,a ,,practical ,,handbook ,,on ,,the ,,distillation ,,of ,,alcohol ,,from ,,farm ,,products ,,including ,the ,processes of ,malting2 ,mashing and ,mascerating2 ,fermenting and ,distilling ,alcohol from ,grain1 ,beets1 ,potatoes1 ,molasses1 etc41 with ,chapters on ,alcoholometry and the ,,de-,,naturing ,,of ,,alcohol ,,for ,,use ,,in ,farm ,engines1 ,automobiles1 ,launch ,motors1 and in ,heating and ,lighting2 with a ,synopsis of the ,new ,free ,alcohol ,law and its ,amendment and the ,government ,regulations4 ,,by ,f4 ,b4 ,,wright4 ,,second ,,edition1 ,,revised ,,and ,,greatly ,,enlarged ,,new ,,york ,,spon ,,chamberlain1 #abc ,,liberty ,,street ,,london ,e4 ,f4 ,n4 ,,spon1 ,,limited1 #eg ,,haymarket1 ,s4,w4 #aijg ,copyright1 #aijf1 ,by ,,spon ,,chamberlain4 ,copyright1 #aijg1 ,by ,,spon ,,chamberlain4 ,mc,ilroy ,emmet1 ,printers1 #bb ,thames ,st41 ,new ,york1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,preface ,,to ,,second ,,edition4 ,since the passage of the ,free ,alcohol ,act there has been a constantly increasing demand for information as to the manufacture of industrial alcohol4 ,this1 with the favorable reception accorded to the first edition of this book has lead the publishers to bring out a second edition4 ,the entire volume has been carefully revised and not only has the original text been amplified but new chapters have been added explaining the most modern and approved methods and appliances both as used in ,europe and in this country4 ,another valuable feature of the present volume is the collection of ,u4 ,s4 de-naturing formulas covering the special denaturants necessitated by the various arts and by the ,government requirements4 ,the chapters on modern distilling apparatus rectifiers and modern plants have been very carefully prepared in order to give the reader a clear idea of the various types of apparatus in use to-day and of their general place in a distillery system4 ,the value of the book has been further increased by numerous additional illustrations4 ,it would be impossible in the compass of one small volume to describe all the practical details of alcohol manufacture particularly as these details vary with every distillery1 but it has been the aim of the author to give sufficient information to enable every reader to understand the theory and general practice of the art1 leading him from the simple methods and apparatus used until the last ten years to the more complicated stills and processes which have been lately devised4 ,inasmuch as the manufacture of industrial alcohol has been most highly perfected in ,france and ,germany1 use has been made of the best ,european authorities and in particular the author begs to acknowledge his indebtedness to ,sa ,majeste ,l',alcohol by ,l4 ,beaudry de ,saunier4 ,the publishers' and author's acknowledgements are also due to the ,vulcan ,copper ,works ,company of ,cincinnati1 ,ohio1 and to the ,geo4 ,l4 ,squier ,manufacturing ,company1 ,buffalo1 ,new ,york1 for their kindness in allowing illustrations to be given of modern ,american distilling apparatus4 ,f4 ,b4 ,,wright4 ,new ,york1 ,aug4 #a1 #aijg4 ,,preface4 ,to the majority of persons ,alcohol connotes liquor4 ,that it is used to some extent in the arts1 that it is a fuel1 is also common knowledge1 but ,alcohol as a source of power1 as a substitute for gasoline1 petroleum1 and kindred hydrocarbons was hardly known to the generality of ,americans until the passage of the ,de-naturing ,act by the last ,congress4 ,then ,alcohol leaped at once into fame1--not merely as the humble servant of the pocket lamp1 nor as the ,demon ,rum1 but as a substitute for all the various forms of cheap hydrocarbon fuels1 and as a new farm product1 a new means for turning the farmer's grain1 fruit1 potatoes1 etc41 into that greatest of all ,powers1 ,money4 ,that ,alcohol was capable of this work was no new discovery accomplished by the fiat of ,congress1 but the ,act of ,june #g1 #aijf1 freed de-natured ,alcohol from the disability it had previously labored under1--namely1 the high internal revenue tax1 and so cheapened its cost that it could be economically used for purposes in the arts and manufactures which the former tax forbade4 ,this ,act then opens the door of a new market to the farmer and the manufacturer1 and it is in answer to the increased desire for information as to the source of ,alcohol and its preparation that this book has been written4 ,the processes described are thoroughly reliable and are such as have the approval of experience4 ,as was stated above1 ,alcohol is not a natural product1 but is formed by the decomposition of sugar or glucose through fermentation4 ,this leaves ,alcohol mixed with water1 and these in turn are separated by distillation4 ,the literature treating of the distillation of ,alcohol from farm products is very scant4 ,but due credit is here given to the following foreign works which have been referred to3 ,spon's ,encyclopdia of the ,industrial ,arts1 which also contains an article on ,wood ,alcohol1 ,mr4 ,bayley's excellent ,pocketbook for ,chemists1 and ,mr4 ,noel ,deerr's fine work on ,sugar and ,sugar ,cane4 ,,new ,,york1 ,oct4 #ca1 #aijf ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,alcohol1 ,,its ,,various ,,forms ,,and ,,sources4 ,its chemical structure4 ,how produced4 ,boiling points4 ,alcohol and water4 ,alcohol1 where found4 ,produced from decomposition of vegetables4 ,sources4 ,principal alcohols4 #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,,mashes1 ,,and ,,fermentation4 ,a synopsis of steps4 ,mashing starchy materials4 ,gelatinizing apparatus and processes4 ,saccharifying4 ,cooling the mash4 ,fermentation4 ,yeast and its preparation4 ,varieties of fermentation3--,alcoholic1 acetous1 lactic and viscous4 ,fermenting periods4 ,fermenting apparatus and rooms4 ,strengthening alcoholic liquors4 #h ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,distilling ,,apparatus4 ,the simple still4 ,adams still4 ,concentrating stills4 ,compound distillation4 ,dorn's still4 ,continuous distillation4 ,the ,cellier-,blumenthal still4 ,coffey's still4 ,current stills4 ,regulating distillery fire4 #cc ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,modern ,,distilling ,,apparatus4 ,the principles of modern compound stills4 ,vapor traps and their construction4 ,steam regulation4 ,feed regulation4 ,american apparatus4 ,the ,guillaume inclined column still4 #ff ,,chapter ,v4 ,,rectification4 ,general principles of fractionation4 ,old form of rectifying still4 ,simple fractionating apparatus4 ,vulcan rectifier4 ,barbet's twin column rectifier4 ,guillaume's ,agricultural rectifying apparatus4 ,rectifying by filtration4 #hb ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,malting4 ,the best barley to use4 ,washing4 ,steeping4 ,germinating4 ,the wet couch4 ,the floors4 ,long malt4 ,drying4 ,grinding and crushing4 #ajc ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,alcohol ,,from ,,potatoes4 ,washing4 ,gelatinizing and saccharifying4 ,low pressure steaming1 and apparatus therefor4 ,crushing the potatoes4 ,high pressure steaming and apparatus4 ,the vacuum cooker4 ,the ,henze steamer4 ,isolation of starch without steam4 ,english methods4 ,saccharifying the starch4 #aaj ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,alcohol ,,from ,,grain1 ,,corn1 ,,wheat1 ,,rice1 ,,and ,,other ,,cereals4 ,relative yields of various cereals4 ,choice of grain4 ,proportions of starch1 etc41 in various grains4 ,grinding4 ,steeping4 ,preparatory mashing4 ,saccharifying4 ,treatment of grain under high pressure4 ,softening grain by acid4 #abf ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,alcohol ,,from ,,beets4 ,beet cultivation4 ,composition4 ,soil and manures4 ,sowing4 ,harvesting4 ,storing4 ,production of alcohol from beets4 ,cleaning and rasping4 ,extraction by pressure4 ,extraction by maceration and diffusion4 ,the diffusion battery4 ,fermentation4 ,direct distillation of roots4 #adj ,,chapter ,x4 ,,alcohol ,,from ,,molasses ,,and ,,sugar ,,cane4 ,the necessary qualities in molasses4 ,beet sugar4 ,molasses mixing and diluting4 ,neutralizing the wash4 ,pitching temperature4 ,distilling4 ,fermenting raw sugar4 ,cane sugar molasses4 ,dunder4 ,clarifying4 ,fermenting4 ,various processes4 #afc ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,alcoholometry4 ,hydrometers in general4 ,proof spirit4 ,syke's hydrometer4 ,gay-,lussac's hydrometer4 ,tralles alcoholometer4 ,hydrometric methods4 ,estimation of alcohol4 ,field's alcoholometer4 ,grisler's method and apparatus4 ,estimating sugar in mash4 ,determination of alcoholic fruits4 ,physical tests4 ,chemical tests4 ,the ,permanganate of ,potash test4 ,results by ,barbet4 #agd ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,distilling ,,plants1 ,,their ,,general ,,arrangement ,,and ,,equipment4 ,simple apparatus4 ,elaborate plants4 ,steam stills4 ,the fermenting room4 ,ventilation4 ,fermenting vats4 ,preparatory vats4 ,arrangement of grain distillery4 ,a small beet distillery4 ,large beet distilling plant4 ,transporting beets4 ,potato distillery4 ,molasses distillery4 ,fermenting house for molasses4 ,transportation of molasses to distillery4 ,coal consumption4 #ahi ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,de-,,natured ,,alcohol1 ,,and ,,de-,,naturing ,,formul4 ,uses of alcohol4 ,de-natured spirit3--,its use in ,germany1 ,france and ,england4 ,the ,de-naturing ,act4 ,the uses of de-natured alcohol4 ,methods and ,formul for de-naturing4 ,de-natured alcohol in the industrial world4 #baa ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,de-,,naturing ,,regulations ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,the ,free ,alcohol ,act of #aijf1 and proposed changes therein4 ,the ,amendment of #aijg4 ,internal ,revenue ,regulations4 #bbd ,index4 #bfa ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,no4 ,,page4 #a ,vacuum mash cooker to face #aj #b ,henze steamer #ab #c ,mash cooler1 air system #ae #d ,mash cooler1 water system #ag #e ,yeasting and fermenting apparatus to face #bb #f ,a simple still #cd #g ,simple direct-heated still #ce #h ,simple still1 with rectifier #cg #i ,adam's still #ci #aj ,corty's simplified distilling apparatus #da #aa ,double still #db #ab ,dorn's compound still #dc #ac ,compound still #df #ad ,compound direct-fire still #dg #ae ,cellier-,blumenthal still #di #af ,details of rectifier column #ej #ag ,details of condenser and mash heater #eb #ah ,coffey's rectifying still #ee #ai1 #bj ,rotary current still #ei1 #fj #ba ,indicator for regulating the distilling fire #fa #bb ,diagrammatic view of column still and accessory apparatus to face #fd #bc ,distilling plate #fd #bd1 #be ,barbet traps #fh #bf ,steam regulator #gj #bg ,gauge glass for regulator #gb #bh ,continuous distilling apparatus with external tubular condenser to face #gb #bi ,detail of chamber1 continuous still #gc #cj1 #ca ,details of perforated plate ,a #ge1 #gf #cb ,continuous distilling apparatus with goose separator to face #gf #cc ,section of ,gillaume's inclined column still #gh #cd ,gillaume's inclined column still #gi #ce ,rectifying still #hh #cf ,section of rectifying still #hi #cg ,fractional distilling apparatus #ia #ch ,rectifying apparatus with external tubular condenser to face #id #ci ,twin column ,barbet rectifier #ie #dj ,gillaume's rectifier and inclined still #ig #da ,steaming vat for potatoes #aab #db ,bottom of steaming vat #aac #dc ,steam generator #aad #dd ,potato steamer and crusher #aaf #de ,bohn's steamer and crusher #aah #df ,stack for storing beets #adh #dg ,storage cellar for beets #adi #dh ,beet and potato rasp #aeb #di ,dujardin's roll press #aee #ej ,defusion battery #aeh #ea ,mixing vat #afe #eb ,syke's hydrometer #agf #ec ,field's alcoholometer #ahb #ed ,geisler's apparatus #ahd #ee ,continuous grain alcohol distillery--,barbet's system #aih #ef ,grain distillery1 capacity #bejj bushels per day to face #aih #eg ,small beet distillery #bjj #eh ,large beet distillery #bjb #ei ,molasses distillery1 capacity #bejj gallons per day to face #bjf #fj ,molasses fermenting house #bjg ,,chapter ,i4 ,,alcohol1 ,,its ,,various ,,forms ,,and ,,sources4 ,alcohol4 7,fr41 alcool2 ,ger41 alkohol47 ,formula1 ,c#b;,h#f,o4 ,pure alcohol is a liquid substance1 composed of carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen1 in the following proportions3 ,c #eb4ag ,h #ac4jd ,o #cd4gi ------ #ajj4jj ,it is the most important member of an important series of organic compounds1 all of which resemble each other closely1 and possess many analogous properties4 ,they are classed by the chemist under the generic title of ,alcohols4 ,alcohol does not occur in nature2 it is the product of the decomposition of sugar1 or1 more properly1 of glucose1 which1 under the influence of certain organic1 nitrogenous substances1 called ferments is split up into alcohol and carbonic anhydride4 ,the latter is evolved in the form of gas1 alcohol remaining behind mixed with water1 from which it is separated by distillation4 ,the necessary purification is effected in a variety of ways4 ,,table ,i4--,,the ,,boiling ,,points ,,of ,,alcoholic ,,liquors ,,of ,,different ,,strengths1 ,,and ,,the ,,proportions ,,of ,,alcohol ,,in ,,the ,,vapors ,,given ,,off4 ,proportion ,proportion ,proportion ,proportion of alcohol,temperatureof alcohol of alcohol ,temperatureof alcohol in the of the in the in the of the in the boiling boiling condensed boiling boiling condensed liquid in liquid4 vapor in liquid in liquid4 vapor in #ajj vols4 #ajj vols4 #ajj vols4 #ajj vols4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #ib #aga4j ,f4 #ic #bj #ahi4e ,f4 #ga #ij #aga4e ,f4 #ib #ah #aia4f ,f4 #fh #he #agb4j ,f4 #ia4e #ae #aid4j ,f4 #ff #hj #agb4g ,f4 #ij4e #ab #aif4a ,f4 #fa #ge #agc4f ,f4 #ij #aj #aih4e ,f4 #ee #gj #age4j ,f4 #hi #g #bjj4f ,f4 #ej #fe #agf4j ,f4 #hg #e #bjc4j ,f4 #db #ej #agh4a ,f4 #he #c #bje4a ,f4 #cf #dj #ahj4e ,f4 #hb #b #bjg4e ,f4 #bh #ce #ahb4f ,f4 #hj #a #bji4i ,f4 #ac #cj #ahe4j ,f4 #gh #j #bab4j ,f4 #j #be #ahg4a ,f4 #gf ,pure1 absolute alcohol is a colorless1 mobile1 very volatile liquid1 having a hot1 burning taste1 and a pungent and somewhat agreeable odor4 ,it is very inflammable1 burning in the air with a bluish-yellow flame1 evolving much heat1 leaving no residue1 and forming vapors of carbonic anhydride and water4 ,its specific gravity at #j ,c 7#cb ,f47 is 4#hjie1 and at #ae4e ,c4 7#fj ,f47 4#gid2 that of its vapor is #a4fac4 ,it boils at #gh4d ,c4 7#agc ,f474 ,the boiling point of its aqueous mixtures are raised in proportion to the quantity of water present4 ,mixtures of alcohol and water when boiled give off at first a vapor rich in alcohol1 and containing but little aqueous vapor2 if the ebullition be continued a point is ultimately reached when all the alcohol has been driven off and nothing but pure water remains4 ,thus1 by repeated distillations alcohol may be obtained from its mixtures with water in an almost anhydrous state4 ,absolute alcohol has a strong affinity for water4 ,it absorbes moisture from the air rapidly1 and thereby becomes gradually weaker2 it should therefore be kept in tightly-stoppered bottles4 ,when brought into contact with animal tissues1 it deprives them of the water necessary for their constitution1 and acts in this way as an energetic poison4 ,considerable heat is disengaged when alcohol and water are brought together2 if1 however1 ice be substituted for water1 heat is absorbed1 owing to the immediate and rapid conversion of the ice into the liquid state4 ,when one part of snow is mixed with two parts of alcohol1 a temperature as low as #e4h ,f4 below zero is reached4 ,when alcohol and water are mixed together the resulting liquid occupies1 after agitation1 a less volume than the sum of the two original liquids4 ,this contraction is greatest when the mixture is made in the proportion of #eb4c volumes of alcohol and #dg4g volumes of water1 the result being1 instead of #ajj volumes1 #if4ce4 ,a careful examination of the liquid when it is being agitated reveals a vast number of minute air-bubbles1 which are discharged from every point of the mixture4 ,this is due to the fact that gases which are held in solution by the alcohol and water separately are less soluble when the two are brought together2 and the contraction described above is the natural result of the disengagement of such dissolved gases4 ,the following table represents the contraction undergone by different mixtures of absolute alcohol and water4 ,,table ,,ii4--#ajj ,,volumes ,,of ,,mixture ,,at #ei ,f4 ,alcohol4,contraction4,alcohol4,contract ion4,alcohol4,contraction4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ajj #j4jj #fe #c4fa #cj #b4gb #ie #a4ah #fj #c4gc #be #b4bd #ij #a4id #ee #c4gg #bj #a4gb #he #b4dg #ej #c4gd #ae #a4bj #hj #b4hg #de #c4fd #aj #j4gb #ge #c4ai #dj #c4dd #e #j4ca #gj #c4dd #ce #c4ad ,alcohol is termed absolute when it has been deprived of every trace of water1 and when its composition is exactly expressed by its chemical formula4 ,to obtain it in this state it must be subjected to a series of delicate operations in the laboratory1 which it would be impossible to perform on an industrial scale4 ,in commerce it is known only in a state of greater or less dilution4 ,alcohol possesses the power of dissolving a large number of substances insoluble in water and acids1 such as many inorganic salts1 phosphorus1 sulphur1 iodine1 resins1 essential oils1 fats1 coloring matters1 etc4 ,it precipitates albumen1 gelatine1 starch1 gum1 and other substances from their solutions4 ,these properties render it an invaluable agent in the hands of the chemist4 ,alcohol is found in1 and may be obtained from1 all substances--vegetable or other--which contain sugar4 ,as stated above1 it does not exist in these in the natural state1 but is the product of the decomposition by fermentation of the saccharine principle contained therein2 this decomposition yields the spirit in a very dilute state1 but it is readily separated from the water with which it is mixed by processes of distillation1 which will subsequently be described4 ,the amount of alcohol which may be obtained from the different unfermented substances which yield it varies considerably1 depending entirely upon the quantity of sugar which they contain4 ,alcohol is produced either from raw materials containing starch1 as potatoes1 corn1 barley1 etc41 or raw materials containing sugar1 as grapes1 beets1 sugar-cane1 etc4 ,the following are some of the most important sources from which alcohol is obtained3 ,grapes1 apricots1 cherries1 peaches1 currents1 gooseberries1 raspberries1 strawberries1 figs1 plums1 bananas1 and many tropical fruits1 artichokes1 potatoes1 carrots1 turnips1 beet-root1 sweet corn1 rice and other grains4 ,sugar-cane refuse1 sorgum1 molasses1 wood1 paper1 and by a new ,french process from acetylene4 ,on a large scale alcohol is usually obtained from sugar beets1 molasses or the starch contained in potatoes1 corn and other grains4 ,the starch is converted into maltose by mixing with an infusion of malt4 ,the maltose is then fermented by yeast4 ,sulphuric acid may be used to convert even woody fibre1 paper1 linen1 etc41 into glucose1 which may in turn be converted into alcohol4 ,,table ,,iii4--,,principal ,,alcohols4 ,chemical ,name4 ,source4 ,formula4 ,boiling ,point ,f4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #a ,methyl ,alcohol,distillation of ,wood ,,ch#c,,oh #aej4h #b ,ethyl ,fermentation of sugar ,c#b;,h#e,,oh #agb4d #c ,propyl grapes ,c#c;,h#g,,oh #bjf4f #d ,butyl beets ,c#d;,h#i,,oh #bdb4f #e ,amyl potatoes,c#e;,h#aa,,oh #bgh4f #f ,caproyl grapes ,c#f;,h#ac,,oh #cad4f #g ,aenanthyl ,distillation castor oil,c#g;,h#ae,,oh #cdg4 with potatoes #h ,capryl ,essential oil hog weed ,c#h;,h#ag,,oh #cge4h #i ,nonyl ,nonane from petroleum ,c#i;,h#ai,,oh #aj ,rutyl ,oil of ,rue ,c#aj;,h#ba,,oh #aa ,cytyl ,spermaceti ,c#af;,h#cc,,oh #ab ,ceryl ,chinese wax ,c#bf;,h#ec,,oh #ac ,melisyl ,bees' wax ,c#cj;,h#fa,,oh ,among a variety of other substances which have been and are still used for the production of alcohol in smaller quantities1 are roots of many kinds1 such as those of asphodel1 madder1 etc4 ,seeds and nuts have been made to yield it4 ,it will thus be seen that the sources of this substance are practically innumerable2 anything1 in fact1 which contains or can be converted into sugar is what is termed alcoholisable4 ,alcohol has become a substance of such prime necessity in the arts and manufactures1 and in one form or another enter so largely into the composition of the common beverages consumed by all classes of people that its manufacture must1 of necessity1 rank among the most important industries of this and other lands4 ,of the alcohols given in the above table only two concern the ordinary distiller1 or producer of alcohol for general use in the arts4 ,methyl alcohol1 the ordinary wood alcohol1 or wood naphtha1 and ,ethyl alcohol1 which is produced by the fermentation of sugar and may therefore be made from anything which contains sugar4 ,ethyl alcohol forms the subject of this treatise4 ,aside from its chemical use in the arts as a source of energy and as a fuel1 alcohol will likely soon compete with petroleum1 gasoline1 kerosene1 etc41 under the ,act of ,congress freeing the de-naturized spirit from the ,internal ,revenue tax4 ,this act and the de-naturing process are covered in the last chapters of this book4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,,mashes1 ,,and ,,fermentation4 ,alcohol may be produced either from1 7#a7 farinacious materials1 such as potatoes or grains1 7#b71 from sacchariferous substances such as grapes1 sugar beets1 sugar cane1 or the molasses produced in sugar manufacture4 ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,,starchy ,,materials4 ,saccharification4 ,preparatory ,mashing4 ,with starchy materials it is first necessary to convert the starch into a sugar from which alcohol can be produced by the process of fermentation4 ,this is called saccharification4 ,gelatinizing4 ,the first step in this process is gelatinizing the starch2--that is1 forming it into a paste by heating it with water1 or into a liquid mass by steaming it under high pressure4 ,the liquid or semi-liquid mass is then run into a preparatory mash vat and cooled4 ,saccharifying4 ,the disintegrated raw materials or gelatinized starch in the preparatory mash vat is now to be saccharified or converted into sugar4 ,this is effected by allowing malt to act on the starch4 ,this malt contains a certain chemical ferment or enzyme1 called diastase 7,i separate74 ,this is able under proper conditions to break up the gelatinized starch into simpler substances--the dextrins--and later into a fermentable sugar called maltose4 ,fermentation4--,the maltose or sugar in the mash is now to be converted into alcohol4 ,this is accomplished by fermentation1 a process of decomposition which converts the sugar into carbonic acid and alcohol4 ,fermentation is started by yeast1 a fungus growth1 which in the course of its life history produces a matter called zymose which chemically acts on the sugar to split it up into carbonic acid gas and alcohol4 ,yeast may be either wild or cultivated4 ,if the mash is left to stand under proper condition the wild yeast spores in the air1 will soon settle in the mash and begin to multiply4 ,this method of fermentation is bad because other organisms than yeast will also be developed1--organisms antagonistic to proper fermentation4 ,as a consequence1 pure or cultivated yeast is alone used4 ,this yeast is cultivated from a mother bed in a special yeast mash and when ripened is mixed with the mash in the fermenting vat4 ,at a temperature between #ej ,f4 and #hf ,f4 the yeast induces fermentation1 converting the sugar of the mash into carbon dioxid which escapes1 and alcohol which remains in the decomposed mash1 or beer as it is termed in the ,united ,states4 ,it now remains to separate the alcohol from the water of the beer with which it is mixed4 ,this is accomplished by distillation and rectification1 as will be fully described in the chapters following4 ,,production ,,of ,,alcohol ,,from ,,sacchariferous ,,substances4 ,substances such as grape juice1 fruit juice1 sugar beets1 cane sugar and molasses already contain fermentable sugar4 ,saccharification is therefore not needed and juices or liquids from these matters are either directly fermented as in the case of sugar cane1 or--as in the case of sugar beets--the sugar in juice is transferred by yeast into a fermentable sugar4 ,,mashing ,,starchy ,,materials4 ,we will now consider in more detail the preparation of mashes from starch-containing substances4 ,gelatinizing ,apparatus4 ,these comprise either ordinary vats1 into which steam at low pressure is admitted 7see ,fig4 #dd71 cookers and stirrers such as shown in ,fig4 #a and #de or the ,henze steamer 7,fig4 #b47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,vacuum ,mash ,cooker4 7,to face page #aj7 ,an example of a cooking and mashing apparatus and its connections is shown in ,fig4 #a4 ,this is the vacuum cooker put on the market by the ,vulcan ,copper ,works ,company1 of ,cincinnati1 ,ohio4 ,this consists of a cylindrical steel vessel the interior of which is fitted with stirrer arms attached to a shaft making about sixty revolutions per minute4 ,the steam enters the vessel at the bottom by means of pipes conducting it from a manifold1 or header1 in the same manner as is shown in the apparatus illustrated in ,fig4 #de4 ,attached to each pipe at its point of entrance is a check valve to spray the steam through the mash4 ,a thermometer for registering the temperature and a water gauge are placed in the manifold4 ,the grain enters the cooker from the grain hopper by way of a spout4 ,the cylinder has been previously supplied with hot water and during the mixing of the meal with the hot water the mass is constantly stirred4 ,the malt is mixed with water in the small grain tub which is provided with a stirrer4 ,the malt mash is admitted into the cooker and the mass thoroughly mixed by the arms4 ,after the mashing1 the product passes off to the drop tub and from thence to the mash coolers where it is cooled to the proper temperature for fermentation4 ,the gearing for agitating the malt mash and the grain or potato mash is evident from the drawing4 ,the pressure steamers used in mashing are shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,they comprise a cylindrical vessel preferably conical or partly conical1 provided with steam entrance pipes1 air valves and a manhole4 ,at the bottom of the cone forming the lower end of the steamer is a grating located in an exit pipe provided with a valve4 ,one of the steam entrance pipes is so located that the steam is forced in at the top of the cylinder while the other allows steam to enter at the bottom of the cylinder4 ,the device is provided with a pressure gauge and an air cock4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,henze ,steamer4 ,in use the body of the apparatus is partly filled with water and the material to be treated4 ,this is acted upon by a steam pressure of two atmospheres1 which is later increased to three1 steam entering by the lowermost pipe1 passing up through the water and potatoes thoroughly agitating the same and passing away by the steam gauge4 ,after standing at the last pressure for ten or fifteen minutes the lower steam inlet is closed2 the upper inlet and the blow-out valve are opened4 ,the steam is then increased to its highest point or about four atmospheres and the lower valve is opened4 ,the disintegrated material is forced out by the steam through the grating at the bottom of the cone4 ,this comminutes it and pulps it before it passes into the preparatory mash tub4 ,blowing out requires about #dj to #ej minutes4 ,steaming and blowing out together cover a space of two hours4 ,the pressure of the steam before blowing out should be such that the steam is constantly being blown off through the safety valve4 ,thus the mass in the steamer is agitated and the material entirely disintegrated and gelatinized4 ,process4 ,into these apparatuses the potatoes and corn or grain first ground into mash1 or even corn or grain unground1 if the pressure is high enough1 are disintegrated and cooked by steam under high pressure4 ,during this process the starch becomes partially dissolved and partially gelatinized1 which occurs when a pressure of some #fe pounds has been attained1 with a temperature of about #cjj ,f4 ,saccharifying4 ,it is now necessary to saccharify the gelatinized mass4 ,this is accomplished by adding to it a certain amount of malt1 whereby maltose or sugar is formed through the action of the diastase4 ,the amount of maltose so created is in proportion to the amount of malt used1 the length of time it is acting1 the dilution of the mash1 and the existence of a proper temperature4 ,the temperature best fitted for this action lies above #abb ,f41 but in order to entirely dissolve the starch a temperature of #ade ,f4 should be used4 ,in addition1 at this higher temperature1 the bacteria inimical to fermentation are destroyed4 ,a higher temperature than #ade ,f4 should not be allowed1 except in extraordinary cases as it injures the effectiveness of the diastase4 ,apparatus4 ,the mixture of the malt with the mash may either take place in the heater and cooker itself 7see ,fig4 #b7 or in a preparatory mash vat4 ,in the first instance1 the malt is allowed to enter the cooking cylinder when the temperature of the mash is about #ade ,f4 ,the mash is stirred until thoroughly mixed when the product is drawn into a receptacle called a drop tub and later reduced to a proper fermenting temperature4 ,when the ,henze type of steamer is used1 the pulped mass 7see ,page #aba7 is blown into a preparatory mash vat1 at the proper temperature4 ,it is left to stand at this temperature for a period varying from twenty minutes to an hour and a half4 ,cooling the ,mash4 ,saccharification takes place at a temperature above #abb ,f41 but the proper fermenting temperature is only about #fc ,f4 to #fh ,f41 and hence some means must be adopted for cooling the hot mash to this temperature and for so cooling it in a relatively short time4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,mash ,cooler1 ,air ,system4 ,cooling may be accomplished by submitting the mash to currents of air2 to contact with cold water coils or by the use of ice4 ,one of the simplest coolers of the first class is shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,this consists of a shallow panlike tank ,a having means for introducing and drawing off the mash4 ,rotating in the center of the tank is a vertical shaft ,c carrying radiating stirrer arms ,b4 ,braces ,m extend to the middle of these arms and the arms carry a number of blades or paddles b1 which extend down into the mash4 ,above the arms1 mounted loosely on the same shaft1 but rotating in the opposite direction1 are fans ,h supported by arms ,j which create air currents over the agitated mash4 ,these fans move at a much faster rate than the stirrers ,b4 ,a simple form of driving gear is shown4 ,the main shaft ,c is rotated by a large bevel gear ,d1 meshing with a small pinion ,e on the end of a driving shaft ,f1 which is driven by a belt4 ,this shaft also carries a bevel gear ,l1 which meshes with a bevel gear ,k mounted on a sleeve4 ,this sleeve surrounds and rotates freely on the central shaft ,c1 being supported at its lower end in ball bearings m m1 mounted on the shaft4 ,this combination gives opposite rotation to the faces and stirrer arms and at different speeds4 ,the driving mechanism can be of course varied4 ,another simple method of air cooling would be to let the mash run down a series of enclosed steps or chutes1 the casing being kept cool by an air blast4 ,mashes may be even cooled by mere stirring by paddles1 but this takes a long time and much labor4 ,the preparatory mash vats used to-day are almost all provided with stirrers formed of hollow blades capable of a rapid stirring movement through the mash4 ,through the hollow blades cold water is forced4 ,mash vats of this kind should have the following qualities4 ,they should be strongly built1 particularly as regards the stirrers so as to be used with thick mashes4 ,they should thoroughly and uniformly stir and mix the mash and they should be capable of cooling the mash within an hour1 and should be so constructed as to be easily cleaned4 ,by using coils of pipe which may be inserted or withdrawn from the mash tub1 and through which cold water is forced1 the mash may be effectively cooled1 but the best plan for quick cooling is to bring a comparatively thin layer of the mash in contact with the coils4 ,this may be conveniently done by using a system of comparatively large water pipes enclosing small pipes for the passage of the mash4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,mash ,cooler1 ,water ,system4 ,this should be arranged in a stand like the coils of a radiator with an incline from the inlet end of the top pipe to the outlet end of the lowermost pipe4 ,as stated1 the small pipe carries the mash1 the large pipe the water4 ,preferably the mash flows downward while the water is forced upward in a contrary direction by means of a pump or a high level reservoir4 ,the cooled mash should flow into the fermenting tank at a temperature of about #fh ,f4 ,there are many varieties of mash cooling apparatuses on the market of more or less complication suited to the needs of large and expensive plants4 ,the form of cooler best to be used depends upon the circumstances of each case and whether thick or thin mashes are to be distilled4 ,the cooler should1 however1 be capable of thorough cleansing so that no portion of one mashing be carried to another4 ,fermentation is an obscure and seemingly spontaneous change or decomposition which takes place in most vegetable and animal substances when exposed at ordinary temperatures to air and moisture4 ,while fermentation broadly covers decay or putrifaction1 yet it is limited in ordinary use to the process for producing alcoholic liquors from sacchariferous mashes4 ,fermentation is brought about by certain bodies called ferments--these are either organized1 as vegetable ferments such as yeast1 or unorganized as diastase--the enzyme of germinated malt4 ,the last is used to convert starch into maltose1 the first is used to convert maltose into fermentable sugar4 ,the organized ferments are either to be found floating freely in the air under the name of wild yeast or are artificially produced4 ,if a solution of pure sugar be allowed to stand so that it can be acted on by the organisms in the air1 it will remain unaltered for a long time1 but finally mold will appear upon it and it will become sour and dark-colored4 ,if1 however1 a suitable ferment is added to it1 such as yeast1 it rapidly passes into a state of active fermentation by which the sugar is split up into alcohol and carbon dioxid1 the process continuing from #dh hours to several weeks according to the temperature1 the amount of sugar present1 and the nature and quantity of the ferment4 ,fermentation cannot occur at a temperature much below #dj ,f41 nor above #adj ,f4 ,the limits of practical temperature1 however1 are #da to #hf ,f4 ,brewer's yeast is chiefly employed in spirit manufacture4 ,the most striking phenomena of fermentation are the turbidity of the liquid1 the rising of gas bubbles to the surface1 and the increase in temperature1 the disappearance of the sugar1 the appearance of alcohol and the clearing of the liquid4 ,at the end a slight scum is formed on the top of the liquid and a light colored deposit at the bottom4 ,this deposit consists of yeast which is capable of exciting the vinous fermentation in other solutions of sugar4 ,the lower the temperature the slower the process1 while at a temperature above #hf ,f4 the vinous fermentation is liable to pass into other forms of fermentation to be hereafter considered4 ,there are many theories of fermentation1 of which the two most important are those of ,pasteur and ,buchner4 ,the first teaches that fermentation is caused purely by the organic life of the yeast plant and is not a mere chemical action1 whereas the second view most largely held to-day is that fermentation is a purely chemical change due to certain unorganized substances called enzymes present in the yeast4 ,the theory need not detain us4 ,it is sufficient that the yeast plant in some manner acts to decompose the saccharified mash into alcohol and carbonic acid gas4 ,yeast is a fungus1 a mono-cellular organism1 which under proper conditions propogates itself to an enormous extent4 ,there are many races or varieties of yeast each having its peculiar method of growth4 ,for our purposes we may divide the yeast races into two classes1 wild yeast and cultivated yeast4 ,originally any of the yeast races were supposed to be good enough to effect fermentation but to-day every effort is made to procure and use only those races which have the greatest power to decompose sugar4 ,it was for this reason that the old distiller kept portions of his yeast over from one fermentation to the next4 ,this was yeast whose action they understood and whose abilities were proven4 ,this yeast so kept was open1 however1 to the chance of contamination and yeast to-day is as carefully selected and bred as is a strain of horses1 or dogs1 or plants4 ,after getting a portion of selected pure yeast for breeding purposes1 it may be sowed1 that is1 propagated very carefully in a yeast mash1 in sterilizing apparatus1 where all chance of contamination by bacteria or wild yeast is avoided4 ,from this bed of mother yeast1 or start yeast1 the yeast for the successive yeast mashes is taken4 ,the preparation of the various varieties of yeast mashes is too lengthy to be set forth except in special treatises on the subject1 but the ordinary method of yeasting is as follows1 reference being made to ,fig4 #e1 which shows the apparatus used in the yeasting and fermenting departments of a distillery1 as installed by the ,vulcan ,copper ,works1 of ,cincinnati4 ,the yeast tubs are shown to the left of the illustration4 ,they are each provided with cooling coils and stirrers4 ,the yeast mash we will assume is composed of equal parts of barley malt and rye meal4 ,hot water at #aff ,f4 is first put into the mash tub4 ,the rake or stirrers are then rotated and the meal run in slowly4 ,the stirring is continued for twenty minutes after the meal is all in1 during which the mash has become saccharified4 ,the mash is then allowed to stand for about twenty hours1 and to grow sour by lactic fermentation4 ,the lactic acid so produced protects the mother yeast from infection by suppressing wild yeast and bacteria4 ,during this period great care is taken to prevent the temperature of the mash falling below #ie ,f4 and consequent butyric and acetous fermentation following4 ,after it has so stood the sour mash is cooled by circulating water in the coils and stirring until it is reduced to from #ei to #fh ,f4 depending on whether the mash is thin or thick4 ,start yeast during the cooling of the mash when at above #hf ,f4 is added and stirred in4 ,for the next twelve hours the yeast ferments and when a temperature of #hd ,f4 has been attained the mash is cooled to #fe ,f4 at which temperature it is maintained until allowed to enter the fermenting tubs through the pipe leading thereto from the yeast tub4 ,there are four principal kinds of fermentation3 alcoholic1 acetous1 lactic and viscous4 ,alcoholic ,fermentation4 ,this may be briefly described as follows3 ,the mash in the fermenting vat having been brought to the proper temperature1 the ferment is thrown in1 and the whole is well stirred together4 ,this is known as pitching4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,yeasting and ,fermenting ,apparatus4 7,to face page #bb7 ,the proper pitching temperature varies with the method of fermentation adopted1 the length of the fermenting period1 the materials of the mash1 its thickness or attenuation4 ,it must always be remembered that there is a great increase in the temperature of the beer during fermentation and that the temperature at its highest should never under any circumstances1 become greater than #hf ,f4 and with thick mashes that even a less heat is desirable4 ,therefore the pitching temperature should be such that the inevitable rise due to fermentation shall not carry the temperature to or beyond the maximum point desired for the particular mash being treated4 ,it is to accurately control the pitching temperature and the fermenting temperature that the fermenting tanks are provided with cooling appliances4 ,in about three hours' time1 the commencement of the fermentation is announced by small bubbles of gas which appear on the surface of the vat1 and collect around the edges4 ,as these increase in number1 the whole contents are gradually thrown into a state of motion1 resembling violent ebullition1 by the tumultuous disengagement of carbonic anhydride4 ,the liquor rises in temperature and becomes covered with froth4 ,at this point1 the vat must be covered tightly1 the excess of gas finding an exit through holes in the lid2 care must now be taken to prevent the temperature from rising too high1 and also to prevent the action from becoming too energetic1 thereby causing the contents of the vat to overflow4 ,in about twenty-four hours the action begins to subside1 and the temperature falls to that of the surrounding atmosphere4 ,an hour or two later1 the process is complete2 the bubbles disappear1 and the liquor1 which now possesses the characteristic odor and taste of alcohol1 settles out perfectly clear4 ,the whole operation1 as here described1 usually occupies from forty-eight to seventy-two hours4 ,the duration of the process is influenced1 of course1 by many circumstances1 chiefly by bulk of the liquor1 its richness in sugar1 the quality of the ferment1 and the temperature4 ,acetous ,fermentation4 ,this perplexing occurrence cannot be too carefully guarded against4 ,it results when the fermenting liquor is exposed to the air4 ,when this is the case1 the liquor absorbs a portion of the oxygen1 which unites with the alcohol1 thus converting it into acetic acid as rapidly as it is formed4 ,when acetous fermentation begins1 the liquor becomes turbid1 and a long1 stringy substance appears1 which after a time settles down to the bottom of the vat4 ,it is then found that all the alcohol has been decomposed1 and that an equivalent quantity of acetous acid remains instead4 ,it has been discovered that the presence of a ferment and a temperature of #fh to #ie ,f4 are indispensable to acetous fermentation1 as well as contact with the atmosphere4 ,hence1 in order to prevent its occurrence1 it is necessary not only to exclude the air1 but also to guard against too high a temperature and the use of too much ferment4 ,the latter invariably tends to excite acetous fermentation4 ,it should also be remarked that it is well to cleanse the vats and utensils carefully with lime water before using1 in order to neutralize any acid which they may contain2 for the least trace of acid in the vat has a tendency to accelerate the conversion of alcohol into vinegar4 ,a variety of other circumstances are favorable to acetification1 such as the use of a stagnant or impure water1 and the foul odors which arise from the vats2 stormy weather or thunder will also engender it4 ,lactic ,fermentation4 ,under the influence of lactic fermentation1 sugar and starch are converted into lactic acid4 ,when it has once begun1 it develops rapidly1 and soon decomposes a large quantity of glucose2 but as it can proceed only in a neutral liquor1 the presence of the acid itself speedily checks its own formation4 ,then1 however1 another ferment is liable to act upon the lactic acid already formed1 converting it into butyric acid1 which is easily recognized by its odor of rank butter4 ,carbonic anhydride and hydrogen are evolved by this reaction4 ,the latter gas acts powerfully upon glucose1 converting it into a species of gum called mannite1 so that lactic fermentation--in itself an intolerable nuisance--becomes the source of a new and equally objectionable waste of sugar4 ,it can be avoided only by keeping the vats thoroughly clean2 they should be washed with water acidulated with five per cent of sulphuric acid4 ,an altered ferment1 or the use of too small a quantity1 will tend to bring it about4 ,the best preventives are thorough cleanliness1 and the use of good1 fresh yeast in the correct proportion4 ,viscous ,fermentation4 ,this is usually the result of allowing the vats to stand too long before fermentation begins4 ,it is characterized by the formation of viscous or mucilaginous matters1 which render the liquor turbid1 and by the evolution of carbonic anhydride and hydrogen gases the latter acting as in the case of lactic fermentation and converting the glucose into mannite4 ,viscous fermentation may generally be attributed to the too feeble action of the ferment4 ,it occurs principally in the fermentation of white wines1 beer1 and beet-juice1 or of other liquors containing much nitrogenous matter4 ,it may be avoided by the same precautions as are indicated for the prevention of lactic fermentation4 ,periods of ,fermentation4 ,the operation of fermentation may be conveniently divided into three equal periods4 ,the first or pre-fermentation period is that when the yeast mixed into the mash is growing2 the temperature should then be kept at about #fc to #fh ,f4 during which time the yeast is propagated4 ,the growth of the yeast is manifested by the development of carbonic acid gas and by a slight motion of the mash4 ,when alcohol is produced to an extent of say five per cent4 the growth of the yeast stops4 ,the second period of chief fermentation then begins4 ,carbonic acid is freely developed and the sugar is converted into alcohol4 ,the temperature at this time should not exceed #ha4e ,f4 ,the second period of fermentation continues about #ab hours1 when the last period commences4 ,during the third period or after fermentation there is a lessening of the formation of carbonic acid and a lowering of the temperature4 ,in this stage the mash is kept at a temperature of #gg to #ha ,f4 ,in order to conveniently regulate the temperature of the mash the vat may be provided with a copper worm at the bottom thereof1 through which cold water is forced4 ,this1 however1 need only be used for thick mashes4 ,there are also various kinds of movable coolers used for this purpose4 ,there are a number of different forms which fermentation may take4 ,the insoluble constituents of the mash in the process of fermentation are forced to the surface1 and form what may be termed a cover4 ,if the carbonic acid gas bubbles seldom break this cover it indicates that the conversion of the sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid is proceeding very slowly and imperfectly4 ,if1 however1 the cover is swirling and seething1 and particularly if the cover is rising and falling with every now and then a discharge of gas1 it is an indication that the conversion is properly proceeding4 ,foaming of the mash is to be prevented1 as the froth or foam flows over the mash tank and considerable loss is sustained4 ,it may be prevented by pouring a little hot lard into the vat1 or petroleum1 provided its odor will not interfere with the use of the alcohol when distilled4 ,water is added in small quantities near the termination of the second period of fermentation4 ,this dilutes the alcohol1 in the mash and lessens its percentage1 and thus the further growth of the yeast is permitted4 ,after fermentation the mash takes either the form of a thick diluted pulp or of a thin liquor4 ,again the reader is reminded that the mash after fermentation contains alcohol mixed with water--and that the next step in the process--distillation is necessary merely to separate the alcohol from the water4 ,there is always some loss in the process of fermentation2 in other words1 the actual production is below the theoretical amount due4 ,theoretically one pound of starch should yield #aa4de fluid ounces of alcohol4 ,with a good result #hh4c per cent4 of this theoretical yield is obtained2 with an average result of #hj4b per cent4 and with a bad result only about #gb4f per cent4 or less4 ,fermenting ,apparatus4 ,it remains now to describe briefly the vessels or vats employed in the processes of fermentation4 ,they are made of oak or cypress1 firmly bound together with iron bands1 and they should be somewhat deeper than wide1 and slightly conical1 so as to present as small a surface as possible to the action of the air4 ,their dimensions vary1 of course1 with the nature and quantity of the liquor to be fermented4 ,circular vats are preferable to square ones1 as being better adapted to retain the heat of their contents4 ,the lid should close securely1 and a portion of it should be made to open without uncovering the whole4 ,for the purpose of heating or cooling the contents when necessary1 it is of great advantage to have a copper coil at the bottom of the vat1 connected with two pipes1 one supplying steam and the other cold water4 ,iron vats have also been used1 having a jacketed space around them1 into which hot or cold water may be introduced4 ,as wooden vats are porous and hence uncleanly they have to be constantly scrubbed and disinfected4 ,it is advisable to cover the interior with linseed oil1 varnish or with a shellac varnish4 ,the diameter of the coil varies according to the size of the vat4 ,the room in which the vats are placed should be made as free from draughts as possible by dispensing with superfluous doors and windows2 it should not be too high and should be enclosed by thick walls in order to keep in the heat4 ,as uniformity of temperature is highly desirable1 a thermometer should be kept in the room1 and there should be stoves for supplying heat in case it be required4 ,the temperature should be kept between #fd ,f4 and #fh ,f4 ,every precaution must be taken to ensure the most absolute cleanliness2 the floors should be swept or washed with water daily1 and the vats1 as pointed out above1 must be cleaned out as soon as the contents are removed4 ,for washing the vats1 lime-water should be used when the fermentation has been too energetic or has shown a tendency to become acid2 water acidulated with sulphuric acid is used when the action has been feeble and the fermented liquor contains a small quantity of undecomposed sugar4 ,care must be taken to get rid of carbonic anhydride formed during the operation4 ,buckets of lime-water are sometimes placed about the room for the purpose of absorbing this gas2 but the best way of getting rid of it is to have a number of holes1 three or four inches square1 in the floor1 through which the gas escapes by reason of its weight4 ,the dangerous action of this gas and its effects upon animal life when unmixed with air are too well