,,the        ,,covenant ,,of ,,salt     
,,as ,,based ,,on ,,the ,,significance  
,,and ,,symbolism      ,,of ,,salt ,,in 
,,primitive ,,thought          ,,by     
,h4 ,,clay ,,trumbull        ,author of 
,the ,blood ,covenant1 ,the ,threshold  
,covenant1      ,kadesh-barnea1 ,studies
 in ,oriental ,social ,life1 etc4       
,,new ,,york      ,,charles             
,,scribner',s ,,sons        #ahii       
,copyright1 #ahii      ,by ,h4 ,,clay   
,,trumbull      ,,preface      ,in #ahhd
 ,i issued a volume on ,the ,blood      
,covenant3 ,a ,primitive ,rite  and its 
,bearings on ,scripture4 ,later ,i was  
led to attempt1 and to  announce as in  
preparation1 another volume in the field
 of primitive  covenants1 including a   
treatment of ,the ,name ,covenant1 ,the 
,covenant  of ,salt1 and ,the ,threshold
 ,covenant4 ,in #ahif1 ,i issued a      
separate  volume on ,the ,threshold     
,covenant1 that subject having grown    
into such  prominence in my studies as  
to justify its treatment by itself4     

,these  two works1 ,the ,blood ,covenant
 and ,the ,threshold ,covenant1 have    
been  welcomed by scholars on both sides
 of the ocean to an extent beyond  my   
expectations1 and in view of this ,i    
venture to submit some further          
researches in the field of primitive    
thought and customs4    ,before the     
issuing of my second volume1 ,i had     
prepared the main portion  of this      
present work on ,the ,covenant of ,salt1
 but since then ,i have  been led to    
revise it1 and to conform it more fully 
to my latest  conclusion as to the      
practical identity of all covenants4 ,it
 is in  this form that ,i present it1 as
 a fresh contribution to the study of   
archeology and of anthropology4    ,as  
,i have come to see it1 as a result of  
my researches1 the very  idea of a      
covenant in primitive thought is a union
 of being1 or of  persons1 in a common  
life1 with the approval of ,god1 or of  
the gods4  ,this was primarily a sharing
 of blood1 which is life1 between two   

persons1 through a rite which had the   
sanction of him who is the source  of   
all life4 ,in this sense blood          
brotherhood and the threshold  covenant 
are but different forms of one and the  
same covenant4 ,the  blood of animals   
shared in a common sacrifice is counted 
as the blood  which makes two one in a  
sacred covenant4 ,wine as the blood of  
the  grape stands for the blood which is
 the life of all flesh2 hence the       
sharing of wine stands for the sharing  
of blood or life4 ,so1 again1  salt     
represents blood1 or life1 and the      
covenant of salt is simply  another form
 of the one blood covenant4 ,this is the
 main point of  this new monograph4 ,so 
far as ,i know1 this truth has not      
before been  recognized or formulated4  
,similarly the sharing of a common name1
 especially of the name of ,god1  or of 
a god1 is the claim of a divinely       
sanctioned covenant between  those who  
bear it4 ,it is another mode of claiming
 to be in the one  vital covenant4 ,a   

temporary agreement1 or truce1 between  
two who  share a drink of water or a    
morsel of bread1 is a lesser and very   
different thing from entering into a    
covenant1 which by its very nature  is  
permanent and unchangeable4 ,this       
difference is pointed out and           
emphasized in the following pages4      
,in these new investigations1 as in my  
former ones1 ,i have been aided1  step  
by step1 by specialists1 who have kindly
 given me suggestions  and assistance by
 every means in their power4 ,this      
furnishes a fresh  illustration of the  
readiness of all scholars to aid any    
fresh worker  in any line where their   
own labors render them an authority or a
 guide4    ,besides my special          
acknowledgments in the text and         
footnotes of this  volume1 ,i desire to 
express my indebtedness and thanks to   
these  scholars who have freely rendered
 me important assistance at various     
points in my studies3 ,professor ,dr4   
,hermann ,v4 ,hilprecht1 the ,rev4 ,drs4

  ,marcus ,jastrow1 ,k4 ,kohler1 and    
,henry ,c4 ,mc,cook1 ,professor ,drs4   
,hermann  ,collitz1 ,h4 ,carrington     
,bolton1 ,william ,h4 ,roberts1 ,morris 
,jastrow1  ,jr41 ,f4 ,k4 ,sanders1      
,william ,a4 ,lamberton1 ,w4 ,w4 ,keen1 
,william ,osler1  ,j4 ,w4 ,warren1 and  
,d4 ,c4 ,munro1 ,drs4 ,j4 ,solis ,cohen1
 ,thomas ,g4 ,morton1  ,charles ,w4     
,dulles1 ,henry ,c4 ,cattell1 and       
,frederic ,h4 ,howard1 ,rev4 ,dean  ,e4 
,t4 ,bartlett1 ,president ,robert ,e4   
,thompson1 ,drs4 ,talcott ,williams1    
,henry ,c4 ,lea1 and ,t4 ,h4 ,powers    
,sailer1 ,messrs4 ,clarence ,h4 ,clark  
and  ,patterson ,du ,bois4    ,this     
third work is to be considered in       
connection with the two which  have     
preceded it in the same field4 ,it is   
hoped that it will be  recognized as    
adding an important thought to the      
truths brought out in  those works      
severally4    ,a previously published   
monograph on ,the ,ten ,commandments as 
a ,covenant  of ,love is added to ,the  

,covenant of ,salt as a ,supplement1 in 
order  that it may be available to      
readers of this series of volumes on    
covenants1 as a historical illustration 
of the subject under discussion4        
,h4 ,c4 ,t4      ,philadelphia1         
,october1 #ahii4          ,,contents    
,i4                                     
,,page  ,,characteristics ,,of ,a       
,,covenant                   #a         
,,ii4    ,a ,,covenant ,,of ,,salt      
#aa      ,,iii4    ,,bible ,,references 
,,to ,,the ,,rite                   #ae 
,,iv4    ,,bread ,,and ,,salt           
#ba      ,v4    ,,salt ,,representing   
,,blood                        #ce      
,,vi4    ,,salt ,,representing ,,life   
#ea      ,,vii4    ,,salt ,,and ,,sun1  
,,life ,,and ,,light                    
#ga      ,,viii4    ,,significance ,,of 
,,bread                          #gg    
,,ix4    ,,salt ,,in ,,sacrifices       
#ha      ,x4    ,,salt ,,in ,,exorcism  
,,and ,,divination                 #ig  
,,xi4    ,,faithlessness ,,to ,,salt    

#ajg      ,,xii4    ,,substitute        
,,together ,,with ,,reality             
#aae      ,,xiii4    ,,added ,,traces   
,,of ,,the ,,rite                       
#aba      ,,xiv4    ,a ,,savor ,,of     
,,life ,,or ,,of ,,death                
#aca      ,,xv4    ,,means ,,of ,a      
,,merged ,,life                         
#aci      ,,supplement    ,,the ,,ten   
,,commandments ,,as ,a ,,covenant ,,of  
,,love      #adc      ,,indexes         
,,topical ,,index1 #agg4                
,,scriptural ,,index1 #ahc4             
,i    ,,characteristics ,,of ,a         
,,covenant      ,our ,english word      
covenant1 like many another word in our 
language and  in other languages1 fails 
to convey1 or even to contain1 its      
fullest  and most important meaning in  
comparison with the idea back of it4 ,as
  a matter of fact1 this must be true of
 nearly all words4 ,ideas precede       
words4 ,ideas have spirit and life      
before they are shaped or clothed  in   
words4 ,words have necessarily human    

limitations and imperfectness1  because 
of their purely human origin4    ,when  
an idea first seeks expression in words1
 it is inevitable that it  be cramped by
 the means employed for its conveyance4 
,at the best the  word can only suggest 
the idea back of it1 rather than        
accurately  define and explain that     
idea4 ,in practice1 or in continued and 
varied  use1 in the development of      
thought and of language1 changes        
necessarily  occur in the word or words 
selected to convey a primal idea1 in    
order  to indicate other phases of the  
idea than that brought out or pointed   
to by the first chosen word4 ,while     
these changes and additions aid  some   
persons to an understanding of the root 
idea1 they tend to confuse  others1     
especially those who are looking for    
exactness of definition4    ,as a rule1 
the earlier words chosen for the        
expression of an idea  are more likely  
than later ones to suggest the main     
thought seeking  expression4 ,hence     

there is often a gain in looking back   
among the ,greek  and ,sanskrit and     
,hebrew and ,assyrian roots carried     
forward by religion  or commerce into   
our ,english words and idioms1 when we  
are searching  for the true meaning of  
an important custom or rite or thought4 
,yet  this will ordinarily be confusing 
rather than clarifying to an exact      
scholar4 ,only as a person is intent on 
the primal thought back of the  chosen  
word is he likely to perceive the true  
meaning and value of the  suggestions of
 the earlier word or words found in his 
searching4    ,archeology is sometimes  
more valuable than philology in throwing
 light  on the meaning of ancient words4
 ,it is often easier to explain the use 
of an archaic word by a disclosed       
primitive custom or rite1 than to       
discern a hidden primitive rite or      
custom by a study of the words used  in 
referring to it4 ,an archeologist may   
suggest a solution of a problem  which  
hopelessly puzzles the lexicographer or 

grammarian4 ,sentiment  and the poetic  
instinct are often more helpful1 in such
 research1 than  prescribed etymological
 methods4 ,he who looks for an exact    
definition  can never reach a           
conclusion4 ,if he seeks a suggestion1  
he may find one4    ,covenant1 as an    
,english word1 simply means1 according  
to its  etymological signification1 a   
coming together4 ,at times the word is  
used interchangeably with such words as 
an agreement1 a league1  a treaty1 a    
compact1 an arrangement1 an obligation1 
or a  promise4 ,only by its context and 
connections are we shown in special     
cases that a covenant bond has peculiar 
or pre-eminent sacredness  and          
perpetuity4 ,this truth is1 however1    
shown in many an instance1  especially  
in translations from earlier languages4 
,even in our use of the ,english word   
covenant we have to recognize1  at      
times1 its meaning as a sacred and      
indissoluble joining together of  the   
two parties covenanting1 as distinct    

from any ordinary agreement  or compact4
 ,and when we go back1 as in our        
,english ,bible1 to the ,greek  and     
,hebrew words rendered covenant1 or     
testament1 or oath1 in  a sworn bond1 we
 find this distinction more strongly    
emphasized4 ,it  is therefore essential 
to a correct view of any form of        
primitive  covenanting that we          
understand the root idea in this primal 
sort of  coming together4    ,primitive 
covenanting was by two persons cutting  
into each other's  flesh1 and sharing by
 contact1 or by drinking1 the blood thus
 brought  out4 ,earliest it was the     
personal blood of the two parties that  
was the  nexus of their covenant4 ,later
 it was the blood of a shared and eaten 
sacrifice that formed the covenant      
nexus4 ,in such a case the food of  the 
feast became a part of the life of each 
and both1 and fixed their  union4 ,in   
any case it was the common life into    
which each party was  brought by the    
covenant that bound them irrevocably4   

,this fixed the  binding of the two as  
permanent and established4#a      #a    
,see ,blood ,covenant and ,threshold    
,covenant1 passim4    ,lexicographers   
and critics puzzle over the supposed    
,hebrew or ,assyrian  origin of the     
words translated covenant in our        
,english ,bible1 and  they fail to agree
 even reasonably well on the root or    
roots involved4  ,yet all the various   
words or roots suggested by them have   
obvious  reference to the primal idea of
 covenanting as a means of life-sharing2
  therefore their verbal differences    
are1 after all1 of minor importance1    
and may simply point to different stages
 in the progressive development  of the 
languages4    ,whether1 therefore1 the  
root of the ,hebrew b7ereeth means1 as  
is variously claimed1 to cut1 to fetter1
 to bind together1  to fix1 to          
establish1 to pour out1 or to eat1 it is
 easy  to see how these words may have  
been taken as referring to the one      
primitive idea of a compassed and       

established union4#b ,so in the  ,greek 
words diatheke and horkion it can       
readily be seen  that the references to 
the new placing or disposing of the     
parties1  to their solemn appeal to ,god
 or the gods in the covenanting1 and to 
the testament to take effect after the  
death of the testator1 or to  the means 
employed in this transaction1 are alike 
consistent with the  primitive idea of a
 covenant in ,god's sight by which one  
gives over  one's very self1 or one's   
entire possessions1 to another4 ,the    
pledged  or merged personality of the   
two covenantors fully accounts for the  
different suggested references of the   
variously employed words4      #b ,see  
,gesenius's ,hebraeisches und           
,aramaeisches ,wrterbuch1 #abth    ed41 
p4 #abj2 ,norwach's ,lehrbuch der       
,hebrischen ,archologie1 ,i41 p4        
#ceh1 note #a2 ,friedrich ,delitzsch's  
,the ,hebrew ,language ,viewed in the   
,light of ,assyrian ,research1 p4 #da2  
,blood ,covenant1 #b;d ed41 p4 #bfd4    

,true marriage is thus a covenant1      
instead of an arrangement4 ,the twain   
become no longer two1 but one2 each is  
given to the other2 their  separate     
identity is lost in their common life4  
,a ring1 a bracelet1 a  band1 has been  
from time immemorial the symbol and     
pledge of such an  indissoluble union4#c
      #c ,blood ,covenant1 #b;d ed41 pp4
 #fd1 #ge1 #gg4    ,men have thus1 many 
times and in many ways1 signified their 
covenanting1 and their consequent       
interchange of personality and of       
being1 by the exchange of certain       
various tokens and symbols2 but these   
exchanges have not in any sense been the
 covenant itself1 they have  simply     
borne witness to a covenant4 ,thus men  
have exchanged pledges of  their        
covenant to be worn as phylacteries1 or 
caskets1 or amulets1 or  belts1 on neck1
 or forehead1 or arm1 or body2#d they   
have exchanged  weapons of warfare or of
 the chase2 they have exchanged articles
 of  ordinary dress1 or of ornament1 or 

of special utility2#e they have         
exchanged with each other their personal
 names4#f ,all these have been  in token
 of an accomplished covenant1 but they  
have not been forms or  rites of the    
covenant itself4      #d ,blood         
,covenant1 #b;d ed41 pp4 #bcb-bch1      
#cbf-ccj4      #e ,ibid41 pp4 #ad1 #bd1 
#bh1 #ce f41 #fb1 #bgj2 #a ,sam4 #ah 3  
#d2 #bj 3 #a-ac4      #f ,ibid41 #b;d   
ed41 p4 #ccd f4    ,circumcision is     
spoken of in the ,old ,testament as the 
token of a  covenant between the        
individual and ,god4 ,it is so counted  
by the ,jew  and the ,muhammadan4 ,in   
,madagascar1 as illustrative of outside 
nations1  it is counted as the token of 
a covenant between the individual and   
his earthly sovereign4 ,the ceremonies  
accompanying it all go to prove  this4#g
 ,again1 men have covenanted with one   
another to merge their  common          
interests1 and to obliterate or ignore  
their racial1 tribal1 or  social        
distinctions1 as no mere treaty or      

league could do4      #g ,ibid41 pp4    
#bae-bcc2 ,gen4 #ag 3 #a-ad2 ,ellis's   
,history of    ,madagascar1 pp4         
#agf-ahf4    ,in tradition and in       
history men have covenanted with ,god1  
or with their  gods1 so that they could 
claim and bear the divine name as their 
own1  thus sharing and representing the 
divine personality and power4#h ,thus   
also in tradition different gods of     
primitive peoples and times have        
covenanted with one another1 so that    
each was the other1 and the two  were   
the same4#i      #h ,blood ,covenant1   
#b;d ed41 p4 #cce4      #i ,see         
,trumbull's ,friendship the             
,master-,passion1 p4 #gc f4    ,there   
are seeming traces of this root idea of 
covenanting1 through  making two one by 
merging the life of each in a common    
life1 in words  that make union out of  
one4 ,in the ,welsh un is one2 uno is   
to unite4 ,in the ,english1 from the    
,latin1 a unit unites with another      
unit1 and the two are unified in the    

union4 ,the two by this merging  become 
not a double1 but a larger one4 ,thus it
 is always in a true  covenant4    ,we  
have to study the meaning and growth of 
words in the light of  ascertained      
primitive customs and rites and ideas1  
instead of expecting  to learn from     
ascertained root-words what were the    
prevailing primal  ideas and rites and  
customs in the world4 ,in the line of   
such studying1  covenants and the       
covenant relation have been found to be 
an important  factor1 and to have had a 
unique significance in the development  
of  human language and in the progress  
of the human race from its origin  and  
earliest history4 ,the study and        
disclosures of the primitive  covenant  
idea in its various forms and aspects   
have already brought to  light important
 truths and principles1 and the end is  
not yet4          ,,ii    ,a ,,covenant 
,,of ,,salt      ,among the varied forms
 of primitive covenanting1 perhaps none 
is more  widely known and honored1 or   

less understood1 the world over1 than  a
 covenant of salt1 or a salt covenant4  
,religion and superstition1             
civilization and barbarism1 alike deal  
with it as a bond or rite1 yet  without 
making clear the reasons for its use4   
,the precise significance  and symbolism
 of salt as the nexus of a lasting      
covenant is by no  means generally      
understood or clearly defined by even   
scholars  and scientists4 ,the subject  
is certainly one worthy of careful      
consideration and study4    ,a covenant 
of salt has mention1 in peculiar        
relations1 in the ,bible4  ,it is       
prominent in the literature and         
traditions of the ,east4 ,here in  our  
,western world there are various        
folk-lore customs and sayings that  show
 familiarity with it as a vestige of    
primitive thought4 ,among the  islands  
of the sea1 and in out-of-the-way       
corners of the earth1 it  shows itself  
as clearly as in ,europe1 ,asia1        
,africa1 and ,america4    ,in some      

regions salt is spoken of as if it were 
merely an accompaniment  of bread1 and  
thus a common and indispensable article 
of food2 but1  again1 its sharing stands
 out as signifying far more than is     
meant by  an ordinary meal or feast4 ,an
 explanation of its meaning1 frequently 
offered or accepted by students and     
specialists1 is that in its nature  it  
is a preservative and essential1 and    
therefore its presence adds  value to an
 offering or to a sacramental rite4#aj  
,but the mind cannot  be satisfied with 
so superficial an interpretation as     
this1 in view of  many things in text   
and tradition that go to show a unique  
sacredness  of salt as salt1 rather than
 as a preserver and enlivener of        
something  that is of more value4 ,it is
 evident that the true symbolism and    
sanctity of salt as the nexus of a      
covenant lie deeper than is yet         
admitted1 or than has been formally     
stated by any scholar4      #aj ,see ,w4
 ,robertson ,smith's ,religion of the   

,semites1 pp4 #bjc1 #beb2    ,art4      
,salt1 by ,w4 ,r4 ,s4 in ,encyc4 ,brit42
 ,trumbull's ,studies in    ,oriental   
,social ,life1 pp4 #ajf-aab1 with       
citations2 ,norwach's ,lehrbuch    der  
,hebrischen ,archologie1 ,,ii1 p4 #bde1 
etc4          ,,iii    ,,bible          
,,references ,,to ,,the ,,rite      ,a  
covenant of salt seems to stand quite by
 itself in the ,bible  record4          
,covenants made in blood1 and again as  
celebrated by sharing  a common meal1   
and by the exchange of weapons and      
clothing1 and in  various other ways1   
are of frequent mention2 but a covenant 
of salt is  spoken of only three times1 
and in every one of these cases as if it
  were of peculiar and sacred           
significance2 each case is unique4      
,the ,lord speaks of his covenant with  
,aaron and his sons1 in the  privileges 
of the priesthood in perpetuity1 as such
 a covenant4 ,to  him he says3 ,all the 
heave offerings of the holy things1     
which the  children of ,israel offer    

unto the ,lord1 have ,i given thee1 and 
thy sons  and thy daughters with thee1  
as a due for ever3 it is a covenant of  
salt for ever before the ,lord unto thee
 and to thy seed with thee4#aa      #aa 
,num4 #ah 3 #ai4    ,of the ,lord's     
covenant with ,david and his seed1 in   
the rights and  privileges of royalty1  
,abijah the king of ,judah says to      
,jeroboam1 the  rival king of ,israel3  
,o ,jeroboam and all ,israel2 ought ye  
not to know  that the ,lord1 the ,god of
 ,israel1 gave the kingdom over ,israel 
to ,david  for ever1 even to him and to 
his sons by a covenant of salt8#ab      
#ab #b ,chron4 #ac 3 #e4    ,again1 the 
,lord1 through ,moses1 enjoins it upon  
the people of ,israel  to be faithful in
 the offering of sacrifices at his      
altar1 according  to the prescribed     
ritual4 ,neither shalt thou suffer the  
salt of the  covenant of thy ,god1 he   
says1 to be lacking from thy meal       
offering3  with all thine oblations thou
 shalt offer salt4#ac      #ac ,lev4 #b 

3 #ac4    ,while the word covenant      
appears more than two hundred and fifty 
times in the ,old ,testament1 it is a   
remarkable fact that the term  covenant 
of salt occurs in only these three      
instances1 and then in  such obviously  
exceptional connections4 ,the ,lord's   
covenant with ,aaron  and his seed in   
the priesthood1 and with ,david and his 
seed in the  kingship1 is as a covenant 
of salt1 perpetual and unalterable4 ,and
  ,god's people in all their holy       
offerings are to bear in mind that the  
salt is a vital element and factor1 if  
they would come within the terms  of the
 perpetual and unalterable covenant4    
,in the ,bible1 ,god speaks to men by   
means of human language2 and in the     
figures of speech which he employs he   
makes use of terms which had and  have a
 well-known significance among men4 ,his
 employment of the term  covenant of    
salt as implying permanency and         
unchangeableness to a  degree unknown to
 men1 except in a covenant of blood as a

 covenant of  very life1 is of          
unmistakable significance4    ,there are
 indeed incidental references1 in       
another place in the ,old  ,testament1  
to the prevailing primitive idea that   
salt-sharing is  covenant-making4 ,these
 references should not be overlooked4   
,in many lands1 and in different ages1  
salt has been considered the  possession
 of the government1 or of the sovereign 
of the realm1 to  be controlled by the  
ruler1 as a source of life1 or as one of
 its  necessaries1 for his people4 ,in  
consequence of this the receiving of    
salt from the king's palace has been    
deemed a fresh obligation of  fidelity  
on the part of his subjects4 ,this is   
indicated in a ,bible  passage with     
reference to the rebuilding by          
,zerubbabel of the ,temple at           
,jerusalem1 under the edict of ,cyrus1  
king of ,persia4 ,the adversaries  of   
,judah and ,benjamin protested against  
the work as a seditious act4  ,in giving
 their reason for this course they said3

 ,now because we eat  the salt of the   
palace because we are bound to the king 
by a covenant  of salt1 and it is not   
meet for us to see the king's dishonor1 
therefore have we sent and certified the
 king4#ad      #ad ,ezra #d 3 #ad4      
,and so again when ,king ,darius showed 
his confidence in the ,jews by          
directing a supply1 from the royal      
treasury1 of material for sacrifices  at
 the ,temple1 and a renewal of the means
 of covenanting1 he declared3  ,moreover
 ,i make a decree what ye shall do to   
these elders of the ,jews  for the      
building of this house of ,god3 that of 
the king's goods1 even  of the tribute  
beyond the river1 expenses be given with
 all diligence  unto these men1 that    
they be not hindered4 ,and that which   
they have  need of1 both young bullocks1
 and rams1 and lambs1 for burnt         
offerings  to the ,god of heaven1 wheat1
 salt1 wine1 and oil1 according to the  
word  of the priests which are at       
,jerusalem1 let it be given them day by 

day  without fail3 that they may offer  
sacrifices of sweet savor unto the  ,god
 of heaven1 and pray for the life of the
 king1 and of his sons4#ae  ,and again1 
in further detail3 ,unto an hundred     
talents of silver1 and  to an hundred   
measures of wheat1 and to an hundred    
baths of wine1 and  to an hundred baths 
of oil1 and salt without prescribing how
 much2#af  the more salt they took1 the 
more surely and firmly they were bound4 
#ae ,ezra #f 3 #h-aj4      #af ,ezra #g 
3 #bb4          ,,iv    ,,bread ,,and   
,,salt      ,there would be nothing     
eatable1 says ,plutarch1 without salt1  
which1  mixed with flour1 seasons bread 
also4 ,hence it was that ,neptune and   
,ceres or ,poseidon and ,demeter as the 
,greeks called them had both the  same  
temple4#ag ,and from the days of        
,plutarch until now1 as has been        
already mentioned1 it has been customary
 to speak of the covenant  of salt as   
synonymous with the covenant of bread   
and salt2 or as  identical with the     

covenant of food-sharing in the rite of 
hospitality4  ,but the covenant of salt 
among primitive peoples has1 and ever   
has had1  a sacredness and depth of     
meaning far beyond what is involved in  
the  ordinary sharing of food4      #ag 
,plutarch's ,sympos4 7,goodwin's        
edition71 ,book ,,iv4 ,ques4 ,,iv41  #c4
    ,even the sharing of water between  
two persons1 or the giving and          
receiving of a drink of water1 is a     
compact of peace for the time  being1 as
 a truce between enemies4#ah ,the       
sharing of bread1 or of  flesh1 means   
yet more than the sharing of water4 ,it 
brings those who  join in it into the   
league or treaty of hospitality1 by     
which the host  is pledged to his guest 
while he is a guest1 and for a          
reasonable time  after his departure4#ai
      #ah ,see ,trumbull's ,studies in  
,oriental ,social ,life1 pp4 #cfa-cfc4  
#ai ,see ,burckhardt's ,travels in      
,syria1 p4 #bid f42 ,beduinen und       
,wahaby1 p4 #add f42 ,niebuhr's         

,beschreibung von ,arabien1 p4 #dh2     
,lane's ,the ,thousand and ,one ,nights1
 ,,ii41 #dbc1 note #ba2 ,wetzstein's    
,sprachliches1 p4 #bh f42 ,denham and   
,clapperton's ,travels and              
,discoveries in ,africa1 p4 xli2        
,warburton's ,the ,crescent and the     
,cross1 fifth ed41 ,,ii41 #afg f42      
,pierrotti's ,customs and ,traditions of
    ,palestine1 p4 #baj f42 ,burton's   
,pilgrimage to ,el ,medinah and ,meccah1
    ,,iii41 #hf2 ,thomson's ,the ,land  
and the ,book1 ,,ii41 #dj-dc2 ,merrill's
    ,east of the ,jordan1 pp4 #dhh-dia2 
,harmer's ,observations1 fifth ed41     
,i41 #chh f42 ,doughty's ,travels in    
,arabian ,deserts1 ,i41 #bbh2 ,studies  
in ,oriental ,social ,life1 pp4 #gc-adb2
 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith's ,kinship and   
,marriage in ,early ,arabia1 p4 #adi f4 
,compare also ,gen4 #bd 3 #ab-ad2 ,deut4
    #bc 3 #c1 #d2 #a ,sam4 #be 3 #aj1   
#aa2 #a ,kings #ah 3 #d2 ,job #bb 3 #g2 
,matt4 #aj 3 #db2    ,mark #i 3 #da2    
,john #d 3 #i4    ,durzee ,bey1 a native

 chieftain in ,mesopotamia1 having put a
 bit of  roast meat into the mouth of   
,dr4 ,hamlin1 as they sat together in   
his  domicil1 said3 ,by that act ,i have
 pledged you every drop of my blood1    
that while you are in my territory no   
evil shall come to you4 ,for  that space
 of time we are brothers4#bj ,where     
enmity subsists1 the  fiercer ,arabs    
will not sit down at the same table with
 their adversary2  sitting down together
 betokens reconciliation4#ba      #bj   
,hamlin's ,among the ,turks1 p4 #age f4 
#ba ,russell's ,natural ,history of     
,aleppo1 ,book ,,ii41 chap4 #d 7,i41    
#bcb74    ,a covenant of salt is1       
however1 permanent and unalterable1 as  
the truce  or treaty is not4 ,yet this  
distinction1 recognized by ,orientals1  
does  not seem to be observed by all    
writers on ,oriental customs1 even by   
those who are generally observant and   
experienced4    ,it is true that the    
sharing of salt is usually an           
accompaniment of  bread-sharing2 hence1 

a covenant of salt between two parties  
is  generally1 although not always1 made
 by their partaking of bread  and salt  
together4 ,moreover1 because salt is a  
common ingredient in  ,oriental bread1  
the eating of bread with another in the 
,east may  include the sharing of salt  
with him2 but in such a case it is the  
salt1 and not the bread1 which is the   
nexus of the perpetual covenant1  in its
 distinction from the temporary compact 
of hospitality in the  sharing of bread4
 ,the bread is the vehicle of the       
covenant-making salt4  ,indeed1 they    
have it for a proverb among ,arabs and  
,syrians1 ,my bread  had no salt in it1 
as a mode of accounting for any act of  
treachery1  or failure in fidelity      
toward one who was a partaker of the    
bread of  hospitality4    ,in the famous
 ,oriental story of ,ali ,baba and the  
,forty ,thieves1  the captain of the    
robber band who had visited ,ali ,baba  
in order to  murder him was unwilling to
 partake of any food which had salt in  

it4  ,this carefulness it was that      
excited the suspicion of ,morgiana1 the 
faithful slave girl1 and led her to ask1
 ,who is he that eateth only  meat      
wherein is no salt8 ,and when she       
recognized the robber captain  under his
 disguise1 she said to herself3 ,so ho6 
this is the cause why  the villain      
eateth not of salt1 for that he seeketh 
now an opportunity  to slay my master1  
whose mortal enemy he is4#bb ,this man  
was ready  enough to partake of bread   
and flesh as a guest1 and then strike   
his  host to the heart in violation of  
all the obligations of hospitality2  as1
 indeed1 has been done in many a case in
 the ,east in early and in  recent      
times1#bc but he could not consent1     
robber and murderer as he  was1 to      
disregard a sacred covenant of salt4    
#bb ,burton's ,thousand and ,one        
,nights1 ,supplemental ,nights1 ,,iii41 
#cih f4      #bc ,see1 for example1     
,layard's account of the murder of a    
,koordish    ,bey by ,ibrheem ,agha1    

after the latter had risen from the     
table of the    former 7,nineveh and its
 ,remains1 ,i41 #if f472 also his       
account of    other murderous violations
 of the rites of hospitality 7,ibid41   
,i41    #ajg f42 ,nineveh and ,babylon1 
p4 #ch74    ,the story of the origin of 
the dynasty of the ,saffaride ,kaleefs1 
in  the ninth century1 is an            
illustration of the surpassing power of 
the  covenant of salt4 ,laiss-el-,safar1
 or ,laiss the coppersmith1 was an      
obscure worker in brass and copper1 in  
,khorassan1 a province of ,persia4  ,his
 son ,yakoob wrought for a time at his  
father's trade1 and then  became a      
robber chieftain4    ,having on one     
occasion found his way by night through 
a subterranean  passage into the        
treasury of the palace of the governor1 
,nassar ,seyar1  who was then in control
 of ,seiestan1 ,yakoob gathered jewels  
and costly  stuffs1 and was proceeding  
to carry them off4 ,striking his bare   
foot1  in the darkness1 against a hard  

and sharp substance on the floor of  the
 room1 he thought it might be a jewel1  
and stooped to pick it up4  ,putting it 
to his tongue1 to test it after the     
manner of lapidaries1 he  discovered    
that it was rock salt that he had tasted
 in the governor's  palace4 ,at once he 
threw down his bale of stolen goods1 and
 left the  palace by the way he had     
entered4    ,the signs of attempted     
robbery being found the next morning1   
the  governor caused a proclamation to  
be made throughout the city1 that1 if   
the man who had entered the treasury    
would make himself known at the  palace1
 he should be pardoned1 and should be   
shown marks of special  favor4 ,yakoob  
accordingly presented himself at the    
palace1 and freely  told his story4 ,the
 governor felt that a man who would hold
 thus sacred  the covenant of salt could
 be depended on1 and ,yakoob was given a
  position near his person4    ,step by 
step ,yakoob went forward to power and  
honors1 until he was  chief ruler of    

