in ,isleham ,church1 ,cambridgeshire1 of the reign of ,richard ,,iii4 ,the grotesque form of the enormous fan-like elbow-pieces and the large pauldrons reinforcing the shoulder armour are particularly noticeable4 7,fig4 #aj73 ,figure of ,sir ,robert ,wingfield in complete armour1 from a painted window in ,east ,herling ,church1 ,norfolk1 executed between #adfa and #adhj4 ,he wears a tabard1 with his 8arms0 blazoned on the front and on each sleeve4 ,,decorated ,,architecture4 ,a4,d4 #acjj to #acgg4 ,reigns of ,edward ,i41 ,,ii41 and ,,iii4 ,the transition from the ,early ,english1 or ,lancet style1 to the ,decorated was much more gradual than from ,norman to ,early ,english1 so gradual that it is impossible to draw a line where one style ceases and another begins4 ,there can be no doubt that in some parts of the kingdom1 ,early ,english was in use at the same time that1 in other districts1 the ,decorated style was becoming general1 and thus the terms adopted to denote the different periods must not be taken as definite or as commencing or closing at any particular date1 but merely as indicating the broad classification of the styles and details1 and for associating them with particular reigns for convenience of study4 ,the divisions are arbitrary1 but very convenient in practice4 ,structurally1 there was not a great change in the buildings1 but there was a more harmonious relation and development of all the architectural features in walls1 piers1 buttresses1 windows1 etc41 both with regard to their size and their enrichment1 and it was because of this general use of ornament or enrichment that it is called the ,decorated ,period4 8,it rivals the preceding style in chasteness and elegance1 while it surpasses it in richness40 ,great progress was made in the reign of ,edward ,i41 and the ,decorated work exhibits the most complete and perfect development of the ,gothic arch1 which in the ,early ,english was not fully matured1 and in the ,perpendicular began to decline4 ,it is remarkable for its geometric tracery1 its natural types of foliage1 and the undulating character of line and form in its ornamental details4 ,windows4--,the most distinctive features of the ,decorated style are its large windows and its mouldings4 ,the windows are the chief glory of the #adth century ,gothic4 ,they vary very considerably in size1 in form and in intricacy4 ,as the window arches became broader1 mullions or vertical bars of masonry were required for their support1 dividing the windows into lights1 and the upper portions of these mullions were developed into tracery1 forming circles1 trefoils1 or other geometric figures1 and1 afterwards1 flowing lines4 ,it has been shown how the grouping of lancet-shaped windows and the piercing of the space above them1 under the arched dripstone1 had produced 8plate tracery40 ,as the piercings became larger1 narrow and irregularly shaped surfaces of stone were left4 ,these were pierced1 and the intervening piers of stone came to be shaped like the mullions2 in fact1 became a continuation of the mullions4 ,this development1 which was reached before the middle of the #acth century1 is called 8bar tracery40 ,at first1 this bar tracery was plain2 then 8cusps0 7,pl4 #dj1 ,fig4 #e71 or projecting points1 were introduced on the inner edge of the mullions1 and added greatly to the rich effects4 ,the earliest ,decorated windows have tracery on a purely geometric basis4 ,exeter ,cathedral is considered the best typical example of the early part of this style1 and the existing windows were constructed at the end of the #acth century4 ,the ,chapter-houses at ,york and ,southwell are other rich examples4 ,windows with flowing tracery are1 in general1 later than those with geometrical patterns1 though they are sometimes contemporaneous in the same building4 ,no rule is followed in the form of the arch over windows in this style4 ,some are very obtuse1 others very acute1 and the ogee1 or double-curved arch1 is not uncommon4 ,square-headed windows are very common in this style1 in many parts of the country1 especially in ,leicestershire and ,oxfordshire4 ,this form of window was so very convenient that its use was never discontinued1 though it was more commonly used in houses and castles than in churches1 and windows with a flat curved top are frequently used4 ,circular or 8,rose0 windows in churches and cathedrals are also a fine feature of this style4 ,notable among these are the windows at the end of the south transept in ,lincoln and ,westminster4 ,pillars4--,in ordinary parish churches the pillars are frequently as plain as in the ,early ,english ,period1 and are generally octagonal in cross sections1 but in richer churches they are clustered1 and no longer have detached shafts4 ,the bases of the columns are often lozenge-shaped1 or a square set diagonally1 to allow the light to penetrate better into the body of the building4 ,the capitals are frequently octagonal or bell-shaped1 and sometimes they are merely moulded or decorated with the 8ball flower0 7,pl4 #di1 ,fig4 #i7 and the 8four-leaved flower0 7,pl4 #di1 ,fig4 #aj74 ,in the preceding style a conventional form of foliage was employed to decorate the capitals4 ,but in the richer examples of this style they are decorated with beautiful foliage1 more faithfully copied from ,nature2 the vine leaf1 the maple leaf1 the oak leaf with acorns1 the rose1 and the ivy being most commonly imitated4 ,the foliage is twisted horizontally round the bell-shaped head1 and does not shoot up vertically from stiff or upright stems1 as in the ,early ,english4 ,the bases are usually moulded only1 consisting of two or three rounds or roll-moulds1 and stand upon a plinth1 the height of which varies very much4 ,mouldings4--,the mouldings of this style differ from those of the ,early ,english mainly in not having the rounds and hollows so deeply cut--a characteristic feature being the introduction of fillets or small flat bands4 ,the deepest hollows1 too1 are found1 not between each member1 but between groups of members4 ,they are always very effective1 and are so arranged as to produce a pleasing contrast of light and shade1 which is softer and more blended than in the ,early ,english mouldings4 7,pl4 #da1 ,fig4 #aj47 ,a moulding peculiar to this style is the 8roll moulding0 7,pl4 #da1 ,fig4 #g71 in which the upper half projects over the lower4 ,the hollows are frequently enriched with running foliage or with flowers at intervals1 particularly the 8ball-flower0 and the 8four-leaved flower10 which are typical ornaments of this period4 ,the surface of the interior walls is often covered with flat foliage1 arranged in small squares1 called diaper work4 7,pl4 #i1 ,fig4 #aa47 ,this kind of ornament is found in the ,early ,english choir at ,westminster ,abbey1 but belongs more commonly to the decorated style4 ,crockets and ,finials 7,pl4 #da1 ,fig4 #h7 introduced into the ,early ,english style1 were now used with greater profusion1 and were treated with great richness4 ,the ,doorways are frequently large and richly sculptured1 but in small churches they are frequently plain4 ,in large doorways the arch is generally pointed2 in smaller ones it is generally an ,ogee 7,pl4 #da1 ,fig4 #i71 an arch formed of a double curve1 convex and concave1 which came into general use in this country in the fourteenth century4 ,the mouldings are commonly very rich4 ,the ,arches do not differ materially in general effect from the ,early ,english ones2 they are not so acute1 but are distinguished by the mouldings and caps as described above4 ,in some cases the mouldings are continued down the pier without the intervention of a capital1 forming a completely moulded opening4 ,arcades or series of arches1 were used in richly decorated buildings to ornament the walls4 ,the sedilia or seats on the south side of the choir1 near the altar1 for the officiating clergy1 were usually decorated in this form4 7,pl4 #da1 ,fig4 #f47 ,groined roofs or vaults of this style are distinguished from those of the preceding style1 chiefly by the introduction of numerous extra or intermediate ribs and groins and by the natural foliage richly carved on the base4 ,stone groining is imitated in cases where it would not be safe to place the weight of a stone roof on the walls4 ,timber roofs of this period are comparatively rare1 but those of domestic halls appear to have been more enriched than those of churches4 ,it should be noted that what are called 8timber roofs0 are frequently inner roofs or ceilings1 built for ornament only1 with a plain1 substantial roof over them1 as at ,sparsholt1 ,berks4 7,pl4 #dj1 ,fig4 #f47 ,gargoyles1 or grotesque waterspouts in the shape of monsters1 are a noticeable feature1 and are for the purpose of throwing the rainwater clear of the walls and buttresses4 ,the ,buttresses in this period received great attention4 ,they were proportioned with distinct regard to their function4 ,they are found in a great variety of form and of degrees of richness1 but they are almost invariably worked in stages and are often ornamented with niches with crocketed canopies originally containing images1 and they often terminate in pinnacles4 7,pl4 #da1 ,fig4 #e47 ,the ,clear-story and the ,triforium4--,in large churches and cathedrals the upper portion of the nave is lighted by a row of windows called the ,clear-story or the ,clere-story4 ,below these1 in the unlighted space under the roof of the aisle1 is a row of unlighted arches called the ,triforium or ,blind-story4 ,the decoration of these was1 of course1 similar to that employed in the other windows and arches of this period4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #dj4 7,fig4 #a73 ,decorated window from ,meopham--an example of early geometrical tracery with cusps4 7,fig4 #b73 ,decorated window from ,st4 ,mary's1 ,beverley1 showing the manner in which the lines of the mullions were carried up to fill the head of the arch with flowing tracery4 7,fig4 #c73 ,decorated ,piscina from ,fyfield1 ,berks41 c4 #acjj ,a4,d41 showing geometrical tracery with a crocketed pediment1 pinnacles and a battlement4 7,a ,piscina was a water drain1 consisting of a shallow basin or sink with a hole in the bottom to carry off the water with which the priest washed his hands4 ,it was placed near the altar1 and was very common in the thirteenth and succeeding centuries47 7,fig4 #d73 ,square-headed window from ,dorchester1 ,oxfordshire1 c4 #accj ,a4,d4 7,fig4 #e73 ,detail showing a cusp4 7,fig4 #f73 ,decorated timber 7inner7 roof at ,sparsholt1 c4 #acej ,a4,d4 7,fig4 #g73 ,clear-story window splayed 7widened on the inside to throw down the light71 from ,barton1 ,northants1 c4 #acbj ,a4,d4 7,fig4 #h73 ,band of decorated ornament from the triforium of the nave of ,st4 ,albans4 7,fig4 #i73 ,the ,ball-flower1 a characteristic ornament used on mouldings in the ,decorated ,period1 being a globular flower half-opened4 7,fig4 #aj73 ,the ,four-leaved flower1 another characteristic ornament of the ,decorated ,period4 7,fig4 #aa73 ,diaper work from ,lincoln ,cathedral4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #da4 7,fig4 #a73 ,decorated ,capitals from the ,chapter ,house1 ,southwell1 characteristic examples of the richly carved and clustered caps of the period4 7,fig4 #b73 ,decorated ,flying ,buttress from the spire at ,caythorpe1 c4 #acbj ,a4,d4 7,fig4 #c73 ,decorated ,capital of the ,transition ,period 7between ,early ,english and ,decorated74 7,fig4 #d73 ,decorated ,corbel ,head or ,mask4 ,such an ornament was placed at the end of a stone rib or dripstone4 7,fig4 #e73 ,decorated ,buttress1 with a niche for an image1 from ,st4 ,mary ,magdalene1 ,oxford1 c4 #acbj ,a4,d4 ,it is also ornamented with pinnacles and crockets4 7,fig4 #f73 ,sedilia from ,chesterton1 ,oxfordshire1 c4 #acbf ,a4,d41 decorated with the ,ball-flower4 7,fig4 #g73 ,roll moulding1 very characteristic of the ,decorated ,period--a moulding made up of two portions of circular mouldings1 the upper part larger than and projecting over the lower4 7,fig4 #h73 ,decorated finial with crockets 7on the side of the slope71 from ,lincoln ,cathedral4 7,a finial is a bunch of foliage which terminates pinnacles1 canopies1 pediments1 etc47 ,crockets are projecting leaves1 etc41 used in ,gothic architecture to decorate the angles of spires1 canopies1 pinnacles1 etc4 7,fig4 #i73 ,an ,ogee arch1 ornamented with crockets1 from ,beverley ,minster1 c4 #acej ,a4,d4 7,fig4 #aj73 ,section of decorated mouldings from ,bray1 ,berks1 c4 #acjj ,a4,d4 7,fig4 #aa73 ,piscina from ,wilford ,church1 ,notts4 ,this illustration is given to show how builders1 in renovating a church1 altered and adapted work of a preceding style4 ,when the church was enlarged in the fourteenth century this piscina was placed near the altar4 ,the upper part was formed of portions of two small ,norman arches taken from two dismantled windows4 ,these were roughly trimmed to form a pointed arch to be in keeping with the 8pointed0 style4 7,after ,h4,f47 ,,tudor ,,period4 ,,male ,,costumes4 ,henry ,,vii4 ,the male costumes of ,henry ,,vii4's reign were not brilliant1 and ,henry himself1 on account of his miserly disposition1 was very soberly dressed4 ,his conduct in this respect naturally influenced the whole nation1 though there were exquisites at this time1 as there always will be1 who dressed in a very extreme fashion4 ,strutt says that at the end of the fifteenth century 8the dress of the ,english was exceedingly fantastical and absurd1 insomuch that it was even difficult to distinguish one sex from another02 but this referred more particularly to the dress of the nobility and gentry4 ,the custom of 8slashing0 came into fashion at this time1 and was probably due to the desire to show the rich lining or embroidered shirt underneath4 ,the hood fell into disuse1 and broad felt hats or caps and bonnets of velvet and fur with large1 drooping plumes became general 8among the great and gay40 ,a square cap peculiar to this period is still shown on the heads of the knaves on our playing cards4 ,a long gown1 which was of varying proportions1 girdled at the waist1 having wide sleeves1 a lining of darker cloth1 and open at the upper part to display the inner vest1 was a common and a dignified costume4 7,pl4 #db1 ,fig4 #a47 ,embroidery was restricted to the under garments1 the shirts being often decorated on the collars and wrists with needlework4 ,the costumes of private gentlemen were plain and unobtrusive in their character4 7,fig4 #b47 ,the pointed toes of the shoes gave place to very broad ones1 termed sabbatons 7,figs4 #aj and #aa71 and the hair was worn long and flowing1 though the face was still closely shaven1 moustaches and beards being worn by soldiers and old men only4 ,chausses1 which had been generally worn up to this period1 began to give place to the separate breeches and hose4 ,henry ,,viii4 ,the costume of the gentry of the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 consisted of a full-skirted and girdled jacket or doublet1 with large sleeves at the wrist1 over which was worn a short1 full coat or cloak with loose1 hanging sleeves and a broad collar or cape of fur--a brimmed cap1 jewelled and bordered with ostrich feathers--stockings1 and square-toed shoes1 with ruffles at the wrist4 ,an embroidered stomacher or vest was sometimes worn over the shirt and under the doublet4 ,the skirts of the latter reached sometimes to the knees1 but were often made shorter4 ,on the whole1 there were no great innovations of male costume made during the actual reign of ,henry ,,viii41 for the same fashions appear to have continued during its whole extent4 ,henry passed sumptuary laws regulating the use of the rarer furs1 velvets1 satins1 and damasks to certain classes of society1 while the working classes were confined to the use of cloth of a certain price and lamb's fur only1 and were forbidden to wear ornaments of gold1 silver1 or gilt work4 ,stockings of silk are generally supposed to have been unknown in ,england before the middle of the sixteenth century1 and ,henry ,,viii4 never wore any hose but such as were made of cloth4 ,the upper portion of the coverings for the legs1 called trunk hose1 were slashed1 puffed1 and embroidered1 and were fastened by points or laces to the doublet 7so called from being made of double stuff with padding between74 ,they were made of velvets1 satins1 silks1 and golden and silver stuffs4 ,the large sleeves and capes of the various garments were fastened to the body of the dress by means of points or by buttons1 and were separate articles of apparel1 and often of different colour from the remaining portion of the garment4 ,the waistcoat was first mentioned in this reign1 and was worn under the doublet4 ,slashed shoes were also worn4 ,henry ,,viii4 gave orders for all his attendants and courtiers to wear the hair short1 and that1 of course1 became the fashion for men throughout the land4 ,the pictures at ,hampton ,court representing episodes connected with the ,field of the ,cloth of ,gold have been called 8general pictorial encyclopdias0 of the costume of this reign4 ,the portrait of the ,earl of ,surrey at ,hampton ,court is a good illustration of the costume of the nobility during ,henry's reign4 ,he is represented in a short doublet1 open at the neck down to the waist1 displaying an embroidered shirt4 ,round his waist is a girdle with a dagger in a richly gilt case fastened to it4 ,his jerkin is made very broad at the shoulder 7a characteristic of this reign7 and wide at the sleeves1 which are gathered1 puffed1 and slashed4 ,he also wears full trunk hose reaching to the knees1 tight stockings1 and a small1 flat cap with feathers4 ,his hair is cut short in the prevailing fashion4 ,it is interesting to note that breeches were often spoken of as 8sloppes10 and a certain class of clothier's shop is still known colloquially as a 8slop-shop40 ,it was the custom at this time for people in the lower and middle classes to bequeath their articles of dress in their wills4 ,the apprentices of ,london wore blue cloaks in summer1 and in the winter gowns of the same colour4 ,their breeches and stockings were usually made of white broadcloth4 ,generally speaking1 a person's station in life was well indicated by his dress4 ,edward ,,vi4 and ,mary ,i4 ,during the reign of ,edward ,,vi4 the earnest desire to settle religious questions introduced through the ,reformation1 and the persecution and consequent national depression in the reign of ,mary1 are responsible for the fact that the costumes were not extreme in these reigns1 being plain and serviceable1 and the rank being generally indicated more by richness of material than by extravagance of style4 ,in this reign was introduced the small1 flat bonnet or cap1 worn on one side of the head1 preserved to this day in the caps of the boys of ,christ's ,hospital 7which they should wear but do not74 ,blue coats were the common