file :i* includes ! orig9al illu/ration4
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orig9al pages are available ?r\gh       
,int]net ,ar*ive4 ,see                  
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#jjsp5u(t      ,illu/ration3 ,,h]b]t    
,,sp5c]4   ,,! ,,data ,,( ,,e?ics  by   
,,h]b]t ,,sp5c]  ,au?or ( ,fir/         
,pr9ciples1 ,education1 etc4            
,illu/ration  ,a4 ,l4 ,burt ,company1   
,publi%]s1 ,new ,york     ,,au?or',s    
,,preface4   ,a ref]5ce to ! programme (
 ! ,sy/em ( ,syn!tic ,philosophy w %[ t 
! *apt]s h]e) issu$ con/itute ! fir/    
division ( ! "w on ! ,pr9ciples (       
,morality1 ) :i* ! ,sy/em ends4 ,z !    
second & ?ird volumes ( ! ,pr9ciples (  
,sociology are z yet unpubli%$1 ?is     
in/allm5t ( ! succe$+ "w appe>s out (   
its place4  ,i h be5 l$ ?us to deviate f

 ! ord] orig9ally set d[n by ! fe> t    
p]si/5ce 9 con=m+ to x might result 9   
leav+ ! f9al "w ( ! s]ies unexecut$4    
,h9ts1 repeat$ ( late ye>s ) increas+   
frequ5cy & di/9ctness1 h %[n me t heal? 
may p]man5tly fail1 ev5 if life does n  
end1 be=e ,i rea* ! la/ "p ( ! task ,i h
 m>k$ out = myself4 ,?is la/ "p ( ! task
 x is to :i* ,i reg>d all ! prec$+ p>ts 
z subsidi>y4 ,writt5 z f> back z #ahdb1 
my fir/ essay1 consi/+ ( lett]s on ,!   
,prop] ,sph]e ( ,gov]nm5t1 vaguely      
indicat$ :at ,i conceiv$ to be c]ta9    
g5]al pr9ciples ( "r & wrong 9 political
 conduct1 & f t "t onw>d my ultimate    
purpose1 ly+ beh9d all proximate        
purposes1 has be5 t ( f9d+ = ! pr9ciples
 ( "r & wrong1 9 conduct at l>ge1 a     
sci5tific basis4 ,to leave ?is purpose  
unfulfill$1 aft] mak+ s ext5sive a      
prep>ation = fulfill+ x1 w\ld be a      
failure ! probability ( :i* ,i d n l to 
contemplate1 & ,i am anxi\s to preclude 
x1 if n :olly1 /ill p>tially4 ,h5ce !   
/ep ,i n[ take4 ,?\gh ?is fir/ division 

( ! "w t]m9at+ ! ,syn!tic ,philosophy1  
_c1 ( c\rse1 conta9 ! specific          
conclusions to be set =? 9 ! entire "w1 
yet x implies !m 9 su* wise t1 def9itely
 to =mulate !m requires no?+ beyond     
logical d$uction4  ,i am ! m anxi\s to  
indicate 9 outl9e1 if ,i _c complete1   
?is f9al "w1 because ! e/abli%m5t (     
rules ( "r conduct on a sci5tific basis 
is a press+ ne$4 ,n[1 t moral           
injunctions are los+ ! au?ority giv5 by 
_! suppos$ sacr$ orig91 ! secul>ization 
( morals is becom+ imp]ative4 ,few ?+s c
 happ5 m disa/r\s ?an ! decay & dea? ( a
 regulative sy/em no long] fit1 be=e    
ano!r & fitt] regulative sy/em has gr[n 
up to replace x4 ,mo/ ( ^? :o reject !  
curr5t cre$ appe> to assume t !         
controll+ ag5cy furni%$ by x may safely 
be ?r[n aside1 & ! vacancy left unfill$ 
by any o!r controll+ ag5cy4 ,mean:ile1  
^? :o def5d ! curr5t cre$ allege t 9 !  
abs5ce ( ! guidance x yields1 no        
guidance c exi/3 div9e comm&m5ts !y ?9k 
! only possible guides4 ,?us1 betwe5 ^! 

extreme oppon5ts1 !re is a c]ta9        
community4 ,! "o holds t ! gap left by  
disappe>ance ( ! code ( sup]natural     
e?ics ne$ n be fill$ by a code ( natural
 e?ics1 & ! o!r holds t x _c be s fill$4
 ,bo? contemplate a vacuum1 :i* ! "o    
wi%es & ! o!r fe>s4 ,z ! *ange :i*      
promises or ?reat5s to br+ ab\t ?is     
/ate1 desir$ or dread$1 is rapidly      
progress+1 ^? :o believe t ! vacuum c be
 fill$1 & t x mu/ be fill$1 are call$ on
 to d some?+ 9 pursuance ( _! belief4   
,to ?is m special reason ,i may add a m 
g5]al reason4 ,great mis*ief has be5    
done by ! repell5t aspect habitually    
giv5 to moral rule by its expositors1 & 
imm5se b5efits are to be anticipat$ f   
pres5t+ moral rule "u t attractive      
aspect :i* x has :5 undi/ort$ by        
sup]/ition & asceticism4 ,if a fa!r1    
/]nly en=c+ num]\s comm&s1 "s ne$ful &  
"s ne$less1 adds to 8 sev]e control a   
behavior :olly unsympa!tic2 if 8 *ildr5 
h to take _! pleasures by /eal?1 or1 :5 
timidly look+ up f _! play1 ev] meet a  

cold glance or m frequ5tly a fr[n1 8    
gov]nm5t w inevitably be dislik$1 if n  
hat$1 & ! aim w be to evade x z mu* z   
possible4 ,contr>iwise1 a fa!r :o1      
equally firm 9 ma9ta9+ re/ra9ts ne$ful =
 ! well-be+ ( 8 *ildr5 or ! well-be+ (  
o!r p]sons1 n only avoids ne$less       
re/ra9ts1 b1 giv+ 8 sanction to all     
legitimate gratifications & provid+ !   
means = !m1 looks on at _! gambols ) an 
approv+ smile1 c sc>cely fail to ga9 an 
influ5ce :i*1 no less effici5t = ! "t   
be+1 w also be p]man5tly effici5t4 ,!   
controls ( su* two fa!rs symbolize !    
controls ( ,morality z x is & ,morality 
z x %\ld be4  ,nor does mis*ief result  
only f ?is undue sev]ity ( ! e?ical     
doctr9e bequea!d u by ! h>% pa/4 ,fur!r 
mis*ief results f ! impracticability (  
its ideal4 ,9 viol5t reaction aga9/ !   
utt] selfi%ness ( life z c>ri$ on 9     
b>b>\s societies1 x has insi/$ on a life
 utt]ly unselfi%4 ,b j z ! rampant      
egoism ( a brutal militancy 0 n to be   
rem$i$ by attempts at ! absolute        

subjection ( ! ego 9 conv5ts &          
mona/]ies1 s nei!r is ! misconduct (    
ord9>y humanity1 z n[ exi/+1 to be      
rem$i$ by uphold+ a /&>d ( abnegation   
beyond human a*ievem5t4 ,r ! effect is  
to produce a despair+ ab&onm5t ( all    
attempts at a high] life4 ,& n only does
 an ef=t to a*ieve ! impossible end 9   
?is way1 b x simultane\sly discr$its !  
possible4 ,by association ) rules t _c  
be obey$1 rules t c be obey$ lose _!    
au?ority4  ,mu* adv]se comm5t w1 ,i d\bt
 n1 be pass$ on ! !ory ( "r conduct :i* 
! foll[+ pages %ad[ =?4 ,critics ( a    
c]ta9 class1 f> f rejoic+ t e?ical      
pr9ciples o!rwise d]iv$ by !m1 co9cide )
 e?ical pr9ciples sci5tifically d]iv$1  
are (f5d$ by ! co9cid5ce4 ,in/ead (     
recogniz+ ess5tial lik5ess !y enl>ge on 
sup]ficial diff]5ce4 ,s9ce ! days (     
p]secution1 a curi\s *ange has tak5     
place 9 ! behavior ( s-call$ or?odoxy   
t[>d s-call$ het]odoxy4 ,! "t 0 :5 a    
h]etic1 =c$ by torture to recant1       
satisfi$ au?ority by ext]nal con=mity3  

app>5t agreem5t suffic$1 h[ev] pr(\nd   
cont9u$ to be ! real disagreem5t4 ,b n[ 
t ! h]etic c no long] be co]c$ into     
pr(ess+ ! ord9>y belief1 8 belief is    
made to appe> z mu* oppos$ to ! ord9>y z
 possible4 ,does he div]ge f e/abli%$   
!ological dogma8 ,!n he %all be an a!i/2
 h[ev] inadmissible he consid]s ! t]m4  
,does he ?9k spirituali/ic              
int]pretations ( ph5om5a n valid8 ,!n he
 %all be class$ z a mat]iali/2          
indignantly ?\gh he repudiates ! "n4 ,& 
9 l mann]1 :at diff]5ces exi/ betwe5    
natural morality & sup]natural morality1
 x has become ! policy to exagg]ate into
 fundam5tal antagonisms4 ,9 pursuance ( 
?is policy1 !re w probably be s+l$ out =
 reprobation f ?is volume1 doctr9es :i*1
 tak5 by !mselves1 may readily be made  
to seem utt]ly wrong4 ,) a view to      
cle>ness1 ,i h treat$ sep>ately "s      
correlative aspects ( conduct1 draw+    
conclusions ei!r ( :i* becomes untrue if
 divorc$ f ! o!r2 & h ?us giv5 abundant 
opportunity = misrepres5tation4  ,!     

relations ( ?is "w to works prec$+ x 9 !
 s]ies are su* z to involve frequ5t     
ref]5ce4 ,conta9+1 z x does1 ! outcome (
 pr9ciples set =? 9 ea* ( !m1 ,i h f\nd 
x impracticable to disp5se ) re-/atem5ts
 ( ^? pr9ciples4 ,fur!r1 ! pres5tation (
 !m 9 _! relations to diff]5t e?ical    
!ories1 has made x ne$ful1 9 e case1    
briefly to rem9d ! read] :at !y are1 &  
h[ !y are d]iv$4 ,h5ce an am\nt (       
repetition :i* to "s w probably appe>   
t$i\s4 ,i d n1 h[ev]1 mu* regret ?is    
almo/ unavoidable result2 = only by v>i$
 it]ation c ali5 conceptions be =c$ on  
reluctant m9ds4      ,june1 #ahgi4      
,,cont5ts4     ,,*apt] ,i4              
,,page4    ,conduct 9 ,g5]al            
#a     ,,*apt] ,,ii4    ,! ,evolution ( 
,conduct                      #g        
,,*apt] ,,iii4    ,good & ,bad ,conduct 
#bc     ,,*apt] ,,iv4    ,ways ( ,judg+ 
,conduct                      #ed       
,,*apt] ,v4    ,! ,physical ,view       
#ge     ,,*apt] ,,vi4    ,! ,biological 
,view                          #hh      

,,*apt] ,,vii4    ,! ,psy*ological ,view
                      #aba     ,,*apt]  
,,viii4    ,! ,sociological ,view       
#aeg     ,,*apt] ,,ix4    ,criticisms & 
,explanations                 #agh      
,,*apt] ,x4    ,! ,relativity ( ,pa9s & 
,pleasures       #bjf     ,,*apt] ,,xi4 
,egoism v]sus ,altruism                 
#bba     ,,*apt] ,,xii4    ,altruism    
v]sus ,egoism                      #bcg 
,,*apt] ,,xiii4    ,trial & ,compromise 
#beh     ,,*apt] ,,xiv4    ,conciliation
                                #bhe    
,,*apt] ,,xv4    ,absolute & ,relative  
,e?ics                #cjd     ,,*apt]  
,,xvi4    ,! ,scope ( ,e?ics            
#ccb     ,,! ,,data ,,( ,,e?ics4        
,,*apt] ,i4  ,,conduct ,,9 ,,g5]al4     
#a4 ,! doctr9e t correlatives imply "o  
ano!r--t a fa!r _c be ?\ght ( )\t ?9k+ (
 a *ild1 & t !re c be no consci\sness ( 
sup]ior )\t a consci\sness (            
inf]ior--has = "o ( its common examples 
! necess>y connection betwe5 !          
conceptions ( :ole & "p4 ,beyond !      

prim>y tru? t no idea ( a :ole c be     
fram$ )\t a nasc5t idea ( p>ts con/itut+
 x1 & t no idea ( a "p c be fram$ )\t a 
nasc5t idea ( "s :ole to :i* x belongs1 
!re is ! second>y tru? t !re c be no    
correct idea ( a "p )\t a correct idea (
 ! correlative :ole4 ,!re are sev]al    
ways 9 :i* inadequate k ( ! "o involves 
inadequate k ( ! o!r4  ,if ! "p is      
conceiv$ )\t any ref]5ce to ! :ole1 x   
becomes itself a :ole--an indep5d5t     
entity2 & its relations to exi/5ce 9    
g5]al are misappreh5d$4 ,fur!r1 ! size (
 ! "p z comp>$ ) ! size ( ! :ole mu/ be 
misappreh5d$ unless ! :ole is n only    
recogniz$ z includ+ x1 b is figur$ 9 its
 total ext5t4 ,& aga91 ! position :i* ! 
"p occupies 9 relation to o!r p>ts1 _c  
be rightly conceiv$ unless !re is "s    
conception ( ! :ole 9 its di/ribution z 
well z 9 its am\nt4  ,/ill m :5 "p &    
:ole1 in/ead ( be+ /atically relat$     
only1 are dynamically relat$1 mu/ !re be
 a g5]al und]/&+ ( ! :ole be=e ! "p c be
 und]/ood4 ,by a savage :o has nev] se5 

a vehicle1 no idea c be =m$ ( ! use &   
action ( a :eel4 ,to !                  
unsymmetrically-pi]c$ disk ( an         
ecc5tric1 no place or purpose c be      
ascrib$ by a ru/ic unacqua9t$ ) ma*9]y4 
,ev5 a me*anician1 if he has nev] look$ 
into a piano1 w1 if %[n a damp]1 be     
unable to conceive its function or      
relative value4  ,mo/ ( all1 h[ev]1 :]e 
! :ole is organic1 does complete        
compreh5sion ( a "p imply ext5sive      
compreh5sion ( ! :ole4 ,suppose a be+   
ignorant ( ! human body to f9d a deta*$ 
arm4 ,if n misconceiv$ by him z a       
suppos$ :ole1 in/ead ( be+ conceiv$ z a 
"p1 /ill its relations to o!r p>ts1 &   
its /ructure1 w\ld be :olly             
inexplicable4 ,admitt+ t ! co-op]ation (
 its bones & muscles might be div9$1 yet
 no ?\ght c\ld be fram$ ( ! %>e tak5 by 
! arm 9 ! actions ( ! unkn[n :ole x     
belong$ to2 nor c\ld any int]pretation  
be put ^u ! n]ves & vessels ramify+     
?r\gh x1 :i* sev]ally ref] to c]ta9     
c5tral organs4 ,a !ory ( ! /ructure ( ! 

arm implies a !ory ( ! /ructure ( ! body
 at l>ge4  ,& ?is tru? holds n ( mat]ial
 aggregates only1 b ( immat]ial         
aggregates--aggregat$ motions1 de$s1    
?\ghts1 words4 ,! moon's movem5ts _c be 
fully int]pret$ )\t tak+ into acc\nt !  
movem5ts ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em at l>ge4 ,!   
process ( load+ a gun is mean+less until
 ! subsequ5t actions p]=m$ ) ! gun are  
kn[n4 ,a fragm5t ( a s5t5ce1 if n       
un9telligible1 is wrongly int]pret$ 9 ! 
abs5ce ( ! rema9d]4 ,cut (f its beg9n+ &
 end1 & ! re/ ( a demon/ration proves   
no?+4 ,evid5ce giv5 by a pla9tiff (t5   
misleads until ! evid5ce :i* ! def5dant 
produces is jo9$ ) x4    #b4 ,conduct is
 a :ole2 &1 9 a s5se1 x is an organic   
:ole--an aggregate ( int]-dep5d5t       
actions p]=m$ by an organism4 ,t        
division or aspect ( conduct ) :i*      
,e?ics deals1 is a "p ( ?is organic     
:ole--a "p hav+ its compon5ts           
inextricably b\nd up ) ! re/4 ,z        
curr5tly conceiv$1 /irr+ ! fire1 or     
read+ a newspap]1 or eat+ a meal1 are   

acts ) :i* ,morality has no conc]n4     
,op5+ ! w9d[ to air ! room1 putt+ on an 
ov]coat :5 ! wea!r is cold1 are ?\ght ( 
z hav+ no e?ical significance4 ,^!1     
h[ev]1 are all portions ( conduct4 ,!   
behavior we call good & ! behavior we   
call bad1 are includ$1 along ) !        
behavior we call indiff]5t1 "u !        
conception ( behavior at l>ge4 ,! :ole (
 :i* ,e?ics =ms a "p1 is ! :ole         
con/itut$ by ! !ory ( conduct 9 g5]al2 &
 ?is :ole mu/ be und]/ood be=e ! "p c be
 und]/ood4 ,let u consid] ?is           
proposition m closely4  ,& fir/1 h[ %all
 we def9e conduct8 ,x is n co-ext5sive )
 ! aggregate ( actions1 ?\gh x is ne>ly 
s4 ,su* actions z ^? ( an epileptic 9 a 
fit are n includ$ 9 our conception (    
conduct3 ! conception excludes          
purposeless actions4 ,& 9 recogniz+ ?is 
exclusion1 we simultane\sly recognize   
all t is includ$4 ,! def9ition ( conduct
 :i* em]ges is ei!r acts adju/$ to ends1
 or else ! adju/m5t ( acts to ends1     
accord+ z we contemplate ! =m$ body (   

acts1 or ?9k ( ! =m alone4 ,& conduct 9 
its full acceptation mu/ be tak5 z      
compreh5d+ all adju/m5ts ( acts to ends1
 f ! simple/ to ! mo/ complex1 :atev] _!
 special natures & :e!r consid]$        
sep>ately or 9 _! totality4  ,conduct 9 
g5]al be+ ?us di/+ui%$ f ! some:at l>g] 
:ole con/itut$ by actions 9 g5]al1 let u
 next ask :at di/9ction is habitually   
made betwe5 ! conduct on :i* e?ical     
judgm5ts are pass$ & ! rema9d] (        
conduct4 ,z already said1 a l>ge "p (   
ord9>y conduct is indiff]5t4 ,%all ,i   
walk to ! wat]fall to-day8 or %all ,i   
ramble along ! sea-%ore8 ,"h ! ends are 
e?ically indiff]5t4 ,if ,i g to !       
wat]fall1 %all ,i g ov] ! moor or take !
 pa? ?r\gh ! wood8 ,"h ! means are      
e?ically indiff]5t4 ,& f h\r to h\r mo/ 
( ! ?+s we d are n to be judg$ z ei!r   
good or bad 9 respect ( ei!r ends or    
means4  ,no less cle> is x t !          
transition f indiff]5t acts to acts :i* 
are good or bad is gradual4 ,if a fri5d 
:o is ) me has explor$ ! sea-%ore1 b has

 n se5 ! wat]fall1 ! *oice ( "o or o!r  
end is no long] e?ically indiff]5t4 ,&  
if1 ! wat]fall be+ fix$ on z our goal1 !
 way ov] ! moor is too long = 8 /r5g?1  
:ile ! %ort] way ?r\gh ! wood is n1 !   
*oice ( means is no long] e?ically      
indiff]5t4 ,aga91 if a probable result (
 mak+ ! "o excursion r ?an ! o!r1 is t  
,i %all n be back 9 "t to keep an       
appo9tm5t1 or if tak+ ! long] r\te      
entails ?is risk :ile tak+ ! %ort] does 
n1 ! decision 9 favor ( "o or o!r end or
 means acquires 9 ano!r way an e?ical   
"*2 & if ! appo9tm5t is "o ( "s         
importance1 or "o ( great importance1 or
 "o ( life-&-dea? importance1 to self or
 o!rs1 ! e?ical "* becomes pron\nc$4 ,^!
 in/ances w suffici5tly sugge/ ! tru? t 
conduct ) :i* ,morality is n conc]n$1   
passes into conduct :i* is moral or     
immoral1 by small degrees & 9 c\ntless  
ways4  ,b ! conduct t has to be conceiv$
 sci5tifically be=e we c sci5tifically  
conceive ^? modes ( conduct :i* are !   
objects ( e?ical judgm5ts1 is a conduct 

imm5sely wid] 9 range ?an t j indicat$4 
,complete compreh5sion ( conduct is n to
 be obta9$ by contemplat+ ! conduct (   
human be+s only2 we h to reg>d ?is z a  
"p ( univ]sal conduct--conduct z        
exhibit$ by all liv+ creatures4 ,=      
evid5tly ?is comes )9 our               
def9ition--acts adju/$ to ends4 ,!      
conduct ( ! high] animals z comp>$ ) t (
 man1 & ! conduct ( ! l[] animals z     
comp>$ ) t ( ! high]1 ma9ly diff] 9 ?is1
 t ! adju/m5ts ( acts to ends are       
relatively simple & relatively          
incomplete4 ,& z 9 o!r cases1 s 9 ?is   
case1 we mu/ int]pret ! m develop$ by ! 
less develop$4 ,j z1 fully to und]/& !  
"p ( conduct :i* ,e?ics deals )1 we mu/ 
/udy human conduct z a :ole2 s1 fully to
 und]/& human conduct z a :ole1 we mu/  
/udy x z a "p ( t l>g] :ole con/itut$ by
 ! conduct ( animate be+s 9 g5]al4  ,nor
 is ev5 ?is :ole conceiv$ ) ! ne$ful    
fullness1 s long z we ?9k only ( !      
conduct at pres5t display$ ar\nd u4 ,we 
h to include 9 our conception !         

less-develop$ conduct out ( :i* ?is has 
aris5 9 c\rse ( "t4 ,we h to reg>d !    
conduct n[ %[n u by creatures ( all     
ord]s1 z an outcome ( ! conduct :i* has 
br\ght life ( e k9d to its pres5t       
height4 ,& ?is is tantam\nt to say+ t   
our prep>atory /ep mu/ be to /udy !     
evolution ( conduct4     ,,*apt] ,,ii4  
,,! ,,evolution ,,( ,,conduct4    #c4   
,we h become q famili> ) ! idea ( an    
evolution ( /ructures ?r\gh\t ! asc5d+  
types ( animals4 ,to a consid]able      
degree we h become famili> ) ! ?\ght t  
an evolution ( functions has gone on p>i
 passu ) ! evolution ( /ructures4 ,n[1  
advanc+ a /ep1 we h to frame a          
conception ( ! evolution ( conduct1 z   
correlat$ ) ?is evolution ( /ructures & 
functions4  ,^! ?ree subjects are to be 
def9itely di/+ui%$4 ,obvi\sly ! facts   
comp>ative morphology sets =?1 =m a :ole
 :i*1 ?\gh x _c be treat$ 9 g5]al or 9  
detail )\t tak+ into acc\nt facts       
belong+ to comp>ative physiology1 is    
ess5tially indep5d5t4 ,no less cle> is x

 t we may devote our att5tion           
exclusively to t progressive            
diff]5tiation ( functions1 & comb9ation 
( functions1 :i* accompanies !          
developm5t ( /ructures--may say no m    
ab\t ! *>act]s & connections ( organs   
?an is impli$ 9 describ+ _! sep>ate &   
jo9t actions4 ,& ! subject ( conduct    
lies outside ! subject ( functions1 if n
 z f> z ?is lies outside ! subject (    
/ructures1 /ill1 f> en\gh to make x     
sub/antially sep>ate4 ,= ^? functions   
:i* are already v>i\sly comp\nd$ to     
a*ieve :at we reg>d z s+le bodily acts1 
are endlessly recomp\nd$ to a*ieve t    
co-ord9ation ( bodily acts :i* is kn[n z
 conduct4  ,we are conc]n$ ) functions 9
 ! true s5se1 :ile we ?9k ( !m z        
processes c>ri$ on )9 ! body2 &1 )\t    
exce$+ ! limits ( physiology1 we may    
treat ( _! adju/$ comb9ations1 s long z 
^! are reg>d$ z p>ts ( ! vital cons5sus4
 ,if we obs]ve h[ ! lungs arate ! blood 
:i* ! he>t s5ds to !m2 h[ he>t & lungs  
toge!r supply arat$ blood to ! /oma*1 & 

s enable x to d its "w2 h[ ^! co-op]ate 
) sundry secret+ & excret+ gl&s to fur!r
 dige/ion & to remove wa/e matt]2 & h[  
all ( !m jo9 to keep ! bra9 9 a fit     
condition = c>ry+ on ^? actions :i*     
indirectly conduce to ma9t5ance ( ! life
 at l>ge2 we are deal+ ) functions4 ,ev5
 :5 consid]+ h[ p>ts t act directly on !
 environm5t--legs1 arms1 w+s--p]=m _!   
duties1 we are /ill conc]n$ ) functions 
9 t aspect ( !m con/itut+ physiology1 s 
long z we re/rict our att5tion to       
int]nal processes1 & to int]nal         
comb9ations ( !m4  ,b we ent] on !      
subject ( conduct :5 we beg9 to /udy su*
 comb9ations among ! actions ( s5sory & 
motor organs z are ext]nally manife/$4  
,suppose t in/ead ( obs]v+ ^?           
contractions ( muscles by :i* ! optic   
axes are conv]g$ & ! foci ( ! eyes      
adju/$ 7:i* is a portion ( physiology71 
& t in/ead ( obs]v+ ! co-op]ation ( o!r 
n]ves1 muscles & bones1 by :i* a h& is  
mov$ to a p>ticul> place & ! f+]s clos$ 
7:i* is also a portion ( physiology71 we

 obs]ve a weapon be+ seiz$ by a h& "u   
guidance ( ! eyes4 ,we n[ pass f ! ?\ght
 ( comb9$ int]nal functions to ! ?\ght (
 comb9$ ext]nal motions4 ,d\btless1 if  
we c\ld trace ! c]ebral processes :i*   
accompany ^!1 we %\ld f9d an inn]       
physiological co-ord9ation correspond+ )
 ! out] co-ord9ation ( actions4 ,b ?is  
admission is consi/5t ) ! ass]tion1 t :5
 we ignore ! int]nal comb9ation & att5d 
only to ! ext]nal comb9ation1 we pass f 
a portion ( physiology to a portion (   
conduct4 ,= ?\gh x may be object$ t !   
ext]nal comb9ation in/anc$ is too simple
 to be rightly includ$ "u ! "n conduct1 
yet a mom5t's ?\ght %[s t x is jo9$ )   
:at we call conduct by ins5sible        
gradations4 ,suppose ! weapon seiz$ is  
us$ to w>d (f a bl[4 ,suppose a         
c\nt]-bl[ is giv54 ,suppose ! aggressor 
runs & is *as$4 ,suppose !re comes a    
/ruggle & a h&+ him ov] to ! police4    
,suppose !re foll[ ! _m & v>i$ acts     
con/itut+ a prosecution4 ,obvi\sly !    
initial adju/m5t ( an act to an end1    

insep>able f ! re/1 mu/ be includ$ ) !m 
"u ! same g5]al head2 & obvi\sly f ?is  
initial simple adju/m5t1 hav+           
intr9sically no moral "*1 we pass by    
degrees to ! mo/ complex adju/m5ts & to 
^? on :i* moral judgm5ts are pass$4     
,h5ce1 exclud+ all int]nal              
co-ord9ations1 our subject "h is !      
aggregate ( all ext]nal co-ord9ations2 &
 ?is aggregate includes n only ! simple/
 z well z ! mo/ complex p]=m$ by human  
be+s1 b also ^? p]=m$ by all inf]ior    
be+s consid]$ z less or m evolv$4    #d4
 ,already ! "q3 ,:at con/itutes advance 
9 ! evolution ( conduct1 z we trace x up
 f ! l[e/ types ( liv+ creatures to !   
highe/8 has be5 answ]$ by implication4  
,a few examples w n[ br+ ! answ] into   
conspicu\s relief4  ,we saw t conduct is
 di/+ui%$ f ! totality ( actions by     
exclud+ purposeless actions2 b dur+     
evolution ?is di/9ction arises by       
degrees4 ,9 ! v l[e/ creatures mo/ ( !  
movem5ts f mom5t to mom5t made1 h n m   
recognizable aims ?an h ! /ruggles ( an 

epileptic4 ,an infusorium swims r&omly  
ab\t1 det]m9$ 9 its c\rse n by a p]ceiv$
 object to be pursu$ or escap$1 b1      
app>5tly1 by v>y+ /imuli 9 its m$ium2 & 
its acts1 unadju/$ 9 any appreciable way
 to ends1 lead x n[ into contact ) "s   
nutritive sub/ance :i* x absorbs1 & n[  
into ! neighborhood ( "s creature by :i*
 x is swall[$ & dige/$4 ,lack+ ^?       
develop$ s5ses & motor p[]s :i* high]   
animals possess1 n9ety-n9e 9 ! hundr$ ( 
^! m9ute animals1 sev]ally liv+ = b a   
few h\rs1 disappe> ei!r by innutrition  
or by de/ruction4 ,! conduct is         
con/itut$ ( actions s little adju/$ to  
ends1 t life cont9ues only z long z !   
accid5ts ( ! environm5t are favorable4  
,b :51 among aquatic creatures1 we      
obs]ve "o :i*1 ?\gh /ill l[ 9 type1 is  
mu* high] ?an ! infusorium--say a       
rotif]--we see h[1 along ) l>g] size1 m 
develop$ /ructures1 & great] p[] (      
comb9+ functions1 !re goes an advance 9 
conduct4 ,we see h[ by its :irl+ cilia x
 sucks 9 z food ^! small animals mov+   

ar\nd2 h[ by its preh5sile tail x fixes 
itself to "s fit object2 h[ by )draw+   
its out] organs & contract+ its body1 x 
pres]ves itself f ?is or t injury f "t  
to "t ?reat5$2 & h[ ?us1 by bett] adju/+
 its own actions1 x becomes less dep5d5t
 on ! actions go+ on ar\nd1 & s pres]ves
 itself = a long] p]iod4  ,a sup]ior    
sub-k+dom1 z ! ,mollusca1 /ill bett]    
exemplifies ?is contra/4 ,:5 we comp>e a
 l[ mollusc1 su* z a float+ ascidian1 ) 
a high mollusc1 su* z a cephalopod1 we  
are aga9 %[n t great] organic evolution 
is accompani$ by m evolv$ conduct4 ,at !
 m]cy ( e m>9e creature l>ge en\gh to   
swall[ x1 & drift$ ab\t by curr5ts :i*  
may *ance to keep x at sea1 or may *ance
 to leave x fatally /r&$1 ! ascidian    
displays b little adju/m5t ( acts to    
ends 9 comp>ison ) ! cephalopod2 :i*1 n[
 crawl+ ov] ! bea*1 n[ explor+ ! rocky  
crevices1 n[ swimm+ ?r\gh ! op5 wat]1 n[
 d>t+ aft] a fi%1 n[ hid+ itself f "s   
l>g] animal 9 a cl\d ( ink1 & us+ its   
suck]$ arms at "o "t = an*or+ itself &  

at ano!r = hold+ fa/ its prey2 selects &
 comb9es & proportions its movem5ts f   
m9ute to m9ute1 s z to evade dang]s :i* 
?reat51 :ile utiliz+ *ances ( food :i*  
(f]3 s %[+ u v>i$ activities :i*1 9     
a*iev+ special ends1 a*ieve ! g5]al end 
( secur+ cont9uance ( ! activities4     
,among v]tebrate animals we simil>ly    
trace up1 along ) advance 9 /ructures & 
functions1 ?is advance 9 conduct4 ,a fi%
 roam+ ab\t at haz>d 9 se>* ( some?+ to 
eat1 able to detect x by smell or sight 
only )9 %ort di/ances1 & n[ & aga9 ru%+ 
away 9 al>m on ! approa* ( a bigg] fi%1 
makes adju/m5ts ( acts to ends t are    
relatively few & simple 9 _! k9ds2 & %[s
 u1 z a consequ5ce1 h[ small is ! av]age
 duration ( life4 ,s few survive to     
maturity t1 to make up = de/ruction (   
unhat*$ "y & small fry & half-gr[n      
individuals1 a million ova h to be      
spawn$ by a cod-fi% t two may rea* !    
spawn+ age4 ,conv]sely1 by a            
highly-evolv$ mammal1 su* z an elephant1
 ^? g5]al actions p]=m$ 9 common ) ! fi%

 are f> bett] adju/$ to _! ends4 ,by    
sight z well1 probably1 z by odor1 x    
detects food at relatively great        
di/ances2 & :51 at int]vals1 !re arises 
a ne$ = escape1 relatively great spe$ is
 atta9$4 ,b ! *ief diff]5ce arises f !  
addition ( new sets ( adju/m5ts4 ,we h  
comb9$ actions :i* facilitate           
nutrition--! break+ (f ( succul5t &     
fruit-be>+ bran*es1 ! select+ ( edible  
gr[?s ?r\gh\t a comp>atively wide rea*2 
&1 9 case ( dang]1 safety c be a*iev$ n 
by flight only1 b1 if necess>y1 by      
def5ce or attack3 br++ into comb9$ use  
tusks1 trunk & pond]\s feet4 ,fur!r1 we 
see v>i\s subsidi>y acts adju/$ to      
subsidi>y ends--n[ ! go+ into a riv] =  
coolness1 & us+ ! trunk z a means (     
project+ wat] ov] ! body2 n[ ! employm5t
 ( a b\gh = sweep+ away flies f ! back2 
n[ ! mak+ ( signal s\nds to al>m ! h]d1 
& adapt+ ! actions to su* s\nds :5 made 
by o!rs4 ,evid5tly1 ! effect ( ?is m    
highly-evolv$ conduct is to secure !    
balance ( ! organic actions ?r\gh\t f>  

long] p]iods4  ,& n[1 on /udy+ ! do+s ( 
! highe/ ( mammals1 mank9d1 we n only   
f9d t ! adju/m5ts ( acts to ends are bo?
 m num]\s & bett] ?an among l[] mammals1
 b we f9d ! same ?+ on comp>+ ! do+s (  
high] races ( m5 ) ^? ( l[] races4 ,if  
we take any "o ( ! major ends a*iev$1 we
 see great] complet5ess ( a*ievem5t by  
civiliz$ ?an by savage2 & we also see an
 a*ievem5t ( relatively num]\s m9or ends
 subs]v+ major ends4 ,is x 9 nutrition8 
,! food is obta9$ m regul>ly 9 response 
to appetite2 x is f> high] 9 quality2 x 
is free f dirt2 x is great] 9 v>iety2 x 
is bett] prep>$4 ,is x 9 w>m?8 ,!       
*>act]s ( ! fabrics & =ms ( ! articles  
us$ = clo?+1 & ! adaptations ( !m to    
requirem5ts f day to day & h\r to h\r1  
are mu* sup]ior4 ,is x 9 dwell+s8       
,betwe5 ! %elt] ( b\ghs & grass :i* !   
l[e/ savage builds1 & ! mansion ( !     
civiliz$ man1 ! contra/ 9 aspect is n m 
extreme ?an is ! contra/ 9 numb] &      
effici5cy ( ! adju/m5ts ( acts to ends  
betray$ 9 _! respective con/ructions4 ,&

 :5 ) ! ord9>y activities ( ! savage we 
comp>e ! ord9>y civiliz$ activities--z !
 bus9ess ( ! trad]1 :i* involves        
multipli$ & complex transactions ext5d+ 
ov] long p]iods1 or z pr(essional       
avocations1 prep>$ = by elaborate       
/udies1 & daily c>ri$ on 9 endlessly    
v>i$ =ms1 or z political discussions &  
agitations1 direct$ n[ to ! c>ry+ ( ?is 
measure & n[ to ! defeat+ ( t--we see   
sets ( adju/m5ts ( acts to ends1 n only 
imm5sely exce$+ ^? se5 among l[] races (
 m5 9 v>iety & intricacy1 b sets to :i* 
l[] races ( m5 pres5t no?+ analog\s4 ,& 
along ) ?is great] elaboration ( life   
produc$ by ! pursuit ( m num]\s ends1   
!re goes t increas$ duration ( life :i* 
con/itutes ! supreme end4  ,& "h is     
sugge/$ ! ne$ = supplem5t+ ?is          
conception ( evolv+ conduct4 ,= besides 
be+ an improv+ adju/m5t ( acts to ends1 
su* z fur!rs prolongation ( life1 x is  
su* z fur!rs increas$ am\nt ( life4     
,reconsid]ation ( ! examples above giv5 
w %[ t l5g? ( life is n by itself a     

measure ( evolution ( conduct2 b t      
quantity ( life mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt4
 ,an oy/]1 adapt$ by its /ructure to !  
diffus$ food conta9$ 9 ! wat] x draws 91
 & %ield$ by its %ell f ne>ly all       
dang]s1 may live long] ?an a cuttle-fi%1
 :i* has su* sup]ior p[]s ( deal+ )     
num]\s cont+5cies2 b !n1 ! sum ( vital  
activities dur+ any giv5 int]val is f>  
less 9 ! oy/] ?an 9 ! cuttle-fi%4 ,s a  
worm1 ord9>ily %elt]$ f mo/ enemies by !
 e>? x burr[s ?r\gh1 :i* also supplies a
 suffici5cy ( its poor food1 may h      
great] longevity ?an _m ( its annulose  
relatives1 ! insects2 b "o ( ^! dur+ its
 exi/5ce z l>va & imago1 may exp]i5ce a 
great] quantity ( ! *anges :i* con/itute
 life4 ,nor is x o!rwise :5 we comp>e ! 
m evolv$ ) ! less evolv$ among mank9d4  
,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! av]age l5g?s ( !   
lives ( savage & civiliz$ is no true    
measure ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! totalities
 ( _! two lives1 consid]$ z aggregates (
 ?\ght1 feel+ & action4 ,h5ce1 e/imat+  
life by multiply+ its l5g? into its     

bread?1 we mu/ say t ! augm5tation ( x  
:i* accompanies evolution ( conduct1    
results f increase ( bo? factors4 ,! m  
multipli$ & v>i$ adju/m5ts ( acts to    
ends1 by :i* ! m develop$ creature f h\r
 to h\r fulfills m num]\s requirem5ts1  
sev]ally add to ! activities t are c>ri$
 on abrea/1 & sev]ally help to make     
great] ! p]iod ?r\gh :i* su* simultane\s
 activities endure4 ,ea* fur!r evolution
 ( conduct wid5s ! aggregate ( actions  
:ile conduc+ to elongation ( x4    #e4  
,turn we n[ to a fur!r aspect ( !       
ph5om5a1 sep>ate f1 b necess>ily        
associat$ )1 ! la/4 ,?us f> we h        
consid]$ only ^? adju/m5ts ( acts to    
ends :i* h = _! f9al purpose complete   
individual life4 ,n[ we h to consid] ^? 
adju/m5ts :i* h to _! f9al purpose !    
life ( ! species4  ,self-pres]vation 9  
ea* g5]ation has all along dep5d$ on !  
pres]vation ( (fspr+ by prec$+          
g5]ations4 ,& 9 proportion z evolution (
 ! conduct subs]v+ individual life is   
high1 imply+ high organization1 !re mu/ 

previ\sly h be5 a highly-evolv$ conduct 
subs]v+ nurture ( ! "y4 ,?r\gh\t !      
asc5d+ grades ( ! animal k+dom1 ?is     
second k9d ( conduct pres5ts /ages (    
advance l ^? :i* we h obs]v$ 9 ! fir/4  
,l[ d[n1 :]e /ructures & functions are  
little develop$1 & ! p[] ( adju/+ acts  
to ends b slight1 !re is no conduct1    
prop]ly s nam$1 fur!r+ salvation ( !    
species4 ,race-ma9ta9+ conduct1 l       
self-ma9ta9+ conduct1 arises gradually  
out ( t :i* _c be call$ conduct3 adju/$ 
actions are prec$$ by unadju/$ ones4    
,protozoa spontane\sly divide &         
sub-divide1 9 consequ5ce ( physical     
*anges ov] :i* !y h no control2 or1 at  
o!r times1 aft] a p]iod ( quiesc5ce1    
break up into m9ute portions :i*        
sev]ally gr[ into new individuals4 ,9   
nei!r case c conduct be alleg$4 ,high]  
up1 ! process is t ( rip5+1 at int]vals1
 g]m-cells & sp]m-cells1 :i*1 on        
occasion1 are s5t =? into ! surr\nd+    
wat] & left to _! fate3 p]haps "o 9 t5  
?\s& surviv+ to maturity4 ,"h1 aga91 we 

see only developm5t & disp]sion go+ on  
ap>t f p>5tal c>e4 ,types above ^!1 z   
fi% :i* *oose fit places 9 :i* to       
deposit _! ova1 or z ! high] cru/aceans 
:i* c>ry masses ( ova ab\t until !y are 
hat*$1 exhibit adju/m5ts ( acts to ends 
:i* we may prop]ly call conduct1 ?\gh x 
is ( ! simple/ k9d4 ,:]e1 z among c]ta9 
fi%1 ! male keeps gu>d ov] ! eggs1 driv+
 away intrud]s1 !re is an additional    
adju/m5t ( acts to ends2 & !            
applicability ( ! "n conduct is m       
decid$4  ,pass+ at once to creatures f> 
sup]ior1 su* z birds1 :i*1 build+ ne/s &
 sitt+ on _! eggs1 fe$ _! broods =      
consid]able p]iods1 & give !m aid aft]  
!y c fly2 or su* z mammals :i*1 suckl+  
_! "y = a "t1 cont9ue aft]w>d to br+ !m 
food or protect !m :ile !y fe$1 until !y
 rea* ages at :i* !y c provide =        
!mselves2 we are %[n h[ ?is conduct :i* 
fur!rs race-ma9t5ance evolves h&-9-h& ) 
! conduct :i* fur!rs self-ma9t5ance4 ,t 
bett] organization :i* makes possible ! 
la/1 makes possible ! fir/ also4        

,mank9d exhibit a great progress ( l    
nature4 ,comp>$ ) brutes1 ! savage1     
high] 9 8 self-ma9ta9+ conduct1 is high]
 too 9 8 race-ma9ta9+ conduct4 ,a l>g]  
numb] ( ! wants ( (fspr+ are provid$ =2 
& p>5tal c>e1 endur+ long]1 ext5ds to ! 
discipl9+ ( (fspr+ 9 arts & habits :i*  
fit !m = _! conditions ( exi/5ce4       
,conduct ( ?is ord]1 equally ) conduct (
 ! fir/ ord]1 we see becom+ evolv$ 9 a  
/ill great] degree z we asc5d f savage  
to civiliz$4 ,! adju/m5ts ( acts to ends
 9 ! re>+ ( *ildr5 become f> m          
elaborate1 alike 9 numb] ( ends met1    
v>iety ( means us$1 & effici5cy ( _!    
adaptations2 & ! aid & ov]sight are     
cont9u$ ?r\gh\t a mu* great] "p ( e>ly  
life4  ,9 trac+ up ! evolution (        
conduct1 s t we may frame a true        
conception ( conduct 9 g5]al1 we h ?us  
to recognize ^! two k9ds z mutually     
dep5d5t4 ,speak+ g5]ally1 nei!r c evolve
 )\t evolution ( ! o!r2 & ! highe/      
evolutions ( ! two mu/ be rea*$         
simultane\sly4    #f4 ,to conclude1     

h[ev]1 t on rea*+ a p]fect adju/m5t (   
acts to ends subs]v+ individual life & !
 re>+ ( (fspr+1 ! evolution ( conduct   
becomes complete1 is to conclude        
errone\sly4 ,or r1 ,i %\ld say1 x is an 
error to suppose t ei!r ( ^! k9ds (     
conduct c assume its highe/ =m1 )\t its 
highe/ =m be+ assum$ by a ?ird k9d (    
conduct yet to be nam$4  ,! multitud9\s 
creatures ( all k9ds :i* fill ! e>?1 _c 
live :olly ap>t f "o ano!r1 b are m or  
less 9 pres5ce ( "o ano!r--are int]f]$ )
 by "o ano!r4 ,9 l>ge measure !         
adju/m5ts ( acts to ends :i* we h be5   
consid]+1 are compon5ts ( t /ruggle =   
exi/5ce c>ri$ on bo? betwe5 memb]s ( !  
same species & betwe5 memb]s ( diff]5t  
species2 &1 v g5]ally1 a successful     
adju/m5t made by "o creature involves an
 unsuccessful adju/m5t made by ano!r    
creature1 ei!r ( ! same k9d or ( a      
diff]5t k9d4 ,t ! c>nivore may live     
h]bivores mu/ die2 & t its "y may be    
re>$ ! "y ( weak] creatures mu/ be      
orphan$4 ,ma9t5ance ( ! hawk & its brood

 involves ! dea?s ( _m small birds2 & t 
small birds may multiply1 _! prog5y mu/ 
be f$ ) innum]able sacrific$ worms &    
l>v4 ,competition among memb]s ( ! same 
species has alli$1 ?\gh less conspicu\s1
 results4 ,! /rong] (t5 c>ries (f by =ce
 ! prey :i* ! weak] has caught4         
,monopoliz+ c]ta9 hunt+ gr\nds1 ! m     
f]oci\s drive o!rs ( _! k9d into less   
favorable places4 ,) plant-eat+ animals1
 too1 ! l holds3 ! bett] food is secur$ 
by ! m vigor\s individuals1 :ile ! less 
vigor\s & worse f$1 succumb ei!r        
directly f innutrition or indirectly f  
result+ inability to escape enemies4 ,t 
is to say1 among creatures ^: lives are 
c>ri$ on antagoni/ically1 ea* ( ! two   
k9ds ( conduct del9eat$ above1 mu/ rema9
 imp]fectly evolv$4 ,ev5 9 su* few k9ds 
( !m z h little to fe> f enemies or     
competitors1 z lions or tig]s1 !re is   
/ill inevitable failure 9 ! adju/m5ts ( 
acts to ends t[>d ! close ( life4 ,dea? 
by />vation f inability to cat* prey1   
%[s a fall+ %ort ( conduct f its ideal4 

,?is imp]fectly-evolv$ conduct          
introduces u by anti!sis to conduct t is
 p]fectly evolv$4 ,contemplat+ ^!       
adju/m5ts ( acts to ends :i* miss       
complet5ess because !y _c be made by "o 
creature )\t o!r creatures be+ prev5t$ f
 mak+ !m1 raises ! ?\ght ( adju/m5ts su*
 t ea* creature may make !m )\t prev5t+ 
!m f be+ made by o!r creatures4 ,t !    
highe/ =m ( conduct mu/ be s di/+ui%$1  
is an inevitable implication2 =1 :ile ! 
=m ( conduct is su* t adju/m5ts ( acts  
to ends by "s necessitate non-adju/m5ts 
by o!rs1 !re rema9s room = modifications
 :i* br+ conduct into a =m avoid+ ?is1 &
 s mak+ ! totality ( life great]4  ,f ! 
ab/ract let u pass to ! concrete4       
,recogniz+ m5 z ! be+s ^: conduct is mo/
 evolv$1 let u ask "u :at conditions _! 
conduct1 9 all ?ree aspects ( its       
evolution1 rea*es its limit4 ,cle>ly    
:ile ! lives l$ are entirely pr$atory1 z
 ^? ( savages1 ! adju/m5ts ( acts to    
ends fall %ort ( ?is highe/ =m ( conduct
 9 e way4 ,individual life1 ill c>ri$ on

 f h\r to h\r1 is prematurely cut %ort2 
! fo/]+ ( (fspr+ (t5 fails1 & is        
incomplete :5 x does n fail2 & 9 s f> z 
! ends ( self-ma9t5ance & race-ma9t5ance
 are met1 !y are met by de/ruction ( o!r
 be+s ( diff]5t k9d or ( l k9d4 ,9      
social gr\ps =m$ by comp\nd+ &          
re-comp\nd+ primitive hordes1 conduct   
rema9s imp]fectly evolv$ 9 proportion z 
!re cont9ue antagonisms betwe5 ! gr\ps &
 antagonisms betwe5 memb]s ( ! same     
gr\p--two traits necess>ily associat$2  
s9ce ! nature :i* prompts int]national  
aggression prompts aggression (         
individuals on "o ano!r4 ,h5ce ! limit (
 evolution c be rea*$ by conduct only 9 
p]man5tly peaceful societies4 ,t p]fect 
adju/m5t ( acts to ends 9 ma9ta9+       
individual life & re>+ new individuals1 
:i* is effect$ by ea* )\t h9d]+ o!rs f  
effect+ l p]fect adju/m5ts1 is1 9 its v 
def9ition1 %[n to con/itute a k9d (     
conduct t c be approa*$ only z w>       
decreases & dies out4  ,a gap 9 ?is     
outl9e mu/ n[ be fill$ up4 ,!re rema9s a

 fur!r advance n yet ev5 h9t$4 ,= beyond
 s behav+ t ea* a*ieves 8 ends )\t      
prev5t+ o!rs f a*iev+ _! ends1 ! memb]s 
( a society may give mutual help 9 !    
a*ievem5t ( ends4 ,& if1 ei!r indirectly
 by indu/rial co-op]ation1 or directly  
by volunte]$ aid1 fell[-citiz5s c make  
easi] = "o ano!r ! adju/m5ts ( acts to  
ends1 !n _! conduct assumes a /ill high]
 phase ( evolution2 s9ce :atev]         
facilitates ! mak+ ( adju/m5ts by ea*1  
increases ! totality ( ! adju/m5ts made1
 & s]ves to r5d] ! lives ( all m        
complete4    #g4 ,! read] :o recalls    
c]ta9 passages 9 ,fir/ ,pr9ciples1 9 !  
,pr9ciples ( ,biology1 & 9 ! ,pr9ciples 
( ,psy*ology1 w p]ceive above a         
re/atem5t1 9 ano!r =m1 ( g5]alizations  
set =? 9 ^? works4 ,especially w he be  
rem9d$ ( ! proposition t ,life is !     
def9ite comb9ation ( het]og5e\s *anges1 
bo? simultane\s & successive1 9         
correspond5ce ) ext]nal co-exi/5ces &   
sequ5ces2 & /ill m ( t abridg$ & less   
specific =mula1 9 :i* ,life is said to  

be ! cont9u\s adju/m5t ( int]nal        
relations to ext]nal relations4  ,!     
pres5tation ( ! facts "h made diff]s f !
 pres5tations be=e made1 ma9ly by ignor+
 ! inn] "p ( ! correspond5ce & att5d+   
exclusively to t out] "p con/itut$ (    
visible actions4 ,b ! two are 9 h>mony2 
& ! read] :o wi%es fur!r to prep>e      
himself = deal+ ) our pres5t topic f !  
evolution po9t ( view1 may advantage\sly
 jo9 to ! =ego+ m special aspect ( !    
ph5om5a1 ! m g5]al aspects be=e         
del9eat$4  ,aft] ?is pass+ rem>k1 ,i    
recur to ! ma9 proposition set =? 9 ^!  
two *apt]s1 :i* has1 ,i ?9k1 be5 fully  
ju/ifi$4 ,guid$ by ! tru? t z ! conduct 
) :i* ,e?ics deals is "p ( conduct at   
l>ge1 conduct at l>ge mu/ be g5]ally    
und]/ood be=e ?is "p c be specially     
und]/ood2 & guid$ by ! fur!r tru? t to  
und]/& conduct at l>ge we mu/ und]/& !  
evolution ( conduct1 we h be5 l$ to see 
t ,e?ics has = its subject-matt] t =m   
:i* univ]sal conduct assumes dur+ ! la/ 
/ages ( its evolution4 ,we h also       

conclud$ t ^! la/ /ages 9 ! evolution ( 
conduct are ^? display$ by ! highe/ type
 ( be+1 :5 he is =c$1 by increase (     
numb]s1 to live m & m 9 pres5ce ( 8     
fell[s4 ,& !re has foll[$ ! coroll>y t  
conduct ga9s e?ical sanction 9          
proportion z ! activities1 becom+ less &
 less militant & m & m indu/rial1 are   
su* z d n necessitate mutual injury or  
h9d]ance1 b consi/ )1 & are fur!r$ by1  
co-op]ation & mutual aid4  ,^!          
implications ( ! ,evolution-,hypo!sis1  
we %all n[ see h>monize ) ! lead+ moral 
ideas m5 h o!rwise rea*$4     ,,*apt]   
,,iii4  ,,good ,,& ,,bad ,,conduct4     
#h4 ,by comp>+ its mean+s 9 diff]5t     
connections & obs]v+ :at !y h 9 common1 
we le>n ! ess5tial mean+ ( a ^w2 & !    
ess5tial mean+ ( a ^w t is v>i\sly      
appli$1 may be/ be le>n$ by comp>+ ) "o 
ano!r ^? applications ( x :i* div]ge mo/
 widely4 ,let u ?us asc]ta9 :at good &  
bad mean4  ,9 :i* cases d we di/+ui% z  
good1 a knife1 a gun1 a h\se8 ,& :at    
trait leads u to speak ( a bad umbrella 

or a bad pair ( boots8 ,! *>act]s "h    
pr$ict$ by ! words good & bad1 are n    
intr9sic *>act]s2 = ap>t f human wants1 
su* ?+s h nei!r m]its nor dem]its4 ,we  
call ^! articles good or bad accord+ z  
!y are well or ill adapt$ to a*ieve     
prescrib$ ends4 ,! good knife is "o :i* 
w cut2 ! good gun is "o :i* c>ries f> & 
true2 ! good h\se is "o :i* duly yields 
! %elt]1 com=t1 & accommodation s\ght =4
 ,conv]sely1 ! badness alleg$ ( !       
umbrella or ! pair ( boots1 ref]s to _! 
failures 9 fulfill+ ! ends ( keep+ (f ! 
ra9 & com=tably protect+ ! feet1 ) due  
reg>d to appe>ances4  ,s is x :5 we pass
 f inanimate objects to inanimate       
actions4 ,we call a day bad 9 :i* /orms 
prev5t u f satisfy+ c]ta9 ( our desires4
 ,a good season is ! expression us$ :5 !
 wea!r has favor$ ! production (        
valuable crops4  ,if f lifeless ?+s &   
actions we pass to liv+ ones1 we        
simil>ly f9d t ^! words 9 _! curr5t     
applications ref] to effici5t           
subs]vi5ce4 ,! goodness or badness ( a  

po9t] or a hunt]1 ( a %eep or an ox1    
ignor+ all o!r attributes ( ^!          
creatures1 ref] 9 ! "o case to ! fitness
 ( _! actions = effect+ ! ends m5 use !m
 =1 & 9 ! o!r case to ! qualities ( _!  
fle% z adapt+ x to support human life4  
,& ^? do+s ( m5 :i*1 morally consid]$1  
are indiff]5t1 we class z good or bad   
accord+ to _! success or failure4 ,a    
good jump is a jump :i*1 remot] ends    
ignor$1 well a*ieves ! imm$iate purpose 
( a jump2 & a /roke at billi>ds is call$
 good :5 ! movem5ts are skillfully      
adju/$ to ! requirem5ts4 ,oppositely1 ! 
badness ( a walk t is %uffl+ & an       
utt]ance t is indi/9ct1 is alleg$       
because ( ! relative non-adaptations ( !
 acts to ! ends4  ,?us recogniz+ !      
mean+s ( good & bad z o!rwise us$1 we   
%all und]/& bett] _! mean+s z us$ 9     
*>act]iz+ conduct "u its e?ical aspects4
 ,"h1 too1 obs]vation %[s t we apply !m 
accord+ z ! adju/m5ts ( acts to ends    
are1 or are n1 effici5t4 ,?is tru? is   
some:at disguis$4 ,! entanglem5t (      

social relations is su* t m5's actions  
(t5 simultane\sly affect ! welf>es (    
self1 ( (fspr+1 & ( fell[-citiz5s4 ,h5ce
 results confusion 9 judg+ ( actions z  
good or bad2 s9ce actions well fitt$ to 
a*ieve ends ( "o ord]1 may prev5t ends (
 ! o!r ord]s f be+ a*iev$ ,nev]!less1 :5
 we dis5tangle ! ?ree ord]s ( ends1 &   
consid] ea* sep>ately1 x becomes cle> t 
! conduct :i* a*ieves ea* k9d ( end is  
reg>d$ z relatively good2 & is reg>d$ z 
relatively bad if x fails to a*ieve x4  
,take fir/ ! prim>y set ( adju/m5ts--^? 
subs]v+ individual life4 ,ap>t f        
approval or disapproval ( 8 ult]ior     
aims1 a man :o fights is said to make a 
good def5se1 if 8 def5se is well adapt$ 
= self-pres]vation2 &1 ! judgm5ts on o!r
 aspects ( 8 conduct rema9+ ! same1 he  
br+s d[n on himself an unfavorable      
v]dict1 9 s f> z 8 imm$iate acts are    
conc]n$1 if ^! are futile4 ,! goodness  
ascrib$ to a man ( bus9ess1 z su*1 is   
measur$ by ! activity & ability ) :i* he
 buys & sells to advantage2 & may       

co-exi/ ) a h>d treatm5t ( dep5d5ts :i* 
is reprobat$4 ,?\gh1 9 repeat$ly l5d+   
money to a fri5d :o s9ks "o loan aft]   
ano!r1 a man is do+ t :i*1 consid]$ 9   
itself is held praisewor?y2 yet1 if he  
does x to ! ext5t ( br++ on 8 own ru91  
he is held blamewor?y = a self-sacrifice
 c>ri$ too f>4 ,& ?us is x ) ! op9ions  
we express f h\r to h\r on ^? acts ( p  
ar\nd :i* be> on _! heal? & p]sonal     
welf>e4 ,y %\ld n h done t2 is ! repro( 
giv5 to "o :o crosses ! /reet amid a    
dang]\s ru% ( vehicles4 ,y ought to h   
*ang$ y\r clo!s2 is said to ano!r :o has
 tak5 cold aft] gett+ wet4 ,y 7 "r to   
take a receipt2 y 7 wrong to inve/ )\t  
advice2 are common criticisms4 ,all su* 
approv+ & disapprov+ utt]ances make !   
tacit ass]tion t1 o!r ?+s equal1 conduct
 is "r or wrong accord+ z its special   
acts1 well or ill adju/$ to special     
ends1 d or d n fur!r ! g5]al end (      
self-pres]vation4  ,^! e?ical judgm5ts  
we pass on self-reg>d+ acts are ord9>ily
 little emphasiz$2 p>tly because !      

prompt+s ( ! self-reg>d+ desires1       
g5]ally /rong en\gh1 d n ne$ moral      
en=cem5t1 & p>tly because ! prompt+s ( !
 o!r-reg>d+ desires1 less /rong1 & (t5  
ov]ridd51 d ne$ moral en=cem5t4 ,h5ce   
results a contra/4 ,on turn+ to t second
 class ( adju/m5ts ( acts to ends :i*   
subs]ve ! re>+ ( (fspr+1 we no long] f9d
 any obscurity 9 ! application ( ! words
 good & bad to !m1 accord+ z !y are     
effici5t or ineffici5t4 ,! expressions  
good nurs+ & bad nurs+1 :e!r !y ref] to 
! supply ( food1 ! quantity & am\nt (   
clo?+1 or ! due m9i/ration to infant9e  
wants f h\r to h\r1 tacitly recognize z 
special ends :i* ought to be fulfill$1 !
 fur!r+ ( ! vital functions1 ) a view to
 ! g5]al end ( cont9u$ life & gr[?4 ,a  
"m is call$ good :o1 m9i/]+ to all !    
physical ne$s ( h] *ildr51 also adju/s  
h] behavior 9 ways conducive to _! m5tal
 heal?2 & a bad fa!r is "o :o ei!r does 
n provide ! necess>ies ( life = 8 family
 or o!rwise acts 9 a mann] injuri\s to  
_! bodies or m9ds4 ,simil>ly ( !        

education giv5 to !m1 or provid$ = !m4  
,goodness or badness is affirm$ ( x 7(t5
 ) little consi/5cy1 h[ev]7 accord+ z   
its me?ods are s adapt$ to physical &   
psy*ical requirem5ts1 z to fur!r !      
*ildr5's lives = ! "t be+1 :ile prep>+  
!m = c>ry+ on complete & prolong$ adult 
life4  ,mo/ emphatic1 h[ev]1 are !      
applications ( ! words good & bad to    
conduct ?r\gh\t t ?ird division ( x     
compris+ ! de$s by :i* m5 affect "o     
ano!r4 ,9 ma9ta9+ _! own lives & fo/]+  
_! (fspr+1 m5's adju/m5ts ( acts to ends
 are s apt to h9d] ! k9dr$ adju/m5ts (  
o!r m51 t insi/ance on ! ne$ful         
limitations has to be p]petual2 & !     
mis*iefs caus$ by m5's int]f]5ces ) "o  
ano!r's life-subs]v+ actions are s great
 t ! int]dicts h to be p]emptory4 ,h5ce1
 ! fact t ! words good & bad h come to  
be specially associat$ ) acts :i* fur!r 
! complete liv+ ( o!rs & acts :i*       
ob/ruct _! complete liv+4 ,goodness1 /&+
 by itself1 sugge/s1 above all o!r ?+s1 
! conduct ( "o :o aids ! sick 9         

re-acquir+ normal vitality1 assi/s !    
un=tunate to recov] ! means ( ma9ta9+   
!mselves1 def5ds ^? :o are ?reat5$ ) h>m
 9 p]son1 prop]ty1 or reputation1 & aids
 :atev] promises to improve ! liv+ ( all
 8 fell[s4 ,contr>iwise1 badness br+s to
 m9d1 z its lead+ correlative1 ! conduct
 ( "o :o1 9 c>ry+ on 8 own life1 damages
 ! lives ( o!rs by injur+ _! bodies1    
de/roy+ _! possessions1 defraud+ !m1    
calumniat+ !m4  ,always1 !n1 acts are   
call$ good or bad accord+ z !y are well 
or ill adju/$ to ends2 & :atev]         
inconsi/5cy !re is 9 our uses ( ! words 
arises f inconsi/5cy ( ! ends4 ,"h1     
h[ev]1 ! /udy ( conduct 9 g5]al1 & ( !  
evolution ( conduct1 h prep>$ u to      
h>monize ^! int]pretations4 ,! =ego+    
exposition %[s t ! conduct to :i* we    
apply ! "n good1 is ! relatively m      
evolv$ conduct2 & t bad is ! "n we apply
 to conduct :i* is relatively less      
evolv$4 ,we saw t evolution1 t5d+ ev]   
t[>d self-pres]vation1 rea*es its limit 
:5 individual life is ! greate/1 bo? 9  

l5g? & bread?2 & n[ we see t1 leav+ o!r 
ends aside1 we reg>d z good ! conduct   
fur!r+ self-pres]vation1 & z bad !      
conduct t5d+ to self-de/ruction4 ,x 0   
%[n t along ) increas+ p[] ( ma9ta9+    
individual life1 :i* evolution br+s1 !re
 goes increas+ p[] ( p]petuat+ ! species
 by fo/]+ prog5y1 & t 9 ?is direction   
evolution rea*es its limit :5 ! ne$ful  
numb] ( "y1 pres]v$ to maturity1 are !n 
fit = a life t is complete 9 fullness & 
duration2 & "h x turns out t p>5tal     
conduct is call$ good or bad z x        
approa*es or falls %ort ( ?is ideal     
result4 ,la/ly1 we inf]r$ t e/abli%m5t (
 an associat$ /ate1 bo? makes possible &
 requires a =m ( conduct su* t life may 
be complet$ 9 ea* & 9 8 (fspr+1 n only  
)\t prev5t+ completion ( x 9 o!rs1 b )  
fur!rance ( x 9 o!rs2 & we h f\nd above1
 t ?is is ! =m ( conduct mo/            
emphatically t]m$ good4 ,moreov]1 j z we
 !re saw t evolution becomes ! highe/   
possible :5 ! conduct simultane\sly     
a*ieves ! greate/ totality ( life 9     

self1 9 (fspr+1 & 9 fell[ m52 s "h we   
see t ! conduct call$ good rises to !   
conduct conceiv$ z be/1 :5 x fulfills   
all ?ree classes ( ends at ! same "t4   
#i4 ,is !re any po/ulate involv$ 9 ^!   
judgm5ts on conduct8 ,is !re any        
assumption made 9 call+ good ! acts     
conducive to life1 9 self or o!rs1 & bad
 ^? :i* directly or indirectly t5d t[>d 
dea?1 special or g5]al8 ,yes2 an        
assumption ( extreme significance has   
be5 made--an assumption und]ly+ all     
moral e/imates4  ,! "q to be def9itely  
rais$ & answ]$ be=e ent]+ on any e?ical 
discussion1 is ! "q ( late mu* agitat$3 
,is life wor? liv+8 ,%all we take !     
pessimi/ view8 or %all we take ! optimi/
 view8 or %all we1 aft] weigh+          
pessimi/ic & optimi/ic argum5ts1        
conclude t ! balance is 9 favor ( a     
qualifi$ optimism8  ,on ! answ] to ?is  
"q dep5ds entirely e decision conc]n+ ! 
goodness or badness ( conduct4 ,by ^? :o
 ?9k life is n a b5efit b a mis=tune1   
conduct :i* prolongs x is to be blam$ r 

?an prais$2 ! end+ ( an undesirable     
exi/5ce be+ ! ?+ to be wi%$1 t :i*      
causes ! end+ ( x mu/ be applaud$2 :ile 
actions fur!r+ its cont9uance1 ei!r 9   
self or o!rs1 mu/ be reprobat$4 ,^? :o1 
on ! o!r h&1 take an optimi/ic view1 or 
:o1 if n pure optimi/s1 yet hold t 9    
life ! good exce$s ! evil1 are committ$ 
to opposite e/imates2 & mu/ reg>d z     
conduct to be approv$ t :i* fo/]s life 9
 self & o!rs1 & z conduct to be         
disapprov$ t :i* injures or endang]s    
life 9 self or o!rs4  ,! ultimate "q1   
!re=e1 is3 ,has evolution be5 a mi/ake2 
& especially t evolution :i* improves ! 
adju/m5t ( acts to ends 9 asc5d+ /ages (
 organization8 ,if x is held t !re _h   
bett] n h be5 any animate exi/5ce at    
all1 & t ! soon] x comes to an end !    
bett]2 !n "o set ( conclusions ) respect
 to conduct em]ges4 ,if1 contr>iwise1 x 
is held t !re is a balance 9 favor (    
animate exi/5ce1 & if1 /ill fur!r1 x is 
held t 9 ! future ?is balance may be    
increas$2 !n ! opposite set (           

conclusions em]ges4 ,ev5 %\ld x be      
alleg$ t ! wor? ( life is n to be judg$ 
by its intr9sic "*1 b r by its extr9sic 
sequ5ces--by c]ta9 results to be        
anticipat$ :5 life has pass$--! ultimate
 issue reappe>s 9 a new %ape4 ,= ?\gh ! 
accompany+ cre$ may negative a delib]ate
 %ort5+ ( life t is mis]able1 x _c      
ju/ify a gratuit\s l5g!n+ ( su* life4   
,legislation conducive to increas$      
longevity w\ld1 on ! pessimi/ic view1   
rema9 blameable1 :ile x w\ld be         
praisewor?y on ! optimi/ic view4  ,b n[1
 h ^! irreconcilable op9ions any?+ 9    
common8 ,m5 be+ divisible into two      
s*ools diff]+ on ?is ultimate "q1 !     
inquiry arises--,is !re any?+ :i* _!    
radically oppos$ views alike take =     
grant$8 ,9 ! optimi/ic proposition1     
tacitly made :5 us+ ! words good & bad  
aft] ! ord9>y mann]2 & 9 ! pessimi/ic   
proposition ov]tly made1 :i* implies t !
 words good & bad %\ld be us$ 9 ! rev]se
 s5ses2 does exam9ation disclose any    
jo9t proposition--any proposition :i*1  

conta9$ 9 bo? ( !m1 may be held m c]ta9 
?an ei!r--any univ]sally ass]t$         
proposition8    #aj4 ,yes1 !re is "o    
po/ulate 9 :i* pessimi/s & optimi/s     
agree4 ,bo? _! argum5ts assume x to be  
self-evid5t t life is good or bad1      
accord+ z x does1 or does n1 br+ a      
surplus ( agreeable feel+4 ,! pessimi/  
says he condemns life because x results 
9 m pa9 ?an pleasure4 ,! optimi/ def5ds 
life 9 ! belief t x br+s m pleasure ?an 
pa94 ,ea* makes ! k9d ( s5ti5cy :i*     
accompanies life ! te/4 ,!y agree t !   
ju/ification = life z a /ate ( be+1     
turns on ?is issue--:e!r ! av]age       
consci\sness rises above indiff]5ce-po9t
 into pleasurable feel+ or falls bel[ x 
into pa9ful feel+4 ,! implication common
 to _! antagoni/ views is1 t conduct    
%\ld conduce to pres]vation ( !         
individual1 ( ! family1 & ( ! society1  
only suppos+ t life br+s m happ9ess ?an 
mis]y4  ,*ang+ ! v5ue _c alt] ! v]dict4 
,if ei!r ! pessimi/1 :ile say+ t ! pa9s 
( life pr$om9ate1 or ! optimi/1 :ile    

say+ t ! pleasures pr$om9ate1 urges t ! 
pa9s borne "h are to be comp5sat$ by    
pleasures receiv$ h]eaft]2 & t s life1  
:e!r or n ju/ifi$ 9 its imm$iate        
results1 is ju/ifi$ 9 its ultimate      
results2 ! implication rema9s ! same4 ,!
 decision is /ill rea*$ by balanc+      
pleasures aga9/ pa9s4 ,animate exi/5ce  
w\ld be judg$ by bo? a curse1 if to a   
surplus ( mis]y borne "h 7 add$ a       
surplus ( mis]y to be borne h]eaft]4 ,& 
= ei!r to reg>d animate exi/5ce z a     
bless+1 if "h its pa9s 7 held to exce$  
its pleasures1 he mu/ hold t h]eaft] its
 pleasures w exce$ its pa9s4 ,?us !re is
 no escape f ! admission t 9 call+ good 
! conduct :i* subs]ves life1 & bad !    
conduct :i* h9d]s or de/roys x1 & 9 s   
imply+ t life is a bless+ & n a curse1  
we are inevitably ass]t+ t conduct is   
good or bad accord+ z its total effects 
are pleasurable or pa9ful4  ,"o !ory    
only is imag9able 9 pursuance ( :i* o!r 
int]pretations ( good & bad c be giv54  
,?is !ory is t m5 7 creat$ ) ! int5tion 

t !y %\ld be s\rces ( mis]y to !mselves2
 & t !y are b\nd to cont9ue liv+ t _!   
creator may h ! satisfaction (          
contemplat+ _! mis]y4 ,?\gh ?is is n a  
!ory av[$ly ent]ta9$ by _m--?\gh x is n 
=mulat$ by any 9 ?is di/9ct way2 yet n a
 few d accept x "u a disguis$ =m4       
,inf]ior cre$s are p]vad$ by ! belief t 
! sight ( suff]+ is pleas+ to ! gods4   
,d]iv$ f blood?ir/y ance/ors1 su* gods  
are naturally conceiv$ z gratifi$ by !  
infliction ( pa93 :5 liv+ !y delight$ 9 
tortur+ o!r be+s2 & witness+ torture is 
suppos$ /ill to give !m delight4 ,!     
impli$ conceptions long survive4 ,x ne$s
 b to "n ,indian fakirs :o hang on      
hooks1 & ,ea/]n d]vi%es :o ga% !mselves1
 to %[ t 9 societies consid]ably advanc$
 are /ill to be f\nd _m :o ?9k t        
submission to angui% br+s div9e favor4  
,& )\t enl>g+ on facts & p5ances1 x w be
 cle> t !re has exi/$1 & /ill exi/s1    
among ,*ri/ian peoples1 ! belief t !    
,deity :om ,jeph?ah ?\ght to propitiate 
by sacrific+ 8 daught]1 may be          

propitiat$ by self-inflict$ pa9s4       
,fur!r1 ! conception accompany+ ?is1 t  
acts pleas+ to self are (f5sive to ,god1
 has surviv$ along ) x1 & /ill widely   
prevails2 if n 9 =mulat$ dogmas1 yet 9  
beliefs t are manife/ly op]ative4       
,d\btless1 9 mod]n days su* beliefs h   
assum$ qualifi$ =ms4 ,! satisfactions   
:i* f]oci\s gods 7 suppos$ to feel 9    
contemplat+ tortures1 has be51 9 l>ge   
measure1 trans=m$ into ! satisfaction   
felt by a deity 9 contemplat+ t         
self-infliction ( pa9 :i* is held to    
fur!r ev5tual happ9ess4 ,b cle>ly ^? :o 
ent]ta9 ?is modifi$ view1 are exclud$ f 
! class ^: position we are "h consid]+4 
,re/rict+ ourselves to ?is              
class--suppos+ t f ! savage :o immolates
 victims to a cannibal god1 !re are     
desc5dants among ! civiliz$1 :o hold t  
mank9d 7 made = suff]+1 & t x is _! duty
 to cont9ue liv+ 9 mis]y = ! delight (  
_! mak]1 we c only recognize ! fact t   
devil-wor%ip]s are n yet ext9ct4        
,omitt+ p ( ?is class1 if !re are any1 z

 beyond or b5ea? argum5t1 we f9d t all  
o!rs av[$ly or tacitly hold t ! f9al    
ju/ification = ma9ta9+ life c only be ! 
reception f x ( a surplus ( pleasurable 
feel+ ov] pa9ful feel+2 & t goodness or 
badness c be ascrib$ to acts :i* subs]ve
 life or h9d] life only on ?is          
supposition4  ,& "h we are br\ght r\nd  
to ^? prim>y mean+s ( ! words good &    
bad1 :i* we pass$ ov] :5 consid]+ _!    
second>y mean+s4 ,= on rememb]+ t we    
call good & bad ! ?+s :i* imm$iately    
produce agreeable & disagreeable        
s5sations1 & also ! s5sations           
!mselves--a good w9e1 a good appetite1 a
 bad smell1 a bad heada*e--we see t by  
ref]r+ directly to pleasures & pa9s1 ^! 
mean+s h>monize ) ^? :i* indirectly ref]
 to pleasures & pa9s4 ,if we call good !
 enjoyable /ate itself1 z a good        
laugh--if we call good ! proximate cause
 ( an enjoyable /ate1 z good music--if  
we call good any ag5t :i* conduces      
imm$iately or remotely to an enjoyable  
/ate1 z a good %op1 a good tea*]--if we 

call good consid]$ intr9sically1 ea* act
 s adju/$ to its end z to fur!r         
self-pres]vation & t surplus ( enjoym5t 
:i* makes self-pres]vation desirable--if
 we call good e k9d ( conduct :i* aids !
 lives ( o!rs1 & d ?is "u ! belief t    
life br+s m happ9ess ?an mis]y2 !n x    
becomes und5iable t1 tak+ into acc\nt   
imm$iate & remote effects on all p]sons1
 ! good is univ]sally ! pleasurable4    
#aa4 ,sundry influ5ces--moral1          
!ological1 & political--conspire to make
 p disguise f !mselves ?is tru?4 ,z 9   
n>r[] cases s 9 ?is wide/ case1 !y      
become s pre-occupi$ ) ! means by :i* an
 end is a*iev$1 z ev5tually to mi/ake x 
= ! end4 ,j z money1 :i* is ! means (   
satisfy+ wants1 comes to be reg>d$ by a 
mis] z ! sole ?+ to be work$ =1 leav+ ! 
wants unsatisfi$2 s ! conduct m5 h f\nd 
pref]able because mo/ conducive to      
happ9ess has come to be ?\ght ( z       
intr9sically pref]able1 n only to be    
made a proximate end 7:i* x %\ld be71 b 
to be made an ultimate end1 to !        

exclusion ( ! true ultimate end4 ,& yet 
cross-exam9ation quickly compels e "o to
 confess ! true ultimate end4 ,j z !    
mis]1 ask$ to ju/ify himself1 is oblig$ 
to allege ! p[] ( money to pur*ase      
desirable ?+s1 z 8 reason = priz+ x2 s !
 morali/ :o ?9ks ?is conduct            
intr9sically good & t intr9sically bad1 
if pu%$ home1 has no *oice b to fall    
back on _! pleasure-giv+ & pa9-giv+     
effects4 ,to prove ?is x ne$s b to      
obs]ve h[ impossible x w\ld be to ?9k ( 
!m z we d1 if _! effects 7 rev]s$4      
,suppose t ga%es & bruises caus$        
agreeable s5sations1 & br\ght 9 _! tra9 
increas$ p[] ( do+ "w & receiv+         
enjoym5t2 %\ld we reg>d assault 9 ! same
 mann] z at pres5t8 ,or suppose t       
self-mutilation1 say by cutt+ (f a h&1 0
 bo? intr9sically pleasant & fur!r$     
p]=mance ( ! processes by :i* p]sonal   
welf>e & ! welf>e ( dep5d5ts is a*iev$2 
%\ld we hold z n[1 t delib]ate injury to
 "o's own body is to be reprobat$8 ,or  
aga91 suppose t pick+ a man's pocket    

excit$ 9 him joyful emotions1 by        
bright5+ 8 prospects2 w\ld !ft be c\nt$ 
among crimes1 z 9 exi/+ law-books &     
moral codes8 ,9 ^! extreme cases1 no "o 
c d5y t :at we call ! badness ( actions 
is ascrib$ to !m solely = ! reason t !y 
entail pa91 imm$iate or remote1 & w\ld n
 be s ascrib$ did !y entail pleasure4   
,if we exam9e our conceptions on _!     
obv]se side1 ?is g5]al fact =ces itself 
on our att5tion ) equal di/9ctness4     
,imag9e t m9i/]+ to a sick p]son always 
increas$ ! pa9s ( illness4 ,imag9e t an 
orphan's relatives :o took *>ge ( x1    
!reby necess>ily br\ght mis]ies ^u x4   
,imag9e t liquidat+ ano!r man's pecuni>y
 claims on y r$\nd$ to 8 disadvantage4  
,imag9e t cr$it+ a man ) noble behavior 
h9d]$ 8 social welf>e & consequ5t       
gratification4 ,:at %\ld we say to ^!   
acts :i* n[ fall into ! class we call   
praisewor?y8 ,%\ld we n contr>iwise     
class !m z blamewor?y8  ,us+1 !n1 z our 
te/s1 ^! mo/ pron\nc$ =ms ( good & bad  
conduct1 we f9d x unque/ionable t our   

ideas ( _! goodness & badness really    
orig9ate f our consci\sness ( ! c]ta9ty 
or probability t !y w produce pleasures 
or pa9s some:]e4 ,& ?is tru? is br\ght  
out ) equal cle>ness by exam9+ ! /&>ds (
 diff]5t moral s*ools2 = analysis %[s t 
e "o ( !m d]ives its au?ority f ?is     
ultimate /&>d4 ,e?ical sy/ems are r\ghly
 di/+ui%able accord+ z !y take = _!     
c>d9al ideas 7#a7 ! "* ( ! ag5t2 7#b7 ! 
nature ( 8 motive2 7#c7 ! quality ( 8   
de$s2 & 7#d7 ! results4 ,ea* ( ^! may be
 *>act]iz$ z good or bad2 & ^? :o d n   
e/imate a mode ( life by its effects on 
happ9ess1 e/imate x by ! impli$ goodness
 or badness 9 ! ag5t1 9 8 motive1 or 9 8
 de$s4 ,we h p]fection 9 ! ag5t set up z
 a te/ by :i* conduct is to be judg$4   
,ap>t f ! ag5t we h 8 feel+ consid]$ z  
moral4 ,& ap>t f ! feel+ we h 8 action  
consid]$ z virtu\s4  ,?\gh ! di/9ctions 
?us indicat$ h s little def9it5ess t !  
words m>k+ !m are us$ int]*angeably1 yet
 !re correspond to !m doctr9es p>tially 
unlike "o ano!r2 :i* we may "h          

conv5i5tly exam9e sep>ately1 ) ! view ( 
%[+ t all _! te/s ( goodness are        
d]ivative4    #ab4 ,x is /range t a     
notion s ab/ract z t ( p]fection1 or a  
c]ta9 ideal complet5ess ( nature1 %\ld  
ev] h be5 ?\ght "o f :i* a sy/em (      
guidance c be evolv$2 z x 0 9 a g5]al   
way by ,plato & m di/9ctly by ,jona?an  
,edw>des4 ,p]fection is synonym\s )     
goodness 9 ! highe/ degree2 &1 h5ce1 to 
def9e good conduct 9 t]ms ( p]fection1  
is indirectly to def9e good conduct 9   
t]ms ( itself4 ,naturally1 !re=e1 x     
happ5s t ! notion ( p]fection l ! notion
 ( goodness c be fram$ only 9 relation  
to ends4  ,we allege imp]fection ( any  
inanimate ?+1 z a tool1 if x lacks "s "p
 ne$ful = effectual action1 or if "s "p 
is s %ap$ z n to fulfill its purpose 9 !
 be/ mann]4 ,p]fection is alleg$ ( a    
wat* if x keeps exact "t1 h[ev] pla9 its
 case2 & imp]fection is alleg$ ( x      
because ( inaccurate "t-keep+1 h[ev]    
beautifully x is ornam5t$4 ,?\gh we call
 ?+s imp]fect if we detect 9 !m any     

injuries or flaws1 ev5 :5 ^! d n detract
 f effici5cy2 yet we d ?is because !y   
imply t inf]ior workman%ip1 or t we> &  
te>1 ) :i* ineffici5cy is commonly jo9$ 
9 exp]i5ce3 abs5ce ( m9or imp]fections  
be+ habitually associat$ ) abs5ce (     
major imp]fections4  ,z appli$ to liv+  
?+s1 ! ^w p]fection has ! same mean+4 ,!
 idea ( p]fect %ape 9 a race-horse is   
d]iv$ by g5]alization f ^? obs]v$ traits
 ( race-horses :i* h usually gone along 
) atta9m5t ( ! highe/ spe$2 & ! idea (  
p]fect con/itution 9 a race-horse       
simil>ly ref]s to ! endurance :i*       
enables him to cont9ue t spe$ = ! longe/
 "t4 ,) m51 physically consid]$1 x is ! 
same3 we are able to furni% no o!r te/ (
 p]fection ?an t ( complete p[] 9 all ! 
organs to fulfill _! respective         
functions4 ,t our conception ( p]fect   
balance among ! int]nal p>ts1 & ( p]fect
 proportion among ! ext]nal p>ts1       
orig9ates ?us1 is made cle> by obs]v+ t 
imp]fection ( any viscus1 z lungs1 he>t1
 or liv]1 is ascrib$ = no o!r reason ?an

 inability to meet 9 full ! dem&s :i* ! 
activities ( ! organism make on x2 & on 
obs]v+ t ! conception ( insuffici5t     
size1 or ( too great size1 9 a limb1 is 
d]iv$ f accumulat$ exp]i5ces respect+ t 
ratio among ! limbs :i* fur!rs 9 !      
highe/ degree ! p]=mance ( all ne$ful   
actions4  ,& ( p]fection 9 m5tal nature 
we h no o!r measure4 ,if imp]fection (  
memory1 ( judgm5t1 ( temp]1 is alleg$1 x
 is alleg$ because ( inadequacy to !    
requirem5ts ( life2 & to imag9e a p]fect
 balance ( ! intellectual p[]s & ( !    
emotions1 is to imag9e t proportion     
among !m :i* ensures an entire dis*>ge (
 ea* & e obligation z ! occasion calls =
 x4  ,s t ! p]fection ( man consid]$ z  
an ag5t1 means ! be+ con/itut$ = effect+
 complete adju/m5t ( acts to ends ( e   
k9d4 ,& s9ce1 z %[n above1 ! complete   
adju/m5t ( acts to ends is t :i* bo?    
secures & con/itutes ! life t is mo/    
evolv$1 alike 9 bread? & l5g?2 :ile1 z  
also %[n1 ! ju/ification = :atev]       
increases life is ! reception f life ( m

 happ9ess ?an mis]y2 x foll[s t         
conduciv5ess to happ9ess is ! ultimate  
te/ ( p]fection 9 a man's nature4 ,to be
 fully conv9c$ ( ?is x ne$s b to obs]ve 
h[ ! proposition looks :5 inv]t$4 ,x    
ne$s b to suppose t e approa* t[>d      
p]fection involv$ great] mis]y to self1 
or o!rs1 or bo?1 to %[ by opposition t  
approa* to p]fection really means       
approa* to t :i* secures great]         
happ9ess4    #ac4 ,pass we n[ f ! view (
 ^? :o make excell5ce ( be+ ! /&>d to ! 
view ( ^? :o make virtu\sness ( action !
 /&>d4 ,i d n "h ref] to morali/s :o1   
hav+ decid$ empirically or rationally1  
inductively or d$uctively1 t acts (     
c]ta9 k9ds h ! "* we call virtu\s1 argue
 t su* acts are to be p]=m$ )\t reg>d to
 proximate consequ5ces3 ^! h ample      
ju/ification4 ,b ,i ref] to morali/s :o 
suppose !mselves to h conceptions (     
virtue z an end1 und]iv$ f any o!r end1 
:o ?9k t ! idea ( virtue is n resolvable
 into simpl] ideas4  ,?is is ! doctr9e  
:i* appe>s to h be5 ent]ta9$ by         