,khorassan1 and founder of the          
,saffaride dynasty in the  ,persian     
khaleefate4 ,he died ,a4,d4 #hgh1 and   
was succeeded by his brother1  ,omar    
,,ii4#bd      #bd ,price's ,mohammedan  
,history1 ,,ii41 #bbi f4    ,baron du   
,tott1 the ,hungarian ,french traveler  
among the ,turks and  ,tatars1 tells of 
his experience in this line with one    
,moldovanji  ,pasha1 who desired a      
closer intimacy than was practicable in 
the brief  time the two were to be      
together4 ,i had already1 says the      
,baron du  ,tott1 attended him halfway  
down the staircase of my house1 when    
stopping1 and turning briskly to one of 
my domestics who followed me1  ',bring  
me directly1' said he1 'some bread and  
salt4' ,i was not less  surprised at    
this fancy than at the haste which was  
made to obey him4  ,what he requested   
was brought1 when1 taking a little salt 
between his  fingers1 and putting it    
with a mysterious air on a bit of bread1
 he ate  it with a devout gravity1      

assuring me that ,i might now rely on   
him4#be      #be ,baron du ,tott's      
,memoirs of the ,turks and ,tartars1    
,part ,i41 p4    #bad1 quoted in ,bush's
 ,illustrations of the ,holy            
,scriptures4    ,stephen ,schultz1 in   
his ,travels through ,europe1 ,asia1 and
 ,africa1 gives  this illustration of   
the binding force of the covenant of    
salt3 ,on  the #acth of ,june #aged the 
deacon1 ,joseph ,diab1 a custom-house   
clerk1  was at table with us4 ,referring
 to the salt which stood on the table1  
he said that the ,arabs make use of it  
as a token of friendship4 ,while  they  
are fond of it1 they do not like to     
place it on the table4 ,on one          
occasion1 when he was with a caravan    
traveling to ,babel ,bagdad1 they  came 
into a neighborhood where ,arabs were   
encamped4 ,in the caravan  was a rich   
merchant4 ,seeing that one of the ,arabs
 was making ready to  come to the       
caravan1 he buried his money in the     
ground1 built a fire  over it1 and then 

sat down to eat with the others near the
 fire4 ,when  the ,arabs arrived they   
were welcomed pleasantly1 and invited to
 eat4  ,they accepted the invitation and
 sat down at the table4 ,but when their 
leader saw the salt on the table1 he    
said to the merchant1 ',my loss is  your
 gain2 for as ,i have eaten at a table  
on which is salt1 ,i cannot1  must not1 
harm you4' ,when that caravan started on
 its way1 the ,arab  leader not only    
refrained from taking what he had       
intended to demand1  but he escorted    
them without reward as far as the       
,euphrates1 and gave  them over into the
 care of the ,pasha of ,bagdad1 as      
friends of his  prince ,achsam4 ,they   
were now safe4    ,schultz adds3 ,it is 
not customary among ,arabs to place salt
 on a  common table1 but only when an   
,arab prince enters into an alliance    
with  a pacha1 which is called          
baret-millah1 or the salt alliance4     
,this is  done as follows3 ,the ,arab   
prince1 when he wishes to live within   

the  jurisdiction of a pacha sends      
messengers to him to ask whether he may 
dwell in his territory as an ally4 ,if  
the pacha consents1 he sends  messengers
 to the prince1 informing him that they 
will meet on such  a day4 ,when the day 
arrives the pacha rides out to meet the 
prince1  in the field which he has      
selected for his dwelling1 and conducts 
him  to his own quarters4 ,then the     
,arab prince asks the pacha how much he 
is to pay for permission to dwell in    
that field4 ,the bargain is soon        
concluded1 according to the extent of   
the ,arab encampment4    ,as soon as the
 bargain is concluded1 a repast is      
prepared1 and a  salt-cellar1 with some 
pieces of bread on a flat dish1 is      
carried round  the apartment by the     
pacha's servants4 ,the dish is first    
presented  to the pacha1 who takes a    
piece of bread1 dips it in the salt1    
and1  holding it between two fingers    
toward the prince1 calls out1 ',salaam6'
  that is ,peace1 ',i am the friend of  

your friend1 and the enemy of your      
enemy4' ,the dish is now presented to   
the ,arab prince1 who likewise  takes a 
piece of bread1 dips it in the salt1 and
 says to the pacha1  ',peace6 ,i am the 
friend of your friend1 and the enemy of 
your enemy6'  ,thereupon the dish with  
the bread is handed to the chief men of 
the  ,arab prince1 and to the ministers 
of the pacha1 who receive it in the     
same manner as their principals2 with   
the exception that they simply  say1 on 
taking the bread1 ',salaam6' ',peace'#bf
      #bf ,schultz's ,leitungen des     
,hchsten nach seinem ,rath auf den      
,reisen durch ,europa1 ,asia1 und       
,afrika1 ,part ,v41 p4 #bdf1 quoted in  
,rosenmller's ,des alte und neue        
,morgenland1 ,,ii41 #aeb f4    ,don     
,raphel speaking of the conventions1 or 
rather the covenants1  which are        
recognized by the ,bed'ween as sacredly 
binding on them1 says3  ,one kind of    
these conventions is made by their      
putting some grains of  salt with pieces

 of bread into each other's mouths1     
saying1 ',by the  rite of bread and     
salt1' or1 ',by this salt and bread1 ,i 
will not betray  thee4' ,no oath is     
added2 for the more sacred an oath      
appears to be1  the more easily does an 
,arab violate it4 ,but a convention     
concluded in  this manner derives its   
force merely from opinion1 and this is  
indeed  extraordinary4444 ,if a stranger
 who meets with them in the desert1 or  
comes to a camp1 or before he departs   
from a city1 can oppose this  alliance  
to their rapacity1 his baggage and his  
life are more safe1  even in the midst  
of the desert1 than during the first    
days of his  journey with the securities
 of twenty hostages4 ,the ,arab with    
whom he  has eaten bread and salt1 and  
all the ,arabs of his tribe1 consider   
him  as their countryman and brother4   
,there is no kind of respect1 no proof  
of regard1 which they do not show       
him4#bg      #bg ,don ,raphel's ,the    
,bedouins1 or ,arabs of the ,desert1    

,part ,,ii1 p4    #ei2 quoted in        
,burder's ,oriental ,customs1 #b;d ed41 
p4 #gb f4    ,volney says of the        
,druzes1 ,when they have contracted with
 their guests  the sacred engagement of 
bread and salt1 no subsequent event can 
make  them violate it4#bh ,this ,volney 
illustrates by notable incidents4       
#bh ,volney's ,travels1 ,,ii41 #gf4     
,mrs4 ,finn1 wife of the ,english consul
 at ,jerusalem1 who was long  resident  
in the ,east1 gives the following       
illustration of the  importance of salt 
as well as bread to a binding covenant4 
,after a  feast in the ,hebron district 
of ,palestine1 one of the persons who   
shared it was waylaid and murdered by   
hired assassins4 ,one of the men        
7,abdallah7 concerned in the deed1 not  
as an actor1 but as spectator1  had been
 the night before actually eating with  
the victim4 ,on hearing  what had       
happened1 the poor fellah woman who had 
cooked their supper1  and who was much  
attached to the murdered man1 bewailed  

herself1  beating her breast and crying1
 ',wo is me6 wo is me6 ,i left out the  
salt  by mistake when making the bread  
last night for their supper4 ,oh that   
,i had put it in6 then would not        
,abdallah have dared to let my lord be  
murdered in his presence2 he would have 
been compelled to defend him  after     
eating his bread and salt4 ,wo is me6 wo
 is me6'#bi      #bi ,survey of ,western
 ,palestine1 ,special ,papers1 p4 #cee4 
,john ,macgregor1 while on the upper    
,jordan in his canoe ,rob ,roy1 was     
taken prisoner by the ,arabs4 ,as he    
parleyed with the old shaykh in his     
tent1 ,macgregor opened a box of fine   
salt and proffered a pinch of  it to his
 captor4 ,the shaykh had never before   
seen salt so white and  fine1 and1      
therefore1 thinking it was sugar1 he    
tasted it4 ,instantly  ,macgregor put a 
portion also into his own mouth1 and    
with a loud1  laughing shout he clapped 
the old shaykh on his back4    ,the     
shaykh was dumbfounded4 ,his followers  

wondered what had happened4  ',what is  
it8' all asked from him4 ',is it        
sukker8' ,he answered  demurely1 ',la1  
meleh6' 7,no1 it's salt67 ,even his home
 secretary  laughed at his chief4 ,we   
had now eaten salt together1 says       
,macgregor1 and in his own tent1 and so 
he was bound by the strongest  tie1 and 
he knew it4 ,the result was that        
,macgregor and his canoe were  carried  
back in triumph to the river1 and       
speeded on their way1 while  the people 
on the banks shouted salaams to their   
brother in the  covenant of salt4#cj    
#cj ,macgregor's ,the ,rob ,roy on the  
,jordan1 p4 #bei f4    ,salt alone is a 
basis of an enduring covenant1 but bread
 alone is not  so4 ,yet bread and salt  
may be such a basis1 because there is   
salt as  well as bread there4 ,so       
commonly does salt go with bread that it
 is the  exception when they are not    
together4 ,our ,english ,bible asks1 at 
,job  #f3 #f1 ,can that which hath no   
savor be eaten without salt8 ,but the   

,septuagint reads3 ,can bread be eaten  
without salt8#ca      #ca ,see ,swete's 
version of ,the ,septuagint1 in loco4   
,in ,india it is much the same as in    
,arabia1 ,palestine1 and ,persia4  ,in  
the ,mahabharata1 the great             
treasure-house of ,hindoo wisdom1 the   
covenant of bread and salt finds        
specific recognition4 ,when ,krishna    
urges the hero ,karna to join with him  
in the war against the ,kauravas1  he   
says to him3 ,if you will accompany me  
and join the ,pandavas1 they  will all  
respect you as their elder brother1 and 
exalt you to the  sovereignty4 ,but     
,karna cannot be persuaded to this      
treacherous course1  although he knows  
that to be true will cost him his life4 
,i have seen  bad omens1 he says1 and ,i
 know ,i shall be slain2 but ,i have    
eaten the  bread and salt of the        
,kauravas1 and ,i am resolved to fight  
on their  side4#cb      #cb ,wheeler's  
,history of ,india1 ,i41 #bga4          
,again1 when ,yudhishthira asked        

permission of ,bhishma and ,drona to    
fight  against the ,kauravas1 they      
granted his request1 and at the same    
time  said3 ,we fight on the side of the
 ,kauravas because for many years we    
have eaten their bread and salt1 or     
otherwise we would have fought for      
you4#cc      #cc ,ibid41 ,i41 #big f4   
,compare this with ,ezra #d 3 #a-ad4    
,in ,madagascar also the covenant of    
salt is known1 as in other parts of  the
 ,east4#cd ,and thus on every continent 
and on the islands of the sea4      #cd 
,m4 ,hamelin's ,adventures in           
,madagascar1 quoted in ,the ,madagascar 
,news1 ,sept4 #i1 #ahic4          ,v    
,,salt ,,representing ,,blood           
,there are indications in the customs of
 primitive peoples that blood  and salt 
are recognized as in some sense         
interchangeable in their  natures1      
qualities1 and uses4 ,and in this1 as in
 many another matter1  the trend of     
modern science seems to be in the line  
of primitive  indications4    ,peoples  

who have not salt available are         
accustomed to substitute for it  fresh  
blood1 as though the essential          
properties of salt were obtainable  in  
this way4 ,an observant medical         
scientist1 writing of his travels in    
eastern ,equatorial ,africa1 tells of   
the habit of the ,masai people of       
drinking the warm blood fresh from the  
bullocks they kill2 and this he         
characterizes as a wise though repulsive
 proceeding1 as the blood  thus drunk   
provided the salts so necessary in human
 economy2 for the  ,masai do not partake
 of any salt in its common form4#ce     
#ce ,thomson's ,through ,masai ,land1 p4
 #dcj4    ,similarly1 ,dr4 ,david       
,livingstone noted the fact that when he
 was  among peoples who had difficulty  
in procuring salt1 fresh-killed meat    
seemed to satisfy the natural craving   
for salt1 while vegetable diet  without 
salt caused indigestion4#cf ,in portions
 of ,china1 also1 where  salt is not    
obtainable1 or where it is too expensive

 for ordinary use1  the blood of pigs or
 fowls is carefully preserved and eaten 
as if a  substitute for salt4      #cf  
,livingstone's ,travels in ,south       
,africa1 p4 #bf f41 #fjj4    ,professor 
,bunge of ,basel1 who is quite an       
authority in the realm of  physiological
 and pathological chemistry1 speaking on
 the relation of  salt and blood1 says  
that at every period1 in every part of  
the world1  and in every climate1 there 
are people who use salt as well as those
  who do not4 ,the people who take salt1
 though differing from each other  in   
every other respect1 are all            
characterized by a vegetable diet2 in   
the same way1 those who do not use any  
salt are all alike in taking  animal    
food4    ,he says1 moreover3 ,it is 444 
noteworthy that the people who live on  
an animal diet without salt1 carefully  
avoid loss of blood when they  slaughter
 the animals4 ,this was told me by four 
different naturalists  who have lived   
among flesh-eaters in various parts of  

northern ,russia  and ,siberia4 ,the    
,samoyedes1 when dining off reindeer    
flesh1 dip every  mouthful in blood     
before eating it4 ,the ,esquimaux in    
,greenland are  said to plug the wound  
as soon as they have killed a seal4     
,like  testimony comes from ,india1     
,arabia1 ,africa1 ,australia1 and       
various  parts of ,america4#cg      #cg 
,bunge's ,text-,book of ,physiological  
and ,pathological ,chemistry1           
,wooldridge's translation1 pp4 #abb-abi4
    ,the ,jews of to-day1 who are       
careful to drain the blood from         
slaughtered  animals prepared for food1 
are accustomed to put salt freely on the
  meat thus drained4 ,this is in        
accordance with the prescription of the 
,talmud1 for the purpose of absorbing   
the blood not drawn out from the  main  
bloodvessels4 ,at the close of two hours
 from the slaughtering1 the  meat is    
washed for cooking4 ,whatever be the    
reason rendered for this  application of
 salt1 and its remaining on the flesh   

for a time1 may  there not thus be an   
instinctive supplying of the salts taken
 away by  draining out the blood8       
,salt and salts are terms often used    
interchangeably in the common  mind4    
,while they are distinct as employed by 
a scientist1 it is not  to be wondered  
at that they are confused by those who  
fail to note  the differences2 nor is it
 important to consider these differences
 in  primitive thought and customs4     
,a salt1 as the chemists use the term1  
is a combination of an acid and  a base4
 ,there are many salts in use in the    
world2 among these the one  best known  
and most widely used and valued is      
sodium chloride1 or what  is popularly  
known as common salt4 ,this has been    
used and prized1 the  world over1 among 
all classes of men1 from the earliest   
historic times4    ,salt has long been  
popularly claimed as an important       
element of the  liquids of the body1 as 
shown in the blood1 in the tears1 and in
 the  perspiration1 of mankind4 ,later  

scientific experiments have confirmed   
ancient and traditional claims1 that    
saline injections avail like blood      
transfusion for the preservation of life
 in an emergency4#ch      #ch ,see ,des 
,injections sous-cutanes massives de    
,solutions salines1    par le ,dr4 ,l4  
,fourmeaux1 ,paris1 #ahig1 pp4 #e-g2    
also ,quain's ,dict4 of    ,med41 art4  
,transf4 of ,salt4    ,it has long been 
common among ordinary people to         
administer salt to one  taken with a    
hemorrhage of the lungs1 or stomach1 or 
nose4 ,this is the  folk-lore remedy in 
many regions4 ,moreover1 under careful  
medical and  surgical direction it is   
now customary in the hospitals to keep  
on hand  a warm solution of salt to     
inject into the veins or tissues of     
persons  brought in sinking from a      
sudden loss of blood4 ,whatever         
connection the  two ideas--the popular  
and the scientific--may or may not have1
 it is  not to be wondered at that it   
has long been thought that1 when blood  

has gone out from the body1 salt might  
well go in4    ,blood transfusion1 by   
which the blood or life of a stronger or
 fresher  person may permeate the being 
of a sinking one1 has been known of for 
centuries1 and there are at least traces
 of it in tradition from the  earliest  
ages4#ci ,more recent experiments have  
shown that a saline  solution is even   
safer and more efficacious than the warm
 blood from  another life2 now1         
therefore1 this has largely taken the   
place of  blood in supplying the waste  
occasioned by severe hemorrhages4#dj    
,various illustrations of this treatment
 are given as showing that  when persons
 were in a very low condition through   
loss of blood1 they  have been rescued  
and restored through copious injections 
of a saline  solution4#da      #ci ,see 
,blood ,covenant1 pp4 #aae-abf1 with    
references to ,pliny1 and    to         
,roussel1 and others4 ,see1 also1 ,dr4  
,thomas ,g4 ,morton's ,transfusion    of
 ,blood2 ,w4 ,h4 ,howell's ,american    

,text ,book of ,physiology1 p4 #cfb4    
#dj ,see ,dr4 ,bartholow's ,hypodermatic
 ,medication1 pp4 #abf-adb4      #da    
,see1 for example1 ,capital ,operations 
without ,ansthesia and the    ,use of   
,large ,saline ,infusion in ,acute      
,anmia1 a paper read by ,dr4            
,buchanan before the ,national          
,association of ,railway ,surgeons1 pp4 
#ah1    #gi4    ,the use of blood as    
food was forbidden to ,noah and his sons
 after  the ,flood4#db ,a tradition of  
the ,turkish or ,tatar nations says that
  ,noah's son ,japheth was their        
immediate ancestor1 and that ,toutug1 or
  ,toumuk1 a grandson of ,japheth1      
discovered salt as an article of diet   
by accidentally dropping a morsel of    
food on to salt earth1 and thus         
becoming acquainted with the savor of   
salt4#dc ,this carries back the         
traditional discovery of salt to the age
 when blood was first forbidden  as     
food4      #db ,gen4 #i 3 #d4      #dc  
,price's ,mohammedan ,history1 ,,ii41   

#deh4    ,it was long ago claimed by    
some that the red corpuscles of the     
blood  are dependent for their color and
 vitality on the presence of salt1  and 
recent scientific experiments and       
discussion have continued in the        
direction of the question thus          
raised4#dd      #dd ,see ,w4 ,h4        
,howell's ,american ,text ,book of      
,physiology1 p4 #ccd4    ,it has been   
shown by experiment that many of the    
lower animals1 as well  as man1 are     
dependent for their life on salt in     
their blood4 ,when  an animal is fed    
with a diet as far as possible free from
 salts1 but  otherwise sufficient1 it   
dies of salts-hunger4 ,the blood first  
loses  inorganic material1 then the     
organs4 ,the total loss is very small   
in proportion to the quantity still     
retained in the body2 but it is         
sufficient to cause the death of a      
pigeon in three weeks1 and of a dog  in 
six1 with marked symptoms of muscular   
and nervous weakness4#de ,a  mode of    

torture in former ages is said to have  
been to deprive a person  of salt1 and  
cause him to waste away with painful    
salt-hunger4 ,it is  said that this mode
 of torture is still employed in ,china4
      #de ,voit1 cited in ,stewart's    
,manual of ,physiology1 ,baillire1      
,tindall1 and ,cox1 #ahie4    ,an       
,armenian story says that when a band of
 their people was in a  stronghold of   
the mountains1 and was besieged by the  
,turks1 the latter  failing to subdue   
the former by other means cut off the   
supply of salt  from the ,armenians1 and
 this quickly subdued them4    ,in      
#ahcj1 a paper by ,dr4 ,w4 ,stevens1    
read before the ,london ,college  of    
,physicians1 and afterwards elaborated  
and published in a volume1  contended   
that the salient ingredients of the     
blood1 the chief of  which is common    
culinary salt1 444 is the cause of the  
red color1 of  the fluidity1 and of the 
stimulating property1 of the vital      
current4  ,dr4 ,stevens claimed that the

 poison of the rattlesnake1 and various 
other poisons1 operate directly on the  
blood1 and produce disease or  death by 
interfering with the agency of the      
saline matter4#df      #df ,see ,london 
,quarterly ,review1 ,,xlviii41 #if      
7,dec41 #ahcb1 #cge-cia74    ,on the    
subject of the poison of the            
rattlesnake1 ,dr4 ,stevens1 in  this    
work1 asserts that when the muriate of  
soda 7common salt7 is  immediately      
applied to the wound1 it is a complete  
antidote4 ',when an  ,indian1' he says1 
'is bitten by a snake1 he applies a     
ligature above  the part1 and scarifies 
the wound to the very bottom2 he then   
stuffs it  with common salt1 and after  
this it soon heals1 without producing   
any  effect on the general system4' ,in 
view of the fact that it might be       
objected that the salt is not the       
essential means of cure1 but is an      
addition to the curative treatment1 ,dr4
 ,stevens says that he has seen  a      
rabbit1 that was under the influence of 

the rattlesnake poison1 drink  a        
saturated solution of muriate of soda   
with great avidity1 and soon  recover2  
while healthy rabbits would not taste   
one drop of the same  strong saline     
water when it was put before them4      
,dr4 ,stevens gives various             
illustrations1 out of primitive customs1
 and  in the experience of modern       
practitioners1 of curative and          
prophylactic  uses of salt in the       
treatment of fevers1 where the condition
 of the  blood seems to be a main source
 of evil4 ,aside from the question      
whether the claims of ,dr4 ,stevens have
 been substantiated by later  researches
 and experiments1 his investigations and
 assertions are  of interest as showing 
that1 in the realm of modern science as 
of  primitive practices1 salt and blood 
have seemed to many to have             
interchangeable values4    ,if1 indeed1 
this theory of ,dr4 ,stevens1 elaborated
 so carefully in  the first third of the
 nineteenth century1 in which he claims 

that  salt practically represents blood1
 stood all by itself in the history  of 
medicine1 it would have less importance 
than it has in a formal  treatise of    
this kind2 yet even then it would show  
that such an idea  had before now found 
a place in the human mind4 ,but it by no
 means  stands thus alone2 a similar    
claim has been made both earlier and    
later4    ,pliny1 in his day1 at the    
beginning of the ,christian era1 records
 it  as the common belief that salt is  
foremost among human remedies for       
disease1 and among preventives of       
sickness of all kinds4#dg ,he gives     
prominence to salt as a cure of         
leprosy1#dh whereas blood transfusion   
and blood bathing was the traditional   
treatment of that disorder4#di  ,pliny  
also speaks of salt itself1 and of salt 
fish in large quantities1  as a supposed
 remedy for the bite of serpents1#ej    
this being in the  line of asserted     
remedies among the ,indians1 according  
to ,dr4 ,stevens4  ,various other       

disorders1 especially of the blood1 are 
named by ,pliny as  curable by salt4    
#dg ,hist4 ,nat41 ,,xxxi41 #de4      #dh
 ,ibid4      #di ,blood ,covenant1 pp4  
#aaf f41 #abe1 #bhg f41 #cbd4      #ej  
,hist4 ,nat41 ,,xxxi41 #da2 ,,xxxii41   
#ag4    ,seventy years after the        
treatise of ,dr4 ,stevens1 a volume1    
recently  published in ,london by ,c4   
,godfrey ,gmpel on ,common ,salt1#ea    
claims  even more than ,pliny1 or any   
writer since his day1 for the vital     
importance of common salt for our whole 
physical and social life4 ,he  claims   
that of all the constituents of our     
life's blood there is none  which can   
possibly surpass common salt in its     
necessity for a strong  healthy         
blood1#eb and that both the red         
corpuscles and the white are  largely   
dependent for their normal condition on 
the presence of common  salt in the     
system4#ec      #ea ,common ,salt3 ,its 
,use and ,necessity for the ,maintenance
 of ,health    and the ,prevention of   

,disease1 p4 #a4      #eb ,ibid41 p4    
#cg4      #ec ,ibid41 p4 #da4    ,a     
writer in the ,asiatic ,quarterly       
,review1 not long ago declared that  the
 government salt monopoly of the        
,british ,empire in ,india 7since       
practically abolished1 or modified7 was 
a cause of greater evils than  those    
resulting from either opium or alcohol4 
,this claim is based on  the idea that a
 lack of salt by the common people of   
,india tends to a  deterioration of     
blood and consequent loss of life4      
,asiatic cholera  is said to be promoted
 by the lack of salt in the blood4 ,men 
and  cattle alike are said to be        
sufferers from this cause1 and the soil 
is  rendered less fertile4 ,whether this
 idea is well grounded is a minor       
matter2 that the idea has been in many  
minds is not to be questioned4    ,thus 
it will be seen that in the primitive   
mind salt and blood have  seemed to have
 common properties1 and to be in a sense
 interchangeable1  while the more       

careful observers in the world of       
science have rather  grown toward this  
thought than away from it4 ,be it       
correct or  incorrect1 the human mind   
has never been able to rid itself of the
 idea4    ,salt is sometimes used in the
 rite of blood brotherhood among        
primitive peoples1 as is also wine1 both
 wine and salt being counted  the       
equivalent of blood1 and the original   
and the substitute being  sometimes     
employed together as if to intensify the
 symbolism4 ,stanley  tells of the use  
of salt in this rite on the occasion of 
its  performance with ,ngalyema in the  
,congo region4#ed ,and so again in      
other cases4#ee      #ed ,the ,congo1   
,i41 #chc-che4      #ee ,ibid41 ,,ii41  
#ba-bd1 #gi-ij4    ,it is a common      
practice in the ,east to welcome an     
honored guest to  one's house by        
sacrificing an animal at the doorway1   
and letting its  blood pour out on the  
threshold1 to be stepped over by the    
guest1  as a mode of adoption1 or of    

covenant-making4#ef ,when such a guest  
comes unexpectedly1 and there is not    
time to obtain an animal for the        
welcoming sacrifice1 it is customary to 
take salt and strew it in  lieu of blood
 on the threshold1--salt being thus     
recognized as the  equivalent1 or as a  
representative1 of blood4#eg      #ef   
,see ,threshold ,covenant1 passim4      
#eg ,ibid41 p4 #e2 ,griffis's ,mikado's 
,empire1 pp4 #dfg1 #dgj2 ,isabella      
,bird's ,untrodden ,tracks in ,japan1   
,i41 #cib4    ,the measure of love and  
honor accorded to the welcomed guest is 
indicated by the cost or preciousness of
 the sacrifice on the  threshold4 ,there
 are traditions1 at least1 of the       
sacrifice of a son of  the host in this 
way4 ,again a favorite horse has been   
thus sacrificed4  ,more frequently it is
 a lamb that is the sacrifice4 ,if there
 is no  lamb available1 a fowl or a     
pigeon is thus offered4 ,the essential  
factor in every case is the blood1 the  
life1 outpoured4 ,if1 however1 no       

actual blood is obtainable1 salt1 as    
representing blood1 is accepted  as     
indicating the love and the spirit which
 prompts the welcome1  according to the 
giver's means4 ,there could hardly be a 
fuller proof of  the identity of salt   
and blood in the primitive mind4        
,when a ,siamese student was asked by   
the writer whether the rite of          
blood-covenanting was known in his land1
 he replied3 ,there is no  'blood       
covenant' so far as ,i know4 ,the custom
 is1 if two persons are  desirous to    
become firm friends or brothers they    
drink together salted  water2 then each 
takes an oath4 ,he also suggested that  
he had heard  that in former times they 
drank a fowl's blood in this rite4      
,again1 the mode of making a covenant of
 salt in some portions of the  ,east    
coincides with this suggested           
identification of salt with blood in    
the primitive mind4 ,in the ,lebanon    
region1 where the blood covenant1 as  a 
bond of union1 is still recognized and  

practised1#eh the covenant  of salt is  
also well known1 not only as between new
 comers who are to  enter into a mutual 
alliance1 but as bringing into union    
friends who  would be as one4 ,in such  
cases a sword is taken1 and salt is laid
 on  its blade4 ,the two friends in turn
 lick of the salt that is to unite      
them1 as if they were tasting of common 
blood after the fashion of the          
blood-lickers in ,mecca4#ei      #eh    
,see ,blood ,covenant1 pp4 #e-g4        
#ei ,see ,smith's ,kinship and ,marriage
 in ,early ,arabia1 p4 #dh4    ,another 
illustration of this mode is given by   
,sir ,frederick ,henniker1  in his notes
 of a journey in the ,east in           
#ahai-bj4fj ,it was a shaykh  of the    
,arabs who escorted him from ,mt4 ,sinai
 northward1 who cut this  covenant with 
,sir ,frederick4 ,on the request being  
made for such an  assurance of fidelity 
from the shaykh1 he immediately drew his
 sword1  says ,sir ,frederick1 placed   
some salt upon the blade1 and then put  

a portion of it into his mouth1 and     
desired me to do the same2 and  ',now1  
cousin1' said he1 'your life is as      
sacred as my own2' or1 as he  expressed 
himself1 ',son of my uncle1 your head is
 upon my shoulders4'  ,before this act  
the two were as cousins2 now they were  
as one1 the head  of one being upon the 
shoulders of the other4 ,the similarity 
of this  rite with that of the blood    
covenant1 in both its form and meaning1 
is  obvious4      #fj ,visit to ,egypt1 
,nubia1 etc41 p4 #bdb4    ,this         
correspondence of salt and blood in     
primitive thought1 and in  fact1 will   
perhaps throw light on a disputed       
reference in a fragment  of ,ennius#fa  
to salsus sanguis 7salted blood1 or     
briny blood74 ,it  would seem that as   
the ,jews held that the blood is the    
life1 and the  life is in the blood1    
similarly ,greeks and ,romans recognized
 the truth  that salt is in the blood1  
and the blood is salt4      #fa ,cited  
in ,macrobius1 #f1 #b4    ,in the second

 century there were ,christian ascetics 
who refused to take  wine in the        
eucharist4 ,among these the ,elkesaites 
and the ,ebionites  employed bread and  
salt instead of bread and wine4 ,this   
seems to have  been a recognition of the
 fact that salt1 like wine1 represented 
blood4#fb      #fb ,see ,clementine1    
,homilies1 ,,iv4 #f2 ,,xiii4 #h2 ,,xiv4 
#a1 #h2 ,,xix4 #be1    cited in art4    
,elkesai in ,smith and ,wace's ,dict4 of
 ,christian ,biog4    ,professor        
,hermann ,collitz1 of ,bryn ,mawr1 has  
suggested1 in this  connection1 that the
 very words1 in ,latin1 for salt and    
blood1 sal  and sanguis1 are from the   
same root4#fc      #fc ,professor       
,collitz says1 on this point3 ,the      
,early ,european word    for salt1 sal  
7nominative sal-d1 genitive sal-n-s     
according    to ,joh4 ,schmidt7 which   
probably goes back to the               
,indo-,european period1    may be       
derived from the same root to which the 
,sanskrit s-r-g    7genitive as-n-s7    