habits of apprentices and serving men1 and yellow stockings were very generally worn at this period4 ,their whole dress is1 in fact1 the prevailing costume of the grave citizens of ,london at the time of the foundation of the school in the reign of ,edward ,,vi4 ,the flat cap was known as 8the city flat cap10 common to citizens1 and it was also known as 8the statute cap0 because ,elizabeth afterwards ordered that everyone should wear 8one cap of wool knit1 thickened1 and dressed in ,england10 or be fined #cs4 #d;d4 for each day's transgression4 ,the broad-toed shoe was put out of fashion by proclamation in the reign of ,mary4 ,the portrait of ,john ,heywood1 a citizen who was held in high esteem by ,mary1 is a good example of the costume of citizens and merchants of ,london in her reign4 7,fig4 #ab47 ,elizabeth4 ,during this reign the change of costume1 which had commenced in the reign of ,henry ,,viii41 was completed1 and was of that fantastic character now known as 8the ,elizabethan costume40 ,elizabeth1 by her strong individuality1 would not be content 8with the same garments her grandmother affected40 ,she was fond also of pleasure and display1 and the richness of her costume and that of her ladies naturally brought about a corresponding richness in the costume of the men4 ,before this time1 the ,english had been largely indebted to foreign influences for their changes in dress1 but now their costumes were largely developed in this country1 and the many extravagances and the numerous changes caused considerable surprise to ,continental nations4 ,the innovations in dress were as bold as those in literature and the drama1 and corresponded to the daring and adventures of her soldiers and sailors in far-off seas4 ,the trunk hose were of various kinds1 8the ,french hose being round and narrow and gathered into a series of puffs around the thighs4 ,the ,gally hose were made large and wide1 reaching down to the knees only4 ,the ,venetian hose reached beneath the knee to the gartering place of the leg40 ,the doublet had a long waist1 and both it and the trunk hose were heavily slashed4 ,a short cloak or mantle with a standing collar1 a ruff1 and a hat with band and feathers1 were also worn4 ,at first the doublet was worn tight-fitting1 but later in her reign the 8peascod-bellied0 variety was introduced4 ,it is seen in the body dress of our old friend ,punch1 8whose wardrobe of ,italian origin dates as nearly as possible from this period40 ,it fitted the body tightly1 and was carried down to a long peak in front1 whence it obtained the name 8peascod10 and it was stuffed or 8bombasted0 to the required shape4 ,trunk hose were stuffed with wool1 rags or bran1 and were made very large4 ,fig4 #ac is a good example of the dress of a nobleman of this period4 ,the hats had high crowns and broad brims4 ,beards1 which had been worn in the reign of ,henry ,,viii41 continued in the reign of ,elizabeth4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #db4 7,fig4 #a73 ,male costume of the reign of ,henry ,,vii41 8a fair specimen of the general form of dress adopted by the gentlemen of the age40 ,it was difficult at this time to distinguish one sex by the dress from another4 7,from ,royal ,,ms41 #ai1 ,c #h1 ,a4,d4 #adif47 7,fig4 #b73 ,costume of a gentleman of the ,early ,tudor period1 with a close-fitting hat to which is affixed long pendant streamers of cloth4 8,this figure is remarkable for its simplicity1 and may be received as the type of a gentleman unspoiled by the foppery of extravagance40 7,from ,harl4 ,,ms4 ,no4 #d1dbe1 ,a4,d4 #adgi7 one of the last of the priceless ,illuminated ,,mss41 and one of the chief authorities for the costume of the earlier part of this reign4 7,fig4 #c73 ,flat cap1 which was the general head-dress of men in the reigns of ,henry ,,viii4 and ,edward ,,vi4 7,fig4 #d73 ,hat with plumes of feathers of the time of ,henry ,,vii4 ,from the same ,,mss4 as 7,fig4 #b47 7,fig4 #e73 ,hat of the ,yeoman of the ,guard1 with three plumes1 from a contemporary picture4 7,fig4 #f73 ,hat of the time of ,elizabeth1 from a picture of her funeral4 7,figs4 #g and #i73 8,copotain0 hats of the time of ,elizabeth1 from contemporary pictures4 7,fig4 #h73 ,another common form of hat of the time of ,elizabeth4 7,figs4 #aj and #aa73 8,sabbatons10 or shoes with very broad toes1 puffed and slashed1 in fashion in the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 ,they were generally made of black velvet or leather with silk in the slashings4 7,from contemporary sources47 7,fig4 #ab73 ,ordinary costume of the middle classes such as was worn by the citizens and merchants of ,london4 7,from ,heywood's 8,parable of the ,spider and the ,fly10 #aeef ,a4,d47 7,fig4 #ac73 ,costume of a nobleman of the reign of ,elizabeth4 ,he wears an immense ruff1 8a peascod-bellied doublet10 quilted or stuffed and covered with slashes4 ,he also has ,venetian breeches1 slashed like the doublet1 stockings of fine black yarn1 and shoes of white leather4 7,from a portrait of the reign of ,elizabeth47 7,fig4 #ad73 ,wide1 stuffed breeches1 called 8bombasted0 trunk hose1 worn about #aege ,a4,d4 7,from a woodcut in 8,the ,book of ,falconrie407 7,figs4 #ae1 #af1 and #ag73 ,different styles of beards worn in the reigns of ,henry ,,viii4 and ,elizabeth4 8,each class of the community trimmed their beards after a fashion indicative of their pursuits40 7,fig4 #ae73 8,spade0 beard of a soldier4 7,fig4 #af73 8,stiletto0 beard of a soldier4 7,fig4 #ag73 8,great round beard40 7,all from contemporary engravings47 ,,female ,,costumes4 ,henry ,,vii4 ,the chief article of attire in female costume was the robe1 which continued to be short waisted1 and was worn with sleeves either of the variety now known as ,bishop's sleeves or wide and confined at intervals from the elbow to the wrist4 ,the waist was small1 and the neck was cut square4 ,stomachers1 belts and buckles1 or girdles with a long pendant in front were also worn4 ,a warm cloth hood was worn folded back from the face over the head in thick pleats behind1 the edges being embroidered 7,fig4 #a7 with gold or coloured threads4 ,caps and cauls of gold net from beneath which1 in the case of unmarried ladies1 the hair hung loose down the back1 and various other forms of head-dresses were generally in use4 ,the horned head-dress and the steeple cap disappeared1 but the most striking novelty for the head was the pediment or pyramidal-shaped hood worn perfectly white4 7,fig4 #d47 ,the stiffness of this article is a characteristic feature of the costumes worn by aged ladies1 who frequently ended their lives in a convent1 or1 at any rate1 frequently adopted the conventual form of dress in their widowhood4 ,very numerous examples of this head-dress exist in effigies and brasses1 the bands being frequently edged with pearls and ornamented with precious stones4 ,it continued in use for about fifty years4 ,henry ,,viii4 ,no great changes took place in female costume during this reign1 but there were considerable modifications in the forms of head-dresses4 ,we have in existence the portraits 7painted by ,holbein7 of the six wives of this fickle monarch1 and they give us a good idea of the fashions of women of high degree during his reign of thirty-eight years4 ,the new articles worn were the habit-shirt or 8partlet0 and the waistcoat4 ,the former sometimes had sleeves1 and was made of rich materials4 ,the waistcoat was similar to that of the men4 ,the gowns of noble ladies were magnificent1 and were made open to the waist1 showing the kirtle or petticoat1 and had trains4 ,ladies' sleeves were made wide and separate1 like those of the men1 and could be attached at will to either gown or waistcoat4 ,they were of very rich material1 very gorgeous in colour and elaborate in construction4 ,the dresses of women of the middle classes were sober in this reign4 ,they wore close hoods1 and wore partly over their faces a muffle--an article that became very fashionable and remained in use among elderly women until the reign of ,charles ,i4 7,fig4 #c47 ,the coif or cap1 familiarly known as the ,mary ,queen of ,scots' cap1 came into use in this reign4 7,fig4 #ab47 ,edward ,,vi4 and ,mary4 ,female costumes were the same as in the previous reign4 ,the ordinary dresses of the commonalty were plain2 a hood or cloth cap and apron with close collar and tight sleeves with a small puff at the shoulders were worn4 7,fig4 #f47 ,elizabeth4 ,elizabeth was inordinately fond of dress and display1 and from the portraits of her in existence we see very clearly the height of the fashions of her reign4 ,at the commencement the costumes passed through a transition period4 ,ladies copied men's fashions by having doublets and jerkins as the men had1 buttoned up at the breast with a small ruff about the neck4 ,the skirts at this time were only padded to a slight extent at the hips4 ,unmarried women wore low-necked dresses even out of doors at this time4 ,about the middle of ,elizabeth's reign the great change took place which gave female costume of the sixteenth century its remarkable character4 ,elizabeth herself was long waisted and narrow chested1 and in this costume the body was imprisoned in whalebone to the hips1 while an enormous ruff was worn1 rising gradually from the front of the shoulders to nearly the height of the head behind4 ,from the bosom1 partly bare1 descended the long stomacher on each side of which jutted out horizontally the enormous 8fardingale0 or farthingale1 a construction of hoops similar to the crinoline of more recent times4 ,it projected more at the sides than in front or at the back1 and had a dwarfing effect on the height of the figure4 7,fig4 #aj47 ,the cap or coif was occasionally exchanged for a round bonnet like that of the men1 or the hair was dressed with many curls and adorned with ropes and stars of jewels or feathers4 ,about the middle of her reign1 ,elizabeth herself wore false hair1 and this fashion was taken up by the ladies of her court1 so that it was made possible to build the hair up to a great height4 ,as ,elizabeth's hair was yellow it was very fashionable to dye the hair the same colour as the ,queen's4 ,the ruff1 which was so important a feature of the costume of the period1 made its appearance in ,england during ,elizabeth's reign1 and it reached its greatest size about #aehj ,a4,d4 ,after the end of the century it began to decrease in size4 ,ruffs were now made of lawn and cambric1 but originally they had been made of holland4 ,the employment of these lighter materials necessitated the use of starch for stiffening4 ,but as there was no one in ,england who could starch or stiffen them1 the ,queen sent to ,holland for some women to come over as 8starchers of ruffs40 ,one ,dutch woman who came over taught the art of starching at a fee of #d to #e for each pupil1 and #bjs4 in addition for teaching them how to make the starch4 ,one of the writers of the time complains loudly of the practice of starching1 saying3 8,the devil hath learned them to wash and dive their ruffs1 which being dry will then stand stiff and inflexible about their necks40 ,the starch was made of different colours--white1 red1 blue1 and purple4 ,in order that the enormous ruffs might remain in their original position1 they were supported by frameworks of wire called 8supportasses10 covered with gold thread1 silver1 or silk4 7,fig4 #g47 ,in #aegi ,elizabeth issued orders that long cloaks should not be worn1 8nor such great excessive ruffles40 ,it was in this reign that ,william ,lee1 ,m4,a41 a ,fellow of ,st4 ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge1 invented a stocking frame1 and worked with it at ,calverton1 a village near ,nottingham4 ,there was considerable opposition to him and his machine from the other hosiery manufacturers1 and he left this country to take up his abode in ,rouen4 ,stockings were worn of 8silk1 jarnsey1 cruel1 or the finest yarns1 thread1 or cloth that could be had1 and they were of all colours40 ,ladies' shoes were of many colours and of many fashions4 8,some of black velvet1 some of white1 some of green1 and some of yellow2 some of ,spanish leather1 some of ,english1 stitched with silk and embroidered with gold and silver all over the foot40 ,when riding abroad1 ladies wore masks and visors of velvet with holes for the eyes4 ,they wore much jewellery1 and perfumed gloves embroidered with gold and silver1 and they carried looking-glasses about with them wherever they went4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #dc4 7,fig4 #a73 ,costume of a lady of the early part of the reign of ,henry ,,vii4 ,the warm cloth hood took the place of the gauze veil on the head-dress1 and it was folded back from the face and pleated behind4 ,the gown was open from the neck to the waist behind1 and was laced up4 ,no girdle was worn4 ,the fulness of the sleeves and of the garment generally give a very heavy appearance to the figure4 7,fig4 #b73 ,another view of a similar cloth head-dress4 ,figs4 #a and #b are copied from ,royal ,,ms41 #af ,f #b4 7,fig4 #c73 ,head of a female figure of the reign of ,henry ,,vii41 showing the face partly covered by a muffler1 which became very fashionable and was in use among elder women up to the reign of ,charles ,i4 7,fig4 #d73 ,pediment1 pyramidal1 or diamond-shaped head-dress of the reign of ,henry ,,viii41 from a portrait by ,holbein4 7,fig4 #e73 ,head of 8,cicely ,page1 who died ye ,x,i,ith daye of ,march1 ,anno #aeih10 and is buried in ,bray ,church1 ,bucks1 from her effigy4 8,the plain hat1 ruff1 and open-breasted gown are a good specimen of part of the dress of a country lady at the end of ,elizabeth's reign40 7,fig4 #f73 ,female figure showing dress worn by a woman of the citizen class in the time of ,edward ,,vi41 from a picture showing his progress from the ,tower to ,westminster4 ,a cloth cap is worn with a border hanging round the neck1 and a gown with close collar and tight sleeves1 the latter with small puffs on the shoulders4 7,fig4 #g73 ,back view of a ruff as worn in the middle of ,elizabeth's reign1 copied from a ,dutch engraving of the period1 showing the 8supportasse0 or under prop of wire to keep the ruff in its original position4 7,fig4 #h73 ,head of a female figure from the tomb of ,sir ,roger ,manwood1 #aeib1 in ,st4 ,stephen's ,church1 near ,canterbury1 showing the ,french hood as worn during the latter part of ,elizabeth's reign4 7,fig4 #i73 ,pyramidal head-dress taken from a portrait of the ,lady ,mary1 afterwards ,queen ,mary ,i41 by ,holbein4 ,the broad bands which are seen hanging down in ,fig4 #d are here looped up on either side of the head1 and the bag-like portion1 which formerly hung down the back1 is also brought up to the top of the head and fastened there4 7,fig4 #aj73 ,costume of a lady worn about the middle of ,elizabeth's reign1 from the print by ,vertue representing the progress of ,elizabeth to ,hunsdown ,house4 ,this shows the enormous ruff and the huge1 ungainly-looking 8fardingale10 and the long stomacher brought low down to a peak in front4 7,fig4 #aa73 ,costume of a lady of quality1 #aehh1 from ,caspar ,ruiz1 during the latter part of ,elizabeth's reign4 ,the ruff is here reduced to small dimensions1 and the whole costume is much more graceful than the grotesque figure shown in ,fig4 #aj4 7,fig4 #ab73 ,brass of ,anne ,rede1 who died #aegg1 showing a ruff of ordinary size and a ,french hood often spoken of as a ,marie ,stuart bonnet4 ,,plate ,,armour4 7,about #aejj ,a4,d4 to about #afjj ,a4,d47 #dth ,period1 about #aejj ,a4,d4 to about #aebf ,a4,d4--,armour had now reached a great pitch of perfection4 ,how perfect it was may be judged from the fact that in many of the battles very few knights were slain4 ,their greatest danger lay in being unhorsed and ridden over1 and of being slain while lying helpless on the ground4 ,after a battle1 the camp followers and servants of the victors flocked about the men-at-arms who had been overthrown1 and slew most of them by breaking open the 8vizards0 of their head-pieces and then cleaving their heads4 ,at the beginning of the sixteenth century the pointed sollerets gave place to the broad-toed sabbatons 7,fig4 #a71 cut off square or rounded at the toes1 following as in former times the fashion of the shoes in civil costume4 ,the breastplate was globular in form and narrow at the waist4 ,a regular skirt of chain mail was added now to the knightly costume1 reaching half-way down the thigh below the lowest part of the tuilles4 ,they were probably found more convenient to horsemen than solid plates of overlapping steel 7,fig4 #a74 ,armour generally became more massive1 and the enrichment and ornamentation were very elaborate4 ,during the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 the helmets took the form of the head1 and had flexible1 overlapping plates of steel covering and protecting the neck4 ,they were called ,armets1 and were worn with and without face-pieces4 ,as in earlier times1 we find in pictures of the period a great variety of fashion and great divergence both of arms1 and armour brought together in the same troop of warriors4 ,the halberd1 first mentioned in the reign of ,edward ,,iv41 was now a weapon in common use with the infantry 7,fig4 #e74 ,the hand gun or cannon was also first generally known in ,england during the reign of ,edward ,,iv4 ,it was now improved by the addition of a lock1 and was called an arc-a-bousa1 corrupted into arquebus1 and was familiarised to the ,english by ,henry ,,vii4 #eth ,period1 about #aebe ,a4,d4 to about #afjj ,a4,d4--,during this period 8all the rich and fanciful fertility of invention which distinguished the artists of the sixteenth century was lavished on the enrichment and ornamentation of armour10 while as actual protective covering its value began to decline4 ,it must be remembered that 8armour used on the battlefield was much lighter and less complete than that used in the tournament1 where protection to the wearer was more considered than his ability to hurt his opponent40 ,in the ,tower of ,london there is1 among others1 a suit of armour given to ,henry ,,viii4 by the ,emperor ,maximilian as a wedding present on the occasion of his marriage to ,katherine of ,arragon1 which is considered to be one of the finest in existence4 ,the badges 7roses1 pomegranates1 portcullis1 etc47 of ,henry and of ,katherine1 with their initials united by a true-lovers' knot1 are engraved on it1 and it is also elaborately ornamented and covered with engravings from the ,lives of the ,saints4 ,the greatest innovation in the armour of this period was the introduction of the lamboy 7,fig4 #g7 or outstanding steel skirt1 which took the place of taces and tuilles1 and covered the body from the waist to the knees in fluted folds ribbed vertically1 giving it much the appearance of an inflated petticoat4 ,it was sloped away before and behind to allow the wearer to sit with