know to necessitate any further enforcement of these precautions4 ,the beer obtained by mashing and fermenting consist essentially of volatile substances1 such as water1 alcohol1 essential oils and a little acetic acid1 and of non-volatile substances1 such as cellulose1 dextrine1 unaltered sugar and starch1 mineral matters1 lactic acid1 etc4 ,the volatile constituents of the liquor possess widely different degrees of volatility2 the alcohol has the lowest boiling point1 water the next1 then acetic acid1 and last the essential oils4 ,it will thus be seen that the separation of the volatile and non-volatile constituents by evaporation and condensation of the vapors given off is very easily effected1 and that also by the same process1 which is termed distillation1 the volatile substances may be separated from one another4 ,as the acetic acid and essential oils are present only in very small quantities1 they will not require much consideration4 ,the aim of distillation is to separate as completely as possible the alcohol from the water which dilutes it4 ,table ,i shows the amount of alcohol contained in the vapors given off from alcoholic liquids of different strength1 and also their boiling points4 ,a glance at this table shows to what an extent an alcoholic liquor may be strengthened by distillation1 and how the quantity of spirit in the distillate increases in proportion as that contained in the original liquor diminishes4 ,it will also be seen that successive distillations of spirituous liquors will ultimately yield a spirit of very high strength4 ,as an example1 suppose that a liquid containing five per cent1 of alcohol is to be distilled4 ,its vapor condensed gives a distillate containing #db per cent4 of alcohol which1 if re-distilled1 affords another containing #hb per cent4 ,this1 subjected again to distillation1 yields alcohol of over #ij per cent4 in strength4 ,thus three successive distillations have strengthened the liquor from five per cent4 to #ij per cent4 ,it will thus be clear that the richness in alcohol of the vapors given off from boiling alcoholic liquids is not a constant quantity1 but that it necessarily diminishes as the ebullition is continued4 ,for example a liquor containing seven per cent4 of alcohol yields1 on boiling a vapor containing #ej per cent4 ,the first portion of the distillate will1 therefore1 be of this strength4 ,but as the vapor is proportionally richer in alcohol1 the boiling liquor must become gradually weaker1 and1 in consequence1 must yield weaker vapors4 ,thus1 when the proportion of alcohol in the boiling liquid has sunk to five per cent41 the vapors condensed at that time will contain only #dj per cent42 at two per cent4 of alcohol in the liquor1 the vapors yield only #bh per cent41 and at one per cent41 they will be found when condensed to contain only #ac per cent4 ,from this it will be understood that if the distillation be stopped at any given point before the complete volatilization of all the alcohol the distillate obtained will be considerably stronger than if the process had been carried on to the end4 ,moreover1 another advantage derived from checking the process before the end1 and keeping the last portions of the distillate separate from the rest1 besides that of obtaining a stronger spirit1 is that a much purer one is obtained also4 ,the volatile1 essential oils1 mentioned above1 are soluble only in strong alcohol1 and insoluble in its aqueous solutions4 ,they distill also at a much higher temperature than alcohol1 and so are found only among the last products of the distillation1 which results from raising the temperature of the boiling liquid4 ,this system of checking the distillation and removing the products at different points is frequently employed in the practice of rectification4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,distilling ,,apparatus4 ,the ,apparatus employed in the process of distillation is called a still1 and is of almost infinite variety4 ,a still may be any vessel which will hold and permit fermentated wash or beer to be boiled therein1 and which will collect the vapors arising from the surface of the boiling liquid and transmit them to a condenser4 ,the still may be either heated by the direct application of fire1 or the liquid in the still raised to the boiling point by the injection of steam4 ,the steam or vapor rising from the boiling liquid must be cooled and condensed4 ,this is done by leading it into tubes surrounded by cold water or the cold mash4 ,the very simplest form of still is shown in ,fig4 #f1 and consists of two essential parts1 the still1 or boiler ,a1 made of tinned copper1 the condenser ,c which may be made of metal or wood and the worm ,b made of a coil of tinned copper pipe4 ,the liquor is boiled in ,a and the vapors pass off into the worm ,b1 which is surrounded by the cold water of the condenser1 the distillate being drawn off at f4 ,the heated vapors passing through the worm ,b will soon heat up the water in ,c thereby retarding perfect condensation4 ,to prevent this1 a cold water supply pipe may be connected to the bottom of ,c making a connection at the top of ,c for an over flow of the warmed up water4 ,by this means the lowest part of the worm will be kept sufficiently cool to make a rapid condensation of the vapors4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,a ,simple ,still4 ,the boiler ,a can be made in two parts2 the upper part fitting into the lower part snugly at d4 ,the pipe from the upper part fitting the worm snugly at e4 ,this will enable the operator to thoroughly cleanse the boiler before putting in a new lot of liquor4 ,the joints at e and d should be luted with dough formed by mixing the flour with a small portion of salt and moistening with water4 ,this is thoroughly packed at the junctions of the parts to prevent the escape of steam or vapor4 ,fig4 #g shows such a ,still as manufactured by the ,geo4 ,l4 ,squier ,mfg4 ,co41 ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,simple ,direct-,heated ,still4 ,in an apparatus of this kind1 the vapors of alcohol and water are condensed together4 ,but if instead of filling the condenser ,c with cold water1 it is kept at a temperature of #agf ,f4 the greater part of the water-vapor will be condensed while the alcohol1 which boils at #agb4d ,f4 passes through the coil uncondensed4 ,if therefore the water be condensed and collected separately in this manner1 and the alcoholic vapors be conducted into another cooler kept at temperature below #agb4d ,f41 the alcohol will be obtained in a much higher state of concentration than it would be by a process of simple distillation4 ,supposing1 again1 that vapors containing but a small quantity of alcohol are brought into contact with an alcoholic liquid of lower temperature than the vapors themselves1 and in very small quantity1 the vapor of water will be partly condensed1 so that the remainder will be richer in alcohol than it was previously4 ,but the water1 in condensing1 converts into vapor a portion of the spirit contained in the liquid interposed1 so that the uncondensed vapors passing away are still further enriched by this means4 ,here1 then1 are the results obtained2 the alcoholic vapors are strengthened1 firstly1 by the removal of a portion of the water wherewith they were mixed2 and then by the admixture with them of the vaporized spirit placed in the condenser4 ,by the employment of some such method as this1 a very satisfactory yield of spirit may be obtained1 both with regard to quality1 as it is extremely concentrated1 and to the cost of production1 since the simple condensation of the water is made use of to convert the spirit into vapor without the necessity of having recourse to fuel4 ,the construction of every variety of distilling apparatus now in use is based upon the above principles4 ,a sectional view of another simple form of still is shown in ,fig4 #h2 ,v is a wooden vat having a tight fitting cover a1 through the center of which a hole has been cut4 ,the wide end of a goose neck of copper pipe g is securely fitted over this aperture1 the smaller end of this pipe passes through the cover of the retort ,r extending nearly to the bottom2 f is the steam supply pipe from boiler2 ,m the rectifier consisting of a cylindrical copper vessel containing a number of small vertical pipes surrounded by a cold water jacket2 o the inlet for the cold water which circulates around these small pipes1 discharging at n2 the pipes in ,m have a common connection to a pipe p1 which connects the rectifier with coil in cooler ,c2 s is a pipe to the receptacle for receiving the distillate2 u cold water supply pipe to cooler1 and ,w discharge for warmed-up water1 k discharge for refuse wash in vat ,v4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,simple ,still1 with ,rectifier4 ,the operation is as follows3 ,the vat ,v is nearly filled with fermented mash and retort ,r with weak distillate from a previous operation4 ,steam is then turned into the pipe f discharging near the bottom of the vat ,v and working up through the mash4 ,this heats up the mash and the vapors escape up g over into ,r where they warm up the weak distillate4 ,the vapors thus enriched rise into ,m1 where a good percentage of the water vapor is distilled1 that is1 condensed by the cold water surrounding the small pipes4 ,the vapor then passes over through p into the coil1 where it is liquified and from whence it passes by pipe s into the receiver4 ,the cold water for cooling both ,m and ,c can be turned on as soon as the apparatus has become thoroughly heated up4 ,the stills in use to-day in many parts of the ,south for the production of whiskey are quite as simple as those above described1 and some for the making of moonshine liquor are more so4 ,the first distilling apparatus for the production of strong alcohol on an industrial scale was invented by ,edward ,adam1 in the year #ahja4 ,the arrangement is shown in ,fig4 #i1 in which ,a is a still to contain the liquor placed over a suitable heater4 ,the vapors were conducted by a tube into the egg-shaped vessel ,b1 the tube reaching nearly to the bottom2 they then passed out by another tube into a second egg ,c2 then1 in some cases1 into a third1 not shown in the figure1 and finally into the worm ,d1 and through a cock at ,g into the receiver4 ,the liquor condensed in the first egg is stronger than that in the still1 while that found in the second and third is stronger than either4 ,the spirit which is condensed at the bottom of the worm is of a very high degree of strength4 ,at the bottom of each of the eggs1 there is a tube connected with the still1 by which the concentrated liquors may be run back into ,a for redistillation after the refuse liquor from the first distill has been run off4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,adam's ,still4 ,in the tube is a stop-cock a1 by regulating which1 enough liquor could be kept in the eggs to cover the lower ends of the entrance pipes1 so that the alcoholic vapors were not only deprived of water by the cooling which they underwent in passing through the eggs1 but were also mixed with fresh spirit obtained from the vaporization of the liquid remaining in the bottom of the eggs1 in the manner already described4 ,adam's arrangement fulfilled1 therefore1 the two conditions necessary for the production of strong spirit inexpensively2 but unfortunately it had also serious defects4 ,the temperature of the egg could not be maintained at a constant standard1 and the bubbling of the vapors through the liquor inside created too high a pressure4 ,it was1 however1 a source of great profit to its inventor for a long period1 although it gave rise to many imitations and improvements4 ,the operation of distilling is often carried on in the apparatus represented in ,fig4 #bb4 ,it is termed the ,patent ,simplified ,distilling ,apparatus2 it was originally invented by ,corty1 but it has since undergone much improvement4 ,a is the body of the still1 into which the wash is put2 ,b the head of the still2 c c c three copper plates fitted in the upper part of the three boxes2 these are kept cool by a supply of water from the pipe ,e1 which is distributed on the top of the boxes by means of the pipes ,g ,g ,g4 ,the least pure portion of the ascending vapors is condensed as it reaches the lowest plate1 and falls back1 and the next portion as it reaches the second plate1 while the purest and lightest vapors pass over the goose-neck1 and are condensed in the worm4 ,the temperature of the plates is regulated by altering the flow of water by means of the cock ,f4 ,for the purpose of cleaning the apparatus1 a jet of steam or water may be introduced at a4 ,a regulator is affixed at the screw-joint ,h1 at the lower end of the worm1 which addition is considered an important part of the improvement4 ,the part of the apparatus marked ,i becomes filled soon after the operation has commenced2 the end of the other pipe ,k is immersed in water in the vessel ,l4 ,the advantage claimed for this apparatus is that the condensation proceeds in a partial vacuum1 and that there is therefore a great saving in fuel4 ,one of these stills1 having a capacity of #djj gallons1 is said to work off four or five charges during a day of #ab hours1 furnishing a spirit #ce per cent4 over-proof4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,corty's ,simplified ,distilling ,apparatus4 ,fig4 #aa represents a double still which was at one time largely employed in the colonies4 ,it is simply an addition of the common still ,a to the patent still ,b4 ,from time to time the contents of ,b are run off into ,a1 those of ,a being drawn off as dunder1 the spirit from ,a passing over into ,b4 ,both stills are heated by the same fire2 and it is said that much fine spirit can be obtained by their use at the expense of a very inconsiderable amount of fuel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,double ,still4 ,compound ,distillation4 ,where stills of the form shown in ,figs4 #f and #h are used the alcohol obtained is weak4 ,hence it is necessary that the distillate be again itself distilled1 the operation being repeated a number of times4 ,in the better class of still1 however1 compound distillation is performed the mash is heated by the hot vapors rising from the still and the vapors are condensed and run back into the still greatly enriched4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,dorn's ,compound ,still4 ,the principle of compound distillation is well shown in ,dorn's apparatus1 ,fig4 #ab4 ,this consists of a still or boiler ,a having a large dome-shaped head1 on the interior faces of which the alcoholic vapors will condense4 ,thus only enriched vapors will pass up through goose-neck ,b to the mash heater ,d4 ,c is a worm the end of which passes out to a compartment ,e through an inclined partition ,f4 ,from the compartment ,e a pipe e leads into the still ,a4 ,an agitator ,h is used for stirring the mash1 so that it may be uniformly heated4 ,a pipe d provided with a cock allows the mash to be drawn off into the still ,a4 ,from the highest point of the compartment ,e a pipe ,m leads to condensing coil ,k in a tub ,j of cold water1 having a draw-off cock ,i4 ,at the exit end of the condensing worm ,k the tube is bent in a ,u form as at ,l1 one arm of which has a curved open-ended continuation n1 through which the air in the worm is expelled4 ,the other arm opens into an inverted jar l containing a hydrometer1 for indicating the strength of the spirit4 ,the spirits pass off through m into a receiver4 ,in operation the mash is admitted into the heater ,d through ,g until the heating tank is nearly filled4 ,a certain amount of mash is then allowed to run into the still ,a through the pipe d4 ,the cock in d is closed and the fire lighted4 ,the vapors from the still are condensed in worm ,c and the condensed liquid drops down into compartment ,e4 ,any vapor passing through ,b and ,c so highly heated as to be uncondensed in coils ,c passes through the layer of liquid in compartment ,e1 collects in the highest portion of the compartment and passes through pipe ,m to coil ,k where it is entirely liquefied4 ,if the liquid in ,e rises beyond a certain level it passes through pipe e back to the still4 ,any vapors which may collect in the upper part of ,d pass into the small bent pipe opening into the first coil of worm ,c4 ,water for rinsing the heater ,d may be drawn through cock s from the tub ,j and warm water for rinsing the still1 through pipe d from the heater4 ,another form of compound still is shown in ,fig4 #ac4 ,in this the still ,s is divided into an upper and lower compartment by a concavo-convex partition d1 having at its crown an upwardly extending tube t from which projects side tubes p4 ,a pipe ,p opens above and extends from tube t4 ,c is the mash heater and condenser4 ,connected to the head of the still is a pipe ,t through which the vapors pass to a condensing coil f formed on the wall of the heater ,c4 ,at its bottom the coil f extends out of the heater1 through the water tub ,w and out to receiver as at ,f4 ,in the heat of this heater is a valve ,v whereby any vapors which may arise from the heated mash are conducted by pipe ,u to ,t4 ,the heater ,c is filled through funnel ,y and the mash is admitted to the still through pipe b having cock a4 ,the pipe ,p extends to the upper part of the water tub ,w and then downward to the bottom1 where it again enters the still4 ,an opening in the partition d is controlled by a valve ,g which allows liquid in the upper compartment of the still to flow into the lower4 ,spent mash may be drawn off through c and the height of the water in tub ,w be regulated by pipe ,z4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,compound ,still4 ,the operation of this still is similar to ,dorn's still4 ,mash is put into ,c and a quantity of it is let into the upper compartment of the still and into the lower compartment by valve ,g4 ,this valve is closed and the fire started4 ,the vapors pass upward through t4 ,if they are quite highly vaporized they pass onward up ,p1 are condensed in their passage through the cool water tub and return as liquid to the upper compartment where they are further heated4 ,the liquid in the upper compartment is thus constantly enriched and the vapor therefrom passes out through pipe ,t into condensing coils f where it is condensed into spirit and passes off by ,f4 ,the funnel tube ,y acts also as a means of warning the attendant as to the condition of the mash4 ,if it is too high in level and the pressure of vapor in the heater ,c too great1 liquid will be forced out of ,y2 if on the contrary1 the mash sinks below the level of the pipe then vapor will escape and the heater needs refilling4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,compound ,direct ,fire ,still4 ,fig4 #ad shows a simple form of compound direct fire still as manufactured by the ,geo4 ,l4 ,squier ,mfg4 ,co41 of ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 ,cellier-,blumenthal carrying this principle further devised an apparatus which has become the basis of all subsequent improvements2 indeed1 every successive invention has differed from this arrangement merely in detail1 the general principles being in every case the same4 ,the chief defect in the simple stills was that they were intermittent that is required the operations to be suspended when they were recharged1 while that of ,cellier-,blumenthal is continuous2 that is to say1 the liquid for distillation is introduced at one end of the arrangement1 and the alcoholic products are received continuously1 and of a constant degree of concentration1 at the other4 ,the saving of time and fuel resulting from the use of his still is enormous4 ,in the case of the simple stills1 the fuel consumed amounted to a weight nearly three times that of the spirit yielded by it2 whereas1 the ,cellier-,blumenthal apparatus reduces the amount to one-quarter of the weight of alcohol produced4 ,fig4 #ae shows the whole arrangement1 and ,figs4 #af to #ag represent different parts of it in detail4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,cellier-,blumenthal ,still4 ,in ,fig4 #ae ,a is a boiler1 placed over a brick furnace2 ,b is the still1 placed beside it1 on a slightly higher level and heated by the furnace flue which passes underneath it4 ,a pipe e conducts the steam from the boiler to the bottom of the still4 ,by another pipe d1 which is furnished with a stop cock and which reaches to the bottom of the still ,a1 the alcoholic liquors in the still may be run from it into the boiler2 by turning the valve the spent liquor may be run out at a4 ,the glass tubes b and f show the height of liquid in the two vessels4 ,k is the valve for filling the boiler and c the safety valve4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,details of ,rectifier ,column4 ,the still is surmounted by a column ,c1 shown in section in ,fig4 #af4 ,this column contains an enriching arrangement whereby the liquid flowing down into the still ,b is brought into intimate contact with the steam rising from the still4 ,the liquid meets with obstacles in falling and falls downward in a shower1 which thus presents multiplied obstacles to the ascent of the vapor4 ,the liquid is thus heated almost to the boiling point before it falls into the still ,b4 ,the construction for effecting this is shown at ,c1 ,fig4 #af and consists of an enclosed series of nine sets of circular copper saucer-shaped capsules1 placed one above the other1 and secured to three metallic rods passing through the series so that they can be all removed as one piece4 ,these capsules are of different diameters1 the larger ones which are1 nearly the diameter of the column1 are placed with the rounded side downwards1 and are pierced with small holes2 the smaller ones are turned bottom upwards1 a stream of the liquid to be distilled flows down the pipe h from ,e1 into the top capsule of ,c and then percolating through the small holes1 falls into the smaller capsule beneath1 and from the rim of this upon the one next below1 and so throughout the whole of the series until it reaches the bottom and falls into the still ,b4 ,the vapors rise up into the column from the still and meeting the stream of liquid convert it partially into vapor which passes out at the top of ,c considerably enriched1 into the column ,d4 ,fig4 #af shows a sectional view of the column ,d1 the rectifying column as it is called4 ,it contains six vessels1 placed one above the other1 in an inverted position1 so as to form seals4 ,these are so disposed that the vapors must pass through a thin layer of liquor in each vessel4 ,some of the vapor is thus condensed and the condensed liquid flows back into column ,c1 the uncondensed vapor considerably enriched passing up the pipe ,j1 into the coil ,s in the condenser ,e1 ,fig4 #ag1 which is filled with the wash to be distilled4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,details of ,condenser and ,mash ,heater4 ,entering by the pipe t1 ,fig4 #ae1 the undistilled liquid or wash is distributed over a perforated plate y y1 and falls in drops into the condenser ,e1 where it is heated by contact with the coil ,s containing the heated vapors4 ,the condenser is divided into two compartments by a diaphragm ,x which is pierced with holes at its lower extremity2 through these holes the wash flows into the second compartment1 and passes out at the top1 where it runs through the pipe h1 into the top of the column ,c4 ,the vapors are made to traverse the coil ,s1 which is kept at an average temperature of #abb ,f41 in the right hand compartment1 and somewhat higher in the other4 ,they pass first through ,j into the hottest part of the coil1 and there give up much of the water with which they are mixed1 and the process of concentration continues as they pass through the coil4 ,each spiral is connected at the bottom with a vertical pipe by which the condensed liquors are run off2 these are conducted into the retrograding pipe p p4 ,those which are condensed in the hottest part of the coil1 and are consequently the weakest1 are led by the pipe ,l into the third vessel in the column ,d1 ,fig4 #af1 while the stronger or more vaporized portions pass through ,l into the fifth vessel4 ,stop-cocks at m1 n1 o regulate the flow of the liquid into these vessels1 and consequently also the strength of the spirit obtained4 ,lastly1 as the highly concentrated vapors leave the coil ,s at ,r1 they are condensed in the vessel ,f1 which contains another coil4 ,this is kept cool by a stream of liquid flowing from the reservoir ,h into the smaller cistern ,g from which a continuous and regular flow is kept up through the tap v into a funnel ,n and thence into condenser ,f4 ,it ultimately flows into condenser ,e through pipe t1 there being no other outlet4 ,the finished products run out by pipe x into suitable receivers4 ,it will be seen that the condenser ,e has two functions4 ,first it condenses the alcoholic vapors before transmitting them to the final condenser ,f1 rejecting and sending back those vapors which are not highly enough vaporized4 ,second it heats the wash intended for distilling by appropriating the heat of the vapors to be condensed4 ,thus two birds are killed with one stone4 ,it will be noticed that the same result is accomplished in the columns ,c and ,d4 ,this is the principle of all modern stills4 ,another form of still which is very analogous to that last described is ,coffey's apparatus1 shown in ,fig4 #ah1 and is the immediate prototype of the stills used to-day in all but the simplest plants4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,coffey's ,rectifying ,still4 ,it consists of two columns1 ,c the analyser1 and ,h the rectifier1 placed side by side and above a chamber containing a steam pipe b from a boiler ,a4 ,this chamber is divided into two compartments by a horizontal partition a pierced with small holes and furnished with four safety valves e e e e4 ,the column ,c is divided into twelve small compartments1 by means of horizontal partitions of copper1 also pierced with holes and each provided with two little valves f4 ,the spirituous vapors passing up this column are led by a pipe i to the bottom of the second column or rectifier4 ,this column is also divided into compartments in precisely the same way1 except that there are fifteen of them1 the ten lowest being separated by the partitions1 which are pierced with holes4 ,the remaining five partitions are not perforated1 but have a wide opening as at w1 for the passage of the vapors1 and form a condenser for the finished spirit4 ,between each of these partitions passes one bend of a long zig-zag pipe m1 beginning at the top of the column1 winding downwards to the bottom1 and finally passing upwards again to the top of the other column1 so as to discharge its contents into the highest compartment4 ,the apparatus works in the following way3 ,the pump ,q is set in motion1 and the zig-zag pipe m then fills with the wash or fermented liquor until it runs over at n into the highest compartment of column ,c4 ,the pump is then stopped1 and steam is introduced through b1 passing up through the two bottom chambers and the short pipe ,f into the analyzing column1 finally reaching the bottom of the other column by means of the pipe i4 ,here it surrounds the coil pipe m containing the wash1 so that the latter becomes rapidly heated4 ,when several bends of the pipe have become heated1 the pump is again set to work1 and the hot wash is driven rapidly through the coil and into the analyzer at n4 ,here it takes the course indicated by the arrows1 running down from chamber to chamber through the tubes h until it reaches the bottom2 none of the liquor finds its way through the perforations in the various partitions1 owing to the pressure of the ascending steam4 ,as the liquid cannot pass through the holes in the partitions it can only pass downward through the drop-pipe tubes h4 ,by this means the mash is spread in a thin stratum over each partition to the depth of the seal g and is fully exposed to the steam forcing its way up through the holes1 the alcohol it contains being thus volatilized at every step4 ,in its course downwards the wash is met by the steam passing up through the perforations1 and the whole of the spirit which it contains is thus converted into vapor4 ,as soon as the chamber ,b is nearly full of the spent wash1 its contents are run off into the lower compartment by opening a valve in the pipe ,v4 ,by means of the cock ,e1 they are finally discharged from the apparatus4 ,this process is continued until all the wash has been pumped through4 ,the course taken by the steam will be readily understood by a glance at the figure4 ,when it has passed through each of the chambers of the analyzer1 the mixed vapors of water and spirit pass through the pipe i into the rectifying column4 ,ascending again1 they heat the coiled pipe m1 and are partially deprived of aqueous vapors by condensation4 ,being thus gradually concentrated1 by the time they reach the opening at w they consist of nearly pure spirit1 and are then condensed by the cool liquid in the pipe1 fall upon the partition and are carried away by the pipe y to a refrigerator ,w4 ,any uncondensed gases pass out by the pipe ,r to the same refrigerator1 where they are deprived of any alcohol they may contain4 ,the weak liquor condensed in the different compartments of the rectifier descends in the same manner as the wash descends in the other column2 as it always contains a little spirit1 it is conveyed by means of the pipe ,s to the vessel ,l in order to be pumped once more through the apparatus4 ,the condensed spirit gathered over the plates v passes out through the pipe y to the condensing worm ,t4 ,if any vapors escape the condensing plates they pass into ,r and are condensed in the worm ,t also4 ,from worm ,t the spirit flows into a suitable receiver ,z4 ,before the process of distillation commences1 it is usual1 especially when the common ,scotch stills are employed1 to add about one lb4 of soap to the contents of the still for every #ajj gallons of wash4 ,this is done in order to prevent the liquid from boiling over1 which object is effected in the following way3 ,the fermented wash always contains small quantities of acetic acid2 this acts upon the soap1 liberating an oily compound which floats upon the surface4 ,the bubbles of gas as they rise from the body of the liquid are broken by this layer of oil1 and hence the violence of the ebullition is considerably checked4 ,butter is sometimes employed for the same purpose4 ,figs4 #ai and #bj show a diagrammatic section and a plan of a still used for thick mashes which are liable to burn4 ,this comprises a circular chamber ,b supported over suitable heating means1 having on its bottom a series of concentric partitions b which divide the bottom of the chamber into shallow channels for the mash4 ,running diametrically through the chamber is a partition4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,rotary ,current ,still4 ,the mash passes from a tank as ,a by a passage a to an opening on one side of the central portion and into the outside channel b4 ,the current of liquid passes along the outer channel until it is deflected by the central partition into the next interior channel b and so on until it arrives at the center when it passes through the central partition into the other half of the chamber4 ,here it passes around back and forth and gradually outward to the outermost channel from which it passes off through an adjustable gate in outlet c4 ,by adjusting this gate1 and a gate or cock in inlet passage a1 the passage and consequent depth of the liquid in the channels may be regulated4 ,the vapor rising from the mash is carried over to a condenser through pipe ,d4 ,in order to keep the mash from burning a chain g is rotarily reciprocated along the channels by means of the bar ,g1 the gear ,e and the crank shaft e4 ,various modifications of this construction have been devised4 ,the advantage of the still lies in submitting the mash in a thin current to the action of the heat1 and the consequent rapid vaporization4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,rotary ,current ,still4 ,every distillation consists of two operations3 ,the conversion of liquid into vapor1 and the reconversion of the vapor into liquid4 ,hence perfect equilibrium should be established between the vaporizing heat and the condensing cold4 ,the quantity of vapor must not be greater or less than can be condensed4 ,if fire is too violent the vapors will pass out of the worm uncondensed4 ,if the fire is too low the pressure of the vapor is not great enough to prevent the entrance of air1 which obstructs distillation4 ,as a means of indicating the proper regulation of the fire1 the simple little device shown in ,fig4 #ba may be used4 ,this consists of a tube of copper or glass having a ball ,b eight inches in diameter4 ,the upper end ,e of the tube is attached to the condensing worm4 ,the lower end of the tube is bent in ,u-shape2 the length of the two bends from b to outlet is four feet4 ,the ball has a capacity slightly greater than the two legs of the bend4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,indicator for ,regulating the ,distilling ,fire4 ,normally the liquid in the two legs will stand at a level4 ,if1 however1 the fire is too brisk the vapor will enter the tube and drive out the liquor at d1 and thus the level in the leg ,c will be less than in the leg ,d4 ,if1 however1 the fire is low1 the pressure of vapor in the worm will decrease and the pressure of the outside air will force down the liquid in leg ,d and up leg ,c into the ball4 ,a more perfected device but operating on the same principle is shown in ,fig4 #bf4 ,it is obviously impossible to present in the small compass of this book a description of all the varieties of stills used1 but these which have been described illustrate the principles on which all stills are constructed and were chosen for their simplicity of construction and clearness of their operation4 ,the principle of their operation is exactly the same as the more modern forms now to be described4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,modern ,,distilling ,,apparatus4 ,in the previous chapter we have given a description of small1 simple stills1 such as were used until late years1 and which are yet used in many localities where distilling is carried on on a small scale4 ,we will now describe the principle features of more complicated and elaborate apparatus4 ,all modern distilling apparatus for the production of a high grade of alcohol is based upon the principle set forth in the description of the ,coffey still2 that is1 upon using a distilling column and a concentrating column1 wherein the wash or mash fermented as described1 passes over a series of plates or other obstructions in contact with an ascending column of heated vapor4 ,this heated vapor extracts the alcohol from the wash1 or from the low wines of the concentrator1 and is continually strengthened during its journey until it passes off to a condenser as a vapor very rich in alcohol4 ,the converse of this is true with the wash1 which in its downward course is gradually deprived of its alcohol until it finally passes off at the bottom of the column4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,diagramatic ,view of ,column ,still and ,accessory ,apparatus4 7,to face page #fd7 ,fig4 #bb is illustrative of the general form and arrangement of such a column and its adjuncts2 the details1 however1 will vary with each make of still4 ,in this the column consists of a casing really continuous but divided into two portions--the distilling portion ,a and the rectifying portion ,b4 ,the operation is alike1 however1 in principle in both portions4 ,illustration3 ,cross-,section of ,fig4 #bc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,distilling ,plate4 ,the wash by means of a suitable pump is forced into an overhead tank or concentrator ,g where it is warmed by the hot vapors as will be later described4 ,it passes around the interior of the concentrator in a coil c and then passes off by a pipe a to the uppermost plate of the distilling portion ,a of the column4 ,the plates1 as before explained on page #ee1 are each formed with a dropping tube ,o 7see ,fig4 #bc71 which extends above the plate to an extent slightly less than the desired thickness of the layer of liquid on each plate1 and with perforations each having an upwardly projecting rim1 and each covered with a cap ,a4 ,this rim and cap form a trap4 ,the ascending vapors pass up through the perforations1 down between the rim and the edge of the cap and thus out through the layer of wash contained on the cap4 ,the wash remains constantly level with the top of the tube ,o1 the excess running off through the tube ,o to the compartment or plate beneath4 ,to return to ,fig4 #bb1 the wash by the pipe a enters the distilling portion of the column at the uppermost plate thereof and1 as described above1 drops down from plate to plate4 ,a steam pipe ,s enters the bottom compartment of the distilling portion of the column and the steam as it rises through the little traps1 bubbles out through the layer of wash and in each compartment enriches itself with alcohol4 ,thus the rising column of vapor is constantly becoming richer and the downward current of wash constantly weaker until at last it passes away as spent wash at the very bottom of the column by the pipe ,d4 ,the hot vapors1 as before described1 pass upward and enter the rectifying portion of the column ,b4 ,this consists of a series of compartments having perforated bottoms and dropping tubes4 ,the vapor passes upward through these perforations of the plates1--the condensed portion of it dropping back again on to the lower plates or on to the distilling plates to be again vaporized and concentrated and the more highly vaporized portion passing out at the top of the column through the pipe ,e to the concentrator ,g4 ,the concentrator consists of a tank containing water within which is supported a vessel ,f having double walls4 ,the interior of this vessel is likewise filled with water4 ,between the double walls and surrounding the coiled pipe c passes the vapors from pipe ,e4 ,at the bottom of the vessel ,f is a compartment f connected by a pipe ,f with the upper compartment of the rectifying column4 ,the less highly heated vapors will be condensed by the passage through the double walls of the vessel and the condensation will collect in the compartment f1 and from there pass off by pipe ,f back to the rectifying column1 to be again vaporized and strengthened by the descent from plate to plate of ,b4 ,the rich and highly vaporized vapors which have passed the test of this preliminary concentration1 pass out of the compartment f by a pipe ,m4 ,here again the water surrounding the pipe tends to condense all but the most highly charged vapor and send it back to compartment f but the vapor which succeeds in passing over through pipe ,g is carried downward to a condenser ,h where it is finally condensed and drawn off as at g4 ,it is necessary that the rate of mash feed be regulated so that neither too much mash shall be pumped into the mash heater ,g1 or too little1 and the pipe leading from the pump to the heater is therefore provided with a tap and an indicating dial4 ,in these modern stills the following are particularly important points to be especially brought to the consideration of the distiller4 ,it cannot be too strongly impressed that effectiveness of the distilling column depends on the plates dividing it1--that is1 upon the horizontality of the plates and the form of the traps or perforations4 ,if the plates are not horizontal the wash is not maintained at a uniform level across the entire extent of the plate and hence some of the ascending vapor will pass out without contacting with the wash through uncovered traps1 while others of the traps will be so deeply submerged in wash that the vapor cannot bubble through4 ,again the caps should be so made as to divide the vapor into fine streams and bring it into contact with each part of the wash4 ,plates simply perforated and uncapped give excellent results for they molecularize the vapor ascending through the liquid contained on the plates1 but they require a constant pressure of vapor1 and any variations of pressure tends to discharge them4 ,in addition these perforations gradually enlarge by the action of acids in the wash or clog up1 and the apparatus soon works badly4 ,good forms of capped traps are those shown in ,figs4 #bd1 #be devised by ,barbet4 ,these are provided with an interior upwardly projecting rim4 ,extending over the rim and down around it is a copper cap having its margin slitted4 ,the wash carried on the plate circulates about the caps and the alcoholic vapors bubble out through the slits and up through the wash1 the vapor thus being finely divided and coming into intimate contact with each portion of the wash and thus more thoroughly depriving it of its alcohol4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,barbet ,trap4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--;,barbet ,trap4 ,besides this there is another advantage resident in these caps1 namely1 that distillation may be stopped for several hours and then re-started without trouble for the reason that the wash has been retained on the plates1 whereas were the plates simply perforated the wash would ooze through and the plates have to be recharged4 ,this form of plate may be easily repaired and does not necessitate the removal or replacement of the plate itself4 ,the caps alone need be removed4 ,for thick washes1 which tends to obstruct the slits of the cap1 ,barbet has devised the cap shown at the right in ,fig4 #be4 ,this cap extends down to the plate itself1 and has very narrow slits in its periphery4 ,with such a cap as shown in ,fig4 #bd1 the bran1 sediments1 etc41 would tend to settle upon the top of the cap1 enter beneath it and through the slits4 ,the cone-shape of the top of this cap prevents the deposit of dregs thereon and the very narrow slits oppose the entrance of bran or sediment4 ,while1 for the sake of clearness1 an old form of concentrator1 ,g1 has been shown1 the concentrator1 preheater for the wash1 and condensers1 to-day1 are usually composed of bundles of tubes through which the vapors pass surrounded by water or the cool wash4 ,these should be of bronze or copper and made without solder4 ,the tubes should be capable of being taken out for cleaning or repairing4 ,in many distilling apparatuses the distilling column and the rectifying column are in two parts1 one beside the other4 ,this overcomes the objection of having a very high column and also prevents the low wines1 i4e41 the weak alcoholic liquor after its first concentration1 from passing into the wash as it would do with the continuous column4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,steam ,regulator4 ,in order that the amount of steam entering the column may be regulated1 the column is usually provided with a steam regulator 7,fig4 #bf72 whose principle of operation may be easily under stood by referring to ,fig4 #bb4 ,it comprises an upper and a lower chamber ,z ,z connected by a central tube ,k which projects down nearly to the bottom of the lower chamber4 ,a pipe ,w communicates with the steam chamber ,r of the column and enters the chamber ,z above the level of the water contained therein4 ,in the upper chamber ,z1 is a float ,x1 connected to the differential lever ,t of a steam valve ,t which controls the inlet of steam passing through pipe ,s to the steam chest ,r4 ,the principle of operation is very simple4 ,when the pressure in the steam chest ,r becomes too great1 steam in the pipe ,w and chamber ,z forces the water therein up in tube ,k1 thus lifting the float ,x and closing the steam entrance valve ,t4 ,when the pressure of steam is low1 the level of the liquid in ,z rises and liquid in ,z runs into ,z1 the float ,x falls opening valve ,t and allowing a greater flow of steam4 ,as it is often desirable to change the pressure of steam in the column at various points in the operation1 the best regulators are usually provided with means to that end4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,gauge ,glass for ,regulatur4 ,in order to measure the output of the still1 there is attached thereto a gauge glass 7,j in ,fig4 #bb71 a diagram of which is shown in ,fig4 #bg4 ,this consists of a jar ,a connected at its lower end at b by an annular passage ,b to a chamber ,e from which proceed the taps ,f4 ,centrally through the passage ,b passes a tube c connected at its lower end to the pipe ,c leading from the condenser4 ,the tube ,c c projects upward into the jar ,a and is open at its upper end4 ,now the opening b is of a certain size and it is obvious that it will carry off a certain amount of liquid when running full or the amount allowed to flow out by the exit tap ,f4 ,if now1 more than that quantity of alcohol is produced1 the alcohol will rise in the jar ,a until the rate of inflow and outflow is equal4 ,if1 however1 the still is producing less than that quantity then the level of liquid in ,a will gradually drop4 ,hence1 by observing the level of the liquid in ,a and its constancy or variation in level1 it is possible to tell precisely how much alcohol is running per hour and if the rate is steady4 ,the jar ,a is provided with a cap ,g whereby an alcoholometer may be inserted into tube c for the purpose of testing the strength of the liquor4 ,the taps ,f are for the purpose of collecting the first runnings1 the pure alcohol and the last runnings or feints4 ,these principles are also embodied in the apparatus designed by the ,vulcan ,copper ,works ,co41 of ,cincinnati1 and illustrated in ,fig4 #bh4 ,the apparatus comprises the still1 a wash heater and a condenser4 ,the still is composed of a series of chambers from #ab to #bd1 the internal construction of which is shown in ,fig4 #bi4 ,each chamber consists of a peculiarly perforated plate ,a1 a drop pipe ,b1 a seal ,c1 into which the drop pipe from the plate above projects1 and a central standard ,d4 ,returning now to ,fig4 #bh1 at the bottom of the column is a manifold ,e1 with pipes ,f and ,g whereby either exhaust or live steam may be admitted4 ,h designates the discharge or slop valve1 controlled by a float ,i whereby a constant level of slop or spent wash is kept in the bottom chamber4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,continuous ,distilling ,apparatus1 with ,external ,tubular ,condenser4 7,to face page #gb7 ,to the right of the column is seen the slop tester ,j and hydrometer ,l1 whereby the spent wash may be tested to see if the spirit is being properly extracted4 ,the steam pressure is indicated by means of a float ,n contained within a vessel ,m1 a tally weight moving against a scale ,k1 showing the pressure of steam entering through pipe ,o and acting against water contained in vessel ,m4 ,each chamber is provided with a manhole plate ,p1 and a try-cock ,q1 whereby the operation of each chamber may be tested4 ,r is a gage glass to show the level of the slop in the bottom chamber4 ,at the top of the column are three rectifying chambers fitted with boiling pipes and traps ,t1 which distribute the ascending vapor and boil out the low wines returned from the wash-heater or fore-warmer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--;,detail of ,chamber1 ,continuous ,still4 ,the heater consists of a shell enclosing a series of tubes extending into an upper and lower chamber4 ,the wash or beer1 is pumped into the lower chamber of the heater1 and passes upward through the tubes to the upper chamber from which is it carried by a pipe to the plate ,a next below the rectifying plates4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,detail of ,perforated ,plate ,a4 ,the vapor from the column passes into the middle compartment of the heater and surrounds the beer tubes4 ,the vapors give their heat to the beer and are thus cooled1 the low wines being condensed and flowing back onto the uppermost rectifying plate1 while the highly vaporized portions pass out to the condenser4 ,this is of the same general construction as the heater1 the vapor being cooled and condensed to liquid by the tubes through which a constant current of cool water is passed4 ,this enters at ,u and passes out at ,v4 ,these tubular condensers are particularly good as they may be easily cleaned4 ,from the condenser the spirit passes to a discharge box ,w4 ,a portion of the flow passes into a test tube ,x1 provided with a hydrometer4 ,a trap ,y and an air pipe ,z provide means for the escape of gas4 ,as before stated1 the form of perforations in the plates of a column through which the vapor pass upward through the beer or wash is particularly important4 ,the steam must be thoroughly diffused through the beer1 or else particles of mash are carried up1 accumulate around the perforations1 baking there and clogging them up4 ,the clogging and eventual stoppage of the perforations prevent the agitation of the mash carried on the plate1 and a layer of mash accumulates and bakes on the head1 or plate1 above4 ,thus the operating capacity of the still is reduced and a larger quantity and greater pressure of steam is necessary with consequent waste of fuel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--;,detail of ,perforated ,plate ,a4 ,it is necessary then that the form of perforation or trap through which the vapor ascends should be such that agitation of the beer shall be enforced in its movement across the plate1 and that the steam shall be thoroughly diffused through the beer4 ,in the ,vulcan still above referred to1 these results are accomplished by forming each perforation with a tongue1 as shown in the fragmentary view of a plate1 ,figs4 #cj and #ca1 the tongues of all the holes being directed towards the periphery of the plate4 ,it is claimed that by this construction the steam is diverted forward and injected into the beer1 throwing the beer into vigorous motion1 completely diffusing the steam and accelerating the motion of the beer from the seal ,c to the drop pipe ,b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--;,continuous ,distilling ,apparatus with ,goose ,separator4 7,to face page #gf7 ,fig4 #cb illustrates another form of distilling apparatus manufactured by the same company1 which is practically the same as the apparatus previously described except that it is provided with a goose-necked separator1 interposed between the wash-heater and the enclosure4 ,this consists of a series of convoluted tubes contained in a tank of cold water4 ,the vapor from the heater passes into these convolutions4 ,the heavier vapors are condensed therein and returned to the heater from which they descend into the column while the more volatilized vapors pass over into the final condenser4 ,the ,u-bends at the bottoms