,,transcriber',s ,,note ,italic text is denoted by underscores4 ,bold text is denoted by equal signs4 ,superscripts are denoted by and have not been expanded4 ,subscripts in chemical formulae are denoted by eg ,,co#b4 ,obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,more detail can be found at the end of the book4 ,,makers ,,of ,,british ,,botany ,,cambridge ,,university ,,press ,london3 ,,fetter ,,lane1 ,e4,c4 ,c4 ,f4 ,,clay1 ,,manager ,illustration3 7,publisher colophon7 ,edinburgh3 #ajj1 ,,princes ,,street ,london3 ,,william ,,wesley ,,son1 #bh1 ,,essex ,,street1 ,,strand ,berlin3 ,a4 ,,asher ,,and ,,co4 ,leipzig3 ,f4 ,a4 ,,brockhaus ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons ,bombay and ,calcutta3 ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co41 ,,ltd4 ,all rights reserved ,illustration3 ,frontispiece ,john ,hutton ,balfour 7#ahgh7 ,,makers ,,of ,,british ,,botany ,a ,,collection ,,of ,,biographies ,,by ,,living ,,botanists ,edited by ,f4 ,w4 ,,oliver ,cambridge3 at the ,university ,press #aiac ,cambridge3 ,,printed ,,by ,,john ,,clay1 ,m4,a4 ,,at ,,the ,,university ,,press ,,preface ,the origin and scope of the present book will be found fully indicated in the ,introduction1 so that it is not needful to refer to them here4 ,one change in the original scheme of the work has been made during its passage through the press1 viz4 the inclusion of an additional chapter from the pen of ,prof4 ,f4 ,o4 ,bower dealing with the life of the late ,sir ,joseph ,hooker4 ,our veteran botanist passed away on ,dec4 #aj1 #aiaa1 in his #ieth year1 and in him botany loses its outstanding personality as well as its principal link with the past4 ,the history of botany in this country during the ,victorian period1 when it comes to be written1 must of necessity be woven around the life of this great man4 ,for the excellent index to the book the reader is indebted to ,dr ,e4 de ,fraine1 whose care and good judgment in this matter will be fully appreciated4 ,f4 ,w4 ,o4 ,october1 #aiab ,,contents ,,page ,introduction #a ,robert ,morison #afbj-afhc and ,john ,ray #afbg-agje4 ,by ,sydney ,howard ,vines #h ,nehemiah ,grew #afda-agab4 ,by ,agnes ,arber #dd ,stephen ,hales #afgg-agfa4 ,by ,francis ,darwin #fe ,john ,hill #agaf-agge4 ,by ,t4 ,g4 ,hill #hd ,robert ,brown #aggc-aheh4 ,by ,j4 ,b4 ,farmer #ajh ,sir ,william ,hooker #aghe-ahfe4 ,by ,f4 ,o4 ,bower #abf ,john ,stevens ,henslow #agif-ahfa4 ,by ,george ,henslow #aea ,john ,lindley #agii-ahfe4 ,by ,frederick ,keeble #afd ,william ,griffith #ahaj-ahde4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,lang #agh ,arthur ,henfrey #ahai-ahei4 ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,oliver #aib ,william ,henry ,harvey #ahaa-ahff4 ,by ,r4 ,lloyd ,praeger #bjd ,miles ,joseph ,berkeley #ahjc-ahhi4 ,by ,george ,massee #bbe ,sir ,joseph ,henry ,gilbert #ahag-aija4 ,by ,w4 ,b4 ,bottomley #bcc ,william ,crawford ,williamson #ahaf-ahie4 ,by ,dukinfield ,h4 ,scott #bdc ,harry ,marshall ,ward #ahed-aijf4 ,by ,sir ,william ,thiselton-,dyer #bfa ,a sketch of the ,professors of ,botany in ,edinburgh from #afgj until #ahhg4 ,by ,isaac ,bayley ,balfour #bhj ,sir ,joseph ,dalton ,hooker #ahag-aiaa4 ,by ,f4 ,o4 ,bower #cjb ,,index #cbd ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,plate ,to face p4 ,frontispiece4 ,john ,hutton ,balfour 7#ahgh74 ,i4 ,robert ,morison #h ,,ii4 ,great ,gate of the ,physic ,garden1 ,oxford #ah ,,iii4 ,john ,ray #bh ,,iv4 ,nehemiah ,grew 7#agja7 #dd ,v4 ,plate from ,anatomy of ,vegetables ,begun1 #afgb #dh ,,vi4 ,facsimile of a page from ,the ,comparative ,anatomy of ,trunks1 ,nehemiah ,grew1 #afge #eb ,,vii4 ,from ,grew's ,anatomy4 ,sheweth the ,parts of a ,goosberry4 ,part of a ,vine ,branch cut transversly1 and splitt half way downe ye midle #ef ,,viii4 ,stephen ,hales 7#agei7 #fe ,,ix4 ,plate #ah from ,hales's ,vegetable ,staticks #hb ,x4 ,john ,hill #hd ,,xi4 ,robert ,brown 7circa #ahef7 #ajh ,,xii4 ,sir ,william ,jackson ,hooker 7#ahcd7 #abf ,,xiii4 ,john ,stevens ,henslow 7#ahea7 #aea ,,xiv4 ,john ,lindley 7#ahdh7 #afd ,,xv4 ,william ,griffith 7#ahdc7 #agh ,,xvi4 ,from ,griffith's ,notulae4 ,median section of the ovule of ,cycas4 ,nucellar apex of ,cycas with pollen chamber and pollen grains #ahh ,,xvii4 ,william ,henry ,harvey #bjd ,,xviii4 ,miles ,joseph ,berkeley #bbe ,,xix4 ,joseph ,henry ,gilbert #bcc ,,xx4 ,henry ,witham of ,lartington4 #bdc ,,xxi4 ,william ,crawford ,williamson 7#ahgf7 #bdf ,,xxii4 ,vascular system of stem of ,lepidodendron selaginoides in transverse section #bej ,,xxiii4 ,root of ,calamites 7,astromyelon ,williamsonis7 in transverse section #bed ,,xxiv4 ,cone of ,calamostachys ,binneyana2 sporangia and sporangiophores #bef ,,xxv4 ,harry ,marshall ,ward 7#ahie7 #bfa ,,xxvi4 ,sir ,joseph ,dalton ,hooker 7#ahfh7 #cjb ,text-fig4 p4 #gg4 ,figure from ,vegetable ,staticks showing a vine with mercury gauges in place to demonstrate root pressure4 ,,introduction ,the present volume represents in somewhat expanded form a course of lectures arranged by the ,board of ,studies in ,botany of the ,university of ,london and delivered during the early part of #aiaa in the ,botanical ,department of ,university ,college1 ,london4 ,these lectures1 which were ten in number1 were widely attended by advanced and post-graduate students of the ,university and others interested in the subject4 ,the ten lectures comprised in the course were delivered by various botanists1 the lecturer in each case being either a worker in the same field as1 or in some other way having a special qualification to deal with1 his allotted subject4 ,in view of the interest aroused by their delivery the hope found wide expression that the lectures might be issued in book form4 ,at the time when the arrangements were being made for publication the ,university of ,london ,press had not yet reached the publishing stage1 so hospitality had to be sought elsewhere4 ,that the book is issued from the ,cambridge ,university ,press is largely due to the good offices of ,prof4 ,a4 ,c4 ,seward4 ,in consenting to publish ,the ,makers of ,british ,botany the ,cambridge ,university ,press suggested that some additional chapters should be prepared so that the work might be more fully representative4 ,this has been done so far as was possible in the time available4 ,the sixteen chapters forming the book include 7#a7 the ten lectures1 which are printed essentially as they were delivered1 7#b7 six additional chapters specially written under the circumstances just mentioned4 ,as a rule each chapter will be found to deal with a single ,botanist2 with the exception of the first and last chapters4 ,in the former ,prof4 ,vines has linked together ,morison and ,ray1 the founders of ,systematic ,botany in this country1 whilst in the last ,prof4 ,bayley ,balfour has expanded what was originally intended as a sketch of his father1 the late ,prof4 ,j4 ,hutton ,balfour1 into a very interesting account of his predecessors in the ,edinburgh chair from the year #afgj almost down to the present time4 ,the subjects treated1 the authors and the order of arrangement are as follows3-- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,subject ,born ,died ,author ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- 99,robert ,morison #afbj #afhc ,prof4 ,s4 ,h4 ,vines1 ,f4,r4,s4 99,john ,ray #afbg #agje 99,nehemiah ,grew #afda #agab ,mrs ,arber 99,stephen ,hales #afgg #agfa ,francis ,darwin1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,john ,hill #agaf #agge ,t4 ,g4 ,hill 99,robert ,brown #aggc #aheh ,prof4 ,j4 ,b4 ,farmer1 ,f4,r4,s4 99,sir ,william ,hooker #aghe #ahfe ,prof4 ,f4 ,o4 ,bower1 ,f4,r4,s4 99,the ,rev4 ,j4 ,s4 ,henslow #agif #ahfa ,the ,rev4 ,prof4 ,geo4 ,henslow ,john ,lindley #agii #ahfe ,prof4 ,frederick ,keeble 99,william ,griffith #ahaj #ahde ,prof4 ,w4 ,h4 ,lang1 ,f4,r4,s4 99,arthur ,henfrey #ahai #ahei ,prof4 ,f4 ,w4 ,oliver1 ,f4,r4,s4 99,william ,henry ,harvey #ahaa #ahff ,w4 ,lloyd ,praeger ,the ,rev4 ,miles ,berkeley #ahjc #ahhi ,george ,massee ,sir ,joseph ,gilbert #ahag #aija ,prof4 ,w4 ,b4 ,bottomley 99,william ,crawford ,williamson#ahaf #ahie ,dr ,d4 ,h4 ,scott1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,harry ,marshall ,ward #ahed #aije ,sir ,william ,thiselton-,dyer1 ,k4,c4,m4,g41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,the ,edinburgh ,professors #afgj #ahhg ,prof4 ,i4 ,bayley ,balfour1 ,f4,r4,s4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- 99 ,was the subject of a lecture in the ,university ,course4 ,the first three chapters deal with the founders of ,british ,botany1 ,,morison and ,,ray in the systematic field1 ,,grew1 the plant anatomist1 and ,,hales the physiologist4 ,these are pioneers and the names of ,ray1 ,grew1 and ,hales must always remain illustrious in the annals of ,botanical ,science4 ,,john ,,hill1 with all his versatility1 belongs to another plane1 but his inclusion here is justified on historical grounds1 by the prominent part he played in making known the method of the great ,swedish systematist ,linnaeus1 a method which took deep root and gave an immense stimulus to systematic studies in this country4 ,in ,,robert ,,brown we have the greatest botanist of his day1 for thirty years keeper of the ,botanical ,department of the ,british ,museum4 ,it is doubtful if any greater intellect than ,brown's has ever been devoted to the service of ,botanical ,science4 ,,sir ,,william ,,hooker was the first ,director of ,kew1 and under his genial administration the foundations of that great institution were most truly laid4 ,born under the star of ,linnaeus1 his own researches lay in the systematic field--more especially among the ,ferns and ,bryophytes4 ,j4 ,s4 ,,henslow was for many years ,professor of ,botany at ,cambridge1 but it is his life as ,rector of ,hitcham in ,suffolk that finds special prominence in the interesting ,memoir which formed the subject-matter of his son's lecture4 ,the account given of his educational methods will be read with interest in these days when ,nature ,study has been sprung on the world as a new thing4 ,,john ,,lindley was a man of the most amazing energy and his scientific output was prodigious4 ,though he attained high distinction in many fields of ,botany1 being an accomplished ,systematist and ,palaeobotanist1 probably his greatest service was on the scientific side of ,horticulture4 ,considering the scale of production1 the work of ,lindley maintains a remarkably high level4 ,it is recorded of him that he never took a holiday till he reached the age of #eb4 ,his was the dominant personality in ,botany of the early and mid-,victorian era4 ,,william ,,griffith had the energy and power of endurance of ,lindley1 under whose influence he came4 ,trained to the practice of medicine he took service under the ,east ,india ,company where he was able to devote the priceless intervals between his official duties to botanical travel1 collecting1 and the morphological investigation of ,indian plants4 ,the results of his brief but remarkable career are embodied mainly in his voluminous illustrated notes which were published posthumously in #aheb4 ,the name of ,griffith has been happily linked with that of ,treub1 his brilliant successor in our own times4 ,,arthur ,,henfrey belonged to a very different type4 ,compelled by ill-health to the life of a recluse1 his short life was mainly devoted to making known in ,england the great discoveries of the ,hofmeisterian epoch4 ,to ,henfrey belongs the credit of being the first of our countrymen to recognise the full significance of the new morphology1 the general recognition of which1 however1 he did not live to see4 ,henfrey was an extremely competent all-round ,botanist whose single-minded devotion to his subject should not be allowed to fall into oblivion4 ,,william ,,henry ,,harvey is a representative of a numerous class among the followers of ,botany in this country4 ,a man of great personal charm and high culture1 he was attracted into the subject from the love of collecting4 ,his special field was that of the ,marine ,algae1 in which he stood unrivalled4 ,harvey was an exquisite delineator of the seaweeds of which he was so enthusiastic a student4 ,the memoir1 based on his journals and letters1 which was published shortly after his death1 is a book well worth reading for its intimate sketches of the naturalists of his day and the vivid notes on his extended travels in the colonies and elsewhere4 ,,miles ,,joseph ,,berkeley1 like his contemporary ,harvey1 was a cryptogamic botanist4 ,he was a voluminous contributor to the systematic literature of the ,fungi over a period of fifty years1 as well as being a pioneer in the field of plant pathology4 ,the systematic collections accumulated during his long life form one of the glories of the ,kew ,herbarium4 ,,sir ,,joseph ,,henry ,,gilbert',s outlook on plants was entirely different from that of any of the foregoing4 ,he regarded the plant essentially as the chemical offspring of the environment to which it was exposed4 ,his life was devoted to the study of soils and crops in conjunction with ,sir ,john ,lawes4 ,to these classic investigations carried out at ,rothamsted1 ,gilbert brought the trained skill of the chemist4 ,,william ,,crawford ,,williamson was a great all-round naturalist of the ,victorian period whose work as a ,zoologist gained him high distinction long before his attention became seriously concentrated upon his famous studies into the structure of the fossil plants of the ,coal ,measures4 ,though these researches were pursued without any marked contemporary encouragement1 at any rate until the closing years of his life1 the field in which ,williamson was so enthusiastic a pioneer has since his time been generally recognised as of the first importance--more especially in its bearing upon the pedigree of the vegetable kingdom4 ,to-day1 no branch of ,botany has more recruits or is more vigorously pursued in this country than that of ,palaeobotany1 and so long as the science remains will the memory of ,williamson be green4 ,,harry ,,marshall ,,ward belongs to a generation younger than any of the foregoing4 ,his student days coincided with the renaissance of ,botany in ,england in the seventies of the last century1 and coming under the influence of ,huxley1 ,thiselton-,dyer1 ,vines and others1 ,ward early revealed himself as an ardent investigator4 ,for twenty-five years he devoted his remarkable energies to a series of connected researches bearing broadly on the nutrition of the ,fungi and allied organisms with especial reference to the relationships between host and parasite4 ,the notice of his career which appears in this volume is from the pen of ,sir ,william ,thiselton-,dyer4 ,recently printed in the ,obituary ,notices of ,fellows of the ,royal ,society1 we are indebted to the courtesy of the author and of the ,council of the ,royal ,society for permission to include it here4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in a book like the present1 the work of a large number of distinct contributors1 it is evident that no continuous or homogeneous treatment of the history and progress of ,botany in this country is possible4 ,judged even as a series of essays or studies of representative men1 ,the ,makers of ,british ,botany will not escape criticism1 so long as special reference to the work of ,priestley1 ,cavendish and ,snbier finds no place in its pages1 not to mention such obvious omissions as ,knight1 ,daubeny and ,bentham4 ,these omissions have not been deliberate and it will no doubt be possible to repair them should a second edition of the work be called for4 ,the case of ,charles ,darwin is different4 ,apart from the work for which he is most famous1 ,darwin was a great investigator of the movements of plants and of the biology of flowers4 ,as this aspect of ,darwin's work has received adequate treatment in the recent centenary volume published by the ,cambridge ,university ,press#a1 it has not seemed necessary on the present occasion to traverse the ground again4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the reader of ,the ,makers of ,british ,botany will judge1 and we think rightly1 that ,botany has had its ups and downs in this country4 ,at the end of the seventeenth century ,england was contributing her full share to the foundation and advancement of the subject4 ,in the field of ,systematic ,botany ,ray1 at any rate1 left his permanent influence as a taxonomist1 whilst in ,plant ,anatomy1 the offspring of the newly invented microscope1 ,grew divided the honours with his brilliant contemporary ,malpighi4 ,a few years later ,stephen ,hales was carrying out the famous experiments which are embodied in his ,vegetable ,staticks1 entitling him to be justly regarded as the ,father of plant physiology4 ,notwithstanding so admirable a beginning1 the next century was almost a blank4 ,the essay on ,john ,hill serves to illustrate the sterility of this period4 ,the dominant influence in ,botany in the eighteenth century was that of ,linnaeus1 whose genius as a taxonomist gave the most wonderful impulse to the study of ,botany that it has ever received4 ,shorn of its accumulated dead-weight of nomenclature1 the simplified ,botany of ,linnaeus took deep root in this country and here for a century it reigned supreme as a source of inspiration4 ,fed on unlimited collections of plants from all parts of a growing ,empire1 it is hardly surprising that a great ,british school of ,systematic ,botany led by ,robert ,brown1 the ,hookers1 ,lindley and ,bentham should have arisen4 ,what is remarkable is the almost exclusive persistence of this branch of ,botany for more than a generation after the establishment and recognition of other departments on the continent of ,europe4 ,whilst we made a shrine for the ,linnaean collections1 so far as we were concerned ,grew and ,hales might never have lived2 even the rational and scientific morphology created by ,hofmeister in the forties of last century failed to deflect us from our course6 ,it was only in the later seventies that the ,new ,botany came to ,england1 whither it was imported from ,germany4 ,for a while1 as was to be expected1 our ,universities were kept busy in training students in the modern work and in the conduct of investigations in the fields thus opened4 ,with acclimatisation certain distinctive branches which may be regarded as characteristic have come to the front4 ,these include more especially the study of anatomy in its phylogenetic aspects with which is closely linked that of the palaeozoic fossils1 so richly represented in some of our coal-fields as to constitute a virtual monopoly4 ,the present wide-spread revival of interest in palaeobotany is in no small measure attributable to ,williamson1 who1 in spite of discouragement1 kept the subject alive till the modern movement was firmly enough established to take up his work4 ,another productive field has been that of the nuclear cytology of both higher and lower plants1 whilst physiology1 especially on the chemical side1 has attained pre-eminence4 ,on present indications it is to be expected that in the near future physiology will receive much more attention than hitherto1 partly as an inevitable reaction from the field of pure structure1 and partly because of its fundamental importance in relation to agriculture4 ,nor is this the only branch that should be greatly stimulated by the forward movement in ,agriculture that is now just beginning to be felt4 ,the science of plant breeding1 too long neglected by the countrymen of ,darwin1 has been pursued with much success for a decade1 and has already reached the producing stage in respect of new and improved races of agricultural plants4 ,the youngest branch of ,botany is ,ecology or the study of vegetation in relation to habitat--particularly soil in its widest sense4 ,this department deals with the recognition and distribution of the different types of plant community in relation to topography and the factors--chemical1 physical and biologic--which determine this distribution4 ,ecology has the great merit of taking its followers into the field1 where they are confronted with a wide range of problems not hitherto regarded as strictly within the province of the botanist4 ,at the same time it exacts the most critical acquaintance with the minutiae of the taxonomist1 so that a new sphere of usefulness is opened to the systematist4 ,ecology should have a great part to play in helping to break down the frontiers which have too long tended to separate ,botany from the other sciences1 and the maintenance of which is not in the true interests of the subject4 ,,footnote3 #a ,darwin and ,modern ,science4 ,,robert ,,morison ,,and ,,john ,,ray #afbj-afhc #afbg-agje ,,by ,,sydney ,,howard ,,vines ,early systems of classification--,theophrastus--the ,herbalists--,cesalpino's ,de ,plantis--,caspar ,bauhin's ,pinax ,theatri ,botanici--,,morison--narrative--,botany at ,oxford--the garden established--,jacob ,bobart the elder--,morison's ,historia ,plantarum--completion by the younger ,bobart--personal characteristics--,morison's works--the ,praeludia--the ,hallucinationes--the ,dialogus--principles of method in his ,plantarum ,umbelliferarum ,distributio ,nova--posthumous publication of ,system--indebtedness to ,cesalpino--,linnaeus' estimate of ,morison--,,ray--narrative--first attempt at a ,system--quarrel with ,morison--the ,methodus ,nova--,dicotyledones and ,monocotyledones--,linnaeus' criticisms--later ,systems--the ,french school--,morison and ,ray compared4 ,the literature of ,botany can be traced back to a quite respectable antiquity1 to the period of ,aristotle 7,b4,c4 #chd-cbb7 who seems to have been the first to write of plants from the truly botanical point of view4 ,unfortunately1 his special treatise on plants-- ,greek3 theria peri phytn--is lost2 and although there are many botanical passages scattered throughout his other writings 7which have been collected by ,wimmer1 ,phytologiae ,aristotelicae ,fragmenta1 #ahcf71 yet none of them gives any indication of what his ideas of classification may have been4 ,an echo of them is perhaps to be found in the works of his favourite pupil1 ,theophrastus ,eresius 7,b4,c4 #cga-bhf71 who among all his fellows was the most successful in pursuing the botanical studies that they had begun under the guidance of the master4 ,theophrastus left behind him two important1 though incomplete1 treatises on plants1 the oldest that have survived3 the more familiar ,latin titles of which are ,de ,historia ,plantarum and ,de ,causis ,plantarum4 ,the latter is essentially physiological1 touching upon agriculture to a certain extent3 the former is mainly morphological1 structural1 descriptive1 and it is here that the first attempt at a classification of plants is to be found4 ,in writing the ,historia1 ,theophrastus was endeavouring1 as a ,greek philosopher rather than as a botanist1 to give account of plants2 and in order to do so he found it necessary to arrange them in some kind of order4 ,seizing upon obvious external features1 he distinguished 7,lib4 ,i4 cap4 #e7 and defined ,tree1 ,shrub1 ,undershrub and ,herb1 giving examples2 adding1 however1 that the definitions are to be accepted and understood as typical and general1 for some may seem perhaps to deviate from them4 ,simple as was this mode of arrangement1 ,theophrastus further simplified it in the course of his work1 by treating trees and shrubs as one group1 and undershrubs and herbs as the other4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,i ,robert ,morison 7,robertus ,morison7 ,qu ,morisone viro potuit contingere major ,gloria1 ,ponium quam superasse genus8 ,ipse tibi palmam ,phbus concedit ,apollo1 ,laureaque est capiti qulibit herba tuo4 ,archibaldi ,pitcairne ,m4,d4 ,it may seem1 at first sight1 singular that a lecture purporting to discuss the state of systematic botany in ,england during the #agth century should begin with a reference to the botany of the ,greeks4 ,the explanation is that the elementary classification introduced by ,theophrastus persisted throughout the #agth century2 the use of the groups ,trees1 ,shrubs1 and ,herbs came to an end only in the #ahth century1 with the advent of ,linnaeus4 ,it seems almost incredible1 but it is a fact1 that the lapse of the nearly #bjjj years that separated ,theophrastus from ,morison marked no material advance in the science of classification4 ,botanical works1 when they were something more than commentaries on ,theophrastus or ,dioscorides1 took cognizance of little else than the properties1 medicinal or otherwise1 of plants1 and their economic uses4 ,a growing perception of the essential resemblances observable among plants can be traced1 however1 in the later ,herbals1 as they became less medical and economic and more definitely botanical4 ,thus1 in the well-known work of ,leonhard ,fuchs 7,fuchsius71 ,de ,historia ,stirpium ,commentarii1 #aedb1 the plants are described in alphabetical order1 without any reference to their mutual relation4 ,but in ,kyber's edition of ,jerome ,bock's 7,tragus7 ,de ,stirpium ,nomenclatura1 etc41 ,commentariorum ,libri ,tres1 published in #aeeb 7with a preface by ,conrad ,gesner71 there is an attempt at a grouping of plants1 though no principles are enunciated and no names are given to the groups1 which resulted in the bringing together of labiate1 leguminous1 gramineous and umbelliferous herbs4 ,the ,cruydtboeck of ,rembert ,dodoens 7,dodonaeus71 #aeed1 marks much the same stage of progress1 whereas the ,nova ,stirpium ,adversaria of ,pierre ,pena and ,matthias de l',obel 7,lobelius71 issued in #aegj1 is a distinct step in advance4 ,here some idea is incidentally given of the principles that have been followed in the arrangement of the plants1 but still no name is attached1 as a rule1 to the resulting groups4 ,the work begins with an account of the herbaceous plants which1 in modern terminology1 are monocotyledonous3 and at the end of the section 7p4 #fe7 de l',obel thus explains what he has done3--,hactenus comparendo quot potuimus plantarum genera1 quarum effigies et naturae ordinis consequutione ita sibi mutuo haererent1 ut et facillime noscerentur et memoriae mandarentur1 a ,gramineis1 ,segetibus1 ,harundinibus1 ad ,acoros1 ,irides1 ,cyperos1 hincque ,asphodelos bulborum tuniceorum ,caepaceorumve naturam praetervecti sumus4 ,cruciferous1 caryophyllaceous1 labiate and umbelliferous herbs are also segregated to some extent in the course of the work3 and the leguminous herbs are brought together into a definite group1 ,alterum ,frugum genus nempe graminis ,trifolii et ,leguminum1 which is really the origin of the modern ,n4 ,o4 ,leguminosae3 though a few altogether foreign species1 such as species of ,oxalis1 ,anemone ,hepatica1 ,jasminum fruticans ,l41 and species of ,thalictrum1 are included among the trifoliate forms1 and ,dictamnus ,fraxinella among the ,leguminosa4 ,the ,stirpium ,historiae ,pemptades ,sex sive ,libri ,,xxx of ,dodoens1 published in #aehc1 shows considerable progress in classification as compared with his ,cruydtboeck of #aeed1 more particularly in the recognition1 apparently for the first time1 of umbelliferous plants as a distinct group in a chapter headed ,de ,umbelliferis ,herbis4 ,possibly these attempts to introduce some sort of system into ,botany may have been inspired by the teachings of ,conrad ,gesner1 that universal genius1 who lived about this time 7#aeaf-aefe74 ,though but fragments of his botanical writings have survived1 it is clear from the much-quoted passage in a letter of his dated ,nov4 #bf1 #aefe 7,epistolae ,medicae1 #aegg1 p4 #aac7 that he too was seeking for the basis of a natural system of classification and that he thought he had found it in the flower and the fruit3--,ex his enim notis 7a fructu1 semine and flore7 potius quam foliis1 stirpium naturae et cognationes apparent4 ,evidently at this period classification was in the air1 and at length it began to precipitate and to crystallise in the work of ,andrea ,cesalpino 7,caesalpinus3 #aeai-afjc71 ,professor in the ,university of ,pisa1 whose ,de ,plantis ,libri ,,xvi1 published in #aehc1 is one of the most important landmarks in the history of systematic ,botany4 ,here for the first time a system is propounded which is based definitely upon morphological observation4 ,cesalpino turns to the fructification1 that is the flower and the fruit1 for his distinguishing characters4 ,enitamur igitur1 he says 7,lib4 ,i4 cap4 xiv471 ex propriis quae fructificationis gratia data sunt1 plantarum genera investigare2 and he goes on to point out that the observable differences here depend on number1 position and form of the parts3--ad organorum constitutionem tria maxime faciant1 scilicet1 partium numerus1 situs et figura4 ,these principles he illustrates as follows3--the flower being the outermost covering of the fruit1 a single flower may cover a single seed1 as in the ,almond3 or a single seed-receptacle as in the ,rose3 or two seeds1 as in the ,umbelliferae3 or two seed-receptacles1 as in the ,cress3 or three seeds1 as in the genus ,tithymalus 7,euphorbia72 or three receptacles1 as in the ,bulbaceous plants 7petaloid ,monocotyledons73 or four seeds1 as in ,marrubium3 or four receptacles1 as in ,euonymus3 or many seeds1 as in the ,cichoriaceae3 or many receptacles1 as in the ,coniferae4 ,the feature of the relative position of the parts which he especially emphasizes is whether the flower is inserted upon the top of the fruit 7i4e4 is epigynous73 or is inserted lower around the fruit 7hypogynous or perigynous74 ,moreover1 the form of the seed1 of the seed-receptacle1 and of the flower1 is to be taken into account4 ,the practical application of these principles led to a classification of plants which1 though of course imperfect1 was at least a good beginning4 ,following ,theophrastus1 ,cesalpino divided plants into two main groups1 7#a7 ,trees and ,shrubs1 7#b7 ,undershrubs and ,herbs3 each of these groups was then subdivided according to the nature of the fruit and of the flower4 ,it will be observed that ,cesalpino1 as was customary at that time1 designated as seeds all indehiscent one-seeded fruits1 such as nuts and the varieties of achene4 ,the following abstract will suffice to give an adequate idea of the results obtained4 ,the author's own words are given as nearly as possible4 ,,arboreae3 ,seminibus saepius solitariis3 ,glandiferae3 e4g4 ,quercus4 ,vasculiferae3 ,fagus1 ,castanea4 ,nuciferae3 ,juglans1 ,carpinus1 ,corylus1 ,ulmus1 ,tilia1 ,acer1 c4 ,pericarpio tectae2 flore in sede fructus3 ,prunus1 c4 flore in apice fructus3 ,viburnum1 ,aesculus1 c4 ,seminibus pluribus3 ,flore carentes3 ,ficus4 ,flos in summo fructus3 ,morus1 ,sambucus1 ,hedera1 ,rosa1 c4 ,flos in sede fructus3 ,vitis1 ,arbutus1 ,cornus1 c4 ,sedes seminis multiplex tecta communi corpore3 ,pyrus1 ,citrus4 in siliquam producta3 leguminous plants4 bipartita3 ,nerium1 ,syringa1 ,populus1 ,betula1 ,salix1 c4 tripartita3 ,buxus1 ,myrtus4 quadripartita3 ,vitex1 ,euonymus4 tecta proprio corpore3 coniferous plants4 ,,herbaceae3 ,solitariis ,seminibus3 ,semina nuda1 papposa3 ,valeriana4 ,semina pericarpio obducta3 ,daphne1 ,jasminum4 ,flos in summo fructus3 ,osyris1 ,valerianella4 ,flos in sede fructus1 semen calyce exceptum3 ,urtica1 ,chenopodiaceae1 ,polygonaceae1 ,gramineae1 ,cyperaceae1 ,typhaceae4 ,solitariis ,pericarpiis3 ,flos exterius situs 7,pomum73 ,cucurbitaceae4 ,flos inferius situs 7,bacca73 ,solanaceae1 ,ruscus1 ,arum1 ,actaea1 c4 ,solitariis ,vasculis3 ,legumina3 leguminous herbs4 ,capsulae3 ,caryophyllaceae1 ,primulaceae1 ,gentianaceae1 c4 ,binis ,seminibus3 7,genus ,ferulaceum7 ,umbelliferae4 ,binis ,conceptaculis3 ,semina solitaria in singulis alveolis3 ,rubiaceae4 plura1 flore continuo3 ,scrophulariaceae1 c4 flore in foliola quaterna diviso3 ,cruciferae4 ,triplici ,principio1 non-,bulbosae3 ,semina nuda3 ,thalictrum4 solitaria in tribus alveolis3 ,euphorbiaceae4 plura in tribus alveolis3 ,convolvulaceae1 ,campanulaceae1 c4 ,triplici ,principio1 ,bulbosae3 ,flos inferius sedet3 bulbous ,liliaceae4 ,flos in summo fructus3 ,amaryllidaceae4 ,bulbaceis ascribi desiderant3 other ,liliaceae1 ,iridaceae1 ,orchidaceae4 ,quaternis ,seminibus3 ,boraginaceae1 ,labiatae4 ,pluribus ,seminibus in communi sede3 most ,compositae4 ,lactescentes3 ,cichorieae4 ,acanaceae3 ,cynareae1 ,dipsacus1 ,eryngium1 c4 ,pluribus ,seminibus ,flore communi3 ,semina plene nuda3 acheniferous ,ranunculaceae and ,rosaceae1 c4 ,aut conjunctis receptaculis3 e4g4 ,aristolochia1 ,nymphaea1 ,papaver1 ,cistus4 ,aut disjunctis receptaculis3 e4g4 ,sedum1 ,veratrum1 ,helleborus1 ,delphinium1 ,dictamnus4 ,flore fructuque carentes3 ,cryptogams4 ,in spite of its inherent imperfections and of errors of observation1 the method succeeded in bringing together a considerable number of the plants dealt with1 into groups which are still regarded as natural4 ,for instance1 among the trees and shrubs1 the leguminous genera1 and the coniferous genera1 respectively1 are so brought together3 and among herbs1 the leguminous1 umbelliferous1 cruciferous and composite genera4 ,moreover1 though many of ,cesalpino's sections consist of what seems to be a heterogeneous assemblage of plants1 yet they include groups of closely allied genera1 representing several of the natural orders of more modern times1 which his method was incapable of distinguishing4 ,with all its shortcomings1 the method produced a classification of plants which has proved to have been natural in no slight degree4 ,the very numerous botanical works which were published in the century after the appearance of ,cesalpino's ,de ,plantis afford evidence that his system of classification did not meet with an enthusiastic reception4 ,though his plant-names were generally quoted1 his arrangement was entirely ignored3 in fact the very idea of classification seems to have gradually faded out of the minds of botanists1 whose attention was more and more engrossed with the description of the new species that the rapid extension of geographical discovery was bringing to light4 ,this condition of the science is well illustrated by the most authoritative systematic work that the #agth century produced1 the great ,pinax ,theatri ,botanici 7#afbc7 of ,caspar ,bauhin 7#aefj-afbd71 a work which contains about six thousand plant-names1 and was the product of forty years' labour4 ,it might be expected that in such a work1 special attention would have been paid to classification1 that at least the best available system would have been used3 as a matter of fact1 the arrangement adopted is far inferior to that of ,cesalpino and may be described as simply haphazard for the most part4 ,the general lines of it are indicated by the following enumeration of the contents of the twelve ,books of which the work consists2 the modern equivalents of his plant-names being given4 ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,arrangement ,,adopted ,,in ,,bauhin',s ,pinax4 ,liber ,i4 ,gramineae1 ,juncaceae1 ,cyperaceae1 ,typhaceae1 ,ephedra1 ,equisetum1 ,hippuris1 ,asphodelus1 some ,iridaceae1 and ,zingiberaceae4 ,liber ,,ii4 ,de ,bulbosis2 bulbous ,monocotyledons1 including ,orchids with ,orobanche1 ,monotropa1 and ,lathraea4 ,liber ,,iii4 ,olera et ,oleracea2 most ,cruciferae1 ,polygonaceae1 and ,chenopodiaceae1 with some of the ,compositae4 ,liber ,,iv4 ,other ,compositae2 ,delphinium1 ,fumaria2 the ,umbelliferae 7so named72 ,valeriana4 ,liber ,v4 ,some ,solanaceae1 ,papaveraceae1 and ,ranunculaceae2 ,gentiana1 ,plantago1 ,pyrola1 ,statice1 ,sarracenia1 ,nymphaea1 ,trapa1 ,sagittaria1 ,arum1 ,asarum1 and some ,compositae4 ,liber ,,vi4 ,viola2 ,cheiranthus1 ,matthiola1 ,alyssum1 ,hesperis2 some ,caryophyllaceae2 ,polygala1 ,specularia1 ,glaux1 ,linum1 ,cuscuta1 most ,labiatae and ,scrophulariaceae2 ,primula1 c4 ,liber ,,vii4 ,lysimachia1 ,epilobium1 ,oenothera1 ,lythrum1 some more ,labiatae1 ,scrophulariaceae1 and ,caryophyllaceae2 ,boraginaceae2 some ,compositae2 ,alisma2 ,scabiosa2 ,hypericum2 ,crassulaceae2 ,aloe2 ,euphorbia4 ,liber ,,viii4 ,various climbing plants2 ,convolvulus1 ,smilax1 ,humulus1 ,vitis2 ,clematis1 ,lonicera1 ,hedera2 and ,cucurbitaceae3 also ,apocynaceae1 ,asclepiadaceae1 some ,liliaceae1 ,malvaceae1 ,rosaceae1 ,leguminosae1 with other genera scattered among them1 as ,aristolochia1 ,dentaria1 ,paeonia1 ,geranium4 ,liber ,,ix4 ,rubiaceae2 ,ruta1 ,thalictrum2 the remainder of the ,leguminosae4 ,liber ,x4 ,cryptogams in general3 with a few scattered ,phanerogams such as ,drosera1 ,oxalis sensitiva1 ,l4 7,herba viva foliis polypodii72 ,mimosa pudica 7,herba ,mimosa foliis ,foenugraeci sylvestris72 ,lemna2 and the remaining ,compositae1 the ,thistles1 with ,eryngium1 ,dipsacus1 and ,acanthus4 ,liber ,,xi4 ,trees and ,shrubs3 ,leguminous and ,rosaceous2 also ,rhus1 ,laurus1 ,fraxinus1 ,juglans1 ,castanea1 ,fagus1 ,quercus1 ,corylus1 ,tilia1 ,ulmus1 ,betula1 ,alnus1 ,populus1 ,acer1 ,platanus1 ,ricinus4 ,liber ,,xii4 ,mespilus1 ,crataegus1 ,berberis1 ,ribes1 ,sambucus1 ,ficus1 ,opuntia1 ,morus1 ,arbutus1 ,laurus1 ,daphne1 ,cistus1 ,myrtus1 ,vaccinium1 ,buxus1 ,olea1 ,salix1 ,ligustrum1 ,phillyrea1 ,rhamnus1 ,rubus ,rosa1 ,tamarix1 ,erica1 ,coniferous plants1 ,palma4 ,there was but one author1 during this period1 who made any material contribution to the science of classification1 and that was ,joachim ,jung of ,hamburg 7#aehg-afeg74 ,jung is best known by his ,isagoge ,phytoscopica 7#afgh1 ed4 ,vaget71 the most philosophic and scientific treatise on plants that had appeared since the time of ,aristotle1 which is the foundation upon which the whole superstructure of plant-morphology and descriptive botany has since been erected4 ,but it was in his ,de ,plantis ,doxoscopiae ,physicae ,minores 7#affb1 ed4 ,fogel7 that he expressed his views on systematic ,botany4 ,he did not propound a system of his own1 but he sought to arrive at the principles upon which a classification should be based1 with the logical result that he rejected the time-honoured ,theophrastian division of plants into ,trees and ,herbs4 ,though ,jung failed to produce any immediate impression upon the ,botany of his time1 he powerfully influenced the great developments which took place in the eighteenth century4 ,it so happened that ,ray1 as he mentions in his ,index ,plantarum ,agri ,cantabrigiensis 7#affj71 had obtained through ,samuel ,hartlib a ,,ms4 of the whole or part of ,jung's ,isagoge1 which seems to have impressed him so much that he included many of ,jung's morphological definitions in the glossary appended to the ,index2 and he subsequently embodied the ,isagoge in the first volume of his ,historia ,plantarum 7#afhf74 ,it was from ,ray's ,historia that ,linnaeus learned the morphological principles and terminology of ,jung which were the basis of his own work in descriptive ,botany1 and rendered possible the elaboration of his system of classification4 ,but1 in spite of ,jung1 the venerable division of plants into ,trees and ,herbs continued to hold its own for a time4 ,as will be seen1 it was still adhered to by ,morison and by ,ray1 even after it had been shown to be quite untenable by ,rivinus 7,introductio ,generalis in ,rem ,herbariam7 in #afij1 and did not finally disappear until the time of ,linnaeus4 ,it was just when systematic ,botany had fallen back to its lowest level that ,morison appeared upon the scene4 ,he had been born at ,aberdeen in #afbj1 and had there graduated ,master of ,arts with distinction by the time he was eighteen years old4 ,his further studies in the natural sciences were interrupted by the ,civil ,war1 in which he took part on the ,royalist side1 being severely wounded in the battle of the ,brig of ,dee 7#afdd74 ,he fled to ,france1 and there resumed his preparation for a scientific career with such success that he obtained1 in #afdh1 the degree of ,doctor of ,medicine at the ,university of ,angers4 ,from that time onwards he devoted himself entirely to the study of ,botany1 which he pursued in ,paris under the guidance of ,vespasian ,robin1 ,botanist to the ,king of ,france4 ,in #afej ,morison was appointed by the ,duke of ,orleans1 on ,robin's recommendation1 to take charge of the royal garden at ,blois1 a post which he held for ten years4 ,the ,duke of ,orleans1 shortly before his death early in #affj1 had occasion to present ,morison to his nephew ,king ,charles ,,ii who was about to return to his kingdom4 ,soon after the ,restoration1 the ,king summoned ,morison to ,london2 and in spite of tempting offers made to induce him to remain in ,france1 ,morison obeyed the summons and was rewarded with the title of ,king's ,physician and ,professor of ,botany with a stipend of two hundred pounds a year4 ,during his tenure of these offices ,morison found time to complete his first botanical work1 the ,praeludia ,botanica1 which was published in #affi2 the same year in which he was appointed ,professor of ,botany in the ,university of ,oxford4 ,a few words may be devoted1 at this point1 to the rise and progress of ,botany in that ,university4 ,in the year #afba1 ,lord ,danvers 7afterwards ,earl of ,danby71 thinking that his money could not be better laid out than to begin and finish a place whereby learning1 especially the ,faculty of ,medicine1 might be improved1 decided to endow the ,university with a ,physic ,garden1 such as was already possessed by various ,universities on the ,continent4 ,with this object1 he gave a sum of #bej to enable the ,university to purchase the lease of a plot of ground1 about five acres in extent1 situated without the ,east ,gate of ,oxford1 near the river ,cherwell4 ,a great deal of labour had to be expended upon the land after it had been secured3 it was so low-lying that1 as ,anthony ,wood says1 much soil was conveyed thither for the raising of the ground to prevent the overflowing of the waters at the expense of ,lord ,danvers1 who also caused to be built what ,baskerville describes as a most stately wall of hewen stone #ad foot high with #c very considerable ,gates thereto1 one whereof was to the cost of at least five hundred pounds4 ,the work proceeded but slowly1 in consequence of the troublous times through which the country was passing1 so that it was not completed until #afcb4 ,even then the actual installation of the garden was delayed4 ,about #afcg the ,earl of ,danby seems to have arranged with the well-known ,john ,tradescant to act as gardener1 but there is no evidence that ,tradescant ever discharged the duties of the post3 moreover1 he died in the following year4 ,very shortly after this1 though the exact date is not known1 the ,earl appointed ,jacob ,bobart to take charge of the ,garden4 ,jacob ,bobart was a ,german1 born at ,brunswick about the year #aeii4 ,he was an excellent gardener3 under his care the garden flourished so well that the catalogue which was published in #afdh anonymously1 though doubtless drawn up by ,bobart1 enumerated no less than #afjj species of plants in cultivation4 ,it had been the intention of ,lord ,danby to provide the ,university not only with a ,physic ,garden and a ,gardener1 but also with a ,professor of ,botany4 ,for this purpose he bequeathed certain revenues3 but so it was that the times being unsettled1 and the revenues falling short1 nothing was done in order to the settling of a ,professor till #affi4 ,when the establishment of the ,professorship had become possible1 the ,university proceeded to elect ,morison the first ,professor of ,botany1 being influenced by the reputation which his recently published ,praeludia ,botanica had secured for him4 ,thus1 after the lapse of nearly half a century1 was ,lord ,danby's design completely realised4 ,morison's chief occupation at ,oxford was the preparation of his long promised magnum opus1 the ,historia ,plantarum ,universalis ,oxoniensis4 ,it was planned on a most extensive scale1 and proved to be a laborious and costly undertaking4 ,morison impoverished himself in the preparation even of the one volume of it that appeared in his lifetime1 though his many friends provided the cost of the #abf plates of figures with which it is illustrated1 and the ,university advanced considerable sums of money4 ,the work was to have been issued in three parts3 the first part was to be devoted to ,trees and ,shrubs1 and the other two parts to the ,herbs4 ,the volume published by ,morison in #afhj1 and described as ,pars ,secunda1 deals with only five out of the fifteen sections into which he classified herbaceous plants1 although it extends to more than #fjj folio pages4 ,in the preface he gives as his reason for beginning with the ,herbs rather than with the ,trees and ,shrubs1 that he wished to accomplish first the most difficult part of his task lest1 in the event of his death before the completion of the ,historia1 it should fall into the hands of incompetent persons4 ,he did not live to finish his great undertaking4 ,in ,november1 #afhc1 he was in ,london on business connected with it3 as he was crossing the ,strand near ,charing ,cross1 he was knocked down by a coach1 and was so severely injured that he died on the following day4 ,he was buried in the church of ,st ,martin-in-the-,fields4 ,his unfinished work did not1 as he feared1 fall into incompetent hands4 ,it was entrusted by the ,university to ,jacob ,bobart the younger1 who on the death of his father in #afgi1 had succeeded him as ,keeper of the ,physic ,garden1 and who also succeeded ,morison as ,horti ,praefectus1 but not as ,professor ,botanices2 the ,professorship remained in abeyance for nearly forty years4 ,after much difficulty and delay1 a second and final instalment of the ,historia1 the ,pars ,tertia1 dealing with the remaining ten sections of herbaceous plants1 was published in #afii1 as a folio of #feg pages with #afh plates4 ,the material at ,bobart's disposal was fairly abundant1 consisting of ,morison's ,,ms4 of four more of his sections of ,herbs1 with notes upon the remaining six sections4 ,but even so1 the task of completion was a laborious one1 for it involved the incorporation of references to the very many descriptions of new plants that had been published since ,morison's death3 it has been generally admitted that ,bobart discharged it with commendable skill4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,ii ,great ,gate of the ,physic ,garden ,oxford3 the elder ,bobart in the foreground ,the ,pars ,prima1 that was to have been devoted to ,trees and ,shrubs1 was never written4 ,all that exists to represent it1 is a stout ,,ms4 volume in the ,library at the ,botanic ,garden1 ,oxford1 apparently in ,bobart's hand-writing1 containing a classification and an enumeration of the species of trees and shrubs1 which may possibly have been written with a view to publication4 ,a most interesting feature of ,bobart's ,pars ,tertia is the ,vita ,roberti ,morisoni ,m4,d4 with which the book opens1 written by one of ,morison's intimate friends1 ,dr ,archibald ,pitcairn4 ,it is the source of all the available information regarding ,morison up to the time of his coming to ,oxford2 after that time much may be gathered concerning him from the records of the ,university4 ,it is also a loyal defence of ,morison and his system of classification against the criticisms to which1 even then1 he had been subjected4 ,it concludes with a personal account of ,morison1 in which he is described as being vigorous in body1 having a mind trained to every kind of study1 of ingenuous manners1 calling a spade a spade1 eager for true knowledge1 a despiser of filthy lucre1 considering the public advantage rather than his private gain4 ,a portrait of him1 here reproduced1 forms the frontispiece to the volume4 ,such was the life of the man whose botanical works are now to be considered3 works that are not nearly so numerous as they are considerable1 as will be seen from the following enumeration and brief description of them4 ,praeludia ,botanica1 #affi3 a small #hvo volume of about #ejj pages1 which consists of the following parts3 7pp4 #a-cdg73 ,hortus ,regius ,blesensis ,auctus4 7pp4 #cea-dei73 ,hallucinationes ,caspari ,bauhini in ,pinace1 item ,animadversiones in tres ,tomos ,universalis ,historiae ,johannis ,bauhini4 7pp4 #dfc-dii73 ,dialogus inter ,socium ,collegii ,regii ,gresham dicti et ,botanographum ,regium4 ,plantarum ,umbelliferarum ,distributio ,nova1 per ,tabulas ,cognationis et ,affinitatis1 ex ,libro ,naturae observata et detecta1 #afgb4 ,plantarum ,historiae ,universalis ,oxoniensis ,pars ,secunda1 seu ,herbarum ,distributio ,nova per ,tabulas ,cognationis et ,affinitatis ex ,libro ,naturae observata et detecta1 #afhj4 ,the three distinct treatises of which the ,praeludia ,botanica consists were written probably at different times1 though published simultaneously in #affi4 ,the first of them is an alphabetical catalogue1 comprising about #bfjj species1 of the plants in the ,royal garden at ,blois when under ,morison's care3 #bfj of the species are marked as new1 and are fully described in an appendix4 ,but the chief interest of the ,hortus ,regius ,blesensis ,auctus lies in the dedication to ,king ,charles ,,ii4 ,morison here narrates how1 whilst at ,blois1 he had framed a system of classification2 how the ,king's ,uncle1 the ,duke of ,orleans1 had promised to undertake the publication of a book to illustrate the system on an adequate scale1 and how the sudden death of the ,duke in #affj had destroyed all such hopes2 and he ends by appealing to the ,king to give him the patronage that he so much needed4 ,quod si annuere hoc mihi digneris1 he wrote1 polliceor ,britanniam vestram cum methodo exactissima 7quae est naturae ipsius7 imposterum1 in re ,botanica gloriari posse1 quemadmodum ,italia1 ,gallia1 ,germania1 superiori saeculo1 sine methodo1 in ,scientia ,botanica gloriatae sunt4 ,but the ,king does not appear to have been moved by this dazzling promise4 ,morison evidently did not suffer from any lack of confidence in himself or in his method1 of which he speaks on a previous page of the dedication1 as methodus nova a natura data1 a me solummodo 7citra jactantiam7 observata3 a nullo nisi meipso in hunc usque diem detecta1 quamvis mundi incunabilis sit coeva1 language which can hardly be described as modest4 ,and yet1 curiously enough1 ,morison gives not the slightest indication of the principles of this altogether new and original method of classification4 ,the second treatise1 the ,hallucinationes1 is a searching and acute criticism of the published works of the brothers ,bauhin3 of the ,pinax of ,caspar1 and of the ,historia of ,john4 ,though he acknowledges in the preface the great value of their botanical labours1 ,morison did not fail to set out in detail the mistakes that they had made in both classification and nomenclature1 and to make corrections which were1 for the most part1 justified4 ,probably it was the critical study of the works of the ,bauhins that led ,morison to frame a system of classification of his own4 ,the third and last treatise is the ,dialogus3 a dialogue between himself1 as ,botanographus ,regius1 ,king's ,botanist1 and a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society1 on the theme of classification4 ,here again ,morison asserts the superiority of his own method3 ,methodum me observasse fateor3 estque omnium quae unquam adhuc fuerunt exhibitae1 praestantissima et certissima quippe a natura data4 ,but he still fails to give any definite account of it3 all that he says amounts merely to this1 that the nota generica is not to be sought in the properties of a plant1 nor in the shape of its leaves1 as had been suggested by earlier writers1 but in the fructification1 that is1 in the flower and fruit 7essentiam plantarum desumendam 444 a florum forma at seminum conformatione74 ,the mention of a system of classification based on the form of the leaf evoked from ,botanographus a pointed allusion to a book recently published by a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society in which such a classification had been used1 with the following severe comment3 ,ego tantum confusum ,chaos3 illic1 de plantis legi1 nec quicquam didici1 ut monstrabo tibi et lapsus et confusionem1 alias4 ,the book so criticised was the encyclopaedic work edited by ,dr ,john ,wilkins1 ,bishop of ,chester1 and published by the ,royal ,society in #affh1 entitled1 ,an ,essay towards a ,real ,character and a ,philosophical ,language1 to which ,john ,ray had contributed the botanical article ',tables of ,plants4' ,this criticism was the beginning of the unfriendly relations between ,morison and ,ray1 of which some further account will be given subsequently4 ,another point of interest in the ,dialogus is the definite assertion 7p4 #dhh7 that ,ferns are 'perfect' plants1 having flower and seed 7quia habent flores1 qui fugiunt quasi obtutum1 et semina quasi pulvisculum in dorso alarum71 an assertion which was repeated with even greater emphasis in ,morison's preface to his edition of ,boccone's ,icones at ,descriptiones ,rariorum ,plantarum etc4 7,oxon4 #afgd71 in opposition to the views of earlier writers1 ,cesalpino in particular4 ,cesalpino had1 it is true1 said of the group in which he had placed the ,ferns and other ,cryptogams1 quod nullum semen molitur 7,de ,plantis1 p4 #eia73 but he had added1 in the same paragraph1--ferunt enim in folio quid1 quod vicem seminis gerit1 ut ,filix et quae illi affinia sunt4 ,it is a question if ,morison was much nearer the truth than ,cesalpino4 ,it is in the preface of his ,plantarum ,umbelliferarum ,distributio ,nova 7#afgb7 that ,morison first gave a definite statement of the principles of his method1 in the following terms3 ,cumque methodus sit omnis doctrinae anima3 idcirco nos tam in hac umbelliferarum dispositione1 quam in universali omnium stirpium digestione1 quam pollicemur1 notas genericas et essentiales a seminibus eorumque similitudine petitas1 per tabulas cognationis et affinitatis disponentes stirpes exhibebimus4 ,differentias autem specificas a partibus ignobilioribus1 scilicet radice1 foliis et caulibus1 odore1 sapore1 colore desumptas adscribemus1 singulis generibus singulas accersendo species3 ita species diversa facie cognoscibiles1 sub generibus intermediis3 genera intermedia sub supremis1 notis suis essentialibus et semper eodem modo sese habentibus distincta militabunt4 ,hic est ordo a natura ipsa stirpibus ab initio datus1 a me primo jam observatus4 ,it is not necessary to discuss in detail the merits of ,morison's work on the ,umbelliferae4 ,it will suffice to say that it was published as a specimen of the great ,historia that he had in preparation--trigesimam operis quod intendimus partem--so that the learned world might have some idea of what they were to expect from the completed work quemadmodum aiunt ex ungue leonem2 and further1 that it was the first monograph of a definite group of plants1 and is remarkable for the sense of relationship between the genera that inspires it4 ,the ,umbelliferae constituted ,sectio ,,ix among the fifteen sections in which ,morison distributed herbaceous plants4 ,at length1 in #afhj1 appeared the ,pars ,secunda of the ,plantarum ,historia ,universalis ,oxoniensis in which work ,morison's long-expected method of classification was to be exhibited and justified4 ,however in this respect it proved to be disappointing3 partly because it was so limited in its scope1 dealing with but five of his fifteen ,sectiones of herbaceous plants3 and partly because it did not contain any complete outline of his system4 ,it is most singular that1 although he wrote so much1 ,morison should have died without having published any more definite information concerning his system of classification than what has been here cited4 ,morison's influence did not1 however1 cease with his death2 his tradition was maintained by the publication in #afii of the ,pars ,tertia of the ,historia1 under the editorship of ,bobart4 ,this volume threw some welcome light upon ,morison's system1 inasmuch as it completed the description of the herbaceous plants1 and gave a clear statement1 in the form of a ,botanologiae ,summarium1 of the classification resulting from the application of ,morison's principles to these plants4 ,but1 even so1 the revelation of the system still remained incomplete1 in the absence of any account of the trees and shrubs4 ,it was not till nearly forty years after ,morison's death1 not until ,bobart too was dead1 that a full statement of ,morison's method was published4 ,in #agbj there appeared at ,oxford a small tract of but twelve pages1 the ,historiae ,naturalis ,sciagraphia1 containing an account of a complete system of classification1 which agrees in all essentials1 so far as herbaceous plants are concerned with that adopted by ,morison and by ,bobart in their respective volumes of the ,historia3 and1 as regards trees and shrubs1 with that in the ,,ms4 volume by ,bobart which has been already mentioned4 ,the tract is anonymous1 but the matter that it contains is ,bobart's work1 whether it was written by himself or by some one who had access to his papers4 ,this classification may be accepted as being essentially that of ,morison1 though somewhat modified by ,bobart1 who had undoubtedly been influenced by ,ray's systematic writings which had appeared meanwhile4 ,it is of such interest that it may be reproduced here1 somewhat compressed1 with an indication of the modern equivalents of the groups4 ,i4 ,,arbores4 ,coniferae semper virentes3 most coniferous genera4 foliis deciduis3 ,larix1 ,alnus1 ,betula4 ,glandiferae3 ,quercus4 ,nuciferae3 ,juglans1 ,fagus1 ,corylus1 ,laurus1 c4 ,pruniferae3 ,prunus1 ,olea1 c4 ,pomiferae3 ,pyrus1 ,citrus1 ,punica1 ,ficus1 c4 ,bacciferae3 ,taxus1 ,juniperus1 ,morus1 ,arbutus1 ,sorbus1 c4 ,siliquosae3 ,cercis1 and other leguminous trees4 ,fructu membranaceo3 ,acer1 ,carpinus1 ,tilia1 ,fraxinus1 ,ulmus4 ,lanigerae non ,juliferae3 ,platanus1 ,gossypium4 ,juliferae et ,lanigerae3 ,populus1 ,salix4 ,sui generis ,arbor3 ,palma4 ,,ii4 ,,frutices4 ,nuciferi3 ,staphylea4 ,pruniferi3 ,cornus4 ,bacciferi1 foliis deciduis3 ,viburnum1 ,rhus1 ,rosa1 ,ribes1 c4 semper virentes3 ,ruscus1 ,phillyrea1 ,myrtus1 ,buxus1 c4 ,leguminosi3 ,genista1 ,cytisus1 ,colutea4 ,binis ,loculamentis3 ,justicia1 ,syringa4 ,capsulis tetragonis3 ,philadelphus1 ,tetragonia4 pentagonis3 ,cistus4 ,multicapsulares3 ,spiraea1 ,erica4 ,lanigeri3 ,salix1 ,tamarix1 ,nerium4 ,,iii4 ,,suffrutices4 ,scandentes capreolis3 ,vitis1 ,bignonia1 ,smilax4 viticulis3 ,lonicera1 ,jasminum1 ,solanum1 c4 radiculis3 ,hedera4 ,,iv4 ,,herbae4 ,sectio i4 ,scandentes3 ,bacciferae3 ,bryonia1 ,tamus1 c4 ,pomiferae3 most ,cucurbitaceae4 ,campanulatae3 ,convolvulaceae4 ,sectio ii4 ,leguminosae1 ,papilionaceae siliquis bivalvibus3 ,leguminous herbs4 ,sectio iii4 ,siliquosae ,tetrapetalae ,bicapsulares3 ,cruciferae 7with ,veronica and ,polygala74 hisce adjiciuntur quaedam3 ,chelidonium1 ,fumaria1 ,epilobium1 c4 ,sectio iv4 ,hexapetalae ,tricapsulares3 ,radicibus fusiformibus2 ,asphodelus1 ,anthericum4 tuberosis2 ,crocus1 ,gladiolus1 ,iris4 bulbosis2 ,narcissus1 ,hyacinthus1 ,allium4 squamatis2 ,lilium4 ,sectio v4 ,a ,numero ,capsularum et ,petalorum ,dictae3 tricapsulares campanulatae2 ,campanulaceae4 pentapetalae2 ,hypericum1 ,viola4 bicapsulares monopetalae2 ,scrophulariaceae4 quadricapsulares tetrapetalae2 ,rutaceae4 quinquecapsulares pentapetalae2 ,geraniaceae4 pentapetalae emollientes2 ,malvaceae4 unicapsulares2 ,caryophyllaceae1 ,primulaceae4 seminibus triangularibus2 ,polygonaceae4 nigris splendentibus2 ,chenopodiaceae4 ,sectio vi4 ,corymbiferae3 7,compositae in part7 floribus aureis2 ,artemisia1 ,tanacetum4 rubris2 ,adonis annua ,l4 albis2 ,bellis1 ,anthemis1 ,achillea1 c4 ianthinis2 ,xeranthemum1 ,scabiosa1 ,globularia4 ,sectio vii4 ,flosculis ,stellatis3 7the rest of the ,compositae7 lactescentes non papposae2 ,cichorium4 papposae2 ,lactuca1 ,sonchus1 ,hieracium4 papposae non lactescentes2 ,senecio1 ,aster1 ,doronicum1 c4 capitatae2 ,cynareae4 ,sectio viii4 ,culmiferae seu ,calamiferae3 ,gramineae1 ,cyperaceae1 ,typhaceae4 ,sectio ix4 ,umbelliferae4 ,hisce adnectuntur ,plantae ,stellatae2 ,rubiaceae4 ,sectio x4 ,tricoccae ,purgatrices3 ,euphorbiaceae4 ,sectio xi4 ,monopetalae ,tetracarpae ,galeatae et ,verticillatae3 ,labiatae4 ,hisce adjiciuntur ,galeatae non verticillatae2 ,verbena1 ,euphrasia4 ,et ,verticillatae non ,galeatae2 ,urtica4 ,sequuntur ,monopetalae tetracarpae asperifoliae2 ,boraginaceae4 ,sectio xii4 ,multisiliquae ,polyspermae et ,multicapsulares3 multisilquae2 folliculate ,ranunculaceae1 ,sedum1 c4 multicapsulares2 ,papaver1 ,nymphaea1 ,orchidaceae1 ,aristolochia1 ,orobanche1 ,pyrola1 c4 ,sectio xiii4 ,bacciferae3 some ,solanaceae1 ,sambucus1 ,cornus1 ,ruscus1 ,arum1 c4 ,sectio xiv4 ,capillares ,epiphyllospermae3 ,filices and ,ophioglossaceae4 ,sectio xv4 ,heteroclitae seu ,anomalae3 consists of 7a7 ,certain ,phanerogams3 e4g4 ,piper1 ,acanthus1 ,apocynum1 ,cuscuta1 ,reseda1 ,sagittaria1 ,alisma1 ,lemna1 ,drosera4 7b7 ,pteridophyta other than ,ferns3 ,equisetum1 ,pilularia1 ,lycopodium4 7c7 ,bryophyta1 ,algae1 ,fungi4 ,this then is the ,morisonian method1--or at least the nearest available approximation to it--in its entirety4 ,the effect of its application to the ,vegetable ,kingdom can hardly be accepted as a sufficient justification of the superlatives with which its author had introduced it4 ,of course it is not reasonable to judge this method1 or any other method of the past1 by the standard of botanical knowledge as at present existing3 it can only be fairly judged from the standpoint of its author4 ,what has to be considered is 7#a7 the soundness of the principles adopted1 and 7#b7 the consistency in the application of those principles4 ,the conclusion to be drawn from such a consideration of the foregoing table is that ,morison was more fortunate in his theory than in his practice4 ,in spite of his statement that the nota generica should be taken from the fructification1 many of the ,sectiones are based upon quite other characters3 such are 7among the ,herbs7 the ,scandentes1 the ,corymbiferae1 the ,culmiferae4 ,had ,morison adhered more closely to his own principles1 the results would have been more in accordance with his sanguine anticipations3 such a heterogeneous group as ,sectio ,v1 for instance1 would have been impossible4 ,it was1 perhaps1 on account of its inconsistency that ,morison's method never came into general use1 although it was adopted enthusiastically by ,paul ,amman1 ,professor at ,leipzig1 in his ,character ,plantarum ,naturalis 7ed4 #afhe72 and1 with some modifications1 by ,christopher ,knaut1 ,professor at ,halle1 in his ,enumeratio ,plantarum circa ,halam ,saxonum sponte provenientium1 #afhg1 as well as by ,paul ,hermann1 ,professor at ,leyden1 in his ,florae ,lugduno-,batavi ,flores 7ed4 ,zumbach71 #afij4 ,morison's writings evoked severe contemporary criticism1 more on account of their manner than of their matter4 ,his constant reference to the ,hallucinationes of ,caspar ,bauhin especially1 was considered to be offensive even if warranted1 for every botanist admitted a debt of gratitude to the author of the ,pinax4 ,equally resented was ,morison's oft-repeated statement that he had drawn the principles of his classification1 not from the works of other writers1 but from the book of ,nature alone4 ,it was urged against him that he had failed to do justice to his predecessors1 particularly to ,cesalpino3 and it must be admitted that there is unfortunately some truth in this allegation4 ,morison's indebtedness to ,cesalpino is suggested by the fact that the nature of the fruit1 and in a secondary degree that of the flower1 was the basis of both their methods4 ,from a comparison of the two systems1 as set out in this lecture1 their fundamental resemblance can be traced through the many differences of detail4 ,since ,morison does not quote ,cesalpino in his books1 it might be inferred that possibly he had not read him4 ,but there is convincing evidence to the contrary4 ,there is the fact that ,morison's preface to the ,historia contains a sentence taken verbatim1 without acknowledgment1 from the dedication of ,cesalpino's ,de ,plantis4 ,further1 there is in the ,library at the ,oxford ,botanic ,garden a copy of the ,de ,plantiscontaining many marginal notes which could not have been written by any one but ,morison4 ,the explanation of the position is probably this1 that ,morison regarded his classification as so great an advance upon that of ,cesalpino1 that he did not think it necessary to acknowledge what still remained of the earlier writer's work3 but in any case his omission to mention ,cesalpino was a grave error of judgment4 ,at this point it may well be asked1 what are ,morison's actual merits if1 as it appears1 he borrowed the leading principles of his classification from his predecessors8 ,the most satisfactory answer to this question is that which is provided by those who lived and wrote at times but little removed from his own4 ,thus ,tournefort1 in his ,elemens de ,botanique 7#afid3 p4 #ai7 speaking of the work of ,cesalpino and of ,colonna1 said--,peut-tre que la chose seroit encore faire si ,morison 444 ne s'toit avis de renouveller cette metode4 ,on ne sauroit assez louer cet auteur2 mais il semble qu'il se loue lui-mme un peu trop3 car bien loin de se contenter de la gloire d'avoir execut une partie du plus beau projet que l'on jamais fait en ,botanique1 il ose comparer ses dcouvertes celles de ,cristoffe ,colomb1 et sans parler de ,gesner1 de ,cesalpin1 ni de ,columna1 il assure en plusieurs endroits de ses ouvrages1 qu'il n'a rien apris que de la nature mme4 ,later1 in his ,institutiones ,rei ,herbariae 7#agjj1 p4 #ec7 ,tournefort expressed the same opinion in somewhat different words3--,legitima igitur constituendorum generum ratio ,gesnero et ,columnae tribui debet1 eaque fort in tenebris adhuc jaceret1 nisi ,robertus ,morisonus 444 eam quasi ab ,herbariis abalienatam renovasset1 instaurasset1 et primus ad usus quotidianos adjunxisset1 qua in re summis laudibus excipiendus1 longe vero majoribus si a suis abstinuisset4 ,the estimate formed of him by ,linnaeus is clearly stated in a letter addressed to ,haller probably about the year #agcg3 ,morison was vain1 yet he cannot be sufficiently praised for having revived system which was half expiring4 ,if you look through ,tournefort's genera you will readily admit how much he owes to ,morison1 full as much as the latter was indebted to ,cesalpino1 though ,tournefort himself was a conscientious investigator4 ,all that is good in ,morison is taken from ,cesalpino1 from whose guidance he wanders in pursuit of natural affinities rather than of characters 7see ,smith's ,correspondence of ,linnaeus1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bha74 ,if only ,morison had frankly assumed the role of the restorer of a method that had been forgotten1 instead of posing as its originator1 his undoubted merits would have met with their just recognition1 and his memory would have been free from any possible reproach4 ,before ,morison's method of classification could have come into general use1 there was a rival system in the field1 which was destined to achieve success1 and in its course to absorb all that was good in ,morison's3 this was the system of ,john ,ray4 ,ray was born at ,black ,notley1 near ,braintree1 ,essex1 on ,nov4 #bi1 #afbh2 so that he was not much junior to ,morison4 ,he studied and graduated with such distinction at the ,university of ,cambridge1 that he was in due course elected a ,fellow of1 and appointed a ,lecturer in1 his ,college 7,trinity74 ,here he remained until #affb1 when he resigned his ,fellowship on his refusal to sign the declaration against 'the solemn league and covenant' prescribed by the ,act of ,uniformity of #affa4 ,after leaving ,cambridge he spent some years travelling both in ,britain and on the ,continent2 and eventually settled at his birth-place1 ,black ,notley1 where he died on ,jan4 #ag1 #agjd-e4 ,during his residence in ,cambridge1 ,ray devoted much of his time to the study of natural history1 a study which afterwards became his chief occupation4 ,the first fruit of his labours in this direction was the ,catalogus ,plantarum circa ,cantabrigiam nascentium1 published in #affj1 followed in due course by many works1 for he was a prolific author1 botanical and zoological as well as theological and literary1 of which only those can be considered at present which contributed materially to the development of systematic botany4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,iii ,john ,ray 7,joannes ,rajus7 ,the first such work of ,ray's was his contribution of the ,tables of ,plants to ,dr ,john ,wilkins's ,real ,character and a ,philosophical ,language1 published in #affi1 which has already been mentioned in the course of this lecture 7p4 #ba74 ,the following is a summary of ,ray's first attempt at a system of classification4 ,he begins by distinguishing ,herbs1 ,shrubs1 and ,trees4 ,proceeding to the detailed classification of ,herbs1 he divides them into ,imperfect which either do want or seem to want some of the more essential parts of ,plants1 viz4 either ,root1 ,stalk1 or ,seed1 the ,cryptogamia of ,linnaeus2 and ,perfect having all the essential parts belonging to a ,plant4 ,the ,perfect ,herbs are arranged in three main groups according to 7#a7 their leaves1 7#b7 their flowers1 7#c7 their seed-vessel1 each group being subdivided in various ways4 ,,herbs ,,considered ,,according ,,to ,,their ,,leaves3 ,with long ,leaves3 ,frumentaceous1 such whose seed is used by men for food1 either ,bread1 ,pudding1 ,broth1 or ,drink 7,cereals73 or ,non-,frumentaceous 7other ,grasses1 ,sedges1 ,reeds74 ,gramineous ,herbs of ,bulbous ,roots 7,bulbous ,monocotyledons74 ,herbs of ,affinity to ,bulbous ,roots 7other ,monocotyledons74 ,herbs of ,round ,leaves 7e4g4 ,petasites1 ,viola1 ,pinguicula1 ,drosera74 ,herbs of ,nervous ,leaves 7e4g4 ,veratrum1 ,plantago1 ,gentiana1 ,polygonum74 ,succulent ,herbs 7,sedum1 ,saxifraga74 ,herbs considered according to the ,superficies of their ,leaves1 or their ,manner of ,growing3 more rough 7e4g4 ,borago1 ,anchusa1 ,echium73 less rough 7e4g4 ,pulmonaria1 ,symphytum1 ,heliotropium73 stellate leaves 7e4g4 ,asparagus1 ,galium74 ,,herbs ,,considered ,,according ,,to ,,their ,,flowers3 having no seed-vessel besides the ,cup which covers the flower3 ,herbs of ,stamineous ,flowers1 whose flower doth consist of threddy ,filaments or ,stamina1 having no leaves besides the ,perianthium3 or those herbaceous leaves encompassing these stamina1 which do not wither or fall away before the seed is ripe2 and not of grassy leaves1 may be distributed into such whose seeds are ,triangular 7,polygonaceae72 ,round3 distinguishable by sex1 of male and female2 because from the same seed some plants are produced which bear flowers and no seeds1 and others which bear seeds and no flowers 7e4g4 ,cannabis1 ,humulus1 ,mercurialis73 not distinguishable by sex 7e4g4 ,chenopodiaceae1 ,urticace1 ,resedaceae74 ,herbs having a ,compound ,flower not ,pappous 7,compositae74 ,pappous ,herbs ,umbelliferous ,herbs 7,umbelliferae1 with ,valeriana74 ,verticillate ,fruticose ,herbs 7,labiatae74 ,verticillate ,not ,fruticose ,herbs ,spicate ,herbs 7a curious medley1 including ,dipsacus1 ,eryngium1 ,echinops1 ,agrimonia1 ,circaea1 ,poterium ,sanguisorba1 ,polygonum ,persicaria1 ,trifolium stellatum1 ,t4 arvense1 and ,potamogeton angustifolium74 ,herbs bearing ,many ,seeds together in a ,cluster or ,button 7e4g4 ,geum1 ,potentilla1 ,anemone1 ,ranunculus1 ,adonis1 ,malva74 ,,herbs ,,considered ,,according ,,to ,,their ,,seed-,,vessel3 ,of a divided ,seed-vessel1 which may be called ,corniculate 7,paeonia1 ,dictamnus1 ,delphinium1 ,aquilegia1 ,aconitum1 ,geranium1 ,scandix74 ,of an entire ,seed-vessel3 ,siliquous3 ,papilionaceous ,climbing ,herbs 7,papilionaceae74 ,papilionaceous ,herbs not ,climbing ,not papilionaceous 7mostly ,cruciferae74 ,capsulate3 bearing ,flowers of ,five ,leaves 7,caryophyllaceae1 ,hypericaceae1 ,euphorbia1 ,linum1 ,lysimachia1 ,ruta1 ,nigella74 whose flowers consist of three or four ,leaves 7some ,cruciferae1 ,epimedium1 ,papaver1 ,verbena1 ,statice1 ,veronica74 ,campanulate ,herbs3 climbing 7most ,cucurbitaceae and ,convolvulaceae73 erect 7,campanulaceae1 some ,solanaceae1 ,digitalis74 ,not campanulate 7,primulaceae1 ,scrophulariaceae1 ,acanthaceae1 ,aristolochia1 ,vinca74 ,bacciferous herbs3 may be distinguished according to their ,qualities3 ,esculent fruit3 more pleasant 7,strawberry71 less pleasant 7,tomato74 ,esculent root 7,potato73 ,malignant3 of simple leaves 7,nightshade1 ,mandrake71 of compound leaves 7,herb ,christopher1 ,paris74 ,or ,manner of ,growth3 being climbers 7,bryonia1 ,tamus1 ,smilax73 not climbers 7,physalis ,alkekengi1 ,cucubalus1 ,sambucus ,ebulus74 ,,of ,,shrubs4 ,i4 ,bacciferous ,spinous ,shrubs of ,deciduous ,leaves 7the genera ,rubus and ,rosa1 ,gooseberry1 ,sloe1 ,barberry1 ,rhamnus1 ,lycium74 ,,ii4 ,bacciferous ,shrubs of ,deciduous ,leaves1 not ,spinous 7,vine1 ,currant1 ,bilberry1 ,viburnum1 ,white ,beam1 ,cornus1 ,prunus ,padus1 ,p4 ,mahaleb1 ,diospyros1 ,honeysuckle1 ,pepper1 ,daphne1 ,euonymus1 ,privet1 ,salicornia74 ,,iii4 ,bacciferous ,sempervirent ,shrubs 7,rhamnus ,alaternus1 ,phillyraea1 ,arbutus1 ,daphne ,laureola1 ,ruscus1 ,chamaerops humilis1 ,laurustinus1 ,juniper1 ,myrtle1 ,ivy1 ,mistletoe74 ,,iv4 ,siliquous ,shrubs 7,lilac1 ,cytisus1 ,colutea1 ,ulex1 ,genista1 ,mimosa74 ,v4 ,graniferous ,deciduous ,shrubs 7,vitex1 ,spiraea1 ,tamarix1 ,jasminum1 ,althaea1 ,elaeagnus1 ,clematis1 ,ampelopis74 ,,vi4 ,graniferous ,evergreen ,shrubs 7,cistus1 ,oleander1 ,rosemary1 ,phlomis fruticosa1 ,erica1 c474 ,,of ,,trees4 ,i4 ,pomiferous ,trees 7,apple1 ,pear1 c41 ,sorbus1 ,fig1 ,pomegranate1 ,orange1 ,lemon1 ,banana74 ,,ii4 ,pruniferous ,trees 7,peach1 ,plum1 ,cherry1 c41 ,olive1 ,date1 ,jujube74 ,,iii4 ,bacciferous ,trees 7,mulberry1 ,elder1 ,sumach1 ,celtis1 ,bay1 ,yew1 ,holly1 ,box1 c474 ,,iv4 ,nuciferous ,trees 7,walnut1 ,almond1 ,hazel1 ,castanea1 ,beech1 ,coco-,palm1 ,coffee1 ,cocoa1 ,cotton74 ,v4 ,glandiferous and ,coniferous ,trees 7,oak1 ,alder1 ,larch1 ,cedar1 ,pine1 ,spruce1 ,cypress74 ,,vi4 ,trees bearing their ,seeds in ,single ,teguments or ,coverings 7,carob1 ,tamarind1 ,elm1 ,hornbeam1 ,maple1 ,poplar1 ,willow1 ,lime1 ,plane74 ,,vii4 ,trees considered according to their ,woods or ,barks 7,lignum ,vitae1 ,snakewood1 ,sandal-wood1 ,log-wood1 ,cinnamon1 ,cinchona1 c474 ,,viii4 ,trees considered according to their ,gumms or ,rosins 7,myrrh1 ,gum ,arabic1 ,copal1 ,benzoin1 ,liquidambar1 ,camphor74 ,such is the classification of which ,morison spoke so slightingly in the ,dialogus3 though the character of the leaf is not made so much of as his criticism implied4 ,there is no need to dwell upon the strained relations that arose between ,ray and ,morison2 it may suffice to say that ,morison laid himself open to the charge of jealousy1 and that ,ray never forgave the criticisms1 both written and oral1 that ,morison had made on him4 ,those who are interested in the unfortunate quarrel will find an account of it1 with a most loyal apology for ,morison1 in ,blair's ,botanical ,essays 7#agbj74 ,ray may certainly be acquitted of plagiarism which is suggested by ,blair1 for he had no opportunity of studying ,morison's system in its entirety3 since1 as already explained1 it was not published in a complete form until the appearance of the ,sciagraphia in #agbj1 long after ,ray's death4 ,when ,ray wrote the ,tables of ,plants for ,dr ,wilkins1 not even the ,preludia ,botanica had been published3 the only work that he produced after the publication of both parts of ,morison's ,historia was the last edition of his ,methodus ,plantarum 7#agjc7 which displays principles of classification of which ,morison had no conception4 ,the ,tables of ,plants does not illustrate any very definite principles4 ,it was a tentative production1 written to order3 in fact1 it appears 7as explained in the preface to his ,methodus emendata1 #agjc7 that ,ray1 in writing it1 was not free to follow what he really believed to be the order of ,nature4 ,it is interesting1 however1 as being the first systematic work published in ,england4 ,the classification is based1 to some extent1 upon the character of the fruit1 a principle borrowed1 probably not from ,morison but directly from ,cesalpino4 ,before long it was superseded by a much more comprehensive and ambitious attempt1 the ,methodus ,plantarum ,nova1 issued in #afhb1 two years after ,morison's ,historia 7,pars ,secunda74 ,ray's ,methodus ,plantarum ,nova1 #afhb4 ,,de ,,herbis4 ,genus i4 ,imperfectae1 flore et semine carentes3 ,algae1 ,fungi4 ii4 ,semine minutissimo3 ,bryophyta1 most ,pteridophyta4 iii4 ,acaules ,epiphyllospermae1 vulgo ,capillares3 ,filices4 iv4 ,flore imperfecto1 sexu distinctae3 e4g4 ,humulus1 ,cannabis1 ,spinachia1 ,urtica4 v4 imperfecto1 sexu carentes3 e4g4 ,chenopodium1 ,alchemilla1 ,artemisia4 vi4 imperfecto1 ,monospermae1 semine triquetro3 ,polygonaceae4 vii4 composito1 ,lactescentes3 ,compositae1 ,cichorieae4 viii4 discoide1 ,papposae3 ,compositae1 most ,asteroideae and ,senecionideae4 ix4 discoide nudo1 ,papposae3 ,compositae1 ,eupatorium1 ,senecio1 ,gnaphalium4 x4 composito discoide1 ,corymbiferae3 ,compositae1 some ,anthemideae4 xi4 discoide nudo1 ,corymbiferae3 ,compositae1 the rest of the ,anthemideae4 xii4 ex flosculis fistularibus1 ,capitatae3 ,compositae1 ,cynareae4 xiii4 composito1 ,anomalae3 ,dipsacus1 ,scabiosa1 ,echinops1 ,armeria4 xiv4 perfecto1 seminibus nudis singulis3 ,valeriana1 ,thalictrum1 ,statice1 ,agrimonia1 c4 xv1 xvi4 ,umbelliferae4 xvii4 ,stellatae dictae3 ,rubiaceae4 xviii4 ,asperifoliae3 ,boraginaceae4 xix1 xx4 ,verticillatae3 ,labiatae4 xxi1 xxii4 ,semine nudo1 ,polyspermae3 acheniferous ,ranunculaceae and ,rosaceae1 ,malvaceae4 xxiii4 ,pomiferae3 ,cucurbitaceae4 xxiv4 ,bacciferae3 e4g4 ,smilax1 ,bryonia1 ,tamus1 some ,solanaceae1 c4 xxv4 ,multisiliquae seu ,corniculatae3 folliculate ,ranunculaceae1 ,sedum1 ,dictamnus1 c4 xxvi4 ,flore monopetalo uniformi3 e4g4 ,hyoscyamus1 ,gentiana1 ,convolvulus1 ,campanula4 xxvii4 xviii4 ,flore monopetalo difformi3 e4g4 ,impatiens1 ,aristolochia1 most ,scrophulariaceae4 xxix1 xxx1 xxxi4 ,flore tetrapetalo uniformi siliquosae3 ,cruciferae4 xxxii4 ,flore tetrapetalo uniformi1 ,anomalae3 e4g4 ,papaver1 ,ruta1 ,plantago1 ,veronica4 xxxiii-vi4 ,flore papilionaceo3 ,leguminosae4 xxxvii4 ,flore pentapetalo aut polypetalo1 foliis conjugatim dispositis3 ,caryophyllaceae1 ,cistaceae1 ,hypericaceae4 xxxviii4 ,flore pentapetalo aut polypetalo1 foliis nullo aut alterno ordine dispositis3 e4g4 ,portulaca1 ,viola1 ,reseda1 ,geranium1 ,linum4 xxxix4 ,flore pentapetaloide1 ,anomalae3 e4g4 ,primula1 ,asclepias1 ,erythraea1 ,verbascum4 xl1 xli4 ,culmiferae3 ,gramineae4 xlii4 ,graminifoliae non culmiferae3 ,cyperaceae1 ,juncaceae4 xliii-v4 ,radice bulbosa3 bulbous ,monocotyledons4 xlvi4 ,bulbosis ,affines3 e4g4 ,iris1 ,aloe1 ,orchidaceae1 ,araceae1 ,cyclamen4 xlvii4 ,anomalae et sui generis3 e4g4 ,potamogeton1 ,nymphaea1 ,callitriche1 ,trapa1 ,stratiotes1 ,sagittaria1 ,cuscuta1 ,adoxa1 ,polygala4 ,,de ,,arboribus4 ,genus i4 ,pomiferae3 ,pyrus1 ,mespilus1 ,citrus4 ii4 ,pruniferae3 ,prunus1 ,cornus1 ,olea1 ,palma4 iii4 ,bacciferae3 e4g4 ,myrtus1 ,laurus1 ,buxus1 ,arbutus1 ,ilex1 ,juniperus1 ,taxus4 iv4 ,nuciferae3 e4g4 ,juglans1 ,corylus1 ,quercus1 ,castanea1 ,fagus4 v4 ,coniferae3 ,pinus1 ,cedrus1 ,abies1 ,cupressus1 ,larix1 ,betula1 ,alnus4 vi4 ,lanigerae3 ,platanus1 ,tamarix1 ,salix1 ,populus4 vii4 ,siliquosae3 leguminous trees1 ,syringa4 viii4 ,vasculis seminum membranaceis et ,anomalae3 ,ulmus1 ,fraxinus1 ,carpinus1 ,tilia1 ,acer4 ,,de ,,fruticibus4 ,genus i4 ,bacciferi sempervirentes3 e4g4 ,vaccinium1 ,ruscus1 ,hedera1 ,viscum1 ,juniperus4 ii4 foliis deciduis1 non spinosi3 e4g4 ,vitis1 ,lonicera1 ,cornus1 ,sambucus4 iii4 foliis deciduis1 spinosi3 ,crataegus sp41 ,ribes sp41 ,rosa1 ,berberis1 c4 iv4 ,seminibus nudis1 aut vasculis siccis inclusis3 e4g4 ,vitex1 ,rhus1 ,spiraea1 ,erica4 v4 ,floribus papilionaceis3 e4g4 ,acacia1 ,genista1 ,cytisus1 ,colutea4 vi4 ,suffrutiscentes3 a miscellaneous collection of species4 ,a comparison between the classification of the ,methodus ,nova and that of the ,tables of ,plants shows that whilst he left the ,trees and the ,shrubs almost unaltered1 ,ray remodelled his arrangement of the ,herbs4 ,whereas1 in the ,tables1 he had proceeded along three distinct lines of classification indicated by the characters of leaf1 flower1 and seed-vessel respectively1 all regarded as equally important2 in the ,methodus1 the leaf-character is subordinated to those of flower and fruit1 and these are not kept distinct but are combined2 a fundamental change of principle which is no doubt to be attributed to ,morison's criticisms on the ,tables4 ,as ,ray put it in his ,preface3 ,methodus haec differentias sumit a similitudine et convenientia partium praecipuarum1 radicis puta1 floris et ejus calicis1 seminis ejusque conceptaculi4 ,the result is that many of the sub-divisions consist of groups of plants which are really natural1 the precursors of several of the recognized ,natural ,orders of ,phanerogams2 such as ,polygonaceae1 ,chenopodiaceae1 ,compositae1 ,umbelliferae1 ,rubiaceae1 ,boraginaceae1 ,labiatae1 ,cucurbitaceae1 ,scrophulariaceae1 ,cruciferae1 ,leguminosae1 ,gramineae4 ,the principles adopted were capable of yielding even better results1 had they been more rigorously applied and had the investigation of the plants been more minute4 ,for instance1 in genera xxi and xxii1 with a little more attention to floral characters1 the ,ranunculaceous might have been separated from the ,rosaceous genera1 and all of them from the ,malvaceae3 similarly in genera xxvi-xxviii1 the ,scrophulariaceous1 and possibly also the ,campanulaceous genera1 might have been segregated4 ,one of the principal achievements is the recognition of the group ,stellatae 7,rubiaceae7 as independent of1 but related to1 the ,umbelliferae4 ,for this1 as well as other features1 ,ray was indebted to ,cesalpino 7conf4 p4 #aa71 as he acknowledges in his ,preface4 ,nor does ,ray fail to acknowledge his obligations to ,joachim ,jung1 and to ,morison whose ,preludia and ,historia he cites4 ,but if ,ray's ,methodus ,nova owed something to ,morison's ,historia 7,pars secunda71 at a later stage the ,historia 7,pars ,tertia7 was even more indebted to the ,methodus ,nova4 ,it is striking to observe how many of the groups constituted in the ,pars ,tertia and in the ,sciagraphia 7see p4 #bc7 agree with those of ,ray4 ,it is this close association1 amounting almost to mutual dependence1 of the systems of these two botanists1 that makes comparative criticism of them an impossibility4 ,their relative position may1 in fact1 be summed up in the statement that both of them adopted the principles of ,cesalpino1 and that ,ray eventually proved to be more successful than ,morison in their application4 ,the ,methodus ,nova is something more than a system of classification4 ,the systematic part of the work is preceded by five ,sectiones which are morphological essays bearing the following titles3 ,i4 ,de ,plantarum seminibus observationes quaedam generales3 ,,ii4 ,de ,foliis ,plantarum seminalibus dictis3 ,,iii4 ,de ,plantula seminali reliquisque semine contentis3 ,,iv4 ,de ,floribus ,plantarum1 eorumque partibus et differentiis3 ,v4 ,de ,divisione ,plantarum generali in ,arbores1 ,frutices1 ,suffrutices at ,herbas4 ,beginning with the last1 it is a discussion of the propriety of retaining the old ,theophrastian sub-divisions3 ,ray agreed with ,jung 7see p4 #ae7 that they are popular rather than accurate and philosophical1 but he retained them on the ground of expediency4 ,the fourth ,sectio is an outline of the morphology of the flower based upon ,jung's ,isagoge which ,ray had received in ,,ms4 from ,dr ,john ,worthington who had obtained it from ,samuel ,hartlib1 as is explained in the ,preface4 ,the first three ,sectiones are of peculiar interest3 they give an account of ,ray's observations upon seeds and seedlings1 with quotations from ,malpighi's recent work on the same subject 7,anatomes ,plantarum1 ,pars ,prima1 #afge2 ,pars altera1 #afgi71 recognizing the fact that the seedlings of some plants have two seed-leaves or cotyledons 7as ,malpighi first called them71 those of others only one1 a fact which came to be of great systematic importance4 ,the classification of the ,methodus ,nova was maintained by ,ray in his ,historia ,plantarum 7t4 i1 #afhf71 as well as in both the first 7#afij7 and second 7#afif7 editions of his ,synopsis ,methodica ,stirpium ,britannicarum1 somewhat improved and more compact in form4 ,his ultimate views were expressed in the ,methodus ,plantarum emendata et aucta1 published in #agjc not long before his death4 ,in many respects this final form of his system is a great improvement upon that of #afhb2 more especially in the adoption of the number of the seed-leaves as a systematic character4 ,ray1 it is true1 limited the application of this character to herbaceous plants1 as he had not brought himself to give up the old categories of ,herbs1 ,shrubs and ,trees3 nevertheless1 he founded in this work the groups of ,dicotyledones and ,monocotyledones which persist1 though materially altered as to their content1 to the present day4 ,ray's ,methodus ,emendata et ,aucta1 #agjc4 ,,de ,,herbis4 ,flore ,destitutae4 ,genus i4 ,submarinae3 ,algae1 c4 ii4 ,fungi4 iii4 ,musci3 ,bryophyta with ,lycopodium4 iv4 ,capillares3 ,filices4 ,herbae sui generis3 ,ophioglossum1 ,pilularia1 ,salvinia1 ,salicornia1 c4 ,floriferae4 ,dicotyledones4 v4 ,flore stamineo3 e4g4 ,urticaceae1 ,polygonaceae1 ,chenopodiaceae1 c4 vi-ix4 ,flore ,composito seu aggregato3 ,compositae1 with ,dipsaceae1 ,eryngium1 ,globularia4 x4 ,flore simplici1 semine nudo solitario3 e4g4 ,valeriana1 ,mirabilis1 ,agrimonia4 xi4 ,umbelliferae4 xii4 ,stellatae3 ,rubiaceae4 xiii4 ,asperifoliae3 ,boraginaceae4 xiv4 ,verticillatae3 ,labiatae4 xv4 ,semine nudo1 ,polyspermae3 e4g4 ,alisma1 ,ranunculus1 ,potentilla4 xvi4 ,pomiferae3 ,cucurbitaceae4 xvii4 ,bacciferae3 ,bryonia1 ,tamus1 ,arum1 ,polygonatum1 ,solanum1 c4 xviii4 ,multisiliquae3 folliculate plants1 e4g4 ,delphinium1 ,asclepias1 ,sedum4 xix4 ,vasculiferae ,flore monopetalo3 7capsulate ,gamopetalae74 ,regulari2 ,campanulaceae1 ,primulaceae1 ,malvaceae1 ,gentianaceae1 c4 ,irregulari2 ,scrophulariaceae1 ,aristolochia1 ,acanthus1 c4 xx4 ,tetrapetalae ,siliquosae et ,siliculosae3 ,cruciferae4 ,anomalae2 ,papaver1 ,euphorbia1 ,epilobium1 c4 xxi4 ,flore ,papilionaceo1 sive ,leguminosae4 xxii4 ,pentapetalae ,enangiospermae sive ,vasculiferae3 7capsulate ,polypetalae71 e4g4 ,caryophyllaceae1 ,cistaceae1 ,hypericaceae1 ,geraniaceae1 ,violaceae4 ,monocotyledones4 ,genus xxiii4 ,graminifoliae ,tricapsulares1 radice bulbosa1 tuberosa1 fibrosa3 ,flore fructus basi cohaerente2 ,liliaceae4 ,flore summo fructui insidente2 ,iridaceae1 ,amaryllidaceae4 ,bulbosis ,affines3 ,cyclamen1 ,orchidaceae1 ,zingiberaceae4 xxiv4 ,graminifoliae ,flore stamineo2 ,gramineae1 ,cyperaceae1 ,typhaceae4 xxv4 ,anomalae aut ,incertae ,sedis3 e4g4 ,nymphaea1 ,trapa1 ,epimedium1 ,sarracenia1 ,piper1 c4 ,,de ,,arboribus ,,et ,,fruticibus3 ,a4 ,flore a ,fructu remoto3 7diclinous or dioecious plants74 ,genus i4 ,coniferae3 ,abies1 ,pinus1 ,cedrus1 ,cupressus1 ,larix1 ,betula1 ,alnus4 ii4 ,non-,coniferae3 ,floribus racematim dispositis stamineis3 ,buxus1 ,pistacia4 in fasciculos congestis3 ,empetrum4 ,juliferae3 nuciferae3 ,juglans1 ,corylus1 ,carpinus1 ,quercus1 ,fagus4 piluliferae3 ,platanus4 lanigerae3 ,populus1 ,salix4 ,bacciferae3 ,juniperus1 ,taxus1 ,morus4 ,b4 ,flore ,fructui contiguo3 ,genus i4 ,umbilicatae2 flore summo fructui insidente3 ,pomifera3 ,pyrus1 ,sorbus1 ,rosa1 ,punica1 c4 ,bacciferae1 ,polypyrenae3 ,ribes1 ,sambucus1 ,hedera1 c4 ,monopyrenae3 ,viburnum1 ,cornus1 c4 ii4 ,non-,umbilicatae2 flore basi fructus cohaerente3 ,pruniferae3 ,prunus1 ,olea4 ,pomiferae3 ,citrus4 ,bacciferae1 ,monopyrenae3 ,viscum1 ,daphne1 ,rhamnus sp4 ,polypyrenae3 e4g4 ,vitis1 ,rubus1 ,ligustrum1 ,berberis1 c4 iii4 ,fructu sicco1 non ,siliquosae3 e4g4 ,acer1 ,fraxinus1 ,tilia1 ,ulmus1 ,rhus1 ,syringa4 iv4 ,siliquosae ,flore non papilionaceo3 ,cassia1 ,mimosa1 ,ceratonia1 ,nerium1 c4 v4 ,siliquosae ,flore papilionaceo3 papilionaceous plants4 vi4 ,anomalae3 ,ficus4 ,foliis ,arundinaceis3 ,monocotyledons2 ,palmaceae1 ,dracaena1 ,bambusa4 ,there can be no doubt that ,ray was more fortunate than ,morison in the impression that he produced upon contemporary botanists and upon those who immediately succeeded them4 ,this1 for instance1 is what ,tournefort said of him 7,elemens de ,botanique1 #afid1 p4 #ai73 ,monsieur ,ray sans faire tant de bruit a beaucoup mieux russi que ,morison4 ,sa modestie est louable1 et l',histoire des ,plantes qu'il nous a donne est une ,bibliotheque ,botanique1 dans laquelle on trouve non seulement tout ce que les auteurs ont dit de meilleur sur chaque plante2 mais encore les caracteres des genres y sont designez d'une maniere assez commode4444 ,in the ,classes ,plantarum 7#agch7 ,linnaeus gave a somewhat formal approval of ,ray's work3 ,magna sunt opera ,j4 ,raji in ,scientia ,botanica1 qui constantia summa1 omnia1 quae beneficio seculi innotuerant de plantis1 manu plus quam ferrea descripsit4 ,but perhaps a more genuine opinion is that expressed by ,linnaeus in the letter to ,haller from which his estimate of ,morison has already been quoted 7see p4 #bg73 ,you are here justly aware1 that when the ,system of ,ray was spoken of as perfectly natural1 all botanists must have been blind1 unless1 like ,dillenius1 they hoped for a professorship1 or were compelled1 by the authority of the ,english1 to give to ,ray supreme honours4 ,what was he8 ,undoubtedly an indefatigable man in collecting1 describing1 etc42 but in the knowledge of generic principles1 less than nothing1 and altogether deficient in the examination of flowers4 ,i beg of you to compare the first edition of his ,methodus with the second and third1 where he has learned to take everything from ,tournefort4 ,i know not why the discoveries of ,caesalpinus have escaped all observation1 whilst everything has stupidly been ascribed to ,ray 7,smith's ,correspondence of ,linnaeus1 ii4 p4 #bhj-a74 ,this rather severe criticism does not1 however1 seem to have prejudiced ,haller against ,ray1 for in the former's well-known ,bibliotheca ,botanica 7vol4 i4 p4 #ejj1 #agga71 in speaking of the rapid progress of ,botany in the latter part of the seventeenth century1 he adds--,multa pars horum incrementorum debetur ,johanni ,ray4 ,vir pius et modestus1 ,v4 ,d4 ,m4 maximus ab hominum memoria botanicus1 ea felicitate usus est1 ut totos quinquaginta annos dilecto studio ei licuerit impendere4 ,ray's system also became more popular than that of ,morison1 and was in general use in ,england until the latter half of the eighteenth