,ari/otle4 ,i say1 appe>s to h be51     
because 8 /atem5ts are f> f consi/5t )  
"o ano!r4 ,recogniz+ happ9ess z !       
supreme end ( human endeavor1 x w\ld at 
fir/ sight seem t he _c be tak5 z       
typical ( ^? :o make virtue ! supreme   
end4 ,yet he puts himself 9 ?is category
 by seek+ to def9e happ9ess 9 t]ms (    
virtue1 in/ead ( def9+ virtue 9 t]ms (  
happ9ess4 ,! imp]fect sep>ation ( words 
f ?+s1 :i* *>act]izes ,greek speculation
 9 g5]al1 seems to h be5 ! cause ( ?is4 
,9 primitive ?\ght ! "n & ! object nam$ 
are associat$ 9 su* wise t ! "o is      
reg>d$ z a "p ( ! o!r--s mu* s1 t kn[+ a
 savage's "n is consid]$ by him z hav+  
"s ( 8 be+1 & a consequ5t p[] to "w evil
 on him4 ,?is belief 9 a real connection
 betwe5 ^w & ?+1 cont9u+ ?r\gh l[] /ages
 ( progress1 & long surviv+ 9 ! tacit   
assumption t ! mean+s ( words are       
intr9sic1 p]vades ! dialogues ( ,plato1 
& is traceable ev5 9 ,ari/otle4 ,=      
o!rwise x is n easy to see :y he %\ld h 
s incompletely disassociat$ ! ab/ract   

idea ( happ9ess f p>ticul> =ms (        
happ9ess4  ,naturally :]e ! divorc+ (   
words z symbols1 f ?+s z symboliz$1 is  
imp]fect1 !re mu/ be difficulty 9 giv+  
to ab/ract words a suffici5tly ab/ract  
mean+4 ,if 9 ! fir/ /ages ( language !  
concrete "n _c be sep>at$ 9 ?\ght f !   
concrete object x belongs to1 x is      
inf]able t 9 ! c\rse ( =m+ successively 
high] grades ( ab/ract names1 !re w h to
 be resi/$ ! t5d5cy to int]pret ea* m   
ab/ract "n 9 t]ms ( "s "o class ( ! less
 ab/ract names x cov]s4 ,h5ce1 ,i ?9k1 !
 fact t ,ari/otle supposes happ9ess to  
be associat$ ) "s "o ord] ( human       
activities1 r ?an ) all ord]s ( human   
activities4 ,in/ead ( includ+ 9 x !     
pleasurable feel+s accompany+ actions t 
con/itute m]e liv+1 :i* actions he says 
man has 9 common ) vegetables2 & in/ead 
( mak+ x include ! m5tal /ates :i* !    
life ( ext]nal p]ception yields1 :i* he 
says man has 9 common ) animals at l>ge1
 he excludes ^! f 8 idea ( happ9ess1 &  
includes 9 x only ! modes ( consci\sness

 accompany+ rational life4 ,ass]t+ t !  
prop] "w ( man consi/s 9 ! active       
ex]cise ( ! m5tal capacities con=mably  
to reason1 he concludes t ! supreme good
 ( man w consi/ 9 p]=m+ ?is "w )        
excell5ce or virtue3 h]e9 he w obta9    
happ9ess4 ,& he f9ds confirmation = 8   
view 9 its correspond5ce ) views        
previ\sly enunciat$2 say+1 our notion   
ne>ly agrees ) !irs :o place happ9ess 9 
virtue2 = we say t x consi/s 9 ! action 
( virtue2 t is1 n m]ely 9 ! possession1 
b 9 ! use4  ,n[ ! impli$ belief t virtue
 c be def9$ o!rwise ?an 9 t]ms (        
happ9ess 7= else ! proposition is t     
happ9ess is to be obta9$ by actions     
conducive to happ9ess7 is alli$ to !    
,platonic belief t !re is an ideal or   
absolute good1 :i* gives to p>ticul> &  
relative goods _! prop]ty ( goodness2 & 
an argum5t analog\s to t :i* ,ari/otle  
uses aga9/ ,plato's conception ( good1  
may be us$ aga9/ 8 own conception (     
virtue4 ,z ) good s ) virtue--x is n    
s+ul> b plural3 9 ,ari/otle's own       

classification1 virtue1 :5 treat$ ( at  
l>ge1 is trans=m$ into virtues4 ,^? :i* 
he calls virtues mu/ be s call$ 9       
consequ5ce ( "s common "* t is ei!r     
intr9sic or extr9sic4 ,we may class ?+s 
toge!r ei!r because !y are made alike by
 all hav+ 9 !mselves "s peculi>ity1 z we
 d v]tebrate animals because !y all h   
v]tebral columns2 or we may class !m    
toge!r because ( "s community 9 _! out] 
relations1 z :5 we gr\p saws1 knives1   
mallets1 h>r[s1 "u ! head ( tools4 ,are 
! virtues class$ z su* because ( "s     
intr9sic community ( nature8 ,!n !re mu/
 be id5tifiable a common trait 9 all !  
c>d9al virtues :i* ,ari/otle specifies1 
,c\rage1 ,temp]ance1 ,lib]ality1        
,magnanimity1 ,magnific5ce1 ,meekness1  
,amiability or ,fri5dl9ess1             
,tru?fulness1 ,ju/ice4 ,:at n[ is !     
trait possess$ 9 common by ,magnific5ce 
& ,meekness8 & if any su* common trait c
 be dis5tangl$1 is x t :i* also         
con/itutes ! ess5tial trait 9           
,tru?fulness8 ,! answ] mu/ be1 ,no4 ,!  

virtues1 !n1 n be+ class$ z su* because 
( an intr9sic community ( "*1 mu/ be    
class$ z su* because ( some?+ extr9sic2 
& ?is some?+ c be no?+ else ?an !       
happ9ess :i* ,ari/otle says consi/s 9 ! 
practice ( !m4 ,!y are unit$ by _!      
common relation to ?is result2 :ile !y  
are n unit$ by _! inn] natures4  ,p]haps
 /ill m cle>ly may ! inf]5ce be drawn   
?us3 ,if virtue is primordial &         
indep5d5t1 no reason c be giv5 :y !re   
%\ld be any correspond5ce betwe5 virtu\s
 conduct & conduct t is pleasure-giv+ 9 
its total effects on self1 or o!rs1 or  
bo?2 & if !re is n a necess>y           
correspond5ce1 x is conceivable t !     
conduct class$ z virtu\s %\ld be        
pa9-giv+ 9 its total effects4 ,t we may 
see ! consequ5ce ( s conceiv+ x1 let u  
take ! two virtues consid]$ z typically 
su* 9 anci5t times & 9 mod]n            
times--c\rage & *a/ity4 ,by ! hypo!sis1 
!n1 c\rage1 display$ alike 9 self-def5ce
 & 9 def5ce ( c\ntry1 is to be conceiv$ 
z n only entail+ pa9s incid5tally1 b z  

be+ necess>ily a cause ( mis]y to !     
individual & to ! /ate2 :ile1 by        
implication1 ! abs5ce ( x r$\nds to     
p]sonal & g5]al well-be+4 ,simil>ly1 by 
! hypo!sis1 we h to conceive t irregul> 
sexual relations are directly &         
indirectly b5eficial--t adult]y is      
conducive to dome/ic h>mony & ! c>eful  
re>+ ( *ildr52 :ile m>ital relations1 9 
proportion z !y are p]si/5t1 g5]ate     
discord betwe5 husb& & wife & entail on 
_! (fspr+1 suff]+1 disease & dea?4      
,unless x is ass]t$ t c\rage & *a/ity   
c\ld /ill be ?\ght ( z virtues ?\gh ?us 
productive ( mis]y1 x mu/ be admitt$ t !
 conception ( virtue _c be sep>at$ f !  
conception ( happ9ess-produc+ conduct2 &
 t z ?is holds ( all ! virtues1 h[ev]   
o!rwise unlike1 x is f _! conduciv5ess  
to happ9ess t !y come to be class$ z    
virtues4    #ad4 ,:5 f ^? e?ical        
e/imates :i* take p]fection ( nature1 or
 virtu\sness ( action1 z te/s1 we pass  
to ^? :i* take = te/ rectitude ( motive1
 we approa* ! intuitional !ory ( morals2

 & we may conv5i5tly deal ) su* e/imates
 by a criticism on ?is !ory4  ,by !     
intuitional !ory ,i "h mean1 n t :i*    
recognizes z produc$ by ! inh]it$       
effects ( cont9u$ exp]i5ces1 ! feel+s ( 
lik+ & av]sion we h to acts ( c]ta9     
k9ds2 b ,i mean ! !ory :i* reg>ds su*   
feel+s z div9ely giv51 & z indep5d5t (  
results exp]i5c$ by self or ance/ors4   
,!re is1 !re=e1 says ,hut*eson1 z ea* "o
 by close att5tion & reflection may     
conv9ce himself1 a natural & imm$iate   
det]m9ation to approve c]ta9 affections 
& actions consequ5t ^u !m2 & s9ce1 9    
common ) o!rs ( 8 "t1 he believes 9 !   
special creation ( man1 & all o!r be+s1 
?is natural s5se ( imm$iate excell5ce he
 consid]s z a sup]naturally d]iv$ guide4
 ,?\gh he says t ! feel+s & acts ?us    
intuitively recogniz$ z good1 all agree 
9 "o g5]al "*1 ( t5d+ to ! happ9ess (   
o!rs2 yet he is oblig$ to conceive ?is z
 a pre-orda9$ correspond5ce4 ,nev]!less1
 x may be %[n t conduciv5ess to         
happ9ess1 "h repres5t$ z an incid5tal   

trait ( ! acts :i* receive ^! innate    
moral approvals1 is really ! te/ by :i* 
^! approvals are recogniz$ z moral4 ,!  
intuitioni/s place confid5ce 9 ^!       
v]dicts ( consci5ce simply because !y   
vaguely1 if n di/9ctly1 p]ceive !m to be
 consonant ) ! disclosures ( t ultimate 
te/4 ,obs]ve ! pro(4  ,by ! hypo!sis1 ! 
wrongness ( murd] is kn[n by a moral    
intuition :i* ! human m9d 0 orig9ally   
con/itut$ to yield2 & ! hypo!sis1 !re=e1
 negatives ! admission t ?is s5se ( its 
wrongness arises1 imm$iately or         
remotely1 f ! consci\sness t murd]      
involves d$uction f happ9ess1 directly &
 indirectly4 ,b if y ask an adh]5t ( ?is
 doctr9e to contra/ 8 intuition ) t ( ! 
,fijian1 :o1 consid]+ murd] an honorable
 action1 is re/less until he has        
di/+ui%$ himself by kill+ "s "o2 & if y 
inquire ( him 9 :at way ! civiliz$      
intuition is to be ju/ifi$ 9 opposition 
to ! intuition ( ! savage1 no c\rse is  
op5 save t ( %[+ h[ con=mity to ! "o    
conduces to well-be+1 :ile con=mity to !

 o!r entails suff]+1 individual & g5]al4
 ,:5 ask$ :y ! moral s5se :i* tells him 
t x is wrong to take ano!r man's goods1 
%\ld be obey$ r ?an ! moral s5se ( a    
,turcoman1 :o proves h[ m]itori\s he    
consid]s !ft to be by mak+ pilgrimages  
to ! tombs ( not$ robb]s to make (f]+s1 
! intuitioni/ c d no?+ b urge t1 c]ta9ly
 "u conditions l ours1 if n also "u     
conditions l ^? ( ! ,turcomans1 disreg>d
 ( m5's claims to _! prop]ty n only     
inflicts imm$iate mis]y1 b involves a   
social /ate inconsi/5t ) happ9ess4 ,or  
if1 aga91 !re is requir$ f him a        
ju/ification = 8 feel+ ( repugnance to  
ly+1 9 contra/ ) ! feel+ ( an ,egyptian1
 :o prides himself on skill 9 ly+ 7ev5  
?9k+ x praisewor?y to deceive )\t any   
fur!r end ?an t ( practic+ deception71  
he c d no m ?an po9t to ! social        
prosp]ity fur!r$ by entire tru/ betwe5  
man & man1 & ! social disorganization t 
foll[s univ]sal untru?fulness1          
consequ5ces t are necess>ily conducive  
to agreeable feel+s & disagreeable      

feel+s respectively4  ,! unavoidable    
conclusion is1 !n1 t ! intuitioni/ does 
n1 & _c1 ignore ! ultimate d]ivations ( 
"r & wrong f pleasure & pa94 ,h[ev] mu* 
he may be guid$1 & rightly guid$1 by !  
decisions ( consci5ce respect+ ! *>act]s
 ( acts1 he has come to h confid5ce 9 ^!
 decisions because he p]ceives1 vaguely 
b positively1 t con=mity to !m fur!rs ! 
welf>e ( himself & o!rs1 & t disreg>d ( 
!m entails 9 ! long run suff]+ on all4  
,require him to "n any moral-s5se       
judgm5t by :i* he kn[s z "r "s k9d ( act
 t w br+ a surplus ( pa91 tak+ into     
acc\nt ! totals 9 ?is life & 9 any      
assum$ o!r life1 & y f9d him unable to  
"n "o3 a fact prov+ t und]nea? all ^!   
intuitions respect+ ! goodness or       
badness ( acts !re lies ! fundam5tal    
assumption t acts are good or bad       
accord+ z _! aggregate effects increase 
m5's happ9ess or increase _! mis]y4     
#ad4 ,x is curi\s to see h[ !           
devil-wor%ip ( ! savage1 surviv+ 9 v>i\s
 disguises among ! civiliz$1 & leav+ z  

"o ( its products t asceticism :i* 9 _m 
=ms & degrees /ill prevails widely1 is  
to be f\nd influ5c+ 9 m>k$ ways m5 :o h 
app>5tly emancipat$ !mselves1 n only f  
primitive sup]/itions b f m develop$    
sup]/itions4 ,views ( life & conduct :i*
 orig9at$ ) ^? :o propitiat$ deifi$     
ance/ors by self-tortures ent] ev5 /ill 
into ! e?ical !ories ( _m p]sons :o h   
ye>s s9ce ca/ away ! !ology ( ! pa/1 &  
suppose !mselves to be no long] influ5c$
 by x4  ,9 ! writ+s ( "o :o rejects     
dogmatic ,*ri/ianity1 toge!r ) ! ,hebrew
 cult :i* prec$$ x1 a c>e] ( conque/    
co/+ t5s ( ?\s&s ( lives is n>rat$ ) a  
sympa?y comp>able to t rejoic+ :i* !    
,hebrew traditions %[ u ov] de/ruction (
 enemies 9 ! "n ( ,god4 ,y may f9d1 too1
 a delight 9 contemplat+ ! ex]cise (    
despotic p[]1 jo9$ ) insi/ance on !     
salut>9ess ( a /ate 9 :i* ! wills (     
slaves & citiz5s are humbly subject to !
 wills ( ma/]s & rul]s--a s5tim5t also  
rem9d+ u ( t anci5t ,ori5tal life :i*   
biblical n>ratives portray4 ,along ) ?is

 wor%ip ( ! /rong man--along ) ?is      
ju/ification ( :atev] =ce may be ne$$ = 
c>ry+ out 8 ambition--along ) ?is ye>n+ 
= a =m ( society 9 :i* supremacy ( ! few
 is unre/ra9$ & ! virtue ( ! _m consi/s 
9 ob$i5ce to !m1 we n unnaturally f9d   
repudiation ( ! e?ical !ory :i* takes1 9
 "s %ape or o!r1 ! greate/ happ9ess z ! 
end ( conduct3 we n unnaturally f9d ?is 
utilit>ian philosophy designat$ by !    
contemptu\s title ( pig-philosophy4 ,&  
!n1 s]v+ to %[ :at compreh5sion !re has 
be5 ( ! philosophy s nicknam$1 we are   
told t n happ9ess b bless$ness mu/ be ! 
end4  ,obvi\sly1 ! implication is t     
bless$ness is n a k9d ( happ9ess2 & ?is 
implication at once sugge/s ! "q--,:at  
mode ( feel+ is x8 ,if x is a /ate (    
consci\sness at all1 x is necess>ily "o 
( ?ree /ates--pa9ful1 indiff]5t1 or     
pleasurable4 ,does x leave ! possessor  
at ! z]o po9t ( s5ti5cy8 ,!n x leaves   
him j z he w\ld be if he _h n got x4    
,does x n leave him at ! z]o po9t8 ,!n x
 mu/ leave him bel[ z]o or above z]o4   

,ea* ( ^! possibilities may be conceiv$ 
"u two =ms4 ,t to :i* ! t]m bless$ness  
is appli$ may be a p>ticul> /ate (      
consci\sness--"o among ! _m /ates t     
occur2 & on ?is supposition we h to     
recognize x z a pleasurable /ate1 an    
indiff]5t /ate1 or a pa9ful /ate4       
,o!rwise1 bless$ness is a ^w n          
applicable to a p>ticul> /ate (         
consci\sness1 b *>act]izes ! aggregate (
 its /ates2 & 9 ?is case ! av]age ( !   
aggregate is to be conceiv$ z "o 9 :i* !
 pleasurable pr$om9ates1 or "o 9 :i* !  
pa9ful pr$om9ates1 or "o 9 :i* pleasures
 & pa9s exactly cancel "o ano!r4 ,let u 
take 9 turn ^! two imag9able            
applications ( ! ^w4  ,bless$ are !     
m]ciful2 ,bless$ are ! peacemak]s2      
,bless$ is he t consid]e? ! poor2 are   
say+s :i* we may fairly take z convey+ !
 accept$ mean+ ( bless$ness4 ,:at n[    
%all we say ( "o :o is1 = ! "t be+1     
bless$ 9 p]=m+ an act ( m]cy8 ,is 8     
m5tal /ate pleasurable8 ,if s ! hypo!sis
 is ab&on$3 bless$ness is a p>ticul> =m 

( happ9ess4 ,is ! /ate indiff]5t or     
pa9ful8 ,9 t case ! bless$ man is s     
devoid ( sympa?y t reliev+ ano!r f pa91 
or ! fe> ( pa91 leaves him ei!r :olly   
unmov$1 or gives him an unpleasant      
emotion4 ,aga91 if "o :o is bless$ 9    
mak+ peace receives no gratification f !
 act1 !n see+ m5 injure ea* o!r does n  
affect him at all1 or gives him a       
pleasure :i* is *ang$ into a pa9 :5 he  
prev5ts ! injury4 ,once m1 to say t !   
bless$ness ( "o :o consid]e? ! poor     
implies no agreeable feel+1 is to say t 
8 consid]ation = ! poor leaves him )\t  
feel+ or entails on him a disagreeable  
feel+4 ,s t if bless$ness is a p>ticul> 
mode ( consci\sness tempor>ily exi/+ z a
 concomitant ( ea* k9d ( b5efic5t       
action1 ^? :o d5y t x is a pleasure1 or 
con/itu5t ( happ9ess1 confess !mselves  
ei!r n pleas$ by ! welf>e ( o!rs or     
displeas$ by x4  ,o!rwise und]/ood1     
bless$ness mu/1 z we h se51 ref] to !   
totality ( feel+s exp]i5c$ dur+ ! life (
 "o :o occupies himself ) ! actions ! ^w

 connotes4 ,?is also pres5ts ! ?ree     
possibilities--surplus ( pleasures1     
surplus ( pa9s1 equality ( ! two4 ,if ! 
pleasurable /ates are 9 excess1 !n !    
bless$ life c be di/+ui%$ f any o!r     
pleasurable life only by ! relative     
am\nt1 or ! quality1 ( its pleasures3 x 
is a life :i* makes happ9ess ( a c]ta9  
k9d & degree its end2 & ! assumption t  
bless$ness is n a =m ( happ9ess1 lapses4
 ,if ! bless$ life is "o 9 :i* !        
pleasures & ! pa9s receiv$ balance "o   
ano!r1 s produc+ an av]age t is         
indiff]5t2 or if x is "o 9 :i* !        
pleasures are outbalanc$ by ! pa9s1 !n !
 bless$ life has ! "* :i* ! pessimi/    
alleges ( life at l>ge1 & !re=e reg>ds x
 z curs$4 ,annihilation is be/1 he w    
argue1 s9ce if an av]age t is indiff]5t 
is ! outcome ( ! bless$ life1           
annihilation at once a*ieves x2 & if a  
surplus ( suff]+ is ! outcome ( ?is     
highe/ k9d ( life call$ bless$1 /ill m  
%\ld life 9 g5]al be end$4  ,a possible 
rejo9d] mu/ be nam$ & dispos$ (4 ,:ile x

 is admitt$ t ! p>ticul> k9d (          
consci\sness accompany+ conduct t is    
bless$1 is pleasurable1 x may be cont5d$
 t pursuance ( ?is conduct & receipt ( !
 pleasure1 br+s by ! impli$ self-d5ial1 
& p]si/5t ef=t1 & p]haps bodily injury1 
a suff]+ t exce$s x 9 am\nt4 ,& x may !n
 be urg$ t bless$ness1 *>act]iz$ by ?is 
excess ( aggregate pa9s ov] aggregate   
pleasures1 %\ld nev]!less be pursu$ z an
 end1 r ?an ! happ9ess con/itut$ by     
excess ( pleasures ov] pa9s4 ,b n[1     
def5sible ?\gh ?is conception (         
bless$ness may be :5 limit$ to "o       
individual1 or "s individuals1 x becomes
 indef5sible :5 ext5d$ to all           
individuals2 z x mu/ be if bless$ness is
 tak5 = ! end ( conduct4 ,to see ?is we 
ne$ b ask = :at purpose are ^! pa9s 9   
excess ( pleasures to be borne4         
,bless$ness be+ ! ideal /ate = all      
p]sons1 & ! self-sacrifices made by ea* 
p]son 9 pursuance ( ?is ideal /ate1 hav+
 = _! end to help all o!r p]sons 9      
a*iev+ ! l ideal /ate1 x results t !    

bless$ ?\gh pa9ful /ate ( ea*1 is to be 
acquir$ by fur!r+ ! l bless$ ?\gh pa9ful
 /ates ( o!rs3 ! bless$ consci\sness is 
to be con/itut$ by ! contemplation ( _! 
consci\snesses 9 a condition ( av]age   
suff]+4 ,does any "o accept ?is inf]5ce8
 ,if n1 8 rejection ( x involves !      
admission t ! motive = be>+ pa9s 9 p]=m+
 acts call$ bless$1 is n ! obta9+ = o!rs
 l pa9s ( bless$ness1 b ! obta9+ (      
pleasures = o!rs1 & t ?us pleasure      
some:]e is ! tacitly impli$ ultimate    
end4  ,9 brief1 !n1 bless$ness has = its
 necess>y condition ( exi/5ce1 increas$ 
happ9ess1 positive or negative1 9 "s    
consci\sness or o!r1 & disappe>s utt]ly 
if we assume t ! actions call$ bless$   
are kn[n to cause decrease ( happ9ess 9 
o!rs z well z 9 ! actor4    #ae4 ,to    
make cle> ! mean+ ( ! g5]al argum5t set 
=? 9 ?is *apt]1 its successive p>ts mu/ 
be briefly summ>iz$4  ,t :i* 9 ! la/    
*apt] we f\nd to be highly-evolv$       
conduct1 is t :i*1 9 ?is *apt]1 we f9d  
to be :at is call$ good conduct2 & !    

ideal goal to ! natural evolution (     
conduct !re recogniz$ we "h recognize z 
! ideal /&>d ( conduct e?ically         
consid]$4  ,! acts adju/$ to ends :i*1  
:ile con/itut+ ! out] visible life f    
mom5t to mom5t fur!r ! cont9uance (     
life1 we saw become1 z evolution        
progresses1 bett] adju/$1 until f9ally  
!y make ! life ( ea* individual entire 9
 l5g? & bread?1 at ! same "t t !y       
effici5tly subs]ve ! re>+ ( "y1 & d bo? 
^!1 n only )\t h9d]+ o!r individuals f  
do+ ! l1 b :ile giv+ aid to !m 9 do+ !  
l4 ,& "h we see t goodness is ass]t$ (  
su* conduct "u ea* ( ^! ?ree aspects4   
,o!r ?+s equal1 well-adju/$1            
self-cons]v+ acts we call good2 o!r ?+s 
equal1 we call good ! acts t are well   
adju/$ = br++ up prog5y capable (       
complete liv+2 & o!r ?+s equal1 we      
ascribe goodness to acts :i* fur!r !    
complete liv+ ( o!rs4  ,?is judg+ z     
good1 conduct :i* conduces to life 9 ea*
 & all1 we f\nd to involve ! assumption 
t animate exi/5ce is desirable4 ,by !   

pessimi/1 conduct :i* subs]ves life _c  
consi/5tly be call$ good3 to call x good
 implies "s =m ( optimism4 ,we saw1     
h[ev]1 t pessimi/s & optimi/s bo? />t ) 
! po/ulate t life is a bless+ or a      
curse1 accord+ z ! av]age consci\sness  
accompany+ x is pleasurable or pa9ful4  
,& s9ce av[$ or impli$ pessimi/s1 &     
optimi/s ( "o or o!r %ade1 tak5 toge!r  
con/itute all m51 x results t ?is       
po/ulate is univ]sally accept$4 ,:5ce x 
foll[s t if we call good ! conduct      
conducive to life1 we c d s only ) !    
implication t x is conducive to a       
surplus ( pleasures ov] pa9s4  ,! tru? t
 conduct is consid]$ by u z good or bad1
 accord+ z its aggregate results1 to    
self or o!rs or bo?1 are pleasurable or 
pa9ful1 we f\nd on exam9ation to be     
involv$ 9 all ! curr5t judgm5ts on      
conduct3 ! pro( be+ t rev]s+ !          
applications ( ! words creates          
absurdities4 ,& we f\nd t e o!r propos$ 
/&>d ( conduct d]ives its au?ority f ?is
 /&>d4 ,:e!r p]fection ( nature is !    

assign$ prop] aim1 or virtu\sness (     
action1 or rectitude ( motive1 we saw t 
def9ition ( ! p]fection1 ! virtue1 !    
rectitude1 inevitably br+s u d[n to     
happ9ess exp]i5c$ 9 "s =m1 at "s "t1 by 
"s p]son1 z ! fundam5tal idea4 ,nor c\ld
 we discov] any intelligible conception 
( bless$ness1 save "o :i* implies a     
rais+ ( consci\sness1 individual or     
g5]al1 to a happi] /ate2 ei!r by        
mitigat+ pa9s or increas+ pleasures4    
,ev5 ) ^? :o judge ( conduct f !        
religi\s po9t ( view1 r ?an f ! e?ical  
po9t ( view1 x is ! same4 ,m5 :o seek to
 propitiate ,god by inflict+ pa9s on    
!mselves1 or refra9 f pleasures to avoid
 (f5d+ him1 d s to escape great]        
ultimate pa9s or to get great] ultimate 
pleasures4 ,if by positive or negative  
suff]+ "h1 !y expect$ to a*ieve m suff]+
 h]eaft]1 !y w\ld n d z !y d4 ,t :i* !y 
n[ ?9k duty !y w\ld n ?9k duty if x     
promis$ et]nal mis]y in/ead ( et]nal    
happ9ess4 ,nay1 if !re be any :o believe
 t human be+s 7 creat$ to be unhappy1 & 

t !y ought to cont9ue liv+ to display _!
 unhapp9ess = ! satisfaction ( _!       
creator1 su* believ]s are oblig$ to use 
?is /&>d ( judgm5t2 = ! pleasure ( _!   
diabolical god is ! end to be a*iev$4   
,s t no s*ool c avoid tak+ = ! ultimate 
moral aim a desirable /ate ( feel+ call$
 by :atev] "n--gratification1 enjoym5t1 
happ9ess4 ,pleasure some:]e1 at "s "t1  
to "s be+ or be+s1 is an inexpugnable   
elem5t ( ! conception4 ,x is z mu* a    
necess>y =m ( moral intuition z space is
 a necess>y =m ( intellectual intuition4
     ,,*apt] ,,iv4  ,,ways ,,( ,,judg+  
,,conduct4    #ag4 ,intellectual        
progress is by no "o trait s adequately 
*>act]iz$ z by developm5t ( ! idea (    
causation1 s9ce developm5t ( ?is idea   
involves developm5t ( s _m o!r ideas4   
,be=e any way c be made1 ?\ght &        
language mu/ h advanc$ f> en\gh to r5d] 
prop]ties or attributes ?9kable z su*1  
ap>t f objects2 :i*1 9 l[ /ages ( human 
intellig5ce1 !y are n4 ,aga91 ev5 !     
simple/ notion ( cause1 z we und]/& x1 c

 be rea*$ only aft] _m l in/ances h be5 
gr\p$ into a simple g5]alization2 &     
?r\gh all asc5d+ /eps1 high] notions (  
causation imply wid] notions ( g5]ality4
 ,fur!r1 z !re mu/ be clu/]$ 9 ! m9d    
concrete causes ( _m k9ds be=e !re c    
em]ge ! conception ( cause1 ap>t f      
p>ticul> causes1 x foll[s t progress 9  
ab/ractness ( ?\ght is impli$4          
,concomitantly1 !re is impli$ !         
recognition ( con/ant relations among   
ph5om5a1 g5]at+ ideas ( uni=mity (      
sequ5ce & ( co-exi/5ce--! idea ( natural
 law4 ,^! advances c g on only z fa/ z  
p]ceptions & result+ ?\ghts are made    
def9ite by ! use ( measures1 s]v+ to    
famili>ize ! m9d ) exact correspond5ce1 
tru?1 c]ta9ty4 ,& only :5 gr[+ sci5ce   
accumulates examples ( quantitative     
relations1 =ese5 & v]ifi$1 ?r\gh\t a    
wid5+ range ( ph5om5a1 does causation   
come to be conceiv$ z necess>y &        
univ]sal4 ,s t ?\gh all ^! c>d9al       
conceptions aid "o ano!r 9 develop+1 we 
may prop]ly say t ! conception (        

causation especially dep5ds = its       
developm5t on ! developm5t ( ! re/2 &   
!re=e is ! be/ measure ( intellectual   
developm5t at l>ge4  ,h[ sl[ly1 z a     
consequ5ce ( its dep5d5ce1 ! conception 
( causation evolves1 a glance at !      
evid5ce %[s4 ,we he> ) surprise ( !     
savage :o1 fall+ d[n a precipice1       
ascribes ! failure ( 8 foo?old to a     
malici\s demon2 & we smile at ! k9dr$   
notion ( ! anci5t ,greek1 t 8 dea? 0    
prev5t$ by a goddess :o unfa/5$ = him ! 
?ong ( ! helmet by :i* 8 enemy 0 dragg+ 
him4 ,b daily1 )\t surprise1 we he> m5  
:o describe !mselves z sav$ f %ipwreck  
by div9e int]position1 :o speak ( hav+  
provid5tially miss$ a tra9 :i* met ) a  
fatal disa/]1 & :o call$ x a m]cy to h  
escap$ injury f a fall+ *imney-pot--m5  
:o1 9 su* cases1 recognize physical     
causation no m ?an d ! unciviliz$ or    
semi-civiliz$4 ,! ,v$dah :o ?9ks t      
failure to hit an animal ) 8 arr[       
result$ f inadequate invocation ( an    
ance/ral _s1 & ! ,*ri/ian prie/ :o says 

pray]s ov] a sick man 9 ! expectation t 
! c\rse ( 8 disease w s be /ay$1 diff]  
only 9 respect ( ! ag5t f :om !y expect 
sup]natural aid & ! ph5om5a to be alt]$ 
by him3 ! necess>y relations among      
causes & effects are tacitly ignor$ by !
 la/ z mu* z by ! fir/4 ,defici5t belief
 9 causation is1 inde$1 exemplifi$ ev5 9
 ^? ^: discipl9e has be5 specially fitt$
 to g5]ate ?is belief--ev5 9 m5 (       
sci5ce4 ,= a g5]ation aft] geologi/s _h 
become uni=mit>ians 9 ,geology1 !y      
rema9$ cata/rophi/s 9 ,biology3 :ile    
recogniz+ none b natural ag5cies 9 !    
g5esis ( ! e>?'s cru/1 !y ascrib$ to    
sup]natural ag5cy ! g5esis ( ! organisms
 on its surface4 ,nay m--among ^? :o are
 conv9c$ t liv+ ?+s 9 g5]al h be5 evolv$
 by ! cont9u$ int]action ( =ces ev]y:]e 
op]at+1 !re are "s :o make an exception 
( man2 or :o1 if !y admit t 8 body has  
be5 evolv$ 9 ! same mann] z ! bodies (  
o!r creatures1 allege t 8 m9d has be5 n 
evolv$ b specially creat$4 ,if1 !n1     
univ]sal & necess>y causation is only n[

 approa*+ full recognition1 ev5 by ^? ^:
 inve/igations are daily re-illu/rat+ x1
 we may expect to f9d x v little        
recogniz$ among m5 at l>ge1 ^: culture  
has n be5 calculat$ to impress !m ) x2 &
 we may expect to f9d x lea/ recogniz$  
by !m 9 respect ( ^? classes ( ph5om5a  
amid :i*1 9 consequ5ce ( _! complexity1 
causation is mo/ difficult to trace--!  
psy*ical1 ! social1 ! moral4  ,:y d ,i  
"h make ^! reflections on :at seems an  
irrelevant subject8 ,i d x because on   
/udy+ ! v>i\s e?ical !ories ,i am /ruck 
) ! fact t !y are all *>act]iz$ ei!r by 
entire abs5ce ( ! idea ( causation1 or  
by inadequate pres5ce ( x4 ,:e!r        
!ological1 political1 intuitional1 or   
utilit>ian1 !y all display1 if n 9 !    
same degree1 /ill1 ea* 9 a l>ge degree1 
! defects :i* result f ?is lack4 ,we w  
consid] !m 9 ! ord] nam$4    #ah4 ,!    
s*ool ( morals prop]ly to be consid]$ z 
! /ill extant repres5tative ( ! mo/     
anci5t s*ool1 is t :i* recognizes no o!r
 rule ( conduct ?an ! alleg$ w ( ,god4  

,x orig9ates ) ! savage ^: only re/ra9t 
beyond fe> ( 8 fell[ man1 is fe> ( an   
ance/ral _s2 & ^: notion ( moral duty z 
di/+ui%$ f 8 notion ( social prud5ce1   
arises f ?is fe>4 ,"h ! e?ical doctr9e &
 ! religi\s doctr9e are id5tical--h 9 no
 degree diff]5tiat$4  ,?is primitive =m 
( e?ical doctr9e1 *ang$ only by !       
gradual dy+ out ( multitud9\s m9or      
sup]natural ag5ts & accompany+          
developm5t ( "o univ]sal sup]natural    
ag5t1 survives 9 great /r5g? d[n to our 
own day4 ,religi\s cre$s1 e/abli%$ &    
diss5t+1 all embody ! belief t "r &     
wrong are "r & wrong simply 9 virtue (  
div9e enactm5t4 ,& ?is tacit assumption 
has pass$ f sy/ems ( !ology into sy/ems 
( morality2 or r let u say t moral      
sy/ems 9 e>ly /ages ( developm5t1 little
 diff]5tiat$ f ! accompany+ !ological   
sy/ems1 h p>ticipat$ 9 ?is assumption4  
,we see ?is 9 ! works ( ! ,/oics1 z well
 z 9 ! works ( c]ta9 ,*ri/ian morali/s4 
,among rec5t ones ,i may in/ance !      
,essays on ! ,pr9ciples ( ,morality1 by 

,jona?an ,dymond1 a ,quak]1 :i* makes ! 
au?ority ( ! ,deity ! sole gr\nd ( duty1
 & ,8 communicat$ w ! only ultimate /&>d
 ( "r & wrong4 ,nor is x by writ]s      
belong+ to s relatively unphilosophical 
a sect only t ?is view is held2 x is    
held ) a diff]5ce by writ]s belong+ to  
sects contr>iwise di/+ui%$4 ,= ^! ass]t 
t 9 ! abs5ce ( belief 9 a deity1 !re    
w\ld be no moral guidance2 & ?is am\nts 
to ass]t+ t moral tru?s h no o!r orig9  
?an ! w ( ,god1 :i*1 if n consid]$ z    
reveal$ 9 sacr$ writ+s1 mu/ be consid]$ 
z reveal$ 9 consci5ce4  ,?is assumption1
 :5 exam9$1 proves to be suicidal4 ,if  
!re are no o!r orig9s = "r & wrong ?an  
?is enunciat$ or intuit$ div9e w1 !n1 z 
alleg$1 7 !re no k ( ! div9e w1 ! acts  
n[ kn[n z wrong w\ld n be kn[n z wrong4 
,b if m5 did n "k su* acts to be wrong  
because contr>y to ! div9e w1 & s1 9    
committ+ !m1 did n (f5d by disob$i5ce2  
&1 if !y c\ld n o!rwise "k !m to be     
wrong1 !n !y might commit !m indiff]5tly
 ) ! acts n[ class$ z "r3 ! results1    

practically consid]$1 w\ld be ! same4 ,9
 s f> z secul> matt]s are conc]n$1 !re  
w\ld be no diff]5ce betwe5 ! two2 = to  
say t 9 ! affairs ( life any evils w\ld 
arise f cont9u+ to d ! acts call$ wrong1
 & ceas+ to d ! acts call$ "r1 is to say
 t ^! produce 9 !mselves c]ta9 mis*iev\s
 consequ5ces & c]ta9 b5eficial          
consequ5ces2 :i* is to say !re is ano!r 
s\rce = moral rules ?an ! reveal$ or    
inf]r$ div9e w3 !y may be e/abli%$ by   
induction f ^! obs]v$ consequ5ces4  ,f  
?is implication ,i see no escape4 ,x mu/
 be ei!r admitt$ or d5i$ t ! acts call$ 
good & ! acts call$ bad1 naturally      
conduce1 ! "o to human well-be+ & ! o!r 
to human ill-be+4 ,is x admitt$8 ,!n !  
admission am\nts to an ass]tion t !     
conduciv5ess is %[n by exp]i5ce2 & ?is  
involves ab&onm5t ( ! doctr9e t !re is  
no orig9 = morals ap>t f div9e          
injunctions4 ,is x d5i$ t acts class$ z 
good & bad diff] 9 _! effect8 ,!n x is  
tacitly affirm$ t human affairs w\ld g  
on j z well 9 ignorance ( ! di/9ction2 &

 ! alleg$ ne$ = comm&m5ts f ,god        
disappe>s4  ,& "h we see h[ entirely    
want+ is ! conception ( cause4 ,?is     
notion t su* & su* actions are made     
respectively good & bad simply by div9e 
injunction1 is tantam\nt to ! notion t  
su* & su* actions h n 9 ! nature ( ?+s  
su* & su* k9ds ( effects4 ,if !re is n  
an unconsci\sness ( causation !re is an 
ignor+ ( x4    #ai4 ,foll[+ ,plato &    
,ari/otle1 :o make ,/ate enactm5ts !    
s\rces ( "r & wrong2 & foll[+ ,hobbes1  
:o holds t !re c be nei!r ju/ice nor    
inju/ice till a regul>ly con/itut$      
co]cive p[] exi/s to issue & en=ce      
comm&s2 n a few mod]n ?9k]s hold t !re  
is no o!r orig9 = good & bad 9 conduct  
?an law4 ,& ?is implies ! belief t moral
 obligation orig9ates ) acts ( p>liam5t1
 & c be *ang$ ?is way or t way by       
majorities4 ,!y ridicule ! idea t m5 h  
any natural rights1 & allege t rights   
are :olly results ( conv5tion3 !        
necess>y implication be+ t duties are s 
too4 ,be=e consid]+ :e!r ?is !ory coh]es

 ) outside tru?s1 let u obs]ve h[ f> x  
is coh]5t )9 itself4  ,9 pursuance ( 8  
argum5t t rights & duties orig9ate )    
e/abli%$ social arrangem5ts1 ,hobbes    
says3    ,:]e no cov5ant ha? proce$$1   
!re ha? no "r be5   transf]r$1 & e man  
has a "r to ev]y?+2 &   consequ5tly1 no 
action c be unju/4 ,b :5 a cov5ant is   
made1   !n to break x is unju/2 & !     
def9itions ( inju/ice   is no o!r ?an ! 
n p]=mance ( cov5ant4 ,& :atsoev]   is n
 unju/1 is j4 ,!re=e1 be=e ! names ( j &
   unju/ c h place1 !re mu/ be "s       
co]cive p[] to compel   m5 equally to ! 
p]=mance ( _! cov5ants1 by ! t]ror (    
"s puni%m5t great] ?an ! b5efit !y      
expect by ! brea* (   _! cov5ant4,a  ,9 
?is p>agraph ! ess5tial propositions    
are3 ju/ice is fulfillm5t ( cov5ant2    
fulfillm5t ( cov5ant implies a p[] (    
en=c+ x3 j & unju/ c h no place unless  
m5 are compell$ to p]=m _! cov5ants4 ,b 
?is is to say t m5 _c p]=m _! cov5ants  
)\t compulsion4 ,grant t ju/ice is      
p]=mance ( cov5ant4 ,n[ suppose x to be 

p]=m$ volunt>ily3 !re is ju/ice4 ,9 su* 
case1 h[ev]1 !re is ju/ice 9 ! abs5ce ( 
co]cion2 :i* is contr>y to ! hypo!sis4  
,! only conceivable rejo9d] is an absurd
 "o--volunt>y p]=mance ( cov5ant is     
impossible4 ,ass]t ?is1 & ! doctr9e t "r
 & wrong come into exi/5ce ) !          
e/abli%m5t ( sov]eignty is def5sible4   
,decl9e to ass]t x1 & ! doctr9e vani%es4
  ,f inn] incongruities pass n[ to out] 
ones4 ,! ju/ification = 8 doctr9e (     
absolute civil au?ority z ! s\rce (     
rules ( conduct1 ,hobbes seeks 9 !      
mis]ies entail$ by ! *ronic w> betwe5   
man & man :i* mu/ exi/ 9 ! abs5ce (     
society2 hold+ t "u any k9d ( gov]nm5t a
 bett] life is possible ?an 9 ! /ate (  
nature4 ,n[ :e!r we accept ! gratuit\s &
 baseless !ory t m5 surr5d]$ _! lib]ties
 to a sov]eign p[] ( "s k9d1 ) a view to
 ! promis$ increase ( satisfactions2 or 
:e!r we accept ! rational !ory1         
inductively bas$1 t a /ate ( political  
subord9ation gradually became e/abli%$  
?r\gh exp]i5ce ( ! increas$             

satisfactions d]iv$ "u x2 x equally     
rema9s obvi\s t ! acts ( ! sov]eign p[] 
h no o!r w>rant ?an _! subs]vi5ce to !  
purpose = :i* x came into exi/5ce4 ,!   
necessities :i* initiate gov]nm5t1      
!mselves prescribe ! actions ( gov]nm5t4
 ,if its actions d n respond to !       
necessities1 !y are unw>rant$4 ,!       
au?ority ( law is1 !n1 by ! hypo!sis1   
d]iv$2 & c nev] transc5d ! au?ority ( t 
f :i* x is d]iv$4 ,if g5]al good1 or    
welf>e1 or utility1 is ! supreme end1 & 
if ,/ate enactm5ts are ju/ifi$ z means  
to ?is supreme end1 !n1 ,/ate enactm5ts 
h su* au?ority only z arises f          
conduciv5ess to ?is supreme end4 ,:5 !y 
are "r1 x is only because ! orig9al     
au?ority endorses !m2 & !y are wrong if 
!y d n be> its endorsem5t4 ,t is to say1
 conduct _c be made good or bad by law2 
b its goodness or badness is to ! la/   
det]m9$ by its effects z naturally      
fur!r+1 or n fur!r+1 ! lives ( citiz5s4 
,/ill m :5 consid]$ 9 ! concrete1 ?an :5
 consid]$ 9 ! ab/ract1 d ! views (      

,hobbes & 8 disciples prove to be       
inconsi/5t4 ,jo9+ 9 ! g5]al belief t )\t
 su* security = life z enables m5 to g  
fe>lessly ab\t _! bus9ess1 !re c be     
nei!r happ9ess nor prosp]ity1 individual
 or g5]al1 !y agree t measures = prev5t+
 murd]1 manslaught]1 assault1 etc41 are 
requisite2 & !y advocate ?is or t p5al  
sy/em z furni%+ ! be/ det]r5ts3 s argu+1
 bo? 9 respect ( ! evils & ! rem$ies1 t 
su* & su* causes w1 by ! nature ( ?+s1  
produce su* & su* effects4 ,!y recognize
 z inf]able  priori1 ! tru? t m5 w n lay
 by prop]ty unless !y c c\nt ) great    
probability on reap+ advantages f x2 t  
consequ5tly :]e robb]y is un*eck$1 or   
:]e a rapaci\s rul] appropriates :atev] 
e>n+s 8 subjects d n effectually hide1  
production w sc>cely exce$ imm$iate     
consumption2 & t necess>ily !re w be    
none ( t accumulation ( capital requir$ 
= social developm5t1 ) all its aids to  
welf>e4 ,9 nei!r case1 h[ev]1 d !y      
p]ceive t !y are tacitly ass]t+ ! ne$ = 
c]ta9 re/ra9ts on conduct z d$ucible f !

 necess>y conditions to complete life 9 
! social /ate2 & are s mak+ ! au?ority (
 law d]ivative & n orig9al4  ,if x be   
said by any belong+ to ?is s*ool t c]ta9
 moral obligations1 to be di/+ui%$ z    
c>d9al1 mu/ be admitt$ to h a basis     
deep] ?an legislation1 & t x is =       
legislation n to create b m]ely to en=ce
 !m--if1 ,i say1 admitt+ ?is1 !y g on to
 allege a legislative orig9 = m9or      
claims & duties2 !n we h ! implication t
 :]eas "s k9ds ( conduct d1 9 ! nature (
 ?+s1 t5d to "w out c]ta9 k9ds (        
results1 o!r k9ds ( conduct d n1 9 !    
nature ( ?+s1 t5d to "w out c]ta9 k9ds (
 results4 ,:ile ( ^! acts ! naturally   
good or bad consequ5ces mu/ be all[$1 x 
may be d5i$ ( ^? acts t !y h naturally  
good or bad consequ5ces4 ,only aft]     
ass]t+ ?is c x be consi/5tly ass]t$ t   
acts ( ! la/ class are made "r or wrong 
by law4 ,= if su* acts h any intr9sic   
t5d5cies to produce b5eficial or        
mis*iev\s effects1 !n ^! intr9sic       
t5d5cies furni% ! w>rant = legislative  

requirem5ts or int]dicts2 & to say t !  
requirem5ts or int]dicts make !m "r or  
wrong is to say t !y h no intr9sic      
t5d5cies to produce b5eficial or        
mis*iev\s effects4  ,"h1 !n1 we h ano!r 
!ory betray+ defici5t consci\sness (    
causation4 ,an adequate consci\sness (  
causation yields ! irresi/ible belief t 
f ! mo/ s]i\s to ! mo/ trivial actions (
 m5 9 society1 !re mu/ fl[ consequ5ces  
:i*1 q ap>t f legal ag5cy1 conduce to   
well-be+ or ill-be+ 9 great] or small]  
degrees4 ,if murd]s are socially        
injuri\s :e!r =bidd5 by law or n--if "o 
man's appropriation ( ano!r's ga9s by   
=ce br+s special & g5]al evils1 :e!r x  
is or is n contr>y to a rul]'s          
edicts--if non-fulfillm5t ( contract1 if
 *eat+1 if adult]ation1 "w mis*iefs on a
 community 9 proportion z !y are common1
 q irrespective ( prohibitions2 !n1 is x
 n manife/ t ! l holds ?r\gh\t all !    
details ( m5's behavior8 ,is x n cle> t 
:5 legislation insi/s on c]ta9 acts :i* 
h naturally b5eficial effects1 & =bids  

o!rs t h naturally injuri\s effects1 !  
acts are n made good or bad by          
legislation2 b ! legislation d]ives its 
au?ority f ! natural effects ( ! acts8  
,non-recognition ( ?is implies          
non-recognition ( natural causation4    
#bj4 ,nor is x o!rwise ) ! pure         
intuitioni/s1 :o hold t moral p]ceptions
 are innate 9 ! orig9al s5se--?9k]s ^:  
view is t m5 h be5 div9ely end[$ ) moral
 faculties2 n t ^! h result$ f inh]it$  
modifications caus$ by accumulat$       
exp]i5ces4  ,to affirm t we "k "s ?+s to
 be "r & o!r ?+s to be wrong1 by virtue 
( a sup]naturally giv5 consci5ce2 & ?us 
tacitly to affirm t we d n o!rwise "k "r
 f wrong2 is tacitly to d5y any natural 
relations betwe5 acts & results4 ,= if  
!re exi/ any su* relations1 !n we may   
asc]ta9 by induction1 or d$uction1 or   
bo?1 :at ^! are4 ,& if x be admitt$ t   
because ( su* natural relations1        
happ9ess is produc$ by ?is k9d (        
conduct1 :i* is !re=e to be approv$1    
:ile mis]y is produc$ by t k9d (        

conduct1 :i* is !re=e to be condemn$2 !n
 x is admitt$ t ! rightness or wrongness
 ( actions are det]m9able1 & mu/ f9ally 
be det]m9$1 by ! goodness or badness ( !
 effects t fl[ f !m2 :i* is contr>y to !
 hypo!sis4  ,x may1 inde$1 be rejo9$ t  
effects are delib]ately ignor$ by ?is   
s*ool2 :i* tea*es t c\rses recogniz$ by 
moral intuition z "r1 mu/ be pursu$ )\t 
reg>d to consequ5ces4 ,b on inquiry x   
turns out t ! consequ5ces to be         
disreg>d$ are p>ticul> consequ5ces1 & n 
g5]al consequ5ces4 ,:51 = example1 x is 
said t prop]ty lo/ by ano!r ought to be 
re/or$1 irrespective ( evil to ! f9d]1  
:o possibly may1 by re/or+ x1 lose t :i*
 w\ld h pres]v$ him f />vation1 x is    
meant t 9 pursuance ( ! pr9ciple1 !     
imm$iate & special consequ5ces mu/ be   
disreg>d$1 n ! diffus$ & remote         
consequ5ces4 ,by :i* we are %[n t ?\gh !
 !ory =bids ov]t recognition (          
causation1 !re is an unav[$ recognition 
( x4  ,& ?is implies ! trait to :i* ,i  
am draw+ att5tion4 ,! conception (      

natural causation is s imp]fectly       
develop$ t !re is only an indi/9ct      
consci\sness t ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( human   
conduct necess>y relations ( causes &   
effects prevail1 & t f !m are ultimately
 d]iv$ all moral rules1 h[ev] mu* ^! may
 be proximately d]iv$ f moral           
intuitions4    #ba4 ,/range to say1 ev5 
! utilit>ian s*ool1 :i*1 at fir/ sight1 
appe>s to be di/+ui%$ f ! re/ by        
recogniz+ natural causation1 is1 if n s 
f> f complete recognition ( x1 yet v f>4
  ,conduct1 accord+ to its !ory1 is to  
be e/imat$ by obs]vation ( results4 ,:51
 9 suffici5tly num]\s cases1 x has be5  
f\nd t behavior ( ?is k9d works evil    
:ile behavior ( t k9d works good1 ^!    
k9ds ( behavior are to be judg$ z wrong 
& "r respectively4 ,n[ ?\gh x seems t ! 
orig9 ( moral rules 9 natural causes1 is
 ?us ass]t$ by implication1 x is b      
p>tially ass]t$4 ,! implication is      
simply t we are to asc]ta9 by induction 
t su* & su* mis*iefs or b5efits d g     
along ) su* & su* acts2 & are !n to inf]

 t ! l relations w hold 9 future4 ,b    
acceptance ( ^! g5]alizations & !       
inf]5ces f !m does n am\nt to           
recognition ( causation 9 ! full s5se ( 
! ^w4 ,s long z only "s relation betwe5 
cause & effect 9 conduct is recogniz$1 &
 n ! relation1 a completely sci5tific =m
 ( k has n be5 rea*$4 ,at pres5t1       
utilit>ians pay no att5tion to ?is      
di/9ction4 ,ev5 :5 x is po9t$ out !y    
disreg>d ! fact t empirical             
utilit>ianism is b a transitional =m to 
be pass$ ?r\gh on ! way to rational     
utilit>ianism4  ,9 a lett] to ,mr4      
,mill1 writt5 "s sixte5 ye>s ago1       
repudiat+ ! title anti-utilit>ian1 :i*  
he _h appli$ to me 7a lett] subsequ5tly 
publi%$ 9 ,mr4 ,ba9's "w on ,m5tal &    
,moral ,sci5ce71 ,i endeavor$ to make   
cle> ! diff]5ce above indicat$2 & ,i mu/
 "h quote c]ta9 passages f t lett]4     
,! view = :i* ,i cont5d is1 t ,morality1
 prop]ly   s-call$--! sci5ce ( "r       
conduct--has = its object to   det]m9e  
h[ & :y c]ta9 modes ( conduct are       

detrim5tal1   & c]ta9 o!r modes         
b5eficial4 ,^! good & bad results _c    
be accid5tal1 b mu/ be necess>y         
consequ5ces ( ! con/itution   ( ?+s2 &  
,i conceive x to be ! bus9ess ( ,moral  
,sci5ce   to d$uce1 f ! laws ( life & ! 
conditions ( exi/5ce1   :at k9ds (      
action necess>ily t5d to produce        
happ9ess1 &   :at k9ds to produce       
unhapp9ess4 ,hav+ done ?is1 its         
d$uctions   are to be recogniz$ z laws (
 conduct2 & are to be con=m$ to         
irrespective ( a direct e/imation (     
happ9ess or mis]y4    ,p]haps an analogy
 w mo/ cle>ly %[ my mean+4 ,dur+ its    
e>ly /ages1 planet>y ,a/ronomy consi/$ (
 no?+ m ?an   accumulat$ obs]vations    
respect+ ! positions & motions (   ! sun
 & planets2 f :i* accumulat$ obs]vations
 x came   by-&-by to be empirically     
pr$ict$1 ) an approa* to tru?1   t c]ta9
 ( ! heav5ly bodies w\ld h c]ta9        
positions at   c]ta9 times4 ,b ! mod]n  
sci5ce ( planet>y ,a/ronomy consi/s   ( 
d$uctions f ! law (                     

gravitation--d$uctions %[+ :y   !       
cele/ial bodies necess>ily occupy c]ta9 
places at c]ta9   times4 ,n[1 ! k9d (   
relation :i* ?us exi/s betwe5 anci5t   &
 mod]n ,a/ronomy is analog\s to ! k9d ( 
relation :i*1 ,i   conceive1 exi/s      
betwe5 ! ,exp$i5cy-,morality & ,moral   
,sci5ce1   prop]ly s call$4 ,& !        
objection :i* ,i h to ! curr5t          
,utilit>ianism is1 t x recognizes no m  
develop$ =m (   ,morality--does n see t 
x has rea*$ b ! initial /age (   ,moral 
,sci5ce4  ,d\btless if utilit>ians are  
ask$ :e!r x c be by m]e *ance t ?is k9d 
( action works evil & t works good1 !y w
 answ]--,no3 !y w admit t su* sequ5ces  
are p>ts ( a necess>y ord] among        
ph5om5a4 ,b ?\gh ?is tru? is beyond "q2 
& ?\gh if !re are causal relations      
betwe5 acts & _! results1 rules (       
conduct c become sci5tific only :5 !y   
are d$uc$ f ^! causal relations2 !re    
cont9ues to be entire satisfaction ) t  
=m ( utilit>ianism 9 :i* ^! causal      
relations are practically ignor$4 ,x is 

suppos$ t 9 future1 z n[1 utility is to 
be det]m9$ only by obs]vation ( results3
 & t !re is no possibility ( kn[+1 by   
d$uction f fundam5tal pr9ciples1 :at    
conduct mu/ be detrim5tal & :at conduct 
mu/ be b5eficial4    #bb4 ,to make m    
specific t conception ( e?ical sci5ce "h
 indicat$1 let me pres5t x "u a concrete
 aspect1 beg9n+ ) a simple illu/ration &
 complicat+ ?is illu/ration by          
successive /eps4  ,if1 by ty+ its ma9   
art]y1 we /op mo/ ( ! blood go+ to a    
limb1 !n1 = z long z ! limb p]=ms its   
function1 ^? p>ts :i* are call$ into    
play mu/ be wa/$ fa/] ?an !y are        
repair$3 :5ce ev5tual disablem5t4 ,!    
relation betwe5 due receipt ( nutritive 
matt]s ?r\gh its art]ies1 & due dis*>ge 
( its duties by ! limb is a "p ( !      
physical ord]4 ,if1 in/ead ( cutt+ (f ! 
supply to a p>ticul> limb1 we ble$ !    
pati5t l>gely1 s draft+ away ! mat]ials 
ne$$ = repair+ n "o limb b all limbs1 & 
n limbs only b visc]a1 !re results bo? a
 muscul> debility & an enfeeblem5t ( !  

vital functions4 ,"h1 aga91 cause &     
effect are necess>ily relat$4 ,! mis*ief
 t results f great depletion1 results   
ap>t f any div9e comm&1 or political    
enactm5t1 or moral intuition4 ,n[       
advance a /ep4 ,suppose ! man to be     
prev5t$ f tak+ 9 en\gh ( ! solid &      
liquid food conta9+ ^? sub/ances        
cont9ually ab/ract$ f 8 blood 9 repair+ 
8 tissues3 suppose he has canc] ( !     
esophagus & _c swall[--:at happ5s8 ,by  
?is indirect depletion1 z by direct     
depletion1 he is inevitably made        
incapable ( p]=m+ ! actions ( "o 9      
heal?4 ,9 ?is case1 z 9 ! o!r cases1 !  
connection betwe5 cause & effect is "o t
 _c be e/abli%$1 or alt]$1 by any       
au?ority ext]nal to ! ph5om5a !mselves4 
,aga91 let u say t in/ead ( be+ /opp$   
aft] pass+ 8 m\?1 t :i* he w\ld swall[  
is /opp$ be=e rea*+ 8 m\?2 s t day aft] 
day ! man is requir$ to wa/e 8 tissues 9
 gett+ food1 & day aft] day ! food he   
has got to meet ?is wa/e1 he is =cibly  
prev5t$ f eat+4 ,z be=e1 ! progress t[>d

 dea? by />vation is inevitable--!      
connection betwe5 acts & effects is     
indep5d5t ( any alleg$ !ological or     
political au?ority4 ,& simil>ly if1 be+ 
=c$ by ! :ip to labor1 no adequate      
return 9 food is suppli$ to him1 !re are
 equally c]ta9 evils1 equally indep5d5t 
( sacr$ or secul> enactm5t4  ,pass n[ to
 ^? actions m commonly ?\ght ( z !      
occasions = rules ( conduct4 ,let u     
assume ! man to be cont9ually robb$ ( t 
:i* 0 giv5 him 9 ex*ange = 8 labor1 & by
 :i* he 0 to make up = n]vo-muscul>     
exp5diture & r5ew 8 p[]s4 ,no less ?an  
be=e is ! connection betwe5 conduct &   
consequ5ce root$ 9 ! con/itution ( ?+s2 
un*angeable by ,/ate-made law1 & n ne$+ 
e/abli%m5t by empirical g5]alization4   
,if ! action by :i* ! man is affect$ is 
a /age fur!r away f ! results1 or       
produces results ( a less decisive k9d1 
/ill we see ! same basis = morality 9 ! 
physical ord]4 ,imag9e t paym5t = 8     
s]vices is made p>tly 9 bad co92 or t x 
is delay$ beyond ! date agre$ ^u2 or t  

:at he buys to eat is adult]at$ )       
innutritive matt]4 ,manife/ly1 by any ( 
^! de$s :i* we condemn z unju/1 & :i*   
are puni%$ by law1 !re is1 z be=e1 an   
int]f]5ce ) ! normal adju/m5t (         
physiological repair to physiological   
wa/e4 ,nor is x o!rwise :5 we pass to   
k9ds ( conduct /ill m remotely op]ative4
 ,if he is h9d]$ f en=c+ 8 claim1 if    
class-pr$om9ance prev5ts him f proce$+1 
or if a brib$ judge gives a v]dict      
contr>y to evid5ce1 or if a witness     
swe>s falsely1 h n ^! de$s1 ?\gh !y     
affect him m indirectly1 ! same orig9al 
cause = _! wrongness8  ,ev5 ) actions   
:i* "w diffus$ & indef9ite mis*iefs x is
 ! same4 ,suppose t ! man1 in/ead ( be+ 
dealt ) fraudul5tly1 is calumniat$4 ,!re
 is1 z be=e1 a h9d]ance to ! c>ry+ on ( 
life-su/a9+ activities2 = ! loss ( "*   
detrim5tally affects 8 bus9ess4 ,nor is 
?is all4 ,! m5tal depression caus$      
p>tially incapacitates him = en]getic   
activity1 & p]haps br+s on ill-heal?4 ,s
 t malici\sly or c>elessly propagat+    

false /atem5ts t5ds bo? to dim9i% 8 life
 & to dim9i% 8 ability to ma9ta9 life4  
,h5ce its flagiti\sness4  ,moreov]1 if  
we trace to _! ultimate ramifications ! 
effects wr\ght by any ( ^! acts :i*     
morality call$ intuitive reprobates--if 
we ask :at results n to ! individual    
himself only1 b also to 8 belong+s--if  
we obs]ve h[ impov]i%m5t h9d]s ! re>+ ( 
8 *ildr51 by entail+ "u-fe$+ or         
inadequate clo?+1 result+ p]haps 9 !    
dea? ( "s & ! con/itutional injury (    
o!rs2 we see t by ! necess>y connections
 ( ?+s ^! acts1 besides t5d+ prim>ily to
 l[] ! life ( ! individual aggress$ ^u1 
t5d1 second>ily1 to l[] ! lives ( all 8 
family1 & ?irdly1 to l[] ! life (       
society at l>ge2 :i* is damag$ by :atev]
 damages its units4  ,a m di/9ct mean+ w
 n[ be se5 9 ! /atem5t t ! utilit>ianism
 :i* recognizes only ! pr9ciples (      
conduct rea*$ by induction1 is b        
prep>atory to ! utilit>ianism :i* d$uces
 ^! pr9ciples f ! processes ( life z    
c>ri$ on "u e/abli%$ conditions (       

exi/5ce4   #bb4 ,?us1 !n1 is ju/ifi$ !  
allegation made at ! outset1 t1         
irrespective ( _! di/9ctive *>act]s & _!
 special t5d5cies1 all ! curr5t me?ods (
 e?ics h "o g5]al defect--!y neglect    
ultimate causal connections4 ,( c\rse ,i
 d n mean t !y :olly ignore ! natural   
consequ5ces ( actions2 b ,i mean t !y   
recognize !m only incid5tally4 ,!y d n  
erect into a me?od ! asc]ta9+ ( necess>y
 relations betwe5 causes & effects1 &   
d$uc+ rules ( conduct f =mulat$ /atem5t 
( !m4  ,e sci5ce beg9s by accumulat+    
obs]vations1 & pres5tly g5]alizes ^!    
empirically2 b only :5 x rea*es ! /age  
at :i* its empirical g5]alizations are  
includ$ 9 a rational g5]alization1 does 
x become develop$ sci5ce4 ,a/ronomy has 
already pass$ ?r\gh its successive      
/ages3 fir/ collections ( facts2 !n     
inductions f !m2 & la/ly d$uctive       
int]pretations ( ^!1 z coroll>ies f a   
univ]sal pr9ciple ( action among masses 
9 space4 ,acc\nts ( /ructures &         
tabulations ( /rata1 gr\p$ & comp>$1 h  

l$ gradually to ! assign+ ( v>i\s       
classes ( geological *anges to igne\s & 
aque\s actions2 & x is n[ tacitly       
admitt$ t ,geology becomes a sci5ce     
prop]1 only z fa/ z su* *anges are      
expla9$ 9 t]ms ( ^? natural processes   
:i* h aris5 9 ! cool+ & solidify+ e>?1  
expos$ to ! sun's heat & ! action ( !   
moon ^u its ocean4 ,! sci5ce ( life has 
be51 & is /ill1 exhibit+ a l s]ies (    
/eps2 ! evolution ( organic =ms at l>ge 
is be+ affiliat$ on physical actions 9  
op]ations f ! beg9n+2 & ! vital ph5om5a 
ea* organism pres5ts are com+ to be     
und]/ood z connect$ sets ( *anges1 9    
p>ts =m$ ( matt]s t are affect$ by c]ta9
 =ces & dis5gage o!r =ces4 ,s is x )    
m9d4 ,e>ly ideas conc]n+ ?\ght & feel+  
ignor$ ev]y?+ l cause1 save 9 recogniz+ 
^? effects ( habits :i* 7 =c$ on m5's   
att5tion & express$ 9 prov]bs2 b !re are
 gr[+ up int]pretations ( ?\ght & feel+ 
z correlates ( ! actions & reactions ( a
 n]v\s /ructure1 t is influ5c$ by out]  
*anges & works 9 ! body adapt$ *anges3 !

 implication be+ t ,psy*ology becomes a 
sci5ce z fa/ z ^! relations ( ph5om5a   
are expla9$ z consequ5ces ( ultimate    
pr9ciples4 ,sociology1 too1 repres5t$   
d[n to rec5t times only by /ray ideas   
ab\t social organization1 scatt]$ ?r\gh 
! masses ( wor?less gossip furni%$ u by 
hi/orians1 is com+ to be recogniz$ by "s
 z also a sci5ce2 & su* adumbrations ( x
 z h f "t to "t appe>$ 9 ! %ape (       
empirical g5]alizations1 are n[ beg9n+  
to assume ! "* ( g5]alizations made     
coh]5t by d]ivation f causes ly+ 9 human
 nature plac$ "u giv5 conditions4       
,cle>ly !n1 ,e?ics1 :i* is a sci5ce     
deal+ ) ! conduct ( associat$ human     
be+s1 reg>d$ "u "o ( its aspects1 has to
 und]go a l trans=mation2 &1 at pres5t  
undevelop$1 c be consid]$ a develop$    
sci5ce only :5 x has und]gone ?is       
trans=mation4  ,a prep>ation 9 ! simpl] 
sci5ces is pre-suppos$4 ,e?ics has a    
physical aspect2 s9ce x treats ( human  
activities :i*1 9 common ) all          
exp5ditures or en]gy1 con=m to ! law ( !

 p]si/5ce ( en]gy3 moral pr9ciples mu/  
con=m to physical necessities4 ,x has a 
biological aspect2 s9ce x conc]ns c]ta9 
effects1 inn] & out]1 individual &      
social1 ( ! vital *anges go+ on 9 !     
highe/ type ( animal4 ,x has a          
psy*ological aspect2 = its subject matt]
 is an aggregate ( actions t are prompt$
 by feel+s & guid$ by intellig5ce4 ,& x 
has a sociological aspect2 = ^! actions1
 "s ( !m directly & all ( !m indirectly1
 affect associat$ be+s4  ,:at is !      
implication8 ,belong+ "u "o aspect to   
ea* ( ^! sci5ces--physical1 biological1 
psy*ological1 sociological--x c f9d its 
ultimate int]pretations only 9 ^?       
fundam5tal tru?s :i* are common to all (
 !m4 ,already we h conclud$ 9 a g5]al   
way t conduct at l>ge1 includ+ ! conduct
 ,e?ics deals )1 is to be fully und]/ood
 only z an aspect ( evolv+ life2 & n[ we
 are br\ght to ?is conclusion 9 a m     
special way4    #bc4 ,"h1 !n1 we h to   
ent] on ! consid]ation ( moral ph5om5a z
 ph5om5a ( evolution2 be+ =c$ to d ?is  

by f9d+ t !y =m a "p ( ! aggregate (    
ph5om5a :i* evolution has wr\ght out4   
,if ! entire visible univ]se has be5    
evolv$--if ! sol> sy/em z a :ole1 ! e>? 
z a "p ( x1 ! life 9 g5]al :i* ! e>?    
be>s1 z well z t ( ea* individual       
organism--if ! m5tal ph5om5a display$ by
 all creatures1 up to ! highe/1 9 common
 ) ! ph5om5a pres5t$ by aggregates ( ^! 
highe/--if "o & all con=m to ! laws (   
evolution2 !n ! necess>y implication is 
t ^? ph5om5a ( conduct 9 ^! highe/      
creatures ) :i* ,morality is conc]n$1   
also con=m4  ,! prec$+ volumes h prep>$ 
! way = deal+ ) morals z ?us conceiv$4  
,utiliz+ ! conclusions !y conta91 let u 
n[ obs]ve :at data are furni%$ by ^!4   
,we w take 9 succession--! physical     
view1 ! biological view1 ! psy*ological 
view1 & ! sociological view4     ,,*apt]
 ,v4  ,,! ,,physical ,,view4    #bd4 ,e 
mom5t we pass in/antly f m5's p]ceiv$   
actions to ! motives impli$ by !m2 & s  
are l$ to =mulate ^! actions 9 m5tal    
t]ms r ?an 9 bodily t]ms4 ,?\ghts &     

feel+s are ref]r$ to :5 we speak ( any  
"o's de$s ) praise or blame2 n ^? out]  
manife/ations :i* reveal ! ?\ghts &     
feel+s4 ,h5ce we become oblivi\s ( !    
tru? t conduct z actually exp]i5c$      
consi/s ( *anges recogniz$ by t\*1 sight
 & he>+4  ,?is habit ( contemplat+ only 
! psy*ical face ( conduct1 is s confirm$
 t an ef=t is requir$ to contemplate    
only ! physical face4 ,und5iable z x is 
t ano!r's behavior to u is made up (    
movem5ts ( 8 body & limbs1 ( 8 facial   
muscles1 & ( 8 vocal app>atus1 x yet    
seems p>adoxical to say t ^! are ! only 
elem5ts ( conduct really kn[n by u1 :ile
 ! elem5ts ( conduct :i* we exclusively 
?9k ( z con/itut+ x1 are n kn[n b       
inf]r$4  ,"h1 h[ev]1 ignor+ = ! "t be+ !
 inf]r$ elem5ts 9 conduct1 we h to deal 
) ! p]ceiv$ elem5ts--we h to obs]ve its 
traits consid]$ z a set ( comb9$        
motions4 ,tak+ ! evolution po9t ( view1 
& rememb]+ t :ile an aggregate evolves1 
n only ! matt] compos+ x1 b also !      
motion ( t matt]1 passes f an indef9ite 

incoh]5t homog5eity to a def9ite coh]5t 
het]og5eity1 we h n[ to ask :e!r conduct
 z x rises to its high] =ms1 displays 9 
increas+ degrees ^! *>act]s2 & :e!r x   
does n display !m 9 ! greate/ degree :5 
x rea*es t highe/ =m :i* we call moral4 
#be4 ,x w be conv5i5t to deal fir/ ) !  
trait ( increas+ coh]5ce4 ,! conduct (  
l[ly-organiz$ creatures is broadly      
contra/$ ) ! conduct ( highly-organiz$  
creatures 9 hav+ its successive portions
 feebly connect$4 ,! r&om movem5ts :i*  
animalcule makes h sev]ally no ref]5ce  
to movem5ts made a mom5t be=e2 nor d !y 
affect 9 specific ways ! movem5ts made  
imm$iately aft]4 ,to-day's w&]+s ( a fi%
 9 se>* ( food1 ?\gh p]haps %[+ by _!   
adju/m5ts to cat*+ diff]5t k9ds ( prey  
at diff]5t h\rs1 a slightly-det]m9$     
ord]1 are unrelat$ to ! w&]+s ( ye/]day 
& to-morr[4 ,b su* m develop$ creatures 
z birds1 %[ u 9 ! build+ ( ne/s1 ! sitt+
 on eggs1 ! re>+ ( *icks1 & ! aid+ ( !m 
aft] !y fly1 sets ( motions :i* =m a    
dep5d5t s]ies1 ext5d+ ov] a consid]able 

p]iod4 ,& on obs]v+ ! complexity ( !    
acts p]=m$ 9 fet*+ & fix+ ! fibres ( !  
ne/ or 9 cat*+ & br++ to ! "y ea*       
portion ( food1 we discov] 9 ! comb9$   
motions1 lat]al cohesion z well z       
longitud9al cohesion4  ,man1 ev5 9 8    
l[e/ /ate1 displays 9 8 conduct f> m    
coh]5t comb9ations ( motions4 ,by !     
elaborate manipulations gone ?r\gh 9    
mak+ weapons t are to s]ve = ! *ase next
 ye>1 or 9 build+ canoes & wigwams =    
p]man5t uses--by acts ( aggression &    
def5se :i* are connect$ ) injuries long 
s9ce receiv$ or committ$1 ! savage      
exhibits an aggregate ( motions :i*1 9  
"s ( its p>ts1 holds toge!r ov] great   
p]iods4 ,moreov]1 if we consid] ! _m    
movem5ts impli$ by ! transactions ( ea* 
day1 9 ! wood1 on ! wat]1 9 ! camp1 9 ! 
family1 we see t ?is coh]5t aggregate ( 
movem5ts is compos$ ( _m m9or aggregates
 t are sev]ally coh]5t )9 !mselves & )  
"o ano!r4  ,9 civiliz$ man ?is trait (  
develop$ conduct becomes m conspicu\s   
/ill4 ,be 8 bus9ess :at x may1 its      

processes involve relatively num]\s     
dep5d5t motions2 & day by day x is s    
c>ri$ on z to %[ connections betwe5     
pres5t motions & motions long gone by1 z
 well z motions anticipat$ 9 ! di/ant   
future4 ,besides ! _m do+s1 relat$ to "o
 ano!r1 :i* ! f>m] goes ?r\gh 9 look+   
aft] 8 cattle1 direct+ 8 labor]s1 keep+ 
an eye on 8 dairy1 buy+ 8 implem5ts1    
sell+ 8 produce1 etc41 ! bus9ess ( gett+
 8 lease involves num]\s comb9$ movem5ts
 on :i* ! movem5ts ( subsequ5t ye>s     
dep5d2 & 9 manur+ 8 fields ) a view to  
l>g] returns1 or putt+ d[n dra9s ) ! l  
motive1 he is p]=m+ acts :i* are p>ts ( 
a coh]5t comb9ation relatively ext5sive4
 ,t ! l holds ( ! %opkeep]1 manufactur]1
 bank]1 is manife/2 & ?is increas$      
coh]5ce ( conduct among ! civiliz$ w    
/rike u ev5 m :5 we rememb] h[ its p>ts 
are (t5 cont9u$ 9 a connect$ arrangem5t 
?r\gh life1 = ! purpose ( mak+ a =tune1 
f\nd+ a family1 ga9+ a seat 9 ,p>liam5t4
  ,n[ m>k t a great] coh]5ce among its  
compon5t motions broadly di/+ui%es !    

conduct we call moral f ! conduct we    
call immoral4 ,! application ( ! ^w     
dissolute to ! la/1 & ( ! ^w            
self-re/ra9$ to ! fir/1 implies         
?is--implies t conduct ( ! l[] k9d1     
con/itut$ ( disord]ly acts1 has its p>ts
 relatively loose 9 _! relations ) "o   
ano!r2 :ile conduct ( ! high] k9d1      
habitually foll[+ a fix$ ord]1 s ga9s a 
*>act]i/ic unity & coh]5ce4 ,9          
proportion z ! conduct is :at we call   
moral1 x exhibits comp>atively settl$   
connections betwe5 antec$5ts &          
consequ5ts2 = ! do+ "r implies t "u giv5
 conditions ! comb9$ motions con/itut+  
conduct w foll[ 9 a way t c be specifi$4
 ,contr>iwise1 9 ! conduct ( "o ^:      
pr9ciples are n high1 ! sequ5ces (      
motions are d\btful4 ,he may pay ! money
 or he may n2 he may keep 8 appo9tm5t or
 he may fail2 he may tell ! tru? or he  
may lie4 ,! words tru/wor?9ess &        
untru/wor?9ess1 z us$ to *>act]ize ! two
 respectively1 suffici5tly imply t !    
actions ( ! "o c be =ekn[n :ile ^? ( !  