of each convolution act like so many low wine chambers in the still shown in ,fig4 #i the highly heated vapor continually bubbling through the condensed vapor in the ,u bend and there becoming greatly enriched and concentrated4 ,this apparatus1 it is claimed1 is applicable to the distillation of grain1 molasses or cane juice and will yield #agj or #ahj per cent41 or the equivalent to #he-ij ,g4 ,l4 or #cd-cf ,cartier4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,section of ,gillaume's ,inclined ,column ,still4 ,a distinctly modern type of still1 though akin to the still shown in ,figs4 #ai and #bj1 is the inclined column of ,gillaume1 shown in section in ,fig4 #cc and in full view in ,fig4 #cd4 ,gillaume in devising this form of apparatus had particularly in mind the distillation of thick washes1 and the necessity of compelling a circulation of the wash4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,gillaume's ,inclined ,column ,still4 ,the bottom of the inclined column ,a is divided by lateral extending1 upwardly projecting plates or partitions a forming a continuous channel through which the wash passes from side to side and from top to bottom and then out through a regulator4 ,the upper plate of the column has downwardly projecting partitions b which with the partitions a form a series of traps4 ,the steam enters at the bottom of the column into a reservoir1 and in order to pass upward is forced beneath each partition b and through the washer contained in the channels of the bottom4 ,when it reaches the upper end of the column it has passed through a continuous series of wash-filled compartments containing a constantly moving current of wash4 ,the vapors from the top of the column pass off to the wash heater or to a concentrator4 ,in ,fig4 #cd is shown a form of ,gillaume still designed to distill all sorts of liquids whether thin or thick4 ,the wash is supplied from an overhead tank to a regulating tank ,k from which a pipe k leads to a regulating tap m4 ,the wash re-ascends into the wash heater ,b and when heated descends by pipe ,f into the uppermost compartments of the column ,a4 ,the vapor passes to the condenser ,b1 by a pipe ,h1 and the spent wash is discharged by a siphon ,c4 ,in addition to the parts above referred to1 a designates entrance of wash into heater1 b exhaust test tube1 d steam entrance tap ,g alcohol test glass1 ,g exhaust test glass1 o valve for regulating strength of spirit1 ,o steam regulator1 p water entrance tap1 r exit tap1 and ,d the spent wash extractor4 ,the ,gillaume apparatus is particularly valuable for the production of industrial or agricultural alcohol4 ,it is claimed that it is easily understood and operated even by unskilled labor1 while it produces a large proportion of alcohol of a high strength4 ,a view of a complete apparatus on a large scale is shown in the ,fig4 #dj in the chapter on rectification4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,rectification4 ,the product of the distillation of alcoholic liquors1 which is termed low wine1 does not usually contain alcohol in sufficient quantity to admit of its being employed for direct consumption4 ,besides this it always contains substances which have the property of distilling over with the spirit1 although their boiling points1 when in the pure state1 are much higher than that of alcohol4 ,these are all classed under the generic title of fusel-oil2 owing to their very disagreeable taste and smell1 their presence in spirit is extremely objectionable4 ,in order to remove them1 the rough products of distillation are submitted to a further process of concentration and purification4 ,besides fusel-oil1 they contain other substances1 such as aldehyde1 various ethers1 etc41 the boiling points of which are lower than that of alcohol2 these must also be removed1 as they impart to the spirit a fiery taste4 ,the whole process is termed rectification1 and is carried on in a distillatory apparatus4 ,as before stated1 the wash as discharged into the still consists of alcohol mixed with water and a variety of impurities from which the alcohol must be separated4 ,in order that the process may be better understood we will assume that a mixture of pure alcohol and water is to be operated on in place of the wash as above referred to4 ,distillation in this case is intended to deprive the water of its alcohol1 the operation theoretically leaving water in one chamber and alcohol in another4 ,this is accomplished by reason of the differences in the boiling points of water and alcohol4 ,the alcohol vaporizes at a lower degree 7#agc ,f47 than water 7#bab ,f47 ,thus the liquid at the end of the operation has been divided into two parts or fractions4 ,this1 however1 is not a clean division for the reason that while in the beginning the vapors contain a large quantity of the more volatile alcohol1 at the end they will contain a large portion of the less volatile water4 ,the whole of the alcohol will be separated in this manner1 but it will still be mixed with some water and in order to again divide the alcohol from the water the first distillate would have to be redistilled until at last the water is reduced to a minimum or entirely eliminated1 if possible4 ,but as it requires less heat to vaporize alcohol than water1 so it also requires more cold to condense alcoholic-vapor than water-vapor4 ,if then we pass the mixed vapors into a condensing chamber cooled to a certain temperature low enough to condense water-vapor but not the alcohol-vapor1 then the water-vapor will fall down as water while the alcohol-vapor being uncondensed passes on to another chamber where its temperature falls to a point where it in turn condenses into liquid4 ,in intermittent distillation1 as by the simple still1 the vapors of mixed alcohol and water at first contain a great deal of alcohol and a little water1 then more water and less alcohol1 and then a great deal of water and hardly any alcohol4 ,it may be asked3 ,why not take only the runnings rich in alcohol and leave the others8 ,the answer to this is that if this be done then all the alcohol is not extracted from the wash and there is just that much loss4 ,the solution of the problem is to get all the alcohol out mixed with the water that is inevitably with it and then redistill this result thus getting out 7sifting away7 some of the water1 and again distill this result1 and so on until only pure alcohol is left4 ,this1 however1 is a very troublesome business and has been abandoned as a means of removing impurities such as water1 the ethers1 and fusel oil except by makers of whiskey1 brandy and other beverage spirits1 in favor of continuous distillation and continuous rectification4 ,it will be seen from what has gone before that there are two means of separating alcohol and water2 one by an initial difference in heating and by a further difference in cooling or condensing4 ,it is on this foundation that the whole art of fractional distillation or rectification rests4 ,while we have for illustration been considering a mixture of pure alcohol and water1 the wash or liquid formed by the fermentation of grain1 etc41 contains a variety of ingredients of different boiling points1 some more volatile than alcohol1 some less4 ,the fermented wash consists first of non-volatile or only slightly volatile matters1 such as salts1 proteins1 glycerin1 lactic acid1 yeast1 etc41 and second1 volatile bodies such as alcohol1 water1 various ethers1 etc41 fusel oils and acetic acid4 ,when wash is distilled in the ordinary simple or pot still1 the first part to come over consists of the very volatile matters1--more volatile than alcohol even1--that is1 the ethers mixed with some alcohol4 ,this is known as the fore-shot or first runnings1 and is collected separately4 ,when the spirit coming over possesses no objectionable odor1 the second stage has begun4 ,this running would be of the alcohol proper1 getting weaker and weaker1 however1 as the running continues and this would be caught separately as long as it is of sufficient strength4 ,at last would come the weak spirit containing much fusel oil4 ,it is to be understood1 however1 that there is no defined line between these divisions4 ,they graduate one into the other4 ,the first and last runnings in the old practice were mixed together and distilled with the next charge4 ,when a strong spirit was required1 rectification would be repeated several times4 ,it is customary1 however1 with the improved modern apparatus1 to produce at the outset spirit containing but little fusel oil and at least #hj per cent of alcohol4 ,this is then purified and concentrated in the above manner and afterwards reduced with water to the required strength4 ,another cause of the offensive flavor of the products of distillation is the presence of various acids1 which exist in all fermented liquors2 they are chiefly tartaric1 malic1 acetic1 and lactic acids4 ,the excessive action of heat upon liquors which have been distilled by an open fire has also a particularly objectionable influence upon the flavor of the products4 ,the first operation in the process of rectification is to neutralize the above-mentioned acids2 this is effected by means of milk of lime1 which is added to the liquor in quantity depending upon its acidity2 the point at which the neutralization is complete is determined by the use of litmus paper4 ,in the subsequent process of distillation1 the determination of the exact moments at which to begin and to cease collecting the pure spirit is very difficult to indicate4 ,it must be regulated by the nature of the spirits2 some may be pure #bj or #cj minutes after they have attained the desired strength2 and some only run pure an hour1 or even more1 after this point4 ,the product should be tasted frequently1 after being diluted with water1 or a few drops may be poured into the palm of the hand1 and after striking the hands together1 it will be known by the odor whether the spirit be of good quality or not2 these two means may be applied simultaneously4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,rectifying ,still4 ,the process of rectification may be carried on in the apparatus shown in ,figs4 #ce and #cf4 ,a is a still which contains the spirit to be rectified2 it should be four-fifths full4 ,the condenser ,e and the cooler ,g are filled with water4 ,after closing the cocks ,l and ,i1 the contents of the still are heated by steam1 which is introduced at first slowly4 ,the vapors of spirit given off pass1 by tubes b1 above each plate a1 of the series in column ,b1 and escape through ,c and ,d into the condenser ,e1 where they are condensed on reaching the lentils d d1 and return in a liquid state through pipe f and connections g g to the upper plates of the column ,b4 ,in these return pipes the liquid is volatilized1 and constantly recharged with alcohol to be again condensed1 until the water in the condenser is hot enough to permit the lighter alcoholic vapors to pass into the coil c c c1 without being reduced to the liquid state4 ,when this is the case1 the vapors pass through ,f into the cooler ,g1 where they undergo complete condensation4 ,great care must be taken that the heat is not so great as to permit any of the vapors to pass over uncondensed or to flow away in a hot state2 and also to keep up a constant supply of water in the cooler without producing too low a temperature2 the alcoholic products should run out just cold4 ,the highly volatile constituents of the spirit come over first1 that which follows becoming gradually purer until it consists of well-flavored alcohol2 after this comes a product containing the essential oils4 ,the more impure products are kept apart from the rest and re-distilled with the next charge4 ,some hours generally elapse before alcohol begins to flow from the cooler4 ,the purest alcohol is obtained while its strength is kept between #ib and #if ,baume1 and the operation is complete when the liquid flowing through the vessel marks not more than #c or #d ,baume2 it is better1 however1 to stop the still when the backing or faints indicate #aj1 because the product after this point contains much fusel-oil1 and is not worth collecting4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,section of ,rectifying ,still4 ,in order to cleanse the apparatus--which should be performed after each working--the still ,a is emptied of water by opening the cock ,q4 ,the contents of the condenser are then emptied in like manner by opening the cock ,j1 through which they flow upon the plates in the column ,b1 and wash out essential oils which remain in them4 ,these two cocks are then closed1 and the door ,u in the still head is removed4 ,the water in the cooler ,g is then run by means of pipe into the still ,a1 so as partially to cover the steam-coil in the latter4 ,after again securing the door ,u1 a strong heat is applied1 and the water in the still is well boiled1 the steam evolved thoroughly cleansing all the different parts of the apparatus2 this is continued for #ae or #bj minutes1 when the heat is withdrawn and the still left to cool gradually4 ,in the intermittent rectifying still above described the impure products are distilled with the next charge4 ,in the apparatus as perfected and used in large distilleries or rectification plants1 the division of the several products composing the phlegm or raw spirit is made at one time and continuously on the principle now to be described4 ,it was stated in the beginning of this chapter that the various impurities in alcohol1 the ethers1 the water and the fusel oils1 have each their own vaporizing point and each their own condensing point4 ,as this is so1 they may be separated from each other and from the alcohol on the same principle as we have seen that water is separated from the mixture of pure alcohol and water2 that is1 by fractionation1 as it is termed1 or by sifting out one body from another4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,fractional ,distilling ,apparatus4 ,thus in fractional distillation1 each condenser or retort in the apparatus shown in ,fig4 #cg1 above acts as a sieve or trap1 letting pass the most volatile substances but retaining those of a less degree of volatility4 ,by passing the mixed vapor together through a good condensing medium the temperature of which is lower than the boiling point of the less volatile1 but not so low as the boiling point of the more volatile the vapors of the less volatile liquid will be condensed1 while the more volatile will retain their gaseous form4 ,thus by having a number of condensing mediums each one slightly lower in temperature than the other1 the various vapors with their various points of volatilization will be successively condensed1 allowing the passage of the more volatile vapors over to the condenser beyond4 ,if we had mixed gravel and sand and desired to separate the gravel into assorted sizes and get the sand by itself1 we would pass the mass through a series of sieves of gradually smaller mesh4 ,the first sieve of course would catch all the largest pebbles1 the next in size would let all the second sized gravel through1 and so on until the final sieve would have separated the coarse sand from the fine4 ,in this figure of illustration1 the coarse pebbles may be taken to represent the water and the fusel oils which are mixed and partly tend to rise with the alcohol1 and the alcohol may be represented as the gravel larger than the sand1 and the fine sand as the etheric vapors4 ,if this gravel were forced upwardly through a series of sieves gradually growing finer1 it would be analogous figuratively to the upward passage of the vapors through a distilling column composed of plates or chambers2 the water and fusel oils would be retained in the lower portion of the column and continually sent back there2 the alcohol would pass into the upper chambers of the column and the ethers or fore-shots would pass out from the very fine sieve at the top of the column4 ,the vertical chambers above each plate of the rectifying column are to-day used as the separate eliminating chambers referred to above4 ,it has been found in practice that as before stated1 each plate of a column contained upon it liquid of a certain temperature and above it vapors of a certain degree of vaporization4 ,that is1 in a continuous column fed regularly by condensation from above and supplied with a constant flow of phlegm1 each plate carries upon it a liquid of constant composition relative to the boiling point of the fluid on that plate4 ,as many extractions may thus be made from the various plates as there are different liquids to be isolated4 ,thus by tapping different portions of the column1 vapors of different degrees of vaporization are found and may be carried off and the phlegm be thus fractionated4 ,in the case of one column the first runnings or fore-shot would be found in the upper portion of the column to which they would have risen by reason of their degree of volatility4 ,the last runnings or oils1 aldehydes1 etc41 would be found in the lower portion of the column still mixed with the spirit1 while upon the plates of the middle portion of the column would be found the vapor of the alcohol freed from the fusel oils and from the1ethers4 ,it is understood1 of course1 throughout this description that the liquid being treated is not wash but phlegm2 that is1 the raw spirit containing the fusel oils1 ethers1 water and alcohol4 ,fig4 #ch represents a simple rectifying apparatus designed for small or medium sized plants1 and manufactured by the ,vulcan ,copper ,works ,co41 of ,cincinnati4 ,the still is upright1 with a chambered column above it1 of the usual type4 ,the chambers are fitted with a vapor boiling pipe and cap and a drop pipe1 and each is provided with cocks whereby it may be drained for cleansing4 ,above the column is a separator1 comprising a casing containing a series of tubes4 ,the vapor from the column circulates around the tubes through which passes a current of cool water4 ,the condenser is of the same construction as the separator and is provided with a gage glass and a draw-off cock4 ,the operation is the same as in other simple rectifiers2 part of the vapor from the column is condensed in the separator and passes back on to the upper plates1 while the more highly vaporized portions pass over into the condenser4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--,rectifying ,apparatus with ,external ,tubular ,condenser4 7,to face page #id7 ,the diameter of the still is large relatively to its depth so as to yield an economical and at the same time highly effective distribution of heat through the charge4 ,this also affords an extended boiling area from which the vapor rises evenly and regularly1 thus ensuring conditions peculiarly conducive to produce the best fractionating4 ,the floor space required for this still and others of the same character built by this company is very compact and excessive weight on the top floor of the building is dispensed with4 ,we have shown in ,figs4 #ci and #dj two forms of rectifying apparatus1 one a twin column ,barbet rectifier and the other a rectifier of the ,gillaume type combined with inclined column still4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,twin ,column ,barbet ,rectifier4 ,in the twin column apparatus1 ,fig4 #ci1 the first column or clarifier ,a receives the raw phlegm and accomplishes the elimination of ethers4 ,the clarified phlegm passes then to the second column where the alcohol is separated from the last runnings or fusel oil4 ,in other words1 the phlegm or impure raw alcohol is only raised to such a temperature in the first column as to drive off the very volatile constituents such as the ethers4 ,these therefore pass off at the top of the first column into the condenser ,c1 the retrogradation or condensed alcohol being returned to ,a1 while the boiling phlegm taken from the middle of the column and still containing the aldehydes1 oils1 etc41 is conducted by a pipe ,e to the second column ,b wherein the last runnings or amylic oils1 etc41 are separated from the purified spirits4 ,the vapors in this column are carried to the condensers ,d and ,f and from there to a refrigerator ,g4 ,the fusel oils are extracted from the plates slightly below the center of the column and are carried to an oil concentrating apparatus ,h4 ,in the most complete forms of apparatus used to-day1 there is a variation of this construction4 ,the first runnings1 middle runnings and the last runnings are each led off from the main column to separate coolers1 condensers1 etc41 and the purified result from each of these columns is in turn led to a trunk rectifier common to all where the product is redistilled and entirely freed from impurities4 ,this gives a very high grade of alcohol by a process practically continuous4 ,at the same time the impurities are not returned to the first or main column to contaminate the vapors therein and add to the amount of fusel oils contained on the lower plates4 ,in construction of this character there is a very large saving in the cost of the fuel and the result is much better in every way4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--;,gillaume's ,rectifier and ,inclined ,still4 ,,fig4 #dj4--;,,guillaume',s ,,direct ,,distillation-,,rectification ,,apparatus ,,for ,,agricultural ,,distillations4 ,a ,distilling ,column4 a ,tank for ,wash to be ,distilled4 b ,cold ,water ,tank4 ,c ,rectification ,column4 ,d ,final ,purification ,column4 ,i ,wash ,heater4 ,k ,condenser4 ,k ,refrigerator of ,ethers4 ,o ,refrigerator for high-grade ,alcohol and the ,first ,runnings4 ,q ,refrigerator for the ,products of the ,last ,runnings4 ,r ,spent ,wash ,extractor4 r ,siphon ,carrying off ,spent ,wash4 ,s ,steam ,regulator4 s ,tap and ,pipe for ,carrying ,wash to ,distilling ,column4 ,u ,water ,regulator4 u ,taps for the ,extraction of ,intermediate ,impurities4 ,v ,receiver ,accumulator4 v ,tap for the ,extraction of the ,last ,runnings4 ,x ,test ,glass for the ,high-,grade ,alcohol4 ,y ,test ,glass for ,first ,runnings4 ,y ,test ,glass for ,last ,runnings4 ,z ,test ,glass for ,determining ,degree of ,exhaustion of ,spent ,wash4 ,in this apparatus the still proper is of the form heretofore described on page #gh4 ,the liquid to be distilled enters at the top of the inclined column ,a and descends to the base thereof4 ,the alcoholic vapor rises through the column and passes off from the head thereof into the rectifying column4 ,at the head of the column ,a it has a strength of about #dj to #ej ,f4 ,the column ,c is supported upon an accumulating reservoir ,v which acts to regulate the flow of the phlegm through the rectifying column and prevents too great an exhaustion of the plates of the column4 ,it acts as a reservoir to contain any excess of phlegm or to supply an additional amount of phlegm to the plates when they have become nearly exhausted4 ,the oils or products of the last running accumulate at the base of the column1 and are carried off to their special refrigerator ,q4 ,the alcoholic vapors concentrate while rising in the column and quickly attain a strength of #ib or #id ,f4 ,at a height within the column corresponding to the plates whereon alcohol of that strength is to be found1 there are provided three taps u whereby the middle runnings or medium grade of alcohol may be drawn off1 which have a maximum concentration of #ib and #id ,f4 ,above these middle plates the alcohol vapors are completely separated from the products of the tail that is the aldehydes1 amylic oils1 etc41 and at the upper portion of the column there is found the condenser ,k which separates the products of the head2 that is the first runnings from the alcohol which has passed over with such products to the condenser4 ,the alcohol so separated is completely rectified in the column of final purification ,d and the finished alcohol is cooled in the refrigerator ,o below the column of final condensation4 ,in this apparatus the gauge glasses which regulate the exit of the various alcohols and mixtures are controlled by taps having verniers or scales whereby they may be very carefully adjusted1 to regulate the relative proportion of the various products4 ,this apparatus is able to produce about #ge or #hj per cent4 of first-class alcohol1 #aj to #ae per cent4 of middle class alcohol1 and #e per cent4 of ethers and #e per cent4 of fusel oils1 the alcohol produced being about #if ,cartier4 ,the alcohol is thus obtained in one single operation and with1 it is asserted1 only a very small loss in rectification4 ,the apparatus is claimed to be so simple that it may be operated even by unskilled farm labor4 ,it is also claimed that purification by chemical treatment or filtration is unnecessary with the ,guillaume apparatus4 ,it may be stated1 however1 that the ,guillaume system has many opponents4 ,the capacity of the rectifying apparatus has a good deal of influence upon both the quantity and the quality of the spirit obtained4 ,besides being much more difficult to manage1 a small apparatus will not yield so large a proportion of spirit as a more capacious one1 nor will its products be of equally good flavor4 ,the proportion of alcohol which may be obtained from a successful rectification is very variable2 it depends upon the nature of the spirit rectified1 the method of extracting the sugar1 and the manner of conducting the distillation2 it will also be in inverse proportion to the quantity of fusel-oil contained in the raw spirit4 ,the average loss of pure alcohol during the process of rectification is generally estimated at about five per cent4 ,in addition to the rectifying as above described1 alcohol may be further purified by filtration through charcoal1 by chemical means or by electrolysis4 ,the last two methods have not so far been successful4 ,the chemicals used merely act to disguise the disagreeable taste or smell of the spirit and do not really purify4 ,they but substitute one impurity for another4 ,the agents used are many--sulphuric and nitrate acids1 soaps1 oils and fats soda1 lime and potash have each and all been tried1 but with no permanent success4 ,as agents for disguising the taste of new and raw spirits1 alcoholic extracts of fruits have also been used4 ,purification and aging by electricity has been tried many times and in many different forms1 but so far has not been commercially practicable4 ,filtration still remains the best and simplest adjunct to the rectifier4 ,in small plants1 a filter bed several feet in thickness of bone black or beachwood or charcoal is used1 laid upon a foundation of gravel in a filtering tank4 ,in the larger plants a series of these vats is used1 the charcoal being used in lumps varying from #a_/d to #a_/b inch in diameter4 ,two different views of the purification by charcoal are held--one that the charcoal purifies by chemical means1 the other that it is purely a physical filtration agent4 ,after filtration the charcoal must be steamed to recover the spirits retained therein and should be heated to a red heat every now and then to cleanse and regenerate it4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,malting4 ,wheat1 oats1 rye1 potatoes1 and other amalyceous or starchy materials contain starch insoluble in water and to render it soluble1 and to change the starch to maltose they must be mashed with a certain small proportion of malt1--or grain in which germination has been artificially induced and then interrupted at a certain stage4 ,this increases the diastase contained in the grain so germinated1 and this diastase is able to transform starch into soluble form4 ,hence1 malted grain gives lightness and liquidity to the wash1 and prevents the starch falling to the bottom of the mash tub or back1 and also prevents the starch falling to the bottom of the still and consequent burning4 ,while all varieties of grain including rice are suitable for the preparation of malt1 barley is preferred to all others1 and is most commonly used4 ,the best barley for malting is that having the following characteristics2 a thin skin2 a mealy interior2 grains of a uniform size2 of the greatest weight2 which has been stored for three months4 ,barley on harvesting has but slight germinating power4 ,the reason for the uniformity in the grains lies in necessity of a uniform steeping of the grain so that the period of germination shall be the same for the whole mass4 ,like all materials for distillation1 the barley should be thoroughly cleaned of impurities--not only dust1 seeds and weeds1 but fungi and bacteria4 ,this may be partly accomplished in the ordinary fanning mills1 usual on farms1 but a better machine would be a tumbling box of wire mesh4 ,this is inclined1 so that grain put in the upper end1 will pass downward to the lower1 being thrown about as the box or cylinder is rotated4 ,the dust1 seeds1 etc41 fall through the meshes of the wire as do the smaller grains4 ,after this cleaning1 the barley should be thoroughly washed4 ,this may be either done in the steeping vat itself--and the water afterwards drawn off--or in special machines4 ,if the barley be allowed to soak in water for a day or two1 the later washing will completely cleanse it4 ,this preliminary cleaning is most important as impurities reduce the germinating power of the grain1 as well as introduce bacteria inimical to fermentation4 ,washing in some instances is done by forcing compressed air into the steeping tub1 thus violently agitating and swirling the water therein1 and washing away the impurities4 ,another method is by passing the steeped grains along a trough supplied with moving water1 the trough being provided with rotary agitators4 ,any fairly ingenious mechanic could devise a capable cleansing machine4 ,care being taken that it shall not injure the grains4 ,after cleansing1 the barley should be steeped4 ,for this purpose tanks of metal or cement are to be preferred to wood4 ,all vats should be kept thoroughly cleaned by frequent scrubbing with lime water4 ,the barley placed therein should at all times be entirely covered with fresh water to a depth of a few inches1 and for the first few hours the grains should be carefully stirred in order that no grain should escape wetting4 ,at the end of that time the still floating grains should be removed4 ,in #cf or #dh hours the grain will usually be sufficiently steeped1--but this varies with weather conditions4 ,the warmer the water the quicker the steeping1 and in winter proper steeping may not be accomplished before four or five days4 ,a simple test is to rub the grain strongly between the hands1 ,if it is entirely crushed1 and no solid matter is left it has been steeped sufficiently4 ,barley should be capable of compression lengthwise and the hull should become easily detached4 ,it should be easily bitten1 and not crack under the teeth4 ,in order to prevent fermentation in summer1 it is well to renew the water a few times during steeping4 ,over steeping is worse than under steeping4 ,after the barley is in proper condition the vat or tank is opened and the water drained away4 ,the draining should be complete1 and therefore the grain should be left to drain about #ab hours4 ,germinating4 ,the grain is now taken to the malting floor4 ,in practice it is well to locate the steeping vat above the malting floor1 so that the steeped grain may be run down on to the floor without inconvenience4 ,it is best to first spread the grains out on the floor to a depth of a few inches in order that it may somewhat dry out4 ,this is not necessary when it has not been steeped to a great extent4 ,after #aj or #ab hours of drying1 the grain is placed in a heap until warm to the touch1 which may occur in from #ab to #bd hours4 ,it is then disposed in a layer from eight inches to #bj inches thick4 ,this is called the wet couch4 ,the lower the temperature the thicker the couch should be4 ,it should be turned every six or eight hours in this stage4 ,the heat so germinated after #be or #cj hours produces at the end of each grain a small white rootlet4 ,the grain in the middle of the layer is the first to sprout1 as it is the warmest1 hence the couched grain should be frequently turned so as to give all the grains a uniform heat1 and a uniform germination4 ,at this period the grains beneath the surface are dampish to the touch4 ,the height of the couch is now successively lessened to layers of from six to two inches called floors1 the height of each floor of course depending on the temperature1 as before4 ,it is to be understood that the growing grain requires both dampness and air1 hence the floor should not be thinned so rapidly as to deprive it of moisture1 and the barley should be turned at least twice a day to give each grain a proper aeration4 ,during this period the small white rootlets or radicals should be white and shiny4 ,if they begin to fade1 it is a sign that they lack water and the grain should be sprinkled4 ,germination usually requires from a week to ten days1 or sometimes two weeks1 depending on the previous steeping1 the quality of the grain and the temperature4 ,when the fibers or rootlets of the grain are about equal to the length of the grain1 germination is complete4 ,it used to be considered that malt was in its best condition in eight or ten days4 ,to-day1 however1 long malt is used1--requiring a germinating period of twenty days1 being frequently moistened and turned during this time1 and the temperature being kept at #fe ,f4 ,this malt is very strong in diastase4 ,the effect of germination is to produce a change particularly favorable to mashing4 ,the barley becomes sweetish1 the gluten is partially destroyed and what is left is soluble4 ,thus the fecula or starch is set at liberty and free to be acted on by the yeast used in fermenting4 ,march is the best month in which to malt2 and while the malt is best used immediately1 it can not be kept in its green state and must be therefore dried for future use4 ,drying4 ,this is accomplished either in the air of a warm1 dry room in hot weather1 or by means of a drying kiln4 ,in the first process the malt is spread in a thin layer and frequently turned4 ,in the second the grain is spread out in a layer from eight inches to a foot thick on the grain floor of the kiln4 ,beneath the grain floor a fire is maintained4 ,in the beginning the temperature of the drying floor should be about #he ,f41 but this is increased gradually to about #ajd ,f4 until most of the moisture has been removed4 ,the heat is then raised to from #abj ,f4 to #acj ,f41 thus completely drying the grain4 ,the germinated green or dried barley is called malt4 ,it is of good quality when the grain is round and flowery2 when it crumbles easily and when its taste is sweetish and agreeable4 ,pale malt or that which has been hardly altered from its original color is the best for distillation4 ,before the malt can be used it should be screened so as to remove the rootlets4 ,two hundred and twenty lbs4 of barley should yield from #bge to #cej lbs4 of green malt1 about #bjj lbs4 of air dried malt1 and from #age to #aij lbs4 of kiln dried malt4 ,in large plants malting is now so carried on that the steeping germination and drying are all accomplished in one vessel or container1 by one continuous operation4 ,this vessel is commonly in the form of a drum of sheet iron1 revolving at a very slow speed4 ,moist air is introduced and the carbonic acid laden air withdrawn4 ,after germination the malt is dried by passing in dry air at the proper temperature4 ,as these systems are only adopted to large distilleries1 using expensive machinery1 further reference to them is not considered necessary in this volume4 ,previous to use the malt must be finely ground or crushed either before or after mixing with the materials to be mashed4 ,it is not necessary or advisable that the malt be reduced to flour4 ,the use of malt with other materials in order to form a fermentible mash1 will be considered in the chapters on specific mashes4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,alcohol ,,from ,,potatoes4 ,in certain countries1 as for instance ,germany and ,france1 potatoes form the greatest source of alcohol1 particularly for industrial purposes4 ,with the possible exception of corn and beets they will probably be most used in ,america4 ,the best potatoes for distilling are those which are most farinaceous when boiled4 ,in other words1 those which are mealy and most appetizing4 ,these give the largest yield of alcohol per bushel4 ,the best season of the year in which to use potatoes is from ,october to ,march1 when they germinate4 ,the potatoes should be kept in dry cellars1 and at even temperatures1 warm enough to prevent freezing and yet not so warm that they will rot or sprout4 ,diseased potatoes may however be used1 if they have not been attacked by dry rot1 though they are not so easily worked4 ,frosted potatoes may be also used1 but they must not have been completely frozen4 ,before being steamed1 the potatoes should be washed1 either by hand or by a machine1 care being taken to remove all stones1 clods of earth1 and other foreign substances which might impede the subsequent operations4 ,there are three main methods of saccharifying the fecula or starch of the potato4 ,the first and most important by reducing the tubers to a pulp1 and malting the entire mass4 ,the second and third1 by rasping the potatoes and so separating the fecula or starch grains from the mass1 and then making a thin liquor or wash containing this fecula4 ,originally1 in the first process1 the washed potatoes were submitted to the action of boiling water1 but later cooking by steam at a temperature of #bab ,f4 was used1 as being much more convenient to handle and more effective in action4 ,the object of steaming is to break the coating and reduce the contents thereof to a pasty condition1 wherein the starch is more effectively acted on by the malt and yeast4 ,ordinary steaming does not1 however1 render the pulp sufficiently pasty2 some of the starch remains undissolved and is lost1 hence in the modern practice1 steam is turned into the steaming vat under a pressure of three or four atmosphere 7#de to #fj lbs4 to the square inch74 ,high pressure steaming will be later described but the simple and older method of mashing and apparatus therefor1 used prior to #ahgj1 was as follows3 ,fig4 #da shows a section of a steaming vat4 ,this consists of a conical wooden tub ,h provided at its top with a suitable cover ,o having a trap or door ,p for putting in the potatoes4 ,this as shown1 consists of a hinged lid1 having a button p or other fastening means4 ,this lid and cover should be of course steam tight1 and it would be better to have it clamped down by a screw clamp than held by a button4 ,somewhat above the bottom of the vat1 a steam inlet pipe ,i enters1 connected at its other end by a coupling i with a suitable steam generator 7see ,fig4 #dc71 ,preferably the outlet of this pipe is screened by a perforated plate ,m so that it may not be clogged by the pulp4 ,it is also best that a filling piece be placed at the junction of the bottom with the sides in order that there be no sharp corner from which the pulp may not be easily cleaned out4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,steaming ,vat for ,potatoes4 ,the bottom of the vat may either have a discharge door at the side as in ,fig4 #dd or at the bottom1 as in ,fig4 #da4 ,an under side view of the latter construction is shown in ,fig4 #db4 ,the bottom of the vat is made in two parts or doors ,j ,k4 ,these are held closed by a transverse bar ,l inserted at its end into a stirrup l and supported at its other end by a button l1 or other means4 ,while various forms of steam generators may be used1 ,fig4 #dc shows a simple construction well adapted to the needs of a small distillery4 ,d designates the brick work of a furnace1 and ,a the boiler4 ,this is so set that an annular space ,e surrounds the sides of the boiler1 through which the products of combustion must pass4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--;,bottom of ,steaming ,vat4 ,the head of the boiler is connected by a pipe ,b and collar b to the steam inlet pipe ,i of the steaming vat1 heretofore described1 as by the collars b i4 ,a filling tube ,c enters the boiler and projects nearly to the bottom1 and the water outlet-pipe ,f with cock f leads off from the upper water line4 ,the tube ,c forms also a safety valve1 for if the steam pressure becomes too great in the boiler and connected vat1 it will force water up and out through the tube4 ,if1 however1 the water falls below the level of the lower end of the tube1 steam will issue and warn the attendant that water is too low4 ,it would be best however1 to provide a steam gauge1 whereby the pressure of steam in the boiler and vat could be accurately indicated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,steam ,generator4 ,it is to be noted that when steamed the potatoes will swell and occupy more space and that the steam vat should therefore not be much more than two-thirds filled with potatoes4 ,with the steaming vat above shown1 the potatoes are delivered mixed with a considerable quantity of water1 but a better plan is to have a perforated false bottom to the tub1 whereby the condensed water may be carried away1 the steamed potatoes remaining behind4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,potato ,steamer and ,crusher4 ,two hours of steaming should reduce the potatoes to proper condition1 which may be tested by introducing a pointed iron rod through a suitable aperture1 normally kept closed4 ,if the rod passes freely inward1 the potatoes are done and may be discharged into the crusher1 shown in ,fig4 #dd4 ,in this ,fig4 the steaming vat ,a is shown mounted above the crusher4 ,a pipe ,b with cock b leads to the steam generator4 ,the steamed potatoes are shoveled out through the door a1 which is usually held closed by means of the clamps or buttons a a4 ,the crusher consists of a hopper ,c whose bottom fits closely against two adjacent smooth faced rolls ,h ,i of iron4 ,these are driven by gears ,d ,e4 ,the shafts of these gears have cranks d d whereby it may be operated4 ,these gears are unequal so that the rolls shall move at different speeds1 and thus one will have a grinding action against the face of the other4 ,a counter weighted scraper e bears against the face of the roll4 ,the crushed potato pulp passes between the rolls and into a bin beneath1 having adjustable walls made of boards ,f1 sliding in suitable guides f1 from which the pulp may be shoveled into the mashing tank or back4 ,the crusher might1 however1 be arranged to deliver immediately into the mashing tank1 if the latter is provided with means for stirring the delivered pulp4 ,the pulp or paste thus made is now placed in a vat1 holding about #fej to #hej gals41 in which the saccharification takes place4 ,about #bbjj lbs4 of the crushed potatoes and #aee lbs of broken malt are introduced1 and immediately afterwards water is run in at a temperature of about #ig ,f4 to #ajd ,f41 the contents being well stirred with a fork meanwhile4 ,the vat is then carefully closed for half an hour1 after which boiling water is added until the temperature reaches #adj ,f41 when the whole is left for three or four hours4 ,the process of fermentation is conducted in the same vat4 ,alternate doses of cold and boiling water are run in upon the mixture1 until the quantity is made up to #gjj or #gge gallons1 according to the size of the vat1 and so as finally to bring the temperature to #ge ,f4 or #gi ,f4 ,five and a half to six gallons of liquid brewer's yeast are then added1 and fermentation speedily sets in4 ,this process complete1 the fermented pulp is distilled in the apparatus devised by ,cellier-,blumenthal 7see ,fig4 #ae7 for distilling materials of a pasty nature2 the product has a very unpleasant odor and taste4 ,the process above described is the old method of pulping the potatoes by using steam4 ,under the modern method1 however1 and with modern apparatus1 in preparing potatoes for distillation in large quantities1 the steaming of the material is accomplished at one time and under a high steam pressure4 ,the apparatus is also used for the preparation of corn1 potatoes and other starch-containing substances4 ,there are many apparatuses which have been devised for the purpose1 but the principle on which they work is practically the same in all cases4 ,they comprise a closed tank1 fitted with stirrers1 agitators1 or other means for mixing and comminuting the contents1 means for admitting steam under pressure1 means for cooling the mixture to the proper mashing temperatures1 and means for forcing the steamed material out of the tank4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--;,bohn's ,steamer and ,crusher4 ,the ,steamer4 ,one of the earliest forms of steamer was that of ,hallefreund devised in #ahga1 and adapted for working on a large scale4 ,a modified form of the apparatus known as ,bohn's steamer and masher is illustrated in ,fig4 #de4 ,this comprises a steaming cylinder ,a1 having a securely closed opening ,d for the introduction of the potatoes4 ,centrally through the cylinder passes a hollow shaft ,b1 which is rotated by the power pulley ,k4 ,hollow arms b project radially from the shaft ,b4 ,these act as mixers of the mash and as coolers4 ,the shaft ,b at one end is connected to a cold water supply pipe ,m as by a coupling ,c1 the supply pipe being provided with a cock4 ,e designates a discharge opening for the mash4 ,a pipe ,f provides for the entrance of steam into the cylinder4 ,g is a pipe through which malt is put in to be mixed with the pulp4 ,l is a steam gauge and ,j a safety valve4 ,h designates a water pipe4 ,for the relation of the steamer to other apparatus1 see ,fig4 #a4 ,in operation the potatoes are placed in the cylinder ,a and submitted to the action of steam at about #df lbs4 to the square inch1 and at a temperature of from #bff ,f4 to #bge ,f4 ,when disintegrated1 the steam is blown off1 and the potatoes crushed by rotating the stirring shaft4 ,as the pulp must be reduced from #bge ,f4 to #adi ,f41 the mashing temperature1 cold water is forced into the stirrer which chills the blades and quickly cools the mass4 ,in the vacuum mash cooker shown in ,fig4 #a1 the steaming cylinder is partly filled with hot water at #adj ,f4 to #aej ,f4 ,the potatoes to be mashed are fed into the cylinder whole4 ,the steamer is then closed and steam admitted while the mash is stirred until a pressure of #fe pounds is reached1 when the dissolution of the starch is complete4 ,the steam is then exhausted and the temperature reduced to #bab ,f4 ,to reduce this temperature to the proper saccharifying point of #ade ,f41 the hot air is exhausted4 ,barley malt meal in the proportion of #f to #aj per cent4 is used4 ,this has been previously mixed with cold water in the small grain masher4 ,the malt is admitted to the cylinder and thoroughly mixed with the potato1 when the mixture is withdrawn into a drop tub1 where it is still further stirred4 ,it is then cooled as described on page #ae and then fermented4 ,while the crushed potatoes are being cooled and stirred1 a mixture of green malt with water is prepared in an adjacent vat1 and when the pulp in the cylinder has been reduced to #adi ,f4 the malt mixture is introduced into the cylinder through the pipe ,g1 and thoroughly mixed with the crushed potatoes4 ,the mass is now left to saccharify2 the stirrer being operated at intervals throughout this period4 ,this machine might be readily modified so that the steam should enter through the stirrers1 by tubes attached to the arms1 then the steam may be shut off and cold water sent into the arms themselves to cool the mash4 ,a variety of steamer used in various forms and modifications in all the larger distilleries1 is known as the ,henze steamer1 ,fig4 #b4 ,in this1 there are no stirrers4 ,the cylinder is conical1 and has steam pipes leading to the interior4 ,at the end of its cone-shaped bottom it terminates in a blow-off tube1 having in it a grate formed of sharp-edged bars4 ,in operation1 steam is introduced at a pressure of one to two atmospheres until the potatoes are cooked4 ,more steam is then suddenly admitted at high pressure and the softened potatoes forced through the grating at the bottom and into the mashing apparatus in a finely divided state4 ,in steaming under pressure it is best that the safety valve be so regulated that the steam will constantly blow off as this action keeps the potatoes in motion and facilitates disintegration4 ,care should also be taken to see that everything about the apparatus is in good condition1 as in working under the high pressures used in the last apparatus there is liability of explosion4 ,rust should be particularly guarded against4 ,with this apparatus a preparatory mash vat is used into which the contents of the steamers are blown out1 malt and water to form milk having been previously let into the mash vat4 ,blowing out is accomplished in #de or #ej minutes at #acj ,f4 and about one-sixth of the charge in the steamer is retained in the steamer4 ,the mash in the vat is stirred and cooled and the remainder of the mash blown in raising the temperature to #ade ,f4 when the mash is left to stand from half an hour to an hour4 ,with heavy mashes1 rich in sugar1 even higher temperatures than #ade ,f4 can be used for saccharifying4 ,the processes of crushing and saccharifying1 above referred to1 which are almost entirely used to-day1 require steam4 ,the following methods provide for the isolation of the fecula or starch1 without steam and the production of a wash of a more watery consistency1 therefore easier to handle in ordinary stills1 and with less liability to burn4 ,two operations are necessary by this method3 ,first1 rasping1 or reducing the potatoes to a finely crushed and pulpy condition by means of a machine described in the chapter on ,beet ,mashing2 and second1 the separation of the fecula4 ,to this latter end the potato pulp is placed on a sieve1 having side walls and net work of horse-hair1 which is placed over a suitable tub4 ,water is run gradually through the pulp and sieve1 while the pulp is rubbed up by hand4 ,when the water comes through clear1 then all the fecula of the pulp has been washed out1 and the refuse left in the sieve can be thrown aside or used as a food for cattle4 ,for a mashing tub of say about #cb bushels capacity1 the fecula from about #hjj lbs4 of potatoes is used4 ,this is deposited in the mash tub with sufficient cold water to form a fairly clear paste4 ,about twice as much water as fecula will bring the paste to proper consistency4 ,this mixture should be constantly stirred as otherwise the fecula will sink to the bottom4 ,about #dj gallons of boiling water are then added gradually4 ,the mixture has at first a milky appearance1 but at the last becomes entirely clear4 ,this liquid is mashed with about #de lbs4 of malted barley or ,indian corn1 ground into coarse flour4 ,in ten minutes the mixture will