century1 when it was gradually superseded by the ,linnean method which was first applied to ,english botany in ,dr ,j4 ,hill's ,flora ,britannica 7#agfj74 ,ray was never engaged in teaching any branch of natural history4 ,had there been1 in his day1 a ,chair of ,botany in the ,university of ,cambridge1 he would1 no doubt1 have occupied it3 however1 the professorship was not established until #agbd1 twenty years after his death4 ,he might very well have been chosen to succeed ,morison at ,oxford3 but1 for some unstated reason1 the professorship there was kept in abeyance for nearly forty years after the death of ,morison4 ,as has been explained1 ,morison and ,ray revived the forgotten labours of ,cesalpino4 ,the immediate result of the publication of their systems was to stimulate their colleagues on the continent of ,europe to a noble emulation3 there was scarcely a botanist of note who did not elaborate a system of his own4 ,after suffering from too little work in the direction of classification1 botany now began to suffer from too much3 one after the other1 system followed system in rapid succession4 ,those1 for instance1 of ,christopher ,knaut 7#afhg71 ,paul ,hermann 7#afij71 ,boerhaave 7#agaj71 ,rivinus 7#afij-agaa71 ,ruppius 7#agah71 ,christian ,knaut 7#agaf73 and1 in ,france1 of ,tournefort 7#afid1 #agjj71 and of ,magnol 7#agbj74 ,then came the ,methodus ,sexualis of ,linnaeus 7,systema ,naturae1 #agce74 ,the effect of the general adoption of ,linnaeus' most useful but artificial method was the temporary arrest almost everywhere1 except in ,france1 of the quest of the natural system4 ,though this was the effect of the introduction of his method1 it was not at all the intention of ,linnaeus3 for in his ,classes ,plantarum 7#agch1 p4 #dhe7 he said1 ,primum et ultimum in parte ,systematica ,botanices quaesitum est ,methodus ,naturalis4 ,on the same page of that work he laid down1 in a series of aphorisms1 the principles upon which alone the construction of such a method can be successfully attempted2 and he gave special emphasis to this one1 that the classificatory characters should not be taken from a single structure but from all3 nec una vel altera pars fructificationis1 sed solum simplex symmetria omnium partium4 ,it was just because they had failed to formulate this principle that the earlier systematists1--whether ,fructists1 as ,cesalpino1 ,morison1 ,ray1 ,knaut and ,hermann2 or ,corollists1 as ,rivinus and ,tournefort2 or ,calycists1 as ,magnol--were not more successful1 and that their systems1 even the ,methodus emendata of ,ray1 were more or less artificial4 ,it was in ,france that the carving out1 as it were1 of the ,natural ,orders from the solid block of genera was carried on with the greatest success4 ,this process had become much less difficult since ,tournefort had begun to constitute genera in the modern sense of the term4 ,before his time the word genus had been applied indiscriminately to every kind of plant-group 7see the systems of ,cesalpino and ,ray1 pp4 #ab1 #cb73 the largest groups were the summa genera2 the smaller1 the genera subalterna or infima4 ,tournefort limited the application of the term to the smallest groups of species1 designating by the term ,classe the largest groups which he subdivided into ,sections 7,elemens de ,botanique1 #afid74 ,it was ,linnaeus 7,classes ,plantarum1 p4 #dhe7 who introduced the term ,ordo to designate the subordinate groups of the classes4 ,tournefort himself succeeded1 by means of his corollist method1 in distinguishing for the first time the following ,sections1 describing their flowers by terms which are now familiar as the names of natural orders2 ,flore ,labiato1 ,cruciformi1 ,rosaceo1 ,caryophyllaceo1 ,liliaceo1 ,papilionaceo1 ,amentaceo2 though these sections do not all exactly agree with the modern ,natural ,orders of similar designation4 ,a remarkable1 if not altogether successful1 attempt in the same direction was ,adanson's ,familles des ,plantes 7#agfc71 based upon the sound ,linnean principle1 qu'il ne peut i avoir de ,methode naturele en ,botanicke1 que celle qui considere l'ensemble de toutes les parties des ,plantes4 ,the number of species and varieties known in his day amounted to something over eighteen thousand3 these1 reduced into #afae genera1 he grouped into fifty-eight families4 ,several of those had been already more or less well defined2 but most of them were entirely original1 and not a few of them persist to the present day1 though ,adanson is not credited with all that are his due4 ,his lack of method in naming his families1 to say nothing of the fantastic nomenclature of his genera1 made it necessary for other names to be preferred to his4 ,still some familiar names of natural orders are attributable to him1 such as ,hepaticae1 ,onagrae1 ,compositae1 ,caprifolia1 ,borragines1 ,portulacae1 ,amaranthi1 ,papavera1 ,cisti1 though most of them have since undergone some change in their termination4 ,in addition to these1 there are several which would have been credited to ,adanson1 had it not so happened that they had also been suggested by ,bernard de ,jussieu3 such are1 ,palmae1 ,aristolochiae1 ,myrti1 ,campanulae1 ,apocyna1 ,verbenae1 ,thymeleae1 ,gerania1 ,malvae1 ,ranunculi4 ,adanson was the first to publish these names 7#agfc73 but ,bernard de ,jussieu had made use of them as early as #agei in laying out the ,trianon ,garden at ,versailles1 though they were not actually published until #aghi1 when all the #fe orders devised by him were included in the ,genera ,plantarum secundum ,ordines ,naturales disposita of his famous nephew ,antoine ,laurent de ,jussieu4 ,here at last was a fairly complete natural system1 consisting of one hundred natural orders arranged in fifteen classes1 within the three great subdivisions1 ,acotyledones1 ,monocotyledones1 ,dicotyledones1 constituting the framework of that which is accepted at the present day4 ,it has undergone many modifications1 of which the first and most important were those effected by ,a4 ,p4 de ,candolle 7,thorie lmentaire1 #ahac71 who1 while he improved upon ,jussieu in various ways1 made the unfortunate1 but happily unsuccessful1 attempt to substitute ,endogenae for ,monocotyledones and ,exogenae for ,dicotyledones4 ,the system has proved itself capable of expansion to accommodate all the new genera and natural orders that have since been established3 it has justified itself as a natural classification in its susceptibility to development in precision as well as in extent1 and in that it has survived the many experiments made upon it during the first century of its existence4 ,the glory of this crowning achievement belongs to ,jussieu3 he was the capable man who appeared precisely at the psychological moment1 and it is the men that so appear who have made1 and will continue to make1 all the great generalisations of science4 ,jussieu's achievement1 like other great scientific achievements1 would have been impossible without the labours and failures of his predecessors1 of which some account has been given in this lecture4 ,he himself attributed much of his success to the work of ,tournefort1 but it is clear that he owed at least as much to ,ray3 if he learned from the former the systematic importance of the gamopetalous and of the polypetalous corolla1 he gleaned from the latter the value of the cotyledonary characters upon which are based his three primary subdivisions of the ,vegetable ,kingdom4 ,it has been necessary to go beyond the strict limits of the history of ,british ,botany in order to make it clear to what extent and at what period our two distinguished fellow-countrymen contributed to the development of the natural system of classification4 ,enough has been said to establish the importance and the opportuneness of their contributions3 if ,pisa was glorified by the birth of ,systematic ,botany1 and ,paris by its adolescence1 ,oxford and ,cambridge were honoured by its renascence4 ,the question concerning the respective merits of ,morison and ,ray finds perhaps its most satisfactory answer in the words of ,linnaeus 7,classes ,plantarum1 #agdg1 p4 #fe73--,quamprimum ,morisonus artis fundamentum restaurasset1 eidem mox suam superstruxit methodum ,rajus1 quam dein toties reparavit1 usque dum in ultima senectute emendatam et auctam emitteret3 ,morison relaid the foundation upon which ,ray built4 ,as ,linnaeus points out1 ,ray enjoyed the advantage of a very long period of productive activity3 in the thirty-four years that separated his ,tables of ,plants from his ,methodus ,emendata et ,aucta1 he had time to revise and remodel his system4 ,morison1 on the contrary1 was prevented by unfavourable circumstances from beginning the publication of his ,method until late in life1 and he was not permitted to see more than a fragment of it issue from the press4 ,it is probable that ,ray was more truly a naturalist than was ,morison3 for in addition to his works on ,method1 he published not only his ,catalogus ,plantarum circa ,cantabrigiam nascentium 7#affj71 but also a ,catalogus of ,british plants 7#afgj1 #bnd ed4 #afgg71 almost the earliest work of the kind1 only preceded by ,william ,how's ,phytologia ,britannica 7#afej71 which developed into the first ,british ,flora arranged systematically1 the ,synopsis ,methodica ,stirpium ,britannicarum 7#afij1 #bnd ed4 #afif74 ,morison published nothing on field-botany2 his volume of the ,historia contains1 it is true1 occasional mention of plants found in or near ,oxford1 but the finder of them seems always to have been the younger ,bobart4 ,ray included in the ,synopsis a list of plants that had been communicated to him by ,bobart1 with whom he seems to have been intimate1 and expressed his indebtedness to ,bobart's botanical skill4 ,but whether the palm be bestowed upon the one or the other1 the fact remains that both were men of exceptional capacity1 and that both did good work for ,british ,botany1 raising it to a level which commanded the respect and admiration of the botanical world2 from which1 as the succeeding lectures of this course will show1 it was not allowed to sink4 ,what ,linnaeus said of ,morison may be applied equally to ,ray1--,roma certe non uno die1 nec ab uno condebatur viro4 ,ille tamen faces extinctas incendit1 a quibus ignem mutuati sunt subsequentes1 quibus datum ad lucidum magis focum objecta rimare 7,classes ,plantarum1 p4 #cc74 ,,nehemiah ,,grew #afda-agab ,,by ,,agnes ,,arber ,ancestry and ,life narrative--his versatility--state of ,botany--,grew and ,malpighi--,grew's bona fides vindicated--,the ,anatomy of ,vegetables ,begun--seed structure--his treatise on the ,root--its dedication--,the ,anatomy of ,trunks--,the ,anatomy of ,plants--illustrations--,grew's conception of cells and tissues--the plant as a textile fabric--analogy with the animal body--medullary rays--secondary thickening--his understanding of external morphology--physiological notions--suggestions for experiments--importance of the habitat--the sexes of flowers--floral and seed structure--estimate of his contributions to ,botany4 ,nehemiah ,grew1 who1 with the ,italian botanist ,marcello ,malpighi1 may be considered as co-founder of the science of ,plant ,anatomy1 lived in stirring and troubled times4 ,his life#b extended from #afda to #agab2 that is to say1 he was born the year before ,king ,charles ,i proclaimed war upon the parliamentary forces1 and he lived through the ,protectorate1 the reigns of ,charles ,,ii1 ,james ,,ii1 ,william and ,mary1 and the greater part of the reign of ,queen ,anne4 ,he came of a stock remarkable for courage and independence of mind4 ,his grandfather1 ,francis ,grew1 is described as having been a layman1 originally of good estate1 but crush'd by prosecutions for non-conformity in the ,high ,commission ,court and ,star ,chamber4 ,francis ,grew had a son ,obadiah1 who was a student of ,balliol1 and entered the ,church4 ,when the ,civil ,war broke out1 he sided with the parliamentary party1 but was by no means a blind adherent of ,cromwell1 with whom he is said to have pleaded earnestly for the life of ,king ,charles ,i4 ,in #affb ,obadiah ,grew resigned his living1 being unable to comply with the ,act of ,uniformity4 ,twenty years later1 as a man of seventy-five1 he was convicted of a breach of the ,five ,mile ,act1 and imprisoned for six months in ,coventry ,gaol4 ,but though by this time his sight had failed1 his spirit was indomitable4 ,whilst in prison1 he dictated a sermon every week to an amanuensis1 who read it to several shorthand writers1 each of whom undertook a number of copies2 it was then distributed to various secret religious meetings1 at which it was read4 ,nehemiah ,grew was ,obadiah's only son1 and it is a curious fact that the year #afhb1 which witnessed the father's imprisonment1 was the year in which the son published his magnum opus1 ,the ,anatomy of ,plants1 prefaced by an ,epistle ,dedicatory to ,his most sacred ,majesty ,charles ,,ii4 ,so far as one can gather1 ,nehemiah ,grew's career seems to have been singularly unaffected by the political crises that took place around him4 ,the deliberate style of his writing certainly suggests a studious and unruffled life4 ,he was an undergraduate at ,pembroke ,hall1 ,cambridge1 and afterwards took his doctor's degree in medicine at ,leyden1 at the age of thirty4 ,he seems to have been successful in his profession1 and we learn from the sermon#c preached at his funeral that he died suddenly1 whilst still actively engaged in his practice4 ,in the words of the sermon1 ,it was his ,honour and ,happiness1 to be ,serviceable to the last ,moments of ,life4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,iv ,,nehemiah ,,grew 7#agja7 ,portrait of ,nehemiah ,grew after the portrait by ,r4 ,white which is reproduced in the ,cosmologia ,sacra1 #agja ,before turning to ,grew's botanical work1 it may be worth while to refer very briefly to his writings on other subjects1 showing as they do the remarkable versatility of his mind4 ,he produced a series of chemical papers1 and also pamphlets on the method of making sea-water fresh1 and on the nature of the salts present in the ,epsom wells4 ,in #afha appeared his ,musum ,regalis ,societatis1 a catalogue raisonn of the objects in the ,museum of the ,royal ,society1 with which were bound up some contributions to animal anatomy4 ,the ,catalogue is a bulky volume1 and it is hard to forbear a smile on reading that ,grew dedicated it to one ,colwall1 the founder of the ,museum1 in order that the ,royal ,society might always wear this ,catalogue1 as the ,miniature of his abundant ,respects1 near their ,hearts4 ,as we should expect1 this ,catalogue is far more discursive than such a work would be if it were drawn up at the present day1 though ,grew takes credit to himself for not medling with ,mystick1 ,mythologick1 or ,hieroglyphick matters4 ,he manages1 however1 to introduce some general remarks which are of interest4 ,he realises1 for instance1 that it is possible to group living creatures in a way which has some significance1 and that it is the business of the biologist to discover this grouping4 ,he blames ,aldrovandus for beginning his history of quadrupeds with the horse1 because it is the most useful animal to man1 and points out that ,gesner's arrangement1 which is purely alphabetical1 is even less satisfactory4 ,the very ,scale of the ,creatures1 he concludes1 is a matter of high speculation4 ,it is tempting to quote largely from the ,catalogue1 but ,i will confine myself to one other remark of ,grew's which is perhaps particularly applicable to-day1 when the quotation of authorities is apt to become almost an obsession3 ,i have made the ,quotations1 he says1 not to prove things well known1 to be true2 444 as if ,aristotle must be brought to prove a ,man hath ten ,toes4 ,grew's last work was the ,cosmologia ,sacra#d1 a folio volume occupied with a defence of ,christianity1 and an explanation of the author's views on the nature of the ,universe4 ,there is a copy in the ,british ,museum1 the earlier part of which is crowded with marginal and fly-leaf notes1 in some cases initialled or even signed in full by ,samuel ,taylor ,coleridge4 ,one cannot help recalling ,charles ,lamb's humorous complaint that books lent to ,coleridge were apt to be returned with usury2 enriched with annotations tripling their value 444 in matter oftentimes1 and almost in quantity not unfrequently1 vying with the originals4 ,coleridge seems to have accepted ,grew quite seriously as a thinker4 ,in one of his manuscript notes we read1 ,it is from admiration of ,dr ,n4 ,grew1 and my high estimate of his ,powers1 that ,i am almost tempted to say1 that the ,reasonings in ,chapt4 ,,iii ought to have led him to the perception of the essential phnomenality of ,matter4 ,that these reasonings did not so lead him1 must1 ,i think1 be attributed to the fact that ,grew was above all things a naturalist1 and ,coleridge a philosopher1 and that between the two an intellectual gulf is often fixed4 ,after this somewhat lengthy introduction1 it is more than time to turn to our main subject1--the study of ,nehemiah ,grew's work as a botanist4 ,botanical science was in a decidedly decadent condition when ,grew entered the field4 ,the era of the herbal was closing4 ,the last ,english book of any importance which can strictly be included under this head1 ,parkinson's ,theatrum ,botanicum1 was published the year before ,grew was born1 and a lull in this kind of work followed4 ,it is true that ,culpeper's ,herbal appeared later1 but this bombastic work was of no botanical value4 ,it was reserved for ,morison and ,ray to open a new era in ,british ,systematic ,botany4 ,at the same time1 fresh inspiration was being breathed into the science from quite a different quarter4 ,the herbalists studied plants primarily with a view to understanding their medicinal properties4 ,nehemiah ,grew also approached ,botany in the first instance from the medical standpoint1 but it was his knowledge of anatomy which opened his mind to the possibility of similar work1 with the bodies of plants1 instead of those of animals1 as the subject4 ,he tells us that he was impressed by the fact that the study of animal anatomy had been carried on actively from early ages1 whereas that of vegetable anatomy had been scarcely so much as contemplated4 ,but considering1 he continues1 that both came at first out of the same ,hand1 and are therefore the ,contrivances of the same ,wisdom2 ,i thence fully assured my self1 that it could not be a vain ,design1 though possibly unsuccessful1 to seek it in both4 ,grew was drawn to the study of plant structure at the age of twenty-three1 and seven years later he produced his earliest work on the subject1 ,the ,anatomy of ,vegetables ,begun1 which was published by the ,royal ,society in #afgb4 ,it will be remembered that the ,royal ,society was then quite in its youth1 its first beginnings only dating back to about #afdee4 ,by a curious coincidence1--recalling the classic case of ,darwin and ,wallace at the ,linnean ,society1--on the very day that ,grew presented his treatise in print1 the ,secretary of the ,royal ,society received ,marcello ,malpighi's manuscript dealing with the same subject4 ,priority can however be fairly claimed for the ,englishman1 since he had submitted his treatise to the ,society in manuscript earlier in the year4 ,this question of priority1 and also the question whether ,grew was guilty of plagiarism from ,malpighi's writings1 has been much discussed at different times4 ,schleiden#f in particular brought forward charges of the most serious nature against ,nehemiah ,grew's good faith4 ,these accusations were1 however1 dealt with in detail in a pamphlet by ,pollender#g in #ahfh1 and shown to be groundless1--,schleiden's information about the circumstances being wholly inaccurate4 ,there is now practically no doubt that ,grew was an independent worker1 and was only definitely indebted to ,malpighi1 in so far as he himself acknowledges it4 ,in the preface to the second treatise1 for instance1 he mentions the ,italian botanist1 and remarks in speaking of the ,air-vessels--the manner of their ,spiral ,conformation 7not observable but by a ,microscope7 ,i first learned from ,him1 who hath given a very elegant ,description of them4 ,if ,grew had been a wholesale plunderer from ,malpighi's writings1 he would scarcely have been likely to have acknowledged indebtedness on a special point4 ,it must be confessed1 however1 that judging by present-day standards of scientific etiquette1 ,grew should have referred more fully to the works#h of the ,italian author1 in his final book1 ,the ,anatomy of ,plants4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,v ,plate from ,anatomy of ,vegetables ,begun1 #afgb ,the ,anatomy of ,vegetables ,begun contains more that is of interest from a morphological than from a strictly anatomical standpoint1 according to the modern sense of the terms4 ,in botanical language1 the meaning of the word anatomy has become restricted since ,grew's time1 until it is now often used to denote microscopic detail alone4 ,grew devotes a good deal of space to the study of seed structure1 dealing chiefly with such features as can be observed with the naked eye 7,pl4 #e74 ,he invented the term radicle for the embryonic root1 and used the word plume for the organ which we now speak of in the diminutive as the plumule4 ,the cotyledons he called lobes1 but he recognised that they might in some cases appear above ground and turn green1 becoming in his terminology dissimilar leaves4 ,he took the ,bean seed as his principal type1 and described it with the lucid picturesqueness which is so characteristic of his writing4 ,it is1 he says#i1 cloathed with a double ,vest or ,coat3 ,these ,coats1 while the ,bean is yet green are separable and easily distinguished4 ,when 'tis dry1 they cleave so closely together1 that the ,eye1 not before instructed1 will judge them but one2 the inner ,coat likewise 7which is of the most rare contexture7 so far shrinking up1 as to seem only the roughness of the outer1 somewhat resembling ,wafers under ,maquaroons4 ,at the thicker end of the ,bean1 in the outer ,coat1 a very small ,foramen presents it self3 444 ,that this ,foramen is truly permeable even in old setting ,beans1 appears upon their being soak'd for some time in ,water3 ,for then taking them out1 and crushing them a little1 many small ,bubbles will alternately rise and break upon it4444 ,the ,plume is not1 like the ,radicle1 an entire ,body1 but divided at its loose end into divers pieces1 all very close set together1 as ,feathers in a ,bunch2 for which reason it may be called the ,plume4 ,they are so close1 that only two or three of the outmost are at first seen3 but upon a nice and curious separation of these1 the more interiour still may be discovered4444 ,in a ,french ,bean the two outmost are very fair and elegant4 ,in the great ,garden-,bean1 two extraordinary small ,plumes1 often1 if not always1 stand one on either side the great one now describ'd4 ,these two extraordinary small plumes are1 in other words1 the structures which we should now describe as buds in the axils of the cotyledons4 ,grew also notices that two simplified leaves are borne next above the cotyledons1 or1 as he expresses it1 the ,plume is cooped up betwixt a pair of ,surfoyls4 ,grew deals also with the vernation of leaves1 and methods of bud protection4 ,he shews that their position and folding gives two general advantages to the ,leaves1 ,elegance and ,security1 sc4 in taking up1 so far as their ,forms will bear1 the least room2 and in being so conveniently couch'd1 as to be capable of receiving protection from other parts1 or of giving it to one another2 as for instance1 ,first1 ,there is the ,plain-,lap1 where the ,leaves are all laid somewhat convexly one over another1 but not plaited2 being to the length1 breadth and number of ,leaves most agreeable2 as in the ,buds of ,pear-tree1 ,plum-tree1 etc4 ,but where the ,leaves are not thick set1 as to stand in the ,plain-lap1 there we have the ,plicature2 as in ,rose-tree1 ,strawberry1 ,cinquefoyl1 ,burnet etc4 ,grew refers also to rolled vernation1 distinguishing between the ,fore-,rowl and the ,back-,rowl4 ,he thus remarks on the hairy covering characteristic of young leaves3--the ,hairs being then in form of a ,down1 alwayes very thick set1 thus give that protection to the ,leaves1 which their exceeding tenderness then requires2 so that they seem to be vested with a ,coat of ,frieze1 or to be kept warm like young and dainty ,chickens1 in ,wooll4 ,in the year following the publication of ,the ,anatomy of ,vegetables ,begun1 ,nehemiah ,grew produced a second treatise1 under the title1 ,an ,idea of a ,phytological ,history ,propounded4 ,together with a ,continuation of the ,anatomy of ,vegetables2 ,particularly prosecuted upon ,roots4 ,and an ,account of the ,vegetation of ,roots ,grounded chiefly thereupon4 ,in the dedications of his books ,grew often reveals much of his own personality1 and of his attitude towards science1 although such revelations are apt to be mingled with the curious conceits1 and extravagant flattery1 characteristic of the time4 ,for instance he dedicated this particular work to the ,president and ,fellows of the ,royal ,society1 and after addressing to them some apologetic remarks about his own performance1 he takes heart of grace from the thought that how unpromising soever the ,stock may be1 yet the ,fruit cannot but be somewhat matured upon which ,you are pleas'd to shine4 ,it shews how strong the influence of fashion can be1 when we find such bombast coming from the pen of a man who1 only a few lines earlier1 has written1 with the perfection of simplicity1 ,withal1 ,i looked upon ,nature as a ,treasure so infinitely full1 that as all men together cannot exhaust it2 so no man1 but may find out somewhat therein1 if he be resolved to try4 ,the most important part of this treatise is the account of the comparative structure of roots1 to which we will return later1 when discussing ,grew's anatomical conceptions4 ,with regard to the position of the plant in the soil1 he held somewhat mystical views4 ,he believed that the air-vessels or tracheal elements1 tended to draw the plant upwards1 and the roots to pull it downwards4 ,he says1 for example1 that the upper part of the roots of most seedlings ascend1 because the first leaves being large and standing in the open air1 the ,air-vessels in them have a dominion over the young ,root1 and so yielding themselves to the sollicitation of the ,air upwards1 draw the ,root in part after them4 ,in #afge appeared ,grew's third botanical work1 ,the ,comparative ,anatomy of ,trunks1 which dealt with stem structure1 as the previous work dealt with root structure4 ,there is1 in the ,british ,museum1 a particularly interesting copy of this book1 which is elaborately annotated in manuscript4 ,from internal evidence it seems almost certain that this is the author's copy1 corrected in his own handwriting#aj4 ,some1 though not by any means all1 of the corrections are identical with the alterations found in the #afhb edition4 ,above the first plate is written vide ye ,book ,interleavd1 and we may perhaps hazard the guess that in this copy we have ,grew's first suggestions1 whilst those which he finally adopted in the second edition were inserted in the interleaved copy whose whereabouts1 if it still exists1 is unknown at the present time4 ,pl4 #f shews a typical page from the annotated copy4 ,at the foot we find the note ,air-,vessels out of ,parenchyma1 transformed1 as ,caterpillars to ,flys1 shewing that ,grew had arrived at some idea of the formation of vessels4 ,the whole section of the book to which this page belongs is very much remodelled in the #afhb edition1 but the analogy just quoted is introduced and ,grew proceeds accurately to describe the origin of vessels4 ,and as the ,pith it self1 by the ,rupture and ,shrinking up of several ,rows of ,bladders1 doth oftentimes become ,tubulary3 ,so is it also probable1 that in the other ,parenchymous ,parts1 one single ,row or ,file of ,bladders evenly and perpendicularly piled2 may sometimes1 by the shrinking up of their ,horizontal ,fibres1 all regularly breakone sic into another and so make one continued ,cavity4 ,i have passed over these three treatises in a somewhat cursory fashion1 because ,nehemiah ,grew's botanical work is perhaps better studied in his final pronouncement on the subject1--a folio volume published in #afhb under the title of ,the ,anatomy of ,plants4 ,with an ,idea of a ,philosophical ,history of ,plants4 ,and several other ,lectures1 ,read before the ,royal ,society4 ,this work consists of second editions of his three earlier treatises1 largely rewritten1 with a great deal of additional matter1 including a section on the anatomy of flowers1 and many new figures4 ,some of the plates are excellent1 and especially remarkable for the way in which ,grew shews the anatomy in drawings which represent the organ in three dimensions 7,pl4 #g74 ,he himself laid great stress on this4 ,in his own words1 ,in the ,plates1 for the clearer conception of the ,part described1 ,i have represented it1 generally1 as entire1 as its being magnified to some good degree1 would bear4444 ,so1 for instance1 not the ,barque1 ,wood1 or ,pith of a ,root or ,tree1 by it self2 but at least1 some portion of all three together3 ,whereby1 both their ,texture1 and also their ,relation one to another1 and the ,fabrick of the whole1 may be observed at one ,view4 ,one cannot help wishing that botanists of the present day would more often take the trouble to illustrate their papers on this principle4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,vi ,a page from ,the ,comparative ,anatomy of ,trunks1 ,nehemiah ,grew1 #afge4 ,the annotations are believed to be in the author's own handwriting4 ,british ,museum4 ,printed ,books ,dept4 7#igb4;a4#aj7 ,it is as a plant anatomist that ,grew is chiefly famous1 and it is important to try to realise exactly how far his conception of the anatomical structure of plants has been confirmed by more recent research4 ,in appraising his work it must be remembered that he was essentially the pioneer of the science4 ,it is true that some observations on plant anatomy occur in ,robert ,hooke's ,micrographia1 which was published six years before ,grew sent in his first manuscript to the ,royal ,society2 but ,hooke never really attempted to make a systematic study of the subject4 ,he had succeeded in greatly improving the microscope1 and his chief interest was in applying his instrument to all kinds of bodies1 vegetable and otherwise4 ,cork1 charcoal1 pith1 etc41 came under his observation1 and to some extent he understood their structure4 ,grew acknowledges indebtedness to the ,learned and most ,ingenious ,naturalist ,mr ,hook1 and tells us that some of the results which ,hooke obtained1 inspired him to study certain of his plants again with a better microscope4 ,for instance ,hooke was able to see smaller pores in wood than ,grew had been able to detect1 but1 with better glasses1 he confirmed the accuracy of ,hooke's observation4 ,however1 although ,hooke must certainly be credited with priority in the discovery of the fact that plant tissues are characterised by a cellular structure1 his botanical work1 considered in its entirety1 is of very slight significance compared with that of ,grew4 ,grew's clearest account of plant cells is perhaps to be found in his description of root parenchyma1 which he compares to the ,froth of ,beer or ,eggs or to a fine piece of ,manchet#aa1 or again1 to a most curious and exquisitely fine-wrought ,sponge4 ,he quotes with approval ,hooke's description of ,elder-,pith as an heap of ,bubbles4 ,it would be unsafe however to conclude that he had really arrived at what is known as the ,cell ,theory4 ,his conception of the nature of plant tissues was not by any means that of the modern botanist4 ,he believed the cell-walls to consist of inter-woven fibres1 which were continuous from cell to cell4 ,he did not consider that these fibres were invariably wrought together in such a fashion as to enclose bladder-like spaces1 or cells2 in some cases he held that the tissue was non-cellular1 consisting simply of interwoven fibres4 ,it was these hypothetical fibres1 rather than the cells1 which he regarded as of fundamental importance4 ,his idea1 which is somewhat confusing1 is perhaps best understood from his comparison of plant structure with pillow lace4 ,the most unfeigned and proper resemblance we can1 he writes1 at present make of the whole ,body of a ,plant1 is1 ,to a piece of fine ,bone-,lace1 when the ,women are working it upon the ,cushion1 ,for the ,pith1 ,insertions#ab1 and ,parenchyma of the ,barque1 are all extream ,fine and ,perfect ,lace-,work3 the ,fibres of the ,pith running ,horizontally1 as do the ,threds in a ,piece of ,lace2 and bounding the several ,bladders of the ,pith and ,barque1 as the ,threds do the several ,holes of the ,lace2 and making up the ,insertions without ,bladders1 or with very small ones1 as the same ,threds likewise do the close ,parts of the ,lace1 which they call the ,cloth-,work4 ,and lastly1 both the ,lignous and ,aer-,vessels1 stand all ,perpendicular1 and so cross to the ,horizontal ,fibres of all the said ,parenchymous ,parts2 even as in a ,piece of ,lace upon the ,cushion1 the ,pins do to the ,threds4 ,the ,pins being also conceived to be ,tubular1 and prolonged to any length2 and the same ,lace-,work to be wrought many ,thousands of times over and over again1 to any thickness or hight1 according to the hight of any ,plant4 ,and this is the true ,texture of a ,plant4 ,grew thus visualised the inner structure of the plant as a textile fabric1 and the analogy between vegetable substance and woven threads seems to have been constantly present in his mind4 ,the same idea also occurs1 for instance1 in the dedication of his magnum opus1 where he says1 one who walks about with the meanest ,stick1 holds a ,piece of ,nature's ,handicraft1 which far surpasses the most elaborate ,woof or ,needle-,work in the ,world4 ,the notions at which ,nehemiah ,grew arrived on the subject of the vascular anatomy of plants were more advanced than his ideas on the ultimate nature of the tissues4 ,there is no doubt that the comparison with animal anatomy1 which was constantly in his mind1 was on the whole helpful1 though it led to some errors4 ,the following paragraph1 which occurs in the ,cosmologia ,sacra1 seems to be an instance in which the analogy with the animal kingdom1 helped him to take a broad view4 ,in the ,woody ,parts of ,plants1 which are their ,bones2 the ,principles are so compounded1 as to make them ,flexible without ,joynts1 and also ,elastick4 ,that so their ,roots may yield to ,stones1 and their ,trunks to the ,wind1 or other force1 with a power of ,restitution4 ,whereas the ,bones of ,animals1 being joynted1 are made ,inflexible4 ,in plants1 as in animals1 ,grew looked for vessels1 and discovered by means of a simple experiment that continuous tubes1 worthy of being called by this name1 existed in the outer parts of the root1 whereas the pith consisted of closed chambers4 ,he cut a fresh root transversely1 and then gently pressed the side of it with his finger nail4 ,he was able to detect the vessels with the naked eye1 and he observed that where they occurred1 sap oozed out under pressure1 but was sucked in again when the pressure was removed4 ,the pressure also expressed a certain amount of sap from the pith1 where vessels were absent1 but here the sap was not sucked in again when the root was no longer squeezed1 shewing that the liquid had only been forced out by the wounding of the cells4 ,had they been open tubes like the vessels1 the release of the pressure would have caused the sap to disappear4 ,grew recognised that the vascular tissue of the root is centrally placed1 whereas in the stem it is circumferential1 and he points out that this difference is connected with the diverse mechanical needs of the two organs4 ,it should also be noted that he discovered that concentration of the vascular system is characteristic of climbing plants1 the wood1 in his own words1 standing more close and round together in or near the ,center1 thereby making a round1 and slender ,trunk4 ,to the end1 it may be more tractable1 to the power of the external ,motor1 what ever that may be3 and also more secure from breaking by its winding ,motion4 ,he observed the radial arrangement of the xylem in the root1 and offered an explanation of it1 which is however scarcely free from obscurity4 ,some of the more thereal and ,subtile parts of the ,aer1 as they stream through the ,root1 it should seem1 by a certain ,magnetisme1 do gradually dispose the ,aer-,vessels1 where there are any store of them1 into ,rays4 ,amongst other details of root anatomy1 ,grew discovered that all the tissues outside the central cylinder sometimes peel off when the root becomes old1 or as he says1 the whole body of the ,perpendicular ,roots1 except the woody ,fibre in the ,centre1 becomes the second skin4 ,turning to stem structure1 we find that he understood the difference in origin between stem buds and adventitious roots4 ,the stem bud1 he writes1 carries along with it1 some portion of every ,part in the ,trunk or ,stalk2 whereof it is a ,compendium4 ,the adventitious root1 on the other hand1 always shoots forth1 by making a ,rupture in the ,barque1 which it leaves behind1 and proceeds only from the inner part of the ,stalk4 ,he describes the vascular bundles of the stem as fibres perforated by numerous pores4 ,it would be a mistake1 however1 to suppose that he had no understanding of their structure1 at least as regards the xylem1 for he goes on to say that each ,fibre1 though it seem to the bare eye to be but one1 yet is1 indeed1 a great number of ,fibres together2 and every ,pore1 being not meerly a space betwixt the several parts of the ,wood1 but the ,concave of a ,fiber4 ,he noticed the medullary rays1 for which he uses the expressive term ,insertions4 ,these ,insertions1 he says1 are likewise very conspicuous in ,sawing of ,trees length-ways into ,boards1 and those plain'd1 and wrought into ,leaves for ,tables1 ,wainscot1 ,trenchers1 and the like4 ,in all which1 444 there are many parts which have a greater smoothness than the rest2 and are so many inserted ,pieces of the ,cortical ,body2 which being by those of the ,lignous1 frequently intercepted1 seem to be discontinuous1 although in the ,trunk they are really extended1 in continued ,plates1 throughout its ,breadth4 ,nehemiah ,grew was interested in the process of secondary thickening1 but he only arrived at a dim notion of how it took place4 ,he grasped1 however1 the important point that in a tree trunk the meristematic zone lies near the surface1 the young ,vessels and ,parenchymous ,parts being formed annually betwixt the ,wood and ,barque4 ,he describes how1 every year1 the ,barque of a ,tree is divided into ,two ,parts1 and distributed two contrary ways4 ,the outer ,part falleth off towards the ,skin2 and at length becomes the ,skin it self4444 ,the inmost portion of the ,barque1 is annually distributed and added to the ,wood2 the ,parenchymous ,part thereof making a new addition to the ,insertions within the ,wood2 and the ,lymphducts a new addition to the ,lignous pieces betwixt which the ,insertions stand4 ,so that a ,ring of ,lymphducts in the ,barque this year1 will be a ,ring of ,wood the next2 and so another ,ring of ,lymphducts1 and of ,wood1 successively1 from year to year4 ,exactly what ,grew meant by the term ,lymphduct is not always clear4 ,in some cases he seems to refer to the phloem and cambium by this name1 and in other cases to the perimedullary zone4 ,the annual rings in ,oak1 ,elm1 ,ash1 etc4 came under his observation1 and he remarks that the difference between the ,spring and ,autumn wood1 as we should now call it1 arises from the fact that the ,aer-,vessels that stand in the inner margin of each annual ,ring1 are all vastly bigger1 than any of those that stand in the outer part of the ,ring4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,vii ,from ,grew's ,anatomy ,sheweth the ,parts of a ,goosberry ,part of a ,vine ,branch cut transversly1 and splitt half way downe ye midle ,grew did not enter into the minuter details of histology1 except in his description of the spiral tracheids1 to which1 as we have seen1 his attention was first called by ,malpighi's observations4 ,he speaks of the spiral as formed of ,two or ,more round and true ,fibres1 although standing collaterally together1 yet perfectly distinct4 ,neither are these ,single ,fibres themselves flat1 like a ,zone2 but of a round forme1 like a most fine ,thred4 ,he makes the curious statement that the direction of the spiral is constant1 being in the ,root1 by ,south1 from ,west to ,east3 but in the ,trunk1 contrarily1 by ,south1 from ,east to ,west4 ,although it is as an anatomist that ,nehemiah ,grew is best known1 his grasp of external morphology is perhaps even more remarkable4 ,his work on seed structure has already been quoted4 ,he seems to have quite readily detected the true nature of modified stems4 ,he examined for instance the thorns of the ,hawthorn1 and saw that their structure was axial4 ,in his own words1 they are constituted of all the same substantial ,parts whereof the ,germen or ,bud it self is1 and in a like proportion3 which also in their ,infancy are set with the resemblances of divers minute ,leaves4 ,it should be recalled that ,albertus ,magnus1 the great scholastic philosopher1 writing in the thirteenth century1 distinguished between thorns and prickles1 and noticed transitions between the former and leafy branches#ac4 ,there is no reason to suppose1 however1 that our author was acquainted with the work of ,albertus4 ,grew realised the nature of ,bulbs1 and points out that the ,strings only1 are absolute ,roots2 the ,bulb1 actually containing those ,parts1 which springing up1 make the ,leaves or ,body2 and is1 as it were1 a ,great ,bud under ground4 ,nehemiah ,grew was interested in plant physiology1 although the state of chemical and physical knowledge at the time did not allow of his advancing so far in this1 as in the morphological side of the subject4 ,his turn of mind1 too1 appears to have naturally led him to the study of form rather than that of function4 ,as regards the absorption of water1 his idea was simply that the roots sucked up water like a sponge1 because the parenchyma was of a spongy nature4 ,he supposed that the liquid was rendered purer by being strained through the skin1 which1 according to whether it was of a texture resembling brown paper1 cotton1 or leather1 would produce a different effect upon any solution passing through it4 ,his explanation of the ascent of the sap had really much in common with the ,kletterbewegung theory propounded by ,westermaier#ad almost exactly two hundred years later4 ,grew argued that considering to what height and plenty1 the ,sap sometimes ascends2 it is not intelligible1 how it should thus ascend1 by virtue of any one ,part of a ,plant1 alone2 that is neither by virtue of the ,parenchyma1 nor by virtue of the ,vessels1 alone4 ,he pointed out that the parenchyma might suck up a liquid for a short distance1 and also the vessels1 like small ,glass-,pipes immersed in ,water1 will give it an ascent for some ,inches2 yet there is a certain period1 according to the bore of the ,pipe1 beyond which it will not rise4 ,to account for the rise he supposes that the vessels and parenchyma work together1 the turgidity of the surrounding parenchyma cells both compressing the vessels1 and thus causing the liquid in them to ascend1 and also actually forcing some of their own contents into them4 ,grew performed a few experiments1 especially in the direction of plant chemistry4 ,this was a natural line of work for a doctor1 since the extraction of various vegetable substances had long been practised in medicine4 ,he noticed1 amongst other points1 that the green infusion obtained by treating a plant with olive oil would1 at least in the case of certain aromatic plants1 appear of a green colour in a small drop1 but of a red1 or deep yellow1 when a quantity of it was held up against a candle4 ,in other words1 ,grew seems to have observed the characteristic fluorescence of chlorophyll4 ,he was interested also in the subject of geotropism1 and succeeded in proving that there is an innate tendency for the root to grow down and the stem to grow up2 and that it is not merely a case of the root seeking the soil1 and the stem the air4 ,his directions for performing the experiment are as follows3--,take a ,box of ,moulds1 with a hole bored in the bottom1 wide enough to admit the ,stalk of a ,plant1 and set it upon stilts half a yard or more above ground4 ,then lodg in the ,mould some ,plant1 for ,example a ,bean1 in such sort1 that the ,root of the ,bean standing in the ,moulds may poynt upwards1 the ,stalk towards the ground4 ,as the ,plant grows1 it will follow1 that at length the ,stalk will rise upward1 and the ,root on the contrary1 arch it self downward4 ,which evidently shews1 ,that it is not sufficient1 that the ,root hath ,earth to shoot into1 or that its ,motion is only an ,appetite of being therein lodged1 which way soever that be3 but that its nature is1 though within the ,earth already1 yet to change its ,position1 and to move ,downwards4 ,and so likewise of the ,trunk1 that it rises1 when a ,seed sprouts1 out of the ,ground1 not meerly because it hath an ,appetite of being in the open ,aer2 for in this ,experiment it is so already2 yet now makes a new ,motion upwards4 ,although ,grew cannot be called a great experimenter1 he frequently took the easier course of throwing out suggestions for such work4 ,the generation of ,experiments he describes as being like that of ,discourse1 where one thing introduceth an hundred more which otherwise would never have been thought of4 ,amongst other proposals he recommends that trial should be made of growing plants in common water1 snow water1 milk1 oil1 wine1 ink1 etc41 or in any of these with solid bodies1 such as nitre and salt1 dissolved in them4 ,he points out that the effect both on the plant and on the liquid should be noted4 ,the solid body should be weighed before solution1 and then1 after the experiment is over1 the liquid should be evaporated and the solid again weighed4 ,another instance in which he suggested an experiment1 apparently without carrying it out1 was in relation to the movements of the stems of non-climbing plants4 ,he seems to have anticipated the nineteenth century discovery of nutation amongst plants other than climbers1 though he stopped short of actually proving it4 ,in his account of the ,motions of ,trunks he remarks1 ,the ,convolution of ,plants1 hath been observed only in those that ,climb4 ,but it seems probable1 that many others do also wind2 444 ,whether it be so1 or not the ,experiment may easily be made by tying a ,thred upon any of the ,branches2 setting down the respect it then hath to any ,quarter in the ,heavens3 for1 if it shall appear in two or three ,months1 to have changed its ,situation towards some other ,quarter2 it is certain proof hereof4 ,he noticed that some plants twine by ,south from ,east to ,west and others from ,west to ,east1 and attributed this to their being respectively under the influence of the sun and the moon4 ,whenever ,grew's notions of plant physiology depended upon chemistry1 they became1 according to our modern ideas1 extremely difficult to follow4 ,he held1 among many other curious beliefs1 that salts obtained from any plant have a tendency to crystallise out in a form resembling that plant1 and adds1 as an illustration from the animal world1 though ,i have not seen it my self1 yet ,i have been told by one that doth not use to phancy things1 that the ,volatile ,salt of ,vipers1 will figure it self into the semblance of little ,vipers4 ,the mystical belief that characteristic principles permeate all things1 finds expression in his idea that the frost flowers1 sometimes to be seen on a window pane1 are evidence that the air is impregnated with ,vegetable ,principles4 ,another fact1 which he brings forward in support of the same view1 is that the ground or water1 when exposed for some time to air1 turns green4 ,his explanation1 in this latter case1 was not far from the truth1 for1 as we now know1 the greenness is due to the vegetation of minute alg1 which1 in their dormant state1 may be carried from place to place by the wind4 ,it is usual to regard ,ecology as a very recent development of botanical science1 but ,nehemiah ,grew seems to have been alive to the importance of the ecological standpoint1--though he did not describe it by this name4 ,he writes ,the proper ,places also of ,plants1 or such wherein they have 444 a ,spontaneous growth1 should be considered4 ,and that as to the ,climate2 whether in one ,colder1 ,temperate1 or more ,hot4 ,the ,region2 ,continent1 or ,island4 ,the ,seat2 as ,sea1 or ,land1 ,watry1 ,boggy1 or ,dry2 ,hills1 ,plains1 or ,vallies2 ,open1 in ,woods1 or under ,hedges2 against ,walls1 rooted in them1 or on their ,tops2 and the like4 ,grew's most interesting contribution to science was1 perhaps1 his publication of the fact that the flowering plants1 like animals1 shew the phenomena of sex4 ,he never1 however1 actually proved this contention in an experimental way4 ,at the time that his earliest work#ae was published1 he was frankly puzzled by the stamens1 or1 as he calls them1 the ,attire4 ,he recognised their use to insects1 to whom flowers serve1 in his own words1 as their ,lodging and their ,dining-,room4 ,he also fully realised their value to man as increasing the beauty of the blossom1 but he was broad-minded enough to feel that these must be secondary uses1 and that the primary and private use of the attire remained to be discovered4 ,ten years later1 in the second edition of his work1 he tells us that it was suggested to him in conversation by ,sir ,thomas ,millington that the stamens were the male organs4 ,it seems probable that1 although ,grew gives ,millington the credit for this discovery1 he had really arrived at it independently1 for he tells us that when ,millington made the suggestion1 he immediately reply'd that he was of the same ,opinion2 and gave him some reasons for it1 and answered some ,objections1 which might oppose them4 ,besides his belief in the male nature of the stamen1 ,nehemiah ,grew came to some rather mysterious conclusions as to their serving to draw off the redundant part of the sap1 not needed to produce the seed4 ,he also used the word attire for the florets of the ,composit1 but qualified it by calling the stamens the seminal attire1 and the florets of compound flowers the florid attire4 ,he says that every ,flower with the ,florid attire 7or1 as we should now say1 every composite flower7 ,embosomes1 or is1 a ,posy of perfect ,flowers4 ,he recognised the globulets 7pollen grains7 as being of the same nature as those in the anthers of simple flowers4 ,he describes the disk florets with remarkable accuracy1 but falls into the error of supposing that the pollen grains are in some cases originally produced by the style and stigmas1 which he calls the ,blade1 and which he did not recognise as part of the female organ4 ,his figures make it clear that he mistook the stylar hairs for little stalks organically connecting the pollen grains and the style4 ,in other cases1 however1 he observed that the pollen grains occurred on the inner side of what we now know as the staminal tube4 ,grew enters into considerable detail as regards the structure of flowers1 and it is only possible to mention here a few of the points to which he draws attention4 ,he observed the frequent occurrence of capitate glandular hairs1 which he describes as like so many little ,mushrooms sprouting out of the ,flower1 their heads sometimes exuding a ,gummy or ,balsamick ,juyce4 ,he describes the varieties of aestivation of the floral leaves1 and notes that1 in the ,poppy1 the large size and fewness of the petals prevents their being folded into a compact body by any of the ordinary methods4 ,for which reason1 they are cramb'd up within the ,empalement#af by hundreds of little ,wrinckles or ,puckers2 as if ,three or ,four ,fine ,cambrick ,handcherchifs were thrust into ones ,pocket4 ,we have said something about ,grew's work on seeds1 in dealing with his first treatise4 ,he was always much interested in this subject1 and returned to it again in his later work4 ,he mentions the mucilaginous testa possessed by many seeds1 but which only becomes noticeable when they have been moistened4 ,that of ,nasturtium ,hortense he describes as very large1 even emulous of the inner ,pulp surrounding a ,gooseberry-,seed4 ,he suggests that the value of putting a ,clary seed into the eye to bring out a foreign body1 which may have lodged there1 is due to the presence of the mucilaginous coat4 ,the same seed is still1 ,i believe1 used for this purpose1 under the name of eye seed4 ,grew understood the difference between seeds with1 and without endosperm1 and gives perfectly clear representations of such albuminous seeds as ,ricinus4 ,he describes the cotyledons of the ,dock as being immersed in the endosperm1 as in a ,tub of ,meal or a little pot of pure refin'd ,mould1 necessary for the first ,vegetation of the ,radicle4 ,grew naturally reckoned the spores of ,ferns among seeds4 ,the seed-case of the ,harts-tongue is1 he says1 of a ,silver ,colour 444 of a spherick ,figure1 and girded about with a sturdy ,tendon or ,spring1 of the ,colour of ,gold3 444 ,so soon as 444 this ,spring is become stark enough1 it suddenly breaks the ,case into two halfs1 like two little cups1 and so flings the ,seed1 of which ten ,thousand are not so big as a white ,pepper ,corn4 ,to give any kind of short summary of ,grew's botanical work is well-nigh impossible4 ,some men are remembered for individual discoveries1 and in such cases it is not difficult to give a prcis of their contributions4 ,but ,nehemiah ,grew is remembered because1 contemporaneously with ,malpighi1 he actually created the science of plant anatomy1--a subject which1 before his day1 was practically non-existent4 ,modern botanists1 conscious how small an addition to the fabric is now regarded as a satisfactory life-work1 must stand amazed and somewhat humbled before the broad and sound foundations laid by this seventeenth century physician4 ,it is no less than two hundred and forty years since ,grew sent in his first treatise to the ,royal ,society1 so it is scarcely wonderful that a number of his results have been rejected in course of time4 ,it is far more remarkable that so many of his conclusions--and those the more essential ones--have been merely confirmed and extended by later work4 ,great however as were his actual contributions to botanical knowledge1 they were perhaps less important than the far-reaching service which he rendered in helping to free biological thought from the cramping belief that the one and only object of the existence of the organic world was for the use and pleasure of man4 ,grew believed that the ,outward ,elegancies of ,plants might be for the purpose of giving delight to the human race1 but he was the first to point out that as the ,inward ,ones1 which1 generally1 are as ,precise and ,various as the ,outward1 are so seldom seen1 their purpose can hardly be for this1 but must be for the benefit of the plants themselves1 ,that the ,corn might grow1 so2 and the ,flower1 so1 whether or no ,men had a mind1 leisure1 or ability1 to understand how4 ,,footnotes3 #b ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog41 edited by ,leslie ,stephen and ,sidney ,lee1 vol4 ,,xxiii4 #ahij4 #c ,enoch's ,translation4 ,a ,funeral ,sermon ,upon the ,sudden ,death of ,dr ,nehemiah ,grew1 ,fellow of the ,college of ,physicians4 ,who died ,march #beth1 #agab4 ,preach'd at ,old-,jewry4 ,by ,john ,shower4 ,london4 #agab4 #d #agja4 #e ,life of ,robert ,boyle by ,thomas ,birch1 p4 #hc1 #agdd4 #f ,m4 ,j4 ,schleiden1 ,grundzge der wissenschaftlichen ,botanik1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #aih1 #ahdb4 ,the incorrect statement that ,grew was ,secretary of the ,royal ,society at the time that ,malpighi's manuscript was received by that body1 is also repeated in the ,english translation of ,schleiden's work ,schleiden's ,principles of ,scientific ,botany1 translated by ,edwin ,lankester1 ,london1 #ahdi1 p4 #ch4 #g ,aloys ,pollender1 ,wem gebhrt die ,prioritt in der ,anatomie der ,pflanzen dem ,grew oder dem ,malpighi8 ,bonn1 #ahfh4 #h ,marcellus ,malpighi1 ,anatome ,plantarum1 #b pts1 ,london1 #ahge and #ahgi 7see also ,marcellus ,malpighi1 ,die ,anatomie der ,pflanzen1 ,bearbeitet von ,m4 ,mbius1 ,leipzig1 #aija4 ,in this little book the more important parts of ,malpighi's work are translated into ,german1 and a number of the figures reproduced74 #i ,the order of the paragraphs cited is slightly altered from that of the original4 #aj ,by the courtesy of the ,council of the ,royal ,society1 ,i have been able to compare these annotations with certain manuscript letters of ,nehemiah ,grew's preserved in the ,society's ,library4 ,this comparison confirms the view that the annotations are in ,grew's own handwriting4 #aa ,manchet a loaf of fine wheaten bread4 7,an ,etymological ,dictionary of the ,english ,language4 ,w4 ,w4 ,skeat4 ,new ed4 #aiaj47 #ab ,medullary rays4 #ac ,ernst ,h4 ,f4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte der ,botanik1 vol4 ,,iv4 p4 #fj1 #aheg4 #ad ,m4 ,westermaier1 ,zur ,kenntniss der osmotischen ,leistungen des lebenden ,parenchym's4 ,ber4 d4 deutsch4 bot4 ,gesellsch4 ,bd ,i4 p4 #cga1 #ahhc4 #ae ,the ,anatomy of ,vegetables ,begun1 #afgb4 #af ,calyx4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,viii ,,stephen ,,hales 7#agei7 ,,stephen ,,hales #afgg-agfa ,,by ,,francis ,,darwin ,an error corrected--,hales' scientific contemporaries--,physiology or ,physics--,hales the ,founder of the experimental method in ,physiology--,his style--,cambridge days--,teddington--,vegetable ,staticks--,experiments described--,transpiration--,root ,pressure--,assimilation--,practical application to greenhouses--,distribution of growth first measured--,hales' other activities--,sachs' tribute4 ,in attempting to give a picture of any man's life and work it is well to follow the rule of the ,dictionary of ,national ,biography1 and begin with the dates of his birth and death4 ,stephen ,hales was born in #afgg and died in #agfa1 having had experiences of the reigns of seven sovereigns4 ,the authorities for the life of ,hales are given in my article on him in the ,dictionary of ,national ,biography4 ,botanists in general probably take their knowledge of the main facts of his life from ,sachs' ,history of ,botany4 ,it is therefore worth while to point out that both the original and the ,english translation 7#ahij7 contain the incorrect statement that ,hales was educated at ,christ's ,college1 ,cambridge1 and that he held the living of ,riddington1 whereas he is one of the glories of ,corpus1 and was perpetual curate of ,teddington4 ,these inaccuracies however are trifles in relation to the great and striking merits of ,sachs' ,history1 a work which to my thinking exhibits the strength and brilliance of the author's mind as clearly as any of his more technical writings4 ,sachs was no niggling biographer1 and his broad vigorous outlines must form the basis of what anyone1 who follows him1 has to say about the ,botanists of a past day4 ,to return to ,hales' birth3 it is of interest to note how he fits into the changing procession of lives1 to see what great men overlap his youth1 who were his contemporaries in his maturity1 and who were appearing on the scientific stage as he was leaving it4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton was the dominant figure in ,english science while ,hales was developing4 ,he died in #agbg1 the year in which ,hales published his ,vegetable ,staticks1 a book1 which like the ,origin of ,species1 appeared when its author was #ej years of age2 ,newton was at the zenith of his fame when ,hales was a little boy of #aj--;his ,principia having been published in #afhg4 ,and when ,hales went up to ,cambridge in #afif he must have seen the great man coming from his rooms#ag in the ,n4,e4 corner of the ,great ,court of ,trinity--that corner where ,newton's and other more modern ghosts surely walk--,macaulay who used to read1 pacing to and fro by the chapel#ah1 and ,thackeray who1 like his own ,esmond1 lived near to the famous ,mr ,newton's lodgings4 ,in any case there can be no doubt that the genius of ,newton cast its light on ,hales1 as ,sachs has clearly pointed out 7,hist4 ,bot41 ,eng4 ,tr41 p4 #dgg74 ,another great man who influenced ,hales was ,robert ,boyle1 who was born #afbg and died #afia4 ,john ,mayow again1 that brilliant son of ,oxford1 whose premature death at #ci in #afgi was so heavy a blow to science1 belongs to the same school as ,hales--the school which was within an ace of founding a rational chemistry1 but which was separated from the more obvious founders of that science by the phlogiston-theory of ,becchers and ,stahl4 ,i do not find any evidence that ,hales was influenced by the phlogistic writers and this is comprehensible enough1 if1 as ,i think1 he belongs to the school of ,mayow and ,boyle4 ,the later discoverers in chemistry are of the following dates1 ,black #agbh-agii1 ,cavendish #agca-ahaj1 ,priestley #agcc-ahjd1 ,scheele #agdb-aghf1 ,lavoisier #agdc1 guillotined #agid4 ,these were all born about the time of ,hales' zenith1 nor did he live#ai to see the great results they accomplished4 ,but it should not be forgotten that ,hales' chemical work made more easy the triumphant road they trod4 ,i have spoken of ,hales in relation to chemists and physicists because1 though essentially a physiologist1 he seems to me to have been a chemist and physicist who turned his knowledge to the study of life1 rather than a physiologist who had some chemical knowledge4 ,whewell points out in his ,history of the ,inductive ,sciences#bj that the ,physiologist asks questions of ,nature in a sense differing from that of the ,physicist4 ,the ,why8 of the ,physicist meant ,through what causes8 that of the ,physiologist--,to what end8 ,this distinction no longer holds good1 and if it is to be applied to ,hales it is a test which shows him to be a physicist4 ,for1 as ,sachs shows1 though ,hales was necessarily a teleologist in the theological sense1 he always asked for purely mechanical explanations4 ,he was the most unvitalistic of physiologists1 and ,i think his explanations suffered from this cause4 ,for instance1 he seems to have held that to compare the effect of heat on a growing root to the action of the same cause on a thermometer#ba was a quite satisfactory proceeding4 ,and there are many other passages in ,vegetable ,staticks where one feels that his speculations are too heavy for his knowledge4 ,something must be said of ,hales' relation to his predecessors and successors in ,botanical work4 ,the most striking of his immediate predecessors were ,malpighi #afbh-afid1 ,grew #afbh-agaa1 ,ray #afbg-agje1 and ,mariotte 7birth unknown1 died #afhd72 and of these the three first were born one hundred years before the publication of ,vegetable ,staticks4 ,malpighi and ,grew were essentially plant-anatomists1 though both dealt in physiological speculations4 ,their works were known to ,hales1 but they do not seem to have influenced him4 ,we have seen that as a chemist ,hales is somewhat of a solitary figure1 standing between what may be called the periods of ,boyle and of ,cavendish4 ,this is even more striking in his ,botanical position1 for here he stands in the solitude of all great original inquirers4 ,we must go back to ,van ,helmont1 #aegg-afdd1 to find anyone comparable to him as an experimentalist4 ,his successors have discovered much that was hidden from him1 but consciously or unconsciously they have all learned from him the true method and spirit of physiological work4 ,it may be urged that in exalting ,hales ,i am unfair to ,malpighi4 ,it may be fairer to follow ,sachs in linking these great men together and to insist on the wonderful fact that before ,malpighi's book in #afga1 vegetable physiology was still where ,aristotle left it1 whereas #ef years later in #agbg we find in ,hales' book an experimental science in the modern sense4 ,it should not be forgotten that students of animal physiology agree with botanists as to ,hales' greatness4 ,a writer in the ,encyclopdia ,britannica speaks of him as the true founder of the modern experimental method in physiology4 ,according to ,sachs1 ,ray made some interesting observations on the transmission of water1 but on the whole what he says on this subject is not important4 ,there is no evidence that he influenced ,hales4 ,mariotte the physicist came to one physiological conclusion of great weight#bb2 namely1 that the different qualities of plants1 e4g4 taste1 odour1 etc41 do not depend on the absorption from the soil of differently scented or flavoured principles1 as the ,aristotelians imagined1 but on specific differences in the way in which different plants deal with identical food material--an idea which is at the root of a sane physiological outlook4 ,these views were published in #afgibc1 and may have been known to ,hales4 ,he certainly was interested in such ideas1 as is indicated by his attempts to give flavour to fruit by supplying them with medicated fluids4 ,he probably did not expect success for he remarks1 p4 #cfj3 ,the specifick differences of vegetables1 which are all sustained and grow from the same nourishment1 is sic doubtless owing to the very different formation of their minute vessels1 whereby an almost infinite variety of combinations of the common principles of vegetables is made4 ,he continues in the following delightful passage3 ,and could our eyes attain to a sight of the admirable texture of the parts on which the specific differences in plants depends sic what an amazing and beautiful scene of inimitable embroidery should we behold8 what a variety of masterly strokes of machinery8 what evident marks of consummate wisdom should we be entertained with8 ,to conclude what has been said on ,hales' chronological position--,ingenhousz1 the chief founder of the modern point of view on plant nutrition1 was born #agcj and published his book ,on ,vegetables1 etc4 in #aggi4 ,so that what was said of ,hales' chemical position is again true of him considered in relation to nutrition2 he did not live to see the great discoveries made at the close of the #ahth century4 ,there is in his writing a limpid truthfulness and simplicity1 unconsciously decorated with pretty #ahth century words and half-rusticities which give it a perennial charm4 ,and inasmuch as ,i desire to represent ,hales not merely as a man to be respected but also to be loved1 it will be as well to give what is known of the personal side of his character before going on to a detailed account of his work4 ,he was1 as we have seen1 entered at ,corpus ,christi ,college1 ,cambridge1 in ,june1 #afif4 ,in ,february1 #agjb-c1 he was admitted a fellow of the ,college4 ,it was during his life as a fellow that he began to work at chemistry in what he calls the elaboratory in ,trinity ,college4 ,the room is now occupied by the ,senior ,bursar and forms part of the beautiful range of buildings in the bowling green1 which1 freed from stucco and other desecration1 are made visible in their ancient guise by the piety of a son of ,trinity and the wisdom of the ,college authorities4 ,it was here1 according to ,dr ,bentley1 that the thieving ,bursars of the old set embezzled the ,college timber#bd1 and it was this room that was fitted up as an elegant laboratory in #agjf for ,john ,francis ,vigani1 an ,italian chemist1 who had taught unofficially in the ,university for some years and became the first ,professor of ,chemistry at ,cambridge in #agjc4 ,judging from his book1 ,medulla ,chymiae1 #afhb1 ,vigani was an eminently practical person who cared greatly about the proper make of a furnace and the form of a retort1 but was not cumbered with theories4 ,hales vacated his fellowship and became minister or perpetual curate of ,teddington#be in #agjh-i and there he lived until his death1 fifty-two years afterwards4 ,he was married 78 #agai7 and his wife died without issue in #agba4 ,he attracted the attention of ,royalty1 and received plants from the ,king's garden at ,hampton ,court4 ,frederick ,prince of ,wales1 the father of ,george ,,iii1 is said to have been fond of surprising him in his laboratory at ,teddington4 ,this must surely be a unique habit in a prince1 but we may remember that1 in the words of the ,prince's mock epitaph1 since it is only ,fred there's no more to be said4 ,he became ,clerk of the ,closet to the ,dowager ,princess and this mother of the best of ,kings as she calls herself put up his monument in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,hales had the honour of receiving the ,copley ,medal from the ,royal ,society in #agci1 and ,oxford made him a ,d4,d4 in #agcc4 ,some years ago ,i made a pilgrimage to ,teddington and found1 in the parish registers1 many interesting entries by his hand2 the last in a tremulous writing is on ,november #dth1 #agfj1 two months before he died4 ,he was clearly an active parish priest4 ,he made his female parishioners do public penance when he thought they deserved it3 he did much for the fabric of the church4 ,in #agedbf he helped the parish to a decent water supply and characteristically records1 in the parish register1 that the outflow was such as to fill a two-quart vessel in 'three swings of a pendulum beating seconds1 which pendulum was #ci #b_/aj inches long from the suspending nail to the middle of the plumbet or bob'4 ,under the tower he helped to build 7which now serves as a porch7 ,stephen ,hales is buried1 and the stone which covers his body is being worn away by the feet of the faithful4 ,by the piety of a few botanists a mural tablet1 on which the epitaph is restored1 has been placed near the grave4 ,horace ,walpole called ,hales a poor1 good1 primitive creature and ,pope#bg 7who was his neighbour7 said ,i shall be very glad to see ,dr ,hales1 and always love to see him1 he is so worthy and good a man4 ,peter ,collinson writes of his constant serenity and cheerfulness of mind2 it is also recorded that he could look even upon wicked men1 and those who did him unkind offices1 without any emotion of particular indignation2 not from want of discernment or sensibility2 but he used to consider them only like those experiments which1 upon trial1 he found could never be applied to any useful purpose1 and which he therefore calmly and dispassionately laid aside4 ,hales' work may be divided into three heads3 ,i4 ,physiological1 animal and vegetable2 ,,ii4 ,chemical2 ,,iii4 ,inventions and miscellaneous essays4 ,under ,no4 ,i4 ,i shall deal only with his work on plants4 ,the last heading 7,no4 ,,iii47 ,i shall only refer to slightly1 but the variety and ingenuity of his miscellaneous publications is perhaps worth mention here as an indication of the quality of his mind4 ,it seems to me to have had something in common with the versatile ingenuity of ,erasmus ,darwin and of his grandson ,francis ,galton4 ,the miscellaneous work also exhibits ,hales as a philanthropist1 who cared passionately for bettering the health and comfort of his fellow creatures by improving their conditions of life4 ,his chief book from the physiological and chemical point of view is his ,vegetable ,staticks4 ,it will be convenient to begin with the physiological part of this book1 and refer to the chemistry later4 ,vegetable ,staticks is a small #hvo of #cgf pages1 dated on the title-page #agbg4 ,the ,imprimatur ,isaac ,newton ,pr4 ,reg4 ,soc4 is dated ,february #af1 #agbf_/g1 and this date is of some slight interest1 for ,newton died on ,march #bj1 and ,vegetable ,staticks must have been one of the last books he signed4 ,the dedication is to ,george ,prince of ,wales1 afterwards ,george ,,iii4 ,the author cannot quite avoid the style of his day1 for instance3 ,and as ,solomon the greatest and wisest of men1 deigned#bh to inquire into the nature of ,plants1 from the ,cedar of ,lebanon1 to the ,hyssop that springeth out of the wall4 ,so it will not1 ,i presume1 be an unacceptable entertainment to your ,royal ,highness1 etc4 ,but the real interest of the dedication is its clear statement of his views on the nutrition of plants4 ,he asserts that plants obtain nourishment1 not only from the earth1 but also more sublimed and exalted food from the air1 that wonderful fluid1 which is of such importance to the life of ,vegetables and ,animals1 etc4 ,we shall see that his later statement is not so definite1 and it is well to rescue this downright assertion from oblivion4 ,his book begins with the research for which he is best known1 namely that on transpiration4 ,he took a sunflower growing in a flower-pot1 covering the surface of the earth with a plate of thin milled lead1 and cemented it so that no vapour could pass1 leaving a corked hole to allow of the plant being watered4 ,he did not take steps to prevent loss through the pot1 but at the end of the experiment cut off the plant1 cemented the stump and found that the unglazed porous pot perspired #b ozs4 in #ab hours1 and for this he made due allowance4 ,the plant so prepared he proceeded to weigh at stated intervals4 ,he obtained the area of the leaves by dividing them into parcels according to their several sizes and measuring one leaf#bi of each parcel4 ,the loss of water in #ab hours converted to the metric system is #ac c4c4 per #ajj sq4 cm4 of leaf-surface2 and this is of the same order of magnitude as ,sachs' result#cj1 namely #bb c4c4 per #ajj sq4 cm4 ,he goes on to measure the surface of the roots#ca and to estimate the rate of absorption per area4 ,the calculation is of no value1 since he did not know how small a part of the roots is absorbent1 nor how enormously the surface of that part is increased by the presence of root-hairs4 ,he goes on to estimate the rate of the flow of water up the stem2 this would be #cd cubic inches in #ab hours if the stem 7which was one square inch in section7 were a hollow tube4 ,he then allowed a sunflower stem to wither and to become completely dry1 and found that it had lost of its weight1 and assuming that the of the solid parts left was useless for the transmission of water he increases his #cd by and gives #de cubic inches in #ab hours as the rate4 ,but the solid matter which he neglected contained the vessels and he would have been nearer to the truth had he corrected his figures on this basis4 ,the simplest plan is to compare his results with those obtained by ,sachs#cb in allowing plants to absorb solutions of lithium-salts4 ,if the flow takes place through conduits equivalent to a quarter of a square inch in area1 the fluid will rise in #ab hours to a height of #d #cd or #acf inches or in one hour to #bhc cm4#cc ,this is a result comparable to1 though very much smaller than1 ,sachs' result with the sunflower1 viz4 #fc cm4 per hour4 ,the data are however hardly worth treating in this manner4 ,but it is of historic interest to note that when ,sachs was at work on his ,pflanzenphysiologie1 published in #ahfe1 he was compelled to go back nearly #adj years to find any results with which he could compare his own4 ,we need not follow ,hales into his comparison between the perspiration of the sunflower and that of a man1 nor into his other transpiration experiments on the cabbage1 vine1 apple1 etc4 ,but one or two points must be noted4 ,he found#cd the middle rate of perspiration of a sunflower in #ab hours of daylight to be #bj ounces1 and that of a dry warm night about #c ounces2 thus the day transpiration was roughly seven times the nocturnal rate4 ,this difference may be accounted for by the closure of the stomata at night4 ,hales of course knew nothing of stomata1 but it is surprising to find ,sachs in #ahfe discussing the problem of transpiration with hardly a reference to the effect of stomatal closure4 ,hales#ce notes another point which a knowledge of stomatal behaviour might have explained1 viz4 that with scanty watering the perspiration much abated1 he does not attempt an explanation but merely refers to it as a healthy latitude of perspiration in this ,sunflower4 ,in the course of his work on sunflowers he notices that the flower follows the sun1 he says however that it is not by turning round with the sun1 i4e4 that it is not a twisting of the stalk1 and goes on to call it nutation which must be the locus classicus for the term used in this sense4 ,an experiment#cf that ,i do not remember to have seen quoted elsewhere is worth describing4 ,it is one of the many experiments that show the generous scale on which his work was planned4 ,an apple bough five feet long was fixed to a vertical glass tube nine feet long4 ,the tube being above and the branch hanging below the pressure of the column of water would act in concert with the suck of the transpiring leaves instead of in opposition to this force4 ,he then cut the bare stem of his branch in two1 placing the apical half of the specimen 7bearing side branches and leaves7 with its cut end in a glass vessel of water1 the basal and leafless half of the branch remained attached to the vertical tube of water4 ,in the next #cj hours only #f ounces dripped through the leafless branch1 whereas the leafy branch absorbed #ah ounces4 ,this1 as he says1 shows the great power of perspiration4 ,and though he does not pursue the experiment1 it is worthy of note as an attempt like those of ,janse#cg and others to correlate the flow of water under pressure with the flow due to transpiration4 ,it is interesting to find that ,hales used the three methods of estimating transpiration which have been employed in modern times1 namely1 7i7 weighing1 7ii7 a rough sort of potometer1 7iii7 enclosing a branch in a glass balloon and collecting the precipitated moisture1 the well-known plan followed by various ,french observers4 ,he 7,vegetable ,staticks1 p4 #ea7 concluded his balance of loss and gain in transpiring plants by estimating the amount of available water in the soil to a depth of three feet1 and calculating how long his sunflower would exist without watering4 ,he further concludes 7p4 #eg7 that an annual rainfall 7of #bb inches7 is sufficient for all the purposes of nature1 in such flat countries as this about ,teddington4 ,he constantly notes small points of interest1 e4g4 7p4 #hb7 that with cut branches the water absorbed diminishes each day and that the former vigour of absorption may be partly renewed by cutting a fresh surface#ch4 ,he also showed 7p4 #hi7 that the transpiration current can flow perfectly well from apex to base when the apical end is immersed in water4 ,these are familiar facts to us1 but we should realise that it is to the industry and ingenuity of ,hales that we owe them4 ,in a repetition 7p4 #ij7 of the last experiment1 we have the first mention of a fact fundamentally important4 ,he took two branches 7which with a clerical touch he calls ,m and ,n7 and having removed the bark from a part of the branch dipped the ends in water1 ,n with the great end downwards1 but ,m upside down4 ,in this way he showed that the bark was not necessary for the absorption or transmission of water#ci4 ,i suspect that one branch was inverted out of respect for the hypothesis of sap-circulation4 ,he perhaps thought that water could travel apically by the wood1 but only by the bark in the opposite direction4 ,later in his book 7pp4 #abh and #aca7 he gives definite arguments against the hypothesis in question4 ,next in order 7p4 #ie7 comes his well-known experiment on the pressure exerted by peas increasing in size as they imbibe water4 ,there are1 however1 pitfalls in this result of which ,hales was unaware1 and perhaps the chief interest to us now is that he considered the imbibition of the peas#dj to be the same order of phenomenon as the absorption of water by a cut branch--notwithstanding the fact that he knew#da the absorption to depend largely on the leaves4 ,it may be noticed that ,sachs with his imbibitional view of water-transport may be counted a follower of ,hales4 ,in order to ascertain whether there was any lateral communication of the sap and sap vessels1 as there is of blood in animals1 ,hales 7p4 #aba7 made the experiment which has been repeated in modern laboratories#db1 i4e4 cutting a gap to the pith and another opposite to it and a few inches above4 ,this he did on an oak branch six feet long whose basal end was placed in water4 ,the branch continued to perspire for two days1 but gave off only about half the amount of water transpired by a normal branch#dc4 ,he does not trouble himself about this difference1 being satisfied of great quantities of liquor having passed laterally by the gap4 ,he is interested in the fact of lateral transmission in connexion with the experiment of the suspended tree 7,fig4 #bd1 p4 #abf71 which is dependent on the neighbours to which it is grafted for its water supply4 ,this seems to be one of the results that convinced him that there is a distribution of food material which cannot be described as circulation of sap in the sense that was then in vogue4 ,hales 7p4 #adc7 was one of the first#dd to make the well-known experiment--the removal of a ring of bark1 with the result that the edge of bark nearest the base of the branch swells and thickens in a characteristic manner4 ,he points out that if a number of rings are made one above the other1 the swelling is seen at the lower edge of each isolated piece of bark1 and therefore 7p4 #adc7 the swelling must be attributed to some other cause than the stoppage of the sap in its return downwards1 because the first gap in the bark should be sufficient to check the whole of the flowing sap#de4 ,he must in fact have seen that there is a redistribution of plastic material in each section of bark4 ,we now for the moment leave the subject of transpiration and pass on to that of root-pressure on which ,hales is equally illuminating4 ,illustration3 ,figure from ,vegetable ,staticks showing a vine with mercury gauges in place to demonstrate root-pressure4 ,his first experiment1 ,vegetable ,staticks1 p4 #ajj1 was with a vine to which he attached a vertical pipe made of three lengths of glass-tubing jointed together4 ,his method is worth notice4 ,he attached the stump to the manometer with a stiff cement made of melted ,beeswax and ,turpentine1 and bound it over with several folds of wet bladder and pack-thread4 ,we cannot wonder that the making of water-tight connexions was a great difficulty1 and we can sympathise with his belief that he could have got a column more than #ba feet high but for the leaking of the joints on several occasions4 ,he notes the familiar fact that the vine-stump absorbed water before it began to extrude it4 ,he afterwards 7pp4 #ajf-g7 used a mercury gauge and registered a root-pressure of #cb inches or #cf feet #e inches of water which he proceeds to compare with his own determination of the blood-pressure of the horse 7#h feet7 and of other animals4 ,perhaps the most interesting of his root-pressure experiments was that 7p4 #aaj7 in which several manometers were attached to the branches of a bleeding vine and showed a result which convinced him that the force is not from the root only1 but must proceed from some power in the stem and branches1 a conclusion which some modern workers have also arrived at4 ,the figure on page #gg is a simplified reproduction of the plate 7,fig4 #ai7 in ,vegetable ,staticks4 ,assimilation4 ,hales' belief that plants draw part of their food from the air1 and again that air is the breath of life1 of vegetables as well as of animals 7p4 #adh71 are based upon a series of chemical experiments performed by himself4 ,not being satisfied with what he knew of the relation between air 7by which he meant gas7 and the solid bodies in which he supposed gases to be fixed1 he delayed the publication of ,vegetable ,staticks for some two years1 and carried out the series of observations which are mentioned in his title-page as ,an attempt to analyse the air1 by a great variety of chymio-statical experiments occupying #afb pages of his book#df4 ,the theme of his inquiry he takes 7,vegetable ,staticks1 p4 #afe7 from the illustrious ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 who believed that ,dense bodies by fermentation rarify into several sorts of ,air2 and this ,air by fermentation1 and sometimes without it1 returns into dense bodies4 ,hales' method consisted in heating a variety of substances1 e4g4 wheat-grains1 pease1 wood1 hog's blood1 fallow-deer's horn1 oyster-shells1 red-lead1 gold1 etc41 and measuring the air given off from them4 ,he also tried the effect of acid on iron filings1 oyster-shells1 etc4 ,in the true spirit of experiment he began by strongly heating his retorts 7one of which was a musket barrel7 to make sure that no air arose from them4 ,it is not evident to me why he continued at this subject so long4 ,he had no means of distinguishing one gas from another1 and almost the only quality noted is a want of permanence1 e4g4 when the ,,co#b produced was dissolved by the water over which he collected it4 ,sir ,e4 ,thorpe#dg points out that ,hales must have prepared hydrogen1 carbonic acid1 carbonic oxide1 sulphur dioxide1 marsh gas1 etc4 ,it may1 ,i think1 be said that ,hales deserved the title usually given to ,priestley1 viz4 the father of pneumatic#dh chemistry4 ,perhaps the most interesting experiment made by ,hales is the heating of minium 7red-lead7 with the production of oxygen4 ,it proves that he knew1 as ,boyle1 ,hooke and ,mayow did before him1 that a body gains weight in oxidation4 ,thus ,hales remarks3 ,that the sulphurous and aereal particles of the fire are lodged in many of those bodies which it acts upon1 and thereby considerably augments their weight1 is very evident in ,minium or ,red ,lead which is observed to increase in weight in undergoing the action of the fire4 ,the acquired redness of the ,minium indicating the addition of plenty of sulphur in the operation4 ,he also speaks of the gas distilled from minium1 and remarks ,it was doubtless this quantity of air in the minium which burst the hermetically sealed glasses of the excellent ,mr ,boyle1 when he heated the ,minium contained in them by a burning glass 7p4 #bhg74 ,this was the method also used by ,priestley in his celebrated experiment of heating red-lead in hydrogen2 whereby the metallic lead reappears and the hydrogen disappears by combining with the oxygen set free4 ,this was expressed in the language of the day as the reconstruction of metallic lead by the addition of phlogiston 7the hydrogen7 to the calx of lead 7minium74 ,thorpe points out the magnitude of the discovery that ,priestley missed1 and it may be said that ,hales too was on the track and had he known as much as ,priestley it would not have been phlogiston that kept him from becoming a ,cavendish or ,lavoisier4 ,what chiefly concerns us however is the bearing of ,hales' chemical work on his theories of nutrition4 ,he concludes that air makes a very considerable part of the substance of ,vegetables1 and goes on to say 7p4 #baa7 that many of these particles of air are in a fixt state strongly adhering to and wrought into the substance of plants#di4 ,he has some idea of the instability of complex substances and of the importance of the fact1 for he says#ej that if all the parts of matter were only endued with a strongly attracting power1 the whole of nature would then become one unactive cohering lump4 ,this may remind us of ,herbert ,spencer's words3 ,thus the essential characteristic of living organic matter1 is that it unites this large quantity of contained motion with a degree of cohesion that permits temporary fixity of arrangement1 ,first ,principles1 #ajc4 ,with regard to the way in which plants absorb and fix the air which he finds in their tissues1 ,hales is not clear2 he does not in any way distinguish between respiration and assimilation4 ,but as ,i have already said he definitely asserts that plants draw sublimed and exalted food from the air4 ,as regards the action of light on plants1 he suggests 7p4 #cbg7 that by freely entering the expanded surfaces of leaves and flowers light may contribute much to the ennobling principles of vegetation4 ,he goes on to quote ,newton 7,opticks1 query #cj73 ,the change of bodies into light1 and of light into bodies is very conformable to the course of nature1 which seems delighted with transformations4 ,it is a problem for the antiquary to determine whether or no ,swift took from ,newton the idea of bottling and recapturing sunshine as practised by the philosopher of ,lagado4 ,he could hardly have got it from ,hales since ,gulliver's ,travels was published in #agbf1 a year before ,vegetable ,staticks4 ,timiriazeff1 in his ,croonian ,lecture#ea1 was the first to see the connexion between photosynthesis and the ,lagado research4 ,nevertheless ,hales is not quite consistent about the action of light2 thus 7p4 #cea7 he speaks of the dull light in a closely planted wood as checking the perspiration of the lower branches so that drawing little nourishment1 they perish4 ,this is doubtless one effect of bad illumination under the above-named conditions1 but the check to photosynthesis is a more serious result4 ,in his final remarks on vegetation 7p4 #cge7 ,hales says in relation to greenhouses1 it is certainly of as great importance to the life of the plants to discharge that infected rancid air by the admission of fresh1 as it is to defend them from the extream cold of the outward air4 ,this idea of ventilating greenhouses he carried out in a plant house designed by him for the ,dowager ,princess of ,wales1 in which warm fresh air was admitted4 ,the house in question was built in #agfa in the ,princess's garden at ,kew1 which afterwards became what we now know as ,kew ,gardens4 ,the site of ,hales' greenhouse1 which was only pulled down in #ahfa1 is marked by a big ,wistaria which formerly grew on the greenhouse wall4 ,it should be recorded that ,sir ,w4 ,thiselton-,dyer#eb planned a similar arrangement independently of ,hales1 and found it produced a marked improvement of the well-being of the plants4 ,it is an illuminating fact that though ,hales must have known ,malpighi's theory of the function of leaves 7which was broadly speaking the same as his own71 he does not as far as ,i know refer to it4 ,in his preface1 p4 ii1 he regrets that ,malpighi and ,grew1 whose anatomical knowledge he appreciated1 had not fortuned