more ease in the saddle4 ,the pauldrons or shoulder-pieces were made very large1 and the shield was also elaborately shaped and curved to form an outer armour for the protection of all the left side of the body4 ,instead of the shield1 however1 an additional piece of armour called the grande-garde was sometimes screwed to the breastplate to protect the left side and shoulder1 while the great spear had also a piece of armour fixed in front of the grasp1 which not only protected the hand1 but was large enough to make a kind of shield for the left arm and breast4 ,the tilting helmet disappeared altogether about this period1 and the head-piece was adorned with streaming plumes4 ,the armour generally1 by its being fluted and laminated and puffed1 imitated the costume of the time4 ,but all over the continent of ,europe1 as well as in ,england1 leaders of experience were finding out that armour was useless and cumbersome2 in fact1 it was becoming a questionable kind of protection4 ,it was said that many soldiers at thirty years of age were practically deformed or broken down in health through the habit of constantly wearing armour4 ,presently the troopers took the matter in their own hands by not commencing to put on their armour until the moment of battle1 and then1 not having time to arm themselves1 they went into battle with their buff leather or padded jackets as their only protection4 ,in the reign of ,elizabeth1 when long-waisted doublets and short trunk hose became the fashion1 the armour was considerably modified4 ,the cuirass or breastplate was made long waisted1 copying the doublet1 ridged and brought to a peak in front known as the 8peascod40 ,the front of the thigh was protected by laminated thigh pieces1 which passed under the trunk hose1 while the lower part of the leg was protected by knee-caps and jambarts or shin-pieces4 ,buckled to the rim of the cuirass1 and hanging down over the trunk hose1 were two large tassets1 the most characteristic feature of ,elizabethan armour4 ,they consisted of a number of hinged plates fastened to one another2 they are usually rounded off at the knees and fastened to the breeches by leather straps4 ,the pauldrons upon the shoulders were also large1 but there were no ridges or guards1 and they consisted of several plates riveted together4 ,they were generally lined with leather4 ,the helm was a close ,armet1 but very frequently the ,morion 7,fig4 #c71 which was a variety of the salade1 was worn4 ,the foot soldiers of the period were armed with a breast and back plate1 and with tassets reaching to the knees4 ,the swords of the time commonly had guarded or basket hilts4 ,the pike was introduced into this country in the reign of ,henry ,,viii41 and became the common weapon for infantry up to the time of ,william ,,iii4 ,in the reign of ,elizabeth1 the armour seldom came lower than just below the hip1 and complete suits were used only for the tournament4 ,the brass of ,humphrey ,brewster illustrates well the armour of the ,elizabethan ,period described above4 7,fig4 #aj47 ,illustration3 ,,plate #dd4 7,fig4 #a73 ,brass of 8,richard ,gyll1 squyer1 late sergeant of the bakehous wyth ,kyng ,henry the ,,vii4 and also wyth ,kyng ,henry the ,,viii410 in ,shottesbrooke ,church1 ,hampshire1 ,a4,d4 #aeaa4 ,this shows the type of armour in use at the end of the reign of ,henry ,,vii4 ,there are high ridges on the shoulder-pieces1 very simple elbow-pieces1 four narrow taces around the waist1 with two small tuilles over a tunic of mail4 ,the broad toes of the sabbatons are also shown4 7,fig4 #b73 ,morion of the reign of ,elizabeth1 ,a4,d4 #aefj4 7,fig4 #c73 ,another morion of the same reign from the ,tower of ,london4 7,fig4 #d73 ,armet with crest of ,sir ,george ,brooke1 ,k4,g41 #hth ,lord ,cobham1 from his tomb in ,cobham ,church1 ,kent1 #adhj-aejj4 7,fig4 #e73 ,halberd of the time of ,henry ,,viii41 the cutting edge being shaped like a half-moon4 ,the staves of these weapons were often covered with velvet studded with brass-headed nails4 7,fig4 #f73 ,partisan 7a variety of the pike7 of the same period1 with the side blades sharp on both edges4 7,fig4 #g73 ,lamboys from the armour presented by the ,emperor ,maximilian to ,henry ,,viii41 now in the ,tower of ,london4 7,fig4 #h73 ,breast and back plates of the 8peascod0 form1 from about #aehj ,a4,d4 7,fig4 #i73 ,english armet1 about #aejj ,a4,d4 7,fig4 #aj73 ,brass of ,humphrey ,brewster1 in ,wrentham ,church1 ,suffolk1 #aeic ,a4,d4 ,this is typical of ,elizabethan armour4 ,the laminated shoulder pieces are particularly noticeable1 nearly meeting over the cuirass2 the long tassets of overlapping1 hinged steel plates reaching to and rounded off at the knees1 the basket form of sword hilt and the long-waisted peascod form of the breast plate are very characteristic4 ,the tassets were generally lined with leather1 and the scalloped edges1 forming an ornamental border1 are plainly shown4 ,,perpendicular ,,architecture4 ,the ,transition from ,decorated to ,perpendicular architecture is not so apparent at first sight as between the other styles2 but it may be traced quite clearly4 ,the change was seen in the choir and transepts of ,gloucester ,cathedral before the middle of the fourteenth century4 ,this ,transition begins the decline of ,gothic architecture from the perfect and symmetrical ,decorated to the style which showed more elaborate and richer work1 but was wanting in the elegant effect for which the ,decorated ,period stands unequalled4 ,the ,perpendicular ,period is very much the longest in point of time1 extending1 as it did1 over #agj years4 ,the name is both descriptive and appropriate to the style1 and the chief instrument by which this effect is produced is the straight-sided1 shallow1 sunk panelling4 ,in previous times the panel had been used but sparingly1 but now the whole surface1 inside and outside1 was covered with it4 ,the beautiful flowing tracery of the ,decorated ,period was supplanted by the mullions1 running1 as a rule1 straight up from the sill to the window top4 ,the spaces between were frequently divided and subdivided by similar perpendicular lines1 so that perpendicularity is most distinctly the characteristic of these windows4 ,in fact1 by this subdivision the windows became simply an arrangement of panels1 pierced to let in the light4 ,as the tendency of the ,perpendicular style is to employ the vertical line at the expense of the horizontal1 a general squareness spread from the characteristic tracing and panelling to the other features and details4 ,in the later examples of this period the arches of the windows and doorways became flattened1 and the four-centred ,tudor arch1 so called because it was formed of curves described from four centres 7,pl4 #de1 ,fig4 #d71 began to be extensively used1 until all beauty and proportion were lost1 and stiffness and squareness became the striking characteristics of this style4 ,the later windows had frequently great width in proportion to their height1 and they were placed so near together that the wall space was reduced and the strength of the building entirely depended upon the buttresses4 ,the windows were originally filled with painted glass1 and the panel form of the subdivision lent itself admirably to this decoration4 ,square-headed ,windows 7,pl4 #de1 ,fig4 #f7 are frequent in this style1 and the doorways were generally set in a square frame 7,fig4 #d71 though many of the later doorways are frequently very rich in the decoration over them4 ,the foliage employed in this style1 by reason of its squareness1 is much less beautiful than that of the ,decorated ,period4 ,it has neither the vigour and beauty of the ,early ,english nor the imitative skill of the ,decorated4 ,it is angular1 shallow1 and often wooden in appearance4 ,an ornament used very extensively during this period was the so-called 8,tudor ornament40 7,pl4 #de1 ,fig4 #g1 and ,pl4 #df1 ,fig4 #g47 ,it is founded on the fleur-de-lis alternate with a trefoil or ball1 but although poor in invention1 has frequently a very rich effect1 as in ,henry ,,vii4's chapel at ,westminster4 ,perpendicular mouldings differ much from those of the preceding styles1 and show a marked falling off4 ,they are1 in general1 shallower1 having more breadth and less depth4 ,in arches they are often carried down to the ground without any capitals or columns4 ,in country churches the mouldings are often feeble or coarse and clumsy4 ,the ,capitals of the columns are either circular or octagonal4 ,the bell portion is mostly plain1 but is sometimes curved1 with foliage of a shallow and formal character1 twisted horizontally round it4 ,particularly in the churches of ,devonshire this foliage is found1 and it is often spoken of1 consequently1 as 8,devonshire foliage40 ,the ,buttresses are similar to those of the preceding style1 but are frequently panelled and project more from the wall4 ,many churches were built in the ,perpendicular style1 and the majority of early churches were either enlarged or rebuilt during this period1 so that it is the prevailing characteristic ,english style1 and there are comparatively few churches which do not display some features belonging to it4 ,the redeeming features of the ,perpendicular style are its towers1 its elaborate stone vaultings1 and its timbered roofs4 ,the towers are often extremely rich1 and are ornamented very elaborately1 having four or five storeys of large windows with rich canopies and pinnacles1 double buttresses at the bottom1 and rich parapets with crocketed turrets at the corners4 ,one of the most beautiful is that of ,magdalen ,college1 ,oxford4 ,parapets with square battlements become an important feature4 ,they are often panelled or pierced with tracery1 which frequently contains shields with armorial bearings and heraldic devices4 ,a very rich form of vaulting was frequently used1 composed of inverted1 curved semi-cones covered with foliated panel work4 ,when seen from below1 these present a fan-like appearance1 and the work received the name of 8fan-tracery40 7,pl4 #df1 ,fig4 #a47 ,one of the richest examples of it is ,henry ,,vii4's ,chapel at ,westminster ,abbey1 where an almost incredible point was reached in the lightness and delicacy of its lace-like stonework4 ,during the fourteenth century carpentry had been brought to a high pitch of perfection4 ,timber roofs reached their highest development in what is known as the ,hammer-beam roof4 7,pl4 #df1 ,figs4 #e1 #f47 ,in this1 a bracket called the ,hammer-beam 7,pl4 #df1 ,fig4 #e ,h7 rests on the top of the wall and projects into the building1 to strengthen the latter and to diminish the lateral pressure that falls on the walls4 ,this form of roof lends itself to a highly decorative treatment1 the finest example being that of ,westminster ,hall 7in the ,houses of ,parliament71 erected in the reign of ,richard ,,ii4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #de4 7,fig4 #a73 ,perpendicular window from ,st4 ,mary's1 ,devizes1 ,wilts41 about #adej ,a4,d4 7,fig4 #b73 ,perpendicular window from the ,clere-story1 ,york ,minster1 ,a4,d4 #acfa-adjh4 7,fig4 #c73 ,perpendicular capital with ,devonshire foliage1 from ,stoke-in-,teignhead1 ,devonshire1 about #adhj ,a4,d4 7,fig4 #d73 ,perpendicular doorway from ,st4 ,peter's1 ,chester4 7,fig4 #e73 ,panelled buttress from the ,divinity ,school1 ,oxford1 about #adej ,a4,d4 7,fig4 #f73 ,perpendicular square-headed window from ,christchurch ,college1 ,oxford4 7,fig4 #g73 ,perpendicular battlements1 panelled and decorated with the 8,tudor flower10 from ,s4 ,lavenham1 ,suffolk4 7,fig4 #h73 ,part of arch from ,st4 ,agnes'1 ,cawston1 ,norfolk1 showing a crocket 7,a7 and cusping 7,b74 ,illustration3 ,,plate #df4 7,fig4 #a73 ,fan tracery from ,st4 ,stephen's ,cloister1 ,westminster ,hall4 7,fig4 #b73 ,perpendicular capitals and foliage from ,beverley ,minster1 ,yorkshire4 7,fig4 #c73 ,base of ,perpendicular column from the ,lady ,chapel1 ,winchester1 about #adfj ,a4,d4 7,fig4 #d73 ,section of ,perpendicular moulding from ,st4 ,mary's1 ,oxford1 #adhh ,a4,d4 7,fig4 #e73 ,section showing construction of ,hammer-beam roof4 ,h1 ,h1 hammer beams2 ,r1 ,r1 rafters4 7,fig4 #f73 ,portion of the ,hammer-beam timber roof from ,st4 ,stephen's ,church1 ,norwich4 ,the ,eastern counties are particularly rich in these fine timbered roofs4 7,fig4 #g73 ,the 8,tudor flower0 ornament from ,henry ,,vii4's ,chapel in ,westminster ,abbey4 7,fig4 #h73 ,plan of oblong ,perpendicular pillar4 ,oblong pillars are common in large buildings4 7,figs4 #i and #aj73 ,base of ,perpendicular columns4 7,fig4 #aa73 ,carved ,perpendicular ornament from the 7wooden7 screen at ,high ,ham4 ,,stuart ,,period 7,to ,william ,,iii474 ,,male ,,costumes4 ,james ,i4 ,little change was made in the early part of this reign from the costumes worn at the end of ,elizabeth's reign4 ,the peascod doublet1 the conical-crowned hat1 and the large trunk hose1 also called 8bombasted breeches10 slashed1 quilted1 stuffed1 and laced1 were worn as before4 7,fig4 #aj47 ,the cowardly despotism of ,james led him to guard his person1 at all times awkward and ungainly1 with quilted and padded clothing in order that it might be dagger-proof4 ,the 8great round abominable breech10 as the satirists termed it1 now tapered to the knee1 and was slashed all over and covered with lace and embroidery1 as shown in ,fig4 #aj1 which represents his ,majesty1 in #afad4 ,corsets were also worn at this time to give the required shape to the upper part of the body4 ,the hat of the period1 a truncated cone1 will also be noticed1 with a feather at the side and turned-up brim4 ,it was frequently ornamented with precious stones4 ,with regard to the bombasted breeches1 an amusing tale is told of a man who was being prosecuted at this time for having his breeches stuffed with prohibited articles1 but he was acquitted because he proved to the satisfaction of his judges that his stuffing 8consisted merely of a pair of sheets1 two tablecloths1 ten napkins1 four shirts1 a brush1 a glass1 a comb1 and a night-cap40 ,the ruff was sometimes exchanged for a wide1 stiff collar1 standing out horizontally and squarely1 and starched and wired as usual1 but plain instead of pleated1 and it was sometimes edged1 like the ruff1 with lace4 ,these collars were called 8bands10 and were usually stiffened with yellow starch4 ,a slight alteration in costume was made in ,james's reign4 ,short jackets or doublets were worn1 and the trunk hose1 instead of being slashed and laced1 were covered with broad1 loose strips1 richly embroidered or adorned with buttons1 displaying the silk or velvet trunk in the narrow intervals between the strips 7see ,plate #ej1 ,fig4 #a1 which shows ,prince ,henry1 the eldest son of ,james ,i474 ,the clothes of the nobles were very gorgeous1 being made of silk and velvet1 and ornamented with lace1 gold and gems4 ,it was said that ,george ,villiers1 ,duke of ,buckingham1 a favourite of ,james ,i41 had a white velvet suit1 decorated with diamonds valued at fourteen thousand pounds4 ,silk1 worsted1 and thread stockings were now almost universally worn4 ,in a comedy written in #afjg1 a gentleman's wardrobe is thus enumerated3 8,a cloak lined with rich taffeta1 a white satin suit1 the jerkin covered with gold lace1 a chain of pearl1 a gilt rapier in an embroidered hanger1 pearl-coloured silk stockings1 and a pair of massive gilt spurs40 ,pure white costumes of silk1 velvet1 or cloth were very fashionable at this time4 ,jewels were sometimes worn in the ears of gentlemen1 and they also had a custom of allowing a long lock of hair1 called a 8love-lock10 to hang over upon the breast 7,fig4 #b74 ,the costume of a yeoman of the period consisted of a narrow-brimmed hat with flat crown1 a doublet with large wings and short skirts1 a girdle about his waist1 trunk breeches1 with hose drawn up to the thigh and gartered below the knees4 ,charles ,i4 and the ,commonwealth4 ,it is said that the male costumes in this reign were 8the most elegant and picturesque ever worn in ,england40 ,the characteristic costume worn by ,charles in his portrait by ,vandyke is often spoken of as the ,vandyke costume and was introduced about the middle of his reign4 ,in the earlier part1 the fashions of his father1 ,james ,i41 were continued4 ,the change from the 8bombasted0 or stuffed breeches to the elegant costume of this reign is ascribed to the refined tastes of ,charles and his ,queen1 and also to the fact that the size of the stuffed breeches made it impossible for gentlemen to find seating accommodation at masques1 etc41 when each spectator took up the place of three persons in a rational attire4 ,at the commencement of the ,civil ,war1 the ,royalist party or ,cavaliers1 and the ,republican party or ,roundheads1 were as opposite in their costumes as they were diverse in their opinions4 8,the ,cavalier's costume consisted of a doublet of rich materials1 silk1 satin1 or velvet1 with large1 loose sleeves1 slashed up the front1 the collar covered with a falling band of the richest point lace4 ,a short cloak was worn carelessly over one shoulder4 ,long breeches1 fringed or pointed1 met the broad tops of the boots1 which were trimmed with lace or lawn4 ,a broad-leaved ,flemish beaver-hat with a rich hat-band and plume of feathers1 was set on one side of the head1 and a ,spanish rapier hung from a magnificent baldrick or sword belt1 worn sash-wise over the right shoulder40 ,in the troubled times of this reign1 the silk or velvet doublet was often exchanged for a richly-laced buff 7leather7 coat4 ,a broad sash or satin scarf was tied round the waist in a large bow4 ,the beard was worn very peaked1 with small1 upturned moustache1 and the hair was long in the neck1 and sometimes powdered4 ,the extravagant costume worn by some is shown in ,fig4 #b1 which depicts an exquisite of #afdf4 ,among the most noticeable features in this costume are the 8love-locks10 tied with ribbon1 on either side of the head 7which were a special abomination to the ,puritans71 the patches on the face1 and the shirt protruding from the partly-open vest1 the short breeches 8ornamented with many dozens of points at the knees1 and1 above them1 on either side1 two great bunches of ribbon1 of several colours40 ,the tops of his boots are very large1 fringed with lace1 and turned down almost to the heels4 ,very different from this figure was that of the ,roundhead1 with close-cropped hair1 clothes of extreme simplicity1 severe cut1 and sober colours1 as shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,it will be gathered from the foregoing remarks that the dress of the various classes of the community presented a considerable mixture4 ,when ,cromwell was in power1 the general tendency was towards plainness of attire4 ,charles ,,ii4 ,when ,charles ,,ii4 ascended the throne1 at the ,restoration1 great extravagance and folly were shown by his courtiers in their costume1 