o!r _c2 & ?is implies t ! successive    
movem5ts compos+ ! "o be> m con/ant     
relations to "o ano!r ?an d ^? compos+ !
 o!r--are m coh]5t4    #bf4             
,indef9it5ess accompanies incoh]5ce 9   
conduct t is little evolv$2 & ?r\gh\t ! 
asc5d+ /ages ( evolv+ conduct !re is an 
increas+ly def9ite co-ord9ation ( !     
motions con/itut+ x4  ,su* *anges ( =m z
 ! rude/ protozoa %[ u1 are utt]ly      
vague--admit ( no precise description2 &
 ?\gh 9 high] k9ds ! movem5ts ( ! p>ts  
are m def9able1 yet ! movem5t ( ! :ole 9
 respect ( direction is indet]m9ate3 !re
 is no adju/m5t ( x to ?is or ! o!r po9t
 9 space4 ,9 su* coel5t]ate animals z   
polypes we see ! p>ts mov+ 9 ways :i*   
lack precision2 & 9 "o ( ! locomotive   
=ms1 z a m$usa1 ! c\rse tak51 o!rwise at
 r&om1 c be describ$ only z "o :i*      
c>ries x t[>d ! light1 :]e degrees (    
light & d>kness are pres5t4 ,among      
annulose creatures ! contra/ betwe5 !   
track ( a worm1 turn+ ?is way or t at   
haz>d1 & ! def9ite c\rse tak5 by a bee 9

 its flight f fl[] to fl[] or back to ! 
hive1 %[s u ! same ?+2 ! bee's acts 9   
build+ cells & fe$+ l>v fur!r exhibit+  
precision 9 ! simultane\s movem5ts z    
well z 9 ! successive movem5ts4 ,?\gh ! 
motions made by a fi% 9 pursu+ its prey 
h consid]able def9it5ess1 yet !y are ( a
 simple k9d1 & are 9 ?is respect        
contra/$ ) ! _m def9ite motions ( body1 
head1 & limbs gone ?r\gh by a c>nivor\s 
mammal 9 ! c\rse ( waylay+1 runn+ d[n1 &
 seiz+ a h]bivore2 & fur!r1 ! fi% %[s u 
none ( ^? def9itely adju/$ sets (       
motions :i* 9 ! mammal subs]ve ! re>+ ( 
"y4  ,mu* great] def9it5ess1 if n 9 !   
comb9$ movem5ts =m+ s+le acts1 /ill 9 ! 
adju/m5ts ( _m comb9$ acts to v>i\s     
purposes1 *>act]izes human conduct1 ev5 
9 its l[e/ /ages4 ,9 mak+ & us+ weapons 
& 9 ! maneuv]+s ( savage w>f>e1 num]\s  
movem5ts1 all precise 9 _! adaptations  
to proximate ends1 are arrang$ = !      
a*ievem5t ( remote ends1 ) a precision n
 p>allel$ among l[] creatures4 ,! lives 
( civiliz$ m5 exhibit ?is trait f> m    

conspicu\sly4 ,ea* indu/rial art        
exemplifies ! effects ( movem5ts :i* are
 sev]ally def9ite2 & :i* are def9itely  
arrang$ 9 simultane\s & successive ord]4
 ,bus9ess transactions ( e k9d are      
*>act]iz$ by exact relations betwe5 !   
sets ( motions con/itut+ acts1 & !      
purposes fulfill$1 9 "t1 place1 &       
quantity4 ,fur!r1 ! daily r\t9e ( ea*   
p]son %[s u 9 its p]iods & am\nts (     
activity1 ( re/1 ( relaxation1 a measur$
 arrangem5t :i* is n %[n u by ! do+s ( !
 w&]+ savage1 :o has no fix$ times =    
hunt+1 sleep+1 fe$+1 or any "o k9d (    
action4  ,moral conduct diff]s f immoral
 conduct 9 ! same mann] & 9 a l degree4 
,! consci5ti\s man is exact 9 all 8     
transactions4 ,he supplies a precise    
weight = a specifi$ sum2 he gives a     
def9ite quality 9 fulfillm5t ( und]/&+2 
he pays ! full am\nt he b>ga9$ to d4 ,9 
times z well z 9 quantities1 8 acts     
answ] completely to anticipations4 ,if  
he has made a bus9ess contract he is to 
! day2 if an appo9tm5t he is to ! m9ute4

 ,simil>ly 9 respect ( tru?3 8 /atem5ts 
correspond accurately ) ! facts4 ,x is  
?us too 9 8 family life4 ,he ma9ta9s    
m>ital relations t are def9ite 9 contra/
 ) ! relations t result f brea* ( !     
m>riage contract2 & z a fa!r1 fitt+ 8   
behavior ) c>e to ! nature ( ea* *ild & 
to ! occasion2 he avoids ! too mu* & !  
too little ( praise or blame1 rew>d or  
p5alty4 ,nor is x o!rwise 9 8           
miscellane\s acts4 ,to say t he deals   
equitably ) ^? he employs1 :e!r !y      
behave well or ill1 is to say t he      
adju/s 8 acts to _! des]ts2 & to say t  
he is judici\s 9 8 *>ities1 is to say t 
he portions out 8 aid ) discrim9ation   
in/ead ( di/ribut+ x indiscrim9ately to 
good & bad1 z d ^? :o h no adequate s5se
 ( _! social responsibilities4  ,t      
progress t[>d rectitude ( conduct is    
progress t[>d duly-proportion$ conduct1 
& t duly-proportion$ conduct is         
relatively def9ite1 we may see f ano!r  
po9t ( view4 ,"o ( ! traits ( conduct we
 call immoral1 is excess2 :ile mod]ation

 habitually *>act]izes moral conduct4   
,n[ excesses imply extreme div]g5ces (  
actions f "s m$ium1 :ile ma9t5ance ( !  
m$ium is impli$ by mod]ation2 :5ce x    
foll[s t actions ( ! la/ k9d c be def9$ 
m ne>ly ?an ^? ( ! fir/4 ,cle>ly conduct
 :i*1 be+ unre/ra9$1 runs into great &  
incalculable oscillations1 !re9 diff]s f
 re/ra9$ conduct ( :i*1 by implication1 
! oscillations fall )9 n>r[] limits4 ,& 
fall+ )9 n>r[] limits necessitates      
relative def9it5ess ( movem5ts4    #bg4 
,t ?r\gh\t ! asc5d+ =ms ( life1 along ) 
increas+ het]og5eity ( /ructure &       
function1 !re goes increas+ het]og5eity 
( conduct--increas+ div]sity 9 ! sets ( 
ext]nal motions & comb9$ sets ( su*     
motions--ne$s n be %[n 9 detail4 ,nor   
ne$ x be %[n t becom+ relatively great 9
 ! motions con/itut+ ! conduct ( !      
unciviliz$ man1 ?is het]og5eity has     
become /ill great] 9 ^? :i* ! civiliz$  
man goes ?r\gh4 ,we may pass at once to 
t fur!r degree ( ! l contra/ :i* we see 
on asc5d+ f ! conduct ( ! immoral to t (

 ! moral4  ,in/ead ( recogniz+ ?is      
contra/1 mo/ read]s w be incl9$ to      
id5tify a moral life ) a life little    
v>i$ 9 its activities4 ,b "h we come ^u 
a defect 9 ! curr5t conception (        
morality4 ,?is comp>ative uni=mity 9 !  
aggregate ( motions1 :i* goes along )   
morality z commonly conceiv$1 is n only 
n moral b is ! rev]se ( moral4 ,! bett] 
a man fulfills e requirem5t ( life1     
alike z reg>ds 8 own body & m9d1 z      
reg>ds ! bodies & m9ds ( ^? dep5d5t on  
him1 & z reg>ds ! bodies & m9ds ( 8     
fell[-citiz5s1 ! m v>i$ d 8 activities  
become4 ,! m fully he does all ^! ?+s1 !
 m het]og5e\s mu/ be 8 movem5ts4  ,"o :o
 satisfies p]sonal ne$s only1 goes ?r\gh
 o!r ?+s equal1 less multi=m processes  
?an "o :o also adm9i/]s to ! ne$s ( wife
 & *ildr54 ,suppos+ !re are no o!r      
diff]5ces1 ! addition ( family relations
 necess>ily r5d]s ! actions ( ! man :o  
fulfills ! duties ( husb& & p>5t1 m     
het]og5e\s ?an ^? ( ! man :o has no su* 
duties to fulfill1 or1 hav+ !m1 does n  

fulfill !m2 & to say t 8 actions are m  
het]og5e\s is to say t !re is a great]  
het]og5eity 9 ! comb9$ motions he goes  
?r\gh4 ,! l holds ( social obligations4 
,^!1 9 proportion z a citiz5 duly p]=ms 
!m1 complicate 8 movem5ts consid]ably4  
,if he is helpful to inf]iors dep5d5t on
 him1 if he takes a "p 9 political      
agitation1 if he aids 9 diffus+ k1 he1 9
 ea* ( ^! ways1 adds to 8 k9ds (        
activity--makes 8 sets ( movem5ts m     
multi=m2 s diff]+ f ! man :o is ! slave 
( "o desire or gr\p ( desires4  ,?\gh x 
is unusual to consid] z hav+ a moral    
aspect1 ^? activities :i* culture       
involves1 yet to ! few :o hold t due    
ex]cise ( all ! high] faculties1        
intellectual & /hetic1 mu/ be includ$ 9 
! conception ( complete life1 "h        
id5tifi$ ) ! ideally moral life1 x w be 
manife/ t a fur!r het]og5eity is impli$ 
by !m4 ,= ea* ( su* activities1         
con/itut$ by t play ( ^! faculties :i*  
is ev5tually add$ to _! life-subs]v+    
uses1 adds to ! multi=mity ( ! aggregat$

 motions4  ,briefly1 !n1 if ! conduct is
 ! be/ possible on e occasion1 x foll[s 
t z ! occasions are endlessly v>i$ !    
acts w be endlessly v>i$ to suit--!     
het]og5eity 9 ! comb9ations ( motions w 
be extreme4    #bh4 ,evolution 9 conduct
 consid]$ "u its moral aspect1 is1 l all
 o!r evolution1 t[>d equilibrium4 ,i d n
 mean t x is t[>d ! equilibrium rea*$ at
 dea?1 ?\gh ?is is1 ( c\rse1 ! f9al /ate
 :i* ! evolution ( ! highe/ man has 9   
common ) all l[] evolution2 b ,i mean t 
x is t[>d a mov+ equilibrium4  ,we h se5
 t ma9ta9+ life1 express$ 9 physical    
t]ms1 is ma9ta9+ a balanc$ comb9ation ( 
int]nal actions 9 face ( ext]nal =ces   
t5d+ to ov]?r[ x2 & we h se5 t advance  
t[>d a high] life1 has be5 an acquirem5t
 ( ability to ma9ta9 ! balance = a long]
 p]iod1 by ! successive additions (     
organic appliances :i* by _! actions    
c\nt]act1 m & m fully1 ! di/urb+ =ces4  
,"h1 !n1 we are l$ to ! conclusion t !  
life call$ moral is "o 9 :i* ?is        
ma9t5ance ( ! mov+ equilibrium rea*es   

complet5ess1 or approa*es mo/ ne>ly to  
complet5ess4  ,?is tru? is cle>ly       
disclos$ on obs]v+ h[ ^? physiological  
rhy?ms :i* vaguely %[ !mselves :5       
organization beg9s1 become m regul>1 z  
well z m v>i\s 9 _! k9ds1 z organization
 advances4 ,p]iodicity is b feebly m>k$ 
9 ! actions1 inn] & out]1 ( ! rude/     
types4 ,:]e life is l[ !re is passive   
dep5d5ce on ! accid5ts ( ! environm5t2 &
 ?is entails great irregul>ities 9 !    
vital processes4 ,! tak+ 9 ( food by a  
polype is at int]vals n[ %ort1 n[ v     
long1 z circum/ances det]m9e2 & !       
utilization ( x is by a sl[ disp]sion ( 
! absorb$ "p ?r\gh ! tissues1 aid$ only 
by ! irregul> movem5ts ( ! creature's   
body2 :ile1 su* ration z is effect$ is  
simil>ly )\t a trace ( rhy?m4 ,mu* high]
 up we /ill f9d v imp]fect p]iodicities2
 z 9 ! inf]ior molluscs :i*1 ?\gh       
possess$ ( vascul> sy/ems1 h no prop]   
circulation1 b m]ely a sl[ movem5t ( !  
crude blood1 n[ 9 "o direction ?r\gh !  
vessels & !n1 aft] a pause1 9 ! opposite

 direction4 ,only ) well-develop$       
/ructures d !re come a rhy?mical pulse &
 a rhy?m ( ! respiratory actions4 ,& !n 
9 birds & mammals1 along ) great        
rapidity & regul>ity 9 ^! ess5tial      
rhy?ms1 & along ) a consequ5tly great   
vital activity & !re=e great exp5diture1
 comp>ative regul>ity 9 ! rhy?m ( !     
alim5t>y actions is e/abli%$1 z well z 9
 ! rhy?m ( activity & re/2 s9ce ! rapid 
wa/e to :i* rapid pulsation &           
respiration are in/rum5tal1 necessitates
 tol]ably regul> supplies ( nutrim5t1 z 
well z recurr+ int]vals ( sleep dur+ :i*
 repair may ov]take wa/e4 ,& f ^! /ages 
! mov+ equilibrium *>act]iz$ by su*     
int]dep5d5t rhy?ms1 is cont9ually made  
bett] by ! c\nt]act+ ( m & m ( ^?       
actions :i* t5d to p]turb x4  ,s is x z 
we asc5d f savage to civiliz$ & f ! l[e/
 among ! civiliz$ to ! highe/4 ,! rhy?m 
( ext]nal actions requir$ to ma9ta9 !   
rhy?m ( int]nal actions becomes at once 
m complicat$ & m complete1 mak+ !m into 
a bett] mov+ equilibrium4 ,!            

irregul>ities :i* _! conditions (       
exi/5ce entail on primitive m51         
cont9ually cause wide deviations f !    
mean /ate ( ! mov+ equilibrium--wide    
oscillations2 :i* imply imp]fection ( x 
= ! "t be+1 & br+ ab\t its premature    
ov]?r[4 ,9 su* civiliz$ m5 z we call ill
 conduct$1 frequ5t p]turbations ( ! mov+
 equilibrium are caus$ by ^? excesses   
*>act]iz+ a c>e] 9 :i* ! p]iodicities   
are mu* brok52 & a common result is t ! 
rhy?m ( ! int]nal actions be+ (t5       
d]ang$1 ! mov+ equilibrium1 r5d]$ by s  
mu* imp]fect1 is g5]ally %ort5$ 9       
duration4 ,:ile "o 9 :om ! int]nal      
rhy?ms are be/ ma9ta9$ is "o by :om !   
ext]nal actions requir$ to fulfill all  
ne$s & duties1 sev]ally p]=m$ on !      
recurr+ occasions1 conduce to a mov+    
equilibrium t is at once involv$ &      
prolong$4  ,( c\rse ! implication is t !
 man :o ?us rea*es ! limit ( evolution1 
exi/s 9 a society congru\s ) 8 nature1  
is a man among m5 simil>ly con/itut$1 :o
 are sev]ally 9 h>mony ) t social       

environm5t :i* !y h =m$4 ,?is is1 inde$1
 ! only possibility4 ,= ! production ( !
 highe/ type ( man c g on only p>i passu
 ) ! production ( ! highe/ type (       
society4 ,! impli$ conditions are ^?    
be=e describ$ z accompany+ ! mo/ evolv$ 
conduct--conditions "u :i* ea* c fulfill
 all 8 ne$s & re> ! due numb] ( prog5y1 
n only )\t h9d]+ o!rs f do+ ! l1 b :ile 
aid+ !m 9 do+ ! l4 ,& evid5tly1 consid]$
 "u its physical aspect1 ! conduct ( !  
individual s con/itut$1 & associat$ ) l 
individuals1 is "o 9 :i* all ! actions1 
t is ! comb9$ motions ( all k9ds1 h     
become su* z duly to meet e daily       
process1 e ord9>y occurr5ce1 & e        
cont+5cy 9 8 environm5t4 ,complete life 
9 a complete society is b ano!r "n =    
complete equilibrium betwe5 ! co-ord9at$
 activities ( ea* social unit & ^? ( !  
aggregate ( units4    #bi4 ,ev5 to      
read]s ( prec$+ volumes1 & /ill m to o!r
 read]s1 !re w seem a /rang5ess1 or ev5 
an absurdity1 9 ?is pres5tation ( moral 
conduct 9 physical t]ms4 ,x has be5     

ne$ful to make x1 h[ev]4 ,if t          
re-di/ribution ( matt] & motion         
con/itut+ evolution goes on 9 all       
aggregates1 its laws mu/ be fulfill$ 9 !
 mo/ develop$ be+ z 9 e o!r ?+2 & 8     
actions1 :5 decompos$ into motions1 mu/ 
exemplify its laws4 ,?is we f9d t !y d4 
,!re is an entire correspond5ce betwe5  
moral evolution & evolution z physically
 def9$4  ,conduct1 z actually kn[n to u 
9 p]ception1 & n z int]pret$ into !     
accompany+ feel+s & ideas1 consi/s (    
comb9$ motions4 ,on asc5d+ ?r\gh ! v>i\s
 grades ( animate creatures1 we f9d ^!  
comb9$ motions *>act]iz$ by increas+    
coh]5ce1 increas+ def9it5ess consid]$   
s+ly & 9 _! co-ord9at$ gr\ps1 & increas+
 het]og5eity2 & 9 advanc+ f l[] to high]
 types ( man1 z well z 9 advanc+ f !    
less moral to ! m moral type ( man1 ^!  
traits ( evolv+ conduct become m m>k$   
/ill4 ,fur!r1 we see t ! increas+       
coh]5ce1 def9it5ess1 & het]og5eity1 ( ! 
comb9$ motions1 are in/rum5tal to !     
bett] ma9t5ance ( a mov+ equilibrium4   

,:]e ! evolution is small ?is is v      
imp]fect & soon cut %ort2 ) advanc+     
evolution1 br++ great] p[] &            
intellig5ce1 x becomes m /eady & long]  
cont9u$ 9 face ( adv]se actions2 9 !    
human race at l>ge x is comp>atively    
regul> & endur+2 & its regul>ity &      
endur+ness are greate/ 9 ! highe/4      
,,*apt] ,,vi4  ,,! ,,biological ,,view4 
#cj4 ,! tru? t ! ideally moral man is "o
 9 :om ! mov+ equilibrium is p]fect1 or 
approa*es ne>e/ to p]fection1 becomes1  
:5 translat$ into physiological         
language1 ! tru? t he is "o 9 :om !     
functions ( all k9ds are duly fulfill$4 
,ea* function has "s relation1 direct or
 indirect1 to ! ne$s ( life3 ! fact (   
its exi/5ce z a result ( evolution1 be+ 
itself a pro( t x has be5 entail$1      
imm$iately or remotely1 by ! adju/m5t ( 
inn] actions to out] actions4           
,consequ5tly1 non-fulfillm5t ( x 9      
normal proportion is non-fulfillm5t ( a 
requisite to complete life4 ,if !re is  
defective dis*>ge ( ! function1 !       

organism exp]i5ces "s detrim5tal result 
caus$ by ! inadequacy4 ,if ! dis*>ge is 
9 excess1 !re is entail$ a reaction ^u !
 o!r functions1 :i* 9 "s way dim9i%es _!
 effici5cies4  ,x is true t dur+ full   
vigor1 :ile ! mom5tum ( ! organic       
actions is great1 ! disord] caus$ by    
mod]ate excess or defect ( any "o       
function1 soon disappe>s--! balance is  
re-e/abli%$4 ,b x is none ! less true t 
always "s disord] results f excess or   
defect1 t x influ5ces e function1 bodily
 & m5tal1 & t x con/itutes a l[]+ ( !   
life = ! "t be+4  ,beyond ! tempor>y    
fall+ %ort ( complete life impli$ by    
undue or inadequate dis*>ge ( a function
 !re is entail$1 z an ultimate result1  
decreas$ l5g? ( life4 ,if "s function is
 habitually p]=m$ 9 excess ( !          
requirem5t1 or 9 defect ( ! requirem5t2 
& if1 z a consequ5ce1 !re is an (t5     
repeat$ p]turbation ( ! functions at    
l>ge1 !re results "s *ronic d]angem5t 9 
! balance ( ! functions4 ,necess>ily    
react+ on ! /ructures1 & regi/]+ 9 !m   

its accumulat$ effects1 ?is d]angem5t   
works a g5]al det]ioration2 & :5 ! vital
 en]gies beg9 to decl9e1 ! mov+         
equilibrium1 fur!r f p]fection ?an x    
w\ld else h be51 is soon] ov]?r[n3 dea? 
is m or less premature4  ,h5ce ! moral  
man is "o ^: functions--_m & v>i$ 9 _!  
k9ds1 z we h se5--are all dis*>g$ 9     
degrees duly adju/$ to ! conditions (   
exi/5ce4    #ca4 ,/range z ! conclusion 
looks1 x is nev]!less a conclusion to be
 "h drawn1 t ! p]=mance ( e function is1
 9 a s5se1 a moral obligation4  ,x is   
usually ?\ght t morality requires u only
 to re/ra9 su* vital activities z1 9 our
 pres5t /ate1 are (t5 pu%$ to excess1 or
 su* z conflict ) av]age welf>e1 special
 or g5]al2 b x also requires u to c>ry  
on ^! vital activities up to _! normal  
limits4 ,all ! animal functions1 9      
common ) all ! high] functions1 h1 z ?us
 und]/ood1 _! imp]ativ5ess4 ,:ile       
recogniz+ ! fact t 9 our /ate (         
transition1 *>act]iz$ by v imp]fect     
adaptation ( con/itution ( conditions1  

moral obligations ( supreme k9ds (t5    
necessitate conduct :i* is physically   
injuri\s2 we mu/ also recognize ! fact  
t1 consid]$ ap>t f o!r effects1 x is    
immoral s to treat ! body z 9 any way to
 dim9i% ! fullness or vigor ( its       
vitality4  ,h5ce results "o te/ (       
actions4 ,!re may 9 e case be put !     
que/ions--,does ! action t5d to         
ma9t5ance ( complete life = ! "t be+8 & 
does x t5d to prolongation ( life to its
 full ext5t8 ,to answ] yes or no to ei!r
 ( ^! que/ions1 is implicitly to class !
 action z "r or wrong 9 respect ( its   
imm$iate be>+s1 :atev] x may be 9       
respect ( its remote be>+s4  ,! seem+   
p>adoxicalness ( ?is /atem5t results f !
 t5d5cy1 s difficult ( avoidance1 to    
judge a conclusion :i* presupposes an   
ideal humanity1 by its applicability to 
humanity z n[ exi/+4 ,! =ego+ conclusion
 ref]s to t highe/ conduct 9 :i*1 z we h
 se51 ! evolution ( conduct t]m9ates--t 
conduct 9 :i* ! mak+ ( all adju/m5ts (  
acts to ends subs]v+ complete individual

 life1 toge!r ) all ^? subs]v+ ma9t5ance
 ( (fspr+ & prep>ation ( !m = maturity1 
n only consi/ ) ! mak+ ( l adju/m5ts by 
o!rs1 b fur!rs x4 ,& ?is conception (   
conduct 9 its ultimate =m implies !     
conception ( a nature hav+ su* conduct =
 its spontane\s outcome--! product ( its
 normal activities4 ,s und]/&+ ! matt]1 
x becomes manife/ t "u su* conditions   
any fall+ %ort ( function1 z well z any 
excess ( function1 implies deviation f !
 be/ conduct or f p]fectly moral        
conduct4    #cb4 ,?us f> 9 treat+ (     
conduct f ! biological po9t ( view1 we h
 consid]$ its con/itu5t actions "u _!   
physiological aspects only2 leav+ out ( 
sight _! psy*ological aspects4 ,we h    
recogniz$ ! bodily *anges & h ignor$ !  
accompany+ m5tal *anges4 ,& at fir/     
sight x seems ne$ful = u "h to d ?is2   
s9ce tak+ acc\nt ( /ates ( consci\sness 
app>5tly implies an inclusion ( !       
psy*ological view 9 ! biological view4  
,?is is n s h[ev]4 ,z 0 po9t$ out 9 !   
,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology1  #eb1 #ec1 we  

ent] ^u psy*ology prop] only :5 we beg9 
to treat ( m5tal /ates & _! relations   
consid]$ z ref]r+ to ext]nal ag5ts & _! 
relations4 ,:ile we conc]n ourselves    
exclusively ) modes ( m9d z correlatives
 ( n]v\s *anges1 we are treat+ ( :at 0  
!re di/+ui%$ z /ho-physiology4 ,we pass 
to psy*ology only :5 we consid] !       
correspond5ce betwe5 ! connections among
 subjective /ates & ! connections among 
objective actions4 ,"h1 !n1 )\t         
transgress+ ! limits ( our imm$iate     
topic1 we may deal ) feel+s & functions 
9 _! mutual dep5d5cies4  ,we _c omit do+
 ?is2 because ! psy*ical *anges :i*     
accompany _m ( ! physical *anges 9 !    
organism are biological factors 9 two   
ways4 ,^? feel+s1 class$ z s5sations1   
:i*1 directly initiat$ 9 ! bodily       
framework1 g along ) c]ta9 /ates ( !    
vital organs & m conspicu\sly ) c]ta9   
/ates ( ! ext]nal organs1 n[ s]ve ma9ly 
z guides to ! p]=mance ( functions1 b   
p>tly z /imuli1 & n[ s]ve ma9ly z       
/imuli1 b 9 a small] degree z guides4   

,visual s5sations :i*1 z co-ord9at$1    
enable u to direct our movem5ts1 also1  
if vivid1 raise ! rate ( respiration2   
:ile s5sations ( cold & heat1 greatly   
depress+ or rais+ ! vital actions1 s]ve 
also = purposes ( discrim9ation4 ,s1    
too1 ! feel+s class$ z emotions1 :i* are
 n localizable 9 ! bodily framework1 act
 9 m g5]al ways1 alike z guides &       
/imuli--hav+ influ5ces ov] ! p]=mance ( 
functions m pot5t ev5 ?an h mo/         
s5sations4 ,fe>1 at ! same "t t x urges 
flight & evolves ! =ces sp5t 9 x1 also  
affects ! he>t & ! alim5t>y canal2 :ile 
joy1 prompt+ p]si/5ce 9 ! actions br++  
x1 simultane\sly exalts ! visc]al       
processes4  ,h5ce1 9 treat+ ( conduct "u
 its biological aspect1 we are compell$ 
to consid] t int]action ( feel+s &      
functions :i* is ess5tial to animal life
 9 all its m develop$ =ms4    #cc4 ,9 ! 
,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology1  #abd1 x 0 %[n 
t necess>ily1 ?r\gh\t ! animate _w at   
l>ge1 pa9s are ! correlatives ( actions 
injuri\s to ! organism1 :ile pleasures  

are ! correlatives ( actions conducive  
to its welf>e2 s9ce x is an inevitable  
d$uction f ! hypo!sis ( ,evolution1 t   
races ( s5ti5t creatures c\ld h come    
into exi/5ce "u no o!r conditions4 ,!   
argum5t 0 z foll[s3    ,if we sub/itute 
= ! ^w ,pleasure ! equival5t phrase--a  
feel+ :i* we seek to br+ into           
consci\sness & reta9 !re1   & if we     
sub/itute = ! ^w ,pa9 ! equival5t       
phrase--a   feel+ :i* we seek to get out
 ( consci\sness & to keep out2   we see 
at once t if ! /ates ( consci\sness :i* 
a creature   endeavors to ma9ta9 are !  
correlatives ( injuri\s actions1 &   if 
! /ates ( consci\sness :i* x endeavors  
to expel are !   correlatives (         
b5eficial actions1 x mu/ quickly        
disappe> ?r\gh   p]si/5ce 9 ! injuri\s1 
& avoidance ( ! b5eficial4 ,9   o!r     
words1 ^? races ( be+s only c h surviv$ 
9 :i*1   on ! av]age1 agreeable or      
desir$ feel+s w5t along )   activities  
conducive to ! ma9t5ance ( life1 :ile   
disagreeable   & habitually avoid$      

feel+s w5t along ) activities directly  
or indirectly de/ructive ( life2 & !re  
mu/ ev] h be51   o!r ?+s equal1 ! mo/   
num]\s & long-cont9u$ survivals   among 
races 9 :i* ^! adju/m5ts ( feel+s to    
actions 7   ! be/1 t5d+ ev] to br+ ab\t 
p]fect adju/m5t4  ,fit connections      
betwe5 acts & results mu/ e/abli%       
!mselves 9 liv+ ?+s1 ev5 be=e           
consci\sness arises2 & aft] ! rise (    
consci\sness ^! connections c *ange 9 no
 o!r way ?an to become bett] e/abli%$4  
,at ! v outset1 life is ma9ta9$ by      
p]si/5ce 9 acts :i* conduce to x1 &     
desi/ance f acts :i* imp$e x2 & :5ev]   
s5ti5cy make its appe>ance z an         
accompanim5t1 its =ms mu/ be su* t 9 !  
"o case ! produc$ feel+ is ( a k9d t w  
be s\ght--pleasure1 & 9 ! o!r case is ( 
a k9d t w be %unn$--pa94 ,obs]ve !      
necessity ( ^! relations z exhibit$ 9 ! 
concrete4  ,a plant :i* envelops a buri$
 bone ) a plexus ( rootlets1 or a potato
 :i* directs its blan*$ %oots t[>d a    
grat+ ?r\gh :i* light comes into !      

cell>1 %[s u t ! *anges :i* out] ag5ts  
!mselves set up 9 its tissues are *anges
 :i* aid ! utilization ( ^! ag5ts4 ,if  
we ask :at w\ld happ5 if a plant's roots
 grew n t[>d ! place :]e !re 0 moi/ure1 
b away f x1 or if its leaves1 enabl$ by 
light to assimilate1 nev]!less b5t      
!mselves t[>d ! d>kness1 we see t dea?  
w\ld result 9 ! abs5ce ( ! exi/+        
adju/m5ts4 ,?is g5]al relation is /ill  
bett] %[n 9 an insectivor\s plant1 su* z
 ! ,dionoea muscipula1 :i* keeps its    
trap clos$ r\nd animal matt]1 b n r\nd  
o!r matt]4 ,"h x is manife/ t ! /imulus 
aris+ f ! fir/ "p ( ! absorb$ sub/ance  
itself sets up ^? actions by :i* ! mass 
( ! sub/ance is utiliz$ = ! plant's     
b5efit4  ,:5 we pass f vegetal organisms
 to unconsci\s animal organisms1 we see 
a l connection betwe5 proclivity &      
advantage4 ,on obs]v+ h[ ! t5tacles ( a 
polype atta* !mselves to1 & beg9 to     
close r\nd1 a liv+ creature1 or "s      
animal sub/ance1 :ile !y are indiff]5t  
to ! t\* ( o!r sub/ance1 we are simil>ly

 %[n t diffusion ( "s ( ! nutritive     
juices into ! t5tacles1 :i* is an       
incipi5t assimilation1 causes ! motions 
effect+ preh5sion4 ,& x is obvi\s t life
 w\ld cease 7 ^! relations rev]s$4  ,nor
 is x o!rwise ) ?is fundam5tal          
connection betwe5 contact ) food & tak+ 
9 ( food1 among consci\s creatures1 up  
to ! v highe/4 ,ta/+ a sub/ance implies 
! passage ( its molecules ?r\gh ! muc\s 
membrane ( ! tongue & palate2 & ?is     
absorption1 :5 x occurs ) a sub/ance    
s]v+ = food1 is b a comm5cem5t ( !      
absorption c>ri$ on ?r\gh\t ! alim5t>y  
canal4 ,moreov]1 ! s5sation accompany+  
?is absorption1 :5 x is ( ! k9d produc$ 
by food1 initiates at ! place :]e x is  
/ronge/1 9 front ( ! ph>ynx1 an         
automatic act ( swall[+1 9 a mann]      
rudely analog\s to t 9 :i* ! /imulus (  
absorption 9 a polype's t5tacles        
initiates preh5sion4  ,if f ^! processes
 & relations t imply contact betwe5 a   
creature's surface & ! sub/ance x takes 
91 we turn to ^? set up by diffus$      

p>ticles ( ! sub/ance1 con/itut+ to     
consci\s creatures its odor1 we meet a  
k9dr$ g5]al tru?4 ,j z1 aft] contact1 "s
 molecules ( a mass ( food are absorb$  
by ! "p t\*$1 & excite ! act (          
preh5sion1 s are absorb$ su* ( its      
molecules z1 spread+ ?r\gh ! wat]1 rea* 
! organism2 &1 be+ absorb$ by x1 excite 
^? actions by :i* contact ) ! mass is   
effect$4 ,if ! physical /imulation caus$
 by ! disp]s$ p>ticles is n accompani$  
by consci\sness1 /ill ! motor *anges set
 up mu/ conduce to survival ( !         
organism1 if !y are su* z end 9 contact2
 & !re mu/ be relative innutrition &    
mortality ( organisms 9 :i* ! produc$   
contractions d n br+ ab\t ?is result4   
,nor c x be que/ion$ t :5ev] & :]ev] !  
physical /imulation has a concomitant   
s5ti5cy1 ?is mu/ be su* z consi/s )1 &  
conduces to1 movem5t t[>d ! nutritive   
matt]3 x mu/ be n a repulsive b an      
attractive s5ti5cy4 ,& ?is :i* holds ) !
 l[e/ consci\sness1 mu/ hold ?r\gh\t2 z 
we see x d 9 all su* sup]ior creatures z

 are drawn to _! food by odor4  ,besides
 ^? movem5ts :i* cause locomotion ^? :i*
 effect seizure mu/ no less c]ta9ly     
become ?us adju/$4 ,! molecul> *anges   
caus$ by absorption ( nutritive matt] f 
organic sub/ance 9 contact1 or f adjac5t
 organic sub/ance1 initiate motions :i* 
are indef9ite :]e ! organization is l[1 
& :i* become m def9ite ) ! advance (    
organization4 ,at ! outset1 :ile !      
undiff]5tiat$ protoplasm is ev]y:]e     
absorb5t & ev]y:]e contractile1 ! *anges
 ( =m initiat$ by ! physical /imulation 
( adjac5t nutritive matt] are vague1 &  
ineffectually adapt$ to utilization ( x2
 b gradually1 along ) ! specialization  
into p>ts t are contractile & p>ts t are
 absorb5t1 ^! motions become bett]      
adapt$2 = necess>ily individuals 9 :i*  
!y are lea/ adapt$ disappe> fa/] ?an ^? 
9 :i* !y are mo/ adapt$4 ,recogniz+ ?is 
necessity we h "h especially to         
recognize a fur!r necessity4 ,! relation
 betwe5 ^! /imulations & adju/$         
contractions mu/ be su* t increase ( !  

"o causes increase ( ! o!r2 s9ce !      
directions ( ! dis*>ges be+ once        
e/abli%$1 great] /imulation causes      
great] contraction1 & ! great]          
contraction caus+ clos] contact ) !     
/imulat+ ag5t1 causes increase ( /imulus
 & is !reby itself fur!r increas$4 ,& n[
 we rea* ! coroll>y :i* m p>ticul>ly    
conc]ns u4 ,cle>ly z fa/ z an accompany+
 s5ti5cy arises1 ?is _c be "o t is      
disagreeable1 prompt+ desi/ance1 b mu/  
be "o t is agreeable1 prompt+ p]si/5ce4 
,! pleasurable s5sation mu/ be itself ! 
/imulus to ! contraction by :i* !       
pleasurable s5sation is ma9ta9$ &       
increas$2 or mu/ be s b\nd up ) !       
/imulus t ! two increase toge!r4 ,& ?is 
relation :i* we see is directly e/abli%$
 9 ! case ( a fundam5tal function1 mu/  
be indirectly e/abli%$ ) all o!r        
functions2 s9ce non-e/abli%m5t ( x 9 any
 p>ticul> case implies1 9 s f>1         
unfitness to ! conditions ( exi/5ce4  ,9
 two ways !n1 x is demon/rable t !re    
exi/s a primordial connection betwe5    

pleasure-giv+ acts & cont9uance or      
increase ( life1 &1 by implication1     
betwe5 pa9-giv+ acts & decrease or loss 
( life4 ,on ! "o h&1 sett+ out ) ! l[e/ 
liv+ ?+s1 we see t ! b5eficial act & !  
act :i* !re is a t5d5cy to p]=m1 are    
orig9ally two sides ( ! same2 & _c be   
disconnect$ )\t fatal results4 ,on ! o!r
 h&1 if we contemplate develop$         
creatures z n[ exi/+1 we see t ea*      
individual & species is f day to day    
kept alive by pursuit ( ! agreeable &   
avoidance ( ! disagreeable4  ,?us       
approa*+ ! facts f a diff]5t side1      
analysis br+s u d[n to ano!r face ( t   
ultimate tru? disclos$ by analysis 9 a  
prec$+ *apt]4 ,we f\nd x 0 no m possible
 to frame e?ical conceptions f :i* !    
consci\sness ( pleasure1 ( "s k9d1 at "s
 "t1 to "s be+1 is abs5t1 ?an x is      
possible to frame ! conception ( an     
object f :i* ! consci\sness ( space is  
abs5t4 ,& n[ we see t ?is necessity (   
?\ght orig9ates 9 ! v nature ( s5ti5t   
exi/5ce4 ,s5ti5t exi/5ce c evolve only  

on condition t pleasure-giv+ acts are   
life-su/a9+ acts4    #cd4 ,not)/&+      
explanations already made1 ! nak$       
enunciation ( ?is z an ultimate tru?1   
und]ly+ all e/imations ( "r & wrong1 w 9
 _m1 if n 9 mo/1 cause a/oni%m5t4 ,hav+ 
9 view c]ta9 b5eficial results t are    
prec$$ by disagreeable /ates (          
consci\sness1 su* z ^? commonly         
accompany+ labor2 & hav+ 9 view !       
injuri\s results t foll[ ! receipt (    
c]ta9 gratifications1 su* z ^? :i*      
excess 9 dr9k+ produces2 ! majority     
tacitly or av[$ly believe t ! be>+ (    
pa9s is on ! :ole b5eficial1 & t !      
receipt ( pleasures is on ! :ole        
detrim5tal4 ,! exceptions s fill _! m9ds
 z to exclude ! rule4  ,:5 ask$1 !y are 
oblig$ to admit t ! pa9s accompany+     
w\nds1 bruises1 spra9s1 are !           
concomitants ( evils1 alike to ! suff]] 
& to ^? ar\nd him2 & t ! anticipations (
 su* pa9s s]ve z det]r5ts f c>eless or  
dang]\s acts4 ,!y _c d5y t ! tortures ( 
burn+ or scald+1 & ! mis]ies :i* int5se 

cold1 />vation1 & ?ir/ produce1 are     
indissolubly connect$ ) p]man5t or      
tempor>y mis*iefs1 t5d+ to incapacitate 
"o :o be>s !m = do+ ?+s t %\ld be done1 
ei!r = 8 own welf>e or ! welf>e ( o!rs4 
,! agony ( incipi5t suffocation !y are  
compell$ to recognize z a safegu>d to   
life1 & mu/ all[ t avoidance ( x is     
conducive to all t life c br+ or a*ieve4
 ,nor w !y refuse to own t "o :o is *a9$
 9 a cold1 damp dungeon1 9 d>kness &    
sil5ce1 is injur$ 9 heal? & effici5cy1  
alike by ! positive pa9s ?us inflict$ on
 him & by ! accompany+ negative pa9s due
 to abs5ce ( light1 ( fre$om1 (         
companion%ip4  ,conv]sely1 !y d n d\bt t
 not)/&+ occasional excesses ! pleasure 
:i* accompanies ! tak+ ( food goes along
 ) physical b5efit2 & t ! b5efit is !   
great] ! ke5] ! satisfaction ( appetite4
 ,!y h no *oice b to ackn[l$ge t !      
in/9cts & s5tim5ts :i* s ov]p[]+ly      
prompt m>riage1 & ^? :i* f9d _!         
gratification 9 ! fo/]+ ( (fspr+1 "w out
 an imm5se surplus ( b5efit aft] d$uct+ 

all evils4 ,nor d>e !y "q t ! pleasure  
tak5 9 accumulat+ prop]ty1 leaves a l>ge
 balance ( advantage1 private & public1 
aft] mak+ all drawbacks4 ,yet _m &      
conspicu\s z are ! cases 9 :i* pleasures
 & pa9s1 s5sational & emotional1 s]ve z 
inc5tives to prop] acts & det]r5ts f    
improp] acts1 ^! pass unnotic$2 & notice
 is tak5 only ( ^? cases 9 :i* m5 are   
directly or indirectly misl$ by !m4 ,!  
well-work+ 9 ess5tial matt]s is ignor$2 
& ! ill-work+ 9 uness5tial matt]s is    
alone recogniz$4  ,is x repli$ t ! m    
int5se pa9s & pleasures1 :i* h imm$iate 
ref]5ce to bodily ne$s1 guide u rightly2
 :ile ! weak] pa9s & pleasures1 n       
imm$iately connect$ ) ! ma9t5ance (     
life1 guide u wrongly8 ,!n ! implication
 is t ! sy/em ( guidance by pleasures & 
pa9s1 :i* has answ]$ ) all types (      
creatures bel[ ! human1 fails ) ! human4
 ,or r1 ! admission be+ t ) mank9d x    
succe$s 9 s f> z fulfillm5t ( c]ta9     
imp]ative wants goes1 x fails 9 respect 
( wants t are n imp]ative4 ,^? :o ?9k   

?is are requir$1 9 ! fir/ place1 to %[ u
 h[ ! l9e is to be drawn betwe5 ! two2 &
 !n to %[ u :y ! sy/em :i* succe$s 9 !  
l[] w n succe$ 9 ! high]4    #ce4       
,d\btless1 h[ev]1 aft] all t has be5    
said1 !re w be rais$ afre% ! same       
difficulty--!re w be in/anc$ ! mis*iev\s
 pleasures & ! b5efic5t pa9s4 ,!        
drunk>d1 ! gambl]1 ! ?ief1 :o sev]ally  
pursue gratifications1 w be nam$ 9 pro( 
t ! pursuit ( gratifications misleads2  
:ile ! self-sacrific+ relative1 ! work] 
:o p]sev]es ?r\gh we>9ess1 ! hone/ man  
:o /9ts himself to pay 8 way1 w be nam$ 
9 pro( t disagreeable modes (           
consci\sness accompany acts t are really
 b5eficial4 ,b aft] recall+ ! fact po9t$
 out 9  #bj1 t ?is objection does n tell
 aga9/ guidance by pleasures & pa9s at  
l>ge1 s9ce x m]ely implies t special &  
proximate pleasures & pa9s mu/ be       
disreg>d$ out ( consid]ation = remote & 
diffus$ pleasures & pa9s2 &1 aft]       
admitt+ t 9 mank9d1 z at pres5t         
con/itut$1 guidance by proximate        

pleasures & pa9s fails ?r\gh\t a wide   
range ( cases2 ,i g on to set =? !      
int]pretation ,biology gives ( ^!       
anomalies1 z be+ n necess>y & p]man5t1 b
 incid5tal & tempor>y4  ,already1 :ile  
%[+ t among inf]ior creatures1 pleasures
 & pa9s h all along guid$ ! conduct by  
:i* life has be5 evolv$ & ma9ta9$1 ,i h 
po9t$ out t s9ce ! conditions ( exi/5ce 
= ea* species h be5 occasionally *ang+1 
!re h be5 occasionally aris+ p>tial     
misadju/m5ts ( ! feel+s to !            
requirem5ts1 necessitat+ readju/m5ts4   
,?is g5]al cause ( d]angem5t1 op]at+ on 
all s5ti5t be+s1 has be5 op]at+ on human
 be+s 9 a mann] unusually decid$1       
p]si/5t1 & involv$4 ,x ne$s b to contra/
 ! mode ( life foll[$ by primitive m51  
w&]+ 9 ! =e/s & liv+ on wild food1 ) !  
mode ( life foll[$ by ru/ics1 artisans1 
trad]s1 & pr(essional m5 9 a civiliz$   
community1 to see t ! con/itution1      
bodily & m5tal1 well-adju/$ to ! "o1 is 
ill-adju/$ to ! o!r4 ,x ne$s b to obs]ve
 ! emotions kept awake 9 ea* savage     

tribe1 *ronically ho/ile to neighbor+   
tribes1 & !n to obs]ve ! emotions :i*   
peaceful production & ex*ange br+ into  
play1 to see t ! two are n only unlike1 
b oppos$4 ,& x ne$s b to note h[1 dur+  
social evolution1 ! ideas & s5tim5ts    
appropriate to ! militant activities    
c>ri$ on by co]cive co-op]ation h be5 at
 v>iance ) ! ideas & s5tim5ts           
appropriate to ! indu/rial activities1  
c>ri$ on by volunt>y co-op]ation1 to see
 t !re has ev] be5 )9 ea* society1 &    
/ill cont9ues1 a conflict betwe5 ! two  
moral natures adju/$ to ^! two unlike   
modes ( life4 ,manife/ly1 !n1 ?is       
readju/m5t ( con/itution to conditions1 
involv+ readju/m5t ( pleasures & pa9s = 
guidance1 :i* all creatures f "t to "t  
und]go1 has be5 9 ! human race dur+     
civilization especially difficult1 n    
only because ( ! greatness ( ! *ange f  
small nomadic gr\ps to va/ settl$       
societies1 & f pr$atory habits to       
peaceful habits1 b also because ! old   
life ( enmity betwe5 societies has be5  

ma9ta9$ along ) ! new life ( amity )9   
ea* society4 ,:ile !re co-exi/ two ways 
( life s radically oppos$ z ! militant &
 ! indu/rial1 human nature _c become    
prop]ly adapt$ to ei!r4  ,t h5ce results
 su* failure ( guidance by pleasures &  
pa9s z is daily exhibit$1 we discov] on 
obs]v+ 9 :at p>ts ( conduct ! failure is
 mo/ conspicu\s4 ,z above %[n1 !        
pleasurable & pa9ful s5sations are      
fairly well adju/$ to ! p]emptory       
physical requirem5ts3 ! b5efits ( con=m+
 to ! s5sations :i* prompt u 9 respect (
 nutrition1 respiration1 ma9t5ance (    
temp]ature1 etc41 imm5sely exce$ !      
incid5tal evils1 & su* misadju/m5ts z   
occur may be ascrib$ to ! *ange f !     
outdoor life ( ! primitive man to !     
indoor life :i* ! civiliz$ man is (t5   
compell$ to lead4 ,x is ! emotional     
pleasures & pa9s :i* are 9 s consid]able
 a degree out ( adju/m5t to ! ne$s (    
life z c>ri$ on 9 society1 & x is ( ^! t
 ! readju/m5t is made 9 ! way above %[n1
 s t>dy because s difficult4  ,f !      

biological po9t ( view1 !n1 we see t !  
connections betwe5 pleasure & b5eficial 
action & betwe5 pa9 & detrim5tal action1
 :i* arose :5 s5ti5t exi/5ce began1 & h 
cont9u$ among animate creatures up to   
man1 are g5]ally display$ 9 him also    
?r\gh\t ! l[] & m completely organiz$ "p
 ( 8 nature2 & mu/ be m & m fully       
display$ ?r\gh\t ! high] "p ( 8 nature1 
z fa/ z 8 adaptation to ! conditions (  
social life increases4    #cf4 ,biology 
has a fur!r judgm5t to pass on !        
relations ( pleasures & pa9s to welf>e4 
,beyond ! connections betwe5 acts       
b5eficial to ! organism & ! pleasures   
accompany+ p]=mance ( !m1 & betwe5 acts 
detrim5tal to ! organism & ! pa9s caus+ 
desi/ance f !m1 !re are connections     
betwe5 pleasure 9 g5]al & physiological 
exaltation1 & betwe5 pa9 9 g5]al &      
physiological depression4 ,e pleasure   
increases vitality2 e pa9 decreases     
vitality4 ,e pleasure raises ! tide (   
life2 e pa9 l[]s ! tide ( life4 ,let u  
consid]1 fir/1 ! pa9s4  ,by ! g5]al     

mis*iefs t result f submission to pa9s1 
,i d n mean ^? aris+ f ! diffus$ effects
 ( local organic lesions1 su* z foll[ an
 aneurism caus$ by int5se ef=t spite (  
prote/+ s5sations1 or su* z foll[ !     
v>icose ve9s br\ght on by cont9u$       
disreg>d ( fatigue 9 ! legs1 or su* z   
foll[ ! atrophy set up 9 muscles t are  
p]si/5tly ex]t$ :5 extremely we>y2 b ,i 
mean ! g5]al mis*iefs caus$ by t        
con/itutional di/urbance :i* pa9 =?)    
sets up4 ,^! are conspicu\s :5 ! pa9s   
are acute1 :e!r !y be s5sational or     
emotional4  ,bodily agony long borne    
produces dea? by exhau/ion4 ,m          
frequ5tly1 arre/+ ! action ( ! he>t = a 
"t1 x causes t tempor>y dea? we call    
fa9t+4 ,on o!r occasions vomit+ is a    
consequ5ce4 ,& :]e su* manife/          
d]angem5ts d n result1 we /ill1 9 !     
pallor & trembl+1 trace ! g5]al         
pro/ration4 ,beyond ! actual loss ( life
 caus$ by subjection to int5se cold !re 
are depressions ( vitality less m>k$    
caus$ by cold less extreme--tempor>y    

enfeeblem5t foll[+ too long an imm]sion 
9 icy wat]2 en]vation & p9+ away        
consequ5t on inadequate clo?+4 ,simil>ly
 is x ) submission to great heat3 we h  
lassitude rea*+ occasionally to         
exhau/ion2 we h1 9 weak p]sons1 fa9t+1  
succe$$ by tempor>y debilitation2 & 9   
/eam+ tropical jungles ,europeans       
contract fev]s :i*1 :5 n fatal1 (t5     
entail life-long incapacities4 ,consid]1
 aga91 ! evils t foll[ viol5t ex]tion   
cont9u$ 9 spite ( pa9ful feel+s--n[ a   
fatigue :i* de/roys appetite or arre/s  
dige/ion if food is tak51 imply+ failure
 ( ! rep>ative processes :5 !y are mo/  
ne$$2 & n[ a pro/ration ( ! he>t1 "h    
la/+ = a "t & !re1 :]e ! transgression  
has be5 repeat$ day aft] day1 made      
p]man5t3 r$uc+ ! re/ ( life to a l[]    
level4  ,no less conspicu\s are !       
depress+ effects ( emotional pa9s4 ,!re 
are occasional cases ( dea? f grief2 & 9
 o!r cases ! m5tal suff]+ :i* a calamity
 causes1 l bodily suff]+1 %[s its       
effects by syncope4 ,(t5 a piece ( bad  

news is succe$$ by sickness2 & cont9u$  
anxiety w produce loss ( appetite1      
p]petual indige/ion & dim9i%$ /r5g?4    
,excessive fe>1 :e!r ar\s$ by physical  
or moral dang]1 w1 9 l mann]1 arre/ = a 
"t ! processes ( nutrition2 &1 n        
unfrequ5tly1 9 pregnant wom5 br+s on    
misc>riage2 :ile1 9 less extreme cases1 
! cold p]spiration & un/eady h&s        
indicate a g5]al l[]+ ( ! vital         
activities1 entail+ p>tial incapacity ( 
body or m9d or bo?4 ,h[ greatly         
emotional pa9 d]anges ! visc]al actions 
is %[n u by ! fact t incessant worry is 
n unfrequ5tly foll[$ by jaundice4 ,& "h1
 inde$1 ! relation betwe5 cause & effect
 happ5s to h be5 prov$ by direct        
exp]im5t4 ,mak+ su* arrangem5ts t !     
bile-duct ( a dog deliv]$ its product   
outside ! body1 ,claude ,b]n>d obs]v$ t 
s long z he pett$ ! dog & kept him 9    
good spirits1 secretion w5t on at its   
normal rate2 b on speak+ angrily1 & = a 
"t s treat+ him z to produce depression1
 ! fl[ ( bile 0 arre/$4  ,%\ld x be said

 t evil results ( su* k9ds are prov$ to 
occur only :5 ! pa9s1 bodily or m5tal1  
are great1 ! reply is t 9 heal?y p]sons 
! injuri\s p]turbations caus$ by small  
pa9s1 ?\gh n easily trac$1 are /ill     
produc$2 & t 9 ^? ^: vital p[]s are mu* 
r$uc$ by illness1 slight physical       
irritations & trifl+ moral annoyances1  
(t5 cause relapses4  ,q opposite are !  
con/itutional effects ( pleasure4 ,x    
sometimes1 ?\gh r>ely1 happ5s t 9 feeble
 p]sons int5se pleasure--pleasure t is  
almo/ pa9--gives a n]v\s %ock t is      
mis*iev\s2 b x does n d ?is 9 ^? :o are 
undebilitat$ by volunt>y or en=c$       
submission to actions injuri\s to !     
organism4 ,9 ! normal ord]1 pleasures1  
great & small1 are /imulants to !       
processes by :i* life is ma9ta9$4       
,among ! s5sations may be in/anc$ ^?    
produc$ by bright light4 ,sun%9e is     
enliv5+ 9 comp>ison ) gloom--ev5 a gleam
 excites a wave ( pleasure2 & exp]im5ts 
h %[n t sun%9e raises ! rate (          
respiration3 rais$ respiration be+ an   

index ( rais$ vital activities 9 g5]al4 
,a w>m? t is agreeable 9 degree favors !
 he>t's action1 & fur!rs ! v>i\s        
functions to :i* ?is is in/rum5tal4     
,?\gh ^? :o are 9 full vigor & fitly    
clo!d c ma9ta9 _! temp]ature 9 w9t]1 & c
 dige/ additional food to make up = !   
loss ( heat1 x is o!rwise ) ! feeble2 &1
 z vigor decl9es1 ! b5efic5ce ( w>m?    
becomes conspicu\s4 ,t b5efits accompany
 ! agreeable s5sations produc$ by fre%  
air1 & ! agreeable s5sations t accompany
 muscul> action aft] due re/1 & !       
agreeable s5sations caus$ by re/ aft]   
ex]tion _c be que/ion$4 ,receipt ( ^!   
pleasures conduces to ! ma9t5ance ( !   
body 9 fit condition = all ! purposes ( 
life4  ,m manife/ /ill are !            
physiological b5efits ( emotional       
pleasures4 ,e p[]1 bodily & m5tal1 is   
increas$ by good spirits1 :i* is our "n 
= a g5]al emotional satisfaction4 ,!    
tru? t ! fundam5tal vital actions--^? ( 
nutrition--are fur!r$ by laught]-mov+   
conv]sation1 or r by ! pleasurable feel+

 caus+ laught]1 is "o ( old /&+2 & e    
dyspeptic kn[s t 9 exhil>at+ company1 a 
l>ge & v>i$ d9n]1 includ+ n v dige/ible 
?+s1 may be eat5 ) impunity1 &1 inde$1 )
 b5efit1 :ile a small1 c>efully *os5    
d9n] ( simple ?+s1 eat5 9 solitude1 w be
 foll[$ by indige/ion4 ,?is /rik+ effect
 on ! alim5t>y sy/em is accompani$ by   
effects1 equally c]ta9 ?\gh less        
manife/1 on ! circulation & !           
respiration4 ,aga91 "o :o1 releas$ f    
daily labors & anxieties1 receives      
delights f f9e sc5]y or is enliv5$ by ! 
novelties he sees abroad1 comes back %[+
 by ton$-up face & vivaci\s mann]1 !    
great] en]gy ) :i* he is prep>$ to      
pursue 8 avocation4 ,invalids           
especially1 on ^: n>r[$ m>g9 ( vitality 
! influ5ce ( conditions is mo/ visible1 
habitually %[ ! b5efits d]iv$ f         
agreeable /ates ( feel+4 ,a lively      
social circle1 ! call ( an old fri5d1 or
 ev5 removal to a bright] room1 w1 by ! 
induc$ *e]fulness1 mu* improve !        
physical /ate4 ,9 brief1 z e m$ical man 

kn[s1 !re is no su* tonic z happ9ess4   
,^! diffus$ physiological effects (     
pleasures & pa9s1 :i* are jo9$ ) ! local
 or special physiological effects1 are1 
inde$1 obvi\sly inevitable4 ,we h se5   
7,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology1  #abc-abe7 t  
:ile crav+1 or negative pa91 accompanies
 ! "u-activity ( an organ1 & :ile       
positive pa9 accompanies its            
ov]-activity1 pleasure accompanies its  
normal activity4 ,we h se5 t by         
evolution no o!r relations c\ld be      
e/abli%$2 s9ce1 ?r\gh all inf]ior types 
( creatures1 if defect or excess (      
function produc$ no disagreeable        
s5ti5cy1 & m$ium function no agreeable  
s5ti5cy1 !re w\ld be no?+ to insure a   
proportion$ p]=mance ( function4 ,& z x 
is "o ( ! laws ( n]v\s action t ea*     
/imulus1 beyond a direct dis*>ge to !   
p>ticul> organ act$ on1 indirectly      
causes a g5]al dis*>ge ?r\gh\t ! n]v\s  
sy/em 7,pr94 ( ,psy41  #ba1 #ci71 x     
results t ! re/ ( ! organs1 all influ5c$
 z !y are by ! n]v\s sy/em1 p>ticipate 9

 ! /imulation4 ,s t beyond ! aid1 m     
sl[ly %[n1 :i* ! organs yield to "o     
ano!r ?r\gh ! physiological division (  
labor1 !re is ! aid1 m quickly %[n1 :i* 
mutual excitation gives4 ,:ile !re is a 
b5efit to be pres5tly felt by ! :ole    
organism f ! due p]=mance ( ea*         
function1 !re is an imm$iate b5efit f ! 
exaltation ( its functions at l>ge caus$
 by ! accompany+ pleasure2 & f pa9s1    
:e!r ( excess or defect1 !re also come  
^! d\ble effects1 imm$iate & remote4    
#cg4 ,non-recognition ( ^! g5]al tru?s  
vitiates moral speculation at l>ge4 ,f !
 e/imates ( "r & wrong habitually fram$1
 ^! physiological effects wr\ght on !   
actor by 8 feel+s are entirely omitt$4  
,x is tacitly assum$ t pleasures & pa9s 
h no reactions on ! body ( ! recipi5t1  
affect+ 8 fitness = ! duties ( life4 ,! 
only reactions recogniz$ are ^? on "*2  
respect+ :i* ! curr5t supposition is1 t 
acceptance ( pleasures is detrim5tal &  
submission to pa9s b5eficial4 ,! notion1
 remotely desc5d$ f ! gho/-!ory ( !     

savage1 t m9d & body are indep5d5t1 has1
 among its v>i\s implications1 ?is      
belief t /ates ( consci\sness are 9 no  
wise relat$ to bodily /ates4 ,y h _h y\r
 gratification--x is pa/2 & y are z y 7 
be=e1 says ! morali/ to "o4 ,& to ano!r 
he says1 ,y h borne ! suff]+--x is ov]2 
& !re ! matt] ends4 ,bo? /atem5ts are   
false4 ,leav+ out ( view indirect       
results1 ! direct results are t ! "o has
 mov$ a /ep away f dea? & ! o!r has mov$
 a /ep t[>d dea?4  ,leav+ out ( view1 ,i
 say1 ! indirect results4 ,x is ^!      
indirect results1 "h = ! mom5t left out 
( view1 :i* ! morali/ has exclusively 9 
view1 be+ s occupi$ by !m t he ignores !
 direct results4 ,! gratification1      
p]haps pur*as$ at undue co/1 p]haps     
enjoy$ :5 "w %\ld h be5 done1 p]haps    
snat*$ f ! rightful claimant1 is        
consid]$ only 9 relation to remote      
injuri\s effects1 & no set-(f is made = 
imm$iate b5eficial effects4 ,conv]sely1 
f positive & negative pa9s1 borne n[ 9 !
 pursuit ( "s future advantage1 n[ 9    

dis*>ge ( responsibilities1 n[ 9 p]=m+ a
 g5]\s act1 ! di/ant good is alone dwelt
 on & ! proximate evil ignor$4          
,consequ5ces1 pleasurable & pa9ful1     
exp]i5c$ by ! actor =?)1 are ( no       
importance2 & !y become ( importance    
only :5 anticipat$ z occurr+ h]eaft] to 
! actor or to o!r p]sons4 ,& fur!r1     
future evils borne by ! actor are       
consid]$ ( no acc\nt if !y result f     
self-d5ial1 & are emphasiz$ only :5 !y  
result f self-gratification4 ,obvi\sly1 
e/imates s fram$ are errone\s2 &        
obvi\sly1 ! p]vad+ judgm5ts ( conduct   
bas$ on su* e/imates mu/ be di/ort$4    
,m>k ! anomalies ( op9ion produc$4  ,if1
 z ! sequ5ce ( a malady contract$ 9     
pursuit ( illegitimate gratification1 an
 attack ( iritis injures vision1 !      
mis*ief is to be c\nt$ among ^? entail$ 
by immoral conduct2 b if1 reg>dless (   
prote/+ s5sations1 ! eyes are us$ 9 /udy
 too soon aft] oph?almia1 & !re foll[s  
bl9dness = ye>s or = life1 entail+ n    
only p]sonal unhapp9ess1 b a burd5 on   

o!rs1 morali/s are sil5t4 ,! brok5 leg  
:i* a drunk>d's accid5t causes c\nts    
among ^? mis]ies br\ght on self & family
 by intemp]ance1 :i* =m ! gr\nd =       
reprobat+ x2 b if anxiety to fulfill    
duties prompts ! cont9u$ use ( a spra9$ 
knee spite ( ! pa91 & br+s on a *ronic  
lam5ess involv+ lack ( ex]cise1         
consequ5t ill-heal?1 ineffici5cy1       
anxiety1 & unhapp9ess1 x is suppos$ t   
e?ics has no v]dict to give 9 ! matt]4  
,a /ud5t :o is pluck$ because he has    
sp5t 9 amusem5t ! "t & money t %\ld h   
gone 9 /udy1 is blam$ = ?us mak+ p>5ts  
unhappy & prep>+ = himself a mis]able   
future2 b ano!r :o1 ?9k+ exclusively (  
claims on him1 reads night aft] night ) 
hot or a*+ head1 &1 break+ d[n1 _c take 
8 degree1 b returns home %att]$ 9 heal? 
& unable to support himself1 is nam$ )  
pity only1 z n subject to any moral     
judgm5t2 or r1 ! moral judgm5t pass$ is 
:olly favorable4  ,?us recogniz+ ! evils
 caus$ by "s k9ds ( conduct only1 m5 at 
l>ge1 & morali/s z expon5ts ( _!        

beliefs1 ignore ! suff]+ & dea? daily   
caus$ ar\nd !m by disreg>d ( t guidance 
:i* has e/abli%$ itself 9 ! c\rse (     
evolution4 ,l$ by ! tacit assumption    
common to ,pagan /oics & ,*ri/ian       
ascetics1 t we are s diabolically       
organiz$ t pleasures are injuri\s & pa9s
 b5eficial1 p on all sides yield        
examples ( lives bla/$ by p]si/+ 9      
actions aga9/ :i* _! s5sations rebel4   
,"h is "o :o1 dr5*$ to ! sk9 & sitt+ 9 a
 cold w9d1 pooh-hoohs 8 %iv]+s & gets   
rheumatic fev]1 ) subsequ5t             
he>t-disease1 :i* makes wor?less ! %ort 
life rema9+ to him4 ,"h is ano!r :o1    
disreg>d+ pa9ful feel+s1 works too soon 
aft] a debilitat+ illness1 & e/abli%es  
disord]$ heal? t la/s = ! re/ ( 8 days1 
& makes him useless to himself & o!rs4  
,n[ ! acc\nt is ( a y\? :o1 p]si/+ 9    
gymna/ic feats spite ( sc>cely be>able  
/ra9+1 bur/s a blood-vessel1 &1 long    
laid on ! %elf1 is p]man5tly damag$2    
:ile n[ x is ( a man 9 middle life :o1  
pu%+ muscul> ef=t to pa9ful excess1     

sudd5ly br+s on h]nia4 ,9 ?is family is 
a case ( aphasia1 spread+ p>alysis &    
dea?1 caus$ by eat+ too little & do+ too
 mu*2 9 t1 s(t5+ ( ! bra9 has be5 br\ght
 on by ceaseless m5tal ef=ts aga9/ :i* !
 feel+s h\rly prote/$2 & 9 o!rs1 less   
s]i\s bra9 affections h be5 contract$ by
 ov]-/udy cont9u$ reg>dless ( discom=t &
 ! crav+s = fre% air & ex]cise4,b ,ev5  
)\t accumulat+ special examples1 ! tru? 
is =c$ on u by ! visible traits (       
classes4 ,! c>eworn man ( bus9ess too   
long at 8 (fice1 ! cadav]\s b>ri/] p\r+ 
half ! night ov] 8 briefs1 ! feeble     
factory h&s & unheal?y seam/resses pass+
 long h\rs 9 bad air1 ! anmic1 flat-*e/$
 s*ool-girls1 b5d+ ov] _m lessons &     
=bidd5 boi/]\s play1 no less ?an        
,%effield gr9d]s :o die ( suffocat+ du/1
 & peasants crippl$ ) rheumatism due to 
exposure1 %[ u ! wide spread mis]ies    
caus$ by p]sev]+ 9 actions repugnant to 
! s5sations & neglect+ actions :i* !    
s5sations prompt4 ,nay1 ! evid5ce is    
/ill m ext5sive & conspicu\s4 ,:at are !

 puny mal=m$ *ildr51 se5 9 pov]ty-/rick5
 di/ricts1 b *ildr5 ^: appetites = food 
& desires = w>m? h n be5 adequately     
satisfi$8 ,:at are populations /9t$ 9   
gr[? & prematurely ag$1 su* z p>ts (    
,france %[ u1 b populations injur$ by "w
 9 excess & food 9 defect3 ! "o imply+  
positive pa91 ! o!r negative pa98 ,:at  
is ! implication ( t great] mortality   
:i* occurs among p :o are weak5$ by     
privations1 unless x is t bodily mis]ies
 conduce to fatal illnesses8 ,or once m1
 :at mu/ we inf] f ! frightful am\nt (  
disease & dea? suff]$ by armies 9 !     
field1 f$ on scanty & bad provisions1   
ly+ on damp gr\nd1 expos$ to extremes ( 
heat & cold1 inadequately %elt]$ f ra91 
& subject to exhau/+ ef=ts2 unless x be 
! t]rible mis*iefs caus$ by cont9u\sly  
subject+ ! body to treatm5t :i* ! feel+s
 prote/ aga9/8  ,x matt]s n to ! argum5t
 :e!r ! actions entail+ su* effects are 
volunt>y or involunt>y4 ,x matt]s n f ! 
biological po9t ( view :e!r ! motives   
prompt+ !m are high or l[4 ,! vital     

functions accept no apologies on ! gr\nd
 t neglect ( !m 0 unavoidable1 or t !   
reason = neglect 0 noble4 ,! direct &   
indirect suff]+s caus$ by non-con=mity  
to ! laws ( life are ! same :atev]      
induces ! non-con=mity2 & _c be omitt$ 9
 any rational e/imate ( conduct4 ,if !  
purpose ( e?ical inquiry is to e/abli%  
rules ( "r liv+2 & if ! rules ( "r liv+ 
are ^? ( :i* ! total results1 individual
 & g5]al1 direct & indirect1 are mo/    
conducive to human happ9ess2 !n x is    
absurd to ignore ! imm$iate results &   
recognize only ! remote results4    #ch4
 ,"h might be urg$ ! necessity = prelud+
 ! /udy ( moral sci5ce by ! /udy (      
biological sci5ce4 ,"h might be dwelt on
 ! error m5 make 9 ?9k+ !y c und]/& ^?  
special ph5om5a ( human life ) :i*      
,e?ics deals1 :ile pay+ little or no    
att5tion to ! g5]al ph5om5a ( human     
life1 & :ile utt]ly ignor+ ! ph5om5a (  
life at l>ge4 ,&1 d\btless1 !re w\ld be 
tru? 9 ! inf]5ce t su* acqua9tance ) !  
_w ( liv+ ?+s1 z discloses ! "p :i*     

pleasures & pa9s h play$ 9 organic      
evolution1 w\ld help to rectify ^!      
"o-sid$ conceptions ( morali/s4 ,x _c be
 held1 h[ev]1 t lack ( ?is k is ! sole  
cause1 or ! ma9 cause1 ( _! "o-sid$ness4
 ,= facts ( ! k9d above in/anc$1 :i*1   
duly att5d$ to1 w\ld prev5t su*         
di/ortions ( moral !ory1 are facts :i* x
 ne$s no biological inquiries to le>n1 b
 :i* are daily ?ru/ be=e ! eyes ( all4  
,! tru? is1 r1 t ! g5]al consci\sness is
 s possess$ by s5tim5ts & ideas at      
v>iance ) ! conclusions necessitat$ by  
famili> evid5ce t ! evid5ce gets no     
att5tion4 ,^! adv]se s5tim5ts & ideas h 
sev]al roots4  ,!re is ! !ological root4
 ,z be=e %[n1 f ! wor%ip ( cannibal     
ance/ors :o delight$ 9 witness+         
tortures1 !re result$ ! primitive       
conception ( deities :o 7 propitiat$ by 
! be>+ ( pa9s1 &1 consequ5tly1 ang]$ by 
! receipt ( pleasures4 ,?r\gh !         
religions ( ! semi-civiliz$1 9 :i* ?is  
conception ( ! div9e nature rema9s      
conspicu\s1 x has p]si/$1 9             

progressively modifi$ =ms1 d[n to our   
own times2 & /ill colors ! beliefs1 bo? 
( ^? :o adh]e to ! curr5t cre$ & ( ^? :o
 nom9ally reject x4  ,!re is ano!r root 
9 ! primitive & /ill-surviv+ militancy4 
,:ile social antagonisms cont9ue to     
g5]ate w>1 :i* consi/s 9 endeavors to   
inflict pa9 & dea? :ile submitt+ to !   
risks ( pa9 & dea?1 & :i* necess>ily    
involves great privations1 x is ne$ful t
 physical suff]+1 :e!r consid]$ 9 itself
 or 9 ! evils x bequea?s1 %\ld be ?\ght 
little (1 & t among pleasures recogniz$ 
z mo/ wor?y %\ld be ^? :i* victory br+s4
  ,nor does p>tially develop$           
indu/rialism fail to furni% a root4 ,)  
social evolution1 :i* implies transition
 f ! life ( w&]+ hunt]s to ! life (     
settl$ peoples engag$ 9 labor1 & :i*    
!re=e entails activities widely unlike  
^? to :i* ! aborig9al con/itution is    
adapt$1 !re comes an "u-ex]cise (       
faculties = :i* ! social /ate af=ds no  
scope1 & an ov]tax+ ( faculties requir$ 
= ! social /ate2 ! "o imply+ d5ial (    

c]ta9 pleasures & ! o!r submission to   
c]ta9 pa9s4 ,h5ce1 along ) t gr[? (     
population :i* makes ! /ruggle = exi/5ce
 int5se1 be>+ ( pa9s & sacrifice (      
pleasures is daily necessitat$4  ,n[    
always & ev]y:]e1 !re arises among m5 a 
!ory con=m+ to _! practice4 ,! savage   
nature1 orig9at+ ! conception ( a savage
 deity1 evolves a !ory ( sup]natural    
control suffici5tly /r+5t & cruel to    
influ5ce 8 conduct4 ,) submission to    
despotic gov]nm5t sev]e en\gh 9 its     
re/ra9ts to keep 9 ord] b>b>\s natures1 
!re gr[s up a !ory ( div9e "r to rule1 &
 ! duty ( absolute submission4 ,:]e w>  
is made ! bus9ess ( life by ! exi/5ce ( 
w>like neighbors1 virtues :i* are       
requir$ = w> come to be reg>d$ z supreme
 virtues2 :ile1 contr>iwise1 :5         
indu/rialism has gr[n pr$om9ant1 !      
viol5ce & ! deception :i* w>riors glory 
9 come to be held crim9al4 ,9 l mann]1  
!n1 !re arises a tol]able adju/m5t ( !  
actually accept$ 7n ! nom9ally accept$7 
!ory ( "r liv+1 to liv+ z x is daily    

c>ri$ on4 ,if ! life is "o t            
necessitates habitual d5ial ( pleasures 
& be>+ ( pa9s1 !re gr[s up an answ]+    
e?ical sy/em "u :i* ! receipt (         
pleasures is tacitly disapprov$ & ! be>+
 ( pa9s av[$ly approv$4 ,! mis*iefs     
entail$ by pleasures 9 excess are dwelt 
on1 :ile ! b5efits :i* normal pleasures 
br+ are ignor$2 & ! good results a*iev$ 
by submission to pa9s are fully set =?1 
:ile ! evils are ov]look$4  ,b :ile     
recogniz+ ! desirabl5ess (1 & inde$ !   
necessity =1 sy/ems ( e?ics adapt$1 l   
religi\s sy/ems & political sy/ems1 to  
_! respective times & places1 we h "h to
 reg>d ! fir/ z1 l ! o!rs1 transitional4
 ,we mu/ inf] t l a pur] cre$ & a bett] 
gov]nm5t1 a tru] e?ics belongs to a m   
advanc$ social /ate4  ,l$1  priori1 to  
conclude t di/ortions mu/ exi/1 we are  
enabl$ to recognize z su* ! di/ortions  
we f9d3 answ]+ 9 nature1 z ^! d1 to     
expectation4 ,& !re is =c$ on u ! tru? t
 a sci5tific morality arises only z fa/ 
z ! "o-sid$ conceptions adapt$ to       

transitory conditions are develop$ into 
bo?-sid$ conceptions4 ,! sci5ce ( "r    
liv+ has to take acc\nt ( all           
consequ5ces 9 s f> z !y affect happ9ess1
 p]sonally or socially1 directly or     
indirectly2 & by z mu* z x ignores any  
class ( consequ5ces1 by s mu* does x    
fail to be sci5ce4    #ci4 ,l ! physical
 view1 !n1 ! biological view corresponds
 ) ! view ga9$ by look+ at conduct 9    
g5]al f ! /&po9t ( ,evolution4  ,t :i* 0
 physically def9$ z a mov+ equilibrium1 
we def9e biologically z a balance (     
functions4 ,! implication ( su* a       
balance is t ! sev]al functions1 9 _!   
k9ds1 am\nts1 & comb9ations1 are adju/$ 
to ! sev]al activities :i* ma9ta9 &     
con/itute complete life2 & to be s      
adju/$ is to h rea*$ ! goal t[>d :i* !  
evolution ( conduct cont9ually t5ds4    
,pass+ to ! feel+s :i* accompany !      
p]=mance ( functions1 we see t (        
necessity dur+ ! evolution ( organic    
life1 pleasures h become ! concomitants 
( normal am\nts ( functions1 :ile pa9s1 

positive & negative1 h become !         
concomitants ( excesses & defects (     
functions4 ,& ?\gh 9 e species          
d]angem5ts ( ^! relations are (t5 caus$ 
by *anges ( conditions1 !y ev]          
re-e/abli% !mselves3 disappe>ance ( !   
species be+ ! alt]native4  ,mank9d1     
inh]it+ f creatures ( l[] k9ds1 su*     
adju/m5ts betwe5 feel+s & functions z   
conc]n fundam5tal bodily requirem5ts2 & 
daily =c$ by p]emptory feel+s to d ! ?+s
 :i* ma9ta9 life & avoid ^? :i* br+     
imm$iate dea?2 has be5 subject to a     
*ange ( conditions unusually great &    
involv$4 ,?is has consid]ably d]ang$ !  
guidance by s5sations1 & has d]ang$ 9 a 
mu* great] degree ! guidance by         
emotions4 ,! result is t 9 _m cases     
pleasures are n connect$ ) actions :i*  
mu/ be p]=m$1 nor pa9s ) actions :i* mu/
 be avoid$1 b contr>iwise4  ,sev]al     
influ5ces h conspir$ to make m5 ignore !
 well-work+ ( ^! relations betwe5 feel+s
 & functions1 & to obs]ve :atev] (      
ill-work+ is se5 9 !m4 ,h5ce1 :ile !    

evils :i* "s pleasures entail are dilat$
 ^u1 ! b5efits habitually accompany+    
receipt ( pleasures are unnotic$2 at !  
same "t t ! b5efits a*iev$ ?r\gh c]ta9  
pa9s are magnifi$ :ile ! imm5se mis*iefs
 :i* pa9s br+ are made little (4  ,!    
e?ical !ories *>act]iz$ by ^! p]v]sions 
are products (1 & are appropriate to !  
=ms ( social life :i* !                 
imp]fectly-adapt$ con/itutions ( m5     
produce4 ,b ) ! progress ( adaptation1  
br++ faculties & requirem5ts into       
h>mony1 su* incongruities ( exp]i5ce1 & 
consequ5t di/ortions ( !ory1 mu/ dim9i%2
 until1 along ) complete adju/m5t (     
humanity to ! social /ate1 w g          
recognition ( ! tru?s t actions are     
completely "r only :51 besides be+      
conducive to future happ9ess1 special & 
g5]al1 !y are imm$iately pleasurable1 & 
t pa9fulness1 n only ultimate b         
proximate1 is ! concomitant ( actions   
:i* are wrong4  ,s t f ! biological po9t
 ( view1 e?ical sci5ce becomes a        
specification ( ! conduct ( associat$ m5

 :o are sev]ally s con/itut$ t ! v>i\s  
self-pres]v+ activities1 ! activities   
requir$ = re>+ (fspr+1 & ^? :i* social  
welf>e dem&s1 are fulfill$ 9 !          
spontane\s ex]cise ( duly proportion$   
faculties1 ea* yield+ :5 9 action its   
quantum ( pleasure1 & :o are1 by        
consequ5ce1 s con/itut$ t excess or     
defect 9 any "o ( ^! actions br+s its   
quantum ( pa91 imm$iate & remote4       
,,note ,,to  #cc4 ,9 8 ,physical ,e?ics1
 ,mr4 ,alfr$ ,b>ratt has   express$ a   
view :i* "h calls = notice4 ,po/ulat+   
,evolution   & its g5]al laws1 he ref]s 
to c]ta9 passages 9 !   ,pr9ciples (    
,psy*ology 7#a/ ,ed4 ,pt4 ,,iii4 *4     
viii4 pp4 #cie1 sqq4   cf4 ,pt4 ,,iv4 *4
 iv47 9 :i* ,i h treat$ ( ! relation    
betwe5   irritation & contraction :i*   
m>ks ! dawn ( s5sitive life2   h po9t$  
out t ! primordial tissue mu/ be        
diff]5tly   affect$ by contact )        
nutritive & ) innutritive matt]s--!     
two be+ = aquatic creatures respectively
 ! soluble & !   insoluble2 & h argu$ t 

! contraction by :i* a protrud$   "p ( a
 rhizopod draws 9 a fragm5t (           
assimilable matt] is   caus$ by a       
comm5c+ absorption ( ! assimilable      
matt]4 ,mr4   ,b>ratt1 hold+ t          
consci\sness mu/ be consid]$ z an       
inv>iable prop]ty ( animal life1 &      
ultimately1 9 its elem5ts1   ( ! mat]ial
 univ]se 7p4 #dc71 reg>ds ^! responses (
 animal   tissue to /imuli1 z imply+    
feel+ ( "o or o!r k9d4 ,"s   k9ds (     
impress$ =ce1 he says1 are foll[$ by    
movem5ts (   retraction & )drawal1 o!rs 
by su* z secure a cont9uance   ( !      
impression4 ,^! two k9ds ( contraction  
are ! ph5om5a   & ext]nal m>ks ( pa9 &  
pleasure respectively4 ,h5ce !   tissue 
acts s z to secure pleasure & avoid pa9 
by a law z truly   physical & natural z 
t :]eby a ne$le turns to ! pole1   or a 
tree to ! light 7p4 #eb74 ,n )\t        
que/ion+ t !   raw mat]ial (            
consci\sness is pres5t ev5 9            
undiff]5tiat$   protoplasm1 & ev]y:]e   
exi/s pot5tially 9 t ,unkn[able   ,p[]  

:i*1 o!rwise condition$1 is manife/$ 9  
physical   action 7,pr94 ( ,psy41       
#bgb-c71 ,i demur to ! conclusion t   x 
at fir/ exi/s "u ! =ms ( pleasure & pa94
 ,^!1 ,i   conceive1 arise1 z ! m       
special feel+s d1 by a comp\nd+   ( !   
ultimate elem5ts ( consci\sness 7,pr94 (
 ,psy41  #fj1   #fa73 be+1 inde$1 g5]al 
aspects ( ^! m special feel+s   :5 !y   
rea* c]ta9 int5sities4 ,consid]+ t ev5 9
   creatures :i* h develop$ n]v\s       
sy/ems1 a great "p ( !   vital processes
 are c>ri$ on by unconsci\s reflex      
actions1 ,i see   no propriety 9 assum+ 
! exi/5ce ( :at we und]/& by            
consci\sness 9 creatures n only devoid (
 n]v\s sy/ems b   devoid ( /ructures 9  
g5]al4    ,,note ,,to  #cf4 ,m ?an once 
9 ! ,emotions & ! ,w1 ,dr4   ,ba9 insi/s
 on ! connection betwe5 pleasure &      
exaltation (   vitality1 & ! connection 
betwe5 pa9 & depression ( vitality4   ,z
 above %[n1 ,i concur 9 ! view tak5 by  
him2 :i* is1 inde$1   put beyond dispute
 by g5]al exp]i5ce z well z by ! m      

special exp]i5ce ( m$ical m54    ,:51   
h[ev]1 f ! invigorat+ & relax+ effects (
 pleasure   & pa9 respectively1 ,dr4    
,ba9 d]ives ! orig9al t5d5cies to       
p]si/ 9 acts :i* give pleasure & to     
desi/ f ^? :i*   give pa91 ,i f9d myself
 unable to g ) him4 ,he says3 ,we       
suppose   movem5ts spontane\sly begun1 &
 accid5tally caus+ pleasure2   we !n    
assume t ) ! pleasure !re w be an       
increase (   vital en]gy1 9 :i* increase
 ! =tunate movem5ts w %>e1   & !reby    
increase ! pleasure4 ,or1 on ! o!r h&1  
we suppose   ! spontane\s movem5ts to   
give pa91 & assume t1 ) !   pa91 !re w  
be a decrease ( en]gy1 ext5d+ to !      
movem5ts   t cause ! evil1 & !reby      
provid+ a rem$y 7#c;d ,ed4 p4   #cae74  
,?is int]pretation1 imply+ t ! =tunate  
movem5ts   m]ely %>e 9 ! effects (      
augm5t$ vital en]gy caus$ by   !        
pleasure1 does n seem to me congru\s )  
obs]vation4 ,!   tru? appe>s r to be t  
?\gh !re is a concomitant g5]al         
increase ( muscul> tone1 ! muscles      

specially excit$ are ^?   :i*1 by _!    
increas$ contraction1 conduce to        
increas$ pleasure4   ,conv]sely1 !      
implication t desi/ance f spontane\s    
movem5ts :i* cause pa91 is due to a     
g5]al muscul> relaxation   %>$ 9 by !   
muscles caus+ ^! p>ticul> movem5ts1     
seems   to me at v>iance ) ! fact t !   
retractation commonly takes   ! =m n ( a
 passive lapse b ( an active )drawal4   
,fur!r1   x may be rem>k$ t depress+ z  
pa9 ev5tually is to !   sy/em at l>ge1  
we _c say t x at once depresses !       
muscul>   en]gies4 ,n simply1 z ,dr4    
,ba9 admits1 does an acute sm>t produce 
spasmodic movem5ts1 b pa9s ( all k9ds1  
bo? s5sational &   emotional1 /imulate !
 muscles 7,essays1 #a/ s]ies1 p4 #cfj1  
#a1   or #b;d ed4 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #baa1    
#ab74 ,pa91 h[ev] 7& also pleasure :5   
v int5se71 simultane\sly has an         
inhibitory effect on all !   reflex     
actions2 & z ! vital functions 9 g5]al  
are c>ri$ on   by reflex actions1 ?is   
inhibition1 increas+ ) ! int5sity   ( ! 

pa91 proportionately depresses ! vital  
functions4 ,arre/   ( ! he>t's action & 
fa9t+ is an extreme result ( ?is        
inhibition2 & ! visc]a at l>ge feel its 
effects 9 degrees   proportion$ to !    
degrees ( pa94 ,pa91 !re=e1 :ile        
directly   caus+ a dis*>ge ( muscul>    
en]gy z pleasure does1 ev5tually   l[]s 
muscul> p[] by l[]+ ^? vital processes  
on :i* !   supply ( en]gy dep5ds4 ,h5ce 
we _c1 ,i ?9k1 ascribe !   prompt       
desi/ance f muscul> movem5ts caus+ pa91 
to decrease   9 ! fl[ ( en]gy2 = ?is    
decrease is felt only aft] an   int]val4
 ,conv]sely1 we _c ascribe ! p]si/5ce 9 
a muscul>   act :i* yields pleasure to !
 result+ exaltation ( en]gy2 b   mu/1 z 
indicat$ 9  #cc1 ascribe x to !         
e/abli%m5t ( l9es   ( dis*>ge betwe5 !  
place ( pleasurable /imulation & ^?     
contractile /ructures :i* ma9ta9 &      
increase ! act caus+   !                
/imulation--connections alli$ ) !       
reflex1 into :i* !y   pass by ins5sible 
gradations4     ,,*apt] ,,vii4  ,,!     