'blood1' and ,latin s-an-gu-i-s         
7genitive    s-an-gu-in-is7 belong4 ,the
 latter1 as ,f4 de ,saussure 7,systme   
primitif des voyelles ,indo-,europennes1
 ,leipzig1 #ahig1 p4 #bbe7 has    shown1
 comes from a root es1 which lost its   
initial vowel if the    suffix was      
accented4 ,if we connect the two groups 
of words1 we should    say that sal is  
derived from this root es by a suffix   
al1 similar    to the suffix el in the  
word for 'sun' 7,indo-,european sa'v-el1
    from root sav71 or to the suffix    
a-lo in ,greek meg-a-lo-s as    compared
 with meg-a-s4 ,the root es is probably 
the same from which    the word for 'to 
be' 7,sanskrit as-mi1 ,latin sum7 is    
derived1 and    the meaning of which    
seems to have been originally 'to live4'
    ,certainly salt is sometimes used as
 a substitute for blood in primitive    
covenanting2 on the other hand1 blood is
 used for salt among some  primitive    
peoples as an essential accompaniment of
 food4 ,these facts  being noticed by   

the author of this volume first         
suggested to him the  real meaning of   
the covenant of salt4          ,,vi     
,,salt ,,representing ,,life      ,as   
blood is synonymous with life in        
primitive thought and practice1#fd  and 
as salt has been shown to represent     
blood in the primitive mind1  so salt   
seems to stand for life in many a form  
of primitive speech and  in the world's 
symbolism4 ,when1 indeed1 we speak of   
salt as preserving  flesh from          
corruption1 we refer to the staying of  
the process of death  by an added       
element of life2 preserving by          
re-vivifying1 rather than by  embalming4
      #fd ,see ,blood ,covenant1 passim4
    ,plutarch says of the power of salt 
in this direction3 ,all flesh is  dead  
and part of a lifeless carcass2 but the 
virtue of salt being added  to it1 like 
a soul1 gives it a pleasing relish and  
poignancy4#fe ,all  life is from the one
 ,source of ,life1 and in this sense it 
is that life  is divine4 ,thus ,plutarch

 calls attention to the fact that       
,homer#ff  speaks of salt as divine1 and
 that ,plato delivers1 that by man's    
laws salt is to be accounted most       
sacred4#fg ,no other material is  thus  
reckoned from primitive days sacred and 
divine1 unless it be  blood1 which is   
the synonym of life4#fh      #fe        
,plutarch's ,symposiacs 7,goodwin's     
ed471 ,book ,,iv41 ,quest4 ,,iv41  #c4  
#ff ,homer's ,iliad1 ,,ix41 #bad4       
#fg ,plutarch's ,symposiacs 7,goodwin's 
ed471 ,book ,v41 ,quest4 ,x41  #a1      
#b4      #fh ,lev4 #ag 3 #aa2 ,deut4 #ab
 3 #bc4 ,blood ,covenant1 p4 #ch f4     
,an ,oriental form of oath sometimes    
substitutes salt for life2  as where the
 prime minister of ,persia in a         
conference with ,james  ,morier1        
secretary of the ,english embassy1 at   
,teheran1 early in this  century1 swore 
by the salt of ,fatti ,ali ,shah--the   
then reigning  ,shah of ,persia4#fi     
,indeed1 to swear by the salt is a      
common form  of asseveration among      

,arabs2 as to swear by the life1 one's  
own or  another's1 is a well-known oath 
in the ,east4#gj      #fi ,morier's     
,journey through ,persia1 p4 #bjj4      
#gj ,see1 for example1 ,arvieux on      
,customs of ,bedouin ,arabs1 p4 #dc1    
quoted in ,rosenmller's ,das alte und   
des neue ,morgenland1 ,,ii41 #ae4       
,where we would say of one who is       
foremost in inspiriting and enlivening  
a social gathering1 ,he was the life of 
the party1 the ,arabs say1  ,he was the 
salt of the party4    ,the salt of youth
 is synonymous with the virility and    
vigor of life1  that show themselves in 
the age of strong passion4 ,thus        
,justice ,shallow  says to ,master      
,page3 ,though we are justices and      
doctors and churchmen1  ,master ,page1  
we have some salt of our youth in us4#ga
 ,iago refers  to young gallants in     
their passion1 as salt as wolves in     
pride4#gb  ,and ,menecrates refers to   
salt ,cleopatra in her loves with       
,antony4#gc  ,mrs4 ,browning seems to   

have a similar idea as to the           
significance of  salt1 when she says in 
,a ,vision of ,poets3       ,and poor1  
proud ,byron1--sad as grave      ,and   
salt as life2 forlornly brave1      ,and
 quivering with the dart he drave4      
#ga ,merry ,wives of ,windsor1 ,act     
,,ii41 ,scene #c4      #gb ,othello1    
,act ,,iii41 ,scene #c4      #gc ,antony
 and ,cleopatra1 ,act ,,ii41 ,scene #a4 
,even in ,plutarch's day this truth was 
recognized by the ,greeks as  possibly  
having influenced the ancient ,egyptians
 to forbid salt to  their priests1 who  
must be pure and chaste1 because salt by
 its heat  is provocative and apt to    
raise lust4#gd ,it would seem1 however1 
that  the prohibition of salt as food to
 ,egyptian priests is easier to be      
accounted for by the fact that it was   
recognized as the equivalent of  blood  
and life4 ,therefore those priests were 
not to partake of salt1  no1 not so much
 as in their bread4#ge      #gd         
,plutarch's ,symposiacs1 ,book ,v41     

,quest4 ,x41  #a1 #b4      #ge ,ibid4   
,in this line of thought ,florus says of
 salt3 ,consider farther whether  its   
power of preserving a long time dead    
bodies from rotting be not a  divine    
property1 and opposite to death2 since  
it preserves part1 and  will not suffer 
that which is mortal wholly to be       
destroyed4 ,but as the  soul1 which is  
our diviner part1 connects the limbs of 
animals1 and  keeps the composure from  
dissolution2 thus salt applied to dead  
bodies1  and imitating the work of the  
soul1 stops those parts that were       
falling  to corruption1 binds and       
confines them1 and so makes them keep   
their  union and agreement with one     
another4#gf      #gf ,plutarch's        
,symposiacs1 ,book ,v41 ,quest4 ,x41    
#a1 #b4    ,philinus goes a step farther
 when he asks3 ,do you not think that   
that which is generative is to be       
esteemed divine1 seeing ,god is the     
principle of all things8#gg ,and        
,plutarch adds suggestively that  salt  

is by some supposed to be a means of    
life1 not only exciting  desire for     
generation1 but actually causing        
procreation2 the females  7among the    
lower animals71 as some imagine1        
conceiving without the  help of the     
males1 only by licking salt4 ,but as he 
thinks it is most  probable that the    
salt raiseth an itching in animals1 and 
so makes  them salacious and eager to   
couple4 ,and perhaps for the same reason
  they call a surprising and bewitching 
beauty1 such as is apt to move  and     
entice1 halmuron kai drimu1 'saltish4'  
,and ,i think the poets had  a respect  
to this generative power of salt in     
their fable of ,venus  springing from   
the sea4#gh      #gg ,ibid4      #gh    
,plutarch's ,symposiacs1 ,book ,v41     
,quest4 ,x41  #a1 #b4    ,in ,central   
and ,south ,america it was deemed       
necessary to abstain from  salt while   
praying and sacrificing1 with a desire  
to obtain children4  ,so far it was     
among the ,maya nations of the ,new     

,world as among the  priests of ,ancient
 ,egypt4#gi      #gi ,see ,bancroft's   
,native ,races of the ,pacific ,coast1  
,,ii41 #fgh4    ,an ,oriental proverb   
says3 ,if thou takest the salt the life1
 or soul  from the flesh the body then  
thou mayest throw it the flesh to the   
dogs4 ,this has been explained by the   
rabbis1 as considering salt  here       
synonymous with the soul1 or life1 of   
man1 which comes from ,god1  in         
distinction from man's body1 which comes
 from his parents4 ,god  gives the      
spirit the breath1 the soul1 the        
features1 the hearing1  the organs of   
speech1 the gait1 the perceptions1 the  
reason1 and the  intuition4 ,when now   
the time comes for man to depart out of 
the world1  ,god takes his part1 and the
 part which comes from the parents the  
body he lays before them4#hj      #hj   
,niddah #ca a1 quoted by ,rev4 ,dr4     
,marcus ,jastrow in ,the ,sunday        
,school ,times for ,april #bh1 #ahid4   
,when ,elisha1 the prophet of ,israel1  

was met by the men of ,jericho1  as he  
came from the scene of ,elijah's        
translation to enter upon his  mission  
as the successor of ,elijah and was told
 of the death-dealing  power of the     
waters of the city1 his words and action
 seemed to  emphasize the correspondence
 of salt with life4 ,he said1 ,bring me 
a  new cruse1 and put salt therein4 ,and
 they brought it to him4 ,and he  went  
forth unto the spring of the waters1 and
 cast salt therein1 and  said1 ,thus    
saith the ,lord1 ,i have healed these   
waters2 there shall not  be from thence 
any more death or miscarrying of the    
land4 ,so the  waters were healed were  
restored to life unto this day1         
according to  the word of ,elisha which 
he spake4#ha      #ha #b ,kings #b 3    
#ai-bb4    ,a spring of water is in     
itself so important to a primitive      
people  that it is not to be wondered at
 that water is called the ,gift of      
,god1 and that a living spring is looked
 at as in a sense divine1 and  that it  

has even been worshiped as a god among  
primitive peoples4#hb  ,when1 therefore1
 salt1 as the synonym of life or of     
blood1 is found  in a spring of living  
water1 it is natural to recognize the   
spot as  peculiarly favored of ,god1 or 
of the gods4 ,thus among inland peoples 
a  salt spring was regarded as a special
 gift of the gods4 ,the ,chaonians  in  
,epirus had one which flowed into a     
stream where there were as in  the ,dead
 ,sea no fish2 and the legend was that  
,heracles had allowed  their forefathers
 to have salt instead of fish           
7,aristotle74 ,the  ,germans waged war  
for saline streams1 and believed that   
the presence of  salt invested a        
district with peculiar sanctity1 and    
made it a place  where prayers were most
 readily heard 7,tacitus1 ,ann41        
,,xiii41 #eg74hc      #hb ,see          
,kadesh-barnea1 p4 #cf1 and note1 #bih  
f42 and ,studies in    ,oriental ,social
 ,life1 pp4 #bac1 #djd f4      #hc ,w4  
,robertson ,smith in art4 ,salt in      

,encyc4 ,brit41 #ith ed4    ,there is   
said to be a salt lake in the mountain  
region of ,koordistan1  which was       
changed from fresh water to salt1 by    
,st4 ,peter1 when he first  came thither
 preaching ,christianity4 ,he wrought   
this change so that he  could influence 
the people to accept his teaching       
through sharing his  life by partaking  
of the salt4 ,to this day the tradition 
remains1 that1  if the natives will     
bathe in that lake1 they will renew     
their faith4  ,aside from the question  
of any basis of truth in the legend1 it 
remains  as a survival of the primitive 
idea of a real connection of shared salt
  with shared life4    ,it is customary 
among some primitive peoples to anoint  
or smear a  new-born babe with blood1 as
 a means of giving him more and fuller  
life4#hd ,thus among the ancient        
,caribs1 of ,south ,america1 as soon as 
a male child was brought into the world1
 he was sprinkled with some  drops of   
his father's blood2 the father fondly   

believing that the  same degree of      
courage which he had himself displayed1 
was by these  means transmitted to his  
son4#he ,in one of the ,kaffir tribes of
 ,south  ,africa1 when a new chief      
assumes authority1 it was customary to  
wash  him in the blood of a near        
relative1 generally a brother1 who was  
put  to death on the occasion4 ,in order
 to give more life and character to  the
 freshly elevated representative of the 
ruling family1 the family  life was     
drawn from the veins of one near him1 in
 order that it might  be absorbed by him
 who could use it more imposingly4#hf   
#hd ,blood ,covenant1 p4 #acg f4        
#he ,edwards's ,hist4 of ,brit4 ,west   
,ind41 ,i4 #dg1 referred to in ,blood   
,covenant1 p4 #acg f4      #hf          
,shooter's ,kafirs of ,natal1 p4 #baf1  
ibid4    ,the ,bheels are a brave and   
warlike race of mountaineers of         
,hindostan4  ,they claim to have been1  
formerly1 the rulers of all their       
region1 but  either by defeat in war or 

by voluntary concession to have yielded 
their power to other peoples1 whom they 
now authorize to rule in  their old     
domain4 ,when1 therefore1 a new rajput1 
or chief ruler1  comes into power in any
 of the surrounding countries1 this     
right to  rule is conceded1 or ratified1
 by an anointing of blood drawn from    
the toe or thumb of a ,bheel4 ,the right
 of giving this blood1 or new  life1 is 
claimed by particular ,bheel families2  
and the belief that the  individual from
 whose veins the blood is drawn never   
lives beyond a  twelvemonth1 in no      
degree operates to repress the desire of
 the ,bheels  to furnish the blood of   
anointing4#hg      #hg ,trans4 ,royal   
,asiat4 ,soc41 ,i41 #fi1 ibid4    ,salt 
is similarly used to-day1 in the ,east  
and elsewhere4#hh ,a  new-born child is 
at once washed and salted4 ,if an       
,oriental seems  lacking in life or     
wisdom1 or is1 as we would say1         
exceptionally  fresh1 it is said of him1
 ,he wasn't salted when he was born4    

,this  idea would seem to be included in
 the prophet's reproach of ,jerusalem3  
,neither wast thou washed in water to   
cleanse thee2 thou wast not  salted at  
all1 nor swaddled at all4#hi      #hh   
,van ,lennep's ,bible ,lands1 p4 #efi4  
#hi ,ezek4 #af 3 #d4    ,as at birth1 so
 at death1 salt seems to stand in       
primitive thought for  blood1 or life1  
in washing or anointing1 in the hope of 
supplying the  special lack or need of  
the individual4 ,among the cannibals of 
,borneo1  on the death of a rajah or    
chief1 the desire seems to be to restore
 him  to life if it be possible4 ,his   
body is rubbed or bathed with salt4 ,he 
is then dressed in his best apparel1 and
 placed in a sitting posture4  ,in his  
hands are placed his shield and mandau4 
,if this application  of new life and   
this special appeal to action fail to   
arouse him1  he is counted as hopelessly
 dead2 the arms are taken from him1 the 
body is undressed1 and wrapped in a     
piece of cloth1 and placed in the       

ground4#ij      #ij ,carl ,bock's ,head 
,hunters of ,borneo1 p4 #bbd4    ,a     
traveler in ,asia ,minor speaks of the  
practice among the ,toorkomans  of the  
mother's dipping a child two or three   
times into a skin of salt  water1 at the
 time of his naming4 ,this would seem to
 be a primitive  rite1 and not a        
,christian one4 ,the father of the child
 meanwhile eats  honeyed cake1 and      
drinks thickened milk4#ia      #ia ,w4  
,eassie1 in ,notes and ,queries1 #c;d   
series1 ,,ii41 #cah4    ,milk is        
sometimes accepted by the ,arabs as a   
substitute for salt1 as  the essential  
factor in the covenant of salt 7the     
milha74#ib ,milk is  nature's life food1
 it stands for liquid life2 two milk    
brothers are  somewhat as blood         
brothers1 brothers by a common life4#ic 
,there seem  to be indications1 says ,w4
 ,robertson ,smith1#id that many        
primitive  peoples regard milk as a kind
 of equivalent for blood as containing a
  sacred life4 ,thus to eat a kid       

seethed in its mother's milk might be   
taken as an equivalent to eating 'with  
the blood1' and be forbidden to  the    
,hebrews#ie along with the bloody       
sacraments of the heathen4      #ib ,see
 references1 in ,w4 ,robertson ,smith's 
,religion of the ,semites    7p4 #beb1  
note71 to ,burckhardt and to ,kamil4    
#ic ,blood ,covenant1 pp4 #aj1 #aa4     
#id ,relig4 of the ,sem41 p4 #bjd1 note2
 also ,kinship and ,marriage in         
,early ,arabia1 pp4 #adi1 #aej4      #ie
 ,exod4 #bc 3 #ai2 #cd 3 #bf2 ,deut4 #ad
 3 #ba4    ,milk has been employed      
instead of blood1 and again of salt1 for
  transfusion in case of declining life 
from hemorrhage4#if ,this would  seem to
 justify the belief that milk and blood 
alike represent life in  popular        
thought4      #if ,quain's ,dict4 of    
,medicine1 art4 ,transfusion of ,milk4  
,a favorite experiment among young folks
 is to bring life to dead flies  by     
covering them with salt4 ,when flies are
 drowned purposely1 or by  accident1 if 

one is taken from the water apparently  
dead1 and laid  on the table1 or on a   
plate1 and covered with common salt1 in 
a few  seconds the fly will creep out   
from under the salt1 and soon fly away  
as if unharmed4 ,other flies in the same
 condition1 not treated with  salt1     
remain as dead4 ,this has been tried by 
succeeding generations of  young folks1 
and it is one of the folk-lore facts in 
support of the  idea that salt is life4 
,it may1 of course1 be that the         
absorbent power of salt clears the      
trachea of the fly1 and thus permits the
 restoration of the natural  breathing4 
,of course1 there is some explanation of
 the phenomenon2 but  the fact remains  
that the common mind has been affected  
by such things  in the direction of the 
belief that salt is life in a peculiar  
sense4    ,after the foregoing pages    
were already in type1 it was cabled as  
news  from ,london that an ,english     
mechanic claimed to have discovered a   
method of resuscitating persons who have

 been drowned4 ,he proposed to  cover   
the entire body of the person taken from
 the water with dry salt1  which is     
supposed to absorb the moisture1 and    
thus draw the water from  the lungs and 
permit the air again to circulate       
freely4 ,he claimed to  have revived a  
recently drowned cat1 after letting it  
remain under salt  for thirty minutes2  
and that a drowned dog was thus restored
 in two  hours4    ,this is simply the  
folk-lore idea of bringing the dead to  
life by the  application of salt as     
life4 ,like many another folk-lore idea1
 it is  deserving of attention because  
of some possible basis of truth below   
the idea1 apart from the question of    
fact in connection with the claim4      
,in ,the ,barber's ,story of his ,fifth 
,brother1 in ,the ,arabian ,nights1  is 
an account of the hero's being beaten   
and slashed until he was  supposed to be
 dead from loss of blood1 and his other 
injuries4 ,then a  slave-girl1 named    
,el-,meleehah1 the salt-bearer1 came and

 stuffed salt  into his gaping wounds1  
after which his supposed corpse was     
thrown into  a subterranean vault among 
the dead4 ,yet by means of this         
application  of salt he was saved to    
life1 and regained his pristine         
vigor4#ig      #ig ,lane's ,thousand and
 ,one ,nights1 ,i1 #cfe4    ,the        
references of ,jesus to salt would seem 
to have fuller meaning1 if  salt be     
understood as equivalent to life4 ,where
 he says to his  disciples3 ,ye are the 
salt of the earth3 but if the salt have 
lost  its savor1 wherewith shall it be  
salted8 it is thenceforth good for      
nothing1 but to be cast out and trodden 
under foot of men1#ih he  would seem to 
remind them that they are the life of   
the world1 if1  indeed1 they retain life
 in themselves4 ,and where he says1     
,have salt  in yourselves1 and be at    
peace one with another1#ii he would call
  them to have life in themselves1 and  
to join with others who have it1  in    
making their life to be felt among their

 fellows4      #ih ,matt4 #e 3 #ac2     
,luke #ad 3 #cd4      #ii ,mark #i 3    
#ej4    ,a supposed utterance of ,jesus1
 which has been a puzzle to critics and 
commentators1 possibly has light thrown 
on it in this view of salt  as          
corresponding with life4 ,discoursing on
 life1 and the wisdom of  striving to   
attain or to enter into life1 even at a 
loss of much that  man might value here 
on earth1 ,jesus1 according to some     
manuscripts1  said1 ,for every one shall
 be salted with fire4#ajj ,this sentence
 is  disputed by some1 not being found  
in all the more ancient ,,mss41 and  its
 meaning does not seem to be clear to   
any4#aja ,it is obvious that  whatever  
else salted here means1 it does not mean
 salted4 ,to salt  is to mingle1 or to  
accompany1 with salt4 ,clearly1 fire    
does not do  that4 ,the ,greek is as    
vague1 or as ambiguous1 as the ,english4
 ,there  must be a conventional or      
popular1 a figurative or symbolical1    
meaning  in which salt is here used4    

,what can this be8      #ajj ,mark #i 3 
#di4 ,comp4 ,a4 ,v4 and ,r4 ,v4         
#aja ,see notes and references in       
,nicoll's ,expositors' ,greek           
,testament2 ,lange's ,commentary2       
,meyer's ,commentary1 in loco1 etc4     
,fire is here spoken of as the synonym1 
or equivalent1 or parallel1 of  salt4   
,in this figure1 fire is to accomplish  
what salt performs2  the work of salt is
 to be done by fire4 ,in what sense can 
this  be true8 ,fire does consume and   
destroy the perishable2#ajb it does     
bring out and refine that which is      
permanent and precious2#ajc it  does try
 and test and reveal the measure of real
 value in that which  is submitted to   
it4#ajd ,in the testing time1 each man's
 work shall  be made manifest3 for the  
day shall declare it1 because it is     
revealed  in fire2 and the fire itself  
shall prove each man's work1 of what    
sort  it is4 ,if any man's work shall   
abide which he built thereon on the  one
 ,foundation1 he shall receive a reward4

 ,if any man's work shall be  burned he 
shall suffer loss3 but he himself who   
has builded shall be  saved2 yet as     
through fire4#aje      #ajb ,gen4 #ai 3 
#bd1 #be2 ,exod4 #i 3 #bc1 #bd2 ,lev4   
#aj 3 #b2 #ac3 #eb-eg2    ,matt4 #c 3   
#ab2 #g3 #ai2 ,luke #c 3 #ag2 ,john #ae 
3 #f4      #ajc ,mal4 #c 3 #b1 #c4      
#ajd #a ,pet4 #a 3 #g4      #aje #a     
,cor4 #c 3 #ac-ae4    ,the whole context
 of the passage in ,mark's ,gospel      
indicates that  ,jesus is speaking of   
life4 ,he is showing the way to attain  
to life4  ,he points to the final       
testing of life by fire4 ,as salt is    
shown to  correspond with life1 and as  
this seems to have been understood by   
his hearers1 would they not have seen   
that ,jesus was pointing out that  the  
measure of life1 or salt1 the reminder  
of ,god's covenant with his  people1 in 
every one of them1 would be revealed in 
the testing of fire8    ,it is1 indeed1 
because salt represents life1 that salt 
was to accompany  every sacrifice under 

the ,jewish dispensation4 ,not death1   
but life1 was  an acceptable offering to
 ,god1 according to the teachings of the
 ,bible1  both in the ,old ,testament   
and the ,new4#ajf ,god wants not yours1 
but  you4#ajg ,this was emphasized by   
priest and prophet in the history  of   
the ,jewish people1 earlier and later4  
,paul re-echoed this primal  thought    
when he appealed to ,christians3 ,i     
beseech you therefore1  brethren1 by the
 mercies of ,god1 to present your bodies
 yourselves a  living sacrifice1 holy1  
acceptable to ,god1 which is your       
reasonable  service4#ajh ,without salt1 
without the symbol of life1 no sacrifice
  was to be counted a fitting or        
acceptable offering at ,god's altar4    
#ajf ,see ,blood ,covenant1 passim4     
#ajg #b ,cor4 #ab 3 #ad4      #ajh ,rom4
 #ab 3 #a4    ,salt is taken1 in the    
world's thought1 as an equivalent of    
wit1 or  lively wisdom1 in speech4 ,thus
 ,paul counsels the ,colossian          
,christians3  ,let your speech be always

 with grace1 seasoned with salt1 that ye
 may  know how ye ought to answer each  
one4#aji ,because the ,athenians were   
noted for their life and wit in speech1 
,attic salt was a synonym of  truest    
life in conversation4 ,cicero says of   
,scipio3 ,scipio omnes sale  superbat   
7,scipio surpassed all in salt1 or wit74
      #aji ,col4 #d 3 #f4    ,pliny     
after describing the properties and uses
 of salt1 says3 ,we may  conclude then1 
by ,hercules6 that the higher enjoyments
 of life could  not exist without the   
use of salt3 indeed1 so highly necessary
 is this  substance to mankind1 that the
 pleasures of the mind1 even1 can be    
expressed by no better term than the    
word 'salt1' such being the name  given 
to all effusions of wit4 ,all the       
amenities1 in fact1 of life1  supreme   
liberty1 and relaxation from toil in a  
word1 'life1' can find  no word in our  
language to characterize them better    
than this4#aaj      #aaj ,hist4 ,nat41  
,,xxxi41 #da4    ,pliny also calls      

attention to the fact that salarium1    
from which we  derive our word salary1  
was the salt money1 bestowed as a reward
 or  honorarium on successful generals  
and military tribunes4#aaa ,the idea  of
 a living1 or a support of life1 is in  
the word salary4 ,and so  when we say   
that a man is not worth his salt1 we    
mean that he is not  worth his living4  
#aaa ,ibid4    ,salt has been employed  
as money at various times and in various
 lands1  and thus has been the means of 
supporting life4 ,it has been so in     
,tibet and in ,india1 and in the heart  
of ,africa along from the sixth to  the 
nineteenth centuries of our era4 ,thus  
even in lands where gold is  abundant   
but less valued than salt4#aab      #aab
 ,marco ,polo's ,travels1 ,col4 ,yule's 
translation1 ,,ii41 #bi1 #ce1 #cf1      
#cg1 and notes to ,chap4 #dg4    ,it is 
said of the people of a province in     
,tibet1 that1 while they  reckon the    
value of gold by weight1 the nearest    
approach to coined  money which they    

have is in molded and stamped cakes of  
salt4 ,on this  money 444 the ,prince's 
mark is printed2 and no one is allowed  
to make  it except the royal            
officers4444 ,merchants take this       
currency and go  to those tribes that   
dwell among the mountains2 444 and there
 they  get a saggio of gold for sixty1  
or fifty1 or forty pieces of this  salt 
money2 444 for in such positions they   
cannot dispose at pleasure  of their    
gold and other things1 such as musk and 
the like2 444 and so  they give them    
cheap4 ,this exchange of salt-cakes for 
gold1 forms a  curious parallel to the  
like exchange in the heart of ,africa1  
narrated  by ,cosmas in the sixth       
century1 and by ,aloisio ,cadamosto in  
the  fifteenth4#aac      #aac ,ibid4    
,victor ,hehn calls attention to the    
fact that the ,german copper-coin       
heller 7haller or hller71 the smallest  
coin still in use in ,austria1  referred
 to in the ,german saying1 'to have not 
a red heller1'  derives its name from   

the salt 7hal71 and the place where it  
was  obtained4#aad      #aad ,victor    
,hehn's ,das ,salz1 p4 #gb4             
,pythagoras1 speaking as usual in       
figurative terms1 described salt as a   
preserver of all things1 as continuing  
life and as staying corruption1  or     
death4 ,he directed the keeping of a    
vessel of salt on every table1  as a    
reminder of its essential qualities4#aae
      #aae ,see ,dacier's ,life of      
,pythagoras 7,eng4 trans471 pp4 #fj1    
#aje4    ,pliny says1 moreover1 that    
there are mountains of salt in different
  countries in ,india1 from which great 
blocks are cut as from a quarry2  and   
that from this source a larger revenue  
is secured by the rulers  than from all 
their gold and pearls4#aaf      #aaf    
,hist4 ,nat41 ,,xxxi41 #ci4    ,in many 
countries of the world salt is a matter 
of government control1  its manufacture 
and disposition being guarded as if life
 and death were  involved in it4 ,it is 
a common saying in ,italy that a man    

must not dip  up a bucket of water from 
the ,mediterranean ,sea2 for he might   
make salt  from the water1 and so       
defraud the government4          ,,vii  
,,salt ,,and ,,sun1 ,,life ,,and ,,light
      ,in ,oriental and primitive       
thought ,salt and ,sun are closely      
connected1  even if they are not        
considered as identical4 ,they stand    
together as  ,life and ,light4 ,their   
mention side by side in various places  
tends to  confirm this view of their    
remarkable correspondence4 ,the         
similarity  of their forms accords with 
the ,oriental delight in a play upon    
words1  even apart from the question of 
any similarity in their meanings4       
,pliny1 who1 while not an original      
thinker1 was a faithful and  industrious
 collater of the sayings and doings of  
his contemporaries1  and those who had  
gone before him1 especially in the realm
 of material  things1 summed up the     
popular beliefs as to salt and its uses 
in the  declaration that there is       

nothing better for the human body1 in   
health  or in sickness1 than salt and   
sun1 sale et sole4#aag      #aag ,hist4 
,nat41 ,,xxxi41 #de4    ,not only in the
 ,english and the ,latin1 but in the    
,greek1 the ,kymric1  and the ,keltic1  
this similarity in the form of the words
 for salt and  sun is to be observed4   
,the ,greek hals and helios1 the ,welsh 
hal  and haul1 the ,irish sal and sul1  
illustrate this so far as the  form is  
concerned4#aah ,as to the signification 
of the words1 it has  already been shown
 that salt represents life in primitive 
thought  and speech4 ,similarly the sun 
was considered as the life-giver1 the   
emblem of procreation4 ,in consequence1 
son and sun are from the  same root4#aai
 ,in view of this it is not strange that
 salt and sun1 as  life and light1 were 
considered in primitive and popular     
thought as the  means of health and hope
 for mankind4      #aah ,in the ,old    
,irish and the ,old ,welsh s and h      
interchange1 as    they do in the ,zend4