to have fallen into this statical#ec way of inquiry4 ,i believe he means an inquiry of an experimental nature1 and ,i think it was because ,malpighi's theory was dependent on analogy rather than on ascertained facts1 that it influenced ,hales so little4 ,there is another part of physiology on which ,hales threw light4 ,he was the first ,i believe to investigate the distribution of growth in developing shoots and growing leaves by marking them and measuring the distance between the marks after an interval of time4 ,he describes 7p4 #ccj7 and figures 7p4 #cdd7 with his usual thoroughness the apparatus employed3 this was a comb-like object1 shown in ,plate ,,ix1 made by fixing five pins into a handle1 inch apart from one another3 the points being dipped in red-lead and oil1 a young vine-shoot was marked with ten dots inch apart4 ,in the autumn he examined his specimen and finds that the youngest internode or joynt had grown most1 and the basal part having been almost hardened when he marked1 had extended very little4 ,in this--a tentative experiment--he made the mistake of not re-measuring his plants at short intervals of time1 but it was an admirable beginning and the direct ancestor of ,sachs'#ed great research on the subject4 ,in his discussion on growth it is interesting to find the idea of turgescence supplying the motive force for extension4 ,this conception he takes from ,borelli#ee4 ,hales sees in the nodes of plants plinths or abutments for the dilating pith to exert its force on 7p4 #cce72 but he acutely foresees a modern objection#ef to the explanation of growth as regulated solely by the hydrostatic pressure in the cell4 ,hales says 7p4 #cce73 but a dilating spongy substance1 by equally expanding itself every way1 would not produce an oblong shoot1 but rather a globose one4 ,it is not my place to speak of ,hales' work in animal physiology1 nor of those researches bearing on the welfare of the human race which occupied his later years4 ,thus he wrote against the habit of drinking spirits1 and made experiments on ventilation by which he benefited both ,english and ,french prisons1 and even the ,house of ,commons2 then too he was occupied in attempts to improve the method of distilling potable water at sea1 and of preserving meat and biscuit on long voyages#eg4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,ix ,plate #ah from ,hales's ,vegetable ,staticks ,fig4 #dj4 ,instrument devised by ,hales to make prick-marks on a young shoot of ,vine 7,fig4 #da72 the distribution of stretching after growth is shown in ,fig4 #db4 ,the use of a similar instrument for marking surfaces is shown in ,figs4 #dc and #dd ,we are concerned with him simply as a vegetable physiologist and in that character his fame is imperishable4 ,of the book which ,i have been using as my text1 namely1 ,vegetable ,staticks1 ,sachs says3 ,it was the first comprehensive work the world had seen which was devoted to the nutrition of plants and the movement of their sap4444 ,hales had the art of making plants reveal themselves4 ,by experiments carefully planned and cunningly carried out he forced them to betray the energies hidden in their apparently inactive bodies#eh4 ,these words1 spoken by a great physiologist of our day1 form a fitting tribute to one who is justly described as the father of physiology4 ,,footnotes3 #ag ,in #afii ,newton was made master of the ,mint and appointed ,whiston his ,deputy in the ,lucasian ,professorship1 an office he finally resigned in #agjc 7,brewster's ,life of ,newton1 #ahca1 p4 #bdi74 #ah ,there1 if anywhere1 his dear shade must linger1 ,trevelyan1 ,life and ,letters of ,lord ,macaulay1 #a volume edit4 #ahha1 p4 #ee4 #ai ,black's discovery of ,,co#b1 however1 was published in #aged1 seven years before ,hales died1 but ,priestley's1 ,cavendish's and ,lavoisier's work on ,o and ,h was later4 #bj #ahcg1 ,,iii4 p4 #chi4 #ba ,vegetable ,staticks1 p4 #cdf4 #bb ,sachs1 ,geschichte1 p4 #ejb4 ,malpighi held similar views4 #bc ,ibid41 p4 #dii4 #bd ,quoted by ,care1 in his paper read before the ,cambridge ,archaeological ,society on ,king's ,hostel etc41 and ,printed for the ,master and ,fellows of ,trinity ,coll4 in #aiji4 #be ,he also held the living of ,farringdon in ,hampshire where he occasionally resided4 #bf ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog4 #bg ,with a certain idleness ,pope reduces him to plain ,parson ,hale1 for the sake of a rhyme in the ,epistle of ,martha ,blount1 #a4 #aih4 #bh ,the original reads deigned not1 an obvious slip4 #bi ,this he does by means of a network of threads inch apart4 ,pfeffer1 ,pflanzenphysiologie1 ed4 #a1 #a4 p4 #adb1 recommends the method and gives ,hales as his authority4 #cj ,pflanzenphysiologie1 #ahfe 7,fr4 ,trans4 #ahfh71 p4 #bed4 #ca ,he gives it as #aeh square inches1 the only instance ,i have come across of his use of decimals4 #cb ,arbeiten1 ,,ii4 p4 #ahb4 #cc ,see ,sachs' ,pflanzenphys4 #ahfe 7,fr4 ,trans4 #ahfh71 p4 #beg1 where the above correction is applied to ,hales' work4 #cd ,vegetable ,staticks1 p4 #e4 #ce ,vegetable ,staticks1 p4 #ad4 #cf ,vegetable ,staticks1 p4 #da4 #cg ,janse in ,pringsheinis ,jahrb4 ,,xviii4 p4 #ch4 ,the later literature is given by ,dixon in ,progressus ,rei ,bot4 ,,iii41 #aiji1 p4 #eh4 #ch ,compare ,f4 von ,hhnel1 ,bot4 ,zeitung1 #ahgi1 p4 #cah4 #ci ,this is also shown by experiment ,,xc1 ,vegetable ,staticks1 p4 #abc4 #dj ,the method by which ,hales proposed to record the depth of the sea is a variant of this apparatus4 #da ,vegetable ,staticks1 p4 #ib4 #db ,according to ,sachs 7,geschichte1 p4 #eji7 ,ray employed this method4 #dc ,other facts show that the gapped branches did not behave quite normally4 #dd ,he refers 7p4 #ada7 to what is in principle the same experiment 7see ,fig4 #bg7 as due to ,mr ,brotherton1 and published in the ,abridgment of the ,phil4 ,trans4 ,,ii4 p4 #gjh4 #de ,he notices that the swelling of the bark is connected with the presence of buds4 ,the only ring of bark which had no bud showed no swelling4 #df ,it appears that ,mayow made similar experiments4 ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog4 s4v4 ,mayow4 #dg ,history of ,chemistry1 #aiji1 ,i4 p4 #fi4 #dh ,hales made use of a rough pneumatic trough1 the invention of which is usually ascribed to ,priestley 7,thorpe's ,history of ,chemistry1 ,i4 p4 #gi74 #di ,he speaks here merely of the apples used in a certain experiment1 but it is clear that he applies the conclusion to other plants4 #ej ,vegetable ,staticks1 p4 #cac4 ,it should be noted that ,hales speaks of organic as well as inorganic substances4 #ea ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,,lxxii41 p4 #cj1 #aijc4 #eb ,the above account of ,hales' connexion with the ,royal ,gardens at ,kew is from the ,kew ,bulletin1 #ahia1 p4 #bhi4 #ec ,i am indebted to ,sir ,e4 ,thorpe for a definition of statical4 ,statical 7,med47 noting the physical phenomena presented by organised bodies in contradiction to the organic or vital4 7,worcester's ,dictionary1 #ahhi47 #ed ,arbeiten1 ,i4 #ee ,borelli1 ,de ,motu ,animalium1 ,pt ,,ii4 ,ch4 xiii4 ,according to ,sachs1 ,ges4 d4 ,botanik1 p4 #ehb1 ,mariotte 7#afgi7 had suggested the same idea4 #ef ,ngeli1 ,strkekorner1 p4 #bgi #eg ,see his ,philosophical ,experiments1 #agci4 #eh ,geschichte d4 ,botanik1 p4 #eae 7free translation74 ,,john ,,hill #agaf-agge ,,by ,t4 ,g4 ,,hill ,narrative--chequered career--journalism--attack on the ,royal ,society--literary activities--,botanical works--structure of ,timber--the sleep of ,plants--,mimosa and ,abrus--views on ,pollen--,hill's ,herbal--his admiration of ,linnaeus--with qualifications--,hill's ,vegetable ,system--an ambitious work--financial losses--estimate of ,hill's character4 ,it has recently been remarked that the number of the biographies of eminent men is inversely proportional to the known facts concerning them4 ,although this generalisation is probably incorrect1 it is1 to a certain extent1 true of ,john ,hill2 for1 although he finds a place in biographical dictionaries1 apparently no extended account of his life has appeared4 ,this is a little surprising since1 apart from his scientific work1 he occupied a prominent position in the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,x ,,john ,,hill ,john ,hill was the second son of the ,rev4 ,theophilous ,hill1 and was born either at ,spalding or at ,peterborough in the year #agaf or #agag4 ,nothing appears to be known regarding his early education2 according to ,hawkins#ei he did not receive an academical education1 but there is no doubt that1 as was usual for those who desired to practise medicine at that and at much later times1 he served his apprenticeship to an apothecary1 it is said1 at ,westminster2 also he attended the lectures on ,botany given under the auspices of the ,apothecaries' ,company at the ,chelsea ,physic ,garden4 ,he first practised in ,st ,martin's ,lane in a shop which1 according to ,woodward#fj1 was little more than a shed2 from there he moved to ,westminster1 and it appears that at the age of twenty-one he had a practice in ,covent ,garden4 ,he early experienced financial difficulties2 indeed1 it is stated that1 at times1 he was unable to provide himself with the bare necessities of life4 ,his marriage with a dowerless maiden1 ,miss ,travers1 did not improve his prospects1 and he sought to add to his income by the utilization of his botanical knowledge4 ,he travelled over the country collecting plants1 which he dried1 put up into sets with descriptions and sold by subscription2 also he arranged the collections and gardens of the ,duke of ,richmond and ,lord ,petrie4 ,hill soon found that ,botany1 from the monetary point of view1 was unprofitable2 he therefore decided to try his fortune on the stage1 and appeared at the ,haymarket and ,covent ,garden4 ,woodward#fa gives a very amusing account of him in his new profession4 ,after giving examples to shew ,hill's limitations1 he remarks3 ,there was a time at the celebrated ,theatre of ,may ,fair he ,marr represented ,altamont1 and the ,great ,inspector ,hill attempted ,lothario2 and the polite ,audience of that ,place all choruss'd and agreed with you1 when you dying1 said1 ',o ,altamont6 thy ,genius is the stronger4'444 ,can ,i forget1 great ,sir1 your acting ,constant1 in the ,provok'd ,wife1 and your innocent ,rape of ,mrs ,woffington2 when1 in a certain ,passage1 where1 at least1 a seeming ,manliness was necessary1 you handled her so awkwardly1 that she joined the ,audience in laughing at you4 ,woodward's account may be accepted as being substantially correct1 for in many ways ,hill shewed that he lacked the qualities requisite for a successful career on the stage in those days4 ,having thus failed as an actor1 ,hill returned to the practice of medicine and seemingly with more success1 for in #agdf he was serving as a regimental surgeon1 a position doubtless not very remunerative but helping to keep the wolf from the door4 ,this same year saw the publication of ,theophrastus's treatise on gems4 ,in its new guise the value of the work was much enhanced since ,hill intercalated much information that was lacking in the original2 further1 the work was so well executed that it gained him the attention and good-will of eminent ,fellows of the ,royal ,society4 ,the publication of this work was probably the turning point in ,hill's career1 and its success must have influenced him not a little in the determination of following a literary career4 ,in #ahdf he edited the ,british ,magazine1 a periodical which lived but four years4 ,his activities in this direction were phenomenal1 and it is hard to realize how he managed to find time for so much work1 for in addition to his botanical publications1 which will be considered hereafter1 he wrote on such diverse subjects as the art of acting1 the conduct of married life1 theology1 naval history1 astronomy1 entomology1 human anatomy and other medical subjects4 ,also he wrote an opera1 two farces1 and certain novels4 ,much of this output represents mere hack work1 but it shews that ,hill had an enormous capacity for work1 indeed on one occasion when he was sick1 he confessed to a friend that he had overtaxed his strength in writing seven works at the same time4 ,the ,dictionary of ,national ,biography gives #gf titles of his publications1 exclusive of eight which are generally attributed to him4 ,hill's output was probably even more extensive1 for towards the latter part of his career he sometimes used to publish under a pseudonym4 ,it is the more remarkable since he found time to enjoy the good things of the world1 without which indulgence1 according to his biographer#fb1 he could not have undergone the fatigue and study inseparable from the execution of his vast designs4 ,again1 according to ,fitzgerald#fc1 he was invariably in the front row at the theatres1 exciting attention by his splendid dress and singular behaviour4 ,when there was loud applause for the ,king1 the doctor was seen to rise1 and bow gravely to his ,majesty4 ,the next few years were eventful ones for ,hill4 ,in #agea he contributed a daily letter1 called the ,inspector1 to the ,london ,advertiser and ,literary ,gazette2 although they came to an end in #agec1 the ,inspectors were highly remunerative1 thus it is stated that in one year ,hill profited to the extent of #aejj by their sale1 a very large sum for journalistic work in those days4 ,they thus brought him very prominently before the public1 and incidentally proved a source of some trouble to him4 ,in connexion with the ,inspector justice has not been altogether done to ,hill3 no doubt1 as ,isaac ,disraeli#fd states1 that in them he retailed all the great matters relating to himself and all the little matters relating to others1 but they were not all concerned in retailing the tales of scandal heard in the ,coffee ,houses and other places of public resort2 nor were they always rendered palatable by these means as is stated in ,rose's ,biographical ,dictionary#fe4 ,they1 in addition to comments and criticisms on current affairs1 treated of many subjects4 ,for instance1 one considers the proposal for uniting the kingdoms of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 another is a very sympathetic and laudatory review of ,gray's ,elegy1 whilst a third treats of the art of embalming4 ,many are concerned with ,natural ,history1 and these are important as they shew ,hill in another and very important character1 namely that of a popular writer on ,natural ,history1 especially ,botany4 ,in one number he described the structure of a common flower1 including an account of the movements of a bee in collecting pollen2 and in another he described the appearance of microscopic organisms paying marked attention to their activities4 ,these particular ,inspectors are very pleasing and are well and clearly written2 one especially is of outstanding importance1 as it shews that ,hill was in some respects far in advance of his times4 ,he put forward a suggestion that ,botany would be much improved by the delivery of public lectures in the museum with the living plants before the lecturer and the members of the audience4 ,this scheme has yet to be carried out2 as they are1 museums are a means of education for the few1 but a source of confusion to the many4 ,for the latter their educative value would be enormously increased by the delivery of lectures illustrated by the exhibits1 for the spoken word is more abiding than the printed label4 ,the methods of criticism pursued by ,hill in the ,inspector soon involved him in controversy with various people4 ,it is a difficult matter to appraise him in these respects2 possibly his success had turned his head for1 according to ,baker#ff1 he shewed an unbounded store of vanity and self-sufficiency1 which had for years lain dormant behind the mask of their direct opposite qualities of humility and diffidence2 a pride which was perpetually laying claim to homage by no means his due1 and a vindictiveness which never could forgive the refusal of it to him4 ,baker then goes on to remark that as a consequence of this1 every affront however slight was revenged by ,hill by a public attack on the morals etc4 of the maker4 ,on the other hand his criticisms may have been honest1 at any rate in part2 and the fact that they landed him into difficulties does not necessarily indicate that he was a dishonest fellow2 most people are impatient of adverse criticism1 and in those days such impatience found a vent in a pamphlet war or in personal violence4 ,nowadays the aggrieved manager1 for instance1 can shut his theatre doors against the distasteful critic2 or1 in other cases1 an action for libel appears to be not altogether unfashionable4 ,his attack on the ,royal ,society4 ,the real origin of ,hill's attack on this learned society is somewhat obscure4 ,at the time of his death ,chambers was engaged in the preparation of a supplement to his ,cyclopaedia4 ,the publishers then commissioned ,john ,lewis ,scott to prepare the work1 but as ,scott was soon afterwards appointed tutor to the royal princes it was entrusted to ,hill4 ,it is stated that the botanical articles were quite good1 but that the more general parts were done with ,hill's characteristic carelessness and self-sufficiency4 ,when the work was approaching completion the publishers considered that the title-page would look better if ,hill had the right of adding ,f4,r4,s4 after his name4 ,he1 in consequence1 and1 it is stated1 contrary to the advice of ,folkes1 endeavoured to obtain the necessary qualification for candidature2 but he was disliked to such an extent that he could not obtain the requisite number of signatures1 three1 for his certificate1 notwithstanding the fact that the number of ,fellows was about three hundred4 ,this perhaps was hardly surprising since he had criticized his contemporary scientists very adversely1 designating them by such terms as butterfly hunters1 cockle shell merchants and medal scrapers4 ,this reverse must have been a severe blow to his vanity1 for there can be no doubt that his claims to the ,fellowship1 on scientific grounds1 were as strong as any and stronger than those of most of the ,fellows4 ,and this ,hill1 who was by no means lacking in self-confidence1 knew4 ,his criticism of the ,society culminated in his ,review of the ,works of the ,royal ,society of ,london 7#agea7fg1 which was in appearance like that of the ,transactions1 and consisted of reviews of several papers with comments by ,hill4 ,the work was dedicated to ,martin ,folkes1 the ,president1 on whom he placed the responsibility for publication1 for1 wrote he in his dedication1 ,the ,purport of the more considerable of them has been long since delivered to you in conversation2 and if you had thought the ,society deserved to escape the ,censure that must attend this ,method of laying them before the ,world1 you might have prevented it1 by making the necessary ,use of them in private4 ,nor is this1 ,sir1 the only ,sense in which you have been the great ,instrument of their ,production2 since it cannot but be acknowledged1 that if any body1 except your great ,self1 had been in the high ,office you so worthily fill at present1 the ,occasions of many of the more remarkable of them could not have been received by the ,body1 under whose ,countenance alone they claim their ,places in this ,work4 ,he then charges ,folkes with unworthy conduct towards him1 and1 in brief1 he considered that ,folkes and ,baker were his enemies4 ,the reason for this1 according to ,hill1 was as follows4 ,an eminent ,french correspondent had taxed him1 supposing him to be a ,fellow1 with one of the errors of the ,society2 ,hill in reply wrote1 ,i have already set right the error you complain of2 but you are to know1 that ,i have the ,honour not to be a ,member of the ,royal ,society of ,london4 ,before he had sealed this letter he was called out of the room1 and before he had returned a visitor1 a ,fellow of the ,society1 was shown into ,hill's study and read the letter containing the above-quoted passage4 ,hence the friction4 ,hill denies that he ever became a candidate for election1 and states that although he attended the meetings he would not become a member on account of the ,society's method of performing that which they were founded to do4 ,these statements are not lacking in definition2 with regard to the incident of the letter it is impossible to judge of the truth2 but with regard to the main features of the controversy the present writer thinks it extremely probable that the account first given is substantially correct1 notwithstanding the statement that ,hill's explanation was never contradicted#fh4 ,as regards the ,review1 ,hill wrote that he pretends to nothing but the knowing more than the ,royal ,society of ,london appears by its publications to know6 and surely a ,man may do that and yet be very ignorant6 ,the intention of the ,review was to point out to the ,society its shortcomings1 doubtless in order that it might reform itself4 ,there can be no doubt whatever that a candid critic was necessary1 for some of the papers were absolute rubbish1 so much so indeed that a scientific training does not appear necessary to detect their futility4 ,to take a brief example2 in one paper the author describes a method to make trees grow very large2 the seeds are to be sown at the absolute moment of the entry of the sun into the vernal equinox1 and then to transplant them at the moment when the moon is full4 ,hill himself sometimes falls into error in his criticisms2 thus he adversely comments on the truth of the power of cobwebs to catch thrushes#fi4 ,at the beginning of ,part ,,vii of his ,review1 which treats of plants1 he thrusts very deep4 ,he says1 ,this is a ,branch of ,natural ,knowledge1 which1 it will appear1 that the ,royal ,society of ,london have looked so very deeply into1 that their rejecting the ,linnean ,system of ,botany1 when offered by its ,author will no longer be wondered at4 ,in this ,part he is particularly severe upon ,baker1 and1 in reading it1 one is forced to the conclusion that although adverse criticism was warranted1 there was a good deal of personal feeling behind it4 ,this attack on the ,royal ,society appears to have been much resented1 and ,hill's credit consequently was much damaged1 for it was considered that ,folkes and ,baker had befriended him in his earlier days4 ,with regard to ,folkes it has been seen that ,hill considered that he was doing a public duty2 and with regard to ,baker1 ,hill suffered under a real or imaginary grievance which1 assuming ,baker had helped him in the past1 cancelled all obligations due from him to ,baker4 ,if this be not so then ,hill1 in addition to his other faults1 was lacking in gratitude4 ,with regard to this point his anonymous biographer#gj wrote that we have nowhere learnt that ingratitude had the smallest share in the composition of the character of ,sir ,john ,hill4 ,the attack1 however1 was not altogether fruitless1 as ,disraeli#ga remarks1 ,yet ,sir ,john ,hill1 this despised man1 after all the fertile absurdities of his literary life1 performed more for the improvement of the ,philosophical ,transactions1 and was the cause of diffusing a more general taste for the science of botany1 than any other contemporary4 ,it is hardly necessary to remark that ,hill was never elected to the ,royal ,society4 99 99 99 99 99 ,thus by his methods of criticism ,hill brought to an end a period of highly remunerative literary work2 it was therefore necessary for him to seek other pastures4 ,he returned1 in part1 to the practice of medicine in the shape of herbalist1 preparing remedies from various plants such as valerian1 water-dock and centaury2 also he wrote on the virtues of these and other plants4 ,the source from which he obtained his plants was in the first instance the ,chelsea ,physic ,garden1 but it is stated that he was eventually forbidden its use owing to his depredations2 later he grew the requisite plants in his own garden which was situated where now is ,lancaster ,gate4 ,there was a good deal of common sense in his remedies2 thus in his ,virtues of ,british ,herbs he remarks that ,he who seeks the herb for its cure1 will find it half effected by the walk4 ,by the sale of his medicines and of his pamphlets relating to medicinal plants1 some of which ran through many editions1 he made large sums of money4 ,before passing on to a consideration of ,hill's botanical work brief comment may be made on his literary activities other than those already alluded to4 ,it has already been mentioned that much of his output represented mere hack work1 so that it is not surprising to learn1 in view of the large amount of work he did1 that a certain proportion of it was careless and slovenly1 and shewed marked signs of undue haste in production1 with the result that his reputation suffered4 ,one work1 entitled ,letters from the ,inspector to a ,lady with the genuine ,answers 7#ageb71 is an amorous correspondence not remarkable for its reticence of statement2 it reminds one of a similar1 but more proper1 correspondence1 which had a vogue a few years ago4 ,hill did not always write for gain1 thus ,thoughts concerning ,god and ,nature 7#agee7 shews him in a different light4 ,this was written from conscientious and religious motives in answer to a book written by ,henry ,st ,john ,viscount ,bolingbroke1 and was published at a loss1 for the number printed1 even if all were sold1 would not have paid the expenses of production4 ,his dramatic pieces were of a mediocre nature1 and with regard to his novels and other works ,baker#gb states that ,in some parts of his novels incidents are not disagreeably related1 but most of them are nothing more than narratives of private intrigues1 containing1 throughout1 the grossest calumnies1 and aiming at the blackening and undermining the private characters of many respectable and amiable personages4 ,in his essays1 which are by much the best of his writings1 there is1 in general1 a liveliness of imagination1 and a prettiness in the manner of extending perhaps some very trivial thought2 which1 at the first coup-d'il1 is pleasing enough1 and may1 with many1 be mistaken for it2 but1 on a nearer examination1 the imagined sterling will be found to dwindle down into mere ,french plate4 ,in addition to his literary work ,hill found time to undertake official duties4 ,in #agfj he was gardener at ,kensington ,palace1 a post which brought him in an income of #bjjj per annum#gc2 also he was ,justice of the ,peace for ,westminster4 ,according to ,mrs ,hill#gd he was nominated ,superintendent of the ,royal ,gardens1 ,kew1 and as such he is described on his portrait2 his nomination1 however1 does not appear to have been confirmed1 for ,thiselton-,dyer#ge states that there is no evidence of his ever having occupied such a position4 ,hill also advised1 at the request of the ,earl of ,bute1 the governors of various islands regarding their cultivation1 for which work he received no remuneration#gf4 ,anatomy4 ,anatomical investigations during the eighteenth century were very barren of results1 no real advance upon the discoveries of ,grew1 ,malpighi and others being made4 ,the work of ,hill in this field forms no exception to this statement2 and1 although he accomplished a fair amount of anatomical work1 his investigations apparently were without result in the advancement of this particular branch of knowledge4 ,in #aggj ,hill published a small octavo volume on ,the ,construction of ,timber4 ,in order that other investigators might benefit from his experience he fully described and figured the instruments used2 of particular interest is a small hand microtome with which he cut his sections4 ,this ingenious tool was the invention of ,cummings1 and does not differ in essentials markedly from some the writer has seen in use2 ,hill claims that when the cutter was particularly sharp sections no thicker than a #bjjjth part of an inch could be obtained4 ,the microscope was made by ,adams under the direction of ,hill and his patron1 unnamed in the book1 but in all probability ,lord ,bute1 and embodied some improvements on earlier instruments4 ,this microscope is figured in ,carpenter's work on ,the ,microscope and its ,revelations#gg4 ,the ,construction of ,timber is well arranged3 the work begins with a general description of the tissues and their disposition in a thickened stem2 then follows a more detailed account of the separate tissues2 and finally much space is devoted to a comparison of different tissues in various plants4 ,hill's account is fully illustrated with copper plates2 his figures of sections are not highly magnified1 some not more than twelve times1 and their quality is not equal to the best in ,grew's ,anatomy4 ,hill principally studied transverse sections1 and consequently fell into errors which he might have avoided by the careful observation of longitudinal ones2 also he used macerated material1 but as his method preserved only the stronger walled elements he did not gain to any great extent from their use4 ,the parts devoted to comparative anatomy are not at all bad1 and they give a concrete idea of the differences obtaining in the different plants4 ,he apparently understood the nature of the annual rings1 and of them he wrote as follows3 ,these are the several coats of ,wood1 added from season to season4 ,it has been supposed that each circle is the growth of a year2 but a careful attention to the encrease of wood has shewn me1 beyond a doubt1 that two such are formed each year2 the one in the ,spring1 the other soon after ,midsummer4 ,his illustration1 however1 is not so clear as his statement4 ,also he realized that the wood vessels were in some way connected with water3 ,these vessels arise in the substance of the ,wood1 principally towards the outer edge of each circle4 ,they are very large in the outermost coat2 and smaller in the others3 and there are also irregular ranges of them1 running thro' the thicknesses of the circles2 besides these principal ones of the outer course4 ,they have solid1 and firm1 coats2 and they contain in ,spring1 and at ,midsummer1 a limpid liquor1 like water1 but with a slight acidity3 at all other seasons of the year they appear empty1 their sides only being moistened with the same acid liquor4 ,those who examined them at such seasons1 thought them air vessels2 and in that opinion1 formed a construction for them1 which ,nature does not avow4 ,although ,hill recognized the entity of the cell he had1 in common with his contemporaries1 no clear conception of its real nature4 ,in describing the pith of the rose he does not go astray1 and he fully appreciated that the seemingly double contour of the cell walls1 when seen in some sections1 is due to the thickness of the section with consequent overlapping of the cells2 on the other hand he went very wrong in the case of the pith of the walnut1 the cavities of which he supposed to be cells like those of the rose1 only very much larger and uniseriate as the following quotation shews3 ,the ,pith of the ,walnut consists only of one range of these bladders ',blebs' or cells1 smaller at the edges1 largest in the middle1 and laid very exactly one upon the other4 ,when he considers the structure of more or less square or oblong cells his ideas are very wrong4 ,in such cases he thought that the transverse walls were spaces1 and the longitudinal walls vessels2 curiously enough ,hedwig made a similar mistake some years later1 possibly he was led astray by ,hill's misconception4 ,hill adversely criticized the theory that the pith is an organ of propagation1 and substituted the view that the corona--i4e4 the peri-medullary zone--is all important in this connexion1 ,from it arises the branches1 and encrease of the tree4 ,hill had considerable technical ability and1 ,i think1 was capable of greatly advancing anatomical botany2 unfortunately1 however1 he gave too little time and thought to his investigations4 ,physiology4 ,the eighteenth century saw the birth of vegetable physiology1 ,hales and ,knight being the two great pioneers in this country4 ,the former flourished in the early part of the century1 whilst ,knight1 although born in #ageh1 published his great work in #ahjf4 ,the chief physiological work of ,hill is embodied in a pamphlet of #ei pages1 entitled ,the ,sleep of ,plants and ,causes of ,motion in the ,sensitive ,plant explain'd1 published in ,london in #ageg1 a year previous to the appearance of ,du ,hamel's ,physique des ,arbres4 ,the paper is in the form of a letter to ,linnaeus1 and in it the author explains his position with regard to his earlier criticisms of the ,linnaean system of classification4 ,the work is divided into sections1 the first of which consists of a brief historical resum1 the opinions of ,acosta1 ,alpinus1 ,ray and ,linnaeus on this subject being alluded to4 ,no mention1 however1 is made of the observations of ,bonnet and of ,mairan to the effect that the periodic movements of ,mimosa pudica continued when the plant was kept in prolonged darkness4 ,in ,section #b1 after describing the structure of a leaf1 ,hill remarks that ,leaves are always surrounded by the air2 and they are occasionally and variously influenced by heat1 light1 and moisture4 ,they are naturally complicated1 and they act on most occasions together4 ,we are therefore to observe1 first1 what effects result from their mutual combinations in a state of nature3 and having assigned in these cases the effect to the proper and particular cause1 from this power of that agent1 whichsoever it is1 that acts thus in concert with the rest1 we may deduce its operations singly4 ,this passage1 although not particularly clear1 indicates that ,hill fully appreciated the fact that the reaction exhibited by a plant organ is a response to the resultant of a number of forces1 and that each factor must be examined separately4 ,he then goes on to describe his observations on ,abrus2 the structure of the leaf1 more especially the course of the vascular bundles1 is first dealt with1 and then an explanation of the action of light is given4 ,needless to say1 in view of the state of physical science at this period1 his explanation1 although ingenious1 is wide of the mark4 ,he wrote that ,light is subtile1 active1 and penetrating3 by the smallness of its constituent parts1 it is capable of entering bodies2 and by the violence of its motion1 of producing great effects and changes in them4 ,these are not permanent1 because those rays which occasion them1 are1 in that very action1 extinguished and lost4 ,bodies may act on light without contact2 for the rays may become reflected when they come extreamly near3 but light can act on bodies only by contact2 and in that contact the rays are lost4 ,the change produced in the position of the leaves of plants by light1 is the result of a motion occasioned by its rays among their fibres3 to excite this motion1 the light must touch those fibres2 and where light touches1 it adheres1 and becomes immediately extinguished4444 ,the raising of the lobes in these leaves will be owing to the power of those rays which at any one instance fall upon them3 these become extinguished2 but others immediately succeed to them1 so long as the air in which the plants stands1 is enlightened4 ,although it was not until #ahbb1 when ,dutrochet pointed out the true significance of the pulvini1 ,hill recognized that these structures were concerned with the movements of the leaflets1 not only in the case of ,abrus1 but also in ,mimosa4 ,he remarked that ,it is on the operation of light upon these interwoven clusters of fibres which are placed at the bases of the main rib1 and of the several foot-stalks of the lobes1 that the motion of the leaves in gaining their different positions depends2 and consequently1 the motion itself is various according to the construction of these fibres4 ,in the ,abrus they are large1 and of a lax composition2 consequently the lobes are capable of a drooping1 an horizontal1 and an oblique upward position3 in the ,tamarind1 and the broad-leaved ,robinia1 they are more compact1 and hence all the motion of which those leaves are capable1 is an expanding open and a closing sideways2 which the direction and course of the fibres also favours3 in the ,parkinsonia they are smaller1 and yet more compact2 and the consequence of this is1 that its lobes have no farther possible motion1 than the expanding upwards4 ,again1 ,the clusters of fibres are as a kind of joints on which their lobes are capable1 under the influence of light1 of a certain limited motion4 ,further1 with regard to ,mimosa1 he remarks that ,to propagate the motion when the leaves are in a state to shew it1 there requires a perfect and confirmed state of those clusters of fibres lodged at their base4 ,hill then describes the experiments upon which he based his conclusions2 these shew that he was fully awake to the importance of keeping the conditions of an experiment1 other than those of light1 as near constant as possible1 and that the position assumed by the leaves depends upon the intensity of the light4 ,his final experiment was to place the ,abrus in a bookcase in such a position that the sun shone full upon it2 when the leaves were fully expanded he closed the doors and found that in an hour ,the lobes were all drop't1 and it was in the same state that it would have shewn at midnight4 ,on reopening the doors the elevated position of the leaves was assumed in twenty minutes4 ,hill offers the same explanation of the movements of ,mimosa as of those exhibited by ,abrus1 the reason for their greater conspicuousness in the former plant being due to the fact that in ,mimosa ,as there are no less than three sets of these clusters of fibres which are placed at the bases of the foot-stalks1 the effects of the same principle are naturally much greater than in the ,abrus where there is only one4 ,hill carefully observed the sequence of motion in the ,mimosa1 and points out that the effect of absolute darkness on the plant is greater than the rudest touch4 ,he also found that the contact stimulus must be of a sufficient intensity1 and that the degree of the subsequent motion depended upon the potency of the stimulus4 ,he further observed that shaking the plant had the same effect as contact stimulation2 also he remarks upon the fact that the movements of the ,mimosa and of the ,tamarind are less well-marked at a temperature lower than that in which the plants have been reared4 ,hill considered that ,this is probably due to the juices stagnating in the clusters of fibres1 and to the contraction of the bark by cold4 ,his explanation of the response to the contact stimulus is of course quite wrong2 it may1 however1 be quoted as an illustration of the view1 current at that time1 that such motion was due to the fibres which acted like those of muscle4 ,the vibration of the parts is that which keeps the leaves of the sensitive plant in their expanded and elevated state3 this is owing to a delicate motion continued through every fibre of them4 ,when we touch the leaf1 we give it another motion more violent than the first3 this overcomes the first3 the vibration is stopped by the rude shock3 and the leaves close1 and their foot stalks fall1 because that vibrating motion is destroyed1 which kept them elevated and expanded4444 ,that the power of motion in the sensitive plant depends upon the effect of light on the expanded surface of the leaves1 is certain2 for till they are expanded1 they have no such power4 ,the young leaves1 even when grown to half an inch in length have no motion on the touch1 tho' rough and sudden4 ,hill fully appreciated the importance of comparative observations2 he compared the movements1 in response to light1 of ,abrus and ,mimosa1 which plants he placed side by side so that the conditions of the experiment might be the same for each4 ,he found that ,in these and in all others1 the degree of elevation or expansion in the lobes1 is exactly proportional to the quality of the light3 and is solely dependent upon it4 ,reference also may be made to ,hill's views on reproduction#gh2 he considered that the pollen grain contained the embryo which was set free by the bursting of the grain after it had been deposited upon the stigma4 ,the stigmatic hairs or papillae were supposed to be the ends of tubes into which the embryos entered1 made their way into the placenta1 and thus arrived into the shells of the seeds 7the ovules74 ,it is unnecessary to point out the absurdities of these ideas1 but it may be mentioned that ,hill's interpretations of his observations were at fault rather than the observations themselves4 ,thus1 judging from his figures1 he saw the contents of the pollen grain1 the appearance of which1 under the conditions of observation1 might easily suggest the idea of an embryo4 ,also he noticed that the pollen grains burst in a little while when placed in water1 a phenomenon which was rediscovered #ach years later#gi1 and he therefore thought that a similar bursting1 with a consequent setting free of the embryo1 would take place on the wet stigma of the lily1 for example4 ,taxonomy4 ,one of ,hill's more interesting works in this branch of ,botany is his ,british ,herbal#hj4 ,in it are described a large number of plants which are illustrated by #ge copper plates engraved by various artists4 ,none of these plates are of outstanding excellence1 indeed many of them are very poor1 and their quality is uneven4 ,those in the folio consulted by the present writer were ruined by being coloured4 ,the plants described are arranged on a system which is not altogether without interest as it1 in a small degree1 foreshadows later systems4 ,it may be indicated by giving the characters of the first four classes4 ,class #a4 ,plants whose flower consists of several petals1 with numerous threads in the center1 and is followed by a cluster of naked seeds4 ,class #b4 ,plants whose flower consists of several petals1 with numerous threads in the center1 and whose seeds are contained in several pods4 ,class #c4 ,plants whose flower consists of a single petal1 and is succeeded by several capsules4 ,class #d4 ,plants with the flower formed of a single petal1 plain1 and of a regular form and succeeded by a single capsule4 ,it will be seen that ,hill relied much on the characters of the corolla and the gynaeceum4 ,but the chief interest in this work is1 perhaps1 ,hill's criticisms of ,linnaeus4 ,one example will suffice2 ,linnaeus is criticised for placing ,myosurus among the pentandria polygynia and thus separating it from ,ranunculus1 ,adonis1 etc4 ,hill remarked that thus to separate these plants merely because the number of stamens in ,myosurus is less than in ,ranunculus is unreasonable since they agree in all other essentials4 ,he himself1 however1 made a similar error1 for it will be observed that in the system followed in the ,herbal1 ,ranunculus falls into the first class and ,helleborus into the second4 ,these criticisms of ,linnaeus1 however1 are not all of an adverse nature2 in many places ,hill does not stint his praise2 and he does not fail1 after describing each ,genus1 to mention its position in the ,linnaean ,system4 ,pulteney#ha found it difficult to reconcile the praises this author bestows on ,linnaeus1 in many of his writings1 with the censures contained in his ,british ,herbal4 ,the difficulty is not very apparent2 ,hill sufficiently indicated his position in the following passage taken from the ,sleep of ,plants4 ,if our opinions have differed1 'tis upon a single ,point2 your arrangement of plants4 ,in regard to that much greater article1 the establishing their distinctions1 and ascertaining their characters1 ,i have always admired and reverenced you3 to dispute your determinations there1 were to deny the characters of nature4 ,free in the tribute of applause on this head1 ,i have on the other been as open in my censures2 equally uninfluenced by envy1 and by fear4 ,it is thus science may be advanced2 and you will permit me to say1 thus men of candour should treat one another4 ,linnaeus is also criticised in the ,vegetable ,system1 more particularly for his unnecessary introduction of new names for plants2 but here again ,hill is full of praises for ,linnaeus's descriptions of species4 ,although opposed to the ,linnaean system ,hill recognised its value as a means of evolving order out of chaos1 and to him falls the credit of introducing it into ,england4 ,its first introduction was in his ,history of ,plants 7#agea71 but it was unsatisfactory since the ,species ,plantarum was not published until #agec4 ,hill next explained it in #agehhb1 but it was not until two years later that the first ,british ,flora1 arranged on this system1 appeared#hc4 ,according to ,pulteney#hd1 ,hill performed this task in a manner so unworthy of his abilities1 that his work can have no claim to the merit of having answered the occasion3 and thus the credit of the atchievement fell to the lot of ,mr ,william ,hudson ,f4,r4,s4 ,mention has been made of ,hill's ,vegetable ,system#he3 a work which consists of #bf folio volumes and was undertaken at the suggestion of ,lord ,bute4 ,it was commenced in #agei1 and the date of the last volume is #agge1 the year of ,hill's death4 ,no expense was spared in its production1 the paper is of the best1 and there are #afjj plates3 with regard to these the title-page of the work states that they were designed and engraved by the author1 but it appears from other sources that they cost four guineas each to engrave1 and since it is stated on the auctioneer's announcement of the sale of the copyright 7#aghb71 together with some of the original drawings and the remaining sets1 that the engravings were made by the best masters under the immediate supervision of the author1 it must be concluded that ,hill was not the actual engraver although he may have made the original drawings4 ,attention is drawn to this point1 since it casts some doubts as to whether ,hill engraved those plates1 signed by him1 illustrating some of his other works1 for instance1 ,the ,british ,herbal1 and ,a ,method of ,producing ,double ,flowers from ,single#hf1 of which some are very good indeed1 and1 if ,hill were the engraver1 shew that he had considerable artistic and technical ability4 ,naturally the plates in the ,vegetable ,system are of uneven quality1 some are very good and not only are pleasing from the artistic point of view1 but also give a concrete idea of the plants represented4 ,it is impossible here to criticize this work in detail2 but some idea of its scope may be given4 ,the first volume and part of the second is concerned with the history of ,botany2 the origin of ,systematic ,botany2 the ,systems of ,caesalpinus1 ,morison1 ,ray1 ,tournefort1 ,boerhaave1 ,linnaeus1 and others2 morphology1 anatomy1 physiology2 and the effect of heat1 light1 air1 soil and water on vegetation4 ,the rest of the work is occupied by descriptions of plants1 both ,british and foreign1 when the latter1 the native country is mentioned2 in all cases the medicinal properties are given4 ,it is hardly necessary to remark that notwithstanding the price of the work1 #ch guineas plain and #afj guineas coloured1 ,hill lost considerably over its publication4 ,from ,mrs ,hill's account#hg1 it appears that ,bute undertook that ,hill's circumstances should not be injured by the venture1 an undertaking which was not kept2 and further1 after the death of ,hill1 ,bute refused to compensate ,mrs ,hill for the unfinished last volume or to take the materials which had accumulated for it out of her hands4 ,allowing some discount for the natural exaggeration of a bereaved lady suffering from a grievance1 there appears but little doubt that the ,earl of ,bute proved lacking in good faith4 99 99 99 99 99 ,considered as a systematist there can be no doubt that ,hill knew his plants2 and although the systematists of the period were overshadowed by ,linnaeus1 ,hill preserved his independence of thought1 and did not hesitate to express his opinions when they differed from those of his great contemporary4 ,although he highly appreciated the work of ,linnaeus he disliked his system of classification on account of its artificiality1 and he intended to bring forward a natural system of his own4 ,it is not1 ,i think1 too much to say that time has justified his criticism2 and many of his minor differences have been warranted4 ,for instance1 ,linnaeus merged the genera ,valerianella and ,linaria into those of ,valeriana and ,antirrhinum respectively2 ,hill however recognized the generic rank of the two former#hh4 ,incidentally1 it may be remarked that the acceptance of the year #agec as the starting-point for the citation of names by the ,vienna ,botanical ,congress has been the cause of more general recognition of ,hill's activity in this direction2 thus in recent editions of ,british ,flora his name is appended to many genera and species#hi4 ,the ,vegetable ,system gained ,hill the ,order of ,vasa1 from the ,king of ,sweden1 in #aggd1 so that he styled himself ,sir ,john2 he was also a ,member of the ,imperial ,academy1 and a ,fellow of the ,royal ,academy of ,sciences1 ,bordeaux4 ,hill died of gout on the #bast of ,november1 #agge1 at about the age of #ei1 in ,golden ,square1 and was buried at ,denham4 ,notwithstanding the large sums of money he had made1 he died heavily in debt owing to the great expense entailed by the publication of the ,vegetable ,system and his own personal extravagance4 ,his library was sold in #aggf-g1 and it has already been mentioned that the copyright of the ,vegetable ,system was disposed of by auction4 ,it is always a matter of difficulty to appraise a man's character1 and more particularly is this true of ,hill whose character1 as ,whiston#ij has truly remarked1 was so mixed that none but himself can be his parallel4 ,in the ,sleep of ,plants the following passage occurs3 ,there is a freedom of style1 and assumed manner peculiar to this kind of correspondence1 which would be too assuming in works addressed immediately to the public2 and might not unnaturally draw upon the author a censure of self-sufficiency and vanity4 ,this explanation1 ,i hope1 will defend me from so unfair a charge3 for indeed no one knows more the narrow limits of human knowledge2 or entertains an humbler opinion of the returns of years of application4 ,nothing could be more proper than this1 but against it must be set the opinion of men of his own time1 as expressed in the quotation on p4 #hh1 taken from ,baker's ,biographica ,dramatica4 ,many estimates of the character of ,hill have been put forward1 the first of any authority being that of ,johnson#ia3--,the ,king then asked him what he thought of ,dr ,hill4 ,johnson answered1 that he was an ingenious man1 but had no veracity2 and immediately mentioned1 as an instance of it1 an assertion of that writer1 that he had seen objects magnified to a much greater degree by using three or four microscopes at a time than by using one4 ',now1' added ,johnson1 'everyone acquainted with microscopes knows1 that the more of them he looks through1 the less the object will appear4'444 ',i now1' said ,johnson to his friends1 when relating what had passed1 'began to consider that ,i was depreciating the man in the estimation of his sovereign1 and thought it was time for me to say something that might be more favourable4' ,he added1 therefore1 that ,dr ,hill was1 notwithstanding1 a very curious observer2 and if he would have been contented to tell the world no more than he knew1 he might have been a very considerable man1 and needed not to have recourse to such mean expedients to raise his reputation4 ,if ,hill's reputation for lying rests on no surer foundation than this1 he must be held acquitted of much that is charged him4 ,in the above quotation the term microscopes must be read lenses2 thus ,johnson's reason for his opinion is unfortunate and clearly shews1 as ,bishop ,elrington has remarked1 that ,johnson was talking of things he knew nothing about4 ,this is the more to be regretted since the opinion of a man of ,johnson's rank1 who was contemporary with ,hill1 might have biassed the judgment of smaller and later men4 ,according to ,fitzgerald#ib1 ,hill was a quack and blustering adventurer1 the ,holloway of his day1 endowed with cowardice that seemed a disease4 ,this author is1 ,i think1 prejudiced1 and his estimate appears to be based upon the least creditable of ,hill's performances without giving a proper value to the better side of his nature and work4 ,on the other hand the author--a grateful patient--of the short account of the life of ,hill#ic went to the other extreme4 ,this account is entirely laudatory1 and describes ,hill as being little short of a genius surrounded and continually attacked by envious and malevolent persons who did not fail to make use of every engine malevolence could invent1 to depreciate the character and the works of a man1 whom they saw1 with regret1 every way so far their superior4 ,disraeli#id speaks of ,hill as the ,cain of ,literature1 and1 whilst being fully alive to his egregious egotism and other defects of character1 he appreciates his worth and recognizes that ,hill was born fifty years too soon4 ,also he gives him credit for his moral courage in enduring with undiminished spirit the most biting satires1 the most wounding epigrams1 and more palpable castigations4 ,the general consensus of opinion1 much of which does not appear to have been independently arrived at1 is that ,hill's nature contained little that was commendable4 ,at the same time his remarkable industry and versatility were recognised4 ,his independent and quarrelsome nature1 coupled with his mode of attack and fearlessness in expressing his opinions1 made him cordially hated1 and caused much that he did to be viewed with a prejudiced eye2 for instance1 it is generally stated that he obtained his degree of ,doctor of ,medicine 7,st ,andrews1 #agej7 by dishonourable means4 ,mr ,anderson1 ,librarian and ,keeper of the ,records of ,st ,andrews ,university1 has kindly looked the matter up and informs me that there is nothing whatever to warrant such a statement2 the degree was granted according to the practice of the time4 ,it is important to remember that ,hill in his earlier days suffered much from penury1 which1 to a certain extent1 may have embittered his nature4 ,however this may be1 he learnt subsequently the advantages conferred by a good income1 and was not desirous of becoming reacquainted with his earlier experiences4 ,this may explain much of his peculiar behaviour4 ,disraeli#ie suggests that1 in offering himself as ,keeper of the ,sloane ,collection1 at the time of its purchase for the ,british ,museum1 ,hill was merely indulging in an advertisement4 ,hill probably was sufficiently shrewd to realize that a ready sale for his wares would obtain so long as he kept within the public eye1 and much of his extraordinary behaviour in public may have been merely self-advertisement4 ,the portrait of ,hill prefacing this sketch is after ,neudramini's engraving of ,coates's portrait 7#ageg72 the plant represented is a spray of a species of ,hillia1 named in honour of ,hill by ,jacquin4 ,,footnotes3 #ei ,sir ,john ,hawkins1 ,life of ,samuel ,johnson1 ,london4 #aghg4 #fj ,a ,letter from ,henry ,woodward1 444 to ,dr ,hill 444 ,london1 #ageb4 #fa ,loc4 cit4 #fb ,short ,account of the ,life1 ,writings and ,character of the late ,sir ,john ,hill1 ,m4,d41,edinburgh1 #aggi4 #fc ,fitzgerald1 ,life of ,garrick1 ,london1 #ahfh4 #fd ,isaac ,disraeli1 ,the ,calamities and ,quarrels of ,authors1 ,london1 #ahfe4 #fe ,london1 #ahdh4 #ff ,biographica ,dramatica1 #ahab4 #fg ,see also ,lucine sine concubitu4 ,a ,letter addressed to the ,royal ,society1 ,london1 #agej4 ,a ,dissertation on ,royal ,societies1 ,london1 #agej4 #fh ,short ,account of the ,life1 ,writings and ,character of the late ,sir ,john ,hill1 ,m4,d41 ,edinburgh #aggi4 #fi ,see ,bates1 ,the ,naturalist on the ,river ,amazons4 ,edited by ,ed4 ,clodd2 ,london1 #ahib1 p4 #hj4 #gj ,short ,life1 loc4 cit4 #ga ,loc4 cit4 #gb ,biographica ,dramatica4 #gc ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog4 #gd ,his second wife1 the ,hon4 ,henrietta ,jones1 sister of ,charles ,viscount ,ranelagh4 ,she published ,an ,address to the ,public setting forth the ,consequencies of the late ,sir ,john ,hill's acquaintance with the ,earl of ,bute1 #aghh4 #ge ,historical ,account of ,kew to #ahda1 ,kew ,bulletin1 #ahia4 #gf ,further information relating to ,hill's public ,life will be found in the following works4 ,arthur ,murphy1 ,the ,life of ,david ,garrick1 ,london1 #ahja2 ,a narrative of the affair between ,mr ,brown and the ,inspector1 ,london1 #ageb2 ,the ,covent ,garden ,journal1 #ageb2 ,frederick ,lawrence1 ,life of ,fielding1 ,london1 #ahee4 #gg ,ed4 by ,dallinger1 ,london1 #ahia4 #gh ,outlines of a ,system of ,vegetable ,generation1 ,london1 #ageh4 #gi ,by ,lindforss in #ahif4 #hj ,the ,british ,herbal2 an ,history of ,plants1 and ,trees1 natives of ,britain1 cultivated for use1 or raised for ,beauty1 ,london1 #agef4 #ha ,historical and ,biographical ,sketches of the ,progress of ,botany in ,england1 ,london1 #agij4 #hb ,the ,gardeners ,new ,kalendar 444 ,the ,system of ,linnaeus also explained1 ,london1 #ageh4 #hc ,flora ,britanica sive ,synopsis methodica stirpium ,britanicarum post tertiam editionem synopseos ,raianae 444 nunc primum ad ,c4 ,linnaei methodum disposita1 ,london1 #agfj 7some copies are dated #agei74 #hd ,loc4 cit4 #he ,the ,vegetable ,system ,or1 the ,internal ,structure and ,the ,life of ,plants2 ,their ,parts and ,nourishment ,explained2 ,their ,classes1 ,orders1 ,genera1 and ,species1 ,ascertained and ,described4444 ,london1 #agei-agge4 #hf ,london1 #ageh4 #hg ,an ,address to the ,public 444 loc4 cit4 #hh ,see ,helleborine ,hill v4 ,epipactis ,adans4 ,g4 ,claridge ,druce1 ,journal of ,botany1 ,,xlvi4 #aijh4 #hi ,babington's ,manual of ,british ,botany1 ed4 by ,groves1 ,london4 ,hayward's ,botanist's ,pocket ,book1 ed4 by ,druce1 ,london1 #aiji4 #ij ,john ,nichols1 ,literary ,anecdotes1 #ahab4 #ia ,boswell's ,life of ,johnson1 ed4 by ,fitzgerald1 ,london1 #ahig4 #ib ,ibid42 ,life of ,garrick1 loc4 cit4 #ic ,edinburgh1 #aggi1 loc4 cit4 #id ,loc4 cit4 #ie ,loc4 cit4 ,,robert ,,brown #aggc-aheh ,,by ,j4 ,b4 ,,farmer ,position of ,botany before ,brown--narrative--diary--naturalist to the ,flinders expedition--travels in ,australia--his method in the field--,essay and ,prodromus on the vegetation of ,new ,holland--the ,proteaceae and ,asclepiadaceae--,brown's digressions--his tenacity and caution--impregnation--views on the morphology of the ,gymnosperms in the memoir on ,kingia--foundation of ovular morphology--cell nucleus discussed--the simple microscope--,brownian movement investigated--summary of other work--,bryophytes--interest in fossil plants--personal characteristics--,asa ,gray's story--the ,banksian collections--the ,british ,museum and ,linnean ,society--contemporary appreciation--his outstanding merits4 ,someone has affirmed that no man is greater than the age in which he lives4 ,a cryptic utterance1 savouring perhaps of a certain dash of impressionism1 and not altogether false as it is assuredly not wholly true4 ,if1 however1 we endeavour dispassionately to appraise the performance of the world's great 7though perhaps we should exclude the few greatest7 men we shall probably discover that the implied limitation is justified1 at least in part1 by history and experience4 ,the fact is that hardly anyone can really penetrate far into nature's secret places without losing his way4 ,the virgin lands of knowledge that lie beyond the area of contemporary possession are first invaded by those who can breach the barriers that oppose advance1 for genius1 by its wider outlook enables those who are endowed with it to recognise the weaker spots in these barriers1 and thus to lead the attack4 ,but the new territory1 even after it is won1 is ever surrounded by unknown regions1 still waiting to be overrun when1 but not until1 the conditions for further expansion shall have been fulfilled4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xi ,,robert ,,brown 7circa #ahef7 ,at the beginning of the nineteenth century the time was ripe for such an addition of new territory to the regions of ,botany already occupied at that period4 ,in ,england1 at any rate1 the work inaugurated by ,ray and others had become overshadowed by the authority of ,linnaeus1 and even on the ,continent the effective advance of the science was for various reasons almost stayed4 ,it is true that in ,france the ,jussieus had started advance on fruitful lines1 and others like ,de ,candolle were endeavouring to feel their way through the maze of dimly comprehended relationships1 but their efforts were obscured by the growing and fatal facilities for piling up mere catalogues of plants without the clues necessary to direct their energies into more profitable channels4 ,as regards the flowering plants1 there was1 it is true1 a groping after a partially perceived natural system1 but the lower ranks of the vegetable kingdom formed1 so far as scientific purposes were concerned1 a terra incognita1 and the attempts to elucidate the morphology of these groups in the light of the angiosperms were1 as we now can see clearly enough1 plainly foredoomed to failure4 ,facts were distorted and observations misinterpreted in ways that now seem to us almost to smack of sheer perversity1 but we must not forget that the methods which in later years have proved so effective had not then been recognised2 ,hofmeister1 with his marvellous genius1 had not as yet arisen to shew the way through the maze of the lower forms4 ,but what does strike one as astonishing1 or might do so if the circumstance were not still so common1 is the evidence of the difficulty men experienced in really seeing things as they were1 and of distinguishing the fundamentally important from the trivial or even irrelevant4 ,as always1 what was needed was the man who could fix his gaze on facts1 who would spare no pains to find out what was true1 and thus succeed in discovering a sure base to serve as a vantage ground for further advance4 ,von ,mohl was one of these1 and earlier in the century there was the man1 the subject of this lecture1 who by his single-hearted search after truth1 and the extraordinary ardour and ability with which he prosecuted his investigations will always occupy a high position in the history of ,botany4 ,robert ,brown came of a stock which refused to bow the knee to authority1 though his forbears did not1 any more than himself1 hesitate to impress the weight of it on others4 ,his father was a non-juring clergyman of ,montrose1 and was in consequence obliged to leave the official ecclesiastical fold4 ,but he carried a congregation with him1 and not desiring to set up novel forms of church government1 managed to get himself consecrated bishop of the new flock4 ,as bishop1 priest and deacon1 tres in uno juncti1 he ministered to his ,edinburgh church1 and his episcopal staff may still be seen in the rooms of the ,linnean ,society4 ,his son ,robert1 who was born in #aggc1 inherited both his father's independence and also his dominant character4 ,and1 indeed1 the great influence he wielded in the botanical world was due in no small degree to his strong personality1 reinforced as it was by his high scientific attainments4 ,he began at an early age to evince a love of botany and to give proof of the strong critical faculty which enabled him so successfully to solve the problems he attacked1 and so materially to advance our science4 ,he added to his mental attainments a wonderfully methodical habit1 and the diary of his earlier years reveals him to us not only as a hard-working student but as one meticulously accurate in detail4 ,in #agie he was appointed ,surgeon mate to the ,fifeshire ,regiment of ,fencibles1 and his letter of appointment signed by the ,colonel1 ,james ,durham1 is preserved in the ,natural ,history ,museum4 ,his regiment was quartered in ,ireland1 and he made good use of his time1 collecting all the plants he could get hold of1 including mosses and liverworts1 of which he amassed a considerable collection4 ,indeed1 it is said that he owed his first acquaintance with ,sir ,joseph ,banks to his discovery in ,ireland of the rare moss ,glyphomitrium ,daviesii4 ,this recognition by ,sir ,joseph proved the turning-point of his life4 ,the six years or so that he spent in the ,fencibles were turned to good account1 and in looking to his own record of his life during those years one realises how thoroughly he earned the success that crowned his work in after life4 ,there is much humour--perhaps of an unconscious kind1 though ,i am not very sure that it was so very unconscious--in his carefully kept diary4 ,here is an extract1 dated ,feb4 #g1 #ahjj4 ,before breakfast began the ,german auxiliary verbs4 ,committed to memory a genus in ,cullen's ,synopsis4 ,described ,polytrichum aloides--to be compared with ,mr ,menzies' ,p4 rubellum4 ,began the description of ,osmunda pellucida4 ,hospital usual time4 ,took exactly the same walk as on the #dth4 ,blasia pusilla ,lin41 ,weissia recurvirostra ,hedw48 ,dicranum varium ,hedw41 ,polytrichum nanum1 ,polytrichum urnigerum1 ,phascum subulatum1 ,dicranum glaucum1 absque fruct4 ,at dinner about #c pints of port41 remained in the mess room till about #i or #aj o'clock--slept in my chair till nearly #c in the morning4 ,feb4 #h1 before breakfast finished the auxiliary verb ,seyn1 to be1 in ,wendeborn's ,german ,grammar4444 ,he did not1 however1 spend all his evenings in this fashion1 but whether it was a glass of water1 a pint of porter1 or what not1 it is all gravely set down1 together with the work he succeeded in accomplishing4 ,instances of his thoroughness are not wanting4 ,he says in one place he had read ,nicholson's ,chemistry1 ch4 vi41 on the balance1 to be again perused1 my defective knowledge of the mechanical powers rendering part of it unintelligible4 ,he was fond of reading in bed1 but his light literature on these occasions included such works as ,adam ,smith1 ,blackstone's ,commentaries1 and a ,german ,grammar4 ,his botanical acquirements were already attracting notice1 and in #agih1 being detached for recruiting service1 he took the opportunity of a visit to ,london to utilise the splendid collections in the possession of ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 and he was also in the same year elected an ,associate of the ,linnean ,society4 ,soon after his return to ,ireland he received a letter from ,sir ,joseph offering him the nomination as ,naturalist to the ,investigator1 which was to be commanded by ,captain ,flinders4 ,he at once decided to go1 writing1 as he tells us1 by return of post4 ,few men who have1 at so early an age1 enjoyed the opportunity of a voyage of discovery were so well equipped for the work as was ,robert ,brown4 ,blessed with a good constitution1 which was also seaworthy1 he possessed many physical advantages1 but in addition to them he had trained himself as an accurate and accomplished botanist4 ,he spent what time he could spare in ,london in acquainting himself with all that he could find of the ,new ,holland ,flora1 and in this connection he had full access to the invaluable ,banksian collections4 ,he was fortunate in having with him on the expedition as draughtsman ,ferdinand ,bauer1 whose beautiful drawings are the admiration of all who know them4 ,the ,investigator sailed from ,portsmouth in #ahja1 and on landing at ,king ,george's ,sound the first collections1 amounting to about #ejj plants1 were made within three weeks4 ,three days at ,lucky ,bay yielded #ajj species not met with in the previous locality4 ,at ,port ,jackson the ,investigator was condemned as unseaworthy1 and ,captain ,flinders determined to return to ,england to obtain another ship in which to prosecute the expedition4 ,the ship1 however1 was wrecked in ,torres ,straits1 ,brown's duplicate specimens1 as well as the live plants on board1 being lost1 whilst ,captain ,flinders was held prisoner by the ,french at ,port ,louis4 ,meantime ,brown and ,bauer continued their travels in ,australia1 visiting ,van ,dieman's land as well4 ,brown subsequently returned to ,england1 oddly enough in the old ,investigator1 in #ahje with a magnificent collection of plants some #djjj in number4 ,he did not merely collect1 but he studied his collections on the spot--a method that may be strongly commended to young men who go out as botanists at the present time4 ,his plan was to keep a working herbarium of all the plants gathered by him1 as he went along1 and he wrote up the descriptions in great part during his actual expeditions4 ,in this way many problems formulated themselves which he was able either to investigate on the spot1 or else to lay up additional material for further investigation at leisure4 ,thus the methodical ways of dealing with the plants collected in earlier years at home stood him in good stead at a time when the opportunities of a lifetime were crowding upon him4 ,on his return to ,england he was appointed librarian to the ,linnean ,society 7#ahje71 an office which he held till #ahbb1 and he at once set about to utilise the vast resources which were now at his command4 ,he contributed to the narrative of ,the ,flinders ,expedition an account of the vegetation of ,new ,holland4 ,the essay is a remarkable one1 not only for the masterly descriptions of the principal genera and orders which it contains1 and the critical remarks which are scattered through the pages1 but also for the geographical and statistical methods of treatment which he introduced4 ,many of the orders are new1 and ,brown shews his striking perception of affinity not only in his general discussion of the subject as a whole1 but also in the definitions of the new orders and genera which he founded4 ,this soundness of judgment is shewn on a still larger scale in his more definitely systematic works such as the ,prodromus1 but one may regard it generally as an astonishing tribute to his sagacity that very few of the groups founded by him have needed serious revision1 even when further discoveries made it possible for later botanists to fill up the lacunae inevitable during those earlier days4 ,in the year #ahaj there appeared the first volume of his great work1 the ,prodromus ,florae ,novae ,hollandiae4 ,it is a misfortune that only one volume was ever published1 although the work was advanced in ,,ms4 ,it has been said that a criticism of the author's ,latinity at the hands of a reviewer was the cause of the stoppage of the publication1 but there seems to be no real foundation for the story4 ,possibly the expense1 coupled with the small return1 may at any rate partly account for it4 ,be this as it may1 ,brown recalled from his bookseller all the unsold copies1 and in the copy preserved at the ,natural ,history ,museum there is a list of the volumes actually sold written by ,brown himself1 and from a financial point of view the enterprise clearly proved itself to be an expensive experiment4 ,the volume as published is a remarkable work1 containing some #dej pages1 including #dfd genera1 nearly one-third of which are here described for the first time and the number of species amounts to about #bjjj1 some three-quarters of which were new to science4 ,add to this the fact that the flora as a whole is very unlike that of the northern hemisphere1 also that the work was accomplished with such amazing rapidity 7largely owing to his particular methods already alluded to71 and one cannot withhold admiration at the energy and the learning of its author4 ,it is a wonderful tribute to his wisdom that his descriptions and arrangements should have so stood the test of #ajj years1 during which time vast strides in our knowledge of the ,australian and other floras have been made4 ,but the lapse of time has resulted in scarcely any but trifling modifications of the general results as he left them4 ,the ,prodromus is well worth study1 for in its pages one constantly meets with hints of observations which have borne fruit in later years4 ,some of them1 indeed1 e4g4 his observations on ,cycads1 were expanded by himself into larger treatises in which much light has been thrown on morphological and taxonomic relationships previously but imperfectly understood4 ,the year before the publication of the ,prodromus1 ,brown communicated to the ,linnean ,society an excellent and learned memoir on the ,proteaceae4 ,in this paper we encounter an instance of that whimsical introduction of observations exceedingly valuable in themselves1 but mainly irrelevant to the matter in hand1 which is a characteristic feature of many of his works4 ,perhaps it was due to the intense keenness with which he always followed up problems that interested him1 so that1 like ,mr ,dick's weakness for ,king ,charles' head1 they had to find a place in whatever else he was writing about4 ,thus his treatise on the ,proteaceae starts off with advice to study the flower in the young1 instead of only in its adult condition1 and this is driven home by an excellent disquisition on the structure of the androecium and gynaeceum of ,asclepiads1 a subject which occupied his mind for some years and formed the basis for separate papers at subsequent periods4 ,only when he has discussed the morphology of the ,asclepiad flower does he plunge1 abruptly1 into the questions relating directly to the ,proteaceae4 ,later on in the same year 7#ahji7 he read a masterly paper on the ,asclepiadaceae which was subsequently printed in the ,memoirs of the ,wernerian ,natural ,history ,society4 ,this ,natural ,order was here separated by him from the ,apocynaceae1 from which it had not previously been distinguished1 and a correct account of the relations of the remarkable androecium1 so characteristic of the ,asclepiad flower1 was given4 ,twenty-two years later 7in #ahca7 he again returned to the ,asclepiads and described and discussed the mode of pollination and fertilisation in this ,order and also in that of the ,orchids4 ,it was characteristic of ,brown that he clung with great tenacity to any problem that had once excited his interest4 ,he made himself fully acquainted with the work of his contemporaries and predecessors1 and at the same time he constantly attacked it by reiterated first-hand investigations1 testing hypotheses and theories by the light of direct observation4 ,he was very cautious1 and thus1 although he traced the pollen tubes from the pollen grain into the ovary and into the micropyle 7foramen7 of the ovule1 he still leaves it an open question whether1 in all cases1 anything of a material nature passes from the pollen to the interior of the ovule1 which may thus be held responsible for the formation of an embryo4 ,he cites the observations of ,amici and of ,du ,petit ,thouars1 and then states he does not feel he is as far advanced as these observers4 ,but in the succeeding pages he traces the tube1 of which he says1 the production is a vital action excited in the grain by the application of an external stimulus4 ,we see here a clear perception of the facts of germination and of the operation of what we now call chemiotaxis1 for he goes on to add ,the appropriate and most powerful stimulus to this action is no doubt contact1 at the proper period1 with the secretion or surface of the stigma of the same species4 ,many facts1 however1 and among others the existence of hybrid plants1 prove that this is not the only stimulus capable of producing the effect2 and in ,orchideae ,i have found that the action in the pollen of one species may be excited by the stigma of another belonging to a very different tribe4 ,it is hard to believe that these lines were written so long as #hj years ago4 ,brown goes on to describe the change that follows impregnation1 and the gradual appearance of the embryo4 ,and we must remember that all these observations were made by one who relied almost exclusively on the simple microscope and the simplest--,i had almost said barbaric--technique4 ,he expresses himself in very reserved terms as to the nature of the immediate agent derived from the male organ1 or the manner of its application to the ovulum in the production of that series of changes constituting fecundation4 ,but he puts forward the opinion that a more attentive examination of the process in ,orchids and ,asclepiads is more likely to be fruitful of results than most other families4 ,he returns again to this matter of fecundation in the following year1 studying several orchids1 but especially ,bonatea1 for the purpose4 ,he is somewhat shaken as to the validity of his former inferences1 and concludes that the mucous cords 7i4e4 strings of pollen tubes7 are perhaps derived from pollen not1 however1 by mere elongation of the original pollen tubes1 but by an increase in their number1 in a manner which ,i do not attempt to explain4 ,in this later paper he also hazards the suggestion that in ,ophrys1 as impregnation is frequently accomplished without the aid of insects1 444 it may be conjectured that the remarkable forms of the flowers in this genus are intended to deter1 not to attract1 insects4 ,also he suggests that the insect forms in orchidaceous flowers resemble those of the insects belonging to the native country of the plants4 ,this is a clear foreshadowing of what is now called protective mimicry--and the former suggestion is not at any rate wholly without modern supporters1 though ,brown's share in its origin seems not to be generally recognised4 ,the keen desire to get to the bottom of a problem1 which was so outstanding a feature of ,brown's whole mental attitude1 unquestionably explains why he was led to make so many important discoveries in such widely different directions4 ,his first hand knowledge of the structure of a vast number of plants gave a soundness and depth to his morphological investigations that must arouse the admiration of everyone who is acquainted with them4 ,he was never satisfied with perfunctory attempts to solve a problem1 but1 as we have already seen1 in the example of his studies on ,asclepiads and ,orchids1 he would return again and again to the matter till he had satisfied himself of the accuracy of his work4 ,it is a pity that all of the present day botanists do not follow more closely in his steps in this respect4 ,publication of a paper seems to some to be a matter of greater importance than the advance of knowledge by the scientific and scholarly solution of a problem4 ,such was not ,brown's view1 and he practised wise delay in publication--nonumque prematur in annum1 a maxim so strongly advocated by the ,latin poet1 was really put into practice by him as it also was by some of his contemporaries4 ,dryander1 ,solander and others have left1 as ,brown has done1 rich stores of ,,ms4 behind them1 which have never passed through the press4 ,the habit of long and continuous reflection on fundamental problems1 which was so marked a feature of ,brown's character1 was perhaps responsible for the curious manner in which some of his most valuable and suggestive contributions to science1 and especially to morphology1 were given to the world1 a habit to which ,i have already adverted4 ,we know he had been for many years interested in the ovule1 and he made a number of important discoveries respecting it4 ,closely bound up with this topic were his studies on the ,cycads and ,conifers4 ,he observed the plurality of embryos in the seeds of these plants1 and1 indeed1 makes a reference to the phenomenon of polyembryony in the ,prodromus1 in which1 as in most of his systematic works1 morphological observations of the highest value are scattered1 though embodied in very compressed phrases1 amongst the descriptions of species4 ,but every now and then when writing on one subject he seems to be carried away with the rush of his ideas on general questions4 ,thus in a memoir on the genus ,kingia he entitles the paper1 possibly to save his face after he had written it1 ,character and ,description of ,kingia2 a new genus of plants found on the south-west coast of ,new ,holland4 ,with observations on the ,structure of its unimpregnated ,ovulum1 and on the female flower of ,cycadeae and ,coniferae4 ,this paper is1 perhaps1 one of the most important of his works1 for it was there that1 having briefly dismissed the genus ,kingia1 he let himself go on the ovule1 and then in a masterly dissertation1 puts forward his view on the gymnospermic nature of the ,cycads and ,conifers4 ,he summarises what was known at that time as to the structure of the ovule1 acutely criticising the views of the various authors he cites4 ,he emphasises the need of studying the development in order successfully to interpret the mature structure4 ,he insists on the origin of the seed coats from the integuments1 on the orientation of the embryo within the amnios 7embryo sac71 and on the distinction between the true albumen which is contained in this amnios and the albumen formed by a deposition of granular matter in the cells of the nucleus 7nucellus71 i4e4 the perisperm1 and he goes on to suggest that in some of these cases the ,membrane of the amnios seems to be persistent1 forming even in the ripe seed a proper coat for the embryo4444 ,this is the probable explanation of the structure of true ,nympheaceae 444 here he seems to have overlooked the rudimentary endosperm which is really present4 ,finally he sums up an admirable account of the whole matter as follows3--,the albumen1 properly so-called1 may be formed either by a disposition or secretion of granular matter in the utriculi of the amnios1 or in those of the nucleus itself1 or lastly that two substances having these distinct origins and very different textures may coexist in the ripe seed as is probably the case in ,scitamineae4 ,he then goes on at once to argue that the apex of the nucleus is the point of the ovulum where impregnation takes place1 and adds that all doubt would be removed if cases could be produced where the ovarium was either altogether wanting or so imperfectly formed that the ovulum itself became directly exposed to the action of the pollen or its fovilla4 ,this leads him at once to enunciate his view of the gymnospermy of ,cycads1 ,conifers and ,gnetaceae4 ,he reviews very fully the opinions that had been expressed by others as to the real structure of the female organ1 especially of ,pinus1 and he mentions the fact that he himself in the botany of the ,flinders' voyage had previously held the view that a minute perianth was present in the ,pine1 a view which1 as he says1 ,on reconsidering the subject in connection with what ,i had ascertained respecting the vegetable ovulum he had now abandoned4 ,the morphology of the male sporophyll of ,cycas1 however1 presents a great difficulty1 and ,brown1 less fortunate here1 discusses a number of what seemed to him possible explanations4 ,the recognition of ,sporangia was remote1 and the effort to homologise the numerous pollen sacs either to grains of pollen which1 bursting1 liberated fovilla1 or to male flowers1 or to explain them in other ways1 was not very successful4 ,the fact is this was a piece of morphology for which the age was not ready4 ,we must recollect that the comparative morphology of the ovule 7in the wide sense7 was not attempted4 ,brown's main contribution to the understanding of this structure consisted in the empirical accuracy with which he elucidated the actual structure--he made no attempt to frame a comparative morphology1 for the simple reason that in the condition of knowledge at the time no such comparative morphology was possible or even dreamed of4 ,two other remarkable discoveries now demand our attention1 and both are instructive as shewing the keenness with which his highly trained powers of observation followed up the clues which his brilliant intellect had enabled him to descry4 ,it was while engaged on a study of the ,orchids and ,asclepiads that he was led to recognise the existence of the cell nucleus4 ,he worked almost exclusively with what we should call a dissecting microscope4 ,one of his instruments is preserved in the ,natural ,history ,museum1 and it is well to examine it and reflect on how much may be discerned even with a very primitive instrument if only a good brain lies behind the retina4 ,the microscope contains a number of simple lenses of various powers1 the highest about #a_/cb ,f4,l4 ,it is easy with such an instrument to see the nucleus in the epidermal cells when one knows it is there1 but to have discovered it1 and at a time when the technique of staining1 c41 was simply non-existent1 was a triumph of genius4 ,brown1 of course1 could not fully appreciate the great importance of his discovery1 but he quite realised that he was dealing with no isolated or trivial fact1 and1 with characteristic industry and enterprise1 he searched many other plants to find out whether his newly recognised nucleus was general or not2 he found it to be so1 and we all know how the discovery began at once to bear fruit4 ,a second observation to which ,i would refer was also of wide interest1 and it was not made merely by chance4 ,brown was anxious to penetrate if possible into the secrets of fertilisation4 ,he seems to have been pretty sure that something more than the mere aura of older writers was concerned in the matter1 and while looking into the evidence for the existence or transmission of material substance1 he observed that in the fovilla of the pollen there were vast crowds of minute particles which were in a continual state of dancing motion4 ,he hoped that it might be possible to identify these bodies along their track into the ovule1 and so to settle the more urgent questions as to the mode of fertilisation4 ,he states that he made his observations with a simple microscope1 the focal length of the lens of which was #a_/cb4 ,later on he used a much more powerful pocket microscope made by ,dollond with power up to #a_/gj ,f4,l4 ,he got ,dollond to check the results with a compound achromatic microscope1 and estimated the size of the particles to be #a_/bj1jjj to #a_/cj1jjj4 ,brown was fully aware that he was not the first observer who had seen these moving particles4 ,they had been already noticed by ,needham and by ,gleichen1 but these writers had paid no special attention to them4 ,brown's great merit in this matter lies in the admirable way in which he conducted the investigation4 ,at first he thought he had lighted upon something which was essentially a peculiarity of the male elements2 then1 extending his observations1 he had to expand his first idea and admit the active molecules to represent a state or condition of living matter generally4 ,as he still further widened the sphere of his investigations1 he proved that the same movements occurred in dead tissues1 and further that inorganic bodies also exhibited the phenomenon4 ,later on he found that the movements depended on the minuteness of the particles4 ,he excluded the effect of evaporation1 currents and other disturbing influences1 and1 indeed1 the whole investigation shews him to us in the character of an accomplished experimenter as well as a brilliant observer4 ,the complete explanation of these active molecules1 which are in the state generally described as ,brownian movement1 still constitutes an unsolved problem1 and one finds that it even now continues to occupy the attention of the physicist4 ,any attempt adequately to review the whole of ,brown's life work is impossible within the limits necessarily imposed by the conditions of a lecture1 and ,i make no pretence to completeness1 but will endeavour rather to indicate what appear to be the more important of his many other contributions to science4 ,his catalogues of the plants collected by those associated with various expeditions1 his ,kew lists 7which were published under ,aiton's name7 are well known to students of systematic ,botany1 but his fine monograph on ,rafflesia1 containing1 as it does1 many observations of general interest will well repay perusal even after these many years4 ,his studies on ,cephalotus1 on ,caulophyllum 7with its remarkable seed formation71 as well as his considerable memoir on the ,proteaceae1 shew him as a naturalist imbued with keen insight and possessed of extraordinarily sound judgment4 ,but ,brown did not confine his attention to phanerogams1 but1 as might have been anticipated from the studies of his earlier years1 pursued his investigations into the little explored field of the cryptogams4 ,we have seen that as a young man he had been greatly attracted to the study of mosses4 ,later on he contributed two important papers on these plants to the ,linnean ,society1 one in #ahji1 in which he described two new genera1 one of them ,dawsonia1 the other ,leptostomum1 both from ,australasia4 ,the introductory remarks in which he discusses the character of the moss capsule1 are interesting as shewing how hopelessly impossible it was at that time to arrive at a scientific understanding of its structure1 so long as everything was tested by the touchstone of the flowering plants4 ,ten years afterwards he reverted to the same subject1 describing the new genus ,lyellia from ,nepaul1 and comparing it1 as was his wont1 with allied genera1 e4g4 ,polytrichum1 ,buxbaumia and many others1 with the view of elucidating the significance of its structure4 ,the spores1 however1 are still spoken of as seeds4 ,the male plant is generally regarded as the barren plant4 ,it is not easy to reconcile the existence of male flowers with the view of ,beauvois which ,brown seemed still to consider as not disproved1 viz4 that the seeds and pollen were both contained in the capsule4 ,mosses were not the only cryptograms to which he turned his attention4 ,he described a new species of ,azolla 7,a4 pinnata7 from ,port ,jackson1 and the plant was illustrated by the excellent drawings of ,bauer4 ,but here1 too1 the time was not yet ripe for a morphological understanding of the structure4 ,the megasporangium was thought to be the male flower1 the microsporangia being interpreted as capsules containing several seeds 7the glochidia74 ,the explanation of the supposed male flower presented difficulties1 but he states that the lower cell 7i4e4 the megaspore7 was once found filled with a powder replacing the turbid fluid ordinarily occurring there1 and the powder was supposed in some way to be ejected and thence to be conveyed to the female organ4 ,ferns also claimed his attention1 and among his other contributions he founded the genus ,woodsia1 calling attention to the character of the involucrum 7indusium71 which separated it from the other polypodia with which the species had previously been associated4 ,brown had always taken a keen interest in fossil plants1 although1 so far as ,i am aware1 he only wrote one paper on the