,,psy*ological ,,view4    #dj4 ,! la/   
*apt]1 9 s f> z x dealt ) feel+s 9 _!   
relations to conduct1 recogniz$ only _! 
physiological aspects3 _! psy*ological  
aspects 7 pass$ ov]4 ,9 ?is *apt]1      
conv]sely1 we are n conc]n$ ) !         
con/itutional connections betwe5 feel+s1
 z inc5tives or det]r5ts1 & physical    
b5efits to be ga9$1 or mis*iefs to be   
avoid$2 nor ) ! reactive effects (      
feel+s on ! /ate ( ! organism1 z fitt+  
or unfitt+ x = future action4 ,"h we h  
to consid] repres5t$ pleasures & pa9s1  
s5sational & emotional1 z con/itut+     
delib]ate motives--z =m+ factors 9 !    
consci\s adju/m5ts ( acts to ends4      
#da4 ,! rudim5t>y psy*ical act1 n yet   
diff]5tiat$ f a physical act1 implies an
 excitation & a motion4 ,9 a creature ( 
l[ type ! t\* ( food excites preh5sion4 
,9 a some:at high] creature ! odor f    
nutritive matt] sets up motion ( ! body 
t[>d ! matt]4 ,& :]e rudim5t>y vision   
exi/s1 sudd5 obscuration ( light1 imply+
 ! passage ( some?+ l>ge1 causes        

convulsive muscul> movem5ts :i* mo/ly   
c>ry ! body away f ! s\rce ( dang]4 ,9  
ea* ( ^! cases we may di/+ui% f\r       
factors4 ,!re is 7a7 t prop]ty ( !      
ext]nal object :i* prim>ily affects !   
organism--! ta/e1 smell1 or opacity2 &  
connect$ ) su* prop]ty !re is 9 !       
ext]nal object t "* 7b7 :i* r5d]s       
seizure ( x1 or escape f x1 b5eficial4  
,)9 ! organism !re is 7c7 ! impression  
or s5sation :i* ! prop]ty 7a7 produces1 
s]v+ z /imulus2 & !re is connect$ ) x1 !
 motor *ange 7d7 by :i* seizure or      
escape is effect$4  ,n[ ,psy*ology is   
*iefly conc]n$ ) ! connection betwe5 !  
relation a b1 & ! relation c d1 "u all  
^? =ms :i* !y assume 9 ! c\rse (        
evolution4 ,ea* ( ! factors1 & ea* ( !  
relations1 gr[s m involv$ z organization
 advances4 ,in/ead ( be+ s+le1 !        
id5tify+ attribute a1 (t5 becomes1 9 !  
environm5t ( a sup]ior animal1 a clu/] (
 attributes2 su* z ! size1 =m1 colors1  
motions1 display$ by a di/ant creature t
 is dang]\s4 ,! factor b1 ) :i* ?is     

comb9ation ( attributes is associat$1   
becomes ! cong]ies ( *>act]s1 p[]s1     
habits1 :i* con/itute x an enemy4 ,( !  
subjective factors1 c becomes a         
complicat$ set ( visual s5sations       
co-ord9at$ ) "o ano!r & ) ! ideas &     
feel+s e/abli%$ by exp]i5ce ( su*       
enemies1 & con/itut+ ! motive to escape2
 :ile d becomes ! intricate & (t5       
prolong$ s]ies ( runs1 leaps1 d\bles1   
dives1 etc41 made 9 elud+ ! enemy4  ,9  
human life we f9d ! same f\r out] & inn]
 factors1 /ill m multi=m & entangl$ 9 _!
 compositions & connections4 ,! entire  
assemblage ( physical attributes a1     
pres5t$ by an e/ate t is adv]tis$ =     
sale1 passes enum]ation2 & ! assemblage 
( v>i\s utilities1 b1 go+ along ) ^!    
attributes1 is also beyond brief        
specification4 ,! p]ceptions & ideas1   
likes & dislikes1 c1 set up by ! aspect 
( ! e/ate1 & :i*1 comp\nd$ & recomp\nd$1
 ev5tually =m ! motive = buy+ x1 make a 
:ole too l>ge & complex = description2 &
 ! transactions1 legal1 pecuni>y1 & o!r1

 gone ?r\gh 9 mak+ ! pur*ase & tak+     
possession1 are sc>cely less num]\s &   
elaborate4  ,nor mu/ we ov]look ! fact t
 z evolution progresses1 n only d !     
factors increase 9 complexity1 b also ! 
relations among !m4 ,orig9ally1 a is    
directly & simply connect$ ) b1 :ile c  
is directly & simply connect$ ) d4 ,b   
ev5tually1 ! connections betwe5 a & b1 &
 betwe5 c & d1 become v indirect &      
involv$4 ,on ! "o h&1 z ! fir/          
illu/ration %[s u1 sapidity &           
nutritiv5ess are closely b\nd toge!r2 z 
are also ! /imulation caus$ by ! "o & ! 
contraction :i* utilizes ! o!r4 ,b1 z we
 see 9 ! la/ illu/ration1 ! connection  
betwe5 ! visible traits ( an e/ate & ^? 
*>act]s :i* con/itute its value1 is at  
once remote & complicat$2 :ile !        
transition f ! pur*as]'s highly         
composite motive to ! num]\s actions (  
s5sory & motor organs1 sev]ally         
intricate1 :i* effect ! pur*ase1 is     
?r\gh an entangl$ plexus ( ?\ghts &     
feel+s con/itut+ 8 decision4  ,aft] ?is 

explanation w be appreh5d$ a tru?       
o!rwise set =? 9 ! ,pr9ciples (         
,psy*ology4 ,m9d consi/s ( feel+s & !   
relations among feel+s4 ,by composition 
( ! relations1 & ideas ( relations1     
intellig5ce arises4 ,by composition ( ! 
feel+s1 & ideas ( feel+s1 emotion       
arises4 ,&1 o!r ?+s equal1 ! evolution (
 ei!r is great 9 proportion z !         
composition is great4 ,"o ( ! necess>y  
implications is t cognition becomes     
high] 9 proportion z x is remot] f      
reflex action2 :ile emotion becomes     
high] 9 proportion z x is remot] f      
s5sation4  ,& n[ ( ! v>i\s coroll>ies f 
?is broad view ( psy*ological evolution1
 let u obs]ve ^? :i* conc]n ! motives & 
actions t are class$ z moral & immoral4 
#db4 ,! m5tal process by :i*1 9 any     
case1 ! adju/m5t ( acts to ends is      
effect$1 & :i*1 "u its high] =ms1       
becomes ! subject-matt] ( e?ical        
judgm5ts1 is1 z above impli$1 divisible 
into ! rise ( a feel+ or feel+s         
con/itut+ ! motive1 & ! ?\ght or ?\ghts 

?r\gh :i* ! motive is %ap$ & f9ally     
issues 9 action4 ,! fir/ ( ^! elem5ts1  
orig9ally an excitem5t1 becomes a simple
 s5sation2 !n a comp\nd s5sation2 !n a  
clu/] ( p>tially pres5tative & p>tially 
repres5tative s5sations1 =m+ an incipi5t
 emotion2 !n a clu/] ( exclusively ideal
 or repres5tative s5sations1 =m+ an     
emotion prop]2 !n a clu/] ( su* clu/]s1 
=m+ a comp\nd emotion2 & ev5tually      
becomes a /ill m involv$ emotion compos$
 ( ! ideal =ms ( su* comp\nd emotions4  
,! o!r elem5t1 beg9n+ ) t imm$iate      
passage ( a s+le /imulus into a s+le    
motion1 call$ reflex action1 pres5tly   
comes to be a set ( associat$ dis*>ges (
 /imuli produc+ associat$ motions1      
con/itut+ in/9ct4 ,/ep by /ep arise m   
entangl$ comb9ations ( /imuli1 some:at  
v>iable 9 _! modes ( union1 lead+ to    
complex motions simil>ly v>iable 9 _!   
adju/m5ts2 :5ce occasional hesitations 9
 ! s5sori-motor processes4 ,pres5tly is 
rea*$ a /age at :i* ! comb9$ clu/]s (   
impressions1 n all pres5t toge!r1 issue 

9 actions n all simultane\s2 imply+     
repres5tation ( results1 or ?\ght4      
,aft]w>d foll[ /ages 9 :i* v>i\s ?\ghts 
h "t to pass be=e ! composite motives   
produce ! appropriate actions4 ,until at
 la/ arise ^? long delib]ations dur+ :i*
 ! probabilities ( v>i\s consequ5ces are
 e/imat$1 & ! prompt+s ( ! correlative  
feel+s balanc$1 con/itut+ calm judgm5t4 
,t "u ei!r ( its aspects ! lat] =ms (   
?is m5tal process are ! high]1 e?ically 
consid]$ z well z o!rwise consid]$1 w be
 readily se54  ,= f ! fir/1 complication
 ( s5ti5cy has accompani$ bett] & m     
num]\s adju/m5ts ( acts to ends2 z also 
has complication ( movem5t1 &           
complication ( ! co-ord9at+ or          
intellectual process unit+ ! two4 ,:5ce 
x foll[s t ! acts *>act]iz$ by ! m      
complex motives & ! m involv$ ?\ghts1 h 
all along be5 ( high] au?ority =        
guidance4 ,"s examples w make ?is cle>4 
,"h is an aquatic creature guid$ by !   
odor ( organic matt] t[>d ?+s s]v+ =    
food2 b a creature :i*1 lack+ any o!r   

guidance1 is at ! m]cy ( l>g] creatures 
com+ ne>4 ,"h is ano!r :i*1 also guid$  
to food by odor1 possesses rudim5t>y    
vision2 & s is made to />t spasmodically
 away f a mov+ body :i* diffuses ?is    
odor1 9 ^? cases :]e x is l>ge en\gh to 
produce sudd5 obscuration (             
light--usually an enemy4 ,evid5tly life 
w frequ5tly be sav$ by con=m+ to ! lat] 
& high] /imulus1 in/ead ( to ! e>li] &  
l[]4  ,obs]ve at a m advanc$ /age a     
p>allel conflict4 ,?is is a bea/ :i*    
pursues o!rs = prey1 &1 ei!r lack+      
exp]i5ce or prompt$ by rag+ hung]1      
attacks "o m p[]ful ?an itself1 & gets  
de/roy$4 ,conv]sely1 t is a bea/ :i*1   
prompt$ by a hung] equally ke51 b ei!r  
by individual exp]i5ce or effects (     
inh]it$ exp]i5ce1 made consci\s ( evil  
by ! aspect ( "o m p[]ful ?an itself1 is
 det]r$ f attack+1 & saves its life by  
subord9at+ ! prim>y motive1 consi/+ (   
crav+ s5sations1 to ! second>y motive1  
consi/+ ( ideal feel+s1 di/9ct or vague4
  ,asc5d+ at once f ^! examples (       

conduct 9 animals to examples ( human   
conduct1 we %all see t ! contra/s betwe5
 inf]ior & sup]ior h habitually ! same  
traits4 ,! savage ( l[e/ type dev\rs all
 ! food captur$ by to-day's *ase1 &1    
hungry on ! morr[1 has p]haps = days to 
be> ! pangs ( />vation4 ,! sup]ior      
savage1 conceiv+ m vividly ! entail$    
suff]+s if no game is to be f\nd1 is    
det]r$ by 8 complex feel+ f giv+ way    
entirely to 8 simple feel+4 ,simil>ly   
are ! two contra/$ 9 ! in]tness :i* goes
 along ) lack ( =e?\ght1 & ! activity   
:i* due =e?\ght produces4 ,! primitive  
man1 idly incl9$1 & rul$ by ! s5sations 
( ! mom5t1 w n ex]t himself until actual
 pa9s h to be escap$2 b ! man some:at   
advanc$1 able m di/9ctly to imag9e      
future gratifications & suff]+s1 is     
prompt$ by ! ?\ght ( ^! to ov]come 8    
love ( ease3 decrease ( mis]y &         
mortality result+ f ?is pr$om9ance ( !  
repres5tative feel+s ov] ! pres5tative  
feel+s4  ,)\t dwell+ on ! fact t among !
 civiliz$1 ^? :o lead ! life ( ! s5ses  

are contra/$ 9 ! same way ) ^? ^: lives 
are l>gely occupi$ ) pleasures n ( a    
s5sual k9d1 let me po9t out t !re are   
analog\s contra/s betwe5 guidance by !  
less complex repres5tative feel+s1 or   
l[] emotions1 & guidance by ! m complex 
repres5tative feel+s1 or high] emotions4
 ,:5 l$ by 8 acquisitiv5ess--a          
re-repres5tative feel+ :i*1 act+ "u due 
control1 conduces to welf>e--! ?ief     
takes ano!r man's prop]ty2 8 act is     
det]m9$ by c]ta9 imag9$ proximate       
pleasures ( relatively simple k9ds1 r   
?an by less cle>ly imag9$ possible pa9s 
t are m remote & ( relatively involv$   
k9ds4 ,b 9 ! consci5ti\s man1 !re is an 
adequate re/ra9+ motive1 /ill m         
re-repres5tative 9 its nature1 includ+ n
 only ideas ( puni%m5t1 & n only ideas (
 lo/ reputation & ru91 b includ+ ideas (
 ! claims ( ! p]son own+ ! prop]ty1 & ( 
! pa9s :i* loss ( x w entail on him3 all
 jo9$ ) a g5]al av]sion to acts injuri\s
 to o!rs1 :i* arises f ! inh]it$ effects
 ( exp]i5ce4 ,& "h at ! end we see1 z we

 saw at ! beg9n+1 t guidance by ! m     
complex feel+1 on ! av]age1 conduces to 
welf>e m ?an does guidance by ! simpl]  
feel+4  ,! l holds ) ! intellectual     
co-ord9ations ?r\gh :i* /imuli issue 9  
motions4 ,! l[e/ actions1 call$ reflex1 
9 :i* an impression made on an aff]5t   
n]ve causes by dis*>ge ?r\gh an eff]5t  
n]ve a contraction1 %[s u a v limit$    
adju/m5t ( acts to ends3 ! impression   
be+ simple1 & ! result+ motion simple1 !
 int]nal co-ord9ation is also simple4   
,evid5tly :5 !re are sev]al s5ses :i* c 
be toge!r affect$ by an out] object2 &  
:51 accord+ z su* object is discrim9at$ 
z ( "o or o!r k9d1 ! movem5ts made 9    
response are comb9$ 9 "o or o!r way2 !  
int]m$iate co-ord9ations are necess>ily 
m involv$4 ,& evid5tly ea* fur!r /ep 9 !
 evolution ( intellig5ce1 always        
in/rum5tal to bett] self-pres]vation1   
exhibits ?is same g5]al trait4 ,!       
adju/m5ts by :i* ! m involv$ actions are
 made appropriate to ! m involv$        
circum/ances1 imply m intricate1 &1     

consequ5tly1 m delib]ate & consci\s     
co-ord9ations2 until1 :5 we come to     
civiliz$ m51 :o 9 _! daily bus9ess1 tak+
 into acc\nt _m data & conditions1 adju/
 _! proce$+s to v>i\s consequ5ces1 we   
see t ! intellectual actions1 becom+ ( !
 k9d we call judicial1 are at once v    
elaborate & v delib]ate4  ,obs]ve1 !n1  
:at foll[s respect+ ! relative          
au?orities ( motives4 ,?r\gh\t ! asc5t f
 l[ creatures up to man1 & f ! l[e/     
types ( man up to ! highe/1             
self-pres]vation has be5 increas$ by !  
subord9ation ( simple excitations to    
comp\nd excitations--! subjection (     
imm$iate s5sations to ! ideas (         
s5sations to come--! ov]rul+ (          
pres]vative feel+s by repres5tative     
feel+s1 & ( repres5tative feel+s by     
re-repres5tative feel+s4 ,z life has    
advanc$1 ! accompany+ s5ti5cy has become
 increas+ly ideal2 & among feel+s       
produc$ by ! comp\nd+ ( ideas1 ! highe/1
 & ^? :i* h evolv$ late/1 are !         
re-comp\nd$ or d\bly ideal4 ,h5ce x     

foll[s t z guides1 ! feel+s h au?orities
 proportionate to ! degrees 9 :i* !y are
 remov$ by _! complexity & _! ideality f
 simple s5sations & appetites4  ,a fur!r
 implication is made cle> by /udy+ !    
intellectual sides ( ^! m5tal processes 
by :i* acts are adju/$ to ends4 ,:]e !y 
are l[ & simple1 ^! compreh5d ! guid+   
only ( imm$iate acts by imm$iate        
/imuli--! entire transaction 9 ea* case1
 la/+ b a mom5t1 ref]s only to a        
proximate result4 ,b ) ! developm5t (   
intellig5ce1 & ! gr[+ ideality ( !      
motives1 ! ends to :i* ! acts are adju/$
 cease to be exclusively imm$iate4 ,! m 
ideal motives conc]n ends t are m       
di/ant2 & ) approa* to ! highe/ types1  
pres5t ends become increas+ly subord9ate
 to ^? future ends :i* ! ideal motives h
 = _! objects4 ,h5ce !re arises a c]ta9 
presumption 9 favor ( a motive :i* ref]s
 to a remote good1 9 comp>ison ) "o :i* 
ref]s to a proximate good4    #dc4 ,9 ! 
la/ *apt] ,i h9t$ t besides ! sev]al    
influ5ces !re nam$ z fo/]+ ! ascetic    

belief t do+ ?+s :i* are agreeable is   
detrim5tal :ile be>+ disagreeable ?+s is
 b5eficial1 !re rema9$ to be nam$ an    
influ5ce ( deep] orig94 ,?is is %ad[$ =?
 9 ! =ego+ p>agraphs4  ,= ! g5]al tru? t
 guidance by su* simple pleasures & pa9s
 z result f fulfill+ or d5y+ bodily     
desires1 is1 "u "o aspect1 inf]ior to   
guidance by ^? pleasures & pa9s :i* !   
complex ideal feel+s yield1 has l$ to ! 
belief t ! prompt+s ( bodily desires    
%\ld be disreg>d$4 ,fur!r1 ! g5]al tru? 
t pursuit ( proximate satisfactions is1 
"u "o aspect1 inf]ior to pursuit (      
ultimate satisfactions1 has l$ to !     
belief t proximate satisfactions mu/ n  
be valu$4  ,9 ! e>ly /ages ( e sci5ce1 !
 g5]alizations rea*$ are n qualifi$     
en\gh4 ,! discrim9at+ /atem5ts ( ! tru?s
 =mulat$1 rise aft]w>d1 by limitation ( 
! undiscrim9at+ /atem5ts4 ,z ) bodily   
vision1 :i* at fir/ appreciates only !  
broade/ traits ( objects1 & s leads to  
rude class+s1 :i* develop$ vision1      
impressible by m9or diff]5ces1 has to   

correct1 s ) m5tal vision 9 relation to 
g5]al tru?s1 x happ5s t at fir/ !       
inductions1 wrongly made all-embrac+1 h 
to wait = scepticism & critical         
obs]vation to re/rict !m1 by tak+ acc\nt
 ( unnotic$ diff]5ces4 ,h5ce1 we may    
expect to f9d ! curr5t e?ical           
conclusions too sweep+4 ,let u note h[1 
9 ?ree ways1 ^! dom9ant beliefs1 alike (
 pr(ess$ morali/s & ( p at l>ge1 are    
made errone\s by lack ( qualifications4 
,9 ! fir/ place1 ! au?ority ( ! l[]     
feel+s z guides is by no means always   
inf]ior to ! au?ority ( ! high] feel+s1 
b is (t5 sup]ior4 ,daily occur occasions
 on :i* s5sations mu/ be obey$ r ?an    
s5tim5ts4 ,let any "o ?9k ( sitt+ all   
night nak$ 9 a sn[-/orm1 or go+ a week  
)\t food1 or lett+ 8 head be held "u    
wat] = t5 m9utes1 & he w see t !        
pleasures & pa9s directly relat$ to     
ma9t5ance ( life may n be :olly         
subord9at$ to ! pleasures & pa9s        
indirectly relat$ to ma9t5ance ( life4  
,?\gh 9 _m cases guidance by ! simple   

feel+s r ?an by ! complex feel+s is     
injuri\s1 9 o!r cases guidance by !     
complex feel+s r ?an by ! simple feel+s 
is fatal2 & ?r\gh\t a wide range ( cases
 _! relative au?orities z guides are    
indet]m9ate4 ,grant t 9 a man pursu$1 ! 
prote/+ feel+s accompany+ int5se &      
prolong$ ef=t1 mu/1 to pres]ve life1 be 
ov]rul$ by ! fe> ( 8 pursu]s2 x may yet 
happ5 t1 p]si/+ till he drops1 ! result+
 exhau/ion causes dea?1 ?\gh1 ! pursuit 
hav+ be5 ab&on$1 dea? w\ld n o!rwise h  
result$4 ,grant t a wid[ left 9 pov]ty  
mu/ d5y h] appetite t %e may give en\gh 
food to h] *ildr5 to keep !m alive2 yet 
! d5ial ( h] appetite pu%$ too f> may   
leave !m n only entirely )\t food b )\t 
gu>dian%ip4 ,grant t1 work+ 8 bra9      
unceas+ly f dawn till d>k1 ! man 9      
pecuni>y difficulties mu/ disreg>d      
rebelli\s bodily s5sations 9 ob$i5ce to 
! consci5ti\s desire to liquidate !     
claims on him2 yet he may c>ry ?is      
subjection ( simple feel+s to complex   
feel+s to ! ext5t ( %att]+ 8 heal?1 &   

fail+ 9 t end :i*1 ) less ( ?is         
subjection1 he might h a*iev$4 ,cle>ly1 
!n1 ! subord9ation ( l[] feel+s mu/ be a
 conditional subord9ation4 ,! supremacy 
( high] feel+s mu/ be a qualifi$        
supremacy4  ,9 ano!r way does !         
g5]alization ord9>ily made err by       
excess4 ,) ! tru? t life is high 9      
proportion z ! simple pres5tative feel+s
 are "u ! control ( ! comp\nd           
repres5tative feel+s1 x jo9s1 z ?\gh !y 
7 coroll>ies1 c]ta9 propositions :i* are
 n coroll>ies4 ,! curr5t conception is1 
n t ! l[] mu/ yield to ! high] :5 ! two 
conflict1 b t ! l[] mu/ be disreg>d$ ev5
 :5 !re is no conflict4 ,?is t5d5cy :i* 
! gr[? ( moral ideas has g5]at$1 to     
condemn ob$i5ce to inf]ior feel+s :5    
sup]ior feel+s prote/1 has begott5 a    
t5d5cy to condemn inf]ior feel+s        
consid]$ intr9sically4 ,i really ?9k %e 
does ?+s because %e likes to d !m1 once 
said to me "o lady conc]n+ ano!r3 ! =m (
 expression & ! mann] bo? imply+ !      
belief n only t su* behavior is wrong1 b

 also t e "o mu/ recognize x z wrong4 ,&
 !re prevails widely a notion ( ?is k9d4
 ,9 practice1 inde$1 ! notion is v      
g5]ally inop]ative4 ,?\gh x prompts     
v>i\s incid5tal asceticisms1 z ( ^? :o  
?9k x alike manly & salut>y to g )\t a  
great-coat 9 cold wea!r1 or to p]sev]e  
?r\gh ! w9t] 9 tak+ an out-(-door       
plunge1 yet1 g5]ally1 ! pleasurable     
feel+s accompany+ due fulfillm5t (      
bodily ne$s1 are accept$3 acceptance    
be+1 inde$1 suffici5tly p]emptory4 ,b   
oblivi\s ( ^! contradictions 9 _!       
practice1 m5 commonly betray a vague    
idea t !re is some?+ degrad+1 or        
injuri\s1 or bo?1 9 do+ t :i* is        
agreeable & avoid+ t :i* is             
disagreeable4 ,pleasant b wrong1 is a   
phrase frequ5tly us$ 9 a way imply+ t ! 
two are naturally connect$4 ,z above    
h9t$1 h[ev]1 su* beliefs result f a     
confus$ appreh5sion ( ! g5]al tru? t ! m
 comp\nd & repres5tative feel+s are1 on 
! av]age1 ( high] au?ority ?an ! simple 
& pres5tative feel+s4 ,appreh5d$ )      

discrim9ation1 ?is tru? implies t !     
au?ority ( ! simple1 ord9>ily less ?an t
 ( ! comp\nd b occasionally great]1 is  
habitually to be accept$ :5 ! comp\nd d 
n oppose4  ,9 yet a ?ird way is ?is     
pr9ciple ( subord9ation misconceiv$4 ,"o
 ( ! contra/s betwe5 ! e>li] evolv$     
feel+s & ! lat] evolv$ feel+s1 is t !y  
ref] respectively to ! m imm$iate       
effects ( actions & to ! m remote       
effects2 & speak+ g5]ally1 guidance by t
 :i* is ne> is inf]ior to guidance by t 
:i* is di/ant4 ,h5ce has result$ !      
belief t1 irrespective ( _! k9ds1 !     
pleasures ( ! pres5t mu/ be sacrific$ to
 ! pleasures ( ! future4 ,we see ?is 9 !
 maxim (t5 impress$ on *ildr5 :5 eat+ _!
 meals1 t !y %\ld res]ve ! nice/ morsel 
till ! la/3 ! *eck on improvid5t yield+ 
to imm$iate impulse1 be+ "h jo9$ ) !    
tacit tea*+ t ! same gratification      
becomes m valuable z x becomes m di/ant4
 ,su* ?9k+ is traceable ?r\gh\t daily   
conduct2 by no means inde$ 9 all1 b 9 ^?
 :o are di/+ui%$ z prud5t & well        

regulat$ 9 _! conduct4 ,hurry+ ov] 8    
breakfa/ t he may cat* ! tra91 snat*+ a 
s&wi* 9 ! middle ( ! day1 & eat+ a late 
d9n] :5 he is s worn out t he is        
incapacitat$ = ev5+ recreation1 ! man ( 
bus9ess pursues a life 9 :i* n only !   
satisfactions ( bodily desires1 b also  
^? ( high] ta/es & feel+s1 are1 z f> z  
may be1 disreg>d$1 t di/ant ends may be 
a*iev$2 & yet if y ask :at are ^! di/ant
 ends1 y f9d 79 cases :]e !re are no    
p>5tal responsibilities7 t !y are       
includ$ "u ! conception ( m com=table   
liv+ 9 "t to come4 ,s +ra9$ is ?is      
belief t x is wrong to seek imm$iate    
enjoym5ts & "r to seek remote ones only1
 t y may he> f a busy man :o has be5 on 
a pleasure excursion a k9d ( apology = 8
 conduct4 ,he deprecates ! unfavorable  
judgm5ts ( 8 fri5ds by expla9+ t ! /ate 
( 8 heal? _h compell$ him to take a     
holiday4 ,nev]!less1 if y s\nd him )    
respect to 8 future1 y f9d t 8 ambition 
is by-&-by to retire & devote himself   
:olly to ! relaxations :i* he is n[     

some:at a%am$ ( tak+4  ,! g5]al tru?    
disclos$ by ! /udy ( evolv+ conduct1    
sub-human & human1 t = ! bett]          
pres]vation ( life ! primitive1 simple1 
pres5tative feel+s mu/ be controll$ by !
 lat]-evolv$1 comp\nd1 & repres5tative  
feel+s1 has ?us come1 9 ! c\rse (       
civilization1 to be recogniz$ by m52 b  
necess>ily at fir/ 9 too indiscrim9ate a
 way4 ,! curr5t conception1 :ile x errs 
by imply+ t ! au?ority ( ! high] ov] !  
l[] is unlimit$1 errs also by imply+ t !
 rule ( ! l[] mu/ be resi/$ ev5 :5 x    
does n conflict ) ! rule ( ! high]1 &   
fur!r errs by imply+ t a gratification  
:i* =ms a prop] aim if x is remote1 =ms 
an improp] aim if x is proximate4       
#dd4 ,)\t explicitly say+ s1 we h be5 "h
 trac+ ! g5esis ( ! moral consci\sness4 
,= unque/ionably ! ess5tial trait 9 !   
moral consci\sness is ! control ( "s    
feel+ or feel+s by "s o!r feel+ or      
feel+s4  ,among ! high] animals we may  
see1 di/9ctly en\gh1 ! conflict ( feel+s
 & ! subjection ( simpl] to m comp\nd2 z

 :5 a dog is re/ra9$ f snat*+ food by   
fe> ( ! p5alties :i* may come if he     
yields to 8 appetite2 or z :5 he desi/s 
f scrat*+ at a hole le/ he %\ld lose 8  
ma/]1 :o has walk$ on4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 ?\gh 
!re is subord9ation1 !re is n consci\s  
subord9ation--!re is no introspection   
reveal+ ! fact t "o feel+ has yield$ to 
ano!r4 ,s is x ev5 ) human be+s :5      
little develop$ m5tally4 ,! pre-social  
man1 w&]+ ab\t 9 families & rul$ by su* 
s5sations & emotions z are caus$ by !   
circum/ances ( ! mom5t1 ?\gh            
occasionally subject to conflicts (     
motives1 meets ) comp>atively few cases 
9 :i* ! advantage ( po/pon+ ! imm$iate  
to ! remote is =c$ on 8 att5tion2 nor   
has he ! intellig5ce requisite = analyz+
 & g5]aliz+ su* ( ^! cases z occur4     
,only z social evolution r5d]s ! life m 
complex1 ! re/ra9ts _m & /rong1 ! evils 
( impulsive conduct m>k$1 & ! com=ts to 
be ga9$ by provid+ = ! future tol]ably  
c]ta91 c !re come exp]i5ces num]\s en\gh
 to make famili> ! b5efit ( subord9at+ !

 simpl] feel+s to ! m complex ones4     
,only !n1 too1 does !re arise a         
suffici5t intellectual p[] to make an   
induction f ^! exp]i5ces1 foll[$ by a   
suffici5t mass+ ( individual inductions 
into a public & traditional induction   
impress$ on ea* g5]ation z x gr[s up4   
,& "h we are introduc$ to c]ta9 facts ( 
pr(\nd significance4 ,?is consci\s      
rel9qui%m5t ( imm$iate & special good to
 ga9 di/ant & g5]al good1 :ile x is a   
c>d9al trait ( ! self-re/ra9t call$     
moral1 is also a c>d9al trait (         
self-re/ra9ts o!r ?an ^? call$ moral--! 
re/ra9ts t orig9ate f fe> ( ! visible   
rul]1 ( ! invisible rul]1 & ( society at
 l>ge4 ,:5ev] ! individual refra9s f do+
 t :i* ! pass+ desire prompts1 le/ he   
%\ld aft]w>d suff] legal puni%m5t1 or   
div9e v5geance1 or public reprobation1  
or all ( !m1 he surr5d]s ! ne> & def9ite
 pleasure r ?an risk ! remote & great]1 
?\gh less def9ite1 pa9s1 :i* tak+ x may 
br+ on him2 &1 conv]sely1 :5 he und]goes
 "s pres5t pa91 t he may reap "s        

probable future pleasure1 political1    
religi\s1 or social4 ,b ?\gh all ^! f\r 
k9ds ( int]nal control h ! common "* t !
 simpl] & less ideal feel+s are         
consci\sly ov]rul$ by ! m complex &     
ideal feel+s2 & ?\gh1 at fir/1 !y are   
practically co-ext5sive & undi/+ui%$1   
yet1 9 ! c\rse ( social evolution1 !y   
diff]5tiate2 &1 ev5tually1 ! moral      
control1 ) its accompany+ conceptions & 
s5tim5ts1 em]ges z indep5d5t4 ,let u    
glance at ! lead+ aspects ( ! process4  
,:ile1 z 9 ! rude/ gr\ps1 nei!r         
political nor religi\s rule exi/s1 !    
lead+ *eck to ! imm$iate satisfaction ( 
ea* desire z x arises1 is consci\sness (
 ! evils :i* ! ang] ( fell[-savages may 
entail1 if satisfaction ( ! desire is   
obta9$ at _! co/4 ,9 ?is e>ly /age !    
imag9$ pa9s :i* con/itute ! gov]n+      
motive are ^? apt to be inflict$ by be+s
 ( l nature1 undi/+ui%$ 9 p[]3 !        
political1 religi\s1 & social re/ra9ts  
are z yet repres5t$ only by ?is mutual  
dread ( v5geance4  ,:5 special /r5g?1   

skill1 or c\rage1 makes "o ( !m a lead] 
9 battle1 he necess>ily inspires great] 
fe> ?an any o!r1 & !re comes to be a m  
decid$ *eck on su* satisfactions ( !    
desires z w injure or (f5d him4         
,gradually z1 by habitual w>f>e1        
*iefta9%ip is e/abli%$1 ! evils ?\ght ( 
z likely to arise f ang]+ ! *ief1 n only
 by aggression ^u him1 b by disob$i5ce  
to him1 become di/+ui%able bo? f !      
small] evils :i* o!r p]sonal antagonisms
 cause1 & f ! m diffus$ evils ?\ght ( z 
aris+ f social reprobation4 ,t is1      
political control beg9s to diff]5tiate f
 ! m indef9ite control ( mutual dread4  
,mean:ile !re has be5 develop+ ! gho/   
!ory4 ,9 all b ! rude/ gr\ps ! d\ble ( a
 deceas$ man1 propitiat$ at dea? &      
aft]w>d1 is conceiv$ z able to injure ! 
survivors4 ,consequ5tly1 z fa/ z ! gho/ 
!ory becomes e/abli%$ & def9ite1 !re    
gr[s up ano!r k9d ( *eck on imm$iate    
satisfaction ( ! desires--a *eck        
con/itut$ by ideas ( ! evils :i* gho/s  
may inflict if (f5d$2 & :5 political    

head%ip gets settl$1 & ! gho/s ( dead   
*iefs1 ?\ght ( z m p[]ful & rel5tless   
?an o!r gho/s1 are especially dread$1   
!re beg9s to take %ape ! =m ( re/ra9t   
di/+ui%$ z religi\s4  ,= a long "t ^!   
?ree sets ( re/ra9ts1 :i* _! correlative
 sanctions1 ?\gh becom+ sep>ate 9       
consci\sness1 rema9 co-ext5sive1 & d s  
because !y mo/ly ref] to "o end--success
 9 w>4 ,! duty ( blood-rev5ge is insi/$ 
on ev5 :ile yet no?+ to be call$ social 
organization exi/s4 ,z ! *ief ga9s      
pr$om9ance1 ! kill+ ( enemies becomes a 
political duty2 & z ! ang] ( ! dead *ief
 comes to be dread$1 ! kill+ ( enemies  
becomes a religi\s duty4 ,loyalty to !  
rul] :ile he lives & aft] he dies is    
increas+ly %[n by hold+ life at 8       
disposal = purposes ( w>4 ,! e>lie/     
enact$ puni%m5ts are ^? = insubord9ation
 & = brea*es ( obs]vances :i* express   
subord9ation--all ( !m militant 9 orig94
 ,:ile ! div9e injunctions1 orig9ally   
traditions ( ! dead k+'s w1 ma9ly ref]  
to ! de/ruction ( peoples ) :om he 0 at 

enmity1 & div9e ang] or approval are    
conceiv$ z det]m9$ by ! degrees 9 :i*   
subjection to him is %[n1 directly by   
wor%ip & indirectly by fulfill+ ^!      
injunctions4 ,! ,fijian1 :o is said on  
ent]+ ! o!r _w to comm5d himself by     
n>rat+ 8 successes 9 battle1 & :o1 :5   
alive1 is describ$ z sometimes greatly  
di/ress$ if he ?9ks he has n kill$      
enemies en\gh to please 8 gods1 %[s u ! 
result+ ideas & feel+s1 & rem9ds u (    
k9dr$ ideas & feel+s betray$ by anci5t  
races4  ,to all :i* add t ! control (   
social op9ion1 besides be+ directly     
ex]cis$1 z 9 ! e>lie/ /age1 by praise ( 
! brave & blame ( ! c[>dly1 comes to be 
indirectly ex]cis$ ) a k9dr$ g5]al      
effect by applause ( loyalty to ! rul] &
 piety to ! god4 ,s t ! ?ree diff]5tiat$
 =ms ( control :i* gr[ up along )       
militant organization & action1 :ile    
en=c+ k9dr$ re/ra9ts & inc5tives1 also  
en=ce "o ano!r2 & _! sep>ate & jo9t     
discipl9es h ! common "* t !y involve ! 
sacrifice ( imm$iate special b5efits to 

obta9 m di/ant & g5]al b5efits4  ,at !  
same "t !re h be5 develop+ "u ! same    
?ree sanctions1 re/ra9ts & inc5tives (  
ano!r ord]1 simil>ly *>act]iz$ by       
subord9ation ( ! proximate to ! remote4 
,jo9t aggressions ^u m5 outside !       
society _c prosp] if !re are _m         
aggressions ( man on man )9 ! society4  
,w> implies co-op]ation2 & co-op]ation  
is prev5t$ by antagonisms among ^? :o   
are to co-op]ate4 ,we saw t 9 !         
primitive ungov]n$ gr\p1 ! ma9 *eck on  
imm$iate satisfaction ( 8 desires by ea*
 man1 is ! fe> ( o!r m5's v5geance if !y
 are injur$ by tak+ ! satisfaction2 &   
?r\gh e>ly /ages ( social developm5t ?is
 dread ( retaliation cont9ues to be !   
*ief motive to su* =be>ance z exi/s4 ,b 
?\gh long aft] political au?ority has   
become e/abli%$ ! tak+ ( p]sonal        
satisfaction = injuries p]si/s1 ! gr[? (
 political au?ority gradually *ecks x4  
,! fact t success 9 w> is endang]$ if 8 
foll[]s fight among !mselves1 =ces      
itself on ! att5tion ( ! rul]4 ,he has a

 /rong motive = re/ra9+ qu>rels1 & !re=e
 = prev5t+ ! aggressions :i* cause      
qu>rels2 & z 8 p[] becomes great] he    
=bids ! aggressions & inflicts puni%m5ts
 = disob$i5ce4 ,pres5tly1 political     
re/ra9ts ( ?is class1 l ^? ( ! prec$+   
class1 are en=c$ by religi\s re/ra9ts4  
,! sagaci\s *ief1 succe$+ 9 w> p>tly    
because he ?us en=ces ord] among 8      
foll[]s1 leaves beh9d him a tradition ( 
! comm&s he habitually gave4 ,dread ( 8 
gho/ t5ds to produce reg>d = ^! comm&s2 
& !y ev5tually acquire sacr$ness4 ,)    
fur!r social evolution come1 9 l mann]1 
fur!r int]dicts1 *eck+ aggressions (    
less s]i\s k9ds2 until ev5tually !re    
gr[s up a body ( civil laws4 ,& !n1 9 ! 
way %[n1 arise beliefs conc]n+ ! div9e  
disapproval ( ^! m9or1 z well z ( !     
major1 civil (f5ces3 end+1 occasionally1
 9 a set ( religi\s injunctions h>moniz+
 )1 & en=c+1 ! political injunctions2   
:ile simultane\sly !re develops1 z be=e1
 a social sanction = ^! rules ( int]nal 
conduct1 /r5g!n+ ! political & religi\s 

sanctions4  ,b n[ obs]ve t :ile ^! ?ree 
controls1 political1 religi\s1 & social1
 sev]ally lead m5 to subord9ate         
proximate satisfactions to remote       
satisfactions2 & :ile !y are 9 ?is      
respect l ! moral control1 :i*          
habitually requires ! subjection (      
simple pres5tative feel+s to complex    
repres5tative feel+s & po/ponem5t (     
pres5t to future2 yet !y d n con/itute !
 moral control1 b are only prep>atory to
 x--are controls )9 :i* ! moral control 
evolves4 ,! comm& ( ! political rul] is 
at fir/ obey$1 n because ( its p]ceiv$  
rectitude1 b simply because x is 8      
comm&1 :i* !re w be a p5alty = disobey+4
 ,! *eck is n a m5tal repres5tation ( ! 
evil consequ5ces :i* ! =bidd5 act w1 9 !
 nature ( ?+s1 cause3 b x is a m5tal    
repres5tation ( ! factiti\s evil        
consequ5ces4 ,d[n to our own "t we trace
 9 legal phrases1 ! orig9al doctr9e t ! 
aggression ( "o citiz5 on ano!r is      
wrong1 & w be puni%$1 n s mu* because ( 
! injury done him1 z because ( ! impli$ 

disreg>d ( ! k+'s w4 ,simil>ly1 !       
s9fulness ( break+ a div9e injunction 0 
univ]sally at "o "t1 & is /ill by _m1   
held to consi/ 9 ! disob$i5ce to ,god1 r
 ?an 9 ! delib]ate entail+ ( injury2 &  
ev5 n[ x is a common belief t acts are  
"r only if p]=m$ 9 consci\s fulfillm5t (
 ! div9e w3 nay1 are ev5 wrong if       
o!rwise p]=m$4 ,! l holds1 too1 ) t     
fur!r control ex]cis$ by public op9ion4 
,on li/5+ to ! rem>ks made respect+     
con=mity to social rules1 x is          
noticeable t brea* ( !m is condemn$ n s 
mu* because ( any ess5tial impropriety z
 because ! _w's au?ority is ignor$4 ,h[ 
imp]fectly ! truly moral control is ev5 
n[ diff]5tiat$ f ^! controls )9 :i* x   
has be5 evolv+1 we see 9 ! fact t !     
sy/ems ( morality criticiz$ at ! outset1
 sev]ally id5tify moral control ) "o or 
o!r ( !m4 ,= morali/s ( "o class d]ive  
moral rules f ! comm&s ( a supreme      
political p[]4 ,^? ( ano!r class        
recognize no o!r orig9 = !m ?an !       
reveal$ div9e w4 ,& ?\gh m5 :o take     

social prescription = _! guide d n      
=mulate _! doctr9e1 yet ! belief1       
frequ5tly betray$1 t conduct :i* society
 p]mits is n blamewor?y1 implies t !re  
are ^? :o ?9k "r & wrong c be made su*  
by public op9ion4  ,be=e tak+ a fur!r   
/ep we mu/ put toge!r ! results ( ?is   
analysis4 ,! ess5tial tru?s to be c>ri$ 
) u1 respect+ ^! ?ree =ms ( ext]nal     
control to :i* ! social unit is subject1
 are ^!3 ,fir/1 t !y h evolv$ ) !       
evolution ( society1 z means to social  
self-pres]vation1 necess>y "u !         
conditions2 & t1 by implication1 !y are 
9 ! ma9 congru\s ) "o ano!r4 ,second1 t 
! correlative int]nal re/ra9ts g5]at$ 9 
! social unit are repres5tations (      
remote results :i* are incid5tal r ?an  
necess>y--a legal p5alty1 a sup]natural 
puni%m5t1 a social reprobation4 ,?ird1 t
 ^! results1 simpl] & m directly wr\ght 
by p]sonal ag5cies1 c be m vividly      
conceiv$ ?an c ! results :i*1 9 ! c\rse 
( ?+s1 actions naturally entail2 & !    
conceptions ( !m are1 !re=e1 m pot5t ov]

 undevelop$ m9ds4 ,f\r?1 t z ) !        
re/ra9ts ?us g5]at$ is always jo9$ !    
?\ght ( ext]nal co]cion1 !re arises !   
notion ( obligation2 :i* s becomes      
habitually associat$ ) ! surr5d] (      
imm$iate special b5efits = ! sake (     
di/ant & g5]al b5efits4 ,fif?1 t ! moral
 control corresponds 9 l>ge measure ) ! 
?ree controls ?us orig9at+1 9 respect ( 
its injunctions2 & corresponds1 too1 9 !
 g5]al nature ( ! m5tal processes       
produc+ con=mity to ^? injunctions2 b   
diff]s 9 _! special nature4    #de4 ,=  
n[ we are prep>$ to see t ! re/ra9ts1   
prop]ly di/+ui%$ z moral1 are unlike ^! 
re/ra9ts out ( :i* !y evolve1 & ) :i* !y
 are long conf\nd$1 9 ?is--!y ref] n to 
! extr9sic effects ( actions b to _!    
intr9sic effects4 ,! truly moral det]r5t
 f murd] is n con/itut$ by a            
repres5tation ( hang+ z a consequ5ce1 or
 by a repres5tation ( tortures 9 hell z 
a consequ5ce1 or by a repres5tation ( ! 
horror & hatr$ excit$ 9 fell[ m52 b by a
 repres5tation ( ! necess>y natural     

results1 ! infliction ( dea?-agony on ! 
victim1 ! de/ruction ( all 8            
possibilities ( happ9ess1 ! entail$     
suff]+s to 8 belong+s4 ,nei!r ! ?\ght ( 
imprisonm5t1 nor ( div9e ang]1 nor (    
social disgrace1 is t :i* con/itutes !  
moral *eck on !ft2 b ! ?\ght ( injury to
 ! p]son robb$1 jo9$ ) a vague          
consci\sness ( ! g5]al evils caus$ by   
disreg>d ( propriet>y rights4 ,^? :o    
reprobate ! adult]] on moral gr\nds h _!
 m9ds fill$1 n ) ideas ( an action =    
damages1 or ( future puni%m5t foll[+ !  
brea* ( a comm&m5t1 or ( loss (         
reputation2 b !y are occupi$ ) ideas (  
unhapp9ess entail$ on ! aggriev$ wife or
 husb&1 ! damag$ lives ( *ildr51 & !    
diffus$ mis*iefs :i* g along ) disreg>d 
( ! m>riage tie4 ,conv]sely1 ! man :o is
 mov$ by a moral feel+ to help ano!r 9  
difficulty1 does n picture to himself   
any rew>d "h or h]eaft]2 b pictures only
 ! bett] condition he is try+ to br+    
ab\t4 ,"o :o is morally prompt$ to fight
 aga9/ a social evil has nei!r mat]ial  

b5efit nor popul> applause be=e 8 m9d1 b
 only ! mis*iefs he seeks to remove & ! 
increas$ well-be+ :i* w foll[ _!        
removal4 ,?r\gh\t1 !n1 ! moral motive   
diff]s f ! motives x is associat$ ) 9   
?is1 t in/ead ( be+ con/itut$ by        
repres5tations ( incid5tal1 collat]al1  
non-necess>y consequ5ces ( acts1 x is   
con/itut$ by repres5tations (           
consequ5ces :i* ! acts naturally        
produce4 ,^! repres5tations are n all   
di/9ct1 ?\gh "s ( su* are usually       
pres5t2 b !y =m an assemblage ( indi/9ct
 repres5tations accumulat$ by exp]i5ce (
 ! results ( l acts 9 ! life ( !        
individual1 sup]pos$ on a /ill m        
indi/9ct b volum9\s consci\sness due to 
! inh]it$ effects ( su* exp]i5ces 9     
prog5itors1 =m+ a feel+ t is at once    
massive & vague4  ,& n[ we see :y !     
moral feel+s & correlative re/ra9ts h   
aris5 lat] ?an ! feel+s & re/ra9ts t    
orig9ate f political1 religi\s1 & social
 au?orities1 & h s sl[ly1 & ev5 yet s   
incompletely1 dis5tangl$ !mselves4 ,=   

only by ^! l[] feel+s & re/ra9ts c\ld be
 ma9ta9$ ! conditions "u :i* ! high]    
feel+s & re/ra9ts evolve4 ,x is ?us     
alike ) ! self-reg>d+ feel+s & ) !      
o!r-reg>d+ feel+s4 ,! pa9s :i*          
improvid5ce w br+1 & ! pleasures to be  
ga9$ by /or+ up ?+s = future use1 & by  
labor+ to get su* ?+s1 c be habitually  
contra/$ 9 ?\ght1 only z fa/ z settl$   
social arrangem5ts make accumulation    
possible2 & t !re may arise su* settl$  
arrangem5ts1 fe> ( ! se5 rul]1 ( ! unse5
 rul]1 & ( public op9ion1 mu/ come into 
play4 ,only aft] political1 religi\s &  
social re/ra9ts h produc$ a /able       
community c !re be suffici5t exp]i5ce ( 
! pa9s1 positive & negative1 s5sational 
& emotional1 :i* crimes ( aggression    
cause1 z to g5]ate t moral av]sion to !m
 con/itut$ by consci\sness ( _!         
intr9sically evil results4 ,& m manife/ 
/ill is x t su* a moral s5tim5t z t (   
ab/ract equity1 :i* is (f5d$ n only by  
mat]ial injuries done to m51 b also by  
political arrangem5ts t place !m at a   

disadvantage1 c evolve only aft] !      
social /age rea*$ gives famili>         
exp]i5ce1 bo? ( ! pa9s fl[+ directly f  
inju/ices1 & also ( ^? fl[+ indirectly f
 ! class privileges :i* make inju/ices  
easy4  ,t ! feel+s call$ moral h !      
nature & orig9 alleg$ is fur!r %[n by ! 
fact t we associate ! "n ) !m 9         
proportion to ! degree 9 :i* !y h ^!    
*>act]s--fir/ly1 ( be+ re-repres5tative2
 secondly1 ( be+ conc]n$ ) indirect r   
?an ) direct effects1 & g5]ally ) remote
 r ?an imm$iate2 & ?irdly1 ( ref]r+ to  
effects t are mo/ly g5]al r ?an special4
 ,?us1 ?\gh we condemn "o man =         
extravagance & approve ! economy %[n by 
ano!r man1 we d n class _! acts z       
respectively vici\s & virtu\s4 ,^! words
 are too /rong2 ! pres5t & future       
results "h diff] too little 9           
concret5ess & ideality to make ! words  
fully applicable4 ,suppose1 h[ev]1 t !  
extravagance necess>ily br+s di/ress on 
wife & *ildr5--br+s pa9s diffus$ ov] !  
lives ( o!rs z well z ( self1 & !       

vici\sness ( ! extravagance becomes     
cle>4 ,suppose1 fur!r1 t prompt$ by !   
wi% to relieve 8 family f ! mis]y he has
 br\ght on !m1 ! sp5d?rift =ges a bill  
or commits "s o!r fraud4 ,?\gh1 e/imat$ 
ap>t1 we *>act]ize 8 ov]rul+ emotion z  
moral1 & make all[ance = him 9          
consid]ation ( x1 yet 8 action1 tak5 z a
 :ole1 we condemn z immoral3 we reg>d z 
( sup]ior au?ority ! feel+s :i* respond 
to m5's propriet>y claims--feel+s :i*   
are re-repres5tative 9 a high] degree & 
ref] to m remote diffus$ consequ5ces4 ,!
 diff]5ce1 habitually recogniz$1 betwe5 
! relative elevations ( ju/ice &        
g5]osity1 well illu/rates ?is tru?4 ,!  
motive caus+ a g5]\s act has ref]5ce to 
effects ( a m concrete1 special1 &      
proximate k9d ?an has ! motive to d     
ju/ice1 :i*1 beyond ! proximate effects1
 usually !mselves less concrete ?an ^? t
 g5]osity contemplates1 includes a      
consci\sness ( ! di/ant1 involv$1       
diffus$ effects ( ma9ta9+ equitable     
relations4 ,& ju/ice we hold to be high]

 g5]osity4  ,compreh5sion ( ?is long    
argum5t w be aid$ by "h quot+ a fur!r   
passage f ! be=e-nam$ lett] to ,mr4     
,mill1 foll[+ ! passage already quot$ f 
x4    ,to make any position fully       
und]/ood1 x seems ne$ful to add t1      
correspond+ to ! fundam5tal propositions
 ( a develop$ ,moral   ,sci5ce1 !re h   
be51 & /ill are1 develop+ 9 ! race1     
c]ta9 fundam5tal moral intuitions2 & t1 
?\gh ^! moral   intuitions are ! results
 ( accumulat$ exp]i5ces ( ,utility1     
gradually organiz$ & inh]it$1 !y h come 
to be q   indep5d5t ( consci\s exp]i5ce4
 ,j 9 ! same way t ,i   believe !       
intuition ( space1 possess$ by any liv+ 
individual1   to h aris5 f organiz$ &   
consolidat$ exp]i5ces ( all   antec$5t  
individuals :o bequea!d to him _! sl[ly 
develop$   n]v\s organizations--j z ,i  
believe t ?is intuition1   requir+ only 
to be made def9ite & complete by p]sonal
   exp]i5ces1 has practically become a  
=m ( ?\ght1 app>5tly   q indep5d5t (    
exp]i5ce2 s d ,i believe t ! exp]i5ces  

( utility organiz$ & consolidat$ ?r\gh  
all pa/ g5]ations   ( ! human race1 h   
be5 produc+ correspond+ n]v\s           
modifications1 :i*1 by cont9u$          
transmission & accumulation1   h become 
9 u c]ta9 faculties ( moral             
intuition--c]ta9   emotions respond+ to 
"r & wrong conduct1 :i* h no   app>5t   
basis 9 ! individual exp]i5ces (        
utility4 ,i also hold   t j z ! space   
intuition responds to ! exact           
demon/rations   ( ,geometry1 & has its  
r\gh conclusions int]pret$ & v]ifi$   by
 !m2 s w moral intuitions respond to !  
demon/rations (   ,moral ,sci5ce1 & w h 
_! r\gh conclusions int]pret$ &   v]ifi$
 by !m4  ,to ?is1 9 pass+1 ,i w add only
 t ! evolution-hypo!sis ?us enables u to
 reconcile oppos$ moral !ories1 z x     
enables u to reconcile oppos$ !ories (  
k4 ,= z ! doctr9e ( innate =ms (        
intellectual intuition falls into h>mony
 ) ! exp]i5tial doctr9e1 :5 we recognize
 ! production ( intellectual faculties  
by inh]itance ( effects wr\ght by       

exp]i5ce2 s ! doctr9e ( innate p[]s (   
moral p]ception becomes congru\s ) !    
utilit>ian doctr9e1 :5 x is se5 t       
pref]5ces & av]sions are r5d]$ organic  
by inh]itance ( ! effects ( pleasurable 
& pa9ful exp]i5ces 9 prog5itors4    #df4
 ,"o fur!r "q has to be answ]$--,h[ does
 !re arise ! feel+ ( moral obligation 9 
g5]al8 ,:5ce comes ! s5tim5t ( duty1    
consid]$ z di/9ct f ! sev]al s5tim5ts   
:i* prompt temp]ance1 provid5ce1        
k9dness1 ju/ice1 tru?fulness1 etc48 ,!  
answ] is t x is an ab/ract s5tim5t      
g5]at$ 9 a mann] analog\s to t 9 :i*    
ab/ract ideas are g5]at$4  ,! idea ( ea*
 color _h orig9ally entire concret5ess  
giv5 to x by an object possess+ ! color2
 z "s ( ! unmodifi$ names1 su* z orange 
& violet1 %[ u4 ,! dissociation ( ea*   
color f ! object specially associat$ ) x
 9 ?\ght at ! outset1 w5t on z fa/ z !  
color came to be associat$ 9 ?\ght )    
objects unlike ! fir/1 & unlike "o      
ano!r4 ,! idea ( orange 0 conceiv$ 9 !  
ab/ract m fully 9 proportion z ! v>i\s  

orange-color$ objects rememb]$1 cancell$
 "o ano!r's div]se attributes1 & left   
out/&+ _! common attribute4  ,s is x if 
we asc5d a /age & note h[ !re arises !  
ab/ract idea ( color ap>t f p>ticul>    
colors4 ,7 all ?+s r$ ! conception (    
color 9 ! ab/ract c\ld n exi/4 ,imag9e t
 e object 0 ei!r r$ or gre51 & x is     
manife/ t ! m5tal habit w\ld be to ?9k (
 "o or o!r ( ^! two colors 9 connection 
) any?+ nam$4 ,b multiply ! colors s t  
?\ght rambles undecid$ly among ! ideas (
 !m t occur along ) any object nam$1 &  
!re results ! notion ( indet]m9ate      
color--! common prop]ty :i* objects     
possess ( affect+ u by light f _!       
surfaces1 z well z by _! =ms4 ,=        
evid5tly ! notion ( ?is common prop]ty  
is t :i* rema9s con/ant :ile imag9ation 
is pictur+ e possible v>iety ( color4 ,x
 is ! uni=m trait 9 all color$ ?+s2 t   
is--color 9 ! ab/ract4  ,words ref]r+ to
 quantity furni% cases ( m m>k$         
dissociation ( ab/ract f concrete4      
,gr\p+ v>i\s ?+s z small 9 comp>ison    

ei!r ) ^? ( _! k9d or ) ^? ( o!r k9ds1 &
 simil>ly gr\p+ "s objects z            
comp>atively great1 we get ! opposite   
ab/ract notions ( smallness & greatness4
 ,appli$ z ^! are to innum]able v div]se
 ?+s--n objects only1 b =ces1 times1    
numb]s1 values--!y h become s little    
connect$ ) concretes1 t _! ab/ract      
mean+s are v vague4  ,fur!r1 we mu/ note
 t an ab/ract idea ?us =m$ (t5 acquires 
an illusive indep5d5ce2 z we may p]ceive
 9 ! case ( motion1 :i*1 dissociat$ 9   
?\ght f all p>ticul> bodies & velocities
 & directions1 is sometimes ref]r$ to z 
?\gh x c\ld be conceiv$ ap>t f some?+   
mov+4  ,n[ all ?is holds ( ! subjective 
z well z ( ! objective2 & among o!r     
/ates ( consci\sness1 holds ( ! emotions
 z kn[n by introspection4 ,by ! gr\p+ ( 
^? re-repres5tative feel+s above        
describ$1 :i*1 diff]+ among !mselves 9  
o!r respects1 h a compon5t 9 common1 &  
by ! consequ5t mutual cancell+ ( _!     
div]se compon5ts1 ?is common compon5t is
 made relatively appreciable1 & becomes 

an ab/ract feel+4 ,?us is produc$ !     
s5tim5t ( moral obligation or duty4 ,let
 u obs]ve its g5esis4  ,we h se5 t dur+ 
! progress ( animate exi/5ce1 ! lat]    
evolv$1 m comp\nd & m repres5tative     
feel+s1 s]v+ to adju/ ! conduct to m    
di/ant & g5]al ne$s1 h all along _h an  
au?ority z guides sup]ior to t ( ! e>li]
 & simpl] feel+s--exclud+ cases 9 :i* ^!
 la/ are int5se4 ,?is sup]ior au?ority1 
unrecognizable by l[] types ( creatures 
:i* _c g5]alize1 & little recognizable  
by primitive m5 :o h b feeble p[]s (    
g5]alization1 has become di/9ctly       
recogniz$ z civilization & accompany+   
m5tal developm5t h gone on4 ,accumulat$ 
exp]i5ces h produc$ ! consci\sness t    
guidance by feel+s :i* ref] to remote & 
g5]al results is usually m conducive to 
welf>e ?an guidance by feel+s to be     
imm$iately gratifi$4 ,= :at is ! common 
"* ( ! feel+s t prompt hone/y1          
tru?fulness1 dilig5ce1 provid5ce1 etc41 
:i* m5 habitually f9d to be bett]       
prompt]s ?an ! appetites & simple       

impulses8 ,!y are all complex1          
re-repres5tative feel+s1 occupi$ ) !    
future r ?an ! pres5t4 ,! idea (        
au?oritativ5ess has1 !re=e1 come to be  
connect$ ) feel+s hav+ ^! traits3 !     
implication be+ t ! l[] & simpl] feel+s 
are )\t au?ority4 ,& ?is idea (         
au?oritativ5ess is "o elem5t 9 ! ab/ract
 consci\sness ( duty4  ,b !re is ano!r  
elem5t--! elem5t ( co]civ5ess4 ,?is     
orig9ates f exp]i5ce ( ^? sev]al =ms (  
re/ra9t t h1 z above describ$1 e/abli%$ 
!mselves 9 ! c\rse ( civilization--!    
political1 religi\s1 & social4 ,to !    
effects ( puni%m5ts inflict$ by law &   
public op9ion on conduct ( c]ta9 k9ds1  
,dr4 ,ba9 ascribes ! feel+ ( moral      
obligation4 ,& ,i agree ) him to ! ext5t
 ( ?9k+ t by !m is g5]at$ ! s5se (      
compulsion :i* ! consci\sness ( duty    
includes1 & :i* ! ^w obligation         
indicates4 ,! exi/5ce ( an e>li] & deep]
 elem5t1 g5]at$ z above describ$1 is1   
h[ev]1 ,i ?9k1 impli$ by ! fact t c]ta9 
( ! high] self-reg>d+ feel+s1 in/igat+  

prud5ce & economy1 h a moral au?ority 9 
opposition to ! simpl] self-reg>d+      
feel+s3 %[+ t ap>t f any ?\ght (        
factiti\s p5alties on improvid5ce1 !    
feel+ con/itut$ by repres5tation ( !    
natural p5alties has acquir$ an         
ackn[l$g$ sup]iority4 ,b accept+ 9 ! ma9
 ! view t fe>s ( ! political & social   
p5alties 7to :i*1 ,i ?9k1 ! religi\s mu/
 be add$7 h g5]at$ t s5se ( co]civ5ess  
:i* goes along ) ! ?\ght ( po/pon+      
pres5t to future & p]sonal desires to ! 
claims ( o!rs1 x "h *iefly conc]ns u to 
note t ?is s5se ( co]civ5ess becomes    
indirectly connect$ ) ! feel+s di/+ui%$ 
z moral4 ,= s9ce ! political1 religi\s &
 social re/ra9+ motives1 are ma9ly =m$ (
 repres5t$ future results2 & s9ce !     
moral re/ra9+ motive is ma9ly =m$ (     
repres5t$ future results2 x happ5s t !  
repres5tations1 hav+ mu* 9 common1 & be+
 (t5 ar\s$ at ! same "t1 ! fe> jo9$ )   
?ree sets ( !m becomes1 by association1 
jo9$ ) ! f\r?4 ,?9k+ ( ! extr9sic       
effects ( a =bidd5 act1 excites a dread 

:i* cont9ues pres5t :ile ! intr9sic     
effects ( ! act are ?\ght (2 & be+ ?us  
l9k$ ) ^! intr9sic effects causes a     
vague s5se ( moral compulsion4 ,em]g+ z 
! moral motive does b sl[ly f amid/ !   
political1 religi\s & social motives x  
long p>ticipates 9 t consci\sness (     
subord9ation to "s ext]nal ag5cy :i* is 
jo9$ ) !m2 & only z x becomes di/9ct &  
pr$om9ant does x lose ?is associat$     
consci\sness--only !n does ! feel+ (    
obligation fade4  ,?is rem>k implies !  
tacit conclusion1 :i* w be to mo/ v     
/>tl+1 t ! s5se ( duty or moral         
obligation is transitory1 & w dim9i% z  
fa/ z moralization increases4 ,/>tl+    
?\gh x is1 ?is conclusion may be        
satisfactorily def5d$4 ,ev5 n[ progress 
t[>d ! impli$ ultimate /ate is          
traceable4 ,! obs]vation is n infrequ5t 
t p]si/5ce 9 p]=m+ a duty ends 9 mak+ x 
a pleasure2 & ?is am\nts to ! admission 
t :ile at fir/ ! motive conta9s an      
elem5t ( co]cion1 at la/ ?is elem5t (   
co]cion dies out1 & ! act is p]=m$ )\t  

any consci\sness ( be+ oblig$ to p]=m x4
 ,! contra/ betwe5 ! y\? on :om dilig5ce
 is enjo9$1 & ! man ( bus9ess s absorb$ 
9 affairs t he _c be induc$ to relax1   
%[s u h[ ! do+ ( "w1 orig9ally "u !     
consci\sness t x ought to be done1 may  
ev5tually cease to h any su* accompany+ 
consci\sness4 ,sometimes1 inde$1 !      
relation comes to be rev]s$2 & ! man (  
bus9ess p]si/s 9 "w f pure love ( x :5  
told t he ought n4 ,nor is x ?us )      
self-reg>d+ feel+s only4 ,t ! ma9ta9+ & 
protect+ ( wife by husb& (t5 result     
solely f feel+s directly gratifi$ by ^! 
actions1 )\t any ?\ght ( mu/2 & t !     
fo/]+ ( *ildr5 by p>5ts is 9 _m cases   
made an absorb+ occupation )\t any      
co]cive feel+ ( ought2 are obvi\s tru?s 
:i* %[ u t ev5 n[1 ) "s ( ! fundam5tal  
o!r-reg>d+ duties1 ! s5se ( obligation  
has retreat$ into ! backgr\nd ( ! m9d4  
,& x is 9 "s degree s ) o!r-reg>d+      
duties ( a high] k9d4 ,consci5ti\sness  
has 9 _m outgr[n t /age 9 :i* ! s5se ( a
 compell+ p[] is jo9$ ) rectitude (     

action4 ,! truly hone/ man1 "h & !re to 
be f\nd1 is n only )\t ?\ght ( legal1   
religi\s1 or social compulsion1 :5 he   
dis*>ges an equitable claim on him1 b he
 is )\t ?\ght ( self-compulsion4 ,he    
does ! "r ?+ ) a simple feel+ (         
satisfaction 9 do+ x2 & is1 inde$1      
impati5t if any?+ prev5ts him f hav+ !  
satisfaction ( do+ x4  ,evid5tly1 !n1 ) 
complete adaptation to ! social /ate1 t 
elem5t 9 ! moral consci\sness :i* is    
express$ by ! ^w obligation1 w disappe>4
 ,! high] actions requir$ = ! h>moni\s  
c>ry+ on ( life w be z mu* matt]s (     
c\rse z are ^? l[] actions :i* ! simple 
desires prompt4 ,9 _! prop] times &     
places & proportions1 ! moral s5tim5ts w
 guide m5 j z spontane\sly & adequately 
z n[ d ! s5sations4 ,& ?\gh1 jo9$ ) _!  
regulat+ influ5ce :5 ?is is call$ =1 w  
exi/ lat5t ideas ( ! evils :i*          
noncon=mity w\ld br+2 ^! w occupy ! m9d 
no m ?an d ideas ( ! evils ( />vation at
 ! "t :5 a heal?y appetite is be+       
satisfi$ by a meal4    #dg4 ,?is        

elaborate exposition1 :i* ! extreme     
complexity ( ! subject has necessitat$1 
may h its lead+ ideas re/at$ ?us3       
,symboliz+ by a & b1 relat$ ph5om5a 9 ! 
environm5t1 :i* 9 "s way conc]n ! welf>e
 ( ! organism2 & symboliz+ by c & d1 !  
impressions1 simple or comp\nd1 :i* !   
organism receives f ! "o1 & ! motions1  
s+le or comb9$1 by :i* its acts are     
adapt$ to meet ! o!r2 we saw t psy*ology
 9 g5]al is conc]n$ ) ! connection      
betwe5 ! relation a b & ! relation c d4 
,fur!r1 we saw t by implication !       
psy*ological aspect ( ,e?ics1 is t      
aspect "u :i* ! adju/m5t ( c d to a b1  
appe>s1 n z an intellectual co-ord9ation
 simply1 b z a co-ord9ation 9 :i*       
pleasures & pa9s are alike factors &    
results4  ,x 0 %[n t ?r\gh\t ,evolution1
 motive & act become m complex1 z !     
adaptation ( inn] relat$ actions to out]
 relat$ actions ext5ds 9 range & v>iety4
 ,:5ce foll[$ ! coroll>y t ! lat] evolv$
 feel+s1 m repres5tative &              
re-repres5tative 9 _! con/itution1 &    

ref]r+ to remot] & wid] ne$s1 h1 on !   
av]age1 an au?ority z guides great] ?an 
h ! e>li] & simpl] feel+s4  ,aft] ?us   
obs]v+ t ev5 an inf]ior creature is rul$
 by a hi]>*y ( feel+s s con/itut$ t     
g5]al welf>e dep5ds on a c]ta9          
subord9ation ( l[] to high]1 we saw t 9 
man1 z he passes into ! social /ate1 !re
 arises ! ne$ = sundry additional       
subord9ations ( l[] to high]3           
co-op]ation be+ made possible only by   
!m4 ,to ! re/ra9ts con/itut$ by m5tal   
repres5tations ( ! intr9sic effects (   
actions1 :i*1 9 _! simpl] =ms1 h be5    
evolv+ f ! beg9n+1 are add$ ! re/ra9ts  
caus$ by m5tal repres5tations ( extr9sic
 effects1 9 ! %ape ( political1         
religi\s1 & social p5alties4  ,) !      
evolution ( society1 made possible by   
in/itutions ma9ta9+ ord]1 & associat+ 9 
m5's m9ds ! s5se ( obligation )         
prescrib$ acts & ) desi/ances f =bidd5  
acts1 !re arose opportunities = see+ !  
bad consequ5ces naturally fl[+ f !      
conduct int]dict$ & ! good consequ5ces f

 ! conduct requir$4 ,h5ce ev5tually grew
 up moral av]sions & approvals3 exp]i5ce
 ( ! intr9sic effects necess>ily "h com+
 lat] ?an exp]i5ce ( ! extr9sic effects1
 & !re=e produc+ its results lat]4  ,!  
?\ghts & feel+s con/itut+ ^! moral      
av]sions & approvals1 be+ all along     
closely connect$ ) ! ?\ghts & feel+s    
con/itut+ fe>s ( political1 religi\s1 & 
social p5alties1 necess>ily came to     
p>ticipate 9 ! accompany+ s5se (        
obligation4 ,! co]cive elem5t 9 !       
consci\sness ( duties at l>ge1 evolv$ by
 conv]se ) ext]nal ag5cies :i* en=ce    
duties1 diffus$ itself by association   
?r\gh t consci\sness ( duty1 prop]ly    
call$ moral1 :i* is occupi$ ) intr9sic  
results in/ead ( extr9sic results4  ,b  
?is self-compulsion1 :i* at a relatively
 high /age becomes m & m a sub/itute =  
compulsion f )\t1 mu/ itself1 at a /ill 
high] /age1 practically disappe>4 ,if "s
 action to :i* ! special motive is      
insuffici5t1 is p]=m$ 9 ob$i5ce to !    
feel+ ( moral obligation1 ! fact proves 

t ! special faculty conc]n$ is n yet    
equal to its function--has n acquir$ su*
 /r5g? t ! requir$ activity has become  
its normal activity1 yield+ its due     
am\nt ( pleasure4 ,) complete evolution 
!n1 ! s5se ( obligation1 n ord9>ily     
pres5t 9 consci\sness1 w be awak5$ only 
on ^? extraord9>y occasions t prompt    
brea* ( ! laws o!rwise spontane\sly     
con=m$ to4  ,& ?is br+s u to !          
psy*ological aspect ( t conclusion :i*1 
9 ! la/ *apt]1 0 rea*$ "u its biological
 aspect4 ,! pleasures & pa9s :i* ! moral
 s5tim5ts orig9ate w1 l bodily pleasures
 & pa9s1 become inc5tives & det]r5ts s  
adju/$ 9 _! /r5g?s to ! ne$s t ! moral  
conduct w be ! natural conduct4         
,,*apt] ,,viii4  ,,! ,,sociological     
,,view4    #dh4 ,n = ! human race only1 
b = e race1 !re are laws ( "r liv+4     
,giv5 its environm5t & its /ructure1 &  
!re is = ea* k9d ( creature a set (     
actions adapt$ 9 _! k9ds1 am\nts1 &     
comb9ations1 to secure ! highe/         
cons]vation its nature p]mits4 ,!       

animal1 l ! man1 has ne$s = food1 w>m?1 
activity1 re/1 & s =?1 :i* mu/ be       
fulfill$ 9 c]ta9 relative degrees to    
make its life :ole4 ,ma9t5ance ( its    
race implies satisfaction ( special     
desires1 sexual & philoprog5itive1 9 due
 proportions4 ,h5ce !re is a supposable 
=mula = ! activities ( ea* species1 :i*1
 c\ld x be drawn out1 w\ld con/itute a  
sy/em ( morality = t species4 ,b su* a  
sy/em ( morality w\ld h little or no    
ref]5ce to ! welf>e ( o!rs ?an self &   
(fspr+4 ,indiff]5t to individuals ( its 
own k9d1 z an inf]ior creature is1 &    
habitually ho/ile to individuals ( o!r  
k9ds1 ! =mula = its life c\ld take no   
cognizance ( ! lives ( ^? ) :i* x came 9
 contact2 or r1 su* =mula w\ld imply t  
ma9t5ance ( its life 0 at v>iance )     
ma9t5ance ( _! lives4  ,b on asc5d+ f   
be+s ( l[] k9ds to ! highe/ k9d ( be+1  
man2 or1 m /rictly1 on asc5d+ f man 9 8 
pre-social /age to man 9 8 social /age1 
! =mula has to include an additional    
factor4 ,?\gh n peculi> to human life "u

 its develop$ =m1 ! pres5ce ( ?is factor
 is /ill1 9 ! highe/ degree1 *>act]i/ic 
( x4 ,?\gh !re are inf]ior species      
display+ consid]able degrees (          
sociality1 &1 ?\gh1 ! =mulas = _!       
complete lives w\ld h to take acc\nt ( !
 relations aris+ f union1 yet our own   
species is1 on ! :ole1 to be di/+ui%$ z 
hav+ a =mula = complete life :i*        
specially recognizes ! relations ( ea*  
individual to o!rs1 9 pres5ce ( :om1 & 9
 co-op]ation ) :om1 he has to live4     
,?is additional factor 9 ! problem (    
complete liv+ is1 inde$1 s important t !
 necessitat$ modifications ( conduct h  
come to =m a *ief "p ( ! code ( conduct4
 ,because ! inh]it$ desires :i* directly
 ref] to ! ma9t5ance ( individual life  
are fairly adju/$ to ! requirem5ts1 !re 
has be5 no ne$ to insi/ on t con=mity to
 !m :i* fur!rs self-conv]sation4        
,conv]sely1 because ^! desires prompt   
activities t (t5 conflict ) ! activities
 ( o!rs2 & because ! s5tim5ts respond+  
to o!r's claims are relatively weak1    

moral codes emphasize ^? re/ra9ts on    
conduct :i* ! pres5ce ( fell[ m5        
entails4  ,f ! sociological po9t ( view1
 !n1 ,e?ics becomes no?+ else ?an a     
def9ite acc\nt ( ! =ms ( conduct t are  
fitt$ to ! associat$ /ate1 9 su* wise t 
! lives ( ea* & all may be ! greate/    
possible1 alike 9 l5g? & bread?4    #di4
 ,b "h we are met by a fact :i* =bids u 
?us to put 9 ! =egr\nd ! welf>es (      
citiz5s1 individually consid]$1 &       
requires u to put 9 ! =egr\nd ! welf>e (
 ! society z a :ole4 ,! life ( ! social 
organism mu/1 z an end1 rank above !    
lives ( its units4 ,^! two ends are n   
h>moni\s at ! outset2 &1 ?\gh ! t5d5cy  
is t[>d h>monization ( !m1 !y are /ill  
p>tially conflict+4  ,z fa/ z ! social  
/ate e/abli%es itself1 ! pres]vation ( !
 society becomes a means ( pres]v+ its  
units4 ,liv+ toge!r arose because1 on ! 
av]age1 x prov$ m advantage\s to ea* ?an
 liv+ ap>t2 & ?is implies t ma9t5ance ( 
comb9ation is ma9t5ance ( ! conditions  
to m satisfactory liv+ ?an ! comb9$     

p]sons w\ld o!rwise h4 ,h5ce1 social    
self-pres]vation becomes a proximate aim
 tak+ prec$5ce ( ! ultimate aim1        
individual self-pres]vation4  ,?is      
subord9ation ( p]sonal to social welf>e 
is1 h[ev]1 cont+5t3 x dep5ds on !       
pres5ce ( antagoni/ic societies4 ,s long
 z ! exi/5ce ( a community is endang]$  
by ! actions ( communities ar\nd1 x mu/ 
rema9 true t ! int]e/s ( individuals mu/
 be sacrific$ to ! int]e/s ( !          
community1 z f> z is ne$ful = !         
community's salvation4 ,b if ?is is     
manife/1 x is1 by implication1 manife/1 
t :5 social antagonisms cease1 ?is ne$ =
 sacrifice ( private claims to public   
claims ceases also2 or r1 !re cease to  
be any public claims at v>iance )       
private claims4 ,all along1 fur!rance ( 
individual lives has be5 ! ultimate end2
 &1 if ?is ultimate end has be5 po/pon$ 
to ! proximate end ( pres]v+ !          
community's life1 x has be5 s only      
because ?is proximate end 0 in/rum5tal  
to ! ultimate end4 ,:5 ! aggregate is no

 long] 9 dang]1 ! f9al object ( pursuit1
 ! welf>e ( ! units1 no long] ne$+ to be
 po/pon$1 becomes ! imm$iate object (   
pursuit4  ,consequ5tly1 unlike sets (   
conclusions respect+ human conduct      
em]ge1 accord+ z we are conc]n$ ) a /ate
 ( habitual or occasional w>1 or are    
conc]n$ ) a /ate ( p]man5t & g5]al      
peace4 ,let u glance at ^! alt]native   
/ates & ! alt]native implications4      
#ej4 ,at pres5t ! individual man has to 
c>ry on 8 life ) due reg>d to ! lives ( 
o!rs belong+ to ! same society2 :ile he 
is sometimes call$ on to be reg>dless ( 
! lives ( ^? belong+ to o!r societies4  
,! same m5tal con/itution1 hav+ to      
fulfill bo? ^! requirem5ts1 is          
necess>ily incongru\s2 & ! correlative  
conduct1 adju/$ fir/ to ! "o ne$ & !n to
 ! o!r1 _c be br\ght )9 any consi/5t    
e?ical sy/em4  ,hate & de/roy y\r       
fell[-man is n[ ! comm&2 & !n ! comm&   
is1 love & aid y\r fell[-man4 ,use e    
means to deceive1 says ! "o code (      
conduct2 :ile ! o!r code says1 be       

tru?ful 9 ^w & de$4 ,seize :at prop]ty y
 c & burn all y _c take away1 are       
injunctions :i* ! religion ( enmity     
c\nt5ances2 :ile by ! religion ( amity1 
!ft & arson are condemn$ z crimes4 ,& z 
conduct has to be made up ( p>ts ?us at 
v>iance ) "o ano!r1 ! !ory ( conduct    
rema9s confus$4  ,!re co-exi/s a k9dr$  
irreconcilability betwe5 ! s5tim5ts     
answ]+ to ! =ms ( co-op]ation requir$ = 
militancy & indu/rialism respectively4  
,:ile social antagonisms are habitual1 &
 :ile1 = effici5t action aga9/ o!r      
societies1 !re ne$s great subord9ation  
to m5 :o comm&1 ! virtue ( loyalty & !  
duty ( implicit ob$i5ce h to be insi/$  
on2 disreg>d ( ! rul]'s w is puni%$ )   
dea?4 ,b :5 w> ceases to be *ronic1 &   
gr[+ indu/rialism habituates m5 to      
ma9ta9+ _! own claims :ile respect+ !   
claims ( o!rs1 loyalty becomes less     
pr(\nd1 ! au?ority ( ! rul] is que/ion$ 
or d5i$ 9 respect ( v>i\s private       
actions & beliefs4 ,/ate dictation is 9 
_m directions successfully defi$1 & !   