 ,see ,table of ,grimm1 in ,sayce's     
,introduction to    the ,science of     
,language1 ,i41 #cje4      #aai ,skeat's
 ,etymological ,dictionary1 at words    
,salt1 ,son1    ,solar1 ,sun2 also      
,kluge's ,etymological ,dictionary1 s4  
v4 ,sonne4    ,the root of the word for 
salt is unknown4 ,the name of the sun is
  apparently a derivation from the root 
su 7or sav7 #a4 ,to generate4  #b4 ,to  
impel1 to set in motion1 to bring       
about4#abj ,if the same be not  the root
 of the word salt1 there is at least    
reason for thinking that  the meaning of
 the two words salt and sun are         
similar1--one gives  life1 the other    
represents life4      #abj ,according to
 ,prof4 ,dr4 ,hermann ,collitz1 of ,bryn
 ,mawr4 ,compare    ,joh4 ,schmidt in   
,kuhn's ,zeitschrift1 ,,xxvi41 #i2 and  
,o4 ,schrader1    ,prehistoric          
,antiquities of the ,aryan ,peoples1 p4 
#dad4 ,trans4 by ,f4 ,b4    ,jevons4    
,to the primitive mind it certainly     
would seem natural to ascribe the       

creation of salt to the action or power 
of the sun4 ,peculiarly would  this be  
the case with dwellers by the ocean or  
sea1 or inland salt  lakes4 ,as the sun 
shines upon the water drawn from the sea
 or lake1 the  water is evaporated and  
the salt remains4 ,this is the ordinary 
process  of salt-making with all its    
benefits in various countries to the    
present day4 ,what thought is more      
natural1 in view of this recognized     
fact1 than that the sun is the          
generator1 or the begetter1 of salt     
which is life8 ,if the sun is supposed  
to bring life1 in what way does  it more
 directly accomplish this than by this  
salt creation8    ,this would seem to   
give added significance and force to the
 words of  ,jesus as to salt and light4 
,if in the days of ,jesus it was held1  
as  ,pliny says1 that there was nothing 
that could help the life of humanity    
like salt and sun1 life and light1 the  
disciples of ,jesus must have           
recognized a peculiar meaning in the    

teachings of the ,great ,physician  as  
he sent them out into the world to heal 
the sick1 and raise the  dead1 and      
cleanse the lepers1 and cast out        
demons1#aba when he  suggested that it  
was what they were1 rather than what    
they did1 that  was to be the help of   
humanity4 ,in the same teaching he said1
 ,ye are  the salt of the earth1 ,ye are
 the light of the world4#abb      #aba  
,matt4 #aj 3 #h4      #abb ,matt4 #e 3  
#ac1 #ad4    ,the recognized meaning of 
these words in the days of ,jesus       
intensified  their importance at every  
use of them1 as when it was said that in
  ,him was life2 and the life was the   
light of men4#abc ,salt was blood2      
blood was life2 salt was life2 life was 
light2 blood and salt and light  were   
life4      #abc ,john #a 3 #d4    ,among
 folk-lore customs on both sides of the 
ocean1 salt and a candle  are carried   
across the threshold on moving to a new 
house1 as if  representing life and     
light as needs in a new home4 ,sometimes

 the ,bible  also is included1 as if in 
recognition of the true basis of all    
sacred  covenanting4 ,there are other   
folk-lore customs connecting salt and   
light4#abd      #abd ,see ,chap4 ,x41   
infra4    ,according to ,professor ,dr4 
,hilprecht1 in the old ,assyrian        
language1  t4btu1 salt1 and t4btu1      
blessing1 have the same ideogram1  and  
are written exactly alike4 ,this        
suggests the inquiry whether  they are  
not derived from the same root1 t4bu1   
'to be good1' and  whether t4btu1       
'salt1' was not so called by the        
,assyrians as the  great blessing given 
to man1 as needed more than aught else  
for the  preparation of food and the    
preservation of life4          ,,viii   
,,significance ,,of ,,bread      ,bread 
is the basis of a common meal1 as blood 
is the basis of a  common life4 ,as1 in 
the sacrifices1 the body of the animal  
offered in  sacrifice was the basis of a
 covenant meal1 while the blood was the 
basis of union with the divine2 so in   

the symbolism of bread and wine1  in any
 sacramental meal1 or in any meal of    
sacred covenanting between  two persons1
 the bread stood for the flesh1 and the 
wine for the blood4  ,so1 also1 when    
bread and salt are used together1 the   
salt would seem to  stand for blood or  
life1 and the bread to stand for the    
flesh or the  body4#abe      #abe ,see  
,blood ,covenant1 pp4 #ahb-aij2 #bfh f42
 #cej-cee4    ,blood gives life2 flesh  
as food gives sustenance4 ,salt         
represents life2  bread represents      
sustaining food4 ,in this light those   
who share salt  together are in a       
life-sharing covenant2 those who share  
bread together  are sharers in a common 
growth4 ,covenant union in sacrifice is 
secured  or consummated by              
blood-sharing2 it is evidenced or       
celebrated by  food-sharing4    ,milk   
and honey seem to be a symbol of blood  
and flesh1 or of salt  and bread1 from a
 divine source4 ,they are supplied to   
man from the  vegetable world1 through  

the agency of living animals1 by the    
power of  the ,author of life4 ,they    
stand for the vivifying and nourishing  
of the  body by a providential ministry 
to man4 ,in this light they seem to be  
viewed by primitive peoples4 ,the ,land 
of ,promise was represented to  the     
ancient ,hebrews as a land flowing with 
milk and honey1#abf and  this figure    
seemed to represent to them all that    
could be desired in  the line of ,god's 
ministry to their material needs4 ,it   
was many times  repeated to them1 or by 
them1 in this sense4#abg      #abf      
,exod4 #c 3 #h1 #ag2 #ac 3 #e2 #cc 3 #c4
      #abg ,lev4 #bj 3 #bd2 ,num4 #ac 3 
#bg2 #ad 3 #h2 #af 3 #ac1 #ad2 ,deut4 #f
 3 #c2    #aa 3 #i2 #bf 3 #i1 #ae2 #bg 3
 #c2 #ca 3 #bj2 ,josh4 #e 3 #f2 ,jer4   
#aa 3 #e2    #cb 3 #bb2 ,ezek4 #bj 3 #f1
 #ae4    ,this symbolism was preserved  
by the early ,christians in connection  
with  the rite of baptism4 ,tertullian  
describing that rite says3 ,having come 
out from the bath1 we are anointed with 

a blessed unction of holy oil2          
afterwards we first taste a mixture of  
honey and milk4#abh      #abh           
,tertullian4 ,de ,coron41 v4 #c1 adv4   
,prox4 ,,xxvi41 de ,bapt4    vii4 and   
viii41 cited in ,blunt's ,annotated     
,book of ,common ,prayer1 p4    #bji4   
,,ix    ,,salt ,,in ,,sacrifices        
,salt seems to have been recognized as a
 vital element in sacrifices  both in   
the teachings of the ,bible and in the  
customs of the pagan  world4 ,in the    
,lord's injunction to ,israel1 it is    
said unqualifiedly3  ,and every oblation
 of thy meal offering shalt thou season 
with salt2  neither shalt thou suffer   
the salt of the covenant of thy ,god to 
be  lacking from thy meal offering3 with
 all thine oblations offerings  bloody  
or unbloody thou shalt offer salt4#abi  
#abi ,lev4 #b 3 #ac4 ,see also ,ezek4   
#dc 3 #ba-bd4    ,an alternative reading
 of the words of ,jesus in ,mark's      
,gospel refers  to this custom when it  
says that every sacrifice shall be      

salted  with salt4#acj ,josephus1 in his
 ,antiquities of the ,jews1 makes       
reference to the large quantities of    
salt required for sacrifices4#aca  ,this
 corresponds with the provision of the  
,king of ,persia for ,jewish            
sacrifices1 salt without prescribing how
 much1#acb--;a limitless or  indefinite 
amount4      #acj ,mark #i 3 #di4 ,these
 words are by some critics counted a    
gloss2 yet    the fact as a fact1 with  
reference to salt in sacrifices1 is     
undisputed4      #aca ,antiquities of   
the ,jews1 ,,xii1 iii1 #c4      #acb    
,ezra #g 3 #ba1 #bb4    ,in the ,hebrew 
text which the ,septuagint translators  
had before them1  salt is represented as
 always on the table of shewbread1 and  
as an  important factor in that memorial
 offering before the ,lord4 ,it reads3  
,and ye shall put upon the pile of bread
 pure frankincense and  salt1 and they  
shall be to the bread for a memorial    
lying before the  ,lord4#acc ,philo     
,judus makes mention of this salt with  

the bread1 on  the sacred table in the  
,holy ,place1 and refers to the salt as 
a symbol  of perpetuity4#acd      #acc  
,swete's ,septuagint at ,lev4 #bd 3 #g4 
#acd ,de ,victimis1  #c4    ,in the     
directions for the preparation of the   
holy incense for use by  the priests in 
the services of the tabernacle1 the     
fragrant gums and  spices were to be    
seasoned or tempered together with salt1
 pure and  holy4#ace ,and this incense  
was for sacrificial offering4      #ace 
,exod4 #cj 3 #cd1 #ce1 ,revised ,text1  
and marginal note4    ,it is still a    
custom among strict ,jews to observe the
 rite of the  covenant of salt at their 
family table1 before every meal4 ,the   
head of  the house1 having invoked the  
,divine blessing in these words1        
,blessed  be thou ,o ,lord our ,god1    
,king of the universe1 who causest bread
 to  grow out of the earth1 takes bread 
and breaks it in as many pieces as      
there are persons present4 ,having      
dipped each piece into salt1 he hands  a

 portion in turn to every one1 and they 
share it together4 ,in cases  where     
there is less strictness of ritual      
observance on the part of  modern ,jews1
 this ceremony is limited to the        
beginning of the ,sabbath1  at the      
,friday evening meal4    ,this might    
seem to be merely a renewal of the      
covenant which binds  the members of the
 family to one another and to ,god2 yet 
it evidently  partakes of the nature of 
a sacrifice1 and it is so understood by 
the more orthodox ,jews4 ,the primitive 
idea of an altar was a table  of        
intercommunion with ,god1 or with the   
gods4 ,it was thus with the             
,babylonians1 the ,assyrians1 the       
,egyptians1 the ,hindoos1 the ,persians1
  the ,arabs1 the early inhabitants of  
,north and ,south ,america1 and with    
primitive peoples generally4#acf ,thus  
also the ,bible would seem  to count an 
altar and a table as synonymous4 ,the   
prophet ,malachi  reproaches1 in ,god's 
name1 the ,jews for irreverence and     

sacrilege4 ,and  ye say1 ,wherein have  
we despised thy name8 ,ye offer polluted
 bread upon  mine altar4 ,and ye say1   
,wherein have we polluted thee8 ,in that
 ye  say1 ,the table of the ,lord is    
contemptible4#acg      #acf ,blood      
,covenant1 pp4 #afg-aij4      #acg ,mal4
 #a 3 #f1 #g4 ,see also ,isa4 #fe 3 #aa 
and ,ezek4 #da 3 #bb4    ,the ,talmud   
emphasizes the home table of the ,jew as
 the altar before  the ,lord1 to be     
approached in sacrifice with the        
essential offering of  salt4 ,as long as
 the ,temple existed1 the altar effected
 atonement1  and now it is for the table
 of each man to effect atonement for    
him4 ,it  is for this reason that the   
description of the altar 7in ,ezekiel   
#da 3  #bb7 closes by saying1 ',and he  
said unto me1 ,this is the table that is
  before the ,lord4'#ach      #ach      
,tract ,b'rakhoth #ee a41 cited by the  
,rev4 ,dr4 ,m4 ,jastrow4    ,it would   
seem1 therefore1 that bread and salt are
 as the body and the  blood1 the flesh  

and the life1 offered in sacrifice at   
the home table  of the ,jew1 as formerly
 at the altar of intercommunion with    
,god4#aci      #aci ,blood ,covenant1   
pp4 #cej-cee4    ,this view of the      
household table as an altar has been    
recognized by  many ,jews4 ,picart#adj  
says3      #adj ,ceremonies and         
,religious ,customs of the ,various     
,nations of the    ,known ,world1 ,i41  
#bde4 ,london1 #agcc4    ,the ,german   
,jew sets bread and salt upon his table1
 but the loaf1 if  possible1 must be    
whole4 ,he cuts it without making a     
separation1 takes  it up with both his  
hands1 sets it down upon the table1 and 
blesses it4  ,his guests answer1 ,amen4 
,afterwards he rubs it with salt1 and   
whilst he  is eating it is as silent as 
a ,carthusian4 ,the bread thus          
consecrated  is distributed to all who  
are at table4 ,if he drinks wine1 he    
blesses  it as he did the bread before2 
takes it in his right hand1 lifts it    
up1 and pronounces the benediction over 

it2 and all other drink1 water  alone   
excepted1 is consecrated in the same    
manner4 ,the master of the  family      
concludes with ,psalm #bc1 and then     
every one eats what he thinks           
convenient1 without further ceremony4   
,the ceremony of cutting the loaf       
without separation has the same reason  
to support it2 and a passage  from      
,psalm #aj 3 #c is a voucher for its    
solidity4 ,the master of the house      
holds the bread in both his hands1 in   
commemoration of the ten precepts       
relating to corn2 and each finger is the
 representative of one of  them4#ada    
#ada ,buxtorf ex ,talmud4    ,the salt  
as the religious intention of it is     
typical of the ancient  sacrifices4     
,meat without salt has no savor1 which  
is proved from a  passage in ,job1      
chapter #f1 verse #f4adb ,this is civil 
policy confirmed  by religion4      #adb
 ,ibid41 cap4 xii4    ,a modest         
deportment at table is much recommended2
 so likewise is  temperance and         

sobriety4 ,their bread must be kept in a
 very neat place1  and preserved with   
all imaginary care4 ,they must talk but 
little1 and  with discretion at table1  
because1 according to the opinion of the
  rabbis1 the prophet ,elijah1 and each 
respective guest's guardian angel1  are 
present at all meals4 ,whenever that    
angel hears anything indecent  uttered  
there1 he retires1 and a wicked one     
assumes his place4 ,they  never throw   
down bones of flesh or fish upon the    
ground2 but1 however1  this caution is  
not the result of cleanliness only1 but 
fear1 lest  they should hurt any of     
those invisible beings4#adc      #adc   
,dr4 ,kohler states that the reason for 
not throwing these    fragments on the  
ground1 is because the ,jews would not  
disgrace what is    regarded as a       
special gift of ,god4    ,the knife that
 cuts their meat1 must never touch what 
is made of  milk2#add whatever1 in      
short1 strikes the senses in any manner1
 must  be blessed4 ,they never rise from

 the table without leaving something    
for the poor2 but the knives must be    
removed before they return thanks1      
because it is written1 ',thou shalt set 
no iron on the altar4' ,now a  table is 
the representative of an altar1 at      
saying grace before1 or  returning      
thanks after meal4#ade      #add        
,because meat and milk are never to be  
eaten together4 ,see p4 #fb1    supra4  
7,exod4 #bc 3 #ai2 #cd 3 #bf2 ,deut4 #ad
 3 #ba47      #ade ,buxtorf ex ,talmud1 
cap4 xii4    ,that the table was looked 
at as an altar among ancient peoples1 is
 to  be inferred from various proverbs  
and practices with reference to it4     
,thus one of the symbolic sayings of    
,pythagoras is1 ,pick not up what is    
fallen from the table4#adf ,a comment on
 this is1 that as the table  was        
consecrated to divinities1 whatever fell
 from it was not to be  restored1 but to
 be left1 as was the gleaning of ,god's 
fields1 for the  poor4#adg ,when the    
,syrophoenician woman said to ,jesus1   

,yea1 ,lord3  for even the dogs eat of  
the crumbs which fall from their        
masters'  table1#adh she spoke in       
recognition of this primitive truth1    
that  the crumbs from the table might be
 shared by whoever hungered4      #adf  
,dacier's ,life of ,pythagoras1 p4 #aaf4
      #adg ,lev4 #ai 3 #i1 #aj2 ,deut4  
#bd 3 #ai-ba4      #adh ,matt4 #ae 3    
#bg4    ,a usage in the early ,latin    
,church would seem to be in the line of 
the  ,jewish thought1 that bread and    
salt at the table are a sacrifice1 or  a
 sacrament2 and it would also appear to 
be in recognition of the  fact that salt
 stands for blood1 or for life4 ,the    
catechumens1 before  they were          
privileged to share in the ,eucharist1  
were made partakers  of the sacrament of
 salt 7sacramentum salis71--salt placed 
in the  mouth1 accompanied by the sign  
of the cross1 and by invocations and    
exorcisms4#adi      #adi ,bingham's     
,antiquities of the ,christian ,church1 
,book ,x41 ,chap4    #b2 ,smith and     

,cheetham's ,dictionary of ,christian   
,antiquities1 arts4    ,catechumens1    
,salt4    ,st4 ,augustine1 speaking of  
this sacrament1 says3 ,what they receive
  is holy1 although it is not the body  
of ,christ1--holier than any food  which
 constitutes our ordinary nourishment1  
because it is a sacrament4  ,and1       
referring to its reception by himself1  
he says3 ,i was now signed  with the    
sign of the cross1 and was seasoned with
 his salt4#aej      #aej ,st4           
,augustine's ,treatise on ,forgiveness  
of ,sins and ,baptism1    ,,ii41 #df4   
,in the ,greek ,church1 salt is still   
deemed an essential element of the      
,eucharistic bread4 ,it is said1 indeed1
 that the salt represents the  life1 so 
that a sacrifice without salt is but a  
dead sacrifice4 ,the  same is true of   
the ,armenian and ,syrian ,christians1  
and ,alcuin refers  to the fact that1 in
 his day1 certain ,christians in ,spain 
insisted that  salt should be put into  
the bread for the ,eucharist4#aea       

#aea ,smith and ,cheetham's ,dict4 of   
,chris4 ,antiq41 arts4 ,elements1       
,salt4    ,salt is put into the mouth of
 an infant at its baptism1 in the ,roman
  ,church of to-day4#aeb ,in            
administering the salt to the babe the  
priest  says3 ,receive the salt of      
wisdom4 ,may it be a propitiation for   
thee  to eternal life4#aec ,all holy    
water1 in that church1 contains salt  as
 an essential element4#aed ,at the      
dedication of a church1 water  mixed    
with ashes and salt is employed for the 
sprinkling of the corners  of the altar1
 and other portions of the church2 and  
the remainder is  poured out at the foot
 of the altar1 where the sacrificial    
blood was of  old poured out in the     
,temple offerings4#aee      #aeb        
,rituale ,romanorum1 p4 #bi f4      #aec
 ,ibid4      #aed ,ibid41 p4 #bgf f4    
#aee ,smith and ,cheetham's ,dict4 of   
,chris4 ,antiq41 art4 ,salt4    ,in the 
,brhmanas1 of the ,vedic literature1    
salt is described as the  one           

sacrificial essence which is common to  
both sky and earth4 ,in  the ritual     
directions for the ceremony of          
establishing a set of  sacrificial      
fires1 on the part of a young           
householder1 the sacrificer1  under the 
guidance of the priests1 is described as
 proceeding to equip  ,agni1 the fire1  
with its proper equipments4 ,he having  
brought water  and gold1#aef it is said3
 ,he then brings salt4 ,yonder sky      
assuredly  bestowed that 7salt as7      
cattle on this earth3 hence they say    
that salt  soil is suitable for cattle4 
,that salt1 therefore1 means cattle2 and
  thus he thereby supplies it 7the fire7
 with cattle2 and the latter  having    
come from yonder 7sky7 is securely      
established on this earth4  ,moreover1  
that 7salt7 is believed to be the savor 
7rasa7 of those  two1 the sky and the   
earth2 so that he thereby supplies it   
7the fire7  with the savor of those two1
 the sky and the earth4 ,that is why he 
brings salt4#aeg      #aef ,fire is     

masculine1 water is feminine1 gold is   
seed1 according to    the ,vedic        
literature4      #aeg ,mller's ,sacred  
,books of the ,east1 ,,xii41 #bgh       
7,satapatha    ,brhmana74    ,according 
to the ,brhmanas1 the first offered     
sacrifice was a man4 ,when  the         
sacrificial essence went out of the man 
in his offering1 it went  into the      
horse1 then into the ox1 then into the  
sheep1 then into the  goat4 ,and        
afterwards it would seem to have been   
represented in salt4 ,so  in bringing   
salt to the fire for sacrifice1 there   
are brought cattle1  or animal          
offerings1 with their blood and their   
life4#aeh      #aeh ,ibid41 p4 #ej4     
,it is said in ,brhmanic explanation of 
the pre-eminent value of salt  as a     
sacrificial essence1 that it was made   
thus by an original  agreement between  
the sky and the earth4 ,the sky and the 
earth were  originally close together4  
,on being separated1 they said to each  
other1  ',let there be a common         

sacrificial essence 7ya-g-iyam7 for us6'
  ,what sacrificial essence there was   
belonging to yonder sky1 that it        
bestowed on this earth1 that became the 
salt 7in the earth71 and what           
sacrificial essence there was belonging 
to this earth1 that it bestowed  on     
yonder sky1 that became the black       
7spots7 in the moon4 ,when he  throws   
salt 7on the fire-place71 let him think 
it to be that 7viz3  the black in the   
moon73 it is on the sacrificial essence 
of the sky and  the earth that he sets  
up his fire4#aei      #aei ,mller's     
,sacred ,books of the ,east1 ,,xii41    
#bgh1 note4    ,among the ,booddhists in
 ,china1 where the sacrifices are almost
  exclusively vegetable1 salt and wine  
are added in separate cups4#afj  ,this  
would seem to suggest the symbolism of  
both blood and wine in the  offerings4  
#afj ,morris's ,china and the ,chinese1 
p4 #aed4    ,salt had its place in      
sacrifices in ancient ,egypt4 ,herodotus
 tells1  for instance1 of the great     

annual festival at ,sas1 in honor of the
  goddess ,neith1 corresponding to      
,athena or ,minerva4 ,neith was1 in     
fact1  another presentation of ,isis1   
and was known as the great mother of all
  life4 ,in conjunction with the        
sacrifices on this occasion1 there was  
the ,feast of ,burning ,lamps1 when all 
the inhabitants burned1 in the  open    
air1 about their houses1 lamps filled   
with oil and salt4 ,he says1  moreover3 
,the ,egyptians who are absent from the 
festival at ,sas  observe the rite of   
the sacrifice1 no less than the rest1 by
 a general  lighting of lamps2 so that  
the illumination is not confined to the 
city  of ,sas1 but extends over the     
whole of ,egypt4#afa ,wilkinson says of 
these lamps and their contents3 ,the oil
 floated on water mixed with  salt2 and 
he suggests a correspondence of this    
custom with a like one  in ,india and in
 ,china4#afb      #afa ,rawlinson's     
,history of ,herodotus1 ,,ii41 #ib      
7,book ,,ii41 ,chap4 #fb74      #afb    

,ibid41 note4 ,see also ,wilkinson's    
,ancient ,egyptians1 ,,iii41    #chj4   
,friedrich1 in his ,symbolism of        
,nature1 speaking of this festival1     
says that the salt symbolized the       
creation of life1 and the light that  it
 came forth from darkness into          
existence2 therefore this did well  suit
 the festival4 ,and a collector of      
,etruscan remains1 referring to  the    
magic lamp still used in ,italy1 says1  
in connection with these  words of      
,friedrich1 that the wick fire seemed so
 mysterious to the  ,rosicrucian ,lord  
,blaize that he wrote a book on it1 and 
on the blessed  secrets of salt4#afc    
#afc ,leland's ,etruscan-,roman         
,remains1 p4 #cbd f4    ,salt was       
essential to a sacrifice among the      
ancient ,romans1 as among  the ,hebrews4
 ,a cake made of coarsely ground spelt1 
or wheat1 mingled  with salt1 was       
broken1 or bruised1 and sprinkled upon  
the head of  the victim for sacrifice1  
upon the fire of the altar1 and upon the

  sacrificial knife4 ,hence the term    
immolation1 or sprinkling with  this    
salted meal1 came to be synonymous with 
sacrificing4#afd ,pliny1  telling of the
 priceless value of salt1 says of it in 
conclusion3 ,it  is in our sacred rites1
 more especially1 that its high         
importance is  recognized1 no offering  
ever being made unaccompanied by the    
salted  cake sine mola salso4#afe ,and  
,ovid says1 that in days of old it  was 
plain spelt1 and the sparkling grain of 
unadulterated salt that had  efficacy to
 render the gods propitious to man4#aff 
#afd ,harper's ,latin ,dictionary1 s4   
vv4 ,immolate1 ,mola4      #afe ,pliny's
 ,hist4 ,nat41 ,bostock and ,riley's    
trans41 ,,xxxi41 #da4      #aff ,ovid's 
,fasti1 ,i41 #ccg4 ,see1 also1 ,cooper's
 ,virgil1 notes on    ,aeneid1 ,books   
,,ii4 and ,,xii4    ,there is good      
reason for believing that it was much   
the same with  the ,greeks as with the  
,romans1 although the fact that this is 
not  distinctly declared in the classic 

texts has led some modern scholars  to  
call it in question4 ,barley-meal cakes1
 with or without salt1 were  certainly  
employed by the ,greeks in their        
sacrifices4#afg ,and ,homer  speaks of  
salt as divine4#afh ,when1 therefore1 it
 is considered that  salt was counted   
essential in sacrifices among the       
ancient ,egyptians1  ,hindoos1 and      
,hebrews1 as also later among the       
,romans1 it would seem to  need proof to
 the contrary to meet the natural       
presumption that the  ,greeks also made 
use of divine salt in their sacred      
sacrificial cakes4      #afg ,homer's   
,iliad1 ,i41 #ddi1 #deh2 ,,ii41 #daj1   
#dba2 ,odyssey1 ,,iii41    #dbe1 #dda2  
,philo's ,opera1 #b 3 #bdj4      #afh   
,iliad1 ,,ix41 #bad4 ,see ,eustathius's 
,commentary1 ,i41 #gdh-gej1 ed4         
,basle 7p4 #fdh1 ed4 ,rome74    ,salt   
was offered at every little shrine by   
the wayside in ,guatemala1  in ,central 
,america1 in olden time4 ,it was an     
acceptable gift to the  gods4#afi       

#afi ,see ,bancroft's ,native ,races of 
the ,pacific ,coast1 ,,ii41 #gai4       
,wellhausen1 in treating of the remains 
of ,arabian paganism1#agj tells  of the 
custom of the old priests of throwing   
salt into the fire of  sacrifice1       
unperceived by the worshiper as he      
appealed to the gods  in his oath1 and  
of the consequent startling of the      
offerer by the  up-leaping flames1 as   
though under a divine impulse4 ,various 
popular  sayings are cited as incidental
 proofs of this custom2 the purport of  
them all being that salt in the fires of
 sacrifice is supposed to be an         
effective appeal to the gods4      #agj 
,wellhausen's ,reste ,arabischen        
,heidentumes1 in ,skizzen und           
,vorarbeiten1 ,,iii41 #abd1 #aca4       
,pliny says that salt1 regarded by      
itself1 is naturally igneous1 and  yet  
it manifests an antipathy to fire1 and  
flies from it4#aga ,this  would seem to 
be a reference to the tendency of salt  
to spring up1 or  flash and sparkle1    

when thrown into the flames4      #aga  
,hist4 ,nat41 ,,xxxi41 #de4    ,it has  
indeed been suggested that the very name
 salt was derived  7through saltus1 to  
leap7 from the tendency of this         
substance  to leap and explode when     
thrown upon fire4#agb ,if there be any  
probability in this suggestion1 or in   
another1 and more natural one1  that    
saltus was from the same root as sal1   
salt1 it is easy to  see that the       
primitive mind might infer that such was
 the affinity of  salt with the divine1 
that1 when offered by fire1 it leaped   
toward  heaven1 and so was understood to
 be peculiarly acceptable to ,god or to 
the gods1 in sacrifice4 ,the ,latin verb
 salis has the twofold meaning  to salt 
or to sprinkle before sacrifice1 and to 
leap1 spring1  bound1 jump2 and the root
 sal would seem to be in the ,latin and 
the  ,sanskrit alike4#agc ,similarly1   
the word salacious1 or lustful1 had     
this origin4      #agb ,see citation of 
,lennep1 and ,scheideus1 in             