after the stern rule of the ,puritans1 and many new fashions were introduced from ,france1 where ,charles had resided for so long a time4 ,this was 8the natural reaction after twenty years of uncertainty1 gloom1 and fanatical oppression4 ,the doublet was made very short1 open in front1 without any waistcoat1 showing a rich shirt1 which bulged out in front over the waistband of the loose breeches1 the latter1 as well as the large1 full sleeves1 being ornamented with ribbons and points or laces40 ,beneath the knee hung long1 drooping lace ruffles1 and a falling collar of the richest lace enveloped the neck4 ,a high-crowned hat1 with a broad brim and a plume of feathers1 still preserved its cavalier character4 ,a short cloak1 edged deep with gold lace was usually worn or carried over the arm4 ,but the practice of copying ,french fashions gave rise to the monstrous 8periwig10 a corruption of 8perruque0 or 8peruke40 7,fig4 #c47 ,the periwig had1 however1 been worn in ,england for many years1 but did not become fashionable until this reign4 ,with its introduction1 there came a change in the form of the hat4 8,down went the crown1 and up went the brim at the sides10 and a kind of ruche of feathers replaced the waving plume of the ,cavalier4 ,this was1 in fact1 the first step towards the cocked hat of the #ahth century4 ,a garment called the 8petticoat breeches0 was introduced into ,england in #afeh4 ,these are well illustrated in ,figs4 #f1 #g1 and #h 7from a drawing about #afeh74 ,the doublet1 or jacket1 which1 in the early part of the reign1 barely reached to the waist1 was now lengthened1 reaching the middle of the thighs1 with sleeves to the elbows1 terminated by rows and bunches of ribbon1 from under which bulged forth the sleeves of the shirt1 ruffed1 and adorned also profusely with ribbons4 ,when buttons and button holes were added down the front1 it became a coat4 ,neckcloths or cravats1 of ,brussels and ,flanders lace1 came into use towards the close of the reign1 being tied in a knot1 with the ends hanging down 7,fig4 #e74 ,the sober citizen of ,london was dressed in black coarse woollen1 breeches1 a broad skirted doublet1 a girdle about the middle1 and a short black coat4 ,a broad-brimmed hat1 with a great twisted hat-band1 with a rose at the end of it1 completed his costume1 and the natural hair was worn uncovered by a wig4 ,james ,,ii4 and ,william ,,iii4 ,there were few novelties in civil costumes during these reigns4 ,the petticoat breeches were exchanged for those tied beneath the knee4 ,the periwig became more monstrous1 and it was the fashion for the beau to comb his wig in public just as a modern gallant would twirl his moustache4 ,gentlemen appeared in little1 low hats1 with a bow at the side2 and long coats and waistcoats were worn1 with rows of buttons down the front1 breeches1 moderately wide1 reaching to the knee1 close stockings1 and high-heeled shoes1 with roses or buckles 7,fig4 #ae74 ,the full-bottomed wig was worn by the learned professions4 ,the broad brims of the hats were frequently turned up on two sides1 and were ornamented with feathers or ribbons4 8,to turn up the brim or flap of the hat was to #8cock' it2 the mode following the custom of the ,duke of ,monmouth was called #8the ,monmouth' cock40 ,the broad1 falling bands around the neck were replaced by small ,geneva bands1 similar to those now worn by barristers4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #dg4 7,fig4 #a73 ,costume of a gentleman of the time of ,charles ,i41 from a contemporary print4 7,fig4 #b73 ,an exquisite of #afdf1 from a rare broadside1 entitled 8,the ,picture of an ,english ,antick10 with all details of the costume exaggerated1 patches on the face1 and two love-locks tied with bows of ribbon4 7,fig4 #c73 ,head of ,george1 ,earl of ,albemarle1 showing the voluminous periwig of the time of ,james ,,ii4 7,fig4 #d73 ,a ,roundhead1 from a print of #afdi1 showing the plainness and simplicity of costume adopted by the ,puritans4 7,fig4 #e73 ,neckcloth which succeeded the ruff and band1 and was generally worn by the courtiers during the reign of ,charles ,,ii41 by whom it was introduced from ,france4 7,figs4 #f1 #g and #h73 8,petticoat breeches10 three types1 as worn in #afef1 #afeh1 and #afei1 from ,holmes's 8,contemporary ,notebook on ,costume10 preserved in the ,british ,museum4 7,fig4 #i73 ,head of ,sir ,thomas ,meautys1 secretary to ,sir ,francis ,bacon1 showing a waved love-lock reaching to the elbow4 7,fig4 #aj73 ,king ,james ,i4 in hunting costume1 from 8,a ,jewell for ,gentrie10 published in #afad4 ,he is shown wearing the stuffed or 8bombasted0 breeches4 7,fig4 #aa73 ,costume of a ,cavalier in the early part of ,charles ,,ii4's reign1 from ,ogilvie's 8,book of the ,coronation40 7,fig4 #ab73 ,a shoe 7introduced from ,france71 worn by the courtiers of ,charles ,,ii41 from a contemporary work1 #afgj4 7,fig4 #ac73 ,a boot with wide tops1 worn in #afdf1 from a print of the time4 7,fig4 #ad73 ,a ,jack-boot of the time of ,william ,,iii41 such as was worn by the ,cavalry of the time1 from ,meyrick's 8,arms and ,armour40 7,fig4 #ae73 ,winter costume of a gentleman of the time of ,william ,,iii4 ,,female ,,costumes4 ,james ,i4 ,the female costume of this reign presents few variations from that in use at the end of ,elizabeth's reign4 ,the portrait of ,anne of ,denmark1 ,queen of ,james ,i4 7,pl4 #di1 ,fig4 #a71 in the general character of the dress1 resembles that of ,queen ,elizabeth painted by ,holbein4 ,the enormous farthingale was worn throughout this reign by the nobility1 the ruffs and collars worn at this time by the ladies being generally stiffened with yellow starch1 like those of the gentleman4 8,the fondness of ladies for painting their faces and exposing the bosom was severely reprimanded by the divines and satirists at the early part of the #agth century4 ,while a ruff or band of immoderate size stretched forth from the neck1 the front of the dress was cut away immediately beneath it1 nearly to the waist1 which made the fashion more noticeable1 as all the other part of the bust was over-clothed1 while the bosom was perfectly bare40 ,masks were worn by ladies on all public occasions1 and it was considered a sign of impropriety to appear without them 7,fig4 #b74 ,the ruff went out of fashion during this reign1 because ,mrs4 ,annie ,turner1 a starcher of ruffs1 who was executed for poisoning ,sir ,thomas ,overbury1 wore a starched ruff of the approved colour at her execution4 ,charles ,i4 and the ,commonwealth4 ,there was little change in female costume at the beginning of this reign4 ,the ,french hood and farthingale were still worn1 and the high-crowned hat was generally worn by countrywomen and the wives of the citizens 7,figs4 #e and #g71 especially when they belonged to the ,puritanical party4 ,in the course of the reign of ,charles1 there came a change in female costume1 contemporary with and as elegant as that which took place in the male costume4 ,the hood1 the farthingale1 and the starched bands disappeared4 ,a good specimen of the new costume is given in ,fig4 #a1 after ,hollar4 ,the dress is full1 and falls gracefully about the body2 the bodice is tight-fitting1 and the sleeves are rich and full1 but gathered at the wrist1 and there is an elegant falling collar edged with lace4 ,the long petticoat was generally displayed in a certain measure by the robe1 which was1 at times1 quite gathered up at the waist4 ,as a matter of course1 the ladies of the ,republican party1 following the example set by their men folk1 dressed very soberly1 some of them adhering to old-fashioned articles of dress1 such as the hood and high-crowned hat4 ,a fashion introduced in the previous reign was that of wearing patches on the face4 ,fig4 #c gives a curious specimen of this fashionable absurdity4 ,it excited the derision of the satirists1 who repeatedly decried it in their works2 but it continued in fashion for a long time--until the end of the #agth century4 ,the usual costume of a ,puritan woman is shown in ,fig4 #e4 ,the female costume in the later years of the ,protectorate is illustrated by ,fig4 #f from the monumental effigy of ,elizabeth ,sacheverell1 #afeg ,a4,d41 in ,morley ,church1 ,derbyshire4 ,charles ,,ii4 ,with the ,restoration1 ,england threw off the sober1 kill-joy aspect that it had worn1 and the ,court1 with its gaiety1 set the fashion in a studied negligence and elegant dshabille4 ,the glossy ringlets of the ladies1 escaping from a simple bandeau of pearls1 or adorned by a single rose1 fell in graceful profusion upon bare1 snowy necks1 and the arms were bare to the elbow4 ,this was carried to such an extent that a book was published entitled 8,a ,just and ,seasonable ,reprehension of ,naked ,breasts and ,shoulders10 with a preface by ,richard ,baxter4 ,the richest and brightest materials were employed for the dresses and petticoats4 ,the costume of this period is very well known from the portraits of the ladies of the ,court by ,sir ,peter ,lely 7see ,pl4 #di1 ,fig4 #b74 ,james ,,ii4 and ,william ,,iii4 ,there was no change in female costume during the short and unfortunate reign of ,james1 but when ,william and ,mary ascended the throne1 they and their entourage brought with them1 as might be expected1 a number of ,dutch fashions4 ,the very low-necked dresses were replaced by those with a formal stomacher4 ,the elegant full sleeve gave place to a tight one1 with a cuff above the elbow1 from which fell a profusion of lace in the form of ruffles4 ,the hair1 which had been allowed to hang loose in ringlets1 was now 8put up0 and combed from the forehead like a rising billow1 and surmounted by piles of ribbons and lace4 ,this was called the 8commode10 and was sometimes covered by a lace scarf or veil that streamed down each side of the coiffure4 ,stiff stays1 tightly laced over the stomacher and very long in the waist1 became fashionable1 so that a lady's body1 from the shoulder to the hips1 looked like the letter ,v4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #dh4 7,fig4 #a73 ,a lady of the ,court of ,charles ,i4 7#afdc71 after the engraver ,hollar1 wearing a lace collar on a low cut neck4 ,the robe is not draped1 and the hair is combed tightly back from the forehead and gathered in close rolls behind1 being allowed to flow freely at the sides4 7,fig4 #b73 ,a lady wearing a mask of the time of ,james ,i41 from a contemporary print4 ,she holds a folding bone fan in her right hand1 and attached to her girdle1 hanging over the farthingale1 are a looking glass1 a ball-shaped pomander 7containing perfumes7 with tassels1 and a toilet case1 probably of silver4 ,in the ,court of ,james ,i41 which was very dissolute1 the mask was worn on all public occasions by ladies2 and those who appeared without it were called 8bare-faced40 7,fig4 #c73 ,a lady wearing patches1 from a woodcut in ,bulwer's 8,artificial ,changeling10 #afej4 ,the custom of patching was introduced in the reign of ,james ,i4 ,a coach1 with a coachman and two horses1 with postillions1 appears on her forehead2 both sides of her face have crescents upon them2 a star is on one side of her mouth1 and a plain circular patch on her chin4 7,fig4 #d73 ,a lady of ,charles ,i4's reign1 showing the arrangement of the hair1 with a coif covering the head4 7,from a tomb in ,morley ,church1 ,derbyshire47 7,fig4 #e73 ,an ,english tradesman's wife1 #afdi1 after ,hollar4 7,fig4 #f73 ,dress of an elderly lady of the middle class during the ,protectorate4 ,she wears a close hood and band1 with ample gown4 7,from the effigy of ,elizabeth ,sacheverell1 #afeg1 in ,morley ,church1 ,derbyshire47 7,fig4 #g73 ,a ,puritan woman1 #afdf1 from a contemporary print4 7,fig4 #h73 ,a 8,tower0 head-dress1 also known as a 8,commode10 as worn at the close of the #agth century4 ,it consisted of rows of lace stuck bolt upright over the forehead1 rising one above the other1 forming a kind of pyramid1 with streaming lappets hanging over the shoulders from the head4 ,the hair was combed upwards to form a support to the structure4 7,from a contemporary print47 7,fig4 #i73 ,side view of a similar head-dress1 of one 8storey0 only1 backed by dark coloured ribbons1 the hair at the front and sides being arranged in short1 close curls4 7,from a contemporary print47 7,fig4 #aj73 ,head of a lady of the early time of ,charles ,,ii41 showing the method of dressing the hair with a 8foretop0 or tuft of hair turned up from the forehead4 ,this fashion1 being introduced by ,catherine of ,braganza1 was probably ,portuguese4 7,from a print in the ,pepysian ,library47 ,illustration3 ,,plate #di4 7,fig4 #a73 ,anne of ,denmark1 ,queen of ,james ,i4 7from a contemporary portrait74 ,this costume differs in no way from that worn at the ,court at the end of ,elizabeth's reign4 ,the farthingale1 or enormous hooped petticoat1 projected more at the sides than in front4 ,it was absolutely flat on the top1 with a series of radiating pleats upon the surface of it4 ,the exquisite design in needlework upon the robe1 with gems worked into the pattern1 is shown clearly in the illustration4 ,the ruff1 composed of rich lace and needlework1 stretches back from the neck1 and the front of the dress is cut very low4 ,the ,queen holds a feathered fan and a book in her hands4 7,fig4 #b73 ,a lady of the ,court of ,charles ,,ii4 7from a contemporary portrait74 ,there is the greatest contrast between the costume shown in ,fig4 #a and this1 the former being most uncomfortable and artificial4 ,fig4 #b shows the prevailing character of the female costume of this reign--unconfined ease4 8,the ringlets hang loosely upon the exposed neck1 which is quite innocent of the transparent lawn of the band or the partlet4 ,the gown is striking by its very simplicity1 the sleeves being merely looped material covering the undersleeves of lawn40 ,,arms ,,and ,,armour4 7,to end of ,,charles ,,ii47 ,james ,i4 ,during the reign of ,elizabeth the decay of the use of armour had set in on account of the enormous weight and unwieldly nature of the harness4 ,it prevented free action1 and1 indeed1 seriously crippled the physical frames of many of the wearers4 ,the increasing use of fire arms also tended to hasten the disuse of armour1 for it became difficult to make plates that would be sufficiently strong to oppose a bullet1 unless the armour were made of great thickness4 ,by the end of the reign of ,james ,i4 its use had been so modified that the armour of the heaviest cavalry terminated at the knees4 ,sometimes the arms were encased in armour1 and occasionally complete armour was worn by the commanders4 ,a contemporary engraving of ,prince ,henry of ,wales1 the eldest son of ,james ,i4 7,pl4 #ej1 ,fig4 #a71 shows the nature and extent of the armour usually worn4 ,through the intercourse with ,spain1 the cavalry soldier was often termed a cavalier instead of lancer4 ,the infantry consisted of pikemen1 armed with pikes or spears #ah;ft4 long1 and musketeers1 armed with fire arms4 ,before this reign1 on account of their weight1 a soldier carrying a fire arm also bore a forked rest in which to place the musket when firing it2 but at this time the caliver or matchlock1 that could be fired without a rest1 came into use generally4 ,the musketeers were armed with long1 rapier-like blades 7for their personal defence71 nicknamed a 8sweyne's feather0 or a 8hog's bristle0 7,fig4 #i74 ,charles ,i4 and the ,commonwealth4 ,during the struggle between ,king and people1 the armour consisted1 at the most1 of helmet1 backplate and breastplate1 or cuirass1 with tassets4 ,in fact1 the only armour worn by many noblemen and gentlemen was a cuirass over a buff leather coat1 with a helmet or hat to cover the head2 and some entire regiments of cavalry were raised1 attired in this fashion and named 8,cuirassiers40 ,they were armed with a good sword1 stiff1 cutting1 and sharp-pointed1 and pistols hanging at the saddle4 ,the lancers carried a pike-shaped lance1 about #ah;ft4 long1 a sword similar to that carried by the cuirassiers1 and one or two pistols4 ,one class of cavalry was called dragoons1 because they were armed with a fire arm shorter than that in general use1 called a 8dragon40 ,the full length portrait of ,sir ,denner ,strutt1 #afda 7,fig4 #aj7 from his tomb in ,whalley ,church1 ,essex1 well illustrates the armour of the period as worn by officers in the field4 ,the upper part of the body is completely armed1 but the lower part is not so1 as the back of the figure and the thighs1 which would1 in fact1 be defended by the position of riding1 could need no other protection in the field4 ,the front of the thigh is covered1 and the entire leg below the knee4 ,a broad sword-belt passes across the chest1 and the plain fashionable collar and long hair repose peacefully on the armed shoulders4 ,some officers wore helmets completely covering the head 7,fig4 #h71 but often helmets of the form shown in ,fig4 #e were in use4 ,flexible ear-pieces covered the cheeks1 and overlapping plates 7lobster-tailed7 covered the back of the neck4 ,the costume of a ,general of the ,parliamentary ,army 7,lord ,fairfax1 ,general for the ,county of ,york7 is shown in ,fig4 #b1 where the only articles of armour he wears appear to be the cuirass and gauntlets1 the former over a buff coat4 ,his breeches also appear to be of buff leather1 and large boots1 with wide tops1 encase his feet and legs4 ,the modern fire-lock was invented about this time1 and a spark being struck by a piece of steel from a flint1 so that the spark fell upon the powder in the pan4 ,charles ,,ii4 ,the military costume of this reign was nearly that worn in the ,civil ,wars4 ,the defensive armour of the cavalry consisted of 8a back1 breast1 and pot 7helmet71 the two latter to be pistol proof40 ,as offensive arms they carried a sword and case of pistols with barrels not under #ad inches in length4 ,the musketeers were ordered to carry a musket with a barrel not under three feet in length1 a collar of bandoliers1 and a sword4 ,during this reign the bayonet was first invented1 at ,bayonne1 and was made like a dagger1 with a round wooden hilt1 screwed or merely stuck into the muzzle of the gun4 ,it is now known as a 8plug bayonet40 ,the gun could not be fired while the bayonet was fixed without the loss of the bayonet also4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ej4 7,fig4 #a73 ,henry1 ,prince of ,wales1 eldest son of ,james ,i4 7from ,drayton's 8,polyolbion071 showing the amount of armour that was generally worn4 ,the ,prince wears only armour to the waist1 with large1 bombasted trunk hose1 and is represented as balancing a pike4 7,fig4 #b73 ,costume1 with armour of 8,ferdinand1 ,lord ,fairfax1 the father of the more celebrated ,parliamentary ,general1 who also served in the same cause1 and was appointed ,general for the ,county of ,york40 ,he wears as armour only the cuirass and gauntlets4 7,figs4 #c and #d73 ,plug bayonets 7the