subject4 ,this one1 however1 was of considerable importance1 for its subject was the ,brownian cone of ,lepidodendron1 called by him ,triplosporite1 though its true affinities were correctly gauged4 ,although1 as ,i have said1 ,brown was less successful when grappling with cryptogams1 he is always worth reading on any subject1 and in his own special province1 that of the flowering plants1 ,i know of no one amongst the older writers from whom one may learn so much4 ,this is due not only to the genius and erudition which he brought to bear on every problem he attacked1 but also to the example he affords of scientific method in handling his subject4 ,in his respect for accuracy1 in his cautious attitude1 as well as in the single-minded honesty of purpose he everywhere exhibits1 he has set an example not only for his own but for all future time4 ,his personal character made a deep impression on his contemporaries4 ,to his friends he was very faithful1 and the unanimous tribute of affectionate 7though respectful7 admiration affords full proof of this4 ,like many other strong characters1 however1 he seems also to have been able at times to shew a rougher side of his nature4 ,he was not generous with his specimens1 nor was he always ready to part with information4 ,asa ,gray tells a story of how he encountered this trait of ,brown's character4 ,gray was visiting this country and1 of course1 made the great botanist's acquaintance4 ,one day ,brown told him that he knew of a character by which ,rhexia 7a genus in which ,gray was at that time interested7 could be distinguished from some nearly allied ones1 and that this character had escaped the notice of ,de ,candolle and others4 ,but ,gray could not get it out of him1 and it was not till the following week that ,brown was induced to part with his secret6 ,it is interesting to observe the impression the elder botanist made on ,gray1 and to note the growing admiration with which the younger man speaks of him in the very readable diary he kept of his ,london visit4 ,it was the same1 however1 with all4 ,the more intimate the acquaintance the more profound the respect1 and sometimes the love1 that ,brown's personality inspired4 ,brown was a keen business man1 and well lived up to the traditions of the land of his birth4 ,he gave a remarkable proof of his canniness in the successful outcome of his bargaining with the trustees of the ,british ,museum4 ,sir ,joseph ,banks by his will had left him not only his house1 but also a life user of the ,banksian collections1 after which they were to go to the ,museum4 ,in #ahbg ,brown entered into a hard agreement with the trustees to transfer the collections at once to the ,museum1 he being appointed under-librarian at an adequate salary1 with a well safeguarded position4 ,he used commonly to take #aa weeks' holiday--a length of vacation which served to differentiate him rather clearly 7and to his own advantage7 from his colleagues4 ,he successfully countered all official moves designed to encroach on the terms of his agreement whereby his freedom might be curtailed1 and his conditions of service be brought more into line with those that obtained elsewhere in the ,museum4 ,he maintained through his life intimate relations with the ,linnean ,society4 ,he acted during his earlier life as ,librarian to the ,society1 an office which he resigned in #ahbb4 ,two years previously he had succeeded to the house in ,soho ,square which had been left to him by ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 and as it was larger than his own requirements demanded1 an arrangement was made by which the ,linnean ,society moved into the vacant rooms1 where it remained for a number of years4 ,brown subsequently became ,president of the ,society 7in #ahdi74 ,robert ,brown was deservedly acclaimed by his contemporaries as the first botanist of his age1 and honours fell to his share even in his earlier years4 ,he was elected a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society in #ahaa1 and twenty-eight years afterwards was awarded the ,copley ,medal4 ,he was approached in #ahai in connection with the ,chair of ,botany in ,edinburgh1 but decided not to sever his intimate connection with ,sir ,joseph ,banks4 ,abroad he was probably more widely known than in this country1 for when on a visit to ,prussia the ,king sent a special carriage to meet him1 and decorated him with the ,order ,pour la ,mrite4 ,in ,england1 on the other hand1 though held in the highest esteem by his scientific confrres1 he shared the obscurity that was the common lot of many of the savants of that age4 ,he was1 however1 awarded a civil pension1 although not without question on the part of certain members of the ,house of ,commons4 ,he lived to a ripe age1 passing away in the year #aheh1 the #heth of his age4 ,to the last he retained his interest in his life work1 and on ,june #c1 a week before he died1 he signed a certificate in favour of an ,associate of the ,linnean ,society4 ,robert ,brown1 as we have seen1 penetrated more deeply than most of his contemporaries into the secrets of nature1 and he enriched the science to which he devoted his long life by discoveries of fundamental importance4 ,but he1 no more than others1 was able to anticipate1 with all his insight1 the recognition of the broader bonds of coherence which link up the plant kingdom as a whole4 ,that was only made possible when the researches of ,hofmeister1 the great ,tbingen ,professor1 had been made known to the world4 ,but it is no reproach to his memory or to his reputation that he should have fallen into error when attempting to elucidate the critical stages in the life history of cryptogams4 ,the historical interest attaching to his mistakes lies in their inevitableness at the time when he was actively working4 ,it would be as ungracious as it would be futile to attempt to rob the great botanist of the meed of praise which by all that is right belongs to him1 because he could not escape from the influence of limiting factors4 ,his supreme merit rests in his wonderful elucidation of the morphology and inter-relationships of the higher plants1 and if we judge him by his achievements in this field we shall hardly disagree with v4 ,humboldt in according to him the title of ,facile ,botanicorum princeps1 ,britanniae gloria et ornamentum4 ,,sir ,,william ,,hooker #aghe-ahfe ,,by ,f4 ,o4 ,,bower ,early pursuits--appointed to ,glasgow--,garden administration--teaching methods--appointed ,director of ,kew--state of ,botany--vigorous development of ,kew--serial publications--floristic work--descriptive work on ,ferns--his record4 ,poeta nascitur non fit4 ,a poet is born1 not made4 ,if this be true of poets1 much more is it true of botanists4 ,the man who takes up botany merely as a means of making a livelihood1 rarely possesses that true spirit of the naturalist which is essential for the highest success in the ,science4 ,it is the boys who are touched with the love of organic ,nature from their earliest years1 who grub about hedgerows and woods1 and by a sort of second sight appear to know instinctively1 as personal friends1 the things of the open country1 who provide the material from which our little band of workers may best be recruited4 ,such a boy was ,sir ,william ,hooker1 the subject of this lecture4 ,he was born in #aghe1 at ,norwich4 ,there is no detailed history of his boyhood1 but it is known that in his school days he interested himself in entomology1 in drawing1 and in reading books of natural history1 a rather unusual thing at the time of the ,napoleonic wars6 ,in #ahje1 when he was at the age of #bj1 he discovered a species new to ,britain1 in ,buxbaumia aphylla1 and his correspondence about it with ,dawson ,turner shows that he was already well versed not only in the flowering plants1 but also in the ,mosses1 ,hepaticae1 ,lichens1 and fresh-water ,algae of ,norfolk1 his native county4 ,three years later ,sir ,james ,smith dedicated to him the new genus ,hookeria1 styling him as a most assiduous and intelligent botanist1 already well known by his interesting discovery of ,buxbaumia aphylla1 as well as by his scientific drawings of ,fuci for ,mr ,turner's work3 and likely to be far more distinguished by his illustrations of the difficult genus ,jungermannia1 to which he has given particular attention 7,trans4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,,ix4 #bge74 ,clearly young ,hooker was a convinced naturalist in his early years1 and that by inner impulse rather than by the mere force of circumstances4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xii ,,william ,,jackson ,,hooker 7#ahcd7 ,not that the circumstances of his early years were in any way against his scientific tastes4 ,he inherited a competence at the early age of four1 and so was saved the mere struggle of bread-winning4 ,his father was personally interested in gardening1 while from his mother's side he inherited a taste for drawing4 ,moreover1 he was early thrown into relations with some of the leading naturalists of his time1 chiefly it appears by his own initiative1 and doubtless he owed much in those opening years to the advice and stimulus of such men as ,dawson ,turner1 and ,sir ,james ,smith4 ,elected to the ,linnean ,society in #ahjf1 he became acquainted in the same year with ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 ,robert ,brown1 and other leading naturalists4 ,thus when other young men would be feeling for their first footing1 he at the age of #ba had already penetrated into the innermost circle of the ,science of the country4 ,for a period of sixty years he held there a place unique in its activity4 ,he shared with ,augustin ,pyrame ,de ,candolle and with ,robert ,brown the position of greatest prominence among systematists1 during the time which ,sachs has described as that of the ,development of the ,natural ,system under the ,dogma of ,constancy of ,species4 ,the interval between the death of ,linnaeus and the publication of the ,origin of ,species can show no greater triumvirate of botanists than these1 working each in his own way1 but simultaneously4 ,the active life of ,sir ,william ,hooker divides itself naturally into two main periods1 during which he held two of the most responsible official posts in the country1 viz4 the ,regius ,chair of ,botany in ,glasgow and the ,directorship of the ,royal ,gardens at ,kew4 ,we may pass over with but brief notice the years from #ahjf to #ahbj1 which preceded his attainment of professorial rank4 ,notwithstanding that notable work was done by him in those years1 the period was essentially preparatory and provisional1 and can hardly be reckoned as an integral part of his official life4 ,he was in point of fact an enthusiastic amateur1 one of that class which has always been a brilliant ornament of the ,botany of this country1 and has contributed to its best work4 ,he travelled1 making successive tours in ,scotland and the ,isles1 no slight undertaking in those days 7#ahjg1 #ahjh74 ,in #ahji he made his celebrated voyage to ,iceland1 described in his ,journal1 published in #ahaa4 ,but his collections from ,iceland were entirely lost by fire on the return voyage4 ,his son remarks that the loss to science was probably greatest in respect of the ,cryptogamic collections2 this naturally followed from the fact that already he had taken a prominent place as a student of the lower forms1 and the field for their study was more open than among the flowering plants of the island4 ,it was among the ,cryptogams that ,sir ,william found the theme of his first great work1 the ,british ,jungermanniae1 published in #ahaf4 ,nearly a century after its appearance it still stands notable not only for the beauty of the analytical plates1 but as a foundation for reference4 ,it must still be consulted by all who work critically upon the group1 subdivided today1 but comprehended then in the single genus ,jungermannia4 ,during this period he also produced the ,musci ,exotici1 with figures of #agf new species from various quarters of the globe4 ,thus up to #ahbj his chief successes lay in the sphere of ,cryptogamic ,botany4 ,naturally so ardent a botanist desired to widen his experience by travel4 ,but circumstances checked the projects which he successively formed to visit ,ceylon and ,java1 ,south ,africa1 and ,brazil4 ,in #ahad he went to ,france1 and became acquainted with the leading botanists of ,paris4 ,he proceeded to ,switzerland and ,lombardy1 returning in #ahae1 in which year he married the eldest daughter of his friend ,mr ,dawson ,turner4 ,meanwhile1 at his father-in-law's suggestion he had embarked in a business for which he was not specially fitted by experience or by inclination4 ,it did not prove a success1 and as the years drew on1 having a young family dependent upon him1 he began to look out for some botanical appointment which should at once satisfy his personal tastes1 and be remunerative4 ,the chair in ,glasgow becoming vacant in #ahbj by the transfer of ,dr ,graham to ,edinburgh1 he received the appointment from the ,crown1 largely through the influence of ,sir ,joseph ,banks4 ,he entered upon its duties never having lectured before to a class of students1 nor even heard such lectures1 but otherwise equipped for their performance in a way that would bear comparison with any of the professors of his time4 ,glasgow was in #ahbj at an interesting juncture in its botanical history4 ,though the science of botany had been taught for a whole century in the ,university1 a separate chair had been founded by the ,crown only two years before4 ,moreover1 though there had been for a long period a ,physic ,garden in the grounds of the old ,college1 this had proved insufficient1 and its position within the growing town unsuitable4 ,accordingly1 in part by grant from the ,crown1 partly from the funds of the ,university1 but largely by the subscriptions of enthusiastic citizens a ,botanic ,garden had been founded under ,royal ,charter in #ahag1 and opened to the public in #ahai4 ,the first blush of novelty had not worn off this new enterprise when a man1 already in a leading position1 whose successful achievements had shown his quality1 acquainted with many of the leading botanists of ,europe1 and with youth and unbounded energy at his disposal entered upon the scene1 and began that course of organisation of ,public ,botanic ,gardens which he continued to the day of his death4 ,there was nothing to prevent the ,glasgow establishment from rapidly taking a leading position4 ,largely as the result of ,hooker's influence and initiative1 and assisted greatly no doubt by the zeal with which the movement was supported by individual citizens1 and aided by the position of ,glasgow as a great commercial centre1 contributions to the garden began to come in from every quarter of the globe4 ,taking the number of species represented as a measure1 the growth of the living collections was rapid beyond precedent4 ,in #ahba the number of species living in the garden was about #ijjj3 in #ahbe it is quoted at #ab1jjj1 while the increase in number from that period onwards was about #cjj to #ejj per annum4 ,of these a large number were new species1 not previously described or figured4 ,this work ,hooker carried out1 and the publication of his results widened still further the desire of the officials of other gardens to effect exchanges4 ,in #ahbh1 after it had been in existence but ten years1 the ,glasgow garden was corresponding as an equal with #ab ,british and ,irish1 #ba ,european1 and #e ,tropical gardens1 while it had established relations with upwards of #cjj private gardens4 ,in #ahbe ,sir ,william ,hooker published a list of the living plants in pamphlet form1 with a plan of the garden1 copies of which are still extant4 ,but the following years1 from #ahbe to #ahdj were the most notable in its history as a scientific institution4 ,it is recorded in the minute books that scientific visitors almost invariably expressed the opinion that the garden would not suffer by comparison with any other similar establishment in ,europe4 ,it can hardly have come as a surprise to those who had witnessed his work in ,glasgow that when a ,director had to be appointed to the ,royal ,gardens at ,kew1 the post was offered to ,hooker4 ,he accepted the appointment and left ,glasgow in #ahda4 ,his conduct of the ,glasgow professorship from #ahbj to #ahda was a success from the first1 notwithstanding his entire want of prior experience of such duties4 ,sir ,joseph ,hooker1 in his speech at the opening of the ,new ,botanical ,buildings in ,glasgow ,university1 in #aija pointed out how he had resources that enabled him to overcome all obstacles3 familiarity with his subject1 devotion to its study1 energy1 eloquence1 a commanding presence1 with urbanity of manners1 and above all the art of making the student love the science he taught4 ,not only students in medicine1 for whom the course was primarily designed1 attended the lectures1 but private citizens1 and even officers from the barracks4 ,sir ,joseph describes his father's course as opening with a few introductory lectures on the history of botany1 and the general character of plant-life4 ,as a rule the first half of each hour was occupied with lecturing on organography1 morphology1 and classification1 and the second half with the analysis in the class-room of specimens supplied to the pupils1 the most studious of whom took these home for further examination4 ,an interesting event in these half-hours was the professor calling upon such students as volunteered for being examined1 to demonstrate the structure of a plant or fruit placed in the hands of the whole class for this purpose4 ,the lectures were illustrated by blackboard drawings1 probably these were a special feature in the hands of so experienced an artist as he1 and also by large coloured drawings1 chiefly of medicinal plants1 which were hung on the walls4 ,another feature1 which happily still survives1 was the collection of lithographed illustrations of the organs of plants1 a copy of which was placed before every two students4 ,the first edition of these drawings appears to have been by his own hand4 ,but in #ahcg a thin quarto volume of ,botanical ,illustrations was produced1 being a series of above a thousand figures1 selected from the best sources1 designed to explain the terms employed in a course of ,lectures on ,botany4 ,the plates were executed by ,walter ,fitch1 who was originally a pattern-drawer in a calico-printing establishment1 and entered the service of ,sir ,william in #ahcd4 ,this great botanical artist continued to assist ,sir ,william till the death of the latter1 and himself died at ,kew in #ahib4 ,a number of copies of this early work of ,fitch remain to the present day in the ,botanical ,department in ,glasgow4 ,other branches1 however1 besides ,descriptive ,organography were taken up4 ,naturally the plants of medicinal value figured largely in the course1 which was primarily for medical students4 ,illustrative specimens1 of which ,sir ,william gathered a large collection1 were handed round for inspection4 ,these1 together with other objects of economic interest finally made their way to ,kew1 and were embodied in the great collections of the ,kew ,museums4 ,the branch of anatomy of the plant-tissues was not neglected4 ,of this he wrote at the time of taking up the duties of the chair1 it is a subject to which ,i have never attended1 and authors are so much at variance as to their opinions1 and on the facts too1 that ,i really do not know whom to follow4 ,he continues with a remark which is singularly like what one might have heard in the early seventies1 just before the revival of the laboratory study of plants in this country4 ,he remarked that ,mirbel has seen what nobody else can3 so nobody contradicts him1 though many won't believe him4 ,i can hardly doubt that physiology of plants will also have figured in the course1 first because ,sir ,william was himself a successful gardener1 but secondly because we have in the ,botanical ,department in ,glasgow the syllabus of the lectures of ,professor ,hamilton who taught botany in the ,university in the latter end of the #ahth century4 ,in this course physiology took a surprisingly large place1 and we can hardly believe that it would have dropped out of ,sir ,william's course altogether4 ,but of this there is no definite record4 ,another feature of the teaching of ,sir ,william was the practical illustration of botany in the field1 by means of excursions4 ,of these ,sir ,joseph tells us there were habitually three in each summer session1 two of them on ,saturdays1 to favourable points in the neighbourhood of ,glasgow2 but the third1 which took place about the end of ,june1 was a larger undertaking4 ,with a party of some thirty students1 and occasional scientific visitors from elsewhere1 he started for the ,western ,highlands1 usually the ,breadalbane range4 ,in those days1 before railways1 and often with indifferent roads1 this was no light affair1 and in some cases it involved camping4 ,i do not know whether this was the beginning of those class excursions which have been so marked a feature in the botanical work of the ,scottish ,universities1 but it is to be remembered that his immediate successor in the ,glasgow chair was ,dr ,hutton ,balfour1 who in later years confirmed and extended the practice1 and it has been kept up continuously in the ,scottish universities ever since4 ,it was to meet the requirements of such work in the field that ,sir ,william prepared and published the ,flora ,scotica4 ,the first edition appeared before his second year's class had assembled in #ahba4 ,the first ,part related to the ,phanerogams only1 arranged according to the ,linnaean system4 ,the second1 which seems to have been almost as much a new book as a second edition1 contained the ,phanerogams arranged according to the natural system1 just then coming into general use4 ,it also embodied the ,cryptogams1 in the working up of which he had the assistance of ,lindley and of ,greville4 ,the total number of species described was #aghd1 of which #ijb were ,cryptogams4 ,and thus was initiated that profuse and rapid course of publication which characterised the period of office of ,sir ,william ,hooker in ,glasgow4 ,the duties of the chair were comparatively light1 and only in his later years did he extend them voluntarily into the winter months4 ,he worked year in year out1 early and late1 at his writing1 and rarely left home4 ,the #ba years of his professorship were perhaps the most prolific period of his literary production4 ,it was brought to a close in #ahda1 by his appointment to the directorship of the ,royal ,gardens at ,kew1 which had in ,march #ahdj been transferred from the ,crown1 under the ,lord ,steward's ,department1 to the ,commissioners of ,woods and ,forests4 ,sir ,william had been for some time desirous of changing the scene of his activities from the relatively remote city of ,glasgow to some more central point1 and the opening at ,kew not only satisfied this wish1 but also put him in command of the establishment in which he saw1 even in its then undeveloped state1 the possibility of expansion into a botanical centre worthy of the nation4 ,in the spring of #ahda ,sir ,william removed to ,kew1 taking with him his library1 his private museum and herbarium4 ,this was the first of those incidents of denudation of the botanical department in ,glasgow1 the direct result of the system that held its place in the ,scottish ,universities till the ,act of #ahhi4 ,till that date the chair was farmed by the professor4 ,almost all the illustrative collections and books of reference were his private property4 ,whenever1 as has repeatedly been the case in ,glasgow1 the occupant of the chair was promoted elsewhere1 he naturally took his property with him1 and the ,university was denuded1 almost to blank walls4 ,fortunately that is so no longer4 ,but in the present case the collections were removed1 and finally formed the basis of the great museums1 and of the herbarium of ,kew4 ,at the time of ,sir ,william's appointment ,kew itself was in a very unsatisfactory state4 ,the acreage of the garden was small compared with what it now is4 ,the houses were old1 and of patterns which have long become obsolete4 ,only two of them are now standing1 viz4 the ,aroid house near the great gates1 and the old ,orangery1 now used as a museum for timbers4 ,there was no library1 and no herbarium4 ,in fact ,kew in #ahda was simply an appanage to a palace1 where a more than usually extensive collection of living plants were grown4 ,in the course of the negotiations which led up to the transfer to the ,department of ,woods and ,forests it had even been suggested that the collections themselves should be parted with4 ,it was to such an establishment1 with everything to make1 and little indeed to make it from1 that ,sir ,william ,hooker came at the age of #ee4 ,he had1 however1 unbounded enthusiasm1 and confidence in the public spirit1 and in himself3 and what was still more to the point1 the experience gained in the smaller field of ,glasgow1 in building up the garden there1 combined with a knowledge of plants which was almost unrivalled1 and acquaintance with the leading botanists and horticulturalists of ,europe4 ,it was then no matter for surprise that he should accept the position1 even though the initial salary was small1 and no official house was provided4 ,as the date of ,sir ,william's appointment may be said to be the birth-day of the new development of ,kew1 it will be well to pause a moment and consider the position of botanical affairs in ,europe at that time4 ,the glamour of the ,linnaean period had faded1 and the ,natural ,system of ,classification of ,plants initiated by ,de ,jussieu had fully established its position1 and had been worked into detail1 taking its most elaborate form in the ,prodromus ,systematis ,naturalis of ,augustin ,pyrame ,de ,candolle4 ,that great luminary of ,geneva died in this very year of #ahda1 leaving his work1 initiated but far indeed from completion1 in the hands of his son ,alphonse4 ,in ,england1 ,robert ,brown was in the full plenitude of his powers1 and in possession of the ,banksian herbarium was evolving out of its rich materials new principles of classification1 and fresh morphological comparisons4 ,in fact morphology was at this time being differentiated from mere systematic as a separate discipline4 ,nothing contributed more effectively to this than the publication of ,die ,botanik als inductive ,wissenschaft1 by ,schleiden1 the first edition of which appeared in #ahdb3 for in it development and embryology were for the first time indicated as the foundation of all insight into morphology4 ,but notwithstanding the great advances of this period in tracing natural affinities1 and in the pursuit of morphological comparison1 branches which would seem to provide the true basis for some theory of ,descent1 the ,dogma of ,constancy of ,species still reigned4 ,it was to continue yet for #bj years1 and the most active part of the life of the first ,director of ,kew was spent under its influence4 ,meanwhile great advances had been made also in the knowledge of the mature framework of cell-membrane in plants4 ,anatomy initiated in ,great ,britain in the publications of ,hooke1 ,grew1 and ,malpighi1 had developed in the hands of many phytotomists1 the series culminating in the work of ,von ,mohl4 ,but it was chiefly the mere skeleton which was the subject of their interest4 ,eight years previously1 it is true 7#ahcc71 ,robert ,brown had described and figured the nucleus of the cell1 and approached even the focal point of its interest1 viz4 in its relation to reproduction4 ,but the demonstration of the cytoplasm in which it was embedded was yet to come4 ,in fact1 the knowledge of structure omitted as yet any details of that body which we now hold to be the physical basis of life4 ,the period immediately succeeding #ahda1 was1 however1 a time pregnant with new developments4 ,the study of protoplasm soon engaged the attention of ,von ,mohl4 ,apical growth was investigated by ,naegeli and ,leitgeb4 ,the discovery of the sexuality of ferns1 and the completion of the life-story by ,bischoff1 ,naegeli1 and ,suminski led up to the great generalisation of ,hofmeister4 ,and thus the years following #ahda witnessed the initiation of morphology in its modern development4 ,on the other hand1 ,lyell's ,principles of ,geology had appeared and obtained wide acceptance4 ,darwin himself was freshly back from the ,voyage of the ,beagle1 while ,sir ,joseph ,hooker1 then a young medical man1 was at that very time away with ,ross on his ,antarctic voyage1 and shortly afterwards started on his great journey to the ,himalaya4 ,these three great figures1 the fore-runner of ,evolution1 the author of the ,origin of ,species1 and ,darwin's first adherent among biologists1 were thus in their various ways working towards that generalisation which was so soon to revolutionise the science of which ,kew was to become the official ,british centre4 ,well may we then regard this date1 and the event which it carried with it1 as a nodal point in the history of botany not only in this country1 but also in the world at large4 ,the urgent necessity for such an official centre as ,kew now is was patent in the interests of the ,british ,empire4 ,the need of it had already been clearly before the minds of the ,parliamentary ,commission1 appointed a few years before1 with ,dr ,lindley as chairman1 to report upon the question of the retaining of the ,botanic ,gardens at ,kew4 ,the report contained the following passage which1 while it formulates an ideal then to be aimed at1 summarises in great measure the activities of the present establishment at ,kew4 ,the wealthiest and most civilised country in ,europe offers the only ,european example of the want of one of the first proofs of wealth and civilisation4 ,there are many gardens in the ,british colonies and dependencies1 as ,calcutta1 ,bombay1 ,saharunpore1 the ,mauritius1 ,sydney1 and ,trinidad1 costing many thousands a year3 their utility is much diminished by the want of some system under which they can be regulated and controlled4 ,there is no unity of purpose among them2 their objects are unsettled1 and their powers wasted from not receiving a proper direction3 they afford no aid to each other1 and it is to be feared1 but little to the countries where they are established3 and yet they are capable of conferring very important benefits on commerce1 and of conducing essentially to colonial prosperity4 ,a ,national ,botanic ,garden would be the centre around which all these lesser establishments should be arranged3 they should all be placed under the control of the chief of that garden1 acting with him1 and through him with each other1 recording constantly their proceedings1 explaining their wants1 receiving supplies1 and aiding the mother country in everything useful in the vegetable kingdom3 medicine1 commerce1 agriculture1 horticulture1 and many branches of manufacture would derive considerable advantage from the establishment of such a system4444 ,from a garden of this kind ,government could always obtain authentic and official information upon points connected with the establishment of new ,colonies3 it would afford the plants required on these occasions1 without its being necessary1 as now1 to apply to the officers of private establishments for advice and help4444 ,such a garden would be the great source of new and valuable plants to be introduced and dispersed through this country1 and a powerful means of increasing the pleasures of those who already possess gardens3 while1 what is far more important1 it would undoubtedly become an efficient instrument in refining the taste1 increasing the knowledge1 and augmenting the rational pleasures of that important class of society1 to provide for whose instruction is so great and wise an object of the present administration4 ,such were the surrounding conditions1 and such the aims of ,sir ,william ,hooker when he took up the duties of ,director of the ,royal ,gardens4 ,he was1 however1 given no specific instructions on entering office4 ,he therefore determined to follow the suggestions of ,dr ,lindley's ,report1 and in the carrying of them out he had powerful support1 both official and other4 ,the original area of the ,garden1 apart from the ,pleasure ,grounds and the ,deer ,park1 was small2 when first taken over from the ,lord ,steward's ,department by the ,commissioners of ,woods and ,forests1 it extended only to about #ah acres1 and the ,chief ,commissioner1 ,lord ,duncannon1 was strongly opposed to their enlargement1 or to further expenditure upon them4 ,it required methods of diplomacy1 as well as determination and energy1 not always to be found among scientific men1 to carry into effect the scheme laid down in the ,report1 and success came only slowly4 ,in #ahdb additional ground was taken in from the ,pleasure ,grounds1 so as to afford an entrance from ,kew ,green1 now the principal gate of the ,garden4 ,in #ahdc there were added #dh acres of ,arboretum1 including the site of the ,great ,palm ,house4 ,this was commenced in #ahdd and was followed in #ahdf by the ,orchid ,house4 ,in #ahdh the old storehouse for fruit 7close to the fruit garden of the old ,palace1 now the site of the ,herbaceous ,ground71 was converted into a ,museum of ,economic ,botany1 the first of its kind to be established4 ,it was in part furnished by the collections which ,sir ,william had brought with him from ,glasgow4 ,it now stands as ,museum ,no4 ,,ii4 ,in #ahej the ,water-,lily ,house was built1 and in #ahee the long house for ,succulents4 ,meanwhile1 in #ahec1 an official house had been found for the ,director1 while another ,crown house adjoining ,kew ,green was handed over for the growing herbarium and library4 ,these1 which were in the main if not indeed altogether the private property of the ,director1 had up to this time been housed in his private residence4 ,now they found more convenient accommodation1 where they would be more accessible for reference1 in a building belonging to the establishment4 ,in #aheg the ,museum ,no4 ,i4 was opened4 ,for long the collections had exceeded the space in the older ,economic ,museum 7,no4 ,,ii474 ,this was1 however1 retained for the specimens belonging to the ,monocotyledons and ,cryptogams1 while those of the ,dicotyledons were arranged in the new and spacious building of ,no4 ,i4 ,in #ahfa a reading-room and lecture-room for gardeners was opened1 and in #ahfb the central portion of the great range of the ,temperate ,house was completed from plans approved in #ahei4 ,the wings which now complete the original design were added many years afterwards4 ,in #ahfc the old ,orangery was disused as a plant-house1 and diverted to the purpose of a ,museum for ,timbers1 chiefly of colonial origin4 ,it is now known as ,museum ,no4 ,,iii4 ,the above may serve as a summary of the more important material additions to the ,kew establishment1 made during the life of ,sir ,william ,hooker4 ,it will be clear that his activity must have been unceasing1 in working towards the ideal sketched in the report of ,dr ,lindley4 ,his efforts never abated till his death in #ahfe1 in the #hast year of his age4 ,the establishment of ,kew has developed further as years went on4 ,but as he left it1 the essentials were already present which should constitute a great ,imperial ,garden4 ,truly ,sir ,william ,hooker may be said to have been the maker of ,kew1 if regard be taken merely of the material establishment4 ,in no less degree may he be held to have been the maker of ,kew in respect of its scientific collections1 its methods1 and its achievements4 ,to these his own untiring activity contributed the driving force1 while his wide knowledge1 and ready apprehension of fact gave the broad foundation necessary for successful action4 ,but as the period of development of ,kew in these respects was but the culmination of the work already initiated in ,glasgow1 it will be well to review ,sir ,william ,hooker's scientific achievements over the whole of his professional career1 including the ,glasgow period together with his later years at ,kew4 ,taking first the living collections1 he had already shown at ,glasgow1 where the opportunities were more limited than at ,kew1 a singular success in securing additions to the plants under cultivation4 ,this is now reflected more clearly in the lists which were published from time to time than in any actual specimens still living after the vicissitudes of cultivation of #gj years2 though it is not improbable that some of our older specimens date from his period of office4 ,the current floristic serials1 many of them produced and even personally illustrated by himself1 also form a record of the novelties from time to time secured4 ,this rapid growth of the ,glasgow garden has already been noted1 and the large number of the plants introduced under his influence4 ,it only required the same methods to be put in practice in the larger sphere of action of the metropolis to ensure a similar1 though a far greater result at ,kew4 ,moreover1 the official position which he there held as ,director1 gave an increasing obligation to meet his wishes on the part of foreign and colonial gardens1 and other sources of supply4 ,notable among the many other living collections that resulted was the series of ,ferns1 already a subject of his detailed study while at ,glasgow4 ,in its maintenance and increase he was ably assisted by the ,curator1 ,mr ,john ,smith1 himself no small a contributor to the systematic treatment of the ,ferns4 ,hooker's aim was1 however1 not to forward the interests of any special group of plants1 but to make the collections as representative as possible4 ,this is clearly reflected in the various character of the plant-houses successively built at his instigation1 and remaining still to testify to the catholicity of his views4 ,in the days at ,glasgow1 ,sir ,william had already made his private museum ancillary to the living collections1 in his endeavour to demonstrate the characters of the vegetable world4 ,this line of demonstration he further developed after his removal to ,kew1 and the results1 together with later additions1 but with methods little changed1 are to be seen in the splendid museums of the ,gardens at the present time4 ,the specimens were from the first mainly illustrative of ,economic ,botany1 such as are of service to the merchant1 the manufacturer1 the dyer1 the chemist and druggist1 and the physician3 or to artificers in wood and in textiles4 ,but the interests of the scientific botanist were not forgotten1 while a special feature from the first was the portrait gallery of the leaders in the subject4 ,thus the museums which he initiated1 and were indeed the first ,museums of ,economic ,botany ever formed1 are now not the least interesting and certainly among the most instructive features of ,kew4 ,but the centre of the ,garden for reference and for detailed study is now the herbarium and library1 housed in the large building near to the entrance from ,kew ,green4 ,to those familiar with that magnificent mine of accumulated learning as it now stands1 it may be a surprise to hear that it has grown in the course of less than #fj years out of the private collections of ,sir ,william ,hooker1 and of his friend ,bentham4 ,the story of it may be gathered from the sketch of the ,life and ,labours of the ,first ,director1 published by ,sir ,joseph ,hooker in the ,annals of ,botany in #aijc1 a work to which ,i have been largely indebted for the materials for this lecture4 ,the ,hookerian herbarium and library were already extensive before it was removed from ,glasgow4 ,when the new ,director of ,kew took up his appointment1 neither books nor a herbarium were provided for him3 but he was well equipped with those of his own4 ,they were at first lodged in his private house1 till in #ahec he moved into the official residence4 ,but the latter did not afford the accommodation for them which the ,government had guaranteed4 ,they were therefore placed in a building adjacent to the ,botanic ,garden4 ,it was further agreed1 on condition that the herbarium and library should be accessible to botanists1 that he should be provided with a scientific herbarium ,curator4 ,four years afterwards the ,royal ,gardens came into possession1 by gift1 of the very extensive library and herbarium of ,g4 ,bentham1 ,esq41 which was second only to ,hooker's own in extent1 methodical arrangement1 and nomenclature2 and it was placed in the same building4 ,the two collections in considerable degree overlapped1 being derived from the same sources4 ,but one great difference between them was that ,bentham confined his herbarium to flowering plants1 while ,hooker's rapidly grew to be the richest in the world in both flowering and flowerless plants4 ,finally after his death it was acquired by purchase for the ,state in #ahff1 together with about #ajjj volumes from his library1 and a unique collection of botanical drawings1 maps1 ,,mss41 portraits of botanists1 and letters from botanical correspondents1 which amounted to about #bg1jjj4 ,these were the prime foundations of the great herbarium and library now at ,kew4 ,great additions have since been made by purchase and by gift1 and the building has been repeatedly extended to receive the growing mass of material4 ,but for all time the character and individuality of the collections will remain stamped by the personality of those two great benefactors1 ,bentham and the first ,hooker4 ,sufficient has now been said to indicate that ,hooker's work was that of a pioneer1 in providing the material foundation necessary for the further study of the science1 not only in this country1 but also in the furthest lands of the ,empire4 ,he supplied a coordinating centre for botanical organisation in ,britain1 and for that service he has earned the lasting gratitude of botanists4 ,it remains to review his own published works1 and base upon them some estimate of his more direct influence upon the progress of the science4 ,we shall see that in this also his work was largely of that nature which affords a basis for future development4 ,it was carried out almost entirely under pre-,darwinian conditions4 ,he was pre-eminently a descriptive botanist1 who worked under the influence of the current belief in the constancy of species4 ,but his enormous output of accurate description and of delineation of the most varied forms1 has provided a sure basis upon which the more modern seeker after phyletic lines may proceed4 ,there have been few if any writers on botanical subjects so prolific as ,sir ,william ,hooker1 and probably none have ever equalled him in the number and accuracy of the plates which illustrated his writings4 ,sir ,joseph ,hooker estimates the number of the latter at nearly #hjjj1 of which about #ahjj were from drawings executed by himself4 ,the remainder were chiefly from the hand of ,walter ,fitch1 who acted as botanical limner to ,sir ,william for thirty years1 showing in the work fidelity1 artistic skill and extraordinary rapidity of execution4 ,the numbers quoted give some idea of the magnitude of the results4 ,for the purpose of a rapid review of the chief writings of ,sir ,william's later years1 they may be classified under three heads1 viz4 7#a7 ,journals1 7#b7 ,floristic works1 and 7#c7 ,writings on the ,filicales4 ,taking first the ,journals1 one of the most remarkable features about them is the apparent variety and number of the enterprises on which ,sir ,william engaged3 this is1 however1 explained when they are pieced together as they will be found below4 ,his connection during #de years with large and growing gardens1 into which the most varied living specimens were being drafted in a constant stream1 put him in possession of a vast mass of facts1 detached1 but needing to be recorded4 ,the materials were thus present for that type of publication styled a ,botanical ,miscellany4 ,the majority of the serials which he edited took this form1 and though published under various titles1 dictated in some measure by the source of their publication1 more than one of them was a mere continuation of a predecessor under a different title4 ,the first of them appeared under the name of the ,exotic ,flora1 in three volumes 7#ahbc-g71 with #bcb coloured plates illustrating subjects from the ,gardens of ,glasgow1 ,edinburgh1 and ,liverpool4 ,but owing to his taking up in #ahbg the editorship of the ,botanical ,magazine1 then in a critical position1 the ,exotic ,flora ceased1 and its materials swelled the pages of the more ancient serial1 with which he was connected till his death4 ,to those not intimately acquainted with the other serials edited by ,sir ,william1 their relations are difficult to trace4 ,but ,sir ,joseph ,hooker has given their titles in series1 with their dates1 as follows3 ,botanical ,miscellany4 #c vols4 #ahcj-cc4 ,journal of ,botany4 #a vol4 #ahcd4 ,companion of the ,botanical ,magazine4 #b vols4 #ahce-cf4 ,jardine's ,annals of ,natural ,history4 #d vols4 #ahch-dj4 ,the ,journal of ,botany 7continued74 ,vols4 ,,ii4-,,iv4 #ahdj-db4 ,the ,london ,journal of ,botany4 #g vols4 #ahdb-dh4 ,the ,companion of the ,botanical ,magazine4 7,new ,series4 #ahde-dh47 ,london ,journal of ,botany and ,kew ,gardens ,miscellany4 #i vols4 #ahdi-eg4 ,from this list it appears that throughout a long term of years1 though under varying titles1 the stream of information gathered chiefly through garden management was edited and published1 taking the form of #bh volumes1 with #eef plates4 ,the ,floristic works of ,sir ,william ,hooker began with the second edition of ,curtis's ,flora ,londinensis1 in five folio volumes1 upon which he worked from #ahag to #ahbh4 ,he contributed a large proportion of the plates from his own drawings1 while the descriptions throughout 7excepting those of the plates on ,algae and ,fungi by ,r4 ,k4 ,greville7 were enlarged1 and rewritten by him4 ,he was in fact the real author of the work1 which1 however1 was so badly edited--even the letter-press was not paged--that citation of it was impossible1 and it never took its proper place as a scientific work4 ,sir ,joseph ,hooker points out that the second edition was not properly styled ,flora ,londinensis1 since it included many species which are not indigenous anywhere near ,london4 ,but these were the lapses of the editor1 not of the author and artist4 ,minor works were the accounts of the plants collected on ,parry's and ,sabine's ,arctic voyages 7#ahbc-bh71 but the ,flora ,boreali ,americana was a more important undertaking4 ,it appeared as two quarto volumes 7#ahbi-dj71 in which #bejj species were described with numerous illustrations4 ,it was based on the collections of various travellers1 and included ferns and their allies4 ,in #ahcj came the first edition of the ,british ,flora1 a work which was continued through eight editions1 the last being in #ahfj1 and it contained #afcf species4 ,the botanical results of ,beechey's voyage in the ,blossom to the ,behring ,sea1 the ,pacific ,ocean1 and ,china were produced jointly with ,dr ,walker-,arnott in #ahcj-da1 as a quarto volume1 with descriptions of about #bgjj species1 and notable for the diversity of the floras included4 ,in #ahdi the ,niger ,flora appeared1 dealing with the collections of ,vogel on the ,niger expedition of #ahda4 ,but the most remarkable of all these floristic works was the great series of the ,icones ,plantarum4 ,it was initiated in #ahcg for the illustration of ,new and rare plants selected from the ,author's ,herbarium1 and was continued by him till his death in #ahfe4 ,owing to the munificence of ,bentham's bequest to the ,kew ,herbarium for its continuance and illustration1 it remains still as the principal channel for the description and delineation of new and rare plants from the ,kew ,herbarium4 ,the fact that the number of the plates is now about #cjjj gives some idea of the magnitude of this work1 which was started by ,sir ,william ,hooker in the later days of his ,glasgow professorship4 ,it might well be thought that the production of the works already named would have sufficed to occupy a life-time1 especially when it is remembered that they were produced in the intervals of leisure after the performance of the official duties of a professor1 and later of the ,director of the growing establishment at ,kew4 ,but there still remain to be mentioned that noble series of publications on the ,filicales1 which gave ,sir ,william ,hooker the position of the leading ,pteridologist of his time4 ,the series on ferns began with the ,icones ,filicum 7#ahbh-ca7 in two folio volumes1 with #bdj coloured plates by ,r4 ,k4 ,greville1 the text being written by ,hooker4 ,the same authors again cooperated in the ,enumeratio ,filicum 7#ahcb71 a work projected to give the synonymy1 citation of authors1 habitat1 and description of new and imperfectly known species4 ,but it only extended to the first #ac genera1 including the ,lycopodineae1 ,ophioglosseae1 ,marattiaceae1 and ,osmundaceae1 and was then dropped4 ,here may be conveniently introduced a number of volumes1 which were for the illustration of ferns1 but not systematically arranged4 ,they were issued from time to time1 and collectively give a large but not a coordinated body of fact4 ,they were1 the ,first ,century of ,ferns1 issued in #ahed2 the ,filices ,exoticae in #ahei2 a ,second ,century of ,ferns in #ahfa2 ,british ,ferns also in #ahfa1 and ,garden ,ferns in #ahfb4 ,there still remain to be mentioned three great systematic works on ferns1 each of which is complete in itself1 viz4 the ,genera ,filicum1 the ,species ,filicum1 and the ,synopsis ,filicum4 ,the first of these was the ,genera ,filicum 7#ahch-dj71 a volume issued in parts1 royal octavo1 with #abf coloured plates illustrating #ace genera4 ,it goes under the joint names of ,francis ,bauer and ,sir ,william ,hooker1 the latter being described on the title-page as ,director of ,kew4 ,but the preface is dated ,may #a1 #ahch1 from ,glasgow1 and it was printed at the ,university ,press4 ,the title-page further states that the plates were from the drawings of ,f4 ,bauer1 but ,sir ,joseph ,hooker points out 7l4c4 p4 cviii71 that of the whole #ace genera depicted ,i think that #gh are by ,fitch4 ,sir ,william in the preface states that ,the plates have all been executed in my own residence1 and under my own eye1 in zincography1 by a young artist1 ,walter ,fitch1 with a delicacy and accuracy which ,i trust will not discredit the figures from which they were copied4 ,the result is one of the most sumptuous volumes in illustration of a single family ever published4 ,after #gj years it is still the natural companion of all ,pteridologists4 ,at its close is a synopsis of the genera of ferns1 according to ,presl's arrangement1 which ,sir ,william describes as the most full and complete that has yet been published4 ,but in the preface he remarks that ,presl has laid too much stress on the number and other circumstances connected with the bundles of vessels in the stipes1 which in the ,herbarium are difficult of investigation4 ,this is a specially illuminating passage for us at a time when anatomical characters are becoming ever more important as phyletic indices4 ,it shows that readiness of diagnosis was for him a more important factor than details of structural similarity4 ,in the preface to the ,genera ,filicum ,sir ,william says1 he would not have it to be understood that the ,genera here introduced are what ,i definitely recommend as1 in every instance1 worthy of being retained4444 ,a more accurate examination of the several species of each ,genus1 which are now under review in the preparation of a ,species ,filicum1 will enable me hereafter to form a more correct judgement on this head than it is now in my power to do4 ,the five volumes of the ,species ,filicum thus promised1 appeared at intervals from #ahdf to #ahfd4 ,the work is briefly characterised by ,sir ,joseph as consisting of descriptions of the known ,ferns1 particularly of such as exist in the ,author's ,herbarium1 or are with sufficient accuracy described in the works to which he has had access1 accompanied by numerous ,figures4 ,this which will probably prove to be the most enduring monument to my father's labour as a systematist and descriptive pteridologist1 is comprised in five #hvo volumes1 embracing nearly #bejj species1 with #cjd plates by ,fitch1 illustrating #ebj of these4 ,it occupied much of the latter eighteen years of his life1 the last part appearing in #ahfd4 ,the work is a most extraordinary mine of detailed information4 ,it is a condensed extract from his own unrivalled ,herbarium of ,ferns1 with exact data of distribution1 and collectors' numbers4 ,probably no family so extensive as this has ever been monographed by a single hand with such minuteness and exhaustive care4 ,it is the classic book of reference in the systematic study of ferns4 ,but as indicated in the preface to the ,genera1 the judgement as to which genera are worthy of being retained had been exercised4 ,the result was the merging of a number of the genera of ,presl1 and others1 into neighbouring genera4 ,though this was somewhat drastically done in the ,species ,filicum1 it comes out more prominently in the work upon which he entered in the very last months of his life1 viz4 the ,synopsis ,filicum4 ,this work was published in #ahfh as an octavo volume1 with #i coloured plates1 containing analyses of #ge genera4 ,sir ,joseph tells us 7l4c4 p4 #aag7 that ,upon this work my father was engaged up to a few days before his decease1 and #dh pages of it in print were left on his desk1 together with the preface and much matter in manuscript4 ,after full consideration it appeared to me that1 with the material in hand1 the aid of the ,species ,filicum completed only three years earlier1 and of the ,fern ,herbarium in perfect order1 and named according to his views1 a competent botanist should find no great difficulty in carrying on this work to its completion4 ,such a botanist ,i knew my friend ,mr ,baker to be1 and also that he had made a study of ,ferns1 and accepted my father's limitations of their genera and species4 ,i therefore requested that gentleman to undertake the work1 which to my great satisfaction he has done4 ,the ,synopsis ,filicum contains #ge genera1 and about #bbeb species1 inclusive of ,osmundaceae1 ,schizaeaceae1 ,marattiaceae1 and ,ophioglossaceae1 which are not included in the ,species ,filicum4 ,this work summarised the ,pteridological results of ,sir ,william ,hooker's life4 ,the total number of plates of ferns published by him is about #abaj1 embracing #abfg species1 of which about #bej appeared under the joint authorship of ,dr ,greville and himself4 ,these figures are in themselves sufficient evidence of the extent of his ,pteridographic work4 ,it has been noted that the number of genera in the ,genera ,filicum was #ace1 maintained approximately according to the limitations of ,presl in his ,tentamen ,pteridographiae3 allowance has1 however1 to be made for #bc genera of ,parkeriaceae1 ,schizaeaceae1 ,osmundaceae1 ,marattiaceae1 ,ophioglossaceae1 and ,lycopodiaceae1 which were omitted in the ,tentamen4 ,but in the ,synopsis ,filicum there were only #ge4 ,it is true that the three genera of ,lycopodiaceae were excluded also from the ,synopsis1 but still there is the wide discrepancy between #acb of ,presl's genera as against #ge in ,hooker's ,synopsis4 ,this at once indicates a salient feature of his method4 ,he merged a large number of genera1 ranking many of the smaller ones as sub-genera under the more comprehensive headings4 ,doubtless the reasons for this were various4 ,one was his mistrust of anatomical data1 which it must be confessed ,presl put too much in the fore-front4 ,the very first sentence of the ,tentamen runs thus ,vasa plantarum principale signum esse ex eo patet1 quod exinde primaria divisio omnium plantarum exstitit4 ,but occasionally ,sir ,william explained his reason in a specific case4 ,thus in the question of ,kunze's sub-genus ,plagiogyria of the genus ,lomaria1 which ,mettenius had raised to the dignity of a distinct genus1 he explained his reasons for merging it into the genus ,lomaria4 ,mettenius had laid stress upon various characters1 but especially on the oblique annulus as distinctive4 ,on this ,hooker remarks even should the capsules in all the species referred to ,plagiogyria prove to be helicogyrate1 yet the habit and sori are so entirely in accordance with true ,lomaria that1 unless the student has the opportunity of examining very perfect specimens1 or unless he examines the structure of the annulus of the very minute capsules under the high power of the microscope1 the genus cannot be identified4 ,kunze only proposed to form a group or section under the name of ,plagiogyria1 but even that would be found inconvenient to retain in a work whose main object is to assist the tyro in the verification of genera and species3 and natural habit is often a safer guide than minute microscopic characters4 ,thus we see that in his method convenience of diagnosis is put before the use of important structural characters4 ,i have recently found reason to uphold the opinion of ,mettenius on this point1 and to confirm ,plagiogyria as a substantive genus4 ,similarly1 the genera ,lophosoria and ,metaxya will have to be detached from ,alsophila3 ,prantl removed ,microlepia from ,davallia into his new family of the ,dennstaedtiinae1 where they are related with ,patania 7,dennstaedtia71 which ,hooker had merged into ,dicksonia4 ,goebel also has detached ,hecistopteris which ,hooker had placed in ,gymnogramme1 and has placed it with the ,vittarieae4 ,these are all examples of the way in which further study is tending to reverse the excessive merging of genera1 which ,hooker carried out in the interest of diagnostic convenience4 ,the general conclusion which we draw from contemplating ,sir ,william ,hooker's work on the systematic treatment of ferns is that it was carried out consistently to the end under the influence of the current belief in the ,constancy of ,species4 ,the methods were not phylogenetic1 as they have since become under the influence of evolutionary belief4 ,the problem seems to have been to depict and describe with the utmost accuracy the multitudinous representatives of the ,filicales1 and to arrange them so that with the least possible difficulty and loss of time any given specimen could be located and named4 ,but the result is not to dispose them in any genetic order4 ,even the arrangement of the larger genera according to the complexity of branching of the leaves appears as a method of convenience rather than of genesis1 and subsequent inquiry is tending to show that so far as such series really exist1 they will require to be read in converse4 ,goebel1 in his paper on ,hecistopteris1 remarks that the systematic grouping of the ,leptosporangiate ,ferns1 as it is at present1 e4g4 in the ,synopsis ,filicum1 is artificial throughout2 it is adequate for the diagnosis of ,ferns1 but it does not give any satisfactory conclusion as to the affinity of the several forms4 ,he proceeds to say that a thorough investigation1 taking into account the general characters of form of both the generations1 will be necessary before the naturally related groups1 and their relations to one another1 are recognised in the plexus of forms of the ,polypodiaceae4 ,such observations as these must not be understood in any sense of disparagement of the work of this great man4 ,they are merely intended to indicate his historical position4 ,the ,origin of ,species was1 it is true1 published some few years before the ,synopsis ,filicum4 ,but we must remember that ,sir ,william ,hooker was already an old man4 ,few men over #gj years of age alter their opinions1 and the labourer who had grown old under the belief in the ,constancy of ,species could not in a few brief years be expected to change the methods of thought of a long and active life4 ,we must take ,sir ,william ,hooker as perhaps the greatest and the last of the systematists who worked under the belief in the ,constancy of ,species4 ,because we have adopted a newer point of view1 and take into consideration facts and arguments which were never his1 and come to different conclusions now1 is no reason for valuing one whit the less the achievements of this great botanist4 ,his published work was just as much fundamental as was his official work4 ,we have seen how he provided in ,kew the means of indefinite development later1 by constructing the coordinating machine with its collections and its libraries4 ,in somewhat similar sense his publications were also fundamental4 ,he did not himself construct4 ,there is1 ,i believe1 no great modification of system or of view which is to be associated with his name4 ,but in the wealth of trustworthy detail1 recorded both pictorially and in verbal diagnoses1 he has supplied the foundation for future workers to build upon1 laid surely and firmly by accurate observation1 and therefore durable for all time4 ,one remark ,i may make as to the effect of his work on the trend of botanical activity in this country4 ,we have noted that anatomy was not ,sir ,william ,hooker's strong point4 ,he and many of his contemporaries did not pursue microscopic detail1 and indeed seem to have avoided it4 ,he was1 however1 a dominating botanical influence of the middle ,victorian period4 ,may we not see in these facts1 combined with the extraordinary success of the systematic work carried on by himself1 or under his guidance1 a probable cause of that paralysis of laboratory investigation which ruled in ,britain till the early seventies8 ,british botany was at that time almost purely descriptive4 ,the revival came within #aj years of the death of ,sir ,william1 and it is well to remember that the immediate stimulus to that revival was given by a botanist1 who became later the ,director of ,kew1 and was allied by marriage with ,sir ,william ,hooker himself4 ,i mean1 ,sir ,william ,thiselton-,dyer4 ,the stimulus had its result in the active development of anatomical and physiological study of plants1 as we see it in this country to-day4 ,for a time the swing of the pendulum in this direction was too extreme and exclusive4 ,i remember very well an occasion when ,sir ,joseph ,hooker said to me1 ,you young men do not know your plants4 ,and it was true1 though it may be added that few indeed1 at any time1 knew them in the full ,hookerian sense4 ,a saner position is gradually being attained4 ,but even now the systematic study of ,angiosperms receives far too little attention among us1 and is an almost open field for the young investigator4 ,i would conclude with one word of advice1 which naturally springs from contemplation of a life-work such as ,sir ,william ,hooker's4 ,we sometimes see wide-reaching phyletic conclusions advanced by writers who we know have not specific knowledge of the groups in question4 ,let us learn from ,sir ,william the importance of specific knowledge4 ,it is only on such a foundation that sound phyletic argument can proceed4 ,let us always remember that it is better to carry out sound work on species1 as he did1 without theorising on their phyletic relations1 than to promulgate phyletic theories without a sufficient specific knowledge of the families themselves4 ,the former will probably be lasting work1 the latter runs every chance of early refutation4 ,under the most favourable circumstances analytical work is as a rule more durable than synthetic4 ,sir ,william ,hooker's contributions fall chiefly under the former head1 and will be found to have a corresponding element of durability4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xiii ,,john ,,stevens ,,henslow 7#ahea7 ,,john ,,stevens ,,henslow #agif-ahfa ,,by ,,george ,,henslow ,an all-round man--appointed ,professor of ,mineralogy at ,cambridge in #ahbf1 but succeeds ,martyn in the ,chair of ,botany a year later--essentially an ecologist--his famous teaching methods--practical work--his wide interests--country life--the educational museum--village amenities4 ,the scientific career and parochial life of the late ,rev4 ,prof4 ,j4 ,s4 ,henslow1 are described by my late uncle1 the ,rev4 ,leonard ,jenyns1 in his ,memoir#if4 ,i propose adding and illustrating some of his more personal traits1 habits and pursuits as a scientific man1 and to deal especially with his educational methods4 ,his studies in science were by no means confined to one branch1 thus ,geology was first ardently pursued in conjunction with ,sedgwick4 ,it was in a tour together in the ,isle of ,wight in #ahai1 that they proposed establishing a ,corresponding ,society1 for the purpose of introducing subjects of natural history to the ,cambridge students4 ,the outcome of this idea1 which was subsequently abandoned1 was the ,cambridge ,philosophical ,society1 of which ,henslow1 ,b4,a4 was elected secretary in #ahbaig4 ,conchology and ,entomology claimed his attention2 one of his first discoveries was the rare insect ,macroplea equiseti1 his identical find being figured in ,curtis' ,british ,entomology1 while he found the bivalve ,cyclas ,henslowiana1 so named by ,dr ,leach1 at ,baitsbite on the ,cam4 ,his first and best collection of insects was presented to the ,cambridge ,philosophical ,society4 ,other discoveries were made in after years1 and are referred to by ,jenyns4 ,on the death of ,dr ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke1 he offered himself for the ,professorship of ,mineralogy4 ,chemistry1 as well as the study of ,minerals1 now occupied his attention4 ,he was only #bf years of age1 and still ,b4,a41 when elected to that chair4 ,at the age of #bg he published his ,syllabus of ,mineralogy in #ahbc1 ,a useful manual of reference to all persons studying ,mineralogy1 independently of the immediate circumstances which led to its publication#ih4 ,in #ahbg ,prof4 ,martyn died and ,prof4 ,henslow was elected to the chair of ,botany1 being succeeded by ,whewell on resigning the ,professorship of ,mineralogy4 ,he now turned his attention to the study of ,botany2 but he never paid much heed to systematic botany1 for his taste lay in the direction of what is now called ,ecology4 ,he then wrote ,botanists would rather receive one of our most common weeds from a newly-discovered or newly-explored country1 than a new species of an already known genus4 ,there are higher departments of ,botany than mere collectors of specimens are aware of2 for to ascertain the geographical distribution of a well-known species is a point of vastly superior interest to the mere acquisition of a rare specimen4 propos of this he made elaborate epitomes of the ,botanical ,geographies of ,de ,candolle1 and of the writings of ,humboldt1 ,poiret and others4 ,his ,,ms4 is not unlike a fore-runner of ,schimper's ,botanical ,geography of to-day4 ,he thus expressed himself in the ,introduction to his ,descriptive and ,physiological ,botany 7#ahcf73--;in the second section headed ,botany 444 ,this enquiry should extend as well to the investigation of the outward forms of plant organs and the conditions in which plants1 whether recent or fossil1 are met with1 as to the examination of the various functions which they perform whilst in the living state and to the laws by which their distribution on the earth's surface is regulated4 ,again1 in the ,preface to the ,flora of ,suffolk by himself and ,e4 ,s4 ,skepper1 he wrote3--,we had thought of saying something in regard to the ,geographic distribution of the species1 but found our material insufficient for treating this question to advantage4 ,as an alternative he suggests interleaving the ',catalogue1' as the book was also called1 in which observers could add observations on the ,geological formations and superficial soils upon which each species grows1 e4g4 ,chalk1 the ,crags1 ,gravels of post-tertiary period1 c4 as well as maritime1 marshy1 boggy1 healthy and cultivated soils#ii4 ,though he wrote against mere collecting1 he was an insatiable collector himself2 but it was always with some definite1 useful and generally educational purpose1 and the best of his collections invariably went to museums1 especially those of the ,philosophical ,society of ,cambridge1 of ,kew and of ,ipswich4 ,the first still has the fishes he collected at ,weymouth in #ahcb1 solely for his brother-in-law ,l4 ,jenyns1 the author of ,the ,british ,vertebrate ,animals4 ,one of the first things to which his attention was directed was the ,cambridge ,botanic ,garden4 ,it was far too small and in the centre of the town1 where the scientific buildings are now erected4 ,he urged the necessity of a new one1 but it was not till #ahca that the present site was secured2 the first tree1 however1 was not planted until #ahdf4 ,his educational method of teaching was totally different from the mere instructional method of all previous lecturers4 ,to cram up facts was the students' duty in the ,medical schools1 where botany was supposed to be taught4 ,to learn by their own discovery was his new method1 and so each student educated himself by examining and recording plant structures first seen by his own dissections4 ,having long been in the habit of observing himself1 he was early convinced of the importance of practical work and he always had demonstrations1 as he called them1 from living specimens4 ,each member of the class had a round wooden plate for dissecting upon4 ,he had only sixteen lectures to give1 but he succeeded in arousing an enthusiasm in some1 and interest in all who attended1 and thus many came besides undergraduates1 as ,dr ,ainslie1 the ,master of ,pembroke4 ,the value of practical work put a stop to cram1 and he was the first to introduce the examination of flowers1 not only at ,cambridge but for the degrees in the ,university of ,london4 ,he insisted1 wrote ,dr ,hooker1 that a knowledge of physiological botany1 technical terms1 minute anatomy1 c4 were not subjects by which a candidate's real knowledge could be tested1 for the longest memory must win the day1 the less did it test the observing or reasoning faculties of the men4 ,he1 therefore1 insisted in all his examinations that the men should dissect specimens1 describe their organs systematically and be prepared to explain their relations1 uses and significations in a physiological and classificatory point of view2 and thus prove that they had used their eyes1 hands and heads1 as well as their books#ajj4 ,his natural bent and interest were in the investigations of the phenomena of plant-life1 e4g4 the colours of flowers1 the laws of phyllotaxis and what would now be called biometrical studies1 e4g4 of the variations in the leaves of ,paris and the cotyledons of the sycamore1 hybridization1 teratology and the origin of varieties1 etc4 ,the geographical distribution of plants and the effects of external agencies upon them were also specially studied1 as is recorded in the note-book mentioned4 ,he was thus a genuine ,ecologist without knowing it4 ,he published about #ej papers on botanical subjects during his professorship from #ahbe to #ahfa1 in which he was more than once the pioneer of special branches of study since taken up1 as in the above mentioned hybridization and varietal differences under cultivation1 etc42 for experiments were made on the specific identity between the ,primrose1 ,oxlip1 ,cowslip and ,polyanthus4 ,he raised many varieties1 which were often permanent or ,mutations2 though sometimes reversions appeared1 concluding that when one form thus changed to another that was sufficient proof of identity4 ,though his occupations were necessarily much changed at ,hitcham1 of which he became the ,rector in #ahch1 from those at ,cambridge1 he by no means neglected science2 but he utilized it in different ways4 ,thus having a good knowledge of chemistry1 he endeavoured to make the farmers interested in more scientific methods of farming than they had been accustomed to4 ,he gave lectures on the fermentation of manures and he wrote fifteen ,letters to ,farmers1 first published in the ,bury ,post and then separately4 ,he even proposed that they should make experiments themselves4 ,for this purpose he issued schedules to about #gj farmers who asked for them4 ,the experiment was to test ,liebig's suggestion that gypsum should be added to manure heaps to fix the ammonia4 ,unfortunately there is no record of the results#aja4 ,the most important discovery from an industrial point of view1 due to his knowledge of ,geology1 was undoubtedly that of the phosphate nodules known in the trade as ,coprolite1 at ,felixstowe in #ahdc1 when he and his family were staying there4 ,the cliffs are formed of ,london clay1 topped by the ,red ,crag1 between which is a bed of rolled1 brown pebbles1 once1 with the crag1 forming an ancient beach4 ,where the white ,coralline#ajb ,crag occurs1 the pebble bed lies below it4 ,this accounts for the fact that it contains remains of ,miocene animals1 such as teeth of the ,hipparion1 or ancestor of the horse4 ,as the sea is always encroaching1 the cliff has much talus in places1 upon which was strewed the debris from the crag1 including vast quantities of pebbles4 ,observing that they often contained a shark's tooth or other organic remains1 he suspected that they might be composed partly of phosphate of lime4 ,this proved to be the case1 for the first analysis made by ,mr ,potter of ,lambeth showed #ed 7#ahdd74 ,he communicated the fact to ,mr1 subsequently ,sir1 ,john ,bennet ,lawes1 who desired a ton of nodules to be forwarded to him for experiment4 ,this led to their becoming a recognised article of trade4 ,large fortunes have been realised in ,suffolk by owners of land containing the nodule bed1 though frequently occurring at a considerable depth4 ,in #ahdh he advocated the use of phosphate nodules in the ,greensand beds of ,cambridgeshire4 ,these also soon became a commercial commodity4 ,in #ahdi1 ,professor ,henslow delivered the inaugural address on the foundation of the ,ipswich ,museum1 the object being1 for ,giving ,instruction to the working ,classes in ,ipswich in various branches of ,science and more especially ,natural ,history4 ,it affords the best example of his views generally upon the uses of ,science1 not only as being of indisputable value in all useful arts1 but as a means of education by dispelling the then prevailing ignorance and harmful prejudices rife in those days1 even among men learned in other subjects at our ,universities4 ,he illustrates his remarks from the chief sciences1 as in ,astronomy1 by its importance in understanding the laws of storms and tides1 which ,whewell was then studying4 ,agriculture was touched upon1 in showing the importance of a knowledge of ,vegetable ,physiology1 and illustrated by the parasites1 yellow ,rattle and ,wheat-rust4 ,he insisted upon the educational value of accuracy1 demanded of the scientist1 and the avoiding a priori assumptions and hastily drawn deductions from insufficient data4 ,but even the philosopher himself does not always escape from the imputation2 for the farmers at ,hitcham were firmly convinced that the ,piperage or ,barberry itself blighted the wheat4 ,the ,professor could not convince them that the red colour of the spots on the leaves of the bush was not due to the same fungus as that on the wheat4 ,indeed1 he observes 7in a ,,ms473 ,it is not likely 7as some suppose7 that it is due to the influence of cidium berberidis4 ,we now know that the farmers were nearer the truth and the botanists were wrong4 ,but one point the ,professor established--and ,i possess his dried specimens to this day--and that was1 that the mildew1 a black fungus1 subsequently arises from the same substratum or mycelium as the rust4 ,the mildew1 then1 throws off orange-coloured dust-like spores1 which attack the ,barberry1 and so the cycle is completed#ajc4 ,i still possess his dried specimens of other species of cidium attacking various kinds of plants1 which he collected for comparison with that of the ,barberry4 ,as abortive attempts to find coal had been made in some counties1 he pointed out the value of ,geology in at least intimating where coal was possible and also where it was impossible4 ,it was not1 he said1 that a little knowledge is a dangerous thing1 as no one would become learned if he did not begin with a little1 but it was the hasty deductions that were valueless and often dangerous4 ,as a practical illustration of this under the false assumption that the roots made the bulb of mangold-wurzel1 he noticed the common practice of stripping off the leaves of plants1 and explained to them that unless they were required for fodder1 it was a wasteful practice1 as the leaves 7and not the roots1 as they supposed7 were the makers of the bulbs4 ,indeed1 in #ahfj1 ,prof4 ,jas4 ,buckman proved that it lessens the weight of mangold-wurzel by nearly one half4 ,science was not even shut out at the ,hitcham ,horticultural ,society's ,exhibitions1 for he always had his own marquee erected and a large board over the entrance with ,the ,marquee ,museum upon it1 the letters being composed of ,hitcham fresh-water mussel shells4 ,during the day of the show1 he would deliver lecturets from time to time on the various specimens exhibited4 ,the following are samples of the latter4 ,cases of land and fresh-water shells of ,hitcham4 ,photographs of microscopic objects enlarged1 including the first ever made1 by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,kingsley1 ,tutor of ,sidney ,college1 ,camb4 in #ahee4 ,a case containing living specimens of the smallest ,british ,mammal1 the harvest mouse4 ,pearls from ,british molluscs4 ,the slow-worm and viper in spirits1 to show their differences4 ,hornets' and wasps' nests1 naturally mounted1 taken by himself1 etc4 ,the ,monday afternoon lessons in botany in the village school-room1 held after school-hours1 were always remarkable for the enthusiasm exhibited by the children4 ,they were perfectly voluntary1 but none was admitted to the ,third ,class until the child had learnt to spell correctly thirteen terms of classification of the classes1 divisions and sections4 ,on entering the class they at once began to fill up the ,floral ,schedule#ajd4 ,the botanical lesson included3-- #ast--,inspection of specimens1 anything special noticed and explained4 #bnd--,hard word exercises4 ,two or three words 7botanical terms7 given to be correctly spelt on the next ,monday4 #crd--,specimens examined and dissected and floral schedules1 traced on slates1 to be filled up4 ,marks allowed for accuracy1 etc4 #dth--,questions on the plant organs4 ,botanical excursions were made for those only who had received a sufficient number of marks4 ,the ,first ,class came at certain times to the rectory on ,sunday afternoons after ,divine ,service2 when objects of natural history were shown and such accounts given of them as may tend to improve our means of better appreciating the wisdom1 power1 and goodness of the ,creator#aje4 ,a printed list of all the wild flowers in ,hitcham was always suspended in the school-room1 and a rack for named phials1 which the children had to keep supplied with flowers as they came into blossom4 ,of course1 little rewards were given to those who first found a flower and those who supplied the greater number1 etc4 ,one of the exhibits of the ,horticultural ,shows was the collections of wild flowers made by the children4 ,in addition1 a public examination in botany was held1 and a stranger would often find it a difficult matter to puzzle one of the best pupils1 not merely as to the name--a trivial matter--but as to the structure of the flower itself4 ,the ,government ,inspector in #aheh1 wrote as follows in his ,report3--,extra subjects1 pretty fair1 and among them ,botany1 excellent2 this last being most thoroughly yet simply taught1 and by such a system that there can be no cram4 ,as far as a child goes1 it must know what it does4 ,the good moral effect of this study on the minds of the children is very apparent4 ,in those days1 ,i am speaking of the fifties1 ,darwin had not enlightened us as to the wonderful adaptations of flowers for fertilization by insects4 ,this adds enormously to the interest of the study--as the present writer soon found with village children of the parishes in which he has lived1 and taught them botany--but even without that attraction the ,hitcham children were intensely enthusiastic4 ,the ,professor also taught them how to dry plants4 ,the village ,herbarium1 containing all the plants growing wild in ,hitcham1 was entirely made by them4 ,it may be asked by cynics1 ,what can be the use of teaching science to such children8 ,it is not the mere fact that a child knows the structure of a rose1 but it is the training in accuracy of observation1 mind and habit1 which the minute and close observation demands1 i4e4 if it be properly taught1 and to secure that1 is all important in children1 who are naturally inattentive and inaccurate in consequence4 ,in teaching them botany as described above1 the child is trained to avoid this bad habit in an interesting way1 because inattention is solely due to want of interest4 ,the ,ipswich ,museum was a great source of pleasure to him4 ,as ,president he carried out his plan of making it a typical museum1 never letting it degenerate into a mere show1 as so many country museums are1 or at least used to be4 ,the ,ipswich ,museum has been a model for all others in that typical series of fossils1 etc41 are exhibited in the visible cases1 all others being relegated to drawers1 for students to examine4 ,in allusion to the uses of ,museums in his inaugural address referred to above1 he remarked3--,our collections should be viewed as the means of assisting us in the acquisition of real knowledge1 and not merely to be gazed at as raree shows1 or as only valuable in proportion to the number or scarcity of the objects they contain4 ,of course1 periodical lectures were delivered by the ,professor at ,ipswich1 and he was a most lucid and admirable exponent4 ,he was the first to maintain that in museums of animals1 they should1 whenever possible1 as1 e4g4 with birds1 be represented in their natural conditions4 ,with this object he collected nests with the boughs1 or whatever it was in which they rested4 ,since then this plan has been admirably carried out at the ,natural ,history ,museum1 ,south ,kensington4 ,he also supplied several museums with wasps' and hornets' nests with their surroundings4 ,the plan he discovered most convenient for taking them1 was to saturate tow with spirits of turpentine and place it at night in the hole1 covered over with an inverted and corked flower-pot4 ,the nest could then be dug up with impunity1 as all the wasps were dead or torpid by the following morning4 ,he always preserved the pavement or bottom-soil covered with stones which accumulated as the hollow for the nest increased in size4 ,the nest was then suspended over it on rods to show the exact position4 ,it was also half-dissected1 to exhibit the interior1 all the grubs having been carefully extracted4 ,the village carpenter1 the late ,mr ,w4 ,baker1 was a most enthusiastic assistant in taking and mounting the specimens4 ,when the potato famine occurred in ,ireland in #ahde-df1 the disease was very prevalent in ,hitcham4 ,this induced the ,professor to explain to his parishioners and others--for he published his recommendations--how they could utilise their rotten potatoes by extracting the valuable starch1 which still remained sound within the tubers1 even when these were refused by pigs4 ,the process is so simple that it may be mentioned here4 ,the potatoes must be grated 7a piece of tin with holes punched through it will do72 the pulp is then stirred with a stream of cold water through a hair-sieve4 ,the brown water must be allowed a few minutes for the starch1 carried through1 to settle4 ,the water is poured off1 and the layer of starch must be stirred up and washed with fresh cold water4 ,this may be done two or three times1 till it becomes perfectly white4 ,it must then be carefully dried in the sun or in a warm room 7our method was to hang it up in small muslin bags in the kitchen72 the bags must be repeatedly kneaded to prevent its clotting4 ,when perfectly dry1 it will keep for any length of time4 ,of course1 it is precisely the same thing as sago1 tapioca1 cornflour1 arrowroot1 etc4 and can be used like them4 ,all our potatoes in the ,rectory garden were rotten1 but we recovered at least two sacks of starch4 ,i remember taking a large sponge-cake to school1 more or less made with this potato-flour1 and making my reverend master somewhat incredulous by telling him it was made out of rotten potatoes6 ,professor ,henslow printed and circulated the receipt for the extraction of starch1 in the village2 so that several1 who thought it worth while1 obtained considerable quantities of starch4 ,in one of his lectures1 dealing with this subject1 he pointed out how a good basin of arrowroot can be made in ten minutes from two or three fair-sized potatoes2 for as soon as the starch has been thoroughly washed1 it is ready for the boiling milk4 ,it is essential the milk or water should be actually boiling1 or the granules of starch do not burst and so make the required jelly4 ,the school children of ,hitcham were by no means left out in the cold as to the knowledge of natural phenomena4 ,they were early instructed as to the harmless nature of toads and slow-worms1 which were very abundant1 on the one hand2 and of the danger of handling a viper1 on the other4 ,this last is the only poisonous reptile in ,england1 and easily recognisable by the lozenge-shaped marks down the back4 ,having specimens in spirit1 they had no excuse for confounding them2 but1 as always happens with children1 if there is an alternative of any sort between which they are well taught the difference1 some one is sure to get them transposed in his memory4 ,consequently1 a boy came up to the ,rectory with his arm greatly swollen2 he had been bitten by a viper which he had taken up1 thinking it was a slow-worm1 because1 as he said1 it had the marks along its back6 ,besides the tiny harvest mice1 he at one time possessed for some two or three years two pet ,jersey toads1 or the great crapaud4 ,they were kept in a wire-gauze cage1 and it was our delight as children to feed these monsters every morning4 ,a butterfly net swept over the lawn was sure to secure all sorts of flying and jumping creatures4 ,the lid of the cage being lifted up1 the net was turned inside out over the toads1 and quickly closed4 ,then began the matutinal breakfast4 ,they would never notice anything that did not move4 ,seeing1 however1 say a grasshopper1 stir1 the toad would stalk it like a cat after a bird2 and when within tongue-shot1 out came its long tongue like a flash of lightning1 and the grasshopper vanished in the flash4 ,worms were a great delight4 ,snapping up one in the middle1 the two ends were carefully cleaned from earth by passing them between the toes two or three times2 then followed a mighty gulp1 and all was over4 ,shell-traps were always laid about the grass1 consisting of slates1 under which there would generally be found a various crop of sorts4 ,i have now two glass cases containing all the shells1 land and fresh-water1 of ,hitcham1 mounted by the ,professor himself4 ,a reward was offered for every specimen of a ,helix with the shell reversed4 ,they are very rare1 but one was brought by a little boy who discovered it1 for he found he was unable to get his thumb into the opening the right way when playing at conquerors4 ,so he got the only sixpence earned in twenty-three years that the ,professor was incumbent of ,hitcham4 ,the collection of butterflies was always being added to2 now and then a rare one would appear at ,hitcham1 as1 e4g4 the ,camberwell ,beauty4 ,the ,professor was walking in the ,rectory garden with the late ,judge ,eagle1 of ,bury ,st ,edmunds1 when one settled on a wall4 ,mr ,eagle stood sentry while the ,professor ran indoors for his net4 ,it need hardly be added that the specimen still rests in the collection1 which passed into the possession of his son-in-law1 the late ,sir ,j4 ,d4 ,hooker1 ,f4,r4,s41 etc4 ,i cannot do better than conclude with my uncle's words at the end of his ,memoir3--,when a good man dies the world does not cease to benefit from those labours of love which he undertook for his fellow men4 ,though personally removed from them his example remains2 his voice too1 is still heard in the lessons left to be handed down to those who come after him4 ,the influences of ,professor ,henslow's teaching have been felt in other places than those in which he himself taught1 they have borne fruit far beyond the obscure neighbourhood in which he first sowed the good seed1 and who shall say to what further results they may not grow in years to come1 bringing honour to his memory1 and what is far more1 glory to ,god8 '',a word spoken in due season1 how good is it6' ,,footnotes3 #if ,memoir of the ,rev4 ,john ,stevens ,henslow1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,l4,s41 ,f4,g4,s41 ,f4,c4,p4,s4 7,j4 ,van ,voorst1 #ahfb74 #ig ,memoir1 pp4 #ag ff4 #ih ,memoir1 p4 #bi4 #ii ,such are the ,conditions of ,life1 upon the ,direct ,action1 of which ,darwin lays so much stress1 as resulting in ,definite ,variations 444 without the aid of selection4 7,var4 of ,an4 and ,pl4 under ,dom4 ,,ii4 p4 #bga ff42 ,origin etc4 #fth ed4 p4 #ajf1 etc47 #ajj ,quoted in ,memoir1 p4 #afa4 #aja ,on enquiring at ,rothamstead1 ,mr ,hall has kindly informed me that a good deal of attention was given in ,germany to this and other possible materials for the conservation of the nitrogen2 but the general result was adverse to their employment4 #ajb ,a misnomer1 as the coralloid organisms are ,bryozoa4 #ajc ,in his printed ,report on the ,diseases of ,wheat1 written for private circulation only1 he has added in ,,ms4--,in specimens of true mildew1 the three forms--,uredo rubigo1 ,u4 lincaris and ,puccinia graminis1 coexist simultaneously in the same sori1 as well as numerous intermediate forms1 which establish the specific identity of these fungi4 ,u4 rubigo-vera is now regarded as a form of ,puccinia rubigo-vera and cidium asperifolii4 #ajd ,from the ,professor's display of the methods he adopted of teaching ,botany in schools1 now in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 and ,prof4 ,d4 ,oliver's ,lessons1 etc4 based on ,,ms4 left unfinished at my father's death1 the floral schedule has been adopted in schools1 not only all through the ,british ,isles1 but the ,colonies as well4 #aje ,a more complete account will be found in ,jenyns' ,memoir4 ,,john ,,lindley #agii-ahfe ,,by ,,frederick ,,keeble ,rise of ,systematic ,botany--,lindley's place--early history--services to ,horticulture--,professor at ,university ,college1 ,london--,the ,gardeners' ,chronicle--,theory and ,practice of ,horticulture--,the ,vegetable ,kingdom--,orchids--his interest in ,fossil ,botany--personal characteristics4 ,introduction4 ,the first half of the #aith century is a brilliant epoch in the history of botanical discovery4 ,during that period the foundations of plant-anatomy were laid afresh with the cell as the builders' material4 ,the discovery of sarcode or protoplasm electrified the scientific world and excited the attention of the philosophical novelist--as readers of ,middlemarch may remember4 ,the nucleus1 the only and true deus ex machina of many a modern botanist1 was recognised as an organ of the cell4 ,biochemistry came into being and1 with ,liebig as foster-parent1 grew into modern ,physiology4 ,the natural system of classification proclaimed by ,jussieu put to rout the old established ,linnean system and the enunciation of the theory of ,natural ,selection brought the epoch to a dramatic close4 ,in the constructive work of this period ,british botanists played a distinguished part1 and it was due preeminently to them that the transition from the old artificial system to the new natural system took place so speedily and completely4 ,the group of men to whose labours this great change was due include ,hooker1 ,brown1 ,bentham and the subject of this sketch1 ,john ,lindley4 ,nor from this brief list may the name of ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 the greatest ,englishman of his time1 be omitted4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xiv ,,john ,,lindley 7#ahdh7 ,the commanding position to which these men attained in the world of science was of course due1 primarily1 to their ability and--equally of course--to circumstance4 ,the great wars were over and in the peaceful years men were free to turn their energy to constructive purposes4 ,horticulture--ever a ,british art--became unreservedly popular4 ,explorers and collectors1 encouraged and assisted by ,banks and others1 sent home rich supplies of new or rare plants and thus provided ,british systematists with a vast array of material for their work of reconstructing the flora of the world4 ,such brilliant use was made of opportunity that our country took the lead in systematic botany4 ,the activity of the collector1 the generosity of the patron and the labour of the systematist led not only to a general advance in methods of classification but also to a very special advance in the knowledge of what is1 in many ways1 the most interesting group of plants on the face of the earth--the ,orchidaceae4 ,among the plant-treasure from ,india1 ,australia and ,malaya were large numbers of epiphytic orchids4 ,the problem of cultivating such strange and fascinating plants challenged the skill of the gardener4 ,the fancying instinct1 latent in every ,englishman and curiously characteristic of the race1 was evoked by the bizarre form of these plants4 ,orchid-growing became the hobby of the well-to-do4 ,gardeners with no knowledge of science and regardless of text-book dicta on sterility1 proceeded to raise the most marvellous series of hybrids--bi-generic1 tri-generic1 multi-generic--which any sane and scholastic botanist would have declared to be impossible4 ,brown1 ,blume and above all ,lindley threw themselves with enthusiasm into the task of discovering the clues to the classification of these plants1 the form of whose flowers transgress so glaringly the rules of morphology--dimly surmising perhaps that if the key to evolution is ever to be found it will be discovered by the study of the group of plants which appear to represent evolution's latest prank4 ,in building up the new system of classification of the vegetable kingdom in general and of orchids in particular1 ,lindley bore a conspicuous part2 and were these his only contributions to the advancement of botanical science1 his biographer might find the task of writing his life one of no very great difficulty4 ,when however he discovers the many other varied aspects of ,lindley's activities1 the biographer may well despair of presenting a fair picture of the scientific life of this remarkable man4 ,professor of ,botany in ,university ,college1 ,london1 ,prfectus ,horti to the ,society of ,apothecaries1 officially attached to the ,royal ,horticultural ,society and responsible for the management of its gardens1 and in no small measure for its very existence1 ,lindley yet found time to become easily the greatest scientific journalist of his age4 ,for nearly #be years he edited the ,gardeners' ,chronicle and did more than any other man to keep the science and practice of horticulture on good terms with one another4 ,to those of us who know how generally the cares of organisation give excuse for slackness in research1 ,lindley's indomitable activity1 both in administration and in investigation1 becomes indeed impressive and inspiring4 ,lecturing1 drawing and describing new genera and species1 revising the vegetable kingdom1 writing memoirs1 text-books1 articles1 directing the gardens at ,chiswick1 fighting officialdom and obstruction1 building up a great herbarium and discharging a dozen other duties would seem to have made up the daily life of this man of amazing vigour4 ,till he was #ej years of age ,lindley never knew what it was to feel fatigue2 at #eb he took his first holiday2 but the continuous strain of half a century had exhausted him beyond recuperation4 ,he rallied1 set to work again1 again broke down and died at the age of #fg4 ,to sketch in rapid outline and to admire to the full1 ,john ,lindley's life is not difficult even to the modern botanist whose life is passed in the cloistered calm of the laboratory2 but to give a discriminating account of the chief of ,lindley's services to science is well-nigh impossible for any one man3 certainly ,i could not have undertaken it unaided4 ,good fortune and friends however rendered the attempt unnecessary4 ,in the first place1 ,lord ,lindley1 when he knew of this project1 put at my disposal in the kindest manner possible an outline of ,john ,lindley's career which he had written under the title of ,sketch of my ,father's ,life3 written for my sons1 daughters and grandchildren4 ,in what follows ,i have made free use of ,lord ,lindley's manuscript4 ,in the second place1 ,mr ,w4 ,botting ,hemsley has had the great kindness not only to supply me with much valuable information of which he was possessed concerning ,lindley's scientific work but to examine manuscripts1 letters1 etc4 at ,kew bearing thereon and to allow me to make use of the results of his interesting investigations4 ,hence my task has become merely that of an editor whose chief duty is to fit the material provided by two distinguished contributors into the prescribed space4 ,whatever credit is due to this first attempt to sketch the career of ,lindley1 belongs to these two gentlemen whose remarkable kindness ,i have great pleasure in acknowledging4 ,outline of ,career4 ,john ,lindley was born on ,february #e1 #agii1 in ,catton near ,norwich4 ,his father1 ,george ,lindley1 who came of an old ,yorkshire family1 conducted a large nursery and fruit business in ,catton4 ,to the facts that ,john ,lindley became in early years an accomplished field botanist and also learned much of practical horticulture may be ascribed the close touch which he maintained throughout his botanical career with the practical side of botany4 ,it is not too much to say that ,john ,lindley was the unique representative of a class of man which he himself declared had never existed1 namely one which combined the qualities of a good physiologist with those of a practical gardener of the greatest experience4 ,john ,lindley's youthful ambition was however to be not a savant but a soldier1 and though1 owing to the inability of his father to buy him a commission1 that ambition was not fulfilled1 the instinct which prompted it found frequent expression throughout ,lindley's life4 ,as his career demonstrates1 he was a first class fighting man4 ,the curious may find in the pages of the ,gardeners' ,chronicle records of the combats which he waged on behalf of horticulture and we shall have occasion presently to refer to the most important of all his campaigns in the cause of science4 ,when ,john ,lindley was about #ai or #bj years of age his father's affairs became involved1 and the son with an impulsiveness as just as it was foolish insisted1 against the advice of friends1 on becoming surety for the father4 ,the mill-stone of financial anxiety thus early hung about his neck caused him trouble throughout his life4 ,possessed of nothing but youth1 a sound education1 great natural ability and one good friend1 ,john ,lindley at the age of #bj left ,norfolk for ,london4 ,thanks to a letter of introduction from the friend 7,sir ,william ,hooker7 he obtained a post as assistant-librarian to ,sir ,joseph ,banks4 ,he thus gained access to a good library and became acquainted with a large number of men1 both ,english and foreign1 interested in scientific subjects4 ,that he made the most of his opportunities is evident1 for we find him at #ba a ,fellow of the ,linnean ,society and a member of the ,bonn ,academy of ,natural ,history4 ,in #ahbb began ,lindley's long connection with the ,horticultural ,society1 which he served first as ,garden ,assistant-,secretary1 then 7#ahbf-ahfj7 as ,assistant-,secretary and finally as ,secretary4 ,the portrait which accompanies this sketch is a reproduction of that painted by ,mr ,eddis1 ,r4,a41 at the instance of friends of ,lindley about the time of his resignation of the ,secretaryship of the ,horticultural ,society4 ,the most conspicuous direct services rendered by ,lindley to the ,society were the laying out of the ,society's garden at ,chiswick and the organisation1 with ,bentham1 of the celebrated flower-shows which have served as models for the exhibits of horticultural societies all over the world4 ,those who know how extraordinarily valuable1 not only to horticulturists but also to botanists1 are the periodical shows held by the ,royal ,horticultural ,society1 will be grateful to ,lindley for the perspicuity which led him to replace the old and gaudy ftes by these admirable exhibitions4 ,lindley's ,professorship of ,botany in ,university ,college1 ,london1 dates from #ahbh and was held for over a quarter of a century4 ,among those who attended his lectures were ,carpenter1 ,edwin ,lankester1 ,griffith1 ,daubeny and ,williamson4 ,his lectureship to the ,society of ,apothecaries began in #ahce1 and in #ahda in which year the ,gardeners' ,chronicle was founded1 he became editor of that periodical4 ,this post he held till his death in #ahfe4 ,it might be supposed that the multifariousness and onerousness of ,lindley's official and routine duties left little time for other work4 ,yet ,lindley made time not only for scientific investigation and for the writing of numerous monographs and text-books2 but also for a large and varied amount of public work4 ,in the ,lindley correspondence preserved at ,kew are to be found letters and papers 7official correspondence #ahcb-ahed7 criticising trenchantly the mismanagement of the ,royal forests and recommendations on the selection and cultivation of trees for the charcoal employed in the manufacture of gunpowder4 ,lindley1 together with ,hooker1 acted as adviser to the ,commissioners of the ,admiralty with respect to the planting of the ,island of ,ascension4 ,the potato famine was the occasion of an official visit to ,ireland and led to a report by ,lindley1 ,sir ,robert ,kave and ,sir ,lyon ,playfair which was the immediate cause of the ,repeal of the ,corn ,laws4 ,as ,sir ,robert ,peel told ,lindley in the face of the ,report1 the repeal could no longer be avoided4 ,thus the potato takes rank with the chance word1 the common soldier1 the girl at the door of an inn that have changed or almost changed the fate of nations4 ,lindley and ,kew4 ,but of all ,lindley's public works that which he undertook for the saving of ,kew from destruction is of the most immediate interest to botanists4 ,in #ahch a small committee consisting of ,lindley1 ,paxton and ,j4 ,wilson 7gardener to the ,earl of ,surrey7 were commissioned to report on the state of the ,royal ,gardens4 ,after exposing the incompetence and extravagance of the then administration ,lindley recommended that the ,royal ,gardens1 ,kew1 should be made over to the nation and should become the headquarters of botanical science for ,england1 its ,colonies and ,dependencies4 ,is it due to our lack of gratitude or to our mistrust of sculptors1 that no statue of ,lindley stands in the grounds of ,kew8 ,in #ahdj ,john ,lindley was able to write to ,sir ,william ,hooker3 ,it is rumoured that you are appointed to ,kew4 ,if so ,i shall have still more reason to rejoice at the determination ,i took to oppose the barbarous ,treasury scheme of destroying the place2 for ,i of course was aware that the stand ,i made and the opposition ,i created would destroy all possibility of my receiving any appointment4 ,having regard to the part which ,lindley played in preserving ,kew from the devastating clutches of the politicians it is but fit that that ,institution should contain the most valuable of ,lindley's scientific possessions1 his orchid herbarium1--that his general herbarium is at ,cambridge may be news to such ,cambridge botanists as in the days of a decade or two ago learned ,botany without such adventitious aids4 ,in #ahfd ,lindley wrote to the late ,sir ,joseph ,hooker to say that he had made up his mind to sell his herbarium and would prefer that the ,orchids went to ,kew4 ,there it is preserved1 a monument of ,lindley's skill and industry and of inestimable value to the systematist4 ,besides the actual specimens it contains coloured drawings of the flowers of all the species that came under his observation in the living state4 ,in addition to the herbarium1 ,kew possesses a large amount of ,lindley's scientific correspondence2 letters to ,w4 ,j4 ,hooker1 #ahbh-ahei 7#bcj71 #ahb letters to ,bentham and #ce to ,henslow1 and others to which reference has been made already3 altogether an invaluable mass of correspondence1 selections from which it is to be hoped may some day see the light of publication4 ,lindley's skill with brush and pencil may be admired in the many plates which he executed in illustration of his various monographs4 ,his skill with the pen deserves at least remark4 ,inasmuch however as nearly all the more distinguished of the old school of botanists1 ,hales1 ,hooker1 ,gray1 to mention but a few1 have in this respect a marked superiority over their successors1 it is not necessary to labour the question of literary grace for either the moderns are indifferent on the subject or they may find on every hand models ready for their use4 ,two citations from the introductory pages of ,lindley's classic1 ,the ,theory and ,practice of ,horticulture1 must suffice to exemplify his incisive style--,le style c'est l'homme1 and ,lindley the man hated circumlocution and had no time to waste--there are1 doubtless1 many men of cultivated or idle minds who think waiting upon ,providence much better than any attempt to improve their condition by the exertion of their reasoning faculties4 ,for such persons books are not written2 and again1 with reference to the divorce in current literature between theory and practice1 ,horticulture is by these means rendered a very complicated subject1 so that none but practical gardeners can hope to pursue it successfully2 and like all empirical things1 it is degraded into a code of peremptory precepts4 ,publications4 ,the ,theory and ,practice of ,horticulture4 ,though many aspects of ,lindley's work must perforce be treated of in briefest form no sketch could have the slenderest value which did not take into account his chief works1 ,the ,theory and ,practice of ,horticulture1 ,the ,vegetable ,kingdom1 and the ,botanical ,register2 nor from a survey no matter how brief may reference to his contributions to our knowledge of orchids be omitted4 ,the value of ,lindley's great work on ,the ,theory and ,practice of ,horticulture may be best gauged by the fact that as a statement of horticultural principles it is the best book extant4 ,though the botanist of the present day finds on perusing this work that physiological knowledge in #ahdj was in a singularly crude state1 and may rejoice at the rapid progress of discovery since the time when ,lindley's book was written1 yet the fact remains that few1 if any1 men at the present day could make a better statement of the physiological principles underlying practical horticulture than that presented by ,john ,lindley4 ,indeed it is a strange fact1 and one worthy of the attention of our physiologists1 that the gardeners are still endeavouring to puzzle out for themselves the reasons for their practices unaided by the physiologists4 ,an interesting illustration of this assertion may be found in recent issues of the ,gardeners' ,chronicle containing correspondence from many of the leading growers on the principles underlying the cultivation of the vine4 ,no physiological ,philip has come as yet to their assistance6 ,lindley's book had at once a great vogue on the ,continent and was translated into most ,european languages--,russian included2 but it was not till its title was changed from ,the ,theory 444 to ,the ,theory and ,practice 444 of ,horticulture that his incorrigible fellow-countrymen1 as shy of theory as a fox-glove is of chalk1 consented to buy it to any considerable extent4 ,it was doubtless due not only to ,lindley's general services to horticulture but also to the special service which he rendered to that science by the publication of this work that led ,lord ,wrottesley1 ,president of the ,royal ,society1 to say1 when presenting ,lindley with the ,royal ,medal1 that he had raised horticulture from the condition of an empirical art to that of a developed science4 ,the ,vegetable ,kingdom and ,the ,botanical ,register4 ,that ,john ,lindley was a man of fine judgment is indicated by his own verdict that1 except for ,the ,vegetable ,kingdom1 ,the ,theory and ,practice of ,horticulture was his best book4 ,that verdict is sustained by posterity1 as ,mr ,botting ,hemsley declares of the former work1--,this grand book must be classed as ,lindley's masterpiece4 ,no similar ,english work was in existence in #ahdf when the first edition appeared1 nor was there in any language so encyclopaedic a work4 ,even now it is a valuable book in a small botanical library as it is a mine of information on points that are unchangeable4 ,the work1 as set forth in the preface1 originated in a desire on the part of the author to make his countrymen acquainted with the progress of ,systematical ,botany abroad during the previous quarter of a century4 ,both in his books and in his lectures he adopted the natural system of classification and did much to popularise it though1 as previously stated1 his contemporaries ,robert ,brown1 the ,hookers1 and ,g4 ,bentham were equally powerful adherents of the new system4 ,to quote the picturesque if somewhat immoderate language of ,reichenbach for a long time the youthful interloper found no favour on account of his having introduced in conjunction ,scot ,brown1 ,gray and the still youthful ,hooker the natural system of the hated ,frenchman2 where the more numerous disciples of ,linnus had thought to pass their lives in the glory of pondering and admiring the great ,swede4 ,that ,lindley was an early convert to this innovation is also proved by the fact that his inaugural lecture at ,university ,college startled many by its frank and thorough expression of the superficial character of the artificial system of classifying plants4 ,the third and last edition of ,the ,vegetable ,kingdom consists of about #ajjj pages in small type with upwards of #ejj illustrations4 ,it contains an historical review of the various ,natural ,systems which had been prepared1 beginning with ,john ,ray's 7#agjc7 and ending with his own1 which is used in the work4 ,in this system ,lindley divided plants into seven classes3--,thallogens1 ,acrogens1 ,rhizogens1 ,endogens1 ,dictyogens1 ,gymnogens and ,exogens1 and each class was subdivided into alliances or groups of ,natural ,orders to which he gave names of uniform termination1 as ,algales1 ,filicales1 ,glumales1 ,malvales1 etc4 ,this classification1 though ingenious1 is defective1 as the author himself recognised4 ,though never adopted by other writers this fact did not prevent ,bentham and ,hooker from citing ,lindley's work frequently in their ,genera ,plantarum4 ,as ,mr ,botting ,hemsley observes1 ,lindley1 who in all questions of classification was both cautious and modest1 seems to have been an evolutionist without knowing it4 ,thus in the course of discussion on the permanency of species he observes that all the groups into which plants are thrown are in one sense artificial1 in as much as nature recognises no such groups4 ,as the ,classes1 ,natural ,orders and ,genera of botanists have no real existence in ,nature1 it follows that they have no fixed limits and consequently it is impossible to define them4444 ,an arrangement then which shall be so absolutely correct an expression of the plan of nature as to justify its being called the ,natural ,system is a chimera4 ,owing to the fact that ,hooker wrote the admirable and favourable review of the ,origin of ,species which appeared in the ,gardeners' ,chronicle1 it has been inferred that ,lindley himself was not very well disposed toward the new theories2 but ,lord ,lindley states that his father was much impressed by the ,origin1 said it would revolutionise botanical studies but that there were difficulties which would require elucidation before ,darwin's theory could be regarded as completely satisfactory--surely a perspicacious judgment4 ,to turn to the woodcuts of ,the ,vegetable ,kingdom affords both pleasure and relief--pleasure on account of their excellence1 relief to escape from the monotonous prettiness of modern process work4 ,though space will not allow reference to other text-books and to innumerable minor publications--many of which may be found in the ,lindley ,library in the ,royal ,horticultural ,society's headquarters at ,vincent ,square--a brief mention must be made of the ,botanical ,register4 ,this periodical was founded in #ahae1 and so early as #ahbc ,lindley became a contributor to it2 but it was not till #ahbi that his name appeared on the title-page4 ,from that time he was sole editor till #ahdg1 when the ,botanical ,register ceased to appear2 unable doubtless to stand against the ,botanical ,magazine which under the editorship of ,hooker had passed from a moribund state into one of remarkable vigour which now1 #abe years after its foundation1 it still enjoys4 ,orchids4 ,the magnitude of ,lindley's work among his favourite group of plants1 the ,orchidaceae1 deserves recognition by the general botanist4 ,botanical knowledge with respect to the group was in a very rudimentary stage when ,lindley took up its study4 ,robert ,brown and ,blume were already engaged upon the investigation of orchids1 but they relied mainly on herbarium material4 ,lindley1 on the other hand1 began with living plants and ended with living plants1 though1 as his herbarium testifies1 he did not neglect dried specimens4 ,a circumstance that favoured ,lindley in these studies was the fact that ,william ,cattley1 an early patron of ,lindley1 was one of the most successful of the early cultivators of epiphytic orchids4 ,the chief of ,lindley's published contributions to the knowledge of orchids1 apart from scattered figures and descriptions in the ,botanical ,register1 the ,gardeners' ,chronicle1 ,lindley and ,paxton's ,flower ,garden1 the ,journal of the ,linnean ,society1 and in other serials and periodicals1 are to be found in ,the ,genera and ,species of ,orchidaceous ,plants1 #ahcj-ahdj1 in which are described all the species 7#aihj7 known of #bii genera2 ,sertum ,orchidaceum 7#ahch72 ,folia ,orchidacea1 #aheb-ahee2 and ,the ,vegetable ,kingdom4 ,it is unfortunate that no attempt has as yet been made to catalogue the species described by ,lindley2 but with regard to genera an approximate list of those proposed by him may be attempted1 and is interesting as giving some idea of the extent and value of ,lindley's investigations in the group4 ,in the third edition of ,the ,vegetable ,kingdom he estimates the number of orchid genera at #dfi4 ,bentham and ,hooker 7,genera ,plantarum1 #ahhc7 admit #ccd1 and new genera proposed since that date amount to #abe4 ,pfitzer 7,engler and ,prantl1 ,natrlichen ,pflanzen-familien1 #ahhi7 describes #daj4 ,the following is a list of ,lindley's genera1 admitted by ,bentham and ,hooker1 in the sequence in which they appear in the ,genera ,plantarum3 ,physosiphon ,brachionidium ,oberonia ,oreorchis ,sunipia ,cirrhopetalum ,megaclinium ,trias ,drymoda ,monomeria ,panisea ,acrochaene ,coelia ,eria ,phreatia ,chysis ,anthogonium ,earina ,trichosma ,coelogyne ,otochilus ,pholidota ,lanium ,diothonea ,hormidium ,hexisia ,pleuranthium ,diacrium ,ponera ,pinelia ,hartwegia ,cattleya ,laeliopsis ,tetramicra ,laelia ,schomburgkia ,sophronitis ,galeandra ,ansellia ,cremastra ,bromheadia ,govenia ,grobya ,cheiradenia ,aganisia ,acacallis ,eriopsis ,warrea ,batemannia ,bifrenaria ,xylobium ,lacaena ,lycaste ,chondrorhyncha ,acincta ,mormodes ,cycnoches ,stenia ,clowesia ,scuticaria ,camaridium ,dichaea ,trichopilia ,aspasia ,cochlioda ,dignathe ,miltonia ,solenidium ,erycina ,abola ,trizeuxis ,ada ,sutrina ,trigonidium ,quekettia ,zygostates ,phymatidium ,centropetalum ,doritis ,aranthes ,uncifera ,acampe ,sarcanthus ,diplocentrum ,cryptopus ,oeonia ,mystacidium ,cirrhaea ,notylia ,sertifera ,tropidia ,pterichis ,prescottia ,pseudocentrum ,gomphicis ,baskervilla ,pelexia ,herpysma ,zeuxine ,haemaria ,hylophila ,drakaea ,burnettia ,chloraea ,stenoglottis ,bicornella ,hemipilia ,glossula ,pachites ,herschelia ,monadenia ,schizodium ,forficaria ,brachycorythis ,when it is remembered that ,bentham1 who elaborated the orchids for the ,genera ,plantarum1 held broader views of generic limits than the majority of botanists1 the fact that #aad or more than a third of the genera retained are ,lindleyan is a striking testimony to the accuracy and range of ,lindley's work in the group4 ,pfitzer in the work already cited retains #abg of ,lindley's genera4 ,in no other great family probably has one man left so large a mark as ,lindley has left in the ,orchidaceae4 ,in this connection it may be added that #dj of ,robert ,brown's ,orchid ,genera and #ej of ,blume's are retained by ,bentham and ,hooker4 ,the number of species of orchids known in his time ,lindley doubtingly estimated at #cjjj4 ,collectors since that time have increased that number probably to #fjjj4 ,the fact that about #aajj species of orchids are known from ,british ,india1 outnumbering those of any other family by about #cjj1 will doubtless surprise the majority of botanists4 ,before closing this notice of a remarkable and versatile man some reference must be made to his pioneer work in the field of palaeobotany--a subject that has markedly advanced in recent times at the hands of ,lindley's fellow-countrymen4 ,in co-operation with ,hutton there were published 7#ahca-ahcg7 the three volumes of ,lindley and ,hutton's ,fossil ,flora of ,great ,britain1 an authoritative work1 profusely illustrated with figures of the known fossils1 and by no means entirely superseded at the present day4 ,the introductory chapters to the volumes bear the mark of ,lindley's handiwork1 and that to volume ,,iii4 contains the results of an extensive series of experiments carried out by ,lindley to determine the capacity of various plants to resist the agencies of disintegration4 ,these results have become classic and are often referred to by subsequent writers on palaeo-botany4 ,during the progress of the ,fossil ,flora ,lindley amassed a considerable collection of specimens1 some of which have recently come to light in the cellars of ,university ,college4 ,he was obliged however to abandon this branch of study as it threatened to distract his attention from other departments of botany4 ,personal ,characteristics4 ,in as much as it is our custom to erect none but the slightest and most casual memorials to our distinguished men of science or of letters1 there is reason to rejoice that the name of ,lindley is not inadequately commemorated4 ,the ,lindley ,library purchased in his honour and now permanently attached to the ,royal ,horticultural ,society bids fair under the enlightened policy of that flourishing institution to grow into a great collection of horticultural works4 ,the genus ,lindleya is reminiscent to systematists of their great colleague and the name of ,lindley is known and honoured by all our horticulturists4 ,of the man himself just so much may be said as to give form to the mind's image of him4 ,he was of middle height1 active1 upright1 with shoulders somewhat sloping and of heavy tread4 ,the sightlessness of one eye gave to his resolute face a somewhat strange look4 ,simple in habits1 strenuous in work and perspicacious in judgment1 ,john ,lindley was a warm hearted and generous friend1 particularly to young botanists4 ,he was a powerful foe3 altogether a masterful and remarkable man4 ,not suffering fools gladly yet with a humorous turn of mind3 ,i am a dandy in my herbarium1 he once exclaimed to ,reichenbach4 ,knowing no fear he could not hope for much favour1 and yet carrying his heavy load of financial responsibility1 he nevertheless won through to a wide measure of contemporary recognition and an assured place in the history of botanical science4 ,to conclude with ,reichenbach's fine tribute we cannot tell how long ,botany1 how long science1 will be pursued2 but we may affirm that so long as a knowledge of plants is considered necessary1 so long will ,lindley's name be remembered with gratitude4 ,,william ,,griffith #ahaj-ahde ,,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,lang ,early training--medical appointment under the ,east ,india ,company--his travels--the magnitude of his collections--his method of work--results of researches mainly published posthumously--the ovule and fertilisation--,santalum--,loranthaceae- -,balanophora--,avicennia--his gymnosperm work illustrated by ,cycas--discovery of the pollen-chamber--,rhizocarps and ,liverworts--pre-,hofmeisterian work--,griffith's relation to his times4 ,it might have been assumed that all the names of ,british botanists whose work has been or is to be considered in this course of lectures would have been familiar to their successors of to-day1 even if their works were too often neglected for the last words of scientific progress in a summary of literature4 ,the question has however been put to me by more than one botanist in the last month or two1 ,but who was ,griffith8 ,that this should be possible seems in itself ample justification for including his name in this list of ,british botanists4 ,for ,griffith has claims to be regarded as a great botanist4 ,it is true that he failed to break through the limitations of his time and period--that he left no new and more correct general views to modify the science4 ,but this is true of all his contemporaries1 indeed it is true of most botanists4 ,to recreate the department of a science in which a man labours requires a combination of ability and fortunate chance that is given to few4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xv ,,william ,,griffith 7#ahdc7 ,griffith had the ability1 the power of independent observation1 the readiness to speculate1 the careless prodigality of labour4 ,he did not however1 in the fraction of an ordinary working life that fate allowed him1 attain that insight into more correct comparison of the plants whose morphology he studied which would have acted quickly on the mass of first hand observation he possessed4 ,it is well to be clear at the outset that it is the personality of ,william ,griffith1 his important detailed contributions to botany1 and his achievement as a great working morphologist of his time that will interest us to-day--rather than his general views or any influence of these on the progress of botany4 ,griffith had the advantage or disadvantage of botany being his private study and not his profession4 ,the motive force of his career was however his love of scientific work for its own sake4 ,william ,griffith was a ,london botanist4 ,he was the son of a ,london merchant1 born on ,march #d1 #ahaj1 at ,ham ,common4 ,having finished school he began to prepare for the medical profession and was apprenticed to a surgeon in the ,west end of ,london4 ,about #ahbi he commenced attendance at the classes in the newly established ,university ,college4 ,he had earlier in life shown an interest in natural history but was now specially devoted to botany4 ,he attended ,lindley's lectures1 and also studied medical botany under ,mr ,anderson at the ,apothecaries' ,garden in ,chelsea4 ,there he obtained the ,linnean ,gold ,medal given by the ,society of ,apothecaries4 ,at this time also he was a frequent visitor to ,kew ,gardens where he was on good terms with the head gardener and also came under the influence of ,mr ,bauer the great botanical draughtsman of his day4 ,griffith was never tired of expressing his admiration for ,bauer as an accurate observer4 ,during his vacations ,griffith made botanical excursions in ,england1 carrying his light baggage and his equipment for collecting plants4 ,that the training that ,griffith received in botany in the ,london ,university of that date was a sound one is shown by his power of facing the most various problems when cast on his own resources immediately at the close of his ,university training4 ,the soundness of his training is further shown by the small pieces of original work he had published before leaving ,england at the age of #bb4 ,not only had he made some of the illustrations for ,lindley's ,introduction to ,botany and had described the flower and the structure of the wood of ,phytocrene gigantea in ,wallich's ,plantae ,asiaticae ,rariores1 but 7a noteworthy indication of his interest in ,cryptogams at this time7 he had supplied an account of the structure and development of ,targionia hypophylla to be appended to ,mirbel's classic monograph on the anatomy and physiology of ,marchantia polymorpha--published in #ahcb4 ,his medical studies finished1 ,griffith sailed from ,england in ,may #ahcb1 he arrived at ,madras in ,september and was appointed ,assistant-,surgeon on the ,madras establishment in the service of the ,east ,india ,company4 ,his scientific work was done in the intervals of a busy life4 ,only a man of great energy and enthusiasm and possessed of great powers of physical endurance could have done the work that ,griffith crowded into the #ab years1 between his landing in ,india and his death at ,malacca before the age of #ce on ,february #i1 #ahde4 ,this time was all spent in the ,east ,indies--he never returned to ,england4 ,deferring for the moment consideration of his scientific work we may take a general survey of ,griffith's movements during his working life and of his labours as an explorer and collector4 ,after spending some months in the neighbourhood of ,madras1 he was situated for more than two years at ,mergui and collected extensively in ,tenasserim4 ,he was recalled to ,calcutta in #ahce and attached to the ,bengal ,presidency in order to be sent with ,dr ,wallich and ,mr ,m',clelland to visit and inspect the localities in which tea grew wild in ,assam4 ,griffith's full report on this enquiry led to the important economic conclusion 7based largely on a critical comparison of the ,assam flora with the flora of tea-growing regions of ,china7 that tea might be successfully grown under the conditions in ,assam and similar districts of ,india4 ,when the other members of the expedition returned ,griffith was detained in ,assam1 where he remained during the whole of #ahcf1 making a successful expedition into the ,mishmee mountains only once before visited by a ,european4 ,early in #ahcg ,griffith1 accompanied by only one servant1 set off on an exploring expedition through the very disturbed country of ,burmah towards ,rangoon4 ,all news of him ceased1 or rather his assassination was credited by the ,government and reported in the newspapers1 when in ,june he re-appeared1 ragged and travel stained1 in ,calcutta4 ,he had explored down the ,hookhoom 7,hokong7 ,valley and on to ,ava1 and had then proceeded more rapidly by river to ,rangoon1 conveying his collections with danger and difficulty4 ,appointed ,surgeon to the embassy about to start for ,bhutan1 he filled up the intervening two months by again going to the ,khasi hills to collect4 ,he then accompanied the expedition to ,bhutan1 traversing over four hundred miles of the country and returning to ,calcutta in ,june #ahch4 ,here he spent the next few months arranging his collections and also studying the plants of the suburbs4 ,in ,november he joined the army of the ,indus and accompanied it in its whole march4 ,he remained another year in ,afghanistan making various expeditions in the country and into the ,hindoo ,koosh4 ,he returned1 after visiting ,simla and the ,nerbudda1 to ,calcutta in the middle of #ahda4 ,griffith then proceeded to ,malacca where he had been appointed ,civil ,assistant-,surgeon4 ,he remained only a year1 but long enough to appreciate the great interest of the district for his botanical work and to complete some important observations4 ,he collected the plants of the province and also visited ,mount ,ophir4 ,recalled to ,calcutta1 he took charge of the ,botanic ,gardens and also lectured to the medical students during ,wallich's absence from ,august #ahdb to ,august #ahdd1 pressing forward reforms in the gardens and using his opportunity for scientific observation4 ,on ,wallich's return ,griffith remained for some months longer in ,calcutta continuing his work1 married in ,september1 and returned to ,malacca in ,december full of hopeful plans for scientific work there4 ,he had barely arrived at ,malacca and begun work than he was seized with a fatal illness and died on ,february #i1 #ahde4 ,it has been necessary to consider in some detail the rapid movements of ,griffith's life in the ,east in order to fully appreciate the difficulties under which his large amount of scientific work was accomplished4 ,the twelve years of his official life were filled with professional duties1 difficult and dangerous exploration1 management of the ,botanic ,gardens1 and the labours entailed in making and caring for extensive collections4 ,it would not have been surprising had ,griffith1 in spite of his attainments1 contributed nothing to scientific botany beyond rendering these collections available for other workers4 ,he estimated his collection of plants at more than twelve thousand species2 and on his travels he did not neglect other collections of interest4 ,insects obtained by him are described1 he collected the birds and fish in every district he visited2 indeed he was a keen fisherman and must have thrown a fly in many a stream that had not been fished before1 combining sport and science4 ,griffith's collections were made with the definite purpose of enabling him1 when he had leisure1 to produce a general account of the ,indian flora on a geographical basis4 ,his methods of collecting were most enlightened and subserved his work as a morphologist and a student of the conditions of occurrence of the plants1 not merely of formal systematic botany4 ,the journals he kept on all expeditions are full of references to the occurrence of the plants met with4 ,he often adopted a plan of roughly mapping each day's route and indicating the plants and associations of plants1 along the line of march4 ,i wonder if modern ecologists know of these records made long before ecology was invented8 ,whenever possible he seems to have examined the morphology of the living plants1 and he fully realised the value of preserving portions of the plants in spirit for future examination instead of relying on herbarium material4 ,this quotation from a letter to ,wight 7then ,superintending ,surgeon of the ,madras ,service71 with whom ,griffith kept up a most interesting and friendly correspondence1 from which ,i should like to quote largely1 may give an idea of his point of view and also show how he looked forward to returning to ,malacca3-- ,if ever you go to the place of ,podostemon endeavour to get some germinating or at least very young plants4 ,i can fancy how an ,acotyledonous plant gets a stem but how a ,dicotyledonous plant loses it1 and becomes as some of them do1 mere discs spread over rocks is another thing4 ,then again where are their roots8 ,how opposed to late ideas of the absolute distinction of the three great divisions4 ,also please to take a bottle of spirits1 and deposit specimens in it4 ,i shall not be very sorry to get back to ,malacca1 this is a delightful place truly1 but one is interrupted1 and the lectures at the ,medical ,college consume much time4 ,for botany no place can exceed ,malacca4 ,and again1 ,what a business it will be to settle the types of the families from which the names must eventually be taken2 this will never be done by dried-plant botanists2 but by examination of development1 which ,i am convinced will alone give the key4 ,as to ,griffith's methods of work1 we learn from a memorial notice of him by ,mr ,m',clelland that whenever possible after the business of the morning was finished the rest of the day was devoted to the examination and dissection of plants under the microscope1 drawing and describing all peculiarities presented4 ,even on his death-bed his microscope stood beside him with the unfinished drawings and papers and dissections of plants on which he was engaged the day on which the fatal symptoms of his disorder came on4 ,all his work shows the same characters of direct individual observation and interpretation of the facts before him1 repeated examination of the same point1 and almost a prodigality of labour in recording his observations in drawings4 ,at first under the influence of ,robert ,brown1 he used the simple microscope with triplet lenses1 but later he employed the compound microscope and in the year before his death writes hopefully of ordering a first-rate microscope when he obtains the arrears due to him from the ,directors4 ,griffith's high attainments were appreciated by the distinguished circle of ,english botanists of his time with whom he corresponded4 ,mr ,solby1 to whom he always sent home his papers for submission to the ,linnean ,society2 ,robert ,brown1 to whose work he constantly recurs with admiration1 and whose judgment he trusted absolutely2 ,lindley2 ,sir ,william ,hooker1 who looked forward to his being settled permanently in charge of the ,calcutta gardens1 and ,dr ,wight may be named4 ,i may quote from a letter addressed to ,griffith by von ,martius of ,munich1 since it couples his own opinion and that of ,robert ,brown4 ,he 7,brown7 agrees with me in appreciating your spirited and enlightened investigations1 and ,i now more than ever look forward to you as his successor--as the standard ,english botanist4 ,only an outline of the nature of ,griffith's scientific work with some details on selected subjects can be attempted here4 ,his published works in the ,transactions of the ,linnean ,society and elsewhere1 important as they are1 represent only a small fraction of his observations4 ,but the wisdom and liberality of the ,east ,india ,company has put us in possession of his unpublished notes and drawings 7bequeathed with his collections to the ,company7 in the posthumously published volumes of ,notulae ad plantas ,asiaticas with the accompanying sets of plates4 ,though his papers were not ready or intended for publication in this form and suffer from having had to be arranged by another hand1 they afford1 together with his published work1 a particularly good picture of how the problems of morphology and classification presented themselves to a keen investigator at this time4 ,of his purely systematic work ,i shall not speak at length4 ,in addition to smaller papers the most important contribution was his illustrated monograph on the ,palms of ,british ,east ,india4 ,in the ,notulae numerous species are described and figured nearly always with reference to the morphology and physiology of the parts concerned4 ,it is his investigations made with direct reference to morphology and reproduction that claim our attention most4 ,in dealing with them it is convenient to treat of the main questions to which he directed his attention rather than of the separate papers4 ,i shall call attention first to his work on the flower and on fertilisation in a number of plants1 then to his observations on ,cycas1 and lastly to his work on the ,cryptogams4 ,interest in the structure of the ovule and the nature of fertilisation was widespread at the time ,griffith worked4 ,a few years previously ,robert ,brown had laid the foundations of the scientific study of the ovule and the behaviour of the pollen tube1 and during ,griffith's time the papers of ,schleiden1 which extended the comparative study of the ovule and advanced the important though erroneous view that the embryo originated inside the embryo-sac from the tip of the entering pollen tube1 were appearing4 ,schleiden's text-book did not appear until too late to be known to ,griffith4 ,his interest was keen on continuing the work1 that ,brown had begun1 on plants that only a resident in the tropics had the opportunity of studying properly1 and the first volume of the ,notulae1 with the accompanying ,icones1 and the more systematic volume on the ,monocotyledons and ,dicotyledons contain his unpublished observations on the ovule and flowers of many plants4 ,his first paper in the ,linnean ,transactions was on the ovule of ,santalum4 ,griffith observed and rightly interpreted the free prolongation of the embryo-sac from the nucellus1 and described the application of the pollen tube to the summit of the embryo-sac1 the development of the endosperm1 and the origin and development of the embryo4 ,he also recognised and figured the great prolongation backwards of the embryo-sac as an empty1 absorbent caecum4 ,at first he left the origin of the embryo doubtful1 while recognising the advantages of the exposed embryo-sac for settling the question1 but later he decided in favour of ,schleiden's erroneous view that the embryo developed from the tip of the pollen tube4 ,griffith also examined the ovules of ,osyris recognising the corresponding facts4 ,comparison with the figures of ,santalaceous ovules in ,guignard's later work will serve to show both the magnificent accuracy in observation of ,griffith and the limitation1 running through all the work of the time1 of not recognising the contents of the embryo-sac before fertilisation4 ,the ,loranthaceae was another family on which the development of the embryo-sac and the processes of fertilisation and development of the fruit interested ,griffith specially4 ,not only did he send his results home to the ,linnean ,society in two papers1 but his descriptions and figures of all the species described in the ,notulae take account of these morphological and developmental facts4 ,he traced the development of the cavity of the ovary and regarded the ovules as reduced to their simplest expression--to an amnios or embryo-sac4 ,and he observed the extension of the embryo-sacs up the style and the union of the pollen tube with the tip of the embryo-sac4 ,his further description of the development of the embryo1 endosperm and fruit is wonderfully exact if we allow for his regarding the long suspensor bearing the embryo as derived from the pollen tube growing down through the long embryo-sac4 ,griffith thus recognised all the main peculiarities of ,viscum and of ,loranthus subsequently described more in detail in ,european species by ,hofmeister 7whose analysis of ,griffith's work in #ahei is a great testimony to its accuracy7 and later by ,treub in the tropical species which had been studied by ,griffith4 ,the ,balanophoraceae was another group1 on which ,griffith made pioneer investigations4 ,he collected and examined all the species he met with1 partly from the systematic interest in supporting ,robert ,brown's objection to ,lindley's class of ,rhizantheae1 but still more from his interest in the details of their reproduction4 ,an examination of the plates from his memoirs1 only published after his death1 in the ,linnean ,transactions will show how fully he was aware of the structure of the archegonium-like female flower of ,balanophora2 of the relation of the pollen-grains and pollen tubes to it2 and of the appearance of the endosperm which he mistook for the embryo4 ,throughout he compares the structure with the pistillum 7archegonium7 of ,bryophyta4 ,thus in the ,balanophoraceae also ,griffith laid the foundations on which the work of ,hofmeister1 and more recently that of ,treub and ,lotsy follow4 ,when at ,malacca ,griffith interested himself among many other problems in the ovule and the development of the seed of ,avicennia4 ,he had previously paid attention to the viviparous embryos of other ,mangroves4 ,this piece of work1 when compared with ,treub's re-examination of ,avicennia1 brings out so clearly ,griffith's accuracy1 so far as his means of observation allowed him to go1 that we may look for a moment at how these two investigations1 separated by forty years1 compare4 ,griffith recognised the development of the embryo-sac in the nucellus of the ovule which he took to be naked1 missing the very slightly indicated integument4 ,he followed the pollen tube to the tip of the embryo-sac and the development of the endosperm in its upper portion1 where the embryo appeared4 ,he saw the growth of the endosperm leading to its complete protrusion from the ovule and inverting the embryo so that its cotyledons point to the surface4 ,further he saw the long1 empty1 absorbent caecum grow out from the hinder end of the embryo-sac into the massive base of the young seed4 ,this account is substantially correct in all its facts1 and ,treub's work adds to it the cellular details of the origin of the embryo-sac1 the setting apart of the endosperm cell to grow into the haustorium1 and the details of segmentation of the embryo4 ,such vivid1 accurate1 description of strange facts1 when previous knowledge gave no clue1 is in itself no mean scientific achievement4 ,to sum up ,griffith's work on the morphology of the reproductive organs of the ,angiosperms we see that he added many important facts and gave correct descriptions of what still remain among the most anomalous ovules and embryos4 ,his methods did not enable him to distinguish clearly the contents of the embryo-sac1 and he accepted and confirmed ,schleiden's erroneous view of the origin of the embryo4 ,but this hardly detracts from the directness and consequent value of all his observations4 ,turning now to the ,gymnosperms1 we find again that ,griffith devoted much attention to those forms that from his residence in the tropics he was in a position to study with most advantage4 ,he describes in the ,notulae his observations on the ovules and pollination of various ,coniferae and ,gnetaceae4 ,but we may concentrate our interest on his work on ,cycas4 ,the rough structure of the young seed had already been described by ,robert ,brown who had recognised the gymnospermy of the group4 ,but ,griffith's descriptions and figures are much more accurate--are indeed far in advance of those of much later observers--and add greatly to our knowledge of this plant4 ,these two figures 7pl4 ,,xvi7 will speak for themselves and show how clearly ,griffith had grasped the morphology of the ,cycadean ovule1 how faithfully he delineated the details1 and how he sought in progressive development to throw light on the structure4 ,he added to the previously imperfect description of the ovule an accurate account of the pollen chamber1 and the proof that pollen grains entered and filled it4 ,further he followed the germination of the pollen grains1 not merely recording the fact that the tubes penetrated the nucellus all around the pollen chamber1 but ascertaining in how many days the tubes were put forth4 ,his fullest description is unfortunately displaced in the ,notulae under the heading of ,thuja1 but it is clear that it refers to the ,cycas figured on the same plate as that plant4 ,from what has been said of the nature of ,griffith's work on the ovules1 both of ,angiosperms and ,gymnosperms1 the complete omission of his name in recent works on the two groups that are in constant use is at least noteworthy4 ,griffith was specially interested in the study of ,cryptogamic plants4 ,in a letter to ,wight he says ,i would like to be out with a work on ,indian ,cryptogamia of higher forms2 so much so that if ,i see no chance of my succeeding to the ,gardens1 ,i intend sending away all my other collections1 and devoting myself to this object and general development1 which is obviously the keystone of the arch4 ,he left ,algae and ,fungi 7with the exception of the ,characeae7 alone1 and it is his work on the ,bryophyta and ,pteridophyta that concerns us4 ,for information on his views on these plants we are dependent on his paper on ,salvinia and ,azolla and on the ,notulae1 put together as ,i have said from his notes after his death1 and not intended for publication in this form4 ,but there is no difficulty in getting a clear grasp of his point of view4 ,this was a mistaken one--an attempt to bring into line the reproduction of the gametophyte of ,bryophytes1 the sporophyte of ,vascular ,cryptogams1 and the flowering plant with its flower and fruit4 ,it is easy to be wise after the event4 ,in these comparisons ,griffith belonged to his time with a much wider field of personal observation than most possessed4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xvi ,from ,griffith's ,notulae ,median section of the ovule of ,cycas ,nucellar apex of ,cycas with pollen chamber and pollen grains ,we must bear in mind that at the time when ,griffith worked no idea of the sexual and asexual alternating generations in ,pteridophytes had been gained1 although the prothallia had been observed preceding the growth of the plant in ,equisetum and ,ferns4 ,it was not till some years after ,griffith's death that fuller facts as to the sexual organs were obtained and led to the right comparisons4 ,griffith's work on the ,bryophyta shows the same power of observation as that on the ovule1 but the difficulties due to imperfect instruments are more evident4 ,his views on reproduction were here1 however1 clear1 since the development of the capsule was definitely related to the fertilisation of the pistilla 7archegonia7 by the substance formed in the anthers4 ,his figures indicate how much he saw1 and how here also he sought in development the interpretation of mature structure4 ,his early interest in the ,liverworts1 especially the ,marchantiaceae1 continued1 and all the forms he collected were carefully examined and figured with his usual accuracy4 ,one of the ,liverworts ,griffith described may be taken as an illustration to this part of our subject on account of the interest of its re-discovery and re-description in #aiaj by ,goebel4 ,this is a plant collected in ,assam and named ,monosolenium tenerum4 ,this ,marchantiaceous plant is described as having no air-chamber layer1 as bearing sessile1 dorsal1 antheridial receptacles1 and terminal1 shortly stalked archegoniophores with one ventral groove in the stalk4 ,a single archegonium--later capsule--is found in each of the half-dozen involucres4 ,spores and irregular bodies were found in the capsule4 ,recently ,goebel had two tea-plants sent home from ,canton4 ,they died1 but he kept the soil moist on the chance of germinating seeds4 ,among a number of other plants there turned up a new ,liverwort4 ,on examination this proved to be ,griffith's ,monosolenium--all types of which had been lost--a most interesting form related to the ,corsiniaceae4 ,in the ,mosses and the ,liverworts generally ,griffith was clear on the development of the capsule or fruit following on the impregnation of an archegonium4 ,but in ,anthoceros1 while he recognised the antheridia he was not clear as to the sunken archegonia1 and regarded the capsules as arising by impregnation of unrecognisable spots on the young frond or thallus4 ,he observed however the indication of the canal of the archegonial neck above the young capsule4 ,analogy with ,anthoceros confirmed him in his views on the reproduction of ferns4 ,here he spent much labour in considering the view1 originally due to ,hedwig1 that the ramenta were male organs by the effect of which the sporangia developed4 ,griffith saw that if this was so1 since the sporangia are initiated very early1 the only time to search for the male organs was in the very young stage of the leaf4 ,on examining such young leaves he found the terminal cells of the young ramenta very prominent and formed the working hypothesis that they were the male organs4 ,but he stated this cautiously and was well aware how imperfect his means of observation were4 ,the whole line of work brings vividly before us how cryptogamic the ,cryptogams were at this period4 ,without attempting to survey ,griffith's views on the various groups of ,vascular ,cryptogams1 a word must be said of those on ,salvinia and ,azolla1 on which he published a long paper in addition to the other descriptions and figures in the ,notulae4 ,his observations bear on the development of the sorus and sporangium1 but he dismissed the microsporangia as abortive or imperfectly developed structures4 7,i may note in passing that the study of their development led him to regard the microsporangia of ,isoetes in the same way47 ,he dwelt on the similarity of the sporangium and indusium of ,azolla to a gymnospermus ovule1 and regarded the filaments of ,anabena seen penetrating within the indusium as probably the fertilising bodies in this naked-seeded cryptogam4 ,thus with a large amount of fresh and original observation ,griffith was on wrong lines in his general views and comparison--he classed the higher ,cryptogams in his ,notulae as ,pistilligerous4 ,musci4 ,hepaticae4 ,gymnospermous4 ,azolla4 ,salvinia4 ,chara4 ,cryptogamous4 ,ferns4 ,lycopods4 ,isoetes4 ,marsilidae4 ,anthocerotidae4 ,equisetidae4 ,griffith's general views of the reproduction of all the ,vascular ,cryptogams was necessarily wrong1 since the prime clue of the recognition of the prothallus and plant as distinct had not been found4 ,in this connection his figuring young plants of ,equisetum attached to prothalli is interesting4 ,in some speculations concerning the embryology of ,loranthus he came1 by a wrong line of approach1 within touch of the right comparison1 when he compares the endosperm to the confervoid green growth 7i4e4 the prothallus7 at the base of the young plant of ,equisetum4 ,it is idle to speculate on what might have happened had such a wide observer as ,griffith chanced on the clue4 ,in this respect he was of his time as most are4 ,the man who put the industrious but blind gropings of this period in morphological botany straight1 both as regards the development of the embryo and the comparative ontogeny of archegoniate plants was ,hofmeister1 and like all exceptional men he belonged to the new period created by him4 ,the great advantage of this course of lectures seems to me to be that it approaches the study of the history of botany in the right way2 for progress in our science has been the result of individuals rather than of schools4 ,the consideration of the work of ,griffith from #ahcb to #ahde is a vivid illustration of the condition of morphological botany in the earlier portion of the period1 surveyed in one of the chapters in ,sach's ,history under the title of ,morphology and ,systematic ,botany under the influence of the ,history of ,development and the knowledge of the ,cryptogams4 ,these two subjects were always before ,griffith4 ,the interest of the personality of ,william ,griffith and of the work he accomplished in his tragically short life is obvious4 ,not less so is the way in which that work was done inside the limitations of his period4 ,we1 who are still gleaners in the field that ,griffith and his contemporaries cleared and ,hofmeister marked out and tilled1 are probably just as incapable of conceiving the future developments of morphology4 ,,arthur ,,henfrey #ahai-ahei ,,by ,f4 ,w4 ,,oliver ,narrative--state of ,botany--dawn of the ,golden ,age--sexuality of ,angiosperms--,schleiden's elucidation of fern life-history--,ngeli1 ,suminski and ,hofmeister--recognition by ,henfrey--original work--publications--the ,micrographic ,dictionary--,the ,botanical ,gazette--its features--,henfrey's labours not immediately productive4 ,the claim of ,henfrey to rank among the founders of botany in this country depends less on his own original contributions than on a whole-hearted devotion to the propagation and diffusion of the newer methods and results which marked an epoch during the forties and fifties of last century4 ,the outset of ,henfrey's career coincided with a great turning point in the history of botany1 and to ,henfrey will always belong the credit of being the first ,englishman to recognise the full significance of the movement4 ,from that moment he unceasingly made known and diffused in this country the results of the ,german renaissance4 ,that ,henfrey should have failed to establish the newer botany in ,england was the result of a variety of circumstances1 one of which was his early death4 ,the available biographical material of ,henfrey being extremely meagre1 it has been necessary in preparing the present account to rely almost entirely on his published writings4 ,in some ways this lack of personal details is no disadvantage as our present interest in ,henfrey depends essentially on the movement in botany with which he was identified4 ,arthur ,henfrey was born at ,aberdeen1 in #ahai1 of ,english parents4 ,he underwent the usual course of training for the medical profession at ,st ,bartholomew's ,hospital--becoming a member of the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons in #ahdc4 ,in consequence of bronchial trouble1 to which he eventually succumbed at the early age of #ci1 ,henfrey never practised his profession4 ,compelled to a life of seclusion he at once turned to a scientific career and more particularly to the pursuit of botany4 ,in #ahdg he undertook the duties of ,lecturer in ,botany at ,st ,george's ,hospital ,medical ,school1 where among his colleagues was ,edwin ,lankester1 himself a redoubtable naturalist and the father of ,sir ,ray ,lankester1 the eminent zoologist of our own day4 ,henfrey succeeded ,edward ,forbes as ,professor of ,botany in ,king's ,college1 ,london1 in #aheb--;a post which he held till his death4 ,he was elected to the ,fellowship of the ,royal ,society in the same year4 ,he died quite suddenly in #ahei1 at the house on ,turnham ,green1 where he had resided for many years4 ,in order to understand the part played by ,henfrey1 it is necessary briefly to review the state of botany in the first half of the nineteenth century4 ,linnaeus of course1 botanically1 the outstanding fact of the eighteenth century1 was no exception to the dictum that the evil that men do lives after them4 ,it was supposed that botany had reached its culminating point in ,linnaeus and that improvement could only be made in details--elaborating and extending his system4 ,as ,sachs tells us in his ,history1 the result was that ,botany ceased to be a science2 even the describing of plants which ,linnaeus had raised to an art became once more loose and negligent in the hands of his successors4 ,botany gradually degenerated under the influence of his authority into an insipid dilettantism--a dull occupation for plant collectors who called themselves systematists1 in entire contravention of the meaning of the word4 ,this was written with especial reference to ,germany1 but it applied with no less force to our own country where the ,linnaean idea had taken deep root and the ,linnaean collections had found a sanctuary4 ,however1 by #ahdj1 a change was coming over the face of botany4 ,little as it can have been dreamt1 the ,golden ,age was already beginning--destined in a relatively short time to transform the subject4 ,this ,golden ,age was contemporaneous with1 and immediately dependent on1 the rise of a group of young botanists in the ,fatherland1 a group which included von ,mohl1 ,schleiden1 ,hofmeister1 ,ngeli1 ,cohn and ,de ,bary4 ,later it was reinforced by ,sachs1 who in addition to being a brilliant physiologist was a gifted writer who did much to establish scientific botany on a sound footing4 ,it is impossible to overestimate the debt due to ,sachs1 particularly for his great ,textbook of ,botany1 which at the right psychological moment brought the whole of the modern work between the covers of a single volume4 ,it was with the dawn of this period that ,henfrey identified himself4 ,in the #ae years of his active career 7#ahdd-ahei7 he devoted himself very largely to making his fellow-countrymen acquainted with the newer aspects of botany4 ,more particularly it was the recent discoveries as to the reproduction and life history of the ,vascular ,cryptogams that specially engaged his interest--the researches which broadly speaking we associate with ,hofmeister to-day4 ,before we go on to speak of the sexuality of the ,cryptogams however1 a few words may be devoted to that of the flowering plants4 ,sexuality of ,flowering ,plants4 ,at the period when ,henfrey entered on his career as a botanist no reasonable doubt remained as to the existence of sexes among the flowering plants4 ,the theory of the sexual significance of the organs of the flower1 brilliantly founded by ,koelreuter in the previous century1 had been perfected with a great volume of experimental proof by ,k4 ,f4 ,gaertner the son of ,joseph ,gaertner of ,carpologia fame4 ,by #ahcj the mechanism of fertilisation came to light in ,amici's discovery of the pollen tube which he traced from the stigma to the micropyle4 ,the microscopic aspect of the problem was taken up with great energy by ,schleiden and brought to the forefront as the burning question of the early forties4 ,the theory of ,schleiden1 which applied in particular to the flowering plants1 made its influence felt to such an extent in the search for evidence of sexuality among the ,cryptogams1 that we may conveniently state in a few words in what it consisted4 ,schleiden traced the pollen tube into the micropyle1 and thence to the nucellus where it depressed or invaginated the apex of the embryo-sac1 and in the recess or indentation so produced the tip of the pollen tube was converted into the embryo--its actual apex being represented by the plumule4 ,this theory was the lineal descendant in modernised trappings of the old view expressed by ,morland and others at the beginning of the eighteenth century that the embryo was contained in the pollen grain1 and that the ovule was no more than the brood chamber whither it must be brought to undergo further development4 ,this erroneous interpretation of the true facts was always repudiated by ,amici1 and was finally overthrown by ,hofmeister and ,radlkofer in the early fifties4 ,in this connection we may note in passing ,henfrey's careful paper on the impregnation of ,orchis ,morio1 published in #ahef1 which fully corroborated ,amici4 ,in this paper the relations of pollen tube1 embryo-sac1 egg-cell1 suspensor and embryo were correctly interpreted1 and the new point established1 contrary to the assertions of previous observers1 that the ovum or germinal-vesicle1 prior to fertilisation1 was a naked1 unwalled cell4 ,sexuality in ,cryptogams4 ,by far the most important question that came to a head in ,henfrey's time was that of the morphological relationships of the ,cryptogams and flowering plants4 ,hitherto these had remained altogether obscure in the absence of reliable data based on the proper application of the microscope to the elucidation of the life histories of the lower plants4 ,under the influence of the ,linnaean school1 which had taken deep root in this country1 as elsewhere1 the systematic study of flowering plants had been widely pursued1 and in so far as the ferns were concerned their homologies were commonly interpreted in terms of the flowering plants4 ,without any real guidance in fact1 a great diversity of views of these homologies found expression4 ,the following1 taken from ,lindley1 may serve to illustrate their general nature4 ,the sorus was regarded as a sort of compound fruit1 the sporangium as a carpel1 the annulus as its midrib1 and the spores as the seeds4 ,speculations such as these are of the same order as the crude conjectures which with less excuse relieve the answer books of examination candidates at the present time4 ,in the search for the male organs of the fern attention was naturally directed to the neighbourhood of the sorus1 and the stomata1 indusia and glandular appendages were in turn mistaken by various observers for the anthers4 ,the limit was reached by ,griffith who1 as is stated at page #aij1 conjectured that the ,anabena filaments which accompany the megasporangia of ,azolla were no other than the male organs of that plant4 ,schleiden spoke of these researches with the utmost scorn4 ,for my part ,i am surprised that no one has yet insisted upon the presence of the organs of sense1 as eyes and ears in plants1 since they are possessed by animals4 ,such an assumption would not be a bit more absurd than the mania of insisting upon having anthers in the ,cryptogams1 simply because they are found in the ,phanerogams4 ,all these ill-grounded hypotheses were swept away in #ahdd when ,ngeli discovered antheridia containing spermatozoids on the cotyledon or pro-embryo of the fern--the prothallus we call it now4 ,ngeli at once recognised their essential agreement with the antheridia already known in the ,bryophytes and compared the spermatozoids with the corresponding structures in animals4 ,but as he overlooked the existence of the archegonia1 or rather by some lapse mistook them for stages in the development of the antheridia1 it is not surprising that he was at a loss to understand the significance of his discovery1 and that he should have commented on his dilemma in the following terms4 ,seeing that the female organs 7spores7 arise on the frond at a much later stage of development1 and long after the pro-embryo has died away1 the function of the spermatozoids is far from evident4 ,it was only three years later that light was thrown on the situation1 and from an unexpected quarter4 ,count ,suminski1 an amateur microscopist1 announced the discovery of additional reproductive organs on the fern pro-embryo1 which he clearly distinguished from the spiral filament organs or antheridia4 ,his full paper1 which appeared in #ahdh1 marks an epoch in morphology1 and was a very remarkable performance4 ,in it he redescribes the antheridia and spermatozoids--detecting their tufted cilia which ,ngeli had overlooked4 ,the archegonia he describes as ovules without envelopes consisting of a papilla 7the neck7 which becomes perforated1 giving the spermatozoid access to the embryo-sac within4 ,his figures of the process of fertilisation are extremely interesting as they show how completely he was dominated by the theory of ,schleiden to which allusion has already been made4 ,the head of the sperm is represented as entering the embryo-sac1 and there becoming encysted to form the embryo just as the tip of the pollen tube was supposed to do in flowering plants4 ,the further development of the embryo and its various organs are traced and figured1 however1 in the most admirable way4 ,at the conclusion of his paper ,suminski states that in view of the presence of male organs and ovules1 and the occurrence of fertilisation1 the cryptogamy of ferns does not exist in a physiological sense1 and ceases to have any validity as a peculiar character4 ,a remark which he follows up by the statement that ferns must on the existing classification be referred to the ,monocotyledons4 ,in certain respects no doubt ,suminski's paper is fantastic--more especially the circumstantial details given of the process of fertilisation4 ,but1 however we may criticise his work the credit belongs to ,suminski of showing 7#a7 that sexual organs are borne on the prothallus1 7#b7 that the embryo fern plant is produced as the result of fertilisation4 ,unlike ,ngeli1 to ,suminski came the happy inspiration of looking for the female organs in the position where common sense indicated they ought to be found4 ,suminski's paper instantly aroused universal interest1 and the whole of his assertions were at first categorically denied by the ,german botanist ,wigand4 ,we may now trace ,henfrey's attitude to ,suminski's work4 ,his first notice occurs in the body of a review of ,lindley's ,introduction in the first volume of his ,botanical ,gazette1 and shows him to have been profoundly sceptical1 if not contemptuous1 of the occurrence of fertilisation in the prothallus of the fern4 ,his words are this 7i4e4 ,suminski's discovery7 appears to have little but originality to render it worthy of notice4 ,that appeared in ,february #ahdi4 ,writing at greater length of ,suminski's work in the ,annals and ,magazine of ,natural ,history1 in ,november of the same year1 he speaks much more guardedly4 ,these researches are in the highest degree curious1 and if the facts related prove to be correct1 most importantly affect the received views of analogies in the generative processes of plants4 ,at the same time ,henfrey says he hopes to speak more definitely on this matter when his own investigations are complete4 ,two years later his own very careful work in the same field was laid before the ,linnean ,society1 in which he corroborated the main facts that had come to light4 ,turning once again to the paper of ,suminski1 after making certain criticisms of detail1 ,henfrey handsomely remarks--,nothing however can take from him the credit of having discovered the archegonia and their import1 one of the most important discoveries in physiological ,botany of modern times since it has led to results revolutionising the whole theory of the reproduction of plants and opened out a totally new sphere of inquiry into the laws and relations of vegetable life4 ,for some little time after these discoveries the archegonia of the fern were1 on the initiative of ,mercklin1 commonly referred to as the organs of ,suminski1 a custom which happily fell into desuetude4 ,mercklin1 in his paper1 which essentially repeats the work of ,suminski1 states that he devoted his entire attention for three months to the fern prothalli before he succeeded in observing the entrance of a spermatozoid4 ,in reviewing the early papers of the ,hofmeisterian epoch--papers which form the bed-rock of the existing morphology--one is struck with the marvellous rapidity with which their significance was apprehended4 ,we find the phrase alternation of generations employed within two years of the discoveries of ,suminski1 whilst by the early fifties the general genetic relations of the vascular series were realized in quite a new light4 ,as ,sachs puts it3--,when ,darwin's theory was given to the world eight years after ,hofmeister's investigations1 the relations of affinity between the great divisions of the vegetable kingdom were so well established and so patent that the theory of descent had only to accept what genetic morphology had actually brought to view4 ,among ,henfrey's original contributions other than those dealing with the burning questions already mentioned1 was a series dealing with the ,anatomy of ,monocotyledons4 ,this would appear to have led him on to study the ,nymphaeaceae1 and especially the anatomy of ,victoria regia--a paper which may be compared perhaps with ,prof4 ,gwynne-,vaughan's more recent study4 ,henfrey was quite alive to the monocotyledonous affinity1 and the enlightened and1 for that date1 unconventional views to which he gave expression1 drew an interesting notice by ,hooker and ,thomson in the first volume of their ,indian ,flora4 ,another of his papers dealt rather fully with the development of the spores and elaters of ,marchantia1 where he filled in a considerable lacuna in the knowledge of that group4 ,it is curious to find as late as #ahee so intelligent and well informed a botanist as ,henfrey laying it down that the cells of ,marchantia1 in particular1 and ,liverworts in general1 were destitute of nuclei4 ,it is superfluous to say that this apprehension was quite baseless4 ,indeed1 forty years later1 the group of the ,liverworts was deliberately chosen by ,prof4 ,j4 ,b4 ,farmer1 for the investigation of nuclear phenomena on account of the favourable conditions under which they could be studied6 ,microtechnique at that time was of course a much simpler affair than it has since become4 ,contemporary papers as a rule say little about methods2 however one of ,henfrey's occasional notes in a magazine tells us that caustic potash1 iodine1 sulphuric1 hydrochloric and acetic acids1 together with ether were in common use4 ,schultze's reagent--chloride of zinc iodide--was invented in #ahej1 but does not appear to have been generally employed till many years later4 ,it would however be a serious error to underestimate the value of the earlier work in plant histology4 ,the present writer once spent an interesting morning in ,pfeffer's laboratory at ,tbingen rummaging through hundreds of the great von ,mohl's anatomical preparations4 ,among these were sections of palm endosperms in which the1 at that time recently discovered1 continuity of the protoplasm through the cell walls was plainly visible4 ,the existence of these filaments had been detected by von ,mohl some years before1 but he had refrained from publishing his observations from over-cautiousness4 ,as a translator and editor ,henfrey was responsible for the ,english edition of von ,mohl's ,principles of the ,anatomy and ,physiology of the ,vegetable ,cell1 published in #aheb1 for two volumes of ,reports on ,botany in the ,ray ,society's publications1 whilst he had a considerable share in ,lankester's translation of ,schleiden's famous ,principles of ,scientific ,botany1 #ahdg4 ,in addition to these there were constant abstracts and critical reviews from his pen in the ,annals and ,magazine of ,natural ,history--a journal of which he became botanical editor before the close of his life4 ,as a writer of text-books ,henfrey was very prolific4 ,first came his ,outlines of ,botany1 #ahdg1 followed by the ,rudiments of ,botany4 ,much more ambitious was his ,elementary ,course of ,botany which became a standard text-book running through numerous editions after his death1 under the editorship of the late ,dr ,m4 ,t4 ,masters4 ,to these must be added1 in conjunction with ,griffith#ajf1 the ,micrographic ,dictionary1 a substantial volume dealing in innumerable special and general articles with the microscopic study of plants and animals4 ,this work was no mere compilation1 but embodied in its pages is a very large amount of independent observation4 ,the illustrations covering nearly fifty plates were by ,tuffen ,west1 and reached a high degree of excellence4 ,a well known botanist1 a contributor to the present volume1 has more than once assured me that it was to the ,micrographic ,dictionary that he owed his salvation6 ,should anyone desire to get a vivid and accurate picture of the precise state of ,botany in this country at the middle of the last century1 he cannot do better than turn over the pages of ,the ,botanical ,gazette1 a monthly journal of the progress of ,british botany1 founded and conducted by ,henfrey4 ,it was about the size of our own ,new ,phytologist1 with which it had not a little in common4 ,in one respect it differed2 unlike the ,new ,phytologist the ,gazette was financially a failure and after carrying it on at his own expense for three years 7#ahdi-ahea7 ,henfrey had to relinquish the undertaking4 ,a perusal of its contents clearly shows that its editor regarded his journal as one of the instruments of diffusing the ,new ,botany4 ,having to rely largely for his subscribers upon the amateur collector he points out in the prefatory note that a feature will be made not only of home botany but also of contributions or abstracts from abroad dealing with floras which have much in common with our own4 ,for the benefit of those whose collections had reached considerable dimensions1 and for whom the lack of new plants might connote a waning stimulus1 he held out the further inducement of papers on the general anatomy of familiar plants1 of which an excellent example by ,thilo ,irmisch on the stolons of ,epilobium was included in the first number4 ,for the three years of its existence ,henfrey kept faith with the ,british botanists and a number of ,the ,botanical ,gazette rarely appeared without an article contrived for their edification4 ,the task was evidently a congenial one1 for ,henfrey had a sound knowledge of ,british plants with especial reference to geographical distribution and critical forms4 ,unlike several later exponents of the ,new ,botany1 ,henfrey was quite able to hold his own with the systematists4 ,he more than once expresses the opinion that there was too great a tendency to lump species in the handbooks to the ,flora1 and he urged on the occasion of the preparation of the third edition of the ,london ,catalogue of ,british ,plants that many more forms should find recognition4 ,the editors of the catalogue however successfully opposed the suggestion on the ingenious grounds that it would raise the weight for postage beyond the limits of a blue 7twopenny7 stamp6 ,henfrey thought much might be done by cultivation under varying conditions to settle vexed questions as to critical species1 and suggested that a limited number of botanists in different parts of the country should co-operate in a scheme under which seed should annually be distributed1 harvested and re-distributed among those taking part4 ,henfrey himself offered to undertake the somewhat onerous duty of receiving and distributing the seed and of generally correlating the work4 ,as however his proposal was merely tagged on to a note on ,sagina apetala and ciliata it is hardly remarkable that nothing came of it4 ,an interesting minor feature of the ,gazette was the reporting of the proceedings of the various ,botanical ,societies throughout the country4 ,these show that a chronic state of intellectual famine frequently obtained even at the leading societies--a state of which vestiges are still occasionally discernible4 ,it was no unusual occurrence at the ,linnean even during the period of ,robert ,brown's presidency for the meeting to be regaled with long extracts from the commentaries on the ,hortus ,malabaricus4 ,in this respect however the record was easily held by the now defunct ,botanical ,society of ,london1 which eked out its programme for a whole year with a communication by a ,mr ,d4 ,stock ,on the ,botany of ,bungay1 ,suffolk4 ,begun on the #aath ,october1 #ahej1 it only drew to a conclusion on the #crd ,october1 #ahea4 ,there were other attractive features in ,the ,botanical ,gazette on which space does not allow me to dwell4 ,the general impression gained1 however1 from a perusal of the papers of that time is that they were refreshingly short1 as compared with our own day1 and often very much to the point4 ,the recording of observations was rarely made the occasion for a survey of the whole field of botany1 and little trace was discernible of the present habit of over-elaboration4 ,the foregoing outline of ,henfrey's activities shows that they were devoted wholly to the spread of the ,newer ,botany in this country4 ,the means employed included the publication of reviews and abstracts1 the editing of translations of the more notable books1 the founding of journals1 and the writing of text-books4 ,moreover by his own investigations he kept close touch with the modern work and was indeed the means of corroborating and often materially advancing many of the larger problems before putting them into general circulation in this country4 ,and yet1 in spite of this complete devotion of his life to the cause1 the ,new ,botany found no permanent place in this country till twenty years after ,henfrey's death4 ,botanically speaking1 the organisation and rise of taxonomy was the ruling pre-occupation of the period under consideration1 a direct outcome of colonial expansion and consolidation4 ,fed on unlimited supplies of new material from the ends of the earth the taxonomic habit became supreme4 ,what could an isolated student and recluse like ,henfrey do to stem this flood8 ,circumstances were too strong for him1 and founding no immediate school it remained for a later generation to take up the task4 ,though the history of the establishment of the ,new ,botany in ,england lies outside the province of this lecture1 it is instructive1 as a contrast in methods1 to note the manner of its accomplishment4 ,henfrey1 who relied on his pen1 had proved ineffective to bring about a revolution4 ,twenty years later it fell to ,sir ,william ,thiselton-,dyer1 then a young man1 to succeed where ,henfrey had failed4 ,by his enlightened teaching and personal magnetism1 ,thiselton-,dyer aroused a widespread interest in laboratory botany4 ,but the matter was not allowed to rest there4 ,holding as he did an important post at ,kew1 the strategic centre1 he was able to obtain appointments in the chief ,colleges and ,universities of the country for the recruits whom he had attracted4 ,in this way1 by the exercise of an acute intelligence amounting to statesmanship1 and in a very short period of time1 the ,new ,botany became everywhere firmly established4 ,,footnote3 #ajf ,not the ,william ,griffith of the last chapter4 ,,william ,,henry ,,harvey #ahaa-ahff ,,by ,r4 ,,lloyd ,,praeger ,early influences--,natural ,history--his pretensions to science--choice of a profession--visit to ,london--early publication--,south ,africa--investigation of its flora--appointed ,keeper of ,university ,herbarium1 ,dublin--,algology with ,mrs ,griffiths--,phycologia ,britannica--appointed to ,professorship--visit to ,america--lectures and travels--,nereis ,boreali-,americana--travels in the ,east--,australia--,new ,zealand--,fiji--return home--election to chair at ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin--,phycologia ,australica--marriage and death--,harvey's limitations--his reception of ,darwinism--personal characteristics4 ,among the many illustrious names that figure on the syllabus of the present course of lectures1 that of ,harvey is probably one of the less generally known4 ,this is due for the most part to the fact that the subject to which the greater portion of his energies was devoted--the systematic study of seaweeds--occupies a somewhat remote niche in the edifice of botany4 ,also many years of his life were spent in collecting in distant regions2 and his retiring disposition1 and comparatively early death1 contributed to the same result4 ,in the scientific world of his day he avoided publicity1 but laboured with indomitable zeal at his chosen subject1 leaving behind him a series of splendidly illustrated descriptive works4 ,for a glimpse of the man himself--his life1 his aims1 his thoughts--we have to rely almost entirely on a volume#ajg consisting mainly of letters written to relations and to family friends1 which was edited by his cousin1 ,mrs ,lydia ,fisher1 and published a few years after his death4 ,my indebtedness to this volume in what follows will be apparent4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xvii ,,william ,,henry ,,harvey ,william ,henry ,harvey came of the old ,quaker stock that has given to ,ireland several of her most enthusiastic naturalists4 ,to this group belong ,thomas ,wright of ,cork1 ,joseph ,wright of ,belfast1 ,greenwood ,pim of ,dublin2 all of whom1 immersed in affairs of business1 devoted their leisure hours to science1 and progressed far in the branches of zoology or botany to which they addressed themselves4 ,harvey's family belonged to ,youghal1 on the coast of ,co4 ,cork4 ,his father was a well-known merchant of ,limerick1 in which town he himself was born1 the youngest of eleven children1 just a hundred years ago--in ,february #ahaa4 ,even as a child1 his love of natural history made itself apparent1 and fortunately his schooling tended to foster this taste4 ,after a few years at ,newtown near ,waterford1 he went to the historic school of ,ballitore1 in the county of ,kildare4 ,these ,irish ,quaker schools have long favoured the teaching of science1 and ,ballitore at that time was no exception4 ,the head master was ,james ,white1 a keen naturalist1 and himself a writer on ,irish botany#ajh2 and probably the encouragement that young ,harvey received at ,ballitore had much to do with the shaping of his life4 ,at the age of fifteen1 we find him writing of his collection of butterflies and shells1 and already referring to the group in which he subsequently achieved his greatest fame3-- ,i also intend to study my favourite and useless class1 ,cryptogamia4 ,i think ,i hear thee say1 ,tut-tut6 ,but no matter4 ,to be useless1 various1 and abstruse1 is a sufficient recommendation of a science to make it pleasing to me4 ,i don't know how ,i shall ever find out the different genera of mosses4 ,lichens ,i think will be easy 7he little knew them67 but fungi ,i shall not attempt2 not at all from their difficulty1 but only because they are not easily preserved4 ,but do not say that the study of ,cryptogamia is useless4 ,remember that it was from the genus ,fucus that iodine was discovered4 ,another letter of this period1 written when he was sixteen1 contains so quaint a description of himself that ,i am tempted to quote from it3-- ,in person ,i am tall1 and in a good degree awkward4 ,i am silent1 and when ,i do speak say little1 particularly to people of whom ,i am afraid1 or with whom ,i am not intimate4 ,i care not for city sports1 or for the diversions of the country4 ,i am equally unknown to any healthful amusement of boys4 ,i cannot swim nor skate4 ,i know nothing of the delight of these1 and yet ,i can amuse myself and be quite happy1 seemingly without any one to share my happiness4 ,my botanical knowledge extends to about thirty of the commonest plants4 ,i am very fond of botany1 but ,i have