,richardson's ,english    ,dictionary1  
s4 v4 ,salt4      #agc ,see ,harper's   
,latin ,dictionary1 s4 vv4 sal1 salio1  
saltus4    ,it is evident that the      
primitive popular mind recognized salt  
as a  peculiarly acceptable offering in 
sacrifice to ,god or the gods1 and  that
 its very name in various combinations  
seemed to suggest the  aspiring or      
uprising heavenward4          ,x        
,,salt ,,in ,,exorcism ,,and            
,,divination      ,the line between     
sacrificial offerings and offerings for 
the purpose  of exorcising evil spirits1
 or of propitiating good spirits1 is not
  always a clear line even in the mind  
of the offerer2 but there are uses  of  
salt among primitive peoples which must 
be placed under the head of  exorcisms  
and divinations1 and as an accompaniment
 of incantations1  rather than under the
 head of sacrifices1 even though they   
may be only  perversions of the original
 idea of sacrifice4    ,burckhardt tells
 of the burning of salt1 by way of      

exorcism1 among  the people of ,daraon1 
on the borders of ,upper ,egypt and     
,nubia4 ,his  caravan was about being   
loaded for a journey4 ,just before the  
lading  commenced1 he says1 the ,ababde 
women appeared with earthen vessels  in 
their hands1 filled with burning coals4 
,they set them before the  several      
loads1 and threw salt upon them4 ,at the
 rising of the bluish  flame produced by
 the burning of the salt1 they          
exclaimed1 ',may you be  blessed in     
going and in coming6' ,the devil and    
every evil genius are  thus1 they say1  
removed4#agd      #agd ,burckhardt's    
,travels in ,nubia1 p4 #aeg4    ,among  
,muhammadan ,arabs1 in and out of       
,egypt1 salt is sprinkled on  the floors
 of every apartment in the houses1 on   
the last night of  the month of         
,ramadan1 accompanied by the words1 ,in 
the name of ,god1  the ,compassionate1  
the ,merciful6 ,this is because the evil
 jinn1 or  genii1 are supposed to be    
confined in prison during that month1   

and the  sprinkling of salt1 with the   
prescribed invocation1 ensures          
protection  from them as they renew     
their work of harm4 ,salt is also       
sprinkled on  the floor after the birth 
of a child1 as a propitiatory offering  
for  mother and child1 against the      
influence of the evil eye4#age      #age
 ,lane's ,arabian ,society in the       
,middle ,ages1 pp4 #da1 #ahh4    ,in    
,china1 on the eve of the new year1 salt
 is thrown into the fire1  and the      
manner of its burning is taken as an    
indication1 favorable  or unfavorable1  
for the coming year4 ,it is a species of
 divination  by salt4#agf ,in ,japan1   
the burning of salt1 or the offering it 
in  this way to the gods1 is a          
propitiatory sacrifice in time of       
danger2  and it is scattered at the     
threshold for a similar purpose after a 
funeral4#agg ,in ,syria1 also1 the      
burning of a lump of salt in the  fire  
is resorted to as a means of exorcising 
the malevolent spirit  which afflicts   

one through the evil eye4#agh      #agf 
,doolittle's ,social ,life of the       
,chinese1 ,,ii41 #eh f4      #agg       
,griffis's ,mikado's ,empire1 pp4 #dfg1 
#dgj2 ,bird's ,untrodden    ,tracks in  
,japan1 ,i41 #cib4      #agh ,george ,a4
 ,ford1 in ,the ,church at ,home and    
,abroad1 ,dec41 #ahhi1    p4 #eja4      
,while suspected persons1 or persons of 
doubtful orthodoxy1 were  undergoing the
 ordeal of boiling water under          
ecclesiastical  authority1 in the       
,middle ,ages and earlier1 it is said   
that by  way of extra precaution1 in    
some ritual it is ordered that holy     
water and blessed salt be mingled in all
 the food and drink of  the             
patient--presumably to avert diabolical 
interference with the  result4#agi      
#agi ,martne1 ,de ,antiq4 ,eccles4      
,ritibus1 ,lib4 ,,iii41 c4 vii41 ,ordo4 
#ai2 cited in ,lea's ,superstition and  
,force1 p4 #bha4    ,among the folk-lore
 customs in modern ,greece salt has     
prominence in  various ways4 ,salt must 

be pounded on certain days and in a     
certain  way1 in order to guard against 
ill luck4 ,salt must never be carried   
out  of the house after dark4#ahj       
#ahj ,rodd's ,customs and ,lore of      
,modern ,greece1 p4 #aef4    ,in        
,scotland and in ,england1 as well as in
 the ,east1 the use of burning  salt in 
exorcism has continued in the more      
primitive regions down to  the present  
century4 ,james ,napier tells1 for      
example1 of the treatment  to which he  
was subjected as a child1 when it was   
surmised that he had  gotten a blink of 
an ill e'e4 ,he says3 ,a sixpence was   
borrowed from  a neighbor1 a good fire  
was kept burning in the grate1 the door 
was  kept locked1 and ,i was placed upon
 a chair in front of the fire4 ,the     
operator1 an old woman1 took a          
tablespoon and filled it with water4    
,with the sixpence she then lifted as   
much salt as it could carry1 and  both  
were put into the water in the spoon4   
,the water was then stirred  with the   

forefinger till the salt was dissolved4 
,then the soles of my  feet and the     
palms of my hands were bathed with this 
solution thrice1  and after these       
bathings ,i was made to taste the       
solution three times4  ,the operator    
then drew her wet forefinger across my  
brow1--called  'scoring aboon the       
breath4' ,the remaining contents of the 
spoon she  then cast over the fire1 into
 the hinder part of the fire1 saying as 
she did so1 ',guid preserve frae a'     
skith4' ,these were the first words     
permitted to be spoken during the       
operation4#aha ,mr4 ,napier adds  that  
while in his case the scoring aboon the 
breath was accomplished  by scoring with
 a finger wet with salt water1 the      
suspected possessor  of an evil eye was 
scored with the finger-nails1 or some   
sharp  instrument1 so as to draw blood4 
,the blood and the salt seemed to have  
correspondent values4      #aha         
,folk-,lore of the ,west of ,scotland1  
p4 #cf f4    ,in the southern counties  

of ,england1 salt is thrown into the    
fire by  way of invoking spiritual aid  
in behalf of a lass who would win back a
  recreant lover4 ,a pinch of salt must 
be thrown into the fire on three        
successive ,friday nights1 while these  
lines are repeated3      ',it is not    
this salt ,i wish to burn1      ,it is  
my lover's heart to turn2      ,that he 
may neither rest1 nor happy be1         
,until he comes and speaks to me4'#ahb  
#ahb ,henderson's ,folk-,lore of the    
,northern ,counties1 p4 #agf4    ,there 
seems to be a special value in the      
sacred number three1 in the  appeals    
through salt to the spiritual powers4   
,in the ,scottish ,lowlands1  when a    
dead body has been washed and laid out1 
one of the oldest women  present must   
light a candle1 and wave it three times 
around the corpse4  ,then she must      
measure three handfuls of common salt   
into an earthenware  plate1 and lay it  
on the breast4 ,lastly she arranges     
three 'toom1' or  empty dishes1 on the  

hearth1 as near as possible to the fire2
 and all  the attendants going out of   
the room return into it backwards1      
repeat  this 'rhyme of saining3'        
',thrice the torchie1 thrice the saltie1
      ,thrice the dishes toom for loffie
 7i4 e41 praise71      ,these three     
times three ye must wave round      ,the
 corpse1 until it sleep sound4          
,sleep sound and wake nane1      ,till  
to heaven the soul's gane4      ,if ye  
want that soul to dee      ,fetch the   
torch th' ,elleree2      ,gin ye want   
that soul to live1      ,between the    
dishes place a sieve1      ,an it sail  
have a fair1 fair shrive4'#ahc      #ahc
 ,henderson's ,folk-,lore of the        
,northern ,counties1 p4 #ec4    ,in     
connection with the putting of a plate  
of salt on the breast of a  dead body1  
there were various usages4 ,a plate of  
bread was sometimes  set with the salt1 
and again a plate of earth was its      
accompaniment4  ,and different reasons  
were assigned for the presence of the   

salt there4  ,napier says that many     
persons claimed for it a value in       
preventing the  swelling of the body in 
process of decomposition1 but its       
original  purpose was to act as a charm 
against the devil1 to prevent him from  
disturbing the body4#ahd      #ahd      
,folk-,lore of the ,west of ,scotland1  
p4 #fj4    ,pennant tells us that       
formerly1 in ,scotland1 the corpse being
  stretched on a board and covered with 
a close linen wrapper1 the  friends laid
 on the breast of the deceased a wooden 
platter1 containing  a small quantity of
 salt and earth1 separate and unmixed2  
the earth an  emblem of the corruptible 
body1 the salt as an emblem of the      
immortal  spirit the life4#ahe      #ahe
 ,thistleton ,dyer's ,domestic          
,folk-,lore1 p4 #fj4    ,napier adds3   
,there was an older superstition which  
gave another  explanation for the plate 
of salt on the breast4 ,there were      
persons  calling themselves             
'sin-eaters1' who1 when a person died1  

were sent for  to come and eat the sins 
of the deceased4 ,when they came1 their 
modus  operandi was to place a plate of 
salt and a plate of bread on the  breast
 of the corpse1 and repeat a series of  
incantations1 after which  they ate the 
contents of the plates1 and so relieved 
the dead person  of such sins as would  
have kept him hovering around his       
relations1  haunting them with his      
imperfectly purified spirit1 to their   
great  annoyance1 and without           
satisfaction to himself4#ahf ,the basis 
of this  plan of vicarious substitution 
of personality would seem to be1 in the 
entering of the sin-eaters into oneness 
of life with the deceased  through the  
salt covenant or the blood covenant1 in 
partaking of his  body and blood in the 
bread and salt from his breast4         
#ahf ,folk-,lore1 p4 #fj4    ,leland1 in
 his ,etruscan-,roman ,remains in       
,popular ,tradition1 says that  there   
was1 among the ,tuscan ,romans1 an      
incantation1 or an invocation1  for     

every emergency4 ,if salt upset1 they   
said1 ',dii avertite  omen6'#ahg ,in    
,sicily1 a goddess known as the ,mother 
of the ,day is  invoked when salt is    
spilt4#ahh ,he also cites various       
incantations  and exorcisms1 in which   
salt is an essential factor4#ahi        
#ahg ,etruscan-,roman ,remains1 p4 #ab4 
#ahh ,ibid41 p4 #adh4      #ahi ,ibid41 
pp4 #abb1 #bjd1 #bdb1 #bfd1 #bha1 #bhf1 
#bhg1 #cab1 #cde4    ,a custom prevails 
in some portions of ,pennsylvania1 even 
to this  day1 of carrying a bag of salt1
 with a ,bible1 over the threshold1 on  
entering a new house for the first time4
 ,there are families who would  not     
consent to live in a home which had not 
been thus consecrated4#aij  ,this would 
seem to be a survival of the passing    
over the threshold  with an offering of 
blood4 ,a correspondence of this        
practice with  ancient ,etruscan customs
 seems to be indicated by the           
collections of  ,leland4#aia ,among the 
,mordvins1 a ,finnish people on the     

,volga1 salt  on bread is placed under  
the threshold of the bride's paternal   
home  at the time of a marriage         
covenant4#aib ,this may be classed with 
sacrifices or with divination according 
to our idea of the workings of  the     
primitive ,mordvin mind4      #aij      
,threshold ,covenant1 p4 #ba4      #aia 
,etruscan-,roman ,remains1 p4 #cjf4     
#aib ,ralston's ,songs of the ,russian  
,people1 p4 #bgg f4          ,,xi       
,,faithlessness ,,to ,,salt      ,the   
fact that in its primitive conception a 
covenant of salt is a  permanent and    
unalterable covenant1 naturally suggests
 to the primitive  mind the idea of     
treachery as faithlessness to salt4 ,the
 ,persian term  for a traitor is namak  
harm1 untrue to salt1 one faithless  to 
salt2#aic and the same idea runs through
 the languages of the  ,oriental world4 
#aic ,gesenius's ,thesaurus1 p4 #gij4   
,baron du ,tott1 referring to the       
sharing of bread and salt1 says3 ,the   
,turks think it the blackest ingratitude

 to forget the man from whom we  have   
received food1 which is signified by the
 bread and salt4#aid  ,but it is obvious
 that it is faithlessness to salt1 not  
to bread or  ordinary food1 that is     
deemed blackest ingratitude4 ,this is in
 ,india1  as in ,turkey4 ,tamerlane1 the
 ,mongol-,tatar chieftain1 speaking1 in 
his  institutes1 of one ,share ,behraum1
 who had deserted his service for the   
enemy and afterwards returned to his    
allegiance1 says3 ,at length my  salt   
which he had eaten overwhelmed him with 
remorse1 he again threw  himself on my  
mercy1 and humbled himself before       
me4#aie ,frazer  quotes a rebel chief in
 ,india as saying1 when he capitulated  
after a  siege1 and was asked if he     
would return to his old allegiance1 ,no1
  ,i can no more visit my country2 ,i   
must look for service elsewhere4 ,i  can
 never face the rajah again2 for ,i have
 eaten ,ghoorka salt4 ,i was  in trust1 
and ,i have not died at my post4 ,we can
 never return to our  country4#aif      

#aid ,memoirs of the ,turks and         
,tartars1 ,part ,i41 p4 #bad2 cited in  
,bush's ,illustrations of the ,holy     
,scriptures1 at ,numbers #ah 3 #ai4     
#aie ,quoted in ,burder's ,oriental     
,customs1 #b;d ed41 p4 #gg4      #aif   
,frazer's ,journal of ,tour through     
,himala ,mountains1 quoted in           
,burder1 p4 #gg1 at ,ezra #d 3 #ad4     
,burton says that the ,bed'ween of      
,arabia denounce the ,syrians as        
abusers of the salt1 because they cannot
 be depended on in their                
agreements4#aig ,and ,dr4 ,thomson says 
that ,orientals often upbraid  the      
civilized ,frank because he does not    
keep bread and salt1 is not  faithful to
 the covenant of brotherhood4#aih       
#aig ,pilgrimage to ,el ,medinah and    
,meccah1 ,,iii41 #aad4      #aih ,the   
,land and the ,book1 ,,ii41 #da4        
,burton says also1 of the ,bed'ween of  
,el ,hejaz3 ',we have eaten salt        
together' 7nahnu malihin7 is still a    
bond of friendship3 there are1  however1

 some tribes who require to renew the   
bond every twenty-four  hours1 as       
otherwise1 to use their own phrase1 'the
 salt is not in their  stomachs4'#aii   
,and he quotes the advice to him of     
,shaykh ,hamid1  concerning the         
,bed'ween who were to escort him from   
,el ,medinah1 never  to allow           
twenty-four hours to elapse without     
dipping hand in the same  dish with     
them1 in order that the party might     
always be 'malihin1' on  terms of       
salt4#bjj ,treachery on the part of one 
who has even partaken  of an ordinary   
meal with another is1 however1 counted1 
among ,orientals1  a peculiar crime1 as 
surprising as it is unusual4#bja        
#aii ,pilgrimage1 ,,iii41 #hd4      #bjj
 ,pilgrimage1 ,,ii41 #ccd4      #bja    
,psa4 #da 3 #i2 ,john #ac 3 #ah4    ,of 
course1 there is no human bond which    
will guard human nature against  all    
possible treachery4 ,these references to
 the measure of fidelity  among         
different peoples or tribes are an      

indication of the relative  degree of   
faithfulness prevailing among them      
severally4 ,those who are  faithless to 
salt cannot be depended on for anything4
 ,if a man would  not be true to one who
 is of his own blood1 of his own life1  
and to  whom he is bound in a sacred    
covenant of which his ,god is a party1  
he  could not be depended on in any     
emergency4 ,the covenant of salt is all 
this in the thought of the primitive    
mind4    ,don ,raphel says1 of the      
estimate of faithlessness to salt       
entertained  by ,arabs generally3 ,when 
they have eaten bread and salt with any 
one1  it would be a horrid crime not    
only to rob him1 but even to touch the  
smallest part of his baggage1 or of the 
goods which he takes with him  through  
the desert4 ,the smallest injury done to
 his person would be  considered as an  
equal wickedness4 ,an ,arab who should  
be guilty of such  a crime would be     
looked upon as a wretch who might expect
 reproof and  detestation from          

everybody4 ,he would appear despicable  
to himself1 and  never be able to wash  
away his shame4 ,it is almost unheard of
 for an  ,arab to bring such disgrace   
upon himself4#bjb      #bjb ,the        
,bedouins or ,arabs of the ,desert1     
,part ,,ii41 p4 #ei2 quoted in          
,burder's ,oriental ,customs1 #b;d ed41 
p4 #gb4    ,it was said by the ancient  
,jews that ,sodom was destroyed because 
its  inhabitants had been faithless to  
salt1 in maltreating guests who  had    
partaken of salt in their city4 ,in a   
,talmudic comment on ,lot's  wife1 the  
record is3 ,rabbi ,isaac asked1 ',why   
did she become a pillar  of salt8'      
',because she had sinned through salt4  
,for in the night in  which the men came
 to ,lot she went to her neighbors1 and 
said to them1  ,give me salt1 for we    
have guests4 ,but her purpose was to    
make 7the  evil-minded7 people of the   
city acquainted with the guests4        
,therefore  was she turned into a pillar
 of salt4'#bjc      #bjc ,rev4 ,dr4     

,marcus ,jastrow refers to this in an   
article on ,the    ,symbolical ,meaning 
of ,salt1 in ,the ,sunday ,school ,times
 for ,april #bh1    #ahid4    ,this idea
 of foul treachery as equivalent to     
faithlessness in the  matter of salt1   
seems to be perpetuated in ,da ,vinci's 
famous painting  of the ,last ,supper1  
where ,judas ,iscariot is represented as
 having  overturned the salt-cellar4#bjd
 ,and even among ,english-speaking      
peoples the spilling of salt between two
 persons is said to threaten a  quarrel2
 as though they had already broken      
friendship4      #bjd ,it has indeed    
been questioned whether the overturned  
salt-cellar    in ,da ,vinci's picture1 
as shown in many an engraving of it1 was
 in the    original painting1 as it is  
not to be seen there now4 ,but it would 
seem clear that the copy of this        
painting by ,da ,vinci's pupil1 ,marco  
d',oggoni1 in the ,brera1 shows the     
overturned salt-cellar1 while the       
original painting has had several       

retouchings and renovations4 7,see      
,notes and ,queries1 #fth ,series1 ,vol4
 ,x41 p4 #ib f47    ,gayton1 describing 
two friends 7who were proof even against
 this ill  sign71 says3       ,i have   
two friends of either sex1 which do     
,eat little salt1 or none1 yet are      
friends too2      ,of both which persons
 ,i can truly tell1      ,they are of   
patience most invincible1--      ,when  
out of temper no mischance at all       
,can put1--no1 not if towards them the  
salt should fall4#bje      #bje         
,thistleton ,dyer's ,domestic           
,folk-,lore1 p4 #ajd4    ,in both the   
,old ,testament and the ,new            
faithlessness to a formal  covenant is  
reckoned a crime of peculiar enormity as
 distinct from any  ordinary            
transgression of a specific law4        
,transgressing a covenant with  the     
,lord is counted on the part of ,israel 
much the same as worshiping  the gods of
 the heathen4 ,this is shown in repeated
 instances in the ,old  ,testament4#bjf 

,in the ,new ,testament1 ,paul includes 
among the grossest  evil-doers of       
paganism those who are filled with all  
unrighteousness1  wickedness1           
covetousness1 maliciousness2 full of    
envy1 murder1 strife1  deceit1          
malignity2 whisperers1 backbiters1      
hateful to ,god1 and so down  to        
covenant-breakers1 and those without    
natural affection1 as among  the lowest 
and worst of all4#bjg ,this idea shows  
itself continually in  records and      
traditions1 sacred and secular4         
#bjf ,gen4 #ag 3 #ad2 ,deut4 #ag 3 #b-g2
 ,josh4 #g 3 #aa-ae2 ,judg4 #b 3 #bj-bc2
 #b    ,kings #ah 3 #aa1 #ab2 ,psa4 #ee 
3 #ai-ba2 ,isa4 #bd 3 #e1 #f2 ,jer4 #aa 
3 #i-aa2 #cd 3    #ag-bj2 ,hosea #f 3   
#d-g2 #h 3 #a4      #bjg ,rom4 #a 3 #ca4
          ,,xii    ,,substitute         
,,together ,,with ,,reality             
,primarily it is the blood1 as the life1
 of two persons entering into  a        
covenant with each other and with the   
,author of life1 that is the  nexus of  

the enduring covenant4#bjh ,secondarily1
 it is the blood1 or  life1 of a        
substitute victim offered as a sacrifice
 to ,god1 or to the  gods1 that is      
accepted as such a nexus1--the blood    
being shared by the  contracting        
parties1 or being poured out as an      
oblation to ,god1 and the  flesh being  
eaten conjointly by the parties         
covenanting4#bji      #bjh ,blood       
,covenant1 pp4 #e-hf2 ,threshold        
,covenant1 pp4 #aic-bjb4      #bji ,gen4
 #d 3 #b-e2 ,blood ,covenant1 pp4       
#acd-acf4    ,yet1 again1 wine is       
accepted as representing blood4 ,this is
 not only  because wine resembles blood 
in appearance1 and is called in the     
,bible  record the blood of the         
grape1#baj but because wine is actually 
deemed1 by many primitive peoples1 real 
blood1 and is supposed to  affect its   
users as it does because it represents  
the spirit1 or life1  of the divinity   
whose blood it is4#baa ,on this point   
,frazer calls  attention to the         

primitive views of ,egyptians1          
,arabians1 ,aztecs1 and  others1 citing 
authorities from ,plutarch to ,robertson
 ,smith4#bab      #baj ,gen4 #di 3 #aa2 
,deut4 #cb 3 #ad2 ,eccles4 #ci 3 #bf2   
#ej 3 #ae2    #a ,macc4 #f 3 #cd2 ,blood
 ,covenant1 p4 #aia4      #baa ,blood   
,covenant1 pp4 #aci-adb4      #bab      
,frazer's ,golden ,bough1 ,,ii41 #ahd f4
    ,he says1 for example3 ,we are      
informed by ,plutarch that of old the   
,egyptian kings neither drank wine nor  
offered it in libations to the  gods1   
because they held it to be the blood of 
beings who had once  fought against the 
gods1 the vine having sprung from their 
rotting  bodies2 and the frenzy of      
intoxication was explained by the       
supposition  that the drunken man was   
filled with the blood of the enemies of 
the  gods4 ,the ,aztecs regarded pulque1
 or the wine of the country1 as bad1  on
 the account of the wild deeds which men
 did under its influence4 ,but  these   
wild deeds were believed to be the acts1

 not of the drunken man1  but of the    
wine god by whom he was possessed and   
inspired4444 ,thus it  appears that1 on 
the primitive view1 intoxication1 or the
 inspiration  produced by wine1 is      
exactly parallel to the inspiration     
produced by  drinking the blood of      
animals4#bac ,the soul or life is in the
 blood1  and wine is the blood of the   
vine4444 ,whoever drinks wine drinks the
  blood1 and so receives into himself   
the soul or spirit of the god of  the   
vine4      #bac ,comp4 ,blood ,covenant1
 pp4 #aad1 #aci-adg4    ,naturally1 a   
substitute or representative of the     
original1 or real1  nexus of a covenant1
 came to stand for the primary article  
with such  prominence in the popular    
mind that it would be deemed an         
essential1  not only when the real was  
lacking1 but while the real was actually
  present4 ,therefore we find libations 
of wine accompanying actual blood1  in  
sacrifices1#bad as well as used in      
substitution for it2 so also of  other  

substitutes1 such as saffron water1     
milk1 and coffee1 at other  times4#bae  
#bad ,exod4 #bi 3 #dj2 ,lev4 #bc 3 #ab1 
#ac2 ,num4 #ae 3 #e1 #aj2 #bh 3 #ad1    
etc42    ,blood ,covenant1 pp4 #fc-fe4  
#bae ,blood ,covenant1 pp4 #gg1         
#cdf-cej4    ,as salt represents blood  
and life1 quite naturally salt is       
employed in  sacrifices1 not only where 
there is no blood or life1 but also     
where  there is4 ,and this accounts for 
the prominence of salt in sacrifices1   
and elsewhere1 where blood or life is   
essential as a fitting offering1  and as
 a bond of union4#baf ,both wine and    
salt as substitutes for  blood are      
frequently used together1 as though one 
alone were not  sufficient4#bag         
#baf ,herodotus1 ,plutarch1 and ,pliny1 
cited in ,becker's ,charicles1 p4       
#ccj4      #bag ,see pp4 #hc f41 #ib1   
supra2 also ,frazer's ,golden ,bough1   
,,ii41    #fg-gj4    ,similarly1 bread  
is a recognized representative of flesh4
 ,it is so  understood in sacred and    

secular records and traditions4 ,when   
,jesus  spoke of bread as his flesh1 and
 as his body1#bah and of the fruit of   
the vine as his blood1 he used terms    
that in his day1 and earlier1  were     
known in popular thought as representing
 the truth at the basis  of the covenant
 by which two became one in a merged    
common life4#bai  ,yet while bread was  
an accepted substitute for flesh1 it was
 much used  as an accompaniment of      
flesh#bbj in sacrificial feasts4 ,thus  
bread  and salt as recognized           
substitutes for flesh and blood came to 
be  commonly used even where real flesh 
and blood were the main factors in  the 
sacrifice4 ,substitutes for bread1 such 
as honey and flour or meal1  were1 as   
already shown1 also used in connection  
with bread4 ,hence it is  not unnatural 
to find salt as blood accompanying blood
 itself4 ,this is  entirely in accord   
with primitive thought and customs      
generally4      #bah ,comp4 ,matt4 #bf 3
 #bf-bh2 ,mark #ad 3 #bb-bd2 ,luke #bb 3

 #ai1 #bj2 #a ,cor4    #aa 3 #bc-be4    
#bai ,blood ,covenant1 pp4 #aga-ahd4    
#bbj ,ibid42 ,gen4 #ah 3 #a-h2 #ca 3    
#ed2 ,lev4 #g 3 #aa-ad2 #bc 3 #ae-bj1   
etc4          ,,xiii    ,,added ,,traces
 ,,of ,,the ,,rite      ,on the occasion
 of a sacred alliance between clans1 or 
in a treaty  of peace at the close of a 
war1 among the ,kookies of ,india1 there
 is  a formal appeal to the gods1 in    
which salt has an important part4  ,a   
dhar1 or short sword1 is placed on the  
ground between the two  parties4 ,on it1
 as on an altar1 are arranged rice1     
salt1 earth1 fire1  and a tiger's tooth4
 ,the party swearing takes the dhar and 
puts the  blade between his teeth1 and1 
biting it1 says1 ',may ,i be cut with   
the  dhar in war and in the field2 may  
rice and salt fail me1 my crops  wither1
 and ,i die of hunger2 may fire burn all
 my worldly possessions1  and the tiger 
devour me1 if ,i am not faithful6'#bba  
#bba ,stewart1 in ,journal of the       
,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 ,,xxiv41  

#fda1 cited in ,spencer's ,descriptive  
,sociology1 ,v41 #ci4    ,among the     
,battas1 in ,sumatra1 the more solemn   
form of their oath is1  ,may my harvest 
fail1 my cattle die1 and may ,i never   
taste salt again1  if ,i do not speak   
the truth4#bbb      #bbb ,wooldridge's  
trans4 of ,bunge's ,physiological and   
,pathological    ,chemistry1 p4 #abf4   
,among the ,dyaks of ,borneo1 when a    
question arises between disputants  for 
which there is no ordinary mode of      
settlement1 each litigant is  given a   
lump of salt1 which the two drop into   
water simultaneously1 and  he whose lump
 dissolves soonest is adjudged the      
loser4#bbc      #bbc ,kningswarter1 op4 
cit41 p4 #bjb1 cited in ,henry ,c4      
,lea's    ,superstition and ,force1 p4  
#beg4    ,in the ,kenyah tribe in       
,borneo1 the ceremony of naming a child 
is made  much of4 ,guests assemble on   
the occasion4 ,after the more private   
ceremony1 participated in by a favored  
few1 every guest present is  given a    

package of salt and some ginger root1 as
 wedding-cake is given  in many lands1  
for a souvenir of the occasion4#bbd     
#bbd ,on the testimony of ,dr4 ,w4 ,h4  
,furness1 #c;d4    ,a custom among      
,slavic peoples of presenting bread and 
salt to a ruler  at the threshold of his
 domain1 as he comes on a visit1 would  
seem to  combine the two ideas of       
hospitality and of worship4 ,when the   
,emperor  of ,russia visits one of his  
provinces1 or subject cities1 he is met 
at its threshold by its representative  
rulers1 as his loyal subjects1  with    
bread and salt served on a golden or a  
silver-gilt placque4 ,in the  ,winter   
,palace of ,st4 ,petersburg there are   
hundreds of these suspended  over the   
doorways and on the walls1 which        
placques were thus presented  to        
different emperors on the occasion of   
such visits4    ,when the ,grand ,duke  
,alexis visited ,america in #ahgb1 he   
was received  in this way by the wife of
 the ,russian ,minister at ,washington4 

,as  the ,grand ,duke entered the       
,legation1 ,madame de ,catacazy carried 
a  silver salver on which was placed a  
round loaf of plain black bread1  on the
 top of which was imbedded a golden     
salt-cellar4#bbe ,this was  obviously   
more than a symbol of welcome to the    
home of the embassy4 ,the  ,grand ,duke 
came as a ruler and lord to his own1 and
 his own received  him loyally1 with    
symbols of reverent submission4 ,it was 
more like  the threshold covenant of the
 ,east1 when blood is poured out from an
  offered body at the doorway of a      
house1 as one who would be honored as   
well as welcomed comes in4      #bbe    
,parley's ,reminiscences of ,sixty      
,years in the ,national    ,metropolis1 
,,ii41 #bgg4    ,some years later there 
was an account in the ,london ,court    
,journal of  the making in ,paris of an 
ornate golden dish for a similar use in 
,roumania4 ,the burghers of ,bucharest  
were arranging to present on this  dish 
bread and salt to ,princess ,marie of   

,edinburgh1 when she should  make her   
first entrance into their city as their 
future queen4 ,the dish  was of gold    
worked in a purely ,renaissance design1 
its edge being an  openwork pattern of  
interlaced ears of corn and branches of 
laurel4 ,in  the center was the         
salt-cellar1 shaped like an open tulip1 
and resting  upon four graceful stalks4 
,in the days of ,queen ,elizabeth of    
,england it was a custom of officials   
of the palace to rub bread and salt on  
the plates of the dining-table  before  
each royal meal4#bbf      #bbf ,agnes   
,strickland1 ,queens of ,england        
7,students' ,edition71 p4 #djc4         
,among the ,kookies of the ,hill ,tribes
 in ,india1 whenever they send  any     
message of consequence to each other1   
they always put in the hand  of the     
bearer of it a small quantity of salt1  
to be delivered with  the message as    
expressive of its importance4#bbg ,this 
would seem to  indicate a life-and-death
 matter in the message4      #bbg       

,macrae1 in ,asiatic ,researches1       
,,vii41 #ahh2 cited in ,spencer's       
,descriptive ,sociology1 ,v4 #be4    ,an
 old ,english custom of having a        
salt-cellar at a certain point on the   
family table1 and of seating those      
present above or below it1 gave rise  to
 the phrase sitting below the salt as   
indicative of an inferior  position at  
the household table4 ,as salt was a     
symbol of hospitality  and of covenanted
 union1 he who was within the scope of  
salt-sharing at  a table was in a very  
different position from one who was     
outside of  it4    ,a reference to this 
custom by ,sir ,walter ,scott1 in his   
,tales of ,my  ,landlord1 in the first  
quarter of the nineteenth century1      
provoked  much discussion1 and doubt was
 expressed as to the existence of the   
custom in olden time4 ,but abundant     
evidence was produced as to its         
veritableness4#bbh ,an old ,english     
ballad was cited1 in which one said     
sneeringly to his inferior3       ,thou 

art a carle mean of degree1      ,ye    
salte doth stand twain me and thee2     
,but an thou hadst been of ane gentyl   
strayne1      ,i wold have bitten my    
gant#bbi aganie4      #bbh ,see         
,blackwood's ,magazine1 ,vol4 ,i41 ,no4 
#a1 pp4 #cc-ce2 #acb-acd2    #cdi-ceb2  
#egi-ehb4      #bbi ,gant2 that is1     
glove4    ,and one of ,bishop ,hall's   
,satires1 in #aeig1 was instanced as    
saying3       ,a gentle squire would    
gladly entertaine      ,into his house  
some trencher chaplaine2      ,some     
willing man that might instruct his     
sons1      ,and that would stande to    
good conditions4      ,first1 that he   
lie upon the truckle-bed1      ,whiles  
his young maister lieth o'er his head4  
,second1 that he do1 on no default1     
,ever presume to sit above the salt4    
,it was a custom in ,oxford ,university 
to give salt to a student who had       
concluded his course as a freshman1 and 
was finding admission into  the company 
of maturer1 or salter1 students or      

sophisters4 ,drinking  salt and water1  
or salt and beer1 was a part of this    
ceremony4 ,it was  called salting a     
freshman1 or college salting4#bcj       
#bcj ,see ,notes and ,queries1 ,first   
,series1 ,i41 #bfa4    ,a series of     
plates1 illustrative of certain student 
ceremonies at  ,strassburg ,university  
was published in #afff4 ,the last of    
these  represents the giving of the     
salt1--which a person is holding on a   
plate in his left hand1 and with his    
right hand is about to put a pinch  of  
it upon the tongue of each becanus1 or  
freshman4 ,a glass1 probably  holding   
wine1 is standing near him4 ,underneath 
is the following couplet3       ,sal    
,sophi gustate1 bibatis vinaque lta1    
,augeat immensus vos in utrisque        
,deus6#bca      #bca ,ibid41 ,i41 #dib4 
,in ,hungary1 at a wedding1 there are   
customs that give solemn emphasis  to   
the truth that two lives are newly made 
one in a sacred covenant4  ,the ceremony
 is presided over by the ,vajda1 or     

chief ruler1 rather than  by any        
,christian ecclesiastic4 ,he stands with
 his back to a blazing  fire as the     
primitive altar4#bcb ,when his address  
is concluded1 an  earthen vessel is     
dashed to pieces as a symbol of their   
former life  now ended4 ,then the bridal
 couple are sprinkled with salt and     
brandy1  doubly standing for blood on   
the threshold of their married life4#bcc
      #bcb ,threshold ,covenant1 pp4 #bb
 f41 #ci ff41 etc4      #bcc ,martyrdom 
of an ,empress1 p4 #ach f4    ,bread and
 salt seem to have a peculiar sacredness
 among the ,hungarian  gypsies4 ,this   
incident1 from a gypsy camp1 is given in
 a ,hungarian  newspaper3 ,a gypsy who  
had lost his cash informed his leader of
 the  fact1 and at once an order was    
issued for its restoration4 ,the money  
not appearing1 the gypsy chief bound two
 poles into the form of a  cross1 and   
fixed one end in the ground4 ,on the top
 of the cross he  fastened a piece of   
bread1 and sprinkled it with salt4 ,each

 member of  the band was then called to 
swear upon this symbol that he had not  
committed the theft4 ,all stood the     
test1 until the last one1 an old  woman1
 came forward4 ,as she was about to take
 the oath1 she turned  pale1 put her    
hand in her pocket1 and brought out the 
stolen money4 ,she  was then soundly    
beaten1 and kicked out of camp4#bcd     
#bcd ,see quotation from the ,pester    
,lloyd1 in ,journal of the ,gypsy       
,folk-lore ,society1 copied in ,the     
,journal of ,american ,folk-lore1 ,vol4 
,,ii41 ,no4 #e1 p4 #adj4    ,the        
primitive idea that the sovereign       
properly controls salt as a  source or  
means of life1 and that a gift of salt  
from the sovereign  lays a new          
obligation on the recipient1 as         
illustrated in the days  of ,cyrus and  
,darius1#bce shows itself down to our   
own day4 ,in the  days of ,arabi ,pasha1
 the ,khedive of ,egypt desired to raise
 a sum of  money1 at a time when the    
people were exceptionally poor in       

consequence  of excessive taxation and  
the rigors of a recent famine4 ,instead 
of  relying on the ordinary and         
obnoxious tax collectors1 the ,khedive  
resorted to the pressure of the fidelity
 to salt idea4      #bce ,see p4 #bj1   
supra4    ,salt1 as a gift1 or as an    
appeal1 from the government supply1 was 
sent to every native house4 ,four pecks 
of salt to every two males in  the house
 was the average amount4 ,the salt was  
laid1 by a government  official1 upon   
the threshold of the house1 early in the
 morning1 before  the inmates arose4 ,of
 course1 any person stepping over that  
salted  threshold was brought anew into 
a covenant with the giver4#bcf ,later   
in the day ,egyptian soldiers called at 
every house to receive what the  inmates
 would give in return4 ,the appeal was  
irresistible4 ,it was not  like an      
ordinary tax1 to be evaded or resisted  
if possible4 ,all would  do what they   
could4 ,the least that any could think  
of returning was the  usual price of the

 salt4 ,those who could afford more were
 glad to show  their fidelity and       
loyalty in a corresponding              
liberality4#bcg      #bcf ,see          
,threshold ,covenant1 pp4 #c-be4        
#bcg ,this was told to the author by an 
,oriental who was residing in    ,egypt 
at the time4          ,,xiv    ,a       
,,savor ,,of ,,life ,,or ,,of ,,death   
,that which is a means of life in one   
instance may be a means of death  in    
another4 ,a breath that might kindle a  
tiny spark into a living blaze  might   
also extinguish a quivering flame4 ,the 
breeze that gives life  to fire in one  
case gives death to fire in the other4  
,and fire itself  proves death to that  
which is perishable1 while it gives     
added value  to that which is purified  
in the furnace flames4 ,salt1 like fire1
 is  a symbol both of life and of death4
 ,in different connections it is a      
preserver and a destroyer4 ,to the one a
 savor from death unto death2  to the   
other a savor from life unto life4#bch  