earliest form71 invented at ,bayonne2 formerly in the ,meyrick collection4 7,fig4 #e73 ,single-barred helmet with 8lobster-tail0 neck piece and ear-pieces1 usually worn by dragoons4 7,fig4 #f73 ,helmet with triple bars which protect the face1 as worn by harquebussiers in #afde4 7,fig4 #g73 ,pot helmet or open head-piece1 with cheeks1 and a fluted ornament over the top1 of the time of ,cromwell4 7,fig4 #h73 ,close helmet of the time of ,charles ,i41 with ear-pieces and a perforated vizor which may be drawn down to cover the face4 7,fig4 #i73 ,a 8sweyne's feather0 or 8hog's bristle10 a kind of rapier1 carried by the musketeer for his defence4 7,fig4 #aj73 ,effigy of ,sir ,denner ,strutt1 #afda1 from his tomb in ,whatley ,church1 ,essex1 illustrating the armour of the period as worn by officers in the field4 7,fig4 #aa73 ,a pikeman of the time of ,james ,i4 7from a broadside in the possession of the ,society of ,antiquaries74 ,he wears a morion-shaped helmet with plumes1 back and breast plates reaching to the waist1 with two broad tassets fastened to the breast plate over padded knee breeches4 ,he is armed with a long pike and sword4 7,fig4 #ab73 ,a musketeer of the time of ,james ,i4 7from the same source as ,fig4 #aa74 ,musketeers at first wore morions on the head1 but1 later on1 large hats with plumes were adopted4 ,this one is represented as wearing only back and breast plates1 and he is armed with a musket and a sword4 ,in his right hand he carries a rest for his musket1 and slung over his shoulder he wears a bandolier or set of leather cases1 in each of which a complete change of powder for a musket was carried1 to facilitate the loading of the piece4 ,this was used until the end of the #agth century1 when the cartridge-box came into use4 ,,anne1 ,,george ,i4 ,,and ,,george ,,ii4 ,,male ,,costumes4 ,the reign of ,anne 7a ,stuart71 is taken with those of the early ,hanoverians1 as the costumes of the three reigns were so similar4 ,anne and ,george ,i4 ,with the former of these reigns1 all the chivalric costume except the sword disappeared1 the latter still completing the full dress of the ,court of ,st4 ,james'4 ,planch1 in his 8,history of ,british ,costume10 very tersely describes the costume of the gentlemen of these reigns3-- 8,square-cut coats and long-flapped waistcoats with pockets in them1 the latter meeting the stockings1 still drawn up over the knee so high as to entirely conceal the breeches1 but gartered below it2 large hanging cuffs and lace ruffles2 the skirts of the coats stiffened out with wire or buckram1 from between which peeped the hilt of the sword1 deprived of the broad and splendid belt in which it swung in the preceding reigns2 blue or scarlet silk stockings1 with gold or silver cloaks2 lace neckcloths2 square-toed1 short-quartered shoes1 with high red heels and small buckles2 very long and formally curled perukes1 black riding-wigs1 bag-wigs and nightcap-wigs2 small three-cornered hats laced with gold or silver galloon1 and sometimes trimmed with feathers1 comprise the habit of the nobleman and gentleman during the reigns of ,queen ,anne and ,george ,i40 ,the large-skirted coat is really the precursor of the modern frock-coat4 ,full-bottomed wigs were very expensive to the wearer1 for in a wig-maker's bill1 dated ,december #agth1 #agab1 we find an item as follows3--8,for a long1 full-bottomed periwig1 #ab3aj3j40 ,many interesting peeps are given us at the costume of the time from the advertisements which appeared in the public papers of the losses or robbery of clothes4 ,in #agad a gentleman advertised that he was robbed of his wardrobe1 consisting of 8a scarlet cloth suit1 laced with broad gold lace1 lined and faced with blue1 a fine cinnamon cloth suit with plate buttons1 the waistcoat fringed with a silk fringe of the same colour2 and a rich yellow flowered satin morning-gown lined with a cherry-coloured satin1 with a pocket on the right side40 ,george ,i4 was not inclined to changes in dress1 for he was by no means young when he succeeded to the throne4 ,indeed1 it is said that from the days of ,charles ,,ii4 till the accession of ,george ,,iii4 the ,court gave little encouragement to dress4 ,the beau of #agbg is described as dressed in 8a fine linen shirt1 the ruffles and bosom of ,mechlin lace1 a small wig with an enormous queue or tail1 his coat well garnished with lace1 black velvet breeches1 red heels to his shoes and gold clocks to his stockings1 his hat beneath his arm1 a sword by his side1 and himself well scented40 ,there were many minor changes in articles of dress1 such as the introduction of the ,ramilies cock of the hat 7,fig4 #c7 soon after the battle of ,ramilies1 and a wig also took its name from the same event4 ,it was invented by an enterprising wig-maker1 and had the tail plaited to the taste of the ,swiss female peasant1 having a black tie at the top and another at the bottom4 ,it is not flowing at the sides1 but consists of a bushy heap of well-powdered hair 7,fig4 #c74 ,the fashion of 8cocking0 the hat or turning up the brim1 had many changes1 and by the cock of the hat1 the occupation of the man who wore it was known2 and it varied from the modest broad brim of the clergy and countrymen to the slightly upturned hat of the country gentleman or citizen4 ,a large hat1 called the ,kevenhuller hat1 of extravagant proportions1 was worn 7,fig4 #g71 and it was generally patronised by military men or bullies about town after the type of the ,mohocks1 ,bloods1 c4 ,in the reign of ,george ,,ii4 there was no alteration in the general character of male costumes4 ,the pigtail appeared in #agde1 and some young men wore their own hair1 dressed and powdered1 about #agea4 ,the costume of the ordinary classes during these reigns was very simple1 and consisted of a plain coat1 buttoned up the front1 a long waistcoat reaching to the knees1 both having capacious pockets with great overlapping flaps1 plain bob 7short and round7 wigs1 hats slightly turned up1 and high quartered shoes4 ,the works of ,hogarth afford abundant examples of the costumes of the reign of ,george ,,ii4 ,thanks to his skilful pencil we are familiar with the square-cut coats1 flapped waistcoats and knee breeches of the first half of the #ahth century4 ,the use of muffs by men may be traced back to the exquisites of ,louis ,,xiv41 and were as commonly carried by men as by women4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ea4 7,fig #a73 ,costume of a gentleman of the time of ,queen ,anne and ,george ,i4 7,fig4 #b73 ,a clergyman's hat 7#agde71 from ,hogarth4 7,fig4 #c73 ,a fashionable cock1 as worn by merchants and well-to-do ,londoners1 known as the ,ramilies cock1 with the ,ramilies wig4 7,fig4 #d73 ,costume of a gentleman of the time of ,george ,i4 7#agbj74 7,fig4 #e73 ,costume of a gentleman of the time of ,george ,,ii41 from 8,the ,school of ,venus1 or the ,lady's ,miscellany10 #agci4 ,he wears a small wig and hat1 and a long wide-skirted coat4 7,fig4 #f73 ,a plain and decisively cocked hat1 which was in fashion in #agde1 and a bag-wig beneath it4 7,fig4 #g73 ,the ,kevenhuller hat1 of extravagant proportions1 as worn by military men1 or bullies about town4 7,fig4 #h73 ,costume of a gentleman1 from a print dated #agdd4 ,,female ,,costumes4 ,at ,anne's accession little change was made in the costumes of ladies1 as the ,queen was of too retiring a disposition to introduce any originality in that direction4 ,in #agaa ,addison1 in the 8,spectator10 devoted a whole number to the subject of ladies' head-dress1 commencing with a declaration 8that there is not so variable a thing in nature10 adding1 8within my own memory ,i have known it rise and fall about #cj degrees4 ,about ten years ago it shot up to a very great height1 insomuch that the female part of our species were much taller than the men0 7allusion to the ,commode74 8,i remember several ladies that were once very near seven feet high1 and at present want some inches of five feet40 ,after about fifteen years the high ,commode again came into fashion1 but the startling novelty was the hoop-petticoat4 ,it widened gradually from the waist to the ground1 the gown being looped up round the body in front and falling in loose folds behind 7,pl4 #eb1 ,fig4 #a474 ,a writer of the time says of this fashion3 8,nothing can be imagined more unnatural1 and1 consequently1 less agreeable4 ,when a slender woman stands upon a basis so inordinately wide1 she resembles a funnel1 a figure of no great elegancy40 ,about this time1 ladies1 particularly in their riding costumes1 imitated the costumes of the men1 wearing a cocked beaver hat and feathers1 hair curled and powdered and tied like a man's1 coat and waistcoat like a man1 with a petticoat below the waist4 ,sir ,roger de ,coverley1 when looking at a young sporting lady1 was about to address her as 8,sir10 until he cast his eye lower and saw her petticoat4 ,in contrast with the extravagance shown in the quantity and quality of the materials used for ladies' dresses1 how cheaply the poor could dress at this time may be gathered from an entry in some parish accounts in ,norfolk in #agai3 8,paid for clading of the ,widow ,bernard with a gown1 petticoat1 bodice1 hose1 shoes1 apron and stomacher1 #ahs4 #f;d40 ,in the time of ,george ,i4 there were few innovations in fashion set by the ,court4 ,in the reign of ,george ,,ii4 the ladies still laced as tightly1 and their hoops were as ugly and inconvenient as ever2 but generally speaking1 every lady dressed only as pleased herself1 so that there was an enormous variety of costumes worn at all public assemblies4 ,at the close of this reign there was a great rage for pastoral plays and ,court masques1 in which the ladies of the ,court and the noblemen appeared as country-folk1 shepherds1 shepherdesses1 milkmaids1 c4 ,their garments were cut in a simple style after the characters whom they represented1 but they were of very costly materials1 with diamonds and other precious stones as ornaments4 ,ladies often wore white muslin aprons similar to that of a modern waitress1 and it is said that ,beau ,nash1 the ,master of the ,ceremonies1 and 8,king of ,bath10 disliked them so much at social gatherings1 that he took one off a ,duchess at one of the assemblies1 and threw it among the waiting women4 ,the fashions in dress changed so rapidly1 however1 and were so numerous1 that it is impossible to record all the variations of the times4 ,their diversity and variety will be seen by looking at any of the prints recording social events1 which are found in our public collections and are reproduced in the magazines4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #eb4 7,fig4 #a73 ,a lady with a very tightly laced bodice and hoop petticoat1 in fashion about #agah4 7,fig4 #b73 ,a lady in the fashion of #agee1 showing a later development of the hoop petticoat1 when1 owing to the torrent of invectives levelled at it1 it became more constricted in its dimensions4 ,in this form it much resembles the farthingale of ,elizabeth's time4 7,fig4 #c73 ,hooded head-dress worn in #agbg2 a complete envelope for the head1 commonly used in riding and travelling1 as well as when walking in the parks4 ,it was called a ,nithisdale1 because when ,lord ,nithisdale escaped from the ,tower dressed as a woman1 by the assistance of his devoted wife1 his features were concealed in a hood like this4 7,fig4 #d73 ,hat of the milk-maid type1 such as was affected by ladies in #agbg 7from the 8,musical ,entertainer074 7,fig4 #e73 ,high-heeled and small-pointed shoe of embroidered silk1 with a thin sole of leather such as was worn by the lady in ,fig4 #g4 7,fig4 #f73 ,the clog for the shoe seen in ,fig4 #e is made of leather1 ornamented by coloured silk threads worked with a needle4 ,figs4 #e and #f are from ,hone's 8,everyday ,book40 7,fig4 #g73 ,a good specimen of the fashion in the hoop petticoat1 from a curious print called the 8,review10 published about #agdj4 ,the hoop1 which was formed of whalebone1 stretches the dress on all sides1 so that it rises from the ground1 and allows the small-pointed1 high-heeled shoes to be seen4 ,the wearer had to double the hoop round in front1 or lifted it up on each side when she entered a door or carriage1 and1 when seated1 she occupied the space usually allotted for half a dozen of the male sex4 7,all the above are from contemporary engravings47 ,,george ,,iii4 ,,male ,,costumes4 ,king ,george ,,iii4 was very young when he came to the throne1 and he was retiring and modest in his personal habits1 so that he did not set the fashion in any extravagant direction4 ,the nobility and gentry started all that was new in the fashions without waiting for the royal sanction to their flippancies and extravagances4 ,both ladies and gentlemen dressed simply at first1 ,fig4 #a being the type of the male costume of the time4 ,it was only remarkable for the great quantity of lace with which the coat and waistcoat were trimmed4 ,the dress of the countryman at this time was conspicuous for its 8bagginess40 ,the garments were full and easy1 the natural hair was worn2 a loosely-twisted neckcloth1 enormous hat1 and easy shoes completed a dress1 which 8was remarkable as fitting only where it touched40 ,at the commencement of the reign1 men's hats were worn with very wide brims 7about #f inches wide71 and cocked in various styles according to the profession of the wearer4 ,a favourite cocked hat was the ,nivernois4 ,it was very small1 with large flaps1 fastened up to the shallow crown by hooks and eyes4 ,the corner in front was spout-shaped1 and stiffened out by wire4 ,gold-laced hats were generally worn again in #agge1 because the wearers thought that they gave them a military and distinguished appearance1 and it is said that many men wore them to escape the attentions of the press gang1 that were remarkably active about this time4 ,in #aggb a new fashion was introduced by young gentlemen who had been travelling in ,italy4 ,they formed themselves into the ,maccaroni ,club1 which was intended as a rival to the ,beefsteak ,club1 and distinguished themselves by a most extravagant and eccentric costume4 ,the new-fashioned dandy was known as a ,maccaroni 7,figs4 #b and #c74 ,his hair was dressed into an enormous toupe1 with large curls at the sides1 while behind it was gathered and tied up into an enormous club or knot1 that rested on the back of the neck4 ,upon this1 a very small hat was often worn 7,fig4 #c74 ,a full1 white handkerchief was tied in a large bow round the neck4 ,both coat and waistcoat were shortened1 and were edged with lace or braid4 ,the garments were decorated with the wearer's initials1 pictures of windmills1 horsemen1 hounds1 c41 showing to what extent a ridiculous fashion can be carried4 ,two watches were worn1 one in each waistcoat pocket1 from which hung large bunches of seals4 ,silk stockings1 and small shoes with diamond buckles1 completed the costume1 which1 however1 remained in fashion only one season4 ,about the middle of the reign of ,george ,,iii41 the square-cut coat and the long-flapped waistcoat of the three preceding reigns underwent an alteration4 ,the stiffening was taken out of the skirts1 the waists were shortened1 and the cut of the present ,court suit introduced4 ,cloth became the general material for the coat1 and velvet1 silk1 satin1 and embroidery1 were reserved for ,court dress or waistcoats and breeches only4 ,the stockings were worn under the breeches1 and shoes had large buckles4 ,the lace cravat was abandoned in #agce1 and a black ribbon1 worn around the neck1 was tied in a large bow in front4 ,white cambric stocks1 buckled behind1 succeeded these1 and then followed muslin cravats4 ,round hats began to be worn in the mornings1 and shortly after this time the ,french ,revolution in #aghi completed the downfall of the three-cornered hat on both sides of the ,channel4 ,a flat1 folding1 crescent-shaped beaver1 still called a cocked hat1 distinguished the beaux at the theatre1 and the chapeau-de-bras1 a small triangular silk article1 was slipped under the arm of the courtier4 ,the original three-cornered hat remains in the head-dress of ,state coachmen of ,royal and noble families1 and of the ,lord ,mayor of ,london1 while the chapeau-de-bras is still worn as part of the ,court dress4 ,the ,french ,revolution also affected the wig4 ,it had1 during the latter half of the #ahth century1 become smaller and smaller1 and the natural hair was plastered and powdered till it was1 at last1 as ugly as a wig4 ,this fashion remains in the present day in the powdered hair of footmen in full dress4 ,about #agic1 ,french fashions1 copied from the costumes of the leaders of the ,revolution1 became very much the vogue in this country4 ,a high sugar-loaf hat covered the head1 and the flowing hair was powdered2 a frilled shirt1 a white striped waistcoat1 a loose cravat of white cambric tied in a large bow1 were worn1 and a long green coat covered the upper part of the body4 ,the breeches were tight1 and reached to the ankle1 being buttoned from the bottom1 up the sides to the middle of the thigh1 and low top-boots were worn4 ,towards the end of the reign1 the shirt collar appeared1 and the ruffle vanished4 ,the coat was made with lapels and with a tail cut square in front above the hips1 like the modern dress-coat4 ,the waistcoat was cut ridiculously short1 and pantaloons and ,hessian boots were introduced about the same time4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ec4 7,fig4 #a73 ,costume of a gentleman at the commencement of the reign of ,george ,,iii4 ,it is remarkable only for the extra quantity of lace with which it is decorated1 and the small black cravat which he wears4 7,fig4 #b73 ,side view of head-dress of a ,maccaroni1 showing 7#a7 the height to which the hair was raised and plastered1 7#b7 the row of curls around it1 and 7#c7 the large 8club0 tied with a broad ribbon4 7,fig4 #c73 ,complete costume of a ,maccaroni 7#aggb7 showing a different treatment of the hair from that in ,fig4 #b1 the ridiculously small hat1 and the ornamented coat are also shown4 7,fig4 #d73 ,a hat of the style worn in #aghf4 7,fig4 #e73 ,the last form of the cocked hat4 ,both ,figs4 #d and #e may be taken as specimens of the latter days of the wig1 8large curls1 ties and bob1 ending in a single pigtail40 7,fig4 #f73 ,fashionable riding dress in #aghf4 ,the costume consists of a broad brimmed hat with band and buckle1 powdered wig and pigtail1 a long-tailed coat with large buttons1 tight buckskin breeches buttoned at the knee1 and high boots4 7,fig4 #g73 ,a hat of the newest fashion of #agib1 gaily decorated with gold strings and tassels4 ,the natural hair is worn powdered1 and the high coat collar is very characteristic of the time4 7,all the above are from contemporary prints47 ,,female ,,costumes4 ,both ,george ,,iii4 and his wife were decorous and retiring in their habits1 and during their reign the fashions