be completely fluidified4 ,it is then left to subside for three or four hours when it will have acquired a sweetish taste and be what is termed as sweet mash4 ,the fluid is then further diluted by the addition of sufficient water to give about #bij gallons of wash4 ,two or three pints of good yeast will bring this mixture to a ferment4 ,a less laborious method of accomplishing the same result is that at one time used in ,english distilleries4 ,in this a double bottom tub is used1 something like that shown in ,fig4 #da1 the upper bottom of which is perforated1 and raised above the solid lower bottom4 ,a draw-off cock opens out from the space between the two bottoms4 ,assuming that the tub is of #bbj gallons capacity1 then from #b to #bj lbs4 of chaff are spread over the perforated bottom and pulp from #hjj lbs4 of raw potatoes placed on that4 ,this is thoroughly drained for half an hour1 through the draw-off cock4 ,the pulp is then stirred while from #ij to #ajj gallons of boiling water are added gradually4 ,the mass then thickens into a paste4 ,the paste is mashed with about #fe lbs4 of well steeped malt1 and the liquid left to subside for three or four hours4 ,it is then drained off through the perforated bottom into a fermenting back or tub4 ,for this amount of material the back should be of about #cjj gallons capacity4 ,the leavings left in the preparatory tub still contain considerable starch1 and after they are well drained they should be mixed with from #ej to #ee gallons of boiling water4 ,the mixture is then agitated and drained off into the fermenting back4 ,the sediment left is again sprinkled with water1 this time cold1 which is drained off into the back4 ,this completely exhausts the husks left on the upper bottom4 ,by this process #bjj lbs4 of potatoes should produce something over #ab-a_/b gallons of spirit4 ,the objection to the last method described is that the spirit so obtained is unpleasant to taste and smell1 but this would probably not be an objection for industrial uses4 ,the only means of obtaining alcohol of good quality from potatoes is to extract the starch separately and then convert it into sugar4 ,this saccharification of the starch may be accomplished by sulphuric acid or by the action of diastase4 ,by the first of these methods the potatoes are disintegrated in such an apparatus as the ,bohn steamer described on page #aah4 ,a mixture is made of one-third potatoes1 two-thirds water1 and onetenth part of sulphuric acid4 ,the mixture is steamed for six or eight hours under pressure4 ,the mash is then cooled and the acid neutralized by milk of lime4 ,it is then fermented4 ,by the second and preferable method1 dry or wet potato starch is used1 which is malted1 and the saccharine solution fermented with yeast4 ,the proportions and method for a vat of say #hjj gallons capacity are as follows3 ,two hundred and sixty-five gallons of water are mixed with #aajj lbs4 of dry or #afej lbs4 of moist starch4 ,this mixture is well agitated1 and #dej gallons of boiling water run in1 together with #afe lbs4 of malt4 ,the whole is then stirred energetically and left to saccharify for three or four hours4 ,the saccharine solution thus formed must be brought to #f or #g ,baume1 at a temperature of from #ga to #ge ,f4 ,to this is then added #a-a_/ajj lbs4 of dry yeast for every #bbj gallons of must4 ,fermentation is soon established and usually occupies about #cf hours4 ,after remaining at rest for #bd hours the must is distilled4 ,from each #bbj lbs4 of starch there should be a yield of about nine gallons of alcohol1 at #ij ,f4 ,the fermentation of the potato mash is carried on as described in ,chapter ,,ii4 ,for the preparation of malt see ,chapter ,,vi4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,alcohol ,,from ,,grain--,,corn1 ,,wheat1 ,,rice1 ,,and ,,other ,,cereals4 ,the different cereals constitute a very important source of alcohol in all countries1 particularly of course for use in the manufacture of whiskey and gin4 ,all cereals contain an abundance of starchy substance which under the influence of diastase1--that is1 malt1--is converted into fermentible sugar4 ,the quantity of sugar and hence the yield of alcohol differs widely4 ,the following table shows the results obtainable by good workmanship4 #bbj lbs4 ,wheat gives #g4j gallons pure alcohol ,rye #f4af ,barley #e4e ,oats #d4h ,buckwheat #e4e ,corn 7,indian7 #e4e ,rice #g4g ,in addition to these there are other raw materials containing starch which are sometimes used1 as millet 7#ee per cent starch71 chestnuts 7#bh per cent471 and horse chestnuts 7#dj per cent474 ,the last is very difficult to work however4 ,rice1 wheat1 rye1 barley and corn are more frequently employed than other grains4 ,wheat gives a malt which is as rich in diastase as barley4 ,barley and buckwheat are added to these in some proportions4 ,oats1 owing to their high price1 are rarely used4 ,rice1 of all the grain is the most productive to the distillers1 but on account of its value as a food is not much used for the production of alcohol1 unless damaged4 ,corn is the cereal most largely used for the production of industrial alcohol4 ,great care should be exercised in making choice of grain for fermentation where the best results are desired4 ,wheat should be farinaceous1 heavy and dry4 ,barley should be free from chaff1 quite fresh and in large uniform grains of a bright color 7see ,malting1 ,chapter ,,vi74 ,rice should be dull white in color1 slightly transparent1 without odor1 and of a fresh1 farinaceous taste4 ,the flour or farinaceous part of grain is composed of starch1 gluten1 albumen1 mucilage1 and some sugar4 ,the following table gives the proportions of these substances in the commonest grains4 ,under certain conditions the albumen or gluten in the grain has the power of converting starch into saccharine matter4 ,this is better effected by an acid such as sulphuric acid1 or by a diastase4 ,this latter substance is a principle developed during the germination of all cereals but especially of barley4 ,it has the property of reacting upon starchy matters1 converting them first into a gummy substance called dextrine1 and then into glucose or grape sugar1 see ,chapter ,,ii4 ,the action of diastase upon starch or flour made into a paste is remarkable1 #ej grains of diastase being sufficient to convert #bbj lbs4 7#ajj kilogrammes7 of starch into glucose4 ,the rapidity of this change depends on the quantity of water employed1 and the degree of heat adopted in the operation4 ,,table ,,iv4 ,,proportions ,,of ,,starch1 ,,gluten1 ,,etc41 ,,in ,,principal ,,grains4 ,column ,a ,grains4 ,column ,b ,starch4 ,column ,c ,gluten and other ,azotized ,substances4 ,column ,d ,detrine1 ,glucose and similar ,substances4 ,column ,e ,fatty ,matter4 ,column ,f ,cellulose4 ,column ,g ,inorganic ,salts4 7,silica1 ,phosphates c47 ------------- --------------------------------------- ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,wheat #fe4ii #ah4jc #g4fc #b4af #c4ej #b4fi 7average of five varieties7 ,rye #fe4fe #ac4ej #ab4jj #b4ae #d4aj #b4fj ,barley #fe4dc #ac4if #aj4jj #b4gf #d4ge #c4aj ,oats #fj4ei #ad4ci #i4be #e4ej #g4jf #c4be ,indian ,corn #fg4ee #ab4ej #d4jj #h4hj #e4ij #a4be ,rice #hi4ae #g4je #a4jj #j4hj #a4aj #j4ij ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,inasmuch as barley germinates very readily1 and develops a larger proportion of diastase than any other grain1 except wheat1 it is generally used as a producer of diastase4 ,barley germinated according to proper methods is called malt1 and its preparation is fully described in ,chapter ,,vi4 ,there are many methods of preparing grain for fermentation1 but all use at least two of the following operations3--grinding1 gelatinizing1 steeping1 or steaming1 mashing saccharifying4 ,grinding4 ,where cookers or the ,henze steamers are not used every form of grain should be crushed or ground into a coarse flour4 ,this is in order that the starchy interior may be easily acted on by the diastase4 ,if the grain is not to be mixed with malt later it must be ground more finely so that it may be thoroughly penetrated by the water4 ,the grains should not be ground except as required1 as ground grain is liable to heating and consequent loss of fermentability1 and is also liable to become musty1 in which condition it loses much of its fermentability4 ,steeping4 ,this operation is best carried on in vats or tanks of iron or cement1 for the reason that wood absorbs impurities1 which are communicated to the grain1 thus lessening its germinative power4 ,wooden vats should be thoroughly scrubbed after use1 and be kept continually whitewashed4 ,the steeping tub should hold about two-thirds more than the amount of ground grain to be steeped4 ,steeping is affected by pouring on to the crushed grain hot and cold water in such quantity that after #aj minutes or so of brewing the mixture will have a temperature of #ge to #ie ,f4 ,this warmth makes the water more penetrating4 ,the water should not be poured in all at once1 but a little at a time1 until the grain is covered to a depth of three or four inches4 ,care should be taken not to let the temperature get too high1 not above #ie ,f41 as a temperature above that point kills the germinating power4 ,the mixture of crushed grain and water is now stirred for #aj minutes and then left to subside for half an hour4 ,it is then stirred again and the mixture left to steep for #cj or #dj hours1 depending on the temperature of the atmosphere1 the dryness of the grain1 and the character of the water4 ,in very warm weather the water should be changed every few hours by running it off through a hole in the bottom of the tub and running in fresh at the top4 ,this prevents fermentation setting in prematurely4 ,when the grain swells1 and yields readily between the fingers it has been sufficiently steeped1 and the water is run off4 ,this is an old method of gelatinizing grain1 but a better is by the use of cookers or high pressure steamers as described for potatoes4 ,mashing4 ,this consists in mixing the coarse flour with malt and then by means of certain operations and mechanisms bringing it to a condition most favorable to fermentation through the action of yeast4 ,the mixing of the raw flour with barley or other malt effects the conversion of the starch of the grain into maltose4 ,the yeast afterwards converts this maltose into sugar4 ,saccharifying4 ,to effect the action of the diastase of the malt on the grain1 in the old methods1 boiling water must be poured into the vat until the temperature of the mass reaches about #adj to #afh ,f41 the whole being well stirred meanwhile2 when this temperature has been reached1 the vat is again covered and left to stand for four hours1 during which time the temperature should1 if possible1 be maintained at #adj ,f41 and on no account suffered to fall below #abb ,f41 in order to avoid the inevitable loss of alcohol consequent upon the acidity always produced by so low a temperature4 ,in cold weather the heat should of course be considerably greater than in hot4 ,it should be also remarked that the greater the quantity of water employed1 the more complete will be the saccharification1 and the shorter the time occupied by the process4 ,having undergone all the above processes1 the wash is next drawn from the mash tub into a cistern1 and from this it is pumped into the coolers4 ,when the wash has acquired the correct temperature1 viz41 from #fh to #gh ,f41 according to the bulk operated upon1 it is run down again into the fermenting vats situated on the floor beneath4 ,ten to twelve pints of liquid or #e-a_/b to #f-a_/b9999 fraction lbs4 of dry brewer's yeast are then added for every #bbj lbs4 of grain2 the vat is securely covered1 and the contents are left to ferment4 ,the process is complete at the end of four or five days1 and if conducted under favorable conditions there should be a yield of about #f-a_/f gallons of pure alcohol to every #bbj lbs4 of grain employed4 ,there are a number of different methods of mashing1 having each its advantages1 and applicable to particular varieties of grain4 ,we will first consider the mashing of the steeped grain in general by one of the older and simpler processes4 ,the grain to be mashed1 which has been ground and steeped as before described1 is mixed with malt in the proportion of four to one1 or even eight to one4 ,in addition1 three or four pounds of chaff to every hundred or so pounds of steeped grain should be used4 ,mash4 ,water is then run into the mash tub in the proportion of about #fjj gallons to each #fj bushels of grain4 ,its temperature should be between #abj and #aej ,f4 ,during the entrance of water1 the mass is well stirred so as to cause the whole of the grain to be thoroughly soaked and to prevent the formation of lumps4 ,it is best to add the grain to the water gradually and to stir thoroughly4 ,to this mass about #djj gallons of boiling water is gradually added to keep the temperature at about #ade ,f4 ,during the addition of the boiling water the mash should be continually stirred so that the action of the water shall be uniform4 ,this operation should last about two and one half hours4 ,the vat should be then covered and left to stand from three-quarters to one hour for saccharification4 ,another method of saccharifying is to turn boiling water gradually into the mash tank until the mixture has acquired a temperature of from #adj to #ahj ,f4 ,the mass is thoroughly stirred and the tub is covered and left to subside for from two to four hours1 during which time the temperature should not be allowed to fall below #abj ,f4 ,a small tub needs more heat than a larger tub1 and more heat is required in winter than in summer4 ,a convenient method of regulating the temperature of the mash tank1 would be by a coil of pipes on the bottom4 ,this would be connected by a two-way cock to a steam boiler and to a source of cold water4 ,heat should never be carried over #ahj ,f41 and the best temperature is from #ade to #afe ,f4 ,the greatest effect of the diastase of the malt upon the gelatinized starch is at #aca ,f4 ,for ungelatinized starch this is not great enough1 hence the greater part of the mashing is carried on at the lower temperature and only towards the end should the temperature be raised to the maximum #aej ,f4 ,every distiller uses his own judgment as to the amount of the mashing water used1 its temperature1 the length of time during which the mash rests1 and the length of time for saccharification4 ,saccharification may be recognized by the following signs3 ,the mash loses its first white mealy look1 and changes to dark brown4 ,it also becomes thin and easily stirred4 ,the taste is sweet and its odor is like that of fresh bread4 ,corn and other grain may be mashed conveniently in such an apparatus as that described on page #aj1 as used for potatoes the steam being introduced under pressure4 ,the water is first placed in the steamer4 ,steam is introduced into the water and it is brought to a boil4 ,the corn is then introduced gradually1 the steam pressure increased to its maximum1 and the mass blown out as described in ,chapter ,,vii4 ,hellefreund's apparatus 7see page #aah7 may also be used with ground corn4 ,the corn or grain not previously crushed or ground is introduced into a steamer in the proportion of #bjj lbs4 of corn to #dj gallons of water4 ,the steamer should have about #ajj gallons of steam space for this amount4 ,the mashes described above are thick1 more or less troublesome to distil1 and only simple stills can be used4 ,by the following method a clear saccharine fluid or wort can be obtained4 ,a mash vat is used having a double bottom4 ,the upper bottom is perforated and between the two bottoms is a draw-off pipe and a pipe for the inlet of water4 ,upon the upper perforated bottom is first placed a layer of between two and three pounds of chaff4 ,upon this is turned in a mixture of #djj lbs4 corn and malt in the proportions of #a_/e malt to #d_/e grain4 ,eighty-seven gallons of water at a temperature of from #he to #aje ,f4 is then let in to the bottom1 while the mixture is thoroughly agitated for #aj minutes4 ,it is then left to subside for half an hour4 ,after this steeping process1 the mass is again agitated while #age gallons of water at #aij ,f4 are let into the tub while the mass is continually and thoroughly stirred by mechanical stirrers4 ,brewing lasts for half an hour1 and the liquid is then left to stand for seven hours4 ,at the end of this period the grain is covered by clear liquid which is drained off through the draw-off cock into the fermenting back4 ,to the contents left in the steeping tank #ace gallons of boiling water are added as before and the liquid therefrom drawn into the fermenting back4 ,it usually requires three infusions to extract the whole of the saccharine and fermentiscible matters contained in the grain4 ,in some places1 it is customary to boil down the liquors from the three mashings until they have acquired a specific gravity of about #a4je1 the liquor from a fourth mashing being used to bring the whole to the correct degree for fermentation1 the liquors from the third and fourth being boiled down to the same density and then added to the rest4 ,in a large ,glasgow distillery1 the charge for the mash tubs is #bi1abj lbs4 of grain together with the proper proportion of malt4 ,two mashings are employed1 about #bh1cjj gallons of water being required2 the first mashing has a temperature of #adj ,f41 and the second that of #agf ,f4 ,in ,dublin the proportion of malt employed is only about one-eighth of the entire charge4 ,one mashing is employed1 and the temperature of the water is kept at about #adc ,f4 ,the subsequent mashings are kept for the next day's brewing4 ,by this process the grain is entirely deprived of all fermentible substances which have been carried away in a state of liquid sugar4 ,the whole operation of preparing and saccharifying grain is to-day carried on in steamers1 such as described on page #aa1 and cooking apparatus such as shown in ,fig4 #a1 or in the ,henze high pressure steamers and preparatory mash vats described in ,chapter ,,ii4 ,in steaming grain without pressure1 the finely crushed grain is poured slowly into a vat previously nearly filled with water at a temperature of about #adj degrees ,f4 ,a little less than half a gallon of water is used for each pound of grain4 ,care must be taken to stir the mass constantly to prevent lumping4 ,when all the corn is mixed in1 steam is allowed to enter and the temperature raised to about #bjj degrees ,f4 ,it should be left at this temperature for an hour1 or an hour and a half1 when the temperature is reduced to #adj ,f4 when about #aj per cent4 of crushed malt is added and the temperature reduced to #fh ,f4 by means of suitable cooling devices4 ,when steam cookers are used1 the cylindrical boiler is first filled to the proper degree with water at a temperature of #adj ,f4 ,the meal is then let in gradually being constantly stirred the while4 ,the boiler is then closed and steam gradually let in while the mass is stirred until a pressure of #fj pounds and a temperature of #cjj ,f4 has been reached4 ,the starch then becomes entirely gelatinized1 the pressure is relieved1 and the temperature reduced to #bab ,f4 and then rapidly brought to #ade ,f4 ,the malt is added mixed with cold water1 at such a stage before the saccharifying temperature is reached that the cold malt and water will bring it to #ade ,f4 ,the malt is stirred and mixed with the mash for five or ten minutes and the mixed mass let into a drop tub when saccharification is completed4 ,it is then cooled as described4 ,when the ,henze steamers are used the grain may be treated in either the whole grain or crushed1 as the high pressure to which it is subjected and the blowing out act to entirely disintegrate it4 ,in this mode of operation1 water is first let into the steamer and brought to a boil by the admission of steam4 ,the grain is then slowly let into the apparatus4 ,the water and grain should fill the steamer about two thirds full4 ,the steamer is left open and steam circulated through the grain and water for about an hour1 but without any raising of pressure4 ,this acts to thoroughly cook and soften the grain4 ,when sufficiently softened the steam escape cock in the upper part of the steamer 7see ,fig4 #b7 is regulated to allow a partial flow of steam through it and a greater flow of steam is admitted through the lower inlet4 ,this keeps the grain in constant ebullition under a pressure of #cj lbs4 or so4 ,after another period of an hour the pressure in the steamer is raised to #fj lbs4 at which point it is kept for half an hour1 when the maximum steam pressure is applied1 and the greater portion of the disintegrated mass blown out into a preparatory mass tub1 into which malt has been placed mixed with water4 ,the blowing out should be so performed that the temperature in the mass in the tubs shall not exceed #acj ,f4 ,the mass is stirred and cooled and then the remainder of the mass in the steamer admitted to the tub which should bring the temperature of the mass up to #ade ,f4 ,it is kept at this temperature for a period varying from half an hour to one and one-half hours and is then cooled to the proper fermenting temperature4 ,another method of softening corn so that its starch is easily acted upon by the diastase of the malt is to steep it in a sulphurous acid solution at a temperature of about #abj ,f4 for from fifteen to twenty hours4 ,the mass is then diluted to form a semi-liquid pulp and heated to about #aij ,f4 for an hour or two during which the mass is constantly stirred4 ,the malt is then added1 the mass is saccharified1 cooled and then fermented4 ,another method is to place mixed grain and hot water in a cooker of the ,bohn variety 7,fig4 #de74 ,after half an hour of stirring and cooking under ordinary pressure1 the steam pressure is raised to #de lbs4 ,this is kept up for from two to three hours when the grain is reduced to a paste4 ,concentrated muriatic acid equal to #b-a_/b per cent of the weight of grain is then forced in1 under steam pressure4 ,in half an hour the grain will be entirely saccharified and ready for fermenting4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,alcohol ,,from ,,beets4 ,cultivation4 ,the beetroot 7,beta vulgaris71 indigenous to ,europe1 is cultivated in ,france1 ,germany1 ,belgium1 ,holland1 ,scandinavia1 ,austria1 ,russia1 and to a very small extent in ,england and ,new ,zealand1 and to a very large extent in the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,there are many varieties4 ,the most important to the sugar-maker is the white ,silesian1 sometimes regarded as a distinct species 7,b4 alba72 it shows very little above ground1 and penetrates about #ab in42 it has a white flesh1 the two chief forms being distinguished by one having a rose-colored skin and purple-ribbed leaves1 the other a white skin and green leaves4 ,both are frequently grown together1 and exhibit no marked difference in sugar-yielding qualities4 ,good sugar-beets possess the following broad characteristics3 7#a7 ,regular pear-shaped form and smooth skin2 long1 tapering1 carrot-like roots are considered inferior2 7#b7 white and firm flesh1 delicate and uniform structure1 and clean sugary flavor2 thick-skinned roots are spongy and watery2 those with large leaves are generally richer2 7#c7 average weight #a-a_/b to #b-a_/b lbs41 neither very large nor very small roots being profitable to the sugar-manufacturer2 as a rule1 beets weighing more than #c-a_/b lbs4 are watery1 and poor in sugar2 and roots weighing less than #c_/d lb4 are either unripe or too woody1 and in either case yield comparatively little sugar2 the sp4 gr4 of the expressed juice1 usually #a4jf to #a4jg1 even reaching #a4jgh in ,english-grown roots1 indicating over #ad per cent4 of crystallizable sugar1 is the best proof of quality2 juice poor in sugar has a density below #a4jfj2 7#d7 in well-cultivated soil1 the roots grow entirely in the ground1 and throw up leaves of moderate size4 ,composition of the ,roots4 ,internally the root is built up of small cells1 each filled with a juice consisting of a watery solution of many bodies besides sugar4 ,these include several crystallized salts 7mostly of which are present in minute traces only71 such as the phosphates1 oxalates1 malates1 and chlorides of potassium1 sodium1 and calcium1 the salts of potash being by far the most important2 and several colloid bodies 7albuminous nitrogenous and pectinous compounds72 as well as a substance which rapidly blackens on exposure to the air4 ,the greater part of the sugar in ripe beets is crystallizable1 and1 when perfectly pure1 is identical in composition and properties with crystallized cane-sugar2 but it is more difficult to refine this sugar so as to free it from the potash salts1 and commercial samples have not nearly so great sweetening power as ordinary cane-sugar4 ,beets contain no uncrystallizable sugar2 the molasses produced in beet-sugar manufactories is the result of changes which cannot be entirely avoided in extracting the crystallizable sugar4 ,soil4 ,the best soil for beets contains a fair proportion of organic matter1 is neither too stiff nor too light1 and crumbles down into a nice friable loam2 it must be capable of being cultivated to a depth of at least #af in4 ,the subsoil should be thoroughly well drained1 and rendered friable by autumn-cultivation and free admission of air4 ,a deep friable turnip-loam1 containing fair proportions of clay and lime1 appears to be the most eligible land for sugar-beets4 ,lime is a very desirable element4 ,well-worked clay-soils1 especially calcareous clays1 are well adapted1 if properly drained and of sufficient depth4 ,peaty soils and moorlands are quite unsuitable1 as well as lands which are too dry1 like the thin gravelly soils resting on siliceous gravel sub-soils1 or too wet and cold1 like many of the thin soils above impervious chalk marl4 ,speaking generally1 the best soils for sugar-beet are precisely those on which other root-crops can be grown to perfection1 that is1 land which is neither too heavy nor too light1 which has a good depth1 is readily penetrated by the roots1 and naturally contains lime1 potash1 clay1 and sand1 as well as organic matter1 is such proportions as in good friable clay-loams4 ,an analysis of the soil should be made previous to planting it with the sugar-beet1 as the salts presented in solution in the soil will pass into the juice1 and greatly interfere with the processes of sugar manufacture4 ,certain soils may be at once indicated as unsuitable2 they are clover-land1 recent sheep-pastures1 forest-land grubbed during the preceding #ae years1 the neighborhood of salt works1 volcanic and saline soils of all kinds4 ,the beet requires a certain supply of potash and soda salts in the soil1 but if these are present in excess1 as in recent forest-land1 the juice does not work well1 nor give its proper yield of sugar4 ,manures4 ,sugar-beets should be grown with as little farmyard manure as possible2 when dung has to be used1 as in the case of very poor soils1 it should be applied in autumn1 or as early as possible during the winter months4 ,the effect of heavy dressings of animal nitrogenous matters or ammoniacal salts1 is to produce abundance of leaves1 and big watery roots2 the latter are comparatively poor in sugar1 and contain potash salts derived from the animal matters1 which greatly interfere with the extraction of sugar in a crystallized state4 ,common salt1 and saline manures in general1 though useful in moderate doses 7#bbd lbs4 to #ccf lbs4 per acre on light soils71 should be avoided on the majority of soils1 for sugar-beets grown on soils highly manured with common salt produce juice largely impregnated with salt1 which is dreaded by the manufacturer even more than albuminous impurities1 and nearly as much as excess of potash salts4 ,if the land is in good condition1 containing sufficient available nitrogen to meet the requirements of the crop1 neither guano nor sulphate of ammonia should be used4 ,they largely increase the weight of the produce per acre2 but heavy crops are generally poor in sugar1 and furnish a juice that presents much difficulty to the manufacturer4 ,if the land is very poor1 and if farmyard manure cannot be obtained and be applied in autumn1 #ccf to #ddh lbs4 of ,peruvian guano1 or #bbd lbs4 of sulphate of ammonia1 mixed with #bbd lbs4 of superphosphate of lime1 per acre1 may be sown broadcast in autumn1 and #bbd lbs4 more of superphosphate may be drilled in with the seed in spring4 ,superphosphate of lime and bones are excellent for sugar-beets1 and never injure the quality of the crop1 like the indiscriminate use of ammoniacal manures4 ,on light soils1 in which potash is often deficient1 the judicious use of potash salts has been found serviceable1 but only in conjunction with superphosphate and phosphatic guanos4 ,sowing4 ,the best time for sowing beetroot is the beginning or middle of ,april4 ,if sown too early1 the young plants may be partially injured by frost2 if later than the first week in ,may1 the crop may require to be taken up in autumn1 before it has had time to get ripe4 ,about #aj to #ab lbs4 of seed is required per acre4 ,as regards the width between the plants1 generally speaking1 the distance between the rows and from plant to plant should not be less than #ab nor greater than #ah in4 ,should the young plants be caught by a night's frost1 and suffer ever so little1 it is best to plough them up at once and re-sow1 for they are certain to run to seed1 and are then practically useless for the manufacture of sugar4 ,sugar-beets require to be frequently horse- and hand-hoed4 ,as long as the young plants are not injured1 the application of the hoe from time to time is attended with great benefit to the crop4 ,it is advisable to gather up the soil round each plant1 in order that the head may be completely covered with soil4 ,champonnois' researches point to the advantage of planting in ridges1 by which the supply of air to the roots is greatly facilitated4 ,the conditions best calculated to ensure the roots possessing the characters most desirable from a sugar-maker's point of view are chiefly as follows3 7#a7 ,not to sow on freshly-manured land2 it is eminently preferable not to manure for the beet crop1 but to manure heavily for wheat in the preceding year2 7#b7 not to employ forcing manures1 nor to apply manure during growth2 7#c7 to use seed from a variety rich in sugar2 7#d7 to sow early1 in lines #af in4 apart1 at most1 the plants being #aj to #aa in4 from each other2 there will then be #ch1jjj beets on an acre1 weighing #ba to #bh ounces each1 or #eb1hjj to #gj1djj lbs4 per acre2 7#e7 to weed the fields as soon as the plants are above ground1 to thin out as early as possible1 and to weed and hoe often1 till the soil is covered with the leaves of the plants2 7#f7 never to remove the leaves during growth2 7#g7 finally1 not to take up the roots1 if it can be avoided1 before they are ripe1 the period of which will depend upon the season4 ,good seed may be raised by the following means3 ,the best roots1 which show least above ground1 are taken up1 replanted in good soil1 and allowed to run to seed4 ,this seed is already good2 but it may be further improved by sowing it in a well-prepared plot possessing all the most favorable conditions2 the resulting plants are sorted1 set out in autumn1 put into a cellar1 and in the spring1 before transplanting1 those of the greatest density1 and which will give seeds of the best quality1 are separated4 ,these are transplanted at #bj in4 between the rows and #ac in4 between the feet1 which are covered with about #a-a_/b in4 of earth4 ,finally they are watered with water containing molasses and superphosphate of lime1 as recommended by ,corenwinder4 ,harvesting4 ,sugar-beets must be taken up before frost sets in4 ,when the leaves begin to turn yellow and flabby1 they have arrived at maturity1 and the crop should be watched1 that it may not get over-ripe4 ,if the autumn is cold and dry1 the crop may be safely left in the ground for seven to ten days longer than is needful1 but should the autumn be mild and wet1 if the roots are left in the soil1 they are apt to throw up fresh leaves1 and nothing does so much injury4 ,in watching the ripening of the crop1 a good plan is to test the sp4 gr4 of the expressed juice4 ,a root or two may be taken up at intervals1 and reduced to pulp on an ordinary hand-grater1 the juice obtained by pressing the pulp through calico1 and the density observed by a hydrometer4 ,as long as the gravity of the juice continues to increase1 the crop should be left in the land4 ,good sugar-yielding juice has a sp4 gr4 of about #a4jfe1 rising to about #a4jgj4 ,immature roots1 cut across1 rapidly change color on the exposed surface1 turning red1 then brown1 and finally almost black4 ,if newly-cut slices turn color on exposure1 the ripening is not complete2 but if they remain some time unaltered1 or turn only slightly reddish1 they are sufficiently ripe to be taken up4 ,the crop should be harvested in fine1 dry weather4 ,in order that the roots may part with as much moisture as possible1 they are left exposed to the air on the ground before being stacked1 but not for longer than a few days1 and they need to be guarded against direct sunlight4 ,perhaps the best plan is to cover them loosely with their tops in the field for a couple of days1 then trim them1 and at once stack them4 ,storing4 ,for storing roots1 especial care should be taken to prevent their germinating and throwing out fresh tops1 which is best done by selecting a dry place for the storage ground4 ,they may be piled in pyramidal stacks1 about six feet broad at base1 and seven feet high4 ,at first1 the stacks should be thinly covered with earth1 that the moisture may readily evaporate2 subsequently1 when frosty weather sets in1 another layer of earth1 not exceeding one foot in thickness1 may be added4 ,this is essentially the method generally adopted for storing potatoes and beets4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--,stack for ,storing ,beets4 ,in continental ,europe and ,canada1 extra precaution is necessitated by the rigorous climate4 ,in ,s4 ,russia1 the plan shown in ,fig4 #df is sometimes used4 ,the beets are disposed completely below the surface of the soil1 in a trench dug with sharply sloping sides4 ,at about #ae in4 from the bottom1 is an openwork floor of reeds1 on which the beets are piled to within a few inches of the level of the exterior soil4 ,on the top1 and following the apex of the heap1 is laid a triangular ridge-piece a1 for the purpose of facilitating evaporation4 ,the whole is covered with a layer b of straw and fine earth1 the thickness of which is varied according to the indications of the thermometer c placed in the center of the mass4 ,between the floor of the trench and the openwork floor is a space d1 communicating with two vertical channels leading to the outer air1 thus providing ventilation4 ,the outlets of the channels can be opened and closed at will4 ,the ,russians also often employ regular cellars1 as shown in ,fig4 #dg4 ,the structure consists of two stories1 covered with a bed of earth1 each furnished with a floor of hurdles or open planking1 on which the beets are piled to the depth of about one yard4 ,lateral passages facilitate ventilation1 and openings in the roof permit the heated air to escape4 ,the cost of erecting these cellars is heavy1 but there is great saving of labor in storing the beets1 as it suffices to simply pile them up on the floors4 ,moreover1 the arrangement permits the examination of the contents beyond the indications of a thermometer2 and enables any portion to be removed1 even during snowy weather4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,storage ,cellar for ,beets4 ,alcohol from ,beets4 ,beets contain #he per cent4 of water1 and about #aj per cent4 of cane sugar1 the remainder being woody fibre and albumen2 cane sugar not being in itself fermentible1--as is grape sugar1--it has to be converted into inverted sugar by a ferment as yeast4 ,either the sugar beets may be mashed or the molasses which remains from the manufacture of beet sugar 7as described in ,chapter ,x74 ,the conversion of the sugar into alcohol is effected in several different ways1 of which the following are the principal3 ,by rasping the roots and submitting them to pressure1 and fermenting the expressed juice4 ,by maceration with water and heat4 ,by direct distillation of the roots4 ,the first two methods are the best as by them the woody fibre of the plant which is non-fermentible is separated from the fermentible juice4 ,in both the first and second processes the beets must first be entirely cleaned of adhering dirt1 trash and clods of earth1 and then rasped1 pulped or sliced by certain machinery4 ,cleaning4 ,care must be taken in this operation that the beets shall be freed from small stones and adhering hard lumps of earth which would otherwise get into the rasping machinery to the damage and stoppage of the mechanism4 ,there are many forms of cleaners but all are alike in this1--that the beets shall be subjected to the action of water while traveling through or over a perforated casing4 ,the simplest machine1 and one easily constructed by any carpenter1 comprises an elongated cylinder formed of lathes or strips spaced apart such distance as will allow dirt and stones to pass between them4 ,this is mounted on a central shaft and revolves in a tank of water4 ,it should be slightly inclined so that the potatoes or beets to be washed may feed downward from the open upper end-disk or wheel1 to the lower end where they are thrown out4 ,at the upper end is a hopper and at the lower1 the end disk has inwardly projecting lips1 which as the cylinder revolves lifts the beets up and tumbles them out on to an incline which carries them to the rasping machine4 ,another form of machine comprises a perforated cylinder of sheet iron1 revolving in a tank of water4 ,a better form of cleaner than either of those consists of an inclined trough in which a spiral feeding screw of sheet iron rotates4 ,the beets are fed into the trough at its lower end and are carried upward1 slowly1 by the feeding screw4 ,above the trough is a water pipe having a number of outlets by which water may fall on to the beets and into the trough4 ,the water rushing down the inclined trough carries with it all dirt and stones1 and by the time the beets have reached the upper end they are entirely cleaned and ready for slicing or rasping4 ,for pressing out the juice1 the beets are mashed into a pulp1 while for diffusion the beets are sliced4 ,rasping4 ,fig4 #dh shows one form of rasping machine4 ,on a suitable supporting frame is mounted a cylinder a having a diameter of about #bd inches4 ,the cylinder is formed of alternate saw blades and wooden washers holding them a slight distance apart4 ,the saws or teeth are so set on the cylinder as not to slice the beets but to shred them up into a fine pulp4 ,the cylinder rotates at a speed of #hjj to #ajjj revolutions a minute in front of an inclined table1 having a jigger whereby the beets are fed downward against the toothed cylinder4 ,the teeth carry the pulp downward and it falls into a receptacle beneath4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--;,beet and ,potato ,rasp4 ,it is best to add to this pulp a small portion of sulphuric acid1 say two-tenths of one per cent4 ,this prevents by-fermentations4 ,pressing4 ,the pulp obtained from the raspers has now to be expressed4 ,this is either done by platen presses or by roller presses4 ,with platen presses the first pressing may be done by screws1 but the final pressing should be accomplished by hydraulic presses4 ,for the hydraulic press1 the pulp is placed in woolen sacks1 containing #aj to #ab lbs41 superposed in the press with their mouths doubled under1 and separated by iron plates2 about #be are collected1 and the pile is put into a screw-press1 called a preparatory press1 which extracts about #de to #ej per cent4 of the juice4 ,these pressed sacks are piled anew on the movable plate of a powerful hydraulic press1 which takes #ej at a charge4 ,each preparatory press can supply four hydraulic presses1 which are ranged around it1 so that of the four presses1 there will be one charging1 one commencing to press1 one in full pressure1 and one discharging1 at the same moment4 ,motion is communicated to the four hydraulic presses by four pumps mounted on the same bed1 and tended by the same workman who directs the pressing4 ,an improvement upon the general form of hydraulic press is that devised by ,lalouette1 which enables two workmen and one boy to work five presses4 ,these presses turn out about #cd1bjj lbs4 per #bd hours in the first pressing1 and #fh1djj lbs4 in the second4 ,hydraulic presses are rapidly falling into disuse in the beet-sugar industry1 by reason of the superior merits of continuous presses1 and the extended adoption of the diffusion system4 ,continuous presses for beet were suggested by the roller-mills used in the cane-sugar industry4 ,but the conditions in the two cases are widely different2 the begass of the cane is solid1 and readily parts from the juice2 whereas the pulp and juice of the beet have a strong tendency to combine1 and the roller-surface must therefore be permeable only by the juice4 ,in ,poizot et ,druelle's press1 the pulp passes between two cylinders1 carried by endless cloths4 ,the object is to unite the best features of the hydraulic press4 ,to this end1 a first gentle pressing is produced against the first cylinder by the elasticity of the principal cloth on which it is borne4 ,then1 encountering a series of four little rollers1 performing the functions of the preparatory press1 it is next seized between the second and first cylinders1 and deprived of the maximum quantity of juice4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--;,dujardin's ,roll ,press4 ,dujardin's roll press is shown in ,fig4 #di1 which is a vertical section of the machine1 the side plate being removed4 ,the pulp is forced upward through a pipe ,c under high pressure4 ,this has a regulating slide valve ,d4 ,the rolls ,b ,b revolve towards and nearly in contact with each other1 and they are perforated so that the expressed juice may run off through the rolls4 ,these perforations are conical in form with the apex of the cone outward4 ,the cylinders are also covered with a webbing of cloth or horse hair4 ,below the rolls is block ,c1 which with the outer walls of the chamber1 form diverging passages which extend upward1 as shown1 on either side of the rolls and then downward along the lower faces of the rolls to the point when they contact4 ,the pulp is compressed with great force against and between the rolls1 the juice is forced through the perforations and the residue passes upward and outward under the presser bar ,e in the form of a ribbon which is guided away by the trough ,f4 ,the pressure of the bar ,e is regulated by screws and the tighter said bar is pressed against the rolls the greater will be the pressure of the pulp behind the bar and against the rolls1 and the greater the juice expressed4 ,the rolls revolve very slowly only about seven or eight times a minute but the capacity of the machine is very great1 it being capable of pressing the pulp of from #he1jjj to #age1jjj lbs4 of beets daily4 ,the residue from the first pressing should be submitted to a further pressing after being macerated with spent wash4 ,this residue may be fed to cattle4 ,the utmost cleanliness is essential to these processes2 all the utensils employed should be washed daily with lime-water to counteract acidity4 ,extraction by ,maceration and ,diffusion4 ,the object of this process is to extract from the beets by means of water or spent liquor all the sugar which they contain1 without the aid of rasping or pressure4 ,spirit is thus produced at considerably less expense1 although it is not of so high a quality as that yielded by the former process4 ,the operation consists in slicing up the beets in a specially constructed slicing machine1 into slices of regular thickness1 and then allowing the slices to macerate in a series of vats at stated temperatures4 ,it is essential that the knives by which the roots are cut should be so arranged that the roots are divided into slices having a width of #d_/aj of an inch and a thickness of #d_/ajj of an inch1 and a variable length2 the roots are1 of course1 well washed before being placed in the hopper of the cutter4 ,when cut1 the beets are covered with boiling water in a macerator of wood or iron for one hour1 the water should contain #d4d of sulphuric acid to every #bbjj lbs4 of beets4 ,after this1 the water is drawn off into a second vat in which are placed more beets1 and allowed to macerate again for an hour4 ,this is repeated a third time in another vat1 and the juice1 which has now acquired a density equal to that obtained by rasping1 is run off into the fermenting vat4 ,when the first vat is empty it is immediately refilled with boiling water and fresh beets2 the juice from this operation is run into the second vat1 when the contents of that one are run into the third4 ,to continue the operation1 the beets are completely exhausted by being macerated for an hour with a third charge of boiling water 7acidulated as in the former case74 ,the exhausted pulp is removed to make room for fresh slices2 and the first vat is then charged with juice which has already passed through the second and third vats4 ,after macerating the fresh beets for one hour1 the charge is ready for fermentation4 ,in ordinary weather1 the juice should now be at the right heat for this process1 viz41 about #ga4a or #ge4b ,f41 but in very cold weather it may require some re-heating4 ,in ,fig4 #ej is shown a series of vats for the extraction of the sugar from beets such as is termed a diffusion battery4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--;,diffusion ,battery4 ,the vessels1 #a1 #b1 #c and #d are of wood or sheet iron4 ,each vessel has a bottom sieve and a top sieve between which the beet slices are to be placed4 ,from the bottom of each vessel below the sieve a pipe ,d runs to the top of the vessel next in order4 ,from the bottom of the last vessel #d of the series a pipe ,c runs back to the top of the one first used4 ,pipes ,a and ,b are connected to each vessel for the admission of water and spent wash respectively4 ,a discharge pipe ,e leads from each vessel to a collecting vat #e4 ,maceration and diffusion is accomplished as follows3 ,the sliced beets are placed between the sieves in vessel #a and water or spent wash at a temperature of #ahe ,f4 is let in and the beets allowed to macerate for three-quarters of an hour1 meanwhile tub #b is charged with sliced beets4 ,the cock or pipe ,d between the vessels is opened when the time1 three quarters of an hour1 has elapsed2 hot water or spent wash is admitted by pipes ,a or ,b to the vessel #a1 which forces the sugar solution therein into vessel #b4 ,when the required amount of fluid has been passed into #b from #a1 the inlet of water into #a is stopped1 and the vessel heated to #ahe ,f4 ,vessel #c is charged with beet slices and in three-quarters of an hour vessels #a1 #b and #c are connected and water or wash admitted into #a1 which forces the solution in #a into #b and that in #b into #c when it is again raised to #ahe ,f4 ,the same operation is repeated as to vessel #d and in three-quarters of an hour all the vessels are connected1 hot water or spent wash is admitted to #a and the sugar solution drawn off from #d into the vat4 ,the beets in tub #a having now been exhausted1 the fluid in that vessel is drawn off and the exhausted beets thrown away4 #a is now recharged with beets and the pipe between it and #d opened4 ,the former operation is repeated except that now vessel #d becomes #a1 and #a becomes #d4 ,these successive chargings and dischargings are continued2 vessel #c becomes #a in its turn and so on4 ,fermentation4 ,before fermentation the juice procured as has been described is brought to about #hb ,f42 at this temperature it is run off into the fermenting vats4 ,here it is necessary1 as before noted1 to add to the juice a small quantity of concentrated sulphuric acid1 for the purpose of neutralizing the alkaline salts which it contains1 and of rendering it slightly acid in order to hasten the process2 this quantity must not exceed #e-a_/b lbs4 to every #abbj gallons of juice1 or the establishment of fermentation would be hindered instead of promoted4 ,the addition of this acid tends also to prevent the viscous fermentation to which the juice obtained by rasping and pressure is so liable4 ,although the beet contains albumen1 which is in itself a ferment1 it is necessary1 in order to develop the process1 to have recourse to artificial means4 ,a small quantity of brewer's yeast--about #a-c_/d oz4 per #bb gallons of juice--is sufficient for this2 the yeast must previously be mixed with a little water4 ,an external temperature of about #fh to #gh ,f4 must be carefully maintained4 ,fermentation lasts for from four to five hours4 ,the fermentation of acidulated beet-juice sets in speedily4 ,the chief obstacle to the process is the mass of thick scum which forms upon the surface of the liquor4 ,this difficulty is sometimes obviated by using several vats and mixing the juice1 while in full fermentation1 with a fresh quantity4 ,thus1 when three vats are employed1 one is set to ferment2 at the end of four or six hours1 half its contents are run into the second vat and here mixed with fresh juice4 ,the process is arrested1 but soon starts again in both vats simultaneously2 the first is now allowed to ferment completely1 which is effected with much less difficulty than would have been the case had the vat not been divided4 ,meanwhile the second vat1 as soon as the action is at its height1 is divided in the same manner1 one-half its contents being run into the third4 ,when this method is employed1 it is necessary to add a little yeast from time to time when the action becomes sluggish4 ,direct ,distillation of the ,roots4 ,this process1 commonly called ,leplay's method1 consists in fermenting the sugar in the slices themselves4 ,the operation is conducted in huge vats1 holding as large a quantity of matter as possible1 in order that the fermentation may be established more easily4 ,they usually contain about #gej gallons1 and a single charge consists of #bbjj lbs4 of the sliced roots4 ,the slices are placed in porous bags in the vats1 containing already about #ddj gallons of water acidulated with a little sulphuric acid2 and they are kept submerged by means of a perforated cover1 which permits the passage of the liquor and of the carbonic acid evolved2 the temperature of the mixture should be maintained at about #gg or #hj ,f4 ,a little yeast is added1 and fermentation