#bch #b ,cor4 #b 3 #af4    ,salt is     
spoken of in the ,bible as destructive  
of vegetable life1 and a  barrier       
against new animal life4 ,a piece of    
ground sown or strewed with  salt is    
deemed dead land3 ,it is not sown1 nor  
beareth1 nor any grass  groweth         
therein4#bci ,when ,abimelech captured  
,shechem1 he beat down  the city and    
sowed it with salt4#bdj ,the ,psalmist1 
speaking of the  power and ways of ,god1
 declares3       ,he turneth rivers into
 a wilderness1      ,and watersprings   
into a thirsty ground2      ,a fruitful 
land into a salt desert1      ,for the  
wickedness of them that dwell           
therein4#bda      #bci ,deut4 #bi 3 #bc4
      #bdj ,judg4 #i 3 #de4      #bda   
,psa4 #ajg 3 #cc1 #cd4    ,the prophet  
,jeremiah says of one who departs from  
,god's service that  he shall inhabit   
the parched places in the wilderness1 a 
salt land  and not inhabited4#bdb       
,ezekiel1 foretelling a curse on the    
land  of the ,jews1 says3 ,the marshes  

thereof shall not be healed2 they  shall
 be given up to salt4#bdc ,and          
,zephaniah declares that ,moab  shall   
become a possession of nettles1 and     
salt-pits1 and a perpetual              
desolation4#bdd ,because there can be no
 fertility for new vegetable  life1     
there is no room or hope for new animal 
life for land thus sown  with salt and  
thus permanently sterile4      #bdb     
,jer4 #ag 3 #f4      #bdc ,ezek4 #dg 3  
#aa4      #bdd ,zeph4 #b 3 #i4    ,the  
one great body of water that is called  
the ,dead ,sea is the saltest  sea in   
the world4 ,five times the proportion of
 salt in the ocean is  found in this    
inland sea of salt4 ,no fish can exist  
in the waters1  nor is it proved that   
any low forms of life have been         
discovered  there4#bde ,an ancient      
legend declared that birds could not    
even  fly over its waters1 because of   
the curse from heaven on its briny      
depths4#bdf ,yet this doomed and dead   
sea of salt is a source of life  to man 

in its exhaustless supply of salt for   
his use4 ,preeminently is  this salt of 
the ,dead ,sea a savor of life and of   
death4      #bde ,george ,adam ,smith's 
,historical ,geography of the ,holy     
,land1 p4    #ejb4      #bdf ,tacitus1  
,hist41 v4 #f1 cited as above4    ,the  
salt of the ocean is the world's        
treasure4 ,without it the greater       
portion of the earth's inhabitants would
 perish for lack of what  vivifies and  
preserves animal life4 ,yet because of  
the salt in the  ocean the very water1  
which man and beast must have or perish 
of  thirst1 is useless to both man and  
beast4 ,the cry in the ,ancient         
,mariner is the cry of the human1       
always1 on the ocean's surface3         
,water1 water1 everywhere1        ,and  
all the boards did shrink3      ,water1 
water1 everywhere1        ,nor any drop 
to drink4    ,water1 which is the gift  
of ,god to the thirsty soul1 mocks the  
thirsty  soul when it brings with it    
salt1 which is the representative of    

life4  ,salt in water is a savor of     
death unto death1 while salt and water  
are  also a savor of life unto life4    
,while salt as the equivalent of life is
 a symbol of permanency1 it  becomes1 as
 the equivalent of death1 a symbol of   
doom and destruction4  ,thus the prophet
 ,isaiah1 speaking of his salvation as  
sure and  permanent1 says3 ,lift up your
 eyes to the heavens1 and look upon the 
earth beneath3 for the heavens shall    
vanish away literally1 shall be  salted 
like smoke1 and the earth shall wax old 
like a garment1 and  they that dwell    
therein shall die in like manner or1    
like gnats3  but my salvation shall be  
forever1 and my righteousness shall not 
be  abolished4#bdg      #bdg ,isa4 #ea 3
 #f4    ,life is in itself the destroyer
 of death1 as light is the destroyer of 
darkness4 ,hence that which makes anew  
does away with that which was of  old4  
,when1 therefore1 salt or fire is spoken
 of as the destroyer of  that which is  
not worthy of preservation1 it is not to

 be wondered at  that this power is     
possessed by an element that purifies   
and revivifies  through the process of  
destruction4 ,the ground of a destroyed 
and  condemned city is guarded against a
 continuance of its old life of  evil by
 being sown with salt1 which is a savor 
from life unto life and  from death unto
 death4 ,the old heavens and the old    
earth which vanish  away as by fire and 
salt1#bdh are replaced by a new heaven  
and a new  earth#bdi which shall be     
enduring as gold tried in the fire1 and 
as a  covenant of salt forever4         
#bdh ,isa4 #cd 3 #d2 #b ,peter #c 3     
#aj-ab4      #bdi ,isa4 #ea 3 #af2 #fe 3
 #ag2 #ff 3 #bb2 #b ,peter #c 3 #ac4    
,there is a sense in which that which is
 devoted to ,god is thereby  forbidden  
to the use of man4 ,thus land sown with 
salt may be counted  as devoted and as  
destroyed1 devoted to ,god and destroyed
 for  man4#bej ,the ,hebrew word korban 
was applied to what had thus been       
dedicated and doomed4#bea      #bej ,see

 ,num4 #ba 3 #b1 #c4      #bea ,mark #g 
3 #aa4 ,see the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,jastrow1 in 
,the ,sunday ,school    ,times for      
,april #bh1 #ahid2 also ,w4 ,robertson  
,smith's ,religion of the    ,semites1  
p4 #dce2 also ,nowack1 ,lehrbuch der    
,hebrischen ,archologie1    ,,ii41 #bfg4
    ,blood also is used in the twofold  
sense of life and of death1 in          
different connections4 ,men say1 ,we are
 bound together by blood1  and ,we are  
of one blood1 and ,blood is thicker than
 water4 ,they  say1 also1 ,there is     
blood between us1 and ,spilled blood    
cannot be  gathered up1 and ,blood is a 
barrier4 ,salt1 that stands for blood1  
may similarly stand for life or for     
death1 for peace or for discord4 ,it  is
 an old superstition that to put salt on
 another's plate is an evil  omen4      
,hence the couplet3       ,help me to   
salt1      ,help me to sorrow6    ,yet  
even this portent of ill luck may be    
canceled by a repetition of  the act1   
helping to a second portion of salt4#beb

 ,the taking of blood  that becomes a   
barrier may be followed by the taking of
 blood as a bond  of union4 ,shedding of
 blood is atoned for by sharing of      
blood4      #beb ,henderson's           
,folk-,lore of the ,northern ,counties1 
p4 #abj4    ,thistleton ,dyer's         
,domestic ,folk-,lore1 p4 #ajd f4       
,even the spilling of salt1 which is so 
dreaded in primitive thought1  may1 it  
is said1 be rendered harmless if the    
person who was guilty of  the mishap    
will carefully gather up the spilled    
salt with the blade  of a knife1 and    
throw it over his left shoulder1 with an
 appropriate  invocation4#bec      #bec 
,henderson1 p4 #abj2 ,dyer1 p4 #ajd f42 
,napier1 p4 #aci f4    ,it is deemed    
dangerous to give away salt to a        
stranger2 for because  salt is as blood 
and as life1 one must be careful lest he
 put his blood  and his life in the     
power of an enemy4#bed ,salt is         
essential to the  preservation of human 
life2 at the same time1 salt is the     

destruction  of human life if it be in  
too great quantity or proportion4 ,thus 
the  seeming contradiction is only in   
seeming4      #bed ,henderson1 p4 #bag4 
,,xv    ,,means ,,of ,a ,,merged ,,life 
,all life is from the ,author and       
,source of life4 ,only as two persons   
become partakers of a common life by    
each and both sharing in that  which is 
in itself life1 can they become one in  
the all-inclusive  ,life4 ,having life  
from the ,source of life1 they can merge
 their common  possession in each other1
 and in that common ,source4 ,such      
merging in a  common life1 with an      
appeal to and by the approval of ,god1  
or the gods1  has been the root-idea of 
covenanting1 in one way or another1 from
 time  immemorial1 among all peoples1   
the world over4    ,in primitive        
thought1 and in a sense in scientific   
fact1 the blood is  the life and the    
life is in the blood2 hence they who    
share in each  other's blood are sharers
 in a merged and common life4           

,covenanting  in this way with a solemn 
appeal to ,god1 or to the gods1 has been
 a  mode of sacred union from the       
earliest dawn of human history4 ,two    
thus covenanting are supposed to become 
of one being2 the one is the  other1 and
 the two are one4 ,every form of        
sacrifice1 ,jewish1 ,egyptian1          
,assyrian1 or ethnic1 is in its primal  
thought either an evidence and  a       
reminder of an existing covenant between
 the offerer and the ,deity  approached1
 or an appeal and an outreaching for a  
covenant to be  consummated4#bee        
#bee ,compare1 for example1 ,psa4 #ej 3 
#e1 #af2 ,hos4 #a 3 #aj2 ,rom4 #i 3 #bf4
    ,salt is counted as the equivalent  
of blood and of life1 both in  primitive
 thought and1 in a sense1 in scientific 
fact2 therefore salt1  like blood1 has  
been deemed a nexus of a lasting        
covenant1 as nothing  can be which is   
not life or its equivalent4 ,only as two
 persons are  sharers of a common life  
can they be supposed to have merged     

their  separate identity in that dual   
union4    ,and so we find that1 in the  
primitive world's thought1 shared salt  
has  preciousness and power because of  
what it represents and of what it       
symbolizes1 as well as of what it is4   
,salt stands for and corresponds  with1 
and it symbolizes1 blood and life4 ,as  
such it represents the  supreme gift    
from the ,supreme ,giver4 ,because of   
this significance of  salt1 when made   
use of as the means of a lasting union1 
the ,covenant of  ,salt1 as a form or   
phase of the ,blood ,covenant1 is a     
covenant fixed1  permanent1 and         
unchangeable1 enduring forever4         
,,supplement          ,,the ,,ten       
,,commandments ,,as ,a ,,covenant ,,of  
,,love      ,all of us are familiar with
 the ,ten ,commandments1 given from ,god
 on  two tables1 or tablets1 of stone1  
to the people of ,israel at ,mount      
,sinai4#bef ,but not all of us are      
accustomed to think of these ,ten       
,commandments as ten separate clauses of

 a loving covenant between  ,god and his
 chosen people1 recorded on stone       
tablets for their  permanent            
preservation4 ,yet these witnessing     
tablets are repeatedly  called in the   
,bible the tables of the covenant1#beg  
and tables of  testimony1#beh not the   
tables of the commandments2 while the   
chest or  casket which contained them is
 called the ark of the covenant1#bei    
and the ark of the testimony1#bfj not   
the ark of the commandments4      #bef  
,exod4 #bj 3 #a-ag2 ,deut4 #e 3 #a-bb4  
#beg ,deut4 #i 3 #ae4      #beh ,exod4  
#cb 3 #ae2 #cd 3 #bi4      #bei ,num4   
#ad 3 #dd2 ,deut4 #aj 3 #h2 #ca 3 #i1   
#be1 #bf2 ,josh4 #c 3 #c1 #f1 #h1       
#aa1 #ad1 #ag2 #d 3 #g1 #i1 #ah2 #f 3   
#f1 #h2 #h 3 #cc2 ,judg4 #bj 3 #bg2 #a  
,sam4 #d 3    #c-e2 #b ,sam4 #ae 3 #bd2 
#a ,kings #c 3 #ae2 #f 3 #ai2 #h 3 #a1  
#f2 #a ,chron4 #ae 3    #be1 #bf1 #bh1  
#bi2 #af 3 #f1 #cg2 #ag 3 #a2 #bb 3 #ai2
 #bh 3 #b1 #ah2 #b ,chron4 #e 3    #b1  
#g2 ,jer4 #c 3 #af4      #bfj ,exod4 #be

 3 #bb2 #bf 3 #cc1 #cd2 #cj 3 #f1 #bf2  
#ca 3 #g2 #ci 3 #ce2 #dj 3 #c1    #e1   
#ba2 ,num4 #d 3 #e2 #g 3 #hi2 ,josh4 #d 
3 #af4    ,there is obviously a         
world-wide difference between a loving  
covenant  that binds two parties to each
 other in mutual affection and fidelity1
  and a series of arbitrary commandments
 enjoined by a sovereign upon  his      
subjects2 between a compact of union1   
having its statement of  promises on the
 one hand and of responsibilities on the
 other1 and an  instrument that asserts 
the rights of the ruler and defines the 
duties  of the ruled4 ,in our estimate  
of the ,decalogue we have made too much 
of the law element1 and too little of   
the element of love4 ,as a  consequence 
it has not been easy for us to see how  
it is that ,god's  law is love1 and that
 love is the fulfilling of ,god's law4  
,but the  ,ten ,commandments are a      
simple record of ,god's loving covenant 
with  his people1 and they are not the  
arbitrary commandings of ,god to  his   

subjects4 ,they indicate the inevitable 
limits within which ,god  and his people
 can be in loving union1 rather than    
declare the limits  of dutiful obedience
 on the part of those who would be      
,god's faithful  subjects4 ,a close     
examination of the ,decalogue will show 
that this is  its nature and scope4     
,it must be borne in mind1 in our ,bible
 reading1 that the ,bible was           
originally written by ,orientals for    
,orientals1 and that it is to be  looked
 at in the light of ,oriental manners   
and customs1 and ,oriental  modes of    
speech1 in order to its fullest         
understanding4 ,hence when we  find the 
term covenant1 or the term commandment1 
in the ,bible1 we  are to inquire into  
the ,oriental meaning of that term1 so  
that we may  know the sense in which it 
was employed by the ,bible writers4     
,now a covenant among ,orientals is1 and
 always has been1 a sacred  compact     
binding two parties in loving agreement4
 ,oriental covenants  are made in       

various forms and by various ceremonies4
 ,the most sacred  of all forms of      
covenanting in the ,east is by two      
persons commingling  their own blood1 by
 its drinking or by its                 
inter-transfusing1 in order  that they  
may come into a communion of very       
life4#bfa ,two persons who  wish to     
become as one in a loving               
blood-friendship will open each a  vein 
in his own arm1 and allow the blood to  
flow into a common vessel1  from which  
both parties will drink of the          
commingled blood4 ,or1 again1  each     
person will open a vein in one of his   
hands1 and the bleeding  hands will be  
clasped together so that the blood from 
the one shall  find its way into the    
veins of the other4 ,or1 yet again1 the 
two will  share together the substitute 
blood of a sacred animal4 ,usually1 in  
such a case1 a written compact is signed
 by each party and given to  the other1 
with the stamp of the writer's blood    
upon it as a part of  the ceremony of   

covenanting2 and this writing is        
carefully encased in  a small packet or 
casket1 and guarded by its holder as his
 very life4  ,it is in the light of such
 customs as this that we are to read of 
the  sacred covenant entered into       
between ,god and his ,oriental people4  
#bfa ,see ,the ,blood ,covenant4    ,it 
was at the foot of ,mount ,sinai that   
,moses came before the people of        
,israel with ,god's proffer to them of a
 covenant1 whereby they should  bear his
 name and be known as his people4 ,and  
he took the book of  the covenant1 and  
read in the audience of the people3 and 
they said1  ,all that the ,lord hath    
spoken will we do1 and be obedient4#bfb 
,then  it was that ,moses took of       
substitute blood and divided it into two
  portions1 one half to be sprinkled on 
the altar ,god-ward1 and the other  half
 to be sprinkled on the people2 and     
,moses said3 ,behold the blood  of the  
covenant1 which the ,lord hath made with
 you concerning all these  words--or1 as

 the margin of the ,revised ,version has
 it1 upon all  these conditions4#bfc    
#bfb ,exod4 #bd 3 #g4      #bfc ,exod4  
#bd 3 #h4    ,moreover1 we are told1 in 
the ,epistle to the ,hebrews1#bfd that  
,moses  sprinkled the blood upon the    
record1 or book1 of the covenant1 as    
well as upon the people4 ,it was after  
this--after the breach and the  renewal 
of the covenant between ,israel and     
,god--that the stone tablets  on which  
the covenant itself had a permanent     
record were encased in  a casket1 or an 
ark1#bfe which was thenceforward guarded
 sacredly  as containing the charter of 
,israel's nationality1 the witness1 the 
evidence1 the testimony1 of the loving  
covenant between ,god and his  people4  
#bfd ,heb4 #i 3 #ai4      #bfe ,exod4   
#dj 3 #bj4    ,but you may ask1 ,did not
 the tables of stone bear a record of   
specific  commandments1 rather than of  
articles of a covenant8 ,and are not    
the words there recorded specifically   
called in the ,bible the ,ten           

,commandments8 ,look for yourselves1 and
 see4 ,it is true that our  ,english    
,bible speaks of the ,ten ,commandments 
recorded on these tables  of stone2 but 
the word here translated commandments is
 more literally  to be rendered         
words1#bff as indeed it is given in the 
margin of the  ,revised ,version2 and it
 is applicable to any declaration1      
injunction1  or charge1 made by one to  
another4 ,it is by no means to be       
understood  as simply an arbitrary      
mandate from an absolute sovereign to   
his  subjects4 ,looking at the ,ten     
,commandments as a set of moral laws    
covering man's duties to ,god and to his
 fellows1 they seem strangely           
defective1 when we find among them no   
command to pray to or to praise  ,god1  
nor any command to give sympathy or     
assistance to man4 ,but  when we look at
 them as clauses of a loving covenant1  
indicating the  scope and limits of     
relations within which a child of ,god's
 duties  ,god-ward and man-ward are to  

be exercised1 we find that they are     
far-reaching and all-inclusive4 ,looking
 at them as the tables of the  covenant 
between ,god and his people in the light
 of ,oriental views of  covenanting1 we 
can see a great deal more in the words  
on those tables  than when we look at   
them as the tables of the               
commandments1--in the  light of our     
,western ideas of commandings4      #bff
 ,exod4 #cd 3 #bh4    ,a covenant       
involves the idea of a twofold agreement
 between the parties  making it4 ,even  
though ,god himself be one of the       
parties1 he will not  refuse to be      
explicit in his words of covenanting4   
,and so we find it  to be in the record 
on the tables of the covenant which were
 given to  ,moses at ,mount ,sinai4 ,we 
call the opening words of that record   
the  ,preface to the ,ten ,commandments2
 but they are more properly ,god's      
covenanting words with his people4 ,i am
 ,jehovah thy ,god1 which brought  thee 
out of the land of ,egypt1 out of the   

house of bondage4#bfg  ,the very name   
,jehovah includes the idea of a         
covenant-making and a  covenant-keeping 
,god4 ,the declaration of ,jehovah's    
eternally existing  personality as      
,jehovah is in itself a covenant        
promise1 for all time  to come1 to those
 who are his covenant people4 ,it is as 
though he  were to say3 ,i1 who was and 
am1 and am to be1 the same yesterday and
  to-day1 yea and forever1 will be your 
,god unfailingly4 ,as ,i have given  you
 a loving deliverance out of ,egyptian  
bondage1 so ,i am ever ready to  deliver
 you from every evil that enthralls you4
      #bfg ,exod4 #bj 3 #b4    ,man1    
when he promises for the future1 needs  
to say1 ,i will do2 but  ,god can say   
nothing stronger than ,i do1 or than ,i 
am4 ,thus the  promise of promises of   
,jesus to his disciples as their        
ever-present1  all-sustaining ,lord1 is1
 ,lo1 ,i am with you alway2#bfh not ,lo1
 ,i  will be1 but ,lo1 ,i am4 ,and so it
 is that ,god's covenant promise  to    

,israel1 to be their loving1 guarding1  
and guiding ,god for all time  to come1 
is in the words3 ,i am ,jehovah thy     
,god1 which brought thee out  of the    
land of ,egypt1 out of the house of     
bondage4#bfi ,and this is  the promise  
of the party of the first part1 as we   
would say in modern  legal parlance1 in 
this covenant between ,god and his      
people ,israel4      #bfh ,matt4 #bh 3  
#bj4      #bfi ,exod4 #bj 3 #b4    ,then
 there follow the covenant agreements of
 ,god's people1 as the  party of the    
second part in this loving compact4 ,as 
it is ,god who  prescribes or defines   
the terms on which this covenant is to  
be  made1 the indication of those terms 
is mainly in the form of such           
prohibitions as will distinguish the    
people of ,god from other peoples  about
 them1 in the bearing of that people    
toward ,god's personality1  toward      
,god's institutions1 and toward ,god's  
representatives4 ,this is  all that is  
needed in the fundamental articles of   

covenanting4 ,the  details of specific  
duties may be defined in special        
enactments under  the terms of this     
covenant1 or they may be inferred from  
its spirit4    ,the first requirement   
is1 that this covenanting ,god shall be 
recognized  as the only ,god2 that no   
other god shall be conceded a place in  
,god's universe4 ,and this requirement  
is vital to any such covenant4  ,a      
divided heart is no heart at all4 ,he   
who can see any other object  of love   
and devotion comparable with the one to 
whom he gives himself  in               
covenant-union1 is thereby incapacitated
 from a covenant-union4  ,therefore it  
is that this first word of the ,ten     
,words of the covenant  of ,god's people
 with their ,god is not an arbitrary    
mandate1 but is the  simple expression  
of a truth which is essential to the    
very existence  of the covenant as a    
covenant of union4    ,and this         
principle is as vitally important now as
 it was in the days  of ,moses4 ,the    

human heart is always inclined to divide
 itself when it  ought to be undivided4 
,it is reluctant to be wholly and always
 true to  ,god alone4 ,but1 now as      
hitherto1 without wholeness of heart a  
covenant  of union with ,god is an      
impossibility4 ,and1 indeed1 the very   
idea of  other gods is an outgrowth of  
man's sense of an unfitness to be in    
oneness of life with the ,one ,god1--in 
consequence of which man seeks  a lower 
divinity than the supreme ,god as the   
immediate object of his  worship4       
,the second requirement in this covenant
 of union is1 that no material  image or
 representation of this covenanting ,god
 shall be made use of  as a help to his 
worship by his covenanting people2 that1
 as a ,spirit1  ,god shall be worshiped 
in spirit by his people4 ,here1 again1  
is no  arbitrary mandate1 but only the  
recognition of a vital truth4 ,because  
,god is ,creator of all1 no creation of 
,god can be like ,god4 ,because ,god  is
 a ,spirit1 the human mind can best     

commune with him spiritually1  without  
having its conceptions of him degraded  
by any image or  representation--which  
at the best must be wholly unworthy of  
him4    ,in this second requirement1 as 
in the first1 a danger is indicated  to 
which the ,israelites were peculiarly   
exposed in their day1 and to  which all 
the people of ,god are exposed in any   
day4 ,in the ,assyrian1 or  ,chaldean1  
home of ,abraham1 there was practically 
no image worship1 but  there was a      
belief in a plurality of gods4 ,in the  
,egyptian home1 from  which the         
,israelites had just come out1 images in
 great variety were  the objects of     
worship4 ,as the covenant people of     
,god1 the ,israelites  were to refrain  
from the polytheism of their ancestral  
home in the far  ,east1 and from the    
grosser idolatry of their more recent   
home in the  ,west4 ,and so it must be  
with the people of ,god at all times2   
they must  worship only ,god1 and they  
must worship ,god without any help from 

a  material representation of the object
 of their worship4    ,as there is still
 a temptation to give a divided heart to
 ,god1 so there  is still a temptation  
to seek the help of some visible        
representation  or symbol of ,god's     
presence in his worship4 ,the ,christian
 believer does  not bow down to an idol1
 but many a ,christian believer thinks  
that his  mind can be helped upward in  
worship by looking at some              
representation  of his ,saviour's face1 
or at some symbol of his ,saviour's     
passion4 ,but  just because ,god is     
infinitely above all material           
representations and  symbols1 so ,god   
can best be apprehended and discerned   
spiritually4  ,anything coming between  
man's spirit and ,god the ,spirit is a  
hindrance  to worship1 and not a help to
 it4 ,suppose a young man were watching 
from a window for his absent mother's   
return1 with a wish to catch the  first 
glimpse of her approaching face4 ,would 
he be wise1 or foolish1 in  putting up a

 photograph of his mother on the        
window-pane before him1 as  a help to   
bearing her in mind as he looks for her 
coming8 ,as there can  be no doubt about
 the answer to that question1 so there  
can be no doubt  that we can best come  
into spiritual communion with ,god by   
closing our  eyes to everything that can
 be seen with the natural eye1 and      
opening  the eyes of our spirit to the  
sight of ,god the ,spirit4 ,this1 again1
 is  no arbitrary requirement of ,god2  
it is in the very nature of his being   
and of our own4    ,the third           
requirement of this compact is1 that    
there shall be no  insincerity on the   
part of ,god's covenant people in their 
claiming  and bearing his name1 as the  
name of their covenanting ,god4 ,this   
requirement is not generally understood 
in this light2 but all the  facts in the
 case go to show that this is its true  
light4 ,in the  ,oriental world1 and in 
the primitive world everywhere1 one's   
name  stands for one's personality2 and 

the right to bear one's name or even  to
 call on one by his personal name1 is a 
proof of intimate relation1  if not of  
actual union1 with him4 ,god was now    
covenanting with this  people to be his 
people1 thereby authorizing them to bear
 his name1 and  to be known as his      
representatives4 ,in the very nature of 
things1 this  laid upon them a peculiar 
obligation to bear his name reverently  
and in  all sincerity4    ,it is not    
that ,god arbitrarily commanded his     
people to have a care in  the speaking  
of his name1 as if he were jealous of   
its irreverent  mention2 but it is that 
he reminded them that the coming into   
the  privileges of his name was the     
coming into the responsibilities of that
  name4 ,it was as though ,mr4 ,moody   
were taking a little street waif into   
his home to train the boy as his own    
son1 and were formally giving  to that  
boy the right to take and bear his name4
 ,naturally he might  say3 ,understand1 
now1 my boy1 that1 wherever you go1     

they'll say1  ',there goes a young      
,moody4' ,now1 ,i value my name1 and ,i 
don't want it  disgraced4 ,see to it    
that you take care of that name wherever
 you are4  ,so ,god said to his people3 
,thou shalt not take--shalt not assume1 
bear1 carry--the name of the ,lord thy  
,god in vain--insincerely1  vainly2 for 
the ,lord will not--cannot--hold him    
guiltless that  taketh--claimeth the    
privileges of--his name in vain--vainly1
  insincerely4    ,this covenant        
obligation also is on us as it was on   
,god's people  of old4 ,as ,christians  
we are baptized into the name of the    
,father1  the ,son1 and the ,holy       
,ghost4#bgj ,wherever we go1 we are     
counted  as members of ,god's family4   
,his name is on us1 and his honor is in 
our keeping4 ,wherefore1 let every one  
that nameth the name of the             
,lord--claimeth it as his own           
name--depart from unrighteousness2#bga  
and let him never feel that it is a     
light or a vain thing to bear that  name

 before the world4      #bgj ,matt4 #bh 
3 #ai4      #bga #b ,tim4 #b 3 #ai4     
,thus we see that the first three of the
 ten requirements of the loving         
covenant of ,god's people with their    
,god are simply the requirements to     
worship ,god as the only ,god1 to       
worship him in unhindered spirituality1 
and to worship him in all sincerity4    
,these three fundamental  requirements  
seem to have been in the mind of our    
,lord ,jesus when he  said to the woman 
of ,samaria at the well of ,jacob3      
,god--the ,one  ,god--is a ,spirit3 and 
they that worship him must worship in   
spirit and  truth4#bgb      #bgb ,john  
#d 3 #bd4    ,coming to the fourth      
requirement of the loving covenant of   
,god and  his people1 we find it        
differing in form from the preceding    
three  requirements2 differing also from
 the form of all but one of those  which
 follow it4 ,the preceding three are in 
the negative form2 this  is in the      
affirmative form1 beginning with the    

injunction1 ,remember  7,keep in mind74 
,of course1 there is a reason for this4 
,the first three  requirements are in   
the line of obvious1 if not of          
self-evident1  truths2 the requirement  
of one day in seven for rest and worship
  is not1 however1 of obvious           
importance4 ,hence this requirement is  
specifically affirmed as an article of  
the covenant1 while the others  guard   
against departures from primal          
principles of vital moment4    ,the     
,sabbath was a recognized institution   
long before the days of  ,moses4 ,traces
 of its strict and sacred observance in 
the ancestral  home of ,abraham are     
disclosed in the ,assyrian records      
unearthed  in these later days4 ,and now
 that the ,lord1 at ,sinai1 is drawing  
away his covenant people from the sins  
and errors of their fathers  and        
neighbors1 he reminds them that there is
 good in some of the  observances of the
 past1 which they are not to forsake or 
forget4  ,remember1 therefore he says1  

the sabbath day to keep it holy--as     
your fathers in all their polytheism had
 a care to observe it of old4  ,bear    
that institution in mind1 as worth your 
remembering4    ,and here again there is
 affirmed a principle which is for all  
time and  for all people4 ,although the 
reason for setting apart one day above  
another for rest and worship is not on  
the surface of things1 the  experiences 
of mankind1 as well as the teachings of 
,god's ,word1 go to  show that there is 
such a reason below the surface4 ,in the
 long run1  man can do more work1 and do
 it better1 in six days of a week1 than 
he  can in seven2 and unless a man      
worships ,god at stated times1 he is not
  likely to worship him at all4 ,so it  
is that ,god makes it a part of his     
loving covenant between himself and his 
people1 that ever and always  they shall
 worship him statedly1 as well as       
worship him sincerely1  spiritually1 and
 solely2 because without this stated    
recognition of the  covenant1 the       

covenant itself would be forgotten4     
,and now we come to the fifth of the ten
 covenant requirements3 ,honor  thy     
father and thy mother4 ,this also is in 
the affirmative form1 and  for a very   
good reason4 ,god is here declaring1 as 
it were1 that those  who are in         
legitimate authority are so far his     
representatives4 ,he  wants it          
understood that while no other gods are 
in existence1 even  in a subordinate    
place in the universe1 he has his       
representatives  in various spheres of  
human government and rule1 and they are 
to be  honored accordingly by his       
covenant people4    ,we are accustomed  
to speak of the division of the ,ten    
,commandments into  two tables1 the     
first comprising four requirements1 and 
the second  six2 but it will be seen    
that this fifth requirement belongs with
 the  preceding four in the group of    
those which look ,god-ward4 ,it is as   
though the one table pointed upward from
 ourselves1 while the other  pointed    

outward4 ,we are to honor those who are 
over us in the ,lord1  not as our       
fellows1 but as our superiors2 not      
because of what they  are as men1 but   
because they are1 within the scope of   
their rule1 the  representatives of our 
,god4    ,by ,oriental custom the terms 
father and mother are by no means       
limited to one's natural parents1 but   
are applicable to superiors in  years1  
or in wisdom1 or in civil or religious  
station4 ,this truth was  impressed on  
my mind by an incident in my journey    
across the desert  of ,sinai4 ,my       
companions in travel were two young men1
 neither of them  a relative of         
mine1--as my dragoman very well knew4   
,when1 however1 in  mid-desert1 we met  
an old ,arab shaykh1 through whose      
territory we were  to pass1 my dragoman 
introduced me as the father of these    
young men4  ,no1 they are not my sons1  
,i said to the dragoman2 but his answer 
was3 ,that's all right4 ,somebody must  
be father here4 ,and when ,i found      

that1 according to the ,arab idea1 every
 party of travelers must have a  leader1
 and that the leader of a party was     
called its father1 ,i saw  that it would
 look better for me to be called the    
father of the young  men1 than for one  
of them to be called my father4         
,traces of this idea are found in the   
,bible use of the term father4 ,in      
,genesis1 ,jabal is said to be the      
father of such as dwell in tents1  and  
have cattle2#bgc the man who started the
 long line of nomad  shepherds4 ,jubal  
is called the father of all such as     
handle the harp  and pipe2#bgd the      
pioneer instrumental musician of our    
race4 ,joseph  in ,egypt speaks of      
himself as a father to ,pharaoh1#bge in 
view of  the confidence reposed in him  
by the ruler of the empire4 ,be unto me 
a  father and a priest1#bgf says ,micah 
to the young ,levite1 in the days  of   
the ,judges2 because a religious guide  
is1 in the ,east1 counted as in  a      
peculiar sense a representative of ,god4