political indep5d5ce ( ! citiz5 comes to
 be reg>d$ z a claim :i* x is virtu\s to
 ma9ta9 & vici\s to yield up4           
,necess>ily dur+ ! transition1 ^!       
opposite s5tim5ts are incongru\sly m+l$4
  ,s is x1 too1 ) dome/ic in/itutions "u
 ! two rgimes4 ,:ile ! fir/ is dom9ant1 
own]%ip ( a slave is honorable1 & 9 !   
slave submission is praisewor?y2 b z !  
la/ gr[s dom9ant1 slave-own+ becomes a  
crime & s]vile ob$i5ce excites contempt4
 ,nor is x o!rwise 9 ! family4 ,!       
subjection ( wom5 to m51 complete :ile  
w> is habitual b qualifi$ z fa/ z       
peaceful occupations replace x1 comes   
ev5tually to be ?\ght wrong1 & equality 
be=e ! law is ass]t$4 ,at ! same "t !   
op9ion conc]n+ pat]nal p[] *anges4 ,!   
once unque/ion$ "r ( ! fa!r to take 8   
*ildr5's lives is d5i$1 & ! duty (      
absolute submission to him1 long insi/$ 
on1 is *ang$ into ! duty ( ob$i5ce )9   
reasonable limits4  ,7 ! ratio betwe5 ! 
life ( antagonism ) ali5 societies1 & ! 
life ( peaceful co-op]ation )9 ea*      

society1 a con/ant ratio1 "s p]man5t    
compromise betwe5 ! conflict+ rules (   
conduct appropriate to ! two lives might
 be rea*$4 ,b s9ce ?is ratio is a       
v>iable "o1 ! compromise c nev] be m ?an
 tempor>y4 ,ev] ! t5d5cy is t[>d        
congruity betwe5 beliefs & requirem5ts4 
,ei!r ! social arrangem5ts are gradually
 *ang$ until !y come into h>mony )      
prevail+ ideas & s5tim5ts2 or1 if       
surr\nd+ conditions prev5t *ange 9 !    
social arrangem5ts1 ! necessitat$ habits
 ( life modify ! prevail+ ideas &       
s5tim5ts to ! requisite ext5t4 ,h5ce1 = 
ea* k9d & degree ( social evolution     
det]m9$ by ext]nal conflict & int]nal   
fri5d%ip1 !re is an appropriate         
compromise betwe5 ! moral code ( enmity 
& ! moral code ( amity3 n1 inde$1 a     
def9able1 consi/5t compromise1 b a      
compromise fairly well und]/ood4  ,?is  
compromise1 vague1 ambigu\s1 illogical1 
?\gh x may be1 is nev]!less = ! "t be+  
au?oritative4 ,= if1 z above %[n1 !     
welf>e ( ! society mu/ take prec$5ce ( !

 welf>es ( its compon5t individuals1    
dur+ ^? /ages 9 :i* ! individuals h to  
pres]ve !mselves by pres]v+ _! society1 
!n su* tempor>y compromise betwe5 ! two 
codes ( conduct z duly reg>ds ext]nal   
def5se1 :ile favor+ int]nal co-op]ation 
to ! greate/ ext5t practicable1 subs]ves
 ! ma9t5ance ( life 9 ! highe/ degree2 &
 ?us ga9s ! ultimate sanction4 ,s t !   
p]plex$ & inconsi/5t moralities ( :i*   
ea* society & ea* age %[s u a m or less 
diff]5t "o1 are sev]ally ju/ifi$ z be+  
approximately ! be/ "u ! circum/ances4  
,b su* moralities are1 by _! def9itions1
 %[n to belong to incomplete conduct2 n 
to conduct t is fully evolv$4 ,we saw t 
! adju/m5ts ( acts to ends :i*1 :ile    
con/itut+ ! ext]nal manife/ations (     
life1 conduce to ! cont9uance ( life1 h 
be5 ris+ to a c]ta9 ideal =m n[ approa*$
 by ! civiliz$ man4 ,b ?is =m is n rea*$
 s long z !re cont9ue aggressions ( "o  
society ^u ano!r4 ,:e!r ! h9d]ances to  
complete liv+ result f ! trespasses (   
fell[-citiz5s1 or f ! trespasses (      

ali5s1 matt]s n2 if !y occur !re does n 
yet exi/ ! /ate def9$4 ,! limit to !    
evolution ( conduct is arriv$ at by     
memb]s ( ea* society only :51 be+ arriv$
 at by memb]s ( o!r societies also1 !   
causes ( int]national antagonism end    
simultane\sly ) ! causes ( antagonism   
betwe5 individuals4  ,& n[ hav+ f !     
sociological po9t ( view recogniz$ ! ne$
 =1 & au?ority (1 ^! *ang+ sy/ems (     
e?ics1 prop] to *ang+ ratios betwe5     
w>like activities & peaceful activities1
 we h1 f ! same po9t ( view1 to consid] 
! sy/em ( e?ics prop] to ! /ate 9 :i*   
peaceful activities are undi/urb$4      
#ea4 ,if1 exclud+ all ?\ght ( dang] or  
h9d]ances f causes ext]nal to a society1
 we set ourselves to specify ^?         
conditions "u :i* ! life ( ea* p]son1 & 
!re=e ( ! aggregate1 may be ! greate/   
possible1 we come ^u c]ta9 simple ones  
:i*1 z "h /at$1 assume ! =m ( truisms4  
,=1 z we h se51 ! def9ition ( t highe/  
life accompany+ completely evolv$       
conduct1 itself excludes all acts (     

aggression--n only murd]1 assault1      
robb]y1 & ! major (f5ces g5]ally1 b m9or
 (f5ces1 su* z libel1 injury to prop]ty 
& s =?4 ,:ile directly d$uct+ f         
individual life1 ^! indirectly cause    
p]turbations ( social life4 ,trespasses 
aga9/ o!rs r\se antagonisms 9 !m2 & if  
^! are num]\s ! gr\p loses coh]5ce4     
,h5ce1 :e!r ! integrity ( ! gr\p itself 
is consid]$ z ! end1 or :e!r ! end      
consid]$ is ! b5efit ultimately secur$  
to its units by ma9ta9+ its integrity1  
or :e!r ! imm$iate b5efit ( its units   
tak5 sep>ately is consid]$ ! end1 !     
implication is ! same3 su* acts are at  
v>iance ) a*ievem5t ( ! end4 ,t ^!      
inf]5ces are self-evid5t & trite 7z     
inde$ ! fir/ inf]5ces drawn f ! data ( e
 sci5ce t rea*es ! d$uctive /age        
naturally are7 mu/ n make u pass lightly
 ov] ! all-important fact t1 f !        
sociological po9t ( view1 ! lead+ moral 
laws are se5 to foll[ z coroll>ies f !  
def9ition ( complete life c>ri$ on "u   
social conditions4  ,respect = ^! prim>y

 moral laws is n en\gh1 h[ev]4          
,associat$ m5 pursu+ _! sev]al lives )\t
 injur+ "o ano!r b )\t help+ "o ano!r1  
reap no advantages f association beyond 
^? ( companion%ip4 ,if1 :ile !re is no  
co-op]ation = def5sive purposes 7:i* is 
"h exclud$ by ! hypo!sis7 !re is also no
 co-op]ation = satisfy+ wants1 ! social 
/ate loses its raison d'tre--almo/1 if n
 entirely4 ,!re are1 inde$1 p :o live 9 
a condition little remov$ f ?is3 z !    
,esquimaux4 ,b ?\gh ^!1 exhibit+ none ( 
! co-op]ation necessitat$ by w>1 :i* is 
unkn[n to !m1 lead lives su* t ea*      
family is sub/antially indep5d5t ( o!rs1
 occasional co-op]ation occurs4 ,&1     
inde$1 t families %\ld live 9 company   
)\t ev] yield+ mutual aid1 is sc>cely   
conceivable4  ,nev]!less1 :e!r actually 
exi/+ or only approa*$1 we mu/ "h       
recognize z hypo!tically possible a /ate
 9 :i* ^! prim>y moral laws are con=m$  
to2 = ! purpose ( obs]v+1 9 _!          
uncomplicat$ =ms1 :at are ! negative    
conditions to h>moni\s social life4     

,:e!r ! memb]s ( a social gr\p d or d n 
co-op]ate1 c]ta9 limitations to _!      
individual activities are necessitat$ by
 _! association2 &1 aft] recogniz+ ^! z 
aris+ 9 ! abs5ce ( co-op]ation1 we %all 
be ! bett] prep>$ to und]/& h[ con=mity 
to !m is effect$ :5 co-op]ation beg9s4  
#eb4 ,= :e!r m5 live toge!r 9 q         
indep5d5t ways1 c>eful only to avoid    
aggress+2 or :e!r1 advanc+ f passive    
association to active association1 !y   
co-op]ate1 _! conduct mu/ be su* t !    
a*ievem5t ( ends by ea* %all at lea/ n  
be h9d]$4 ,& x becomes obvi\s t :5 !y   
co-op]ate !re mu/ n only be no result+  
h9d]ance b !re mu/ be facilitation2     
s9ce1 9 ! abs5ce ( facilitation1 !re c  
be no motive to co-op]ate4 ,:at %ape1   
!n1 mu/ ! mutual re/ra9ts take :5       
co-op]ation beg9s8 or r--,:at1 9        
addition to ! prim>y mutual re/ra9ts    
already specifi$1 are ^? second>y mutual
 re/ra9ts requir$ to make co-op]ation   
possible8  ,"o :o1 liv+ 9 an isolat$    
way1 exp5ds ef=t 9 pursuit ( an end1    

gets comp5sation = ! ef=t by secur+ !   
end1 & s a*ieves satisfaction4 ,if he   
exp5ds ! ef=t )\t a*iev+ ! end !re      
results dissatisfaction4 ,! satisfaction
 & ! dissatisfaction are measures (     
success & failure 9 life-su/a9+ acts2   
s9ce t :i* is a*iev$ by ef=t is some?+  
:i* directly or indirectly fur!rs life1 
& s pays = ! co/ ( ! ef=t2 :ile if !    
ef=t fails !re is no?+ to pay = ! co/ ( 
x1 & s mu* life is wa/$4 ,:at mu/ result
 f ?is :5 m5's ef=ts are jo9$8 ,! reply 
w be made cle>] if we take ! successive 
=ms ( co-op]ation 9 ! ord] ( asc5d+     
complexity4 ,we may di/+ui% z homog5e\s 
co-op]ation 7#a7 t 9 :i* l ef=ts are    
jo9$ = l ends t are simultane\sly       
enjoy$4 ,z co-op]ation t is n completely
 homog5e\s we may di/+ui% 7#b7 t 9 :i* l
 ef=ts are jo9$ = l ends t are n        
simultane\sly enjoy$4 ,a co-op]ation (  
:i* ! het]og5eity is m di/9ct is 7#c7 t 
9 :i* unlike ef=ts are jo9$ = l ends4 ,&
 la/ly comes ! decid$ly het]og5e\s      
co-op]ation 7#d7 t 9 :i* unlike ef=ts   

are jo9$ = unlike ends4  ,! simple/ &   
e>lie/ ( ^! 9 :i* m5's p[]s1 simil> 9   
k9d & degree1 are unit$ 9 pursuit ( a   
b5efit :i*1 :5 obta9$1 !y all p>ticipate
 91 is mo/ famili>ly exemplifi$ 9 !     
cat*+ ( game by primitive m53 ?is       
simple/ & e>lie/ =m ( indu/rial         
co-op]ation be+ also t :i* is lea/      
diff]5tiat$ f militant co-op]ation2 = ! 
co-op]ators are ! same1 & ! processes1  
bo? de/ructive ( life1 are c>ri$ on 9   
analog\s ways4 ,! condition "u :i* su*  
co-op]ation may be successfully c>ri$ on
 is t ! co-op]ators %all %>e alike 9 !  
produce4 ,ea* ?us be+ enabl$ to repay   
himself 9 food = ! exp5d$ ef=t1 & be+   
fur!r enabl$ to a*ieve o!r su* desir$   
ends z ma9t5ance ( family1 obta9s       
satisfaction3 !re is no aggression ( "o 
on ano!r1 & ! co-op]ation is h>moni\s4  
,( c\rse ! divid$ produce c be b r\ghly 
proportion$ to ! sev]al ef=ts jo9$ 9    
obta9+ x1 b !re is actually among       
savages1 z we see t = h>moni\s          
co-op]ation !re mu/ be1 a recognition ( 

! pr9ciple t ef=ts :5 comb9$ %all       
sev]ally br+ equival5t b5efits1 z !y    
w\ld d if !y 7 sep>ate4 ,moreov]1 beyond
 ! tak+ equal %>es 9 return = labors t  
are approximately equal1 !re is g5]ally 
an attempt at proportion+ b5efit to     
a*ievem5t1 by assign+ some?+ extra1 9 ! 
%ape ( ! be/ "p or ! trophy1 to ! actual
 slay] ( ! game4 ,& obvi\sly1 if !re is 
a wide dep>ture f ?is sy/em ( %>+       
b5efits :5 !re has be5 a %>+ ( ef=ts1 ! 
co-op]ation w cease4 ,individual hunt]s 
w pref] to d ! be/ !y c = !mselves      
sep>ately4  ,pass+ f ?is simple/ case ( 
co-op]ation to a case n q s simple--a   
case 9 :i* ! homog5eity is              
incomplete--let u ask h[ a memb] ( !    
gr\p may be l$ )\t dissatisfaction to   
exp5d ef=t 9 a*iev+ a b5efit :i*1 :5    
a*iev$1 is enjoy$ exclusively by ano!r8 
,cle>ly he may d ?is on condition t !   
o!r %all aft]w>d exp5d a l ef=t1 !      
b5eficial result ( :i* %all be simil>ly 
r5d]$ up by him 9 return4 ,?is ex*ange (
 equival5ts ( ef=t is ! =m :i* social   

co-op]ation takes :ile yet !re is little
 or no division ( labor1 save t betwe5 !
 sexes4 ,= example1 ! ,bodo & ,dhimals  
mutually assi/ ea* o!r = ! nonce1 z well
 9 con/ruct+ _! h\ses z 9 cle>+ _! plots
 = cultivation4 ,& ?is pr9ciple--,i w   
help y if y w help me--common 9 simple  
communities :]e ! occupations are alike 
9 k9d1 & occasionally act$ ^u 9 m       
advanc$ communities1 is "o "u :i* !     
relation betwe5 ef=t & b5efit1 no long] 
directly ma9ta9$1 is ma9ta9$ indirectly4
 ,= :]eas :5 m5's activities are c>ri$  
on sep>ately1 or are jo9$ 9 ! way       
exemplifi$ above1 ef=t is imm$iately    
paid = by b5efit1 9 ?is =m ( co-op]ation
 ! b5efit a*iev$ by ef=t is ex*ang$ = a 
l b5efit to be aft]w>d receiv$ :5 ask$  
=4 ,& 9 ?is case z 9 ! prec$+ case1     
co-op]ation c be ma9ta9$ only by        
fulfillm5t ( ! tacit agreem5ts4 ,= if !y
 are habitually n fulfill$1 !re w       
commonly be refusal to give aid :5 ask$2
 & ea* man w be left to d ! be/ he c by 
himself4 ,all ^? advantages to be ga9$  

by union ( ef=ts 9 do+ ?+s t are beyond 
! p[]s ( ! s+le individual1 w be        
una*ievable4 ,at ! outset1 !n1          
fulfillm5t ( contracts t are impli$ if n
 express$1 becomes a condition to social
 co-op]ation1 & !re=e to social         
developm5t4  ,f ^! simple =ms (         
co-op]ation 9 :i* ! labors m5 c>ry on   
are ( l k9ds1 let u turn to ! m complex 
=ms 9 :i* !y c>ry on labors ( unlike    
k9ds4 ,:]e m5 mutually aid 9 build+ huts
 or fell+ trees1 ! numb] ( days' "w n[  
giv5 by "o to ano!r is readily balanc$  
by an equal numb] ( days' "w aft]w>d    
giv5 by ! o!r to him4 ,& no e/imation ( 
! relative values ( ! labors be+        
requir$1 a def9ite und]/&+ is little    
ne$$4 ,b :5 division ( labor arises--:5 
!re come transactions betwe5 "o :o makes
 weapons & ano!r :o dresses sk9s =      
clo?+1 or betwe5 a gr[] ( roots & a     
cat*] ( fi%--nei!r ! relative am\nts nor
 ! relative qualities ( _! labors admit 
( easy measure2 & ) ! multiplication (  
bus9esses1 imply+ num]\s k9ds ( skill & 

p[]1 !re ceases to be any?+ l manife/   
equival5ce betwe5 ei!r ! bodily & m5tal 
ef=ts set aga9/ "o ano!r1 or betwe5 _!  
products4 ,h5ce ! arrangem5t _c n[ be   
tak5 = grant$1 z :ile ! ?+s ex*ang$ are 
l 9 k9d3 x has to be /at$4 ,if ,a all[s 
,b to appropriate a product ( 8 special 
skill1 on condition t he is all[$ to    
appropriate a diff]5t product ( ,b's    
special skill1 x results t z equival5ce 
( ! two products _c be det]m9$ by direct
 comp>ison ( _! quantities & qualities1 
!re mu/ be a di/9ct und]/&+ z to h[ mu* 
( ! "o may be tak5 9 consid]ation ( s   
mu* ( ! o!r4  ,only "u volunt>y         
agreem5t1 !n1 no long] tacit & vague1 b 
ov]t & def9ite1 c co-op]ation be        
h>moni\sly c>ri$ on :5 division ( labor 
becomes e/abli%$4 ,& z 9 ! simple/      
co-op]ation1 :]e l ef=ts are jo9$ to    
secure a common good1 ! dissatisfaction 
caus$ 9 ^? :o1 hav+ exp5d$ _! labors d n
 get _! %>es ( ! good1 prompts !m to    
cease co-op]at+2 z 9 ! m advanc$        
co-op]ation1 a*iev$ by ex*ang+ equal    

labors ( l k9d exp5d$ at diff]5t times1 
av]sion to co-op]ate is g5]at$ if !     
expect$ equival5t ( labor is n r5d]$2 s 
9 ?is develop$ co-op]ation1 ! failure ( 
ei!r to surr5d] to ! o!r t :i* 0 av[$ly 
recogniz$ z ( l value ) ! labor or      
product giv51 t5ds to prev5t co-op]ation
 by excit+ discont5t ) its results4 ,&  
evid5tly1 :ile antagonisms ?us caus$    
imp$e ! lives ( ! units1 ! life ( !     
aggregate is endang]$ by dim9i%$        
cohesion4    #ec4 ,beyond ^!            
comp>atively direct mis*iefs1 special & 
g5]al1 !re h to be not$ indirect        
mis*iefs4 ,z already impli$ by ! reason+
 9 ! la/ p>agraph1 n only social        
integration b also social diff]5tiation1
 is h9d]$ by brea* ( contract4  ,9 ,"p  
,,ii ( ! ,pr9ciples ( ,sociology1 x 0   
%[n t ! fundam5tal pr9ciples (          
organization are ! same = an individual 
organism & = a social organism2 because 
bo? consi/ ( mutually dep5d5t p>ts4 ,9 !
 "o case z 9 ! o!r1 ! assumption (      
unlike activities by ! compon5t memb]s1 

is possible only on condition t !y      
sev]ally b5efit 9 due degrees by "o     
ano!r's activities4 ,t we may ! bett]   
see :at are ! implications 9 respect (  
social /ructures1 let u fir/ note !     
implications 9 respect ( individual     
/ructures4  ,! welf>e ( a liv+ body     
implies an approximate equilibrium      
betwe5 wa/e & repair4 ,if ! activities  
involve an exp5diture n made good by    
nutrition1 dw9dl+ foll[s4 ,if ! tissues 
are enabl$ to take up f ! blood enri*$  
by food1 fit sub/ances en\gh to replace 
^? us$ up 9 ef=ts made1 ! weight may be 
ma9ta9$4 ,& if ! ga9 exce$s ! loss1 gr[?
 results4  ,t :i* is true ( ! :ole 9 its
 relations to ! ext]nal _w1 is no less  
true ( ! p>ts 9 _! relations to "o      
ano!r4 ,ea* organ1 l ! entire organism1 
is wa/$ by p]=m+ its function1 & has to 
re/ore itself f ! mat]ials br\ght to x4 
,if ! quantity ( mat]ials furni%$ by !  
jo9t ag5cy ( ! o!r organs is defici5t1 !
 p>ticul> organ dw9dles4 ,if !y are     
suffici5t1 x c ma9ta9 its integrity4 ,if

 !y are 9 excess1 x is enabl$ to        
increase4 ,to say t ?is arrangem5t      
con/itutes ! physiological contract1 is 
to use a metaphor :i*1 ?\gh n true 9    
aspect is true 9 ess5ce4 ,= ! relations 
( /ructures are actually su* t1 by !    
help ( a c5tral regulative sy/em1 ea*   
organ is suppli$ ) blood 9 proportion to
 ! "w x does4 ,z 0 po9t$ out 7,pr9ciples
 ( ,sociology1  #bed7 well-develop$     
animals are s con/itut$ t ea* muscle or 
viscus1 :5 call$ into action1 s5ds to ! 
vaso-motor c5t]s ?r\gh c]ta9 n]ve-fib]s1
 an impulse caus$ by its action2        
:]eupon1 ?r\gh o!r n]ve-fib]s1 !re comes
 an impulse caus+ dilatation ( its      
blood-vessels4 ,t is to say1 all o!r    
p>ts ( ! organism1 :5 !y jo9tly require 
x to labor1 =?) beg9 to pay x 9 blood4  
,dur+ ! ord9>y /ate ( physiological     
equilibrium1 ! loss & ! ga9 balance1 & !
 organ does n s5sibly *ange4 ,if ! am\nt
 ( its function is increas$ )9 su*      
mod]ate limits t ! local blood-vessels c
 br+ adequately-increas$ supplies1 !    

organ gr[s3 beyond replac+ its losses by
 its ga9s1 x makes a pr(it on its extra 
transactions2 s be+ enabl$ by extra     
/ructures to meet extra dem&s4 ,b if !  
dem&s made on x become s great t !      
supply ( mat]ials _c keep pace ) !      
exp5diture1 ei!r because ! local        
blood-vessels are n l>ge en\gh1 or = any
 o!r reason1 !n ! organ beg9s to        
decrease f excess ( wa/e ov] repair3 !re
 sets 9 :at is kn[n z atrophy4 ,n[1 s9ce
 ea* ( ! organs has ?us to be paid 9    
nutrim5t = its s]vices by ! re/1 x      
foll[s t ! due balanc+ ( _! respective  
claims & paym5ts is requisite1 directly 
= ! welf>e ( ea* organ1 & indirectly = !
 welf>e ( ! organism4 ,= 9 a :ole =m$ ( 
mutually dep5d5t p>ts1 any?+ :i* prev5ts
 due p]=mance ( its duty by "o "p reacts
 injuri\sly on all ! p>ts4  ,) *ange (  
t]ms ^! /atem5ts & inf]5ces hold ( a    
society4 ,t social division ( labor :i* 
p>allels 9 s _m o!r respects !          
physiological division ( labor1 p>allels
 x 9 ?is respect also4 ,z 0 %[n at l>ge 

9 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,sociology1 ,"p ,,ii1  
ea* ord] ( function>ies & ea* gr\p (    
produc]s1 sev]ally p]=m+ "s action or   
mak+ "s article n = direct satisfaction 
( _! own ne$s b = satisfaction ( ! ne$s 
( fell[-citiz5s 9 g5]al1 o!rwise        
occupi$1 c cont9ue to d ?is only s long 
z ! exp5ditures ( ef=t & returns ( pr(it
 are approximately equival5t4 ,social   
organs1 l individual organs1 rema9      
/ation>y if !re come to !m normal       
proportions ( ! commodities produc$ by !
 society z a :ole4 ,if because ! dem&s  
made on an indu/ry or pr(ession are     
unusually great1 ^? engag$ 9 x make     
excessive pr(its1 m citiz5s flock to x &
 ! social /ructure con/itut$ by its     
memb]s gr[s2 :ile decrease ( ! dem&s &  
!re=e ( ! pr(its1 ei!r leads its memb]s 
to *oose o!r c>e]s or /ops ! accessions 
ne$ful to replace ^? :o die1 & !        
/ructure dw9dles4 ,?us is ma9ta9$ t     
proportion among ! p[]s ( ! compon5t    
p>ts :i* is mo/ conducive to ! welf>e ( 
! :ole4  ,& n[ m>k t ! prim>y condition 

to a*ievem5t ( ?is result is fulfillm5t 
( contract4 ,if f ! memb]s ( any "p     
paym5t is frequ5tly )held1 or falls %ort
 ( ! promis$ am\nt1 !n1 ?r\gh ru9 ( "s &
 ab&onm5t ( ! occupation by o!rs1 ! "p  
dim9i%es2 & if x 0 be=e n m ?an compet5t
 to its duty1 x n[ becomes incompet5t1 &
 ! society suff]s4 ,or if social ne$s   
?r[ on "s "p great increase ( function1 
& ! memb]s ( x are enabl$ to get = _!   
s]vices unusually high prices2          
fulfillm5t ( ! agreem5ts to give !m ^!  
high prices1 is ! only way ( draw+ to ! 
"p su* additional numb] ( memb]s z w    
make x equal to ! augm5t$ dem&s4 ,=     
citiz5s w n come to x if !y f9d ! high  
prices agre$ ^u are n paid4  ,briefly1  
!n1 ! univ]sal basis ( co-op]ation is ! 
proportion+ ( b5efits receiv$ to s]vices
 r5d]$4 ,)\t ?is !re c be no            
physiological division ( labor2 )\t ?is 
!re c be no sociological division (     
labor4 ,& s9ce division ( labor1        
physiological or sociological1 pr(its ! 
:ole & ea* "p2 x results t on ma9t5ance 

( ! arrangem5ts necess>y to x1 dep5d bo?
 special & g5]al welf>e4 ,9 a society   
su* arrangem5ts are ma9ta9$ only if     
b>ga9s1 ov]t or tacit1 are c>ri$ out4 ,s
 t beyond ! prim>y requirem5t to        
h>moni\s co-exi/5ce 9 a society1 t its  
units %all n directly aggress on "o     
ano!r2 !re comes ?is second>y           
requirem5t1 t !y %all n indirectly      
aggress by break+ agreem5ts4    #ed4 ,b 
n[ we h to recognize ! fact t complete  
fulfillm5t ( ^! conditions1 orig9al &   
d]iv$1 is n en\gh4 ,social co-op]ation  
may be su* t no "o is imp$$ 9 ! obta9m5t
 ( ! normal return = ef=t1 b contr>iwise
 is aid$ by equitable ex*ange ( s]vices2
 & yet mu* may rema9 to be a*iev$4 ,!re 
is a !oretically possible =m ( society1 
purely indu/rial 9 its activities1 :i*1 
?\gh approa*+ ne>] to ! moral ideal 9   
its code ( conduct ?an any society n    
purely indu/rial1 does n fully rea* x4  
,= :ile indu/rialism requires ! life (  
ea* citiz5 to be su* t x may be c>ri$ on
 )\t direct or indirect aggressions on  

o!r citiz5s1 x does n require 8 life to 
be su* t x %all directly fur!r ! lives (
 o!r citiz5s4 ,x is n a necess>y        
implication ( indu/rialism1 z ?us f>    
def9$1 t ea*1 beyond ! b5efits giv5 &   
receiv$ by ex*ange ( s]vices1 %all give 
& receive o!r b5efits4 ,a society is    
conceivable =m$ ( m5 lead+ p]fectly     
in(f5sive lives1 scrupul\sly fulfill+ _!
 contracts1 & effici5tly re>+ _! (fspr+1
 :o yet1 yield+ to "o ano!r no          
advantages beyond ^? agre$ ^u1 fall %ort
 ( t highe/ degree ( life :i* !         
gratuit\s r5d]+ ( s]vices makes         
possible4 ,daily exp]i5ces prove t e "o 
w\ld suff] _m evils & lose _m goods did 
none give him unpaid assi/ance4 ,! life 
( ea* w\ld be m or less damag$ _h he to 
meet all cont+5cies s+le-h&$4 ,fur!r1 if
 no "o did = 8 fell[s any?+ m ?an 0     
requir$ by /rict p]=mance ( contract1   
private int]e/s w\ld suff] f ! abs5ce ( 
att5tion to public int]e/s4 ,! limit (  
evolution ( conduct is consequ5tly n    
rea*$1 until1 beyond avoidance ( direct 

& indirect injuries to o!rs1 !re are    
spontane\s ef=ts to fur!r ! welf>e (    
o!rs4  ,x may be %[n t ! =m ( nature :i*
 ?us to ju/ice adds b5efic5ce1 is "o :i*
 adaption to ! social /ate produces4 ,! 
social man has n rea*$ t h>monization ( 
con/itution ) conditions =m+ ! limit (  
evolution1 s long z !re rema9s space = !
 gr[? ( faculties :i*1 by _! ex]cise1   
br+ positive b5efit to o!rs &           
satisfaction to self4 ,if ! pres5ce (   
fell[-m51 :ile putt+ c]ta9 limits to ea*
 man's sph]e ( activity1 op5s c]ta9 o!r 
sph]es ( activity 9 :i* feel+s1 :ile    
a*iev+ _! gratifications1 d n dim9i%1 b 
add to ! gratifications ( o!rs1 !n su*  
sph]es w inevitably be occupi$4         
,recognition ( ?is tru? does n1 h[ev]1  
call on u to qualify greatly t          
conception ( ! indu/rial /ate above set 
=?1 s9ce sympa?y is ! root ( bo? ju/ice 
& b5efic5ce4    #ee4 ,?us ! sociological
 view ( ,e?ics supplem5ts ! physical1 ! 
biological1 & ! psy*ological views1 by  
disclos+ ^? conditions "u :i* only      

associat$ activities c be s c>ri$ on1 t 
! complete liv+ ( ea* consi/s )1 &      
conduces to1 ! complete liv+ ( all4  ,at
 fir/ ! welf>e ( social gr\ps1          
habitually 9 antagonism ) o!r su* gr\ps1
 takes prec$5ce ( individual welf>e2 & !
 rules ( conduct :i* are au?oritative = 
! "t be+1 involve incomplet5ess (       
individual life t ! g5]al life may be   
ma9ta9$4 ,at ! same "t ! rules h to     
en=ce ! claims ( individual life z f> z 
may be1 s9ce on ! welf>e ( ! units !    
welf>e ( ! aggregate l>gely dep5ds4  ,9 
proportion z societies endang] "o ano!r 
less1 ! ne$ = subord9at+ individual     
lives to ! g5]al life1 decreases2 & )   
approa* to a peaceful /ate1 ! g5]al     
life1 hav+ f ! beg9n+ _h fur!rance (    
individual lives z its ultimate purpose1
 comes to h ?is z its proximate purpose4
  ,dur+ ! transitional /ages !re are    
necessitat$ successive compromises      
betwe5 ! moral code :i* ass]ts ! claims 
( ! society v]sus ^? ( ! individual1 & !
 moral code :i* ass]ts ! claims ( !     

individual v]sus ^? ( ! society4 ,&     
evid5tly ea* su* compromise1 ?\gh = ! "t
 be+ au?oritative1 admits ( no consi/5t 
or def9ite expression4  ,b gradually z  
w> decl9es--gradually z ! compulsory    
co-op]ation ne$ful 9 deal+ ) ext]nal    
enemies becomes unnecess>y1 & leaves    
beh9d ! volunt>y co-op]ation :i*        
effectually a*ieves int]nal su/5tation1 
!re gr[s increas+ly cle> ! code (       
conduct :i* volunt>y co-op]ation        
implies4 ,& ?is f9al p]man5t code alone 
admits ( be+ def9itely =mulat$1 & s     
con/itut+ e?ics z a sci5ce 9 contra/ )  
empirical e?ics4  ,! lead+ traits ( a   
code1 "u :i* complete liv+ ?r\gh        
volunt>y co-op]ation is secur$1 may be  
simply /at$4 ,! fundam5tal requirem5t is
 t ! life-su/a9+ actions ( ea* %all     
sev]ally br+ him ! am\nts & k9ds (      
advantage naturally a*iev$ by !m1 & ?is 
implies fir/ly t he %all suff] no direct
 aggressions on 8 p]son or prop]ty1 &1  
secondly1 t he %all suff] no indirect   
aggressions by brea* ( contract4        

,obs]vance ( ^! negative conditions to  
volunt>y co-op]ation hav+ facilitat$    
life to ! greate/ ext5t by ex*ange (    
s]vices "u agreem5t1 life is to be fur!r
 facilitat$ by ex*ange ( s]vices beyond 
agreem5t3 ! highe/ life be+ rea*$ only  
:51 besides help+ to complete "o ano!r's
 lives by specifi$ reciprocities ( aid1 
m5 o!rwise help to complete "o ano!r's  
lives4     ,,*apt] ,,ix4  ,,criticisms  
,,& ,,explanations4    #ef4 ,comp>isons 
( ! =ego+ *apt]s1 ) "o ano!r1 sugge/    
sundry que/ions :i* mu/ be answ]$       
p>tially1 if n completely1 be=e any?+ c 
be done t[>d r$uc+ e?ical pr9ciples f   
ab/ract =ms to concrete =ms4  ,we h se5 
t to admit ! desirabl5ess ( consci\s    
exi/5ce is to admit t conduct %\ld be   
su* z w produce a consci\sness :i* is   
desirable--a consci\sness :i* is z mu*  
pleasurable & z little pa9ful z may be4 
,we h also se5 t ?is necess>y           
implication corresponds ) !  priori     
inf]5ce1 t ! evolution ( life has be5   
made possible only by ! e/abli%m5t (    

connections betwe5 pleasures & b5eficial
 actions1 & betwe5 pa9s & detrim5tal    
actions4 ,b ! g5]al conclusion rea*$ 9  
bo? ( ^! ways1 ?\gh x cov]s ! area )9   
:i* our special conclusions mu/ fall1   
does n help u to rea* ^? special        
conclusions4  ,7 pleasures all ( "o k9d1
 diff]+ only 9 degree2 7 pa9s all ( "o  
k9d1 diff]+ only 9 degree2 & c\ld       
pleasures be measur$ aga9/ pa9s )       
def9ite results1 ! problems ( conduct   
w\ld be greatly simplifi$4 ,7 !         
pleasures & pa9s s]v+ z inc5tives &     
det]r5ts1 simultane\sly pres5t to       
consci\sness ) l vividness1 or 7 !y all 
imm$iately imp5d+1 or 7 !y all          
equi-di/ant 9 "t2 ! problems w\ld be    
fur!r simplifi$4 ,& !y w\ld be /ill     
fur!r simplifi$ if ! pleasures & pa9s 7 
exclusively ^? ( ! actor4 ,b bo? !      
desirable & ! undesirable feel+s are (  
v>i\s k9ds1 mak+ quantitative comp>isons
 difficult2 "s are pres5t & "s are      
future1 increas+ ! difficulty (         
quantitative comp>ison2 "s are entail$  

on self & "s are entail$ on o!rs2 aga9  
increas+ ! difficulty4 ,s t ! guidance  
yield$ by ! prim>y pr9ciple rea*$ is (  
little s]vice unless supplem5t$ by !    
guidance ( second>y pr9ciples4          
,already1 9 recogniz+ ! ne$ful          
subord9ation ( pres5tative feel+s to    
repres5tative feel+s1 & ! impli$        
po/ponem5t ( pres5t to future ?r\gh\t a 
wide range ( cases1 "s approa* t[>d a   
second>y pr9ciple ( guidance has be5    
made4 ,already1 too1 9 recogniz+ !      
limitations :i* m5's associat$ /ate puts
 to _! actions1 ) ! impli$ ne$ = re/ra9+
 feel+s ( "s k9ds by feel+s ( o!r k9ds1 
we h come 9 sight ( ano!r second>y      
pr9ciple ( guidance4 ,/ill1 !re rema9s  
mu* to be decid$ respect+ ! relative    
claims ( ^! guid+ pr9ciples1 g5]al &    
special4  ,"s elucidation ( ! que/ions  
involv$ w be obta9$ by "h discuss+ c]ta9
 views & argum5ts set =? by pa/ & pres5t
 morali/s4    #eg4 ,us+ ! "n h$onism = t
 e?ical !ory :i* makes happ9ess ! end ( 
action1 & di/+ui%+ h$onism into ! two   

k9ds1 egoi/ic & univ]sali/ic1 accord+ z 
! happ9ess s\ght is t ( ! actor himself1
 or is t ( all1 ,mr4 ,sidgwick alleges  
its impli$ belief to be t pleasures &   
pa9s are comm5surable4 ,9 8 criticism on
 7empirical7 egoi/ic h$onism he says3   
,! fundam5tal assumption ( ,h$onism1    
cle>ly /at$1 is t all   feel+s consid]$ 
m]ely z feel+s c be arrang$ 9 a c]ta9   
scale ( desirability1 s t ! desirability
 or pleasantness (   ea* be>s a def9ite 
ratio to t ( all ! o!rs4--,me?ods (     
,e?ics1 #b;d ed41 p4 #aae4  ,& ass]t+   
?is to be its assumption he proce$s to  
po9t out difficulties 9 ! way ( !       
h$oni/ic calculation2 app>5tly = !      
purpose ( imply+ t ^! difficulties tell 
aga9/ ! h$oni/ic !ory4  ,n[1 ?\gh x may 
be %[n t by nam+ ! int5sity1 ! duration1
 ! c]ta9ty1 & ! proximity1 ( a pleasure 
or a pa91 z traits ent]+ into !         
e/imation ( its relative value1 ,b5?am  
has committ$ himself to ! specifi$      
assumption2 &1 ?\gh1 x is1 p]haps1      
reasonably tak5 = grant$ t h$onism1 z   

repres5t$ by him1 is id5tical ) h$onism 
at l>ge2 yet x seems to me t ! h$oni/1  
empirical or o!r1 is n necess>ily       
committ$ to ?is assumption4 ,t ! greate/
 surplus ( pleasures ov] pa9s ought to  
be ! end ( action is a belief :i* he may
 /ill consi/5tly hold aft] admitt+ t !  
valuations ( pleasures & pa9s are       
commonly vague & (t5 errone\s4 ,he may  
say t ?\gh indef9ite ?+s d n admit (    
def9ite measurem5ts1 yet approximately  
true e/imates ( _! relative values may  
be made :5 !y diff] consid]ably1 & he   
may fur!r say1 t ev5 :5 _! relative     
values are n det]m9able1 x rema9s true t
 ! mo/ valuable %\ld be *os54 ,let u    
li/5 to him4  ,a debtor :o _c pay me    
(f]s to comp\nd = 8 debt by mak+ ov] "o 
( sundry ?+s he possesses--a diamond    
ornam5t1 a silv] vase1 a picture1 a     
c>riage4 ,o!r que/ions be+ set aside ,i 
ass]t x to be my pecuni>y int]e/ to     
*oose ! mo/ valuable ( ^!1 b ,i _c say  
:i* is ! mo/ valuable4 ,does !          
proposition t x is my pecuni>y int]e/ to

 *oose ! mo/ valuable1 !re=e1 become    
d\btful8 ,mu/ ,i n *oose z well z ,i c1 
& if ,i *oose wrongly mu/ ,i give up my 
gr\nd ( *oice8 ,mu/ ,i inf] t 9 matt]s (
 bus9ess ,i may n act on ! pr9ciple t1  
o!r ?+s equal1 ! m pr(itable transaction
 is to be pref]r$1 because1 9 _m cases1 
,i _c say :i* is ! m pr(itable1 & h (t5 
*os5 ! less pr(itable8 ,because ,i      
believe t ( _m dang]\s c\rses ,i ought  
to take ! lea/ dang]\s1 d ,i make '!    
fundam5tal assumption' t c\rses c be    
arrang$ accord+ to a scale (            
dang]\sness1 & mu/ ,i ab&on my belief if
 ,i _c s arrange !m8 ,if ,i am n by     
consi/5cy b\nd to d ?is1 !n ,i am no m  
by consi/5cy b\nd to give up ! pr9ciple 
t ! greate/ surplus ( pleasures ov] pa9s
 %\ld be ! end ( action1 because !      
'comm5surability ( pleasures & pa9s' _c 
be ass]t$4  ,at ! close ( 8 *apt]s on   
empirical h$onism1 ,mr4 ,sidgwick       
himself says he does n ?9k t ! common   
exp]i5ce ( mank9d1 imp>tially exam9$1   
really su/a9s ! view t ,egoi/ic ,h$onism

 is necess>ily suicidal2 add+1 h[ev]1 t 
! unc]ta9ty ( h$oni/ic calculation _c be
 d5i$ to h great weight4 ,b "h !        
fundam5tal assumption ( h$onism1 t      
happ9ess is ! end ( action1 is /ill     
suppos$ to involve ! assumption t feel+s
 c be arrang$ 9 a c]ta9 scale (         
desirability4 ,?is we h se5 x does n3   
its fundam5tal assumption is 9 no degree
 invalidat$ by pro( t su* arrangem5t (  
!m is impracticable4  ,to ,mr4          
,sidgwick's argum5t !re is ! fur!r      
objection1 no less s]i\s1 t to :atev]   
degree x tells aga9/ egoi/ic h$onism1 x 
tells 9 a great] degree aga9/           
univ]sali/ic h$onism1 or utilit>ianism4 
,he admits t x tells z mu*2 say+ :atev] 
weight is to be atta*$ to ! objections  
br\ght aga9/ ?is assumption !           
comm5surability ( pleasures & pa9s mu/ (
 c\rse tell aga9/ ! pres5t me?od4 ,n    
only does x tell1 b x tells 9 a d\ble   
way4 ,i d n mean m]ely t1 z he po9ts    
out1 ! assumption becomes greatly       
complicat$ if we take all s5ti5t be+s   

into acc\nt1 & if we include po/]ity    
along ) exi/+ individuals4 ,i mean t1   
tak+ z ! end to be a*iev$ ! greate/     
happ9ess ( ! exi/+ individuals =m+ a    
s+le community1 ! set ( difficulties /&+
 9 ! way ( egoi/ic h$onism1 is comp\nd$ 
) ano!r set ( difficulties no less      
great1 :5 we pass f x to univ]sali/ic   
h$onism4 ,= if ! dictates ( univ]sali/ic
 h$onism are to be fulfill$1 x mu/ be "u
 ! guidance ( individual judgm5ts1 or ( 
corporate judgm5ts1 or ( bo?4 ,n[ any "o
 ( su* judgm5ts issu+ f a s+le m9d1 or f
 any aggregate ( m9ds1 necess>ily       
embodies conclusions respect+ ! happ9ess
 ( o!r p]sons2 few ( !m kn[n1 & ! great 
mass nev] se54 ,all ^! p]sons h natures 
diff]+ 9 c\ntless ways & degrees f !    
natures ( ^? :o =m ! judgm5ts2 & !      
happ9ess ( :i* !y are sev]ally capable  
diff] f "o ano!r1 & diff] f ! happ9esses
 ( ^? :o =m ! judgm5ts4 ,consequ5tly1 if
 aga9/ ! me?od ( egoi/ic h$onism !re is 
! objection t a man's own pleasures &   
pa9s1 unlike 9 _! k9ds1 int5sities1 &   

times ( occurr5ce1 are incomm5surable2  
!n aga9/ ! me?od ( univ]sali/ic h$onism 
x may be urg$ t to ! incomm5surability (
 ea* judge's own pleasures & pa9s 7:i*  
he mu/ use z /&>ds7 has n[ to be add$ ! 
mu* m decid$ incomm5surability ( !      
pleasures & pa9s :i* he conceives to be 
exp]i5c$ by innum]able o!r p]sons1 all  
diff]5tly con/itut$ f himself & f "o    
ano!r4  ,nay m--!re is a triple set (   
difficulties 9 ! way ( univ]sali/ic     
h$onism4 ,to ! d\ble indet]m9at5ess ( ! 
end has to be add$ ! indet]m9at5ess ( ! 
means4 ,if h$onism1 egoi/ic or          
univ]sali/ic1 is to pass f dead !ory    
into liv+ practice1 acts ( "o or o!r k9d
 mu/ be decid$ on to a*ieve propos$     
objects2 & 9 e/imat+ ! two me?ods we h  
to consid] h[ f> ! fitness ( ! acts     
respectively requir$ c be judg$4 ,if1 9 
pursu+ 8 own ends1 ! individual is      
liable to be l$ by errone\s op9ions to  
adju/ 8 acts wrongly1 mu* m liable is he
 to be l$ by errone\s op9ions to adju/  
wrongly m complex acts to ! m complex   

ends con/itut$ by o!r m5's welf>es4 ,x  
is s if he op]ates s+ly to b5efit a few 
o!rs2 & x is /ill m s if he co-op]ates )
 _m to b5efit all4 ,mak+ g5]al happ9ess 
! imm$iate object ( pursuit1 implies    
num]\s & complicat$ in/rum5talities     
(fic]$ by ?\s&s ( unse5 & unlike p]sons1
 & work+ on millions ( o!r p]sons unse5 
& unlike4 ,ev5 ! few factors 9 ?is      
imm5se aggregate ( appliances &         
processes :i* are kn[n1 are v imp]fectly
 kn[n1 & ! great mass ( !m are unkn[n4  
,s t ev5 suppos+ valuation ( pleasures &
 pa9s = ! community at l>ge is m        
practicable ?an1 or ev5 z practicable z1
 valuation ( 8 own pleasures & pa9s by !
 individual2 yet ! rul+ ( conduct ) a   
view to ! "o end is f> m difficult ?an !
 rul+ ( x ) a view to ! o!r4 ,h5ce1 if !
 me?od ( egoi/ic h$onism is             
unsatisfactory1 f> m unsatisfactory = ! 
same & k9dr$ reasons1 is ! me?od (      
univ]sali/ic h$onism1 or utilit>ianism4 
,& "h we come 9 sight ( ! conclusion :i*
 x has be5 ! purpose ( ! =ego+ criticism

 to br+ into view4 ,! objection made to 
! h$oni/ic me?od conta9s a tru?1 b      
includes ) x an untru?4 ,= :ile !       
proposition t happ9ess1 :e!r individual 
or g5]al1 is ! end ( action1 is n       
invalidat$ by pro( t x _c "u ei!r =m be 
e/imat$ by measurem5t ( its compon5ts2  
yet x may be admitt$ t guidance 9 !     
pursuit ( happ9ess by a m]e balanc+ (   
pleasures & pa9s1 is1 if p>tially       
practicable ?r\gh\t a c]ta9 range (     
conduct1 futile ?r\gh\t a mu* wid]      
range4 ,x is q consi/5t to ass]t t      
happ9ess is ! ultimate aim ( action1 &  
at ! same "t to d5y t x c be rea*$ by   
mak+ x ! imm$iate aim4 ,i g ) ,mr4      
,sidgwick z f> z ! conclusion t we mu/  
at lea/ admit ! desirability ( confirm+ 
or correct+ ! results ( su* comp>isons (
 pleasures & pa9s by any o!r me?od ^u   
:i* we may f9d reason to rely2 & !n ,i g
 fur!r1 & say t ?r\gh\t a l>ge "p (     
conduct guidance by su* comp>isons is to
 be entirely set aside & replac$ by o!r 
guidance4    #eh4 ,! anti!sis "h insi/$ 

^u betwe5 ! h$oni/ic end consid]$ 9 !   
ab/ract1 & ! me?od :i* curr5t h$onism1  
:e!r egoi/ic or univ]sali/ic1 associates
 ) t end2 & ! jo9+ acceptance ( ! "o )  
rejection ( ! o!r2 commits u to an ov]t 
discussion ( ! two c>d9al elem5ts (     
e?ical !ory4 ,i may conv5i5tly initiate 
?is discussion by criticiz+ ano!r ( ,mr4
 ,sidgwick's criticisms on ! me?od (    
h$onism4  ,?\gh we c give no acc\nt ( ^?
 simple pleasures :i* ! s5ses yield1    
because !y are undecomposable1 yet we   
di/9ctly "k _! *>act]s z /ates (        
consci\sness4 ,conv]sely1 ! complex     
pleasures =m$ by comp\nd+ & re-comp\nd+ 
! ideas ( simple pleasures1 ?\gh        
!oretically resolvable into _!          
compon5ts1 are n easy to resolve2 & 9   
proportion z !y are het]og5e\s 9        
composition1 ! difficulty ( fram+       
intelligible conceptions ( !m increases4
 ,?is is especially ! case ) ! pleasures
 :i* accompany our sports4 ,treat+ ( ^!1
 along ) ! pleasures ( pursuit 9 g5]al1 
= ! purpose ( %[+ t 9 ord] to get !m "o 

mu/ =get !m1 ,mr4 ,sidgwick rem>ks3     
,a man :o ma9ta9s ?r\gh\t an epicurean  
mood1 fix+ 8 aim   on 8 own pleasure1   
does n cat* ! full _s ( ! *ase2   8     
eag]ness nev] gets j ! %>pness ( edge   
:i* imp>ts to   ! pleasure its highe/   
ze/ & flavor4 ,"h comes into view :at   
we may call ! fundam5tal p>adox (       
,h$onism1 t ! impulse   t[>d pleasure1  
if too pr$om9ant1 defeats its own aim4  
,?is effect   is n visible1 or at any   
rate is sc>cely visible1 9 ! case (     
passive s5sual pleasures4 ,b ( our      
active enjoym5ts g5]ally1   :e!r !      
activities on :i* !y att5d are class$ z 
'bodily'   or z 'intellectual' 7z well z
 ( _m emotional pleasures71 x   may     
c]ta9ly be said t we _c atta9 !m1 at    
lea/ 9 _!   be/ =m1 s long z we         
conc5trate our aim on !m4--,me?ods (    
,e?ics1 #b;d ed41 p4 #da4  ,n[ ,i ?9k we
 %all n reg>d ?is tru? z p>adoxical aft]
 we h duly analyz$ ! pleasure ( pursuit4
 ,! *ief compon5ts ( ?is pleasure are3  
,fir/1 a r5ew$ consci\sness ( p]sonal   

effici5cy 7made vivid by actual success 
& p>tially excit$ by imp5d+ success7 :i*
 consci\sness ( p]sonal effici5cy1      
connect$ 9 exp]i5ce ) a*iev$ ends ( e   
k9d1 ar\ses a vague b massive           
consci\sness ( result+ gratifications2 &
 second1 a repres5tation ( ! applause   
:i* recognition ( ?is effici5cy by o!rs 
has be=e br\ght1 & w aga9 br+4 ,games ( 
skill %[ u ?is cle>ly4 ,consid]$ z an   
end 9 itself1 ! good cannon :i* a       
billi>d play] makes yields no pleasure4 
,:5ce !n does ! pleasure ( mak+ x arise8
 ,p>tly f ! fre% pro( ( capability :i* !
 play] gives to himself1 & p>tly f !    
imag9$ admiration ( ^? :o witness ! pro(
 ( 8 capability3 ! la/ be+ ! *ief1 s9ce 
he soon tires ( mak+ cannons 9 ! abs5ce 
( witnesses4 ,:5 f games :i*1 yield+ !  
pleasures ( success1 yield no pleasure  
d]iv$ f ! end consid]$ intr9sically1 we 
pass to sports 9 :i* ! end has intr9sic 
value z a s\rce ( pleasure1 we see      
sub/antially ! same ?+4 ,?\gh ! bird :i*
 ! sportsman br+s d[n is useful z food1 

yet 8 satisfaction arises ma9ly f hav+  
made a good %ot1 & f hav+ add$ to ! bag 
:i* w pres5tly br+ praise ( 8 skill4 ,! 
gratification ( self-e/eem he imm$iately
 exp]i5ces2 & ! gratification ( receiv+ 
applause he exp]i5ces1 if n imm$iately &
 9 full degree1 yet by repres5tation2 = 
! ideal pleasure is no?+ else ?an a fa9t
 revival ( ! real pleasure4 ,^! two k9ds
 ( agreeable excitem5t pres5t 9 !       
sportsman dur+ ! *ase con/itute ! mass (
 ! desires /imulat+ him to cont9ue x2 = 
all desires are nasc5t =ms ( ! feel+s to
 be obta9$ by ! ef=ts !y prompt4 ,& ?\gh
 :ile seek+ m birds ^! repres5tative    
feel+s are n s vividly excit$ z by      
success j a*iev$1 yet !y are excit$ by  
imag9ations ( fur!r successes2 & s make 
enjoyable ! activities con/itut+ !      
pursuit4 ,recogniz+1 !n1 ! tru? t !     
pleasures ( pursuit are mu* m ^? d]iv$ f
 ! effici5t use ( means ?an ^? d]iv$ f !
 end itself1 we see t ! fundam5tal      
p>adox ( h$onism disappe>s4  ,^! rem>ks 
conc]n+ end & means1 & ! pleasure       

accompany+ use ( ! means z add$ to !    
pleasure d]iv$ f ! end1 ,i h made = !   
purpose ( draw+ att5tion to a fact (    
pr(\nd significance4 ,dur+ evolution !re
 has be5 a sup]pos+ ( new & m complex   
sets ( means ^u old] & simpl] sets (    
means1 & a sup]pos+ ( ! pleasures       
accompany+ ! uses ( ^! successive sets (
 means1 ) ! result t ea* ( ^! pleasures 
has itself ev5tually become an end4 ,we 
beg9 ) a simple animal :i*1 )\t ancill>y
 appliances1 swall[s su* food z accid5t 
br+s 9 its way2 & s1 z we may assume1   
/ills "s k9d ( crav+4 ,"h we h ! prim>y 
end ( nutrition ) its accompany+        
satisfaction1 9 _! simple =ms4 ,we pass 
to high] types hav+ jaws = seiz+ &      
bit+--jaws :i* ?us1 by _! actions1      
facilitate a*ievem5t ( ! prim>y end4 ,on
 obs]v+ animals furni%$ ) ^! organs1 we 
get evid5ce t ! use ( !m becomes 9      
itself pleasurable irrespective ( ! end3
 in/ance a squirrel :i*1 ap>t f food to 
be s obta9$1 delights 9 nibbl+ ev]y?+ x 
gets hold (4 ,turn+ f jaws to limbs we  

see t ^!1 s]v+ "s creatures = pursuit & 
o!rs = escape1 simil>ly yield           
gratification by _! ex]cise2 z 9 lambs  
:i* skip & horses :i* prance4 ,h[ !     
comb9$ use ( limbs & jaws1 orig9ally    
subs]v+ ! satisfaction ( appetite1 gr[s 
to be 9 itself pleasurable1 is daily    
illu/rat$ 9 ! play+ ( dogs4 ,= t ?r[+   
d[n & worry+ :i*1 :5 prey is caught1    
prec$es eat+1 is1 9 _! mimic fights1    
c>ri$ by ea* z f> z he d>es4 ,com+ to   
means /ill m remote f ! end1 namely1 ^? 
by :i* creatures *as$ are caught1 we are
 aga9 %[n by dogs t :5 no creature is   
caught !re is /ill a gratification 9 !  
act ( cat*+4 ,! eag]ness ) :i* a dog    
runs aft] /ones1 or dances & b>ks 9     
anticipation ( jump+ into ! wat] aft] a 
/ick1 proves t ap>t f ! satisfaction (  
appetite1 & ap>t ev5 f ! satisfaction ( 
kill+ prey1 !re is a satisfaction 9 !   
successful pursuit ( a mov+ object4     
,?r\gh\t1 !n1 we see t ! pleasure       
att5dant on ! use ( means to a*ieve an  
end1 itself becomes an end4  ,n[ if we  

contemplate ^! z ph5om5a ( conduct 9    
g5]al1 "s facts wor?y ( note may be     
disc]n$--facts :i*1 if we appreciate _! 
significance1 w aid u 9 develop+ our    
e?ical conceptions4  ,"o ( !m is t among
 ! successive sets ( means1 ! lat] are !
 m remote f ! prim>y end2 are1 z        
co-ord9at+ e>li] & simpl] means1 ! m    
complex2 & are accompani$ by feel+s :i* 
are m repres5tative4  ,ano!r fact is t  
ea* set ( means1 ) its accompany+       
satisfactions1 ev5tually becomes 9 its  
turn dep5d5t on "o orig9at+ lat] ?an    
itself4 ,be=e ! gullet swall[s1 ! jaws  
mu/ lay hold2 be=e ! jaws te> out & br+ 
)9 ! grasp ( ! gullet a piece fit =     
swall[+1 !re mu/ be t co-op]ation (     
limbs & s5ses requir$ = kill+ ! prey2   
be=e ?is co-op]ation c take place1 !re  
ne$s ! mu* long] co-op]ation con/itut+ !
 *ase2 & ev5 be=e ?is !re mu/ be p]si/$ 
activities ( limbs1 eyes1 & nose 9 seek+
 prey4 ,! pleasure att5d+ ea* set (     
acts1 :ile mak+ possible ! pleasure     
att5d+ ! set ( acts :i* foll[s1 is jo9$ 

) a repres5tation ( ?is subsequ5t set ( 
acts & its pleasure1 & ( ! o!rs :i*     
succe$ 9 ord]2 s t along ) ! feel+s     
accompany+ ! se>* = prey1 are p>tially  
ar\s$ ! feel+s accompany+ ! actual *ase1
 ! actual de/ruction1 ! actual dev\r+1 &
 ! ev5tual satisfaction ( appetite4  ,a 
?ird fact is t ! use ( ea* set ( means 9
 due ord]1 con/itutes an obligation4    
,ma9t5ance ( its life be+ reg>d$ z an   
end ( its conduct1 ! creature is oblig$ 
to use 9 succession ! means ( f9d+ prey1
 ! means ( cat*+ prey1 ! means ( kill+  
prey1 ! means ( dev\r+ prey4  ,la/ly1 x 
foll[s t ?\gh ! assuag+ ( hung]1        
directly associat$ ) su/5tation1 rema9s 
to ! la/ ! ultimate end2 yet !          
successful use ( ea* set ( means 9 its  
turn is ! proximate end--! end :i* takes
 tempor>y prec$5ce 9 au?oritativ5ess4   
#ei4 ,! relations betwe5 means & ends   
?us trac$ ?r\gh\t ! e>li] /ages ( evolv+
 conduct1 are traceable ?r\gh\t lat]    
/ages3 & hold true ( human conduct1 up  
ev5 to its highe/ =ms4 ,z fa/ z1 = !    

bett] ma9t5ance ( life1 ! simpl] sets ( 
means & ! pleasures accompany+ ! uses ( 
!m1 come to be supplem5t$ by ! m complex
 sets ( means & _! pleasures1 ^! beg9 to
 take prec$5ce 9 "t & 9 imp]ativ5ess4   
,to use effectually ea* m complex set ( 
means becomes ! proximate end1 & !      
accompany+ feel+ becomes ! imm$iate     
gratification s\ght2 ?\gh !re may be1 & 
habitually is1 an associat$ consci\sness
 ( ! remot] ends & remot] gratifications
 to be obta9$4 ,an example w make cle> !
 p>allelism4  ,absorb$ 9 8 bus9ess !    
trad]1 if ask$ :at is 8 ma9 end1 w      
say--mak+ money4 ,he readily grants t   
a*ievem5t ( ?is end is desir$ by him 9  
fur!rance ( ends beyond x4 ,he kn[s t 9 
directly seek+ money he is indirectly   
seek+ food1 clo!s1 h\se-room1 & ! com=ts
 ( life = self & family4 ,b :ile admitt+
 t money is b a means to ^! ends1 he    
urges t ! money-gett+ actions prec$e 9  
ord] ( "t & obligation1 ! v>i\s actions 
& concomitant pleasures subs]v$ by !m2 &
 he te/ifies to ! fact t mak+ money has 

become itself an end1 & success 9 x a   
s\rce ( satisfaction1 ap>t f ^! m di/ant
 ends4  ,aga91 on obs]v+ m closely !    
trad]'s proce$+s1 we f9d t ?\gh to ! end
 ( liv+ com=tably he gets money1 & ?\gh 
to ! end ( gett+ money he buys & sells  
at a pr(it1 :i* s becomes a means m     
imm$iately pursu$1 yet he is *iefly     
occupi$ ) means /ill m remote f ultimate
 ends1 & 9 relation to :i* ev5 ! sell+  
at a pr(it becomes an end4 ,= leav+ to  
subord9ates ! actual measur+ out ( goods
 & receiv+ ( proce$s1 he busies himself 
ma9ly ) 8 g5]al affairs--inquiries      
conc]n+ m>kets1 judgm5ts ( future       
prices1 calculations1 negotiations1     
correspond5ce3 ! anxiety f h\r to h\r   
be+ to d well ea* "o ( ^! ?+s indirectly
 conducive to ! mak+ ( pr(its4 ,& ^!    
ends prec$e 9 "t & obligation ! effect+ 
( pr(itable sales1 j z ! effect+ (      
pr(itable sales prec$es ! end (         
money-mak+1 & j z ! end ( money-mak+    
prec$es ! end ( satisfactory liv+4  ,8  
bookkeep+ be/ exemplifies ! pr9ciple at 

l>ge4 ,entries to ! debtor or cr$itor   
sides are be+ made all ?r\gh ! day2 !   
items are classifi$ & arrang$ 9 su* way 
t at a mom5t's notice ! /ate ( ea*      
acc\nt may be asc]ta9$2 & !n1 f "t to   
"t1 ! books are balanc$1 & x is requir$ 
t ! result %all come "r to a p5ny3      
satisfaction foll[+ prov$ correctness & 
annoyance be+ caus$ by error4 ,if y ask 
:y all ?is elaborate process1 s remote f
 ! actual gett+ ( money1 & /ill m remote
 f ! enjoym5ts ( life1 ! answ] is t     
keep+ acc\nts correctly is fulfill+ a   
condition to ! end ( money-mak+1 &      
becomes 9 itself a proximate end--a duty
 to be dis*>g$1 t !re may be dis*>g$ !  
duty ( gett+ an income1 t !re may be    
dis*>g$ ! duty ( ma9ta9+ self1 wife &   
*ildr54  ,approa*+ z we "h d to moral   
obligation1 are we n %[n its relations  
to conduct at l>ge8 ,is x n cle> t      
obs]vance ( moral pr9ciples is          
fulfillm5t ( c]ta9 g5]al conditions to !
 successful c>ry+ on ( special          
activities8 ,t ! trad] may prosp]1 he   

mu/ n only keep 8 books correctly1 b mu/
 pay ^? he employs accord+ to agreem5t1 
& mu/ meet 8 engagem5ts ) cr$itors4 ,may
 we n say1 !n1 t con=mity to ! second & 
?ird ( ^! requirem5ts is1 l con=mity to 
! fir/1 an indirect means to effectual  
use ( ! m direct means ( a*iev+ welf>e8 
,may we n say1 too1 t z ! use ( ea* m   
indirect means 9 due ord] becomes itself
 an end1 & a s\rce ( gratification2 s1  
ev5tually1 becomes ! use ( ?is mo/      
indirect means8 ,& may we n inf] t ?\gh 
con=mity to moral requirem5ts prec$es 9 
imp]ativ5ess con=mity to o!r            
requirem5ts2 yet t ?is imp]ativ5ess     
arises f ! fact t fulfillm5t ( ! o!r    
requirem5ts1 by self or o!rs1 or bo?1 is
 ?us fur!r$8    #fj4 ,?is "q br+s u r\nd
 to ano!r side ( ! issue be=e rais$4 ,:5
 alleg+ t empirical utilit>ianism is b  
introductory to rational utilit>ianism1 
,i po9t$ out t ! la/ does n take welf>e 
= its imm$iate object ( pursuit1 b takes
 = its imm$iate object ( pursuit        
con=mity to c]ta9 pr9ciples :i*1 9 !    

nature ( ?+s1 casually det]m9e welf>e4  
,& n[ we see t ?is am\nts to recognition
 ( t law1 traceable ?r\gh\t ! evolution 
( conduct 9 g5]al1 t ea* lat] & high]   
ord] ( means takes prec$5ce 9 "t &      
au?oritativ5ess ( ea* e>li] & l[] ord] (
 means4 ,! contra/ betwe5 ! e?ical      
me?ods ?us di/+ui%$1 made tol]ably cle> 
by ! above illu/rations1 w be made /ill 
cle>] by contemplat+ ! two z put 9      
opposition by ! lead+ expon5t (         
empirical utilit>ianism4 ,treat+ (      
legislative aims1 ,b5?am writes3    ,b  
ju/ice1 :at is x t we are to und]/& by  
ju/ice3 &   :y n happ9ess b ju/ice8 ,:at
 happ9ess is1 e man kn[s1   because1 :at
 pleasure is1 e man kn[s1 & :at pa9 is1 
e   man kn[s4 ,b :at ju/ice is--?is is  
:at on e occasion is !   subject-matt] (
 dispute4 ,be ! mean+ ( ! ^w ju/ice :at 
x w1 :at reg>d is x entitl$ to o!rwise  
?an z a means (   happ9ess4,c  ,let u   
fir/ consid] ! ass]tion "h made respect+
 ! relative intelligibilities ( ^! two  
ends1 & let u aft]w>d consid] :at is    

impli$ by ! *oice ( happ9ess in/ead (   
ju/ice4  ,b5?am's positive ass]tion t1  
:at happ9ess is e man kn[s1 because1 :at
 pleasure is1 e man kn[s1 is met by     
c\nt]-ass]tions equally positive4 ,:o c 
tell1 asks ,plato1 :at pleasure really  
is1 or "k x 9 its ess5ce1 except !      
philosoph]1 :o alone is conv]sant )     
realities4,d ,ari/otle1 too1 aft]       
comm5t+ on ! diff]5t op9ions held by !  
vulg>1 by ! political1 by !             
contemplative1 says ( happ9ess t1 to "s 
x seems to be virtue1 to o!rs prud5ce1 &
 to o!rs a k9d ( wisdom3 to "s aga91 ^!1
 or "s "o ( ^!1 ) pleasure1 or at lea/1 
n )\t pleasure2 o!rs aga9 include       
ext]nal prosp]ity4,e ,& ,ari/otle1 l    
,plato1 comes to ! rem>kable conclusion 
t ! pleasures ( ! intellect1 rea*$ by ! 
contemplative life1 con/itute ! highe/  
happ9ess6,f  ,h[ disagreem5ts conc]n+ ! 
nature ( happ9ess & ! relative values ( 
pleasures1 ?us exhibit$ 9 anci5t times1 
cont9ue d[n to mod]n times1 is %[n 9    
,mr4 ,sidgwick's discussion ( egoi/ic   

h$onism1 above comm5t$ ^u4 ,fur!r1 z 0  
po9t$ out be=e1 ! indef9it5ess att5d+ ! 
e/imations ( pleasures & pa9s1 :i* /&s 9
 ! way ( egoi/ic h$onism z ord9>ily     
conceiv$1 is imm5sely increas$ on pass+ 
to univ]sali/ic h$onism z ord9>ily      
conceiv$2 s9ce its !ory implies t !     
imag9$ pleasures & pa9s ( o!rs are to be
 e/imat$ by ! help ( ^! pleasures & pa9s
 ( self already s difficult to e/imate4 
,& t any "o aft] obs]v+ ! v>i\s pursuits
 into :i* "s eag]ly ent]1 b :i* o!rs    
%un1 & aft] li/5+ to ! diff]5t op9ions  
conc]n+ ! likeabl5ess ( ?is or t        
occupation or amusem5t1 express$ at e   
table1 %\ld ass]t t ! nature ( happ9ess 
c be fully agre$ ^u1 s z to r5d] x a fit
 end = direct legislative action1 is    
surpris+4  ,! accompany+ proposition t  
ju/ice is un9telligible z an end is no  
less surpris+4 ,?\gh primitive m5 h no  
words = ei!r happ9ess or ju/ice1 yet ev5
 among !m an approa* to ! conception (  
ju/ice is traceable4 ,! law (           
retaliation1 requir+ t a dea? inflict$  

by "o tribe on ano!r1 %all be balanc$ by
 ! dea? ei!r ( ! murd]] or "s memb] ( 8 
tribe1 %[s u 9 a vague %ape t notion (  
equalness ( treatm5t :i* =ms an ess5tial
 elem5t 9 x4  ,:5 we come to e>ly races 
:o h giv5 _! ?\ghts & feel+s lit]>y =m  
we f9d ?is conception ( ju/ice1 z       
involv+ equalness ( action1 becom+      
di/9ct4 ,among ! ,jews1 ,david express$ 
9 words ?is association ( ideas :51     
pray+ to ,god to he> ! "r1 he said1 ,let
 my s5t5ce come =? f ?y pres5ce2 let ?9e
 eyes behold ! ?+s t are equal2 z also1 
among e>ly ,*ri/ians1 did ,paul :5 to ! 
,colossians he wrote1 ,ma/]s1 give unto 
y\r s]vants t :i* is j & equal4 ,comm5t+
 on ! diff]5t mean+s ( ju/ice1 ,ari/otle
 concludes t ! j w1 !re=e1 be ! lawful &
 ! equal1 & ! unju/ ! unlawful & !      
unequal4 ,b s9ce ! unju/ man is also "o 
:o takes m ?an 8 %>e1 etc4 ,& t ju/ice 0
 simil>ly conceiv$ by ! ,romans !y prov$
 by includ+ "u x su* mean+s z exact1    
proportionate1 imp>tial1 sev]ally imply+
 fairness ( division1 & /ill bett] by   

id5tification ( x ) equity1 :i* is a    
d]ivative ( quus3 ! ^w quus itself hav+ 
= "o ( its mean+s j or imp>tial4  ,?is  
co9cid5ce ( view among anci5t peoples   
respect+ ! nature ( ju/ice1 has ext5d$  
to mod]n peoples2 :o by a g5]al agreem5t
 9 c]ta9 c>d9al pr9ciples :i* _! sy/ems 
( law embody1 =bidd+ direct aggressions1
 :i* are =ms ( unequal actions1 & =bidd+
 indirect aggressions by brea*es (      
contract1 :i* are o!r =ms ( unequal     
actions1 "o & all %[ u ! id5tification (
 ju/ice ) equalness4 ,b5?am1 !n1 is     
wrong :5 he says--,b :at ju/ice is--?is 
is :at on e occasion is ! subject-matt] 
( dispute4 ,he is m wrong1 inde$1 ?an   
has ?us f> appe>$4 ,=1 9 ! fir/ place1  
he misrepres5ts utt]ly by ignor+ ! fact 
9 n9ety-n9e out ( e hundr$ daily        
transactions betwe5 m51 no dispute ab\t 
ju/ice arises2 b ! bus9ess done is      
recogniz$ on bo? sides z ju/ly done4 ,& 
9 ! second place if1 ) respect to !     
hundr$? transaction !re is a dispute1 ! 
subject matt] ( x is n :at ju/ice is1 = 

x is admitt$ to be equity or equalness2 
b ! subject matt] ( dispute always is   
:at1 "u ^! p>ticul> circum/ances1       
con/itutes equalness8--a widely diff]5t 
"q4  ,x is n !n self-evid5t1 z ,b5?am   
alleges1 t happ9ess is an intelligible  
end :ile ju/ice is n2 b contr>iwise     
exam9ation makes evid5t ! great]        
intelligibility ( ju/ice z an end4 ,&   
analysis %[s :y x is m intelligible4 ,= 
ju/ice1 or equity1 or equalness1 is     
conc]n$ exclusively ) quantity "u /at$  
conditions2 :]eas happ9ess is conc]n$ ) 
bo? quantity & quality "u conditions n  
/at$4 ,:51 z 9 case ( !ft1 a b5efit is  
tak5 :ile no equival5t b5efit is        
yield$--:51 z 9 case ( adult]at$ goods  
b\ght or base co9 paid1 t :i* is agre$  
to be giv5 9 ex*ange z ( equal value is 
n giv51 b some?+ ( less value--:51 z 9  
case ( brok5 contract1 ! obligation on  
"o side has be5 dis*>g$ :ile !re has be5
 no dis*>ge1 or incomplete dis*>ge1 ( ! 
obligation on ! o!r2 we see t1 !        
circum/ances be+ specifi$1 ! inju/ice   

compla9$ ( ref]s to ! relative am\nts ( 
actions1 or products1 or b5efits1 !     
natures ( :i* are recogniz$ only s f> z 
is ne$ful = say+ :e!r z mu* has be5     
giv51 or done1 or all[$1 by ea* conc]n$1
 z 0 impli$ by tacit or ov]t und]/&+ to 
be an equival5t4 ,b :5 ! end propos$ is 
happ9ess1 ! circum/ances rema9+         
unspecifi$1 ! problem is t ( e/imat+ bo?
 quantities & qualities1 unhelp$ by any 
su* def9ite measures z acts ( ex*ange   
imply1 or z contracts imply1 or z are   
impli$ by ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! do+s ( "o
 aggress+ & "o aggress$ ^u4 ,! m]e fact 
t ,b5?am himself includes z elem5ts 9 ! 
e/imation ( ea* pleasure or pa91 its    
int5sity1 duration1 c]ta9ty1 &          
proximity1 suffices to %[ h[ difficult  
is ?is problem4 ,& :5 x is rememb]$ t   
all pleasures & pa9s1 n felt 9 p>ticul> 
cases only b 9 ! aggregate ( cases1 &   
sev]ally reg>d$ "u ^! f\r aspects1 h to 
be comp>$ ) "o ano!r & _! relative      
values det]m9$1 simply by introspection2
 x w be manife/ bo? t ! problem is      

complicat$ by ! addition ( indef9ite    
judgm5ts ( qualities to indef9ite       
measures ( quantities1 & t x is fur!r   
complicat$ by ! multitud9\sness ( ^!    
vague e/imations to be gone ?r\gh &     
summ$ up4  ,b n[ pass+ ov] ?is ass]tion 
( ,b5?am t happ9ess is a m intelligible 
end ?an ju/ice1 :i* we f9d to be !      
rev]se ( tru?1 let u note ! sev]al      
implications ( ! doctr9e t ! supreme    
legislative body ought to make ! greate/
 happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb] its imm$iate
 aim4  ,x implies1 9 ! fir/ place1 t    
happ9ess may be compass$ by me?ods fram$
 directly = ! purpose1 )\t any previ\s  
inquiry respect+ ! conditions t mu/ be  
fulfill$2 & ?is pre-supposes a belief t 
!re are no su* conditions4 ,= if !re are
 any conditions )\t fulfillm5t ( :i*    
happ9ess _c be compass$1 !n ! fir/ /ep  
mu/ be to asc]ta9 ^! conditions ) a view
 to fulfill+ !m2 & to admit ?is is to   
admit t n happ9ess itself mu/ be !      
imm$iate end1 b fulfillm5t ( !          
conditions to its atta9m5t mu/ be !     

imm$iate end4 ,! alt]natives are simple3
 ,ei!r ! a*ievem5t ( happ9ess is n      
conditional1 9 :i* case "o mode ( action
 is z good z ano!r1 or x is conditional1
 9 :i* case ! requir$ mode ( action mu/ 
be ! direct aim & n ! happ9ess to be    
a*iev$ by x4  ,assum+ x conc$$1 z x w   
be1 t !re exi/ conditions :i* mu/ be    
fulfill$ be=e happ9ess c be atta9$1 let 
u next ask :at is impli$ by propos+     
modes ( s controll+ conduct z to fur!r  
happ9ess1 )\t previ\sly inquir+ :e!r any
 su* modes are already kn[n8 ,!         
implication is t human intellig5ce      
?r\gh\t ! pa/1 op]at+ on exp]i5ces1 has 
fail$ to discov] any su* modes2 :]eas   
pres5t human intellig5ce may be expect$ 
=?) to discov] !m4 ,unless ?is be       
ass]t$1 x mu/ be admitt$ t c]ta9        
conditions to ! a*ievem5t ( happ9ess h  
already be5 p>tially1 if n :olly1       
asc]ta9$2 & if s1 our fir/ bus9ess %\ld 
be to look = !m4 ,hav+ f\nd !m1 our     
rational c\rse is to br+ exi/+          
intellig5ce to be> on ^! products ( pa/ 

intellig5ce1 ) ! expectation t x w v]ify
 ! sub/ance ( !m :ile possibly correct+ 
! =m4 ,b to suppose t no regulative     
pr9ciples = ! conduct ( associat$ human 
be+s h ?us f> be5 e/abli%$1 & t !y are  
n[ to be e/abli%$ de novo1 is to suppose
 t man z he is diff]s f man z he 0 9 an 
incr$ible degree4  ,beyond ignor+ !     
probability1 or r ! c]ta9ty1 t pa/      
exp]i5ce g5]aliz$ by pa/ intellig5ce1   
mu/ by ?is "t h disclos$ p>tially1 if n 
:olly1 "s ( ! ess5tial conditions to !  
a*ievem5t ( happ9ess1 ,b5?am's          
proposition ignores ! =mulat$ k ( !m    
actually exi/+4 ,= :5ce come !          
conception ( ju/ice & ! answ]+ s5tim5t4 
,he w sc>cely say t !y are mean+less1   
al?\gh 8 proposition implies z mu*2 & if
 he admits t !y h mean+s1 he mu/ *oose  
betwe5 two alt]natives ei!r ( :i* is    
fatal to 8 hypo!sis4 ,are !y            
sup]naturally caus$ modes ( ?9k+ &      
feel+1 t5d+ to make m5 fulfill !        
conditions to happ9ess8 ,if s _!        
au?ority is p]emptory4 ,are !y modes (  

?9k+ & feel+ naturally caus$ 9 m5 by    
exp]i5ce ( ^! conditions8 ,if s1 _!     
au?ority is no less p]emptory4 ,n only1 
!n1 does ,b5?am fail to inf] t c]ta9    
pr9ciples ( guidance mu/ by ?is "t h be5
 asc]ta9$1 b he refuses to recognize ^! 
pr9ciples z actually rea*$ & pres5t to  
him4  ,& !n aft] all1 he tacitly admits 
t :i* he ov]tly d5ies1 by say+ t--,be ! 
mean+ ( ! ^w ju/ice :at x w1 :at reg>d  
is x entitl$ to o!rwise ?an z a means ( 
happ9ess8 ,= if ju/ice is a means hav+  
happ9ess z its end1 !n ju/ice mu/ take  
prec$5ce ( happ9ess1 z e o!r means takes
 prec$5ce ( e o!r end4 ,b5?am's own     
elaborate polity is a means hav+        
happ9ess z its end1 z ju/ice is1 by 8   
own admission1 a means hav+ happ9ess z  
an end4 ,if1 !n1 we may prop]ly skip    
ju/ice1 & g directly to ! end happ9ess1 
we may prop]ly skip ,b5?am's polity1 & g
 directly to ! end happ9ess4 ,9 %ort1 we
 are l$ to ! rem>kable conclusion t 9   
all cases we mu/ contemplate exclusively
 ! end & mu/ disreg>d ! means4    #fa4  