speedily sets in2 it is complete in about #bd hours or more1 when the bags are taken out and replaced by fresh ones2 fermentation declares itself again almost immediately1 and without any addition of yeast4 ,new bags may1 indeed1 be placed in the same liquor for three or four successive fermentations without adding further yeast or juice4 ,the slices of beets charged with alcohol are now placed in a distilling apparatus of a very simple nature4 ,it consists of a cylindrical column of wood or iron1 fitted with a tight cover1 which is connected with a coil or worm1 kept cool in a vessel of cold water4 ,inside this column are arranged a row of perforated diaphragms or partitions4 ,the space between the lowest one and the bottom of the cylinder is kept empty to receive the condensed water formed by the steam1 which is blown into the bottom of the cylinder in order to heat the contents4 ,vapors of alcohol are thus disengaged from the undermost slices1 and these vapors as they rise through the cylinder vaporize the remaining alcohol1 and finally pass out of the top at a considerable strength and are condensed in the worm4 ,when all the contents of the still have been completely exhausted of spirit1 the remainder consists of a cooked pulp1 which contains all the nutritive constituents of the beet except the sugar4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,alcohol ,,from ,,molasses ,,and ,,sugar ,,cane4 ,another common source of alcohol is molasses4 ,molasses is the uncrystallizable syrup which constitutes the residiuum of the manufacture and refining of cane and beet sugar4 ,it is a dense1 viscous liquid1 varying in color from light yellow to almost black1 according to the source from which it is obtained2 it tests usually about #dj by ,baume's hydrometer4 ,the molasses employed as a source of alcohol must be carefully chosen2 the lightest in color is the best1 containing most uncrystallized sugar4 ,the manufacture is extensively carried on in ,france1 where the molasses from the beet sugar refineries is chiefly used on account of its low price1 that obtained from the cane sugar factories being considerably dearer4 ,the latter is1 however1 much to be preferred to the former variety as it contains more sugar4 ,molasses from the beet sugar refineries yields a larger quantity and better quality of spirit than that which comes from the factories4 ,molasses contains about #ej per cent4 of saccharine matter1 #bd per cent4 of other organic matter1 and about #aj per cent4 of inorganic salts1 chiefly of potash4 ,it is thus a substance rich in matters favorable to fermentation4 ,when the density of molasses has been lowered by dilution with water1 fermentation sets in rapidly1 more especially if it has been previously rendered acid4 ,as1 however1 molasses from beet generally exhibits an alkaline reaction1 it is found necessary to acidify it after dilution2 for this purpose sulphuric acid is employed1 in the proportion of about #d-a_/b lbs4 of the concentrated acid to #bb gallons of molasses1 previously diluted with eight or ten volumes of water4 ,three processes are thus employed in obtaining alcohol from molasses2 dilution1 acidification1 and fermentation4 ,the latter is hastened by the addition of a natural ferment1 such as brewer's yeast4 ,it begins in about eight or ten hours1 and lasts upwards of #fj4 ,about three gallons of ,alcohol may be obtained from one hundred pounds of molasses4 ,beet ,sugar ,molasses4 ,the first step in the process of rendering the molasses fermentable is to mix the molasses with water1 to a certain dilution1 in the proportion of two parts of water to one of molasses4 ,this may be done by hand1 but preferably it is performed in a vat provided with stirring or agitating mechanism1 such as will effectually mix the water with the viscid syrup1 and whereby also the wash may be thoroughly agitated and aerated4 ,there are numerous forms of mixing vats1 all working however1 on the principle shown in ,fig4 #ea4 ,in this1 the vat ,a is provided with a central shaft ,c carrying radial mixing blades ,e4 ,this shaft is driven by bevel gears ,d1 ,f4 ,as the rotation of these blades would merely tend to create a rotary current of molasses and water1 and not to mix them1 some means should be used for impeding and breaking up this current4 ,to that end the cover is provided with downwardly projecting rods ,i which create counter currents1 and thoroughly intermingle the two liquids4 ,another and even better form of mixer consists of a tank into the lower portion of which enters a perforated pipe of relatively large diameter4 ,this is provided at the end with an air entrance and a steam injector4 ,the injected steam draws in air and the steam and air are forced under pressure into the vat1 thus diluting the contained molasses1 agitating it and thoroughly aerating it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,mixing ,vat4 ,the molasses as it comes from the sugar house may contain anywhere from #cj to #de per cent of sugar1 and this should be diluted with water to a concentration of #af to #ah per cent of sugar4 ,the density of the wash after setting up is #a4jfj4 ,it is to be noted that though with improved apparatus a wash as concentrated at #ab or #ae ,baume may be worked2 yet where simple apparatus is used six degrees or eight degrees is better and much more favorable to rapid and complete fermentation4 ,after setting up1 one gallon of strong sulphuric acid and #aj lbs4 of sulphate of ammonia are added for each #ajjj gallons of wash4 ,this neutralizes the alkaline carbonates in the beet juice which would otherwise retard fermentation1 and it assists the yeast to invert the cane sugar as formerly described4 ,the addition of ammonia is in order to give food to the yeast and obtain a vigorous fermentation4 ,the yeast used for fermenting molasses is prepared either from malt or grain and is used as concentrated as possible1 and in the proportion of about #b per cent4 ,the pitching temperature of a molasses wash varies with the concentration of the wash1 being higher for strongly concentrated solutions than for weak ones4 ,when the wash tests as high as #ab ,baume1 fermentation begins at about #gg ,f4 and is raised during fermentation to #he or #ij ,f4 ,a temperature around #hb ,f4 is best on the average as this is most conducive to the growth of yeast4 ,where the vats are large and the syrup considerably diluted the temperature rises very quickly and must be moderated by passing a current of cold water through a coil of pipe on the bottom of the vat4 ,in the making of molasses mashes it must be remembered that every gallon of molasses will be diluted with about five gallons of water or other fermented liquid matter1 and therefore #ej gallons of molasses wash will require a still capable of working up about #cjj gallons4 ,it is possible to distill four or five charges during the day of #ab hours and hence a still of #fj gallons will be capable of distilling the beer or wash made with #ej gallons of molasses4 ,a still with a capacity of #ajj gallons operating on wash having a strength of one gallon of molasses to five of water1 will produce about #aj gallons of proof spirit from each charge2 thus a #ajj gallon still will make from #dj to #hj gallons of spirit in a day4 ,with unskilled labor1 however1 it is impossible to get this rate of production and the best that can be done will be about four charges a day4 ,it may be suggested that in getting estimates on stills it is best to accompany the request with a statement of the character of the mash intended to be treated1 the amount of raw materials intended to be used up1 the charging capacity required1 number of gallons of mash desired to be worked up every #ab hours4 ,fermenting ,raw ,sugar4 ,this is accomplished by dissolving the sugar in hot water1 then diluting it1 and then adding a ferment1--fermentation being aided by adding sulphuric acid to the diluted molasses1 in the proportion of one-half to one pound of acid to every hundred pounds of pure sugar used4 ,the wash is pitched with compressed yeast in the proportion of #b-a_/b9999 fraction to #h per cent of the weight of the sugar used4 ,the pitching temperature is from #gg to #gi ,f41 and the period of fermentation is #dh hours4 ,cane ,sugar ,molasses4 ,besides the molasses of the ,french beet sugar refineries1 large quantities result from the manufacture of cane sugar in ,jamaica and the ,west ,indies4 ,this is entirely employed for the distillation of rum4 ,as the pure spirit of ,jamaica is never made from sugar1 but always from molasses and skimmings1 it is advisable to notice these two products1 and1 together with them1 the exhausted wash commonly called dunder4 ,the molasses proceeding from the ,west ,indian cane sugar contains crystallizable and uncrystallizable sugar1 gluten1 or albumen1 and other organic matters which have escaped separation during the process of defecation and evaporation1 together with saline matters and water4 ,it therefore contains in itself all the elements necessary for fermentation1 i4e41 sugar1 water1 and gluten1 which latter substance1 acting the part of a ferment1 speedily establishes the process under certain conditions4 ,skimmings comprise the matters separated from the cane juice during the processes of defecation and evaporation4 ,the scum of the clarifiers1 precipitators1 and evaporators1 and the precipitates in both clarifiers and precipitators1 together with a proportion of cane sugar mixed with the various scums and precipitates1 and the sweet-liquor resulting from the washing of the boiling-pans1 etc41 all become mixed together in the skimming-receiver and are fermented under the name of skimmings4 ,they also contain the elements necessary for fermentation1 and accordingly they very rapidly pass into a state of fermentation when left to themselves2 but1 in consequence of the glutinous matters being in excess of the sugar1 this latter is speedily decomposed1 and the second1 or acetous fermentation1 commences very frequently before the first is far advanced4 ,dunder is the fermented wash after it has undergone distillation1 by which it has been deprived of the alcohol it contained4 ,to be good1 it should be light1 clear1 and slightly bitter2 it should be quite free from acidity1 and is always best when fresh4 ,as it is discharged from the still1 it runs into receivers placed on a lower level1 from which it is pumped up when cool into the upper receivers1 where it clarifies1 and is then drawn down into the fermenting cisterns as required4 ,well-clarified dunder will keep for six weeks without any injury4 ,good dunder may be considered to be the liquor1 or wash1 as it is termed1 deprived by distillation of its alcohol1 and much concentrated by the boiling it has been subjected to2 whereby the substances it contains1 as gluten1 gum1 oils1 etc41 have become1 from repeated boilings1 so concentrated as to render the liquid mass a highly aromatic compound4 ,in this state it contains at least two of the elements necessary for fermentation1 so that1 on the addition of the third1 viz41 sugar1 that process speedily commences4 ,the first operation is to clarify the mixture of molasses and skimmings previous to fermenting it4 ,this is performed in a leaden receiver holding about #cjj or #djj gallons4 ,when the clarification is complete1 the clear liquor is run into the fermenting vat1 and there mixed with #ajj or #bjj gallons of water 7hot1 if possible71 and well stirred4 ,the mixture is then left to ferment4 ,the great object that the distiller has in view in conducting the fermentation is to obtain the largest possible amount of spirit that the sugar employed will yield1 and to take care that the loss by evaporation or acetification is reduced to a minimum4 ,in order to ensure this1 the following course should be adopted4 ,the room in which the process is carried on must be kept as cool as it is possible in a tropical climate2 say1 #ge to #hj ,f4 ,supposing that the fermenting vat has a capacity of #ajjj gallons1 the proportions of the different liquors run in would be #bjj gallons of well-clarified skimmings1 #ej gallons of molasses1 and #ajj gallons of clear dunder2 they should be well mixed together4 ,fermentation speedily sets in1 and #ej more gallons of molasses are then to be added1 together with #bjj gallons of water4 ,when fermentation is thoroughly established1 a further #djj gallons of dunder may be run in1 and the whole well stirred up4 ,any scum thrown up during the process is immediately skimmed off4 ,the temperature of the mass rises gradually until about #d or #e above that of the room itself4 ,should it rise too high1 the next vat must be set up with more dunder and less water2 if it keeps very low1 and the action is sluggish1 less must be used next time4 ,no fermenting principle besides the gluten contained in the wash is required4 ,the process usually occupies eight or ten days1 but it may last much longer4 ,the liquid now becomes clear1 and should be immediately subjected to distillation to prevent acetous fermentation4 ,sugar planters are accustomed to expect one gallon of proof rum for every gallon of molasses employed4 ,on the supposition that ordinary molasses contains #fe parts of sugar1 #cb parts of water1 and three parts of organic matter and salts1 and that1 by careful fermentation and distillation1 #cc parts of absolute alcohol may be obtained1 we may then reckon upon #cc lbs4 of spirit1 or about four gallons1 which is a yield of about #e-b_/c9999 fraction gallons of rum1 #cj per cent4 over-proof1 from #ajj lbs4 of such molasses4 ,the following process is described in ,deerr's work on ,sugar and ,sugar ,cane4 ,in ,mauritius a more complicated process is used2 a barrel of about #ej gallons capacity is partly filled with molasses and water of density #a4aj and allowed to spontaneously ferment2 sometimes a handful of oats or rice is placed in this preliminary fermentation4 ,when attenuation is nearly complete more molasses is added until the contents of the cask are again of density #a4aj and again allowed to ferment4 ,this process is repeated a third time2 the contents of the barrel are then distributed between three or four tanks holding each about #ejj gallons of wash of density #a4aj and #ab hours after fermentation has started here1 one of these is used to pitch a tank of about #h1jjj gallons capacity2 a few gallons are left in the pitching tanks which are again filled up with wash of density #a4aj and the process repeated until the attenuations fall off1 when a fresh start is made4 ,this process is very similar to what obtains in modern distilleries save that the initial fermentation is adventitious4 ,in ,java and the ,east generally1 a very different procedure is followed4 ,in the first place a material known as ,java1 or ,chinese1 yeast is prepared from native formul2 in ,java1 pieces of sugar cane are crushed along with certain aromatic herbs1 amongst which galanga and garlic are always present1 and the resulting extract made into a paste with rice meal2 the paste is formed into strips1 allowed to dry in the sun and then macerated with water and lemon juice2 the pulpy mass obtained after standing for three days is separated from the water and made into small balls1 rolled in rice straw and allowed to dry2 these balls are known as ,raggi or ,java yeast4 ,in the next step rice is boiled and spread out in a layer on plantain leaves and sprinkled over with ,raggi1 then packed in earthenware pots and left to stand for two days1 at the end of which period the rice is converted into a semi-liquid mass2 this material is termed ,tapej and is used to excite fermentation in molasses wash4 ,the wash is set up at a density of #be ,balling and afterwards the process is as usual4 ,in this proceeding the starch in the rice is converted by means of certain micro-organisms ,chlamydomucor oryzae into sugar and then forms a suitable habitat for the reproduction of yeasts which are probably present in the ,raggi but may find their way into the ,tapej from other sources4 ,about #ajj lbs4 of rice are used to pitch #a1jjj gallons of wash4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,alcoholometry4 ,alcoholmetry is the name given to a variety of methods of determining the quantity of absolute alcohol contained in spirituous liquors4 ,it will readily be seen that a quick and accurate method of making such determinations is of the very utmost importance to those who are engaged in the liquor traffic1 since the value of spirit depends entirely upon the percentage of alcohol which it contains4 ,when alcoholic liquors consist of simple mixtures of alcohol and water1 the test is a simple one1 the exact percentage being readily deducible from the specific gravity of the liquor1 because to a definite specific gravity belongs a definite content of alcohol2 this is obtained either by means of the specific gravity bottle1 or of hydrometers of various kinds1 specially constructed4 ,all hydrometers comprise essentially a graduated stem of uniform diameter1 a bulb forming a float and a counterpoise or ballast4 ,the hydrometers may either be provided with a scale indicated on the neck or else with weights added to sink the hydrometer to a certain mark4 ,the first instruments are called hydrometers of constant immersion1 the others1 of variable immersion4 ,at the latter end of the last century1 a series of arduous experiments were conducted by ,sir ,c4 ,blagden1 at the instance of the ,british government1 with a view to establishing a fixed proportion between the specific gravity of spirituous liquors and the quantity of absolute alcohol contained in them4 ,the result of these experiments1 after being carefully verified1 led to the construction of a series of tables1 reference to which gives at once the percentage of alcohol for any given number of degrees registered by the hydrometer2 these tables are invariably sold with the instrument4 ,they are also constructed to show the number of degrees over-or under-proof1 corresponding to the hydrometric degrees4 ,other tables are obtainable which give the specific gravity corresponding to these numbers4 ,the measurement of the percentage of absolute alcohol in spirituous liquors is almost invariably expressed in volume rather than weight1 owing to the fact that such liquors are always sold by volume4 ,nevertheless1 the tables referred to above show the percentage of spirit both by volume and weight4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,syke's ,hydrometer4 ,in the ,united ,states the standard liquor1 known as proof spirit1 contains #ib4c per cent4 by weight and #id4i per cent4 by volume1 of absolute alcohol2 it has a specific gravity of 4#iahf at #fj ,f4 ,a proof gallon contains by measurement #ajj parts of alcohol and #ha4e parts of water4 ,the strength and therefore the value of spirituous liquors is estimated according to the quantity by volume of anhydrous spirit contained in the liquor with reference to this standard4 ,thus the expression #bj per cent4 overproof1 #bj per cent4 underproof1 means that the liquor contain #bj volumes of water for every #ajj volumes over or under this fixed quantity1 and that in order to reduce the spirit to proof1 #bj per cent4 of water by volume1 must be subtracted or added1 as the case may be4 ,any hydrometer constructed for the measurement of liquids of less density than water may be employed4 ,that known as ,syke's is most commonly used for alcoholometric purposes4 ,it is shown in ,fig4 #eb and consists of a spherical brass ball ,a1 to which is fixed two stems2 the upper one ,b is also of brass1 flat1 and about #c-a_/b9999 fraction in4 in length2 it is divided into ten parts1 each being subdivided into five1 and the whole being numbered as shown in the figure4 ,the lower stem ,c is conical1 and slightly more than an inch long2 it terminates in a weighted bulb ,d4 ,a series of circular weights1 of the form shown in the figure1 accompany the instrument2 these are slipped upon the top of the lower stem ,c1 and allowed to slip down until they rest upon the bulb ,d4 ,the instrument is used in the following way3 ,it is submerged in the liquor to be tested until the whole of the upper stem is under the surface1 and an idea is thus gained of the weight that will be required to partly submerge the stem4 ,this weight is added1 and the hydrometer again placed in the liquor4 ,the figure on the scale to which the instrument has sunk when at rest is now observed1 and added to the number on the weight used1 the sum giving1 by reference to the tables1 the percentage by volume of absolute alcohol above or below the standard quantity4 ,in exact estimations1 the temperature of the liquor tested must be carefully registered1 and the necessary corrections made4 ,in ,jones's hydrometer1 which is an improvement upon ,syke's1 a small spirit thermometer is attached to the bulb1 and by noting the temperature of the liquor at the time of the experiment1 and referring to the tables accompanying the instrument1 the strength is found at once without the need of calculation4 ,dica's hydrometer is very similar to ,jones's instrument above described4 ,it is of copper1 has a stem fitted to receive brass poises1 a thermometer1 a graduated scale1 etc4 ,in ,europe1 ,gay-,lussac's hydrometer and tables are chiefly used for alcoholometric testing4 ,this instrument is precisely similar in construction to those of ,twaddle and ,baume4 ,on the scale1 zero is obtained by placing it in pure distilled water at #ei ,f41 and the highest mark1 or #ajj1 by placing it in pure alcohol at the same temperature1 the intermediate space being divided into #ajj equal divisions1 each representing one per cent4 of absolute alcohol4 ,the correction for temperature1 as in the above cases1 is included in the reference tables4 ,another hydrometer1 used in ,france for alcoholometric determinations1 is ,cartier's4 ,in form it is precisely similar to ,baume's hydrometer4 ,zero is the same in both instruments1 but the point marked #cj in ,cartier's is marked #cb in ,baume's1 the degrees of the latter being thus diminished in the proportion of #ae or #af4 ,cartier's hydrometer is only used for liquids lighter than water4 ,the alcoholmeter of ,tralles is the official instrument for testing alcoholic liquors in the ,u4 ,s4 but the instrument which is most generally used both here and abroad is that of ,beaum4 ,there are two instruments bearing ,beaum's name1 one for liquids lighter than water1 the other for those which are heavier4 ,all hydrometers1 alcoholmeters and saccharometers work on the same principle1 though they are each differently graduated for the particular work to be done and the details of the measuring process are slightly different4 ,all these instruments are provided with tables whereby their readings may be corrected and the specific gravity of the liquid determined4 ,the above hydrometric methods can be safely employed only when the spirit tested contains a very small amount of solid matter1 since1 when such matter is contained in the liquor in quantity1 the density alone cannot possibly afford a correct indication of its richness in alcohol4 ,many methods have been proposed for the estimation of alcohol in liquor1 containing saccharine coloring and extractive matters1 either in solution or suspension4 ,undoubtedly the most accurate of these1 though at the same time the most tedious1 is to subject the liquor to a process of distillation by which a mixture of pure alcohol and water is obtained as the distillate4 ,this mixture is carefully tested with the hydrometer1 and the percentage of alcohol in it determined by reference to the tables as above described2 from this quantity and the volume of the original liquor employed the percentage by volume of alcohol in that liquor is readily found4 ,the condensing arrangement must be kept perfectly cool1 if possible in a refrigerator1 as the alcohol in the distillate is very liable to be lost by re-evaporation4 ,when great accuracy is desired1 and time is at the operator's disposal1 the above method is preferable to all others4 ,it is performed in the following manner3 ,three hundred parts of the liquor to be examined are placed in a small still1 or retort1 and exactly one-third of this quantity is distilled over4 ,a graduated glass tube is used as the receiver1 in order that the correct volume may be drawn over without error4 ,the alcoholic richness of the distillate is then determined by any of the above methods1 and the result is divided by three1 which gives at once the percentage of alcohol in the original liquor4 ,the strength at proof may be calculated from this in the ordinary way4 ,if the liquor be acid1 it must be neutralized with carbonate of soda before being submitted to distillation4 ,from eight to ten per cent4 of common salt must be added1 in order to raise the boiling point1 so that the whole of the spirit may pass over before it has reached the required measure4 ,in the case of the stronger wines it is advisable to distil over #aej parts and divide by two instead of three4 ,if the liquor be stronger than #be per cent4 by volume of alcohol1 or above #eb to #ed per cent4 under-proof1 an equal volume of water should be added to the liquid in the still1 and a quantity distilled over equal to that of the sample tested1 when the alcoholic strength of the distillate gives1 without calculation1 the correct strength required4 ,if the liquor be stronger than #dh to #ej per cent4 under-proof1 three times its volume of water must be added1 and the process must be continued until the volume of the distillate is twice that of the sample originally taken4 ,in each case the proportionate quantity of common salt must be added4 ,for the estimation of alcohol in wines1 liquors1 etc41 the following method may be employed3 ,a measuring flask is filled up to a mark on its neck with the liquor under examination1 which is then transferred to a retort2 the flask must be carefully rinsed out with distilled water1 and the rinsings added to the liquor in the retort4 ,about two-thirds are then drawn over into the same measuring flask1 and made up to its previous bulk with distilled water1 at the same temperature as that of the sample before distillation4 ,the strength is then determined by means of ,syke's hydrometer1 and this1 if under-proof1 deducted from #ajj1 gives the true percentage of proof-spirit in the wine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--;,field's ,alcoholometer4 ,a quick1 if not always very exact1 method consists in determining the point at which the liquor boils4 ,the boiling point of absolute alcohol being once determined1 it is obvious that the more it is diluted with water the nearer will the boiling point of the mixture approach that of water2 moreover1 it has been proved that the presence of saccharine and other solid matters has but an almost inappreciable effect upon this point4 ,field's alcoholometer1 since improved by ,ure1 is based upon this principle4 ,it is shown in ,fig4 #ec1 and consists1 roughly speaking1 of a cylindrical vessel ,a1 to contain the spirit2 this vessel is heated from beneath by a spirit lamp1 which fits into the case ,b4 ,a delicate thermometer ,c1 the bulb of which is introduced into the spirit1 is attached to a scale divided into #ajj divisions1 of which each represents one degree over-or under-proof4 ,this method is liable to several small sources of error1 but when a great many determinations have to be made1 and speed is an object rather than extreme accuracy1 this instrument becomes exceedingly useful4 ,it does not answer well with spirits above proof1 because the variation in their boiling points are so slight as not to be easily observed with accuracy4 ,but for liquors under-proof1 and especially for wines1 beer1 and other fermented liquors1 it gives results closely approximating to those obtained by distillation1 and quite accurate enough for all ordinary purposes4 ,strong liquors should therefore be tested with twice their bulk1 and commercial spirits with an equal bulk1 of water1 the result obtained being multiplied by two or three1 as the case may be4 ,another very expeditious1 but somewhat rough1 method was invented by ,geisler4 ,it consists in measuring the tension of the vapor of the spirit1 by causing it to raise a column of mercury in a closed tube4 ,the very simple apparatus is shown in ,fig4 #ed4 ,a is a small glass bulb1 fitted with a narrow tube and stop-cock4 ,this vessel is completely filled with the spirit1 and is then screwed upon a long1 narrow tube ,b1 bent at one end and containing mercury4 ,this tube is attached to a graduated scale showing the percentage of absolute alcohol above or below proof4 ,to make the test the cock is opened1 and the bulb1 together with the lower part of the tube1 is immersed in boiling water1 which gradually raises the spirit to its boiling-point4 ,when this is reached1 the vapor forces the mercury up the tube1 and1 when stationary1 the degree on the scale to which it has ascended gives directly the percentage of alcohol4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--;,geisler's ,apparatus4 ,another method1 which is not to be relied on for very weak liquors1 but which answers well for cordials1 wines1 and strong ales1 is that known as ,brande's method4 ,the liquor is poured into a long1 narrow glass tube1 graduated centesimally1 until it is half-filled4 ,about #ab or #ae per cent4 of subacetate of lead1 or finely powdered litharge1 is then added1 and the whole is shaken until all the color is destroyed4 ,powdered anhydrous carbonate of potash is next added until it sinks undissolved in the tube1 even after prolonged agitation4 ,the tube is then allowed to rest1 when the alcohol is observed to float upon the surface of the water in a well-defined layer4 ,the quantity read off on the scale of the tube and doubled1 gives the percentage by volume of alcohol in the original liquid4 ,the whole operation may be performed in about five minutes1 and furnishes reliable approximative results4 ,in many cases it is necessary to add the lead salt for the purpose of decolorizing the liquid4 ,for the investigation of the amount of sugar in1 or the concentration of the mash1 or beer1 a specially scaled hydrometer is used which is termed a saccharometer4 ,sugar possesses a higher degree of specific gravity than water1 and hence it follows that the greater the amount of sugar in the mash the higher will be the specific gravity4 ,the less the hydrometer sinks into the fluid the greater the amount of sugar present4 ,saccharometers are provided with thermometers whereby the reading may be corrected to a standard temperature1 usually #ei ,f4 ,the saccharometer is correct for solutions containing sugar alone but it is only approximately correct for mash liquor which contains a variety of other matters in variable quantities4 ,it is a prime necessity that the distiller should be able to determine if the mash has been completely saccharified by the malt4 ,for this purpose a solution of iodine is used4 ,iodine gives to starch a blue color4 ,if the starch however1 has been completely changed into sugar there will either be no discoloration or the filtered mash liquid which is at first a yellowish red becomes blue1 then violet1 and at last red4 ,determination of the ,purity of ,alcohols4 ,while the knowledge of the amount of alcohol contained in a liquid is of great practical utility1 this does not give any idea of the impurities present4 ,an alcohol of #ajj degrees or an absolute alcohol1 may contain numerous impurities which may greatly affect its quality4 ,it is therefore necessary in addition to analyze the purity of the alcohol4 ,in commercial practice there are certain simple processes which will give a basis by which to determine the impurities left after distillation and rectification4 ,these processes are largely empirical4 ,they are based on the perception of the senses and are consequently of an entirely relative degree of precision4 ,nevertheless1 when made by a practical expert1 the operation may give very useful preliminary indications4 ,this test is made in a glass of special shape broad at the bottom and narrowing at the top in order to concentrate the aroma of the product4 ,ordinary brandies are tested undiluted4 ,commercial alcohols1 of about #ie degrees must be diluted with water to a maximum of #cj degrees4 ,otherwise the burning tang of the alcohol would preclude any delicacy of perception and allow impurities to pass unnoticed4 ,the operation is begun by examination by sense of smell4 ,the glass is half filled with the liquid diluted with one half of pure water4 ,the glass is covered with one hand and shaken violently for a few seconds4 ,immediately upon uncovering it1 the quality of the alcoholic vapors may be ascertained by their odor4 ,for the examination by sense of taste1 the operator rinses his mouth for a moment with the liquid itself4 ,the taste of ethyl alcohol is fairly transient2--it disappears quickly allowing the taste of the accompanying foreign matter to be perceived almost immediately afterward4 ,with a little practice this test enables one to distinguish by their flavor the primal origin of alcohols and to judge of their purity4 ,some professionals succeed by training in arriving at high degree of skill in the art of tasting alcohol as it should be done4 ,in order to determine the purity of alcohol there are besides chemical tests used by the trade4 ,these tests1 which consist in characterizing and measuring separately the impurities which alcohol may contain1 such as acids1 ethers1 aldehydes1 bases1 etc41 belong exclusively to analytical chemistry2 they are extremely delicate and complicated4 ,we will not venture to touch upon them here4 ,one of the simplest tests for purity is that of ,barbet4 ,this is based upon the time taken to discolor a solution of permanganate of potash under the action of the tested alcohol4 ,it is not only very rapid but in general more practical than other tests4 ,it allows the aggregate of the impurities contained in an alcohol to be ascertained in a single operation4 ,the permanganate solution used is very weak 7#j4 gr4 #bjj of salt71 and of a violet-red color4 ,the technique of the proceeding is as follows3 #ej cubic centimeters of the alcohol to be tested are placed in a glass vessel the temperature of which is maintained at #fd4dj;,f4 #b cubic centimeters of the permanganate solution are abruptly added and the time noted to within a second4 ,discoloration is awaited and as soon as it takes place the time is again noted4 ,the total discoloration of the permanganate is not very marked and passes through intermediate stages2 therefore it is preferable not to await complete discoloration but to stop at a pale salmon tint1 which tint may be comparatively fixed by a sample of colored liquid 7say a solution of fuchsine and chromate of potash74 ,the comparative times of discoloration obtained by ,m4 ,barbet with various commercial alcohols1 are as follows3 ,pure alcohol #dc min4 #cj sec4 ,extra fine alcohol #e #cj ,semi fine alcohol #e #aj ,medium flavor alcohol 7first running7 #e #e ,mediocre alcohol #e #aa ,medium flavor alcohol 7last running7 #b #ab ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,distilling ,,plants3 ,,their ,,general ,,arrangement ,,and ,,equipment4 ,when we look at the manufactories of to-day with their complicated machinery1 their extensive equipment1 their great boilers1 and engines and their hundreds of employees1 we are liable to forget that good work was turned out by our ancestors1 with equipment of extreme simplicity and that to-day while there are1 for instance1 thousands of wood-working mills1 complete in every detail and covering under a multitude of roofs every variety of complicated and perfected wood-working machinery1 yet there are many more thousands of small plants1 comprising a portable boiler1 fed with refuse1 a small engine and a few saws which are making money for the owners and doing the work of the world4 ,the reader therefore1 must be warned against any feeling of discouragement because of the cost and complicated perfection of elaborate distilling plants4 ,where the business is to be entered into on a large scale1 to take the products from a considerable section of country and turn them into alcohol to compete in the great markets1 the best of apparatus and equipment is not too good1 but the person contemplating the mere manufacture of alcohol on a small scale1 to serve only a small section1 must remember that distillation is really a very simple matter1 for years practiced with a most rudimentary apparatus and still so practiced in the country districts particularly in the ,south4 ,this is well illustrated by the fact that an illicit distiller confined in one of the ,north ,carolina penitentiaries for transgressing the revenue laws1 was able while in durance1 to continue his operations unknown to the prison authorities1 his plant consisting of a few buckets1 and a still whose body was a tin kettle1 a few pieces of pipe and a worm which he had bent himself4 ,this example is not given as encouragement to illicit or blockade distilling but merely to show vividly how simple the rudimentary apparatus really is4 ,the simplest regular plants1 those of the ,south for instance1 comprise a building of rough lumber some thirty feet by twelve wide1 with a wooden floor on which the fermenting vats rest and an earthern floor immediately in front of the still and furnace4 ,this is to permit the fires being drawn when the charge has been exhausted in the boiler4 ,the still is of the fire-heated1 intermittent variety1 such as described on page #ce4 ,it consists of a brick furnace or oven1 large enough to burn ordinary cord wood and supporting a copper boiler of fifteen or twenty gallons capacity4 ,on top of this is a copper head with the usual goose neck1 from which a copper pipe leads to a closed and locked barrel containing raw spirits1 this barrel acting on the principle of the condensing chamber shown in the still in ,fig4 #h4 ,from the upper part of this barrel1 which acts as a concentrator1 the vapors pass to a copper worm immersed in a tub of cold water4 ,here the vapors are condensed and pass by a pipe to a small room1 containing a locked receiving tank4 ,this room is kept locked and is under the immediate charge of the ,government officer in charge of the still1 or1 in the case of alcohol intended for de-naturing1 the alcohol would pass to a locked tank from whence it would be taken and de-natured under the charge of the proper ,government officer4 ,the fermenting vats may be six or more in number so as to allow the mash in each tank to be at a different stage of fermentation4 ,a hand pump is used for pumping the contents of any of the tanks into the boiler or the still4 ,a hand pump is also provided for supplying water to the vats and condensers4 ,in connection with the distilling and fermenting building there are small buildings for storing the grain1 malt1 etc41 for the storage of the alcohol and for the keeping of the various books1 records1 and stamps required by law4 ,such plants as these are located adjacent to a good clear spring or even a small brook1 and preferably in a position convenient to the carriage of materials and the transportation of the whiskey or other liquor produced4 ,the buildings are of the cheapest construction and arranged in the manner which compels the least labor in filling the mash vats and turning the contents into spirits4 ,there are no special mash coolers1 no complicated stirrers4 ,the beer as the fermented mash is called is stirred by a paddle in the hands of a strong negro and the mash is mixed and fermented by rule of thumb1 without the use of any scientific appliances4 ,primitive1 as it is1 however1 those small plants in certain sections of the country make money for their proprietors and serve a large number of customers4 ,the spirits so produced are low grade1 fiery and rough in taste1 but the point is that alcohol may be and is so produced4 ,between these simple beginnings and the elaborate plants of big distilleries there is a wide range1 so wide that it is impossible within the limits of this book to go into detail4 ,the makers of distilling apparatus furnish all grades of stills and to those contemplating erecting a plant it is suggested that their best course is to communicate with such manufacturers1 giving the circumstances of the case1 the particular product to be worked and the capacity desired4 ,the object of this book is to give an understanding of the processes of distillation and of this chapter to give a general idea of the arrangement of a number of typical distilling plants1 suitable for various kinds of work4 ,that the simple1 direct-heated pot still such as referred to above1 used for fifteen hundred years and over1 is still used is largely due to the simplicity of its construction and operation1 but its capacity is small1 and its operating expense relatively heavy4 ,it is still used for making liquors1 but for industrial purposes it has been entirely superceded by concentrating and rectifying stills4 ,a simple form of the latter is found in the still shown in ,fig4 #aa and in the distilling apparatus of ,adam 7,fig4 #i74 ,originally all stills were heated by direct contact with fire4 ,this was open to a serious objection1 namely1 that the mash if thick was liable to be scorched4 ,stirring devices were used by ,pistorious but these required constant attention4 ,as a consequence1 direct firing gave place to heating by steam1 by which not only was scorching of the wash avoided but much greater certainty of operation was attained4 ,the steam may be used to simply heat the boiler1 thus taking the place of the direct heat of the fire1 but it is far better in every way to admit the steam directly to the mash as in the ,coffey still1 ,fig4 #ah1 and all modern stills4 ,it is possible to apply this principle to all compound stills1 but the best results with greatest economy of fuel are1 of course1 gotten from the plate or column stills especially constructed for steam4 ,in order to get the best results it is necessary that the entry of steam be regulated so that there may be absolute uniformity of flow4 ,a convenient form of regulator is that invented by ,savalle1 and described on page #gj1 hut there are a number of other forms on the market each one having its special advantages4 ,it will be seen then that while the simple pot still1 fire-heated1 may be used1 the practical plant for the fermentation of industrial alcohol should have a modern continuous still and rectifier and a boiler for generating the necessary steam for it and for the operations of mashing and fermenting4 ,,the ,,fermenting ,,room4 ,the fermenting room has three main requirements for successful commercial distillation4 ,it must allow a uniform temperature to be maintained in the vats2 it must have thorough ventilation without any draftiness1 and it must be absolutely clean4 ,it should have also plenty of light so that it may be thoroughly inspected4 ,it is true that in the primitive plants all these requisites were violated1 but there is no reason for this4 ,the first cost is but little added to by building with these requisites in mind and it is far more profitable in the long run2 and it is only by the elimination of the bacteria which are inimical to proper fermentation that the fermenting operation can be performed with any certainty4 ,for the regulation of the temperature reliance may be had on stoves or heaters1 or on special mash heaters and coolers by which the temperature of the mash in the tubs may itself be controlled without reference to the temperature of the fermenting room4 ,when1 however1 no special and adequate-heating means is provided1 the walls should be double with an air space between and the doors and windows should either be also double or limited in number4 ,to ensure good ventilation and plenty of space above the vats wherein to work or install suitable vatting machinery1 the walls should be at least twelve feet in height4 ,outlet openings should be formed around the base of the room leading to the outer air and closed by controllable shutters4 ,these are to allow the escape of the carbonic acid gas evolved during fermentation4 ,these should be most carefully constructed1 however1 to prevent drafts4 ,the walls and floor of the fermenting rooms should be so made that they may be easily washed down and kept clean4 ,concrete floors are excellent for this purpose and the walls also may be faced with concrete or cement covered with a coating composed of a mixture of asphalt and coal tar4 ,this mixture may be also applied to plaster walls with good results4 ,the fermenting vats1 as before stated1 are made of wood for small plants1 and of iron for larger plants1 and are usually from three and a half to four and a half feet in height4 ,after the chief fermenting period1 it is necessary that the temperature of the mash be prevented from rising beyond #hf ,f4 and to that end movable cooling tubes1 coils and stirrers are used4 ,these consist of parallel frames made up of tubes1 preferably of copper1 through which cold water is passed and which are moved about in the vat1 either vertically or rotatively4 ,there must be space above the vats1 therefore1 for the introduction and removal of these cooling frames1 and for the gearing whereby they are driven4 ,as previously stated1 mashes to-day are mostly prepared by steaming and disintegrating in a mash cooker of the type shown in ,figs4 #a and #da or in ,henze steamers1 from which the mash is blown into the preparatory mash vat1 where it is stirred and brought to the proper temperature for fermentation4 ,a convenient arrangement of mash cooker1 coolers1 pump and vats is shown in ,fig4 #a4 ,where ,henze steamers are used they are arranged in batteries1 the blow-off pipes being connected to the preparatory mash vats4 ,these are preferably provided with water cooled stirrers consisting of a frame of straight and vertical tubes mounted on a tubular arm projecting from a tubular shaft1 and rotated in a horizontal plane within the closed mash vats1 by suitable gears4 ,the rotation of the arm stirs and automatically mixes the mash while cooling it4 ,another form of cooler is shown diagrammatically in ,fig4 #d4 ,whatever form of cooling apparatus is used1 attention should be paid to the ease with which the stirrers or tubes can be kept clean1 and to the strength of the apparatus1 gears1 etc4 ,concentrated or thick mashes require that the stirrers be of massive construction1 capable of being rapidly rotated in the liquid4 ,in preparatory mash vats for use with concentrated mashes1 means must also be provided for clearing the mash4 ,these mash cleaners and husk removers usually form part of1 or are attached to the vat itself and are driven by gearing from the main shaft carrying power to the mashing room4 ,a good idea of the general arrangement and correlation of the various apparatus of a plant may be gathered from the sectional view of a grain distillery shown in ,fig4 #ee4 ,it will be seen from this that the mashing apparatus1 steamers and mixers are located on the several floors of one building and in such relation to each other that the several operations of saccharifying are carried on in a continuous movement of mash towards the fermenting vats4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--;,continuous ,grain ,alcohol ,distillery--,barbet's ,system4 ,adjoining the fermenting vat room is a section of the plant given up to the manufacture of pure yeast and this and the fermenting rooms are level with the ground1 have solid walls whereby a uniform temperature is obtained1 and plenty of space for proper ventilation of the vats4 ,a gallery traverses the room about midway the height of the vats so that convenient access may be had to them4 ,the distilling room is high enough to allow for the setting of the various columns1 separators and condensers at their proper heights relative to each other1 and should be so arranged as to its several floors or stages that access to the various pipes and apparatus may be easily had4 ,the steam generator for the column is located in an adjacent room4 ,in addition to this there should be a malt house for the preparation of malt1 located conveniently to the saccharifying building2 an engine and boiler room so placed that power may be conveniently transferred to the mixers1 stirrers and pumps and to generate steam for the ,henze boilers2 while adjacent to the distilling building should be the storage tanks and de-naturing department4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--;,grain ,distillery4 ,capacity #b1ejj ,bushels per day4 7,to face page #aih7 ,another arrangement of apparatus for a grain distillery with a capacity of #bejj bushels per day is illustrated in ,fig4 #ef4 ,this plant was erected by the ,vulcan ,copper ,works ,co41 and includes separate stills for gin1 alcohol1 and rye whiskey1 as well as a spirit rectifying column4 ,the milling and grain mixing departments1 the yeast room and the fermenting room are arranged on the several floors of one building1 in the basement of which is located the vacuum cooker and drop tub and coolers described on page #aa from which the mash is pumped into the fermenting tubs4 ,the second section of the building contains the distilling apparatus1 storage tanks1 charcoal rectifiers and spirit rectifying apparatus1 while the third section of the building comprises the boiler house and engine room4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg--,small ,beet ,distillery4 ,in ,fig4 #eg is shown a view of a small plant for the distillation of beets1 the figure giving a good idea of the arrangement of the diffusion battery in relation to the still and rectifier4 ,the juice from the diffusion battery is pumped into the overhead tanks from which it descends into a dephlegmator and from thence into the still1 the vapors from the still passing into the rectifier4 ,the still is a direct1 fire-heated still and adjacent to the still is a water heater from which the water passes to the hot water reservoir located above and to one side of the diffusion vats4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,large ,beet ,distillery4 ,a large plant for the distillation of beets is shown in the ,section ,fig4 #eh4 ,the beets from the beet silos are carried to suitable washing machines1 ,a1 see ,chapter ,,vii1 in which they are thoroughly cleaned of dirt and gravel4 ,from the washers they are lifted by a conveyor ,b to a distributor ,c by which they are conveyed to the cutters or slicers4 ,these consist of horizontal apertured plates revolving at a high speed1 and carry knives which plane off slices from the beets4 ,these drop through the apertures of the plate and are conveyed to the diffusion batteries1 as by a movable chute ,d oscillated with a jigging motion through suitable gearing4 ,the diffusers ,f should be arranged so that small trucks may be driven beneath them to receive