      #bgc ,gen4 #d 3 #bj4      #bgd    
,gen4 #d 3 #ba4      #bge ,gen4 #de 3   
#h4      #bgf ,judg4 #ag 3 #aj4    ,it  
is not merely that the terms father and 
mother may include  others besides human
 parents1 but it is that no ,oriental   
would think  of limiting those terms to 
that relationship4 ,hence this fifth    
requirement of the covenant of ,god's   
people with their ,god1 just  as it     
stands1 is in substance3 ,honor those   
who are over you in the  ,lord1 as the  
representatives of the ,lord2 for the   
powers that be are  ordained of         
,god1#bgg and he who fails to honor them
 lacks in due  honor to him who has     
deputed them to speak and to act for    
himself4  ,and herein is affirmed a     
principle which is as important to us   
to-day  as it was to the ,israelites in 
the days of ,moses4 ,indeed1 it may be  
questioned whether any precept of the   
ten covenant requirements has a  more   
specific bearing on the peculiar needs  
of the ,american people1  than this     

injunction to reverence those who are in
 authority because  they are ,god's     
representatives in their sphere4        
,anarchy can have no  tolerance in the  
mind of a child of ,god2 but reverence  
for rightful  authority has its home    
there4      #bgg ,rom4 #ac 3 #a4        
,turning from the first table of the    
covenant with its upward look1  to the  
second table with its outward look1 we  
find that each new  requirement in its  
order stands for a great principle which
 is  applicable alike to all peoples and
 to all times1 and which has its  basis 
in man's loving union with ,god4 ,the   
first of this series1 the  sixth of the 
ten requirements1 is3 ,thou shalt not   
kill2 or1 ,thou  shalt do no murder4    
,here is a great deal more than an      
ordinance  forbidding the striking down 
to death of a fellow-man4 ,here is a    
call  of ,god to guard sacredly the life
 of every child of ,god1 as that which  
is dear to ,god4 ,in the ,oriental      
world1 as in the primitive world        

generally1 blood stands for life1 and   
life is supposed to proceed from  ,god  
and to return to ,god4 ,when1 therefore1
 an ,oriental is told that he  must not 
take it upon himself to shed another's  
blood1 he realizes that  that           
prohibition is equivalent to saying that
 it is not for him to  decide when a    
life that ,god has given shall be       
recalled to ,god4    ,this idea it is   
that runs through the whole system of   
what is popularly  known as blood       
revenge in the ,east4 ,whoso sheddeth   
man's blood1 by  man shall his blood be 
shed3 for in the image of ,god made he  
man1#bgh  was the declaration of ,god as
 early as the days of ,noah2 and it is  
in the line of that declaration that any
 man in the ,east who sheds  another's  
blood must surrender his own blood to   
the other's family1 at  the present     
day--as ever since the days of ,noah4   
,not personal revenge1  but divine      
equity1 is the real basis of this       
system4 ,not because the  life belongs  

to the man1 but because it belongs to   
,god1 must it be  guarded sacredly1 and 
be accounted for--if taken away4        
#bgh ,gen4 #i 3 #f4    ,it is on this   
principle that the civil magistrate1 as 
the messenger  of ,god1 takes the life  
of one who has taken another's life1 in 
these  days of the ,christian           
dispensation4 ,he beareth not the sword 
in vain3  for he is a minister of ,god1 
an avenger for wrath to him that doeth  
evil4#bgi ,a child of ,god must count   
sacred every life which ,god has  given2
 and except while acting as a specific  
messenger of ,god1 he must  never send  
back a human life to ,god4      #bgi    
,rom4 #ac 3 #d4    ,the seventh         
covenanting requirement is a call to    
regard the family  institution as an    
institution of ,god's appointing1 and to
 refrain from  aught that tends to its  
injury4 ,thou shalt not commit adultery 
means  a great deal more than ,refrain  
from unchastity because of its harm to  
yourself or to your neighbor4 ,it means1

 ,guard ,god's primal institution  for  
man1 as an institution which ,god holds 
dear4 ,at the very beginning  of the    
race1 it was ordained of ,god that one  
man and one woman--the  twain1 not the  
three1 or the four1 but the             
twain--should be one flesh  in loving   
union4#bhj ,this institution of ,god's  
ordaining is dear to  ,god1 and it ought
 to be dear to every child of his2      
therefore ,god  says to those who would 
be in loving compact with him1 ,thou    
shalt  not commit adultery4 ,because    
your and my interests are made one1 you 
must not1 you cannot1 as my loving      
people1 do aught that shall prove       
injurious to the family--to the         
institution which ,i have established1  
and which is dear to my heart4      #bhj
 ,gen4 #b 3 #bd4    ,this1 again1 is not
 an arbitrary commandment2 nor is it one
 for a  single period1 or for a single  
people only4 ,it is the enunciation of  
a principle which is vital to the       
well-being of all peoples at all  times4

 ,it was so from the beginning1 and it  
must be so unto the end4  ,the family is
 the unit in the ,state and in the      
,church4 ,it must not be  ignored in the
 realm of society1 of government1 or of 
religion4 ,he who  would be true to ,god
 must be true to the institution of the 
family4 ,and  who shall say that we have
 no need of remembering this truth in   
our  land and day8    ,the eighth       
requirement of the covenant guards the  
rights of property  as within the plan  
and ordering of ,god4 ,thou shalt not   
steal is  announced as an article of the
 loving compact of ,god's people with   
their ,god4 ,not merely because your    
fellow-man would object to your  taking 
his property from him1 but because the  
rights of property are of  divine       
appointment1 are you to refrain from    
claiming as your own that  which now    
belongs to another4    ,this idea of    
regarding property rights as of ,god's  
appointment is  peculiarly prevalent in 
the ,oriental mind4 ,the lines of tribal

 division  in the desert are recognized 
as having divine sanction2 and now1 as  
in the days of old1 it is hardly less   
than sacrilege to remove an  ancient    
landmark in the ,east4 ,tribes which are
 at enmity will make  raids across these
 border lines for purposes of plunder2  
but this is  in the nature of what      
civilized nations call a military       
necessity4  ,again1 a stranger who      
enters a tribal domain without obtaining
 consent  is treated as a smuggler1 and 
all his property is confiscated         
accordingly4 ,this1 however1 merely     
shows the primitive origin of the  high 
tariff principle4 ,orientals who plunder
 from their enemies1 or  who collect    
impost duties from immigrants1 do so in 
the belief that ,god  sanctions these   
habits of the ages4    ,when one of the 
,arabs of our party1 in crossing the    
desert of ,sinai1  found he had dropped 
a bag of meal1 he went back to look for 
it1 in  perfect confidence that it would
 be left untouched by others4 ,on my    

asking him if he had no fear that       
another ,arab had carried it off1 he    
replied that no ,arab would steal from  
an ,arab4 ,dr4 ,edward ,robinson#bha    
saw a black tent hanging on a tree1     
where1 as he was told1 it had  remained 
a full year awaiting its owner's return2
 and he says that if  a loaded camel    
dies on the desert its owner draws a    
circle in the sand  about it1 and leaves
 it without any fear that it will be    
disturbed in  his absence4              
,burckhardt#bhb illustrates the estimate
 put by the ,arabs  on stealing1 by the 
story of an ,arab father who bound his  
own son hand  and foot1 and cast him    
headlong to death from a precipice1     
because the  son had stolen from one of 
his tribal fellows4 ,life can only be   
taken  at the call of ,god2 but1        
according to this ,oriental view1 he who
  violates the property rights of one of
 ,god's children forfeits his very  life
 to ,god4      #bha ,biblical           
,researches1 #aath ed41 ,i41 #adb4      

#bhb ,travels in ,syria and the ,holy   
,land1 p4 #dge f4    ,the principle     
underlying this estimate of the         
sacredness of property  rights1 like    
every other principle enunciated in the 
,decalogue1 is not  an outgrowth of an  
arbitrary commandment1 but it inheres in
 the very  nature of ,god's dealings    
with the sons of men4 ,what hast thou   
that  thou didst not receive by ,god's  
consent8#bhc ,what has thy fellow that  
he did not receive by the same          
permission8 ,it is ,god who gives4 ,it  
is  for ,god to take away4#bhd ,no      
loving child of ,god will refuse to heed
  the limits which his ,father has      
assigned in the distribution of his     
possessions among the children of his   
love4 ,that was the way in which  the   
,orientals were taught to look at it4   
,that is the way in which we  ought to  
view it4 ,anti-property communism is    
rebellion against ,god4      #bhc #a    
,cor4 #d 3 #g4      #bhd ,job #a 3 #ba4 
,ninth in the list of the covenant      

requirements comes the summons to  hold 
in sacred regard the personal           
reputation1 or good name1 of every      
child of ,god4 ,thou shalt not bear     
false witness against thy neighbor  is a
 prohibition of slander1 or of careless 
speech affecting the  good name of one's
 fellow-man4 ,this is not1 as many have 
supposed1 a  mere injunction to truthful
 speech on all occasions4 ,lying needs  
no  specific prohibition in a loving    
compact between ,god and his people2    
although the duty of truthfulness is    
inseparable from the thought  of any    
compact with ,god--who could not be ,god
 if he were to approve                  
untruthfulness4#bhe ,but a disregard by 
man of the reputation of his  fellow-man
 does need to be guarded against in such
 a compact2 therefore  its mention has a
 place here4 ,a child's good name is    
always dear to  his father4 ,he who     
loves and honors the father will not be 
heedless of  the reputation of the      
child4 ,god is the ,father of all4 ,the 

good name  of every one of his children 
is dear to him4 ,he who loves and honors
  ,god will not be careless of the      
reputation of any one of ,god's dear    
children4 ,therefore it is that1 in the 
loving covenant of ,god with his        
people1 it is declared that love for    
,god includes a truthful fidelity  to   
the good name of every child of ,god4   
#bhe ,num4 #bc 3 #ai4    ,how the       
application of this principle comes home
 to us in our social  life as ,god's    
children6 ,we are jealous of the good   
name of the members  of our own         
families4 ,we are tender of the         
reputation of those whom we  know to be 
very dear to our dearest friends4 ,but  
how careless we are of  the good name of
 those in whom we feel no special       
concern1 or of the  reputation of those 
who happen to be personally disagreeable
 to us6  ,we hear and repeat the words  
spoken to their discredit without       
knowing  whether or not those words are 
true4 ,by our unguarded speech or looks 

we help1 perhaps1 to give a false       
impression to others concerning them4   
,and all the while they are ,god's dear 
children1 and every spiteful or         
thoughtless blow at them is a stroke at 
him4 ,is this consistent with  our claim
 of loving union with their ,god and    
ours8    ,it was in the line of this    
principle that our ,lord ,jesus gave    
emphasis  to his one new commandment1   
that those who loved him should love one
  another1 as being dear to him2#bhf    
and1 again1 that he declared that       
whoever ministered tenderly to one of   
his disciples should be reckoned  as    
ministering to himself4#bhg ,god links  
himself in loving sympathy  with all his
 children1 and he wants their welfare to
 be held dear by  all who hold him dear4
      #bhf ,john #ac 3 #cd4      #bhg   
,matt4 #be 3 #dj4    ,and now we come to
 the tenth and last of the requirements 
of this  covenant4 ,here we find an     
injunction that goes deeper than those  
which  precede it on the second tablet  

of the written compact4 ,thou shalt not 
covet4 ,not only1 ,thou shalt not openly
 disregard human life1 or the  family   
institution1 or the property or the     
reputation of any one of  thy fellows2  
but1 ,thou shalt not want to do any of  
these things4 ,thou  shalt recognize    
thine own lot1 and thy possessions1 and 
the lot and the  possessions of others1 
as ,god's assignment to thee and to     
them2 and  thou shalt be contented      
within the sphere which he has deemed   
best for  thee4    ,this requirement in 
the second table of the compact         
corresponds with  the third requirement 
in the first table4 ,the one says that  
the child  of ,god must be sincere and  
unfeigned in his loving devotedness to  
,god  as his ,father2 the other says    
that the child of ,god must accept in   
all  heartiness his ,father's ordering  
concerning himself1 in his relations  to
 all his brothers and sisters in the    
great family of ,god4    ,here it is    
that we find the more spiritual         

teachings of the ,decalogue  concerning 
man's obligations to his fellow-man in  
the loving service of  ,god1 as they are
 pointed out1 and emphasized in the     
words of ,jesus1 in  what we call the   
,sermon on the ,mount4#bhh ,here it is  
that the lesson  comes home to us that  
it is not enough for us to refrain from 
actual  murder and adultery and theft   
and false witnessing2 but that it is    
inconsistent with our devotedness to    
,god as our loving ,father for us to    
have a hateful thought toward one of his
 dear children2 for us to look          
longingly in the direction of another   
family assignment than that which  is   
ours in the way of ,god's appointment2  
for us to turn a wistful or  an envious 
thought toward any possession of another
 which we have no  right to seek after4 
,and all this is not of ,god's arbitrary
 commanding1  but is in the very essence
 of ,god's loving covenanting with his  
chosen  people4 ,therefore it is that   
the ,apostle urges ,christians to keep  

themselves from fornication1            
uncleanness1 passion1 evil desire1 and  
covetousness1 the which is idolatry2#bhi
 the indulging in which is  being untrue
 to ,god as one's covenant ,god4        
#bhh ,matt4 #e 3 #c to #g 3 #bg4        
#bhi ,col4 #c 3 #e4           99        
99       99       99       99    ,and   
now in the light of these disclosures of
 the nature and meaning  of the         
successive clauses of this covenant of  
,god with his ,oriental  people1 let us 
look back upon it as a whole in its     
spirit and  teachings1 in order that we 
may see what is covered by it1 and      
wherein  its applications are for us as 
well as for ,god's people of old4 ,god  
must be recognized as ,god alone4 ,no   
heart can love ,god as ,god1 unless     
that heart loves ,god wholly4 ,god must 
be worshiped spiritually2 for  spiritual
 things are spiritually discerned1 and  
only as a man is lifted  above sight and
 sense can he be in communion with the  
spiritual and  the infinite4 ,union with

 ,god must be sincere and unfeigned2 for
 only  by a complete and willing        
surrender of one's self can one's self  
be merged into a holy and infinite      
,personality4 ,the loving worship  of   
,god must have its stated times1 and    
hence1 of course1 its stated  places1 in
 order to have its fitting hold on the  
worshiper2 and the  recognition of this 
truth in the covenant is the            
authorization of all  legitimate seasons
 and methods of worship4 ,god's         
representatives in the  family1 in the  
,state1 and in the ,church1 are to be   
honored as ,god's  representatives2 and 
herein is the authorization of all right
 forms of  human rule4 ,these are the   
teachings of the first table of the     
covenant2  and those of the second table
 are like unto them4    ,he who loves   
,god must love those who are ,god's4 ,as
 the ,apostle  expresses it3 ,if a man  
say1 ,i love ,god1 and hateth his       
brother1 he  is a liar3 for he that     
loveth not his brother whom he hath     

seen1  cannot love ,god whom he hath not
 seen4 ,and therefore this second       
commandment have we from him1 that he   
who loveth ,god love his brother        
also4#bij ,every child of man is a child
 of ,god4 ,wayward and prodigal  son    
though he be1 he still is one who was   
made in the image of ,god2 and  his     
,father's heart goes out toward him     
unfailingly in love4 ,hence he  who     
loves the ,father must guard with       
sacredness the life of every child  of  
that ,father4 ,he must honor the        
institution of the family1 which is  the
 human hope of the children of that     
,father4 ,he must hold dear the         
property possessions and the good name  
of each and every child of that         
,father4 ,and in his heart there must be
 such love for that ,father's  children 
as the children of his ,father1 that he 
will have no wish to do  aught that     
shall harm any one of them in any       
degree4      #bij #a ,john #d 3 #bj1    
#ba4    ,thus it is that the spirit and 

substance of the entire covenant compact
  stand out in those words of our ,lord 
which lose their meaning if we  look at 
the ,ten ,commandments as ten arbitrary 
commandings of ,god4 ,when  a certain   
lawyer came to ,jesus with the knotty   
question1 ,master1  which is the great  
commandment in the law8 ,jesus said unto
 him3 ,thou  shalt love the ,lord thy   
,god with all thy heart1 and with all   
thy  soul1 and with all thy mind4 ,this 
is the great and first commandment4     
,and a second like unto it is this1     
,thou shalt love thy neighbor as        
thyself4 ,on these two commandments     
hangeth the whole law1 and the          
prophets4#bia ,and thus it is that we   
are enabled to realize that  love 444 is
 the fulfilment of the law4#bib         
#bia ,matt4 #bb 3 #cf-dj4      #bib     
,rom4 #ac 3 #aj4    ,the ,ten           
,commandments are the law1 the law of   
the covenant of love2  but1 be it       
remembered1 they are not the ,mosaic    
law4 ,they were not  originated by      

,moses2 nor were they done away with    
when the ,mosaic  law was fulfilled and 
abrogated in ,christ4 ,they are the law 
of the  promptings of love2 an orderly  
statement of the principles which rule  
in a heart which is devoted to ,god4    
,their origin is in the nature of  ,god2
 and their continuance must be          
coexistent with the needs of the        
children of ,god4 ,with all our         
shortcomings in love1 and with all our  
failures in fidelity to our             
covenant-union with ,god in ,christ     
,jesus1  just so far as we are in       
oneness with ,god by faith shall we be  
true to  the principles of this         
covenant-compact of ,god with his       
people4 ,god  is love2 and he that      
abideth in love abideth in ,god1 and    
,god abideth  in him4#bic ,and hereby   
know we that we know him1 if we keep his
  commandments4#bid      #bic #a ,john  
#d 3 #af4      #bid #a ,john #b 3 #c4   
,,indexes          ,,topical ,,index    
,aaron1 ,god's covenant with1 #ag4      

,ababde women1 reference to1 #ii4       
,abusers of the salt1 #aaj4      ,added 
traces of the rite1 #abc-acj4           
,agreement used interchangeably with    
covenant1 #e4      ,alexis1 ,grand      
,duke1 reference to1 #abe4      ,ali    
,baba and the ,forty ,thieves1 reference
 to1 #bed4      ,altar and table as     
synonymous1 #he4      ,ancient ,mariner1
 reference to1 #ace4      ,animal food  
supplies lack of salt1 #ch4      ,antony
 and ,cleopatra1 reference to1 #ee4     
,arabia1 ,bed'ween of1 reference to1    
#aaj4      ,arabian ,nights1 reference  
to1 #fd4      ,arabs3 regard for salt   
covenant among1 #bi2      not accustomed
 to put salt on table1 #bi f42      rite
 of bread and salt among1 #ca2          
,john ,macgregor taken prisoner by1 #cb 
f42      swearing by salt of1 #ed2      
milk sometimes accepted as substitute   
for salt by1 #fb2      honesty of1 #aaa 
f41 #aff4      ,archeology3 its value   
compared with philology1 #d4      ,ark  
of the covenant1 reference to1 #ade4    

,armenians1 supply of salt cut off1 #dc4
      ,arrangement1 used interchangeably
 with covenant1 #e4      ,arvieux3      
cited1 #cd4      ,asiatic cholera       
promoted by lack of salt1 #df4          
,asiatic ,quarterly ,review1 reference  
to1 #df4      ,assyrian roots1 gain of  
looking among1 #d4      ,assyrian3 word 
for salt1 #gf2      words translated    
covenant1 #f f4      ,attic salt1       
synonym of life in conversation1 #fh4   
,babe3 anoint with blood1 #ei2      more
 life to a1 #ei4      ,bancroft1 ,h4    
,h43 cited1 #eg1 #ie4      ,band1 symbol
 and pledge of union1 #g4               
,barley-meal cakes employed in          
sacrifice1 #id4      ,bartholow1 ,dr43  
cited1 #da4      ,battas1 in ,sumatra1  
form of oath of1 #abc4      ,bed'ween1  
conventions for covenants of1 #cj f4    
,bey1 ,durzee1 reference to1 #bd4       
,bheels1 in ,india1 reference to1 #fj4  
,bible3 references to the rite in1 #ag2 
carried over threshold of new house1    
#gf1 #ajf2      estimate of treachery   

in1 #aac4      ,bingham's ,antiquities3 
cited1 #hi4      ,bird ,bishop1         
,isabella3 cited1 #dg1 #ajj4      ,birth
 of child1 salt at1 #fa4                
,blackwood's ,magazine1 reference to1   
#abg4      ,blood ,covenant3 reference  
to1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #da1 #de1 #dh1 #ec1 
#ed1 #ei1 #fj1 #fb1 #fg1 #gi1 #he1 #hf1 
#aag1 #aah1 #aai1 #abj1 #adg4           
,blood3 fresh1 drunk by people of       
,masai1 #cg2      salt representing1    
#cg-ej2      drained from animals       
slaughtered by ,jews1 #ci2              
transfusion of1 #da2      use of1 as    
food1 #da2      red corpuscles of1 #db  
f42      saline ingredients in1 #db f42 
anointing a new-born babe with1 #ei2    
,kaffir new chief washed in1 #fj2       
represented by wine1 #aag2      atoned  
for by blood1 #acg2      sprinkled by   
,moses1 #adh2      shedding man's1 #afb 
f4      ,blood-licker in ,mecca1 #dh4   
,blood revenge in the ,east1 #afc4      
,blunt1 on ,book of ,common ,prayer3    
cited1 #hj4      ,bock1 ,carl3 cited1   

#fa4      ,boiling water1 ordeal of1    
#aja4      ,booddhists in ,china1       
customs among1 #ib4      ,bracelet as   
symbol and pledge of union1 #g4         
,brhmanas1 reference to1 #ij f4         
,bread3 salt as an accompaniment of1    
#ad2      and salt1 #bc-cd2             
significance of1 #gi1 #hj2      and     
flesh1 #aai4      ,bridal couple1       
sprinkled with salt1 #abh f4            
,browning1 ,mrs41 quotation from1 #ee4  
,buchanan1 ,dr41 reference to1 #da4     
,bunge1 ,professor3 cited1 #ch1 #ci1    
#abc4      ,burckhardt3 cited1 #bd1 #ii 
f41 #ajj1 #aff4      ,burder3 cited1    
#ca1 #aaj1 #aab4      ,burning ,lamps1  
,feast of1 #ib f4      ,burning of salt1
 #ii f4      ,burton3 cited1 #bd2       
quotation from1 #bf4      ,bush's       
illustrations1 reference to1 #aji4      
,buxtorf3 cited1 #hg f4      ,cadamosto1
 ,aloisio1 reference to1 #fi4           
,cannibals1 bathing body of chief in    
salt after death1 #fa4      ,catacazy1  
,madame de1 reference to1 #abe4         

,ceres1 reference to1 #bc4      ,cattle1
 salt as meaning1 #ia4                  
,characteristics of a covenant1 #c-aj4  
,chemist's use of term salt1 #ci4       
,china3 blood substitute for salt in1   
#ch2      depriving a person of salt a  
mode of punishment in1 #db2      customs
 among ,booddhists in1 #ib4             
,church1 salt in dedication of a1 #ij4  
,cicero1 reference to1 #fh4             
,circumcision as token of a covenant1   
#h4      ,clapperton3 cited1 #bd4       
,college salting1 #abh4      ,collitz1  
,professor ,hermann1 reference to1 #ej1 
#gd4      ,compact1 used interchangeably
 with covenant1 #e4      ,conventions1  
,bed'ween1 #cj f4      ,corpse1 salt on 
a1 in ,scotland1 #ajc4      ,cosmas1    
reference to1 #fi4      ,covenant3      
meaning of the word1 #c f42             
characteristics of a1 #c-aj2            
etymology of1 #e2      words used       
interchangeably with1 #e2      marriage 
a1 #g2      circumcision as token of1   
#h2      various kind of1 #i1 #ac2      

,bible references to1 #ag4              
,covenanting1 exchange of tokens and    
symbols in1 #h4      ,cross1 sign of    
the1 reference to1 #hi4      ,curative  
powers of salt1 #dc f4      ,customs    
preceding words1 #i4        ,dacier1    
reference to1 #gj1 #hh4      ,daraon1   
burning of salt among people of1 #ii4   
,darius1 ,king1 directing supply from   
royal treasury1 #bj4      ,david1 ,god's
 covenant with1 #ag f4      ,da ,vinci's
 painting1 reference to1 #aac4          
,dead body1 salt on breast of1 #ajd4    
,dead ,sea1 reference to1 #eh1 #acd4    
,death3 from salts-hunger1 #db2         
salt used at1 #fa2      or life1        
#acc-ach4      ,dedication of a church1 
#ij4      ,definition1 not easily       
reached1 #e4      ,delitzsch1           
,friedrich3 cited1 #g4      ,denham3    
cited1 #bd4      ,dhar1 used in treaty  
of peace1 #abc4      ,diab1 ,joseph1    
reference to1 #bh4      ,discovery of   
salt as article of diet1 #da4           
,disputes settled by salt and water1    

#abd4      ,divination1 salt in1        
#ii-ajf4      ,division of ,ten         
,commandments1 #aei f4      ,doolittle3 
cited1 #ajj4      ,doughty3 cited1 #bd4 
,du ,tott1 ,baron1 quotation from1 #bg1 
#bh4      ,dyer1 ,thistleton3 quotation 
from1 #ajd2      cited1 #aac1 #acg1     
#ach4      ,eassie1 ,w43 cited1 #fb4    
,ebionites1 salt and bread employed by1 
#ej4      ,edwards's ,history of ,west  
,indies1 quotation from1 #fj4           
,egypt3 salt forbidden to priests in    
ancient1 #ee2      ,feast of ,burning   
,lamps in1 #ib f42      burning salt in1
 #ii2      ,muhammadan ,arabs in1 #ajj4 
,egyptian3 use of salt in sacrifice1    
#ic2      idea of wine and blood1 #aah2 
collection of taxes1 #acj4              
,egyptians1 table an altar among1 #he4  
,el ,hejaz1 ,bed'ween of1 reference to1 
#aaj4      ,elijah1 reference to1 #eh4  
,elisha1 reference to1 #eg4             
,elizabeth1 ,queen1 reference to1 #abf4 
,elkesaites1 bread and salt employed by1
 #ej4      ,ellis's ,history of         