were started and maintained by the nobility and gentry of their ,court4 ,the latter 8did not wait for the royal sanction to their flippancies1 and their taste or want of taste ran riot during this reign to an extent that equalled the absurdities of any previous period1 and which makes the history of fashion during that time more varied than that of any similar length of time40 ,at the commencement of the reign1 ladies' dresses were generally simple enough2 but about #agfc the fashion came over from ,france of dressing the hair by curling and crisping it1 and raising it by adding pomatum1 upon a foundation of 8many a good pound of wool10 into such an erection 8that my lady is dressed for three months at least1 during which time it is not in her power to comb her head40 ,so enormous were these head-dresses1 that a satirist said3 8,our fine ladies remind me of an apple stuck on the point of a small skewer40 ,a sign of the times was the number of works written by hairdressers1 which appeared with many illustrations1 describing the various styles of these monstrosities of hairdressing1 8for in those days hairdressers were great men40 ,when the ,maccaroni costume was adopted in #aggb by some of the dandies1 many ladies followed suit with a costume on similar1 extravagant lines1 particularly copying the enormous toupe4 ,in #agge another fashion came in1 depicted in ,fig4 #a4 ,the head-dress is called a half-moon toupe1 combed up from the forehead1 large curls being made at the sides1 and a plume of feathers surmounting the structure4 ,round the neck is a simple ribbon4 ,the gown is high behind at the neck1 and low in front1 with a large bunch of flowers stuck in the breast1 and the body is tightly confined in stays strengthened with steel busks4 ,the sleeves reach to the elbow2 long gloves are worn1 and the fan is constantly displayed4 ,the gown is open from the waist1 and gathered in festoons at the sides1 the edges being ornamented with silk ribbons in puffs1 forming a diamond shaped pattern and edged with lace4 ,the petticoat1 which is displayed by the open gown1 is similarly decorated1 and small1 high-heeled shoes with rosettes complete the dress4 ,the head-dress continued as monstrous as ever until1 in #aghb1 it reached the enormous size shown in ,fig4 #f4 ,one hairdresser1 on completing his task1 told the lady that 8heads1 when properly dressed1 kept for three weeks02 that they would not 8keep0 longer may be seen from the many recipes given for the destruction of the insects which bred in the flour and pomatum so liberally bestowed upon the head-dresses4 ,needless to say1 these structures gave unlimited materials to the many satirists and caricaturists of the period4 ,about #aghf the heads began to lower1 and the hair was allowed to stream down the back1 a fashion attributed to the portrait painters1 led by ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds4 ,hats with enormous brims were worn of the style shown in ,fig4 #d1 which represents a lady in a fashionable riding dress of #aghf4 ,in #aghi the hair began to be worn 8frizzled0 in a close bush all over1 with pendant curls on the back and shoulders 7,fig4 #e74 ,the high bonnet of the ,french peasants was introduced and was worn trimmed with lace1 so that it hung over the face like an extinguisher4 ,the puffed out chest1 the little frilled jacket and tight sleeves1 were also very characteristic of this time4 ,a curious fashion came in during #aghc1 in the use of straw as an ornament of dress4 ,it was used to decorate everything1 from the cap to the shoe buckle1 and naturally this was the era of straw bonnets4 ,in #agid extremely short waists became fashionable2 that is to say1 the waists of dresses were carried up to the armpits4 ,in derision of this fashion1 a song commencing1 8,shepherds1 ,i have lost my love1 ,have you seen my ,anna80 was parodied thus by a wag3 8,shepherds1 ,i have lost my waist1 ,have you seen my body80 ,the gown was worn without a hoop1 and fell in straight1 loose folds to the feet4 ,the fashion of powdering the hair fell into disuse1 for ,mr4 ,pitt1 computing that it would bring in a revenue of about #baj1jjj1 put a tax upon powdering the hair1 and almost everyone1 to his disgust1 abandoned the fashion4 ,although the hoop had been discarded in private life for some time1 it appeared regularly at ,court in as great state as ever 7,fig4 #g74 ,it was decorated with ribbons1 cords1 tassels1 and bunches of flowers2 the waist was pinched1 and the head overloaded with feathers1 jewels1 ribbons1 and ornaments--altogether a most uncomfortable attire4 ,many of the fashions at the end of ,george's reign became tasteful and simple1 and illustrations of them will be seen in the portraits1 engravings1 and caricatures of the time4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ed4 7,fig4 #a73 ,costume of a lady in #agge1 from an illustration in the 8,ladies' ,magazine0 of that year 7taken from a drawing made at ,ranelagh74 7,fig4 #b73 ,a bonnet 8of unassisted ,british taste0 of the time of the ,regency1 #ahaa-ahbj4 7,fig4 #c73 ,a head-dress about #agfh1 from a curious work written by a hairdresser named ,stewart1 under the astounding title of 8,plocacosmos1 or the ,whole ,art of ,hair ,dressing40 ,it is a large but light compound of gauze1 wire1 ribbons and flowers1 sloping over the forehead4 7,fig4 #d73 ,a lady's fashionable riding costume in ,august1 #aghf 7from a print74 7,fig4 #e73 ,a lady of fashion in #aghi 7from a print dated #agij74 7,fig4 #f73 ,head-dress of a lady1 #agff 7in ,stewart's 8,plocacosmos074 7,fig4 #g73 ,a lady in ,court dress in #agif4 ,the hoop petticoat1 though fallen into disuse generally1 was retained in the ,court dress4 ,,the ,,monastic ,,orders4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ee4 #a4 ,the ,benedictines 7,fig4 #a7 are the most ancient of the ,monastic ,orders1 and have always been the most learned4 ,they were founded by ,st4 ,benedict in ,italy about ,a4,d4 #ebi1 as a monastery for #ab monks1 in order that they might live1 in a religious community1 a ,christian life with lofty ideals4 ,originally1 ,st4 ,benedict's idea was not to found an ,order whose branches should extend throughout ,europe as one organisation1 but rather that the various houses should be independent of one another4 ,the ,order spread very rapidly1 being very rational and elastic in its rules1 and it displaced the others that were in existence4 ,pope ,gregory the ,great gave to it his high approval1 for as the learned ,abbot ,gasquet says3--8,in his 7,gregory's7 opinion1 it manifested no common wisdom in its provisions1 which were dictated by a marvellous insight into human nature1 and by a knowledge of the best possible conditions for attaining the end of a monastic life1 the perfect love of ,god and of man40 ,its rule did not enforce ascetism1 and great liberty was given to the heads of the ,order to modify its regulations to suit special circumstances4 ,the ,mission sent to ,england by ,st4 ,augustine1 ,a4,d4 #eig1 consisted of a ,prior and ,monks of ,st4 ,benedict's rule2 and as ,christianity spread in this country1 so the number of houses of the ,order increased1 until 8during the whole ,saxon period1 this was the only form of monasticism in ,england40 #b4 ,the ,cluniacs grew out of the ,benedictines1 being established at ,cluny1 near ,macon-sur-,saone1 ,a4,d4 #iab4 ,by the ,benedictine rule1 all religious houses were self-centred4 ,the ,cluniac rule established a new principle--that there should be a great central monastery1 with dependencies spread over many lands1 all owing allegiance to the central authority4 ,in every case1 the ,superior of the lesser houses was not elected by the community1 but was nominated by the ,abbot of ,cluny4 ,the ,order was established in ,england shortly after the ,norman ,conquest1 and when the monasteries were suppressed in the #afth century1 there were thirty-two ,cluniac ,monasteries in this country1 one only--at ,bermondsey--being an abbey4 #c4 ,the ,cistercians 7,fig4 #b74 ,this was the most flourishing offshoot of the ,benedictines1 and was founded at the ,monastery of ,citeaux1 ,a4,d4 #ajib4 ,though not the founder the greatest organiser was an ,englishman1 ,st4 ,stephen ,harding4 ,the ,cistercians formed themselves 8into an organised corporation1 under the perpetual pre-eminence of the ,abbot and house of ,citeaux1 with yearly ,chapters1 which all ,superiors were bound to attend40 ,the ,order spread very rapidly1 and the first abbey was founded in ,england ,a4,d4 #aabi4 ,at the general suppression there were one hundred ,cistercian houses in this country4 #d4 ,the ,carthusians 7,fig4 #c74 ,this ,order was founded in the #aath century on very strict and ascetic lines4 ,the monks lived a life of the greatest austerity and practised the most self-denying ordinances4 ,their clothes were mean and rough2 they never ate meat--fish and eggs being the only animal food allowed1 and that only on two days in the week4 ,on two days they had pulse or herbs boiled1 and on three days bread and water--only two meals a day being taken4 ,the first ,carthusian house was founded in ,england ,a4,d4 #aahj1 and there were only eight monasteries of the ,order in this country at the dissolution of the monasteries4 ,most of the above ,orders had houses of ,nuns affiliated to them4 ,,general ,,plan ,,of ,a ,,monastery4 ,illustration3 ,plate #ef4 ,the ,abbeys and ,monasteries of the ,benedictines and the ,orders founded from them1 with the exception of the ,carthusians1 were built on the same general plan4 ,the ,church itself was1 of course1 the principal of the monastic buildings1 and the most important part of the ,church was the ,presbytery1 with the ,high ,altar and the ,choir4 ,the ,church was always cruciform and the ,presbytery was the eastern arm4 ,to it only the monks who were in priestly orders had access4 ,the ,choir1 or ,quire1 frequently stretched in the ,nave beyond the ,transepts1 and was divided off from the more public part by the great screen4 ,in northern climates the ,church was generally situated on the northern side of the monastic buildings4 ,being a lofty and substantial structure1 it afforded protection1 and acted as a screen to the other buildings from the keen north winds4 ,next to the ,church in importance came the ,cloisters1 which were generally1 in ,england1 placed on the south side of the ,nave4 ,around them were grouped the principal buildings4 ,the ,cloisters were covered and paved walks1 surrounding a rectangular space called the ,cloister ,garth4 ,they were the common dwelling place of the community1 for in them the greater part of the work of the monks was carried on4 ,the ,northern ,walk1 by the wall of the ,church1 was naturally the warmest1 as it had a southern aspect1 and here the monks worked4 ,the ,prior sat near the eastern end of this walk1 where there was the usual entrance to the ,church1 and along this side1 the other seniors sat--not arranged in order of seniority1 but in the positions that best suited them for the respective tasks on which they were engaged4 ,the ,abbot sat apart at the end of the eastern cloister nearest the ,church door4 ,in the same cloister1 but toward the southern end1 the ,novice ,master gave regular instruction to the novices1 and the ,western ,cloister was given up to the junior monks4 ,the ,southern ,cloister1 with a north aspect1 was sunless and cheerless1 and was not generally used as a working place4 ,here were placed the lavatories1 and the towel cupboards4 ,abbot ,gasquet1 in his 8,english ,monastic ,life10 says3--8,day after day for centuries1 the ,cloister was the centre of the activity of the religious establishment4 ,the quadrangle was the place where the monks lived and studied and wrote4 ,in the three sides--the ,northern1 the ,eastern1 and ,western walls--were transacted the chief business of the house1 other than what was merely external4 ,here the older monks laboured at the tasks appointed them by obedience1 or discussed questions relating to ecclesiastical learning or regular observance2 or at permitted times joined in recreative conversation4 ,here1 too1 in the parts set aside for the purpose1 the younger members toiled at their studies under the eye of their teacher1 learnt the monastic observance from the lips of the ,novice ,master1 or practised the chants and melodies of the ,divine ,office with the ,cantor or his assistant4 ,how the work was done in the winter time1 even supposing that the great windows looking out on to the ,cloister ,garth were glazed or closed with wooden shutters1 must ever remain a mystery40 ,the ,refectory1 also called the ,fratry1 or ,frater ,house1 was the dining hall of the establishment4 ,it was always placed1 with the kitchens1 c41 as far as possible from the ,church1 so that the smell of the cooking should not penetrate the sacred structure4 ,as a rule1 the walls of the ,refectory were wainscotted1 and the floor was covered with hay or rushes4 ,the monks sat in a single row on each side1 with their backs to the wall4 ,the ,superior sat at a high table at the ,eastern end1 and a pulpit was erected at the western side or southern end of the hall4 ,from it1 one of the novices read aloud part of the ,scriptures in ,latin during meal times4 ,in ,cistercian monasteries the ,refectory was placed at right angles to the ,southern ,cloister1 but in those of the ,cluniacs and ,benedictines its length ran east and west along this ,cloister4 ,the kitchen1 buttery1 and other offices connected with the cooking and storing of food1 were naturally placed near to the refractory4 ,the ,chapter ,house was situated on the eastern side of the ,cloisters1 being built near the ,church4 ,it was always a room of noble proportions and design1 and here the ,abbot and monks met daily to transact the solemn business of the ,order4 ,the latter sat along by the wall and the former in the east4 ,in a vestry or sacristy near it were kept1 beside other things1 the books of the house4 ,the ,parlour was a room in which the monks did what talking was necessary1 when strict silence had to be observed in the cloisters1 and here sometimes they interviewed visitors4 ,it was generally situated near the ,chapter ,house4 ,the ,common ,room1 also called the ,calefactory or ,warming ,house1 was a room to which the monks resorted in winter to warm themselves at the common fire1 and it was also used at times for the purposes of recreation4 ,above the ,chapter ,house and the other buildings on the eastern side was the ,dormitory or ,dorter of the monks1 and it had one set of stairs leading to it from the ,eastern ,cloister1 and another set leading down into the church4 ,generally1 too1 on the eastern side was a passage leading to the ,infirmary1 which was placed some distance away from the other buildings1 and near to it was the ,misericorde1 a room where monks1 by permission of the ,abbot1 might eat meat1 which was at other times forbidden4 ,by the ,western ,cloisters were the ,cellar and the ,fratry of the lay brethren or ,conversi1 and over these was placed their ,dorter4 ,there was also1 in addition to these1 a ,guest ,house1 often of great size and very well appointed1 where strangers were entertained4 ,this was generally built in such a place where it would least interfere with the privacy of the monks2 and there was also an ,almonry1 where food and clothing were distributed by the monks to the poor who came for relief4 ,,the ,,friars ,,and ,,canons4 ,from the beginning of the #ajth to the end of the #abth century1 a series of religious orders arose1 each aiming at a more successful reproduction of the monastic ideal4 ,in the #acth century there arose the ,orders of ,friars1 who were inspired by the principle of devotion to the performance of active and actual religious duties among their fellow-men1 rather than by that of monastic seclusion4 ,their plan was 8to mix with the world and work for the salvation of the world0 in a state of absolute poverty4 ,their houses were built in the poorest quarters of large towns1 but they only used the houses as temporary resting-places1 preaching and carrying out their ministrations throughout the country1 and attending to the physical and spiritual needs of the lowest and poorest1 including the lepers and the outcasts4 ,they were great preachers1 and this was particularly striking1 because preaching had fallen into disuse among the monastic orders4 8,nothing in the histories of ,wesley or of ,whitfield can be compared with the enthusiasm which everywhere welcomed them10 and it is said that the work of the ,friars staved off the ,reformation for #bjj years4 ,as students1 the ,friars did not confine themselves to theology1 but cultivated the whole range of science and art1 and members of the ,orders held very distinguished academical posts throughout ,europe4 ,a candidate for admission to one of the ,orders studied theology for three years1 and was then examined on his work1 receiving1 if successful1 a commission limiting his mission to a certain district 7when he was called a limitour71 or allowing him to go where he listed 7a lister74 ,as may be imagined1 much strife arose between these wandering preachers and the parochial clergy4 ,there were four ,orders of ,friars3 ,dominicans1 ,franciscans1 ,carmelites1 and ,augustines4 ,they were called ,friars because1 out of humility1 their founders would not have them called ,father1 like the monks1 but simply ,brother 7,frater1 ,frre1 ,friar74 ,the ,dominicans and ,franciscans came into being at the beginning of the #acth century4 ,dominic1 an ,augustinian ,canon and a ,spaniard of noble birth1 conceived the idea of founding an ,order of men who should spend their lives in preaching1 and at the same time ,st4 ,francis of ,assisi1 the son of a rich ,italian merchant1 was inspired with a similar idea4 ,dominic and ,francis met at ,rome #abaf ,a4,d41 but1 though an attempt was made to combine their movements1 it was found impossible to do so4 ,each adopted the ,augustian rule1 and each required that his followers should have no property1 either personally or as a corporate body4 ,they were to work for a livelihood or live on alms4 ,the ,dominicans were learned1 energetic and dogmatic2 the ,franciscans retained somewhat of the character of the pious1 ardent enthusiast1 from whom they took their name4 ,the ,dominicans were called ,black ,friars1 as their habit consisted of a white tunic with white girdle1 and a white scapulary with a black mantle1 hood and shoes4 7,pl4 #eh1 ,fig4 #c47 ,the ,dominican nuns wore the same dress1 with a white veil4 ,the ,franciscans were called ,grey ,friars1 from the colour of their habits1 or ,cordeliers1 from the knotted rope which formed their characteristic girdle4 ,their habit was originally a grey tunic1 with long1 loose sleeves1 a knotted cord for a girdle1 and a black hood4 ,the feet were always bare1 or only protected by sandals4 ,in the #aeth century1 the colour of the habit was changed to dark brown4 7,pl4 #eg1 ,fig4 #a47 ,the ,franciscans were first introduced into ,england at ,canterbury1 #abbc ,a4,d41 and there were sixty-five houses of the ,order in ,england1 besides four houses of minoresses4 ,while the ,dominicans retained their unity of organisation1 the ,franciscans divided into several branches1 under the names of ,minorites1 ,capuchins1 ,minims1 ,observants1 ,recollets1 c4 ,the ,carmelites took their name from ,mount ,carmel1 where they originated4 ,they were driven from ,palestine by the ,saracens in the #abth century1 and then spread into ,europe1 coming to ,england about #abde ,a4,d4 ,their dress was a white frock over a dark blue tunic1 and they were hence known as ,white ,friars4 ,in the #afth century they had about forty houses in this country4 7,pl4 #eg1 ,fig4 #b47 ,the ,augustines1 or ,austin ,friars1 were founded in the middle of the #acth century1 consisting originally of hermits and solitaries1 who lived under no rule at all4 ,they were incorporated by ,pope ,innocent ,,iv4 into a new ,order with the above name4 ,they wore a black gown with board sleeves1 girdled with a leather belt1 and a black cloth hood4 ,they had thirty-two houses in ,england4 ,besides these four principal ,orders of mendicant ,friars1 there were a number of lesser ,orders1 the chief being the ,crutched ,friars 7so called because they wore a red cross on the breast and back of their habit72 ,friars of the ,sack1 who wore a plain1 bag-like garment of coarse cloth or sacking2 and ,friars of the ,holy ,trinity1 or ,trinitarians1 who made part of their work the ransoming of ,christians captured by the infidels4 ,all the minor mendicant ,orders 7excepting the four great ,orders7 were suppressed #acgj ,a4,d4 ,,the ,,canons4 ,a great monastic family was known under the name of ,augustinians1 from ,st4 ,augustine1 ,bishop of ,hippo1 who1 it is said1 established monastic communities in ,africa1 and gave them a 8rule10 or method of life4 ,in the middle of the ninth century all the clergy--priests1 canons1 clerks1 etc4--who had not entered the monastic ranks were incorporated into one great ,order to observe the rule of ,st4 ,augustine4 ,the ,canons ,regular1 as they were called1 were the clergy of ,cathedral and ,collegiate ,churches1 living in a community on the monastic model4 ,they wore during divine service a surplice1 and a fur tippet or almuce over a long black cassock1 and a four-square cap called a baret or biretta4 ,they had much more liberty than the monks4 ,a writer in the thirteenth century says3 8,among them one is well shod1 well clothed1 and well fed4 ,they go out when they like1 mix with the world1 and talk at table40 ,there were several classes of them in ,england known as-- #a4 ,augustinian ,canons4 #b4 ,premonstratensian ,canons4 #c4 ,gilbertine ,canons4 ,the ,augustinian1 ,austin or ,black ,canons 7,pl4 #eg1 ,fig4 #c71 so called from the habit of the order1 were found in ,europe after the twelfth century1 and were very popular in ,england4 ,at the time of the ,dissolution they had about #agj houses in ,england1 two of the ,abbeys--,waltham ,cross and ,cirencester--being governed by mitred abbots4 ,the ,premonstratensian ,canons were named after ,prmontr1 in ,france1 where they originated in the twelfth century4 ,they wore a white habit1 and were known as ,white ,canons4 ,welbeck ,abbey was the chief house in ,england1 and at the ,dissolution there were #cd houses of the ,order in this country4 ,the ,gilbertine ,canons were founded by ,st4 ,gilbert1 ,rector of ,sempringham4 in the twelfth century4 ,the ,order was one for both men and women1 and in the double monasteries the canons and nuns lived in separate houses1 having no communion4 ,the men wore a black habit with a white cloak1 and a hood lined with lamb's wool4 ,the women were in black1 with a white cap4 ,the ,order had #bf establishments in ,england at the ,dissolution4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #eg4 7,fig4 #a73 ,a ,franciscan ,friar4 7,fig4 #b73 ,a ,carmelite ,friar4 7,fig4 #c73 ,an ,augustinian ,canon4 ,,military ,,monastic ,,orders4 7,plate #eh47 ,the military ,orders1 consisting of men who combined the religious duties of monks and the military exercises of knights1 were the ,knights ,hospitallers and the ,knights ,templars4 ,the ,knights ,hospitallers of ,st4 ,john of ,jerusalem 7,pl4 #eh1 ,fig4 #a7 were originally not a military ,order4 ,this ,order took its name and was founded at an hospital in ,jerusalem by the merchants of ,amalfi1 in ,italy1 for the purpose of affording hospitality to the ,pilgrims coming to the ,holy ,land4 ,it was dedicated to ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 and the first business of its members was to provide for such pilgrims at that hospital1 and to protect them from insults and injuries on the road4 ,the open country was perpetually exposed to the incursions of irregular bands of ,saracen and ,turkish horsemen1 and any of the hapless pilgrims who were captured were put to death or sold into slavery4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #eh4 7,fig4 #a73 ,a ,knight ,hospitaller4 7,fig4 #b73 ,a ,knight ,templar4 7,fig4 #c73 ,a ,dominican ,friar4 ,the ,order was instituted about #ajib ,a4,d41 and was very much favoured by ,godfrey of ,bouillon and his successor1 ,baldwin1 ,king of ,jerusalem4 ,the kindness of the ,hospitallers to the sick and wounded soldiers of the ,first ,crusade made them popular1 and several of the ,crusading princes endowed them with estates2 while many of the ,crusaders1 instead of returning home1 laid down their arms and joined the brotherhood4 ,after a time1 when their endowments became very great1 they reconstituted the ,order on the model of the ,templars4 ,from this time the two military ,orders formed a powerful standing army for the defence of the kingdom of ,jerusalem4 ,as monks1 they followed a rule of life founded upon that of ,st4 ,augustine1 and wore a black mantle with a white cross on the left shoulder4 ,they soon came to ,england1 and had a house built for them in ,london about #aadj ,a4,d41 and from poor and mean beginnings obtained so great wealth1 honours1 and exemptions1 that their ,superior here in ,england was the first lay baron and had a seat among the ,lords in ,parliament2 some of their privileges being extended even to their tenants4 ,when on military duty1 the knights wore the ordinary armour of the period1 a red surcoat with a white cross on the breast1 and a red mantle with a white cross on the shoulder4 ,the smaller establishments upon their manors and estates were called commanderies1 and the head of the house was known as the ,commander4 ,sometimes their houses were called preceptories1 but this term was more generally applied to the establishments of the ,knights ,templars4 ,they had their headquarters at the ,hospital of ,st4 ,john1 near ,clerkenwell1 where the gate 7rebuilt in #aedj7 may still be seen4 ,there were about #ec cells or commanderies attached to this hospital in different parts of the country1 where the novices might be trained in piety and in military exercises4 ,when the ,christians were driven out of ,jerusalem1 the ,knights of ,st4 ,john passed to the ,isle of ,cyprus1 afterwards to the ,isle of ,rhodes1 and finally to ,malta1 where they maintained a constant warfare against the ,mahommedans1 acting as the police of the ,mediterranean and doing their best to oppose the piracies of the ,corsairs4 ,the ,order was divided at ,malta according to nationality--the ,english knights1 the ,french knights1 etc41 each nation having a separate house situated at a different point of the island for its defence4 ,the ,order was suppressed in ,england in #aeda1 resuscitated in ,mary's reign1 and finally abolished on the accession of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,knights ,templars4 7,pl4 #eh1 ,fig #b47 ,the ,knights ,templars1 or simply the 8,templars10 were instituted #aaah ,a4,d41 and were so called from having their first residence adjoining the ,temple at ,jerusalem4 ,nine knights bound themselves into a fraternity1 which adopted the fundamental monastic vows of obedience1 poverty1 and chastity1 and1 in addition1 their business was to guard the roads for the security of pilgrims in the ,holy ,land4 ,many members of the noblest houses in ,europe joined the ,order1 and endowments flowed in abundantly4 ,gradually dependent houses were established on its estates in nearly every country of ,europe4 ,their rule1 like that of the ,hospitallers1 was according to that of ,st4 ,augustine1 and their habit consisted of a large white mantle with a red cross on the left shoulder1 over the ordinary armour of the period4 ,they came to ,england early in the reign of ,stephen1 settling first at ,holborn in ,london4 ,afterwards their headquarters were removed to ,fleet ,street1 and were known as 8,the ,temple40 ,on this ground they built a monastery1 barracks1 cloister1 council chamber1 refectory1 a river terrace as exercise ground as well as for religious meditation1 a tilting ground where the ,law ,courts now stand1 and a very beautiful church4 ,this establishment now for many years has been given over to the ,law1 ,chaucer having been one of the first law students there4 ,the original church1 with its round nave1 after the form of the ,church of the ,holy ,sepulchre at ,jerusalem1 still remains--a monument to the wealth and influence of the ancient ,templars4 ,the banner of the ,order was of black and white cloth1 called beauseant 7,pl4 #bi1 ,fig4 #bd71 and they adopted this word as a war cry4 ,the rule allowed three horses and a servant to each knight1 and married knights were also admitted to the ,order4 ,in ,england their numbers increased very rapidly1 and they obtained large possessions1 but in less than two hundred years their wealth and power were thought to be too great4 ,they were accused of horrid crimes1 and were everywhere put into prison4 ,their ,order was suppressed by ,pope ,clement ,v4 in #acji ,a4,d41 and totally abolished by the ,council of ,vienna #acab ,a4,d4 ,the ,superior of the ,order in ,england was styled ,master of the ,temple1 and was often summoned to ,parliament4 ,like the ,hospitallers1 the ,templars built churches and houses on their estates called ,preceptories4 ,when the order was suppressed1 these lands and houses1 eighteen in number1 were handed over to the ,hospitallers4 ,in the ,temple ,church there are nine effigies of knights1 which are certainly the finest and most interesting collection of monumental figures of this early period possessed by any one church in the kingdom4 ,they exhibit the military costume as it is said to have been worn at the ,crusades4 ,according to the sculptor who restored the effigies1 the ,templars wore long beards1 and their general dress consisted of a hauberk or tunic of ringed mail reaching to the knees1 with sleeves1 gloves1 and chausses covering the legs and feet of the same kind of mail1 a light sleeveless surcoat of white with a red cross over the hauberk1 girded about the waist by a belt2 another belt passing transversely round the body over the right shoulder and under the left arm1 by which a long or kite-shaped shield was supported2 a sword belt obliquely across the loins1 with a long1 heavy sword attached1 and single-pointed or 8prick0 spurs4 ,over all was worn a long white mantle fastened under the chin and reaching to the feet1 with a red cross on the left shoulder4 ,on the head was worn a linen coif1 and above that a bowl-shaped skull-cap of red cloth turned up all round4 ,when completely armed1 the coif and cap were exchanged for a hood of mail covering the neck and head1 and over that one of the large heaumes or helmets was worn4 ,,ecclesiastical ,,costumes ,,and ,,vestments4 ,there were two great divisions of ,medival ,ecclesiastics1 the ,major ,orders and the ,minor ,orders4 ,the ,major ,orders included the ,archbishop1 the ,bishop1 the ,priest1 the ,deacon or ,gospeller1 and the ,sub-deacon1 or ,patterner1 as ,chaucer calls him4 ,the ,minor ,orders comprised the ,acolyte 7symbol1 a candle71 the ,exorcist 7a holy water vessel71 the ,doorkeeper 7a key71 the ,lector 7a key71 and in some cases the ,sexton4 ,in the monastic times all these had the shaven crown or tonsure4 ,for many centuries ecclesiastical vestments remained unchanged1 those used in the ,church at the ,conquest being practically identical with those used at the time of the ,reformation4 ,the everyday garment was the cassock1 a long garment with long sleeves1 made of heavy woollen material4 ,it was generally black or brown in the case of the inferior clergy1 and scarlet for ,doctors of ,divinity4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #ei4 7,fig4 #a73 ,brass of ,lawrence ,seymour1 #accg1 ,higham ,ferrers ,church1 ,northamptonshire1 showing the ,eucharist ,vestments1 ,amice1 ,chasuble1 ,maniple1 ,alb1 ,stole1 and ,apparels4 7,fig4 #b73 ,brass of ,robert ,langton1 ,d4,c4,l41 #aeah1 at ,queen's ,college1 ,oxford1 in rich ornamented ,cope1 wearing also a doctor's cap4 ,these are often spoken of as the ,processional garments4 7,fig4 #c73 ,brass of ,abbot de la ,mare1 at ,st4 ,alban's ,abbey1 died #acif2 brass made in his lifetime1 between #acfj and #acge4 ,the whole brass1 of ,flemish manufacture1 is one of the finest in ,england4 ,the ,abbot is 8vested in ,eucharist vestments1 with jewelled mitre and pastoral staff10 the latter with the ,agnus ,dei in the head4 ,in cold weather the cassock was frequently lined with sheepskin or fur1 was provided with a hood1 and was girded with a thick knotted cord or cingulum4 ,the vestments or ceremonial garments1 worn when officiating at the services of the ,church1 were much more elaborate4 ,a long1 close-fitting white garment1 like a coat with narrow sleeves1 reaching to the feet1 was worn by all1 even to the doorkeeper4 ,it was called the alb1 and was confined at the waist by a girdle4 ,priests and dignitaries of the ,church had six pieces of embroidered needlework or cloth of gold called apparels fastened to the alb1 at the bottom of the skirt before and behind 7#b71 on the wrist of each sleeve 7#b71 and on the breast 7#a7 and back 7#a74 ,around the neck was worn the amice3 ,it was a kind of large linen handkerchief1 with embroidered work along one of its sides4 ,it was turned down like a collar1 showing the embroidery 7which appears in brasses like a collar71 and leaving the throat of the wearer exposed4 ,a stole or narrow embroidered band was hung around the neck1 reaching nearly to the feet1 the ends being fringed4 ,in brasses only the ends appear1 the upper portions being covered by the other vestments4 ,a short piece of embroidered work called the maniple1 with ends fringed like the stole1 was worn over the left arm1 being fastened to the sleeve4 ,at the time of the ,conquest the maniple was a napkin with which the priest wiped his face and brow during ,mass4 ,over the other vestments was worn a circular or oval garment called a chasuble4 ,it had an opening in the centre through which the head was thrust1 and its ample folds rested at either side upon the arms4 ,it was worn plain or with an embroidered border4 ,in later times the chausuble and alb were sometimes made of coloured materials4 ,the chasuble1 maniple1 and stole were all of the same material and colour4 ,the priest wore these vestments during the services1 and when he died he was buried in them4 ,they were put on in the following order3 ,amice1 alb1 maniple1 stole1 and chasuble1 and they are often spoken of as the 8eucharistic vestments40 ,bishops and ,mitred ,abbots wore the same vestments as priests1 but with the addition of the tunicle and dalmatic below the chasuble1 sandals1 gloves1 a ring set with precious stones on the third finger of the right hand1 mitre1 and pastoral staff4 ,the dalmatic was a garment shorter than the alb1 slit up for a distance on either side4 7,pl4 #ei1 ,fig4 #c47 ,like the chasuble1 it was made of rich material4 ,the tunicle1 worn underneath the dalmatic1 was similar to it in shape1 but made of linen4 ,the only ecclesiastical ornaments which underwent any change were the mitre and crozier4 ,at first the mitre was of white linen1 and low in height4 ,as time went on it was made of silk and ornamented with embroidery and jewels1 and it became higher in form4 7,from the time of the ,reformation the mitre was not recognised as part of episcopal attire in the ,established ,church1 but in #ahhe1 after a lapse of #ej years1 it was resumed by the ,bishop of ,lincoln1 who wrote it then for the first time amid considerable protests47 ,the ,pastoral ,staff1 or so-called crozier1 was borne alike by ,archbishops1 ,bishops1 and ,abbots1 and was usually held in the left hand or against the left arm1 leaving the right free to be uplifted in blessing4 ,it terminated in a large shepherd's crook or scroll1 the curved volute being often richly ornamented with foliage4 ,the staff was made of rarer wood1 such as cedar or ebony1 and was shod with a pointed ferrule4 ,the top was detachable1 and was usually made of metal or of ivory4 ,before ,archbishops was also carried a ,cross1 a staff bearing a cross at the top4 ,they also wore the pall1 or palium1 a narrow loop or circle of white lambswool placed over the shoulders1 with a weighted band hanging down before and behind4 ,looked at from the front1 it appears like the letter ,y4 ,it was made only in ,rome1 and was especially bestowed on all ,archbishops by the ,pope4 ,in processions the clergy wore cassock and surplice as they do now1 with the almuce1 a large cap turned down over the shoulders1 and lined with fur1 which varied in colour according to the degree of the wearer2 the hood and the cope4 ,the cope was a kind of cloak1 and became the most gorgeous of medival ecclesiastical garments4 ,it was made in every conceivable colour1 and heavily adorned with the richest gold work encrusted with jewels4 ,when spread out flat1 it was in shape a perfect semi-circle1 and was decorated at the front edges with bands of embroidery from collar to hem4 ,a famous cope is the ,syon ,cope now preserved in the ,south ,kensington collection4 ,in the ,middle ,ages the clergy1 when not engaged in their official duties1 often dressed similarly to the laity1 and though they were ordered to wear the tonsure and a sober dress1 these instructions were very often neglected and ignored4 ,many of them dressed in bright colours1 often in the extreme of fashion1 wearing knives at their girdles1 brightly coloured shoes with long toes1 and jewellery4 ,at the time of the ,reformation1 when the ,english clergy abandoned the medival robes1 they also desisted from wearing the tonsure1 which had for many centuries been the distinguishing mark of the clergy1 and they seem generally to have adopted the academical dress for their official and ordinary attire4 ,,pilgrims4 ,the fashion for going on pilgrimage appears to have sprung up in the fourteenth century1 but we hear of it at a much earlier time than this4 ,christian pilgrimages began in visits to the scenes of ,our ,lord's early life4 ,as the custom grew1 facilities were offered to lighten the journey4 ,adventurous shipowners organised a kind of service1 so that pilgrims could travel to the ,holy ,land vi ,rome4 ,when the journey was made on land1 the pilgrims took advantage of the hospitals and hostels which were founded here and there along the regular routes to rest themselves and obtain food4 ,treaties were made by monarchs to secure the safe passage of their subjects through foreign lands4 ,pilgrims were freed from all tolls1 and anyone doing them bodily injury was liable to excommunication4 ,in the ,holy ,land the ,orders of ,knights ,templars and ,knights ,hospitallers were founded to safeguard them from the attacks of wandering bodies of ,saracens1 and to lodge them safely when they reached ,jerusalem4 ,the next most important pilgrimages were those to the tombs of ,,ss4 ,peter and ,paul at ,rome1 the centre of ,western ,christianity1 and to the shrine of ,st4 ,james at ,compostella1 in ,spain4 ,the ,english people1 who were prevented from making pilgrimages to ,jerusalem1 ,rome1 or ,compostella1 could probably spare time for a shorter journey1 and pilgrimages to ,english shrines became very common4 ,the most popular of these were that of ,st4 ,thomas ,becket1 at ,canterbury1 and that of ,our ,lady 7the ,virgin ,mary71 at ,walsingham 7twenty-seven miles from ,norwich71 where there was a miraculous statue of the ,virgin4 ,to the former came also many pilgrims from the ,continent of ,europe4 ,nearly every ,cathedral and ,monastery1 too1 had its famous saint1 to whose shrine the people restored4 ,there were ,st4 ,cuthbert at ,durham1 ,st4 ,william at ,york1 ,st4 ,hugh at ,lincoln1 ,st4 ,edward ,confessor at ,westminster1 and ,st4 ,edmund at ,bury1 and many others4 ,there were also famous ,roods 7figures of our ,lord on the ,cross71 statues of the ,virgin1 and ,holy ,wells2 and a place of great attraction was ,glastonbury1 to which many travelled to see the famous ,holy ,thorn1 said to have been planted by ,st4 ,joseph of ,arimatha4 ,members of all classes of society undertook these pilgrimages4 ,rich people with no occupation could afford the leisure and cost of these journeys1 and the poor1 who gave up their regular work and made the pilgrimage1 could count on board and lodging at the numerous hospitals1 monasteries1 at the parish priest's rectory1 and in every gentleman's hall4 ,the poor pilgrim repaid his hosts by entertaining them with the news of the lands through which he had passed1 and by amusing the household after supper with marvellous saintly legends and travellers' tales4 ,he raised funds1 too1 on his return journey by retailing holy trifles and curiosities1 which were sold wholesale at the shrines frequented by pilgrims1 and sometimes he would make a bolder flight by carrying some fragment of a relic1 a joint of a bone1 or a couple of the hairs of a saint1 and he received payment from people for bringing to their doors some of the advantages of the holy shrines which he had visited4 ,this1 however1 was an abuse1 and was visited by heavy penalties by the ,church4 ,the main purpose of these pilgrimages was1 of course1 to gain direct spiritual advantage1 but some were expiatory and penitential2 others were made out of gratitude for special mercies1 recovering from illnesses1 c4 ,it is said that in the #hth century1 some ,english merchants carried on a kind of smuggling trade in foreign countries4 ,they put on the pilgrim's garb1 and carried their goods in bales1 which they said contained provisions for their journey1 and were exempt from paying any duty4 ,the preparation of the pilgrim in the ,middle ,ages was a solemn matter4 ,before he started on his journey1 he went to ,church1 and1 after ,confession1 his scrip and staff were blessed and handed to him1 and his habit 7if he were going to ,jerusalem71 was blessed also4 ,he then took the ,holy ,sacrament1 and it is surmised that a certificate of his having been blessed as a pilgrim was then handed to him4 ,after that1 he was conducted out of the parish1 to commence his journey1 by the priest1 with the ,cross and ,holy ,water borne in procession4 ,a certain costume was worn1 spoken of as 8pilgrim's weeds10 consisting of a robe1 hat1 staff1 and scrip4 ,the robe is said to have been of wool1 sometimes of a very shaggy appearance4 7,fig4 #b47 ,the hat was round1 with a wide brim1 and was commonly made of felt4 ,but the special insignia of a pilgrim were his scrip and staff4 ,the scrip was a small bag1 slung by a cord over the shoulder to hold his food and a few necessaries1 and to it was often affixed a special sign or token1 indicating the pilgrimage he was making4 ,the pilgrim to the ,holy ,land1 too1 wore a cross formed by two strips of coloured cloth sewn on the shoulder of his robe4 ,different colours were used to indicate the nationality of the pilgrims--e4g41 the ,english wore a white cross1 the ,french red1 and the ,flemish green4 ,the staff or bourdon varies in appearance in different ,,mss41 but was generally like a long walking stick1 often with a knob at the top and one lower down4 7,figs4 #a and #c47 ,sometimes below the top is a hook 7,fig4 #b71 to which a water-bottle or small bundle could be attached4 ,many pilgrims also carried bells1 as they were 8thought to possess locomotive and other miraculous powers40 7,cutts47 ,when the pilgrim reached the ,holy ,land and had visited the holy places1 he was entitled to wear the palm1 showing that he had accomplished his pilgrimage1 and from this badge he was known as a ,palmer4 ,probably it was fastened as a sprig of palm on the hat or scrip4 ,to give an idea of the number who undertook these pilgrimages1 it may be mentioned that in one month during the ,first ,jubilee1 #bjj1jjj of them went to ,rome4 ,the chief badge for this journey bore the effigies of ,st4 ,peter1 ,st4 ,paul1 and the ,cross ,keys1 and another was the ,vernicle or ,kerchief of ,st4 ,veronica4 ,the sign of the ,compostella was a scallop shell4 7,fig4 #h47 ,these badges1 known also as ,pilgrims' signs or ,pilgrims' tokens 7,pl4 #fj1 ,figs4 #d1 #f1 #h1 #aj71 were made of lead or pewter1 and as one was obtained at each shrine visited1 a pilgrim who made a long journey might come back with many of these signs displayed about his person4 ,the chief sign of the ,canterbury pilgrimage was an ampul or ampulla or flask of lead or pewter4 ,it is said that after the murder of ,becket1 the monks of ,canterbury collected his blood from the pavement and made a miraculous cure by administering a drop to a sick lady who visited the shrine4 ,thereupon they mixed a drop in a chalice of water and gave it as a medicine to many sick who came to be cured1 and in order that the medicine might be carried away and administered to other sick people1 these small metal flasks were made to contain it4 ,on their return1 the pilgrims hung these flasks in their parish churches as sacred relics4 7,figs4 #e1 #h1 and #i47 ,another 8sign0 of ,canterbury was a bell1 and it is owing to this fact that a well-known flower is called the ,canterbury bell4 ,following the example of the monks of ,canterbury1 the guardians of other shrines dipped their sacred relics into water and put up this sacred water for use as medicine into small flasks1 which they sold to pilgrims4 ,illustration3 ,,plate #fj4 7,fig4 #a73 ,a bare-footed ,pilgrim of the fourteenth century1 from ,british ,museum1 ,royal ,,ms41 #ae iii4 7,fig4 #b73 ,ludgate's ,pilgrim1 from ,harl4 ,,ms41 #dhbf 7fourteenth century74 ,his scrip bears a scallop shell1 the pilgrim's sign for ,compostella1 and he wears a rough1 shaggy robe4 7,fig4 #c73 ,a ,palmer1 from ,cott4 ,,ms41 ,tib4 ,a vii4 ,his hat is slung behind him1 and the crown of his head is shaved1 as was often the custom4 7,in ,figs4 #a and #b a beard is worn1 for often the pilgrim on setting out1 made a vow that he would not cut his hair or his beard while on the pilgrimage47 7,fig4 #d73 ,a ,pilgrim's ,sign--the five small circles representing the five wounds of ,christ4 7,fig4 #e73 ,a lead ,ampulla from the shrine of ,st4 ,thomas ,becket at ,canterbury4 7,york ,museum47 ,it bears a figure of the ,archbishop1 and on the scroll a legend which is translated as 8,thomas is the best physician for the pious sick40 ,it probably dates from the early part of the thirteenth century4 7,fig4 #f73 ,a ,pilgrim's ,sign of ,st4 ,catherine1 consisting of a ,catherine ,wheel4 7,fourteenth century47 7,fig4 #g73 ,a ,reliquary in form of sphere of open-work tracery1 containing fragments of shells1 from the shrine of ,st4 ,james of ,compostella4 7,fourteenth-fifteenth centuries47 7,fig4 #h73 ,an ,ampulla in the form of a scallop shell1 with handles for suspending it around the neck by a cord1 from ,compostella4 7,fig4 #i73 ,an ,ampulla from the shrine of ,st4 ,thomas ,becket1 ,canterbury1 bearing on one side a representation of the murder of ,becket1 and on the other1 three figures within an arcade4 7,fig4 #aj73 ,a ,pilgrim's ,sign from ,canterbury1 containing a figure of ,st4 ,thomas1 the right hand uplifted in blessing and the left holding the crozier4 7,figs4 #d1 #f1 #g1 #h1 and #i are from the ,guildhall ,museum1 ,london47 ,in the old ,,mss41 we read of many wonderful miracles performed by the administration of these holy waters to sick and diseased persons4 ,special roads appear to have been made to the chief shrines4 ,there was the 8,pilgrims' ,road0 across ,kent from ,london to ,canterbury1 and the 8,palmers ,way10 and the 8,walsingham ,green ,way0 to ,walsingham4 ,the towns of pilgrimage were largely a collection of inns1 and churches and hostels for poor pilgrims1 the later institutions often being supported by local guilds4 ,pilgrims made their journeys either singly or in bands for the sake of protection and company1 and to enliven their way they sometimes hired a musician to play the bagpipes4 ,when the pilgrims reached the shrine1 they made their offerings1 took part in prayer1 and were shown the holy relics1 which they were often allowed to kiss4 ,at ,canterbury the shrine of ,st4 ,thomas was covered with gold and encrusted with many precious stones of great size and value2 for the principal of them were offerings from sovereign princes4 ,a great result of the practice of making pilgrimages was the development of national sentiment1 for people in foreign lands were brought together from different parts of the same country4 8,it also broke down the provincialism1 gave a holiday and fresh air and change of life and scene4 ,finally it introduced the pilgrims to foreign lands1 and so helped on the growth of commerce40 ,history and ,geography ,publications4 ,,the 8,,berger0 ,,handwork ,,cards4 ,by ,h4 ,r4 ,,weller1 ,a4,m4,c4 ,,cardboard ,,and ,,paper ,,modelling ,,cards for the ,,history and ,,geography ,,lesson4 ,a series of #cb cards 7size #g #e ins471 with full instructions1 and where necessary1 directions for colouring the models are added4 ,this series will be found especially helpful during the year preceding instruction in light woodwork4 ,teachers will also find them useful when models are required to illustrate ,history and ,geography ,lessons4 ,sidenote3 ,some of the ,models are3 ,,tudor ,,house ,,and ,,shop4 ,,pillory4 ,,norman ,,castle4 ,,stocks ,,and ,,whipping ,,post4 ,,knight',s ,,cabriolet4 ,,coracle4 ,,sedan ,,chair4 ,,fridstool4 ,,old ,,market ,,cross4 ,,ram ,,and ,,rat4 ,,palankin4 ,,birch ,,bark ,,canoe4 ,,sampan4 ,,pyramid4 ,,log ,,cabin4 ,,howdah4 ,,the ,,pillory4 ,,bunker',s ,,hill ,,monument4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,saxon ,,house ,framework of wooden beams filled in with plaster1 stones4 ,bricks3 roofed with a cover of thatch3 smoke hole in roof3 no windows3 the openings barred3 cover the roof of model with bast or a colour to imitate ,colour3 black beams3 yellow white plaster ,reduced ,illustration4 ,price per box1 net1 #cs4 #f;d42 post free1 #cs4 #i;d4 ,,illustrations for the ,,history ,,lesson4 ,,the 8,,suggestions0 ,,historical ,,illustrations4 ,by ,h4 ,w4 ,,donald4 ,illustration ,four ,sets of ,plates containing illustrations of ,armour1 ,architecture1 ,pottery1 ,musical ,instruments1 etc41 ranging from the time of the ,ancient ,britons to the ,victorian era4 ,each set contains #bd cards4 ,,uses3 7#a7 ,to illustrate the ,history ,lesson4 7#b7 ,to form the basis of ,conversational ,history ,lessons4 7#c7 ,to connect ,drawing with ,history4 ,,set ,a4 7#hj ,illustrations47 ,ancient ,britons ,romans ,danes and ,vikings ,anglo-,saxons ,,set ,b4 7#gf ,illustrations47 ,normans ,plantagenets ,houses of ,lancaster ,york ,tudors ,,set ,c4 7#fe ,illustrations47 ,tudors ,stuarts ,hanoverians ,,set ,d4 7#fe ,illustrations47 ,illustrates ,european ,history in ,armour1 ,architecture1 ,domestic ,appliances1 ,musical ,instruments1 c4 ,price1 per ,set1 net1 #as4 #f;d42 post free1 #as4 #i;d4 ,packed in strong cardboard case4 ,,history ,,teaching by ,,biographies4 ,by ,,alice ,,eve1 ,b4,a41 ,l4,l4,a4 ,a ,,handbook for ,,teachers in two ,volumes4 ,volume #a4 ,,julius ,c,,sar to ,sir ,,francis ,,drake4 ,volume ,,ii4 ,sir ,,walter ,,raleigh to ,,earl ,,roberts4 ,each volume contains #cj biographies4 ,the purpose of these volumes is to teach ,history by grouping historical facts round the lives of famous men and women4 ,each set of notes is preceded by two paragraphs1 one giving the aim of the ,lesson1 and the other1 apparatus for use in connection with it1 e4g4 ,,earl ,,of ,,strafford 7,vol4 ,,ii4 xxxv473 ,aim4--,to teach the beginning of the great dispute between ,king ,charles ,i4 and his people4 ,apparatus4--,map of ,british ,islands1 ,portraits of ,charles ,i41 ,strafford1 ,buckingham1 ,pictures of ,cavaliers and ,puritans of the time4 ,picture of ,westminster ,hall4 ,price1 each volume1 net1 #cs42 post free1 #cs4 #d;d4 ,two volumes1 post free1 #fs4 #i;d4 8,britannic0 ,historical ,geography ,books ,,for ,,correlating ,,history1 ,,geography and ,,mapping4 7,left page7 ,,historical ,,summary4 7,right page7 ,,outline ,,map4 ,the 8,britannic0 ,historical ,geography ,maps4 ,no4 #f4--,part ,i4 ,england before the ,norman ,conquest4 ,,the ,,chief ,,earldoms4 ,on his ascension to the throne of ,england ,canute divided the country into four ,governments1 viz43-- ,,wessex1 ,,east ,,anglia1 ,,mercia and ,,northumbria4 ,he took charge of ,wessex himself1 and three ,danes were placed as ,earls over the others4 ,,the ,,great ,,saxon ,,earls4 ,he afterwards appointed ,englishmen to the government of these ,earldoms3-- ,leofric becoming ,earl of ,mercia1 ,godwin1 ,earl of ,wessex1 and ,siward1 ,earl of ,northumberland4 ,in each lesson the historical narrative is followed by notes describing fully the correlated work to be done in connection with the story4 ,illustration3 ,,england ,,at ,,the ,,conquest 7#ajff7 showing the ,earldoms 7,reduced specimen pages47 ,part ,i4 ,from the ,roman ,invasion1 ,b4,c4 #ee1 to the ,wars of the ,roses1 ,a4,d4 #adhe4 ,,maps4 ,roman ,britain4 ,the ,early ,home of the ,english4 ,anglo-,saxon ,conquest4 ,saxon ,england in the #gth century4 ,england between the ,danes ,saxons4 ,england at the ,conquest4 ,england and ,normandy4 ,dominions of the ,plantagenets4 ,scotland in #abhe ,a4,d4 ,french ,campaigns4 ,four ,famous ,battles4 ,wars of the ,roses4 ,part ,,ii4 ,from the ,tudors1 ,a4,d4 #adhe1 to the ,crimean ,war1 ,a4,d4 #ahef4 ,,maps4 ,maritime ,discoveries4 ,the ,tudors1 #adhe-afjc4 ,the ,great ,civil ,war1 #afdb-afdh4 ,the ,revolution of #afhh4 ,the ,jacobite ,rebellions4 ,the ,seven ,years' ,war4 ,the ,war of ,independence4 ,english ,rule in ,india4 ,the ,peninsular ,war4 ,battle of ,trafalgar4 ,the ,waterloo ,campaign4 ,the ,crimean ,war4 ,part ,,iii4 ,europe #afjj-aiad4 ,,maps4 ,division of ,territory after #cj years' ,war4 ,europe after ,treaty of ,utrecht4 ,europe after ,treaty of ,paris4 ,paris1 ,a4,d4 #aghi4 ,campaigns of ,a4,d4 #agib1 #agic1 #agid1 #agie #agif4 ,peace of ,amiens1 ,a4,d4 #ahjb4 ,europe after ,wagram4 ,congress of ,vienna ,treaty of ,paris4 ,central ,europe1 ,a4,d4 #ahff4 ,franco-,prussian ,war4 ,eastern ,europe1 ,a4,d4 #ahgh4 ,balkan ,peninsula1 #aiad4 ,,history for the ,,juniors and ,,infants4 ,,history ,,in ,,pictures ,,and ,,stories4 ,by ,b4 ,m4 ,,and ,d4 ,m4 ,,asling4 ,for ,,reading and ,,colouring4 7,adopted by the ,london ,county ,council47 ,the ,,plan4--,the story1 written in simple and attractive form1 is on the left page4 ,on the opposite page is an outline drawing1 with full particulars for colouring1 for the child to colour4 ,the ,,aim4--,to show in story and picture how the boys and girls lived and dressed in those far-off days4 ,to show what their homes were like4 ,to provide an opportunity for comparing then and now4 ,,period4--,from the ,cave ,man to the ,norman ,conquest4 ,,contents3 ,book ,i4 ,a ,cave ,man4 ,a ,cave ,woman and her little boy4 ,a ,pit ,dwelling and the ,people who live in it4 ,a ,pit ,man at ,work4 ,the ,lake ,dwellers4 ,a man making copper spear heads4 ,a woman grinding corn4 ,book ,,ii4 ,celts and ,phoenicians exchanging goods4 ,a ,pict4 ,julius ,csar looking at the shores of ,britain4 ,the ,building of ,hadrian's ,wall4 ,a ,roman ,road in ,britain4 ,a ,roman ,road in ,britain to-day4 ,saxons building a house in ,britain4 ,book ,,iii4 ,the ,coming of ,st4 ,augustine4 ,english ,villagers pursuing a thief in the #gth century4 ,the ,northmen sailing up an ,english river4 ,king ,alfred visiting a school4 ,duke ,william of ,normandy preparing to invade ,england4 ,a ,norman ,noble riding through an ,english village in #ajff4 ,a ,norman ,manor ,house4 ,price1 each1 net1 #e;d42 post free1 #f;d4 ,,story ,,lessons ,,in ,,history4 ,by ,,edna ,,lake4 ,an original scheme of #bc lessons correlating ,history1 ,geography1 ,literature and ,handwork1 covering the period from ,william ,i4 to ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,fully illustrated with designs for ,paper or ,cardboard ,modelling and ,free ,paper ,cutting4 ,in each lesson the historical narrative is followed by notes describing fully the correlated work to be done in connection with the story1 e4g4 ,,lesson ,,iii4--,,the ,,white ,,ship4 ,,history--,the ,white ,ship4 ,,geography--,the ,english ,channel4 ,,language--,some words we get from the ,french4 ,,literature ,,or ,,story--,the ,church ,builders4 ,,composition--,ships4 ,,chalk ,,or ,,brush ,,drawing--,ships4 ,,paper ,,or ,,cardboard ,,modelling--,a ,ship4 ,,sand ,,and ,,clay ,,modelling--,a ,church4 ,,free ,,paper ,,cutting--,a ,ship 7#abth century74 ,price1 net1 #cs4 #i;d42 post free1 #ds4 #b;d4 ,complete ,catalogue of ,publications sent post free on request4 ,,charles and ,,son1 ,ltd4 ,,london3 #aj1 ,paternoster ,square4 ,e4,c4#d ,,glasgow3 #fh1 ,gordon ,street4