the spent slices and carry them to the spent beet silos4 ,u indicates a gauging tank into which the juice runs from the diffusers4 ,from thence it passes to coolers 7not seen7 and thence to the fermentation tanks ,g4 ,r indicates a small engine for driving the beet slicers and ,s a battery of pumps whereby the wash may be forced up into the reservoir ,i from which the wash descends into the still ,k4 ,h and ,j are reservoirs for hot and cold water respectively4 ,from the distilling column ,k the phlegm or raw spirit passes to the phlegm tank ,l from which it is drawn as desired into the rectifying column ,m1 thence into the coolers and condensers and thence into the alcohol tanks ,n4 ,on the other side of the building as indicated by the chimney is the boiler for generating the motive power for the plant and for supplying the steam necessary for the distilling and rectifying columns and the hot water for the diffusion batteries4 ,the boiler should be very capacious and it would be well to have two1 one in reserve4 ,if possible1 advantage should be taken of the natural slope of the ground so that the trucks bringing beets from the silo to the washer and carrying the spent beets away may roll downward by their own weight4 ,the silos for the spent beets should be excavated from the ground and the trucks be constructed to tip their contents into these pits4 ,the natural slope of the bottom of these pits should drain away the water and means be provided whereby carts can load with the spent beets to carry them away4 ,the spent liquors should flow off into ponds from which they may be drawn away to fertilize land4 ,a very convenient method of carrying beets from the silos to the washing machine is by means of a narrow canal of rapidly flowing water1 flowing between the silos and entering the washing machines4 ,beets pitched into this stream are carried along by the current to the washers and at the same time undergo a preliminary washing4 ,by laying out a system of channels throughout the beet yard the labor of handling is reduced to a minimum4 ,these channels may be covered by boards on which the beets may be piled4 ,these may be lifted and the beets thereon dumped into the stream4 ,a plant for the distillation of potatoes would be arranged very much after the plan of the grain distillery heretofore described except that it would have to be provided with apparatus for washing the potatoes and removing stones and adhering clods of earth4 ,these washers1 as put on the market1 comprise a slotted rotating drum1 which tumbles the potatoes about and loosens the dirt4 ,when they escape from the drum they enter a washing trough where they are stirred about by revolving blades and acted upon by a swift current of water4 ,the trough should be about two feet long to properly wash the potatoes4 ,they are then lifted by an elevator to the mouth of the ,henze pulpers 7see ,fig4 #b7 or the vacuum cookers see ,fig4 #a74 ,it is of advantage that the washing apparatus be so located that the potatoes as they are received may be shoveled into it immediately4 ,the scale for weighing the potatoes as they are brought in should be so located that the manager may attend to the weighing without having to leave the distillery4 ,this and other like details may seem of small moment but it is care in such details which conduces to the success of a plant4 ,as before stated in describing a beet distillery1 advantage should be taken of the lay of the land in laying out the plant so that the spent pulp may be easily disposed of1 the spent wash carried away1 and the finished product conveniently handled4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--,molasses ,distillery4 ,capacity #b1ejj gallons per day4 ,in ,fig4 #ei1 is shown a plant for distilling molasses1 designed by the ,vulcan ,copper ,works1 before referred to1 and erected for the ,rio ,tamposo ,sugar ,co41 of ,tamposo1 ,s4 ,l4 ,p41 ,mexico4 ,the molasses as before explained at page #afd being too concentrated1 is first pumped into the steam mixing tank on the ground floor of the distilling building4 ,here it is diluted and heated1 mixed with sulphuric acid and pumped into the long ranges of cooling pipes1 located along the fermenting room and built on the principle shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,here it is further diluted and yeast is added4 ,from the fermenting tubs the molasses beer is pumped into the beer heater and thence into such a still as is shown in ,fig4 #cb4 ,in addition to this the plant contains a rectifying apparatus for the high wines produced by the beer still1 comprising a spirit still1 charged from a high wine tank1 a rectifying column1 separator1 and tubular condenser from which the rectified spirit is carried to the storage tanks4 ,cane sugar distilleries are practically arranged the same as the molasses distillery above described4 ,the cane is crushed between the rolls of cane crushers on the receiving floor and is then strained to remove the begasse4 ,the clarified juice is then pumped up to the mixing tanks4 ,in these the molasses is mixed with spent wash from other fermentations or with water1 after which it is acidified and flows to the fermenting vats4 ,the fermenting house should be provided with means for forcing in filtered air and for ventilating1 as molasses wash is very sensitive to change in temperature and very liable to become contaminated by injurious ferments4 7,see ,fig4 #fj74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,molasses ,fermenting ,house4 ,above each vat should be a cooling coil capable of being lowered into the vat and a water spraying pipe1 whereby the mash may be diluted when desired4 ,from the vats1 the wash is pumped to the distilling and rectifying columns4 ,in ,jamaica the still shown in ,fig4 #cg1 is largely used1 as also the ,coffey still1 ,fig4 #ah4 ,it is very often not profitable to distill spirit from molasses or sugar cane directly at the sugar factories1 there being no market on the spot and transportation of the spirit in casks being very costly and difficult1 not only because of the lack of transporting means but because the tropical climate tends to warp the empty casks4 ,transportation of the molasses in casks to a distillery is likewise open to objections of cost and the action of the hot sun in fermenting the molasses and bursting the cask4 ,barbet has suggested a way out of the difficulty4 ,this consists in boiling the molasses in vacuo1 and then running it into molds lined with sheets of paper4 ,these are set by dipping in cold water4 ,when set the loaves wrapped in their paper coverings are as easily handled as sugar loaves4 ,there is no dead weight nor any empties to be returned as in the case of casks4 ,the molasses is in a most concentrated form and this makes for economy in freight4 ,there is no risk of deterioration and the loaves may be stored in an ordinary warehouse4 ,this method allows the distillery to be located at centers of transportation or at seaports1 while the sugar factories are on the plantation4 ,care should be taken in selecting the site for a distillery that an abundance of pure water may be supplied4 ,the purer the water the better1 and where water is not pure1 purifying apparatus should be provided4 ,the coolness of the water is a factor which must be taken into consideration4 ,the greater amount of water will be used for cooling1 and it follows then that the cooler the water the less of it will have to be used4 ,the horse-power of the engines used in driving the distilling apparatus varies1 of course1 with the capacity of the still1 the average being between #f ,h4,p4 and #cj ,h4,p41 for plants having fermenting vats of capacities ranging between two hundred and fifty1 and twelve hundred gallons4 ,it must not be forgotten that the coal consumption of a plant depends upon the economy of heating means in the distilling apparatus1 the perfection with which the heat of the vapors is used to heat the wash1 the perfection of the boiler grates and the method of firing4 ,these latter matters should be obvious to any distiller1 but it is in economy in little things that the successful operation of a plant resides4 ,nothing is more surprising than the difference in the coal consumption of different distilleries4 ,some use a third more than others4 ,this is caused by poor coal1 by poor firing1 by poor boilers1 by hard water1 or by poor distilling equipment4 ,with regard to the latter this word of advice may be given3 ,the greater the number of plates in the distilling column1 the less the coal consumed per gallon of alcohol produced4 ,it must1 however1 be taken into account that a large number of plates in a column means a column of considerable height and that in turn means a correspondingly tall still house and increased first cost4 ,hence it is more economical to use the best forms of traps on the plates and fewer plates1 and the best forms of these traps as pointed out in ,chapter ,,iii1 are those wherein the largest quantity of vapor in a finely divided state may come into contact with the greatest number of liquid particles4 ,in conclusion it may be said that dirt1 neglect1 carelessness and a too great desire for economy in first cost are all factors in lowering the economical productiveness as well in a distillery as in other manufacturing plants4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,de-,,natured ,,alcohol ,,and ,,de-,,naturing ,,formul ,the uses of alcohol are very numerous and varied1 the principal being1 of course1 for the production of all alcoholic liquors such as brandy1 gin1 rum1 whiskey1 liquors1 etc42 that distilled from grain is almost entirely consumed in the manufacture of whiskey1 gin1 and ,british brandy4 ,in the arts1 strong alcohol is employed by the perfumers and makers of essences for dissolving essential oils1 soaps1 etc41 and for extracting the odor of flowers and plants2 by the varnish-makers for dissolving resins2 by photographers in the preparation of collodion2 by the pharmaceutists in the preparation of tinctures and other valuable medicaments2 by chemists in many analytical operations1 and in the manufacture of numerous preparations2 by instrument makers in the manufacture of delicate thermometers2 by the anatomist and naturalist as an antiseptic2 and in medicine1 both in a concentrated form 7rectified spirit71 and diluted 7proof spirit1 brandy1 etc471 as a stimulant1 tonic1 or irritant1 and for various applications as a remedy4 ,it is largely consumed in the manufacture of vinegar2 and in the form of methylated spirit it is used in lamps for producing heat4 ,it has1 in fact1 been employed for a multitude of purposes which it is almost impossible to enumerate4 ,the common form of alcohol known as de-natured spirit consists of alcohol to which one tenth of its volume of wood alcohol1 or other de-naturizing agents has been added1 for the purpose of rendering the mixture undrinkable through its offensive odor and taste4 ,methylated spirit being sold tax free1 may be applied by chemical manufacturers1 varnish makers1 and many others1 to a variety of uses1 to which1 from its greater cost1 duty-paid spirit is commercially inapplicable4 ,its use1 however1 in the preparation of tinctures1 sweet spirits of nitre1 etc41 has been prohibited by law4 ,it has often been attempted to separate the wood spirit from the alcohol1 and thus to obtain pure alcohol from the mixture1 but always unsuccessfully1 as1 although the former boils at a lower temperature than the latter1 when boiled they both distil over together1 owing probably to the difference of their vapor densities4 ,it is ,germany which has led the way in the manufacture and use of de-natured alcohol or spiritus1 as it is there known4 ,germany has no natural gas or oil wells1 and gasoline and kerosene are not produced there1 hence the necessity of using some other form of liquid fuel4 ,this fuel--in many ways better than any petroleum product--was found in alcohol4 ,the sandy plains of northern ,germany1 and indeed any agricultural district of that empire1 produce abundant crops of potatoes and beets4 ,from the first1 alcohol can be so easily manufactured that the processes are within the understanding and ability of any farmer4 ,the second is used in the manufacture of beet sugar1--one of the great ,german industries1 and the crude molasses1 from a refuse product1--still contains from #dj to #ej per cent4 of sugar1 from which alcohol can be made4 ,under these circumstances and the great demand for liquid fuel for motor carriages and gas engines1 alcohol for de-naturing came rapidly to the front as one of the most important of agricultural products1 as one of the most valuable crops which a farmer could raise4 ,potatoes are chiefly raised4 ,the potatoes are grown by the farmers and manufactured into alcohol in individual farm distilleries and in cooperative distilleries4 ,while ,england and ,france were somewhat behind ,germany in fostering this industry--yet they both were far ahead of the ,united ,states in this matter4 ,de-natured alcohol could be readily gotten in these countries1 for industrial purposes1 while the ,united ,states continued to charge a high internal revenue tax on all but wood alcohol4 ,this prevented the use of alcohol in competition with gasoline or kerosene1 and limited its use in arts and manufactures4 ,on ,june #g1 #aijf1 however1 ,congress passed the ,de-naturing ,act1 as it is called1 which provided in brief that alcohol1 which had been mixed with a certain proportion of de-naturing materials sufficient to prevent its use as a beverage should not be taxed4 ,the passage of this ,act was alcohol's new day1 and is destined to have a wide influence upon the agricultural pursuits of the country4 ,in the matter of small engines and motors alone one estimate places the farm use of these at three hundred thousand with an annual increase of one hundred thousand4 ,this means an economical displacing of horse and muscle power in farm work almost beyond comprehension4 ,if now the farmer can make from surplus or cheaply grown crops the very alcohol which is to furnish the cheaper fuel for his motors1 he is placed in a still more independent and commanding position in the industrial race4 ,as an illuminant the untaxed alcohol is bound to introduce some interesting as well as novel conditions4 ,the general estimate of the value of alcohol for lighting gives it about double the power of kerosene1 a gallon of alcohol lasting as two gallons of the oil4 ,in ,germany1 where the use of alcohol in lamps is most fully developed1 a mantle is used4 ,thus in a short time it may be expected that an entirely new industry will spring up to meet the demand for the illuminating lamps embodying the latest approved form of mantle4 ,the adapting of the gasoline motors of automobiles to alcohol fuel will in itself create a vast new manufacturing undertaking4 ,when this is accomplished it is believed that we shall no more be troubled with the malodorous gasoline auto and cycle burners on our public streets and parkways4 ,de-natured alcohol is simply alcohol which has been so treated1 as to spoil it for use as a beverage or medicine1 and prevent its use in any manner except for industrial purposes4 ,de-naturing may be accomplished in many ways4 ,in ,england a mixture suitable for industrial purposes1 but unfit for any other use1 is made by mixing #ij per cent4 of ethyl alcohol 7alcohol made from grain1 potatoes1 beets1 etc471 with #aj per cent4 of methyl or wood alcohol4 ,under the new law the proportion of wood alcohol is cut to five per cent4 ,in ,canada methylated spirits1 as it is known1 is composed of from #be per cent4 to #ej per cent4 of wood alcohol mixed with ethyl alcohol4 ,this proportion of wood alcohol is far more than is required in any other country4 ,in ,germany1 the de-naturing law passed in #ahhg was so framed as to maintain the high revenue tax on alcohol intended for drinking1 but to exempt from taxation such as should be de-naturized and used for industrial purposes4 ,de-naturing is accomplished by mixing with the spirit a small proportion of some foreign substance1 which1 while not injuring its efficiency for technical uses1 renders it unfit for consumption as a beverage4 ,the de-naturing substances employed depend upon the use to which the alcohol is to be subsequently applied4 ,they include pyridin1 picolin1 benzol1 toluol1 and xylol1 wood vinegar1 and several other similar products4 ,as a result of this system ,germany produced and used last year #ajj1jjj1jjj gallons of de-natured spirits1 as compared with #aj1cjb1fcj gallons used in #ahhf1 the last year before the enactment of the present law4 ,the following are some of the other de-naturants used in ,germany3 ,camphor1 oil of turpentine1 sulphuric ether1 animal oil1 chloroform1 iodoform1 ethyl bromide1 benzine1 castor oil1 lye4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in ,france the standard mixture consists of3 #aej liters of ,ethyl alcohol1 #ae liters of wood alcohol1 #a_/b liter of heavy benzine1 #a gram4 ,malachite green4 ,an illustration of de-naturing on a large scale is given by the methods and operations of a large ,london establishment4 ,on the ground floor are four large iron tanks holding about #bejj gallons each4 ,on the next floor are casks of spirit brought under seal from the bonded warehouse4 ,on the third floor are the wood alcohol tanks1 and on the fourth floor cans of methylating materials4 ,on the fourth floor the covers to the wood alcohol tanks were removed 7these tank covers were flush with that floor7 and the contents gauged and tested4 ,the quantity to be put into the tanks on the first floor was run off through pipes connecting with the first-floor tanks and the upper tanks relocked4 ,then going to the second floor1 each cask of the grain spirit was gauged and tested and the tank covers1 which were flush with the floor1 were removed and the casks of the grain spirit were run into the tanks below4 ,the mixture was then stirred with long-handled wooden paddles and the tank covers replaced1 and the material was ready for sale free of tax4 ,the mixture was #aj per cent4 wood alcohol and #ij per cent4 ethyl alcohol made from molasses1 and was what is known as the ordinary methylating spirit used for manufacturing purposes only and used under bond4 ,the completely de-natured spirit is made by adding to the foregoing three-eighths of one per cent4 of benzine4 ,this benzine prevents re-distillation4 ,in the ,united ,states there are at present two general formulas for de-natured alcohol in use1 either one of which may be used by any manufacturer1 who can use de-natured alcohol4 ,the first and most common one is made up as follows3 ,ethyl ,alcohol #ajj gallons4 ,methyl #aj ,benzine #a_/b ,where such a formula as this is required in an aqueous solution the benzine is of course thrown out1 giving the solution a milky appearance4 ,in this case the other general formula may be used4 ,ethyl ,alcohol #ajj gallons4 ,methyl #b ,pyridine ,bases #a_/b ,in addition to these two general formulas for de-natured alcohol a number of special formulas have been authorized to be used in the manufacture of certain classes of goods4 ,in order to buy these specially de-natured alcohols it is necessary1 of course1 to obtain a permit first from your ,collector of ,internal ,revenue1 a simple permit to use de-natured alcohol will not suffice4 ,some of the special formulas are as follows3 ,for use in the manufacture of sulphonmethane4 ,ethyl ,alcohol #ajj gallons4 ,pyridin ,bases #a gallon4 ,coal ,tar ,benzol #a ,for use in the manufacture of transparent soap4 ,ethyl ,alcohol #ajj gallons4 ,methyl #e ,castor ,oil #a #cf ,be4 ,caustic ,soda ,solution #a_/b ,for the manufacture of shellac varnishes4 ,ethyl ,alcohol #ajj parts by volume ,methyl #e ,for the manufacture of smoking and chewing tobacco4 ,ethyl ,alcohol #ajj gallons4 ,a mixture made as follows3 #a ,aqueous ,solution containing #dj ,nicotine #ab gallons ,acid ,yellow ,dye #j4d lb4 ,tetrazo ,brilliant ,blue #ab ,b ,conct4 #j4d lb4 ,water to make #ajj gallons4 ,for the manufacture of photo-engravings4 ,ethyl ,alcohol #ajj gallons4 ,sulphuric ,ether #fe lbs4 ,cadmium ,iodide #c ,ammonium #c ,for the manufacture of fulminate of mercury4 ,ethyl ,alcohol #ajj gallons4 ,methyl #c ,pyridine ,bases #a_/b ,the next formula may be used for the following purposes3 ,in the manufacture of photographic dry plates4 ,in the manufacture of embalming fluid4 ,in the manufacture of heliotropin4 ,in the manufacture of resin of podophyllum and similar products4 ,in the manufacture of lacquers from soluble cotton4 ,in the manufacture of thermometer and barometer tubes4 ,ethyl ,alcohol #ajj gallons4 ,methyl #e ,for use in the manufacture of photographic collodian4 ,ethyl ,alcohol #ajj gallons4 ,sulphuric ,ether #aj lbs4 ,cadmium ,iodine #aj ,for use in the manufacture of pastes and varnishes from soluble cotton4 ,ethyl ,alcohol #ajj gallons4 ,methyl #b ,benzol #b ,for use in the purification of rubber4 ,ethyl ,alcohol #ajj gallons4 ,acetone #aj ,petroleum naptha #b ,petroleum naptha must have a specific gravity of not less than #fej nor more than #gbj at #fj;,f4 ,for use in the manufacture of watches4 ,ethyl ,alcohol #ajj gallons4 ,methyl #e ,cyanide of ,potassium #a-a_/b lbs4 ,patened ,blue ,b #a_/h oz4 7,acid calcium1 magnesium1 or sodium salt of the disulpho-acids of meta-oxytetraethyldiamidotri-phenyl-carb idrids47 ,the methyl alcohol must have a specific gravity of not more than #haj at #fj ,f4 ,the de-naturing mixture is best prepared by dissolving the cyanide of potassium in a small quantity of water1 and then adding this solution to the alcohol1 with which the methyl alcohol1 containing the dissolved color1 has been previously mixed4 ,for the manufacture of celluloid1 pyralin and similar products4 ,ethyl ,alcohol #ajj parts by volume ,methyl #e ,camphor #g lbs4 ,alternative special de-naturant for the manufacture of celluloid1 pyralin and similar products4 ,ethyl ,alcohol #ajj gallons4 ,methyl #b ,benzol #b ,the strongest alcohol of commerce in the ,united ,states is usually #ie per cent4 alcohol1 and the price varies from #b4cj to #b4ej per gallon1 showing that the greater part of the cost is due to the revenue levied by the government4 ,the greater part of the #fj1jjj1jjj gallons of alcohol consumed in the ,united ,states is used in the manufacture of whiskey and other beverages4 ,the revenue tax prevents the use of alcohol to any great extent in the industries of the country4 ,the bill passed by ,congress in #aijf1 designed to promote the use of untaxed alcohol in the arts and as fuel1 took effect ,january #a1 #aijg4 ,the first effect of free alcohol would1 it was said1 supplant the #ab1jjj1jjj gallons of wood alcohol which are used in the manufacture of paint1 varnishes1 shellacs1 and other purposes4 ,another use that is expected of de-natured alcohol is in the manufacture of certain products1 such as dyestuffs and chemicals1 which can not now be manufactured commercially in this country because of the high cost of alcohol1 and which are imported largely from ,europe4 ,a very rapid development of the industry of manufacturing chemicals as a result of free alcohol is looked for4 ,in the production of alcohol there is always formed as a by-product a certain amount of fusel oil1 which is very useful in manufacturing lacquers which are used on metallic substances1 fine hardware1 gas fixtures1 and similar articles4 ,the industries manufacturing these wares will undoubtedly receive a great stimulus as a result of cheaper fusel oil caused by the increased production of alcohol4 ,a ,safe ,fuel4 ,the use of de-natured alcohol as a fuel has yet to be fully developed4 ,although alcohol has only about half the heating power of kerosene or gasoline1 gallon for gallon1 yet it has many valuable properties which may enable it to compete successfully in spite of its lower fuel value4 ,in the first place it is very much safer4 ,alcohol has a tendency to simply heat the surrounding vapors and produce currents of hot gases which are not usually brought to high enough temperature to inflame articles at a distance4 ,it can be easily diluted with water1 and when it is diluted to more than one-half it ceases to be inflammable4 ,hence it may be readily extinguished2 while burning gasoline1 by floating on the water1 simply spreads its flame when water is applied to it4 ,although alcohol has far less heating capacity than gasoline1 the best experts believe that it will develop a much higher percentage of efficiency in motors than does gasoline4 ,since gasoline represents only about two per cent4 of the petroleum which is refined1 its supply is limited and its price must constantly rise in view of the enormous demand made for it for automobiles and gasoline engines in general4 ,this will open a new opportunity for de-natured alcohol4 ,industrial alcohol is now used in ,germany in small portable lamps1 which give it all the effects of a mantel burner heated by gas4 ,the expense for alcohol is only about two-thirds as much per candle-power as is the cost of kerosene4 ,even at #be or #cj cents a gallon1 de-natured alcohol can successfully compete with kerosene as a means of lighting4 ,objection has been made to the use of alcohol in automobiles and other internal-explosive engines1 that it resulted in a corrosion of the metal4 ,this is vigorously denied by the advocate of alcohol fuel and the denial is backed by proofs of the use of alcohol in ,german engines for a number of years without any bad results4 ,a recent exhibition in ,germany gave a good illustration of the broad field in which de-natured alcohol may be used4 ,here were shown alcohol engines of a large number of different makes1 alcohol boat motors as devised for the ,russian navy1 and motors for threshing1 grinding1 wood-cutting1 and other agricultural purposes4 ,the department of lighting apparatus included a large and varied display of lamps1 chandeliers1 and street and corridor lights1 in which alcohol vapor is burned like gas in a hooded flame covered by a ,welsbach mantle4 ,under such conditions alcohol vapor burns with an incandescent flame which rivals the arc light in brilliancy and requires to be shaded to adopt it to the endurance of the human eye4 ,there has been each year a great improvement in the artistic models and finish of lamps and chandeliers for alcohol lighting4 ,at the beginning they were simple and of rather ordinary appearance1 but now they are up to the best standard of modern fixtures for gas and electricity1 with which alcohol lighting is now competing with increasing success in that country4 ,similarly attractive and interesting was the large display of alcohol heating stoves1 which1 for warming corridors1 sleeping rooms1 and certain other locations1 are highly esteemed4 ,they are made of japanned-iron plate in decorative forms1 with concave copper reflectors1 are readily portable1 and1 when provided with chimney connections for the escape of the gases of combustion1 furnish a clean1 odorless1 and convenient heating apparatus4 ,cooking stoves of all sizes1 forms1 and capacities1 from the complete range1 with baking and roasting ovens1 broilers1 etc41 to the simple tea and coffee lamp1 were also displayed in endless variety4 ,enough has been said to give an idea of the capabilities and values of this new form of fuel1--at least1 and as far as the ,united ,states is concerned4 ,with its advent not only will ,american genius perfect the machinery for its use1 but the ,american farmer is given a new market for his crops4 ,distilleries1 big and little1 are likely to be set up all over the country1 and the time is not far distant when the farmer will be able to carry his corn to his local distillery1 and either return with the money in his pocket1 or with fuel for farm engines1 machinery1 and perchance his automobile4 ,when our government shall have become as far-sighted as the ,german government in this matter1 every farmer will be able to manufacture his own de-natured spirits4 ,the wisdom of the ,german system established by the law of #ahhg has long ceased to be a question of debate4 ,for every reichsmark of revenue sacrificed by exempting de-natured spirits from taxation the empire and its people have profited ten-fold by the stimulus which has been thereby given to agriculture and the industrial arts4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,free ,,alcohol ,,act ,,of #aijf1 ,,the ,,amendment ,,of #aijg ,,and ,,internal ,,revenue ,,regulations4 ,,public--,,no4 #bja4 ,an ,act for the withdrawal from bond1 tax free1 of domestic alcohol when rendered unfit for beverage or liquid medicinal uses by mixture with suitable de-naturing materials4 ,be it enacted by the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives of the ,united ,states of ,america in ,congress assembled1 ,that from and after ,january first1 nineteen hundred and seven1 domestic alcohol of such degree of proof as may be prescribed by the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue1 and approved by the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 may be withdrawn from bond without the payment of internal-revenue tax1 for use in the arts and industries1 and for fuel1 light1 and power1 provided said alcohol shall have been mixed in the presence and under the direction of an authorized ,government officer1 after withdrawal from the distillery warehouse1 ,with methyl alcohol or other de-naturing material or materials1 or admixture of the same1 suitable to the use for which the alcohol is withdrawn1 but which destroys its character as a beverage and renders it unfit for liquid medicinal purposes2 such de-naturing to be done upon the application of any registered distillery in de-naturing bonded warehouses specially designated or set apart for de-naturing purposes only1 and under conditions prescribed by the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue with the approval of the ,secretary of the ,treasury4 ,the character and quantity of the said de-naturing material and the conditions upon which said alcohol may be withdrawn free of tax shall be prescribed by the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue1 who shall1 with the approval of the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 make all necessary regulations for carrying into effect the provisions of this ,act4 ,distillers1 manufacturers1 dealers and all other persons furnishing1 handling or using alcohol withdrawn from bond under the provisions of this ,act shall keep such books and records1 execute such bonds and render such returns as the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue1 with the approval of the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 may by regulation require4 ,such books and records shall be open at all times to the inspection of any internal-revenue officer or agent4 ,,sec4 #b4 ,that any person who withdraws alcohol free of tax under the provisions of this ,act and regulations made in pursuance thereof1 and who removes or conceals same1 or is concerned in removing1 deposting or concealing same for the purpose of preventing the same from being de-natured under governmental supervision1 and any person who uses alcohol withdrawn from bond under the provision of section one of this ,act for manufacturing any beverage or liquid medicinal preparation1 or knowingly sells any beverage or liquid medicinal preparation made in whole or in part from such alcohol1 or knowingly violates any of the provisions of this ,act1 or who shall recover or attempt to recover by redistillation or by any other process or means1 any alcohol rendered unfit for beverage or liquid medicinal purposes under the provisions of this ,act1 or who knowingly uses1 sells1 conceals1 or otherwise disposes of alcohol so recovered or redistilled1 shall on conviction of each offense be fined not more than five thousand dollars1 or be imprisoned not more than five years1 or both1 and shall1 in addition1 forfeit to the ,united ,states all personal property used in connection with his business1 together with the buildings and lots or parcels of ground constituting the premises on which said unlawful acts are performed or permitted to be performed3 ,provided1 ,that manufacturers employing processes in which alcohol1 used free of tax under the provisions of this ,act1 is expressed or evaporated from the articles manufactured1 shall be permitted to recover such alcohol and to have such alcohol restored to a condition suitable solely for reuse in manufacturing processes under such regulations as the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue1 with the approval of the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 shall prescribe4 ,,sec4 #c4 ,that for the employment of such additional force of chemists1 internal-revenue agents1 inspectors1 deputy collectors1 clerks1 laborers1 and other assistants as the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue1 with the approval of the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 may deem proper and necessary to the prompt and efficient operation and enforcement of this law1 and for the purchase of locks1 seals1 weighing beams1 gauging instruments1 and for all necessary expenses incident to the proper execution of this law1 the sum of two hundred and fifty thousand dollars1 or so much thereof as may be required1 is hereby appropriated out of any money in the ,treasury not otherwise appropriated1 said appropriation to be immediately available4 ,for a period of two years from and after the passage of this ,act the force authorized by this section of this ,act shall be appointed by the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue1 with the approval of the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 and without compliance with the conditions prescribed by the ,act entitled ,an ,act to regulate and improve the civil service1 approved ,january sixteenth1 eighteen hundred and eighty-three1 and amendments thereof and with such compensation as the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue may fix1 with the approval of the ,secretary of the ,treasury4 ,,sec4 #d4 ,that the ,secretary of the ,treasury shall make full report to ,congress at its next session of all appointments made under the provisions of this ,act1 and the compensation paid thereunder1 and of all regulations prescribed under the provisions hereof1 and shall further report what1 if any1 additional legislation is necessary1 in his opinion1 to fully safeguard the revenue and to secure a proper enforcement of this ,act4 ,approved ,june #g1 #aijf4 ,,de-,,naturing ,,regulations ,,under ,,the ,,act ,,of ,,june #g1 #aijf4 ,under the ,act quoted above1 the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue was empowered to make regulations whereby the law might be carried into effect4 ,in the first place it may be said that those who are permitted by this ,act to manufacture de-natured alcohol must be distillers2 in other words1 those who have regularly licensed and registered distilleries4 ,this does not mean that the plant must be large or costly--as witness the numerous little stills to be found throughout the ,south2 but that the still1 whatever its size1 must be under constant supervision1 and regularly licensed to manufacture alcohol4 ,the requirements to this end can be had from the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue1 ,treasury ,department1 ,washington4 ,pursuant to the law regarding de-naturing1 rules and regulations have been drawn up of which the following is a synopsis with extracts where deemed advisable4 ,,de-,,naturing ,,bonded ,,warehouses4 ,,sec4 #b4 ,the proprietor of any registered distillery may withdraw from his distillery warehouse1 free of tax1 alcohol of not less than #ahj degrees proof or strength1 to be de-natured in the manner hereinafter prescribed4 ,a distiller desiring to withdraw alcohol from bond for de-naturing purposes under the provisions of this act shall1 at his own expense1 provide a de-naturing bonded warehouse1 to be situated on and constituting a part of the distillery premises4 ,it shall be separated from the distillery and the distillery bonded warehouse and all other buildings1 and no windows or doors or other openings shall be permitted in the walls of the de-naturing bonded warehouse leading into the distillery1 the distillery bonded warehouse or other room or building1 except as hereinafter provided4 ,it must be constructed in the same manner as distillery bonded warehouses are now constructed1 with view to the safe and secure storage of the alcohol removed thereto for de-naturing purposes and the de-naturing agents to be stored therein4 ,it must be approved by the ,commission of ,internal ,revenue4 ,it shall be provided with closed mixing tanks of sufficient capacity4 ,the capacity in wine gallons of each tank must be ascertained and marked thereon in legible letters1 and each tank must be supplied with a graduated glass gauge whereon the contents will be at all times correctly indicated4 ,all openings must be so arranged that they can be securely locked4 ,suitable office accommodation for the officer on duty must be provided4 ,,sec4 #c4 ,the de-naturing bonded warehouse shall be used for de-naturing alcohol1 and for no other purpose1 and nothing shall be stored or kept therein except the alcohol to be de-natured1 the materials used as de-naturants1 the de-natured product1 and the weighing and gauging instruments and other appliances necessary in the work of de-naturing1 measuring1 and gauging the alcohol and de-naturing materials4 ,these bonded warehouses must be numbered serially in each collection district1 and the words ,de-naturing bonded warehouse ,no4--1 district of--1 must be in plain letters in a conspicuous place on the outside of the building4 ,in case the distiller's bond has been executed before the erection of such warehouse the consent of the sureties to the establishment of the de-naturing warehouse must be secured and entry duly signed made on the bond4 ,,de-,,naturing ,,material ,,room4 ,,sec4 #d4 ,there shall be provided within the de-naturing bonded warehouse a room to be designated as the de-naturing material room4 ,this room is to be used alone for the storage of de-naturing materials prior to the de-naturing process4 ,it must be perfectly secure1 and must be so constructed as to render it impossible for anyone to enter during the absence of the officer in charge without the same being detected4 ,the ceiling1 inside walls1 and floor of said room must be constructed of brick1 stone1 or tongue-and-groove planks4 ,if there are windows in the room the same must be secured by gratings or iron bars1 and to each window must be affixed solid shutters of wood or iron1 constructed in such manner that they may be securely barred and fastened on the inside4 ,the door must be substantial1 and must be so constructed that it can be securely locked and fastened4 ,,sec4 #e4 ,at least two sets of tanks or receptacles for storing de-naturing material must be provided1 and each set of tanks must be of sufficient capacity in the aggregate to hold the de-naturing material which it is estimated the distiller will use for thirty days4 ,a set of tanks shall consist of one or more tanks for storing methyl alcohol1 and one or more tanks of smaller capacity for storing other de-naturing materials4 ,the capacity of each tank must be ascertained and marked in legible figures on the outside4 ,the tanks must not be connected with each other1 and must be so constructed as to leave at least #ah inches of open space between the top of the tank and ceiling1 the bottom of the tank and the floor1 and the sides of the tank and walls of the de-naturing material room4 ,each tank shall be given a number1and this number must be marked upon it4 ,there shall be no opening at the top except such as may be necessary for dumping the de-naturing material into the tank and thoroughly plunging or mixing the same4 ,said opening must be covered so that it may be locked4 ,likewise the faucet through which the de-naturing material is drawn must be so arranged that it can be locked4 ,each tank must be supplied with a graduated glass gauge whereby the contents of the tank will always be shown4 ,,custody ,,of ,,de-,,naturing ,,bonded ,,warehouse4 ,,sec4 #f4 ,the de-naturing bonded warehouse shall be under the control of the collector of the district and shall be in the joint custody of a storekeeper1 storekeeper-gauger1 or other designated official and the distiller4 ,no one shall be permitted to enter the warehouse except in the presence of said officer1 and the warehouse and room shall be kept closed and the doors1 exterior and interior1 securely locked except when some work incidental to the process of de-naturing and storing material is being carried on4 ,standard ,sleight locks shall be used for locking the de-naturing bonded ware-house and the de-naturing material room1 and they shall be sealed in the same manner and with the same kind of seals as distillery bonded warehouses and cistern rooms are now sealed4 ,miller locks shall be used in securing the faucets and openings of the mixing tanks and the de-naturing material tanks4 ,the officer in charge of the de-naturing bonded warehouse1 material room1 and tanks shall carry the keys to same1 and under no circumstances are said keys to be intrusted to anyone except another officer who is duly authorized to receive them4 ,,application ,,for ,,approval ,,of ,,de-,,naturing ,,bonded ,,warehouse4 ,,sec4 #g4 ,whenever a distiller wishes to commence the business of de-naturing alcohol he must make written application to the collector of the district in which the distillery is located for the approval of a de-naturing bonded warehouse4 ,such application must give the name or names of the person1 firm1 or corporation operating the distillery1 the number of the distillery1 the location of the same1 the material of which the warehouse is constructed1 the size of same1 width1 length and height1 the size of the de-naturing material room therein1 and the manner of its construction1 the capacity in gallons of each tank to be used for de-naturing alcohol or for holding the de-naturing agents1 and the material of which said tanks are constructed4 ,such application must be accompanied by a diagram correctly representing the warehouse1 the mixing tanks1 de-naturing material room1 and de-naturing material tanks1 with all openings and surroundings4 ,it must show the distillery and all the distillery bonded warehouses on the premises1 with dimensions of each4 ,sections #i and #aj of the regulations deal with the examination and approval of the de-naturing warehouse and plant by the ,internal ,revenue officers4 ,,de-,,naturing ,,warehouse ,,bond ,,to ,,be ,,given4 ,,sec4 #aa4 ,after receipt of notice of the approval of said warehouse the distiller may withdraw from his distillery warehouse1 free of tax1 alcohol of not less than #ahj degrees proof or strength1 and may de-nature same in said de-naturing warehouse in the manner hereinafter indicated1 provided he shall first execute a bond in the form prescribed by the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue1 with at least two sureties1 ,unless1 under the authority contained in an act approved ,august #ac1 #ahid1 a corporation1 duly authorized by the ,attorney-,general of the ,united ,states to become a surety on such bond1 shall be offered as a sole surety thereon4 ,the bond shall be for a penal sum of not less than double the tax on the alcohol it is estimated the distiller will de-nature during a period of #cj days1 and in no case is the distiller to withdraw from bond for de-naturing purposes and have in his de-naturing warehouse in process of de-naturation a quantity of alcohol the tax upon which is in excess of the penal sum of the bond4 ,,sec4 #ab4 ,if at any time1 it should develop that the de-naturing warehouse bond is insufficient the distiller must give additional bond4 ,,sec4 #ac4 ,the bond herein provided for must be executed before the distiller can withdraw from distillery bonded warehouse1 free of tax1 alcohol to be de-natured1 and if he desires to continue in the business of de-naturing alcohol1 said bond must be renewed on the first day of ,may of each year or before any alcohol is withdrawn from bond for de-naturing purposes4 ,it must be executed in duplicate in accordance with instructions printed thereon4 ,one copy is to be retained by the collector and one copy is to be transmitted to the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue4 ,,conditions ,,under ,,which ,,alcohol ,,is ,,withdrawn4 ,,sec4 #ae4 ,not less than three hundred 7#cjj7 wine gallons of alcohol can be withdrawn at one time for de-naturing purposes4 ,when a distiller1 who is a producer of alcohol of not less than #ahj degrees proof and who has given the de-naturing warehouse bond as aforesaid desires to remove alcohol from the distillery bonded warehouse for the purpose of de-naturing1 he will himself1 or by his duly authorized agent1 file with the collector of internal revenue of the district in which the distillery is located1 notice to that effect4 ,upon the receipt of this notice 7the form for which is given in the ,regulations7 the collector for the district will order a gauger to inspect the alcohol so withdrawn1 and to gauge the same1 and to make report2 and directions are given to the official storekeeper to permit the transferral of the spirits to the de-naturing warehouse4 ,,spirits ,,transferred ,,to ,,be ,,marked4 ,upon receipt of the permit by the storekeeper the packages of distilled spirits described in notice of intention to withdraw may be withdrawn from distillery bonded warehouse without the payment of the tax1 and may be transferred to the de-naturing bonded warehouse on the distillery premises2 but before the removal of said spirits from the distillery bonded warehouse1 the gauger1 in addition to marking1 cutting1 and branding the marks usually required on withdrawal of spirits from warehouse1 will legibly and durably mark on the head of each package1 in letters and figures not less than one-half an inch in length1 the number of proof gallons then ascertained1 the date of the collector's permit1 the object for which the spirits were withdrawn1 and his name1 title1 and district4 ,such additional marks may be as follows3 ,withdrawn under permit issued ,jan'y4 #aj1 #aijg ,for ,de-naturing ,purposes ,proof gallons1 #hd ,william ,williams1 ,u4 ,s4 ,gauger1 #eth ,dist4 ,ky4 ,,spirits ,,transferred ,,to ,,de-,,naturing ,,bonded ,,warehouse4 ,,sec4 #bj4 ,when the packages of spirits are marked and branded in the manner above indicated they shall at once1 in the presence and under the supervision of the storekeeper1 be transferred to the de-naturing bonded warehouse4 ,,record ,,of ,,spirits ,,received ,,in ,,de-,,naturing ,,bonded ,,warehouse4 ,,sec4 #ba4 ,the officer in charge of the de-naturing bonded warehouse shall keep a record of the spirits received in said de-naturing bonded warehouse from the distillery bonded warehouse and the spirits delivered to the distiller for de-naturing purposes4 ,upon the debit side of said record1 in columns prepared for the purpose1 there shall be entered the date when any distilled spirits were received in de-naturing bonded warehouse1 the date of the collector's permit1 the date of withdrawal from distillery bonded warehouse1 the number of packages received1 the serial numbers of the packages1 the serial numbers of the distillery warehouse stamps1 and the wine and proof gallons4 ,upon the credit side of said record shall be entered the date when any spirits were delivered to the distiller for de-naturing purposes1 the date of the collector's permit for withdrawal1 the date of withdrawal from distillery bonded warehouse1 the number of packages so delivered1 the serial numbers of the packages1 the serial numbers of the distillery warehouse stamps1 and the wine and proof gallons4 ,immediately upon the receipt of any distilled spirits in the de-naturing bonded warehouse1 and on the same day upon which they are received1 the officer must enter said spirits in said record4 ,likewise1 on the same date upon which any spirits are delivered to the distiller for de-naturing purposes1 said spirits must be entered on said record4 ,,sec4 #bb4 ,a balance must be struck in the record described in above section at the end of the month showing the number of packages and quantity in wine and proof gallons of spirits on hand in packages on the first day of the month1 the number of packages and quantity in wine and proof gallons received during the month1 the number of packages and quantity in wine and proof gallons delivered to the distiller during the month1 and the balance on hand in packages and wine and proof gallons at the close of the month4 ,sections #bc to #be of the ,rules relate to the duties of the ,internal ,revenue officers in making reports and returns4 ,,de-,,naturing ,,agents4 ,,completely ,,de-,,natured ,,alcohol4 ,,sec4 #bf4 ,unless otherwise specially provided1 the agents used for de-naturing alcohol withdrawn from bond for de-naturing purposes shall consist of methyl alcohol and benzine in the following proportions3 ,to every #ajj parts by volume of ethyl alcohol of the desired proof 7not less than #ahj7 there shall be added #aj parts by volume of approved methyl alcohol and one-half of one part by volume of approved benzine2 for example1 to every #ajj gallons of ethyl alcohol 7of not less than #ahj degrees proof7 there shall be added #aj gallons of approved methyl alcohol and one-half gallon of approved benzine4 ,alcohol thus de-natured shall be classed as completely de-natured alcohol4 ,methyl alcohol and benzine intended for use as de-naturants must be submitted for chemical test and must conform to the specifications which shall be hereafter duly prescribed4 ,,de-,,naturants ,,deposited ,,in ,,warehouse4 ,,sec4 #bg4 ,as the distiller's business demands1 he may bring into the de-naturing bonded warehouse1 in such receptacles as he may wish1 any authorized de-naturant4 ,such de-naturants shall at once be deposited in the material room2 thereafter they shall be in the custody and under the control of the officer in charge of the warehouse4 ,before any de-naturant is used it must be dumped into the appropriate tank and after the contents have been thoroughly mixed1 a sample of one pint taken therefrom4 ,this sample must be forwarded to the proper officer for analysis4 ,the officer will then securely close and seal the tank4 ,no part of the contents of the tank can be used until the sample has been officially tested and approved1 and report of such test made to the officer in charge of the warehouse4 ,if the sample is approved the contents of the tank shall upon the receipt of the report1 become an approved de-naturant and the officer shall at once remove the seals and place the tank under ,government locks4 ,if the sample does not meet the requirements of the specifications1 