,madagascar3 cited1 #h4      ,england1  
burning salt in1 #aja4      ,esquimaux1 
value of blood among1 #ci4              
,etruscan3 symbolism1 #ic2      customs1
 salt in1 #aje4      ,etymology of      
covenant1 #e4      ,eucharist1 salt in  
the1 #hi4      ,evil eye3 reference to1 
#ajj f42      treatment received by     
,james ,napier for1 #aja f4      ,evil  
spirits1 exorcising1 #ii4               
,exactness of definition not to be      
reached1 #e4      ,exchange of tokens   
and symbols as a means of covenanting1  
#h4      ,exorcism1 salt in1 #ii-ajf4   
,faithlessness to salt1 #aji-aad4       
,father1 ,oriental meaning of1 #afj4    
,feast of ,burning ,lamps1 #ib f4       
,fidelity to salt1 #acj4      ,finn1    
,mrs41 quotation from1 #cb4      ,fire3 
salted with1 #fe2      salt leaping up  
in1 #ie2      salt thrown into1 #ajj4   
,fish1 salt in ,dead ,sea in lieu of1   
#eh4      ,flesh and bread1 #aai4       
,flies1 dead1 life brought to1 by salt1 
#fc4      ,flood1 use of blood as food  

forbidden after the1 #da4      ,floor1  
salt sprinkled upon1 #ajj4      ,florus1
 reference to1 #ee4      ,food3 salt    
indispensable in1 #ad2      use of blood
 as1 #da4      ,ford1 ,george ,a43      
cited1 #aja4      ,founder of ,saffaride
 dynasty1 #bg4      ,fourmeaux1 ,l43    
cited1 #dj4      ,frazer3 quotation     
from1 #aaj2      cited1 #aah f4         
,freshman1 salting a1 #abh4             
,friendship the ,master-,passion1       
reference to1 #i4      ,funeral1 salt   
scattered at threshold after1 #ajj4     
,furness1 ,w4 ,h41 #c;d1 reference to1  
#abd4      ,germans1 waging war for     
saline streams1 #ei4      ,german ,jews1
 customs among1 #hf4      ,gesenius3    
cited1 #g1 #aji4      ,ghoorka salt1    
eating1 #aaj4      ,ginger root1 salt   
and1 given as wedding-cake1 #abd4       
,god's covenant with his people1 #aej f4
      ,gold1 salt in exchange for1 #fi4 
,greek ,church1 salt deemed essential in
 ,eucharist by1 #hi4      ,greek words  
translated covenant1 #g4      ,griffis1 

,william ,elliot3 cited1 #dg1 #ajj4     
,grimm1 reference to1 #gd4      ,gmpel1 
,c4 ,godfrey3 cited1 #de4      ,gypsies1
 ,hungarian customs among1 #abi4        
,hall1 ,bishop1 reference to1 #abg4     
,hamelin1 ,m43 cited1 #cd4      ,hamlin1
 ,dr43 cited1 #bd4      ,harmer3 cited1 
#bd4      ,harper's ,latin ,dictionary1 
reference to1 #id1 #if4                 
,hospitality1 salt symbol of1 #abf4     
,hebrew roots1 gain of looking among1   
#d4      ,hebrew words translated       
covenant1 #f f4      ,hebrews1 forbidden
 to eat with the blood1 #fb4      ,hehn1
 ,victor3 reference to1 #fi2            
quotation from1 #gj4      ,hemorrhage1  
salt administered in1 #dj4              
,henderson3 cited1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #acg1    
#ach4      ,henniker1 ,sir ,frederick1  
reference to1 #di4      ,herodotus3     
reference to1 #ib2      cited1 #aai4    
,hilprecht1 ,dr4 ,herman ,v43 cited1    
#gf4      ,holy water3 salt essential   
element of1 #ij2      and salt mingled  
in food and drink1 #aja4      ,homer3   

cited1 #ec1 #id4      ,honey1 milk and1 
symbol of blood and flesh1 #hj4         
,howell1 ,w4 ,h43 cited1 #da1 #db4      
,hungarian gypsies1 customs among1 #abi4
      ,hungary1 wedding customs in1     
#abh4        ,iago1 reference to1 #ee4  
,ideas precede words1 #c4               
,importance of salt in covenant1 #cb4   
,infant1 salt put into mouth of1 #ij4   
,inspiration by wine1 #aah4             
,intoxication by wine1 #aah4            
,jabal1 reference to1 #afj4             
,japheth1 reference to1 #da4            
,jastrow1 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,marcus3 cited1    
#eg1 #hf1 #aab1 #acg4      ,jesus3      
references of1 to salt1 #fd f42      new
 commandment of1 #afi4      ,jews3      
careful to drain blood from slaughtered 
animals1 #ci2      observing covenant of
 salt at table1 #hd2      table customs 
among1 #hg4      ,josephus3 cited1 #hc4 
,jubal1 reference to1 #afa4      ,judas 
,iscariot1 reference to1 #aac4          
,kadesh-barnea1 reference to1 #eh4      
,kaffir chief1 washed in blood upon     

assuming authority1 #fj4      ,karna1   
reference to1 #cd4      ,kauravas1      
reference to1 #cd4      ,kluge3 cited1  
#gd4      ,kohler1 ,dr4 ,k43 cited1 #hh4
      ,kookies of ,india1 treaty of     
peace among1 #abc4      ,koordistan1    
salt lake in region of1 #ei4            
,krishna1 reference to1 #cd4      ,kuhn3
 cited1 #gd4        ,laiss-safar1 worker
 in brass and copper1 #bf4      ,lane3  
cited1 #bd1 #fd1 #ajj4      ,lange1     
reference to1 #fe4      ,layard3 cited1 
#bf4      ,lea1 ,henry ,c43 cited1 #aja1
 #abd4      ,league1 used               
interchangeably with covenant1 #e4      
,lebanon region1 blood covenant in1 #dh4
      ,leland1 quotation from1 #ic4     
,leprosy1 prominence of salt as cure    
for1 #de4      ,life3 dependent on salt1
 #db2      salt representing1 #ec-gj2   
seasoned with1 #fg2      and light1     
#gc-gf2      savor of1 #acc-ach4        
,light1 life and1 #gc-gf4               
,livingstone1 ,dr4 ,david3 cited1 #cg   
f41 #ch4      ,london ,court ,journal1  

reference to1 #abe4      ,london        
,quarterly ,review1 reference to1 #dc4  
,lot's wife turned to pillar of salt1   
#ajc4      ,lying1 reference to1 #afg f4
        ,macgregor1 ,john1 experiences  
with ,arabs1 #cb f41 #cc4      ,macrae1 
quotation from1 #abf4      ,macrobius3  
cited1 #di4      ,madagascar1 covenant  
of salt in1 #cd4      ,mahabharata1     
quoted and cited1 #cc f4      ,man      
offered in sacrifice1 #ia4      ,marie1 
,princess1 reference to1 #abe4          
,marriage3 a covenant1 #g2      salt and
 bread placed under threshold at1 #ajf4 
,martne3 cited1 #aja4      ,martyrdom of
 an ,empress1 #abi4      ,masai people1 
reference to1 #cg4      ,meal1 salt of  
the covenant not to be lacking from the1
 #ah4      ,meaning of the word         
covenant1 #c f4      ,means of a merged 
life1 #ada1 #adb4      ,meat1 eating of1
 as a pledge1 #bd4      ,mecca1         
blood-lickers in1 reference to1 #dh4    
,mediterranean ,sea1 water not to be    
taken from1 #gj4      ,merged life1     

means of1 #ada1 #adb4      ,merrill1    
,selah3 cited1 #bd4      ,merry ,wives  
of ,windsor1 reference to1 #ee4         
,message-bearer1 salt in hand of1 #abf4 
,meyer's commentary1 reference to1 #fe4 
,milk3 substitute for salt1 #fb2        
used instead of blood1 #fb4      ,milk  
and honey standing for blood and flesh1 
#hj4      ,milk brothers1 reference to1 
#fb4      ,money1 salt as1 #fi4         
,morier1 ,james1 reference to1 #ed4     
,morris's ,china3 cited1 #ib4           
,morton1 ,dr4 ,thomas ,g43 cited1 #da4  
,mountains of salt1 #gj4      ,mller1   
,f4 ,max1 reference to1 #ia f4          
,moody1 ,d4 ,l41 reference to1 #aef4    
,moses1 reference to1 #adh1 #aeh4       
,mother1 ,oriental meaning of term1     
#afj4      ,mount ,sinai1 ,moses at1    
#adh4        ,name signifying           
personality1 #aee f4      ,naming child1
 ceremony of1 #abd4      ,napier1       
,james3 cited1 #aja f41 #ajd1 #ach4     
,neptune1 reference to1 #bc4            
,nicoll1 reference to1 #fe4             

,niebuhr3 cited1 #bd4      ,noah3 use of
 blood as food forbidden to1 #da2       
reference to1 #afc4      ,norwach3      
cited1 #g1 #ad1 #acg4        ,oath3     
,oriental form of1 #ed2      different  
forms of1 #abc4      ,obligation1 used  
interchangeably with covenant1 #e4      
,old ,testament1 word covenant in1 #ah4 
,oriental3 form of oath1 #ed2           
meaning of terms father and mother1     
#afj2      summit of treachery1 #aaa4   
,orientals1 ,bible written by1 #adf4    
,othello1 reference to1 #ee4            
,oxford ,university1 giving salt to     
students in1 #abg4        ,page1        
,master1 reference to1 #ed4      ,pasha1
 ,arabi1 reference to1 #acj4            
,pasha1 ,moldovanji1 reference to1 #bh4 
,paul1 reference to1 #fg4      ,perley1 
quotation from1 #abe4      ,perpetuity1 
salt as symbol of1 #hd4                 
,perspiration1 salt shown in1 #dj4      
,philinus1 reference to1 #ef4           
,philology1 archeology sometimes more   
valuable than1 #d4      ,pierrotti3     

cited1 #bd4      ,plato1 reference to1  
#ec4      ,pledge1 eating meat as a1    
#bd4      ,pliny3 cited1 #de1 #fh1 #gj1 
#gc1 #id1 #aai4      ,plutarch3 cited1  
#bc1 #ec1 #ed1 #ee1 #ef1 #eg1 #aai4     
,poison of rattlesnake1 #dc4      ,polo1
 ,marco3 cited1 #fi4      ,preface to   
,ten ,commandments1 #aej4      ,price's 
,mohammedan ,history3 cited1 #bg1 #db4  
,priests1 salt forbidden to1 #ee4       
,primitive covenanting1 #f4             
,promise1 used interchangeably with     
covenant1 #e4      ,pythagoras3         
reference to1 #gj2      quotation from1 
#hh4        ,quain's ,dictionary of     
,medicine3 cited1 #dj1 #fb4             
,ralston's ,songs of ,russian ,people3  
cited1 #ajf4      ,raphel1 ,don3        
reference to1 #cj2      quotation from1 
#ca2      cited1 #aaa f4                
,rattlesnake1 poison of1 #dc4           
,rawlinson's ,ancient ,egypt1 quotation 
from1 #ic4      ,resuscitating drowned  
persons by salt1 #fc4      ,richardson's
 ,english ,dictionary1 reference to1    

#if4      ,ring as symbol and pledge of 
union1 #g4      ,robbery attempted by   
,yakoob1 #bf f4      ,robinson1 ,dr4    
,edward3 cited1 #aff4      ,rodd's      
,customs3 cited1 #aja4                  
,rosenmuller3 cited1 #cj2      reference
 to1 #ed4      ,russell's ,natural      
,history of ,aleppo1 quotation from1    
#bd4        ,sabbath1 a recognized      
institution before ,moses1 #aeh4        
,sacrifice on threshold1 #dg4           
,sacrifices1 salt in1 #hc-if4           
,sacrificial essence1 the1 #ia4         
,saffaride dynasty1 founder of1 #bg4    
,saffaride ,kaleefs1 story of the origin
 of the dynasty of1 #bf4      ,st4      
,augustine3 cited1 #hi4      ,st4       
,peter1 fresh water changed to salt by1 
#ei4      ,sas1 annual festival at1 #ib4
      ,salary1 derivation of word1 #fh4 
,saline injections1 #dj4      ,salt3 as 
preservative1 #ad2      indispensable in
 food1 #ad2      spoken of as an        
accompaniment of bread1 #ad2      a     
vital element1 #ah2      covenant of1   

perpetual and unalterable1 #ah2      of 
the covenant not to be lacking1 #ah2    
in many lands the possession of         
government1 #ai2      bread and1 #bc-cd2
      nothing eatable without1 #bc2     
on a common table1 #bi f42              
importance of1 to a covenant1 #cb2      
representing blood1 #cg-ej2      and    
salts1 #ci2      discovery of as article
 of diet1 #da2      as antidote for     
snake-bite1 #dc2      as saline         
ingredient of blood1 #dc2      curative 
powers of1 #dc f42      supply of1 cut  
off from ,armenians1 #dc2      strewn on
 threshold1 #dg2      representing life1
 #ec-gj2      and sun1 #gc-gf2      in  
sacrifices1 #hc-if2      in the         
,eucharist1 #hi2      as sacrificial    
essence1 #ia2      leaping up in fire1  
#ie2      in divination1 #ii-ajf2       
in exorcism1 #ii-ajf2      not to be    
carried out of house after dark1 #aja2  
on a corpse in ,scotland1 #ajc2         
carried across threshold upon entering  
new house1 #ajf2      faithlessness to1 

#aji-aad2      and ginger root given as 
wedding-cake1 #abd2      water mocking  
thirst1 #ace4      ,salt-cellar as point
 of division on family-table1 #abf4     
,salt-making1 ordinary process of1 #ge4 
,salted cake1 essential in sacrificial  
offering1 #id4      ,salted water1      
drinking of1 as a covenant1 #dh4        
,salted with fire1 #fe4      ,salting a 
freshman1 #abh4      ,salts1 salt and1  
#ci4      ,salts-hunger1 death from1    
#db4      ,samaria1 woman of1 reference 
to1 #aeg4      ,samoyedes dipping flesh 
in blood before eating it1 #ch4         
,sanskrit roots1 gain of looking among1 
#d4      ,savor of death1 #acc-ach4     
,savor of life1 #acc-ach4      ,sayce1  
,professor ,a4 ,h41 reference to1 #gd4  
,schrader1 ,o43 cited1 #gd4             
,schultz1 ,stephen3 cited1 #bh1 #bi f41 
#cj4      ,scipio1 reference to1 #fh4   
,scotland1 salt on a corpse in1 #ajc4   
,scott1 ,sir ,walter1 quotation from1   
#abg4      ,seal killing by ,esquimaux1 
#ci4      ,seasoned3 with life1 #fg2    

with salt1 #fg4      ,second requirement
 of ,god's covenant1 #aec4              
,sentiment valuable in research1 #e4    
,septuagint1 ,the1 reference to1 #cc1   
#hd4      ,settling dispute by salt and 
water1 #abd4      ,shallow1 ,justice1   
reference to1 #ed4      ,shewbread1 salt
 on table of1 #hd4      ,shooter's      
,kafirs3 cited1 #fj4      ,sign of the  
cross1 reference to1 #hi4               
,significance of bread1 #gi1 #hj4       
,sin-eaters1 reference to1 #aje4        
,sitting below the salt1 #abf4          
,sixth requirement of ,god's covenant1  
#afb4      ,skeat3 cited1 #gd4          
,smith1 ,george ,adam1 quotation from1  
#acd4      ,smith1 ,w4 ,robertson3      
cited1 #ad1 #bd1 #dh1 #ei1 #fb1 #acg4   
,snake-bite1 salt as antidote for1 #dc4 
,sodom destroyed because of             
faithlessness to salt1 #aab4      ,son  
and sun from same root1 #gc4            
,spencer1 ,herbert3 cited1 #abc1 #abf4  
,spilling of salt1 #ach4      ,stanley1 
,henry ,m41 reference to1 #df f4        

,stealing1 ,arab estimate of1 #aff4     
,stevens1 ,dr4 ,w43 cited1 #dc4         
,stewart's ,manual of ,physiology3      
reference to1 #db2      quotation from1 
#abc4      ,strassburg ,university1     
reference to1 #abh4      ,strickland1   
,agnes3 cited #abf4      ,student1 in   
,journal of ,asiatic ,society1 giving   
salt to1 #abg4      ,studies in         
,oriental ,social ,life1 #ad1 #bc1 #bd1 
#eh4      ,substitute together with     
reality1 #aag-abj4      ,substituting   
salt for blood1 #cg4      ,sun1 salt    
and1 #gc-gf4      ,supply of salt cut   
off from ,armenians1 #dc4      ,survey  
of ,western ,palestine1 reference to1   
#cb4      ,swearing by salt1 #ed4       
,sword1 salt on blade of1 #di4          
,syrophoenician woman1 reference to1    
#hh4        ,table3 of shewbread1 salt  
on1 #hd2      an altar1 #he2            
customs among ,jews1 #hg4      ,tacitus3
 cited1 #ace4      ,tamerlane1          
,mongol-,tartar chieftain reference to1 
#aji4      ,tatar tradition of salt1    

#da4      ,taxation in ,egypt1 #acj4    
,tears1 salt shown in1 #dj4      ,ten   
,commandments1 division of1 #aei f4     
,thirst1 salt water mocking1 #ace4      
,thomson1 ,w4 ,m43 cited1 #bd2          
quotation from1 #cg4      ,three1 value 
as sacred number1 #ajc4      ,threshold3
 pouring blood on1 #dg2      ,bible     
carried across1 in new house1 #gf2      
salt and candle carried across1 #gf2    
salt scattered at1 #ajj2      salt and  
,bible carried across1 in new house1    
#ajf2      salt and bread under1 #ajf4  
,threshold ,covenant1 reference to1 #f1 
#dg1 #ajf1 #aag1 #abh1 #acj4            
,torture3 depriving of salt as a means  
of1 #db2      treachery1 ,oriental      
summit of1 #aaa2      ,bible summit of1 
#aac4      ,treaty1 used interchangeably
 with covenant1 #e4      ,truce between 
enemies1 sharing water as1 #bc f4       
,twain made one1 #g4        ,van        
,lennep3 cited1 #fa4      ,various kinds
 of covenant1 #i4      ,vegetable3 diet 
used by those who take salt1 #ch2       

life1 salt destructive of1 #acc4        
,virgil1 reference to1 #id4             
,volney3 cited1 #ca4        ,warburton3 
cited1 #bd4      ,water3 sharing of1    
#bc2      fountain of1 cured1 #eh2      
not to be dipped from ,mediterranean    
,sea1 #gj4      ,wellhausen3 cited1 #ie4
      ,wetzstein3 cited1 #bd4           
,wheeler's ,history of ,india3 cited1   
#cd4      ,wilkinson's ,ancient ,egypt3 
cited1 #ic4      ,wine3 representing    
blood1 #aag2      and salt1 #aai4       
,wit1 salt equivalent of1 #fg4          
,woman of ,samaria1 reference to1 #aeg4 
,words3 ideas precede1 #c2              
limitations and imperfectness of1 #c2   
customs precede1 #i4        ,yakoob1 a  
robber chieftain1 #bf4      ,youth1 salt
 of1 #ed4      ,yudhishthira1 reference 
to1 #cd4        ,zerubbabel1 rebuilding 
of the temple by1 #ai4                  
,,scriptural ,,index                    
,,genesis4      ,,text                  
,,page       #b 3 #bd                   
#afd     #d 3 #bj1 #ba              #afa

     #i 3 #d                    #da     
#i 3 #f                   #afc    #ag 3 
#a-ad                  #h    #ag 3 #ad  
#aad    #ah 3 #a-h                 #abj 
#ai 3 #bd1 #be               #ff    #bd 
3 #ab-ad                #bd    #ca 3 #ed
                  #abj    #de 3 #h      
#afa    #di 3 #aa                  #aag 
,,exodus4       #c 3 #h1 #ag            
#hj     #i 3 #bc1 #bd               #ff 
#ac 3 #e                    #hj    #bj 3
 #a-ag                #ade    #bj 3 #b  
#aej1 #aea    #bc 3 #ai                 
#hh    #bc 3 #ai2 #cd 3 #bf          #fb
    #bd 3 #g1 #h                #adh    
#be 3 #bb                  #ade    #bf 3
 #cc1 #cd              #adc    #bi 3 #dj
                  #aai    #cj 3 #f1 #bf 
#ade    #cj 3 #cd1 #ce               #hd
    #ca 3 #g                   #ade     
#cb 3 #ae                  #ade    #cc 3
 #c                    #hj    #cd 3 #bf 
#hh    #cd 3 #bh                  #adi  
#cd 3 #bi                  #ade    #ci 3
 #ce                  #ade    #dj 3 #c1 

#e1 #ba            #ade    #dj 3 #bj    
#adi      ,,leviticus4       #b 3 #ac   
#ah     #b 3 #ac                   #hc  
#g 3 #aa-ad               #abj    #aj 3 
#b                    #ff    #ac 3      
#eb-eg                #ff    #ag 3 #aa  
#ed    #ai 3 #i1 #aj                #hh 
#bj 3 #bd                   #hj    #bc 3
 #ab1 #ac              #aai    #bc 3    
#ae-bj               #abj               
,,numbers4       #d 3 #e                
#ade     #g 3 #hi                  #ade 
#ac 3 #bg                   #hj    #ad 3
 #h                    #hj    #ad 3 #dd 
#ade    #ae 3 #e1 #aj               #aai
    #af 3 #ac1 #ad               #hj    
#ah 3 #ai                   #ag    #ba 3
 #b1 #c                #acg    #bc 3 #ai
                  #afh    #bh 3 #ad     
#aai      ,,deuteronomy4       #e 3     
#a-bb                #ade     #f 3 #c   
#hj     #i 3 #ae                  #ade  
#aj 3 #h                   #ade    #aa 3
 #i                    #hj    #ab 3 #bc 
#ed    #ad 3 #ba                   #fb  

#ad 3 #ba                   #hh    #ag 3
 #b-g                 #aad    #bc 3 #c1 
#d                 #bd    #bd 3 #ai-ba  
#hh    #bf 3 #i1 #ae                #hj 
#bg 3 #c                    #hj    #bi 3
 #bc                  #acc    #ca 3 #i1 
#be1 #bf           #ade    #ca 3 #bj    
#hj      ,,joshua4       #c 3 #c1 #f1   
#h1 #aa1 #ad1 #ag #ade     #d 3 #g1 #i1 
#ah            #ade     #d 3 #af        
#ade     #e 3 #f                    #hj 
#f 3 #f1 #h                #ade     #g 3
 #aa-ae               #aad     #h 3 #cc 
#ade      ,,judges4       #b 3 #bj-bc   
#aad     #i 3 #de                  #acd 
#ag 3 #aj                  #afa    #bj 3
 #bg                  #ade      #a      
,,samuel4       #d 3 #c-e               
#ade    #be 3 #aj1 #aa               #bd
      #b ,,samuel4      #ae 3 #bd       
#ade      #a ,,kings4       #c 3 #ae    
#ade     #f 3 #ai                  #ade 
#h 3 #a1 #f                #ade    #ah 3
 #d                    #bd      #b      
,,kings4       #b 3 #ai-bb              

#eh    #ah 3 #aa1 #ab              #aad 
#a ,,chronicles4      #ae 3 #be1 #bf1   
#bh1 #bi      #ade    #af 3 #f1 #cg     
#ade    #ag 3 #a                   #ade 
#bb 3 #ai                  #ade    #bh 3
 #b1 #ah               #ade      #b     
,,chronicles4       #e 3 #b1 #g         
#ade    #ac 3 #e                    #ah 
,,ezra4       #d 3 #ad                  
#bj     #f 3 #h-aj                 #bj  
#g 3 #ba1 #bb               #hc     #g 3
 #bb                   #bj      ,,job4  
#a 3 #ba                  #afg    #bb 3 
#g                    #bd      ,,psalms4
      #da 3 #i                   #aaa   
#ej 3 #e1 #af               #adb    #ee 
3 #ai-ba               #aad    #ajg 3   
#cc1 #cd             #acd               
,,ecclesiastes4      #ci 3 #bf          
#aag    #ej 3 #ae                  #aag 
,,isaiah4      #bd 3 #e1 #f             
#aad    #cd 3 #d                   #acf 
#ea 3 #f                   #acf    #ea 3
 #af                  #acf    #fe 3 #aa 
#he    #fe 3 #ag                  #acf  

#ff 3 #bb                  #acf         
,,jeremiah4       #c 3 #af              
#ade    #aa 3 #e                    #hj 
#aa 3 #i-aa                #aad    #ag 3
 #f                   #acd    #cb 3 #bb 
#hj    #cd 3 #ag-bj               #aad  
,,ezekiel4      #af 3 #d                
#fa    #bj 3 #f1 #ae                #bj 
#da 3 #bb                   #he    #dc 3
 #ba-bd                #hc    #dg 3 #aa 
#acd      ,,hosea4       #a 3 #aj       
#adb     #f 3 #d-g                 #aad 
#h 3 #a                   #aad          
,,zephaniah4       #b 3 #i              
#acd      ,,malachi4       #a 3 #f1 #g  
#he     #c 3 #b1 #c                 #ff 
#a ,,maccabees4       #f 3 #cd          
#aag      ,,matthew4       #c 3 #ab     
#ff     #e 3 #c to #g 3 #bg         #agj
     #e 3 #ac                   #fe     
#e 3 #ac1 #ad               #ge     #g 3
 #ai                   #ff    #aj 3 #h  
#ge    #aj 3 #db                   #bd  
#ae 3 #bg                   #hh    #bb 3
 #cf-dj               #agc    #be 3 #dj 

#afi    #bf 3 #bf-bh               #aai 
#bh 3 #ai                  #aef    #bh 3
 #bj                  #aea      ,,mark4 
#g 3 #g-aa                #acg     #i 3 
#da                   #bd     #i 3 #di  
#fe1 #hc     #i 3 #ej                   
#fe    #ad 3 #bb-bd               #aai  
,,luke4       #c 3 #ag                  
#ff    #ad 3 #cd                   #fe  
#bb 3 #ai1 #bj              #aai        
,,john4       #a 3 #d                   
#gf     #d 3 #i                    #bd  
#d 3 #bd                  #aeg    #ac 3 
#ah                  #aaa    #ac 3 #cd  
#afi    #ae 3 #f                    #ff 
,,romans4       #a 3 #ca                
#aad     #i 3 #bf                  #adb 
#ab 3 #a                    #fg    #ac 3
 #a                   #afa    #ac 3 #d  
#afc    #ac 3 #aj                  #agc 
#a ,,corinthians4       #c 3 #ac-ae     
#ff     #d 3 #g                   #afg  
#aa 3 #bc-be               #aai      #b 
,,corinthians4       #b 3 #af           
#acc    #ab 3 #ad                   #fg 

,,colossians4       #c 3 #e             
#aga     #d 3 #f                    #fg 
#b ,,timothy4       #b 3 #ai            
#aeg      ,,hebrews4       #i 3 #ai     
#adh      #a ,,peter4       #a 3 #g     
#ff      #b ,,peter4       #c 3 #aj-ab  
#acf     #c 3 #ac                  #acf 
#a ,,john4       #b 3 #c                
#agd     #d 3 #af                  #agd 
#d 3 #bj1 #ba              #agb         
99       99       99       99       99  
,,other ,,books ,,by ,,dr4 ,,trumbull   
,war ,memories of an ,army ,chaplain    
,with #ad full-page ,illustrations      
,crown #hvo4 #b4jj    ,this is          
incomparably the best chaplain's story  
which the great war has                 
produced4--,boston ,journal4    ,mr4    
,trumbull gives us no story1 merely     
single incidents1 and in them  we find  
the tenderness and reverence and bravery
 and indomitable  spirit of the         
,american soldier4 ,his book is         
throughout a eulogy of the  ,american   
private soldier2 the man upon whose     

patience and fidelity1  obedience to    
superiors1 and heroism the success of   
our arms must  eventually depend4--,new 
,york ,times4    ,chaplain ,trumbull has
 given us an interesting volume1 which  
is well  worth reading1 for its         
impressions have the stamp of truth1 and
 he  tells his story well4--,brooklyn   
,daily ,eagle4    ,it is safe to say    
that no chaplain in the ,civil ,war was 
more widely  known or did more effective
 service than the ,rev4 ,h4 ,clay       
,trumbull4444  ,add to this             
qualification the fact that ,mr4        
,trumbull is a man of  hearty sympathy1 
wide knowledge of human nature1 and     
genial humor1  and it will be concluded 
that this volume1 called ',war ,memories
 of  an ,army ,chaplain1' is well worth 
reading4 ,emphatically it is so1 and    
particularly at this time1 when the     
subject of soldier life and the         
treatment of soldiers is so near to us4 
,the book abounds in significant  and   
entertaining incidents1 and is          

thoroughly enjoyable from cover to      
cover4--,the ,outlook4    ,mr4 ,trumbull
 has given us a book upon the ,civil    
,war which is in some  respects         
unique4444 ,mr4 ,trumbull's chapters on 
,religious ,services  in the ,field1 on 
,chapels1 on ,sermons1 on ,pastoral     
,work1 are full of  interesting         
matter4--,new ,york ,evening ,post4     
,this is an interesting and valuable    
work1 not primarily historical  in aim1 
yet casting upon the history of the     
,civil ,war a good deal of  important   
light4444 ,this personal record is as   
entertaining as it can  be2 parts of it 
are thrilling4--,the ,historical        
,review4    ,a volume packed full of    
interesting reminiscences1 anecdotes1   
and  relations that bring back to us the
 war period from a fresh standpoint4    
,perhaps nobody knows as much about real
 army life as the regimental            
chaplain4--,review of ,reviews4         
,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons1         
,,publishers    #aec-aeg ,,fifth        

,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york      ,other      
,books by    ,dr4 ,henry ,clay ,trumbull
      ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons1   
,,publishers      ,the ,blood ,covenant 
,a ,primitive ,rite and its ,bearings on
 ,scripture      #hvo4 #b4ej    ,the    
facts are indisputable1 and they tell   
their own story4 ,nor can  we refrain   
from commending the volume as a most    
striking and valuable  contribution to  
the religious thought of the world4 ,it 
is emphatically  one of the few books   
that no religious thinker can afford to 
be  without4--,president ,w4 ,r4        
,,harper1 in the ,old ,testament        
,student4    ,we thank the author for   
this fruit of vast labor and persevering
  research4 ,it is worthy of the study  
of all students of  religion4--,rev4    
,,charles ,a4 ,,briggs1 ,d4 ,d4    ,it  
seems to us to throw a true and         
important light upon the sacrament  of  
the ,holy ,communion1 and to rescue it  
alike from ,roman perversion and        
,zwinglian degradation4 ,throughout we  

have been impressed by its reserve  of  
power1 its care not to press unduly any 
analogy4 ,it seems to us a  model of    
what biblical study should be4--,the    
,churchman4      ,the ,threshold        
,covenant      ,or1 ,the ,beginning of  
,religious ,rites      #hvo4 #b4ej      
,it is brimful of accurate knowledge and
 new points of view1 and is  written so 
charmingly that a child could understand
 and follow4--,a4 ,h4  ,,sayce1         
,professor of ,comparative ,philology at
 ,oxford4    ,un livre o s'allient  une 
si admirable familiarit avec les        
civilisations de l'antiquit tant de     
sagacit exgtique et de  puissance de    
synthse et d'invention4--,revue de      
l',histoire des  ,religions1 ,paris4    
,i am delighted to have been able to    
make early acquaintance with  a book so 
full of facts which really illuminate   
the dark places of  primitive times4    
,that the explanation of the ,hebrew    
,scriptures profits  much by it is      
clear4--,professor ,dr4 ,t4 ,k4         

,,cheyne1 ,oxford4           99       99
       99       99       99             
,transcriber's notes      ,obvious      
typographical errors have been corrected
 but otherwise    variations in         
spelling1 punctuation and hyphenation   
have been    retained4 ,italics are     
represented thus i1 breve thus 7e and   
macron is thus a4      ,repeated chapter
 headings on consecutive pages have been
 removed4    ,footnote #fc4 ,the word   
'sum' in the original has been corrected
 to    'sun'1 which is more reasonable  
in the context4