not much opportunity of learning anything1 because ,i have only to show the plant to ,james ,white1 who tells me all about it1 which ,i forget the next minute4 ,my mineralogy embraces about twelve minerals1 of which ,i know only the names4 ,i am totally unacquainted with foreign shells1 and know only about two hundred and fifty native ones4 ,as to ornithology1 ,i have stuffed about thirteen birds4 ,in chemistry ,i read a few books1 and tried some experiments4 ,in lithography ,i broke a stone and a printing press4 ,these are my pretensions to science4 ,the reference to lithography is interesting1 in view of the fact that he became later on one of the most exquisite delineators of plants1 and with his own hand drew on stone the greater part of the splendid plates which enrich his works on ,phanerogams and ,algae4 ,in his confession of ignorance of sports and pastimes1 we already see the result of the want of robust health which followed him through life1 and brought about his premature death2 and in spite of which he performed such monumental work4 ,already ,harvey's mind was quite made up as to what line in life he would prefer4 ,he cannot hope1 he says1 to achieve success in commerce1 by buying cheap and selling dear4 ,as regards professions1 he is neither fit to be a doctor nor a lawyer1 lacking courage for the one1 and face for the other1 and application for both4444 ,all ,i have a taste for is natural history1 and that might possibly lead in days to come to a genus called ,harveya1 and the letters ,f4,l4,s4 after my name1 and with that ,i shall be content4444 ,the utmost extent of my ambition would be to get a professorship of natural history4 ,his parents had thought of placing the boy with an eminent chemist in ,london1 but his obvious antipathy to the prospect of city life led to his entering his father's office in ,limerick instead4 ,the quiet home life which ensued was well suited to his taste4 ,all holidays were devoted to collecting4 ,the family had a summer residence at ,miltown ,malbay1 on the ,atlantic coast1 an excellent spot for ,algae2 and it was no doubt the time spent there that brought these plants prominently under his notice1 and led to the noteworthy researches of later days4 ,for the time1 ,mollusca still mainly occupied his mind1 and in #ahbi1 at eighteen years of age1 we find him busily engaged in drawing the plates for a ,testacea ,hibernica--a book that never saw the light1 though two years later he writes of being at work on his ,bivalvia ,hibernica1 which was then half finished4 ,in the same year1 he made his first excursion into foreign parts as he calls them1 visiting ,dublin1 ,liverpool1 ,london1 ,edinburgh and ,glasgow4 ,an account of a meeting of the ,linnean ,society1 to which he was taken by his friend ,bicheno1 then secretary1 and at which if not edified ,i was amused1 shows that the reverence he felt for science did not necessarily extend to constituted scientific authority4 ,the ,president wore a three-cocked hat of ample dimensions1 and sat in a crimson arm-chair in great state4 ,i saw a number of new ,fellows admitted4 ,they were marched one by one to the president1 who rose1 and taking them by the hand1 admitted them4 ,the process costs #be4 ,in #ahca1 his finding at ,killarney of the beautiful moss ,hookeria laetevirens1 hitherto unknown in ,ireland1 led to the formation of one of the warmest and most valuable friendships of his life4 ,he forwarded specimens1 with a characteristic letter1 to ,w4 ,j4 ,hooker at ,glasgow1 and the kind and encouraging reply which he received led to further letters and eventually to an intimacy which seems to have been prized equally on both sides4 ,hooker recognized at once the extraordinary talent of the shy young man of twenty1 lent him books1 asked him to visit him1 and congratulated him on his critical faculty1 predicting for him a rapid advance to the top of algologists4 ,another life-long friendship made about this time was with ,mrs ,griffiths of ,torquay2 and he numbered ,greville and ,agardh among his earliest correspondents4 ,already he was deep in his life-task of comparing and describing plants1 working with the restless energy which characterised him4 ,i rise at five every morning1 he writes1 and work till breakfast1 examining or describing the ,algae for the ',british ,flora#aji4' ,if ,i do five species a day ,i think it good work4 ,this may seem slow1 but there is much to be compared and corrected6 for ,i differ from ,dr ,hooker on many species4 ,oh1 impudence6 oh1 presumption6 ,in #ahcb he undertook to do the ,algae for ,j4 ,t4 ,mackay's ,flora ,hibernica1 which was published three years later2 this was his most important contribution to the botany of his native land4 ,the death of his father in #ahcd broke up ,harvey's home life1 and his strong desire to study the vegetation of distant countries led to enquiries as to the obtaining of an appointment in the ,colonies4 ,new ,south ,wales was first thought of1 but it was for the ,cape that he started in the following year4 ,asa ,gray1 a friend of many years' standing1 tells1 in a notice of ,harvey in the ,american ,journal of ,science and ,arts#aaj1 a curious story as to the circumstances attending this momentous change in ,harvey's life4 ,the story is repeated in the notice of ,harvey in ,seemann's ,journal of ,botany#aaa1 though not mentioned in the ,memoir edited by his cousin4 ,it seems that1 as the result of ,harvey's representations1 he obtained through ,mr ,spring ,rice1 afterwards ,lord ,monteagle1 the post of ,treasurer at the ,cape2 but1 by an accident1 the appointment was made out in the name of an elder brother 7,joseph ,harvey72 and an inopportune change of ministry occurring just at the time1 frustrated all attempts at rectification4 ,be that as it may1 ,joseph ,harvey sailed for ,south ,africa in ,july #ahce1 taking his younger brother with him as assistant4 ,it was with high hopes that the naturalist started for the ,southern ,hemisphere4 ,at that time the flora of ,south ,africa was but slightly known4 ,about ,cape ,town itself and near other older centres of colonization1 indeed1 many plants had been collected1 both by ,dutch and ,english2 but vast tracts of mountain and veldt1 for a thousand miles to north and east1 were still unexplored4 ,he describes his excitement on landing1 and how1 after a sleepless night1 he started off for the hills early next morning1 to revel among strange ,ericas1 ,polygalas1 ,lobelias1 ,diosmas1 ,proteas1 and ,ixias4 ,he at once settled down to collecting with his usual method and energy4 ,from four or five until nine every morning he was at work on the mountains or on the shore2 after which several hours were devoted to preserving the material4 ,within a few weeks he was engaged on the description of new genera and species1 and in three months his herbarium contained #hjj species4 ,already schemes for organized work leading up to publication were in his mind2 and it seemed as if his task lay open before him2 but fate willed otherwise4 ,his brother fell ill within a few months of his arrival1 and a little later a return to ,europe was ordered--to no purpose1 as ,joseph ,harvey died on #bf ,april1 a fortnight after sailing1 and it was a sad home-coming which the naturalist1 who had accompanied the invalid1 experienced in the ,june following4 ,he started again for ,south ,africa a few weeks later1 to take up his brother's duties as ,colonial ,treasurer2 and remained there for three years1 when severe illness1 brought on by overwork1 compelled a return home4 ,but he came back1 and resumed his strenuous life1 spending his days in official duties and his nights at botany1 until1 in #ahdb1 a complete break-down forced him to resign his post1 and leave the country4 ,seven years of his life were thus devoted to ,south ,africa1 and1 in spite of the serious inroads on his time and energy caused by two tedious voyages home1 as well as by illness when at the ,cape1 a great amount of botanical work was accomplished4 ,he arranged with collectors for the supply of plants from various parts of the country2 he got the ,government interested in the native flora1 so that official papers were issued giving instructions for collecting and soliciting specimens2 and ,harvey himself devoted so much time to his hobby that he suggests that his title should be ,her ,majesty's ,pleasurer-,general1 instead of ,treasurer-,general4 ,every month brought its quota of undescribed plants4 ,almost every small package of specimens received from the ,natal1 or the ,transvaal district1 he writes#aab1 contains not only new species1 but new genera2 and some of the latter are of so marked and isolated a character1 as to lead us to infer in the same region the existence of unknown types that may better connect them with ,genera or ,orders already known4 ,to produce system in this chaos he compiled and published his ,genera of ,south ,african ,plants 7#ahch71 the forerunner of the larger works which constitute his principal memorial in the domain of ,phanerogamic ,botany4 ,but the uncongenial climate and the intense application were too great a strain on his health and he reached ,europe in #ahdb1 prostrated in both body and mind4 ,nevertheless1 the final year of his residence in ,africa saw the production of the first of the series of works on seaweeds by which his name will ever be best known4 ,his ,manual of ,british ,algae was issued by the ,ray ,society in #ahda1 its ,introduction dated at ,cape ,town1 ,october #ahdj--;a modest octavo volume1 characterized by the thoroughness which runs through all his work4 ,a period of convalescence and apathy followed his return1 in which he wandered about ,ireland1 doing some desultory botanizing2 after which he settled in his old home at ,limerick1 and again took up the uncongenial duties connected with the family business4 ,but soon a new prospect opened out4 ,the retirement of ,william ,allman left vacant the ,chair of ,botany in ,dublin ,university4 ,harvey had little hesitation in applying for the post1 to which1 he points out to a friend1 a moderate salary and comfortable ,college-rooms are attached4 ,it is an old bachelor place1 he writes1 and would in many ways suit me very well4 ,the only thing on the face of it disagreeable is the lecturing1 but ,i don't think ,i should mind that much1 as it is lawful to have the subjects for the class written down4 ,harvey's candidature was viewed favourably by the ,university authorities1 but a difficulty arose1 inasmuch as the ,school of ,physic ,act prescribed that the ,professor of ,botany should hold a medical degree1 or the licence of the ,college of ,physicians4 ,to render him eligible1 the degree of ,m4,d4 was at once conferred on ,harvey honoris causa1 but after a good deal of discussion this solution of the question was held to be inadmissible1 and ,george ,james ,allman was appointed to the vacant chair4 ,harvey1 however1 obtained the smaller appointment of ,keeper of the ,university ,herbarium1 which had fallen vacant at about the same time owing to the death of ,dr ,thomas ,coulter1 the botanical explorer of ,central ,mexico and ,california4 ,harvey now at last found himself in a congenial post1 with a fair amount of leisure1 and facilities for scientific work4 ,he presented his herbarium of over #aj1jjj species to the ,university1 which already possessed ,coulter's extensive ,american collections4 ,i am as busy as a bee these times1 he writes4 ,i rise at #e a4m4 or before it1 and work till breakfast-time 7half-past eight7 at the ',antarctic ,algae#aac4' ,directly after breakfast ,i start for the ,college1 and do not leave it till five o'clock in the evening4 ,again at plants till dusk4 ,i am writing on the ',antarctic ,algae1' and arranging the ,herbarium1 and have been working at ,coulter's ,mexican and ,californian plants4 ,college vacations were now usually spent at ,kew1 staying with his best friend ,sir ,william ,hooker1 and working hard in the ,herbarium4 ,on the way home from the first of these vacations1 he went to ,torquay1 to spend some time with his old correspondent1 ,mrs ,griffiths4 ,they went out boating1 he and the good lady of seventy-six years2 and together they visited the only ,british habitat of ,gigartina ,teedii1 six miles away1 and gathered that coveted sea-weed in the spot where ,mrs ,griffiths had discovered it in #ahaa1 the year in which ,harvey was born4 ,another very rare alga which he received about this time1 to his great delight1 was ,thuretia quercifolia from ,australia1 one of the most remarkable of sea-weeds1 bearing oakleaf-shaped red fronds1 formed of a beautiful lace-like double network with regular hexagonal openings1 which he was himself destined to collect in quantity some years later at ,port ,phillip1 and to figure in his ,phycologia ,australica#aad4 ,the circumstances under which this plant was found must have made ,harvey's mouth water4 ,my specimen1 he writes1 was picked up by a lady who accidentally landed for a few hours in a little harbour1 into which the ship put during a gale1 and she describes the shore as covered with the most wonderful profusion of plants and animals4 ,she got all the pocket handkerchiefs of the party and filled them with what came first to hand1 and in this hasty way picked up sixty different kinds of sponges1 forty of which are new species1 and several ,algae1 among which was the above described beauty4 ,her husband 7a captain7 is going out again1 and promises to gather all he can meet with4 ,don't ,i hope he may have a run in again in a squall6 ,harvey now commenced the publication of the first of his larger works on seaweeds--the classical ,phycologia ,britannica1 a series of #cfj coloured quarto plates1 drawn on stone by his own hand1 representing all the species then known to inhabit the ,british ,isles1 and accompanied by suitable letterpress3 the whole taking five years to complete4 ,this work represented an immense advance in the knowledge of ,british sea-weeds1 and1 by the beauty and excellence of its plates1 did much to popularize the study of these interesting plants4 ,in the following year he began his ,nereis ,australis1 or ,algae of the ,southern ,ocean4 ,this was the first fruits of a comprehensive scheme of publication1 which in its entirety was to form a compendious picture of the vegetation of the ocean1 the ,nereis ,australis being followed by a similar ,nereis ,tropica and ,nereis ,borealis2 but only a section of the scheme was carried out1 and publication stopped with the issue of #abj pages of letterpress and fifty coloured plates1 drawn as usual by ,harvey himself4 ,in #ahdi he issued ,the ,sea-side ,book1 a popular account of the natural history of the sea-shore1 which ran through several editions4 ,about this time he secured an additional appointment which1 while it added to his professional duties1 also increased his opportunities for research4 ,the ,royal ,dublin ,society1 founded in #agca for the improvement of husbandry1 manufactures1 and other useful arts and sciences1 and aided by considerable government funds1 had long since embarked on comprehensive schemes for the development of both science and art4 ,to its activity is due the foundation and building up of many of the leading educational institutions in ,dublin--the ,national ,museum1 the ,national ,library1 the ,botanic ,gardens at ,glasnevin1 the ,metropolitan ,school of ,art4 ,the ,society had established also professorships of zoology1 botany1 natural philosophy1 chemistry1 and so on4 ,in #ahdh the professorship of botany became vacant by the death of ,dr ,samuel ,litton1 and ,harvey applied for the post4 ,these appointments were made by the vote of the members at large1 and strongly against his inclination1 he had to enter on a personal canvass1 of some experiences of which he gives a half humourous1 half pathetic account in a letter to ,n4 ,b4 ,ward1 of ,wardian case fame1 who throughout life was one of his most regular correspondents4 ,the issue was satisfactory1 ,harvey being elected by a three-fourths majority4 ,this appointment placed him in control of the ,glasnevin ,botanic ,gardens1 of which ,dr ,david ,moore1 so well known by his work on the ,irish flora1 was curator4 ,it made him responsible besides for the delivery annually of courses of botanical lectures in ,dublin1 and also1 at intervals1 in selected towns in various parts of ,ireland4 ,in the spring of #ahdi ,harvey accepted an invitation from the ,smithsonian ,institution and ,harvard ,university to deliver twelve lectures on botany at the ,lowell ,institute at ,boston1 and others at ,washington4 ,the subject he chose for the ,boston course was a comprehensive survey of the plant-world1 from the point of view of the progressive organization of the vegetable entity4 ,the cryptogams had a place of honour1 four lectures being devoted to ,algae3 it is interesting to note that the ,fungi1 which he designates the most aristocratic of ,crypts--fruges consumere nati1 he placed immediately below the ,flowering ,plants1 for reasons which1 no doubt1 he gave in his discourses4 ,he sailed from ,liverpool in ,july4 ,ocean traffic had been revolutionized since his last voyage from the ,cape2 instead of a dawdling sailing-ship1 a steamer transported him in ten days to ,nova ,scotia2 and with some of the old excitement with which he had started on his first climb up ,table ,mountain1 he rambled away into the dark spruce woods1 through the rich undergrowth of ,kalmias1 ,ledums and ,andromedas1 with ,sarracenias and ,orchids rising from among the ,sphagnums in the damper spots4 ,he dredged and shore-collected also1 but the seaweed flora was not rich4 ,thence he passed to ,new ,york1 which he describes as like twenty ,birkenheads and a dozen ,liverpools1 with slices from ,london and ,paris1 all huddled together1 and painted bright red1 with green windows4 ,he visited ,niagara and ,quebec1 and then travelled to ,boston1 where he was welcomed by ,asa ,gray1 who was his host during his stay4 ,the lectures were well attended1 and ,harvey seems to have been satisfied with them and with the reception which they received2 a popular lecture on seaweeds at the ,franklin ,institute at ,providence was largely attended4 ,these discourses1 and the introductions and conversations that ensued1 had more than a passing interest1 as recruits were enrolled for alga-collecting1 who subsequently supplied valuable material for his work on ,north ,american seaweeds4 ,he saw all that was best of scientific society in ,boston and ,new ,york1 and met many of the great men of that generation--,agassiz1 ,bailey1 ,dana1 ,longfellow1 ,leidy1 ,pickering1 ,prescott1 ,silliman1 ,daniel ,webster1 ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes4 ,having fulfilled his engagements and revisited the family of his late brother ,jacob in ,new ,york1 he turned his face southward in ,january for a collecting tour along the ,atlantic sea-board4 ,after brief stays at ,wilmington and ,charleston1 where he did a little botanizing1 and sent to ,kew a box-full of ,dionaea1 he arrived by boat at ,key ,west one ,sunday midnight in pouring rain1 to spend the remaining hours of darkness in wandering about seeking a lodging4 ,but by morning his fortunes had mended1 and he spent a busy and pleasant month there1 collecting by day1 dodging mosquitos by night1 and living mainly upon turtle and roast turkey1 more ordinary foods being scarce4 ,he made large collections of ,algae1 almost every day bringing to him new and beautiful forms4 ,he had hoped to have the company of ,prof4 ,bailey on this trip1 but illness prevented this1 and he had to carry out his work alone4 ,march saw him back in ,charleston1 where he attended the annual meeting of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science4 ,then to ,washington1 where he delivered four lectures at the ,smithsonian ,institution4 ,at ,charleston he again met ,agassiz1 and once more records the profound impression which the ,american zoologist produced upon him4 ,his fine thought1 he writes1 of reforming the classifications of animals by a more intimate study of their young in the various stages from embryonic life to full development1 grows apace2 and if he lives to bring out his conception of a system based upon this1 it will not only crown his memory for ever1 but be the greatest step of the present age in zoological science4444 ,he is certainly a man of extraordinary genius1 great energy1 and with the most rapid inductive powers ,i have ever known4 ,i could not help saying to myself1 as ,i sat and listened1 ,well1 it is pleasant to be hearing all this1 as it is uttered1 and for the first time4 ,if one lives to be an old man1 one will have to say1 ',i remember to have heard ,agassiz say so and so1' and then every one will listen1 just as we should do to a person who had conversed with ,linnaeus or ,cuvier4 ,we must remember that this appreciation of ,agassiz's ideas was written nine years before the publication of ,darwin's ,origin of ,species1 and at a time when ,american men of science were much interested in a controversy as to whether mankind are all descended from ,adam and ,eve1 or from several separate creations in different parts of the world4 ,one of his last letters written on ,american soil contains a note on another subject1 significant in the light of subsequent events4 ,i have been twice at sittings of the ,senate1 and have heard a good sensible speech on the ,union question1 which is now agitating folk here4444 ,the bone of contention is ,slavery4 ,the spring of #ahej saw him once again settled in ,dublin1 with a great accumulation of work on hand4 ,part of the summer was spent in collecting ,algae on the coast of ,antrim2 and he met again his friends ,asa ,gray and his wife1 who were visiting ,europe4 ,another acquaintance made at this time1 which ripened into a warm friendship1 was the result of the finding by ,mrs ,alfred ,gatty1 well-known as a writer of fiction1 of the ,chrysymenia orcadensis of ,harvey at ,filey1 in fruit for the first time--the examination of which convinced ,harvey that the ,orkney plant was only a variety of ,chrysymenia rosea 7,lomentaria rosea ,thuret74 ,mrs ,gatty became a useful ally in the collecting of seaweeds1 and a valued friend2 ,harvey's influence is seen in her ,british ,seaweeds1 published in #ahfc4 ,the year #ahea saw the completion of the ,phycologia ,britannica1 and he at once set to work on his ,nereis ,boreali-,americana1 published in three parts in the ,smithsonian ,contributions to ,knowledge--a work of #eej quarto pages containing an account of all the known species of ,north ,american ,algae1 and #ej coloured plates1 lithographed as usual with his own hand--a fine piece of work1 and one which has not yet been superseded4 ,this was a time of strenuous labour1 for already he was planning a still more extended foreign tour2 but he found time in the autumn of #aheb for a trip to ,switzerland with ,sir ,william ,hooker and other friends4 ,in ,august1 #ahec1 ,harvey set out on the most extended scientific expedition of his life4 ,so far his collecting had been done in ,europe1 ,south ,africa1 and ,north ,america4 ,now he was to visit the ,indian ,ocean and ,australasia1 and to investigate their seaweed flora1 as yet but little known4 ,a short stay was made in ,egypt1 and a sea-shore ramble at ,aden yielded ,padina pavonia and a few other seaweeds1 but otherwise he made no stop till ,ceylon was reached4 ,there he travelled a good deal1 but seaweed collecting was not so successful as he had hoped4 ,some of the places explored proved unproductive1 and the prevalence of the monsoon rendered collecting difficult or impossible4 ,but the last three weeks1 spent at ,belligam ,bay and ,point de ,galle1 yielded excellent results1 and he proceeded to ,singapore en route for ,albany1 with a collection of about #ejjj specimens of ,algae4 ,the first work in ,australia was done in the extreme south-west4 ,here he gathered seaweeds assiduously in ,king ,george's ,sound1 but the ground proved rather poor1 though one welcome storm brought him a rich harvest1 of which he preserved #gjj specimens in one day4 ,he moved on to ,cape ,riche1 to the eastward1 travelling through the bush on foot1 and thus making intimate acquaintance with the interesting vegetation as well as the fauna of the district traversed4 ,cape ,riche proved poor also1 and he went northward to ,perth1 where he met ,james ,drummond1 the pioneer of ,west ,australian botany1 formerly of the ,botanic ,garden at ,cork1 and the discoverer of ,spiranthes ,romanzoffiana in the ,british ,islands4 ,at ,perth he struck good ground4 ,this place is an excellent locality for ,algae1 he writes1 ,i am daily finding fresh ones1 and have the prospect of a good harvest of novelty and interest4444 ,the days are too short for my work4 ,my best collections are made at ,garden ,island1 nine miles distant4 ,i have been twice landed for a two hours' walk1 and on both occasions collected so much that it took three days to lay them on paper4 ,rottnest ,island also proved highly productive1 and he gives a very attractive picture of the great rock-pools on the limestone reefs1 filled with brilliant seaweeds1 many of them undescribed4 ,here he lived in the deserted convict establishment1 and amassed a large and valuable collection4 ,thence he went to ,melbourne1 where he collected at several points about ,port ,phillip1 notably on ,phillip ,island2 after which he sailed for ,tasmania1 where at ,georgetown he had a month's successful work with the ,rev4 ,j4 ,fereday1 himself an enthusiastic student of botany1 seaweeds included4 ,passing through ,hobart1 he obtained permission to visit ,port ,arthur1 at that time a great convict station1 for which he sailed on ,march #a1 #ahee1 passing the grand basaltic headlands of ,cape ,raoul and ,cape ,pillar4 ,at ,port ,arthur amid exquisite natural surroundings marred by the presence of chained prisoners1 armed warders1 and sentry-lines of fierce dogs1 he worked successfully1 doing much shore-collecting1 and dredging with the aid of a crew of convicts and armed guards4 ,after a little rather unsuccessful collecting at ,sydney and ,newcastle he sailed for ,new ,zealand1 where he spent a few weeks at ,auckland4 ,while the terrestrial flora proved highly interesting to him1 he found the shore poor in ,algae2 but he enlisted a useful recruit for collecting1 in ,mr ,knight1 ,auditor-,general1 who undertook to collect and send him further material4 ,the #bfth ,july1 #ahea1 found him at ,tonga ,taboo1 in the ,friendly ,islands1 revelling in his first glimpse of nature in mid-,pacific4 ,the fringing reef proved somewhat disappointing1 for amid the multitudinous and many-coloured animal forms only a few green ,algae were to be found4 ,harvey spent six months in the ,pacific1 visiting island after island according as the mission boats supplied a means of transport1 collecting seaweeds and a good many marine animals4 ,at that time social conditions in the ,south ,seas were very different from what they are now4 ,the adjoining ,fiji ,island group1 for instance1 was still in a savage state3 the captain of the mission vessel told ,harvey how1 only four years before1 he had seen one hundred human bodies laid out for a great feast1 and cannibalism was still a habitual practice there2 but the ,friendly ,islands1 though but recently in a similar condition1 seem already to have deserved their name1 and ,harvey's experiences of the natives1 with whom he was much in contact1 appear to have been of the pleasantest description2 in ,fiji also1 where several weeks were spent1 the founding of a ,christian mission 7permitted only two years before after eighteen years' refusal7 had already greatly altered local practices2 devil-worship and cannibalism were rapidly dying out4 ,harvey1 applying at the mission station for a responsible guide1 was furnished with a man entitled ,koroe1 which1 it appeared1 was an honourable title something equivalent to a ,c4,b4 in ,england1 and bestowed only on a person who had committed at least five murders4 ,harvey returned to ,sydney1 and thence to ,europe by ,valparaiso and ,panama1 having a severe bout of fever on the way4 ,he reached home in ,october1 #ahef1 after an absence of over three years4 ,here an important change of life awaited him4 ,g4 ,j4 ,allman succeeded to the ,natural ,history chair in ,edinburgh1 rendered vacant by the death of ,edward ,forbes1 and ,harvey was elected to the chair in ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 the difficulties which led to his rejection twelve years earlier being not raised on this occasion1 though the law remained the same4 ,at the same time1 the incorporation of the several ,dublin ,society professorships in the newly founded ,museum of ,irish ,industry 7now the ,royal ,college of ,science for ,ireland71 gave him additional work1 as his post was converted into a ,natural ,history and ,economic chair4 ,however1 the considerable increase of lecturing and teaching thus brought upon him did not prevent his pushing on vigorously with the now large arrears of phycological work4 ,his first action was to finish and publish the third and last section of the ,nereis ,boreali-,americana and then bring to a conclusion his enumeration of the seaweed flora of ,north ,america4 ,this was accomplished in #aheh1 and in the same year he began the publication of the results of his work in ,australia4 ,the ,phycologia ,australica1 which was issued in parts during the ensuing five years1 ran to five volumes1 each containing sixty coloured plates1 and descriptions of all the species known from ,australasian waters4 ,in the year following the launching of this work1 he commenced the publication of two important treatises on the phanerogamic flora of ,south ,africa4 ,in the first of these1 the well-known ,flora ,capensis1 he had the co-operation of ,dr ,o4 ,w4 ,sonder of ,hamburg4 ,this extensive work he did not live to complete2 the third volume1 which ran as far as the end of the ,campanulaceae1 being published the year before his death4 ,the other work was his ,thesaurus ,capensis1 a series of plates of rare or interesting ,south ,african plants1 designed to supplement and illustrate the unillustrated ,flora2 of this he lived to issue only two volumes1 each containing one hundred plates4 ,harvey's home life1 which for several years had been very lonely1 was transformed in #ahfa1 when1 at the age of fifty1 he was married to ,miss ,phelps of ,limerick1 whom he had long known4 ,but almost immediately afterwards the shadow of death appeared1 haemorrhage from the lungs warning him that his newly found happiness might not endure4 ,after a summer spent at his favourite ,miltown ,malbay1 on the wild coast of ,clare1 he was able to resume his college duties and his work on ,flora ,capensis4 ,although he never fully recovered his health1 he laboured diligently at the works he had in hand4 ,he had a noble example of continued devotion to science in his old friend ,sir ,william ,hooker1 whom he again visited1 on returning from a tour on the ,continent1 in the autumn of #ahfc1 to find him1 in his seventy-ninth year1 finishing off the last volume of his ,species ,filicum1 and already beginning to nibble at another book4 ,this was a further work on ferns1 the ,synopsis ,filicum1 on which ,hooker was busily engaged until within a few days of his death in the summer of #ahfe2 it was completed by ,j4 ,g4 ,baker and published three years later4 ,during the winter of #ahfe1 ,harvey himself became seriously ill1 and1 an immediate change to a mild climate being recommended1 he and his wife went to stay at ,torquay with ,lady ,hooker1 and there he died on #aeth ,may1 #ahff4 ,harvey was only fifty-five years of age when he died1 but he had won for himself a foremost place among systematic botanists4 ,life1 as ,lubbock has said1 is measured by thought and action1 not by time2 and according to this standard1 ,harvey's life-cup was already full and running over4 ,he had used to the utmost the gifts which he possessed4 ,the capital with which he entered on his career comprised a critical eye1 a deft hand1 and that scientific enthusiasm without which no botanist ever travels far4 ,on the other side of the account1 he had two serious deterrents1 a rather delicate body1 and a complete absence of scientific training4 ,apropos of dissection1 he writes to ,hooker in his younger days1 ,i am a miserable manipulator1 and should be very grateful for a few lessons4 ,from the beginning he had a shrewd perception of what lay within his reach1 and what was beyond it4 ,the extent to which ,i mean to go in botany1 he wrote at twenty-one years1 is to know ,british plants of all kinds as well as possible2 to know ,algae of all countries specially well2 to collect all foreign ,cryptogamia that may fall in my way1 and to know them moderately well4444 ,my reason for choosing the ,algae is pure compassion2 they being sadly neglected by the present generation1 though at a former time they were in high favour4 ,in the letters written even in boyhood we see foreshadowed the direction and extent of his future researches4 ,exactly what he determined in youth to accomplish1 says ,dr ,john ,todhunter in his ,preface to ,harvey's ,memoir1 he accomplished2 the work which he took upon himself to do he did1 honestly and thoroughly2 the fame which he desired to achieve1 he achieved4 ,he saw that his strength lay in discrimination1 description1 and illustration1 and to these--the necessary census task which forms the groundwork on which great theories may be built up--he confined himself4 ,the latter years of his life fell within that stimulating period which followed the publication of ,darwin's ,origin of ,species4 ,but in the battle of giants which ensued he took no part4 ,his attitude1 indeed1 was rather that of an amused spectator2 and in the letters which are available1 his references to the great controversy of the day1 and allied topics1 are mostly in a playful vein4 ,i do not know how cats purr1 he writes to his friend ,mrs ,gatty1 and am glad you asked4444 ,have you never felt a something stop your own windpipe when pleased or grieved1 when suddenly affected either way8 ',tis the first gurgle of a purr2 you were a cat once1 away in the ages1 and this is a part of the remains4 ,almost his only contribution to the literature of natural selection was a serio-comic squib1 which was read before the ,dublin ,university ,zoological and ,botanical ,association on #ag ,february1 #ahfj and subsequently printed for private circulation1 entitled ,a ,guess as to the ,probable ,origin of the ,human ,animal considered by the light of ,mr ,darwin's ,theory of ,natural ,selection1 and in opposition to ,lamarck's notion of a ,monkey ,parentage4 ,darwin thought this production a little unworthy of the author4 ,i am not sorry for a natural opportunity of writing to ,harvey1 he says1 just to show that ,i was not piqued at his turning me and my book into ridicule1 not that ,i think it was a proceeding that ,i deserved1 or worthy of him#aae4 ,similarly1 ,harvey rejoices over ,charles ,kingsley's ,water ,babies1 and especially over the sly fun which is poked at ,darwinism1 and also at certain types of men of science4 ,only once did he enter the lists with a serious criticism1 when1 in the ,gardeners' ,chronicle#aaf1 he cites the case of a monstrous ,begonia in objection to ,darwin's views4 ,harvey1 indeed1 did not like the new theory4 ,i am fully disposed to admit natural selection as a vera causa of much change1 he writes1 but not as the vera causa of species4 ,further than this he could not go1 though much impressed with the arguments drawn from geographical distribution4 ,i heartily wish we were nearer in accord1 writes ,darwin at the end of a long letter to ,harvey1 but we must remain content to be as wide asunder as the poles1 but without1 thank ,god1 any malice or other ill-feeling#aag4 ,thus it will be seen that ,harvey took but little part in influencing the thought of his time2 the materials for his work were gathered not from his own creative brain1 nor from the thoughts of other men1 but direct from ,nature's storehouses2 his study was the far-stretching shore1 his companions ,the toiling surges1 ,laden with sea-weed from the rocks1 his duty the describing with pen and pencil the harvest of the sea4 ,in his works1 he rises above mere technical description of the species with which he is dealing4 ,his mind is filled with the beauty and wonder of plants2 and he strives to impress the reader with the deep interest of the study of botany4 ,he endeavours always to popularize his favourite pursuit by means of pleasant general introductions1 and to promote a better knowledge of seaweeds or of flowering plants by appealing to his readers to collect1 and by giving instructions for the gathering and preserving of specimens4 ,he derived a peculiar satisfaction from the thought that1 at his post at ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 he was building up a great permanent collection that would be useful to future generations of botanists4 ,here1 he writes1 ,i sit like a turnspit roasting the meat1 and when ,i am gone ,i suppose another dog will be put in my place4 ,the ,herbarium will not be broken up4 ,i am content1 for ,i seem to be working for some little purpose4 ,i should just like to leave it in better order--to get through the arrears--and to return borrowed specimens4 ,it was the same thought that prompted him to the publication of the great descriptive works which his rapidity and skill with pen and pencil enabled him to complete despite frequent intervals of illness4 ,he devoted himself to his task with intense application4 ,twenty minutes1 he writes from ,south ,africa in the middle of the stifling summer1 is my fair allowance for a drawing1 with all its microscopical analysis4 ,from his letters1 and from the reminiscences of persons who remember him1 one gathers that ,harvey was a very lovable sort of man4 ,shy and retiring1 and diffident as to his own powers1 with a deeply affectionate nature1 he was equally prone to singing the praises of his friends1 and to disparaging himself4 ,if ,i lean to glorify any one1 he writes to ,william ,thompson of ,belfast1 it is ,mrs ,griffiths1 to whom ,i owe much of the little acquaintance ,i have with the variations to which these plants the seaweeds are subject1 and who is always ready to supply me with fruits of plants which every one else finds barren4 ,she is worth ten thousand other collectors4 ,writing of ,harveya1 a genus of ,south ,african ,scrophularineae which ,hooker had just named in his honour1 he comments1 ',tis apropos to give me a genus of ,parasites1 as ,i am one of those weak characters that draw their pleasures from others1 and their support and sustenance too1 seeing ,i quickly pine1 if ,i have not some one to torment4 ,he in his turn loved to commemorate his friends1 or others in whom he felt an interest1 by naming after them new genera of plants--,apjohnia1 ,areschougia1 ,ballia1 ,backhousia1 ,bellotia1 ,bowerbankia1 ,drummondita1 ,curdiea1 ,greyia1 ,mackaya1 and many others4 ,the names of some of his favourite authors are similarly enshrined1 as ,crabbea1 ,evelyna4 ,indeed1 when at ,niagara he saw an inscription to a young lady who fell over the cliff when gathering flowers-- ,miss ,ruggs at the age of twenty-three ,was launched into eternity1 he comments ,poor thing6 ,i must call a plant after her--,ruggia would sound well4 ,he had indeed a love of all living things4 ,writing to ,mrs ,gray on the death of her favourite dog1 he tells how he felt so ashamed of being so deeply moved when in ,south ,africa by the death of his pet ostrich1 that he foreswore any similar entanglement1 and kept his vow ever since4 ,of serious griefs he had many2 the death of several beloved brothers and sisters who predeceased him1 would have been well nigh intolerable to him but for the profound religious feeling which sustained and helped him throughout life1 and which robbed death of all its terrors4 ,i cannot do better than conclude with some words in which ,asa ,gray summed up ,harvey's work and character shortly after his decease#aah3 ,he was a keen observer and a capital describer4 ,he investigated accurately1 worked easily and readily with microscope1 pencil1 and pen1 wrote perspicuously1 and where the subject permitted1 with captivating grace2 affording1 in his lighter productions1 mere glimpses of the warm and poetical imagination1 delicate humour1 refined feeling1 and sincere goodness which were charmingly revealed in intimate intercourse and correspondence1 and which won the admiration and the love of all who knew him well4 ,handsome in person1 gentle and fascinating in manners1 genial and warm-hearted but of very retiring disposition1 simple in his tastes and unaffectedly devout1 it is not surprising that he attracted friends wherever he went1 so that his death will be sensibly felt on every continent and in the islands of the sea4 ,,footnotes3 #ajg ,memoir of ,w4 ,h4 ,harvey1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 with selections from his journal and correspondence4 ,london1 #ahfi4 #ajh ,an essay on the indigenous grasses of ,ireland4 #hvo4 ,dublin1 #ahjh4 #aji ,published as ,vol4 ,v41 ,part #a1 of ,smith's ,english ,flora4 #aaj ,vol4 ,,xlii4 p4 #bgd1 #ahff4 #aaa ,vol4 ,,iv4 p4 #bcf1 #ahff4 #aab ,flora ,capensis1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #h4 #aac ,the algae of ,beechey's ,voyage4 #aad ,vol4 ,i41 plate ,,xl4 #aae ,darwin's ,life and ,letters1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #cad4 #aaf ,for #ahfj1 pp4 #ade-adf4 #aag ,more ,letters of ,charles ,darwin1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #aff4 #aah ,american ,journal of ,science and ,arts1 ,vol4 ,,xlii4 p4 #bgg4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xviii ,,miles ,,joseph ,,berkeley ,,miles ,,joseph ,,berkeley #ahjc-ahhi ,,by ,,george ,,massee ,narrative--early interest in ,natural ,history--,zoological publications--,algae--,fungi--character and magnitude of ,berkeley's work in systematic ,mycology--exotic fungi--co-operation with ,broome--morphology of ,basidiomycetes--,introduction to ,cryptogamic ,botany--pioneer work in plant pathology--the potato disease--personal characteristics4 ,miles ,joseph ,berkeley was born at ,biggin ,hall1 near ,oundle1 ,northamptonshire1 on the #ast ,april1 #ahjc4 ,he was the second son of ,charles ,berkeley1 whose wife was a sister of ,p4 ,g4 ,munn1 the well-known water-colour artist4 ,his family belonged to the ,spetchley branch of the ,berkeleys1 and had been resident for several generations in ,northamptonshire4 ,berkeley received his preliminary education at the ,oundle ,grammar ,school and afterwards at ,rugby1 entered ,christ's ,college1 ,cambridge1 in #ahba1 and graduated as #eth ,senior ,optime in #ahbe4 ,he was ordained in #ahbf1 and his first clerical duty was the curacy of ,st ,john's1 ,margate4 ,in #ahcc he became ,perpetual ,curate of ,apethorpe and ,wood ,newton1 ,northamptonshire1 and resided at the neighbouring village of ,king's ,cliffe1 a name familiar to every mycologist as being the habitat of numerous species of fungi1 first recorded as members of the ,british ,flora4 ,in #ahfh he was appointed ,vicar of ,sibbertoft1 near ,market ,harborough1 where he died on the #cjth ,july1 #ahhi1 at the age of #hf years4 ,as a boy ,berkeley was much devoted to the study of nature1 paying special attention to the structure and habits of animals2 he also at an early age made a somewhat extensive conchological collection4 ,this tendency was to some extent fostered at ,rugby1 but the influence exercised by ,professor ,henslow during ,berkeley's time at ,cambridge1 and the opportunities of studying the progress of research made in the various branches of ,natural ,history1 were the chief factors that determined ,berkeley to enter seriously on the study of what at the time was styled ,natural ,history4 ,his first published paper was ,on new species of ,modiola and ,serpula 7,zoological ,journal1 #ahbh74 ,it was followed by ,on the internal structure of ,helicolimax ,lamarckii2 ,on ,dentalium subulatum2 ,on the animals of ,voluta and ,assiminia 7idem #ahcb-cd72 and ,on ,british ,serpulae and ,dreissenia polymorpha 7,magazine of ,natural ,history1 #ahcd-cf74 ,a series of beautifully executed coloured drawings and dissections1 illustrating ,berkeley's zoological studies1 may be seen at the ,herbarium1 ,kew4 ,although all ,berkeley's publications up to this time dealt with zoological subjects1 yet the study of ,botany had been by no means neglected1 and about this time having made the acquaintance of ,dr ,harvey of ,dublin1 ,dr ,greville of ,edinburgh1 the author of ,scottish ,cryptogamic ,flora1 and of ,captain ,carmichael of ,appin1 ,n4,b41 a trio of the most celebrated cryptogamists of the age1 ,berkeley forsook the serious study of zoological subjects1 and devoted the whole of his leisure time to the lower forms of plant life4 ,living at ,margate1 the marine algae naturally attracted ,berkeley's attention1 and in #ahcc he published his ,gleanings of ,british ,algae1 consisting of a series of detailed investigations on the structure of the minute and obscure forms of marine and fresh-water species4 ,this work1 illustrated by twenty coloured plates1 was originally intended to be included in the supplement to ,dr ,greville's ,scottish ,cryptogamic ,flora1 but in consequence of the discontinuance of that most excellent work1 was issued as an independent booklet4 ,from the first ,berkeley was deeply interested in the fungi1 and practically all his subsequent work was devoted to this group of plants1 and although well versed in general ,cryptogamic ,botany1 it was in the field of ,mycology that his laurels were won4 ,a review of the work done can be most conveniently discussed under three separate headings--,systematic ,mycology1 ,morphology and ,literature1 and ,plant ,pathology1 respectively4 ,systematic ,mycology4 ,under the title ,british ,fungi1 four fascicles of dried and well-prepared specimens1 numbering in all #cej species1 were issued between #ahcf and #ahdc4 ,in those days exsiccat were not issued from a commercial standpoint1 as is too frequently the case at the present day1 but represented the outcome of careful investigation on the part of the author1 hence ,berkeley's exsiccat are at a premium at the present day4 ,in #ahbh ,berkeley first corresponded with ,sir ,w4 ,j4 ,hooker on matters dealing with cryptogams1 and in one of his early letters stated that he had devoted much time to the study of fungi1 more especially to the extensive genus ,agaricus1 which at that period included all the gill-bearing fungi4 ,at this time1 ,sir ,william was engaged in preparing the volumes dealing with cryptogams1 as supplementary to ,the ,english ,flora of ,sir ,james ,edward ,smith1 and approached ,berkeley on the subject of undertaking the section dealing with ,agarics1 in the volume devoted to the fungi4 ,berkeley agreed to this arrangement1 and was finally induced to describe the whole of the fungi4 ,a footnote at the commencement of the volume by ,sir ,w4 ,j4 ,hooker is as follows3 ,when the printing of the species of this1 the #bnd ,part of the ,class ,cryptogamia1 was commenced1 ,i thought myself highly fortunate to have obtained the assistance of my valued friend1 the ,rev4 ,m4 ,j4 ,berkeley1 in preparing the first ,tribe1 ,pileati4 ,i have now to express my cordial acknowledgements 7in which ,i am satisfied ,i shall be joined by every ,botanist in the country7 to that gentleman for having kindly undertaken to prepare the whole of this vast family for the press3 and it is certain that the task could not have fallen into better hands4 ,the volume contains detailed descriptions of all ,british fungi known at the time1 amounting to #acfj species1 included in #aee genera1 the great majority of which had been studied by the author in a living condition1 and also compared with specimens contained in various exsiccat and with the very extensive collection owned by ,sir ,w4 ,j4 ,hooker4 ,the appearance of this book at once placed ,berkeley in the front rank of ,mycologists1 and it was universally admitted as the most complete ,mycologic ,flora of any country extant2 and furthermore1 so far as accurate information1 and a true sense of the conception of species are concerned1 the same statement holds good at the present day4 ,at this date our knowledge of extra-,european fungi was almost nil1 with the exception of a few woody cosmopolitan species collected by various travellers1 more as matters of curiosity than for the advancement of our knowledge of the fungus-flora of the world4 ,opportunity alone was required by ,berkeley1 and such opportunity was readily afforded by ,sir ,w4 ,j4 ,hooker1 who placed unreservedly in ,berkeley's hands the various collections of exotic fungi received at ,kew from time to time4 ,this practice was continued by the two succeeding ,directors at ,kew1 ,sir ,joseph ,dalton ,hooker and ,sir ,william ,thiselton-,dyer4 ,such unrivalled opportunities were utilised to the fullest extent by ,berkeley1 who soon manifested by his treatment of the material placed in his hands a thorough grasp of the subject1 and for nearly half a century practically all collections of exotic fungi passed through ,berkeley's hands4 ,during this period #fjjj new species were described1 and in numerous instances illustrated1 including many new genera from all parts of the world1 arctic1 antarctic1 tropical and temperate4 ,botanists were now enabled1 for the first time1 to grasp the true significance of the fungus-flora of the world1 which numerically ranks next to ,phanerogams1 and which was shown to exercise an influence on life on the globe in general1 not realised before ,berkeley's time4 ,the better known ,european genera of fungi1 many of which appeared to be sharply defined1 and by some mycologists considered to be of ordinal importance1 could now be estimated at their true value and relegated to their true position in the scheme of classification rendered possible by a good knowledge of the range of structure presented by the fungi of the world at large4 ,as regards geographical distribution1 ,berkeley repeatedly emphasized the fact that the fungi are more cosmopolitan than any other known group of plants1 and that their abundance at any place during a given period was almost entirely dependent on conditions favouring the development of the higher forms of plant life1 fungi only following in the wake of such1 and never posing as pioneers1 on account of the nature of their food4 ,amongst the numerous novel types of extra-,european fungi described by ,berkeley1 it is somewhat difficult to indicate briefly even a few of the most striking forms4 ,perhaps his genus ,broomeia stands out pre-eminent4 ,it belongs to the puffball group of fungi1 and is unique in that family--the ,gasteromycetaceae--in having numerous individuals springing from1 and imbedded in a common sterile base or stroma4 ,it is a native of the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,the following is ,berkeley's dedication of this genus to his friend and co-worker1 ,c4 ,e4 ,broome1 ,m4,a41 of ,bath4 ,nomen dedi in honorem amicissimi1 ,c4 ,e4 ,broome1 armigeri1 ,tuberacearum ,anglicarum accuratissimi indagatoris1 cujus pene solius laboribus extant hodie viginti species indigenae fungorum hypogaeorum4 ,broomeia congregata ,berk41 is described and figured in ,hooker's ,london ,journal of ,botany1 #ahdd4 ,certain club-shaped fungi parasitic on caterpillars1 belonging to the genus ,cordyceps1 occurring on buried caterpillars in ,new ,zealand1 are the giants of their tribe1 measuring up to eighteen inches in length4 ,finally1 ,berkeley first introduced to our notice many of those quaint fungi belonging to the group including our well known stinkhorn--,phallus impudicus ,l4--and cleared up many points in their structure previously unknown4 ,fries1 the most distinguished mycologist of his time1 writes as follows in his ,preface to ,hymenomycetes ,europaei2 ,desideratissima vero ,synopsis ,hymenomycetum extra-europearum1 qualem solus praestere valebit ,rev4 ,berkeley4 ,notwithstanding ,berkeley's researches on exotic fungi1 a task in itself too comprehensive for most men to grapple with1 he continued to study the ,british fungi1 and1 mostly in collaboration with his friend1 ,mr ,c4 ,e4 ,broome1 published a long series of articles in the ,annals and ,magazine of ,natural ,history1 from #ahcg down to the year #ahhc4 ,in these articles #bjbg species of fungi are enumerated1 mostly new1 or species new to ,britain1 and consist mainly of critical notes on the morphology and affinities of the fungi under consideration1 and will compel the attention of mycologists for all time4 ,from the above brief account it may perhaps be concluded that ,berkeley was essentially a systematist and founder of new species4 ,owing to the vast amount of material that passed through his hands1 he was so perforce1 but his leaning was always rather towards the biological and morphological side of the subject4 ,morphology and ,literature4 ,the first important paper dealing with the morphology of the hymenial structure in ,fungi1 is entitled1 ,on the ,fructification of the ,pileate and ,clavate ,tribes of the ,hymenomycetous ,fungi1 ,annals of ,nat4 ,hist41 #ahch4 ,here is clearly demonstrated for the first time1 the universal occurrence of basidia bearing spores at their summit1 throughout the entire group of fungi known to-day as the ,hymenomycetes1 including ,agaricaceae1 ,thelephoraceae1 ,clavariaceae1 etc4 ,this important discovery rendered possible the basis of a classification on morphological grounds1 which holds good at the present day4 ,a careful study of the text and illustrations demonstrates the fact that ,berkeley was perfectly well acquainted with all the essential details of the hymenium1 many of which have been repeatedly rediscovered and described under new names1 in ignorance of the fact that such structures had previously been equally well described4 ,berkeley continued his investigations on the structure of the hymenium1 and his next paper1 entitled ,sur la fructification des genres ,lycoperdon1 ,phallus et de quelques autres genres voisins1 in ,annal4 ,sci4 ,nat4 ,ser4 #b1 vol4 ,,xii4 7#ahci71 demonstrated the universal presence of basidia bearing spores at their summit in the family now known as the ,gasteromycetes4 ,this research on the part of ,berkeley led to the universal adoption of the two primary divisions of the ,fungi2 ,basidiomycetes1 having the spores borne at the apex of a basidium2 and ,ascomycetes1 having the spores produced within specialised sacs1 or asci4 ,in #aheg the ,introduction to ,cryptogamic ,botany appeared1 which remained for many years the standard work on the subject4 ,this was followed in #ahfj by ,outlines of ,british ,mycology1 a book profusely illustrated with coloured plates1 and intended more especially for the beginner in the study of ,mycology4 ,just over #djj separate papers dealing with fungi are listed under ,berkeley's name alone1 in addition to numerous others1 where he worked in collaboration with ,c4 ,e4 ,broome1 ,dr ,m4 ,c4 ,cooke1 ,rev4 ,m4 ,a4 ,curtis1 and others4 ,plant ,pathology4 ,at the present day ,berkeley is best known as a systematist1 which of itself alone is sufficient to retain his name for all time in the front rank of mycologists1 but when the history of ,plant ,pathology is elaborated1 ,berkeley's name will undoubtedly stand out more prominently than that of any other individual4 ,in fact1 it is not saying too much to pronounce ,berkeley as the originator and founder of ,plant ,pathology4 ,he was not the first to investigate plant diseases caused by fungi1 but he was undoubtedly the first to recognise the significance of the subject1 and its great importance from an economic standpoint4 ,his investigation of the potato murrain1 written in #ahdf1 cleared the air of all kinds of wild theories as to its origin1 and showed it to be undoubtedly caused by the fungus now known as ,phytophthora infestans1 whose life-history he carefully worked out4 ,then followed a similar investigation of the vine-mildew1 and a series of researches on diseases of plants published in the ,gardeners' ,chronicle dating from #ahed to #ahhj4 ,it was in these numerous communications that the science of ,plant ,pathology was firmly established and propounded4 ,the article ,on the ,diseases of ,plants was contributed to the ,cyclopaedia of ,agriculture by ,berkeley4 ,in #ahgi he unconditionally presented his mycological herbarium to ,kew4 ,this collection contained #aj1jjj species1 of which #ejjj were types of ,berkeley's own species1 in addition to numerous co-types from ,montagne1 ,schweinitz1 ,fries1 ,cooke and other contemporaneous mycologists4 ,hence ,kew is1 and must for ever remain1 the ,mecca of mycologists from all parts of the world4 ,berkeley was a man of great refinement1 and an excellent classical scholar4 ,his tall commanding figure and grand head with flowing white hair1 as ,i knew him late in life1 could not fail to arrest attention4 ,unobtrusive and by no means ambitious1 and too enthusiastic to be self-seeking1 ,berkeley was tardily promoted to the ,honorary ,fellowship of his ,college1 and elected a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society at the age of #gf4 ,in #ahgf a ,civil ,list ,pension of #ajj per annum was awarded1 for his services to botany with especial reference to his investigations on the diseases of plants4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xix ,,joseph ,,henry ,,gilbert ,,sir ,,joseph ,,henry ,,gilbert #ahag-aija ,,by ,w4 ,b4 ,,bottomley ,early training in ,chemistry--his meeting with ,lawes--official distinctions--the ,lawes-,gilbert combination--the ,rothamsted ,reports--,liebig's 'mineral theory'--the relation to nitrogen--,leguminous plants--,hellriegel and others--confirmation of their results--nitrification--feeding of stock4 ,joseph ,henry ,gilbert was born at ,hull on ,august #a1 #ahag4 ,he was a son of the manse being the second son of the ,rev4 ,joseph ,gilbert1 a ,congregational ,minister4 ,his mother was one of the gifted daughters of the ,rev4 ,isaac ,taylor of ,ongar1 and a well-known writer of hymns and songs for children4 ,whilst at school young ,gilbert had the misfortune to meet with a gunshot accident which deprived him of the use of one eye1 a mishap which for a time threatened to mar his future career1 but his own inherent determination and the home-training of the manse enabled him to overcome the disadvantage of defective eye-sight1 and triumph over physical disability4 ,from school he went to ,glasgow ,university and studied chemistry under ,professor ,thomas ,thomson1 then to ,university ,college1 ,london1 where he attended the classes of ,professor ,graham and others1 and worked in the laboratory of ,professor ,todd ,thomson4 ,here it was1 in ,dr ,thomson's laboratory1 that he first met ,mr ,j4 ,b4 ,lawes1 with whom he was afterwards so intimately associated4 ,he then proceeded to ,giessen for a short time1 studying under ,liebig and taking his degree of ,doctor of ,philosophy in #ahdj4 ,returning to ,london1 he worked at ,university ,college1 acting as laboratory assistant to ,professor ,thomson1 and became a ,fellow of the ,chemical ,society on ,may #ah1 #ahda1 when the ,society was barely three months old4 ,he then left ,london to take up calico printing and dyeing in the neighbourhood of ,manchester1 but returned south in #ahdc1 at the invitation of ,mr ,lawes1 to assist in the agricultural investigations at ,rothamsted1 ,herts4 ,mr ,john ,lawes had begun experiments in #ahcg on growing plants in pots with various manures4 ,he discovered the fact that mineral phosphates when treated with sulphuric acid yielded a most effective manure4 ,taking out his patent for the production of superphosphates in #ahdb1 ,lawes soon found himself busy with the establishment of a successful business4 ,not wishing to give up the agricultural investigations which he had commenced in the fields of ,rothamsted he decided to obtain scientific assistance1 and remembering the young chemist he had met in ,dr ,thomson's laboratory1 ,gilbert was invited in ,june #ahdc to superintend the ,rothamsted experiments4 ,thus began that partnership in investigation which has yielded such a rich harvest of results1 and an association with ,rothamsted which lasted for fifty-eight years4 ,gilbert was elected a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society in #ahfj1 and received a ,royal ,medal in #ahfg4 ,he was ,president of the ,chemical ,section of the ,british ,association in #ahhj1 and ,president of the ,chemical ,society1 #ahhb-c4 ,in #ahhd he was appointed ,sibthorpian ,professor of ,rural ,economy at ,oxford1 and held the chair until #ahij4 ,he was a member of various foreign academies and societies1 and was the recipient of honorary degrees from several home universities1 becoming ,,ll4,d4 of ,glasgow 7#ahhc71 ,m4,a4 of ,oxford 7#ahhd71 ,,ll4,d4 of ,edinburgh 7#ahij71 and ,sc4,d4 of ,cambridge 7#ahid74 ,in #ahic on the occasion of the jubilee of the ,rothamsted experiments he received the honour of knighthood4 ,the character and scope of ,gilbert's life-work was well described by ,prof4 ,dewar at a special meeting of the ,chemical ,society in #ahih1 when he said1 ,the work of ,gilbert1 as we know1 was early differentiated into that most complex and mysterious study1 the study of organic life4 ,for the last fifty years he has devoted his attention to the physiology of plant life in every phase of its development4 ,with a skill that has been unprecedented1 he has recorded from year to year the variations in the growth of every kind of nutritious plant4 ,he has examined into the meteorological conditions1 the variations of climate1 of soil1 and of mineral agents1 of drainage1 and of every conceivable thing affecting the production and development of plant growth4 ,these memoirs are admitted throughout the world to be unique in their importance4 ,wherever the chemist or the physiologist1 the statistician or the economist has to deal with these problems1 he must turn to the results of the ,rothamsted experiments in order to understand the position of the science of our time4 ,these results will be for ever memorable2 they are unique and characteristic of the indomitable perseverance and energy of our venerated ,president1 ,sir ,henry ,gilbert4 ,the close association of ,lawes and ,gilbert in the ,rothamsted experiments makes it almost impossible to separate the work of the two men4 ,the majority of the #acb papers issued from ,rothamsted between #ahdc and #aija appeared under the joint names of ,lawes and ,gilbert1 and it would be as difficult as it is undesirable to attempt an analysis of this partnership4 ,it was essentially a partnership devoid of any jealousy1 and actuated by a feeling of mutual regard and esteem4 ,there never was a question as to the predominant partner4 ,the two workers formed an unique combination1 each supplying some deficiency in the other4 ,lawes possessed the originating mind and had a thorough knowledge of the facts and needs of practical agriculture2 ,gilbert was the exact scientist1 the man of detail and method4 ,dr ,j4 ,a4 ,voelcker1 who speaks of ,gilbert as his life-long friend and teacher1 says1 ,the partnership and collaboration of ',lawes and ,gilbert' represented an excellent embodiment of the motto ',practice with ,science4' ,lawes was essentially the practical agriculturist--quick to see and grasp what the farmer wanted1 and to become the interpreter to him4 ,he was the man to whom the practical farmer turned1 the one to write a brisk article on some subject of agricultural practice or economy1 to answer a practical question1 or to solve some knotty problem4 ,lawes was the more versatile of the two1 the more inclined to introduce changes in and modifications of the original plan2 and he has been known to say1 jokingly1 that if he had been left to have his own way1 he would have ploughed up many of his experimental plots before they had yielded the full results1 which continuance on the old lines alone brought out4 ,gilbert1 on the other hand1 was possessed of indomitable perseverance1 combined with extreme patience and careful watching of results4 ,his was the power of forecasting1 as it were1 what might1 in the end1 lead to useful results4 ,with the determination to carry out an experiment to the very close he united scrupulous accuracy and attention to detail4 ,gilbert1 it may be said1 was not so much the man for the farmer1 but for the scientist1 and he it was who gave scientific expression to the work at ,rothamsted1 and who established field experiments on a scientific basis in this country4 ,to describe in detail ,gilbert's work it would be necessary to write an account of the ,rothamsted experiments1 a task beyond our present limits seeing that the collected reports occupy nine volumes4 ,the last published ,rothamsted ,memoranda gives a list of #acb papers4 ,they are divided into two series1 one relating to plants1 the other to animals4 ,series ,i4 deals with ,reports of ,field ,experiments1 ,experiments on ,vegetation1 c41 published #ahdg-aijj inclusive1 and contains #aja papers4 ,these reports on plants are concerned chiefly with the results obtained by growing some of the most important crops of rotation separately1 year after year1 for many years in succession1 on the same land without manure1 with farm-yard manure1 and with various chemical manures1 the same description of manure being1 as a rule1 applied year after year on the same plot4 ,amongst the numerous field experiments conducted on these lines one of the most interesting is the field known as ,broadbalk field1 in which wheat has been grown continuously for over #fj years4 ,the results show that wheat can be grown for many years in succession on ordinary arable land if suitable manure be provided and the land be kept clean4 ,even without manure of any kind the average produce for #df years--#aheb to #ahig--was nearly #ac bushels per acre1 about the average yield per acre of the wheat lands of the world4 ,on this field it was found that mineral manures alone gave very little increase1 whilst nitrogenous manures alone gave a much greater increase than mineral manures alone1 but the mixture of the two gave much more than either alone4 ,it is estimated that the reduction in yield1 due to exhaustion1 of the unmanured plot over #dj years--#aheb to #ahia--was1 provided it had been uniform throughout1 equivalent to a decline of one-sixth of a bushel per acre4 ,it is related that a visitor from ,america1 when being shown over the ,broadbalk field1 said to ,sir ,john ,lawes1 ,americans have learnt more from this field than from any other agricultural experiment in the world4 ,another set of field experiments of exceptional interest is that relating to the ,mixed ,herbage of ,permanent ,grass ,land4 ,the land was divided into twenty plots4 ,two plots have received no manure from the commencement of the experiment1 two have received a dressing of farm-yard manure each year1 whilst the remainder have each received a different kind of artificial or chemical manure1 the same kind being applied year after year on the same plot1 except in a few special cases4 ,repeated analyses have shown how greatly both the botanical constitution and the chemical composition of the mixed herbage varied according to the kind of manure applied4 ,the results of these experiments were given under three headings--agricultural1 botanical and chemical1 and show in an exceptional manner the care of detail to which every investigation was subjected by ,gilbert4 ,some people have thought that this minute attention to detail was carried to excess by ,gilbert1 and resulted in a bewildering multiplication of numerical statements and figures4 ,one can1 however1 but admire his love of accuracy and absolute conscientiousness1 and if his caution appeared at times to be carried to an extreme1 the result has been to make the ,rothamsted experiments a standard for reference1 and an example wherever agricultural research is attempted4 ,one of the most important results of the ,rothamsted investigations has been the replacing of the mineral theory of ,liebig by the nitrogen theory of ,lawes and ,gilbert4 ,liebig held the view that each crop requires certain mineral elements from the soil1 and that crops will not flourish where the appropriate elements are lacking4 ,every soil contains some element in the minimum4 ,whatever element this minimum may be it determines the abundance and continuity of the crop4 ,the only fertiliser which acts favourably is that which supplies a deficiency of one or more of the food elements in the soil4 ,the atmosphere1 according to ,liebig1 supplies in sufficient quantity both the carbon and nitrogen required by crops1 and the function of manure is to supply the ash constituents of the soil4 ,the exhaustion of soils is to be ascribed to their decreased content of mineral ingredients rather than to decrease in nitrogen4 ,when careful study of the composition of the atmosphere proved that the amount of ammonia brought down to the earth by rain scarcely exceeds a few pounds per acre annually1 ,liebig maintained that plants are capable of directly absorbing ammonia by means of their leaves4 ,he pointed out that the beneficial effects of nitrogenous manures are most apparent in the case of cereal crops with a comparatively short vegetation period1 and least apparent in the case of leafy crops with a long vegetation period4 ,the long vegetation period of crops like clover allowed time for the utilisation of the ammonia of the air and no artificial supply was necessary4 ,on the other hand1 crops with a short vegetation period had a limited time for accumulating ammonia from the air1 and responded readily to applications of nitrogenous manures4 ,gilbert1 early in his work at ,rothamsted1 noticed that the results of his field experiments were at variance with this mineral theory1 as it was called1 of ,liebig1 and soon found himself involved in a controversy with the great ,german chemist which was not always free from bitterness4 ,he found that the nitrogen compounds of the atmosphere were sufficient only for a very meagre vegetation4 ,cereals treated with ammonium salts and other nitrogenous manures showed a far greater increase of produce than when phosphates1 potash or other ash constituents only were supplied4 ,as more nitrogen was assimilated a greater amount of the fixed bases were found in the ash1 and he considered that the function of the fixed bases was to act as carriers of nitric acid4 ,these bases--potash1 soda1 lime and magnesia1 were not mutually replaceable1 but the predominance of one or the other affected the produce4 ,luxuriance of growth was associated with the amount of nitrogen available and assimilated1 and in the presence of this sufficiency of nitrogen the formation of carbohydrates depended on the amount of potash available4 ,the possibility that the free nitrogen of the air might supply the nitrogenous needs of plants was disproved by growing plants in calcined soil and removing all traces of ammonia from the air before it was admitted into the glass case in which the plants were growing4 ,determinations were made of the nitrogen in the seed and soil at the beginning of the experiments1 and in the plants and soil at their conclusion4 ,the work on the assimilation of nitrogen by plants extended over three years and was made the subject of a communication to the ,royal ,society in #ahfa4 ,the paper1 entitled1 ,the ,sources of the ,nitrogen of ,vegetation2 with special reference to the question whether ,plants assimilate free or combined ,nitrogen1 occupies #add pages of the ,philosophical ,transactions1 and is a brilliant example of the scrupulous accuracy and attention to detail which characterised all ,gilbert's work4 ,it is divided into two parts--,i4 ,the ,general ,history and ,statement of the question4--,,ii4 ,the ,experimental ,results obtained at ,rothamsted during the years #aheg1 #aheh and #ahei4 ,the authors state in the summary of conclusions that in our experiments with graminaceous plants1 grown both with and without a supply of combined nitrogen beyond that contained in the seed sown1 in which there was great variation in the amount of combined nitrogen involved and a wide range in the conditions1 character and amount of growth1 we have in no case found any evidence of an assimilation of free or uncombined nitrogen4 ,in our experiments with leguminous plants the growth was less satisfactory1 and the range of conditions possibly favourable for the assimilation of free nitrogen was1 therefore1 more limited4 ,but the results recorded with these plants1 so far as they go1 do not indicate any assimilation of free nitrogen4 ,since1 however1 in practice leguminous crops assimilate from some source so very much more nitrogen than graminaceous ones under ostensibly equal circumstances of supply of combined nitrogen1 it is desirable that the evidence of further experiments with these plants under conditions of more healthy growth should be obtained4 ,as long as ,gilbert's investigations were confined to non-leguminous plants and to leguminous plants grown in calcined soil the nitrogen theory was triumphant4 ,when1 however1 leguminous plants were grown in uncalcined soil or in the open the results were uncertain1 and in many cases the manures supplying ash constituents alone proved the most effective4 ,the elucidation of these uncertain results has been a tedious problem1 and has taken many years of patient investigation1 but gradually the evidence accumulated which led to its solution4 ,field and pot experiments in ,germany1 ,france1 ,england and the ,united ,states in the late seventies and early eighties furnished abundant proof that under certain conditions leguminous plants do obtain nitrogen from the atmosphere1 and gradually1 from the work of ,rautenberg1 ,frank and others1 the idea was evolving that fungi or micro-organisms play some important part in the process4 ,gilbert1 however1 would not listen to any such heresy1 as he considered that the question of the assimilation of the free nitrogen of the air by plants had been finally settled by the experiments of #aheg-fj4 ,it was therefore a most happy chance that ,gilbert was present at the scientific congress in ,berlin in #ahhf when ,hellriegel described his experiments on leguminous plants1 showing that the formation of nodules on these plants was associated with the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen4 ,in commenting subsequently on these experiments1 ,gilbert said1 ,it must be admitted that ,hellriegel's results1 taken together with those of ,berthelot and others1 do suggest the possibility that1 although the higher plants may not possess the power of directly fixing the free nitrogen of the air1 lower organisms1 which abound within the soil1 may have that power1 and may thus bring free nitrogen into a state of combination within the soil in which it is available to the higher plants--at any rate to members of the ,papilionaceous family4 ,at the same time1 it will be granted that further confirmation is essential before such a conclusion can be accepted as fully established4 ,this comment reveals the essential conservatism of ,gilbert's mind1 but the true greatness of the man is seen when we find him1 at the age of seventy1 repeating the experiments of ,hellriegel and ,wilfarth1 and himself supplying the confirmation of their results which he considered essential4 ,the results of these experiments1 contributed to the ,royal ,society in #ahhg1 #ahhi1 and #ahij1 fully confirmed the theory that leguminous plants are able to assimilate the free nitrogen of the air by means of the micro-organisms contained in their root nodules1 and also explained the failure in the #aheg-fj experiments to demonstrate nitrogen fixation by leguminous plants owing to the use of calcined soil by which the inoculating organisms present in the soil were destroyed4 ,gilbert's investigations from #ahga-ge showing that the drainage waters from the experimental fields of ,rothamsted contained more nitrates as the amount of ammonium salts applied to the soil increased1 have been quoted by some writers as being the basis of the modern theory of nitrification4 ,it must be remembered that ,gilbert was at first actively hostile to the bacterial theory of nitrification1 and the credit and honour of the work done at ,rothamsted on the nitrifying organisms belongs entirely to ,warington4 ,a few words must suffice for an account of the series of ,rothamsted experiments on animals4 ,series ,,ii deals with ,reports of experiments on the feeding of animals1 sewage utilisation1 c4 ,published #ahda-ahie inclusive1 and contains #ca papers4 ,among the points investigated may be mentioned--the composition of foods in relation to respiration and the feeding of animals2 experiments on the feeding of sheep and the fattening of oxen2 some points in connection with animal nutrition2 the feeding of animals for the production of meat1 milk and manure4 ,the work on the part played by carbohydrates in the formation of animal fat led to a keen controversy with foreign investigators4 ,lawes and ,gilbert had satisfied themselves by their experiments on pigs that fat was undoubtedly produced from carbohydrates4 ,the ,german physiologists doubted this1 and for some time there was a wordy warfare between the rival camps4 ,gradually the experimental evidence for the formation of fats from carbohydrates became overwhelming1 and once again the ,rothamsted position was vindicated4 ,gilbert maintained throughout his life a close connection with foreign workers1 and his holidays were frequently employed in visiting institutions and attending scientific meetings on the ,continent4 ,he made three visits to the ,united ,states and ,canada and delivered several lectures there4 ,as he passed into old age his powers seemed to suffer little diminution1 and his appearance at the age of eighty showed little indication of physical weakness4 ,the death of ,sir ,john ,lawes in ,august #aijj was a severe blow to him1 and soon afterwards his energies began to fail4 ,he had a severe illness whilst away in ,scotland in the autumn of #aija1 but he recovered sufficiently to be able to return to his work for a short time4 ,with the indomitable tenacity which had characterised him throughout life he continued actively at work for a few more weeks1 eventually succumbing on ,december #bcrd1 #aija1 in his eighty-fifth year4 ,thanks are due to ,dr ,j4 ,a4 ,voelcker for kind assistance2 and to the ,royal ,agricultural ,college ,students' ,club1 ,cirencester1 for permission to reproduce the accompanying photograph4 ,,william ,,crawford ,,williamson #ahaf-ahie ,,by ,,dukinfield ,h4 ,,scott ,early exponents of ,fossil ,botany--,witham of ,lartington--,edward ,william ,binney--,william ,crawford ,williamson--early influences--first contribution to science--studies medicine--work on ,foraminifera--appointed ,professor at ,manchester--successful popular lecturer--his influence in ,natural ,history--investigation of the ,carboniferous ,flora--controversy with ,french palaeo-botanists--the magnitude of his output--defects in his work--later work at ,kew--personal traits4 ,during the last forty years the study of fossil plants has come to be a specially vigorous and characteristic branch of ,british botany4 ,the proper subject of my lecture is ,williamson1 the man to whom above all others the present strong position of the subject is due4 ,but there were brave men before ,agamemnon1 and there are two of the older masters1 ,witham and ,binney1 whom ,i cannot wholly pass over4 ,i ought really to include others1 and notably ,sir ,joseph ,hooker1 to whom we owe our first clear understanding of ,stigmaria and of ,lepidostrobus1 but this course does not extend to those who1 like ,sir ,joseph1 are still living among us and still in active work#aai4 ,i am indebted to ,mr ,philip ,witham1 a member of the family1 for some information about ,henry ,witham1 of ,lartington1 the first ,englishman to investigate the internal structure of fossil plants4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xx ,,henry ,,witham ,,of ,,lartington ,henry ,witham was1 by birth1 not a ,witham1 but a ,silvertop1 having been the second son of ,john ,silvertop of ,minster ,acres1 ,northumberland4 ,as ,henry ,silvertop he came in for the ,lartington property4 ,he was born in #aggi and married ,miss ,eliza ,witham1 niece and co-heiress of ,william ,witham of ,cliffe1 ,yorkshire1 when he took the name and arms of ,witham4 ,the method of cutting thin sections of rocks and fossils had just been invented by ,nicol1 and this gave ,witham the opportunity for his investigations4 ,his papers are illustrated by the botanist ,mc,gillivray1 to whom he may have owed some further assistance4 ,indeed he made little pretension to botanical knowledge1 but the opinions which he expresses strike one as remarkably sensible1 and he must have been a man of sound judgment1 at least in scientific affairs4 ,witham was the first investigator of that most famous of fossils1 ,lepidodendron ,harcourtii2 of the ,craigleith tree 7now ,pitys ,withami71 of the ,lennel ,braes trees 7,pitys antiqua and ,p4 primaeva71 of the ,wideopen tree 7,pinites1 now ,cordaites ,brandlingi7 and of ,anabathra pulcherrima4 ,it is curious to notice that the ,craigleith tree1 a manifest ,gymnosperm1 was at first 7#ahbi7 regarded even by the great ,brongniart as a ,monocotyledon1 while others imagined it to be a ,lycopod4 ,witham1 however1 soon set this right4 ,he always speaks with great respect of ,brongniart1 then just becoming the recognised leader of fossil botany4 ,the following passage from ,witham's memoir on the vegetable fossils found at ,lennel ,braes1 near ,coldstream1 is of interest4 ,now1 according to that gentleman's ,brongniart's opinion1 out of six classes 444 only two existed at that period ,carboniferous1 namely the ,vascular ,cryptogamic plants1 comprehending the ,filices1 ,equisetaceae and ,lycopodeae1 and the ,monocotyledons1 containing a small number of plants which appear to resemble the ,palms and arborescent ,liliaceae4 ,the existence1 therefore1 of so extensive a deposit of ,dicotyledonous plants1 at this early period of the earth's vegetation1 appears to demand the attention of the naturalist4 ,brongniart's ,monocotyledons were no doubt ,cordaiteae4 ,witham1 we see1 set the great man right as regards the antiquity of ,dicotyledons1 in which1 of course1 ,gymnosperms were then included4 ,witham's earlier papers were embodied in his book3 ,the ,internal ,structure of ,fossil ,vegetables found in the ,carboniferous and ,oolitic deposits of ,great ,britain1 described and illustrated1 #ahcc4 ,it is dedicated to ,william ,hutton1 author1 with ,lindley1 of the ,fossil ,flora of ,great ,britain4 ,a passage from the dedication shows that ,witham took his work seriously--,to lend my aid in bringing from their obscure repositories the ancient records of a former state of things1 with the view of disclosing the early and mysterious operations of the ,great ,author of all created things1 will ever be to me a source of unalloyed pleasure4 ,witham thus fully realised the important significance of the work on which he was engaged4 ,he must have been an interesting person of a somewhat complex character1 and ,i wish we could know more about him4 ,he died on ,nov4 #bhth1 #ahdd4 ,like all his family1 he was a ,roman ,catholic#abj4 ,witham's localities on the ,tweed remained practically unvisited until ,mr ,kidston re-explored them eight or nine years ago1 with brilliant success--the results1 however1 are still unpublished4 99 99 99 99 99 ,edward ,william ,binney1 the first investigator of the ,lancashire coal-balls1 was born at ,morton in ,nottinghamshire in #ahab1 and was thus only four years senior to ,williamson4 ,he settled in ,manchester in #ahcf1 and practised as a solicitor4 ,he early showed scientific tastes2 the ,manchester ,geological ,society was started1 chiefly by his influence1 in ,october #ahch4 ,he was concerned in the discovery of the famous ,st ,helen's trees1 which first proved the connection between ,sigillaria and ,stigmaria4 ,binney completed the proof that all coal-seams rest on old soils which are constituted entirely of vegetable matter2 this was the seat-stone of a seam of coal 7,robert ,hunt74 ,he gave up the practice of ,law1 and1 devoting himself to science1 became a leading authority on northern geology1 and rendered important aid to the ,geological ,survey by his long experience of the coal-fields of ,lancashire and ,cheshire4 ,he assisted in the discovery of the ,torbane ,hill mineral or ,boghead ,cannel1 a deposit once notorious as a subject of litigation1 and more recently as a bone of scientific contention4 ,binney died on ,december #ai1 #ahha4 ,etheridge said of him3 ,he was a man of the highest honour and remarkably outspoken2 his sturdiness and strength of character being rarely equalled4 ,binney was the discoverer of some now famous fossils1 notably ,dadoxylon 7now ,lyginodendron7 oldhamium1 and ,stauropteris oldhamia4 ,his best known work is the monograph1 ,observations on the ,structure of ,fossil ,plants1 in four parts1 published for the ,palaeontographical ,society1 from #ahfh to #ahge4 ,thus his work on coal-plants overlapped that of ,williamson4 ,the first part is on ,calamites and ,calamodendron--the names are used in the old sense1 for ,binney kept up ,brongniart's distinction1 though apparently not convinced of its validity4 ,in this memoir he described the cone of ,calamodendron commune1 now known as ,calamostachys ,binneyana4 ,part ,,ii1 on ,lepidostrobus and some allied cones1 is remarkable for the demonstration of heterospory in several species4 ,part ,,iii1 on ,lepidodendron1 deals partly with stems referred to ,l4 ,harcourtii1 but now separated as ,l4 fuliginosum4 ,he also describes the structure of a ,halonia and is led to the conclusion that it is the root of ,lepidodendron4 ,this view has not found favour1 but our old ideas about ,ulodendron and ,halonia have been so upset of late1 that everything seems possible6 ,part ,,iv is on ,sigillaria and ,stigmaria1 the ,sigillaria described being ,s4 vascularis1 since identified with ,lepidodendron selaginoides1 or ,l4 vasculare1 if we maintain ,binney's specific name4 ,binney was not a great theoriser4 ,his object was rather to provide material for the botanists1 he being essentially a geologist4 ,this he did admirably1 for his monograph is illustrated by magnificent drawings from the hand of ,fitch1 the famous botanical artist4 ,binney stood more under the influence of ,brongniart than did his successor ,williamson4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxi ,,william ,,crawford ,,williamson 7#ahgf7 ,i now go on to my principal subject4 ,williamson's father1 ,john ,williamson1 originally a gardener1 was well known for his researches on the ,natural ,history of the ,yorkshire coast1 and was for #bg years curator of the ,scarborough ,museum4 ,previously to that1 ,john ,williamson kept a private museum of his own1 and it was in the room next to this that ,william ,crawford ,williamson was born on ,november #bd1 #ahaf4 ,john ,williamson's cousin1 ,william ,bean1 was also an active local naturalist1 known especially for his work on the ,yorkshire ,fossil ,flora2 the genus ,beania is named after him4 ,our ,williamson's mother1 born ,elizabeth ,crawford1 was the eldest of #ac children of a ,scarborough jeweller and lapidary4 ,young ,williamson used to spend much time in the ,crawford's workshop1 watching them cutting and working with the diamond the agates from the gravels of the coast4 ,a youthful training1 he says1 which became of the utmost value to me more than a third of a century later1 when scientific research required me to devote much of my own time to similar work#aba4 ,in #ahbf the famous ,william ,smith and his wife established themselves in the ,williamson's house1 and stayed there for two years4 ,williamson's early recollections of the ,father of ,english ,geology must have been inspiring4 ,his father was also a friend and correspondent of ,sir ,roderick ,murchison4 ,the appearance of ,phillips' classic volume1 ,illustrations of the ,geology of ,yorkshire1 in #ahbi1 gave young ,williamson his first introduction to true scientific work4 ,his father at once set to work to name from this book the fossils he collected1 and his son was called in to help4 ,my evenings throughout a long winter were devoted to the detested labour of naming these miserable stones4--,pursuing this uncongenial task gave me in my #acth year a thorough practical familiarity with the palaeontological treasures of ,eastern ,yorkshire4 ,this early acquisition happily moulded the entire course of my future life#abb4 ,those were not the days of the half-educated4 ,young ,williamson1 in addition to his special scientific training1 had the advantage of a classical education1 at schools both in ,england and ,france4 ,the ,french part of his education was not altogether a success1 for most of the boys at the school were ,english4 ,passing through ,london on his return he had breakfast with ,sir ,roderick ,murchison1 who took him to the ,geological ,society4 ,this was in ,march #ahcb1 when he was little more than #ae4 ,certainly his entrance into the scientific world was made easy for him4 ,would it be made equally easy now for a boy in a similar position8 ,in the same year1 #ahcb1 ,williamson was articled to ,mr ,thomas ,weddell1 a medical practitioner at ,scarborough4 ,while with him1 he continued to pursue ,natural ,history as a recreation--bird-collecting for example1 and also botany4 ,he writes1 ,i was then forming a collection of the plants of ,eastern ,yorkshire1 as well as trying to master the natural classification1 which was already beginning to supplant the ,linnean method1 so long the one universally adopted#abc4 ,a memoir on the rare birds of ,yorkshire was communicated to the ,zoological ,society of ,london--an early work though not quite the earliest4 ,while with ,mr ,weddell1 ,williamson contributed a number of descriptions and drawings of oolitic plants to ,lindley and ,hutton's ,fossil ,flora4 ,he tells us how the drawings had to be made in the evenings on ,mr ,weddell's kitchen table4 ,the plants he illustrated had for the most part been collected by his father and ,john ,bean in a small estuarine deposit at ,gristhorpe ,bay4 ,more than #cj species were thus recorded by him4 ,he also made diagrams to illustrate some lectures on ,vegetable ,physiology given by ,mr ,weddell at the ,mechanics' ,institution4 ,it is rather surprising to find that such