,?is relation ( ends to means1 und]ly+  
all e?ical speculation w be fur!r       
elucidat$ if we jo9 ) "s ( ! above      
conclusions1 c]ta9 conclusions drawn 9 !
 la/ *apt]4 ,we %all see t :ile greate/ 
happ9ess may v>y widely 9 societies :i*1
 ?\gh ideally con/itut$1 are subject to 
unlike physical circum/ances1 c]ta9     
fundam5tal conditions to ! a*ievem5t (  
?is greate/ happ9ess1 are common to all 
su* societies4  ,giv5 a p inhabit+ a    
tract :i* makes nomadic habits necess>y1
 & ! happ9ess ( ea* individual w be     
greate/ :5 8 nature is s mold$ to !     
requirem5ts ( 8 life1 t all 8 faculties 
f9d _! due activities 9 daily driv+ &   
t5d+ cattle1 milk+1 migrat+ & s =?4 ,!  
memb]s ( a community o!rwise simil>1 :i*
 is p]man5tly settl$1 w sev]ally a*ieve 
_! greate/ happ9ess :5 _! natures h     
become su* t a fix$ habitat1 & !        
occupations necessitat$ by x1 supply !  
sph]es 9 :i* ea* in/9ct & emotion is    
ex]cis$ & br+s ! concomitant pleasure4  
,! citiz5s ( a l>ge nation1 indu/rially 

organiz$1 h rea*$ _! possible ideal (   
happ9ess1 :5 ! produc+1 di/ribut+1 & o!r
 activities1 are su* 9 _! k9ds & am\nts1
 t ea* citiz5 f9ds 9 !m a place = all 8 
en]gies & aptitudes1 :ile he obta9s !   
means ( satisfy+ all 8 desires4 ,once m 
we may recognize z n only possible b    
probable1 ! ev5tual exi/5ce ( a         
community1 also indu/rial1 ! memb]s (   
:i*1 hav+ natures simil>ly respond+ to  
^! requirem5ts1 are also *>act]iz$ by   
dom9ant /hetic faculties1 & a*ieve      
complete happ9ess only :5 a l>ge "p (   
life is fill$ ) /hetic activities4      
,evid5tly ^! diff]5t types ( m51 ) _!   
diff]5t /&>ds ( happ9ess1 ea* f9d+ !    
possibility ( t happ9ess 9 8 own        
society1 w\ld n f9d x if transf]r$ to   
any ( ! o!r societies4 ,evid5tly1 ?\gh1 
!y might h 9 common su* k9ds ( happ9ess 
z accompany ! satisfaction ( vital ne$s1
 !y w\ld n h 9 common sundry o!r k9ds ( 
happ9ess4  ,b n[ m>k t :ile1 to a*ieve  
greate/ happ9ess 9 ea* ( su* societies1 
! special conditions to be fulfill$ mu/ 

diff] f ^? to be fulfill$ 9 ! o!r       
societies1 c]ta9 g5]al conditions mu/ be
 fulfill$ 9 all ! societies4 ,h>moni\s  
co-op]ation1 by :i* alone 9 any ( !m !  
greate/ happ9ess c be atta9$1 is1 z we  
saw1 made possible only by respect = "o 
ano!r's claims3 !re mu/ be nei!r ^?     
direct aggressions :i* we class z crimes
 aga9/ p]son & prop]ty1 nor mu/ !re be  
^? indirect aggressions con/itut$ by    
brea*es ( contracts4 ,s t ma9t5ance (   
equitable relations betwe5 m5 is !      
condition to atta9m5t ( greate/ happ9ess
 9 all societies1 h[ev] mu* ! greate/   
happ9ess atta9able 9 ea* may diff] 9    
nature1 or am\nt1 or bo?4  ,& "h a      
physical analogy may fitly be us$ to    
give ! greate/ def9it5ess to ?is c>d9al 
tru?4 ,a mass ( matt]1 ( :atev] k9d1    
ma9ta9s its /ate ( int]nal equilibrium1 
s long z its compon5t p>ticles sev]ally 
/& t[>d _! neighbors 9 equi-di/ant      
positions4 ,accept+ ! conclusions (     
mod]n physici/s1 :i* imply t ea*        
molecule moves rhy?mically1 !n a balanc$

 /ate implies t ea* p]=ms its movem5ts  
)9 a space b\nd$ by ! l spaces requir$ =
 ! movem5ts ( ^? ar\nd4 ,if ! molecules 
h be5 s aggregat$ t ! oscillations ( "s 
are m re/ra9$ ?an ! oscillations ( o!rs1
 !re is a proportionate in/ability4 ,if 
! numb] ( !m ?us unduly re/ra9$ is      
consid]able1 ! in/ability is su* t !    
cohesion 9 "s "p is liable to fail1 & a 
crack results4 ,if ! excesses ( re/ra9t 
are great & multitud9\s1 a trifl+       
di/urbance causes ! mass to break up    
into small fragm5ts4 ,to :i* add t !    
recogniz$ rem$y = ?is un/able /ate is an
 exposure to su* physical condition     
7ord9>ily high temp]ature7 z enables !  
molecules s to *ange _! relative        
positions t _! mutual re/ra9ts become   
equal on all sides4 ,& n[ obs]ve t ?is  
holds :atev] be ! natures ( ! molecules4
 ,!y may be simple2 !y may be comp\nd2  
!y may be compos$ ( ?is or t matt] 9 ?is
 or t way4 ,9 o!r words1 ! special      
activities ( ea* molecule1 con/itut$ by 
! relative movem5ts ( its units1 may be 

v>i\s 9 _! k9ds & degrees2 & yet1 be !y 
:at !y may1 x rema9s true t to pres]ve  
int]nal equilibrium ?r\gh\t ! mass (    
molecules1 ! mutual limitations ( _!    
activities mu/ be ev]y:]e alike4  ,& ?is
 is ! above-describ$ pr]equisite to     
social equilibrium1 :atev] ! special    
natures ( ! associat$ p]sons4 ,assum+ t 
)9 ea* society su* p]sons are ( ! same  
type1 ne$+ = ! fulfillm5t ( _! sev]al   
lives k9dr$ activities1 & ?\gh ^!       
activities may be ( "o k9d 9 "o society 
& ( ano!r k9d 9 ano!r1 s admitt+ (      
indef9ite v>iation1 ?is condition to    
social equilibrium does n admit (       
v>iation4 ,x mu/ be fulfill$ be=e       
complete life1 t is greate/ happ9ess1 c 
be atta9$ 9 any society2 be ! p>ticul>  
quality ( t life1 or t happ9ess1 :at x  
may4,g    #fb4 ,aft] ?us obs]v+ h[ means
 & ends 9 conduct /& to "o ano!r1 & h[  
!re em]ge c]ta9 conclusions respect+ _! 
relative claims1 we may see a way to    
reconcile sundry conflict+ e?ical       
!ories4 ,^! sev]ally embody portions ( !

 tru?2 & simply require comb9+ 9 prop]  
ord] to embody ! :ole tru?4  ,!         
!ological !ory conta9s a "p4 ,if = !    
div9e w1 suppos$ to be sup]naturally    
reveal$1 we sub/itute ! naturally       
reveal$ end t[>d :i* ! ,p[] manife/$    
?r\gh\t ,evolution works2 !n1 s9ce      
,evolution has be51 & is /ill1 work+    
t[>d ! highe/ life1 x foll[s t con=m+ to
 ^? pr9ciples by :i* ! highe/ life is   
a*iev$1 is fur!r+ t end4 ,! doctr9e t   
p]fection or excell5ce ( nature %\ld be 
! object ( pursuit1 is 9 "o s5se true2 =
 x tacitly recognizes t ideal =m ( be+  
:i* ! highe/ life implies1 & to :i*     
,evolution t5ds4 ,!re is a tru?1 also1 9
 ! doctr9e t virtue ma/ be ! aim2 = ?is 
is ano!r =m ( ! doctr9e t ! aim mu/ be  
to fulfill ! conditions to a*ievem5t ( !
 highe/ life4 ,t ! intuitions ( a moral 
faculty %\ld guide or conduct1 is a     
proposition 9 :i* a tru? is conta9$2 =  
^! intuitions are ! sl[ly organiz$      
results ( exp]i5ces receiv$ by ! race   
:ile liv+ 9 pres5ce ( ^! conditions4 ,& 

t happ9ess is ! supreme end is beyond "q
 true2 = ?is is ! concomitant ( t highe/
 life :i* e !ory ( moral guidance has   
di/9ctly or vaguely 9 view4  ,s und]/&+ 
_! relative positions1 ^? e?ical sy/ems 
:i* make virtue1 "r1 obligation1 !      
c>d9al aims1 are se5 to be complem5t>y  
to ^? e?ical sy/ems :i* make welf>e1    
pleasure1 happ9ess1 ! c>d9al aims4 ,?\gh
 ! moral s5tim5ts g5]at$ 9 civiliz$ m5  
by daily contact ) social conditions &  
gradual adaptation to !m1 are           
indisp5sable z inc5tives & det]r5ts2 &  
?\gh ! intuitions correspond+ to ^!     
s5tim5ts h1 9 virtue ( _! orig91 a g5]al
 au?ority to be rev]5tly recogniz$2 yet 
! sympa?ies & antipa?ies h5ce orig9at+1 
toge!r ) ! intellectual expressions (   
!m1 are1 9 _! primitive =ms1 necess>ily 
vague4 ,to make guidance by !m adequate 
to all requirem5ts1 _! dictates h to be 
int]pret$ & made def9ite by sci5ce2 to  
:i* end !re mu/ be analysis ( ^?        
conditions to complete liv+ :i* !y      
respond to1 & f conv]se ) :i* !y h      

aris54 ,& su* analysis necessitates !   
recognition ( happ9ess = ea* & all1 z ! 
end to be a*iev$ by fulfillm5t ( ^!     
conditions4  ,h5ce1 recogniz+ 9 due     
degrees all ! v>i\s e?ical !ories1      
conduct 9 its highe/ =m w take z guides 
innate p]ceptions ( "r duly enlight5$ & 
made precise by an analytic intellig5ce1
 :ile consci\s t ^! guides are          
proximately supreme solely because !y   
lead to ! ultimate supreme end1 happ9ess
 special & g5]al4     ,,*apt] ,x4  ,,!  
,,relativity ,,( ,,pa9s ,,& ,,pleasures4
    #fc4 ,a tru? ( c>d9al importance z a
 datum ( ,e?ics1 :i* 0 incid5tally      
ref]r$ to 9 ! la/ *apt]1 mu/ "h be set  
=? at full l5g?4 ,i mean ! tru? t n only
 m5 ( diff]5t races1 b also diff]5t m5 (
 ! same race1 & ev5 ! same m5 at diff]5t
 p]iods ( life1 h diff]5t /&>ds (       
happ9ess4 ,?\gh !re is "s recognition ( 
?is by morali/s1 ! recognition is       
inadequate1 & ! f>-rea*+ conclusions to 
be drawn :5 ! relativity ( happ9ess is  
fully recogniz$1 are sc>cely suspect$4  

,x is a belief univ]sal 9 e>ly life--a  
belief :i* 9 mo/ p is b p>tially        
correct$ 9 lat] life1 & 9 v few :olly   
dissipat$--t !re is some?+ intr9sic 9 ! 
pleasantness ( c]ta9 ?+s1 :ile o!r ?+s  
are intr9sically unpleasant4 ,! error is
 analog\s to1 & closely alli$ )1 ! error
 crude realism makes4 ,j z to !         
uncultur$ m9d x appe>s self-evid5t t !  
sweetness ( sug> is inh]5t 9 sug>1 t    
s\nd z we p]ceive x is s\nd z x exi/s 9 
! ext]nal _w1 & t ! w>m? f a fire is 9  
itself :at x seems2 s does x appe>      
self-evid5t t ! sweetness ( sug> is     
necess>ily grateful1 t !re is 9 a       
beautiful s\nd some?+ t mu/ be beautiful
 to all creatures1 & t ! agreeable feel+
 produc$ by w>m? is a feel+ :i* e o!r   
consci\sness mu/ f9d agreeable4  ,b z   
criticism proves ! "o set ( conclusions 
to be wrong1 s does x prove to be wrong 
! o!r set4 ,n only are ! qualities (    
ext]nal ?+s z intellectually appreh5d$  
by u1 relative to our own organisms2 b !
 pleasurabl5ess or pa9fulness ( ! feel+s

 :i* we associate ) su* qualities1 are  
also relative to our own organisms4 ,!y 
are s 9 a d\ble s5se--!y are relative to
 its /ructures1 & !y are relative to !  
/ates ( its /ructures4  ,t we may n re/ 
9 a m]e nom9al acceptance ( ^! g5]al    
tru?s1 b may s appreciate !m z to see _!
 full be>+s on e?ical !ory1 we mu/ "h   
glance at !m z exemplifi$ by animate    
creatures at l>ge4 ,= aft] contemplat+ !
 wide div]g5ces ( s5ti5cy accompany+ !  
wide div]g5ces ( organization :i*       
evolution 9 g5]al has br\ght ab\t1 we   
%all be enabl$ ! bett] to see !         
div]g5ces ( s5ti5cy to be expect$ f !   
fur!r evolution ( humanity4    #fd4     
,because !y c be mo/ quickly dispos$ (1 
let u fir/ deal ) pa9s3 a fur!r reason =
 fir/ deal+ ) pa9s be+ t we may ?us =?) 
recognize1 & !n leave out (             
consid]ation1 ^? s5ti5t /ates !         
qualities ( :i* may be reg>d$ z absolute
 r ?an relative4  ,! pa9fulness ( !     
feel+s produc$ by =ces :i* t5d to de/roy
 organic /ructures1 :olly or 9 "p1 is ( 

c\rse common to all creatures capable ( 
feel+4 ,we saw x to be inevitable t dur+
 evolution !re mu/ ev]y:]e be e/abli%$  
su* connections betwe5 ext]nal actions &
 ! modes ( consci\sness !y cause1 t !   
injuri\s ones are accompani$ by         
disagreeable feel+s & ! b5eficial ones  
by agreeable feel+s4 ,consequ5tly1      
pressures or /ra9s :i* te> or bruise1 & 
heats :i* burn or scald1 be+ 9 all cases
 p>tially or :olly de/ructive1 are 9 all
 cases pa9ful4  ,b ev5 "h ! relativity (
 ! feel+s may 9 "o s5se be ass]t$4 ,= ! 
effect ( a =ce ( giv5 quantity or       
int5sity v>ies p>tly ) ! size & p>tly ) 
! /ructure ( ! creature expos$ to x4 ,! 
weight :i* is sc>cely felt by a l>ge    
animal cru%es a small "o2 ! bl[ :i*     
breaks ! limb ( a m\se produces little  
effect on a horse3 ! weapon :i* lac]ates
 a horse leaves a rh9oc]os un9jur$4 ,& )
 ^! diff]5ces ( injuri\sness d\btless g 
diff]5ces ( feel+4 ,m]ely glanc+ at !   
illu/rations ( ?is tru? furni%$ by      
s5ti5t be+s 9 g5]al1 let u consid] !    

illu/rations mank9d furni%4  ,comp>isons
 ( robu/ labor+ m5 ) wom5 or *ildr5 %[ u
 t degrees ( me*anical /ress :i* ! fir/ 
be> ) impunity1 produce on ! o!rs       
injuries & accompany+ pa9s4 ,! bli/]+ ( 
a t5d] sk9 by an am\nt ( friction :i*   
does n ev5 r$d5 a co>se "o1 or ! bur/+ (
 sup]ficial blood-vessels1 & consequ5t  
discoloration1 caus$ 9 a p]son ( lax    
tissues by a bl[ :i* leaves 9 well-ton$ 
tissues no trace1 w suffici5tly         
exemplify ?is contra/4  ,n only1 h[ev]1 
are ! pa9s due to viol5t incid5t =ces1  
relative to ! *>act]s or con/itutional  
qualities ( ! p>ts directly affect$1 b  
!y are relative 9 equally m>k$ ways1 or 
ev5 9 m m>k$ ways1 to ! *>act]s ( !     
n]v\s /ructures4 ,! common assumption is
 t equal bodily injuries excite equal   
pa9s4 ,b ?is is a mi/ake4 ,pull+ out a  
too? or cutt+ (f a limb1 gives to       
diff]5t p]sons widely diff]5t am\nts (  
suff]+2 n ! endurance only1 b ! feel+ to
 be endur$1 v>ies greatly2 & ! v>iation 
l>gely dep5ds on ! degree ( n]v\s       

developm5t4 ,?is is well %[n by ! great 
ins5sibility ( idiots--bl[s1 cuts1 &    
extremes ( heat & cold1 be+ borne by !m 
) indiff]5ce4,h ,! relation ?us %[n 9 ! 
mo/ m>k$ mann] :]e ! developm5t ( !     
c5tral n]v\s sy/em is abnormally l[1 is 
%[n 9 a less m>k$ mann] :]e ! developm5t
 ( ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em is normally l[2 
namely1 among inf]ior races ( m54 ,_m   
travel]s h comm5t$ on ! /range          
call\sness %[n by savages :o h be5      
mangl$ 9 battle or by accid5t2 &        
surgeons 9 ,india say t w\nds &         
op]ations are bett] borne by natives ?an
 by ,europeans4 ,fur!r1 !re comes !     
conv]se fact t among ! high] types ( m51
 l>g] bra9$ & m s5sitive to pa9 ?an !   
l[]1 ! mo/ s5sitive are ^? ^: n]v\s     
developm5ts1 z %[n by _! m5tal p[]s1 are
 ! highe/2 "p ( ! evid5ce be+ ! relative
 intol]ance ( disagreeable s5sations    
common among m5 ( g5ius1,i & ! g5]al    
irritability *>act]i/ic ( !m4  ,t pa9 is
 relative n to /ructures only1 b to _!  
/ates z well1 is also manife/--m manife/

 inde$4 ,! s5sibility ( an ext]nal "p   
dep5ds on its temp]ature4 ,cool x bel[ a
 c]ta9 po9t & x becomes1 z we say1 numb2
 & if by e!r spray x is made v cold1 x  
may be cut )\t any feel+ be+ produc$4   
,conv]sely1 heat ! "p s t its           
blood-vessels dilate1 & ! pa9 :i* any   
injury or irritation causes is great]   
?an usual4 ,h[ l>gely ! production ( pa9
 dep5ds on ! condition ( ! "p affect$1  
we see 9 ! extreme t5d]ness ( an inflam$
 surface--a t5d]ness su* t a slight t\* 
causes %r9k+1 & su* t rays f ! fire :i* 
ord9>ily w\ld be indiff]5t become       
intol]able4  ,simil>ly ) ! special      
s5ses4 ,a light :i* eyes t are 9 good   
ord] be> )\t disagreeable feel+1 _c be  
borne by inflam$ eyes4 ,& beyond ! local
 /ate1 ! /ate ( ! sy/em z a :ole1 & !   
/ate ( ! n]v\s c5t]s1 are bo? factors4  
,^? enfeebl$ by illness are di/ress$ by 
noises :i* ^? 9 heal? be> ) equanimity2 
& m5 ) ov]wr\ght bra9s are irritat$ 9   
unusual degrees by annoyances1 bo?      
physical & moral4  ,fur!r1 ! tempor>y   

condition kn[n z exhau/ion ent]s into ! 
relation4 ,limbs ov]worn by prolong$    
ex]tion1 _c )\t a*+ p]=m acts :i* w\ld  
at o!r times cause no appreciable feel+4
 ,aft] read+ cont9u\sly = v _m h\rs1 ev5
 /rong eyes beg9 to sm>t4 ,& noises t c 
be li/5$ to = a %ort "t ) indiff]5ce1   
become1 if !re is no cessation1 causes (
 suff]+4  ,s t ?\gh !re is absolut5ess 9
 ! relation betwe5 positive pa9s &      
actions t are positively injuri\s1 9 s  
f> t :]ev] !re is s5ti5cy x exi/s2 yet  
ev5 "h p>tial relativity may be ass]t$4 
,= !re is no fix$ relation betwe5 ! act+
 =ce & ! produc$ feel+4 ,! am\nt ( feel+
 v>ies ) ! size ( ! organism1 ) ! "* (  
its out] /ructures1 ) ! "* ( its n]v\s  
sy/em2 & also ) ! tempor>y /ates ( ! "p 
affect$1 ( ! body at l>ge1 & ( ! n]v\s  
c5t]s4    #fe4 ,! relativity ( pleasures
 is f> m conspicu\s2 & ! illu/rations ( 
x furni%$ by ! s5ti5t _w at l>ge are    
innum]able4  ,x ne$s b to glance r\nd at
 ! v>i\s ?+s :i* diff]5t creatures are  
prompt$ by _! desires to eat & are      

gratifi$ 9 eat+--fle% = pr$ace\s        
animals1 grass = ! h]bivora1 worms = !  
mole1 flies = ! swall[1 se$s = ! f9*1   
honey = ! bee1 a decay+ c>cass = !      
maggot--to be rem9d$ t ! ta/es = foods  
are relative to ! /ructures ( !         
creatures4 ,& ?is tru?1 made conspicu\s 
by a survey ( animals 9 g5]al1 is =c$ on
 our att5tion ev5 by a survey ( diff]5t 
races ( m54 ,"h human fle% is abhorr$1 &
 !re reg>d$ z ! greate/ delicacy2 9 ?is 
c\ntry roots are all[$ to putrefy be=e  
!y are eat51 & 9 t ! ta9t ( decay       
produces disgu/3 ! :ale's blubb] :i* "o 
race dev\rs ) avidity1 w 9 ano!r by its 
v odor produce nausea4 ,nay1 )\t look+  
abroad we may1 9 ! common say+ t "o     
man's meat is ano!r man's poison1 see ! 
g5]al admission t memb]s ( ! same       
society s f> diff]1 t a ta/e :i* is to  
^! pleasurable is to ^? displeasurable4 
,s is x ) ! o!r s5ses4 ,assafoetida1 :i*
 by u is s+l$ out z typical ( ! disgu/+ 
9 odor1 ranks among ! ,e/honians z a    
favorite p]fume1 & ev5 ^? ar\nd u v>y s 

f> 9 _! lik+s t ! sc5ts ( fl[]s grateful
 to "s are repugnant to o!rs4 ,analog\s 
diff]5ces1 9 ! pref]5ces = colors1 we   
daily he> express$4 ,& 9 a great] or    
less degree ! l holds ) all s5sations   
d[n ev5 to ^? ( t\*3 ! feel+ yield$ by  
velvet1 :i* is to mo/ agreeable1 sett+ !
 tee? on edge 9 "s4  ,x ne$s b to "n    
appetite & satiety to sugge/ multitud9\s
 facts %[+ t pleasures are relative n   
only to ! organic /ructures b also to _!
 /ates4 ,! food :i* yields ke5          
gratification :5 !re is great hung]     
ceases to be grateful :5 hung] is       
satisfi$1 & if !n =c$ on ! eat] is      
reject$ ) av]sion4 ,s1 too1 a p>ticul>  
k9d ( food1 seem+ :5 fir/ ta/$ s        
delici\s t daily repetition w\ld be a   
s\rce ( endless enjoym5t1 becomes1 9 a  
few days1 n only un5joyable b repugnant4
 ,brilliant colors :i*1 fall+ on        
unaccu/om$ eyes give delight1 pall on ! 
s5se if long look$ at1 & !re is relief 9
 gett+ away f ! impressions !y yield4   
,s\nds sweet 9 !mselves & sweet 9 _!    

comb9ations :i* yield to unfatigu$ e>s  
int5se pleasure1 become1 at ! end ( a   
long conc]t1 n only we>isome b1 if !re  
is no escape f !m1 causes ( irritation4 
,! l holds d[n ev5 to su* simple        
s5sations z ^? ( heat & cold4 ,! fire s 
delightful on a w9t]'s day is1 9 hot    
wea!r1 oppressive2 & pleasure is !n tak5
 9 ! cold wat] f :i*1 9 w9t]1 !re w\ld  
be %r9k+4 ,inde$1 exp]i5ces la/+ ov] b a
 few mom5ts suffice to %[ h[ relative to
 ! /ates ( ! /ructures are pleasurable  
s5sations ( ^! k9ds2 = x is obs]vable t 
on dipp+ ! cold h& into hot wat]1 !     
agreeable feel+ gradually dim9i%es z !  
h& w>ms4  ,^! few in/ances w c>ry home !
 tru?1 manife/ en\gh to all :o obs]ve1 t
 ! receipt ( ea* agreeable s5sation     
dep5ds prim>ily on ! exi/5ce ( a        
/ructure :i* is call$ into play2 &1     
second>ily1 on ! condition ( t /ructure1
 z fitt+ x or unfitt+ x = activity4     
#ff4 ,! tru? t emotional pleasures are  
made possible1 p>tly by ! exi/5ce (     
correlative /ructures & p>tly by ! /ates

 ( ^? /ructures1 is equally und5iable4  
,obs]ve ! animal :i*1 lead+ a life dem&+
 solit>y habits1 has an adapt$          
organization1 & x gives no sign ( ne$ = 
! pres5ce ( its k9d4 ,obs]ve1 conv]sely1
 a greg>i\s animal sep>at$ f ! h]d1 & y 
see m>ks ( unhapp9ess :ile ! sep>ation  
cont9ues1 & equally di/9ct m>ks ( joy on
 jo9+ its companions4 ,9 ! "o case !re  
is no n]v\s /ructure :i* f9ds its sph]e 
( action 9 ! greg>i\s /ate1 & 9 ! o!r   
case su* a /ructure exi/s4 ,z 0 impli$  
by in/ances cit$ 9 ! la/ *apt] = ano!r  
purpose1 animals lead+ lives involv+    
p>ticul> k9ds ( activities1 h become s  
con/itut$ t pursuance ( ^? activities1  
ex]cis+ ! correlative /ructures1 yields 
! associat$ pleasures4 ,bea/s ( prey    
conf9$ 9 d5s1 %[ u by _! pac+s f side to
 side ! endeavor to obta91 z well z !y  
c1 ! satisfactions t accompany roam+    
ab\t 9 _! natural habitats1 & t         
gratification 9 ! exp5diture ( _!       
locomotive en]gies1 %[n u by porpoises  
play+ r\nd a vessel1 is %[n u by !      

simil>ly unceas+ excursions f end to end
 ( its cell :i* a captur$ porpoise      
makes4 ,! p]petual hopp+s ( ! can>y f b>
 to b> ( its cage1 & ! ceaseless use (  
claws & bill 9 climb+ ab\t its p]* by ! 
p>rot1 are o!r activities :i*1 sev]ally 
relat$ to ! ne$s ( ! species1 h sev]ally
 !mselves become s\rces ( agreeable     
feel+s4 ,/ill m cle>ly are we %[n by !  
ef=ts :i* a cag$ beav] makes to build ) 
su* /icks & pieces ( wood z are at h&1  
h[ dom9ant 9 its nature has become !    
build+ in/9ct1 & h[1 ap>t f any         
advantage ga9$1 x gets gratification by 
repeat+1 z well z x c1 ! processes (    
con/ruction x is organiz$ to c>ry on4 ,!
 cat :i*1 lack+ some?+ to te> ) h]      
claws1 pulls at ! mat ) !m1 ! conf9$    
giraffe :i*1 9 default ( bran*es to lay 
hold ( we>s out ! upp] angles ( ! doors 
to its h\se by cont9ually grasp+ !m )   
its preh5sile tongue1 ! rh9oc]os :i*1   
hav+ no enemy to fight1 pl[s up ! gr\nd 
) 8 horn--all yield u analog\s evid5ce4 
,cle>ly1 ^! v>i\s actions p]=m$ by ^!   

v>i\s creatures are n intr9sically      
pleasurable1 = !y diff] m or less 9 ea* 
species & are (t5 utt]ly unlike4 ,!     
pleasurabl5ess is simply 9 ! ex]cise (  
n]vo-muscul> /ructures adapt$ to !      
p]=mance ( ! actions4  ,?\gh races ( m5 
are contra/$ ) "o ano!r s mu* less ?an  
g5]a & ord]s ( animals are1 yet1 z we   
saw 9 ! la/ *apt]1 along ) visible      
diff]5ces !re g invisible diff]5ces1 )  
accompany+ lik+s = diff]5t modes ( life4
 ,among "s1 z ! ,mantras1 ! love (      
unre/ra9$ action & ! disreg>d (         
companion%ip1 are su* t !y sep>ate if !y
 qu>rel1 & h5ce live scatt]$2 :ile among
 o!rs1 z ! ,dam>as1 !re is little t5d5cy
 to resi/1 b in/ead1 an admiration = any
 "o :o assumes p[] ov] !m4 ,already :5  
exemplify+ ! indef9it5ess ( happ9ess z  
an end ( action1 ,i h ref]r$ to ! unlike
 ideals ( life pursu$ by ! nomadic & !  
settl$1 ! w>like & ! peaceful--unlike   
ideals :i* imply unlik5esses ( n]v\s    
/ructures caus$ by ! inh]it$ effects (  
unlike habits accumulat+ ?r\gh          

g5]ations4 ,^! contra/s1 v>i\s 9 _! k9ds
 & degrees among ! v>i\s types ( mank9d1
 e "o c supplem5t by analog\s contra/s  
obs]vable among ^? ar\nd4 ,! occupations
 "s delight 9 are to ^? o!rwise         
con/itut$ intol]able2 & m5's hobbies1   
sev]ally appe>+ to !mselves q natural1  
(t5 appe> to _! fri5ds ludicr\s & almo/ 
insane3 facts :i* alone might make u see
 t ! pleasurabl5ess ( actions ( ?is or t
 k9d1 is due n to any?+ 9 ! natures ( ! 
actions b to ! exi/5ce ( faculties :i*  
f9d ex]cise 9 !m4  ,x mu/ be add$ t ea* 
pleasurable emotion1 l ea* pleasurable  
s5sation1 is relative n only to a c]ta9 
/ructure b also to ! /ate ( t /ructure4 
,! p>ts call$ into action mu/ h _h prop]
 re/--mu/ be 9 a condition fit = action2
 n 9 ! condition :i* prolong$ action    
produces4 ,be ! ord] ( emotion :at x    
may1 an unbrok5 cont9uity 9 ! receipt ( 
x ev5tually br+s satiety4 ,! pleasurable
 consci\sness becomes less & less vivid1
 & !re arises ! ne$ = a tempor>y        
cessation dur+ :i* ! p>ts t h be5 active

 may recov] _! fitness = activity1 &    
dur+ :i* also ! activities ( o!r p>ts & 
receipt ( ! accompany+ emotions may f9d 
due place4    #fg4 ,i h insi/$ on ^!    
g5]al tru?s ) p]haps ne$less it]ation1  
to prep>e ! read] = m fully recogniz+ a 
coroll>y t is practically ignor$4       
,abundant & cle> z is ! evid5ce1 & =c$  
?\gh x is daily on e "o's att5tion1 !   
conclusions respect+ life & conduct :i* 
%\ld be drawn1 are n drawn1 & s mu* at  
v>iance are ^! conclusions ) curr5t     
beliefs1 t enunciation ( !m causes a />e
 ( incr$ulity4 ,p]vad$ z all pa/ ?9k+   
has be51 & z mo/ pres5t ?9k+ is1 by !   
assumption t ! nature ( e creature has  
be5 specially creat$ = x1 & t human     
nature1 also specially creat$1 is1 l o!r
 natures1 fix$--p]vad$ too z ?is ?9k+   
has be51 & is1 by ! alli$ assumption t !
 agreeabl5ess ( c]ta9 actions dep5ds on 
_! ess5tial qualities1 :ile o!r actions 
are by _! ess5tial qualities made       
disagreeable2 x is difficult to obta9 a 
he>+ = ! doctr9e t ! k9ds ( action :i*  

are n[ pleasurable w1 "u conditions     
requir+ ! *ange1 cease to be            
pleasurable1 :ile o!r k9ds ( action w   
become pleasurable4 ,ev5 ^? :o accept ! 
doctr9e ( ,evolution mo/ly he> )        
scepticism1 or at be/ ) nom9al fai?1 !  
inf]5ces to be drawn f x respect+ !     
humanity ( ! future4  ,& yet z %[n 9    
myriads ( in/ances indicat$ by ! few    
above giv51 ^? natural processes :i* h  
produc$ multitud9\s =ms ( /ructure      
adapt$ to multitud9\s =ms ( activity1 h 
simultane\sly made ^! =ms ( activity    
pleasurable4 ,& ! inevitable implication
 is t )9 ! limits impos$ by physical    
laws1 !re w be evolv$1 9 adaptation to  
any new sets ( conditions t may be      
e/abli%$1 appropriate /ructures ( :i* ! 
functions w yield _! respective         
gratifications4  ,:5 we h got rid ( !   
t5d5cy to ?9k t c]ta9 modes ( activity  
are necess>ily pleasurable because !y   
give u pleasure1 & t o!r modes :i* d n  
please u are necess>ily unpleas+2 we    
%all see t ! remold+ ( human nature into

 fitness = ! requirem5ts ( social life1 
mu/ ev5tually make all ne$ful activities
 pleasurable1 :ile x makes              
displeasurable all activities at v>iance
 ) ^! requirem5ts4 ,:5 we h come fully  
to recognize ! tru? t !re is no?+       
intr9sically m gratify+ 9 ! ef=ts by :i*
 wild animals are caught1 ?an 9 ! ef=ts 
exp5d$ 9 re>+ plants1 & t ! comb9$      
actions ( muscles & s5ses 9 r[+ a boat  
are n by _! ess5tial natures m          
productive ( agreeable feel+ ?an ^? gone
 ?r\gh 9 reap+ corn1 b t ev]y?+ dep5ds  
on ! co-op]at+ emotions1 :i* at pres5t  
are m 9 accordance ) ! "o ?an ) ! o!r2  
we %all inf] t along ) decrease ( ^?    
emotions = :i* ! social /ate af=ds      
little or no scope1 & increase ( ^? :i* 
x p]si/5tly ex]cises1 ! ?+s n[ done )   
dislike f a s5se ( obligation w be done 
) imm$iate lik+1 & ! ?+s desi/$ f z a   
matt] ( duty w be desi/$ f because !y   
are repugnant4  ,?is conclusion1 ali5 to
 popul> beliefs & 9 e?ical speculation  
habitually ignor$1 or at mo/ recogniz$ b

 p>tially & occasionally1 w be ?\ght by 
! majority s improbable t ,i mu/ give   
fur!r ju/ification ( x3 en=c+ !  priori 
argum5t by an  po/]iori "o4 ,small z is 
! att5tion giv5 to ! fact1 yet is ! fact
 conspicu\s t ! coroll>y above drawn f !
 doctr9e ( ,evolution at l>ge1 co9cides 
) ! coroll>y :i* pa/ & pres5t *anges 9  
human nature =ce ^u u4 ,! lead+ contra/s
 ( "* betwe5 savage & civiliz$1 are j ^?
 contra/s to be expect$ f ! process (   
adaptation4  ,! life ( ! primitive man  
is pass$ ma9ly 9 ! pursuit ( bea/s1     
birds & fi%1 :i* yields him a gratify+  
excitem5t2 b ?\gh to ! civiliz$ man !   
*ase gives gratification1 ?is is nei!r s
 p]si/5t nor s g5]al4 ,!re are among u  
ke5 sportsm51 b !re are _m to :om %oot+ 
& fi%+ soon become we>isome1 & !re are n
 a few to :om !y are altoge!r indiff]5t 
or ev5 di/a/eful4  ,conv]sely1 ! p[] (  
cont9u$ application1 :i* 9 ! primitive  
man is v small1 has among ourselves     
become consid]able4 ,x is true t mo/ are
 co]c$ into indu/ry by necessity2 b !re 

are spr9kl$ ?r\gh\t society m5 to :om   
active occupation is a ne$--m5 :o are   
re/less :5 away f bus9ess & mis]able :5 
!y ev5tually give x up2 m5 to :om ?is or
 t l9e ( inve/igation is s attractive t 
!y devote !mselves to x day aft] day1   
ye> aft] ye>2 m5 :o are s deeply int]e/$
 9 public affairs t !y pass lives (     
labor 9 a*iev+ political ends !y ?9k    
advantage\s1 h>dly giv+ !mselves ! re/  
necess>y = heal?4  ,yet aga91 & /ill m  
/rik+ly1 does ! *ange become manife/ :5 
we comp>e undevelop$ ) develop$ humanity
 9 respect ( ! conduct prompt$ by       
fell[-feel+4 ,cruelty r ?an k9dness is  
*>act]i/ic ( ! savage1 & is 9 _m cases a
 s\rce ( m>k$ gratification to him2 b   
?\gh among ! civiliz$ are "s 9 :om ?is  
trait ( ! savage survives1 yet a love ( 
inflict+ pa9 is n g5]al1 & besides      
numb]s :o %[ b5evol5ce1 !re are ^? :o   
devote _! :ole "t & mu* ( _! money to   
philan?ropic ends1 )\t ?\ght ( rew>d    
ei!r "h or h]eaft]4  ,cle>ly ^! major1  
along ) _m m9or1 *anges ( nature1 con=m 

to ! law set =?4 ,activities appropriate
 to _! ne$s :i* give pleasures to       
savages h ceas$ to be pleasurable to _m 
( ! civiliz$2 :ile ! civiliz$ h acquir$ 
capacities = o!r appropriate activities 
& accompany+ pleasures :i* savages _h no
 capacities =4  ,n[1 n only is x        
rational to inf] t *anges l ^? :i* h be5
 go+ on dur+ civilization1 w cont9ue to 
g on1 b x is irrational to d o!rwise4 ,n
 he :o believes t adaptation w increase 
is absurd1 b he :o d\bts t x w increase 
is absurd4 ,lack ( fai? 9 su* fur!r     
evolution ( humanity z %all h>monize its
 nature ) its conditions1 adds b ano!r  
to ! c\ntless illu/rations ( inadequate 
consci\sness ( causation4 ,"o :o1 leav+ 
beh9d bo? primitive dogmas & primitive  
ways ( look+ at ?+s1 has1 :ile accept+  
sci5tific conclusions1 acquir$ ^? habits
 ( ?\ght :i* sci5ce g5]ates1 w reg>d !  
conclusion above drawn z inevitable4 ,he
 w f9d x impossible to believe t !      
processes :i* h h]et(ore s mold$ all    
be+s to ! requirem5ts ( _! lives t !y   

get satisfactions 9 fulfill+ !m1 w n    
h]eaft] cont9ue s mold+ !m4 ,he w inf] t
 ! type ( nature to :i* ! highe/ social 
life af=ds a sph]e su* t e faculty has  
its due am\nt1 & no m ?an ! due am\nt1 (
 function & accompany+ gratification1 is
 ! type ( nature t[>d :i* progress _c   
cease till x is rea*$4 ,pleasure be+    
producible by ! ex]cise ( any /ructure  
:i* is adju/$ to its special end1 he w  
see ! necess>y implication to be t1     
suppos+ x consi/5t ) ma9t5ance ( life1  
!re is no k9d ( activity :i* w n become 
a s\rce ( pleasure if cont9u$2 & t !re=e
 pleasure w ev5tually accompany e mode (
 action dem&$ by social conditions4     
,?is coroll>y ,i "h emphasize because x 
w pres5tly play an important "p 9 !     
argum5t4     ,,*apt] ,,xi4  ,,egoism    
,,v]sus ,,altruism4    #fh4 ,if         
insi/ance on !m t5ds to unsettle        
e/abli%$ sy/ems ( belief1 self-evid5t   
tru?s are by mo/ p sil5tly pass$ ov]2 or
 else !re is a tacit refusal to draw f  
!m ! mo/ obvi\s inf]5ces4  ,(           

self-evid5t tru?s s dealt )1 ! "o :i* "h
 conc]ns u is t a creature mu/ live be=e
 x c act4 ,f ?is x is a coroll>y t !    
acts by :i* ea* ma9ta9s 8 own life mu/1 
speak+ g5]ally1 prec$e 9 imp]ativ5ess   
all o!r acts ( :i* he is capable4 ,= if 
x be ass]t$ t ^! o!r acts mu/ prec$e 9  
imp]ativ5ess ! acts :i* ma9ta9 life2 &  
if ?is1 accept$ z a g5]al law ( conduct1
 is con=m$ to by all1 !n by po/pon+ !   
acts :i* ma9ta9 life to ! o!r acts :i*  
makes life possible1 all mu/ lose _!    
lives4 ,t is to say1 ,e?ics has to      
recognize ! tru?1 recogniz$ 9 une?ical  
?\ght1 t egoism comes be=e altruism4 ,! 
acts requir$ = cont9u$ self-pres]vation1
 includ+ ! enjoym5t ( b5efits a*iev$ by 
su* acts1 are ! fir/ requisites to      
univ]sal welf>e4 ,unless ea* duly c>es =
 himself1 8 c>e = all o!rs is end$ by   
dea?2 & if ea* ?us dies1 !re rema9 no   
o!rs to be c>$ =4  ,?is p]man5t         
supremacy ( egoism ov] altruism1 made   
manife/ by contemplat+ exi/+ life1 is   
fur!r made manife/ by contemplat+ life 9

 c\rse ( evolution4    #fi4 ,^? :o h    
foll[$ ) ass5t ! rec5t c\rse ( ?\ght1 d 
n ne$ tell+ t ?r\gh\t pa/ eras1 ! life1 
va/ 9 am\nt & v>i$ 9 k9d1 :i* has       
ov]spread ! e>?1 has progress$ 9        
subord9ation to ! law t e individual    
%all ga9 by :atev] aptitude x has =     
fulfill+ ! conditions to its exi/5ce4 ,!
 uni=m pr9ciple has be5 t bett]         
adaptation %all br+ great] b5efit2 :i*  
great] b5efit1 :ile increas+ ! prosp]ity
 ( ! bett] adapt$1 %all increase also   
its ability to leave (fspr+ inh]it+ m or
 less its bett] adaptation4 ,&1 by      
implication1 ! uni=m pr9ciple has be5 t 
! ill-adapt$1 disadvantag$ 9 ! /ruggle =
 exi/5ce1 %all be> ! consequ5t evils3   
ei!r disappe>+ :5 its imp]fections are  
extreme1 or else re>+ few] (fspr+1 :i*1 
inh]it+ its imp]fections1 t5d to dw9dle 
away 9 po/]ity4  ,x has be5 ?us ) innate
 sup]iorities2 x has be5 ?us also )     
acquir$ ones4 ,all along ! law has be5 t
 increas$ function br+s increas$ p[]2 & 
t !re=e su* extra activities z aid      

welf>e 9 any memb] ( a race1 produce 9  
its /ructures great] ability to c>ry on 
su* extra activities3 ! d]iv$ advantages
 be+ enjoy$ by x to ! height5+ & l5g!n+ 
( its life4 ,conv]sely1 z less5$        
function ends 9 less5$ /ructure1 !      
dw9dl+ ( unus$ faculties has ev] entail$
 loss ( p[] to a*ieve ! correlative     
ends3 ! result ( inadequate fulfillm5t (
 ! ends be+ dim9i%$ ability to ma9ta9   
life4 ,& by inh]itance1 su* functionally
 produc$ modifications h respectively   
fur!r$ or h9d]$ survival 9 po/]ity4  ,z 
already said1 ! law t ea* creature %all 
take ! b5efits & ! evils ( its nature1  
be !y ^? d]iv$ f ance/ry or ^? due to   
self-produc$ modifications1 has be5 !   
law "u :i* life has evolv$ ?us f>2 & x  
mu/ cont9ue to be ! law h[ev] mu* fur!r 
life may evolve4 ,:atev] qualifications 
?is natural c\rse ( action may n[ or    
h]eaft] und]go1 are qualifications t _c1
 )\t fatal results1 ess5tially *ange x4 
,any arrangem5ts :i* 9 a consid]able    
degree prev5t sup]iority f pr(it+ by !  

rew>ds ( sup]iority1 or %ield inf]iority
 f ! evils x entails--any arrangem5ts   
:i* t5d to make x z well to be inf]ior z
 to be sup]ior1 are arrangem5ts         
diametrically oppos$ to ! progress (    
organization & ! rea*+ ( a high] life4  
,b to say t ea* individual %all reap !  
b5efits br\ght to him by 8 own p[]s1    
inh]it$ & acquir$1 is to enunciate      
egoism z an ultimate pr9ciple ( conduct4
 ,x is to say t egoi/ic claims mu/ take 
prec$5ce ( altrui/ic claims4    #gj4 ,"u
 its biological aspect ?is proposition  
_c be conte/$ by ^? :o agree 9 ! doctr9e
 ( ,evolution2 b probably !y w n at once
 all[ t admission ( x "u its e?ical     
aspect is equally unavoidable4 ,:ile1 z 
respects developm5t ( life1 ! well-work+
 ( ! univ]sal pr9ciple describ$ is      
suffici5tly manife/2 ! well-work+ ( x z 
respects increase ( happ9ess may n be   
se5 at once4 ,b ! two _c be disjo9$4    
,incapacity ( e k9d & ( :atev] degree   
causes unhapp9ess directly &            
indirectly--directly by ! pa9 consequ5t 

on ! ov]tax+ ( inadequate faculty1 &    
indirectly by ! non-fulfillm5t1 or      
imp]fect fulfillm5t1 ( c]ta9 conditions 
to welf>e4 ,conv]sely1 capacity ( e k9d 
suffici5t = ! requirem5t conduces to    
happ9ess imm$iately &                   
remotely--imm$iately by ! pleasure      
accompany+ ! normal ex]cise ( ea* p[] t 
is up to its "w1 & remotely by !        
pleasures :i* are fur!r$ by ! ends      
a*iev$4 ,a creature t is weak or sl[ (  
foot1 & s gets food only by exhau/+     
ef=ts1 or escapes enemies ) difficulty1 
suff]s ! pa9s ( ov]-/ra9$ p[]s1 (       
unsatisfi$ appetites1 ( di/ress$        
emotions2 :ile ! /rong & swift creature 
( ! same species delights 9 its effici5t
 activities1 ga9s m fully !             
satisfactions yield$ by food z well z ! 
r5ew$ vivacity ?is gives1 & has to be>  
few] & small] pa9s 9 def5d+ itself aga9/
 foes or escap+ f !m4 ,simil>ly ) dull] 
& ke5] s5ses1 or high] & l[] degrees (  
sagacity4 ,! m5tally-inf]ior individual 
( any race suff]s negative & positive   

mis]ies2 :ile ! m5tally-sup]ior         
individual receives negative & positive 
gratifications4 ,inevitably1 !n1 ?is law
 9 con=mity ) :i* ea* memb] ( a species 
takes ! consequ5ces ( its own nature2 & 
9 virtue ( :i* ! prog5y ( ea* memb]1    
p>ticipat+ 9 its nature1 also takes su* 
consequ5ces2 is "o t t5ds ev] to raise !
 aggregate happ9ess ( ! species1 by     
fur!r+ ! multiplication ( ! happi] &    
h9d]+ t ( ! less happy4  ,all ?is is    
true ( human be+s z ( o!r be+s4 ,!      
conclusion =c$ on u is t ! pursuit (    
individual happ9ess )9 ^? limits        
prescrib$ by social conditions1 is !    
fir/ requisite to ! atta9m5t ( ! greate/
 g5]al happ9ess4 ,to see ?is x ne$s b to
 contra/ "o ^: self-reg>d has ma9ta9$   
bodily well-be+1 ) "o ^: reg>dlessness (
 self has br\ght its natural results2 & 
!n to ask :at mu/ be ! contra/ betwe5   
two societies =m$ ( two su* k9ds (      
individuals4  ,b\nd+ out ( b$ aft] an   
unbrok5 sleep1 s++ or :i/l+ z he        
dresses1 com+ d[n ) beam+ face ready to 

laugh on ! smalle/ provocation1 ! heal?y
 man ( high p[]s1 consci\s ( pa/        
successes & by 8 en]gy1 quickness1      
res\rce1 made confid5t ( ! future1 ent]s
 on ! day's bus9ess n ) repugnance1 b ) 
gladness2 & f h\r to h\r exp]i5c+       
satisfactions f "w effectually done1    
comes home ) an abundant surplus ( en]gy
 rema9+ = h\rs ( relaxation4 ,f> o!rwise
 is x ) "o :o is enfeebl$ by great      
neglect ( self4 ,already defici5t1 8    
en]gies are made m defici5t by con/ant  
endeavors to execute tasks t prove      
beyond 8 /r5g?1 & by ! result+          
disc\ragem5t4 ,besides ! depress+       
consci\sness ( ! imm$iate future1 !re is
 ! depress+ consci\sness ( ! remot]     
future1 ) its probability ( accumulat$  
difficulties & dim9i%$ ability to meet  
!m4 ,h\rs ( leisure :i*1 rightly pass$1 
br+ pleasures t raise ! tide ( life &   
r5ew ! p[]s ( "w1 _c be utiliz$3 !re is 
n vigor en\gh = enjoym5ts involv+       
action1 & lack ( spirits prev5ts passive
 enjoym5ts f be+ ent]$ ^u ) ze/4 ,9     

brief1 life becomes a burd54 ,n[ if1 z  
mu/ be admitt$1 9 a community compos$ ( 
individuals l ! fir/1 ! happ9ess w be   
relatively great1 :ile 9 "o compos$ (   
individuals l ! la/1 !re w be relatively
 little happ9ess1 or r mu* mis]y2 x mu/ 
be admitt$ t conduct caus+ ! "o result  
is good1 & conduct caus+ ! o!r is bad4  
,b dim9utions ( g5]al happ9ess are      
produc$ by inadequate egoism 9 sev]al   
o!r ways4 ,^! we w successively glance  
at4    #ga4 ,if !re 7 no pro(s (        
h]$ity--if x 7 ! rule t ! /rong are     
usually begott5 by ! weak1 :ile ! weak  
usually desc5d f ! /rong1 t vivaci\s    
*ildr5 =m ! families ( melan*oly p>5ts1 
:ile fa!rs & mo!rs ) ov]fl[+ spirits    
mo/ly h dull prog5y1 t f /olid peasants 
!re ord9>ily come sons ( high           
intellig5ce :ile ! sons ( ! cultur$ are 
commonly fit = no?+ b foll[+ ! pl[--if  
!re 7 no transmission ( g\t1 scr(ula1   
insanity1 & did ! diseas$ habitually    
give bir? to ! heal?y & ! heal?y to !   
diseas$1 writ]s on ,e?ics might be      

ju/ifi$ 9 ignor+ ^? effects ( conduct   
:i* are felt by po/]ity ?r\gh ! natures 
!y inh]it4  ,z x is1 h[ev]1 ! curr5t    
ideas conc]n+ ! relative claims ( egoism
 & altruism are vitiat$ by ! omission ( 
?is all all-important factor4 ,= if     
heal?1 /r5g? & capacity1 are usually    
transmitt$2 & if disease1 feebl5ess1    
/upidity1 g5]ally reappe> 9 desc5dants2 
!n a rational altruism requires         
insi/ance on t egoism :i* is %[n by     
receipt ( ! satisfactions accompany+    
pres]vation ( body & m9d 9 ! be/ /ate4  
,! necess>y implication is t bless+s are
 provid$ = (fspr+ by due self-reg>d1    
:ile disreg>d ( self c>ri$ too f>       
provides curses4 ,:51 inde$1 we rememb] 
h[ commonly x is rem>k$ t high heal? &  
ov]fl[+ spirits r5d] any lot 9 life     
tol]able1 :ile *ronic ailm5ts make      
gloomy a life mo/ favorably circum/anc$1
 x becomes amaz+ t bo? ! _w at l>ge &   
writ]s :o make conduct _! /udy1 %\ld    
ignore ! t]rible evils :i* disreg>d (   
p]sonal well-be+ inflicts on ! unborn1 &

 ! incalculable good laid up = ! unborn 
by att5tion to p]sonal well-be+4 ,( all 
beque/s ( p>5ts to *ildr5 ! mo/ valuable
 is a s\nd con/itution4 ,?\gh a man's   
body is n a prop]ty t c be inh]it$1 yet 
8 con/itution may fitly be comp>$ to an 
entail$ e/ate2 & if he rightly und]/&s 8
 duty to po/]ity1 he w see t he is b\nd 
to pass on t e/ate un9jur$ if n improv$4
 ,to say ?is is to say t he mu/ be      
egoi/ic to ! ext5t ( satisfy+ all ^?    
desires associat$ ) ! due p]=mance (    
functions4 ,nay1 x is to say m4 ,x is to
 say t he mu/ seek 9 due am\nts ! v>i\s 
pleasures :i* life (f]s4 ,= beyond !    
effect ^! h 9 rais+ ! tide ( life &     
ma9ta9+ con/itutional vigor1 !re is !   
effect !y h 9 pres]v+ & increas+ a      
capacity = receiv+ enjoym5t4 ,end[$ )   
abundant en]gies & v>i\s ta/es1 "s c get
 gratifications ( _m k9ds on            
opportunities h\rly occurr+2 :ile o!rs  
are s in]t1 & s un9t]e/$ 9 ?+s ar\nd1 t 
!y _c ev5 take ! tr\ble to amuse        
!mselves4 ,& unless h]$ity be d5i$1 !   

inf]5ce mu/ be t due acceptance ( !     
miscellane\s pleasures life (f]s1       
conduces to ! capacity = enjoym5t 9     
po/]ity2 & t p]si/5ce 9 dull monoton\s  
lives by p>5ts1 dim9i%es ! ability ( _! 
desc5dants to make ! be/ ( :at          
gratifications fall to !m4    #gb4      
,beyond ! decrease ( g5]al happ9ess :i* 
results 9 ?is indirect way1 if egoism is
 unduly subord9at$1 !re is a decrease ( 
g5]al happ9ess :i* results 9 a direct   
way4 ,he :o c>ries self-reg>d f> en\gh  
to keep himself 9 good heal? & high     
spirits1 9 ! fir/ place1 !reby becomes  
an imm$iate s\rce ( happ9ess to ^?      
ar\nd1 &1 9 ! second place1 ma9ta9s !   
ability to increase _! happ9ess by      
altrui/ic actions4 ,b "o ^: bodily vigor
 & m5tal heal? are und]m9$ by           
self-sacrifice c>ri$ too f>1 9 ! fir/   
place becomes to ^? ar\nd a cause (     
depression1 &1 9 ! second place1 r5d]s  
himself incapable1 or less capable1 (   
actively fur!r+ _! welf>e4  ,9 e/imat+  
conduct we mu/ rememb] t !re are ^? :o  

by _! joy\sness beget joy 9 o!rs1 & t   
!re are ^? :o by _! melan*oly ca/ a     
gloom on e circle !y ent]4 ,& we mu/    
rememb] t by display ( ov]fl[+ happ9ess 
a man ( ! "o k9d may add to ! happ9ess (
 o!rs m ?an by positive ef=ts to b5efit 
!m1 & t a man ( ! o!r k9d may decrease  
_! happ9ess m by 8 pres5ce ?an he       
increases x by 8 actions4 ,full (       
vivacity ! "o is ev] welcome4 ,= 8 wife 
he has smiles & jocose spee*es2 = 8     
*ildr5 /ores ( fun & play2 = 8 fri5ds   
pleasant talk int]sp]s$ ) ! sallies (   
wit t come f buoyancy4 ,contr>iwise1 !  
o!r is %unn$4 ,! irritability result+ n[
 f ailm5ts1 n[ f failures caus$ by      
feebl5ess1 8 family has daily to be>4   
,lack+ adequate en]gy = jo9+ 9 !m1 he   
has at be/ b a tepid int]e/ 9 !         
amusem5ts ( 8 *ildr51 & he is call$ a   
wet blanket by 8 fri5ds4 ,little acc\nt 
z our e?ical reason+s take note ( x1 yet
 is ! fact obvi\s t s9ce happ9ess &     
mis]y are infecti\s1 su* reg>d = self z 
conduces to heal? & high spirits is a   

b5efaction to o!rs1 & su* disreg>d (    
self z br+s on suff]+1 bodily or m5tal1 
is a malefaction to o!rs4  ,! duty (    
mak+ "o's self agreeable by seem+ to be 
pleas$1 is1 inde$1 (t5 urg$1 & ?us to   
gratify fri5ds is applaud$ s long z     
self-sacrific+ ef=t is impli$4 ,b ?\gh  
display ( real happ9ess gratifies fri5ds
 f> m ?an display ( %am happ9ess1 & has 
no drawback 9 ! %ape ei!r ( hypocrisy or
 /ra91 yet x is n ?\ght a duty to       
fulfill ! conditions :i* favor ! display
 ( real happ9ess4 ,nev]!less1 if        
quantity ( happ9ess produc$ is to be !  
measure1 ! la/ is m imp]ative ?an !     
fir/4  ,& !n1 z above indicat$1 beyond  
?is prim>y s]ies ( effects produc$ on   
o!rs !re is a second>y s]ies ( effects4 
,! adequately egoi/ic individual reta9s 
^? p[]s :i* make altrui/ic activities   
possible4 ,! individual :o is           
inadequately egoi/ic loses m or less ( 8
 ability to be altrui/ic4 ,! tru? ( ! "o
 proposition is self-evid5t1 & ! tru? ( 
! o!r is daily =c$ on u by examples4    

,note a few ( !m4  ,"h is a "m :o1      
br\ght up 9 ! insane fa%ion usual among 
! cultivat$1 has a physique n /rong     
en\gh = suckl+ h] infant1 b :o1 kn[+ t  
its natural food is ! be/1 & anxi\s =   
its welf>e1 cont9ues to give x milk = a 
long] "t ?an h] sy/em w be>4 ,ev5tually 
! accumulat+ reaction tells4 ,!re comes 
exhau/ion runn+1 x may be1 into illness 
caus$ by depletion2 occasionally end+ 9 
dea?1 & (t5 entail+ *ronic weakness4 ,%e
 becomes1 p]haps = a "t1 p]haps         
p]man5tly1 incapable ( c>ry+ on h\sehold
 affairs2 h] o!r *ildr5 suff] f ! loss (
 mat]nal att5tion2 & :]e ! income is    
small1 paym5ts = nurse & doctor tell    
injuri\sly on ! :ole family4  ,in/ance1 
aga91 :at n unfrequ5tly happ5s ) ! fa!r4
 ,simil>ly prompt$ by a high s5se (     
obligation1 & misl$ by curr5t moral     
!ories into ! notion t self-d5ial may   
rightly be c>ri$ to any ext5t1 he daily 
cont9ues 8 (fice "w = long h\rs         
reg>dless ( hot head & cold feet2 &     
deb>s himself f social pleasures1 = :i* 

he ?9ks he c af=d nei!r "t nor money4   
,:at comes ( ?is entirely unegoi/ic     
c\rse8 ,ev5tually a sudd5 collapse1     
sleeplessness1 inability to "w4 ,t re/  
:i* he w\ld n give himself :5 8         
s5sations prompt$1 he has n[ to take 9  
long measure4 ,! extra e>n+s laid by = !
 b5efit ( 8 family are quickly swept    
away by co/ly j\rneys 9 aid ( recov]y1 &
 by ! _m exp5ses :i* illness entails4   
,in/ead ( increas$ ability to d 8 duty  
by 8 (fspr+1 !re comes n[ inability4    
,life-long evils on !m replace hop$-=   
goods4  ,& s is x1 too1 ) ! social      
effects ( inadequate egoism4 ,all grades
 furni% examples ( ! mis*iefs1 positive 
& negative1 inflict$ on society by      
excessive neglect ( self4 ,n[ ! case is 
t ( a labor] :o1 consci5ti\sly cont9u+ 8
 "w "u a broil+ sun1 spite ( viol5t     
prote/ f 8 feel+s1 dies ( sun/roke2 &   
leaves 8 family a burd5 to ! p>i%4 ,n[ !
 case is t ( a cl]k ^: eyes p]man5tly   
fail f ov]-/ra9+1 or :o1 daily writ+ =  
h\rs aft] 8 f+]s are pa9fully cramp$1 is

 attack$ ) scriv5]'s palsy1 &1 unable to
 write at all1 s9ks ) ag$ p>5ts into    
pov]ty :i* fri5ds are call$ on to       
mitigate4 ,& n[ ! case is t ( a man     
devot$ to public ends :o1 %att]+ 8 heal?
 by ceaseless application1 fails to     
a*ieve all he might h a*iev$ by a m     
reasonable apportionm5t ( 8 "t betwe5   
labor on behalf ( o!rs & m9i/ration to 8
 own ne$s4    #gc4 ,9 "o fur!r way is ! 
undue subord9ation ( egoism to altruism 
injuri\s4 ,bo? directly & indirectly    
unselfi%ness pu%$ to excess g5]ates     
selfi%ness4  ,consid] fir/ ! imm$iate   
effects4 ,t "o man may yield up to ano!r
 a gratification1 x is ne$ful t ! o!r   
%all accept x2 & :]e ! gratification is 
( a k9d to :i* _! respective claims are 
equal1 or :i* is no m requir$ by ! "o   
?an by ! o!r1 acceptance implies a      
read9ess to get gratification at ano!r's
 co/4 ,! circum/ances & ne$s ( ! two be+
 alike1 ! transaction involves z mu*    
culture ( egoism 9 ! la/ z x involves   
culture ( altruism 9 ! fir/4 ,x is true 

t n unfrequ5tly1 diff]5ce betwe5 _!     
means or diff]5ce betwe5 _! appetites = 
a pleasure :i* ! "o has _h (t5 & ! o!r  
r>ely1 dive/s ! acceptance ( ?is "*2 & x
 is true t 9 o!r cases ! b5efactor      
manife/ly takes s mu* pleasure 9 giv+   
pleasure1 t ! sacrifice is p>tial1 & !  
reception ( x n :olly selfi%4 ,b to see 
! effect above indicat$ we mu/ exclude  
su* inequalities1 & consid] :at happ5s  
:]e wants are approximately alike & :]e 
! sacrifices1 n reciprocat$ at int]vals1
 are p]petually on "o side4 ,s re/rict+ 
! inquiry all c "n in/ances v]ify+ !    
alleg$ result4 ,e "o c rememb] circles 9
 :i* ! daily surr5d] ( b5efits by !     
g5]\s to ! gre$y1 has caus$ increase (  
gre$9ess1 until !re has be5 produc$ an  
unscrupul\s egoism intol]able to all    
ar\nd4 ,!re are obvi\s social effects ( 
k9dr$ nature4 ,mo/ ?9k+ p n[ recognize !
 demoralization caus$ by indiscrim9ate  
*>ity4 ,!y see h[ 9 ! m5dicant !re is1  
besides de/ruction ( ! normal relation  
betwe5 labor exp5d$ & b5efit obta9$1 a  

g5esis ( ! expectation t o!rs %all m9i/]
 to 8 ne$s2 %[+ itself sometimes 9 !    
v5t+ ( curses on ^? :o refuse4  ,next   
consid] ! remote results4 ,:5 ! egoi/ic 
claims are s mu* subord9at$ to !        
altrui/ic z to produce physical mis*ief1
 ! t5d5cy is t[>d a relative decrease 9 
! numb] ( ! altrui/ic & !re=e an        
increas$ pr$om9ance ( ! egoi/ic4 ,pu%$  
to extremes1 sacrifice ( self = ! b5efit
 ( o!rs leads occasionally to dea? be=e 
! ord9>y p]iod ( m>riage2 leads         
sometimes to ab/5tion f m>riage1 z 9    
si/]s ( *>ity2 leads sometimes to an    
ill-heal? or a loss ( attractiv5ess :i* 
prev5ts m>riage2 leads sometimes to     
non-acquirem5t ( ! pecuni>y means ne$$ =
 m>riage2 & 9 all ^! cases1 !re=e1 !    
unusually altrui/ic leave no desc5dants4
 ,:]e ! po/ponem5t ( p]sonal welf>e to !
 welf>e ( o!rs has n be5 c>ri$ s f> z to
 prev5t m>riage1 x yet n unfrequ5tly    
occurs t ! physical degradation result+ 
f ye>s ( self-neglect causes inf]tility2
 s t aga9 ! mo/ altrui/ically natur$    

leave no l natur$ po/]ity4 ,& !n 9 less 
m>k$ & m num]\s cases1 ! result+        
enfeeblem5t %[s itself by ! production (
 relatively weak (fspr+2 ( :om "s die   
e>ly1 :ile ! re/ are less likely ?an    
usual to transmit ! p>5tal type to      
future g5]ations4 ,inevitably1 !n1 by   
?is dy+ out ( ! especially unegoi/ic1   
!re is prev5t$ t desirable mitigation ( 
egoism 9 ! av]age nature :i* w\ld else h
 tak5 place4 ,su* disreg>d ( self z br+s
 d[n bodily vigor bel[ ! normal level1  
ev5tually produces 9 ! society a        
c\nt]balanc+ excess ( reg>d = self4     
#gd4 ,t egoism prec$es altruism 9 ord] (
 imp]ativ5ess1 is ?us cle>ly %[n4 ,!    
acts :i* make cont9u$ life possible1    
mu/1 on ! av]age1 be m p]emptory ?an all
 ^? o!r acts :i* life makes possible1   
includ+ ! acts :i* b5efit o!rs4 ,turn+ f
 life z exi/+ to life z evolv+1 we are  
equally %[n ?is4 ,s5ti5t be+s h         
progress$ f l[ to high types1 "u ! law t
 ! sup]ior %all pr(it by _! sup]iority &
 ! inf]ior %all suff] f _! inf]iority4  

,con=mity to ?is law has be51 & is /ill1
 ne$ful1 n only = ! cont9uance ( life b 
= ! increase ( happ9ess3 s9ce ! sup]ior 
are ^? hav+ faculties bett] adju/$ to ! 
requirem5ts--faculties1 !re=e1 :i* br+ 9
 _! ex]cise great] pleasure & less pa94 
,m special consid]ations jo9 ^! m g5]al 
ones 9 %[+ u ?is tru?4 ,su* egoism z    
pres]ves a vivaci\s m9d 9 a vigor\s body
 fur!rs ! happ9ess ( desc5dants1 ^:     
inh]it$ con/itutions make ! labors (    
life easy & its pleasures ke52 :ile1    
conv]sely1 unhapp9ess is entail$ on     
po/]ity by ^? :o bequea? !m con/itutions
 injur$ by self-neglect4 ,aga91 !       
individual ^: well-cons]v$ life %[s     
itself 9 ov]fl[+ spirits1 becomes1 by 8 
m]e exi/5ce1 a s\rce ( pleasure to all  
ar\nd2 :ile ! depression :i* commonly   
accompanies ill-heal? diffuses itself   
?r\gh family & among fri5ds4 ,a fur!r   
contra/ is t :]eas "o :o has be5 duly   
reg>dful ( self reta9s ! p[] ( be+      
helpful to o!rs1 !re results f          
self-abnegation 9 excess1 n only an     

inability to help o!rs b ! infliction ( 
positive burd5s on !m4 ,la/ly1 we come  
^u ! tru? t undue altruism increases    
egoism1 bo? directly 9 contempor>ies &  
indirectly 9 po/]ity4  ,& n[ obs]ve t   
?\gh ! g5]al conclusion en=c$ by ^!     
special conclusions is at v>iance )     
nom9ally accept$ beliefs1 x is n at     
v>iance ) actually accept$ beliefs4     
,:ile oppos$ to ! doctr9e :i* m5 are    
taught %\ld be act$ ^u1 x is 9 h>mony ) 
! doctr9e :i* !y d act ^u & dimly see   
mu/ be act$ ^u4 ,= omitt+ su*           
abnormalities ( conduct z are in/anc$   
above1 e "o1 alike by de$ & ^w1 implies 
t 9 ! bus9ess ( life p]sonal welf>e is !
 prim>y consid]ation4 ,! labor] look+ = 
wages 9 return = "w done1 no less ?an ! 
m]*ant :o sells goods at a pr(it1 !     
doctor :o expects fees = advice1 ! prie/
 :o calls ! sc5e ( 8 m9i/rations a liv+1
 assumes z beyond "q ! tru? t           
selfi%ness1 c>ri$ to ! ext5t ( en=c+ 8  
claims & enjoy+ ! returns 8 ef=ts br+1  
is n only legitimate b ess5tial4 ,ev5   

p]sons :o av[ a contr>y conviction prove
 by _! acts t x is inop]ative4 ,^? :o   
repeat ) emphasis ! maxim1 ,love y\r    
neighbor z y\rself1 d n r5d] up :at !y  
possess s z to satisfy ! desires ( all z
 mu* z !y satisfy _! own desires4 ,nor d
 ^? ^: extreme maxim is1 ,live = o!rs1  
diff] appreciably f p ar\nd 9 _! reg>ds 
= p]sonal welf>e1 or fail to appropriate
 _! %>es ( life's pleasures4 ,9 %ort1 t 
:i* is above set =? z ! belief to :i*   
sci5tific e?ics leads u1 is t :i* m5 d  
really believe1 z di/+ui%$ f t :i* !y   
believe !y believe4  ,f9ally1 x may be  
rem>k$ t a rational egoism1 s f> f      
imply+ a m egoi/ic human nature1 is     
consi/5t ) a human nature t is less     
egoi/ic4 ,= excesses 9 "o direction d n 
prev5t excesses 9 ! opposite direction2 
b r1 extreme deviations f ! mean on "o  
side lead to extreme deviations on ! o!r
 side4 ,a society 9 :i* ! mo/ exalt$    
pr9ciples ( self-sacrifice = ! b5efit ( 
neighbors are enunciat$1 may be a       
society 9 :i* unscrupul\s sacrifice (   

ali5 fell[-creatures is n only tol]at$ b
 applaud$4 ,along ) pr(ess$ anxiety to  
spread ^! exalt$ pr9ciples among hea!ns1
 !re may g ! delib]ate fa/5+ ( a qu>rel 
^u !m ) a view to annex+ _! t]ritory4   
,m5 :o e ,sunday h li/5$ approv+ly to   
injunctions c>ry+ ! reg>d = o!r m5 to an
 impracticable ext5t1 may yet hire      
!mselves out to slay1 at ! ^w ( comm&1  
any p 9 any "p ( ! _w1 utt]ly indiff]5t 
to ! "r or wrong ( ! matt] f\ght ab\t4  
,& z 9 ^! cases transc5d5t altruism 9   
!ory co-exi/s ) brutal egoism 9         
practice1 s conv]sely1 a m qualifi$     
altruism may h = its concomitant a      
greatly mod]at$ egoism4 ,= ass]t+ ! due 
claims ( self1 is1 by implication1 draw+
 a limit beyond :i* ! claims are undue2 
& is1 by consequ5ce1 br++ into great]   
cle>ness ! claims ( o!rs4     ,,*apt]   
,,xii4  ,,altruism ,,v]sus ,,egoism4    
#ge4 ,if we def9e altruism z be+ all    
action :i*1 9 ! normal c\rse ( ?+s1     
b5efits o!rs in/ead ( b5efit+ self1 !n1 
f ! dawn ( life1 altruism has be5 no    

less ess5tial ?an egoism4 ,?\gh1        
prim>ily1 x is dep5d5t on egoism1 yet1  
second>ily1 egoism is dep5d5t on x4  ,"u
 altruism1 9 ?is compreh5sive s5se1 ,i  
take 9 ! acts by :i* (fspr+ are pres]v$ 
& ! species ma9ta9$4 ,moreov]1 among ^! 
acts mu/ be includ$ n su* only z are    
accompani$ by consci\sness b also su* z 
conduce to ! welf>e ( (fspr+ )\t m5tal  
repres5tation ( ! welf>e--acts (        
automatic altruism z we may call !m4    
,nor mu/ !re be left out ^? l[e/        
altrui/ic acts :i* subs]ve              
race-ma9t5ance )\t imply+ ev5 automatic 
n]v\s processes--acts n 9 ! remote/ s5se
 psy*ical1 b 9 a lit]al s5se physical4  
,:atev] action1 unconsci\s or consci\s1 
involves exp5diture ( individual life to
 ! end ( increas+ life 9 o!r            
individuals1 is unque/ionably altrui/ic 
9 a s5se1 if n 9 ! usual s5se1 & x is "h
 ne$ful to und]/& x 9 ?is s5se t we may 
see h[ consci\s altruism gr[s out (     
unconsci\s altruism4  ,! simple/ be+s   
habitually multiply by spontane\s       

fission4 ,physical altruism ( ! l[e/    
k9d1 diff]5tiat+ f physical egoism1 may1
 9 ?is case1 be consid]$ z n yet        
indep5d5t ( x4 ,= s9ce ! two halves :i*1
 be=e fission1 con/itut$ ! individual1 d
 n on divid+ disappe>1 we mu/ say t ?\gh
 ! individuality ( ! p>5t infusorium or 
o!r protozoon is lo/ 9 ceas+ to be s+le1
 yet ! old individual cont9ues to exi/ 9
 ea* ( ! new individuals4 ,:51 h[ev]1 z 
happ5s g5]ally ) ^! smalle/ animals1 an 
int]val ( quiesc5ce ends 9 ! break+ up (
 ! :ole body into m9ute p>ts1 ea* ( :i* 
is ! g]m ( a "y "o1 we see ! p>5t       
entirely sacrific$ 9 =m+ prog5y4  ,"h   
might be describ$ h[ among creatures (  
high] grades1 by fission or gemmation1  
p>5ts bequea? p>ts ( _! bodies1 m or    
less organiz$1 to =m (fspr+ at ! co/ (  
_! own individualities4 ,num]\s examples
 might also be giv5 ( ! ways 9 :i* !    
developm5t ( ova is c>ri$ to ! ext5t (  
mak+ ! p>5tal body little m ?an a       
receptacle = !m3 ! implication be+ t !  
accumulations ( nutrim5t :i* p>5tal     

activities h laid up1 are dispos$ ( = ! 
b5efit ( po/]ity4 ,& !n might be dwelt  
on ! multitud9\s cases :]e1 z g5]ally   
?r\gh\t ! insect-_w1 maturity hav+ be5  
rea*$ & a new g5]ation provid$ =1 life  
ends3 dea? foll[s ! sacrifices made =   
prog5y4  ,b leav+ ^! l[] types 9 :i* !  
altruism is physical only1 or 9 :i* x is
 physical & automatically psy*ical only1
 let u asc5d to ^? 9 :i* x is also1 to a
 consid]able degree1 consci\s4 ,?\gh1 9 
birds & mammals1 su* p>5tal activities1 
z are guid$ by in/9ct1 are accompani$ by
 ei!r no repres5tations or b vague      
repres5tations ( ! b5efits :i* ! "y     
receive1 yet !re are also 9 !m actions  
:i* we may class z altrui/ic 9 ! high]  
s5se4 ,! agitation :i* creatures ( ^!   
classes %[ :5 _! "y are 9 dang]1 jo9$   
(t5 ) ef=ts on _! behalf1 z well z grief
 display$ aft] loss ( _! "y1 make x     
manife/ t 9 !m p>5tal altruism has a    
concomitant ( emotion4  ,^? :o und]/& by
 altruism only ! consci\s sacrifice (   
self to o!rs among human be+s1 w ?9k x  

/range1 or ev5 absurd1 to ext5d its     
mean+ s widely4 ,b ! ju/ification = do+ 
?is is great] ?an has ?us f> appe>$4 ,i 
d n mean m]ely t 9 ! c\rse ( evolution1 
!re has be5 a progress ?r\gh            
inf9itesimal gradations f purely        
physical & unconsci\s sacrifices ( !    
individual = ! welf>e ( ! species1 up to
 sacrifices consci\sly made4 ,i mean t f
 fir/ to la/ ! sacrifices are1 :5 r$uc$ 
to _! l[e/ t]ms1 ( ! same ess5tial      
nature3 to ! la/1 z at fir/1 !re is     
involv$ a loss ( bodily sub/ance4 ,:5 a 
"p ( ! p>5tal body is deta*$ 9 ! %ape ( 
gemmule1 or egg1 or foetus1 ! mat]ial   
sacrifice is conspicu\s3 & :5 ! "m      
yields milk by absorb+ :i* ! "y "o gr[s1
 x _c be que/ion$ t !re is also a       
mat]ial sacrifice4 ,b ?\gh a mat]ial    
sacrifice is n manife/ :5 ! "y are      
b5efitt$ by activities on _! behalf2    
yet1 z no ef=t c be made )\t an         
equival5t wa/e ( tissue1 & z ! bodily   
loss is proportionate to ! exp5diture t 
takes place )\t reimbursem5t 9 food     

consum$1 x foll[s t ef=ts made 9 fo/]+  
(fspr+ d really repres5t a "p ( ! p>5tal
 sub/ance2 :i* is n[ giv5 indirectly    
in/ead ( directly4  ,self-sacrifice1 !n1
 is no less primordial ?an              
self-pres]vation4 ,be+ 9 its simple     
physical =m absolutely necess>y = !     
cont9uance ( life f ! beg9n+2 & be+     
ext5d$ "u its automatic =m1 z           
indisp5sable to ma9t5ance ( race 9 types
 consid]ably advanc$2 & be+ develop$ to 
its semi-consci\s & consci\s =ms1 along 
) ! cont9u$ & complicat$ att5dance by   
:i* ! (fspr+ ( sup]ior creatures are    
br\ght to maturity1 altruism has be5    
evolv+ simultane\sly ) egoism4 ,z 0     
po9t$ out 9 an e>ly *apt]1 ! same       
sup]iorities :i* h enabl$ ! individual  
to pres]ve itself bett]1 h enabl$ x     
bett] to pres]ve ! individuals d]iv$ f  
x2 & ea* high] species1 us+ its improv$ 
faculties prim>ily = egoi/ic b5efit1 has
 spread 9 proportion z x has us$ !m     
second>ily = altrui/ic b5efit4  ,!      
imp]ativ5ess ( altruism z ?us und]/ood1 

is1 inde$1 no less ?an ! imp]ativ5ess ( 
egoism 0 %[n to be 9 ! la/ *apt]4 ,=    
:ile1 on ! "o h&1 a fall+ %ort ( normal 
egoi/ic acts entails enfeeblem5t or loss
 ( life1 & !re=e loss ( ability to p]=m 
altrui/ic acts1 on ! o!r h&1 su* defect 
( altrui/ic acts z causes dea? ( (fspr+ 
or inadequate developm5t ( !m1 involves 
disappe>ance f future g5]ations ( !     
nature t is n altrui/ic en\gh--s        
decreas+ ! av]age egoism4 ,9 %ort1 e    
species is cont9ually purify+ itself f !
 unduly egoi/ic individuals1 :ile !re   
are be+ lo/ to x ! unduly altrui/ic     
individuals4    #gf4 ,z !re has be5 an  
advance by degrees f unconsci\s p>5tal  
altruism to consci\s p>5tal altruism ( !
 highe/ k9d1 s has !re be5 an advance by
 degrees f ! altruism ( ! family to     
social altruism4  ,a fact to be fir/    
not$ is t only :]e altrui/ic relations 9
 ! dome/ic gr\p h rea*$ highly-develop$ 
=ms1 d !re arise conditions mak+        
possible full developm5t ( altrui/ic    
relations 9 ! political gr\p4 ,tribes 9 

:i* promiscuity prevails1 or 9 :i* !    
m>ital relations are transitory1 &      
tribes 9 :i* poly&ry entails 9 ano!r way
 indef9ite relation%ips1 are incapable (
 mu* organization4 ,nor d peoples :o are
 habitually polygam\s %[ !mselves able  
to take on ^? high =ms ( social         
co-op]ation :i* dem& due subord9ation ( 
self to o!rs4 ,only :]e monogamic       
m>riage has become g5]al & ev5tually    
univ]sal--only :]e !re h consequ5tly be5
 e/abli%$ ! close/ ties ( blood--only   
:]e family altruism has be5 mo/ fo/]$1  
has social altruism become conspicu\s4  
,x ne$s b to recall ! comp\nd =ms ( !   
,aryan family1 z describ$ by ,sir ,h5ry 
,ma9e & o!rs1 to see t family feel+1    
fir/ ext5d+ itself to ! g5s & ! tribe1 &
 aft]w>d to ! society =m$ ( relat$      
tribes1 prep>$ ! way = fell[ feel+ among
 citiz5s n ( ! same /ock4  ,recogniz+   
?is natural transition1 we are "h *iefly
 conc]n$ to obs]ve t ?r\gh\t ! latt]    
/ages ( ! progress1 z ?r\gh\t ! =m]1    
increase ( egoi/ic satisfactions has    

dep5d$ on gr[? ( reg>d = ! satisfactions
 ( o!rs4 ,on contemplat+ a l9e (        
successive p>5ts & (fspr+1 we see t ea*1
 enabl$ :ile "y to live by ! sacrifices 
pr$ecessors make = x1 itself makes1 :5  
adult1 equival5t sacrifices =           
successors1 & t1 9 default ( ?is g5]al  
balanc+ ( b5efits receiv$ by b5efits    
giv52 ! l9e dies out4 ,simil>ly1 x is   
manife/ t 9 a society ea* g5]ation (    
memb]s1 indebt$ = su* b5efits z social  
organization yields !m to prec$+        
g5]ations1 :o h by _! sacrifices        
elaborat$ ?is organization1 are call$ on
 to make = succe$+ g5]ations su* k9dr$  
sacrifices z %all at lea/ ma9ta9 ?is    
organization1 if !y d n improve x3 !    
alt]native be+ decay & ev5tual          
dissolution ( ! society1 imply+ gradual 
decrease 9 ! egoi/ic satisfactions ( its
 memb]s4  ,& n[ we are prep>$ to consid]
 ! sev]al ways 9 :i*1 "u social         
conditions1 p]sonal welf>e dep5ds on due
 reg>d = ! welf>e ( o!rs4 ,already !    
conclusions to be drawn h be5 =e%ad[$4  