the officer shall1 upon the receipt of the report of non-approval1 permit the distiller1 provided he desires1 to treat or manipulate the proposed de-naturant so as to render it a competent de-naturant4 ,in such case another sample must be submitted for approval4 ,if the distiller does not desire to further treat the de-naturant the officer shall require him immediately to remove the contents of the tank from the premises4 ,,record ,,of ,,de-,,naturants ,,received4 ,,sec4 #bh4 ,the officer shall keep a de-naturing material room record4 ,this record shall show all material entered into and removed from the de-naturing material room4 ,there shall be proper columns on the debit side in which are to be entered the date when any material is received1 the name and residence of the person from whom received1 the kind of material1 the quantity in wine gallons1 and1 if methyl alcohol1 in proof gallons1 the date upon which the material was dumped into the tank1 the number of the tank1 the date upon which sample was forwarded1 and the number of the sample1 and the result of the official test4 ,on the credit side of said record shall be entered in proper columns the date upon which any material was removed from the de-naturing material room for de-naturing purposes1 the kind of material1 the number of the tank from which taken1 the number of the sample representing the tank and sent for official test1 the number of wine gallons1 and1 if methyl alcohol1 the number of proof gallons4 ,,monthly ,,returns ,,of ,,de-,,naturants ,,received4 ,,sec4 #bi4 ,a balance shall be struck in this record at the end of each month whereby shall be shown the quantity of material of each kind on hand in the de-naturing material room on the first day of the month1 the quantity received during the month1 the quantity rejected and removed from the premises during the month1 and the quantity delivered to the distiller for de-naturing purposes during the month1 and the quantity on hand at the end of the month4 ,the officer shall1 at the end of each month1 prepare in duplicate1 sign1 and forward to the collector of internal revenue a report which shall be a transcript of said record4 ,,distiller ,,to ,,keep ,,record ,,of ,,de-,,naturants4 ,,sec4 #cj4 ,the distiller shall also keep a record1 in which he shall enter the date upon which he deposits any material in the tanks of the de-naturing material room1 the name and address of the person from whom said material was received1 and the kind and quantity of the material so deposited2 also he shall enter in said record the date upon which he receives any material from the de-naturing material room1 the kind and quantity of such material so received1 and the disposition made of same4 ,,notice ,,of ,,intention ,,to ,,de-,,nature ,,spirits4 ,,sec4 #ca4 ,the distiller shall1 before dumping any spirits or de-naturants into the mixing tank1 give notice to the officer in charge of the de-naturing warehouse in proper form in duplicate1 and enter in the proper place thereon 7in the case of distilled spirits7 and in the proper column the number of the packages1 the serial numbers of same1 the serial number of the warehouse stamps1 the contents in wine and proof gallons and the proof as shown by the marks1 the date of the withdrawal gauge1 and by whom gauged4 ,in case of de-naturing agents he shall enter in the proper place and in the proper columns the number of gallons1 the kind of material1 and the number of the de-naturing material tank from which same is to be drawn4 ,the contents of the several packages of alcohol1 as shown by the withdrawal gauge1 shall be accepted as the contents of said packages when dumped for de-naturing purposes unless it should appear from a special showing made by the distiller that there has been an accidental loss since withdrawal from distillery bonded warehouse4 ,upon receipt of this notice the officer in charge of the de-naturing warehouse shall1 in case of the packages of alcohol1 inspect same carefully to ascertain whether or not they are the packages described in the distiller's notice4 ,he will then cut out that portion of the warehouse stamp upon which is shown the serial number of the stamp1 the name of the distiller1 the proof gallons1 and the serial number of the package4 ,these slips must be securely fastened to the form whereon the gauging is reported and sent by the officer with his return to the collector4 ,,transfer ,,of ,,de-,,naturants ,,to ,,mixing ,,tanks4 ,,sec4 #cb4 ,the distiller1 unless pipes are used1 as herein provided1 shall provide suitable gauged receptacles1 metal drums being preferred1 with which to transfer the de-naturing agents from the material tanks to the mixing tanks4 ,these receptacles must be numbered serially and the number1 the capacity in gallons and fractions of a gallon1 the name of the distiller1 and the number of the de-naturing bonded warehouse marked thereon in durable letters and figures4 ,they shall be used for transferring de-naturing material from the material tanks to the mixing tanks and for no other purpose4 ,the distiller must also provide suitable approved sealed measures of smaller capacity4 ,the gauged receptacles are to be used where the quantity to be transferred amounts to as much as the capacity of the smallest gauged receptacle in the warehouse4 ,the measures are to be used only when the quantity of material to be transferred is less than the capacity of the smallest gauged receptacle4 ,,sec4 #cc4 ,the distiller may provide metal pipes connecting the material tanks and the mixing tanks and the de-naturant may be transferred to the mixing tanks through these pipes4 ,such pipes must be supplied with valves1 cocks1 or faucets1 other proper means of controlling the flow of the liquid1 and such valves1 cocks1 or faucets must be so arranged that they can be securely locked1 and the locks attached thereto must be kept fastened2 the keys to be retained by the officer in charge1 except when the de-naturing material is being transferred to the mixing tanks4 ,in the event pipes are used as above provided1 the glass gauges affixed to the material tanks must be so graduated that tenths of a gallon will be indicated4 ,before any material is transferred from a material tank to a mixing tank the officer must note the contents of the material tank as indicated by the glass gauge4 ,he will then permit the de-naturant to flow into the mixing tank until the exact quantity necessary to de-nature the alcohol1 as provided by the regulations1 has been transferred4 ,this he will ascertain by reading the gauge on the material tank before the liquid has begun to flow and after the flow has been stopped4 ,he should verify the quantity transferred by reading the gauge on the mixing tank before and after the transfer4 ,,sec4 #cd4 ,the distiller must provide all scales1 weighing beams1 and other appliances necessary for transferring the de-naturing materials gauging or handling the alcohol1 or testing any of the measures1 receptacles or gauges used in the warehouse1 and also a sufficient number of competent employees for the work4 ,,contents ,,of ,,mixing ,,tank ,,to ,,be ,,plunged4 ,,sec4 #ce4 ,the exact quantity of distilled spirits contained in the packages covered by the distiller's notice having been ascertained by the officer and the spirits having been dumped into the mixing tank1 and the quantities of the several de-naturants prescribed by the regulations having been ascertained by calculation and added as above provided to the alcohol in the mixing tank to be thoroughly and completely plunged and mixed by the distiller or his employees4 ,,drawing ,,off ,,and ,,gauging ,,de-,,natured ,,product4 ,,sec4 #cg4 ,the distiller may from time to time as he wishes1 in the presence of the officer1 draw off from the tank or tanks the de-natured product in quantities of not less than #ej gallons at one time1 and the same must at once be gauged1 stamped1 and branded by the officer and removed from the premises by the distiller4 ,,kind ,,and ,,capacity ,,of ,,packages ,,used4 ,,sec4 #ch4 ,he may use packages of a capacity of not less than five gallons or not more than one hundred and thirty-five 7#ace7 gallons1 and each package must be filled to its full capacity1 such wantage being allowed as may be necessary for expansion4 ,all packages used to contain completely de-natured alcohol must be painted a light green1 and in no case is a package of any other color to be used4 ,,alcohol ,,to ,,be ,,immediately ,,de-,,natured4 ,,sec4 #ci4 ,no alcohol withdrawn from distillery warehouse for de-naturing purposes shall be permitted to remain in the de-naturing bonded warehouse until after the close of business on the second day after the said alcohol is withdrawn1 but all alcohol so withdrawn must be transferred1 dumped1 and de-natured before the close of business on said second day4 ,,application ,,for ,,gauge ,,of ,,de-,,natured ,,alcohol4 ,,sec4 #dj4 ,when the process of de-naturing has been completed and the distiller desires to have the de-natured alcohol drawn off into packages and gauged1 he shall prepare a request for such gauge on the proper form4 ,the request shall state as accurately as practicable the number of packages to be drawn off and the number of wine and proof gallons contents thereof4 ,this notice shall be directed to the collector of internal revenue1 but shall be handed to the officer on duty at the de-naturing bonded warehouse4 ,,sec4 #da4 ,if the officer shall find upon examination of the proper record that there should be on hand the quantity of de-natured alcohol covered by said notice1 he shall proceed to gauge and stamp the several packages of de-natured alcohol in the manner herein prescribed1 and shall make report thereof on the proper form4 ,in no case will the officer gauge and stamp de-natured alcohol the total quantity in wine gallons of which taken together with any remnant that may be left in the de-naturing tank exceeds in wine gallons the sum of the quantity of distilled spirits and de-naturants dumped on that day and any remnant brought over from previous day4 ,,how ,,de-,,natured ,,alcohol ,,shall ,,be ,,gauged4 ,,sec4 #db4 ,the gauging of de-natured alcohol shall1 where it is practicable1 be by weight4 ,the officer shall ascertain the tare by actually weighing each package when empty4 ,then1 after each package has been filled in his presence1 he shall ascertain the gross weight1 and1 by applying the tare1 the net weight4 ,he shall then ascertain the proof in the usual manner1 and by applying the proof to the wine gallons content the proof gallons shall be ascertained4 ,the regulations relating to the gauging of rectified spirits1 so far as they apply to apparent proof and apparent proof gallons1 shall apply to de-natured spirits4 ,where it is for any reason not practicable to gauge de-natured alcohol by weight1 using the tables that apply in the case of the gauging of distilled spirits1 the gauging shall be by rod4 ,sections #dc to #de provide for the returns to be made by the ,government officials1 and the proper marking of the packages containing de-natured alcohol2 and ,sections #df to #dh lay down the form of the ,government stamps and their use4 ,section #di places the mixing tank absolutely in the control of the warehouse officer1 and requires if he leaves the warehouse he must close and lock the same4 ,section #ej deals with records to be kept by warehouse officer4 ,,de-,,natured ,,alcohol ,,to ,,be ,,removed ,,from ,,warehouse4 ,,sec4 #ea4 ,not later than the close of business on the day following that upon which the work of drawing off and gauging the de-natured spirits is completed1 the distiller must remove said de-natured alcohol from the de-naturing bonded warehouse4 ,he may either remove the alcohol to a building off the distillery premises1 where he can dispose of it as the demands of the trade require1 or he may dispose of it in stamped packages direct to the trade from the de-naturing bonded warehouse4 ,sections #eb and #ec relate to records to be kept by the distiller showing de-natured alcohol received and disposed of by him1 and the parties to whom the same was sold or delivered4 ,sections #ed to #eg cover reports and records to be made by officers and collector4 ,part ,,ii of the ,regulations relates to dealers in de-natured alcohol1 and manufacturers using the same4 ,,sec4 #eh4 ,alcohol de-natured by use of methyl alcohol and benzine as provided in section #bf of these regulations is to be classed as completely de-natured alcohol4 ,alcohol de-natured in any other manner will be classed as specially de-natured alcohol4 ,,de-,,natured ,,alcohol ,,not ,,to ,,be ,,stored ,,on ,,certain ,,premises1 ,,and ,,not ,,to ,,be ,,used ,,for ,,certain ,,purposes4 ,,sec4 #ei4 ,neither completely nor specially de-natured alcohol shall be kept or stored on the premises of the following classes of persons1 to wit3 dealers in wines1 fermented liquors or distilled spirits1 rectifiers of spirits1 manufacturers of and dealers in beverages of any kind1 manufacturers of liquid medicinal preparations1 or distillers 7except as to such de-natured alcohol in stamped packages as is manufactured by themselves71 manufacturers of vinegar by the vaporizing process and the use of a still and mash1 wort1 or wash1 and persons who1 in the course of business1 have or keep distilled spirits1 wines1 or malt liquors1 or other beverages stored on their premises4 ,provided1 ,that druggists are exempt from the above provisions4 ,,can ,,not ,,be ,,used ,,in ,,manufacturing ,,beverages1 ,,etc4 ,,sec4 #fj4 ,anyone using de-natured alcohol for the manufacture of any beverage or liquid medicinal preparation1 or who knowingly sells any beverage or liquid medicinal preparation made in whole or in part from such alcohol1 becomes subject to the penalties prescribed in section #b of the ,act of ,june #g1 #aijf4 ,under the language of this law it is held that de-natured alcohol can not be used in the preparation of any article to be used as a component part in the preparation of any beverage or liquid medicinal preparation4 ,a person1 firm1 or corporation desiring to sell de-natured alcohol1 must make application1 in proper form1 to the district collector on or before the first of ,july each year1 and if the provisions of the law have been violated the permit may be withdrawn 7,sections #fa to #fe74 ,sections #ff to #ga relate to the keeping of records by collector1 and wholesale and retail dealers4 ,,retail ,,dealers ,,to ,,keep ,,record4 ,,sec4 #gb4 ,retail dealers in de-natured alcohol shall keep a record1 in which they shall enter the date upon which they receive any package or packages of de-natured alcohol1 the person from whom received1 the serial numbers of the packages1 the serial numbers of the de-natured alcohol stamps the wine and proof gallons1 and the date upon which packages are opened for retail4 ,the transcript for each month's business as shown by this record must be prepared1 signed1 and sworn to and forwarded to the collector of internal revenue of the district in which the dealer is located before the #ajth of the following month4 ,this transcript must be signed and sworn to by the dealer himself or by his duly authorized agent4 ,,labels ,,to ,,be ,,placed ,,on ,,retail ,,packages4 ,,sec4 #gc4 ,retail dealers in de-natured alcohol must provide themselves with labels upon which the words ,de-,natured ,alcohol have been printed in plain1 legible letters4 ,the printing shall be red on white4 ,a label of this character must be affixed by the dealer to the container1 whatever it may be1 in the case of each sale of de-natured alcohol made by him4 ,,stamps ,,to ,,be ,,destroyed ,,when ,,package ,,is ,,empty4 ,,sec4 #gd4 ,as soon as the stamped packages of de-natured alcohol are empty the dealer or manufacturer1 as the case may be1 must thoroughly obliterate and completely destroy all marks1 stamps1 and brands on the packages4 ,the stamps shall under no circumstances be re-used1 and the packages shall not be refilled until all the marks1 stamps1 and brands shall have been removed and destroyed4 ,,manufacturers ,,using ,,completely ,,de-,,natured ,,alcohol ,,to ,,secure ,,permit4 ,,sec4 #ge4 ,manufacturers desiring to use completely de-natured alcohol1 such as is put upon the market for sale generally1 may use such alcohol in their business subject to the following restrictions3 ,a manufacturer using less than an average of #ej gallons of de-natured alcohol per month will not be required to secure permit from the collector or to keep records or make returns showing the alcohol received and used4 ,manufacturers who use as much as #ej gallons of completely de-natured alcohol a month must procure such alcohol in stamped packages1 and before beginning business the manufacturer must make application to the collector of the proper district for permit1 in which application he will state the exact location of his place of business1 describing the lot or tract of land upon which the plant is located1 and must keep the alcohol in a locked room until used4 ,,sec4 #gi4 ,as the agents adapted to and adopted for use in complete de-naturation render the alcohol de-natured unfit for use in many industries in which ethyl alcohol1 withdrawn free of tax1 can be profitably employed1 therefore in order to give full scope to the operation of the law1 special de-naturants will be authorized when absolutely necessary4 ,yet the strictest surveillance must be exercised in the handling of alcohol incompletely or specially de-natured4 ,,formula ,,for ,,special ,,de-,,naturants ,,to ,,be ,,submitted ,,to ,,the ,,commissioner4 ,,sec4 #hj4 ,the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue will consider any formula for special de-naturation that may be submitted by any manufacturer in any art or industry and will determine 7#a7 whether or not the manufacture in which it is proposed to use the alcohol belongs to a class in which tax-free alcohol withdrawn under the provisions of this act can be used4 7#b7 whether or not it is practicable to permit the use of the proposed de-naturant and at the same time properly safeguard the revenue4 ,but one special de-naturant will be authorized for the same class of industries1 unless it shall be shown that there is good reason for additional special de-naturants4 ,the ,commissioner will announce from time to time the formulas of de-naturants that will be permitted in the several classes of industries in which tax-free alcohol can be used4 ,the specially or incompletely de-natured alcohol can only be used by special permission1 for which the manufacturer must apply1 at the same time giving full details as to business1 plant1 premises1 the special de-naturants desired to be used1 and the reason therefor1 etc4 7,section #ha74 ,section #hb recites the necessary requirements as to storerooms1 etc41 and ,sections #hc to #hg relate to the form of application and the inspection of the plant4 ,section #hh recites the form of bond necessary to be given by the manufacturer1 and ,sections #hi to #ajd relate to the general requirements as to records1 books1 affidavits1 etc4 ,sections #aje and #ajf rule that the alcohol must be used just as received1 and as called for in the permit1 and that a manufacturer quitting business may dispose of his specially de-natured alcohol to other manufacturers4 ,,provisions ,,applicable ,,to ,,manufacturers ,,using ,,either ,,specially ,,or ,,generally ,,de-,,natured ,,alcohol4 ,,sec4 #ajg4 ,under no circumstances will de-naturers1 manufacturers1 or dealers1 or any other persons1 in any manner treat either specially or completely de-natured alcohol by adding anything to it or taking anything from it until it is ready for the use for which it is to be employed4 ,it must go into manufacture or consumption in exactly the same condition that it was when it left the de-naturer4 ,diluting completely de-natured alcohol will be held to be such manipulation as is forbidden by law4 ,,sec4 #ajh4 ,manufacturers using either specially or completely de-natured alcohol must store it in the storeroom set apart for that purpose1 the place for deposit named in the bond and application1 and nowhere else4 ,likewise they must deposit recovered alcohol in said storeroom as fast as it is recovered4 ,it will be held to be a breach of the bond and a violation of the law if any alcohol of any kind1 character1 or description should be found stored at any other place on the premises4 ,the question of special de-naturants is one of great importance to the manufacturer1 and should be carefully studied4 ,the distiller who succeeds on a large scale will be he who is most expert in preparing alcohol specially de-natured to suit the requirements of the various arts4 ,germany has done most in this line1 and the ,german practice should be carefully studied4 ,parts ,,iv and ,v of the ,rules relate to that portion of the ,de-,naturing ,act1 referred to in ,section #b thereof--the recovering1 restoring and re-de-naturing of alcohol used by manufacturers employing processes in which the formerly de-natured spirits are8 expressed1 or evaporated4 ,this not being within the plan of this book1 the rules relating thereto are not quoted4 ,those desirous of acquiring full information as to the rules regulating the operation of distilleries for the manufacture of alcohol and de-natured spirits can procure the same by applying either to the collectors of ,internal ,revenue for their respective districts or to the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,,proposed ,,changes ,,in ,,the ,,de-,,naturing ,,act4 ,the ,de-naturing ,act as passed and the regulations thereunder are undoubtedly too complicated in their character to remain very long in the ,statute ,books4 ,there has already arisen a cry for simpler regulations which shall place the manufacture of de-natured alcohol on a plane with the practice in ,germany1 ,france and other countries which have carried the manufacture and use of alcohol1 for industrial purposes to a very high plane4 ,both in ,england and ,america the ,excise and ,internal ,revenue regulations have been of very troublesome character1 and the production of spirits has been so carefully guarded1 watched and checked that the distiller aside from the high tax he has had to pay has been greatly hampered4 ,in ,germany and ,france1 however1 things are different4 ,there the manufacture of ,industrial ,alcohol from farm products has been encouraged and as a consequence the regulations are of very much simpler character4 ,in ,germany the number of agricultural or co-operative stills is very large and these stills are practically free from the constant supervision of internal revenue officials4 ,until the wash passes into the still there is practically no ,governmental supervision except as to the proper gauging of the vats and to the proper sealing of all joints or pipes leading from the vats to the still4 ,from that point onward1 however1 to the final receiver every vessel is locked and sealed and no access to the spirit can be obtained by the distiller4 ,the quantity of spirit distilled and its quality is ascertained by the ,revenue ,officer from this final receiver and on this spirit so found is computed the vat tax and the distillery tax which have to be paid by the distiller4 ,there are none of the cumbersome regulations regarding the warehouses1 storehouses1 storekeepers1 etc41 which are found in our own revenue laws4 ,to provide security against abstraction of wash in the fermenting tanks1 reliance is placed upon frequent but uncertain visitations4 ,there is no question but that in the fulness of time our own laws and regulations will be very much simplified for all industrial plants4 ,an attempt has been made to so simplify the laws by ,act of ,congress ,no4 #bcj1 approved ,march #b1 #aijg and taking effect on ,september #a1 #aijg1 the text of which is appended1 and undoubtedly other acts will follow as the country becomes more and more sensible of the benefits to be derived from free industrial alcohol4 ,the text of the act is as follows3 ,,public--,,no4 #bcj4 ,an ,act to amend an ,act entitled ,an ,act for the withdrawal from bond tax free of domestic alcohol when rendered unfit for beverage or liquid medicinal uses by mixture with suitable denaturing materials1 approved ,june seventh1 nineteen hundred and six4 ,be it enacted by the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives of the ,united ,states of ,america in ,congress ,assembled1 ,that notwithstanding anything contained in the ,act entitled ,an ,act for the withdrawal from bond tax free of domestic alcohol when rendered unfit for beverage or liquid medicinal uses by mixture with suitable de-naturing materials1 approved ,june seventh1 nineteen hundred and six1 domestic alcohol when suitably denatured may be withdrawn from bond without the payment of internal-revenue tax and used in the manufacture of ether and chloroform and other definite chemical substances where said alcohol is changed into some other chemical substance and does not appear in the finished product as alcohol3 ,provided1 ,that rum of not less than one hundred and fifty degrees proof1 may be withdrawn1 for de-naturation only1 in accordance with the provisions of said ,act of ,june seventh1 nineteen hundred and six1 and in accordance with the provisions of this ,act4 ,,sec4 #b4 ,that the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue1 with the approval of the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 may authorize the establishment of central de-naturing bonded warehouses1 other than those at distilleries1 to which alcohol of the required proof may be transferred from distilleries or distillery bonded warehouses without the payment of internal-revenue tax1 and in which such alcohol may be stored and de-natured4 ,the establishment1 operation1 and custody of such warehouses shall be under such regulations and upon the execution of such bonds as the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue1 with the approval of the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 may prescribe4 ,,sec4 #c4 ,that alcohol of the required proof may be drawn off1 for de-naturation only1 from receiving cisterns in the cistern room of any distillery for transfer by pipes direct to any de-naturing bonded warehouse on the distillery premises or to closed metal storage tanks situated in the distillery bonded warehouse1 or from such storage tanks to any denaturing bonded warehouse on the distillery premises1 and de-natured alcohol may also be transported from the de-naturing bonded warehouse1 in such manner and by means of such packages1 tanks or tank cars1 and on the execution of such bonds1 and under such regulations as the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue1 with the approval of the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 may prescribe4 ,and further1 alcohol to be de-natured may be withdrawn without the payment of internal-revenue tax from the distillery bonded warehouse for shipment to central de-naturing plants in such packages1 tanks and tank cars1 under such regulations1 and on the execution of such bonds as may be prescribed by the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue1 with the approval of the ,secretary of the ,treasury4 ,,sec4 #d4 ,that at distilleries producing alcohol from any substance what ever1 for de-naturation only1 and having a daily spirit-producing capacity of not exceeding one hundred proof gallons1 the use of cisterns or tanks of such size and construction as may be deemed expedient may be permitted in lieu of distillery bonded warehouses1 and the production1 storage1 the manner and process of de-naturing on the distillery premises the alcohol produced1 and transportation of such alcohol1 and the operation of such distilleries shall be upon the execution of such bonds and under such regulations as the ,commissioner of ,internal ,revenue1 with the approval of the ,secretary of the ,treasury1 may prescribe1 and such distilleries may by such regulations be exempted from such provisions of the existing laws relating to distilleries as may be deemed expedient by said officials4 ,,sec4 #e4 ,that the provisions of this ,act shall take effect on ,september first1 nineteen hundred and seven4 ,approved1 ,march #b1 #aijg4 ,,index4 ,adam's ,still1 #ch faults of1 #ci operation of1 #ch ,air necessary to fermentation1 #ah cooling for mashes1 #ae ,alcohol1 absolute1 #b as fuel1 #bba boiling point of1 #b points of mixture1 #b composition of1 #a1 #f contraction in mixtures of1 #d de-natured1 #adc determination of purity1 #ahf1 #ahh estimation of1 #agi estimating by ,geisler's method1 #ahc ,brand's method1 #ahd sugar in ,beer1 #ahe ethyl1 #g methyl1 #g measuring in mixtures1 #agd1 #agi by hydrometers1 #agf1 #agh proof1 #age rectification of1 #hb1 #ib relative amounts in different grains1 #abf specific gravity of1 #b1 #agd strengthening1 #ca under proof1 #agf wood1 #g ,alcoholometer1 ,cartier's1 #agh ,field's1 #ahb ,tralle's1 #agi ,alcoholometry1 #agd ,alcohols1 principal1 #f boiling points of principal1 #f composition of principal1 #f ,barbet's still1 #ic traps1 #fh test for alcoholic purity1 #ahg ,barley best for malting1 #ajc cleaning1 #ajd draining after steeping1 #aje drying malt from1 #ajh effect of germination on1 #ajg germination of1 #ajf steeping1 #aje test of sufficient steeping1 #aje washing1 #ajd ,beet-cleaners1 #aea -juice1 extraction of by maceration and diffusion1 #aeg1 #aeh pulp1 addition of sulphuric acid to1 #aec1 #aef1 #afj presses1 #aed1 #aef rasp1 #aeb ,beets1 alcohol from1 #aej cellars for storing1 #adi cultivation of1 #adj characteristics of good1 #adj cleaning1 #aea composition of1 #ada conditions for cultivating1 #adb1 #add1 #ade diffusion battery for1 #aeh direct distillation of1 #afa distilling apparatus for1 #afb1 #bjj1 #bja distilling plant for1 #aii1 #bja ,beets1 fermenting juice of1 #afj harvesting1 #adf how to tell when ripe1 #adg hydraulic presses for1 #aec macerating1 #aef1 #aei manures for1 #adc roll press for1 #aed soil for growing1 #adb sowing1 #add1 #adf stack for storing1 #adh storing in winter1 #adi scum forming during fermentation of1 #afj transportation of1 #bjc ,boiling over1 to prevent in still1 #eh points of alcoholic liquors1 #b ,carbonic anhydride1 to get rid of1 #be ,cellar for beets1 #adi ,cellier-,blumenthal still1 #dh ,cleaning barley1 #ajc beets1 #aej grain1 #ajd potatoes1 #aaj1 #bjd apparatus for1 #aea ,coal consumption1 #bjh ,coffey's still1 #ed ,column distillery1 #fd1 #ff rectifying1 #ea1 #hg1 #id ,condenser1 ,cellier-,blumenthal's1 #dh ,coffey's still1 #ed and mash heater1 #da1 #dc1 #df1 #eb1 #fd1 #gd ,concentration of alcohol by distillation1 #ca ,continuous distillation1 #ej ,cooling mashes by air1 #ae by water1 #ag1 #acc1 #aif ,corn1 mashing1 7see ,grain74 ,couch1 wet1 #ajf ,covered fermentation1 #bg ,current still1 #ei ,de-,naturants1 formulas for1 #baa1 #bad1 #baf1 #bai1 #bed prescribed in ,u4 ,s41 #baa1 #bbj ,de-natured alcohol in ,canada1 #bad ,england1 #bad ,france1 #bae ,germany1 #baa1 #bad uses of1 #baj1 #bac1 #bag in ,germany1 #bag1 #bbb ,de-naturing in ,london establishment1 #bae in ,u4 ,s41 ,acts regulating1 #bab1 #bai1 #bbe1 #bei regulations1 #bbi with benzine1 #baf ,diastase1 #ad proper temperature for action of1 #ad1 #acc ,distilling apparatus1 #cc1 #fc1 #ahi ,adams'1 #h beet1 #afb ,cellier-,blumenthal's1 #dh ,coffey's1 #ed continuous1 #ej1 #fh current1 #ei compound still1 #df1 #dg fire heated1 #dg ,corty's1 #dj double1 #da ,dorn's1 #dc ,gillaume's1 #gh simple1 #ch1 #cf1 #aij with enricher1 #cg ,distilling column1 #fd1 #gc plants1 #ahi1 #aii1 #bje ,distillation1 checking #cb compound1 #db1 #ej multiple to strengthen alcohol1 #ca ,dough1 luting still with1 #cd ,dujardin's roll press for beets1 #aed ,drying1 barley1 #ajh kiln for1 #ajh ,drying rooms1 temperature of1 #ajh ,dunder from molasses1 #afh ,flavor in alcohol1 cause of bad1 #hf ,ferment1 too much1 #bd ,fermentation in general1 #i1 #ah1 #bg alcoholic1 #bb1 #bc acetous1 #bd foaming1 #bg heat necessary for1 #ai lactic1 #be loss in1 #bh phenomena of1 #bg periods of1 #bf under cover1 #bg viscous1 #be ,fermenting apparatus1 #bh1 #aid room1 #bi1 #aid vats1 #bh1 #bi1 #aie ,fire1 regulating distilling1 #fa ,floors for malting barley1 #ajf ,fractionating1 #hc ,fusel oil1 7see ,rectifying74 ,geisler's apparatus for estimating alcohol1 #ahd ,gelatinizing apparatus1 #aj ,germinating barley1 #ajf ,grain1 alcohol from1 #abf composition of1 #abh cooling of mashed1 #acc distillery for1 #aig grinding1 #abi infusion of1 #aca1 #ace ,grain1 mashing in general1 #acj1 #acd mashing1 proportions of grain for1 #acd under steam pressure1 #acg mashes1 cooling1 #acc regulating temperature of1 #acc1 #ach mash tub1 #acd thin mash of1 #acd1 #ace saccharifying1 #aca1 #acd steeping1 #abi sulphurous acid1 #acb temperature of water1 #abi sufficient steeping of1 #acj ,grains1 relative quantities of alcohol from various1 #abf ,gauge glass1 #ga ,heat indicator for regulating1 #fa necessary for fermentation1 #ai ,henze steamer1 #aa1 #ad ,hydraulic presses for beets1 #aec ,hydrometers1 #agf1 #agg ,indicator for regulating distillery fire1 #fa ,iodine ,test1 #ahe ,lactic fermentation1 #be ,lime1 neutralizing acid by milk of1 #hj ,loss of alcohol in fermentation1 #bh ,malt1 #ajc drying1 #ajh grinding dried1 #aji kiln1 #ajh ,malting barley1 #ajc cleaning barley for1 #ajd couch1 #ajf floors1 #ajf germinating barley for1 #ajf in large plants1 #ajh steeping barley for1 #aje ,mash cooling1 #ae1 #af1 #ag heating1 #eb1 #gd tub1 #abb1 #abc1 #abd ,mashing in general1 #h grain1 #cj1 #acd cleaning1 #ajd potatoes1 #aaj1 #abe starchy materials1 #aj ,molasses1 alcohol from1 #afc acidifying1 #afd beet sugar1 #afd cane sugar1 #afh clarifying cane sugar1 #agj composition of 1 #afh dilution of1 #afg dunder from cane sugar1 #afh fermenting cane sugar1 #agj1 #bjf cane sugar in ,mauritius1 #agb cane sugar in ,java1 #agb mixing vats for water and1 #afd1 #afe plant for distilling1 #bje skimmings from cane sugar1 #afh transportation of1 #bjg washes1 setting up1 #aff pitching temperature of1 #aff ,methylated spirits1 #baa1 #bab ,neutralizing ,acids in rectifying1 #hf ,pitching the mash1 #bb temperature1 #bb ,potato-alcohol use in ,germany1 #bab how to obtain good1 #ach ,potatoes1 alcohol from1 #aaj best for distilling1 #aaj cleaning1 #aaj1 #bjd crusher for1 #aaf ,potatoes1 crushing and steaming1 #aaa1 #aag extraction of starch from separately1 #abb isolation of starch from1 #abb keeping1 #aaj mashing1 #aaj1 #aah1 #abe plant for distilling1 #bjd rasp for pulping1 #aeb saccharifying by sulphuric acid1 #abd starch from1 #abb steaming1 #aaa under high pressure1 #aa1 #aah1 #aba vat for1 #aab1 #aba steamer and crusher for1 #aaa1 #aag vacuum cooker for1 #aa ,proof spirit1 #age ,rectification1 #hb1 #ib by filtration1 #aja ,rectifying apparatus1 #hg ,barbet's1 #id ,gillaume1 #ig1 #ii intermittent1 #ij ,vulcan1 #ic ,regulating distillery fire1 #fa ,relative quantities of alcohol in grains1 #abf ,rice1 7see ,grains74 ,saccharification1 #h1 #aj1 #ad by sulphuric acid1 #ach complete1 #ahe of grain1 signs of1 #acg ,saccharifying apparatus1 #ad ,specific gravity of alcohol1 #b1 #agd calculating1 #agd ,steam generator1 #aad regulator1 #fi ,steamers1 high pressure1 #aa1 #ab ,steaming under high pressure1 #ac ,steaming grain1 #acf potatoes1 #aaa under pressure1 #aah1 #aba vat1 #aab ,steeping barley1 #aje grain1 #abi sufficiently1 #acj temperature1 #acj ,stills1 7see ,distilling ,apparatus74 ,sulphuric acid for saccharifying grain1 #ach neutralizing1 #hf ,sykes' hydrometer1 #agg ,testing ,alcohol for purity1 #ahg ,twin column rectifier1 #ie ,vacuum cooker1 #aj1 #aa ,vulcan rectifying still1 #ic stills1 #gc1 #gg traps1 #ge ,water for distilling1 #bjh ,yeast1 #bj brewers1 #aa fermentation by1 #i1 #aj 99 99 99 99 99 ,,electrical ,,books4 ,,the ,,diseases ,,of ,,electrical ,,machinery4 ,by ,,ernst ,,schulz4 ,edited with a preface by ,sylvanus ,p4 ,thompson4 ,contents of ,chapters3 #a1 ,continuous ,current ,machines2 breakdowns in the armature2 brushes and brush holders2 faults in the field winding2 faults in the regulator or starter4 #b1 ,singlephase and ,polyphase ,generators2 faults in armature2 grounds in generators2 connections of different phases2 field windings4 #c1 ,singlephase and ,polyphase ,induction ,motors2 stator faults2 rotor faults4 #d1 ,transformers2 faults in winding2 effects of lightning4 #e1 ,efficiency2 examples of efficiency calculations4 #id pages1 #db illustrations1 #abmo41 cloth1 #a4jj4 ,,electrical ,,tables ,,and ,,memoranda4 ,a valuable little reference book for engineers1 electricians1 motor inspectors and others interested in the electrical science1 containing many tables and much valuable information in a very small space1 with a number of illustrations1 by ,,prof4 ,,silvanus ,,thompson4 #fdmo41 roan1 gilt edges1 #dj;c4 ,,the ,,voltaic ,,accumulator4 ,by ,,emile ,,reynier4 ,contents3 ,part #a1 ,principles1 definitions1 voltmeters4 ,part #b1 ,voltaic accumulators of various types4 ,part #c1 ,technology4 ,part #d1 ,application of accumulators4 #bjb pages1 #fb illustrations1 cloth1 #c4jj4 ,,the ,,mercurial ,,air ,,pump4 ,by ,,prof4 ,,silvanus ,p4 ,,thompson1 ,d4 ,sc4 #cg pages1 #dc illustrations1 large #hvo41 paper1 #fj;c4 ,,thermo-,,electric ,,reactions ,,and ,,currents1 ,,between ,,metals ,,in ,,fused ,,salts4 ,by ,,thomas ,,andrews1 ,f4,r4,s4 #ah pages1 with illustrations and tables1 #hvo41 paper1 #dj;c4 ,,the ,,application ,,of ,,electricity ,,to ,,railway ,,working4 ,by ,,william ,,edward ,,langdon4 ,contents of ,chapters3 #a1 ,on the construction of a telegraph line4 #b1 ,surveying4 #c1 ,construction4 #d1 ,telegraph instruments and batteries4 #e1 ,block signalling4 #f1 ,single line working4 #g1 ,automatic block signalling4 #h1 ,interlocking4 #i1 ,miscellaneous appliances in connection with block signalling4 #aj1 ,train lighting4 #aa1 ,electric light and power4 #ab1 ,intercommunication in trains4 #ac1 ,administration4 ,appendix4 ,index4 #cja pages1 #f full page plates and #adc engravings and diagrams1 #hvo41 cloth1 #e4jj4 ,,electrical ,,testing ,,of ,,telegraph ,,cables4 ,by ,,col4 ,v4 ,,hoskiaer4 ,third edition4 #abmo41 cloth1 #a4ej4 ,,hard ,,soldering1 ,a ,,manual ,,of ,,instruction ,,in4 ,by ,h4 ,,rowell1 with a chapter on soft soldering and brazing4 #abmo41 cloth1 #ge;c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,just ,,out4 #bic pages1 #bih illustrations1 #hvo4 ,cloth1 #a4jj net4 ,,the ,,model ,,library ,,vol4 ,i4 ,consisting of the following four ,american books1 with very complete general index4 ,the ,study of ,electricity and ,its ,laws for ,beginners4 ,how to ,install ,electric ,bells1 ,annunciators and ,alarms4 ,dry ,batteries1 ,how to ,make and ,use ,them4 ,electrical ,circuits and ,diagrams4 ,illustrated and explained4 99 99 99 99 99 #be;c4 ,,books4 ,,electricity4 ,the study of1 and its laws for beginners1 comprising the laws of electric current generation and flow1 ,ohm's law1 galvanism1 magnetism1 induction1 principles of dynamos and motors1 wiring1 with explanations of simple mathematics as applied to electrical calculations4 ,by ,n4 ,h4 ,,schneider4 ,with #ee original illustrations and #f tables4 ,,dry ,,batteries4 ,a practical handbook on the designing1 filling and finishing of dry batteries1 with tables1 for automobiles1 gas engine1 medical and coil work1 electric bells1 alarms1 telephones1 experiments and all purposes requiring a first-rate battery4 ,fully illustrated with #cj original drawings4 ,,electrical ,,circuits ,,and ,,diagrams4 ,being a selection of original up-to-date and practical diagrams for installing annunciators1 alarms1 bells1 electric gas lighting1 telephones1 electric power light and wiring circuits1 induction coils1 gas engine igniters1 dynamos and motors1 armature windings4 ,by ,n4 ,h4 ,,schneider4 ,,electric ,,bells ,,and ,,alarms4 ,how to install them4 ,by ,n4 ,h4 ,,schneider4 ,including batteries1 wire and wiring1 circuits1 pushes1 bells1 burglar alarms1 high and low water alarms1 fire alarms1 thermostats1 annunciators1 and the locating and remedying of faults4 ,with #ef original diagrams4 ,,modern ,,primary ,,batteries4 ,their construction1 use and maintenance1 including batteries for telephones1 telegraphs1 motors1 electric lights1 induction coils1 and for all experimental work4 ,by ,n4 ,h4 ,,schneider4 #id pages1 #ee illustrations4 ,the best and latest ,american book on the subject4 ,,experimenting ,,with ,,induction ,,coils4 ,h4 ,s4 ,,norrie1 author of ,induction ,coils and ,coil ,making4 ,a most instructive little book1 full of practical and interesting experiments1 fully explained in plain language with numerous hints and suggestions for evening entertainments4 ,arranged under the following headings3 ,introduction2 ,the ,handling of ,ruhmkorff ,coil2 ,experiments with ,sparks2 ,effects in the ,vacuum2 ,induction and ,wireless ,telegraphy4 ,with #cf original illustrations4 ,in the press ,,small ,,accumulators4 ,how made and used1 by ,p4 ,,marshall4 ,giving full descriptions how to make all the parts2 assemble them1 charge the cells and run them1 with examples of their practical application4 ,useful receipts and memoranda and a glossary of technical terms4 #hj pages1 #dj illustrations1 paper4 ,,electric ,,gas ,,lighting4 ,how to install ,electric gas igniting apparatus including the jump spark and multiple systems for all purposes4 ,also the care and selection of suitable batteries1 wiring and repairs1 by ,h4 ,s4 ,,norrie4 #aja pages1 #eg illustrations1 paper4 ,,simple ,,electrical ,,working ,,models4 ,how to make them and how to use them4 ,with #dc illustrations4 ,,telephones ,,and ,,microphones4 ,making and using simple forms of telephones and microphones1 with #bi illustrations4 ,,small ,,electric ,,motors4 ,how to make and use them1 including design1 examples of small motors1 and their applications1 speed controllers1 starters1 fuses1 etc4 #dh illustrations4 ,,electric ,,lighting for amateurs4 ,the installation of electric light on a small scale1 construction of lamps and lamp holders1 switches1 batteries and their connections4 ,with #de illustrations4 ,,induction ,,coils4 ,a practical handbook on the construction and use of shock and spark coils4 ,with #ce illustrations4 ,x-,,rays ,,simply ,,explained4 ,the theory and practical application of ,radiography4 #aj illustrations and #f plates4 ,,static ,,electricity4 ,simple experiments in4 ,a series of instructive and entertaining electrical experiments with simple and inexpensive apparatus4 ,with #ea illustrations4 ,,simple ,,scientific ,,experiments4 ,how to perform entertaining and instructive experiments with simple home-made apparatus4 ,with #ei ,illustrations4 ,,small ,,electrical ,,measuring ,,instruments1 describing the making and using of the different instruments fully illustrated4 ,,small ,,dynamos ,,and ,,motors4 ,how to make and use them4 ,a practical handbook1 by ,f4 ,e4 ,,powell4 ,contents of ,chapters3 #a4 ,general ,considerations4 #b4 ,field ,magnets4 #c4 ,armatures4 #d4 ,commutators and ,other ,details4 #e4 ,tables of ,windings4 #f4 ,how to ,build a ,small ,machine4 #g4 ,useful ,data4 #h4 ,testing and ,repairing4 #gf pages1 fully illustrated with detail drawings4 ,,universal ,,time ,,card ,,model4 ,by setting to the desired hour at any one place the movable model will show at a glance the actual time of all the other places in the world4 ,printed in two colors4 ,,cross ,,section ,,books #be;c4 each4 ,,the ,,handy ,,sketching ,,book4 ,size #eh1 scale #h to #a in4 ,,the ,,handy ,,sketching ,,pad4 ,size #haj1 scale #h to #a in4 ,,electricians' ,,sketching ,,book4 ,size #eh1 scale #aj to #a in4 ,,electricians' ,,sketching ,,pad4 ,size #haj1 scale #aj to #a in4 ,,plotting ,,pad4 ,size #iaa1 scale #af to #a in4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,electrical ,,instruments and ,,testing4 ,how to ,use the ,voltmeter1 ,ammeter1 ,galvanometer1 ,potentiometer1 ,ohmmeter1 the ,wheatstone ,bridge1 and the ,standard ,portable ,testing ,sets4 ,,by ,,norman ,h4 ,,schneider4 ,author of ,care and ,handling of ,electric ,plants1 ,induction ,coils and ,coil ,making1 ,circuits and ,diagrams1 etc41 etc4 ,the aim of the author has been to produce a complete and practical work on this important subject4 ,first describing the various forms of ,electrical ,testing and ,measuring ,instruments and their construction4 ,secondly1 their practical application to everyday work with numerous examples worked out4 ,thirdly1 detailing the many tests of insulation resistance1 current and e4m4f4 that can be made with a voltmeter4 ,using only formulas in simple algebra and then explaining them in plain language for the benefit of practical men lacking a knowledge of mathematics4 ,during the past ten years the author has made hundreds of tests1 which has made him familiar with the subject from the practical standpoint4 ,he has also obtained valuable information and diagrams from the principal manufacturers of ,testing ,instruments4 ,the apparatus described is modern and in universal use4 ,most of the diagrams have been specially drawn for this book4 ,the work is divided into ,,xi4 chapters as follows3 ,introduction2 ,chapters ,i4 and ,,ii1 ,the ,galvanometer2 ,,iii1 ,rheostats2 ,,iv1 ,the ,voltmeter2 ,v1 ,the ,wheatstone ,bridge2 ,,vi1 ,forms of ,portable ,sets2 ,,vii1 ,current ,flow and e4m4f42 ,,viii1 ,the ,potentiometer2 ,,ix1 ,condensers2 ,x1 ,cable ,testing2 ,,xi1 ,testing with ,voltmeter4 #bcj pages1 #aje illustrations and diagrams1 #abmo41 cloth1 #a4jj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,everybody',s ,,book ,,on ,,electricity4 ,,practical ,,electrics4 ,a ,,universal ,,handy-,,book ,,on ,,everyday ,,electrical ,,matters4 ,,fifth ,,edition4 ,,contents4 ,alarms4--,doors and ,windows2 ,cisterns1 ,low ,water in ,boilers2 ,time ,signals2 ,clocks4 ,batteries4--,making2 ,cells2 ,bichromate2 ,bunsen2 ,callan's2 ,copper-oxide2 ,cruikshank's2 ,daniel's2 ,granule carbon2 ,groves2 ,insulite2 ,leclanch2 ,lime ,chromate2 ,silver ,chloride2 ,smee2 ,thermo-electric4 ,bells4--,annunciator ,system2 ,double ,system2 and ,telephone2 ,making2 ,magnet for2 ,bobbins or ,coils2 ,trembling2 ,single ,stroke2 ,continuous ,ringing4 ,connections4 ,carbons4 ,coils4--,induction2 ,primary2 ,secondary2 ,contact-breakers2 ,resistance4 ,intensity ,coils4--,reel2 ,primary2 ,secondary2 ,core2 ,contact-breaker2 ,condenser2 ,pedestal2 ,commutator2 ,connections4 ,dynamo-,electric ,machines4--,relation of ,speed to ,power2 ,field-,magnets2 ,pole-pieces2 ,field-magnet ,coils2 ,armature ,cores and ,coils2 ,commutator ,collectors and ,brushes2 ,relation of size to efficiency2 ,methods of exciting ,field-,magnets2 ,magneto-,dynamos2 ,separately excited ,dynamos2 ,shunt ,dynamos2 ,organs of ,dynamos as constructed in practice2 ,field-,magnets2 ,armatures2 ,collectors2 ,brush ,dynamo2 ,second ,class2 ,alternate ,currents2 ,third ,class4 ,fire ,risks4--,the ,dynamo2 ,wires2 ,lamps2 ,danger to persons4 ,measuring4--,non-,registering ,instruments2 ,registering ,instruments4 ,microphones4--,construction1 c4 ,motors4--,application2 for ,railways4 ,phonographs4 ,photophones4 ,storage4--,plates4 ,terminals4--,charging4 ,telephones4--,forms2 ,circuits and ,calls2 ,transmitter and ,switch2 ,switch for ,simplex4 #ace ,,pages4 #abf ,,illustrations4 #h ,,vo4 ,cloth1 #ge ,cents4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,an ,,american ,,book4 ,,induction ,,coils and ,,coil ,,making4 ,second edition thoroughly revised1 greatly enlarged and brought up to latest ,american ,practice1 ,,by ,h4 ,s4 ,,norrie1 7,,norman ,h4 ,,schneider7 ,considerable space in the new matter is given to the following3 ,medical and bath coils1 gas engine and spark coils1 contact breakers1 primary and secondary batteries2 electric gas lighting2 new method of ,x-ray work1 etc4 ,a complete chapter on up-to-date wireless telegraphy2 a number of new tables and #be original illustrations4 ,great care has been given to the revision to make this book the best ,american work on the subject4 ,a very complete index1 contents1 list of illustrations and contents of tables have been added4 ,contents of ,chapters4 #a4 ,construction of coils2 sizes of wire2 winding2 testing2 insulation2 general remarks2 medical and spark coils4 #b4 ,contact breakers4 #c4 ,insulation and cements4 #d4 ,construction of condensers4 #e4 ,experiments4 #f4 ,spectrum analysis4 #g4 ,currents in vacuo2 air pumps4 #h4 ,rotating effects4 #i4 ,electric gas lighting2 in multiple2 in series4 #aj4 ,primary batteries for coils2 varieties2 open circuit cells2 closed circuit cells2 solutions4 #aa4 ,storage or secondary batteries2 construction2 setting up2 charging4 #ab4 ,tesla and ,hertz effects4 #ac4 ,roentgen ,radiography4 #ad4 ,wireless telegraphy2 arrangement of circuits of coil and coherer for sending and receiving messages2 coherers2 translating devices2 air conductors2 tables2 contents2 index4 ,,xii #bgj ,pages1 #gi ,illustrations1 #e #f-a_/b ,inches4 ,cloth4 #a4jj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,principles ,,of ,,electrical ,,power4 7,,continuous ,,current47 ,,for ,,mechanical ,,engineers4 ,,by ,a4 ,h4 ,,bate1 ,a4,m4,i4,e4,e4 ,the rapid progress that has been made of late years in the application of electricity to industrial purposes1 and particularly in the transmission of power by means of the electric motor1 has made it imperative for every engineer who wishes to keep up to date to have some knowledge of the way electrical currents are controlled and used for practical purposes4 ,this work is especially written for the practical engineer1 mathematics being avoided4 ,contents of ,chapters4 #a4 ,the ,electric ,motor4 #b4 ,magnetic ,principles4 #c4 ,electrical ,measurements4 #d4 ,the ,dynamo4 #e4 ,construction of ,motor4 #f4 ,governing of ,motors4 #g4 ,open and ,closed ,motors2 rating4 #h4 ,motor ,starting ,switches4 #i4 ,speed ,control of ,shunt-wound ,motors4 #aj4 ,series ,motor ,control4 #aa4 ,distribution ,system4 #ab4 ,installing and ,connections4 #ac4 ,care of ,dynamos and ,motors4 #ad4 ,cost of ,plant4 #ae4 ,examples of ,electric ,driving4 ,horse-power absorbed by various machines1 including general engineering and shipyard machines2 wood working and printing machinery 7arranged in #ad pages of tables74 ,,xii #bjd pages1 #fc illustrations1 #ab mo4 cloth4 #b4jj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,practical ,,engineer',s ,,handbook4 ,,to ,,the ,,care ,,and ,,management ,,of ,,electric ,,power ,,plants ,by ,,norman ,h4 ,,schneider1 ,chief ,engineer1 ,white ,city1 ,colingwood1 ,ohio4 ,,extracts ,,from ,,preface4 ,in revising the first edition of ,power ,plants the author decided to greatly enlarge it in the hope that it will have a still greater success than the first one4 ,the section on theory is thoroughly revised4 ,a complete chapter on ,standard ,wiring including new tables and original diagrams added4 ,the ,national ,fire ,underwriters' rules condensed and simple explanations given4 ,direct and alternating current motors have been given a special chapter and modern forms of starting