a course was given in a country town during the early 'thirties4 ,probably the learning displayed was not very deep1 for ,mrs ,marcet's ,conversations seem to have been the chief authority4 ,in #ahcd-cf ,williamson published important papers1 determining geological zones1 from the ,lias to the ,cornbrash1 by means of their fossils2 subsequently he extended his zoning work up to the ,oxford ,clay4 ,the opening of the ,gristhorpe tumulus in ,july #ahcd1 when a skeleton1 of the ,bronze ,age1 was found in a coffin fashioned out of the trunk of an oak-tree1 gave occasion to ,williamson's one contribution to archaeology4 ,his memoir was reprinted in the ,literary ,gazette for ,october #ah1 #ahcd 7still before he was #ah74 ,this was through ,dr ,buckland's influence2 in a letter to ,williamson he said1 ,i am happy to have been instrumental in bringing before the public a name to which ,i look forward as likely to figure in the annals of ,british ,science4 ,a second and third edition of this paper were called for4 ,in ,september #ahce ,williamson was appointed curator of the ,museum of the ,manchester ,natural ,history ,society1 and so began his long connection with the great northern town1 lasting down to #ahib4 ,in those days the interest in the vigorous young science of geology was extraordinarily keen1 and there was great activity1 especially among the naturalists of the ,north1 many of whom were working men4 ,williamson1 about #ahch1 gave a course of lectures on geology at various northern towns1 and thus raised funds for his removal to ,london1 to continue his medical studies4 ,it is interesting to find that ,williamson1 while at ,manchester1 helped to nurse ,john ,dalton in his last illness4 ,while curator at ,manchester1 ,williamson saw the rise of ,binney as a geologist4 ,his remarks on the local study of botany at that time are interesting4 ,the botanical interests of the district were chiefly in the hands of the operative community4 ,the hills between ,lancashire and ,yorkshire swarmed with botanical and floricultural societies1 who met on ,sundays1 the only day when it was possible to do so#abd4 ,some of these men must have had an excellent education1 as shown by the good ,english they wrote1 as for example ,richard ,buxton1 a poor working man1 author of a standard ,botanical ,guide4 ,the society to which ,buxton belonged had1 in #ahdi1 existed for nearly a century4 ,it may be doubted whether an equal enthusiasm for science still prevails in that or in any part of ,england4 ,in ,september #ahdj ,williamson went to ,london to complete his medical training1 and entered ,university ,college1 making the acquaintance of ,prof4 ,lindley1 who had for so long known him only as a correspondent and collaborator4 ,soon afterwards he was offered the post of naturalist to the ,niger expedition1 which he refused1 and1 as it turned out fortunately1 for the journey proved disastrous4 ,stanger1 of ,stangeria fame1 took his place4 ,in #ahdb1 having then returned to ,manchester and started in practice1 ,williamson made his first attempt at microscopic work1 having become interested in the ,foraminifera of the ,chalk4 ,he also began to examine ,confervae1 ,diatoms and ,desmids1 finding perhaps1 as others have done1 that the ,fresh-water ,algae give the best introduction to microscopic biology4 ,the work on ,foraminifera became one of the most important in ,williamson's career4 ,in #ahde he wrote his valuable paper on microscopic organisms in the mud of the ,levant4 ,his work in this field culminated in his monograph of ,foraminifera1 issued by the ,ray ,society in #aheg4 ,in #ahea ,williamson was appointed ,professor of ,natural ,history1 which included ,zoology1 ,botany and ,geology1 at the new ,owens ,college1 ,manchester4 ,he tells us1 ,the botanical portion of my work was that for which ,i was least prepared--of the ,german language ,i was utterly ignorant#abe4 ,the almost insuperable difficulties of a triple ,professorship were at first met by spreading the complete course over two years1 a sensible plan which was rendered impracticable by the more rigid requirements of examinations4 ,it was not1 however1 till #ahgb that a division of the duties of the chair took place2 ,williamson was then relieved of the geological teaching by the appointment of ,prof4 ,boyd ,dawkins2 in #ahhj the zoology was taken over by the late ,prof4 ,milnes ,marshall1 ,williamson thus retaining the very subject1 botany1 with which he had originally been the least familiar4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxii ,vascular system of stem of ,lepidodendron selaginoides in transverse section4 ,drawn by ,williamson ,in addition to his peculiarly arduous duties as ,professor1 ,williamson was a great populariser of science4 ,he was one of the first two members of the ,owens' staff to start1 in #ahed1 evening classes for working men4 ,he gave numerous scientific lectures at the ,royal ,institution in ,london and elsewhere1 his greatest work in this field being his lectures for the ,gilchrist ,trustees4 ,he mentions that from #ahgd to #ahhj he delivered #aeh of these lectures in #fa towns1 and he continued this work with equal activity for another #aj years4 ,he was a vigorous and effective lecturer1 who always interested his audience2 he illustrated his lectures by bold diagrams1 drawn by his own hand4 ,in order to form any idea of ,williamson's many-sided activity it must be remembered that he was all the time engaged in active medical practice1 both general and special1 for he was well known as an aurist4 ,yet he always found time for fruitful original research1 often of the most laborious character4 ,prof4 ,judd says1 in a letter written to me in ,february #aiaa3 ,i have often been struck by the fact that ,williamson1 appointed to an impossible ,professorship of ,zoology1 ,botany and ,geology1 managed to initiate great movements in connection with each of these sciences4 ,in ,geology he was clearly the pioneer in the subdivision of formations into zones each characterised by an assemblage of fossils--,ammonites playing the most important part4444 ,but ,williamson did another great service to ,geology4444 ,sorby visited ,williamson at ,manchester and learned the art of making sections which he applied with such success to the study of igneous and other rocks1 becoming the ',father of ,micropetrography4' ,in ,zoology1 ,williamson initiated the work done in the study of deep-sea deposits1 by his remarkable memoir on the mud of the ,levant1 in #ahde1 when he was #bi years old4 ,this led to his study of the ,foraminifera 7especially by the aid of thin sections7 and to his monograph in the ,ray ,society on that group4444 ,of his contributions to ,botany through his sections of ',coal balls' ,i need say nothing4 ,prof4 ,judd makes no reference here to the papers which obtained for ,williamson his ,f4,r4,s4 in #ahed4 ,these embodied his researches on the development of bone and teeth1 in which he demonstrated that the teeth are dermal appendages homologous with the scales of fishes4 ,this important work dated back to #ahdb and was inspired by his enthusiasm for the then novel cell-theory of ,schleiden and ,schwann4 ,the interest aroused by this investigation is shown by the fact that the great ,german anatomist ,klliker travelled to ,manchester1 about the year #ahea1 to see ,williamson's preparations4 ,as regards ,williamson's work as a botanist1 in which we are chiefly interested in this course1 his best contribution to recent botany was no doubt his investigation of ,volvox1 published in #ahea and #aheb1 in which he traced the development of the young spheres and the mode of connection of their cells1 anticipating the results of much later researches4 ,he was a great lover of living plants2 his garden and greenhouses at ,fallowfield1 his ,manchester home1 were of remarkable interest1 and he was a keen gardener4 ,at the ,british ,association ,meeting of #ahhg one of his guests said that most of the distinguished botanists of ,europe and ,america were in the garden1 and not one but who had seen something growing he never saw before#abf4 ,insectivorous plants and the rarer vascular cryptogams were specially well represented4 ,it was from his private garden that his classes were supplied with specimens4 ,as we have seen1 fossil plants engaged ,williamson's attention in his earliest years1 when as a mere boy he contributed to ,lindley and ,hutton's ,fossil ,flora4 ,his first important independent work in this field was his paper ,on the ,structure and ,affinities of the ,plants hitherto known as ,sternbergiae 7#ahea71 in which he proved1 for the first time1 that these curious fossils1 resembling a rouleau of coins1 were casts of the discoid pith of ,dadoxylon1 or1 as we should now say1 of ,cordaiteae--the first step in the reconstruction of this early gymnospermous family4 ,this investigation1 to which he appears to have been led almost accidentally1 through some good specimens coming into his hands1 brought him back1 as he says1 to his old subject of fossil botany4 ,it was long1 however1 before he got fairly started on his great course of investigations on ,carboniferous plants4 ,in the meantime he had returned to the ,yorkshire ,oolitic plants and1 about #ahdg1 published a paper in the ,proceedings of the ,yorkshire ,philosophical ,society1 ,on the ,scaly ,vegetable ,heads or collars from ,runswick ,bay1 supposed to belong to the ,zamia gigas4 ,his full paper1 in which he maintained the ,cycadean affinities of the flower-like fossils1 was written soon afterwards1 but met with a series of misfortunes1 and was not finally published till #ahgj1 in the ,transactions of the ,linnean ,society1 before which body it had been read in #ahfh4 ,williamson was admittedly right in connecting the floral organs with the so-called ,zamia foliage1 and his interpretation of the complicated structure was as good as was possible in the then state of knowledge4 ,the true nature of these fossils1 now known by the name ,williamsonia1 given them by ,mr ,carruthers1 could only be understood at a much later date in the light of ,dr ,wieland's famous researches on the ,american ,bennettiteae1 and has quite recently been made clear in a memoir by ,prof4 ,nathorst4 ,perhaps1 even now1 some points remain doubtful4 ,early in the fifties ,williamson made some rough sections of a ,calamite which came into his hands1 and this was the beginning of his most characteristic line of work4 ,a remarkable internal cast of a ,calamite1 figured by ,lyell in his ,manual of ,geology in #ahee1 led to a correspondence with ,m4 ,grand',eury1 now so famous as the veteran ,french palaeobotanist4 ,williamson at that time had no intention of entering on the serious study of ,carboniferous plants1 for ,binney was already in the field4 ,grand',eury's letter1 however1 caused him to look up his old sections1 which he found differed from the ,calamitean stems figured by ,binney4 ,matters for a time moved slowly1 and ,williamson's specimen was only described in #ahfh in the ,manchester ,memoirs4 ,this fossil1 which he named ,calamopitus1 is now known as ,arthrodendron1 and is a distinct type of ,calamarian stem1 intermediate between the common ,calamites or ,arthropitys1 and the more elaborate ,calamodendron of the ,upper ,coal ,measures4 ,williamson was now fairly started on his ,carboniferous work4 ,his first memoir on the ,organisation of the ,fossil ,plants of the ,coal ,measures was communicated to the ,royal ,society on ,november #aa1 #ahgj4 ,it is amusing to find that the secretaries objected to the memoir being called ,part ,i1 since it bound the society to publish a ,part ,,ii6 ,nineteen ,parts were published1 the last in #ahic4 ,the first memoir was on the ,calamites1 and controversy at once broke out4 ,williamson was from the first impressed by the manifest occurrence of exogenous1 or1 as we should now call it1 secondary growth1 both in the ,calamites and the ,lepidodendreae1 groups which he was convinced were cryptogamic4 ,the controversy with the great ,french school1 headed by the illustrious ,brongniart1 is well known4 ,as ,williamson put it3 ,the fight was always the same2 was ,brongniart right or wrong when he uttered his dogma1 that if the stem of a fossil plant contained a secondary growth of wood1 the product of a cambium layer1 it could not possibly belong to the cryptogamic division of the vegetable kingdom8#abg ,in ,england1 however1 the dispute was on different lines4 ,in ,august of #ahga1 says ,williamson1 the ,british ,association met at ,edinburgh4 ,at that meeting ,i brought forward the subject of cambiums and secondary woods in ,cryptogams1 with the result that my views were rejected by every botanist in the room4 ,there followed a controversy in the pages of ,nature1 which is of some interest1 as showing the state of opinion in ,england at that time4 ,williamson tells us in his autobiography the principle by which he was guided in his work3 ,i determined not to look at the writings of any other observer until ,i had studied every specimen in my cabinet1 and arrived at my own conclusions as to what they taught4 ,in spite of this excellent rule it is probable that he was at first unconsciously influenced by the views of ,brongniart1 which may have led him to attach too much systematic importance to the occurrence of secondary growth4 ,at any rate he proposed at the ,edinburgh meeting to separate the vascular ,cryptogams into two groups1 the one comprehending ,equisetaceae1 ,lycopodiaceae and ,isotaceae1 to be termed the ,cryptogamiae ,exogenae1 linking the ,cryptogams with the true exogens through the ,cycads2 the other called the ,cryptogamiae ,endogenae1 to comprehend the ,ferns1 which will unite the ,cryptogams with the ,endogens through the ,palmaceae#abh4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxiii ,root of ,calamites 7,astromyelon ,williamsonis7 in transverse section4 ,drawn by ,williamson ,it is curious to note in passing that his main divisions1 so far as vascular ,cryptogams are concerned1 correspond to the ,lycopsida and ,pteropsida of ,prof4 ,jeffrey1 though the suggested relation to the higher plants would not be accepted by any modern botanist4 ,in spite of ,williamson's tactical error in weighting himself with a doubtful scheme of classification1 and in spite also of a faulty terminology1 it is easy to see now that he had the best of the controversy1 for he knew the facts about the structure of the ,carboniferous ,cryptogams1 which his opponents1 at that time1 did not4 ,they stuck to generalities1 and those who take the trouble to rake the ashes of this dead controversy will at least learn that dogmatism is not confined to theology6 ,an interesting point is that ,williamson at that time spoke of ,brongniart almost as an ally#abi4 ,the conviction that the old ,lepidodendrons and ,calamites were exogenous then seemed to him of greater importance even than his belief that they were ,cryptogams4 ,the ,english opposition1 however1 was never really formidable1 and so a change of front became necessary1 to meet the attacks of the powerful ,french school4 ,williamson was an energetic disputant2 not content with his numerous ,english publications1 he published1 in #ahhb1 an article in the ,annales des ,sciences ,naturelles1 entitled ,les ,sigillaires et les ,lepidodendres4 ,this was translated into ,french for him by his colleague ,marcus ,hartog1 whose assistance he greatly valued4 ,he describes this vigorous polemical treatise as flung like a bombshell among my opponents4 ,in time they came over1 one by one1 to his views1 and even the most redoubtable of the ,french champions ,bernard1 ,renault1 before the close of his life1 had made very considerable concessions to ,williamson's side of the question4 ,there is no need to dwell on the controversy2 every student now knows that the ,club-mosses1 the ,horse-tails and the ,sphenophylls of ,palaeozoic times formed abundant secondary tissues homologous with those of a ,gymnosperm or a ,dicotyledon2 the case of the ,sphenophylls shows that the character was not limited to arborescent plants then any more than it is among ,dicotyledons at the present day4 ,at the same time1 as ,williamson maintained1 these groups of plants were1 broadly speaking1 cryptogamic4 ,on the other hand it has been said by a distinguished botanist that in the ,fern-series secondary growth came in together with the seed4 ,this is not strictly correct1 but it is true that the plants such as ,lyginodendron1 which ,williamson in his later publications cited as ,ferns with secondary growth1 have turned out to be seed-bearing4 ,even among the ,lycopods a certain proportion of the ,lepidodendreae bore organs closely analogous to seeds4 ,these partial concessions1 which may now gracefully be made to the old ,brongniartian creed1 do not however really affect the importance of ,williamson's results1 which ,count ,solms-,laubach has well summed up in the following words3 ,it was thus made evident by ,williamson that cambial growth in thickness is a character which has appeared repeatedly in the most various families of the vegetable kingdom1 and was by no means acquired for the first time by the ,phanerogamic stock4 ,this is a general botanical result of the greatest importance and the widest bearing4 ,in this conclusion ,palaeontology has1 for the first time1 spoken the decisive word in a purely botanical question#acj4 ,to attempt a review of ,williamson's work in fossil botany would be to write a treatise on the ,carboniferous ,flora4 ,in every group--,calamites1 ,sphenophylls1 ,lycopods1 ,ferns1 ,pteridosperms1 ,gymnosperms--his researches are among the most important documents of the palaeobotanist1 and to a great extent constitute the basis of our present knowledge4 ,at the time he wrote1 the wealth of his material was absolutely unrivalled1 and its abundance was only equalled by the astonishing energy and skill with which he worked it out4 ,as regards the ,calamites1 he demonstrated1 to use his own words1 the unity of type existing among the ,british ,calamites1 abolishing the false distinction between ,calamiteae and ,calamodendreae4 ,among the ,sphenophyllums 7although there was at first some confusion in his nomenclature7 he gave the first correct account of the anatomy1 and of the organization of the cone4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxiv ,cone of ,calamostachys ,binneyana2 sporangia and sporangiophores4 ,drawn by ,williamson ,concerning the ,lycopods1 the greater part of our knowledge is due to him4 ,he described the structure in ten species referred to ,lepidodendron1 besides other allied forms1 and placed our knowledge of the comparative anatomy1 once for all1 on a broad and secure basis4 ,his great monograph of ,stigmaria1 by some considered his best work1 is still our chief authority for the subterranean organs4 ,in the ,ferns he made important contributions to our knowledge of the group now familiar to botanists as the ,primofilices of ,arber4 ,in particular his account of the plant now known as ,ankyropteris corrugata is still among the best we possess of any member of the family4 ,in ,pteridosperms1 to use the modern name1 ,williamson may fairly be called the discoverer of the important family ,lyginodendreae4 ,he appreciated their intermediate position1 speaking of them1 in #ahhg1 as possibly the generalised ancestors of both ,ferns and ,cycads4 ,as regards both ,pteridosperms and ,gymnosperms proper1 attention may be specially called to his work on isolated seeds1 in which he was surpassed by ,brongniart alone4 ,this field of investigation1 long neglected1 has lately been revived with striking results4 ,i hope that all students of fossil botany will have at least turned over the pages and the plates of ,williamson's works1 for only by inspection of the original memoirs can any idea be gained of his vast services to our science4 ,his remarkable skill as a draughtsman 7for all his memoirs are illustrated by his own hand7 is not always done justice to in the published reproductions as the fine examples of his original drawings1 so kindly lent for the lecture by ,mrs ,williamson1 will show#aca4 ,at the time when ,williamson's main work was in progress--from #ahgj to #ahib--;geologists were probably more appreciative of its value than botanists4 ,happily1 in spite of occasional trouble with ,referees1 none of his work was lost1 the ,royal ,society going steadily through with all the nineteen memoirs which were entrusted to them4 ,the one botanist1 who1 up to the year #ahij1 estimated ,williamson's work at its full value was ,count ,solms-,laubach1 who makes the honourable boast that he knew ,williamson's collection as no one else did4 ,williamson's writings are not easy reading1 especially for the modern botanical student1 for the terminology is often unfamiliar1 and the arrangement of the matter unsystematic4 ,it would be out of place to enter on a criticism of details1 but it is necessary to call attention to the one serious mistake which ran through much of ,williamson's work1 though at the last he to a great extent corrected it himself4 ,he was always too ready to interpret specimens of the same fossil plant which differed in size and anatomical complexity1 as developmental stages of one and the same organ4 ,such differences among fossils are more often due to the order of the branch on the plant1 or to the level at which a section is cut4 ,this error led to some mistaken1 and indeed impossible views of the process of development4 ,i mention this partly because ,i have noticed the same fundamental mistake in the work of much more modern writers4 ,we are none of us infallible--not even the youngest of us1 and among the latest fossil-botany papers ,i have read1 ,i have detected the very same confusion between differences of size and differences of age1 which constitutes the most serious blemish in ,williamson's writings4 ,as is well known1 ,williamson in his latest independent work corrected1 as regards the ,lepidodendrons1 on the basis of a laborious re-investigation1 the chief mistake he had made as to their process of growth#acb2 he thus displayed an openness of mind worthy of a great naturalist4 ,i first saw ,williamson on ,february #af1 #ahhc1 when ,i attended his ,friday evening lecture at the ,royal ,institution1 ,on some anomalous ,oolitic and ,palaeozoic ,forms of ,vegetation4 ,i did not1 however1 make his acquaintance till six years later1 when we met at the ,british ,association ,meeting at ,newcastle-upon-,tyne1 in #ahhi4 ,this led to a visit to his house in company with ,prof4 ,bower2 it was on ,march #h1 #ahij1 that ,i first had a sight of his collection4 ,i find the entry in my diary3 ,spent #g hours over fossils1 especially ,lyginodendron and ,lepidodendron1 preparations magnificent4 ,i at once became an ardent convert to the cult of fossil plants to which ,i had hitherto been indifferent1 though ,i must in fairness admit that ,count ,solms-,laubach's ,einleitung had done something to prepare the way4 ,i well remember the state of enthusiasm in which ,i returned home from ,manchester4 ,a subsequent visit confirmed me in the faith1 but it was some little time before ,i put my convictions into practice4 ,in #ahib ,williamson1 then in his #gfth year1 resigned the ,manchester ,professorship and came to live near ,london4 ,in the same year ,i migrated to ,kew1 and it was agreed that we should work in concert1 an arrangement which received every encouragement from the then ,director1 ,thiselton-,dyer4 ,williamson first came to the ,jodrell ,laboratory on ,friday1 ,december #b1 #ahib4 ,then1 and on many later visits1 he carried a satchel over his shoulder1 crammed with the treasures of his collection4 ,for some months he came pretty regularly once a week1 afterwards less often4 ,on these visits we discussed the work ,i had done on the sections during the interval1 and sometimes our discussions were decidedly lively4 ,in the end1 however1 we always managed to come to a satisfactory agreement4 ,our first joint paper 7,calamites1 ,calamostachys and ,sphenophyllum7 was sent off to the ,royal ,society1 rather more than a year from the start1 on ,december #bi1 #ahic4 ,during the early part of #ahid ,williamson came occasionally to ,kew1 and our discussions were renewed1 this time chiefly on ,lyginodendron4 ,our second paper 7,roots of ,calamites7 was despatched on ,october #cj1 #ahid4 ,after a considerable interval ,williamson again visited ,kew1 on ,december #ab1 #ahid1 when we started on his ,lepidodendron sections1 a subject on which we never published in conjunction4 ,his last visit was on ,january #g1 #ahie4 ,a few days later his health broke down1 and though there were many fluctuations he was never able to come to the laboratory again4 ,i saw him last1 at his own house1 on ,june #dth4 ,on the #acth ,i read our joint paper on ,lyginodendron and ,heterangium at the ,royal ,society2 on the #bcrd he passed peacefully away4 ,if ,williamson could have lived it would1 ,i think1 have given him great pleasure to see the success1 in his own country1 of the work which he inaugurated and the progress of the subject to which he devoted the last #be years of his life4 ,i am happy to believe that he felt in the evening of his days1 that the period of comparative neglect through which his work had passed1 was at an end4 ,for myself1 ,i may say that my work1 since ,i knew ,williamson1 owes its inspiration to him4 ,but quite apart from our scientific relations it is a great privilege to have known him4 ,though his many-sided activity1 as physician1 professor1 popular lecturer1 geologist1 zoologist1 botanist and artist involved an amount of work which to us of a less strenuous generation is almost inconceivable1 ,williamson was as far as possible from being the mere student4 ,his personality was intensely human4 ,he was a man of most decided likes and dislikes2 his conversation was often brilliant1 and sometimes vigorous to an almost startling degree4 ,the grand old race of all-round naturalists found in ,williamson its worthy culmination1 and we can only regret that1 from the nature of the case1 he can have no equal successor#acc4 ,,footnotes3 #aai ,since these words were spoken the veteran leader of ,english ,botany has passed away4 ,a notice of ,sir ,joseph's career will be found in this volume1 and the present writer has given some account of his work on fossil plants in an ,anniversary ,address to the ,linnean ,society1 ,may #bdth1 #aiab4 #abj ,the portrait of ,henry ,witham is from the original picture in the possession of the ,salvin family1 at ,croxdale2 a photograph of the picture was kindly obtained for me by ,mr ,philip ,witham4 #aba ,reminiscences of a ,yorkshire ,naturalist1 p4 #f4 #abb ,reminiscences1 p4 #ab4 #abc ,reminiscences1 p4 #cc4 #abd ,reminiscences1 p4 #gh4 #abe ,reminiscences1 p4 #acf4 #abf ,reminiscences1 p4 #aij4 #abg ,reminiscences1 p4 #bjc4 #abh ,nature1 ,vol4 ,,iv41 #ahga1 p4 #ceg4 #abi ,loc4 cit41 p4 #dji4 #acj ,nature1 ,vol4 ,,lii4 #ahie1 p4 #dda4 #aca ,three characteristic figures from these originals have been reproduced for this volume 7,plates #bb-bd74 #acb ,williamson1 ,on the light thrown upon the question of the ,growth and ,development of the ,carboniferous ,arborescent ,lepidodendra by a study of the details of their ,organisation4 ,mem4 and ,proc4 ,manchester ,lit4 and ,phil4 ,soc41 ,ser4 ,,iv4 ,vol4 ,,ix4 #ahie4 #acc ,the portrait of ,williamson is from a photograph kindly lent by ,mrs ,williamson1 and taken1 as she informs me1 at ,torquay in or about #ahgf1 when he was about #fj4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxv ,,harry ,,marshall ,,ward 7#ahie7 ,,harry ,,marshall ,,ward #ahed-aijf ,,by ,,sir ,,william ,,thiselton-,,dyer ,training at ,south ,kensington--,cambridge--,germany--inves tigates coffee disease in ,ceylon--his early investigations--appointment to ,manchester and association with ,williamson--,ward's brilliance as an investigator--,cooper's ,hill--investigation of lily disease--leguminous root tubercles--symbiosis and the ginger-beer plant--the ,croonian ,lecture--the bacteriology of water--bactericidal action of light--,ward's law of doubling--appointment to ,cambridge--mycopiasm controversy--infection and immunity--physiological varieties of ,rusts--bridgeing species--illness and death--his record as an investigator--personal characteristics4 ,harry ,marshall ,ward1 eldest son of ,francis ,marshall ,ward1 was born in ,hereford1 ,march #ba1 #ahed1 but he came of a ,lincolnshire stock1 settled for some time in ,nottingham4 ,from unavoidable causes he left school at #ad1 but afterwards continued his education by attending evening classes organised under the ,science and ,art ,department4 ,to that ,department1 he owed indirectly the opportunity of a useful and brilliant career4 ,his means were small1 and his earliest aim was to qualify as a science teacher4 ,he was admitted to a course of instruction for teachers in training given by ,prof4 ,huxley in #ahgd-e4 ,although he must have derived from it a sound insight into the principles of zoology1 the subject does not seem to have had any permanent attraction for him4 ,in the summer of #aheg ,ward came under my hands in a course of instruction in botany which ,i conducted with ,prof4 ,vines in the ,science ,schools at ,south ,kensington1 and from this time onwards we were in intimate relations to the close of his life4 ,i can best tell the story as it came under my eyes4 ,it contains much that could not easily be dealt with in any other way4 ,it was soon apparent that we had got hold of a man of exceptional ability4 ,it must be confessed that the atmosphere was stimulating1 and the conditions under which the teaching was carried on necessitated its being given at high pressure4 ,i remember that on one occasion ,ward fainted at his work1 from no other cause1 ,i think1 than over-excitement4 ,in the autumn of the same year he went for one session to ,owens ,college1 ,manchester1 with the object of continuing his general education4 ,i learn that he carried off the prizes in every subject that he took up4 ,in the succeeding year ,i was glad to avail myself of the assistance of ,ward as demonstrator in a subsequent course at ,south ,kensington1 which ,i undertook with ,prof4 ,vines4 ,later in the year he became a candidate for and secured an open scholarship at ,christ's ,college1 where ,vines himself was then a ,fellow1 and went into residence in ,october1 #ahgf4 ,ward took full advantage of his opportunities at ,cambridge1 and attended the teaching of ,sir ,michael ,foster in physiology and of ,prof4 ,f4 ,m4 ,balfour in comparative anatomy4 ,the sound and fundamental conceptions which he acquired from the former manifestly influenced his work throughout life4 ,he took a first class in botany in the ,natural ,science ,tripos in #ahgi4 ,his first published paper was the result of work in the same year in the ,jodrell ,laboratory at ,kew4 ,in this1 which was published in the ,proceedings of the ,linnean ,society1 he seriously criticised and corrected that of ,vesque on the embryo-sac of ,phanerogams4 ,as was customary with our young botanists1 ,ward went to ,germany for a short time1 for purposes of study and to strengthen his knowledge of the language4 ,he worked at ,wrzburg with ,sachs1 whose lectures on the physiology of plants he afterwards translated in #ahhg4 ,there he continued his study of the embryo-sac in ,orchideae1 as ,sachs subsequently testified1 zu meiner vollsten ,zufriedenheit4 ,before the end of the year ,ward was appointed on the recommendation of ,kew to proceed to ,ceylon for two years as ,government ,cryptogamist to investigate the leaf-disease in coffee4 ,the history of this malady is almost unique in vegetable pathology4 ,a native fungus which had eluded scientific observation1 and must therefore have maintained an inconspicuous and limited existence on some native host-plant1 found a wider opportunity on the ,arabian coffee plant and fell upon it as a devastating scourge4 ,it was first detected in #ahfi on a single estate2 in #ahgc there was probably none in the island entirely free from it4 ,mr 7since ,sir ,daniel7 ,morris had shown that the plants could be cleansed by dusting them with a mixture of sulphur and lime4 ,but the remedy proved of no avail as the plants speedily became re-infected4 ,morris had been transferred to another appointment in the ,west ,indies and ,ward's duty was to take up the investigation4 ,this he accomplished exhaustively4 ,he showed that the fungus 7,hemileia vastatrix7 was one of the ,uredineae and that infection was produced by the wind-borne uredospores4 ,had the planters1 as in ,southern ,india1 left forest belts between their plantations1 the spores might have been filtered out and the disease controlled4 ,as it was it spread like an unchecked conflagration4 ,ward also discovered the teleutospores2 nothing has been added to our knowledge of its life-history beyond what he obtained4 ,the result of his investigations was given in three official reports and in papers contributed in #ahhb to the ,linnean ,society and the ,quarterly ,journal of ,microscopical ,science4 ,it was no blame to him that his work led to no practical result4 ,the mischief admitted of no remedy4 ,the coffee-planting industry of ,ceylon was destroyed and the ,oriental ,bank succumbed in the general ruin4 ,leaf disease has now extended to every coffee-growing country in the ,old ,world from ,natal to ,fiji4 ,in a tropical country leaves supply a substratum to a little flora of their own1 consisting of organisms partly algal1 partly fungal1 in their affinity4 ,ward1 who had already developed his characteristic habit of never neglecting any point incidental to a research1 carefully studied them1 in order both to ascertain how far their presence affected the health of the leaf itself and to work out their life-history4 ,the outcome was three important papers4 ,one on ,meliola1 an obscure genus of tropical epiphyllous fungi1 belonging to the ,pyrenomycetes1 was published in the ,philosophical ,transactions in #ahhc4 ,bornet's classical memoir published in #ahea had been the authority on the subject4 ,ward was able to fill up large gaps in the knowledge of important details4 ,another paper published in the ,quarterly ,journal of ,microscopical ,science in #ahhb on an ,asterina illuminates an allied organism4 ,but the crown of all ,ward's ,ceylon work was the splendid memoir on a ,tropical ,epiphyllous ,lichen which was published by the ,linnean ,society in #ahhc4 ,in this he1 ,i think1 cleared up much that was obscure in the ,mycoidea parasitica described by ,d4 ,d4 ,cunningham4 ,having myself communicated the paper1 ,i shall always remember the pleasure with which ,i undertook in ,ward's absence to give an account of it4 ,he solved the problem with convincing completeness2 he extended ,schwendener's lichen theory to a group of obscure epiphyllous organisms of which he afforded1 for the first time1 a rational explanation4 ,the success with which this was accomplished placed him at once in the first rank of mycological investigators4 ,de ,bary was the leading authority on ,uredineae2 and in #ahhb ,ward paid a short visit to him at ,strasburg to confer with him on his coffee disease work1 the accuracy of which de ,bary entirely confirmed4 ,there he made the acquaintance of ,elfving and completed his ,meliola paper4 ,the outlook for ,ward was now precarious4 ,fortunately1 ,i found myself sitting next to ,sir ,henry ,roscoe at a ,royal ,society dinner1 and ,i suggested that ,ward1 as an old student of ,owens ,college1 would be a fitting recipient of a ,bishop ,berkeley ,fellowship for original research4 ,principal ,greenwood recorded the fact that the very important results already achieved by ,mr ,ward in ,ceylon1 in the domain of the higher botany1 led the ,senate and the ,council to make this appointment4 ,in #ahhc1 he was appointed ,assistant ,lecturer and ,demonstrator in ,botany1 and1 on the same testimony1 abundantly justified his election4 ,it was a peculiar pleasure to him to relieve the veteran ,professor ,williamson by taking entire charge of ,vegetable ,physiology and ,histology4 ,his position was1 in the same year1 made secure by his election to a ,fellowship at ,christ's ,college1 and he married the eldest daughter of the late ,francis ,kingdon1 of ,exeter1 who was a connection of ,clifford the mathematician4 ,the passion for research now completely possessed ,ward and never left him for the rest of his life4 ,he published papers which added much to our knowledge of the ,saprolegnieae a group of fungi of aquatic habit1 partly saprophytic and partly parasitic4 ,it is interesting to note that he was particularly attracted by the mode in which the hyphae attack the tissues on which they prey4 ,this was a matter on which he subsequently threw an entirely new light4 ,he made the interesting discovery of an aquatic ,myxomycete1 such a mode of existence being hitherto unknown in the group1 and worked out its life-history4 ,but his mind had now become definitely fixed on the problems presented by plant diseases1 and they remained the principal occupation of his life4 ,in their widest sense these resolve themselves into a consideration of the mode in which one organism obtains its nutriment at the expense of another4 ,this ranges from a complete destruction of the host by the parasite to a harmless and even advantageous symbiosis4 ,he was thus naturally led to an exhaustive study of the literature of the ,schizomycetes1 and contributed an article on the group in #ahhf to the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 which1 for the time at any rate1 gives the best account of it1 certainly in ,english1 and probably in any other language4 ,when he supplemented this in #aijb by the article on ,bacteriology1 it was largely to give an account of his own important discoveries4 ,in the earlier one1 he had pointed out the difficulties of a natural classification of ,schizomycetes due to their pleomorphism1 which ,lankester had demonstrated in #ahgc4 ,he returned to the subject in an article in the ,quarterly ,journal of ,microscopical ,science in #ahib4 ,it may be noted that1 in his ,british ,association address at ,toronto1 he took occasion to put in their proper relation the work of ,cohn and of his pupil ,koch4 ,in #ahhe1 the ,regius ,professorship of ,botany at ,glasgow was vacant by the transference of ,prof4 ,balfour to ,oxford4 ,ward was a candidate with the warm support of his fellow-botanists4 ,it was thought that his ,colonial services would weigh with the ,government2 but other influences were at work in favour of another candidate1 whom1 however1 the ,university refused to accept4 ,a deadlock ensued1 which was only solved by the ,government finally refusing to appoint either candidate4 ,this was a great disappointment to ,ward1 which was in some degree mitigated by his appointment to the new ,chair of ,botany in the ,forestry ,branch of the ,royal ,indian ,engineering ,college1 ,cooper's ,hill4 ,the utilitarian atmosphere in which he found himself was not very congenial to him4 ,but he had at any rate at last some sort of adequate position and a laboratory to work in1 and here he remained--not1 ,i think1 unhappily--for ten years4 ,he was1 as he had been at ,manchester1 a successful teacher1 and had the gift of interesting his pupils1 whom he used to bring weekly to ,kew during the summer months to visit the ,arboretum4 ,in point of research1 this was the period of much of his most brilliant work4 ,the study of ,uredineae occupied ,ward at intervals during his life4 ,the reproductive organs are pleomorphic1 and it is no easy task to ascertain with certainty those that belong to the same life-history4 ,in a paper on ,entyloma ,ranunculi1 published in the ,phil4 ,trans4 in #ahhg1 ,ward for the first time traced the germination of the conidia of an ,entyloma1 and confirmed ,winter's suggestion that they were not an independent organism1 but actually belonged to it4 ,incidentally he discussed the conditions which are favourable to the invasion of a host by a parasitic fungus4 ,this raised the question of immunity1 to which at intervals he repeatedly returned4 ,about the same time he published in the ,quarterly ,journal of ,microscopical ,science the results of an investigation undertaken for the ,science and ,art ,department on the mode of infection of the potato plant by ,phytophthora infestans1 which produces the potato disease4 ,it was not easy to add anything to the classical work of de ,bary1 but it was ascertained that the development of the zoospores is delayed or even arrested by direct daylight1 and ,ward's attention was attracted to the problem1 which he afterwards solved1 of how the hyphae erode the cell-wall4 ,the solution was given in #ahhh in a paper in the ,annals of ,botany1 ,on a ,lily ,disease1 which has now become classical4 ,he discusses the fungus which produces it1 and shows that the tips of the hyphae secrete a cellulose-dissolving ferment which enables them to pierce the cell-walls of the host4 ,this ferment has since been described as cytase4 ,he shows that its production would determine the passage from a merely saprophytic to a parasitic habit1 and makes the suggestion that an organism might be educated to pass from one to the other4 ,an admirable research 7#ahhg7 was on the formation of the yellow dye obtained from ,persian berries 7,rhamnus infectorius74 ,a dyer had found that uninjured berries afforded a poorer colouring liquor than crushed4 ,gellatly had found1 in #ahea1 that they contained a glucoside1 xanthorhamnin1 which sulphuric acid broke up into rhamnetin and grape-sugar4 ,the problem was to localise the ferment which did the work4 ,ward obtained the unexpected result that it was confined to the raphe of the seed4 ,as early as #ahhc ,ward had attacked a problem which he pursued at intervals for some years1 and which was fraught with consequences wholly unforeseen at the time4 ,it had long been known that leguminous plants almost invariably carried tubercular swellings on their roots4 ,the opinion had gradually gained ground that they were due to the action of a parasite4 ,bacteria-like corpuscles had been found in the cells of the tubercle1 and it was assumed that they had played some part in exciting the growth of the latter4 ,no one had as yet succeeded in infecting the roots and in producing the tubercles artificially4 ,ward described1 in a paper in the ,phil4 ,trans4 in #ahhg1 how he had accomplished this4 ,he showed1 in fact1 that a definite organism invades the roots from the soil1 and finds its access by the root-hairs4 ,lawes and ,gilbert had long ago proved that the higher plants are incapable of assimilating free nitrogen4 ,hellriegel and ,wilfarth had1 however1 shown in #ahhf that leguminous plants carry away more nitrogen from the soil than could be accounted for4 ,this ,ward confirmed by his own pot-experiments1 and satisfied himself that the excess could only be derived from the free nitrogen of the air4 ,hellriegel further concluded that the tubercles played an essential part in the process4 ,ward had no doubt that the bacteroids were the channel of supply4 ,but he failed to get any proof that they could assimilate free nitrogen outside the plant4 ,he suggested that their symbiosis might be an essential condition1 and was obliged finally to leave it an open question whether the cells of the tubercles or the bacteroids were the active agents in nitrogen assimilation4 ,he had already stated in #ahhg that it is very probable that the bacteroids may be of extreme importance in agriculture4 ,but he was never satisfied with anything short of the strictest proof4 ,in #ahij ,ward was invited to deliver the ,croonian ,lecture4 ,he chose for his subject the relation between host and parasite in plant disease4 ,he defined disease in its most generalised form as the outcome of a want of balance in the struggle for existence4 ,but the particular problem to which he addressed himself was the way in which the balance is turned when one organism is invaded by another4 ,this is the most common type of disease in plants and a not infrequent one in animals4 ,the first result reached was identical with that of ,pasteur for the latter2 the normal organism is intrinsically resistant to disease4 ,it is an immediate inference that natural selection would make it so4 ,ward then discusses very clearly the physiological conditions of susceptibility1 which he shows to be a deviation from the normal4 ,he had already indicated this in the case of ,entyloma4 ,the epidemic phase is reached when the environment is unfavourable to the host but not so or even favourable to the parasite4 ,he then attacks the more obscure case where there is no obvious susceptibility4 ,this1 he finds1 resolves itself into a mere case of the struggle for existence3 a struggle between the hypha of the fungus and the cells of the host4 ,it is more subtle in its operation but of the same order of ruthlessness as the ravages of a carnivore4 ,ward's account of the struggle is almost dramatic4 ,the cellulose outworks are first broken down1 as he had previously shown1 by a secreted ferment4 ,the real tug of war comes when the hypha is face to face with the ectoplasm4 ,its resistance is at once overcome by flooding it with a poison1 probably oxalic acid4 ,war with attack and defence is a product of evolution4 ,how did it come about in this particular case8 ,ward convincingly traces out the whole process4 ,the normal plant obtains its food from inorganic material4 ,but when opportunity offers it easily lapses into a condition in which it takes the material for metabolism ready made from the decay of others and becomes saprophytic4 ,ward shows that it is only a step to the attack on the living1 and for the saprophyte to become a parasite1 and he further shows that it can be readily educated to be so4 ,he does not hesitate to suggest that the function of conidia in the complicated cycle of fungal reproduction is to form the cellulose-dissolving ferment4 ,but now and again the host does not succumb to its invader4 ,a truce is sometimes called in the struggle1 and host and parasite are content to live together in a mutually advantageous symbiosis or commensalism4 ,three years earlier1 in #ahhg1 ,ward's attention had been drawn by a happy accident to the physiological aspect of symbiosis1 and it never ceased to occupy his mind4 ,it was well known that ginger-beer was made in villages in stone bottles4 ,the fermentation was effected by the so-called ginger-beer plant which was passed on from family to family1 but nothing was known as to how or where it originated4 ,it seemed to have some analogy with the ,kephir of the ,caucasus4 ,a specimen was sent to me from the ,eastern ,counties1 and it stood for some time in the sun in my study4 ,i noticed the vigorous growth accompanied by a copious evolution of gas4 ,ward coming to see me one day1 ,i handed it over to him as a problem worth his attention4 ,at the same time ,prof4 ,bayley ,balfour had examined it and concluded that it was a mixture of a yeast and a bacterium4 ,its study involved ,ward in a very laborious research which occupied him for some years1 and of which the results were published in the ,phil4 ,trans4 in #ahib4 ,it proved to be a mixture of very various organisms1 every one of which ,ward exhaustively studied4 ,this required not less than #bjjj separate cultures4 ,the essential components proved to be1 as ,balfour had suggested1 a yeast derived from the sugar and a bacterium from the ginger4 ,both were anarobic2 the yeast fermented cane-sugar with the copious production of carbon dioxide but little alcohol2 the bacterium also produced carbon dioxide1 even in a vacuum tube4 ,the action of the two components studied separately proved to be not the same as when they worked in concert4 ,this was conspicuously the case with the evolution of carbon dioxide1 which proceeded with such violence as to make the research attended with considerable danger4 ,it is known that the action of ferments may be checked by the inhibition of the products formed4 ,ward pointed out that while the use of these might be advantageous to the bacterium1 their consequent removal might be equally so to the yeast4 ,this established the important principle of symbiotic fermentation and gave it a rational explanation4 ,on the morphological side ,ward showed that the ginger-beer plant is comparable to a gelatinous lichen1 and1 having resolved it into its constituents1 successfully reconstituted it4 ,the new conception threw a flood of light on many obscure points in fermentation generally1 and it is not surprising that ,ward's work at once attracted the attention of the brewing industry4 ,it led him to an even more fertile suggestion1 that of metabiosis4 ,it was known that the finest wine is sometimes produced from mouldy grapes4 ,he regarded this as a case of one organism preparing the way for another4 ,he returned to the subject in a lecture given at the ,british ,association at ,dover in #ahii and pointed out that in the ,japanese manufacture of ,sak1 an ,aspergillus prepares the way for the yeast4 ,he also showed that metabiosis played an important part in nitrification4 ,fungi cannot draw their nutriment from solid materials without first profoundly modifying them4 ,they accomplish a large part of their digestion1 so to speak1 externally to themselves4 ,this constantly occupied ,ward's mind4 ,he insisted on the part played in the process by ferments4 ,the hyphae of ,stereum 7,phil4 ,trans4 #ahih7 delignify the walls of the wood elements of ,aesculus layer by layer1 and then consume the swollen cellulose4 ,he failed1 however1 to isolate the ferment which does the work4 ,nor was he more fortunate with the little known fungus ,onygena1 which grows on horn1 hoofs and hair1 setting free ammonia as a final product 7,phil4 ,trans4 #ahii74 ,that there must be some hydrolysis of keratin can hardly be doubted1 for ,ward established the remarkable fact that the walls of the hyphae contain no cellulose1 but are composed of chitin4 ,onygena has1 in fact1 abandoned a plant for an animal nutrition4 ,this would place the germination of the species at a great disadvantage4 ,but he found that this difficulty was overcome by the spores which had been licked from the skin germinating in the gastric juice of the animal's stomach1 and1 when voided in the excreta1 infecting a new host by accidental contact4 ,in the case of both ,stereum and ,onygena he accomplished for the first time the difficult task of tracing their life-history from spore to fructification4 ,ward had prepared himself for the study of bacteria1 and in the nineties he undertook1 with ,prof4 ,percy ,frankland1 a prolonged research on behalf of the ,royal ,society as to the conditions of their occurrence in potable water4 ,the reports of the results fill a thick volume1 and the amount of work involved is almost incredible4 ,the bacteriology was entirely due to ,ward4 ,that bacteria are not an inevitable element in potable water is proved by their absence from that of deep springs4 ,they are arrested by filtration through the earth's crust4 ,in any river system they are comparatively fewer towards the watershed1 and more frequent towards the mouth4 ,the obvious conclusion is that they are derived from the drainage of the land4 ,as it is known that the bacteria of cholera and typhoid are water-borne1 it becomes a problem of vital importance to ascertain if river water is a possible means of distributing these diseases4 ,ward set to work to ascertain3 7i7 ,what was the actual bacterial flora of ,thames water2 7ii7 if this included any pathogenic organisms2 7iii7 if not1 what became of them8 ,the labour required by the first two branches of the enquiry was enormous2 he identified and cultivated some eighty species2 the resulting answer to the second was happily in the negative4 ,as to the third1 two facts were known4 ,first1 that river water1 if stored1 largely cleared itself of bacteria by mere subsidence2 secondly1 that ,downes and ,blunt1 in a classical paper communicated to the ,royal ,society in #ahgg1 had shown that exposure to direct sunlight is fatal to bacteria in a fluid medium4 ,ward showed that subsidence could not be entirely relied on1 as the sediment might easily become the source of re-infection4 ,the effect of sunlight required more critical examination4 ,it was known that the spores of anthrax were liable to be washed into rivers4 ,ward determined to study this as the most extreme type of pathogenic infection4 ,as it is undoubtedly the most deadly micro-organism known1 and ,ward proposed to deal with it on a large scale1 it implied no small degree of courage4 ,he found that the spores of anthrax were effectually killed by a few hours' exposure to even the reflected light of a low winter sun4 ,it was clear that this was due to the direct action of the light and not to any heating effect1 apart from the fact that they will tolerate boiling for a few minutes4 ,it was further shown that there was no foundation for the theory of ,roux and ,duclaux that their death was due to poisoning by products of oxidation of the food-medium4 ,proof of this1 indeed1 was hardly required1 for ,pasteur had shown that the bacteria floating in the atmosphere are mostly dead4 ,were it not so1 no surgical operation would be possible4 ,to the bactericidal effect of sunlight is equally to be attributed the absence of bacteria from the ,high ,alps4 ,the next point was to ascertain to what rays the effect was due4 ,the spores of anthrax are so minute that1 when mixed in large numbers with gelatine1 they do not affect its transparency1 ,a plate of glass coated with the mixture is at first clear1 but ceases to be so if kept in the dark1 owing to the germination of the spores4 ,ward found1 in fact1 that a photograph could be printed with it1 the darkening being the reverse of that of a silver plate4 ,after experiments with coloured screens he completely solved the problem in #ahic1 with the aid of apparatus supplied by ,sir ,oliver ,lodge and some advice from ,sir ,gabriel ,stokes1 by photographing the spectrum on such a plate4 ,it was at once seen that the destructive effect was due to rays of high refrangibility1 and1 what was extremely important1 extended to1 and found its maximum in1 the ultra-violet4 ,the same results were obtained with the typhoid bacillus4 ,he made the suggestion that the arc light might be used for the disinfection of hospitals and railway carriages4 ,comparatively little was known of the life history of any ,schizomycete4 ,ward therefore made a detailed and exhaustive study of that of ,bacillus ramosus1 the ,wurzel bacillus of ,german authors1 which is common in ,thames water1 and bears a superficial resemblance to the anthrax bacillus1 but is innocuous4 ,it proved convenient for study1 as it ran through its entire life history in from thirty to sixty hours at ordinary temperature4 ,it forms long filaments1 the growth of which ,ward was able to measure under the microscope with great precision4 ,on plotting out his measurements he obtained a regular curve1 from which he found that1 under constant conditions1 the filament doubled itself in equal times4 ,this he called the law of doubling4 ,it is the same as the so-called law of compound interest1 and leads to the expression of the growing quantity as an exponential function of the time1 so that the time is proportional to the logarithm of that quantity4 ,this relation has1 of course1 long been familiar in chemical reactions1 but1 as far as ,i know1 ,ward was the first to detect it in any vital process in a plant4 ,this1 which was in #ahie1 has1 ,i think1 been overlooked4 ,stefanowska has since1 in #aijd1 obtained a logarithmic curve for the early period of the growth of maize1 which doubles its weight every ten days1 and the subject has since been pursued by ,chodat and others4 ,in speculating on the cause of the destructive action of light on bacteria1 ,ward adopted the view of his friend ,elfving1 that it inhibited metabolic processes necessary to nutrition4 ,he suggests that the constructed metabolites at the moment of assimilation are in a highly unstable condition1 and liable to destruction by oxidation promoted by light4 ,he points to the fact that plant structures are frequently provided with colour screens1 which would cut off the blue-violet rays and check their action in promoting the rapid oxidation of reserve materials1 and he quotes the suggestion of ,elfving that chlorophyll itself may serve as such a screen against destructive metabolic action in synthesis4 ,ward seems to have attributed little importance to the fact that substantially the same view had long before been put forward by ,pringsheim1 though received with little favour4 ,his own view that when red and orange predominate in the screens their effect is protective1 has since afforded a probable explanation of the colouration of young foliage1 especially in the tropics4 ,it can hardly be doubted that the upshot of ,ward's laborious investigations has had a powerful influence in deciding the policy of the future water supply of ,london4 ,if we hear nothing now of obtaining it from ,wales1 it is because we know that even polluted flood-water if exposed in large reservoirs will rid itself of its bacterial contamination1 partly1 as was known already1 by subsidence1 but most effectually1 as shown by ,ward1 by the destruction of its most deleterious constituents by the direct action of sunlight4 ,in #ahie1 ,ward was called to the ,chair of ,botany at ,cambridge4 ,he was supported by a distinguished body of fellow-workers1 and developed a flourishing school1 in which every branch of the science found its scope4 ,the ,university erected for it an institute which is probably the best equipped in the country1 and in ,march1 #aijd1 ,i had the pleasure of seeing ,ward receive the ,king and ,queen at its inauguration4 ,during the later years of ,ward's life he returned to the study of the ,uredineae4 ,the scourge of wheat perhaps from the dawn of agriculture has been ,rust1 ,ut mala culmos esset rubigo 444 intereunt segetes2 and the loss inflicted by it throughout the world is probably not calculable4 ,but the history of the ,ceylon coffee disease is only too patent an instance of the injury a uredine can effect4 ,eriksson1 the most recent authority on the subject1 had found himself quite unable to account for sudden outbursts of rust which it did not seem possible to attribute to the result of infection4 ,in #ahig he launched his celebrated theory of the ,mycoplasm4 ,he supposed that a cereal subject to rust was permanently diseased and always had been2 that the protoplasm of the ,uredo-parasite and of the cereal1 though discrete1 were intermingled and were continuously propagated together2 but that while that of the latter was continuously active1 that of the former might be latent till called into activity by conditions which favoured it4 ,ward discussed the theory in his ,british ,association address at ,toronto1 and was evidently a good deal impressed with it1 but nothing short of actual demonstration ever convinced him2 and when he proceeded to investigate the actual histological facts on which the theory rested he promptly exploded it4 ,it is interesting to note that ,ward1 as ,i know from correspondence at the time1 had himself been embarrassed in investigating the ,ceylon coffee disease by the same kind of appearance which had misled ,eriksson4 ,it is due to an optical fallacy4 ,when the hypha of a uredine attacks a cell it is unable to perforate it with its whole diameter4 ,it infects it1 however1 with a reduced and slender filament2 this expands again after perforation into a rounded body1 the haustorium4 ,in a tangential section the perforating filament cannot be distinguished1 and the haustorium looks like an independent body immersed in the cell-protoplasm and with no external connection4 ,it requires a fortunate normal section to reveal what has really taken place4 ,ward was accordingly able1 in a paper in the ,phil4 ,trans4 in #aijc1 to dispose conclusively of the mycoplasm4 ,this cleared the ground of an untenable hypothesis4 ,the complicated nature of the problem which still presented itself for investigation can only be briefly indicated4 ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 whose scientific instinct was sound but curiously inarticulate1 had pointed out that the spores entered the stomata1 and warned farmers against using rusted litter4 ,henslow1 one of ,ward's predecessors in the ,cambridge chair1 had been confirmed by ,tulasne in showing that the uredo-and puccinia-spores 7of the barberry7 belonged to the same fungus4 ,de ,bary traced the germination of the spores and the mode in which the hyphae invaded the host2 the fundamental fact1 which he observed but did not explain1 was that the germinal filament1 after growing for a time superficially1 bent down to enter the tissues of its host4 ,pfeffer in #ahhc discovered chemotaxis1 the directive action of chemical substances on the movement of mobile organisms4 ,de ,bary had previously hinted that the hypha might be attracted by some chemical ingredient of the host plant4 ,myoshi1 a pupil of ,pfeffer's1 showed finally in #ahid that if a plant were injected by a chemotropic substance a fungus-hypha not ordinarily parasitic might be made to behave as such and attack it4 ,in such circumstances it might seem that the host was not merely incapable of resisting invasion by the parasite but actually invited its attack4 ,nature is1 however1 not easily baffled in the struggle for existence4 ,attack provokes new methods of defence4 ,ward soon found himself face to face with problems of great complexity1 and these occupied the closing years of his life4 ,it had been ascertained in fact that the rust fungus is not1 as was at first supposed1 a single organism1 but comprises1 according to ,eriksson1 thirteen distinct species1 each with physiological varieties1 and that those which are destructive to some grasses and cereals1 are incapable of attacking others4 ,this necessitated a scrutiny of the nature of grass-immunity4 ,in a paper communicated to the ,cambridge ,philosophical ,society in #aijb1 ,ward announced a conclusion which was as important as it was unexpected4 ,he had more and more made use of the graphical method for presenting to the eye at a glance the result of a mass of separate observations4 ,in this case he uses it with striking effect4 ,he shows conclusively1 as far as rust in brome-grasses is concerned1 that3 ,the capacity for infection1 or for resistance to infection1 is independent of the anatomical structure of the leaf1 and must depend on some other internal factor or factors in the plant4 ,finally1 he is led to the conclusion that it is in the domain of the invisible biological properties of the living cell that we must expect the phenomena to reside4 ,he pointed out the probability that light would be thrown on this from the action of chemotaxis1 on the one hand1 and from that of toxins and antitoxins in animal organisms on the other4 ,this is a most fertile conception1 which would1 however1 have required a good deal of verification1 and this1 unhappily1 he did not live to attempt4 ,but with characteristic ingenuity he pointed out the analogy between the infective capacity of uredospores and the prepotency of pollen1 which had previously engaged the attention of ,darwin4 ,in a paper published in the following year in the ,berlin ,annales ,mycologici1 he announced a no less significant result4 ,with his usual thoroughness in research he had cultivated side by side at ,cambridge more than two hundred species and varieties of ,bromus1 and had watched the degree to which they were infected by rust under identical conditions4 ,he found that though in the brome-grasses the rust peculiar to them is specifically identical its forms are highly specialised4 ,the form which attacks the species of one group will not attack those of another4 ,host and parasite are mutually attuned4 ,he termed this adaptive parasitism4 ,this raised the problem1 which had first occurred to him in ,ceylon1 of how a parasite adapted to species of one circle of alliance can pass to those of another4 ,occasionally it happens that a uredo-form will infect a species where it ordinarily fails4 ,in such a case its uredospore progeny will thenceforth readily infect that species4 ,ward regarded this as a case of education4 ,working on this principle1 he succeeded by growing the parasite successively on a series of allied species which were imperfectly resistant1 to ultimately educate it to attack a species hitherto immune4 ,he called these bridgeing species4 ,he established1 in fact1 a complete parallelism between the behaviour of rust-fungi and that of pathogenic organisms in animals4 ,in the midst of this far-reaching research his health began to fail4 ,in #aijd he had been appointed by the ,council to represent the ,royal ,society at the ,international ,congress of ,botany held at ,vienna in ,june of the following year4 ,this he attended1 though more seriously ill than he was aware of4 ,on his way back he spent three weeks for treatment at ,carlsbad1 but receiving no benefit1 he went1 on the advice of ,dr ,krause1 to ,dr von ,noorden's ,klinik at ,sachsenhausen 7,frankfort74 ,nothing could be done for him1 and he was advised to return home by easy stages4 ,after a period of progressive and extreme weakness1 borne with unflinching courage1 the end came somewhat suddenly at ,torquay on ,august #bf1 #aijf4 ,he was buried at ,cambridge in ,st ,giles's ,cemetery on ,september #c4 ,from #ahhj1 the year following his degree1 ,ward never ceased for a quarter of a century to pour out a continuous stream of original work4 ,this alone would be a remarkable performance1 had he done nothing else4 ,but he was constantly engaged in teaching work1 and he acted as examiner in the ,universities of ,london and ,edinburgh4 ,with no less conscientiousness he complied with the demands which the scientific world makes on its members2 he served on the ,councils of the ,royal 7#ahie7 and ,linnean 7#ahhg7 ,societies2 he was ,president of the ,botanical ,section of the ,british ,association at ,toronto in #ahig1 and of the ,cambridge ,philosophical ,society in #aijd4 ,beyond all this he found time to give addresses with unfailing freshness of insight2 a lecture at the ,royal ,institution on ,april #bg1 #ahid1 on the ,action of ,light on ,bacteria and ,fungi was a notable performance2 he wrote numerous articles of a more popular kind1 and he produced a number of excellent manuals for students on subjects connected with forest1 agricultural and pathological botany4 ,activity so strenuous almost exceeds the limits of human possibility4 ,under the influence of ,sachs1 ,ward might have become a distinguished morphologist4 ,but his work in ,ceylon led him into a field of research from which he never deviated4 ,a survey of his performance as a whole1 such as ,i have attempted1 has a scientific interest of its own4 ,his research was not haphazard4 ,a continuous and developing thread of thought runs through it all4 ,the fundamental problem was the transference of the nutrition of one organism to the service of another4 ,of this1 in ,ceylon1 ,ward found himself confronted with two extreme types1 and of both he made an exhaustive study4 ,in ,hemileia it was ruthless parasitism2 in ,strigula advantageous commensalism4 ,bornet put ,schwendener's theory on a firm foundation when he effected the synthesis of a lichen2 ,ward1 in another group1 did the same thing for the ginger-beer plant4 ,in such cases the partnership is beneficial4 ,the problem is to trace the process by which one partner gets the upper hand and becomes merely predatory4 ,ward inherited a strong taste for music1 though ,i believe he never cultivated it4 ,a musical simile may not inappropriately be applied to his work4 ,in its whole it presents itself to me as a symphony in which the education of protoplasm is a recurring leit-motiv4 ,a few words must be said as to his personal characteristics4 ,he had all the qualifications for the kind of research to which he devoted himself4 ,he was singularly dexterous and skilful in manipulation4 ,he was a refined and accomplished draughtsman1 and was therefore able to do himself justice by illustration4 ,he was rigorous in demanding exhaustive proof4 ,this almost deteriorated into a defect4 ,he would pursue every side issue which presented itself in a research1 and was quite content if it led to nothing4 ,he would say in such a case3 ,i will not leave a stone unturned4 ,he was apt1 too1 ,i think1 to attack a problem in too generalised a form4 ,in his nitrogen work it always seemed to me that he wasted energy on remote possibilities1 when a clean-cut line of attack would have served him better#acd4 ,but his mind worked in that way1 and he could not help himself4 ,it was1 ,i think1 one of the most fertile in suggestion that ,i ever came across4 ,in later years1 in conversation especially1 thought seemed to come quicker than words to express it4 ,in this respect he reminded one of ,lord ,kelvin4 ,in such a predicament he would simply remain silent1 and slowly move his head4 ,this habit1 ,i think1 explains the reputation of being mysterious which he seems to have acquired latterly at ,cambridge4 ,he was not without the honour at home which he deserved1 apart from the affection of his friends1 and had he lived would doubtless have received it from abroad4 ,he was elected ,f4,r4,s4 in #ahhh1 and received the ,royal ,medal in #ahic4 ,he was elected an ,honorary ,fellow of ,christ's ,college in #ahig1 and received an ,honorary ,d4,sc4 from the ,victoria ,university in #aijb4 ,botanical science could ill spare his loss at the early age of #eb4 ,but it may be grateful for #be years of illuminating achievement4 ,it might have been hoped that another quarter of a century would be allotted to one so gifted4 ,but if the inexorabile fatum decreed otherwise1 he is at least to be numbered amongst those of whom it may be said ,felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas4 ,,footnote3 #acd ,,nov4 #aiaa4 ,i must guard myself against the implication that ,marshall ,ward's method was wrong in principle4 ,for as pointed out by ,prof4 ,turner in his ,address to the ,mathematical and ,physical ,section of the ,british ,association at ,portsmouth the maxim of leaving no stone unturned is identical with ,prof4 ,chamberlin's ,method of ,multiple ,working ,hypotheses4 ,and what is at first sight an unlikely hypothesis may turn out to be the true one4 ,yet the rigorous application of the method is time-consuming and life is short4 ,some liberty of selection in testing the hypothesis that seems most probable must be allowed the investigator1 and the instinct of genius may sometimes hit on the right one4 ,a ,,sketch ,,of ,,the ,,professors ,,of ,,botany ,,in ,,edinburgh ,,from #afgj ,,until #ahhg ,,by ,,isaac ,,bayley ,,balfour ,medicine and ,botany--,james ,sutherland--enforced retirement--the ,prestons--,charles ,alston--his career--,john ,hope--,physiological leanings--,daniel ,rutherford--,robert ,graham--,john ,hutton ,balfour--characteristics--,botanic ,society of ,edinburgh founded--appointed to ,glasgow--transfer to ,edinburgh--his numerous activities--laboratory teaching established--field excursions--,ecology--attitude to ,darwinism--,alexander ,dickson--work in ,organography--his versatility4 ,my task in the warring against oblivion typified in these addresses is to speak about ,john ,hutton ,balfour of ,edinburgh1 one of the botanical teachers of the middle of last century1 whose pupils were numbered by thousands1 and whose active life bridged the period of the passing of the old and the birth of the new outlook upon science through ,darwin's work2 and in relation to what ,i have to say of him ,i propose to sketch briefly the stages and development of botanical teaching in ,edinburgh from the date when systematised attention was first given to it4 ,of the well-recognised fact that the study of ,botany as a science has been1 to begin with1 dependent on ,medicine my story furnishes an excellent illustration4 ,only towards the end of the seventeenth century had the advance in practice of ,medicine in ,edinburgh reached a stage which gave urgency to a movement for the improvement in the training of the medical man1 and the protection of the public from the attentions of inefficient votaries of the healing art4 ,the foundation of the ,royal ,college of ,physicians in #afha gave expression to the co-operative principle in the control of those who would profess ,medicine2 the creation of a ,botanic ,garden for the purpose of the cultivation of medicinal plants was the response in the direction of safeguarding the practitioner against the herbalist1 and of giving him the advantage of a correct knowledge of the plants which were the source of the drugs he himself was to compound4 ,before this time1 whilst many practitioners could grow drug-plants for themselves1 and did so1 the majority were at the mercy of the herbalist4 ,two ,edinburgh physicians--7,sir7 ,robert ,sibbald and 7,sir7 ,andrew ,balfour--conspicuous among their fellows for their activity in promoting the cause of medical education and in the planning of the ,royal ,college of ,physicians1 were the pioneers of the study of ,botany as a science4 ,determined that the apprentices in ,medicine should have adequate opportunity of learning the sources of many of the drugs in use1 they acquired a lease of a small area of land in the neighbourhood of ,holyrood ,palace in which they arranged to cultivate medicinal plants1 stocking it from their own gardens and from those of friends4 ,they secured the services of ,james ,sutherland--described as knowing in these matters--and placed their small garden under his care1 with the obligation that he should instruct the apprentices and lieges in ,botany4 ,sutherland cultivated his plants so well1 and the instruction which he gave was so satisfactory1 that ere long--no doubt through ,sibbald's influence at ,court--a portion of the ,royal ,flower ,garden at ,holyrood ,palace was assigned for the cultivation of medicinal plants1 and thither was transferred the collection already made in the hired area4 ,thus was founded1 with the title of ,physick ,garden1 a ,royal ,botanic ,garden in ,scotland1 and the first ,profession of ,botany was set up therein by ,james ,sutherland4 ,of the earlier years of ,sutherland we have no record4 ,his success as a teacher induced the ,town ,council of ,edinburgh--the body in which was vested at the time all the patronage of the ,university--to institute a ,chair of ,botany in the ,university1 and to provide for practical teaching in another ,botanic ,garden belonging to the town4 ,sutherland was appointed to the ,professorship and also to take charge of this new ,town ,garden1 which1 it may interest those who at the present day pass through the ,waverley ,railway ,station to know1 occupied a portion of the site of that station4 ,both these gardens were at some distance from the ,university1 and apparently to save the time of the ,university students1 perhaps also to create a teaching garden entirely within the jurisdiction of the ,college authorities1 another portion of ground occupying a part of the ,kirk o' ,field1 notorious as the place of ,darnley's murder1 was transformed into a herb-garden4 ,thus within a few years from the beginning of the movement for the providing of adequate facilities to students for learning about plants1 three ,botanic ,gardens were made available4 ,during ,sutherland's tenure of the ,professorship teaching was given by him in these different gardens4 ,it would appear1 however1 that ,sutherland was at heart a numismatist1 and whilst during the early period of his incumbency of office he had corresponded with many botanical institutions abroad1 had introduced to the gardens new species of plants--many of them now established in the flora--and had published in #afhc a ,catalogue of the plants in the ,physical ,garden1 in later years his interest was centred in coins and medals4 ,so great was the obsession that the patrons of the ,university1 dissatisfied with his botany1 compelled him to resign his ,chair in #agjf1 to which they appointed ,charles ,preston1 but ,sutherland retained1 until he retired in #agae1 charge of the ,royal ,botanic ,garden at ,holyrood1 of which by ,royal ,warrant he had been made ,keeper with the additional personal recognition of ,botanist to the ,king in ,scotland4 ,thus the increase in number of gardens extended to the ,professors1 and from #agjf onwards to #agci there were two rival ,botanical ,schools in ,edinburgh--that of the ,royal ,garden1 and that of the ,university4 ,sutherland's place in relation to the development of scientific ,botany in ,scotland is that of pioneer in the teaching of systematic ,botany from the living plants in relation to ,materia ,medica1 and of first custodian and cultivator of plants for instruction in a public garden4 ,his ,catalogue is now a book of some rarity--of great rarity in complete state owing to the number of cancel pages--and its reproduction at the present time would have interest alike scientific and historic4 ,it is the first published record of a collection of cultivated plants in ,scotland4 ,it tells us the plants which were recognised as indigenous at its date1 and from its record we can by correlation with information otherwise obtainable discover the time of introduction to ,scotland of alien plants1 and thus obtain a basis for gauging their influence on the native ,flora as we know it now4 ,charles ,preston who stepped into the ,university ,chair of ,botany vacated in #agjf by ,sutherland1 was a medical man1 an active correspondent of ,sloan1 ,pettiver1 and other scientific men in the south4 ,on his death in #agab1 after a short tenure of office1 ,george ,preston his brother succeeded him and filled the chair until #agci4 ,both of the ,prestons seem to have been chiefly interested in the ,materia ,medica side of ,botany and their teaching was on the lines of it4 ,they are referred to by their contemporaries as men of botanical knowledge and of critical judgment1 and their correspondence indicates that they were in touch with the botanical life of their time4 ,their work in teaching was always in rivalry with that at the ,royal ,physick ,garden4 ,at first no doubt it was effective and useful owing to ,sutherland's neglect of his garden1 but when a capable active scientific ,professor was placed in charge of this ,garden the case for such rivalry and duplication of effort ceased1 and it is no surprise therefore to find that when a vacancy occurred in #agci the ,university ,chair was filled by the appointment of the ,king's ,botanist in ,charge of the ,royal ,physick ,garden1 who was then ,dr ,charles ,alston4 ,and this combination continues to our own time by mutual consent of the ,crown and the ,university4 ,sutherland's retirement in #agae from the ,royal ,physick ,garden four years before his death1 which took place in #agai when he was over #hj years of age1 may have been determined by his incapacity for the duties1 but it is probable other influences were effective especially as the office of ,king's ,botanist was a ,household ,appointment and only during pleasure4 ,were ,i merely to tell of incidents in the history of ,botany in ,edinburgh ,i would here introduce the story of ,dr ,william ,arthur1 ,sutherland's successor at the ,royal ,garden4 ,arthur has no botanical claims1 but had influential political friends whose zeal on his behalf he ill requited by becoming one of the leaders in the ,jacobite plot to capture the ,castle of ,edinburgh in #agae4 ,having failed in the attempt he escaped to ,italy1 where in #agaf he died from a surfeit of figs6 ,ignoble fate for a ,king's ,botanist6 ,a man of real distinction now comes into our botanical history in ,charles ,alston--a clear observer and experimenter4 ,charles ,alston1 born #bdth ,october1 #afhe1 was the third son of ,thomas ,alston1 ,m4,a4 of ,edinburgh and ,m4,d4 of ,caen1 one of an old ,lanarkshire family settled at ,thrinacre ,milne and connected with the house of ,hamilton4 ,after boyhood at ,hamilton1 ,alston went to the ,university of ,glasgow1 but before the period for graduation his father died leaving a widow and large family poorly provided for and young ,alston's ,university career was stopped4 ,through the intervention of the ,duchess of ,hamilton ,alston was then apprenticed in #agjc to a lawyer with a view to his entering the ,estates ,office of the ,hamilton family4 ,but anatomy and the shops were more agreeable to him than ,style ,books or the ,parliament ,house and his genius inclined more to ,medicine1 and in #agji when the ,duchess took him into her service as her ,principal ,servant1 in which position he had aboundance of spare time1 he ply'd close the ,mathematics and whatever else he thought of use to a student of ,medicine1 particularly ,botany4 ,with this training ,alston1 through the influence of the ,hamilton family1 was made ,king's ,botanist1 ,professor of ,botany1 and ,keeper of the ,royal ,physick ,garden in #agaf after the disappearance of ,dr ,arthur4 ,he adopted a wise course on succession4 ,having put the ,garden in such order as he could he hied himself to ,leyden in #agah to study under ,boerhaave1 and returning thence in ,august #agai he graduated in ,medicine at the ,university of ,glasgow1 became ,fellow of the ,royal ,college of ,physicians1 and in ,june #agbj was able to begin his botanical lectures in the ,garden1 followed in ,november by a course on ,materia ,medica4 ,these courses he carried on until #agci when he was given the ,university ,chair of ,botany and ,materia ,medica1 and the two ,botany ,schools were thus merged in one4 ,alston was now colleague of ,munro1 ,rutherford1 ,sinclair1 and other famous men who at this time were increasing the reputation of the ,university as a ,medical ,school1 and he continued to teach ,botany and ,materia ,medica until his death in #agfj4 ,alston's teaching was mainly directed to the ,materia ,medica4 ,his full course of lectures on the subject prepared for publication by himself appeared only as a posthumous work edited by his successor ,dr ,hope1 and they reflect the best knowledge of the time1 showing rational scepticism of the efficacy of many simples which experiment had not tested4 ,essays ,on ,opium1 and ,on tin as anthelmintic1 and an ,index of ,simples published by him tell of his pharmacological investigations1 to which his correspondence with ,fothergill and others is also witness4 ,the subject in this line to which he gave most attention and on which he wrote three dissertations based on experiments is that of ,quicklime and ,water--its efficacy in ,calculus and also as an agent for keeping water sweet4 ,from ,alston1 ,stephen ,hales1 then in touch with the ,admiralty upon questions of ventilation and other matters of sanitation1 obtained early suggestions1 and a long correspondence followed4 ,alston1 who had to earn his livelihood by medical practice1 gave much time to the administration of the ,botanic ,gardens under his charge1 and the elaborate lists which he prepared showing the disposition of plants in the ,gardens1 witness to his interest in their cultivation4 ,his predilection in systematic arrangement was ,tournefortian1 and on the promulgation by ,linnaeus of his sexual system in #agcf1 no writer was more trenchant than ,alston in opposition to it1 and by this he became widely known4 ,his criticism was directed against it1 not as a method of arranging plants by readily recognised characters1 but from the standpoint of denial of the existence of sex4 ,by various experiments as well as by argument1 ,alston endeavoured to disprove the necessity of the stamens for the development of fertile seed1 citing cases of seed-production where no application of the dust from the stamens was possible--thus early recognising conditions which puzzled botanists for many generations afterwards and until the explanation of apogamy was supplied4 ,one is tempted to wonder whether if the ,linnaean system had not received the appellation sexual it would have roused the same condemnation from him as it did4 ,from his published work1 notably the ,dissertation on ,botany 7#aged7 a translation of a portion of his earlier ,tirocinium ,botanicum ,edinburgense 7#agdj71 as also from some ,,ms4 of his lectures which still exist1 we recognise the clearness and vigour of mind of ,alston1 and the precision of the man is made abundantly evident in the beautiful copper-plate writing in old script of his ,,ms4 ,page after page is filled without blot or correction1 and the whole systematised and arranged without flaw4 ,anatomical questions were dealt with by him in consonance with the knowledge of the time1 mainly resting on ,malpighi2 but there is no rational treatment of physiological subjects1 and this is the more surprising inasmuch as he was in intimate correspondence with ,hales1 and ought to have been acquainted with the fundamental experimental work of that physiologist4 ,it may be that the fragments of record from which we have to judge are insufficient for correct appraisement1 but on all the evidence we possess we must conclude that the two volumes of his ,materia ,medica give us a picture of the direction of his teaching1 and that ,botany in the hands of its leading expositor in ,edinburgh was at this period only a hand-maid to ,medicine4 ,the advent of ,alston's successor1 ,john ,hope1 was the dawn of new things4 ,the influence of the work of ,hales had reached ,edinburgh4 ,comparatively few botanists of to-day have heard the name of ,john ,hope otherwise than as that of a correspondent of ,linnaeus and protagonist in this country of his system of classification1 for these are the claims to distinction assigned to him by the historians of ,british ,botany2 and if one reckons the value of a man's life-work in science by his published writings alone1 that of ,john ,hope would be a minimum2 for only such papers as those ,on ,rheum palmatum1 ,on ,ferula ,assafoetida1 ,on ,eriocaulon septangulare in ,scotland1 are extant from his pen4 ,yet ,john ,hope was a botanist inspired by the spirit of research who obtained by scientific experimental work and explained to his pupils facts of plant physiology some of which the botanical world learned from other workers only a hundred years afterwards4 ,it is difficult to account for ,hope's reticence4 ,it may be that he intended to give his work to the world in the book upon ,botany which had engaged his attention for many years and of which the ,,ms4 was in great part ready at the time of his unexpected death in #aghf--;if so1 the botanical world has been the poorer through the want of ,hope's book4 ,but if ,hope did not give cause by published contributions to natural knowledge for his recognition in promoting the advance of ,botany1 he has always been remembered with gratitude for services of administration which he was peculiarly fitted to render and which profoundly affected the study of ,botany in ,edinburgh4 ,john ,hope was born #ajth ,may1 #agbe4 ,the son of ,robert ,hope1 a surgeon in ,edinburgh1 whose father had become one of the ,senators of the ,college of ,justice with the title of ,lord ,rankeillour4 ,educated at a famous school in ,dalkeith1 ,john ,hope1 who early showed a liking for ,botany1 entered the ,university of ,edinburgh as a medical student and became a pupil of ,alston4 ,his botanical inclinations tempted him to break the course of his medical studies in ,edinburgh to study ,botany under ,bernard de ,jussieu in ,paris4 ,returning to ,scotland he graduated in ,medicine from the ,university of ,glasgow in #agej1 joined the ,royal ,college of ,physicians in ,edinburgh and began medical practice1 giving to ,botany such time as could be spared from the many ties of a successful practice4 ,in #agfj ,alston died1 and ,john ,hope became his successor1 first of all in #agfa as ,king's ,botanist at ,holyrood and subsequently as ,professor of ,botany and ,materia ,medica in the ,university4 ,soon after appointment ,hope recognised that to continue to hold colleges in ,materia ,medica meant spoliation of his botanical work4 ,the time had come for a separation of the two subjects of ,botany and ,materia ,medica4 ,problems of the former now pressing were not those specially relating to medicinal plants4 ,he therefore managed to carry through an arrangement by which he retained a chair as ,professor of ,medicine and ,botany1 and a new ,professorship of ,materia ,medica was created4 ,the importance of this step for botanical progress was great--it was not merely a question of time occupied but of scientific outlook4 ,another movement in the direction of concentration of effort in the cause of ,botany was initiated by ,hope early in his official career--that for the creation of a new ,botanic ,garden in a locality outside the immediate influence of town atmosphere1 in which the collections distributed over the ,holyrood and ,town ,gardens could be combined4 ,he accomplished his design1 and not only this1 but obtained from the ,crown a permanent endowment for the new ,garden4 ,this was no small achievement--but the omens were favourable1 for those patrons of science the ,earl of ,bute and1 later1 the ,duke of ,portland1 were in power when the ,professor made use of the great influence which his family possessed to secure his ends4 ,a spreading city in time made the location of ,hope's new ,garden unsuitable1 and it was transferred to the present site2 but it was the effort by ,hope which gave the ,botanic ,garden1 and through it ,botany1 a status among institutions requiring subsidy and maintenance by ,government in ,scotland1 and the obligation so imposed has been upheld notwithstanding an attempt in later years on the part of the ,government to get rid of it--an attempt which the short-sighted policy of the ,university nearly allowed to succeed4 ,hope's duties in his ,university ,chair required of him1 in addition to his botanical work1 clinical teaching in the ,hospital1 and he also engaged in practice--this for a livelihood--and took active share in the affairs of the ,royal ,college of ,physicians1 of which he was ,president at the time of his death1 which occurred in #aghf4 ,botany could therefore claim but a portion of his time4 ,having established the new ,garden1 he laboured with assiduity to lay it out effectively1 and then to enrich it with plants4 ,his own ardour and enthusiasm impressed others1 and his pupils in all parts of the world contributed to making the ,garden a renowned collection of the rarest plants4 ,here ,hope met his students1 and here he carried