,z 9 ! *apt] on ! biological view 7     
impli$ ! inf]5ces def9itely set =? 9 !  
la/ *apt]1 s 9 ! *apt] on ! sociological
 view 7 impli$ ! inf]5ces to be         
def9itely set =? "h4 ,sundry ( ^! are   
trite en\gh1 b !y mu/1 nev]!less1 be    
specifi$1 s9ce ! /atem5t w\ld be        
incomplete )\t !m4    #gg4 ,fir/1 to be 
dealt ) comes t negative altruism impli$
 by su* curb+ ( ! egoi/ic impulses z    
prev5ts direct aggression4  ,z be=e %[n1
 if m5 in/ead ( liv+ sep>ately are to   
unite = def5se or = o!r purposes1 !y mu/
 sev]ally reap m good ?an evil f !      
union4 ,on ! av]age1 ea* mu/ lose less f
 ! antagonisms ( ^? ) :om he is         
associat$ ?an he ga9s by ! association4 
,at ! outset1 !re=e1 t increase (       
egoi/ic satisfactions :i* ! social /ate 
br+s1 c be pur*as$ only by altruism     
suffici5t to cause "s recognition (     
o!rs' claims3 if n a volunt>y           
recognition1 /ill1 a compulsory         
recognition4  ,:ile ! recognition is b (
 t l[e/ k9d due to dread ( retaliation1 

or ( prescrib$ puni%m5t1 ! egoi/ic ga9 f
 association is small1 & x becomes      
consid]able only z ! recognition becomes
 volunt>y--t is1 m altrui/ic4 ,:]e1 z   
among "s ( ! wild ,au/ralians1 !re exi/s
 no limit to ! "r ( ! /ronge/1 & ! m5   
fight to get possession ( wom5 :ile !   
wives ( "o man fight among !mselves ab\t
 him1 ! pursuit ( egoi/ic satisfactions 
is greatly imp$$4 ,besides ! bodily pa9 
occasionally giv5 to ea* by conflict1 & 
! m or less ( subsequ5t inability to    
a*ieve p]sonal ends1 !re is ! wa/e (    
en]gy entail$ 9 ma9ta9+ read9ess =      
self-def5se1 & !re is ! accompany+      
occupation ( consci\sness by emotions t 
are on ! av]age ( cases disagreeable4   
,moreov]1 ! prim>y end ( safety1 9      
pres5ce ( ext]nal foes1 is ill-atta9$ 9 
proportion z !re are int]nal            
animosities1 su* fur!rance (            
satisfactions z indu/rial co-op]ation   
br+s _c be _h1 & !re is little motive to
 labor = extra b5efits :5 ! products (  
labor are insecure4 ,& f ?is e>ly /age  

to comp>atively late /ages we may trace 
9 ! we>+ ( arms1 9 ! c>ry+ on ( family  
feuds1 & 9 ! tak+ ( daily precautions = 
safety1 ! ways 9 :i* ! egoi/ic          
satisfactions ( ea* are dim9i%$ by      
defici5cy ( t altruism :i* *ecks ov]t   
injury ( o!rs4  ,! private int]e/s ( !  
individual are on ! av]age bett]        
subs]v$1 n only 9 proportion z he       
himself refra9s f direct aggression1 b  
also1 on ! av]age1 9 proportion z he    
succe$s 9 dim9i%+ ! aggressions ( 8     
fell[s on "o ano!r4 ,! preval5ce (      
antagonism among ^? ar\nd1 imp$es !     
activities c>ri$ on by ea* 9 pursuit (  
satisfactions2 & by caus+ disord] makes 
! b5eficial results ( activities m      
d\btful4 ,h5ce1 ea* pr(its egoi/ically f
 ! gr[? ( an altruism :i* leads ea* to  
aid 9 prev5t+ or dim9i%+ o!rs' viol5ce4 
,! l holds :5 we pass to t altruism :i* 
re/ra9s ! undue egoism display$ 9       
brea*es ( contract4 ,g5]al acceptance ( 
! maxim t hone/y is ! be/ policy1       
implies g5]al exp]i5ce t gratification (

 ! self-reg>d+ feel+s is ev5tually      
fur!r$ by su* *eck+ ( !m z ma9ta9s      
equitable deal+s4 ,& "h1 z be=e1 ea* is 
p]sonally int]e/$ 9 secur+ good treatm5t
 ( 8 fell[s by "o ano!r4 ,= 9 c\ntless  
ways evils are entail$ on ea* by !      
preval5ce ( fraudul5t transactions4 ,z e
 "o kn[s1 ! l>g] ! numb] ( a %op-keep]'s
 bills left unpaid by "s cu/om]s1 !     
high] mu/ be ! prices :i* o!r cu/om]s   
pay4 ,! m manufactur]s lose by defective
 raw mat]ials or by c>elessness (       
workm51 ! m mu/ !y *>ge = _! fabrics to 
buy]s4 ,! less tru/wor?y p are1 ! high] 
rises ! rate ( int]e/1 ! l>g] becomes ! 
am\nt ( capital ho>d$1 ! great] are !   
imp$im5ts to indu/ry4 ,! fur!r trad]s & 
p 9 g5]al g beyond _! means1 & hypo!cate
 ! prop]ty ( o!rs 9 speculation1 ! m    
s]i\s are ^? comm]cial panics :i* br+s  
disa/]s on multitudes & injuri\sly      
affect all4  ,?is introduces u to yet a 
?ird way 9 :i* su* p]sonal welf>e z     
results f ! proportion+ ( b5efits ga9$  
to labors giv51 dep5ds on ! mak+ ( c]ta9

 sacrifices = social welf>e4 ,! man :o1 
exp5d+ 8 en]gies :olly on private       
affairs refuses to take tr\ble ab\t     
public affairs1 plum+ himself on 8      
wisdom 9 m9d+ 8 own bus9ess1 is bl9d to 
! fact t 8 own bus9ess is made possible 
only by ma9t5ance ( a heal?y social     
/ate1 & t he loses all r\nd by defective
 gov]nm5tal arrangem5ts4 ,:]e !re are _m
 l-m9d$ ) himself--:]e1 z a consequ5ce1 
(fices come to be fill$ by political    
adv5tur]s & op9ion is sway$ by          
demagogues--:]e brib]y vitiates !       
adm9i/ration ( ! law & makes fraudul5t  
,/ate transactions habitual1 heavy      
p5alties fall on ! community at l>ge1 &1
 among o!rs1 on ^? :o h ?us done ev]y?+ 
= self & no?+ = society4 ,_! inve/m5ts  
are insecure2 recov]y ( _! debts is     
difficult1 & ev5 _! lives are less safe 
?an !y w\ld o!rwise h be54  ,s t on su* 
altrui/ic actions z are impli$1 fir/ly 9
 be+ j1 secondly 9 see+ ju/ice done     
betwe5 o!rs1 & ?irdly1 9 uphold+ &      
improv+ ! ag5cies by :i* ju/ice is      

adm9i/]$1 dep5d1 9 l>ge measure1 !      
egoi/ic satisfactions ( ea*4    #gh4 ,b 
! id5tification ( p]sonal advantage ) ! 
advantage ( fell[-citiz5s is mu* wid]   
?an ?is4 ,9 v>i\s o!r ways ! well-be+ ( 
ea* rises & falls ) ! well-be+ ( all4   
,a weak man left to provide = 8 own     
wants1 suff]s by gett+ small] am\nts (  
food & o!r necess>ies ?an he might get 7
 he /rong]4 ,9 a community =m$ ( weak   
m51 :o divide _! labors & ex*ange !     
products1 all suff] evils f ! weakness (
 _! fell[s4 ,! quantity ( ea* k9d (     
product is made defici5t by ! defici5cy 
( labor+ p[]2 & ! %>e ea* gets = su* %>e
 ( 8 own product z he c af=d to give1 is
 relatively small4 ,j z ! ma9t5ance (   
paup]s1 hospital pati5ts1 inmates (     
asylums1 & o!rs :o consume b d n        
produce1 leaves to be divid$ among      
produc]s a small] /ock ( commodities ?an
 w\ld exi/ 7 !re no incapables2 s mu/   
!re be left a small] /ock ( commodities 
to be divid$1 ! great] ! numb] (        
ineffici5t produc]s1 or ! great] !      

av]age defici5cy ( produc+ p[]4 ,h5ce1  
:atev] decreases ! /r5g? ( m5 9 g5]al   
re/ricts ! gratifications ( ea* by mak+ 
! means to !m de>]4  ,m directly1 & m   
obvi\sly1 does ! bodily well-be+ ( 8    
fell[s conc]n him2 = _! bodily ill-be+1 
:5 x takes c]ta9 %apes1 is apt to br+   
simil> bodily ill-be+ on him4 ,if he is 
n himself attack$ by *ol]a1 or          
small-pox1 or typhus1 :5 x invades 8    
neighborhood1 he (t5 suff]s a p5alty    
?r\gh 8 belong+s4 ,"u conditions spread+
 x1 8 wife cat*es diph!ria1 or 8 s]vant 
is laid up ) sc>let fev]1 or 8 *ildr5   
take n[ ?is & n[ t infecti\s disord]4   
,add toge!r ! imm$iate & remote evils   
br\ght on him ye> aft] ye> by epidemics1
 & x becomes manife/ t 8 egoi/ic        
satisfactions are greatly fur!r$ by su* 
altrui/ic activities z r5d] disease less
 preval5t4  ,) ! m5tal1 z well z ) !    
bodily1 /ates ( fell[-citiz5s1 8        
enjoym5ts are 9 multitud9\s ways b\nd   
up4 ,/upidity l weakness raises ! co/ ( 
commodities4 ,:]e f>m+ is unimprov$1 !  

prices ( food are high] ?an !y w\ld else
 be2 :]e antiquat$ r\t9e ma9ta9s itself 
9 trade1 ! ne$less exp5se ( di/ribution 
weighs on all2 :]e !re is no            
inv5tiv5ess1 e "o loses ! b5efits :i*   
improv$ appliances diffuse4 ,o!r ?an    
economic evils come f ! av]age          
un9tellig5ce--p]iodically ?r\gh ! manias
 & panics t arise because trad]s ru% 9  
h]ds all to buy or all to sell2 &       
habitually ?r\gh ! mal-adm9i/ration (   
ju/ice1 :i* p & rul]s alike disreg>d    
:ile pursu+ ?is or t legislative        
w-o'-!-wisp4 ,clos] & cle>] is !        
dep5d5ce ( 8 p]sonal satisfactions on   
o!rs' m5tal /ates1 :i* ea* exp]i5ces 9 8
 h\sehold4 ,unpunctuality & want ( sy/em
 are p]petual s\rces ( annoyance4 ,!    
unskillfulness ( ! cook causes frequ5t  
vexation & occasional indige/ion4 ,lack 
( =e?\ght 9 ! h\semaid leads to a fall  
ov] a bucket 9 a d>k passage4 ,&        
inatt5tion to a message or =getfulness 9
 deliv]+ x1 entails failure 9 an        
important engagem5t4 ,ea*1 !re=e1       

b5efits egoi/ically by su* altruism z   
aids 9 rais+ ! av]age intellig5ce4 ,i d 
n mean su* altruism z taxes ratepay]s t 
*ildr5's m9ds may be fill$ ) dates1 &   
names1 & gossip ab\t k+s1 & n>ratives ( 
battles1 & o!r useless in=mation1 no    
am\nt ( :i* w make !m capable work]s or 
good citiz5s2 b ,i mean su* altruism z  
helps to spread a k ( ! nature ( ?+s &  
to cultivate ! p[] ( apply+ t k4  ,yet  
aga91 ea* has a private int]e/ 9 public 
morals & pr(its by improv+ !m4 ,n 9 l>ge
 ways only1 by aggressions & brea*es (  
contract1 by adult]ations & %ort        
measures1 does ea* suff] f ! g5]al      
unconsci5ti\sness2 b 9 m num]\s small   
ways4 ,n[ x is ?r\gh ! untru?fulness (  
"o :o gives a good "* to a bad s]vant2  
n[ x is by ! recklessness ( a laundress 
:o1 us+ blea*+ ag5ts to save tr\ble 9   
wa%+1 de/roys 8 l952 n[ x is by ! act$  
falsehood ( railway pass5g]s :o1 by     
disp]s$ coats1 make him believe t all ! 
seats 9 a comp>tm5t are tak5 :5 !y are  
n4 ,ye/]day ! illness ( 8 *ild due to   

f\l gases1 l$ to ! discov]y ( a dra9 t  
_h become *ok$ because x 0 ill-made by a
 di%one/ build] "u sup]vision ( a       
c>eless or brib$ surveyor4 ,to-day      
workm5 employ$ to rectify x br+ on him  
co/ & inconv5i5ce by dawdl+2 & _! l[    
/&>d ( "w1 det]m9$ by ! unioni/ pr9ciple
 t ! bett] work]s mu/ n discr$it ! worse
 by exce$+ !m 9 effici5cy1 he may trace 
to ! immoral belief t ! unwor?y %\ld f>e
 z well z ! wor?y4 ,to-morr[ x turns out
 t bus9ess = ! plumb] has be5 provid$ by
 damage :i* ! bricklay]s h done4  ,?us !
 improvem5t ( o!rs1 physically1         
intellectually & morally1 p]sonally     
conc]ns ea*2 s9ce _! imp]fections tell 9
 rais+ ! co/ ( all ! commodities he     
buys1 9 increas+ ! taxes & rates he     
pays1 & 9 ! losses ( "t1 tr\ble & money1
 daily br\ght on by o!rs' c>elessness1  
/upidity1 or unconsci5ti\sness4    #gi4 
,v obvi\s are c]ta9 m imm$iate          
connections betwe5 p]sonal welf>e &     
m9i/ration to ! welf>e ( ^? ar\nd4 ,!   
evils suff]$ by ^? ^: behavior is       

unsympa!tic1 & ! b5efits to self :i*    
unselfi% conduct br+s1 %[ ^!4  ,t any "o
 %\ld h =mulat$ 8 exp]i5ce by say+ t !  
conditions to success are a h>d he>t & a
 s\nd dige/ion1 is m>vel\s consid]+ ! _m
 pro(s t success1 ev5 ( a mat]ial k9d1  
greatly dep5d+ z x does on ! good (fices
 ( o!rs1 is fur!r$ by :atev] creates    
good w 9 o!rs4 ,! contra/ betwe5 !      
prosp]ity ( ^? :o1 to b mod]ate         
abilities jo9 natures :i* beget         
fri5d%ips by _! k9dl9ess1 & ! adv]sity (
 ^? :o1 ?\gh possess$ ( sup]ior         
faculties & great] acquirem5ts1 ar\se   
dislikes by _! h>dness or indiff]5ce1   
%\ld =ce ^u all ! tru? t egoi/ic        
enjoym5ts are aid$ by altrui/ic actions4
  ,?is increase ( p]sonal b5efit a*iev$ 
by b5efit+ o!rs is b p>tially a*iev$ :]e
 a selfi% motive prompts ! seem+ly      
unselfi% act3 x is fully a*iev$ only :]e
 ! act is really unselfi%4 ,?\gh s]vices
 r5d]$ ) ! view ( "s "t pr(it+ by       
reciprocat$ s]vices1 answ] to a c]ta9   
ext5t2 yet1 ord9>ily1 !y answ] only to !

 ext5t ( br++ equival5ts ( reciprocat$  
s]vices4 ,^? :i* br+ m ?an equival5ts   
are ^? n prompt$ by any ?\ghts (        
equival5ts4 ,= obvi\sly x is !          
spontane\s outfl[ ( good nature1 n 9 !  
l>g] acts ( life only b 9 all its       
details1 :i* g5]ates 9 ^? ar\nd !       
atta*m5ts prompt+ un/9t$ b5evol5ce4     
,besides fur!r+ prosp]ity1 o!r reg>d+   
actions conduce to self-reg>d+          
gratifications by g5]at+ a g5ial        
environm5t4 ,) ! sympa!tic be+ e "o     
feels m sympa?y ?an ) o!rs4 ,all conduct
 !mselves ) m ?an usual amiability to a 
p]son :o h\rly discloses a lovable      
nature4 ,su* a "o is practically        
surr\nd$ by a _w ( bett] p ?an "o :o is 
less attractive4 ,if we contra/ ! /ate (
 a man possess+ all ! mat]ial means to  
happ9ess1 b isolat$ by 8 absolute       
egoism1 ) ! /ate ( an altrui/ic man     
relatively poor 9 means b ri* 9 fri5ds1 
we may see t v>i\s gratifications1 n to 
be pur*as$ by money1 come 9 abundance to
 ! la/ & are inaccessible to ! fir/4    

,:ile1 !n1 !re is "o k9d ( o!r reg>d+   
action1 fur!r+ ! prosp]ity (            
fell[-citiz5s at l>ge1 :i* admits ( be+ 
delib]ately pursu$ f motives t are      
remotely self-reg>d+--! conviction be+ t
 p]sonal well-be+ dep5ds 9 l>ge measure 
on ! well-be+ ( society--!re is an      
additional k9d ( o!r reg>d+ action hav+ 
9 x no elem5t ( consci\s self-reg>d1 :i*
 nev]!less conduces greatly to egoi/ic  
satisfactions4    #hj4 ,yet o!r modes   
exi/ 9 :i* egoism unqualifi$ by altruism
 habitually fails4 ,x dim9i%es !        
totality ( egoi/ic pleasure by dim9i%+ 9
 sev]al directions ! capacity =         
pleasure4  ,self gratifications1        
consid]$ sep>ately1 or 9 ! aggregate1   
lose _! int5sities by t too great       
p]si/5ce 9 !m :i* results if !y are made
 ! exclusive objects ( pursuit4 ,! law t
 function entails wa/e1 & t faculties   
yield+ pleasure by _! action _c act     
incessantly )\t exhau/ion & accompany+  
satiety1 has ! implication t int]vals   
dur+ :i* altrui/ic activities absorb !  

en]gies1 are int]vals dur+ :i* !        
capacity = egoi/ic pleasure is recov]+  
its full degree4 ,! s5sitiv5ess to      
purely p]sonal enjoym5ts is ma9ta9$ at a
 high] pit* by ^? :o m9i/] to !         
enjoym5ts ( o!rs ?an x is by ^? :o      
devote !mselves :olly to p]sonal        
enjoym5ts4  ,?is :i* is manife/ ev5 :ile
 ! tide ( life is high1 becomes /ill m  
manife/ z life ebbs4 ,x is 9 maturity & 
old age t we especially see h[1 z       
egoi/ic pleasures gr[ fa9t1 altrui/ic   
actions come 9 to revive !m 9 new =ms4  
,! contra/ betwe5 ! *ild's delight 9 !  
novelties daily reveal$1 & ! indiff]5ce 
:i* comes z ! _w ar\nd gr[s famili>1    
until1 9 adult life1 !re rema9          
comp>atively few ?+s t are greatly      
enjoy$1 draws f all ! reflection t z    
ye>s g by pleasures pall4 ,& to ^? :o   
?9k x becomes cle> t only ?r\gh sympa?y 
c pleasures be indirectly ga9$ f ?+s t h
 ceas$ to yield pleasures directly4 ,9 !
 gratifications d]iv$ by p>5ts f !      
gratifications ( _! (fspr+1 ?is is      

conspicu\sly %[n4 ,trite z is ! rem>k t 
m5 live afre% 9 _! *ildr51 x is ne$ful  
"h to set x d[n z rem9d+ u ( ! way 9    
:i*1 z ! egoi/ic satisfactions 9 life   
fade1 altruism r5ews !m :ile x          
transfigures !m4  ,we are ?us introduc$ 
to a m g5]al consid]ation--! egoi/ic    
aspect ( altrui/ic pleasure4 ,n1 inde$1 
t ?is is ! place = discuss+ ! "q :e!r ! 
egoi/ic elem5t c be exclud$ f altruism1 
nor is x ! place = di/+ui%+ betwe5 !    
altruism :i* is pursu$ ) a =esight ( !  
pleasurable feel+ to be a*iev$ ?r\gh x1 
& ! altruism :i*1 ?\gh x a*ieves ?is    
pleasurable feel+1 does n make pursuit (
 x a motive4 ,"h we are conc]n$ ) ! fact
 t1 :e!r kn[+ly or unkn[+ly ga9$1 ! /ate
 ( m9d accompany+ altrui/ic action1 be+ 
a pleasurable /ate1 is to be c\nt$ 9 !  
sum ( pleasures :i* ! individual c      
receive1 & 9 ?is s5se _c be o!r ?an     
egoi/ic4 ,t we mu/ s reg>d x is prov$ on
 obs]v+ t ?is pleasure1 l pleasures 9   
g5]al1 conduces to ! physical prosp]ity 
( ! ego4 ,z e o!r agreeable emotion     

raises ! tide ( life1 s does ! agreeable
 emotion :i* accompanies a b5evol5t de$4
 ,z x _c be d5i$ t ! pa9 caus$ by !     
sight ( suff]+ depresses ! vital        
functions--sometimes ev5 to ! ext5t (   
arre/+ ! he>t's action1 z 9 "o :o fa9ts 
on see+ a surgical op]ation1 s nei!r c x
 be d5i$ t ! joy felt 9 witness+ o!rs'  
joy exalts ! vital functions4 ,h5ce1    
h[ev] mu* we may hesitate to class      
altrui/ic pleasure z a high] k9d (      
egoi/ic pleasure1 we are oblig$ to      
recognize ! fact t its imm$iate effects 
9 augm5t+ life & s fur!r+ p]sonal       
well-be+1 are l ^? ( pleasures t are    
directly egoi/ic4 ,& ! coroll>y drawn   
mu/ be t pure egoism is1 ev5 9 its      
imm$iate results1 less successfully     
egoi/ic ?an is ! egoism duly qualifi$ by
 altruism1 :i*1 besides a*iev+          
additional pleasures1 a*ieves also1     
?r\gh rais$ vitality1 a great] capacity 
= pleasures 9 g5]al4  ,t ! range (      
/hetic gratifications is wid] = !       
altrui/ic nature ?an = ! egoi/ic nature 

is also a tru? n to be ov]look$4 ,! joys
 & sorr[s ( human be+s =m a *ief elem5t 
9 ! subject-matt] ( art1 &1 evid5tly1 ! 
pleasures :i* art gives increase z !    
fell[-feel+ ) ^! joys & sorr[s /r5g!ns4 
,if we contra/ e>ly poetry occupi$ ma9ly
 ) w> & gratify+ ! savage in/9cts by    
descriptions ( bloody victories1 ) !    
poetry ( mod]n times1 9 :i* ! sangu9>y  
=ms b a small "p :ile a l>ge "p1 deal+ )
 ! g5tl] affections1 enli/s ! feel+s (  
read]s on behalf ( ! weak2 we are %[n t 
) ! developm5t ( a m altrui/ic nature   
!re has be5 op5$ a sph]e ( enjoym5t     
inaccessible to ! call\s egoism ( b>b>\s
 times4 ,s1 too1 betwe5 ! fiction ( !   
pa/ & ! fiction ( ! pres5t1 !re is !    
diff]5ce t :ile ! "o 0 almo/ exclusively
 occupi$ ) ! do+s ( ! rul+ classes1 &   
f\nd its plots 9 _! antagonisms & de$s (
 viol5ce1 ! o!r1 *iefly tak+ /ories (   
peaceful life = its subjects1 & to a    
consid]able ext5t ! life ( ! humbl]     
classes1 discloses a new _w ( int]e/ 9 !
 e-day pleasures & pa9s ( ord9>y p4 ,a l

 contra/ exi/s betwe5 e>ly & late =ms ( 
pla/ic art4 ,:5 n repres5t+ acts (      
wor%ip1 ! wall sculptures & wall-pa9t+s 
( ! ,assyrians & ,egyptians1 or !       
decorations ( temples among ! ,greeks1  
repres5t$ de$s ( conque/2 :]eas 9 mod]n 
times1 :ile ! works :i* glorify         
de/ructive activities are less num]\s1  
!re are an increas+ numb] ( works       
gratify+ to ! k9dli] s5tim5ts (         
spectators4 ,to see t ^? :o c>e no?+    
ab\t ! feel+s ( o!r be+s are1 by        
implication1 %ut out f a wide range (   
/hetic pleasures1 x ne$s b to ask :e!r  
m5 :o delight 9 dog-fights may be       
expect$ to appreciate ,bee?ov5's        
,adelaida1 or :e!r ,t5nyson's ,9        
,memoriam w\ld greatly move a gang (    
convicts4    #ha4 ,f ! dawn ( life1 !n1 
egoism has be5 dep5d5t ^u altruism z    
altruism has be5 dep5d5t ^u egoism1 & 9 
! c\rse ( evolution ! reciprocal s]vices
 ( ! two h be5 increas+4  ,! physical & 
unconsci\s self-sacrifice ( p>5ts to =m 
(fspr+1 :i* ! l[e/ liv+ ?+s display f   

h\r to h\r1 %[s u 9 its primitive =m !  
altruism :i* makes possible ! egoism (  
individual life & gr[?4 ,z we asc5d to  
high] grades ( creatures1 ?is p>5tal    
altruism becomes a direct yield+ up (   
only "p ( ! body1 jo9$ ) an increas+    
contribution f ! rema9d] 9 ! %ape (     
tissue wa/$ 9 ef=ts made on behalf (    
prog5y4 ,?is indirect sacrifice (       
sub/ance1 replac+ m & m ! direct        
sacrifice z p>5tal altruism becomes     
high]1 cont9ues to ! la/ to repres5t    
also altruism :i* is o!r ?an p>5tal2    
s9ce ?is1 too1 implies loss ( sub/ance 9
 mak+ ef=ts t d n br+ _! return 9       
p]sonal aggr&izem5t4  ,aft] not+ h[     
among mank9d p>5tal altruism & family   
altruism pass into social altruism1 we  
obs]v$ t a society1 l a species1        
survives only on condition t ea*        
g5]ation ( its memb]s %all yield to !   
next1 b5efits equival5t to ^? x has     
receiv$ f ! la/4 ,& ?is implies t c>e = 
! family mu/ be supplem5t$ by c>e = !   
society4  ,fullness ( egoi/ic           

satisfactions 9 ! associat$ /ate1 dep5d+
 prim>ily on ma9t5ance ( ! normal       
relation betwe5 ef=ts exp5d$ & b5efits  
obta9$1 :i* und]lies all life1 implies  
an altruism :i* bo? prompts equitable   
conduct & prompts ! en=c+ ( equity4 ,!  
well-be+ ( ea* is involv$ ) ! well-be+ (
 all 9 sundry o!r ways4 ,:atev] conduces
 to _! vigor conc]ns him1 = x dim9i%es !
 co/ ( ev]y?+ he buys4 ,:atev] conduces 
to _! fre$om f disease conc]ns him1 = x 
dim9i%es 8 own liability to disease4    
,:atev] raises _! intellig5ce conc]ns   
him1 = inconv5i5ces are daily entail$ on
 him by o!rs' ignorance or folly4       
,:atev] raises _! moral "* conc]ns him1 
= at e turn he suff]s f ! av]age        
unconsci5ti\sness4  ,mu* m directly d 8 
egoi/ic satisfactions dep5d on ^?       
altrui/ic activities :i* enli/ !        
sympa?ies ( o!rs4 ,by ali5at+ ^? ar\nd1 
selfi%ness loses ! unb\ght aid !y c     
r5d]2 %uts out a wide range ( social    
enjoym5ts1 & fails to receive ^?        
exaltations ( pleasure & mitigations (  

pa9 :i* come f m5's fell[-feel+ ) ^? !y 
l4  ,la/ly1 undue egoism defeats itself 
by br++ on an incapacity = happ9ess4    
,purely egoi/ic gratifications are r5d]$
 less ke5 by satiety1 ev5 9 ! e>li] "p (
 life1 & almo/ disappe> 9 ! lat]2 ! less
 satiat+ gratifications ( altruism are  
miss$ ?r\gh\t life1 & especially 9 t    
latt] "p :5 !y l>gely replace egoi/ic   
gratifications2 & !re is a lack (       
susceptibility to /hetic pleasures ( !  
high] ord]s4  ,an indication mu/ be add$
 ( ! tru?1 sc>cely at all recogniz$1 t  
?is dep5d5ce ( egoism ^u altruism ranges
 beyond ! limits ( ea* society1 & t5ds  
ev] t[>d univ]sality4 ,t )9 ea* society 
x becomes great] z social evolution1    
imply+ increase ( mutual dep5d5ce1      
progresses1 ne$s n be %[n2 & x is a     
coroll>y t z fa/ z dep5d5ce ( societies 
on "o ano!r is increas$ by comm]cial    
int]c\rse1 ! int]nal welf>e ( ea*       
becomes a matt] ( conc]n to ! o!rs4 ,t !
 impov]i%m5t ( any c\ntry1 dim9i%+ bo?  
its produc+ & consum+ p[]s1 tells       

detrim5tally on ! p ( c\ntries trad+ )  
x1 is a commonplace ( political economy4
 ,moreov]1 we h _h ( late ye>s1 abundant
 exp]i5ce ( ! indu/rial d]angem5ts ?r\gh
 :i* di/ress is br\ght on nations n     
imm$iately conc]n$ by w>s betwe5 o!r    
nations4 ,& if ea* community has !      
egoi/ic satisfactions ( its memb]s      
dim9i%$ by aggressions ( neighbor+      
communities on "o ano!r1 /ill m does x h
 !m dim9i%$ by its own aggressions4 ,"o 
:o m>ks h[1 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w1 !      
unscrupul\s gre$ ( conque/ cloak$ by    
pret5ces ( spread+ ! bless+s ( ,briti%  
rule & ,briti% religion1 is n[ react+ to
 ! imm5se detrim5t ( ! indu/rial classes
 at home1 alike by increas+ exp5diture &
 p>alyz+ trade1 may see t ^! indu/rial  
classes1 absorb$ 9 que/ions ab\t capital
 & labor1 & ?9k+ !mselves unconc]n$ 9   
our do+s abroad1 are suff]+ f lack ( t  
wide-rea*+ altruism :i* %\ld insi/ on j 
deal+s ) o!r peoples1 civiliz$ or       
savage4 ,& he may also see t beyond ^!  
imm$iate evils1 !y w = a g5]ation to    

come suff] ! evils t mu/ fl[ f          
resuscitat+ ! type ( social organization
 :i* aggressive activities produce1 & f 
! l[]$ moral tone :i* is its            
accompanim5t4     ,,*apt] ,,xiii4       
,,trial ,,& ,,compromise4    #hb4 ,9 !  
=ego+ two *apt]s ! case on behalf (     
,egoism & ! case on behalf ( ,altruism h
 be5 /at$4 ,! two conflict2 & we h n[ to
 consid] :at v]dict ought to be giv54   
,if ! oppos$ /atem5ts are sev]ally      
valid1 or ev5 if ea* ( !m is valid 9 "p1
 ! inf]5ce mu/ be t pure egoism & pure  
altruism are bo? illegitimate4 ,if !    
maxim1 ,live = self1 is wrong1 s also is
 ! maxim1 ,live = o!rs4 ,h5ce1 a        
compromise is ! only possibility4  ,?is 
conclusion1 ?\gh already seem+          
unavoidable1 ,i d n "h set d[n z prov$4 
,! purpose ( ?is *apt] is to ju/ify x 9 
full1 & ,i enunciate x at ! outset      
because ! argum5ts us$ w be bett]       
und]/ood1 if ! conclusion to :i* !y     
conv]ge is 9 ! read]'s view4  ,h[ %all  
we s conduct ! discussion z mo/ cle>ly  

to br+ out ?is necessity = a compromise8
 ,p]haps ! be/ way w be t ( /at+ "o ( ! 
two claims 9 its extreme =m1 & obs]v+ ! 
impli$ absurdities4 ,to deal ?us ) !    
pr9ciple ( pure selfi%ness w\ld be to   
wa/e space4 ,e "o sees t an un*eck$     
satisfaction ( p]sonal desires f mom5t  
to mom5t1 9 absolute disreg>d ( all o!r 
be+s1 w\ld cause univ]sal conflict &    
social dissolution4 ,! pr9ciple ( pure  
unselfi%ness1 less obvi\sly mis*iev\s1  
may !re=e bett] be *os54  ,!re are two  
aspects "u :i* ! doctr9e t o!rs'        
happ9ess is ! true e?ical aim pres5ts   
itself4 ,! o!rs may be conceiv$         
p]sonally1 z individuals ) :om we /& 9  
direct relations1 or !y may be conceiv$ 
imp]sonally1 z con/itut+ ! community4 ,9
 s f> z ! self-abnegation impli$ by pure
 altruism is conc]n$1 x matt]s n 9 :i*  
s5se o!rs is us$4 ,b criticism w be     
facilitat$ by di/+ui%+ betwe5 ^! two =ms
 ( x4 ,we w take ! la/ =m fir/4    #hc4 
,?is commits u to an exam9ation ( !     
greate/ happ9ess pr9ciple1 z enunciat$  

by ,b5?am & 8 foll[]s4 ,! doctr9e t !   
g5]al happ9ess ought to be ! object (   
pursuit1 is n1 inde$1 ov]tly id5tifi$ ) 
pure altruism4 ,b z1 if g5]al happ9ess  
is ! prop] end ( action1 ! individual   
actor mu/ reg>d 8 own %>e ( x simply z a
 unit 9 ! aggregate1 no m to be valu$ by
 him ?an any o!r unit1 x results t s9ce 
?is unit is almo/ inf9itesimal 9        
comp>ison ) ! aggregate1 8 action1 if   
direct$ exclusively to a*ievem5t ( g5]al
 happ9ess1 is1 if n absolutely          
altrui/ic1 z ne>ly s z may be4 ,h5ce1 ! 
!ory :i* makes g5]al happ9ess ! imm$iate
 object ( pursuit may rightly be tak5 z 
"o =m ( ! pure altruism to be "h        
criticis$4  ,bo? z ju/ify+ ?is          
int]pretation & z furni%+ a def9ite     
proposition ) :i* to deal1 let me set   
out by quot+ a passage f ,mr4 ,mill's   
,utilit>ianism3    ,! ,greate/ ,happ9ess
 ,pr9ciple1 he says1 is a m]e =m (      
words )\t rational signification1 unless
 "o p]son's happ9ess1   suppos$ equal 9 
degree 7) ! prop] all[ance made = k9d71 

is c\nt$ = exactly z mu* z ano!r's4 ,^? 
conditions be+   suppli$1 ,b5?am's      
dictum1 'ev]ybody to c\nt = "o1 nobody =
   m ?an "o1' might be writt5 "u !      
pr9ciple ( utility z an   explanatory   
comm5t>y 7p4 #ia74  ,n[1 ?\gh ! mean+ ( 
greate/ happ9ess1 z an end1 is "h to a  
c]ta9 degree def9$1 ! ne$ = fur!r       
def9ition is felt ! mom5t we attempt to 
decide on ways ( regulat+ conduct s z to
 atta9 ! end4 ,! fir/ "q :i* arises is1 
mu/ we reg>d ?is greate/ happ9ess       
pr9ciple z a pr9ciple ( guidance = !    
community 9 its corporate capacity1 or z
 a pr9ciple ( guidance = its memb]s     
sep>ately consid]$1 or bo?8 ,if ! reply 
is t ! pr9ciple mu/ be tak5 z a guide = 
gov]nm5tal action r ?an = individual    
action1 we are at once met by ! inquiry1
 :at is to be ! guide = individual      
action8 ,if individual action is n to be
 regulat$ solely = ! purpose ( a*iev+ ! 
greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb]1 "s  
o!r pr9ciple ( regulation = individual  
action is requir$1 & ! greate/ happ9ess 

pr9ciple fails to furni% ! ne$ful e?ical
 /&>d4 ,%\ld x be rejo9$ t ! individual 
9 8 capacity ( political unit is to take
 fur!rance ( g5]al happ9ess z 8 end1    
giv+ 8 vote or o!rwise act+ on !        
legislature ) a view to ?is end1 & t 9 s
 f> guidance is suppli$ to him1 !re     
comes ! fur!r inquiry1 :5ce is to come  
guidance = ! rema9d] ( individual       
conduct1 con/itut+ by f> ! great] "p (  
x8 ,if ?is private "p ( individual      
conduct is n to h g5]al happ9ess z its  
direct aim1 !n an e?ical /&>d o!r ?an t 
(f]$ has /ill to be f\nd4  ,h5ce1 unless
 pure altruism z ?us =mulat$ confesses  
its inadequacy1 x mu/ ju/ify itself z a 
suffici5t rule = all conduct1 individual
 & social4 ,we w fir/ deal ) x z !      
alleg$ "r pr9ciple ( public policy2 & !n
 z ! alleg$ "r pr9ciple ( private       
action4    #hd4 ,on try+ to und]/&      
precisely ! /atem5t t :5 tak+ g5]al     
happ9ess z an end1 ! rule mu/           
be--ev]ybody to c\nt = "o1 nobody = m   
?an "o1 !re arises ! idea ( di/ribution4

 ,we c =m no idea ( di/ribution )\t ?9k+
 ( some?+ di/ribut$ & recipi5ts ( ?is   
some?+4 ,t we may cle>ly conceive !     
proposition we mu/ cle>ly conceive bo?  
^! elem5ts ( x4 ,let u take fir/ !      
recipi5ts4  ,ev]ybody to c\nt = "o1     
nobody = m ?an "o4 ,does ?is mean t1 9  
respect ( :atev] is proportion$ out1 ea*
 is to h ! same %>e :atev] 8 "*1 :atev] 
8 conduct8 ,%all he if passive h z mu* z
 if active8 ,%all he if useless h z mu* 
z if useful8 ,%all he if crim9al h z mu*
 z if virtu\s8 ,if ! di/ribution is to  
be made )\t ref]5ce to ! natures & de$s 
( ! recipi5ts1 !n x mu/ be %[n t a sy/em
 :i* equalizes1 z f> z x c1 ! treatm5t (
 good & bad1 w be b5eficial4 ,if !      
di/ribution is n to be indiscrim9ate1 !n
 ! =mula disappe>s4 ,! some?+ di/ribut$ 
mu/ be apportion$ o!rwise ?an by equal  
division4 ,!re mu/ be adju/m5t ( am\nts 
to des]ts2 & we are left 9 ! d>k z to ! 
mode ( adju/m5t--we h to f9d o!r        
guidance4  ,let u next ask :at is !     
some?+ to be di/ribut$8 ,! fir/ idea :i*

 occurs is t happ9ess itself mu/ be     
divid$ out among all4 ,tak5 lit]ally1 ! 
notions t ! greate/ happ9ess %\ld be !  
end s\ght1 & t 9 apportion+ x ev]ybody  
%\ld c\nt = "o & nobody = m ?an "o1     
imply t happ9ess is some?+ t c be cut up
 into p>ts & h&$ r\nd4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is  
an impossible int]pretation4 ,b aft]    
recogniz+ ! impossibility ( x1 !re      
returns ! "q--,:at is x 9 respect ( :i* 
ev]ybody is to c\nt = "o & nobody = m   
?an "o8  ,%all ! int]pretation be t !   
concrete means to happ9ess are to be    
equally divid$8 ,is x int5d$ t !re %all 
be di/ribut$ to all 9 equal portions !  
necess>ies ( life1 ! appliances to      
com=t1 ! facilities = amusem5t8 ,z a    
conception simply1 ?is is m def5sible4  
,b pass+ ov] ! "q ( policy--pass+ ov] ! 
"q :e!r greate/ happ9ess w\ld ultimately
 be secur$ by su* a process 7:i* x      
obvi\sly w\ld n7 x turns out on         
exam9ation t greate/ happ9ess c\ld n ev5
 proximately be s secur$4 ,diff]5ces (  
age1 ( gr[?1 ( con/itutional ne$1       

diff]5ces ( activity & consequ5t        
exp5diture1 diff]5ces ( desires & ta/es1
 w\ld entail ! inevitable result t !    
mat]ial aids to happ9ess :i* ea* receiv$
 w\ld be m or less unadapt$ to 8        
requirem5ts4 ,ev5 if pur*as+ p[] 7      
equally divid$1 ! greate/ happ9ess w\ld 
n be a*iev$ if ev]ybody c\nt$ = "o &    
nobody = m ?an "o2 s9ce1 z ! capacities 
= utiliz+ ! pur*as$ means to happ9ess   
w\ld v>y bo? ) ! con/itution & ! /age ( 
life1 ! means :i* w\ld approximately    
suffice to satisfy ! wants ( "o w\ld be 
extremely insuffici5t to satisfy ! wants
 ( ano!r1 & s ! greate/ total ( happ9ess
 w\ld n be obta9$3 means might be       
unequally apportion$ 9 a way t w\ld     
produce a great] total4  ,b n[ if       
happ9ess itself _c be cut up & di/ribut$
 equally1 & if equal division ( !       
mat]ial aids to happ9ess w\ld n produce 
greate/ happ9ess1 :at is ! ?+ to be ?us 
apportion$8 ,:at is x 9 respect ( :i*   
ev]ybody is to c\nt = "o & nobody = m   
?an "o8 ,!re seems b a s+le possibility4

 ,!re rema9 to be equally di/ribut$ no?+
 b ! conditions "u :i* ea* may pursue   
happ9ess4 ,! limitations to action--!   
degrees ( fre$om & re/ra9t1 %all be     
alike = all4 ,ea* %all h z mu* lib]ty to
 pursue 8 ends z consi/s ) ma9ta9+ l    
lib]ties to pursue _! ends by o!rs2 & "o
 z mu* z ano!r %all h ! enjoym5t ( t :i*
 8 ef=ts1 c>ri$ on )9 ^! limits1 obta94 
,b to say t 9 respect ( ^! conditions   
ev]ybody %all c\nt = "o & nobody = m ?an
 "o1 is simply to say t equity %all be  
en=c$4  ,?us1 consid]$ z a pr9ciple (   
public policy1 ,b5?am's pr9ciple1 :5    
analyz$1 trans=ms itself into ! pr9ciple
 he slights4 ,n g5]al happ9ess becomes !
 e?ical /&>d by :i* legislative action  
is to be guid$1 b univ]sal ju/ice4 ,& s 
! altrui/ic !ory "u ?is =m collapses4   
#he4 ,f exam9+ ! doctr9e t g5]al        
happ9ess %\ld be ! end ( public action1 
we pass n[ to exam9e ! doctr9e t x %\ld 
be ! end ( private action4  ,x is       
cont5d$ t f ! /&po9t ( pure reason1 !   
happ9ess ( o!rs has no less a claim z an

 object ( pursuit = ea* ?an p]sonal     
happ9ess4 ,consid]$ z p>ts ( a total1   
happ9ess felt by self & l happ9ess felt 
by ano!r1 are ( equal values2 & h5ce x  
is inf]r$ t1 rationally e/imat$1 !      
obligation to exp5d ef=t = o!rs' b5efit1
 is z great z ! obligation to exp5d ef=t
 = "o's own b5efit4 ,hold+ t !          
utilit>ian sy/em ( morals1 rightly      
und]/ood1 h>monizes ) ! ,*ri/ian maxim1 
,love y\r neighbor z y\rself1 ,mr4 ,mill
 says t z betwe5 8 own happ9ess & t (   
o!rs1 utilit>ianism requires him to be z
 /rictly imp>tial z a dis9t]e/$ &       
b5evol5t spectator 7p4 #bd74 ,let u     
consid] ! alt]native int]pretations :i* 
may be giv5 to ?is /atem5t4  ,suppose1  
fir/1 t a c]ta9 quantum ( happ9ess has 9
 "s way become available1 )\t ! special 
in/rum5tality ( ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 or ,d1      
con/itut+ ! gr\p conc]n$4 ,!n !         
proposition is t ea* %all be ready to h 
?is quantum ( happ9ess z mu* enjoy$ by  
"o or m ( ! o!rs z by himself4 ,!       
dis9t]e/$ & b5evol5t spectator w\ld     

cle>ly1 9 su* a case1 rule t no "o ought
 to h m ( ! happ9ess ?an ano!r4 ,b "h1  
assum+ z we d t ! quantum ( happ9ess has
 become available )\t ! ag5cy ( any     
among ! gr\p1 simple equity dictates z  
mu*4 ,no "o hav+ 9 any way e/abli%$ a   
claim diff]5t f ! claims ( o!rs1 _!     
claims are equal2 & due reg>d = ju/ice  
by ea* w n p]mit him to monopolize !    
happ9ess4  ,n[ suppose a diff]5t case4  
,suppose t ! quantum ( happ9ess has be5 
made available by ! ef=ts ( "o memb] ( !
 gr\p4 ,suppose t ,a has acquir$ by     
labor "s mat]ial aid to happ9ess4 ,he   
decides to act z ! dis9t]e/$ & b5evol5t 
spectator w\ld direct4 ,:at w he        
decide8--:at w\ld ! spectator direct8   
,let u consid] ! possible suppositions1 
tak+ fir/ ! lea/ reasonable4  ,!        
spectator may be conceiv$ z decid+ t !  
labor exp5d$ by ,a 9 acquir+ ?is mat]ial
 aid to happ9ess1 orig9ates no claim to 
special use ( x2 b t x ought to be giv5 
to ,b1 ,c1 or ,d1 or t x ought to be    
divid$ equally among ,b1 ,c1 & ,d1 or t 

x ought to be divid$ equally among all  
memb]s ( ! gr\p1 includ+ ,a :o has      
labor$ = x4 ,& if ! spectator is        
conceiv$ z decid+ ?us to-day1 he mu/ be 
conceiv$ z decid+ ?us day aft] day2 ) ! 
result t "o ( ! gr\p exp5ds all ! ef=t1 
gett+ ei!r none ( ! b5efit or only 8    
num]ical %>e1 :ile ! o!rs get _! %>es ( 
! b5efit )\t exp5d+ any ef=ts4 ,t ,a    
might conceive ! dis9t]e/$ & b5evol5t   
spectator to decide 9 ?is way1 & might  
feel b\nd to act 9 con=mity ) ! imag9$  
decision1 is a /rong supposition2 &     
probably x w be admitt$ t su* k9d (     
imp>tiality1 s f> f be+ conducive to !  
g5]al happ9ess1 w\ld quickly be fatal to
 e "o4 ,b ?is is n all4 ,action 9       
pursuance ( su* a decision w\ld 9       
reality be negativ$ by ! v pr9ciple     
enunciat$4 ,= n only ,a1 b also ,b1 ,c1 
& ,d1 h to act on ?is pr9ciple4 ,ea* (  
!m mu/ behave z he conceives an imp>tial
 spectator w\ld decide4 ,does ,b        
conceive ! imp>tial spectator z aw>d+ to
 him1 ,b1 ! product ( ,a's labor8 ,!n ! 

assumption is t ,b conceives ! imp>tial 
spectator z favor+ himself1 ,b1 m ?an ,a
 conceives him z favor+ himself1 ,a2 :i*
 is inconsi/5t ) ! hypo!sis4 ,does ,b1 9
 conceiv+ ! imp>tial spectator1 exclude 
8 own int]e/s z completely z ,a does8   
,!n h[ c he decide s mu* to 8 own       
advantage1 s p>tially1 z to all[ him to 
take f ,a an equal %>e ( ! b5efit ga9$  
by ,a's labor1 t[>d :i* he & ! re/ h    
done no?+8  ,pass+ f ?is conceivable1   
?\gh n cr$ible1 decision ( ! spectator1 
"h not$ = ! purpose ( obs]v+ t habitual 
con=mity to x w\ld be impossible1 !re   
rema9s to be consid]$ ! decision :i* a  
spectator really imp>tial w\ld give4 ,he
 w\ld say t ! happ9ess1 or mat]ial aid  
to happ9ess1 :i* _h be5 pur*as$ by ,a's 
labor1 0 to be tak5 by ,a4 ,he w\ld say 
t ,b1 ,c1 & ,d _h no claims to x1 b only
 to su* happ9ess1 or aids to happ9ess1 z
 _! respective labors _h pur*as$4       
,consequ5tly1 ,a1 act+ z ! imag9>y      
imp>tial spectator w\ld direct1 is1 by  
?is te/1 ju/ifi$ 9 appropriat+ su*      

happ9ess or aid to happ9ess z 8 own     
ef=ts h a*iev$4  ,& s "u its special =m 
z "u its g5]al =m1 ! pr9ciple is true   
only 9 s f> z x embodies a disguis$     
ju/ice4 ,analysis aga9 br+s out ! result
 t mak+ g5]al happ9ess ! end ( action1  
really means ma9ta9+ :at we call        
equitable relations among individuals4  
,decl9e to accept 9 its vague =m !      
greate/ happ9ess pr9ciple1 & insi/ on   
kn[+ :at is ! impli$ conduct1 public1 or
 private1 & x turns out t ! pr9ciple is 
mean+less save z indirectly ass]t+ t !  
claims ( ea* %\ld be duly reg>d$ by all4
 ,! utilit>ian altruism becomes a duly  
qualifi$ egoism4    #hf4 ,ano!r po9t (  
view f :i* to judge ! altrui/ic !ory may
 n[ be tak54 ,if1 assum+ ! prop] object 
( pursuit to be g5]al happ9ess1 we      
proce$ rationally1 we mu/ ask 9 :at     
diff]5t ways ! aggregate1 g5]al         
happ9ess1 may be compos$2 & mu/ !n ask  
:at composition ( x w yield ! l>ge/ sum4
  ,suppose t ea* citiz5 pursues 8 own   
happ9ess indep5d5tly1 n to ! detrim5t ( 

o!rs1 b )\t active conc]n = o!rs2 !n _! 
unit$ happ9esses con/itute a c]ta9      
sum--a c]ta9 g5]al happ9ess4 ,n[ suppose
 t ea*1 in/ead ( mak+ 8 own happ9ess !  
object ( pursuit1 makes ! happ9ess (    
o!rs ! object ( pursuit2 !n1 aga91 !re  
results a c]ta9 sum ( happ9ess4 ,?is sum
 mu/ be less ?an1 or equal to1 or great]
 ?an1 ! fir/4 ,if x is admitt$ t ?is sum
 is ei!r less ?an ! fir/1 or only equal 
to x1 ! altrui/ic c\rse ( action is     
confess$ly ei!r worse ?an1 or no bett]  
?an1 ! egoi/ic4 ,! assumption mu/ be t !
 sum ( happ9ess obta9$ is great]4 ,let u
 obs]ve :at is involv$ 9 ?is assumption4
  ,if ea* pursues exclusively ! happ9ess
 ( o!rs2 & if ea* is also a recipi5t (  
happ9ess 7:i* he mu/ be1 = o!rwise no   
aggregate happ9ess c be =m$ out ( _!    
individual happ9esses72 !n ! implication
 is t ea* ga9s ! happ9ess due to        
altrui/ic action exclusively2 & t 9 ea* 
?is is great] 9 am\nt ?an ! egoi/ic     
happ9ess obta9able by him1 if he devot$ 
himself to pursuit ( x4 ,leav+ out (    

consid]ation = a mom5t ^! relative      
am\nts ( ! two1 let u note ! conditions 
to ! receipt ( altrui/ic happ9ess by    
ea*4 ,! sympa!tic nature gets pleasure  
by giv+ pleasure2 & ! proposition is t  
if ! g5]al happ9ess is ! object (       
pursuit1 ea* w be made happy by witness+
 o!rs' happ9ess4 ,b :at 9 su* case      
con/itutes ! happ9ess ( o!rs8 ,^! o!rs  
are also1 by ! hypo!sis1 pursu]s &      
receiv]s ( altrui/ic pleasure4 ,! g5esis
 ( altrui/ic pleasure 9 ea* is to dep5d 
on ! display ( pleasures by o!rs2 :i* is
 aga9 to dep5d on ! display ( pleasures 
by o!rs2 & s on p]petually4 ,:]e1 !n1 is
 ! pleasure to beg98 ,obvi\sly !re mu/  
be egoi/ic pleasure some:]e be=e !re c  
be ! altrui/ic pleasure caus$ by sympa?y
 ) x4 ,obvi\sly1 !re=e1 ea* mu/ be      
egoi/ic 9 due am\nt1 ev5 if only ) !    
view ( giv+ o!rs ! possibility ( be+    
altrui/ic4 ,s f> f ! sum ( happ9ess be+ 
made great] if all make greate/ happ9ess
 ! exclusive end1 ! sum disappe>s       
entirely4  ,h[ absurd is ! supposition t

 ! happ9ess ( all c be a*iev$ )\t ea*   
pursu+ 8 own happ9ess1 w be be/ %[n by a
 physical simile4 ,suppose a clu/] (    
bodies1 ea* ( :i* g5]ates heat1 & ea* ( 
:i* is1 !re=e1 :ile a radiator ( heat to
 ^? ar\nd1 also a receiv] ( heat f !m4  
,manife/ly ea* w h a c]ta9 prop] heat   
irrespective ( t :i* x ga9s f ! re/2 &1 
ea* w h a c]ta9 heat ga9$ f ! re/       
irrespective ( its prop] heat4 ,:at w   
happ58 ,s long z ea* ( ! bodies cont9ues
 to be a g5]ator ( heat1 ea* cont9ues to
 ma9ta9 a temp]ature p>tly d]iv$ f      
itself & p>tly d]iv$ f o!rs4 ,b if ea*  
ceases to g5]ate heat = itself & dep5ds 
on ! heat radiat$ to x by ! re/1 !      
entire clu/] becomes cold4 ,well1 !     
self-g5]at$ heat /&s = egoi/ic pleasure2
 ! heat radiat$ & receiv$ /&s =         
sympa!tic pleasure2 & ! disappe>ance (  
all heat if ea* ceases to be an         
orig9ator ( x1 corresponds to !         
disappe>ance ( all pleasure if ea*      
ceases to orig9ate x egoi/ically4  ,a   
fur!r conclusion may be drawn4 ,besides 

! implication t be=e altrui/ic pleasure 
c exi/1 egoi/ic pleasure mu/ exi/1 & t  
if ! rule ( conduct is to be ! same =   
all1 ea* mu/ be egoi/ic 9 due degree2   
!re is ! implication t1 to a*ieve !     
greate/ sum ( happ9ess1 ea* mu/ be m    
egoi/ic ?an altrui/ic4 ,=1 speak+       
g5]ally1 sympa!tic pleasures mu/ ev]    
cont9ue less int5se ?an ! pleasures )   
:i* !re is sympa?y4 ,o!r ?+s equal1     
ideal feel+s _c be z vivid z real       
feel+s4 ,x is true t ^? hav+ /rong      
imag9ations may1 especially 9 cases :]e 
! affections are engag$1 feel ! moral   
pa9 if n ! physical pa9 ( ano!r1 z ke5ly
 z ! actual suff]] ( x1 & may p>ticipate
 ) l int5sity 9 ano!r's pleasure2       
sometimes ev5 m5tally repres5t+ !       
receiv$ pleasure z great] ?an x really  
is1 & s gett+ reflex pleasure great] ?an
 ! recipi5ts' direct pleasure4 ,su*     
cases1 h[ev]1 & cases 9 :i* ev5 ap>t f  
exultation ( sympa?y caus$ by atta*m5t1 
!re is a body ( feel+ sympa!tically     
ar\s$ equal 9 am\nt to ! orig9al feel+1 

if n great]1 are necess>ily exceptional4
 ,= 9 su* cases ! total consci\sness    
includes _m o!r elem5ts besides !       
m5tally-repres5t$ pleasure or           
pa9--notably ! luxury ( pity & ! luxury 
( goodness2 & g5esis ( ^! c occur b     
occasionally2 !y c\ld n be habitual     
concomitants ( sympa!tic pleasures if   
all pursu$ ^! f mom5t to mom5t4 ,9      
e/imat+ ! possible totality ( sympa!tic 
pleasures1 we mu/ include no?+ beyond ! 
repres5tations ( ! pleasures o!rs       
exp]i5ce4 ,& unless x be ass]t$ t we c h
 o!r's /ates ( consci\sness p]petually  
reproduc$ 9 u m vividly ?an ! k9dr$     
/ates ( consci\sness are ar\s$ 9        
ourselves by _! prop] p]sonal causes1 x 
mu/ be admitt$ t ! totality ( altrui/ic 
pleasures _c become equal to ! totality 
( egoi/ic pleasures4 ,h5ce1 beyond !    
tru? t be=e !re c be altrui/ic pleasures
 !re mu/ be ! egoi/ic pleasures f       
sympa?y ) :i* !y arise1 !re is ! tru? t 
to obta9 ! greate/ sum ( altrui/ic      
pleasures1 !re mu/ be a great] sum (    

egoi/ic pleasures4    #hg4 ,t pure      
altruism is suicidal may be yet o!rwise 
demon/rat$4 ,a p]fectly moral law mu/ be
 "o :i* becomes p]fectly practicable z  
human nature becomes p]fect4 ,if its    
practicabl5ess decreases z human nature 
improves2 & if an ideal human nature    
necessitates its impracticability1 x _c 
be ! moral law s\ght4  ,n[ opportunities
 = practic+ altruism are num]\s & great 
9 proportion z !re is weakness1 or      
incapacity1 or imp]fection4 ,if we pass$
 beyond ! limits ( ! family1 9 :i* a    
sph]e = self-sacrific+ activities mu/ be
 pres]v$ z long z (fspr+ h to be re>$2 &
 if we ask h[ !re c cont9ue a social    
sph]e = self-sacrific+ activities1 x    
becomes obvi\s t ! cont9u$ exi/5ce (    
s]i\s evils1 caus$ by preval5t defects (
 nature1 is impli$4 ,z fa/ z m5 adapt   
!mselves to ! requirem5ts ( social life1
 s fa/ w ! dem&s = ef=ts on _! behalf   
dim9i%4 ,& ) arrival at f9i%$           
adaptation1 :5 all p]sons are at once   
completely self-cons]v$ & completely    

able to fulfill ! obligations :i*       
society imposes on !m1 ^? occasions =   
po/ponem5t ( self to o!rs1 :i* pure     
altruism contemplates1 disappe>4  ,su*  
self-sacrifices become1 inde$1 d\bly    
impracticable4 ,c>ry+ on successfully _!
 sev]al lives1 m5 n only _c yield to ^? 
ar\nd ! opportunities = giv+ aid1 b aid 
_c ord9>ily be giv5 !m )\t int]f]+ ) _! 
normal activities1 & s dim9i%+ _!       
pleasures4 ,l e inf]ior creature1 l$ by 
its innate desires spontane\sly to d all
 t its life requires1 man1 :5 completely
 mold$ to ! social /ate1 mu/ h desires s
 adju/$ to 8 ne$s t he fulfills ! ne$s 9
 gratify+ ! desires4 ,& if 8 desires are
 sev]ally gratifi$ by ! p]=mance (      
requir$ acts1 none ( ^! c be p]=m$ = him
 )\t balk+ 8 desires4 ,acceptance f o!rs
 ( ! results ( _! activities c take     
place only on condition ( rel9qui%+ !   
pleasures d]iv$ f 8 own activities4     
,dim9ution r ?an increase ( happ9ess    
w\ld result1 c\ld altrui/ic action 9 su*
 case be en=c$4  ,& "h1 inde$1 we are   

introduc$ to ano!r baseless assumption  
:i* ! !ory makes4    #hh4 ,! po/ulate ( 
utilit>ianism z =mulat$ 9 ! /atem5ts    
above quot$1 & ( pure altruism z o!rwise
 express$1 involves ! belief t x is     
possible = happ9ess1 or ! means to      
happ9ess1 or ! conditions to happ9ess1  
to be transf]r$4 ,)\t any specifi$      
limitation ! proposition tak5 = grant$  
is1 t happ9ess 9 g5]al admits ( deta*m5t
 f "o & atta*m5t to ano!r--t surr5d] to 
any ext5t is possible by "o &           
appropriation to any ext5t is possible  
by ano!r4 ,b a mom5t's ?\ght %[s ?is to 
be f> f ! tru?4 ,on ! "o h&1 surr5d]    
c>ri$ to a c]ta9 po9t is extremely      
mis*iev\s & to a fur!r po9t fatal2 & on 
! o!r h&1 mu* ( ! happ9ess ea* enjoys is
 self-g5]at$ & c nei!r be giv5 nor      
receiv$4  ,to assume t egoi/ic pleasures
 may be rel9qui%$ to any ext5t1 is to   
fall into "o ( ^? _m errors ( e?ical    
speculation :i* result f ignor+ ! tru?s 
( biology4 ,:5 tak+ ! biological view ( 
e?ics we saw t pleasures accompany      

normal am\nts ( functions1 :ile pa9s    
accompany defects or excesses (         
functions2 fur!r1 t complete life dep5ds
 on complete dis*>ge ( functions1 &     
!re=e on receipt ( ! correlative        
pleasures4 ,h5ce1 to yield up normal    
pleasures is to yield up s mu* life2 &  
!re arises ! "q--,to :at ext5t may ?is  
be done8 ,if he is to cont9ue liv+1 !   
individual mu/ take c]ta9 am\nts ( ^?   
pleasures :i* g along ) fulfillm5t ( !  
bodily functions1 & mu/ avoid ! pa9s :i*
 entire non-fulfillm5t ( !m entails4    
,complete abnegation means dea?2        
excessive abnegation means illness2     
abnegation less excessive means physical
 degradation & consequ5t loss ( p[] to  
fulfill obligations1 p]sonal & o!r4 ,:51
 !re=e1 we attempt to specialize !      
proposal to live n = self-satisfaction b
 = ! satisfaction ( o!rs1 we meet ) !   
difficulty t beyond a c]ta9 limit ?is _c
 be done4 ,& :5 we h decid$ :at decrease
 ( bodily welf>e1 caus$ by sacrifice (  
pleasures & acceptance ( pa9s1 x is     

prop] = ! individual to make1 !re is =c$
 on u ! fact t ! portion ( happ9ess1 or 
means to happ9ess1 :i* x is possible =  
him to yield up = r$i/ribution1 is a    
limit$ portion4  ,ev5 m rigor\s on ano!r
 side is ! re/riction put ^u ! transf] (
 happ9ess1 or ! means to happ9ess4 ,!   
pleasures ga9$ by effici5t action--by   
successful pursuit ( ends1 _c by any    
process be p>t$ )1 & _c 9 any way be    
appropriat$ by ano!r4 ,! habit ( argu+  
ab\t g5]al happ9ess sometimes z ?\gh x 7
 a concrete product to be portion$ out1 
& sometimes z ?\gh x 7 co-ext5sive ) !  
use ( ^? mat]ial aids to pleasure :i*   
may be giv5 & receiv$1 has caus$        
inatt5tion to ! tru? t ! pleasures (    
a*ievem5t are n transf]able4 ,alike 9 ! 
boy :o has won a game ( m>bles1 ! a?lete
 :o has p]=m$ a feat1 ! /atesman :o has 
ga9$ a p>ty triumph1 ! inv5tor :o has   
devis$ a new ma*9e1 ! man ( sci5ce :o   
has discov]$ a tru?1 ! noveli/ :o has   
well del9eat$ a "*1 ! poet :o has f9ely 
r5d]$ an emotion1 we see pleasures :i*  

mu/1 9 ! nature ( ?+s1 be enjoy$        
exclusively by ^? to :om !y come4 ,& if 
we look at all su* occupations z m5 are 
n impell$ to by _! necessities--if we   
contemplate ! v>i\s ambitions :i* play s
 l>ge a "p 9 life2 we are rem9d$ t s    
long z ! consci\sness ( effici5cy rema9s
 a dom9ant pleasure1 !re w rema9 a      
dom9ant pleasure :i* _c be pursu$       
altrui/ically b mu/ be pursu$           
egoi/ically4  ,cutt+ (f1 !n1 at ! "o    
end1 ^? pleasures :i* are insep>able f  
ma9t5ance ( ! physique 9 an un9jur$     
/ate2 & cutt+ (f at ! o!r end !         
pleasures ( successful action2 ! am\nt t
 rema9s is s greatly dim9i%$ z to make  
unt5able ! assumption t happ9ess at l>ge
 admits ( di/ribution aft] ! mann] :i*  
utilit>ianism assumes4    #hi4 ,9 yet "o
 m way may be %[n ! inconsi/5cy ( ?is   
transfigur$ utilit>ianism :i* reg>ds its
 doctr9e z embody+ ! ,*ri/ian           
maxim--,love y\r neighbor z y\rself1 & (
 t altruism :i*1 go+ /ill fur!r1        
enunciates ! maxim--,live = o!rs4  ,a "r

 rule ( conduct mu/ be "o :i* may )     
advantage be adopt$ by all4 ,act accord+
 to t maxim only1 :i* y c wi%1 at ! same
 "t1 to become a univ]sal law1 says     
,kant4 ,& cle>ly1 pass+ ov] ne$ful      
qualifications ( ?is maxim1 we may      
accept x to ! ext5t ( admitt+ t a mode (
 action :i* becomes impracticable z x   
approa*es univ]sality1 mu/ be wrong4    
,h5ce1 if ! !ory ( pure altruism1 imply+
 t ef=t %\ld be exp5d$ = ! b5efit ( o!rs
 & n = p]sonal b5efit1 is def5sible1 x  
mu/ be %[n t x w produce good results :5
 act$ ^u by all4 ,m>k ! consequ5ces if  
all are purely altrui/ic4  ,fir/1 an    
impossible comb9ation ( moral attributes
 is impli$4 ,ea* is suppos$ by !        
hypo!sis to reg>d self s little & o!rs s
 mu*1 t he will+ly sacrifices 8 own     
pleasures to give pleasures to !m4 ,b if
 ?is is a univ]sal trait1 & if action is
 univ]sally congru\s ) x1 we h to       
conceive ea* z be+ n only a sacrific] b 
also "o :o accepts sacrifices4 ,:ile he 
is s unselfi% z will+ly to yield up !   

b5efit = :i* he has labor$1 he is s     
selfi% z will+ly to let o!rs yield up to
 him ! b5efits !y h labor$ =4 ,to make  
pure altruism possible = all1 ea* mu/ be
 at once extremely unegoi/ic & extremely
 egoi/ic4 ,z a giv]1 he mu/ h no ?\ght =
 self2 z a receiv]1 no ?\ght = o!rs4    
,evid5tly1 ?is implies an inconceivable 
m5tal con/itution4 ,! sympa?y :i* is s  
solicit\s = o!rs z will+ly to injure    
self 9 b5efit+ !m1 _c at ! same "t be s 
reg>dless ( o!rs z to accept b5efits :i*
 !y injure !mselves 9 giv+4  ,!         
incongruities t em]ge if we assume pure 
altruism to be univ]sally practic$1 may 
be o!rwise exhibit$ ?us4 ,suppose t ea*1
 in/ead ( enjoy+ su* pleasures z come to
 him1 or su* consumable appliances to   
pleasure z he has work$ =1 or su*       
occasions = pleasure z rew>d 8 ef=ts1   
rel9qui%es ^! to a s+le o!r1 or adds !m 
to a common /ock f :i* o!rs b5efit1 :at 
w result8 ,diff]5t answ]s may be giv5   
accord+ z we assume t !re are1 or are n1
 additional influ5ces br\ght into play4 

,suppose !re are no additional          
influ5ces4 ,!n1 if ea* transf]s to ano!r
 8 happ9ess1 or means to happ9ess1 or   
occasions = happ9ess1 :ile "s "o else   
does ! l to him1 ! di/ribution (        
happ9ess is1 on ! av]age1 un*ang$2 or if
 ea* adds to a common /ock 8 happ9ess1  
or means to happ9ess1 or occasions =    
happ9ess1 f :i* common /ock ea*         
appropriates 8 portion1 ! av]age /ate is
 /ill1 z be=e1 un*ang$4 ,! only obvi\s  
effect is t transactions mu/ be gone    
?r\gh 9 ! r$i/ribution2 & loss ( "t &   
labor mu/ result4  ,n[ suppose "s       
additional influ5ce :i* makes ! process 
b5eficial2 :at mu/ x be8 ,! totality c  
be increas$ only if ! acts ( transf]    
increase ! quantity ( t :i* is          
transf]r$4 ,! happ9ess1 or t :i* br+s x1
 mu/ be great] to "o :o d]ives x f      
ano!r's ef=ts ?an x w\ld h be5 _h 8 own 
ef=ts procur$ x2 or o!rwise1 suppos+ a  
fund ( happ9ess1 or ( t :i* br+s x1 has 
be5 =m$ by contributions f ea*1 !n ea*1 
9 appropriat+ 8 %>e1 mu/ f9d x l>g] ?an 

x w\ld h be5 _h no su* aggregation &    
disp]sion tak5 place4 ,to ju/ify belief 
9 su* increase two conceivable          
assumptions may be made4 ,"o is t ?\gh !
 sum ( pleasures1 or ( pleasure-yield+  
?+s1 rema9s ! same yet ! k9d ( pleasure1
 or ( pleasure-yield+ ?+s1 :i* ea*      
receives 9 ex*ange f ano!r1 or f !      
aggregate ( o!rs1 is "o :i* he          
appreciates m ?an t = :i* he labor$4 ,b 
to assume ?is is to assume t ea* labors 
directly = ! ?+ :i* he enjoys less1 r   
?an = ! ?+ :i* he enjoys m1 :i* is      
absurd4 ,! o!r assumption is t :ile !   
ex*ang$1 or r$i/ribut$ pleasure ( !     
egoi/ic k9d1 rema9s ! same 9 am\nt =    
ea*1 !re is add$ to x ! altrui/ic       
pleasure accompany+ ! ex*ange4 ,b ?is   
assumption is cle>ly inadmissible if1 z 
is impli$1 ! transaction is univ]sal--is
 "o ?r\gh :i* ea* becomes giv] & receiv]
 to equal ext5ts4 ,= if ! transf] (     
pleasures1 or ( pleasure-yield+ ?+s1 f  
"o to ano!r or o!rs1 is always          
accompani$ by ! consci\sness t !re w be 

receiv$ f him or !m an equival5t2 !re   
results m]ely a tacit ex*ange1 ei!r     
direct or r\ndab\t4 ,ea* becomes        
altrui/ic 9 no great] degree ?an is     
impli$ by be+ equitable2 & ea*1 hav+    
no?+ to exalt 8 happ9ess1 sympa!tically 
or o!rwise1 _c be a s\rce ( sympa!tic   
happ9ess to o!rs4    #ij4 ,?us1 :5 !    
mean+s ( its words are inquir$ into1 or 
:5 ! necess>y implications ( its !ory   
are exam9$1 pure altruism1 9 :atev] =m  
express$1 commits its adh]5ts to v>i\s  
absurdities4  ,if ! greate/ happ9ess ( !
 greate/ numb]1 or 9 o!r words1 ! g5]al 
happ9ess1 is ! prop] end ( action1 !n n 
only = all public action b = all private
 action1 x mu/ be ! end2 because1       
o!rwise1 ! great] "p ( action rema9s    
unguid$4 ,consid] its fitness = ea*4 ,if
 corporate action is to be guid$ by !   
pr9ciple1 ) its int]pret+ comm5t1       
ev]ybody to c\nt = "o1 nobody = m ?an   
"o1 !re mu/ be an ignor+ ( all diff]5ces
 ( "* & conduct1 m]its & dem]its1 among 
citiz5s1 s9ce no discrim9ation is       

provid$ =1 &1 moreov]1 s9ce t 9 respect 
( :i* all are to c\nt alike _c be       
happ9ess itself1 :i* is indi/ributable1 
& s9ce equal %>+ ( ! concrete means to  
happ9ess1 besides fail+ ultimately w\ld 
fail proximately to produce ! greate/   
happ9ess2 x results t equal di/ribution 
( ! conditions "u :i* happ9ess may be   
pursu$ is ! only t5able mean+3 we       
discov] 9 ! pr9ciple no?+ b a r\nd-ab\t 
insi/ance on equity4 ,if1 tak+ happ9ess 
at l>ge z ! aim ( private action1 !     
individual is requir$ to judge betwe5 8 
own happ9ess & t ( o!rs z an imp>tial   
spectator w\ld d1 we see t no           
supposition conc]n+ ! spectator save "o 
:i* suicidally ascribes p>tiality to    
him1 c br+ out any o!r result ?an t ea* 
%all enjoy su* happ9ess1 or appropriate 
su* means to happ9ess1 z 8 own ef=ts    
ga93 equity is aga9 ! sole cont5t4 ,:51 
adopt+ ano!r me?od1 we consid] h[ !     
greate/ sum ( happ9ess may be compos$1  
&1 recogniz+ ! fact t equitable egoism w
 produce a c]ta9 sum1 ask h[ pure       

altruism is to produce a great] sum2 we 
are %[n t if all1 exclusively pursu+    
altrui/ic pleasures1 are s to produce a 
great] sum ( pleasures1 ! implication is
 t altrui/ic pleasures1 :i* arise f     
sympa?y1 c exi/ 9 ! abs5ce ( egoi/ic    
pleasures ) :i* !re may be sympa?y--an  
impossibility2 & ano!r implication is t 
if1 ! necessity = egoi/ic pleasures be+ 
admitt$1 x is said t ! greate/ sum (    
happ9ess w be atta9$ if all individuals 
are m altrui/ic ?an egoi/ic1 x is       
indirectly said t z a g5]al tru?1       
repres5tative feel+s are /rong] ?an     
pres5tative feel+s--ano!r impossibility4
 ,aga91 ! doctr9e ( pure altruism       
assumes t happ9ess may be to any ext5t  
transf]r$ or r$i/ribut$2 :]eas ! fact is
 t pleasures ( "o ord] _c be transf]r$ 9
 l>ge measure )\t results :i* are fatal 
or extremely injuri\s1 & t pleasures (  
ano!r ord] _c be transf]r$ 9 any degree4
 ,fur!r1 pure altruism pres5ts ?is fatal
 anomaly1 t :ile a "r pr9ciple ( action 
mu/ be m & m practic$ z m5 improve1 !   

altrui/ic pr9ciple becomes less & less  
practicable z m5 approa* an ideal =m1   
because ! sph]e = practic+ x cont9ually 
decreases4 ,f9ally its                  
self-de/ructiv5ess is made manife/ on   
obs]v+ t = all to adopt x z a pr9ciple (
 action1 :i* !y mu/ d if x is a s\nd    
pr9ciple1 implies t all are at once     
extremely unegoi/ic & extremely         
egoi/ic--ready to injure self = o!rs'   
b5efit1 & ready to accept b5efit at !   
co/ ( injury to o!rs3 traits :i* _c     
co-exi/4  ,! ne$ = a compromise betwe5  
egoism & altruism is ?us made           
conspicu\s4 ,we are =c$ to recognize !  
claims :i* 8 own well-be+ has on !      
att5tion ( ea* by not+ h[1 9 "s         
directions we come to a deadlock1 9 o!rs
 to contradictions1 & 9 o!rs to disa/r\s
 results1 if !y are ignor$4 ,conv]sely1 
x is und5iable t disreg>d ( o!rs by ea*1
 c>ri$ to a great ext5t1 is fatal to    
society1 & c>ri$ to a /ill great] ext5t 
is fatal to ! family1 & ev5tually to !  
race4 ,egoism & altruism are !re=e      

co-ess5tial4    #ia4 ,:at =m is !       
compromise betwe5 egoism & altruism to  
assume8 h[ are _! respective claims to  
be satisfi$ 9 due degrees8  ,x is a tru?
 insi/$ on by morali/s & recogniz$ 9    
common life1 t ! a*ievem5t ( individual 
happ9ess is n proportionate to ! degree 
9 :i* individual happ9ess is made !     
object ( direct pursuit2 b !re has n yet
 become curr5t ! belief t1 9 l mann]1 ! 
a*ievem5t ( g5]al happ9ess is n         
proportionate to ! degree 9 :i* g5]al   
happ9ess is made ! object ( direct      
pursuit4 ,yet failure ( direct pursuit 9
 ! la/ case is m reasonably to be       
expect$ ?an 9 ! fir/4  ,:5 discuss+ !   
relations ( means & ends1 we saw t z    
individual conduct evolves1 its pr9ciple
 becomes m & m t ( mak+ fulfillm5t (    
means ! proximate end1 & leav+ !        
ultimate end1 welf>e or happ9ess1 to    
come z a result4 ,& we saw t :5 g5]al   
welf>e or happ9ess is ! ultimate end1 ! 
same pr9ciple holds ev5 m rigor\sly2    
s9ce ! ultimate end "u its imp]sonal =m 

is less det]m9ate ?an "u its p]sonal =m1
 & ! difficulties 9 ! way ( a*iev+ x by 
direct pursuit /ill great]4 ,recogniz+1 
!n1 ! fact t corporate happ9ess /ill m  
?an individual happ9ess1 mu/ be pursu$ n
 directly1 b indirectly1 ! fir/ "q = u  
is--,:at mu/ be ! g5]al nature ( ! means
 ?r\gh :i* x is to be a*iev$4  ,x is    
admitt$ t self-happ9ess is1 9 a measure1
 to be obta9$ by fur!r+ ! happ9ess (    
o!rs4 ,may x n be true t1 conv]sely1    
g5]al happ9ess is to be obta9$ by fur!r+
 self-happ9ess8 ,if ! well-be+ ( ea*    
unit is to be rea*$ p>tly ?r\gh 8 c>e = 
! well-be+ ( ! aggregate1 is n !        
well-be+ ( ! aggregate to be rea*$ p>tly
 ?r\gh ! c>e ( ea* unit = himself8      
,cle>ly1 our conclusion mu/ be t g5]al  
happ9ess is to be a*iev$ ma9ly ?r\gh !  
adequate pursuit ( _! own happ9ess by   
individuals2 :ile1 reciprocally1 !      
happ9ess ( individuals are to be a*iev$ 
9 "p by _! pursuit ( ! g5]al happ9ess4  
,& ?is is ! conclusion embodi$ 9 !      
progress+ ideas & usages ( mank9d4 ,?is 

compromise betwe5 egoism & altruism has 
be5 sl[ly e/abli%+ itself2 & t[>d       
recognition ( its propriety1 m5's actual
 beliefs1 z di/+ui%$ f _! nom9al        
beliefs1 h be5 gradually approa*+4      
,social evolution has be5 br++ ab\t a   
/ate 9 :i* ! claims ( ! individual to ! 
proce$s ( 8 activities1 & to su*        
satisfactions z !y br+1 are m & m       
positively ass]t$2 at ! same "t t       
insi/ance on o!rs' claims1 & habitual   
respect = !m h be5 increas+4 ,among !   
rude/ savages p]sonal int]e/s are v     
vaguely di/+ui%$ f ! int]e/s ( o!rs4 ,9 
e>ly /ages ( civilization ! proportion+ 
( b5efits to ef=ts is extremely rude3   
slaves & s]fs get = "w arbitr>y am\nts (
 food & %elt]3 ex*ange be+ infrequ5t1   
!re is little to develop ! idea (       
equival5ce4 ,b z civilization advances &
 /atus passes into contract !re comes   
daily exp]i5ce ( ! relation betwe5      
advantages enjoy$ & labor giv53 !       
indu/rial sy/em ma9ta9+1 ?r\gh supply & 
dem&1 a due adju/m5t ( ! "o to ! o!r4 ,&