rheostats described at length4 ,the principles of alternators have been considered also transformers and their applications4 ,modern testing instruments and their use are given a separate chapter4 ,new matter has been added to storage batteries including charging of automobile batteries1 #aj new tables1 and #acg new illustrations4 ,,synopsis ,,of ,,contents ,,of ,,chapters4 #a4 ,,the ,,electric ,,current2 series and multiple connections2 resistance of circuits2 general explanation of formulas4 #b4 ,,standard ,,wiring2 wiring formulas and tables2 wiring systems2 cut-outs2 conduits2 panel boxes2 correct methods of wiring4 #c4 ,,direct ,,and ,,alternating ,,current ,,generators2 management in the power house2 windings2 selection of generators4 #d4 ,,motors ,,and ,,motor ,,starters2 various forms of motors2 controllers2 care of motors and their diseases2 rules for installing4 #e4 ,,testing ,,and ,,measuring ,,instruments2 voltmeter testing and connections2 instruments used2 switchboard instruments4 #f4 ,,the ,,storage ,,battery2 different kinds2 switchboards for charging fixed and movable batteries2 management of battery4 #g4 ,,the ,,incandescent ,,lamp2 various methods of testing2 life of lamps4 #h4 ,,engineering ,,notes2 belts and pulleys h4p4 of belts4 ,tables4 ,contents4 ,index4 #bij pages1 #bjc illustrations4 #abmo41 cloth1 #a4ej4 ,full limp leather1 #b4ej4 99 99 99 99 99 ,design of ,dynamos ,,by ,,silvanus ,p4 ,,thompson1 ,d4 ,sc41 ,b4 ,a41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 ,,extracts ,,from ,,preface4 ,the present work is purposely confined to continuous current generators4 ,the calculations and data being expressed in inch measures2 but the author has adopted throughout the decimal subdivision of the inch2 small lengths being in mils1 and small areas of cross-section in sq4 mils1 or1 sometimes1 also1 in circular mils4 ,,contents ,,of ,,chapters4 #a4 ,,dynamo ,,design ,,as ,,an ,,art4 #b4 ,,magnetic ,,data ,,and ,,calculations4 ,causes of waste of ,power4 ,coefficients of ,dispersion4 ,calculation of ,dispersion4 ,determination of exciting ampere-turns4 ,example of ,calculation4 #c4 ,,copper ,,calculations4 ,weight of ,copper ,wire4 ,electrical resistance of ,copper1 in cube1 strip1 rods1 etc4 ,space-factors4 ,coil ,windings2 ,ends2 ,insulation2 ,ventilating2 ,heating4 #d4 ,,insulating ,,materials ,,and ,,their ,,properties4 ,a list of materials1 including ,armalac1 ,vitrite1 ,petrifite1 ,micanite1 ,vulcabeston1 ,stabilite1 ,megohmite1 etc4 ,with tables4 #e4 ,,armature ,,winding ,,schemes4 ,lap ,windings1 ,ring ,windings1 ,wave ,windings1 ,series ,ring-,windings1 ,winding ,formul4 ,number of circuits4 ,equalizing connections4 ,,colored ,,plates4 #f4 ,,estimation ,,of ,,losses1 ,,heating ,,and ,,pressure-,,drop4 ,copper ,losses1 ,iron ,losses1 ,excitation ,losses1 ,commutator ,losses1 ,losses through sparking4 ,friction and ,windage ,losses4 ,secondary ,copper ,losses4 #g4 ,,the ,,design ,,of ,,continuous ,,current ,,dynamos4 ,working ,constants and ,trial ,values2 ,flux-densities2 ,length of ,air-gap2 ,number of ,poles2 ,current ,densities2 ,number of ,armature ,conductors2 ,number of ,commutator ,segments2 ,size of ,armature 7,steinmetz coefficient72 ,assignment of ,losses of ,energy2 ,centrifugal ,forces2 ,calculation of ,binding ,wires2 ,other procedure in design4 ,criteria of a good design4 ,specific utilization of material4 #h4 ,,examples ,,of ,,dynamo ,,design4 #a4 ,shunt-wound multipolar machine1 with slotted drum armature4 #b4 ,over-compounded ,multipolar traction generator1 with slotted drum armature1 with general specifications1 tables1 dimensions and drawings1 fully described4 ,a number of examples of generators are given in each chapter1 fully worked out with rules1 tables and data4 ,,viii4 #bec pages1 #ib illustrations1 #aj large folding plates and #d ,,three-,,color ,,plates1 #hvo41 cloth1 #c4ej4 99 99 99 99 99 ,dynamo-,electric ,machinery ,,vol4 ,i4--,,continuous ,,current4 ,,by ,,silvanus ,p4 ,,thompson1 ,d4,sc41 ,b4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 #gth ,edition ,revised and ,greatly ,enlarged4 ,,contents ,,of ,,chapters4 #a4 ,introductory4 #b4 ,historical ,notes4 #c4 ,physical ,theory of ,dynamo-,electric ,machines4 #d4 ,magnetic ,principles2 and the ,magnetic ,properties of ,iron4 #e4 ,forms of ,field-,magnets4 #f4 ,magnetic ,calculations as ,applied to ,dynamo ,machines4 #g4 ,copper ,calculations2 ,coil ,windings4 #h4 ,insulating ,materials and their ,properties4 #i4 ,actions and ,reactions in the ,armature4 #aj4 ,commutation2 ,conditions of ,suppression of ,sparking4 #aa4 ,elementary ,theory of the ,dynamo1 ,magneto and ,separately ,excited ,machines1 ,self-exciting ,machines4 #ab4 ,characteristic ,curves4 #ac4 ,the ,theory of ,armature ,winding4 #ad4 ,armature ,construction4 #ae4 ,mechanical ,points in ,design and ,construction4 #af4 ,commutators1 ,brushes and ,brush-,holders4 #ag4 ,losses1 ,heating and ,pressure-,drop4 #ah4 ,the ,design of ,continuous ,current ,dynamos4 #ai4 ,analysis of ,dynamo ,design4 #bj4 ,examples of ,modern ,dynamos 7,lighting and ,traction74 #ba4 ,dynamos for ,electro-,metallurgy and ,electro-,plating4 #bb4 ,arc-,lighting ,dynamos and ,rectifiers4 #bc4 ,special ,types of ,dynamos2 ,extra ,high ,voltage ,machines1 ,steam-,turbine ,machines1 ,extra ,low ,speed ,machines1 ,exciters1 ,double-,current ,machines1 ,three-,wire ,machines1 ,homopolar 7,unipolar7 ,machines1 ,disk ,dynamos4 #bd4 ,motor-,generators and ,boosters4 #be4 ,continuous-,current ,motors4 #bf4 ,regulators1 ,rheostats1 ,controllers and ,starter4 #bg4 ,management and ,testing of ,dynamos4 ,appendix1 ,wire ,gauge ,tables4 ,index4 #iif pages1 #egc illustrations1 #d colored plates1 #cb large folding plates4 #hvo41 cloth4 #g4ej4 99 99 99 99 99 ,alternating-,current ,machinery ,,being ,,vol4 ,,ii ,,of ,dynamo-,electric ,machinery4 ,,by ,,silvanus ,p4 ,,thompson1 ,d4,sc41 ,b4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,owing to the enormous increase in the use of electrical machinery since the publication of the sixth edition of ,,dynamo-,,electric ,,machinery the author has deemed it advisable to divide the work4 ,vol4 ,i4 is devoted to ,,direct ,,current ,,machinery and this the second part4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,alternating ,,current ,,machinery4 ,amongst the many new features treated special mention must be made of the number of fine colored plates of windings and the many large folding scale drawings4 ,these two volumes make the most comprehensive and authoritative work on dynamo machinery4 ,the work has been so universally adopted that it has been found necessary to translate it into ,french and ,german4 ,,contents ,,of ,,chapters4 #a4 ,principles of ,alternating ,currents4 #b4 ,periodic ,functions4 #c4 ,alternators4 #d4 ,induced ,e4,m4,f4 and ,wave-,forms of ,alternators4 #e4 ,magnetic ,leakage and ,armature ,reaction4 #f4 ,winding ,schemes for ,alternators4 #g4 ,design of ,alternators4 ,compounding of ,alternators4 #h4 ,examples of ,modern ,alternators4 #i4 ,steam ,turbine ,alternators4 #aj4 ,synchronous ,motors1 ,motor ,generators1 ,converters4 #aa4 ,parallel ,running of ,alternators4 #ab4 ,transformers4 #ac4 ,design of ,transformers4 #ad4 ,induction ,motors4 #ae4 ,design of ,induction ,motors4 #af4 ,examples of ,induction ,motors4 #ag4 ,single-,phase ,induction ,motors4 #ah4 ,alternating-,current ,commutator ,motors4 ,appendix4 ,the ,standardization of ,voltages and ,frequencies4 ,complete ,index4 ,,xx #hdh pages1 #edf illustrations1 #ae colored plates and #bd large folding plates4 #hvo41 cloth4 #g4ej4 99 99 99 99 99 ,books for ,steam ,engineers4 ,,diagram ,,of ,,corliss ,,engine4 ,a large engraving giving a longitudinal section of the ,corliss engine cylinder1 showing relative positions of the piston1 steam valves1 exhaust valves1 and wrist plates when cut-off takes place at #a_/d stroke for each #ae degrees of the circle4 ,with full particulars4 ,reach-rods and rock shafts4 ,the circle explained4 ,wrist-plates and eccentrics4 ,explanation of figures1 etc4 ,printed on heavy paper1 size #ac in4 #ai in41 #be;c4 ,,the ,,corliss ,,engine and its ,management4 ,a ,practical ,handbook for young engineers and firemen1 7#crd edition7 by ,j4 ,t4 ,,henthorn4 ,a good little book1 containing much useful and practical information4 ,illustrated1 cloth1 #a4jj4 ,,the ,,fireman',s ,,guide to the ,care and ,management of ,boilers1 by ,,karl ,p4 ,,dahlstrom1 ,m4,e41 covering the following subjects3 ,firing and ,economy of ,fuel2 ,feed and ,water ,line3 ,low ,water and ,priming3 ,steam ,pressure3 ,cleaning and ,blowing ,out2 ,general ,directions4 ,a thoroughly practical book4 ,cloth1 #ej;c4 ,a ,b ,c ,,of ,,the ,,steam ,,engine4 ,with a description of the automatic shaft governor1 with six large scale drawings4 ,a practical handbook for firemen helpers and young engineers1 giving a set of detail drawings all numbered and lettered and with names and particulars of all parts of an up-to-date ,american high speed stationary steam engine4 ,also a large drawing and full description of the automatic shaft governor4 ,with notes and practical hints4 ,this work will prove of great help to all young men who wish to obtain their engineer's license4 ,cloth1 price #ej;c4 ,,how ,,to ,,run ,,engines ,,and ,,boilers4 ,by ,e4 ,p4 ,,watson1 7for many years a practical engineer1 and a well-known writer in ,the ,engineer47 ,a first-rate book for beginners1 firemen and helpers4 ,commencing from the beginning1 showing how to thoroughly overhaul a plant1 foundations1 lining up machinery1 setting valves1 vacuum1 eccentrics1 connection1 bearings1 fittings1 cleaning boilers1 water tube boilers1 running a plant1 and many useful rules1 hints and other practical information2 many thousands already sold4 #afj pages1 fully illustrated1 cloth1 #a4jj4 ,,ammonia ,,refrigeration4 ,by ,i4 ,i4 ,,redwood4 ,a practical work of reference for engineers and others employed in the management of ice and refrigerating machinery4 ,a first-rate book1 beginning from the bottom and going carefully through the various processes1 stage by stage1 with many tables and original illustrations4 ,cloth1 #a4jj4 ,,meyer ,,slide ,,valve4 ,position diagram of cylinder with cutoff at #a_/h1 #a_/d1 #c_/h and #a_/b stroke of piston with movable valves1 on card #g-a_/b in4 #e-a_/b in4 ,price1 #be;c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,an ,,elementary ,,text-,,book ,,on ,,steam ,,engines ,,and ,,boilers1 ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,students ,,in ,,schools ,,and ,,colleges4 ,,by ,j4 ,h4 ,,kinealy4 ,professor of ,mechanical ,engineering1 ,washington ,university4 ,illustrated with ,diagrams and ,numerous ,cuts1 ,showing ,american ,types and ,details of ,engines and ,boilers4 ,this book is written solely as an elementary text-book for the use of beginners and students in engineering1 but more specially for the students in the various universities and colleges in this country4 ,no attempt has been made to tell everything about any one particular subject1 but the author has endeavored to give the student an idea of elementary thermodynamics1 of the action of the steam in the cylinder of the engine1 of the motion of the steam valve1 of the differences between the various types of engines and boilers1 of the generation of heat by combustion1 and the conversion of water into steam4 ,care has been taken not to touch upon the design and proportion of the various parts of engines and boilers for strength2 as1 in the opinion of the writer1 that should come after a general knowledge of the engine and boiler has been obtained4 ,in the derivation of some of the formul in thermodynamics1 it has been necessary to use the calculus1 but the use of all mathematics higher than algebra and geometry has been avoided as much as possible4 ,an earnest endeavor has been made to present the subject in a clear and concise manner1 using as few words as possible and avoiding all padding4 ,,contents ,,of ,,chapters4 ,chapter ,i4--,thermodynamics2 ,first ,law of ,thermodynamics2 ,work1 ,power2 ,unit of ,heat2 ,mechanical ,equivalent2 ,application of ,heat to ,bodies2 ,second ,law of ,thermodynamics2 ,specific ,heat2 ,absolute ,temperature2 ,application of ,heat to a ,perfect ,gas2 ,isothermal ,expansion2 ,adiabatic ,expansion2 ,fusion2 ,vaporisation2 ,application of ,heat to ,water2 ,superheated ,steam4 ,chapter ,,ii4--,theoretical ,heat ,engine2 ,cycle2 ,thermodynamic ,efficiency2 ,perfect ,gas ,engine2 ,perfect ,steam ,engine2 ,theoretical ,diagram of the ,real ,engine2 ,clearance2 ,efficiency 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,slide ,,valve ,,simply ,,explained4 ,by ,w4 ,j4 ,,tennant1 ,asso4 ,m4 ,inst4 ,mech4 ,e4 ,the work has been thoroughly revised and enlarged in accordance with the present ,american ,practice4 ,by ,j4 ,h4 ,,kinealy1 ,d4 ,e41 ,m4 ,am4 ,soc4 ,mech4 ,e4 ,the work is based upon notes and diagrams which were prepared by ,mr4 ,tennant in his lectures to his classes of working engineers and students towards the obtainment of clear general notions upon the ,slide ,valve1 its design1 varieties1 adjustments and management4 ,they have been revised and considerably added to and in this form the authors believe they will be of considerable value to all engineers and others interested in steam engines4 ,,contents ,,of ,,chapters4 ,i4 ,the ,simple ,slide4 ,,ii4 ,the ,eccentric a ,crank4 ,special ,model to give ,quantitative ,results4 ,,iii4 ,advance of the ,eccentric4 ,,iv4 ,dead ,centre4 ,order of ,cranks4 ,cushioning and ,lead4 ,v4 ,expansion--,inside and ,outside ,lap and ,lead2 ,advance affected thereby4 ,compression4 ,,vi4 ,double-ported and ,piston ,valves4 ,,vii4 ,the ,effect of ,alterations to ,valve and ,eccentric4 ,,viii4 ,note on ,link ,motions4 ,,ix4 ,note on very early cut-off1 and on ,reversing ,gears in general4 ,the illustrations aim to cover the different kinds of ,slide ,valves1 and the circular diagrams will prove a novel feature4 #hh ,pages4 #da ,illustrations4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4jj 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lubricants1 ,,oils ,,and ,,greases4 ,,treated ,,theoretically ,,and ,,giving ,,practical ,,information ,,regarding ,,their ,,composition1 ,,uses ,,and ,,manufacture4 ,a ,,practical ,,guide ,,for ,,manufacturers1 ,,engineers1 ,,and ,,users ,,in ,,general ,,of ,,lubricants4 ,by ,,iltyd ,i4 ,,redwood1 ,associate ,member ,american ,society of ,mechanical ,engineers2 ,member ,society ,chemical ,industries 7,england72 ,author of ',theoretical and ,practical ,ammonia ,refrigeration1' and a ',practical ,treatise on ,mineral ,oils and ,their ,by-,products4' ,,contents4 ,,introduction4--,lubricants4 ,,theoretical4 ,,chapter ,i4--,mineral ,oils3 ,american and ,russian2 ,hydrocarbons4 ,,chapter ,,ii4_/sc--,fatty ,oils3 ,glycerides2 ,vegetable ,oils2 ,fish ,oils4 ,,chapter ,,iii4_/sc--,mineral ,lubricants3 ,graphite2 ,plumbago4 ,,chapter ,,iv4_/sc--,greases3 ,compounded2 ,set or ,axle2 ,boiled or ,cup4 ,,chapter ,v4_/sc--,tests of ,oils3 ,mineral ,oils4 ,tests of ,oils3 ,fatty ,oils ,,manufacture4 ,,chapter ,,vi4--,mineral ,oil ,lubricants3 ,compounded ,oils2 ,de-bloomed ,oils4 ,,chapter ,,vii4_/sc--,greases3 ,compounded ,greases2 ,set or ,axle ,greases2 ,boiled ,greases2 ,engine ,greases4 ,,appendix4--,the ,action of ,oils on ,various ,metals4 ,index4 ,,tables3 ,i4--,viscosity and ,specific ,gravity4 ,,ii4--,atomic ,weights4 ,,iii4--,origin1 ,tests1 ,etc4 of ,oils4 ,,iv4--,action of ,oils on ,metals4 ,,list ,,of ,,plates3 ,i4--,i4 ,i4 ,redwood's ,improved ,set ,measuring ,apparatus ,,ii4--,section ,grease ,kettle4 ,,iii4--,diagram of ,action of ,oils on ,metals4 #hvo4 ,cloth4 #a4ej4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mechanical ,draft4 ,,by ,j4 ,h4 ,,kinealy1 ,m4 ,am4 ,soc4 ,m4,e4 ,past ,president ,american ,society ,heating and ,ventilating ,engineers4 ,,preface4 ,in writing this book the author has assumed that those who will use it are familiar with boilers and engine plants1 and he has had in mind the practicing engineer who is called upon to design power plants1 and who must therefore decide when it is best to use some form of mechanical draft4 ,the arrangement of the book is what the experience of the author in making calculations for mechanical draft installations has shown him is probably the best4 ,and he has tried to arrange the tables in such a way and in such a sequence that they may prove as useful to others as they have to him4 ,,contents ,,of ,,chapters4 #a4 ,,general ,,discussion4 ,introduction2 systems of mechanical draft2 chimneys v4 mechanical draft2 mechanical draft and economizers4 #b4 ,,forced ,,draft4 ,systems2 closed fire-room system2 closed ashpit system2 small fan required2 usual pressure2 forced draft and economisers2 advantages2 disadvantages4 #c4 ,,induced ,,draft4 ,introduction2 temperature of gases2 advantages2 disadvantages4 #d4 ,,fuel ,,and ,,air4 ,weight of coal to be burned2 evaporation per lb4 of coal2 effect of rate of evaporation2 weight of air required2 volume of air and gases2 volume of gases to handle2 leakage2 factor of safety4 #e4 ,,draft4 ,relation to rate of combustion2 resistance of grate2 resistance due to economizer2 draft required under different conditions4 #f4 ,,economizers4 ,effect of adding2 ordinary proportion and cost2 increase of temperature of feed water4 #g4 ,,fans4 ,type and proportions of fan used2 relation between revolution of fan and draft2 capacity of fan4 #h4 ,,proportioning ,,the ,,parts4 ,diameter of fan wheel required2 speed at which the fan must run2 power required to run the fan2 size of engine required2 steam used by fan engine2 choosing the fan for forced draft1 for induced draft without economizer1 for induced draft with economizer2 location of the fan2 breeching and up-take2 inlet chamber2 discharge chimney2 by-pass2 water for bearings4 ,appendix4 ,tables4 ,index4 #aef pages4 #ac plates4 #afmo4 ,cloth1 #b4jj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,authority ,,on ,,this ,,subject4 ,,centrifugal ,,fans4 ,a ,,theoretical ,,and ,,practical ,,treatise ,,on ,fans for ,moving ,air ,in ,large ,quantities ,at ,comparatively ,low ,pressures4 ,,by ,j4 ,h4 ,,kinealy1 ,m4 ,am4 ,soc4 ,m4,e4 ,past-,president ,american ,society ,heating and ,ventilating ,engineers4 ,the matter in this book was a series of articles written for the ,engineering ,review4 ,the favorable attention which they attracted lead the author to believe that there was a real demand for a book treating in a theoretical as well as a practical way on centrifugal fans4 ,the articles have been thoroughly revised1 added to1 and made as complete as possible4 ,contents of ,chapters4 #a4 ,flow of ,air2 ,volume of ,air ,flowing2 ,pressure ,necessary for required velocity4 #b4 ,vortex2 ,vortex with ,radial ,flow4 #c4 ,fans2 ,first ,type of ,fans2 ,second or ,guibal ,type of ,fans2 ,third ,type of ,fans2 ,modern ,type4 #d4 ,fan ,wheel2 ,vanes or ,floats2 ,inlet2 ,width4 #e4 ,capacity2 ,blast ,area2 ,effect of ,outlet on ,capacity2 ,air per ,revolution4 #f4 ,pressure2 ,work4 #g4 ,horse ,power ,required to ,run a ,fan2 ,engine ,required to ,run a ,fan2 ,motor ,required to ,run a ,fan2 ,width of ,belt4 #h4 ,efficiency2 ,air per ,horse ,power4 #i4 ,exhausters4 #aj4 ,housing2 ,dimensions of ,housings2 ,shaft4 #aa4 ,cone ,wheels4 #ab4 ,disk ,fans2 ,number of ,revolutions per ,minute2 ,capacity of a ,disk ,fan2 ,horse ,power ,required4 #ac4 ,choosing a ,fan4 ,index4 ,twenty-two tables have been prepared and they have been arranged in the way1 which the experience of the author in designing heating and ventilating plants has shown to be the most convenient4 ,the tables are full and complete1 all calculations having been very carefully checked1 read and revised4 ,,xiv4 #bjf pages1 #ci diagrams4 ,full limp leather pocketbook4 ,round ,corners1 gilt edges4 #e4jj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,charts ,,for ,,low ,,pressure ,,steam ,,heating for the use of ,,engineers1 ,,architects1 ,,contractors ,,and ,,steam ,,fitters4 ,by ,j4 ,h4 ,,kinealy1 ,m4,e4 ,m4 ,am4 ,soc4 ,m4 ,e41 ,m4 ,am4 ,soc4 of ,h4 and ,v4 ,eng'rs1 c41 c4 ,the author has long been in the habit of using charts to aid him in his work4 ,knowing the value of them in saving time1 simplifying work and ensuring correct calculations he feels confident that they will be appreciated by engineers1 architects and contractors1 for whose benefit they have been compiled4 ,care has been taken to make the charts as clear and as easily understood and1 above all1 as accurate as possible4 ,they have been based upon theoretical considerations1 modified by what is considered to be good practice in this country4 ,,chart #a4--,this chart is for determining the number of square feet of heating surface of a low pressure steam heating system1 pressure not to exceed #e lbs4 per square inch by the gauge1 necessary to supply the heat lost through the various kinds of wall surfaces of rooms4 ,the chart is divided into four parts4 ,,chart #b4--;,for determining the diameters of the supply and return pipes for a heating system4 ,,chart #c4--;,for finding the number of square feet of boiler heating surface and the number of square feet of grate surface for a boiler that is to supply steam to a steam heating system4 ,,chart #d4--;,for determining the area of the cross section of a square flue1 or the diameter of a round flue1 leading from an indirect radiation heater to the register in a room to be heated4 ,full details are given for the use of these cards4 ,these four charts are printed on heavy white card-board and bound together with cloth1 size #ac in4 by #i-a_/d in41 #a4jj4 ,these cards are securely packed for mail and sent to any part of the ,world on receipt of price4 99 99 99 99 99 ,gas ,analyst's ,manual4 ,by ,,jaques ,,abady1 ,m4 ,inst4 ,mech4 ,e4 7,incorporating ,f4 ,w4 ,hartley's ,gas ,analyst's ,manual and ,gas ,measurement47 ,,extract ,,from ,,preface4 ,the numerous requests received by the ,publishers for the late ,mr4 ,f4 ,w4 ,hartley's ,gas ,analyst's ,manual and ,gas ,measurement form the justification of the present work1 which embodies practically the entire contents of those two volumes4 ,it has been found1 however1 that their scope was too narrow to comply with modern requirements in various directions1 although ample at the time they were written1 and so ,i have ventured to add such extensions as appeared to be necessary in order to meet the demand which exists for a comprehensive work on ,gas ,apparatus and its use4 ,this large work has been in course of preparation for the past three years by ,mr4 ,jaques ,abady1 and has been very carefully revised by other experts4 ,many valuable tables of data have been included1 a number of which come from the private note books of the ,author1 being practically results obtained by him during many years of work as ,expert1 ,gas ,engineer and ,gas-,works ,materials ,manufacturer4 ,,contents ,,of ,,chapters4 #a4--,photometry 7#eh pages47 #b4--,the table photometer and ,photometer ,room 7#ch pages47 #c4--,standard of ,light 7#cb pages47 #d4--;,calorimetry and ,specific ,gravity1 with a note on ,mond ,gas 7#dh pages47 #e4--,the ,referees' ,test for ,sulphur and ,ammonia in ,gas 7#bh pages47 #f4--;,coal ,testing 7#bb pages47 #g4--,testing ,enrichment and ,purification ,materials 7#cc pages47 #h4--,purity ,tests for ,gas in the ,various ,stages of its ,manufacture 7#dc pages47 #i4--,testing ,bye-products 7#ce pages47 #aj4--,technical ,gas ,analysis 7#fc pages47 #aa4--,meter-,testing ,apparatus 7#dh pages47 #ab4--,meter and ,governor ,testing 7#cd pages47 ,appendix4 ,data1 ,tables1 ,formul1 etc41 7#ch pages74 ,and very complete ,contents1 ,index and ,list of ,illustrations1 and ,tables1 c4 c4 ,,xv#efj pages1 #e-a_/b #h-a_/b in41 #ic illustrations and #i folding plates4 ,bound in ,handsome ,half ,leather - #f4ej 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,design and ,construction ,,of ,,oil ,,engines4 ,,with ,,full ,,directions ,,for ,erecting1 ,testing1 ,installing1 ,running and ,repairing4 ,including descriptions of ,american and ,english ,,kerosene ,,oil ,,engines4 ,by ,a4 ,h4 ,,goldingham1 ,m4,e4 ,,synopsis ,,of ,,contents ,,of ,,chapters3 #a4 ,introductory2 classification of oil engines2 vaporizers2 ignition and spraying devices2 different cycles of valve movements4 #b4 ,on design and construction of oil engines2 cylinders2 crankshafts2 connecting rods2 piston and piston rings2 fly-wheels2 air and exhaust cams1 valves and valve boxes2 bearings2 valve mechanism1 gearing and levers2 proportions of engine frames2 oil-tank and filter2 oil supply pipes2 different types of oil engines2 cylinders made in more than one piece2 single cylinder and double cylinder engines2 crankpin dimensions2 fitting parts2 assembling of oil engine2 testing water jackets1 joints1 etc4 #c4 ,testing for leaks1 faults1 power1 efficiency1 combustion1 compression2 defects as shown by indicator2 diagrams for setting valves2 how to correct faults2 indicator fully described2 fuel consumption test1 etc4 #d4 ,cooling water tanks2 capacity of tanks2 source of water supply2 system of circulation2 water pump2 exhaust silencers2 self starters2 utilization of waste heat of exhaust4 #e4 ,oil engines driving dynamo2 installation of plant2 direct and belt connected2 belts2 power for electric lighting2 loss of power4 #f4 ,oil engines driving air compressors2 direct connected and geared2 table of pressures2 pumping outfits2 oil engines driving ice and refrigeration outfits4 #g4 ,full instructions for running different kinds of oil engines4 #h4 ,hints on repairs2 adjustment of crank-shaft and connecting rod bearing2 testing oil inlet valves and pump1 fitting new spur gears1 etc4 #i4 ,general descriptions with illustrations of ,american and ,english oil engines2 methods of working2 portable oil engines1 etc41 etc4 ,index and tables4 ,,xiii4 #aif pages1 #g-a_/b #e-a_/b1 #gi illustrations1 cloth1 #b4jj 99 99 99 99 99 ,,practical ,,handbook ,,on ,,gas ,,engines4 ,with ,instructions for ,care and ,working of the ,same4 ,by ,g4 ,,lieckfeld1 ,c4,e4 ,,translated ,,with ,,permission ,,of ,,the ,,author ,,by ,geo4 ,richmond1 ,m4,e4 ,,to ,,which ,,has ,,been ,,added ,,full ,,directions ,,for ,,the ,,running ,,of ,,oil ,,engines4 ,,contents4 ,choosing and installing a gas engine4 ,the construction of good gas engines4 ,examination as to workmanship4 ,as to running4 ,as to economy4 ,reliability and durability of gas engines4 ,cost of installing a gas engine4 ,proper erection of a gas engine4 ,construction of the foundation4 ,arrangement for gas pipes4 ,rubber bag4 ,locking devices4 ,exhaust pipes4 ,air pipes4 ,setting up gas engines4 ,brakes and their use in ascertaining the power of gas engines4 ,theory of the brake4 ,the ,brauer band brake4 ,arrangement of a brake test4 ,explanation of the expressions ,brake ,power and ,indicated ,power4 ,comparisons of the results of the brake test and the indicated test4 ,quantity of work consumed by external friction of the engine4 ,distribution of heat in a gas engine4 ,attendance on gas engines4 ,general remarks4 ,gas engine oil4 ,cylinder lubricators4 ,rules as to starting and stopping a gas engine4 ,the cleaning of a gas engine4 ,general observations and specific examination for defects4 ,different kinds of defectives4 ,the engine refuses to work4 ,non-starting of the engine4 ,too much pressure on the gas4 ,water in the exhaust pot4 ,difficulty in starting the engine4 ,clogged slide valve4 ,leaks in gas pipes4 ,unexpected stopping of engine4 ,irregular running4 ,loss of power4 ,weak gas mixtures4 ,late ignition4 ,cracks in air inlet4 ,back firing4 ,knocking and pounding inside of engine4 ,dangers and precautionary measure in handling gas engines4 ,examination of gas pipes4 ,precautions when3-,opening gas valves4 ,removing piston from cylinder4 ,examining with light openings of gas engines4 ,dangers in starting4 ,dangers in cleaning4 ,safeguards for fly-wheels4 ,danger of putting on belts4 ,oil ,engines4 ,gas engines with producer gas4 ,gasoline and oil engines4 ,the ,hornsby-,akroyd oil engine4 ,failure to start4 ,examination of engine in detail4 ,vaporizer valve box4 ,full detailed directions for the management of ,oil ,engines4 ,concluding remarks4 #abj pages1 illustrated1 #abmo4 cloth4 #a4jj 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,chemistry ,,of ,,fire ,,and ,,fire ,,prevention4 ,a ,,handbook ,,for ,,insurance ,,surveyors1 ,,works ,,managers1 ,,and ,,all ,,interested ,,in ,,fire ,,risks ,,and ,,their ,,diminution ,,by ,,herbert ,,ingle1 ,f4,i4,c41 ,f4,c4,s4 ,,and ,,harry ,,ingle1 ,,ph4,d41 ,b4,,sc4 ,,technological ,,chemist4 ,contents of ,chapters4 ,i4 ,definition of ,fire1 ,old ,theories as to its ,nature1 ,modern ,views of ,combustion--,the ,physical and ,chemical ,properties of the ,atmosphere1 the ,chief ,properties of its ,constituents--,some ,conditions ,affecting the ,combustion of ,substances in ,air1 the ,principle of the ,miner's ,safety ,lamp4 ,,ii4 ,explanation of ,chemical ,terms1 ,outline of the ,atomic ,theory4 ,brief ,explanations of the ,use of ,chemical ,formul and ,equations4 ,,iii4 ,methods of ,preparations of ,oxygen1 ,brin's ,oxygen ,manufacture--,heat ,measurements1 the ,calorimeter1 ,calorific ,power of ,substances ,burning in ,air4 ,,iv4 ,coal ,gas3 ,its ,preparation1 ,purification and ,composition--,properties of ,its ,chief ,constituents--,reciprocity of ,combustion--,gaseous ,diffusion--,explosion of ,gases--,dust ,explosions4 ,v4 ,fuel3 ,chemical ,composition of ,wood1 ,charcoal1 ,peat1 ,lignite1 ,coal1 ,coke1 ,petroleum1 ,coal ,gas--,use of ,atmospheric ,burners--,producer ,gas--,water ,gas--,dawson ,gas4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,cross ,,section ,,paper4 ,scale ,,eight to ,,one ,inch4 ,,the ,,handy ,,sketching ,,pad4 ,printed on one side1 in blue ink1 all the lines being of equal thickness with useful tables4 ,size #h #aj inches4 ,price1 #be;c4 each4 ,per dozen pads1 #b4ej4 ,,the ,,handy ,,sketching ,,book4 ,made from this paper but printed on both sides4 ,size of book #e #h inches1 stiff board covers4 ,price1 #be;c4 each2 per dozen books1 #b4ej4 ,scale ,,eight to ,,one ,inch4 ,a large sheet with heavy inch lines and half inch lines1 printed in blue ink4 ,size of sheet1 #ag #bb inches4 ,per quire 7#bd sheets71 ,scale ,,ten to ,,one ,inch4 ,size #ag #bb inches1 printed in blue ink1 with heavy inch lines and half inch lines4 ,per quire 7#bd sheets71 ,the ,electrician's ,sketching ,book4 ,made from this paper4 ,scale #aj to #a inch4 ,size of book #e #h inches1 with stiff card board covers4 ,price1 #be;c4 each2 per dozen1 #b4ej4 ,the ,electrician's ,plotting ,pad4 ,same paper1 only printed on one side1 size of pad1 #h #aj inches1 #be;c2 per dozen1 #b #ej4 ,any ,books and ,pads ,assorted1 per dozen1 #b #ej4 ,,any ,,quantity ,,mailed ,,to ,,any ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,world ,,post-,,paid ,,on ,,receipt ,,of ,,price4 ,this paper is ,printed from plates4 ,try it and you will find it ,,good1 ,,accurate ,,and ,,cheap4 ,,spon ,,chamberlain1 ,,new ,,york1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 99 99 99 99 99 #be;c4 ,,books4 ,,model ,,boiler ,,making4 ,contains full instructions for designing and making model stationary1 marine and locomotive boilers4 ,fully illustrated with original working drawings4 ,,metal ,,working ,,tools ,,and ,,their ,,uses4 ,a ,handbook for ,young ,engineers and ,apprentices4 ,shows how to use simple tools required in metal working and model making4 ,illustrated4 ,,simple ,,mechanical ,,working ,,models4 ,how to make and use them1 including stationary engine locomotive1 steamboat1 waterwheel1 etc4 ,with #cd illustrations4 ,,model ,,steamer ,,building4 ,a practical handbook on the design and construction of model steamer hulls1 and fittings1 with #ci scale drawings4 ,,machinery ,,for ,,model ,,steamers4 ,on the design1 construction1 fitting and erecting of engines and boilers for model steamers1 with #dd scale drawings4 ,,the ,,slide ,,valve4 ,simply explained for working engineers4 ,fully illustrated4 ,,the ,,locomotive1 simply explained4 ,a first introduction to the study of the locomotive engine1 their designs1 construction and erection1 with a short catechism1 and #bf illustrations4 ,,the ,,beginner',s ,,guide ,,to ,,the ,,lathe4 ,an elementary instruction book on turning in wood and metal4 ,by ,p4 ,,marshall4 #gf pages1 #ge illustrations4 ,,gas ,,and ,,oil ,,engines4 ,a practical handbook on1 with instructions for care and running4 ,illustrated4 ,,standard ,,screw ,,threads4 ,a ,guide to ,standard ,screw ,threads and ,twist ,drills4 7,small sizes47 ,illustrated4 ,,steam ,,turbines4 ,how to design and build them4 ,a practical handbook for model makers4 ,contents of ,chapters4 #a4 ,general ,consideration4 #b4 ,pressure ,developed by an ,impinging ,jet2 ,velocity and ,flow of ,steam ,through ,orifices4 #c4 ,method of ,designing a ,steam ,turbine4 #d4 ,complete ,designs for ,de,laval ,steam ,turbines2 ,method of ,making ,vanes2 ,shrouding4 #e4 ,the ,theory of ,multiple ,stage ,turbines4 ,fully illustrated with detail drawings and tables4 ,,mechanical ,,drawing1 simply explained4 ,use of instruments1 reading and setting out drawings1 inking in and finishing1 drawings for reproduction1 lettering1 with #dd illustrations4 ,,acetylene ,,gas4 ,how to make and use it4 ,a practical handbook on the uses of ,acetylene ,gas1 suitable apparatus for its generation1 hints and fitting up1 etc4 #cd illustrations4 ,,lettering ,,for ,,drawings4 ,a ,system of ,easy ,lettering1 by ,j4 ,h4 ,,cromwell1 with an appendix of eight new alphabets by ,g4 ,martin4 ,giving a variety of very attractive alphabets suitable for engineering and architectural drawings4 #hth thousand4 #ej;c4 ,,projection ,,drawing4 ,twelve plates on1 by ,,oswald ,,gueth1 ,m4,e41 ,inst4 ,mech4 ,drawing1 ,cooper ,inst41 ,n4 ,y4 ,arranged in three sections3 ,projections1 plate #a1 ,prisms2 #b1 ,pyramids2 #c1 ,inclined ,prisms2 #d1 ,inclined ,pyramids4 ,sections1 plate #e1 ,prisms and ,pyramids2 #f1 ,cones2 #g1 ,spheres2 #h1 ,various ,solids4 ,intersections1 plate #i1 ,prisms2 #aj1 ,cylinders2 #aa1 ,spheres2 #ab1 ,prisms and ,pyramids4 ,size1 #h-a_/b9999 fraction #aa in41 sewn1 #ge;c4 ,,engineering ,,mathematics4 ,simply explained4 ,a text-book for students1 apprentices and engineers4 ,by ,h4 ,h4 ,,harrison4 #afe pages1 #ei diagrams1 cloth1 #ge;c4 ,,algebra ,,self-,,taught4 ,by ,w4 ,p4 ,,higgs4 #gth edition4 ,the simplest and best book for beginners1 mechanics1 young engineers and electricians4 ,commencing from the very beginning1 and advancing step by step1 with many practical examples worked out4 ,the signs given are fully explained4 ,the language used is so simple that a student can readily master algebra by a little home study4 ,this is the book to help the young man get into a better position4 ,bound in cloth1 #fj;c4 ,,educational ,,woodwork4 ,by ,a4 ,c4 ,,horth4 ,a complete manual for teachers and organizers of woodworking classes4 ,contents of ,chapters3 #a4 ,first ,year ,course4 #b4 ,second ,year ,course4 #c4 ,third ,year ,course4 #d4 ,fittings and ,furniture4 #e4 ,discipline4 #f4 ,organization and ,method4 #g4 ,the ,instruction of the ,physically and ,mentally ,deficient and ,blind4 #h4 ,object ,lessons4 ,fully illustrated with reproductions from photographs1 drawings1 and facsimile black-board lessons4 #aeh pages1 #abmo41 cloth1 #a4jj net4 ,,woodwork ,,joints4 ,how to make and where to use them2 including mortise and tenon joints1 lap joints1 dovetail joints1 glue joints and scarfing joints4 ,with a chapter on circular woodwork1 revised and enlarged edition1 #aja pages1 #agh illustrations4 #be;c4 ,,the ,,beginner',s ,,guide ,,to ,,fretwork4 ,containing full instructions on the ,use of ,tools and ,materials2 and six full size ,fretwork designs4 ,with #ci pages and #bf illustrations4 #be;c4 ,,veneering1 ,,marquetry ,,and ,,inlay4 ,a practical instruction book in the art of ,decorating ,woodwork by these methods4 ,by ,p4 ,a4 ,,wells4 #gi pages1 #cg illustrations4 #be;c4 ,,soft ,,woods ,,and ,,colonial ,,timbers4 ,the selection and ,uses of ,soft ,woods and ,colonial ,timbers4 ,the cultivation1 cutting and seasoning4 #eg pages1 #ae illustrations4 #be;c4 ,,hard ,,woods1 ,,english ,,and ,,foreign4 ,a practical description of ,hard and ,fancy ,woods used by the carpenter and cabinet maker4 ,by ,p4 ,a4 ,,wells1 #gi pages1 #ai illustrations1 #be;c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,spons' ,mechanics ,own ,book ,a ,,work ,,that ,,should ,,be ,,in ,,your ,,bookcase4 ,the general method of treatment of each subject1 is first the raw materials worked upon1 its characteristics1 variations and suitability2 secondly1 the tools used1 the sharpening and use2 thirdly1 devoted to typical examples of work to be done1 materials1 and how to do similar work1 etc4 ,,the ,,following ,,are ,,the ,,principal ,,contents4 ,mechanical ,drawing1 7#ac pages47 ,mechanical ,movements1 7#ee pages47 ,casting and ,founding in ,brass and ,bronze1 7#cj pages47 ,forging and ,finishing1 7#df pages47 ,soldering in all its branches1 7#bf pages47 ,sheet ,metal ,working1 7#aj pages47 ,turning and ,turning ,lathes1 7#ca pages47 ,carpentry1 7#bbd pages47 ,log ,huts1 ,building1 ,etc41 7#h pages47 ,cabinet-,making1 7#cf pages47 ,upholstery1 7#f pages47 ,carving and ,fretwork1 7#ac pages47 ,picture ,frame ,making1 7#d pages47 ,painting1 ,graining and ,marbling1 7#bh pages47 ,staining1 7#ac pages47 ,gilding1 7#c pages47 ,polishing1 7#bc pages47 ,varnishing1 7#d pages47 ,paper ,hanging1 7#d pages47 ,glazing1 7#g pages47 ,plastering and ,white ,washing1 7#i pages47 ,lighting1 7#h pages47 ,foundations and ,masonry1 7#df pages47 ,roofing1 7#ad pages47 ,ventilating and ,warming1 7#ac pages47 ,electric ,bell and ,bell ,hanging1 ,gas ,fitting1 7#h pages47 ,roads and ,bridges1 ,banks1 ,hedges1 ,ditches and ,drains1 ,asphalt ,cement ,floors1 ,water ,supply and ,sanitation4 ,total number of pages #gjb4 ,total number illustrations #a1dbj ,bound in substantial half-extra1--,,price ,,by ,,mail ,,only #b4ej ,we have an #h page circular giving full contents which will be sent free on application4 99 99 99 99 99 ,workshop ,receipts4 ,,the ,,most ,,complete ,technical ,cyclopedia in #e ,vols4 ,first ,series4 ,principal ,contents4--,bronzes1 ,cements1 ,dyeing1 ,electrometallurgy1 ,enamels1 ,etchings1 ,fireworks1 ,fluxes1 ,fulminates1 ,gilding4 ,gums1 ,japanning4 ,lacquers1 ,marble ,working1 ,nitro-,glycerine1 ,photography1 ,pottery1 ,varnishes1 etc41 etc4 #dbj pages1 #ajh illustrations1 #abmo1 cloth1 #b4jj4 ,second ,series4 ,principal ,contents4--,acidimetry1 ,albumen4 ,alcohol1 ,alkaloids1 ,bitters4 ,bleaching1 ,boiler ,incrustations1 ,cleansing1 ,confectionery1 ,copying1 ,disinfectants1 ,essences4 ,extracts1 ,fire-proofing1 ,glycerine4 ,gut1 ,iodine1 ,ivory ,substitutes1 ,leather1 ,matches ,pigments1 ,paint1 ,paper1 ,parchment1 etc41 etc4 #dhe pages1 #af illustrations1 #abmo1 cloth1 #b4jj4 ,third ,series4 ,principal ,contents4--,alloys1 ,aluminium1 ,antimony1 ,copper1 ,electrics1 ,enamels1 ,glass4 ,gold1 ,iron and ,steel1 ,liquors4 ,lead1 ,lubricants1 ,magnesium4 ,manganese1 ,mercury1 ,mica1 ,nickel1 ,platinum1 ,silver1 ,slag1 ,tin1 ,uranium1 ,zinc1 etc41 etc4 #dhj pages1 #ahc illustrations1 #abmo1 cloth1 #b4jj4 ,fourth ,series4 ,principal ,contents4--,water-proofing1 ,packing and ,stowing1 ,embalming and ,preserving ,leather ,polishes1 ,cooling ,air and ,water4 ,pumps and ,siphons1 ,dessicating4 ,distilling1 ,emulsifying1 ,evaporating1 ,filtering1 ,percolating and ,macerating4 ,electrotyping1 ,stereotyping4 ,book-binding1 ,straw-plaiting1 ,musical ,instruments1 ,clock and ,watch ,mending1 ,photography1 etc41 etc4 #ddc pages1 #bdc illustrations1 #abmo1 cloth1 #b #jj4 ,fifth ,series4 ,principal ,contents4--,diamond ,cutting1 ,laboratory ,apparatus1 ,copying1 ,filtering1 ,fire-proofing4 ,magic ,lanterns1 ,metal ,work4 ,percolation1 ,illuminating ,agents1 ,tobacco ,pipes1 ,taps1 ,tying and ,splicing4 ,tackle ,repairing ,books4 ,netting1 ,walking ,sticks ,boat-,building1 etc41 etc4 #ddj pages1 #cgc illustrations1 #abmo1 cloth1 #b4jj4 ,,each ,,series has its own ,contents and ,index and is complete in itself4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,spons' ,,encyclop,,dia ,,of ,,the ,industrial ,arts1 ,manufactures ,,and ,commercial ,products4 ,,edited ,,by ,g4 ,g4 ,,andre1 ,f4,g4,s41 ,asso4-,m4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 ,,and ,c4 ,g4 ,,warnford ,,lock1 ,f4,l4,s41 ,f4,g4,s41 ,m4,i4,m4,m4 ,assisted by many prominent ,manufacturers1 ,chemists and ,scientists4 ,this encyclopedia is written by practical men for practical men4 ,raw ,materials form perhaps its most important feature and are dealt with in a way never before attempted4 ,manufacturers are discussed in detail from the manufacturing standpoint by manufacturers of acknowledged reputation4 ,special consideration is given to the utilization of waste1 the prevention of nuisance1 and the question of adulterations4 ,technicalities are explained1 and bibliographies 7,english1 ,american1 ,french1 ,german1 etc471 are appended to the principal articles4 ,over #b1jjj pages and nearly #b1jjj illustrations4 ,we are offering a ,limited number of sets of a ,,special ,,three ,,volume ,,edition ,,handsomely ,,bound ,,in ,,half-,,morocco1 ,,cloth-,,gilt1 ,,marbled ,,edges1 #ae4jj ,,net4 ,a full descriptive circular can be had on application4 99 99 99 99 99 ,dubelle's ,famous ,formulas4 ,,known ,,as ,non ,plus ,ultra ,soda ,fountain ,requisites of ,modern ,times4 ,by ,g4 ,h4 ,,dubelle4 ,a practical ,receipt ,book for ,druggists1 ,chemists1 ,confectioners and ,venders of ,soda ,water4 ,,synopsis ,,of ,,contents4 ,,introduction4--,notes on natural fruit juices and improved methods for their preparation4 ,selecting the fruit4 ,washing and pressing the fruit4 ,treating the juice4 ,natural fruit syrups and mode of preparation4 ,simple or stock syrups4 ,,formulas4 ,,fruit ,,syrups4--,blackberry1 black currant1 black raspberry1 catawba1 cherry1 concord grape1 cranberry1 lime1 peach1 pineapple1 plum1 quince1 raspberry1 red current1 red orange1 scuppernong grape1 strawberry1 wild grape4 ,,new ,,improved ,,artificial ,,fruit ,,syrups4--,apple1 apricot1 banana1 bitter orange1 blackberry1 black currant1 cherry1 citron1 curacoa1 grape1 groseille1 lemon1 lime1 mandarin1 mulberry1 nectarine1 peach1 pear1 pineapple1 plum1 quince1 raspberry1 red current1 strawberry1 sweet orange1 tangerine1 vanilla4 ,,fancy ,,soda ,,fountain ,,syrups4--,ambrosia1 capillaire1 coca-kina1 coca-vanilla1 coca-vino1 excelsior1 imperial1 kola-coca1 kola-kina1 kola-vanilla1 kola-vino1 nectar1 noyean1 orgeat1 sherbet1 syrup of roses1 syrup of violets4 ,,artificial ,,fruit ,,essences4--,apple1 apricot1 banana1 bergamot1 blackberry1 black cherry1 black currant1 blueberry1 citron1 cranberry1 gooseberry1 grape1 lemon1 lime fruit1 melon1 nectarine1 orange1 peach1 pear1 pineapple1 plum1 quince1 raspberry1 red currant1 strawberry4 ,,concentrated ,,fruit ,,phosphates4--,acid solution of phosphate1 strawberry1 tangerine1 wild cherry4--#bi4 different formulas4 ,,new ,,malt ,,phosphates--#cf4 ,,foreign ,,and ,,domestic ,,wine ,,phosphates--#i4 ,,cream-,,fruit ,,lactarts--#bh4 ,,soluble ,,flavoring ,,extracts ,,and ,,essences--#ad4 ,,new ,,modern ,,punches--#ah4 ,,milk ,,punches--#ag4 ,,fruit ,,punches--#cb4 ,,fruit ,,meads--#ah4 ,,new ,,fruit ,,champagnes--#ag4 ,,new ,,egg ,,phosphates--#ad4 ,,fruit ,,juice ,,shakes--#bd4 ,,egg ,,phosphate ,,shakes4 ,,hot ,,egg ,,phosphate ,,shakes4 ,,wine ,,bitter ,,shakes--#ab4 ,,soluble ,,wine ,,bitters ,,extracts--#ab4 ,,new ,,italian ,,lemonades--#ah4 ,,ice ,,cream ,,sodas--#ci4 ,,non-,,poisonous ,,colors4 ,,foam ,,preparations4 ,,miscellaneous ,,formulas--#bf4 ,,latest ,,novelties ,,in ,,soda ,,fountain ,,mixtures--#g4 ,,tonics4--,beef1 iron and cinchona2 hypophosphite2 beef and coca2 beef1 wine and iron2 beef1 wine1 iron and cinchona2 coca and calisaya4 ,,lactarts4--,imperial tea2 mocha coffee2 nectar2 ,persian sherbert4 ,,punches4 ,,extracts4--,columbia root beer2 ginger tonic2 soluble hop ale4 ,,lemonades4--,french2 ,vienna4 ,egg nogg4 ,hop ale4 ,hot tom4 ,malt wine4 ,sherry cobbler4 ,saratoga milk shake4 ,pancretin and wine4 ,kola-coco cordial4 ,iron malt phosphate4 ,pepsin1 wine and iron1 etc4 #aeg ,pages1 ,nearly #ejj ,formulas4 #abmo1 ,cloth4 #a 99 99 99 99 99 ,latest practice1 ,new and original cuts4 ,,katharine ,,mellish',s ,,cookery ,,and ,,domestic ,,management4 ,,synopsis ,,of ,,contents4 ,complete ,breakfast ,menus1 with receipts1 pages #a-bg4 ,complete ,luncheon ,menus1 with receipts1 pages #bh-gd4 ,tea ,menus1 ,high ,tea ,menus1 with receipts1 pages #ge-abd4 ,complete ,dinner ,menus1 with receipts1 pages #abe-bbj4 ,processes3--,this chapter is illustrated with exact position of the cook's hands during the various operations of preparing1 boning birds and joints1 trussing fish1 joints1 poultry1 game1 hares1 rabbits1 etc4 ,larding and icing1 etc4 ,receipts of separate dishes4 ,stocks and soups of all kinds1 broth1 gravy1 etc4 ,fish4--,to clean1 general rules for cooking4 ,numerous receipts or boiling1 baking1 stewing1 frying fish of all kinds4 ,the preparation and making of gravies1 stuffing1 forcemeats1 purees1 garnishes and sauces for all purposes1 with many receipts4 ,entrees4--,their preparation and serving1 with receipts4 ,joints4--,preparation1 cooking and serving of1 with many receipts4 ,vegetables4--,preparation and cooking of plain and dressed vegetables of all kinds and how to serve them4 ,poultry and game4--,preparation1 cooking and serving1 with receipts4 ,pastries1 pudding and sweet dishes4 ,cakes1 biscuits1 bread4 ,omelets4--,with receipts for preparing1 cooking and serving4 ,ices1 confectionery1 syrups1 jams1 preserves and preserving1 cordials1 liqueurs1 and aerated drinks4 ,cookery for invalids1 carving1 serving1 etc41 etc41 and very complete index and contents4 #ihg pages1 #ef full page colored plates1 #dci illus4 ,size1 #g-a_/d in4 #aj-a_/d in4 #b-a_/b in4 ,full waterproof texederm in #a1 #c or #e vols4 99 99 99 99 99 ,published ,weekly1 ,annual subscription1 ,subscription #f months1 #a4ej ,single numbers1 #h;c4 #c4jj postpaid4 #d #a4jj ,,the ,,model ,,engineer ,,and ,,electrician4 ,the ,,best ,paper for ,young ,engineers1 ,students1 ,model ,makers1 ,apprentices1 and all interested in ,mechanical and ,electrical ,work4 ,,special ,,features4 ,practical ,articles by experienced writers on the construction and working of model steam1 gas and oil engines2 model locomotives and railways2 model boilers2 model steam and electric launches1 and sailing yachts2 lathes and metal and wood-working tools2 pattern-making2 brass and iron founding2 forging2 model dynamos and motors2 electric bells1 telephones and batteries2 accumulators2 electric lighting2 influence machines2 electrical experiments2 motor cycles1 c41 c4 ,model ,engineers and their ,work4--,illustrated interviews with prominent model engineers1 describing their workshops1 their methods of working2 and some of their models4 ,our ,beginners' ,column4--,a section devoted to elementary instruction on the use of tools2 the making of simple apparatus and models1 and the carrying out of easy experiments4 ,practical ,letters from our ,readers4--,a correspondence column1 wherein readers can describe workshop appliances or methods of their own invention and discuss practical matters of mutual interest4 ,amateurs' ,supplies4--,under this heading short descriptions of new tools1 apparatus and materials are inserted1 thus keeping the reader posted up in the latest improvements4 ,a ,system of ,queries and ,replies1 by which all readers of the journal can obtain information and advice on mechanical or electrical subjects4 ,original ,working ,drawings and high-class illustrations are a regular feature of the journal4 ,prize ,competitions open to all readers1 are announced from time to time1 on all subjects4 ,model ,yachting1 ,notes1 ,new ,books1 c41 c4 ,all subscriptions should be sent to ,,spon ,,chamberlain1 ,sole ,american ,agents4 #abc-abe ,liberty ,street1 ,new ,york1 ,u4,s4,a4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,the original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and formatting have been maintained4 ,inconsistent hyphenation is as in the original if not marked as a misprint4 ,text in italics has been marked with underscores 7text7 and bold text with egual signs 7text7 ,inconsistent smallcap mark-up of the word ,fig4 in captions has been harmonized to ,,fig4 ,missing punctuation in the advertisement at the end of the book has been added4 ,table ,a has been re-arranged to fit the line size4 ,table ,,ii and ,b have been split into two parts4 ,the table below lists all corrections applied to the original text4 p4 ix3 ,gay-,lassacs - ,lussac's p4 x3 for molasses4 ,transportion - ,transportation p4 xii3 #cj1 #ca1 - #cj1 #ca p4 #h3 ,mashes1 and ,fermentation - ,fermentation4 p4 #aa3 ,company1 of ,cincinnati - ,cincinnati1 p4 #aa3 illustrated in ,fig - ,fig4 p4 #ae3 stirrer arms ,b - ,b p4 #af3 driving shaft ,f - ,f p4 #bb3 ,this is know - known p4 #bf3 of the yeast stops - stops4 p4 #dj3 pipes ,g ,g ,g - ,g ,g ,g p4 #dj3 in the worm1 - worm4 p4 #eg3 as the chamber ,b - ,b p4 #fd3 ,fig4 #bb4--;,diagramatie - ,diagramatic p4 #fh3 depriving it of its aclohol - alcohol p4 #gb3 ,gauge ,glass for ,regulatar - ,regulator p4 #gc3 runnings or 4feints4 - feints4 p4 #gc3 ,fig4 #bi - #bi4 p4 #hj3 the column ,a - ,a4 p4 #id3 more highly varporized - vaporized p4 #ajg3 being kept at #fe;,f - #fe ,f p4 #aag3 saccharification takes place - place4 p4 #ach3 steam is admitted though - through p4 #ade3 is required per arce - acre p4 #adi3 which is varied accroding - according p4 #aeh3 ,,fif4 - ,,fig4 p4 #ahe3 starch a blue color1 - color4 p4 #ahf3 may contain numerious - numerous p4 #ahf3 processes are largely empirical - empirical4 p4 #aia3 in the still in ,fig4 #h - #h4 p4 #aib3 money for their proprieters - proprietors p4 #aie3 constructed1 however1 to pervent - prevent p4 #aie3 ,after the chief feremnting - fermenting p4 #aih3 rectifying columns1 refrigerators - refrigerators1 p4 #aih3 ,,fig4 #ef - #ee p4 #bjf3 ,,fig #ei4 - ,,fig4 #ei4 p4 #bah3 #ajj gallons - gallons4 p4 #bah3 ,ethyl ,alcohol--#ajj gallons4 - ,ethyl ,alcohol #ajj gallons4 p4 #bai3 #ajj gallons - gallons4 p4 #bbj3 and similar products - products4 p4 #bba3 on metallic susbtances - substances p4 #bci3 used for de-naturign - de-naturing p4 #bdf3 employees for the work4 - work p4 #bea3 subject to the penalites - penalties p4 #bef3 de-natured spirits is - are p4 #bei3 tax free of domestic alchohol - alcohol p4 #bgb3 ,prof4 ,silvanus ,p4 ,thomson - ,thompson p4 #bge3 thermostats1 annnuciators - annunciators p4 #bhe3 ,,digram - ,,diagram p4 #bib3 ,gas ,analyst's ,manual - ,manual p4 #bib3 ,mond ,gas 7#dh pages7 - 7#dh pages47 p4 #bib3 ,tables1 ,formulae - ,formul p4 #bid3 ,hornsby-,akroyd' - ,hornsby-,akroyd p4 #cjb3 ,blackberry1 black current - currant p4 #cjb3 orange1 blackberry1 black current - currant