out his many physiological experiments which gave them instruction4 ,his teaching was comprehensive4 ,although no longer tied by the calls of his ,materia ,medica1 ,hope did not ignore the subject entirely1 but plants in this relation were not the groundwork of his instruction4 ,systematic and descriptive ,botany1 recognition of herbs1 still found a place in it4 ,in ,alston the most strenuous opponent of the ,linnaean method had gone2 it found in ,hope a no less strenuous advocate1 to whose influence its rapid adoption in this country owed much4 ,to what extent ,hope made excursions with his pupils1 there is no evidence4 ,his ,hortus ,siccus and lists of plants with localities show that he was a field-botanist1 and in correspondence with1 if not more intimately acquainted with1 the botanists who were working out the ,scottish ,flora at the period--such men1 for instance1 as ,lightfoot1 ,stuart1 ,robertson4 ,this we do know1 that he encouraged his pupils to investigate the ,flora of ,scotland1 giving yearly a gold medal for the best ,herbarium1 and ,hope's peripatetic pupils is a designation met with in literature of the time4 ,this aspect of ,hope's teaching1 consonant with the features of the botanical literature of the period1 is that which has been commonly known4 ,it is not however a complete picture4 ,in ,hope ,scotland had a physiologist of originality and skill--who was not only informed upon the work of ,hales1 ,duhamel1 ,mariotte and others1 but who made his own experiments1 clearly devised and effective1 and whose catholicity is attested by his dealing with such problems as growth in length and thickness1 effect of light and gravity1 movement of water1 healing of wounds1 and the like4 ,this physiology was an essential element of his teaching1 and the effect upon students of contact with such direct wresting of truth from ,nature must have been immense4 ,our knowledge of all this1 only recently acquired1 throws a new light upon ,hope's character1 and upon the influence which he appears to have exercised on the education of the time4 ,the pity is that he left no published records1 and that this bright period of brilliant research should have become obscured by the scholasticism inherent in the method of classification which he himself did so much to popularise4 ,in accordance with tradition1 the ,chair vacated by ,hope was filled by the election of another medical practitioner in ,edinburgh4 ,daniel ,rutherford was born in ,edinburgh #crd ,november1 #agdi1 the son of ,dr ,john ,rutherford1 who as ,professor was associated with ,alston and others in the reformation of the ,edinburgh ,medical ,school4 ,he was distinguished both as a classical scholar and as a mathematician1 and after graduating ,m4,a4 at the ,university of ,edinburgh1 he entered on the medical curriculum1 obtaining his diploma of ,m4,d4 in #aggb4 ,his thesis1 when applying for the degree1 was ,de aero fixo dicto aut ,mephitico1 and by this he became famous through the distinction he established in it between carbonic acid gas and nitrogen1 though he did not give nitrogen its name4 ,the exposition he gave of his precise experimental work has been allowed to entitle him to be regarded as the discoverer of nitrogen1 although shortly before the appearance of his thesis ,priestley had practically1 if less methodically1 covered the ground4 ,after graduation1 ,rutherford travelled in ,france and ,italy1 returning to ,edinburgh in #agge to begin the practice of ,medicine1 becoming ,fellow of the ,royal ,college of ,physicians1 of which he was afterwards ,president4 ,rutherford was a chemist1 and ,i have not discovered in any references to him expressions that would show he was at this period of his life interested in plants otherwise than as objects for his experiments in relation to the chemistry of the atmosphere4 ,in seeking for a reason to explain his selection as ,hope's successor in the ,chair of ,medicine and ,botany1 one may suggest either the general one of recognition of his scientific ability1 or the more special one that in experimenting with plants he had been following on the lines of work so conspicuously developed by ,hope4 ,and of course at that time some general knowledge of ,botany had to be the possession of every successful physician4 ,like his predecessors1 ,rutherford had to undertake clinical teaching in the ,hospital2 he maintained also his private practice1 and was keenly interested in the active literary world of his day in which his nephew 7,sir7 ,walter ,scott was a brilliant star4 ,the ,botanic ,garden continued to hold its place as a scientific institution1 and from the advent of ,william ,mc,nab as ,principal ,gardener in #ahaj1 developed into one of the best known in the world4 ,the recording of the plants of ,scotland also proceeded apace2 two of the ,principal ,gardeners of the ,edinburgh ,garden during ,rutherford's ,keepership--,john ,mackay from #ahjj-ahjb1 and ,george ,don from #ahjb-ahjf--;being foremost in making known its floristic features1 and their work ,rutherford must have encouraged4 ,from ,,ms4 notes of his lectures1 ,i gather that the biological did not attract ,rutherford1 nor does it appear in the scanty records available that any special development of teaching equipment or of method took place during his tenure of office4 ,for some years before his death in #ahai ,rutherford had been infirm2 and speculation as to his successor had been rife4 ,robert ,brown and ,sir ,james ,edward ,smith were both spoken of4 ,when the vacancy came ,robert ,brown refused it and ,robert ,graham1 then ,professor in the ,university of ,glasgow1 was appointed4 ,robert ,graham was born at ,stirling #crd ,december1 #aghf1 the third son of ,dr ,robert ,graham of ,stirling 7afterwards ,moir of ,leckie74 ,after early education at ,stirling1 ,graham was apprenticed in #ahjd to ,mr ,andrew ,wood1 ,surgeon in ,edinburgh1 and entered on the study of ,medicine at the ,university1 graduating ,m4,d4 in #ahjh4 ,thereafter he studied at ,st ,bartholomew's ,hospital in ,london for a year before settling in ,glasgow1 where he was also ,lecturer in ,clinical ,medicine4 ,during this period he published a dissertation ,on continued ,fever4 ,botany in the ,university of ,glasgow at this time had not reached the dignity of having a ,professorship4 ,it was attached to the ,chair of ,anatomy1 but a separate lecturer undertook its teaching4 ,to this lectureship ,graham was appointed in succession to ,dr ,brown4 ,this appointment was the prelude to his election as ,professor in #ahah when the ,chair of ,botany was founded--a foundation which owed much to him through his influence with the ,duke of ,montrose1 then ,chancellor of the ,university1 of whose house he was a cadet4 ,one of the first efforts of ,graham in his new position was directed to the completion of a scheme that was making for the formation of a ,botanic ,garden4 ,in this he succeeded1 and botanical teaching in ,glasgow was thus equipped in #ahai4 ,from this sphere in which he had initiated so much1 ,graham came to ,edinburgh in #ahbj as ,professor of ,medicine and ,botany and was forced again to take up medical practice and clinical teaching in the ,hospital1 and in consequence to interest himself in the affairs of the ,royal ,college of ,physicians1 of which he became ,president--all this1 as in the case of his predecessors1 in addition to his botanical work4 ,his first labour in relation to ,botany was to transfer the ,botanic ,garden which ,hope had made to a new site--that which it now occupies4 ,nearly two years were required to carry out the removal1 to the success of which the skill of ,william ,mc,nab1 the ,principal ,gardener1 contributed greatly4 ,during the whole tenure of his offices ,graham devoted himself to the affairs of this ,garden1 and often in the very practical way of supplying funds from his own resources to supplement the inadequate grants obtained from ,government4 ,it gave him the material for the description of many new species which were figured in the ,botanical ,magazine and other like periodicals4 ,this systematic botanical work was that which ,graham cared for most1 it was the backbone of his teaching1 and all of his scattered papers deal with this aspect of the subject4 ,in connection with his teaching ,graham developed specially the botanical excursion for the study of ,field ,botany1 making it an integral part of his courses1 and in furtherance of its aims travelling far through ,scotland--a business of a much more arduous nature in days when railways and motors had not annihilated distance and provided all the comforts of civilisation within easy reach of every district4 ,graham had intended to publish a ,flora of ,scotland as the result of his practical study of its plants1 but it was uncompleted at the time of his death in #ahde after an illness of some duration during which 7,sir7 ,joseph ,dalton ,hooker acted as locum tenens4 ,another new method in his teaching was that of encouraging students to write essays upon subjects either practical or theoretical4 ,in this he stimulated investigation4 ,students in these days had more time than they have now to devote to such things1 and of their efforts some were sound pieces of research--the ,botanical ,geography of ,hewitt ,c4 ,watson first took form in one of these essays4 ,john ,hutton ,balfour#ace1 who succeeded ,graham1 was born in ,edinburgh #aeth ,september1 #ahjh4 ,the eldest son of ,andrew ,balfour1 surgeon in the ,army1 who afterwards settled in ,edinburgh as printer and publisher1 in which business his enterprise was adequate to the venture of the ,edinburgh ,encyclopaedia under the editorship of 7,sir7 ,david ,brewster4 ,andrew ,balfour was a grim old presbyterian of the stuff covenanters were made1 and in the strict home environment which he created young ,balfour early came into touch with theological dogma4 ,the echo of these early impressions remained with him throughout life4 ,educated at the ,high ,school of ,edinburgh where he laid the foundation of sound classical scholarship--always his unobtrusive distinction--,balfour entered the curriculum for the ,arts degree at the ,university4 ,before completing this he migrated to ,st ,andrews in order to be under the influence of ,professor ,thomas ,chalmers--the famous ,divine1 afterwards leader in the disruption that founded the ,free ,church of ,scotland--in conformity with the desire of his father that he should become a minister in the ,church of ,scotland4 ,but ,divinity did not claim him and he returned to ,edinburgh to begin the study of ,medicine--a decision in face of family pressure which is tribute to the strength of purpose which characterised him and found expression frequently in after life4 ,at the beginning of this renewed ,edinburgh curriculum ,balfour attended the ,botany course of ,professor ,graham in #ahbe1 and obtained his first scientific instruction in ,botany--a subject for which he had always shown fondness4 ,robert ,dickson1 afterwards ,lecturer on ,botany at ,st ,george's ,hospital1 ,london1 was a fellow-student1 and together they1 in this and following years1 made many botanical excursions about ,edinburgh4 ,with his fellows ,balfour seems to have been bon camarade1 acquired all the ephemeral distinction attaching to a facile writer of rhymed couplets for occasions1 and as an inveterate maker of puns was in demand for the office of punster at the convivial clubs of the period4 ,a mark of more serious attainment--he was ,president of the ,royal ,medical ,society in two years4 ,after graduation as ,m4,d41 when he also became a fellow of the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons in ,edinburgh--his thesis for the former being ,de ,strychnia1 for the latter ,on ,purulent ,wounds--,balfour went in #ahcb to ,paris to continue his medical education1 studying there under ,dupuytren1 ,lisfranc1 and ,manec4 ,returning1 he settled in ,edinburgh in #ahcd and entered on practice1 becoming assistant within and without the ,university to ,sir ,george ,ballingall1 ,professor of ,military ,surgery4 ,amongst his patients he numbered ,de ,quincey and his family4 ,de ,quincey's eldest son died from a cerebral complaint1 and the autopsy revealed an interesting pathological condition which formed the subject of ,balfour's investigation1 and an account of it his first published scientific paper4 ,from the claims of ,medicine ,balfour could wrest little time for botanical pursuits1 but his holiday always meant the botanical exploration of some area1 preferably alpine1 and his home became a centre for men of kindred tastes4 ,there in co-operation with his old teacher ,graham1 and with ,greville1 ,forbes1 ,falconer1 ,parnell1 ,munby and others1 was instituted in #ahcf the ,botanical ,society of ,edinburgh1 with wide aims for the promotion of ,botany--amongst them the creation of a botanical library and a herbarium4 ,this has proved a signal service to science4 ,it was the pegging out of a claim which has been made effective4 ,the ,society after a life--as with all such societies--of fluctuating periods of greater and lesser activity1 flourishes still1 and its library and herbarium1 transferred to the ,crown when the space demand of their bulk became urgent1 have been the foundation for the large botanical library and herbarium now maintained and subsidised by ,government in the ,royal ,botanic ,garden4 ,plants gradually drew ,balfour away from patients and in #ahdj he carried the divorce so far as to establish himself as a teacher of ,botany in the ,extra-mural ,medical ,school in ,edinburgh--that exemplar of free-trade in teaching--from which so many of the famous occupants of ,chairs in the ,university have entered its portals4 ,but only in #ahdb1 when ,sir ,william ,hooker moved to ,kew and a vacancy was then caused in the ,glasgow ,chair of ,botany to which ,balfour was elected1 was he able to give up medical practice entirely4 ,in ,glasgow the first years of ,balfour's botanical career were spent1 but they were few4 ,on the death of ,graham he returned to ,edinburgh as ,professor of ,medicine and ,botany and ,keeper of the ,royal ,botanic ,garden--the electors passing over ,joseph ,dalton ,hooker also a candidate4 ,in the sphere of these offices the rest of his active life was passed until his retirement in #ahgi4 ,he came to the ,university of ,edinburgh at a time when the reputation of its medical school was upheld by a remarkable band of teachers in the ,medical ,faculty--,allen ,thomson1 ,alison1 ,christison1 ,goodsir1 ,gregory1 ,jameson1 ,simpson1 ,syme--and when the struggle of the ,university after a revised constitution was approaching the climax reached in #aheh1 when with other ,scottish ,universities ,edinburgh obtained autonomy1 and science was enfranchised4 ,of this ,faculty he became ,dean1 and held office until close upon the time when he became ,emeritus4 ,in all the discussions and controversies1 destructive and constructive1 that attached to so weighty a crisis1 ,balfour's influence and outlook for science were used with effect1 and no less influential were his action and advice in subsequent years when the specific question of medical reform was raised1 as it so often was4 ,absorbing administrative work of this kind1 to which were soon added the duties of a ,secretary of the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh--7and he remained in the ,secretariat to the end of his active life7--as well as those of an editor of the ,edinburgh ,new ,philosophical ,journal--7afterwards merged in the ,annals and ,magazine of ,natural ,history7--of ,secretary of the ,royal ,caledonian ,horticultural ,society and of other offices1 made inroad alike upon time and energy of a man who had also the administration of the ,royal ,botanic ,garden in his hands1 as well as the calls of his ,professorship of ,botany to attend to4 ,but ,balfour was untiring in industry1 prompt and precise in method1 and administrative work appealed to him4 ,though liable like his predecessors to undertake clinical medical teaching1 ,balfour1 save for occasionally acting as locum tenens1 took no share in it1 and his energies in teaching were devoted to ,botany4 ,on the lines he followed he was pioneer4 ,we have seen that ,field ,botany had been for several decades a characteristic of the ,edinburgh ,botanic ,school4 ,whilst maintaining this feature1 ,balfour added laboratory work4 ,the word laboratory was not then in vogue1 and microscopical room was the designation of the new domain in which the guillotine1 not the microtome1 was used4 ,in the sphere of practical teaching this was a notable advance1 and the more so when the technical difficulties that had to be overcome are remembered--the days of cheap microscopes were but beginning1 aniline dyes were not yet4 ,nevertheless the student of the time had opportunity were he so minded of examining plant-form and plant-structure for himself under direction1 and if the equipment for work were not so perfect mechanically as modern methods now permit of1 the training in minute observation was no less excellent than that of to-day1 and the educational effect of the teaching no less valuable4 ,the scheme of work was that of the text-books--passing progressively from tissues to organs vegetative and reproductive both phanerogamic and cryptogamic4 ,the specialisation of the type system had not come4 ,before he was able to establish1 as he did in the early fifties1 practical laboratory classes1 ,balfour had introduced a system of demonstrations of microscopic objects and of physiological experiments in illustration daily of the subject of his lecture1 and it is testimony to his power of infusing zeal in pupils that there was always a contingent of them ready to come to the ,botanic ,garden at six o'clock in the morning to give voluntary aid in the arranging of these demonstrations for the lecture at eight o'clock4 ,many of those who came have recorded that they found that period and its work one of the most inspiring in their student history4 ,this new departure in teaching did not interfere with the continuation and extension of field-work1 which up to this time had been the form of practical study cultivated in ,edinburgh4 ,on the contrary the ,botanical ,excursion gave ,balfour an outlet for energy and favourable opportunity for the exercise of those gifts of personal magnetism and intellectual stimulus through which he influenced and guided many generations of students4 ,every ,saturday during the summer session an excursion was made1 and one of some days' duration usually brought the session to a close4 ,through these excursions the greater part of ,scotland was traversed--on one occasion the terminal excursion of the session was to ,switzerland--and the features of flora and vegetation were brought to the attention of many hundreds of students4 ,the aim and result of the excursion were not solely the acquisition of plants and their identification4 ,the stimulating effect on many of this side of ,botany is evidenced even in our day by the zeal with which search after rare plants is pursued1 and in the eagerness displayed in the race after micro-forms4 ,but the enticement of acquisition and discovery of novelty whilst there were not the governing influences in ,balfour's excursion4 ,in touch as he was with the problems of organography in its fullest sense1 a man of wide reading familiar with the botanical work of his time1 and associated as he had been in the field with men like ,edward ,forbes and ,hewett ,cottrell ,watson1 ,balfour could and did look at plants from the standpoint of their place in vegetation1 and in relation to the conditions of growth1 and as having a history in their habitat4 ,his teaching reflected this4 ,it was never classification1 diagnosis1 and nomenclature as the end-all of ,botany4 ,the details emphasised changed as the progress of botanical discovery gave new clues to explanation of form and relation1 and it was the solvings and attempts at solvings of observed phenomena that gave that fascination to his excursions1 the remembrance of which seems to have clung to those who had the fortune to join them4 ,the succession of plants and plant-form from base to summit of a highland hill2 contrasts of vegetation of stream-course1 mountain pasture1 alpine rock2 high mountain forms of shore plants2 intrusion and extirpation2 factors of distribution and their influence2--those and other problems of what we now term ,ecological ,botany were themes on which the ,professor discoursed in his rambles1 filling the pupil with information and forcing him to think out to such conclusion as he might on the evidence before him4 ,and then the whole occasion was so enlivened by the outgo of good humour and mirth in joke and pun and story1 that fatigue and weariness1 which the physical exercise might evoke in those less attuned than the wiry ,professor1 were drowned in the sunny current of humanity4 ,i mention this practical teaching first1 for it was the characteristic feature1 but the idea of practical illustration pervaded all ,balfour's effort4 ,his lecture table became a synopsis of the lecture--living plants1 herbarium material1 museum specimens1 all were pressed into service to elucidate the points of the discourse1 whilst the walls were tapestried by diagrams4 ,never did teacher more sedulously absorb the new for presentation to his pupils4 ,he was a lucid expositor1 and1 apart from his ,university lectures1 during many years was sought after for more popular discourses to non-academic audiences4 ,the period of ,balfour's teaching included the momentous year #ahfj4 ,the impulse of the new spirit introduced by ,darwin did not stimulate ,balfour as it might have done a younger man4 ,his religious beliefs--always in evidence--were showing then the influence of his early environment1 and whilst ,darwin's work was incorporated in his teaching1 the acceptance of ,darwin's theory appeared too near the negation of faith4 ,on ,balfour indeed1 as on others with like views1 the immediate effect of the ,origin was the opposite of vivifying4 ,it gave a shock4 ,and this1 ,i conceive1 not so much a consequence of ,darwin's own statement of his theory as of the forceful uncompromising attitude of the chief protagonist of his cause4 ,arrogance there was on the religious side1 but no less also on the scientific side in the discussion4 ,perhaps it was well that the contest was sharp and bitter4 ,it ended sooner1 but its course was strewn with misconceptions and with confusion of cause and effect4 ,in our days of complete reconciliation1 when every tyro lisps in phyletic numbers as the outcome of ,darwin's work1 it is not amiss to recall the struggle at its inception--lest we forget4 ,the system of ,essays which formed so important a part of ,graham's teaching remained as prominent and was even developed further in ,balfour's course in a way which had the inestimable merit of making the student feel that his study of plants had a living relationship with the everyday concerns of life4 ,thus when ,simpson was engaged in his epoch-making investigations on anaesthetics1 the subject for an essay was the effect of anaesthetics on sensitive plants1 and by way of emphasis1 the prize awarded was a gift by ,simpson himself4 ,similarly ,balfour enlisted the sympathy of ,messrs ,lawson1 the prominent agricultural nurserymen of the day1 and their prizes for dissection of grasses1 for kinds of cereals1 and like subjects1 were constant reminders of the relations of botanical study to agriculture4 ,the subjects of essays covered a wide field4 ,the titles--influence of narcotic and irritant gases1 changes which have taken place in the ,flora of ,britain during the historical era1 cytogenesis and cell development1 phanerogamous embryology1 cryptogamous reproduction1 teratology--may serve to indicate this1 and an essential was always the practical illustration1 microscopic or other4 ,for the use of the students ,balfour compiled text-books which1 like his lectures1 are comprehensive in the field they cover1 and encyclopaedic in the information they convey4 ,his facile pen found expression too in numberless articles in encyclopaedias and magazines1 and his activity as an expositor of botanical topics of the time was unbounded4 ,in the ,botanic ,garden ,balfour obtained the material for the definite contributions he made to natural knowledge which are in the domain of ,systematic ,botany4 ,no work in which ,balfour engaged gave him more genuine pleasure than the administration of the ,botanic ,garden4 ,entering on the responsibility of its care when its repute was high1 he left it on laying down office in even higher reputation1 for in the ,mc,nabs--,william and ,james--father and son--he had lieutenants of the first rank in gardening4 ,during his regime the equipment for laboratory teaching to which reference has been made was installed1 a museum to which old pupils all over the world contributed was instituted1 and the ,garden itself trebled in size1 the latest addition1 made just before his retirement1 being an area to be cultivated as an arboretum for students of ,forestry--a subject then beginning to claim attention4 ,with ,balfour's retirement in #ahgi the link of ,botany with ,medicine in the ,university was still further weakened4 ,medicine was left out of the title of the ,chair to which ,alexander ,dickson succeeded4 ,alexander ,dickson of ,hartree and ,kilbucho was born at ,edinburgh1 #bast ,july1 #ahcf4 ,he was the second son of ,david ,dickson of ,hartree in ,peeblesshire1 and the representative of a family for long lairds of the estates of which1 by the early death of his elder brother1 he became proprietor4 ,educated privately1 he entered the ,university of ,edinburgh as a student of ,medicine1 graduating in #ahfj4 ,before graduation he had studied in ,wrzburg and in ,berlin1 particularly under ,klliker and ,virchow1 and after it he embarked on the stream of medical practice in ,edinburgh4 ,but that was convention--a demonstration of brass plate4 ,his means placed him beyond the necessity of such professional work4 ,his instinct lay in the direction of discovery of method more than in its application4 ,during his student days he had shown a keen interest in ,botany4 ,before graduation he had written on botanical subjects1 and his thesis on graduation ,the development of the flower in ,caryophyllaceae witnesses to his obsession4 ,whilst waiting for patients1 he had continued work on embryogeny in plants1 and when in #ahfb the ill health of ,professor ,dickie at ,aberdeen required the appointment of a substitute1 the selection of ,dickson set seal to his claims as a professed ,botanist4 ,in #ahff he succeeded ,harvey as ,professor in ,dublin4 ,thence in #ahfh he was translated to ,glasgow as successor to ,walker-,arnott1 and in #ahgi became ,professor of ,botany and ,queen's ,botanist in ,edinburgh on the retirement of ,balfour1 and1 holding these positions1 he died in #ahhg4 ,dickson's passion was not teaching1 and his success is testimony to the quality of the man4 ,he was adored by his students1 as could not well be otherwise with a man of his geniality and kindliness2 he took immense pains over his lectures1 spending hours daily over the making of fresh drawings on the blackboard for his classes1 holding that a student would copy a temporary sketch although he would not copy a permanent wall-diagram2 the lecture itself was a model of scientific presentment2 at excursions he was untiring in demonstration and in fruitful suggestion1 and he was always ready to give of his best to his pupils2 but his real love was for research and he carried out many organographical investigations which have added to the sum of natural knowledge4 ,his record in published papers far exceeds that of any of his predecessors1 and the quality of his work recalls that of ,irmisch4 ,flower-morphology1 embryogeny1 teratology1 were the subjects to which he gave most attention in research1 and in them he obtained results of solid and permanent value4 ,for a time the subject of phyllotaxy occupied him1 but it is not a fruitful theme although it gave him opportunity for showing his power of clear analysis2 much more interesting was his subsequent work on pitcher plants of kinds4 ,dickson possessed great skill in manipulation1 and was strikingly effective in the use of his pencil in artistic delineation of the objects of his investigation4 ,careful in his work he took endless pains to secure that accuracy which it always shows4 ,further1 his subject is always illumined by the comparative method of treatment which his wide knowledge and sound critical faculty enabled him to bring to bear upon it4 ,the duties of his lairdship were no light ones to ,dickson who had set himself to build up again what had come to him in an impoverished condition1 and affairs of ,church and ,state were a very real interest to him4 ,amidst all these ties1 to which has to be added the administration of the ,botanic ,garden1 in which during his tenure a new and enlarged ,lecture ,hall was built1 he found time to cultivate the musical faculty for which he was distinguished2 not only was he a pianist of mark1 but he found absorbing zest in the collecting of national airs sung by the peasants of ,scotland4 ,in the line of ,professors of ,botany in ,edinburgh no one ranked higher in distinction than ,alexander ,dickson1 with whose name ,i conclude this sketch4 ,,footnote3 #ace ,his portrait forms the frontispiece of this book4 ,,sir ,,joseph ,,dalton ,,hooker #ahag-aiaa ,,by ,f4 ,o4 ,,bower4 ,his long life--childhood and education--travels--,geological work--,morphological ,memoirs--administrative duties--systematic works--relations with ,darwin--acceptance of ,mutability of ,species--his philosophical ,essays--their influence in advancing ,evolutionary ,belief4 ,it is a difficult task to condense within suitable limits an appreciation of so long and strenuous a life as that of ,sir ,joseph ,hooker4 ,naturally with age the bodily strength waned1 but the vivid mind remained unimpaired to the end4 ,he even continued his detailed observations till very shortly before his death in ,december1 #aiaa4 ,the list of his published works extends from #ahcg to #aiaa1 a record hardly to be equalled in any walk of intellectual life4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxvi ,,sir ,,joseph ,,dalton ,,hooker 7,from the photograph by ,mrs ,cameron1 #ahfh7 ,sir ,joseph ,hooker was born at ,halesworth1 in ,suffolk1 in #ahag4 ,his father1 ,sir ,william ,hooker1 brought him to ,glasgow as a child of four years of age1 when he entered on his duties as ,professor of ,botany in #ahba4 ,the ,professor established himself in ,woodside ,crescent1 conveniently near to the ,botanic ,garden1 then but recently established1 but developing under his hands with wonderful rapidity4 ,doubtless his little son was familiar with it and its contents from childhood4 ,he grew up in an atmosphere surcharged with the very science he was to do so much to advance4 ,his father's home was the scene of manifold activities4 ,it housed a rapidly growing herbarium and museum4 ,it was there that the drawings were made to illustrate that amazing stream of descriptive works which ,sir ,william was then producing4 ,new species must have been almost daily under examination1 often as living specimens4 ,between the garden and the house the boy must have witnessed constantly1 during the most receptive years of childhood1 the working of an establishment that was at the time without its equal in this country1 or probably in any other4 ,the eye and the memory must have been trained almost unconsciously4 ,a knowledge of plants would be acquired as a natural consequence of the surroundings1 and without the effort entailed by study in later years4 ,few ever have known1 or ever will know1 plants as he did4 ,such knowledge comes only from growing up with them from earliest childhood4 ,side by side with this almost unconscious education in ,botany the ordinary curriculum of school and of college was pursued4 ,there is no record of academic successes either at the ,high ,school1 or at the ,university of ,glasgow1 beyond a prize for the best ,essay on the ,brain and ,nerves1 in #ahcf4 ,but the following year saw his first publication3 for he described1 while still a student1 three new species of ,mosses4 ,it may be remarked that1 like his father1 his first writings related to the lower ,plants4 ,he never lost his interest in them1 though in later years duty diverted him to the study of the ,flowering ,plants4 ,an incident of his student period1 which he himself relates1 is1 however1 a more clear indication of the life that was to follow than any early publication of new species4 ,he tells how an opportunity was given him of reading the proofs of ,darwin's ,voyage of the ,beagle4 ,i was hurrying on my studies 7that is for the final examination in ,medicine7 444 and so pressed for time was ,i that ,i used to sleep with the sheets of ',the ,journal' under my pillow1 that ,i might read them between waking and rising4 ,they impressed me profoundly1 whilst they stimulated me to enthusiasm in the desire to travel and observe4 ,the opportunity came to him almost at once in the four years' voyage to the ,antarctic4 ,at the age of #bb1 having passed his examinations1 and graduated as ,m4,d41 he was equipped at every necessary point for his duties as ,assistant ,surgeon and ,botanist in the ,erebus1 then about to start1 along with the ,terror1 on the famous voyage under the command of ,sir ,james ,clark ,ross4 ,no attempt will here be made to give any consecutive biographical sketch of ,sir ,joseph ,hooker4 ,several such have already appeared4 ,the interest of the reader will be more readily engaged by indicating the various lines of activity in which he excelled4 ,he was never a professional teacher1 except for a short period of service as deputy for ,graham in ,edinburgh4 ,there was a moment when he might have been ,professor in ,edinburgh1 but it passed4 ,he left no pupils1 except in the sense that all botanists have learned from him through his books4 ,we shall contemplate him rather as a ,traveller and ,geographer1 as a ,geologist1 as a ,morphologist1 as an ,administrator1 as a ,scientific ,systematist1 and above all as a ,philosophical ,biologist4 ,he played each of these several parts in the ,drama of ,science4 ,the endeavour will be made1 however imperfectly1 to touch upon them all4 ,the experiences of ,hooker as a traveller began immediately after taking his degree1 with his commission in #ahci as ,assistant ,surgeon and ,botanist in the ,erebus4 ,scientific ,exploration was still in its heroic age4 ,darwin was only three years back from the voyage of the ,beagle4 ,we may well hold the years from #ahca1 when the ,beagle sailed1 to #ahea1 when ,hooker returned from his ,indian journey1 or #aheb1 when ,wallace returned from the ,amazon1 to have been its golden period4 ,certainly it was if we measure by results4 ,unmatched opportunity for travel in remote and unknown lands was then combined with unmatched capacity of those who engaged in it4 ,nor was this a mere matter of chance4 ,for ,darwin1 ,wallace1 and ,hooker all seized1 if they did not in some measure make1 their opportunity4 ,the intrepid ,ross1 with his two sailing ships1 the ,erebus and the ,terror1 probed at suitable seasons during four years the extreme south4 ,the very names of the ,great ,ice ,barrier1 ,m',murdo ,sound1 ,mount ,erebus and ,mount ,terror1 made familiar to us by adventures seventy years later under steam1 remain to mark some of his additions to the map of the world4 ,young ,hooker took his full share of risks1 up to the point of being peremptorily ordered back on one occasion by his commanding officer4 ,to his activity and willingness1 combined with an opportunity that can never recur in the same form1 is due that great collection of specimens1 and that wide body of fact which he acquired4 ,on the outward and return voyages1 or in the intervals when the season was not favourable for entering the extreme southern seas1 the expedition visited ,ascension1 ,st ,helena1 the ,cape1 ,new ,zealand1 ,australia1 ,tasmania1 ,kerguelen ,island1 ,tierra del ,fuego1 and the ,falkland ,islands4 ,the prime object of the voyage was a magnetic survey1 and this determined its course4 ,but it brought this secondary consequence2 that ,hooker had the chance of observing and collecting upon all the great circumpolar areas of the southern hemisphere4 ,the results he later welded together into his first great work1 ,the ,antarctic ,flora4 ,very soon after his return from the ,antarctic the craving for travel broke out afresh in him4 ,he longed to see a tropical ,flora in a mountainous country1 and to compare it at different levels with that of temperate and arctic zones4 ,two alternatives arose before him3 the ,andes and the ,himalaya4 ,he chose the latter1 being influenced by promises of assistance from ,dr ,falconer1 the ,superintendent of the ,calcutta ,garden4 ,but before he left ,england his journey came under the recognition of ,government4 ,he not only received grants on the condition that the collections made should be located in the ,herbarium at ,kew1 but he was accredited by the ,indian ,government to the ,rulers1 and the ,british ,residents1 in the countries whose hitherto untrodden ways he was to explore4 ,after passing the cold season of #ahdh in making himself acquainted with the vegetation of the plains and hills of ,western ,bengal1 he struck north to the ,sikkim ,himalaya4 ,hither he had been directed by ,lord ,auckland and by ,dr ,falconer1 as to ground unbroken by traveller or naturalist4 ,the story of this remarkable journey1 its results and its vicissitudes1 including the forcible detention of himself and his companion ,dr ,campbell by a faction of the ,court of ,sikkim1 is to be found in his ,himalayan ,journals4 ,these most fascinating volumes of travel were published in #ahed4 ,they tell how he spent two years in the botanical exploration and topographical survey of the state of ,sikkim1 and of a number of the passes leading into ,thibet2 and how towards the close of #ahdh he even crossed the western frontier of ,sikkim1 and explored a portion of ,nepal that has never since been open to travellers4 ,in #ahdi he returned to ,darjeeling1 and busied himself with arranging his vast collections4 ,here he was joined by an old fellow-student of ,glasgow1 ,dr ,thomas ,thomson1 son of the professor of that name4 ,the two friends spent the year #ahej in the botanical investigation of ,eastern ,bengal1 ,chittagong1 ,silhet1 and the ,khasia hills4 ,in #ahea they returned together to ,england4 ,the botanical results of these ,indian journeys were immense1 and they provided the material for much of ,hooker's later scientific writing4 ,nearly #gjjj species of ,indian plants were collected by these two ,glasgow graduates4 ,but ,hooker was not a mere specialist4 ,his ,journals are full of other observations1 ethnographical1 ornithological1 and entomological4 ,his topographical results especially were of the highest importance4 ,they formed the basis of a map published by the ,indian ,topographical ,survey4 ,by the aid of it the operations of various campaigns and political missions have since been carried to a successful issue4 ,if he were not known as a ,botanist1 he would still have his assured place as a ,geographer4 ,after his return from ,india1 nine years ensued of quiet work at home4 ,but in #ahfj ,hooker took part in a scientific visit to ,syria and ,palestine1 ascending ,mount ,lebanon1 where he specially paid attention to the decadent condition of the ,cedars1 his observations leading later to a general discussion of the genus4 ,again a period of ten years intervened1 his next objective being ,morocco4 ,in #ahga1 with ,mr ,ball and ,mr ,maw1 he penetrated the ,atlas ,range1 never before examined botanically4 ,his last great journey was in #ahgg1 when he was sixty years of age4 ,with his old friend1 ,prof4 ,asa ,gray of ,harvard1 he visited ,colorado1 ,wyoming1 ,utah1 the ,rocky ,mountains1 the ,sierra ,nevada1 and ,california4 ,prof4 ,coulter of ,chicago1 who was one of the party in the ,rockies1 has told me how difficult it was to round up the two elderly enthusiasts to camp at night4 ,this is an extraordinary record of travel1 especially so when we remember that all the journeys were fitted into the intervals of an otherwise busy life of scientific work and administration4 ,at one time or another he had touched upon every great continental area of the earth's surface4 ,many isolated islands had also been examined by him1 especially on the ,antarctic voyage4 ,not only were fresh regions thus opened up for survey and collection1 but each objective of the later journeys was definitely chosen for scientific reasons4 ,each expedition helped to suggest or to solve major problems4 ,such problems related not only to the distribution1 but also to the very origin of species4 ,darwin saw this with unerring judgment as early as #ahde4 ,hooker was then but twenty-eight years old1 and the records of the ,antarctic voyage were only in preparation4 ,nevertheless ,darwin wrote with full assurance in a letter to ,hooker himself3 ,i know ,i shall live to see you the first authority in ,europe on that grand subject1 that almost keystone of the laws of ,creation1 ,geographical ,distribution4 ,never was a forecast more fully justified4 ,but that position1 which ,hooker undoubtedly had1 could only have been attained through his personal experience as a traveller4 ,observation at first hand was the foundation upon which he chiefly worked4 ,hooker the traveller prepared the way for ,hooker the philosopher4 ,sir ,joseph ,hooker would probably have declined to consider himself as a ,geologist4 ,he was1 however1 for some eighteen months official ,botanist to the ,geological ,survey of ,great ,britain4 ,he was appointed in ,april #ahdf1 but relinquished the post in ,november #ahdg in order to start on his ,himalayan journey4 ,during that short period three ,memoirs were published by him on ,plants of the ,coal ,period4 ,they embodied results derived from the microscopic examination of plant-tissues preserved in ,coal ,balls1 a study then newly introduced by ,witham1 and advanced by ,mr ,binney4 ,it has since been greatly developed in this country4 ,such studies were continued by him at intervals up to #ahee4 ,while he was thus among the first to engage in this branch of enquiry1 he may be said to have originated another line of study1 since largely pursued by geologists4 ,for he examined samples of diatomaceous ooze from the ocean-floor of the ,antarctic1 and so initiated the systematic treatment of the organic deposits of the deep sea4 ,yet another branch of geological enquiry was advanced by him in the ,himalaya4 ,for there he made observations on the glaciers of that great mountain chain1 his notes supplying valuable material to both ,lyell and ,darwin4 ,he also accumulated valuable data concerning the stupendous effects of sub-aerial denudation at great elevations4 ,his latest contribution of a geological character was in #ahhi1 when he returned to an old problem of his youth1 the ,silurian fossil ,pachytheca4 ,but he had to leave the question of its nature still unsolved4 ,this geological record is not an extensive one4 ,but the quality and rapidity of the work showed that it was the time and opportunity and not the faculties that were wanting4 ,moreover1 it is worthy of remark that the problems he handled were all nascent at the time he worked upon them4 ,the list of ,sir ,joseph ,hooker's memoirs which deal morphologically with more limited subjects than is possible in floristic works1 is a restricted one4 ,in #ahef he produced a monograph on the ,balanophoraceae1 based upon collections of material from the most varied sources4 ,it is still an authority very widely quoted on these strange parasites4 ,in #ahei he described the development and structure of the ,pitchers of ,nepenthes1 while the physiological significance of these1 and other organs of carnivorous plants1 formed the subject of an ,address before the ,british ,association at ,belfast1 in #ahgd4 ,and in #ahfc his great monograph appeared upon that most remarkable of all ,gymnospermic plants1 ,welwitschia4 ,these works bore the character of a later period than the time when they were produced4 ,in ,britain1 between #ahdj and #ahge1 investigation in the laboratory1 by microscopic analysis of tissues1 was almost throttled by the overwhelming success of systematic and descriptive work4 ,the revival of investigation in the laboratory rather than that in the herbarium dates from about #ahge4 ,but we see that ,hooker was one of the few who1 prior to that revival1 pursued careful microscopic analysis side by side with systematic and floristic work4 ,the noble establishment of the ,royal ,gardens at ,kew is often spoken of as the ,mecca of ,botanists4 ,it is also the ,paradise of the populace of ,london4 ,it was the ,hookers1 father and son1 who made ,kew what it is4 ,when we contemplate ,sir ,joseph as an administrator1 we immediately think of the great establishment which he and his father ruled during the first half century of its history as a public institution4 ,kew had existed for long as a ,royal ,appanage before it was handed over to the ,nation4 ,the ,botanic ,garden had1 indeed1 ranked for upwards of half a century as the richest in the world4 ,but after the death of ,king ,george ,,iii4 it had retrograded scientifically4 ,on the accession of ,queen ,victoria a revision of the ,royal ,household had become necessary4 ,it was then decided to transfer the garden to the ,commissioners of ,woods and ,forests4 ,this took place in #ahdj1 and in #ahda ,sir ,william ,hooker1 who was then ,professor in ,glasgow1 was appointed the first ,director4 ,the move to ,kew1 whither he took his private ,library1 ,herbarium1 and ,museum1 was carried out in the absence of his son1 who was still in the ,antarctic4 ,it was not till the ,himalayan journey was over in #ahea that ,sir ,joseph settled at ,kew1 his great collections having already been consigned there by agreement with the ,government4 ,in #ahee he was appointed assistant to his father in the ,directorship4 ,finally1 he became himself ,director on his father's death in #ahfe1 and he held the position for twenty years4 ,so long associated together1 it is difficult to disentangle the parts that father and son actually played in the creation of ,kew as it now is4 ,nor is there need to attempt it4 ,the original area of the ,garden at ,kew was less than #bj acres4 ,but in #ahee1 when ,sir ,joseph joined his father in the directorate1 it had grown by successive additions to #gj acres4 ,finally1 the large area of #fej acres came under the ,director's control4 ,numerous large glass houses were built4 ,three ,museums were established1 and the vast ,herbarium and ,library founded and developed4 ,the ,garden ,staff rose to more than #ajj men4 ,the day-by-day administration of such an establishment would necessarily make great demands upon the time1 energy1 tact1 and skill of its official head4 ,but in addition there was the growing correspondence to be attended to1 on the one hand with botanists all over the world1 on the other with the ,government ,departments1 and especially with the ,indian and ,colonial ,offices4 ,as the activity of the ,garden extended1 there grew up a large staff of scientific experts and artists1 whose duties centred round the ,herbarium and ,library4 ,these all looked to the ,director for their guidance and control4 ,the descriptive work prepared by them for publication took formidable dimensions4 ,the production of the ,floras of ,india1 and of the ,colonies1 the publication of which was conducted under ,government subvention1 had to be organised and carried through4 ,these matters are mentioned here so as to give some idea of the extent and complexity of the work which was being carried on at ,kew4 ,for ten years as ,assistant ,director1 and for twenty years as ,director1 ,sir ,joseph ,hooker guided this complex machine4 ,the efficiency of his rule was shown by the increasing estimation in which the ,garden was held by all who were able to judge4 ,it was the founding of the ,herbarium and ,library at ,kew which1 more than anything else1 strengthened the scientific establishment4 ,as taken over from the ,crown the ,garden possessed neither4 ,but ,sir ,william brought with him from ,glasgow his own collections1 already the most extensive in private hands4 ,for long years after coming to ,kew he maintained and added to his store at his own expense4 ,but finally his collections were acquired after his death by ,government4 ,his ,herbarium was merged with the fine ,herbarium of ,bentham1 already presented to the nation in #aheg4 ,thus1 the opening years of ,sir ,joseph's directorate saw the organisation upon a public basis of that magnificent ,herbarium and ,library1 which now contains not only his father's collections1 but also his own4 ,among the enormous additions since made to the ,herbarium of ,kew1 its greatest interest will always be centred in the ,hookerian collections which it contains4 ,it might be thought that such drafts as these upon the time and energies of a scientific man would leave no opportunity for other duties4 ,but it was while burdened with the directorship that ,sir ,joseph was called to the highest administrative office in science in ,great ,britain4 ,he served as ,president of the ,royal ,society from #ahgc to #ahgh4 ,the obligations of that position are far from being limited to the requirements of the ,society itself4 ,the ,government of the day has always been in the habit of taking its president and officials into consultation in scientific matters of public importance4 ,in these years the administrative demands upon ,sir ,joseph were the greatest of his life4 ,they are marked by a temporary pause in the stream of publication4 ,none of his own larger works belong to this period4 ,it happens only too often in this country that our ablest men are thus paralysed in their scientific careers by the potent vortex of administration4 ,not a few succumb1 and cease altogether to produce4 ,they are caught as in the eddy of the ,lorelei1 and are so hopelessly entangled that they never emerge again4 ,they fail to realise1 or realise too late1 that the administration of matters relating to a science is not an end in itself1 but only a means to an end4 ,some1 the steadfast and invincible seekers after truth1 though held by the eddy for a time1 pass again into the main stream4 ,hooker was one of these4 ,the ,presidency of the ,royal ,society ended at the usual term of five years4 ,seven years later he demitted office as ,director of ,kew4 ,he was thus free in #ahhe1 still a young man in vigour though not in years4 ,for over a quarter of a century after retirement he devoted the energy of his old age to peculiarly fruitful scientific work4 ,thus the administrative tie upon him was only temporary4 ,so long as it lasted he faithfully obeyed the call of duty1 notwithstanding the restrictions it imposed4 ,no exhaustive catalogue need be given of the works upon which the reputation of ,sir ,joseph ,hooker as a scientific systematist was founded4 ,it must suffice briefly to consider his four greatest systematic works1 ,the ,antarctic ,flora1 ,the ,flora of ,british ,india1 ,the ,genera ,plantarum1 and the ,index ,kewensis4 ,we have seen how on the ,antarctic voyage ,hooker had the opportunity of collecting on all the great circumpolar areas of the ,southern ,hemisphere4 ,his ,antarctic ,flora was based on the collections and observations then made4 ,it was published in six large quarto volumes4 ,the first related to the ,lord ,auckland and ,campbell ,islands 7#ahdc-ahde72 the second to ,fuegia and the ,falkland ,islands 7#ahde-ahdg72 the third and fourth to ,new ,zealand 7#ahea-ahec72 and the fifth and sixth to ,tasmania 7#ahec-ahfj74 ,they describe about #cjjj species1 while on #ecj plates #ajie species are depicted1 usually with detailed analytical drawings4 ,but these volumes did not merely contain reports of explorations1 or descriptions of the many new species collected4 ,there is much more than this in them4 ,all the known facts that could be gathered were incorporated1 so that they became systematically elaborated and complete ,floras of the several countries4 ,moreover1 in the last of them1 the ,flora ,tasmaniae1 there is an ,introductory ,essay1 which in itself would have made ,hooker famous4 ,we shall return to this later4 ,meanwhile we recognise that the publication of the ,botanical ,results of ,ross's ,voyage established ,hooker's reputation as a ,traveller and ,botanist of the first rank4 ,what he did for the ,antarctic in his youth he continued in mature life for ,british ,india4 ,while the publication of the ,antarctic ,flora was still in progress1 he made his ,indian journeys4 ,the vast collections amassed by himself and ,dr ,thomson were consigned by agreement with ,government to ,kew4 ,thither had also been brought in #aheh seven waggon-loads of collections from the cellars of the ,india ,house in ,leadenhall ,street1 where they had been accumulating for many years4 ,they included the herbaria of ,falconer and ,griffith4 ,such materials1 with other large additions made from time to time1 flowed into the already rich ,herbarium at ,kew4 ,this was the material upon which ,sir ,joseph ,hooker was to base his ,magnum ,opus1 the ,flora of ,british ,india4 ,already in #ahee ,sir ,joseph1 with his ,glasgow college friend1 ,thomas ,thomson1 had essayed to prepare a ,flora ,indica4 ,it never advanced beyond its first volume4 ,but if it had been completed on the scale set by that volume1 it would have reached nearly #ab1jjj pages6 ,after a pause of over fifteen years ,hooker made a fresh start1 aided now by a staff of collaborators1 and the ,flora of ,british ,india was the result4 ,it was conceived1 he says with regret1 upon a restricted plan4 ,nevertheless it ran to seven volumes1 published between the years #ahgb and #ahig4 ,there are nearly #fjjj pages of letterpress1 relating to #af1jjj species4 ,it is1 he says in the ,preface1 a pioneer work1 and necessarily incomplete4 ,but he hopes it may help the phytographer to discuss problems of distribution of plants from the point of view of what is perhaps the richest1 and is certainly the most varied botanical area on the surface of the globe4 ,scarcely was this great work ended when ,dr ,trimen died4 ,he left the ,ceylon ,flora1 on which he had been engaged1 incomplete4 ,three volumes were already published1 but the fourth was far from finished1 and the fifth hardly touched4 ,the ,ceylon ,government applied to ,hooker1 and though he was now eighty years of age1 he responded to the call4 ,the completing volumes were issued in #ahih and #aijj4 ,this was no mere raking over afresh the materials worked already into the ,indian ,flora4 ,for ,ceylon includes a strong ,malayan element in its vegetation4 ,it has1 moreover1 a very large number of endemic species1 and even genera4 ,this last floristic work of ,sir ,joseph may be held fitly to round off his treatment of the ,indian ,peninsula4 ,his last contribution to its botany was in the form of a ,sketch of the ,vegetation of the ,indian ,empire1 including ,ceylon1 ,burma1 and the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,it was written for the ,imperial ,gazetteer1 at the request of the ,government of ,india4 ,no one could have been so well qualified for this as the veteran who had spent more than half a century in preparation for it4 ,it was published in #aijd1 and forms the natural close to the most remarkable study of a vast and varied ,flora that has ever been carried through by one ruling mind4 ,the third of the systematic works selected for our consideration is the ,genera ,plantarum4 ,it was produced in collaboration with ,mr ,bentham4 ,of its three massive volumes the first was published in #ahfe1 and the work was completed in #ahhc4 ,it consists of a codification of the ,latin diagnoses of all the genera of ,flowering ,plants4 ,it is essentially a work for the technical botanist1 but for him it is indispensable4 ,of the known species of plants many show such close similarity of their characters that their kinship is recognised by grouping them into genera4 ,in order that these genera may be accurately defined it is necessary to have a prcis of the characters which their species have in common4 ,this must be so drawn that it shall also serve for purposes of diagnosis from allied genera4 ,such drafting requires not only a keen appreciation of fact1 but also the verbal clearness and accuracy of the conveyancing barrister4 ,the facts could only be obtained by access to a reliable and rich ,herbarium4 ,bentham and ,hooker1 working together at ,kew1 satisfied these drastic requirements more fully than any botanists of their time4 ,the only real predecessors of this monumental work were the ,genera ,plantarum of ,linnaeus 7#agcg-agfd7 and of ,jussieu 7#aghi71 to which may be added that of ,endlicher 7#ahcf-ahdj74 ,but all of these were written while the number of known genera and species was smaller4 ,the difficulty of the task of ,bentham and ,hooker was greatly enhanced by their wider knowledge4 ,but their ,genera ,plantarum is on that account a nearer approach to finality4 ,hitherto its supremacy has not been challenged4 ,the fourth of the great systematic works of ,hooker mentioned above was the ,index ,kewensis4 ,it was produced upon the plan and under the supervision of ,sir ,joseph by ,dr ,daydon ,jackson and a staff of clerks4 ,the publication began in #ahic1 and successive supplements to its four quarto volumes are still appearing at intervals4 ,the expense was borne by ,charles ,darwin4 ,the scheme originated in the difficulty he had found in the accurate naming of plants4 ,for synonyms have frequently been given by different writers to the same species1 and this had led to endless confusion4 ,the object of the ,index was to provide an authoritative list of all the names that have been used1 with reference to the author of each and to its place of publication4 ,the habitat of the plant was also to be given4 ,the correct name in use according to certain well-recognised rules of nomenclature was to be indicated by type different from that of the synonyms superseded by it4 ,the only predecessor of such an ,index was ,steudel's ,nomenclator ,botanicus1 a book greatly prized by ,darwin1 though long out of date4 ,he wished at first to produce a modern edition of ,steudel's ,nomenclator4 ,this idea was1 however1 amended1 and it was resolved to construct a new list of genera and species1 founded upon ,bentham and ,hooker's ,genera ,plantarum4 ,sir ,joseph ,hooker was asked by ,mr ,darwin to take into consideration the extent and scope of the proposed work1 and to suggest the best means of having it executed4 ,he undertook the task1 and it was he who laid out the lines to be followed4 ,after years of labour by ,dr ,daydon ,jackson and his staff1 the work was produced4 ,but ,sir ,joseph read and narrowly criticised all the proofs4 ,imagine four large quarto volumes1 containing in the aggregate #bejj pages1 each page bearing three columns of close print1 and each column about fifty names4 ,the total figures out to about #cge1jjj specific names1 all of which were critically considered by the octogenarian editor6 ,surely no greater technical benefit was ever conferred upon a future generation by the veterans of science than this ,index4 ,it smooths the way for every systematist who comes after4 ,it stands as a monument to an intimate friendship4 ,it bears witness to the munificence of ,darwin1 and the ungrudging personal care of ,hooker4 ,but the author of great works such as these was still willing to help those of less ambitious flights4 ,i must not omit to mention two books which1 being more modest in their scope1 have reached the hands of many in this country4 ,in #ahgj ,hooker produced his ,students' ,flora of the ,british ,islands1 of which later editions appeared in #ahgh and #ahhd4 ,it was published in order to supply students and field botanists with a fuller account of the plants of the ,british ,isles than the manuals hitherto in use aim at giving4 ,in #ahhg he edited1 after the death of its author1 the fifth edition of ,bentham's ,handbook of the ,british ,flora4 ,both of these still hold the field1 though they require to be brought up to date in point of classification and nomenclature4 ,the object of these brief sketches of four of the great systematic works of ,sir ,joseph ,hooker has been to show how fully he was imbued with the old systematic methods3 how he advanced1 improved and extended them1 and was in his time their chief exponent4 ,his father had held a similar position in the generation before him4 ,but the elder ,hooker1 true to his generation1 treated his species as fixed and immutable4 ,he did not generalise from them4 ,his end was attained by their accurate recognition1 delineation1 description1 and classification4 ,the younger ,hooker1 while in this work he was not a whit behind the best of his predecessors1 saw further than they4 ,he was not satisfied with the mere record of species as they were4 ,he sought to penetrate the mystery of the origin of species4 ,in fact1 he was not merely a ,scientific ,systematist in the older sense4 ,he was a ,philosophical ,biologist in the new and nascent sense of the middle period of the nineteenth century4 ,he was an almost life-long friend of ,charles ,darwin4 ,he was the first confidant of his species theory1 and1 excepting ,wallace1 its first whole-hearted adherent4 ,but he was also ,darwin's constant and welcome adviser and critic4 ,well indeed was it for the successful launch of evolutionary theory that old-fashioned systematists took it in hand4 ,both ,darwin and ,hooker had wide and detailed knowledge of species as the starting-point of their induction4 ,before we trace the part which ,hooker himself played in the drama of evolutionary theory1 it will be well to glance at his personal relations with ,darwin himself4 ,it has been seen how he read the proof-sheets of the ,voyage of the ',beagle' while still in his last year of medical study4 ,but before he started for the ,antarctic he was introduced to its author4 ,it was in ,trafalgar ,square1 and the interview was brief but cordial4 ,on returning from the ,antarctic1 correspondence was opened in #ahdc4 ,in ,january #ahdd ,hooker received the memorable letter confiding to him the germ of the ,theory of ,descent4 ,darwin wrote thus3 ,at last gleams of light have come1 and ,i am almost convinced that species are not 7it is like confessing a murder7 immutable3--,i think ,i have found 7here's presumption67 the simple way by which species become exquisitely adapted to various ends4 ,this was probably the first communication by ,darwin of his species-theory to any scientific colleague4 ,the correspondence thus happily initiated between ,darwin and ,hooker is preserved in the ,life and ,letters of ,charles ,darwin1 and in the two volumes of ,letters subsequently published4 ,they show on the one hand the rapid growth of a deep friendship between these two potent minds1 which ended only beside the grave of ,darwin in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,but what is more important is that these letters reveal1 in a way that none of the published work of either could have done1 the steps in the growth of the great generalisation4 ,we read of the doubts of one or the other2 the gradual accumulation of material facts2 the criticisms and amendments in face of new evidence2 and the slow progress from tentative hypothesis to assured belief4 ,we ourselves have grown up since the clash of opinion for and against the mutability of species died down4 ,it is hard for us to understand the strength of the feelings aroused3 the bitterness of the attack by the opponents of the theory1 and the fortitude demanded from its adherents4 ,it is best to obtain evidence on such matters at first hand2 and this is what is supplied by the correspondence between ,darwin and ,hooker4 ,how complete the understanding between the friends soon became is shown by the provisions made by ,darwin for the publication of his manuscripts in case of sudden death4 ,he wrote in ,august #ahed the definite direction ,hooker by far the best man to edit my species volume3 and this notwithstanding that he writes to him as a stern and awful judge and sceptic4 ,but again1 in a letter a few months later1 he says to him3 ,i forgot at the moment that you are the one living soul from whom ,i have constantly received sympathy4 ,i have already said that ,hooker was not only ,darwin's first confidant but also the first to accept his theory of mutability of species4 ,but even he did not fully assent to it till after its first publication4 ,the latter point comes out clearly from the letters4 ,in ,january #ahei1 six months after the reading of their joint communications to the ,linnean ,society1 ,darwin writes to ,wallace3 ,you ask about ,lyell's frame of mind4 ,i think he is somewhat staggered1 but does not give in 444 ,i think he will end by being perverted4 ,dr ,hooker has become almost as heterodox as you or ,i1 and ,i look at ,hooker as by far the most capable judge in ,europe4 ,in ,september #ahei ,darwin writes to ,w4 ,d4 ,fox3 ,lyell has read about half of the volume in clean sheets 444 ,he is wavering so much about the immutability of species that ,i expect he will come round4 ,hooker has come round1 and will publish his belief soon4 ,in the following month1 writing to ,hooker1 ,darwin says3 ,i have spoken of you here as a convert made by me3 but ,i know well how much larger the share has been of your own self-thought4 ,a letter to ,wallace of ,november #ahei bears this postscript3 ,i think that ,i told you before that ,hooker is a complete convert4 ,if ,i can convert ,huxley ,i shall be content4 ,and lastly1 in a letter to ,w4 ,b4 ,carpenter1 of the same month1 ,darwin says3 ,as yet ,i know only one believer1 but ,i look at him as of the greatest authority1 viz4 ,hooker4 ,these quotations clearly show that1 while ,lyell wavered1 and ,huxley had not yet come in1 ,hooker was a complete adherent in #ahei to the doctrine of the mutability of species4 ,excepting ,wallace1 he was the first1 in fact1 of the great group that stood round ,darwin1 as he was the last of them to survive4 ,the story of the joint communication of ,darwin and of ,wallace to the ,linnean ,society ,on the tendency of ,species to form ,varieties1 and on the ,perpetuation of ,varieties and ,species by ,natural ,means of ,selection will be fresh in the minds of readers1 for the fiftieth anniversary of the event was lately celebrated in ,london4 ,it was ,sir ,charles ,lyell and ,sir ,joseph ,hooker who jointly communicated the two papers to the society1 together with the evidence of the priority of ,darwin in the enquiry4 ,nothing could then have been more apposite than the personal history which ,sir ,joseph gave at the ,darwin-,wallace celebration1 held by the ,linnean ,society in #aijh4 ,he then told1 at first hand1 the exact circumstances under which the joint papers were produced4 ,nor could the expressions used by the ,president 7,dr ,scott7 when thanking ,sir ,joseph1 and presenting to him the ,darwin-,wallace ,medal1 have been improved4 ,he said3 ,the incalculable benefit that your constant friendship1 advice1 and alliance were to ,mr ,darwin himself1 is summed up in his own words1 used in #ahfd3 ',you have represented for many years the whole great public to me4' ,the ,president then added3 ,of all men living it is to you more than to any other that the great generalisation of ,darwin and ,wallace owes its triumph4 ,the very last appearance of ,hooker at any large public gathering of biologists was at the centenary of ,darwin's birth1 celebrated at ,cambridge1 in #aiji4 ,none who were there will forget the tall figure of the veteran1 aged1 but still vigorous1 with vivacity in every feature4 ,how gladly he accepted the congratulations of his many friends1 and how heartily he rejoiced over the full acceptance of the theory he had himself done so much to promote4 ,the end came only two years later1 in ,december last4 ,many will have wished that the great group of the protagonists of ,evolution1 ,darwin1 ,lyell1 and ,hooker1 should have found their final resting-place together in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,but this was not to be4 ,personal and family ties held him closer to ,kew4 ,and he lies there in classic ground beside his father4 ,having thus sketched the intimate relations which subsisted between ,hooker and ,darwin1 it remains to appraise his own positive contributions to ,philosophical ,biology4 ,he himself1 in his ,address as ,president of the ,british ,association at ,norwich in #ahfh1 gives an insight into his early attitude in the enquiry into biological questions4 ,having myself1 he says1 been a student of ,moral ,philosophy in a ,northern ,university1 ,i entered on my scientific career full of hopes that ,metaphysics would prove a useful mentor1 if not a guide in science4 ,i soon found1 however1 that it availed me nothing1 and ,i long ago arrived at the conclusion so well put by ,agassiz1 when he says1 ',we trust that the time is not distant when it will be universally understood that the battle of the evidences will have to be fought on the field of ,physical ,science1 and not on that of the ,metaphysical4' ,this was the difficult lesson of the period when ,evolution was born4 ,hooker learned the lesson early4 ,he cleared his mental outlook from all preconceptions1 and worked down to the bed-rock of objective fact4 ,thus he was free to use his vast and detailed knowledge in advancing1 along the lines of induction alone1 towards sound generalisations4 ,these had their very close relation to questions of the mutability of species4 ,the subject was approached by him through the study of geographical distribution1 in which1 as we have seen1 he had at an early age become the leading authority4 ,the fame of ,sir ,joseph ,hooker as a ,philosophical ,biologist rests upon a masterly series of ,essays and ,addresses4 ,the chief of these were ,the ,introductory ,essay to the ,flora ,tasmaniae1 dealing with the ,antarctic ,flora as a whole2 ,the ,essay on the ,distribution of ,arctic ,plants1 published in #ahfb2 ,the ,discourse on ,insular ,floras in #ahff2 ,the ,presidential ,address to the ,british ,association at ,norwich in #ahfh2 his ,address at ,york1 in #ahha1 on ,geographical ,distribution2 and finally1 ,the ,essay on the ,vegetation of ,india1 published in #aijd4 ,none of these were mere inspirations of the moment4 ,they were the outcome of arduous journeys to observe and to collect1 and subsequently of careful analysis of the specimens and of the facts4 ,the dates of publication bear this out4 ,the ,essay on the ,antarctic ,flora appeared about twenty years after the completion of the voyage4 ,the ,essay on the ,vegetation of ,india was not published till more than half a century after ,hooker first set foot in ,india4 ,it is upon such foundations that ,hooker's reputation as a great constructive thinker is securely based4 ,the first-named of these essays will probably be estimated as the most notable of them all in the ,history of ,science4 ,it was completed in ,november #ahei1 barely a year after the joint communications of ,darwin and ,wallace to the ,linnean ,society1 and before the ,origin of ,species had appeared4 ,it was to this ,essay that ,darwin referred when he wrote that ,hooker has come round1 and will publish his belief soon4 ,but this publication of his belief was not merely an echo of assent to ,darwin's own opinions4 ,it was a reasoned statement1 advanced upon the basis of his own self-thought1 and his own wide systematic and geographical experience4 ,from these sources he drew for himself support for the hypothesis that species are derivative1 and mutable4 ,he points out how the natural history of ,australia seemed specially suited to test such a theory1 on account of the comparative uniformity of the physical features being accompanied by a great variety in its ,flora1 and the peculiarity of both its ,fauna and ,flora1 as compared with other countries4 ,after the test had been made1 on the basis of study of some #hjjj species1 their characters1 their spread1 and their relations to those of other lands1 he concludes decisively in favour of mutability and a doctrine of progression4 ,how highly this ,essay was esteemed by his contemporaries is shown by the expressions of ,lyell and of ,darwin4 ,the former writes3 ,i have just finished the reading of your splendid ,essay on the ,origin of ,species1 as illustrated by your wide botanical experience1 and think it goes far to raise the variety-making hypothesis to the rank of a theory1 as accounting for the manner in which new species enter the world4 ,darwin wrote3 ,i have finished your ,essay4 ,to my judgment it is by far the grandest and most interesting essay on subjects of the nature discussed ,i have ever read4 ,but besides its historical interest in relation to the ,species ,question1 the ,essay contained what was up to its time the most scientific treatment of a large area from the point of view of the ,plant-,geographer4 ,he found that the ,antarctic1 like the ,arctic ,flora1 is very uniform round the ,globe4 ,the same species in many cases occur on every island1 though thousands of miles of ocean may intervene4 ,many of these species reappear on the mountains of ,southern ,chili1 ,australia1 ,tasmania1 and ,new ,zealand4 ,the ,southern ,temperate ,floras1 on the other hand1 of ,south ,america1 ,south ,africa1 ,australia1 and ,new ,zealand differ more among themselves than do the ,floras of ,europe1 ,northern ,asia1 and ,north ,america4 ,to explain these facts he suggested the probable former existence1 during a warmer period than the present1 of a centre of creation of new species in the ,southern ,ocean1 in the form of either a continent or an archipelago1 from which the ,antarctic ,flora radiated4 ,this hypothesis has since been held open to doubt4 ,but the fact that it was suggested shows the broad view which he was prepared to take of the problem before him4 ,his method was essentially that which is now styled ,ecological4 ,many hold this to be a new phase of botanical enquiry1 introduced by ,professor ,warming in #ahie4 ,no one will deny the value of the increased precision which he then brought into such studies4 ,but in point of fact it was ,ecology on the grand scale that ,sir ,joseph ,hooker practised in the ,antarctic in #ahdj4 ,moreover it was pursued1 not in regions of old civilisation1 but in lands where ,nature held her sway untouched by the hand of man4 ,this ,essay on the ,flora of the ,antarctic was the prototype of the great series4 ,sir ,joseph examined the ,arctic ,flora from similar points of view4 ,he explained the circumpolar uniformity which it shows1 and the prevalence of ,scandinavian types1 together with the peculiarly limited nature of the ,flora of the southward peninsula of ,greenland4 ,he extended his enquiries to oceanic islands4 ,he pointed out that the conditions which dictated circumpolar distribution are absent from them2 but that other conditions exist in them which account for the strange features which their vegetation shows4 ,he extended the application of such methods to the ,himalaya and to ,central ,asia4 ,he joined with ,asa ,gray in like enquiries in ,north ,america4 ,the latter had already given a scientific explanation of the surprising fact that the plants of the ,eastern ,states resemble more nearly those of ,china than do those of the ,pacific ,slope4 ,in resolving these and other problems it was not only the vegetation itself that was studied4 ,the changes of climate in geological time1 and of the earth's crust as demonstrated by geologists1 formed part of the basis on which he worked4 ,for it is facts such as these which have determined the migration of ,floras4 ,and migration1 as well as mutability of species1 entered into most of his speculations4 ,the ,essays of this magnificent series are like pictures painted with a full brush4 ,the boldness and mastery which they show sprang from long discipline and wide experience4 ,finally1 the chief results of the ,phyto-,geographical work of himself and of others were summed up in the great ,address on ,geographical ,distribution at ,york4 ,the ,jubilee of the ,british ,association was held there in #ahha4 ,it had been decided that each section should be presided over by a past ,president of the ,association1 and he had occupied that position at ,norwich in #ahfh4 ,accordingly at ,york ,hooker was appointed ,president of the ,geographical ,section1 and he chose as the subject of his ,address ,the ,geographical ,distribution of ,organic ,beings4 ,to him it illustrated the interdependence of those ,sciences which the ,geographer should study4 ,it is not enough merely to observe the topography of organisms1 but their hypsometrical distribution must also be noted4 ,further1 the changes of area and of altitude in exposed land-surfaces of which geology gives evidence1 are essential features in the problem1 together with the changes of climate1 such as have determined the advance and retrocession of glacial conditions4 ,having noted these factors1 he continued thus3 ,with the establishment of the doctrine of orderly evolution of species under known laws ,i close this list of those recognised principles of the science of geographical distribution1 which must guide all who enter upon its pursuit4 ,as ,humboldt was its founder1 and ,forbes its reformer1 so we must regard ,darwin as its latest and greatest law-giver4 ,now1 after thirty years1 may we not add to these words of his1 that ,hooker was himself its greatest exponent8 ,and so we have followed1 however inadequately1 this great man into the various lines of scientific activity which he pursued4 ,we have seen him to excel in them all4 ,the cumulative result is that he is universally held to have been1 during several decades1 the most distinguished botanist of his time4 ,he was before all things a philosopher4 ,in him we see the foremost student of the broader aspects of ,plant-,life at the time when evolutionary belief was nascent4 ,his influence at that stirring period1 though quiet1 was far-reaching and deep4 ,his work was both critical and constructive4 ,his wide knowledge1 his keen insight1 his fearless judgment were invaluable in advancing that intellectual revolution which found its pivot in the mutability of species4 ,the share he took in promoting it was second only to that of his life-long friend ,charles ,darwin4 ,,index ,absorption1 ,aristotelian views on1 #fh ---- ,grew and1 #eh ---- ,hales and1 #gc-gf ---- ,mariotte and1 #fh ,adanson1 ,plant families and1 #da ,agassiz1 appreciation of1 #bae1 #cai ,agriculture1 investigations in1 #bcd1 #bcf-bcg ---- physiology and1 #g ---- ,theophrastus and1 #i ,algae1 ,berkeley on ,british1 #bbf ---- collection of1 #bad1 #baf ---- ,harvey on1 #bjh1 #baj-bab1 #baf ---- systematic work on1 #bjb ---- ,williamson and1 #beb ,algal floras1 #bai ,alston1 ,charles1 ,king's ,botanist1 #bhc-bhd ---- ,hales and1 #bhe-bhf ---- investigations of1 #bhe ---- publications of1 #bhf ,alternation of generations1 #ahh-ahi1 #aih ,amman1 ,morison's method and1 #bf ,anabena filaments1 ,griffith on1 #aij1 #aif ,anatomical method1 ,w4 ,hooker and1 #adg-adh ,anatomy1 ,balfour and comparative1 #bfb ---- ,founders of1 #b1 #f1 #dd1 #fc1 #fg ---- ,grew and plant1 #dg-eg ---- ,henfrey and ,monocotyledon1 #aii ---- ,hill and plant1 #ic1 #id1 #ie ,annals of ,botany1 ,ward and1 #bff ,annual rings1 ,j4 ,hill and1 #id ,antarctic flora1 ,j4 ,d4 ,hooker and1 #cje1 #caa-cab ,anthrax1 ,ward on1 #bgb ,apical growth1 ,ngeli and ,leitgeb on1 #ace ,apogamy1 ,alston and1 #bhf ,aquatic fungi1 ,ward on1 #bfe ,aquatic ,myxomycete1 ,ward and1 #bfe ,arber1 ,agnes1 on ,grew1 #dd-fd ,arber1 ,newell1 on ,primofilices1 #beg ,arboretum1 founding of ,edinburgh1 #cjj ,archaeology1 ,williamson and1 #bdi ,archegonia1 discovery in ,ferns of1 #aif-aih ,aristotle1 botanical writings of1 #h ,aristotle1 value of work of1 #ae ---- physiology and1 #fh ,ascent of sap1 ,grew's explanation of1 #eh ,asclepiadaceae1 ,r4 ,brown on the1 #aad-aaf ,assimilation1 ,hales on1 #hj ,bacteria1 action of light on1 #bgc ,bacteriology1 ,ward on1 #bfe1 #bga-bgc ,baker1 ,j4 ,hill's quarrels with1 #hi-ia ---- ,synopsis ,filicum and1 #adf ,balanophoraceae1 ,griffith on the1 #ahf ---- ,j4 ,d4 ,hooker and the1 #cjh ,balfour1 ,andrew1 pioneer work of1 #bha ,balfour1 ,j4 ,bayley1 on the ,edinburgh ,professors1 #bhj-cja ---- ---- on the ,ginger-beer plant1 #bfi ,balfour1 ,john ,hutton1 life of1 #bic-cjj ---- ---- ,edinburgh ,professorship and1 #bic-bie ---- ---- at ,glasgow1 #bie ---- ---- administrative work of1 #bie ---- ---- teaching methods of1 #bii ,banks1 ,sir ,joseph1 ,w4 ,hooker and1 #abi ---- ---- ,r4 ,brown and1 #aaj-aaa ---- ---- on rust disease1 #bge ,banksian collections1 ,r4 ,brown and1 #aab-abc1 #acd de ,bary1 on potato disease1 #bff ---- on rust disease1 #bg ---- ,ward's visit to1 #bfd ,basidia1 ,berkeley's researches on1 #bcj ,bauer1 ,w4 ,hooker and1 #add-ade ,bauhin1 ,caspar1 ,pinax of1 #ad-ae ---- and ,john1 ,morison on1 #bj ,bean1 collections of1 #bdh ---- on ,yorkshire ,fossil ,flora1 #bdg ,bentham1 collaboration with ,hooker1 #cac ---- bequest of1 #add ---- collections of1 #adj ---- ,herbarium of1 #caj ,berkeley1 ,miles ,joseph1 life of1 #bbe-bcb ---- ---- fungal morphology and1 #bcj-bca ---- ,w4 ,hooker on1 #bbg ---- as naturalist1 #bbe-bbf ---- as plant pathologist1 #bca-bcb ---- as systematic mycologist1 #bbg-bcj ---- as zoologist1 #bbf ,binney1 on ,carboniferous plants1 #bec ---- on coal balls1 #bde ---- fossil plant tissues and1 #cjg ---- ,geological ,survey and1 #bde-bdf ---- publications of1 #bdf ,blair1 on ,morison and ,ray1 #ca ,bobart1 ,jacob1 ,keeper of ,oxford ,physic ,garden1 #ag ---- ---- the younger1 #ah ---- ---- ---- and ,morison's work1 #ah1 #bc ---- ---- ---- influence on ,ray1 #dc ,botanic gardens1 of ,british colonies1 #acf ---- ---- of ,calcutta1 #aha-ahb1 #cje ---- ---- of ,cambridge1 #aec ---- ---- ,chelsea ,physic1 #hd1 #ib1 #agi ---- ---- of ,glasgow1 #abi1 #acj1 #bib ---- ---- ,glasnevin1 #bac ---- ---- ,government subsidy of1 #bhh ---- ---- ,kew1 #acf-acg ---- ---- ,oxford1 #ag1 #ah ---- ---- purpose of1 #bha ---- ---- rivalry between ,edinburgh1 #bhb1 #bhc ,botanical ,gazette1 ,henfrey and1 #bja1 #bjb ---- ,magazine1 editorship of ,w4 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#bfh ,parasitic habit1 adoption of1 #bfi ,parasitism1 adaptive1 #bgg ,permanence of species1 ,lindley and1 #agc ,philosophical ,biology1 ,j4 ,d4 ,hooker and1 #cae-cbc ,philosophical ,transactions1 ,ward and1 #bfd1 #bff-bfg1 #bfi1 #bgj1 #bge ,phlogiston theory1 #ff1 #gi ,photosynthesis1 #hj ,plant diseases1 ,ward on1 #bfh ,plant histology1 early work in1 #aii ,plant nutrition1 #fi1 #gb ,plant pathology1 #d1 #bca-bcb ,plant physiology1 ,agriculture and1 #g ---- ---- ,chemistry and1 #g ---- ---- experimental1 #fh1 #hc ---- ---- founders of1 #b1 #f1 #fh ---- ---- ,gilbert and1 #bcd-bce ---- ---- ,grew on1 #eh1 #fj1 #fa ---- ---- ,hales and1 #ga-gh1 #hj-hc ---- ---- ,hope and1 #bhg1 #bhi ---- tissues1 ,grew on1 #ed ,plants1 medicinal properties of1 #dg ,pleomorphism1 ,bacteria and1 #bfe ---- ,uredineae and1 #bff ,pollen1 ,amici's discovery1 #aid1 #aie ---- ,r4 ,brown and1 #aae-aaf ---- chamber1 in ,cycas1 #ahg-ahh ,polyembryony1 #aag ,popularisation of ,science1 #bej ,potato disease1 #bca1 #bff ,praeger1 ,r4 ,l41 on ,harvey1 #bjb-bbd ,presl1 on ,ferns1 #ade-adg ,preston1 ,c4 and ,g41 ,materia ,medica and1 #bhc ,primofilices of ,arber1 #beg ,proteaceae1 ,r4 ,brown on1 #aad ,protective mimicry in ,orchidaceae1 #aaf ,protoplasm1 von ,mohl and1 #ace ,pteridophyta1 ,griffith on1 #ahh ---- alternation of generations1 #ahh-ahi ,pteridosperms1 secondary growth in1 #bef ---- seeds of1 #beg ,q4 ,j4 ,m4 ,s41 ,ward and1 #bfc-bff ,quaker ,schools1 ,science in ,irish1 #bje ,ray1 ,john1 life of1 #bh-dc ---- ---- on ,classification1 #bh-bi1 #cd1 #cf-ch ---- ---- on floral morphology1 #ce ---- ---- influence of1 #bc1 #aji ---- ---- ,jung and1 #ae ---- ---- ,methodus ,plantarum1 #cb-cd ---- ---- on seeds and seedlings1 #ce ---- ---- on transmission of water1 #fh ---- ,society1 ,harvey on1 #baj ,renaissance of ,botany1 #e1 #aic1 #aid1 #bjc ,renault1 ,williamson and1 #bee ,reproduction1 ,hill's views on1 #ii-ajj ,rhamnus infectorius1 ,ward on1 #bfg ,ringing experiments1 ,hales and1 #gf-gg 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,schizomycetes1 ,ward on1 #bfe ,schleiden1 fertilisation1 #aid-aif ---- ,grew and1 #dh ---- morphology and1 #acd1 #ahe1 #ahf1 #aig ,schwendener's ,theory1 ,bornet and1 #bgh ---- ---- ,ward and1 #bfd1 #bgh ,science and ,art ,department1 ,ward and1 #bfa ,scientific exploration1 ,golden age of1 #cjd ,scott1 ,d4 ,h41 on ,williamson1 #bdc-bfj ,scottish ,flora1 ,hope and1 #bhi ,seaweeds1 ,flora of1 #bai ---- ,harvey and1 #bjh1 #baj-bab1 #bad1 #baf ---- systematic study of1 #bjb ,secondary growth1 in ,cryptogams1 #bed-bef ---- ---- systematic importance of1 #bed1 #bef ,seeds and seedlings1 ,grew on1 #di1 #fb ---- ---- ---- ,malpighi on1 #ce ---- ---- ---- ,ray on1 #ce ,sex in plants1 ,alston on1 #bhf ---- ---- ---- in ,cryptogams1 #aie1 #aif ---- ---- ---- denial of1 #bhe ---- ---- ---- in ,ferns1 #ace1 #aif-aig ---- ---- ---- in flowering plants1 #aid ---- ---- ---- ,grew on1 #fa1 #fb ,shrubs1 ,ray's classification of1 #cj1 #cd ,sibbald1 #bha ,solms-,laubach1 on ,williamson1 #bef1 #beg ---- ---- on ,scott1 #beh ,sorby1 ,williamson and1 #bea ,south ,kensington1 ,science ,schools at1 #bfa1 #bfb ,species1 critical1 #bja ---- lumping of1 #bja ,species ,filicum1 #ade1 #adf ,spencer1 ,herbert1 #hj ,sphenophyllum1 ,williamson and1 #bee-bef ,starch1 extraction of1 #afj1 #afa ,stems1 annual rings in1 #eg ---- comparative anatomy of1 #ea1 #ef ---- modified1 #eg1 #eh ---- secondary thickening in1 #ef ,sternbergiae1 ,williamson on1 #beb ,stigmaria1 ,williamson on1 #beg ,suminski1 sex in ,ferns1 #aif-aig ---- and ,schleiden's theory1 #aig ,susceptibility1 ,ward on1 #bfh ,sutherland1 ,edinburgh ,professor1 #bha-bhb ,symbiosis1 physiological aspect of1 #bfi ---- fermentation and1 #bgj ,synopsis ,filicum1 publication of1 #adf1 #adg ,systematic botany1 ,balfour and1 #bii ---- ---- ,bauhin and1 #ad ---- ---- ,berkeley on1 #bbg-bcj1 #bca ---- ---- ,british ,school of1 #f ---- ---- ,r4 ,brown and1 #aba ---- ---- ,cesalpino and1 #aa ---- ---- ,ferns and1 #add-adh ---- ---- first publication on1 #cb ---- ---- ,founders of1 #b ---- ---- ,griffith and1 #ahd ---- ---- ,harvey and1 #bbj ---- ---- ,w4 ,hooker and1 #c1 #abg1 #acb ---- ---- ,j4 ,d4 ,hooker1 #caa-cae ---- ---- ,lindley and1 #c ---- ---- ,materia ,medica and1 #bhb ---- ---- ,morison and ,ray and1 #f1 #dg ---- ---- ,seventeenth ,century and1 #ad ,taxonomy1 ,hill and1 #ajj ---- ,linnaeus and1 #f ---- ,ray on1 #f ---- rise of1 #bjb-bjc ,theophrastus1 ,botany and1 #h1 #i ---- ,cesalpino and1 #aa ---- ,hill and1 #he1 #hf ---- influence of1 #aa ---- ,jung on1 #ae1 #ce ---- ,ray on1 #ce ,theory of ,descent1 ,j4 ,d4 ,hooker and1 #caf ,thiselton-,dyer1 #b1 #ha1 #bei ---- ---- anatomy and1 #aej ---- ---- ,new ,botany1 #bjc ---- ---- on ,ward1 #bfa-bgi ,thomson1 ,gilbert under1 #bcc-bcd ---- ,j4 ,d4 ,hooker and1 #cjf1 #cab ,timiriazeff1 #hj ,tournefort1 ,alston on1 #bhe ---- on ,cesalpino1 #bg ---- on ,ray1 #ch ---- on ,morison1 #bg ---- on de ,jussieu1 #db ---- work of1 #dj ,tracheae1 ,grew on1 #ea1 #eg ,transmission of water1 ,hales on1 #fh ,transpiration1 ,hales on1 #gb-gg ---- and ,light1 #ha ,trees1 classification of1 #ca1 #cd ,treub1 #ahf1 #ahg ,trimen1 ,ceylon ,flora and1 #cab ,tulasne1 on rust disease1 #bge ,turgescence1 ,hales and1 #hb ,university ,college1 ,london1 ,gilbert and1 #bcb1 #bcc-d ---- ---- ---- ,griffith and1 #agi ---- ---- ---- ,lindley and1 #aff1 #afh1 #agg ---- ---- ---- ,williamson and1 #bdi ,uredineae1 ,banks and1 #bge ---- ,eriksson and1 #bgf ---- ,ward and1 #bfc1 #bff1 #bgd1 #bge ,vascular ,cryptogams1 classification of1 #bed-bee ---- ---- ,henfrey and1 #aid ---- system1 of climbing plants1 #ee ,vegetable physiology1 ,weddell and1 #bdh ,vernation of leaves1 ,grew on1 #ej ,vessels1 ,hill and function of1 #ie ---- ,grew and formation of1 #eb ---- ,grew and nature of1 #ee ---- ,grew and spiral1 #eg ,vienna ,congress and ,hill1 #ajd ,vines on ,morison and ,ray1 #h ---- on ,ward1 #bfa1 #bfb ,wallace and ,darwin1 #cae1 #cag ,ward1 ,harry ,marshall1 life of1 #bfa-bgi ---- ---- at ,cambridge1 #bgd ---- ---- in ,ceylon1 #bfb-bfd ---- ---- at ,cooper's ,hill1 #bff ---- ---- at ,manchester1 #bfd ---- ---- methods of1 #bgh-bgi ---- ---- on coffee disease1 #bfb-bfd ---- ---- on bacteriology1 #bfe-bfh1 #bga-bgd ---- ---- on symbiosis1 #bfh-bga ---- ---- on ,uredineae1 #bff1 #bge-bgg ,warming1 on ,ecology1 #cba ,water supply1 ,ward on1 #bgd ,welwitschia1 ,j4 ,d4 ,hooker on1 #cjh ,wheat1 experiments on1 #bcf-bcg ,wieland1 on fossil plants1 #bec ,wilfarth1 #bfg ,williamson1 ,william ,crawford1 life of1 #bdc-bfj ---- ---- collections of1 #beh ---- ---- early life of1 #bdg ---- ---- as ,fossil ,botanist1 #g1 #bec ---- ---- as ,geologist1 #bdi ---- ---- as ,lecturer1 #bej1 #bea ---- ---- at ,manchester1 #bej ---- ---- mistakes of1 #beg1 #beh ---- ---- as ,naturalist1 #bdh ---- ---- results of1 #bef ---- ---- ,ward and1 #bfd ---- ---- as ,zoologist1 #d ,williamsonia1 #bec ,witham1 #bdc-bde1 #cjg ,yorkshire1 palaeontology of1 #bdg ,zamia1 ,williamson on1 #bec ,zoologist1 ,williamson as1 #d ---- ,berkeley as1 #bbf ,,transcriber',s ,,note ,italic text is denoted by underscores4 ,bold text is denoted by equal signs4 ,superscripts are denoted by and have not been expanded4 ,subscripts in chemical formulae are denoted by eg ,,co#b4 ,obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,all botanical terms in the text have been retained4 ,except for those changes noted below1 misspelling by the authors1 inconsistent or archaic usage1 has been retained4 ,for example1 cell-walls1 cell walls2 sea-weed1 seaweed2 ,linnus ,linnaeus2 p #fi 'limped' changed to 'limpid'4 p #ajf 'concensus' changed to 'consensus'4 ,footnote #aje 'completer' changed to 'more complete'4 ,footnote #aab 'p4 #h994' changed to 'p4 #h4'4 p #agc ',endogens' 7repeated in list7 changed to ',exogens'4 p #bbj 'deterrants' changed to 'deterrents'4 p #bdh 'estuarian' changed to 'estuarine'4 p #cjj ',walker ,arnott' changed to ',walker-,arnott'4 ,index3 ',anabaena' changed to ',anabena'4 ,index3 7,de ,candolle37 ',prodomus' changed to ',prodromus'4 ,index3 ',elfing' changed to ',elfving'4 ,index3 7,ward37 '#bfa-bgi' made bold '#bfa-bgi'4