 ?is gr[? ( volunt>y co-op]ation1 ?is   
ex*ange ( s]vices "u agreem5t1 has be5  
necess>ily accompani$ by decrease (     
aggressions "o ^u ano!r1 & increase (   
sympa?y3 lead+ to ex*ange ( s]vices     
beyond agreem5t4 ,t is to say1 ! m      
di/9ct ass]tions ( individual claims1 & 
m rigor\s apportion+ ( p]sonal enjoym5ts
 to ef=ts exp5d$1 has gone h& 9 h& )    
gr[? ( t negative altruism %[n 9        
equitable conduct & t positive altruism 
%[n 9 gratuit\s aid4  ,a high] phase (  
?is d\ble *ange has 9 our own times     
become conspicu\s4 ,if1 on ! "o h&1 we  
note ! /ruggles = political fre$om1 !   
conte/s betwe5 labor & capital1 !       
judicial re=ms made to facilitate       
en=cem5t ( rights1 we see t ! t5d5cy    
/ill is t[>d complete appropriation by  
ea* ( :atev] b5efits are due to him1 &  
consequ5t exclusion ( 8 fell[s f su*    
b5efits4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if we consid] :at
 is meant by ! surr5d] ( p[] to !       
masses1 ! abolition ( class-privileges1 
! ef=ts to diffuse k1 ! agitations to   

spread temp]ance1 ! multitud9\s         
philan?ropic societies2 x becomes cle> t
 reg>d = ! well-be+ ( o!rs is increas+  
p>i passu ) ! tak+ ( means to secure    
p]sonal well-be+4  ,:at holds ( !       
relations )9 ea* society holds to "s    
ext5t1 if to a less ext5t1 ( ! relations
 betwe5 societies4 ,?\gh1 to ma9ta9     
national claims1 real or imag9>y1 (t5 ( 
a trivial k9d1 ! civiliz$ /ill make w>  
on "o ano!r2 yet _! sev]al nationalities
 are m respect$ ?an 9 pa/ ages4 ,?\gh by
 victors portions ( t]ritory are tak5 & 
money comp5sations exact$2 yet conque/  
is n n[1 z ( old1 habitually foll[$ by  
entire appropriation ( t]ritories &     
enslavem5t ( peoples4 ,! individualities
 ( societies are 9 a l>g] measure       
pres]v$4 ,mean:ile ! altrui/ic int]c\rse
 is great]3 aid is r5d]$ on occasions ( 
disa/] by flood1 by fire1 by fam9e1 or  
o!rwise4 ,& 9 int]national arbitration z
 lately exemplifi$1 imply+ ! recognition
 ( claims by "o nation ^u ano!r1 we see 
a fur!r progress 9 ?is wid] altruism4   

,d\btless !re is mu* to be said by way (
 set-(f2 = 9 ! deal+s ( ! civiliz$ ) !  
unciviliz$ little ( ?is progress c be   
trac$4 ,x may be urg$ t ! primitive     
rule1 ,life = life1 has be5 develop$ by 
u into ! rule1 ,= "o life _m lives1 z 9 
! cases ( ,bi%op ,patteson & ,mr4 ,bir*1
 b !n !re is ! qualify+ fact t we d n   
torture our prison]s or mutilate !m4 ,if
 x be said t z ! ,hebrews ?\ght !mselves
 w>rant$ 9 seiz+ ! l&s ,god promis$ to  
!m1 & 9 "s cases ext]m9at+ !            
inhabitants1 s we1 to fulfill ! manife/ 
int5tion ( ,provid5ce1 dispossess       
inf]ior races :5ev] we want _!          
t]ritories2 x may be repli$ t we d n    
kill _m m ?an seems ne$ful1 & tol]ate ! 
exi/5ce ( ^? :o submit4 ,& %\ld any "o  
po9t out t z ,attila1 :ile conqu]+ or   
de/roy+ peoples & nations1 reg>d$       
himself z ! sc\rge ( ,god1 puni%+ m5 =  
_! s9s1 s we1 z repres5t$ by a ,high    
,commission] & a prie/ he quotes1 ?9k   
ourselves call$ on to *a/ise ) rifles & 
cannon1 hea!ns :o practice polygamy2 !re

 is ! rejo9d] t n ev5 ! mo/ f]oci\s     
disciple ( ! tea*] ( m]cy w\ld c>ry 8   
v5geance s f> z to depopulate :ole      
t]ritories & erase scores ( cities4 ,&  
:51 on ! o!r h&1 we rememb] t !re is an 
,aborig9es ,protection ,society1 t !re  
are ,commission]s 9 c]ta9 colonies      
appo9t$ to protect native int]e/s1 & t 9
 "s cases ! l&s ( natives h be5 pur*as$ 
9 ways :i*1 h[ev] unfair1 h impli$ "s   
recognition ( _! claims2 we may say t   
little z ! compromise betwe5 egoism &   
altruism has progress$ 9 int]national   
affairs1 x has /ill progress$ some:at 9 
! direction indicat$4     ,,*apt] ,,xiv4
  ,,conciliation4    #ib4 ,z exhibit$ 9 
! la/ *apt]1 ! compromise betwe5 !      
claims ( self & ! claims ( o!rs seems to
 imply p]man5t antagonism betwe5 ! two4 
,! pursuit by ea* ( 8 own happ9ess :ile 
pay+ due reg>d to ! happ9ess ( 8 fell[s1
 app>5tly necessitates ! ev]-recurr+    
"q--,h[ f> mu/ ! "o end be s\ght & h[ f>
 ! o!r3 sugge/+1 if n discord 9 ! life (
 ea*1 /ill1 an abs5ce ( complete h>mony4

 ,?is is n ! inevitable inf]5ce h[ev]4  
,:51 9 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,sociology1 ,"p   
,,iii1 ! ph5om5a ( race-ma9t5ance among 
liv+ ?+s at l>ge 7 discuss$1 t !        
developm5t ( ! dome/ic relations might  
be ! bett] und]/ood1 x 0 %[n t dur+     
evolution !re has be5 go+ on a          
conciliation betwe5 ! int]e/s ( !       
species1 ! int]e/s ( ! p>5ts1 & !       
int]e/s ( ! (fspr+4 ,pro( 0 giv5 t z we 
asc5d f ! l[e/ =ms ( life to ! highe/1  
race-ma9t5ance is a*iev$ ) a decreas+   
sacrifice ( life1 alike ( "y individuals
 & ( adult individuals1 & also ) a      
decreas+ sacrifice ( p>5tal lives to !  
lives ( (fspr+4 ,we saw t1 ) ! progress 
( civilization1 l *anges g on among     
human be+s2 & t ! highe/ dome/ic        
relations are ^? 9 :i* ! conciliation ( 
welf>es )9 ! family becomes greate/1    
:ile ! welf>e ( ! society is be/        
subs]v$4 ,"h x rema9s to be %[n t a     
k9dr$ conciliation has be51 & is1 tak+  
place betwe5 ! int]e/s ( ea* citiz5 & ! 
int]e/s ( citiz5s at l>ge2 t5d+ ev] t[>d

 a /ate 9 :i* ! two become m]g$ 9 "o1 & 
9 :i* ! feel+s answ]+ to !m             
respectively1 fall into complete        
concord4  ,9 ! family gr\p1 ev5 z we    
obs]ve x among _m inf]ior v]tebrates1 we
 see t ! p>5tal sacrifice1 n[ become s  
mod]ate 9 am\nt z to consi/ )           
long-cont9u$ p>5tal life1 is n          
accompani$ by consci\sness ( sacrifice2 
b contr>iwise1 is made f a direct desire
 to make x3 ! altrui/ic labors on behalf
 ( "y are c>ri$ on 9 satisfaction (     
p>5tal in/9cts4 ,if we trace ^!         
relations up ?r\gh ! grades ( mank9d1 & 
obs]ve h[ l>gely love r ?an obligation  
prompts ! c>e ( *ildr51 we see !        
conciliation ( int]e/s to be su* t      
a*ievem5t ( p>5tal happ9ess co9cides )  
secur+ ! happ9ess ( (fspr+3 ! wi% =     
*ildr5 among ! *ildless1 & ! occasional 
adoption ( *ildr51 %[+ h[ ne$ful =      
atta9m5t ( c]ta9 egoi/ic satisfactions  
are ^! altrui/ic activities4 ,& fur!r   
evolution1 caus+ along ) high] nature   
dim9i%$ f]tility1 & !re=e small] burd5s 

on p>5ts1 may be expect$ to br+ a /ate 9
 :i*1 f> m ?an n[1 ! pleasures ( adult  
life w consi/ 9 rais+ (fspr+ to         
p]fection :ile simultane\sly fur!r+ !   
imm$iate happ9ess ( (fspr+4  ,n[ ?\gh   
altruism ( a social k9d1 lack+ c]ta9    
elem5ts ( p>5tal altruism1 c nev] atta9 
! same level1 yet x may be expect$ to   
atta9 a level at :i* x w be l p>5tal    
altruism 9 spontaneity--a level su* t   
m9i/ration to o!rs' happ9ess w become a 
daily ne$--a level su* t ! l[] egoi/ic  
satisfactions w be cont9ually subord9at$
 to ?is high] egoi/ic satisfaction1 n by
 any ef=t to subord9ate !m1 b by !      
pref]5ce = ?is high] egoi/ic            
satisfaction :5ev] x c be obta9$4  ,let 
u consid] h[ ! developm5t ( sympa?y1 :i*
 mu/ advance z fa/ z conditions p]mit1 w
 br+ ab\t ?is /ate4    #ic4 ,we h se5 t 
dur+ ! evolution ( life1 pleasures &    
pa9s h necess>ily be5 ! inc5tives to1 & 
det]r5ts f1 actions :i* ! conditions (  
exi/5ce dem&$ & negativ$4 ,an impli$    
tru? to be "h not$ is1 t faculties :i*1 

"u giv5 conditions1 yield p>tly pa9 &   
p>tly pleasure1 _c develop beyond !     
limit at :i* !y yield a surplus (       
pleasure3 if beyond t limit m pa9 ?an   
pleasure results f ex]cise ( !m1 _! gr[?
 mu/ be arre/$4  ,?r\gh sympa?y bo? ^!  
=ms ( feel+ are excit$4 ,n[ a           
pleasurable consci\sness is ar\s$ on    
witness+ pleasure2 n[ a pa9ful          
consci\sness is ar\s$ on witness+ pa94  
,h5ce1 if be+s ar\nd him habitually     
manife/ pleasure & b r>ely pa91 sympa?y 
yields to its possessor a surplus (     
pleasure2 :ile1 contr>iwise1 if little  
pleasure is ord9>ily witness$ & mu* pa91
 sympa?y yields a surplus ( pa9 to its  
possessor4 ,! av]age developm5t (       
sympa?y mu/1 !re=e1 be regulat$ by !    
av]age manife/ations ( pleasure & pa9 9 
o!rs4 ,if ! life usually l$ "u giv5     
social conditions is su* t suff]+ is    
daily inflict$1 or is daily display$ by 
associates1 sympa?y _c gr[3 to assume   
gr[? ( x is to assume t ! con/itution w 
modify itself 9 su* way z to increase   

its pa9s & !re=e depress its en]gies2 & 
is to ignore ! tru? t be>+ any k9d ( pa9
 gradually produces ins5sibilty to t    
pa91 or call\sness4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if !  
social /ate is su* t manife/ations (    
pleasure pr$om9ate1 sympa?y w increase2 
s9ce sympa!tic pleasures1 add+ to !     
totality ( pleasures enhanc+ vitality1  
conduce to ! physical prosp]ity ( ! mo/ 
sympa!tic1 & s9ce ! pleasures ( sympa?y 
exce$+ its pa9s 9 all1 lead to an       
ex]cise ( x :i* /r5g!ns x4  ,! fir/     
implication is "o already m ?an once    
indicat$4 ,we h se5 t along ) habitual  
militancy & "u ! adapt$ type ( social   
organization1 sympa?y _c develop to any 
consid]able height4 ,! de/ructive       
activities c>ri$ on aga9/ ext]nal       
enemies se> x2 ! /ate ( feel+ ma9ta9$   
causes )9 ! society itself frequ5t acts 
( aggression or cruelty2 & fur!r1 !     
compulsory co-op]ation *>act]iz+ !      
militant rgime necess>ily represses     
sympa?y--exi/s only on condition ( an   
unsympa!tic treatm5t ( "s by o!rs4  ,b  

ev5 c\ld ! militant rgime =?) end1 !    
h9d]ance to developm5t ( sympa?y w\ld   
/ill be great4 ,?\gh cessation ( w> w\ld
 imply increas$ adaptation ( man to     
social life1 & decrease ( sundry evils1 
yet !re w\ld rema9 mu* non-adaptation & 
mu* consequ5t unhapp9ess4 ,9 ! fir/     
place1 t =m ( nature :i* has g5]at$ &   
/ill g5]ates w>s1 ?\gh by implication   
rais$ to a high] =m1 w\ld n at once be  
rais$ to s high a =m t !re w\ld cease   
all inju/ices & ! pa9s !y cause4 ,= a   
consid]able p]iod aft] pr$atory         
activities _h end$1 ! defects ( !       
pr$atory nature w\ld cont9ue3 entail+ _!
 sl[ly dim9i%+ evils4 ,9 ! second place1
 ! ill-adju/m5t ( ! human con/itution to
 ! pursuits ( indu/rial life1 mu/ long  
p]si/1 & may be expect$ to survive 9 a  
measure ! cessation ( w>s3 ! requir$    
modes ( activity mu/ rema9 = innum]able 
g5]ations 9 "s degree displeasurable4 ,&
 9 ! ?ird place1 defici5cies (          
self-control su* z ! improvid5t %[ u1 z 
well z ^? _m failures ( conduct due to  

inadequate =esight ( consequ5ces1 ?\gh  
less m>k$ ?an n[1 c\ld n fail /ill to   
produce suff]+4  ,nor w\ld ev5 complete 
adaptation1 if limit$ to disappe>ance ( 
! non-adaptations j indicat$1 remove all
 s\rces ( ^? mis]ies :i*1 to ! ext5t (  
_! manife/ation1 *eck ! gr[? ( sympa?y4 
,= :ile ! rate ( multiplication cont9ues
 s to exce$ ! rate ( mortality z to     
cause pressure on ! means ( subsi/5ce1  
!re mu/ cont9ue to result mu*           
unhapp9ess2 ei!r f balk$ affections or f
 ov]work & /9t$ means4 ,only z fa/ z    
f]tility dim9i%es1 :i* we h se5 x mu/ d 
along ) fur!r m5tal developm5t          
7,pr9ciples ( ,biology1  #cfg-cgg71 c   
!re g on su* dim9ution ( ! labors       
requir$ = effici5tly support+ self &    
family1 t !y w n con/itute a            
displeasurable tax on ! en]gies4        
,gradually !n1 & only gradually1 z ^!   
v>i\s causes ( unhapp9ess become less c 
sympa?y become great]4 ,life w\ld be    
intol]able if1 :ile ! causes ( mis]y    
rema9$ z !y n[ are1 all m5 7 n only 9 a 

high degree s5sitive to ! pa9s1 bodily &
 m5tal1 felt by ^? ar\nd & express$ 9 ! 
faces ( ^? !y met1 b 7 unceas+ly        
consci\s ( ! mis]ies ev]y:]e be+ suff]$ 
z consequ5ces ( w>1 crime1 misconduct1  
mis=tune1 improvid5ce1 incapacity4 ,b1 z
 ! mold+ & re-mold+ ( man & society into
 mutual fitness progresses1 & z ! pa9s  
caus$ by unfitness decrease1 sympa?y c  
increase 9 pres5ce ( ! pleasures t come 
f fitness4 ,! two *anges are inde$ s    
relat$ t ea* fur!rs ! o!r4 ,su* gr[? (  
sympa?y z conditions p]mit1 itself aids 
9 less5+ pa9 & augm5t+ pleasure3 & !    
great] surplus ( pleasure t results     
makes possible fur!r gr[? ( sympa?y4    
#id4 ,! ext5t to :i* sympa?y may develop
 :5 ! h9d]ances are remov$1 w be bett]  
conceiv$ aft] obs]v+ ! ag5cies ?r\gh :i*
 x is excit$1 & sett+ d[n ! reasons =   
expect+ ^? ag5cies to become m effici5t4
 ,two factors h to be consid]$--!       
natural language ( feel+ 9 ! be+        
sympa?iz$ )1 & ! p[] ( int]pret+ t      
language 9 ! be+ :o sympa?izes4 ,we may 

anticipate developm5t ( bo?4  ,movem5ts 
( ! body & facial *anges are visible    
effects ( feel+ :i*1 :5 ! feel+ is      
/rong1 are uncontrollable4 ,:5 ! feel+  
is less /rong1 h[ev]1 be x s5sational or
 emotional1 !y may be :olly or p>tially 
repress$2 & !re is a habit1 m or less   
con/ant1 ( repress+ !m2 ?is habit be+ ! 
concomitant ( a nature su* t x is (t5   
undesirable t o!rs %\ld see :at is felt4
 ,s necess>y ) our exi/+ *>act]s &      
conditions are concealm5ts ?us prompt$1 
t !y h come to =m a "p ( moral duty2 &  
concealm5t = its own sake is (t5 insi/$ 
^u z an elem5t 9 good mann]s4 ,all ?is  
is caus$ by ! preval5ce ( feel+s at     
v>iance ) social good--feel+s :i* _c be 
%[n )\t produc+ discords or e/rangem5ts4
 ,b 9 proportion z ! egoi/ic desires    
fall m "u control ( ! altrui/ic1 & !re  
come few] & slight] impulses ( a k9d to 
be reprobat$1 ! ne$ = keep+ gu>d ov]    
facial expression & bodily movem5t w    
decrease1 & ^! w ) increas+ cle>ness    
convey to spectators ! m5tal /ate4 ,nor 

is ?is all4 ,re/ra9$ z its use is1 ?is  
language ( ! emotions is at pres5t      
prev5t$ f gr[+4 ,b z fa/ z ! emotions   
become su* t !y may be m c&idly         
display$1 !re w g1 along ) ! habit (    
display1 developm5t ( ! means ( display2
 s t besides ! /rong] emotions1 ! m     
delicate %ades & small] degrees (       
emotion w visibly exhibit !mselves2 !   
emotional language w become at once m   
copi\s1 m v>i$1 m def9ite4 ,& obvi\sly  
sympa?y w be proportionately facilitat$4
  ,an equally important1 if n a m       
important1 advance ( k9dr$ nature1 is to
 be anticipat$4 ,! vocal signs ( s5ti5t 
/ates w simultane\sly evolve fur!r4     
,l\dness ( tone1 pit* ( tone1 quality ( 
tone1 & *ange ( tone1 are sev]ally m>ks 
( feel+2 &1 comb9$ 9 diff]5t ways &     
proportions1 s]ve to express diff]5t    
am\nts & k9ds ( feel+s4 ,z else:]e po9t$
 out1 cad5ces are ! comm5ts ( ! emotions
 on ! propositions ( ! intellect,j4 ,n 9
 excit$ spee* only1 b 9 ord9>y spee*1 we
 %[ by asc5d+ & desc5d+ int]vals1 by    

degrees ( deviation f ! m$ium tone1 z   
well z by place & /r5g? ( emphasis1 !   
k9d ( s5ti5cy :i* accompanies ! ?\ght   
express$4 ,n[ ! manife/ation ( feel+ by 
cad5ce1 l its manife/ation by visible   
*anges1 is at pres5t "u re/ra9t2 !      
motives = repression act 9 ! "o case z  
!y act 9 ! o!r4 ,a d\ble effect is      
produc$4 ,?is audible language ( feel+  
is n us$ up to ! limit ( its exi/+      
capacity2 & x is to a consid]able degree
 misus$1 s z to convey o!r feel+s ?an ^?
 :i* are felt4 ,! result ( ?is disuse & 
misuse is to *eck t evolution :i* normal
 use w\ld cause4 ,we mu/ inf]1 !n1 t z  
moral adaptation progresses1 & !re is   
decreas+ ne$ = concealm5t ( ! feel+s1 _!
 vocal signs w develop mu* fur!r4 ,?\gh 
x is n to be suppos$ t cad5ces w ev]    
convey emotions z exactly z words convey
 ?\ghts1 yet x is q possible t !        
emotional language ( ! future may rise z
 mu* above our pres5t emotional         
language1 z our intellectual language   
has already ris5 above ! intellectual   

language ( ! l[e/ races4  ,a simultane\s
 increase 9 ! p[] ( int]pret+ bo?       
visible & audible signs ( feel+ mu/ be  
tak5 into acc\nt4 ,among ^? ar\nd we see
 diff]5ces bo? ( ability to p]ceive su* 
signs & ( ability to conceive ! impli$  
m5tal /ates1 & _! causes2 "h1 a /olidity
 unimpress$ by a slight facial *ange or 
alt]$ tone ( voice1 or else unable to   
imag9e :at is felt2 & !re1 a quick      
obs]vation & a p5etrat+ intuition1 mak+ 
in/antly compreh5sible ! /ate ( m9d &   
its orig94 ,if we suppose bo? ^!        
faculties exalt$--bo? a m delicate      
p]ception ( ! signs & a /r5g!n$         
con/ructive imag9ation--we %all get "s  
idea ( ! deep] & wid] sympa?y t w       
h]eaft] arise4 ,m vivid repres5tations (
 ! feel+s ( o!rs1 imply+ ideal          
excitem5ts ( feel+s approa*+ to real    
excitem5ts1 mu/ imply a great] lik5ess  
betwe5 ! feel+s ( ! sympa?iz] & ^? ( !  
sympa?iz$ )2 com+ ne> to id5tity4  ,by  
simultane\s increase ( its subjective & 
objective factors1 sympa?y may ?us1 z ! 

h9d]ances dim9i%1 rise above t n[ %[n by
 ! sympa!tic z mu* z 9 !m x has ris5    
above t :i* ! call\s %[4    #ie4 ,:at   
mu/ be ! accompany+ evolution ( conduct8
 ,:at mu/ ! relations betwe5 egoism &   
altruism become z ?is =m ( nature is    
ne>$8  ,a conclusion drawn 9 ! *apt] on 
! relativity ( pleasures & pa9s1 & !re  
emphasiz$ z "o to be borne 9 m9d1 mu/ n[
 be recall$4 ,x 0 po9t$ out t1 suppos+  
!m to be consi/5t ) cont9uance ( life1  
!re are no activities :i* may n become  
s\rces ( pleasure1 if surr\nd+          
conditions require p]si/5ce 9 !m4 ,& "h 
x is to be add$1 z a coroll>y1 t if !   
conditions require any class (          
activities to be relatively great1 !re w
 arise a relatively great pleasure      
accompany+ t class ( activities4 ,:at   
be>+ h ^! g5]al inf]5ces on ! special "q
 be=e u8  ,t alike = public welf>e &    
private welf>e sympa?y is ess5tial we h 
se54 ,we h se5 t co-op]ation & ! b5efits
 :i* x br+s to ea* & all1 become high 9 
proportion z ! altrui/ic1 t is !        

sympa!tic1 int]e/s ext5d4 ,! actions    
prompt$ by fell[-feel+ are ?us to be    
c\nt$ among ^? dem&$ by social          
conditions4 ,!y are actions :i*         
ma9t5ance & fur!r developm5t ( social   
organization t5d ev] to increase1 &1    
!re=e1 actions ) :i* !re w be jo9$ an   
increas+ pleasure4 ,f ! laws ( life x   
mu/ be conclud$ t unceas+ social        
discipl9e w s mold human nature t       
ev5tually sympa!tic pleasures w be      
spontane\sly pursu$ to ! fulle/ ext5t   
advantage\s to ea* & all4 ,! scope =    
altrui/ic activities w n exce$ ! desire 
= altrui/ic satisfactions4  ,9 natures  
?us con/itut$1 ?\gh ! altrui/ic         
gratifications mu/ rema9 9 a transfigur$
 s5se egoi/ic1 yet !y w n be egoi/ically
 pursu$--w n be pursu$ f egoi/ic        
motives4 ,?\gh pleasure w be ga9$ by    
giv+ pleasure1 yet ! ?\ght ( ! sympa!tic
 pleasure to be ga9$ w n occupy         
consci\sness1 b only ! ?\ght ( !        
pleasure giv54 ,to a great ext5t ?is is 
s n[4 ,9 ! truly sympa!tic1 att5tion is 

s absorb$ ) ! proximate end1 o!rs'      
happ9ess1 t !re is none giv5 to !       
prospective self-happ9ess :i* may       
ultimately result4 ,an analogy w make ! 
relation cle>4  ,a mis] accumulates     
money1 n delib]ately say+ to himself1 ,i
 %all by do+ ?is get ! delight :i*      
possession gives4 ,he ?9ks only ( !     
money & ! means ( gett+ x1 & he         
exp]i5ces incid5tally ! pleasure t comes
 f possession4 ,own+ prop]ty is t :i* he
 revels 9 imag9+1 & n ! feel+ :i* own+  
prop]ty w cause4 ,simil>ly1 "o :o is    
sympa!tic 9 ! highe/ s5se1 is m5tally   
engag$ solely 9 repres5t+ pleasure z    
exp]i5c$ by ano!r1 & pursues x = !      
b5efit ( t o!r1 =gett+ any p>ticipation 
he w h 9 x4 ,subjectively consid]$1 !n1 
! conciliation ( egoism & altruism w    
ev5tually become su* t ?\gh ! altrui/ic 
pleasure1 z be+ a "p ( ! consci\sness ( 
"o :o exp]i5ces x1 c nev] be o!r ?an    
egoi/ic1 x w n be consci\sly egoi/ic4   
,let u n[ ask :at mu/ happ5 9 a society 
compos$ ( p]sons con/itut$ 9 ?is mann]4 

#if4 ,! opportunities = t po/ponem5t (  
self to o!rs :i* con/itutes altruism z  
ord9>ily conceiv$1 mu/1 9 sev]al ways1  
be m & m limit$ z ! highe/ /ate is      
approa*$4  ,ext5sive dem&s on ! b5evol5t
 presuppose mu* unhapp9ess4 ,be=e !re c 
be _m & l>ge calls on "s = ef=ts on     
behalf ( o!rs1 !re mu/ be _m o!rs 9     
conditions ne$+ help--9 conditions (    
comp>ative mis]y4 ,b1 z we h se5 above1 
! developm5t ( fell[-feel+ c g on only z
 fa/ z mis]y decreases4 ,sympa?y c rea* 
its full height only :5 !re h ceas$ to  
be frequ5t occasions = any?+ l s]i\s    
self-sacrifice4  ,*ange ! po9t ( view1 &
 ?is tru? pres5ts itself "u ano!r       
aspect4 ,we h already se5 t ) ! progress
 ( adaptation ea* becomes s con/itut$ t 
he _c be help$ )\t 9 "s way arre/+ a    
pleasurable activity4 ,!re _c be a      
b5eficial int]f]5ce betwe5 faculty &    
function :5 ! two are adju/$4           
,consequ5tly1 9 proportion z mank9d     
approa* complete adju/m5t ( _! natures  
to social ne$s1 !re mu/ be few] & small]

 opportunities = giv+ aid4  ,yet aga91 z
 0 po9t$ out 9 ! la/ *apt]1 ! sympa?y   
:i* prompts ef=ts = o!rs' welf>e mu/ be 
pa9$ by self-injury on ! "p ( o!rs2 &   
mu/1 !re=e1 cause av]sion to accept     
b5efits d]iv$ f _! self-injuries4 ,:at  
is to be inf]r$8 ,:ile ea*1 :5 occasion 
(f]s1 is ready1 anxi\s ev51 to surr5d]  
egoi/ic satisfactions2 o!rs1 simil>ly   
natur$1 _c b resi/ ! surr5d]4 ,if any   
"o1 propos+ to treat himself m h>dly ?an
 a dis9t]e/$ spectator w\ld direct1     
refra9s f appropriat+ t :i* is due2     
o!rs1 c>+ = him if he w n c>e = himself1
 mu/ necess>ily insi/ t he %all         
appropriate x4 ,g5]al altruism !n1 9 its
 develop$ =m1 mu/ inevitably resi/      
individual excesses ( altruism4 ,!      
relation at pres5t famili> to u w be    
inv]t$1 & in/ead ( ea* ma9ta9+ 8 own    
claims1 o!rs w ma9ta9 8 claims = him3 n1
 inde$1 by active ef=ts1 :i* w be       
ne$less1 b by passively resi/+ any undue
 yield+ up ( !m4 ,!re is no?+ 9 su*     
behavior :i* is n ev5 n[ to be trac$ 9  

our daily exp]i5ces z beg9n+4 ,9 bus9ess
 transactions among honorable m5 !re is 
usually a desire on ei!r side t ! o!r   
%all treat himself fairly4 ,n           
unfrequ5tly !re is a refusal to take    
some?+ reg>d$ z ! o!r's due1 b :i* ! o!r
 (f]s to give up4 ,9 social int]c\rse1  
too1 ! cases are common 9 :i* ^? :o w\ld
 surr5d] _! %>es ( pleasure are n       
p]mitt$ by ! re/ to d s4 ,fur!r         
developm5t ( sympa?y _c b make ?is mode 
( behav+ increas+ly g5]al & increas+ly  
g5u9e4  ,c]ta9 complex re/ra9ts on      
excesses ( altruism exi/1 :i*1 9 ano!r  
way1 =ce back ! individual ^u a normal  
egoism4 ,two may "h be not$4  ,9 ! fir/ 
place1 self-abnegations (t5 repeat$     
imply on ! "p ( ! actor a tacit         
ascription ( relative selfi%ness to o!rs
 :o pr(it by ! self-abnegations4 ,ev5 ) 
m5 z !y are !re occasionally arises a   
feel+ among ^? = :om sacrifices are     
frequ5tly made1 t !y are be+ insult$ by 
! assumption t !y are ready to receive  
!m1 & 9 ! m9d ( ! actor also1 !re       

sometimes gr[s up a recognition ( ?is   
feel+ on _! "p1 & a consequ5t *eck on 8 
too great or too frequ5t surr5d]s (     
pleasure4 ,obvi\sly1 9 m develop$       
natures1 ?is k9d ( *eck mu/ act /ill m  
promptly4  ,9 ! second place1 :51 z !   
hypo!sis implies1 altrui/ic pleasures h 
rea*$ a great] int5sity ?an !y n[       
possess1 ea* p]son w be deb>r$ f undue  
pursuit ( !m by ! consci\sness t o!r    
p]sons1 too1 desire !m1 & t scope =     
o!rs' enjoym5t ( !m mu/ be left4 ,ev5 n[
 may be obs]v$ among gr\ps ( fri5ds1 :]e
 "s competition 9 amiability is go+ on1 
rel9qui%m5ts ( opportunities =          
self-abnegation t o!rs may h !m4 ,let h]
 give up ! gratification1 %e w l to d s2
 ,let him und]take ! tr\ble1 x w please 
him2 are sugge/ions :i*1 f "t to "t1    
illu/rate ?is consci\sness4 ,! mo/      
develop$ sympa?y w c>e = ! sympa!tic    
satisfactions ( o!rs z well z = _!      
selfi% satisfactions4 ,:at may be call$ 
a high] equity w refra9 f trespass+ on !
 sph]es ( o!rs' altrui/ic activities1 z 

a l[] equity refra9s f trespass+ on !   
sph]es ( _! egoi/ic activities4 ,& by   
?is *eck+ ( :at may be call$ an egoi/ic 
altruism1 undue sacrifices on ! "p ( ea*
 mu/ be prev5t$4  ,:at sph]es1 !n1 w    
ev5tually rema9 = altruism z x is       
commonly conceiv$8 ,!re are ?ree4 ,"o ( 
!m mu/ to ! la/ cont9ue l>ge 9 ext5t2 & 
! o!rs mu/ progressively dim9i%1 ?\gh !y
 d n disappe>4  ,! fir/ is t :i* family 
life af=ds4 ,always !re mu/ be a ne$ =  
subord9ation ( self-reg>d+ feel+s to    
o!r-reg>d+ feel+s 9 ! re>+ ( *ildr54    
,?\gh ?is w dim9i% ) dim9ution 9 ! numb]
 to be re>$1 yet x w increase ) ! great]
 elaboration1 & prolongation ( !        
activities on _! behalf4 ,b z %[n above1
 !re is ev5 n[ p>tially effect$ a       
conciliation su* t ^? egoi/ic           
satisfactions :i* p>5?ood yields are    
a*iev$ ?r\gh altrui/ic activities--a    
conciliation t5d+ ev] t[>d complet5ess4 
,an important developm5t ( family       
altruism mu/ be add$3 ! reciprocal c>e (
 p>5ts by *ildr5 dur+ old age--a c>e    

becom+ light] & bett] fulfill$1 9 :i* a 
k9dr$ conciliation may be look$ =4      
,pursuit ( social welf>e at l>ge mu/    
af=d h]eaft]1 z x does n[1 scope = !    
po/ponem5t ( selfi% int]e/s to unselfi% 
int]e/s1 b a cont9ually less5+ scope2   
because z adaptation to ! social /ate   
progresses ! ne$s = ^? regulative       
actions by :i* social life is made      
h>moni\s become less4 ,& "h ! am\nt (   
altrui/ic action :i* ea* und]takes mu/  
inevitably be kept )9 mod]ate b\nds by  
o!rs2 = if !y are simil>ly altrui/ic1 !y
 w n all[ "s to pursue public ends to _!
 own consid]able detrim5t t ! re/ may   
pr(it4  ,9 ! private relations ( m51    
opportunities = self-sacrifice prompt$  
by sympa?y1 mu/ ev] 9 "s degree1 ?\gh   
ev5tually 9 a small degree1 be af=d$ by 
accid5ts1 diseases1 & mis=tunes 9 g5]al2
 s9ce1 h[ev] ne> to complet5ess !       
adaptation ( human nature to !          
conditions ( exi/5ce at l>ge1 physical &
 social1 may become1 x c nev] rea*      
complet5ess4 ,flood1 fire1 & wreck mu/  

to ! la/ yield at int]vals opportunities
 = h]oic acts2 & 9 ! motives to su*     
acts1 anxiety = o!rs w be less alloy$ ) 
love ( admiration ?an n[4 ,extreme1     
h[ev]1 z may be ! eag]ness = altrui/ic  
action on ! r>e occasions h5ce aris+1 ! 
am\nt fall+ to ! %>e ( ea* mu/1 = !     
reasons giv51 be n>r[ly limit$4  ,b ?\gh
 9 ! incid5ts ( ord9>y life1 po/ponem5ts
 ( self to o!rs 9 l>ge ways mu/ become v
 infrequ5t1 daily int]c\rse w /ill      
furni% multitud9\s small occasions = !  
activity ( fell[ feel+4 ,always ea* may 
cont9ue to fur!r ! welf>e ( o!rs by w>d+
 (f f !m evils !y _c see1 & by aid+ _!  
actions 9 ways unkn[n to !m2 or1        
conv]sely putt+ x1 ea* may h1 z x 71    
supplem5t>y eyes & e>s 9 o!r p]sons1 :i*
 p]ceive = him ?+s he _c p]ceive        
himself3 s p]fect+ 8 life 9 num]\s      
details1 by mak+ its adju/m5t to        
environ+ actions complete4    #ig4 ,mu/ 
x !n foll[ t ev5tually1 ) ?is dim9ution 
( ! sph]es = x1 altruism mu/ dim9i% 9   
total am\nt8 ,by no means4 ,su* a       

conclusion implies a misconception4     
,naturally1 "u exi/+ conditions1 )      
suff]+ widely diffus$ & s mu* ( ef=t    
dem&$ f ! m =tunate 9 succor+ ! less    
=tunate1 altruism is und]/ood to mean   
only self-sacrifice2 or1 at any rate1 a 
mode ( action :i*1 :ile x br+s "s       
pleasure1 has an accompanim5t (         
self-surr5d] t is n pleasurable4 ,b !   
sympa?y :i* prompts d5ial ( self to     
please o!rs is a sympa?y :i* also       
receives pleasure f _! pleasures :5 !y  
are o!rwise orig9at$4 ,! /rong] !       
fell[-feel+ :i* excites ef=ts to make   
o!rs happy1 ! /rong] is ! fell[-feel+ ) 
_! happ9ess h[ev] caus$4  ,9 its        
ultimate =m1 !n1 altruism w be !        
a*ievem5t ( gratification ?r\gh sympa?y 
) ^? gratifications ( o!rs :i* are ma9ly
 produc$ by _! activities ( all k9ds    
successfully c>ri$ on--sympa!tic        
gratification :i* co/s ! receiv] no?+1 b
 is a gratis addition to 8 egoi/ic      
gratifications4 ,?is p[] ( repres5t+ 9  
idea ! m5tal /ates ( o!rs1 :i*1 dur+ !  

process ( adaptation has _h ! function (
 mitigat+ suff]+1 mu/1 z ! suff]+ falls 
to a m9imum1 come to h almo/ :olly !    
function ( mutually exalt+ m5's         
enjoym5ts by giv+ e "o a vivid intuition
 ( 8 neighbor's enjoym5ts4 ,:ile pa9    
prevails widely1 x is undesirable t ea* 
%\ld p>ticipate mu* 9 ! consci\snesses (
 o!rs2 b ) an increas+ pr$om9ance (     
pleasure1 p>ticipation 9 o!rs'          
consci\snesses becomes a ga9 ( pleasure 
to all4  ,& s !re w disappe> t app>5tly 
p]man5t opposition betwe5 egoism &      
altruism1 impli$ by ! compromise rea*$ 9
 ! la/ *apt]4 ,subjectively look$ at1 ! 
conciliation w be su* t ! individual w n
 h to balance betwe5 self-reg>d+        
impulses & o!r-reg>d+ impulses2 b1      
in/ead1 ^? satisfactions ( o!r-reg>d+   
impulses :i* involve self-sacrifice1    
becom+ r>e & mu* priz$1 w be s          
unhesitat+ly pref]r$ t ! competition (  
self-reg>d+ impulses ) !m w sc>cely be  
felt4 ,& ! subjective conciliation w    
also be su* t ?\gh altrui/ic pleasure w 

be atta9$1 yet ! motive ( action w n    
consci\sly be ! atta9m5t ( altrui/ic    
pleasure2 b ! idea pres5t w be ! secur+ 
( o!rs' pleasures4 ,mean:ile1 !         
conciliation objectively consid]$ w be  
equally complete4 ,?\gh ea*1 no long]   
ne$+ to ma9ta9 8 egoi/ic claims1 w t5d r
 :5 occasion (f]s to surr5d] !m1 yet    
o!rs1 simil>ly natur$1 w n p]mit him 9  
any l>ge measure to d ?is1 & t          
fulfillm5t ( p]sonal desires requir$ =  
completion ( 8 life w ?us be secur$ to  
him2 ?\gh n n[ egoi/ic 9 ! ord9>y s5se1 
yet ! effects ( due egoism w be a*iev$4 
,nor is ?is all4 ,z1 at an e>ly /age1   
egoi/ic competition1 fir/ rea*+ a       
compromise su* t ea* claims no m ?an 8  
equitable %>e1 aft]w>d rises to a       
conciliation su* t ea* insi/s on ! tak+ 
( equitable %>es by o!rs2 s1 at ! late/ 
/age1 altrui/ic competition1 fir/ rea*+ 
a compromise "u :i* ea* re/ra9s himself 
f tak+ an undue %>e ( altrui/ic         
satisfactions1 ev5tually rises to a     
conciliation "u :i* ea* takes c>e t o!rs

 %all h _! opportunities = altrui/ic    
satisfactions3 ! highe/ altruism be+ t  
:i* m9i/]s n to ! egoi/ic satisfactions 
( o!rs only1 b also to _! altrui/ic     
satisfactions4  ,f> (f z seems su* a    
/ate1 yet e "o ( ! factors c\nt$ on to  
produce x may already be trac$ 9        
op]ation among ^? ( highe/ natures4 ,:at
 n[ 9 !m is occasional & feeble1 may be 
expect$ ) fur!r evolution to become     
habitual & /rong2 & :at n[ *>act]izes ! 
exceptionally high may be expect$       
ev5tually to *>act]ize all4 ,= t :i* !  
be/ human nature is capable (1 is )9 !  
rea* ( human nature at l>ge4    #ih4 ,t 
^! conclusions w meet ) any consid]able 
acceptance is improbable4 ,nei!r )      
curr5t ideas nor ) curr5t s5tim5ts are  
!y suffici5tly congru\s4  ,su* a view w 
n be agreeable to ^? :o lam5t ! spread+ 
disbelief 9 et]nal damnation2 nor to ^? 
:o foll[ ! apo/le ( brute =ce 9 ?9k+ t  
because ! rule ( ! /rong h& 0 once good 
x is good = all "t2 nor to ^? ^: rev]5ce
 = "o :o told !m to put up ! sword1 is  

%[n by us+ ! sword to spread 8 doctr9e  
among hea!ns4 ,f ! t5 ?\s& prie/s ( !   
religion ( love1 :o are sil5t :5 !      
nation is mov$ by ! religion ( hate1 w  
come no sign ( ass5t2 nor f _! bi%ops   
:o1 f> f urg+ ! extreme precept ( ! ma/]
 !y pret5d to foll[1 to turn ! o!r *eek 
:5 "o is smitt51 vote = act+ on !       
pr9ciple--/rike le/ ye be /ruck4 ,nor w 
any approval be felt by legislators :o1 
aft] pray+ to be =giv5 _! trespasses z  
!y =give ! trespasses ( o!rs1 =?) decide
 to attack ^? :o h n trespass$ aga9/ !m1
 & :o1 aft] a ,que5's ,spee* has invok$ 
! bless+ ( ,almighty ,god on _! c\ncils1
 imm$iately provide means = committ+    
political burgl>y4  ,b1 ?\gh m5 :o      
pr(ess ,*ri/ianity & practice ,paganism 
c feel no sympa?y ) su* a view1 !re are 
"s1 class$ z antagoni/s to ! curr5t     
cre$1 :o may n ?9k x absurd to believe t
 a rationaliz$ v]sion ( its e?ical      
pr9ciples w ev5tually be act$ ^u4       
,,*apt] ,,xv4  ,,absolute ,,& ,,relative
 ,,e?ics4    #ii4 ,z appli$ to ,e?ics1 !

 ^w absolute w by _m be suppos$ to imply
 pr9ciples ( "r conduct t exi/ out (    
relation to life z condition$ on ! ,e>?1
 out ( relation to "t & place1 &        
indep5d5t ( ! ,univ]se z n[ visible to  
u1 et]nal pr9ciples z !y are call$4 ,^?1
 h[ev]1 :o recall ! doctr9e set =? 9    
,fir/ ,pr9ciples1 w hesitate to put ?is 
int]pretation on ! ^w4 ,"r1 z we c ?9k  
x1 necessitates ! ?\ght ( n "r1 or      
wrong1 = its correlative1 & h5ce1 to    
ascribe rightness to ! acts ( ! ,p[]    
manife/$ ?r\gh ph5om5a1 is to assume !  
possibility t wrong acts may be committ$
 by ?is ,p[]4 ,b h[ come !re to exi/1   
ap>t f ?is ,p[]1 conditions ( su* k9d t 
subord9ation ( its acts to !m makes !m  
"r & insubord9ation wrong4 ,h[ c        
,uncondition$ ,be+ be subject to        
conditions beyond itself8  ,if1 =       
example1 any "o %\ld ass]t t ! ,cause ( 
,?+s1 conceiv$ 9 respect ( fundam5tal   
moral attributes z l ourselves1 did "r 9
 produc+ a ,univ]se :i*1 9 ! c\rse (    
immeasurable "t1 has giv5 orig9 to be+s 

capable ( pleasure1 & w\ld h done wrong 
9 ab/a9+ f ! production ( su* a         
,univ]se2 !n1 ! comm5t to be made is t1 
impos+ ! moral ideas g5]at$ 9 8 f9ite   
consci\sness1 ^u ! ,inf9ite ,exi/5ce :i*
 transc5ds consci\sness1 he goes beh9d t
 ,inf9ite ,exi/5ce & prescribes = x     
pr9ciples ( action4  ,z impli$ 9 =ego+  
*apt]s1 "r & wrong z conceiv$ by u c    
exi/ only 9 relation to ! actions (     
creatures capable ( pleasures & pa9s2   
see+ t analysis c>ries u back to        
pleasures & pa9s z ! elem5ts out ( :i* !
 conceptions are fram$4  ,b if ! ^w     
absolute1 z us$ above1 does n ref] to ! 
,uncondition$ ,be+--if ! pr9ciples (    
action di/+ui%$ z absolute & relative   
conc]n ! conduct ( condition$ be+s1 9   
:at way are ! words to be und]/ood8 ,an 
explanation ( _! mean+s w be be/ convey$
 by a criticism on ! curr5t conceptions 
( "r & wrong4    #ajj4 ,conv]sations    
ab\t ! affairs ( life habitually imply !
 belief t e de$ nam$ may be plac$ "u !  
"o head or ! o!r4 ,9 discuss+ a         

political "q1 bo? sides take x = grant$ 
t "s l9e ( action may be *os5 :i* is "r1
 :ile all o!r l9es ( action are wrong4  
,s1 too1 is x ) judgm5ts on ! do+s (    
individuals2 ea* ( ^! is approv$ or     
disapprov$ on ! assumption t x is       
def9itely classable z good or bad4 ,ev5 
:]e qualifications are admitt$1 !y are  
admitt$ ) an impli$ idea t "s su*       
positive *>act]ization is to be made4   
,nor is x 9 popul> ?\ght & spee* only t 
we see ?is4 ,if n :olly & def9itely1 yet
 p>tially & by implication1 ! belief is 
express$ by morali/s4 ,9 8 ,me?ods (    
,e?ics 7#a/ ,ed41 p4 #f7 ,mr4 ,sidgwick 
says3 ,t !re is 9 any giv5 circum/ances 
"s "o ?+ :i* ought to be done & t ?is c 
be kn[n1 is a fundam5tal assumption1    
made n by philosoph]s only1 b by all :o 
p]=m any processes ( moral reason+4,k ,9
 ?is s5t5ce !re is specifically ass]t$  
only ! la/ ( ! above propositions2      
namely1 t1 9 e case1 :at ought to be    
done c be kn[n4 ,b ?\gh t :i* ought to  
be done is n di/9ctly id5tifi$ ) ! "r1 x

 may be inf]r$1 9 ! abs5ce ( any        
indication to ! contr>y1 t ,mr4         
,sidgwick reg>ds ! two z id5tical2 &    
d\btless1 9 s conceiv+ ! po/ulates (    
moral sci5ce1 he is at "o ) mo/1 if n   
all1 :o h made x a subject ( /udy4 ,at  
fir/ sight1 inde$1 no?+ seems m obvi\s  
?an t if actions are to be judg$ at all1
 ^! po/ulates mu/ be accept$4 ,nev]!less
 !y may bo? be call$ 9 "q1 & ,i ?9k x   
may be %[n t nei!r ( !m is t5able4      
,in/ead ( admitt+ t !re is 9 e case a "r
 & a wrong1 x may be cont5d$ t 9        
multitud9\s cases no "r1 prop]ly        
s-call$1 c be alleg$1 b only a lea/     
wrong2 & fur!r1 x may be cont5d$ t 9 _m 
( ^! cases :]e !re c be alleg$ only a   
lea/ wrong1 x is n possible to asc]ta9 )
 any precision :i* is ! lea/ wrong4  ,a 
great "p ( ! p]plexities 9 e?ical       
speculation arise f neglect ( ?is       
di/9ction betwe5 "r & lea/ wrong--betwe5
 ! absolutely "r & ! relatively "r4 ,&  
_m fur!r p]plexities are due to !       
assumption t x c1 9 "s way1 be decid$ 9 

e case :i* ( two c\rses is morally      
obligatory4    #aja4 ,! law ( absolute  
"r c take no cognizance ( pa91 save !   
cognizance impli$ by negation4 ,pa9 is !
 correlative ( "s species ( wrong--"s   
k9d ( div]g5ce f t c\rse ( action :i*   
p]fectly fulfills all requirem5ts4 ,if1 
z 0 %[n 9 an e>ly *apt]1 ! conception ( 
good conduct always proves1 :5 analyz$1 
to be ! conception ( a conduct :i*      
produces a surplus ( pleasure some:]e2  
:ile1 conv]sely1 ! conduct conceiv$ z   
bad proves always to be t :i* inflicts  
some:]e a surplus ( ei!r positive or    
negative pa92 !n ! absolutely good1 !   
absolutely "r1 9 conduct1 c be t only   
:i* produces pure pleasure--pleasure    
unalloy$ ) pa9 any:]e4 ,by implication1 
conduct :i* has any concomitant ( pa91  
or any pa9ful consequ5ce1 is p>tially   
wrong2 & ! highe/ claim to be made = su*
 conduct is t x is ! lea/ wrong :i*1 "u 
! conditions1 is possible--! relatively 
"r4  ,! cont5ts ( prec$+ *apt]s imply   
?r\gh\t t1 consid]$ f ! evolution po9t (

 view1 ! acts ( m5 dur+ ! transition :i*
 has be51 is /ill1 & long w be1 9       
progress1 mu/1 9 mo/ cases1 be ( ! k9d  
"h class$ z lea/ wrong4 ,9 proportion to
 ! incongruity betwe5 ! natures m5      
inh]it f ! pre-social /ate1 & !         
requirem5ts ( social life1 mu/ be !     
am\nt ( pa9 entail$ by _! actions1 ei!r 
on !mselves or on o!rs4 ,9 s f> z pa9 is
 suff]$1 evil is inflict$2 & conduct :i*
 inflicts any evil _c be absolutely     
good4  ,to make cle> ! di/9ction "h     
insi/$ ^u betwe5 t p]fect conduct :i* is
 ! subject-matt] ( ,absolute ,e?ics1 & t
 imp]fect conduct :i* is ! subject-matt]
 ( ,relative ,e?ics1 "s illu/rations mu/
 be giv54    #ajb4 ,among ! be/ examples
 ( absolutely "r actions to be nam$ are 
^? aris+ :]e ! nature & ! requirem5ts h 
be5 mold$ to "o ano!r be=e social       
evolution began4 ,two w "h suffice4     
,consid] ! relation ( a heal?y "m to a  
heal?y infant4 ,betwe5 ! two !re exi/s a
 mutual dep5d5ce :i* is a s\rce (       
pleasure to bo?4 ,9 yield+ its natural  

food to ! *ild1 ! "m receives           
gratification2 & to ! *ild !re comes !  
satisfaction ( appetite--a satisfaction 
:i* accompanies fur!rance ( life1 gr[? &
 increas+ enjoym5t4 ,let ! relation be  
susp5d$1 & on bo? sides !re is suff]+4  
,! "m exp]i5ces bo? bodily pa9 & m5tal  
pa91 & ! pa9ful s5sation borne by ! *ild
 br+s z its result physical mis*ief & "s
 damage to ! emotional nature4 ,?us !   
act is "o t is to bo? exclusively       
pleasurable1 :ile ab/5tion entails pa9  
on bo?2 & x is consequ5tly ( ! k9d we "h
 call absolutely "r4  ,9 ! p>5tal       
relations ( ! fa!r we are furni%$ ) a   
k9dr$ example4 ,if he is well con/itut$ 
9 body & m9d1 8 boy1 eag] = play1 f9ds 9
 him a sympa!tic response1 & _! frolics1
 giv+ mutual pleasure1 n only fur!r !   
*ild's physical welf>e1 b /r5g!n t bond 
( good feel+ betwe5 ! two :i* makes     
subsequ5t guidance easi]4 ,& !n if1     
repudiat+ ! /upidities ( e>ly education 
z at pres5t conceiv$ & unhappily        
,/ate-enact$1 he has rational ideas (   

m5tal developm5t1 & sees t ! second-h& k
 ga9$ ?r\gh books %\ld beg9 to supplem5t
 ! fir/-h& k ga9$ by direct obs]vation1 
only :5 a good /ock ( ?is has be5       
acquir$1 he w1 ) active sympa?y1 aid 9 !
 exploration ( ! surr\nd+ _w :i* 8 boy  
pursues ) delight2 giv+ & receiv+       
gratification f mom5t to mom5t :ile     
fur!r+ ultimate welf>e4 ,"h1 aga91 are  
actions ( a k9d purely pleasurable alike
 9 _! imm$iate & remote effects--actions
 absolutely "r4  ,! int]c\rse ( adults  
yields1 = ! reason assign$1 relatively  
few cases t fall completely )9 ! same   
category4 ,9 _! transactions f h\r to   
h\r1 m or less ( d$uction f pure        
gratification is caus$ on "o or o!r side
 by imp]fect fitness to ! requirem5ts4  
,! pleasures m5 ga9 by labor+ 9 _!      
vocations & receiv+ 9 "o =m or o!r      
returns = _! s]vices usually h !        
drawback t ! labor]s are 9 a consid]able
 degree displeasurable4 ,cases1 h[ev]1 d
 occur :]e ! en]gies are s abundant t   
inaction is irksome2 & :]e ! daily "w1 n

 too great 9 duration1 is ( a k9d       
appropriate to ! nature2 & :]e1 z a     
consequ5ce1 pleasure r ?an pa9 is a     
concomitant4 ,:5 s]vices yield$ by su* a
 "o are paid = by ano!r simil>ly adapt$ 
to 8 occupation1 ! entire transaction is
 ( ! k9d we are "h consid]+3 ex*ange "u 
agreem5t betwe5 two s con/itut$ becomes 
a means ( pleasure to bo?1 ) no set-(f (
 pa94 ,be>+ 9 m9d ! =m ( nature :i*     
social discipl9e is produc+1 z %[n 9 !  
contra/ betwe5 savage & civiliz$1 !     
implication is t ultimately m5's        
activities at l>ge w assume ?is "*4     
,rememb]+ t 9 ! c\rse ( organic         
evolution1 ! means to enjoym5t !mselves 
ev5tually become s\rces ( enjoym5t2 & t 
!re is no =m ( action :i* may n ?r\gh ! 
developm5t ( appropriate /ructures      
become pleasurable2 ! inf]5ce mu/ be t  
indu/rial activities1 c>ri$ on ?r\gh    
volunt>y co-op]ation1 w 9 "t acquire !  
"* ( absolute rightness z "h conceiv$4  
,already1 inde$1 some?+ l su* a /ate has
 be5 rea*$ among c]ta9 ( ^? :o m9i/] to 

our /hetic gratifications4 ,! arti/ (   
g5ius--poet1 pa9t]1 or musician--is "o  
:o obta9s ! means ( liv+ by acts t are  
directly pleasurable to him1 :ile !y    
yield1 imm$iately or remotely1 pleasures
 to o!rs4  ,once m1 among absolutely "r 
acts may be nam$ c]ta9 ( ^? :i* we class
 z b5evol5t4 ,i say c]ta9 ( !m1 because 
su* b5evol5t acts z entail submission to
 pa91 positive or negative1 t o!rs may  
receive pleasure1 are1 by ! def9ition1  
exclud$4 ,b !re are b5evol5t acts ( a   
k9d yield+ pleasure solely4 ,"s "o :o   
has slipp$ is sav$ f fall+ by a by-/&]3 
a hurt is prev5t$ & satisfaction is felt
 by bo?4 ,a p$e/rian is *oos+ a dang]\s 
r\te1 or a fell[-pass5g] is ab\t to     
alight at ! wrong /ation1 &1 w>n$ aga9/ 
do+ s1 is sav$ f evil3 ea* be+1 z a     
consequ5ce1 gratifi$4 ,!re is a         
misund]/&+ betwe5 fri5ds1 & "o :o sees  
h[ x has aris5 expla9s1 ! result be+    
agreeable to all4 ,s]vices to ^? ar\nd 9
 ! small affairs ( life1 may be1 & (t5  
are1 ( a k9d :i* !re is equal pleasure 9

 giv+ & receiv+4 ,inde$1 z 0 urg$ 9 !   
la/ *apt]1 ! actions ( develop$ altruism
 mu/ habitually h ?is "*4 ,& s1 9       
c\ntless ways sugge/$ by ^! few1 m5 may 
add to "o ano!r's happ9ess )\t any:]e   
produc+ unhapp9ess--ways :i* are !re=e  
absolutely "r4  ,9 contra/ ) ^! consid] 
! _m actions :i* f h\r to h\r are gone  
?r\gh1 n[ ) an accompanim5t ( "s pa9 to 
! actor & n[ br++ results t are p>tially
 pa9ful to o!rs1 b :i* nev]!less are    
imp]ative4 ,z impli$ by anti!sis ) cases
 above ref]r$ to1 ! we>isom5ess (       
productive labor z ord9>ily pursu$1     
r5d]s x 9 s f> wrong2 b !n f> great]    
suff]+ w\ld result1 bo? to ! labor] & 8 
family1 & !re=e f> great] wrong w\ld be 
done1 7 ?is we>isom5ess n borne4 ,?\gh !
 pa9s :i* ! c>e ( _m *ildr5 entail on a 
"m =m a consid]able set-(f f ! pleasures
 secur$ by !m to h] *ildr5 & h]self1 yet
 ! mis]ies imm$iate & remote1 :i*       
neglect w\ld entail1 s f> exce$ !m t    
submission to su* pa9s up to ! limit (  
physical ability to be> !m becomes      

morally imp]ative z be+ ! lea/ wrong4 ,a
 s]vant :o fails to fulfill an agreem5t 
9 respect ( "w1 or :o is p]petually     
break+ crock]y1 or :o pilf]s1 may h to  
suff] pa9 f be+ dis*>g$2 b s9ce ! evils 
to be borne by all conc]n$ if incapacity
 or misconduct is tol]at$1 n 9 "o case  
only b habitually1 mu/ be mu* great]1   
su* infliction ( pa9 is w>rant$ z a     
means to prev5t+ great] pa94 ,)drawal ( 
cu/om f a tradesman ^: *>ges are too    
high1 or ^: commodities are inf]ior1 or 
:o gives %ort measure1 or :o is         
unpunctual1 decreases 8 welf>e1 & p]haps
 injures 8 belong+s2 b z sav+ him f ^!  
evils w\ld imply be>+ ! evils 8 conduct 
causes1 & z su* reg>d = 8 well-be+ w\ld 
imply disreg>d ( ! well-be+ ( "s m wor?y
 or m effici5t tradesman to :om ! cu/om 
w\ld else g1 & z1 *iefly1 g5]al adoption
 ( ! impli$ c\rse1 hav+ ! effect t !    
inf]ior w\ld n suff] f _! inf]iority nor
 ! sup]ior ga9 by _! sup]iority1 w\ld   
produce univ]sal mis]y1 )drawal is      
ju/ifi$--! act is relatively "r4        

#ajc4 ,i pass n[ to ! second ( ! two    
propositions above enunciat$4 ,aft]     
recogniz+ ! tru? t a l>ge "p ( human    
conduct is n absolutely "r1 b only      
relatively "r1 we h to recognize ! fur!r
 tru? t 9 _m cases :]e !re is no        
absolutely "r c\rse1 b only c\rses t are
 m or less wrong1 x is n possible to say
 :i* is ! lea/ wrong4 ,recurr5ce to !   
in/ances j giv5 w %[ ?is4  ,!re is a    
po9t up to :i* x is relatively "r = a   
p>5t to c>ry self-sacrifice = ! b5efit (
 (fspr+1 & !re is a po9t beyond :i*     
self-sacrifice _c be pu%$ )\t br++1 n   
only on himself or h]self1 b also on !  
family1 evils great] ?an ^? to be       
prev5t$ by ! self-sacrifice4 ,:o %all   
say :]e ?is po9t is8 ,dep5d+ on !       
con/itutions & ne$s ( ^? conc]n$ x is 9 
no two cases ! same1 & _c be by any "o m
 ?an guess$4 ,! transgressions or       
%ort-com+s ( a s]vant v>y f ! trivial to
 ! grave1 & ! evils :i* dis*>ge may br+ 
range ?r\gh c\ntless degrees f slight to
 s]i\s4 ,! p5alty may be inflict$ = a v 

small (f5se1 & !n !re is wrong done1 or1
 aft] num]\s grave (f5ses1 x may n be   
inflict$1 & aga9 !re is wrong done4 ,h[ 
%all be det]m9$ ! degree ( transgression
 beyond :i* to dis*>ge is less wrong ?an
 n to dis*>ge8 ,9 l mann] ) ! %opkeep]'s
 misdemeanors4 ,no "o c sum up ei!r !   
am\nt ( positive & negative pa9 :i*     
tol]at+ !m involves1 nor ! am\nt (      
positive & negative pa9 involv$ by n    
tol]at+ !m1 & 9 m$ium cases no "o c say 
:]e ! "o exce$s ! o!r4  ,9 m5's wid]    
relations frequ5tly occur circum/ances  
"u :i* a decision "o or o!r way is      
imp]ative1 & yet "u :i* n ev5 ! mo/     
s5sitive consci5ce1 help$ by ! cle>e/   
judgm5t1 c decide :i* ( ! alt]natives is
 relatively "r4 ,two examples w suffice4
  ,"h is a m]*ant :o loses by ! failure 
( a man indebt$ to him4 ,unless he gets 
help he himself w fail1 & if he fails he
 w br+ disa/] n only on 8 family b on   
all :o h giv5 him cr$it4 ,ev5 if by     
borr[+ he is enabl$ to meet imm$iate    
engagem5ts1 he is n safe2 = ! "t is "o (

 panic1 & o!rs ( 8 debtors by go+ to !  
wall may put him 9 fur!r difficulties4  
,%all he ask a fri5d = a loan8 ,on ! "o 
h&1 is x n wrong =?) to br+ on himself1 
8 family1 & ^? :o h bus9ess relations ) 
him1 ! evils ( 8 failure8 ,on ! o!r h&1 
is x n wrong to hypo!cate ! prop]ty ( 8 
fri5d1 & lead him too1 ) 8 belong+s &   
dep5d5ts1 into simil> risks8 ,! loan    
w\ld probably tide him ov] 8 difficulty1
 9 :i* case w\ld x n be unju/ to 8      
cr$itors did he refra9 f ask+ x8        
,contr>iwise1 ! loan w\ld v possibly    
fail to /ave (f 8 bankruptcy1 9 :i* case
 is n 8 action 9 try+ to obta9 x1       
practically fraudul5t8 ,?\gh1 9 extreme 
cases1 x may be easy to say :i* c\rse is
 ! lea/ wrong1 h[ is x possible 9 all ^?
 m$ium cases :]e ev5 by ! ke5e/ man (   
bus9ess ! cont+5cies _c be calculat$8   
,take1 aga91 ! difficulties t n         
unfrequ5tly arise f antagonism betwe5   
family duties & social duties4 ,"h is a 
t5ant f>m] ^: political pr9ciples prompt
 him to vote 9 opposition to 8 l&lord4  

,if1 be+ a ,lib]al1 he votes = a        
,cons]vative1 n only does he by 8 act   
say t he ?9ks :at he does n ?9k1 b he   
may p]haps assi/ :at he reg>ds z bad    
legislation3 8 vote may by *ance turn ! 
election1 & on a ,p>liam5t>y division a 
s+le memb] may decide ! fate ( a        
measure4 ,ev5 neglect+1 z too           
improbable1 su* s]i\s consequ5ces1 !re  
is ! manife/ tru? t if all :o hold l    
views ) himself are simil>ly det]r$ f   
electoral expression ( !m1 !re mu/      
result a diff]5t balance ( p[] & a      
diff]5t national policy2 mak+ x cle> t  
only by adh]5ce ( all to _! political   
pr9ciples c ! policy he ?9ks "r be      
ma9ta9$4 ,b n[1 on ! o!r h&1 h[ c he    
absolve himself f responsibility = !    
evils :i* ^? dep5d+ on him may suff] if 
he fulfills :at appe>s to be a p]emptory
 public duty8 ,is n 8 duty to 8 *ildr5  
ev5 m p]emptory8 ,does n ! family prec$e
 ! ,/ate2 & does n ! welf>e ( ! ,/ate   
dep5d on ! welf>e ( ! family8 ,may he1  
!n1 take a c\rse :i*1 if ! ?reats utt]$ 

are c>ri$ out1 w eject him f 8 f>m2 & s 
cause inability1 p]haps tempor>y1 p]haps
 prolong$2 to fe$ 8 *ildr54 ,! cont+5t  
evils are inf9itely v>i$ 9 _! ratios4 ,9
 "o case ! imp]ativ5ess ( ! public duty 
is great & ! evil t may come on dep5d5ts
 small2 9 ano!r case ! political issue  
is ( trivial mom5t & ! possible injury  
:i* ! family may suff] is great2 &      
betwe5 ^! extremes !re are all          
gradations4 ,fur!r1 ! degrees (         
probability ( ea* result1 public &      
private1 range f ! ne>ly c]ta9 to !     
almo/ impossible4 ,admitt+1 !n1 t x is  
wrong to act 9 a way likely to injure ! 
,/ate2 & admitt+ t x is wrong to act 9 a
 way likely to injure ! family1 we h to 
recognize ! fact t 9 c\ntless cases no  
"o c decide by :i* ( ! alt]native c\rses
 ! lea/ wrong is likely to be done4  ,^!
 in/ances w suffici5tly %[ t 9 conduct  
at l>ge1 includ+ m5's deal+s ) !mselves1
 ) _! families1 ) _! fri5ds1 ) _!       
debtors & cr$itors1 & ) ! public1 x     
usually happ5s t :atev] c\rse is tak5   

entails "s pa9 some:]e2 =m+ a d$uction f
 ! pleasure a*iev$1 & mak+ ! c\rse 9 s  
f> n absolutely "r4 ,fur!r1 !y w %[ t   
?r\gh\t a consid]able "p ( conduct1 no  
guid+ pr9ciple1 no me?od ( e/imation1   
enables u to say :e!r a propos$ c\rse is
 ev5 relatively "r2 z caus+1 proximately
 & remotely1 specially & g5]ally1 !     
greate/ surplus ( good ov] evil4        
#ajd4 ,& n[ we are prep>$ = deal+ 9 a   
sy/ematic way ) ! di/9ction betwe5      
,absolute ,e?ics & ,relative ,e?ics4    
,sci5tific tru?s1 ( :atev] ord]1 are    
rea*$ by elim9at+ p]turb+ or conflict+  
factors1 & recogniz+ only fundam5tal    
factors4 ,:51 by deal+ ) fundam5tal     
factors 9 ! ab/ract1 n z pres5t$ 9      
actual ph5om5a1 b z pres5t$ 9 ideal     
sep>ation1 g5]al laws h be5 asc]ta9$1 x 
becomes possible to draw inf]5ces 9     
concrete cases by tak+ into acc\nt      
incid5tal factors4 ,b x is only by fir/ 
ignor+ ^! & recogniz+ ! ess5tial elem5ts
 alone t we c discov] ! ess5tial tru?s  
s\ght4 ,take1 9 illu/ration1 ! progress 

( me*anics f its empirical =m to its    
rational =m4  ,all h occasional exp]i5ce
 ( ! fact t a p]son pu%$ on "o side     
beyond a c]ta9 degree loses 8 balance & 
falls4 ,x is obs]v$ t a /one flung1 or  
an arr[ %ot1 does n proce$ 9 a /raight  
l9e1 b comes to ! e>? aft] pursu+ a     
c\rse :i* deviates m & m f its orig9al  
c\rse4 ,:5 try+ to break a /ick across !
 knee1 x is f\nd t success is easi] if !
 /ick is seiz$ at consid]able di/ances f
 ! knee on ea* side ?an if seiz$ close  
to ! knee4 ,daily use ( a spe> draws    
att5tion to ! tru? t by ?ru/+ its po9t  
"u a /one & depress+ ! %aft1 ! /one may 
be rais$ ! m readily ! fur!r away ! h&  
is t[>d ! end4 ,"h1 !n1 are sundry      
exp]i5ces1 ev5tually gr\p$ into         
empirical g5]alizations1 :i* s]ve to    
guide conduct 9 c]ta9 simple cases4 ,h[ 
does me*anical sci5ce evolve f ^!       
exp]i5ces8 ,to rea* a =mula express+ !  
p[]s ( ! lev]1 x supposes a lev] :i*    
does n1 l ! /ick1 admit ( be+ b5t1 b is 
absolutely rigid1 & x supposes a fulcrum

 n hav+ a broad surface1 l t ( "o       
ord9>ily us$1 b a fulcrum )\t bread?1 & 
x supposes t ! weight to be rais$ be>s  
on a def9ite po9t1 in/ead ( be>+ ov] a  
consid]able portion ( ! lev]4 ,simil>ly 
) ! lean+ body1 :i*1 pass+ a c]ta9      
incl9ation1 ov]balances4 ,be=e ! tru?   
respect+ ! relations ( c5t] ( gravity & 
base c be =mulat$1 x mu/ be assum$ t !  
surface on :i* ! body /&s is unyield+1 t
 ! edge ( ! body itself is unyield+1 & t
 its mass1 :ile made to lean m & m1 does
 n *ange its =m--conditions n fulfill$ 9
 ! cases commonly obs]v$4 ,& s1 too1 is 
x ) ! projectile3 det]m9ation ( its     
c\rse by d$uction f me*anical laws1     
prim>ily ignores all deviations caus$ by
 its %ape & by ! resi/ance ( ! air4 ,!  
sci5ce ( rational me*anics is a sci5ce  
:i* consi/s ( su* ideal tru?s1 & c come 
into exi/5ce only by ?us deal+ ) ideal  
cases4 ,x rema9s impossible s long z    
att5tion is re/rict$ to concrete cases  
pres5t+ all ! complications ( friction1 
pla/icity & s =?4  ,b n[1 aft]          

dis5tangl+ c]ta9 fundam5tal me*anical   
tru?s1 x becomes possible by _! help to 
guide actions bett]1 & x becomes        
possible to guide !m /ill bett] :51 z   
pres5tly happ5s1 ! complicat+ elem5ts f 
:i* !y h be5 dis5tangl$ are !mselves    
tak5 into acc\nt4 ,at an advanc$ /age ! 
modify+ effects ( friction are all[$ =1 
& ! inf]5ces are qualifi$ to ! requisite
 ext5t4 ,! !ory ( ! pulley is correct$ 9
 its application to actual cases by     
recogniz+ ! rigidity ( cordage2 !       
effects ( :i* are =mulat$4 ,! /abilities
 ( masses1 det]m9able 9 ! ab/ract by    
ref]5ce to ! c5t]s ( gravity ( ! masses 
9 relation to ! bases1 come to be       
det]m9$ 9 ! concrete by includ+ also _! 
*>act]s 9 respect ( cohesion4 ,! c\rses 
( projectiles1 hav+ be5 !oretically     
settl$ z ?\gh !y mov$ ?r\gh a vacuum1   
are aft]w>d settl$ 9 m exact            
correspond5ce ) fact by tak+ into acc\nt
 atmosph]ic resi/ance4  ,& ?us we see   
illu/rat$ ! relation betwe5 c]ta9       
absolute tru?s ( me*anical sci5ce1 &    

c]ta9 relative tru?s :i* involve !m4 ,we
 are %[n t no sci5tific e/abli%m5t (    
relative tru?s is possible until !      
absolute tru?s h be5 =mulat$            
indep5d5tly4 ,we see t me*anical sci5ce1
 fitt$ = deal+ ) ! real1 c arise only   
aft] ideal me*anical sci5ce has aris54  
,all ?is holds ( moral sci5ce4 ,z by    
e>ly & rude exp]i5ces !re 7 inductively 
rea*$1 vague b p>tially true notions    
respect+ ! ov]balanc+ ( bodies1 !       
motions ( missiles1 ! actions ( lev]s2 s
 by e>ly & rude exp]i5ces !re 7         
inductively rea*$1 vague b p>tially true
 notions respect+ ! effects ( m5's      
behavior on !mselves1 on "o ano!r1 & on 
society3 to a c]ta9 ext5t s]v+ 9 ! la/  
case1 z 9 ! fir/1 = ! guidance (        
conduct4 ,moreov]1 z ?is rudim5t>y      
me*anical k1 ?\gh /ill rema9+ empirical1
 becomes dur+ e>ly /ages ( civilization 
at once m def9ite & m ext5sive2 s dur+  
e>ly /ages ( civilization ^! e?ical     
ideas1 /ill reta9+ _! empirical "*1     
increase 9 precision & multiplicity4 ,b 

j z we h se5 t me*anical k ( ! empirical
 sort c evolve into me*anical sci5ce    
only by fir/ omitt+ all1 qualify+       
circum/ances1 & g5]aliz+ 9 absolute ways
 ! fundam5tal laws ( =ces2 s "h we h to 
see t empirical e?ics c evolve into     
rational e?ics only by fir/ neglect+ all
 complicat+ incid5ts1 & =mulat+ ! laws (
 "r action ap>t f ! obscur+ effects (   
special conditions4 ,& ! f9al           
implication is t j z ! sy/em ( me*anical
 tru?s1 conceiv$ 9 ideal sep>ation z    
absolute1 becomes applicable to real    
me*anical problems 9 su* way t mak+     
all[ance = all incid5tal circum/ances   
!re c be rea*$ conclusions f> ne>] to ! 
tru? ?an c\ld o!rwise be rea*$2 s a     
sy/em ( ideal e?ical tru?s1 express+ !  
absolutely "r1 w be applicable to !     
que/ions ( our transitional /ate 9 su*  
ways t1 all[+ = ! friction ( an         
incomplete life & ! imp]fection ( exi/+ 
natures1 we may asc]ta9 ) approximate   
correctness :at is ! relatively "r4     
#aje4 ,9 a *apt] entitl$ ,def9ition (   

,morality 9 ,social ,/atics1 ,i cont5d$ 
t ! moral law1 prop]ly s-call$1 is ! law
 ( ! p]fect man--is ! =mula ( ideal     
conduct--is ! /atem5t 9 all cases ( t   
:i* %\ld be1 & _c recognize 9 its       
propositions any elem5ts imply+ exi/5ce 
( t :i* %\ld n be4 ,in/anc+ que/ions    
conc]n+ ! "r c\rse to be tak5 9 cases   
:]e wrong has already be5 done1 ,i      
alleg$ t ! answ]s to su* que/ions _c be 
giv5 on purely e?ical pr9ciples4 ,i     
argu$ t3    ,no conclusions c lay claim 
to absolute tru?1 b su* z dep5d   ^u    
tru?s t are !mselves absolute4 ,be=e !re
 c be   exactness 9 an inf]5ce1 !re mu/ 
be exactness 9 ! antec$5t               
propositions4 ,a geometrician requires t
 ! /raight l9es )   :i* he deals %all be
 v]itably /raight2 & t 8 circles1 &     
ellipses1 & p>abolas %all agree )       
precise def9itions--%all   p]fectly &   
inv>iably answ] to specifi$ equations4  
,if y put   to him a "q 9 :i* ^!        
conditions are n compli$ )1   he tells y
 t x _c be answ]$4 ,s likewise is x ) ! 

philosophical morali/4 ,he treats solely
 ( ! /raight man4 ,he   det]m9es !      
prop]ties ( ! /raight man2 describes h[ 
!   /raight man comports himself2 %[s 9 
:at relation%ip he /&s   to o!r /raight 
m52 %[s h[ a community ( /raight m5 is  
con/itut$4 ,any deviation f /rict       
rectitude he is oblig$ :olly   to       
ignore4 ,x _c be admitt$ into 8 premises
 )\t vitiat+   all 8 conclusions4 ,a    
problem 9 :i* a crook$ man =ms "o (   ! 
elem5ts is insoluble to him4  ,ref]r+ to
 ?is view1 specifically 9 ! fir/ edition
 ( ! ,me?ods ( ,e?ics1 b m g5]ally 9 !  
second edition1 ,mr4 ,sidgwick says3    
,^? :o take ?is view adduce ! analogy ( 
,geometry to %[ t   ,e?ics ought to deal
 ) ideally p]fect human relations1 j z  
,geometry treats ( ideally p]fect l9es &
 circles4 ,b ! mo/   irregul> l9e has   
def9ite spatial relations ) :i*         
,geometry   does n refuse to deal3 ?\gh 
( c\rse !y are m complex   ?an ^? ( a   
/raight l9e4 ,s 9 ,a/ronomy1 x w\ld be m
   conv5i5t = purposes ( /udy if ! />s  

mov$ 9 circles1 z   0 once believ$2 b ! 
fact t !y move n 9 circles b 9          
ellipses1 & ev5 9 imp]fect & p]turb$    
ellipses1 does n take   !m out ( ! sph]e
 ( sci5tific inve/igation3 by pati5ce & 
indu/ry we h le>n$ h[ to r$uce to       
pr9ciples & calculate   ev5 ^! m        
complicat$ motions4 ,x is1 no d\bt1 a   
conv5i5t   artifice = purposes (        
in/ruction to assume t ! planets   move 
9 p]fect ellipses 7or ev5--at an e>li]  
/age ( /udy--9   circles73 we ?us all[ !
 individual's k to pass ?r\gh   ! same  
gradations 9 accuracy z t ( ! race has  
done4 ,b   :at we want1 z a/ronom]s1 to 
"k is ! actual motion ( !   />s & its   
causes3 & simil>ly z morali/s we        
naturally inquire   :at ought to be done
 9 ! actual _w 9 :i* we live4 7,p4 #ai1 
,sec4 ,ed47  ,beg9n+ ) ! fir/ ( ^! two  
/atem5ts1 :i* conc]ns ,geometry1 ,i mu/ 
confess myself surpris$ to f9d my       
propositions call$ into "q2 & aft] full 
consid]ation ,i rema9 at a loss to      
und]/& ,mr4 ,sidgwick's mode ( view+ !  

matt]4 ,:51 9 a s5t5ce prec$+ ^? quot$  
above1 ,i rem>k$ on ! impossibility (   
solv+ ma!matically a s]ies ( problems   
respect+ crook$ l9es & brok5-back$      
curves1 x nev] occurr$ to me t ,i %\ld  
be met by ! direct ass]tion t ,geometry 
does n refuse to deal ) ! mo/ irregul>  
l9e4 ,mr4 ,sidgwick /ates t an irregul> 
l9e1 say su* z a *ild makes 9 scribbl+1 
has def9ite spatial relations4 ,:at     
mean+ does he "h give to ! ^w def9ite8  
,if he means t its relations to space at
 l>ge are def9ite 9 ! s5se t by an      
inf9ite intellig5ce !y w\ld be def9able1
 ! reply is t to an inf9ite intellig5ce 
all spatial relations w\ld be def9able3 
!re c\ld be no indef9ite spatial        
relations--! ^w def9ite ?us ceas+ to m>k
 any di/9ction4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 :5    
say+ t an irregul> l9e has def9ite      
spatial relations1 he means relations   
kn[able def9itely by human intellig5ce1 
!re /ill comes ! "q1 h[ is ! ^w def9ite 
to be und]/ood8 ,surely any?+ di/+ui%$ z
 def9ite admits ( be+ def9$2 b h[ c we  

def9e an irregul> l9e8 ,& if we _c def9e
 ! irregul> l9e itself1 h[ c we "k its  
spatial relations def9ite8 ,& h[1 9 !   
abs5ce ( def9ition1 c ,geometry deal )  
x8 ,if ,mr4 ,sidgwick means t x c be    
dealt ) by ! me?od ( limits1 !n ! reply 
is t 9 su* case1 n ! l9e itself is dealt
 ) geometrically1 b c]ta9 def9ite l9es  
artificially put 9 quasi-def9ite        
relations to x1 ! indef9ite becomes     
cognizable only ?r\gh ! m$ium ( !       
hypo!tically def9ite4  ,turn+ to !      
second illu/ration1 ! rejo9d] to be made
 is t 9 s f> z x conc]ns ! relations    
betwe5 ! ideal & ! real1 ! analogy drawn
 does n %ake b /r5g!ns my argum5t4 ,=   
:e!r consid]$ "u its geometrical or "u  
its dynamical aspect1 & :e!r consid]$ 9 
! necess>y ord] ( its developm5t or 9 ! 
ord] hi/orically display$1 ,a/ronomy %[s
 u ?r\gh\t t tru?s respect+ simple1     
!oretically-exact relations1 mu/ be     
asc]ta9$ be=e tru?s respect+ ! complex &
 practically inexact relations t        
actually exi/ c be asc]ta9$4 ,z appli$  

to ! int]pretation ( planet>y movem5ts1 
we see t ! !ory ( cycles & epicycles 0  
bas$ on pre-exi/+ k ( ! circle3 !       
prop]ties ( an ideal curve hav+ be5     
le>n$1 a p[] 0 acquir$ ( giv+ "s        
expression to ! cele/ial motions4 ,we   
see t ! ,cop]nican int]pretation        
express$ ! facts 9 t]ms ( circul>       
movem5ts o!rwise di/ribut$ & comb9$4 ,we
 see t ,kepl]'s advance f ! conception (
 circul> movem5ts to ! conception (     
elliptic movem5ts 0 made possible by    
comp>+ ! facts z !y are ) ! facts z !y  
w\ld be 7 ! movem5ts circul>4 ,we see t 
! subsequ5tly-le>n$ deviations f        
elliptic movem5ts 7 le>n$ only ?r\gh !  
presupposition t ! movem5ts are         
elliptical4 ,& we see1 la/ly1 t ev5 n[  
pr$ictions conc]n+ ! exact positions (  
planets1 aft] tak+ acc\nt (             
p]turbations1 imply con/ant ref]5ces to 
ellipses t are reg>d$ z _! normal or    
av]age orbits = ! "t be+4 ,?us1         
asc]ta9m5t ( ! actual tru?s has be5 made
 possible only by preasc]ta9m5t ( c]ta9 

ideal tru?s4 ,to be conv9c$ t by no o!r 
c\rse c\ld ! actual tru?s h be5         
asc]ta9$1 x ne$s only to suppose any "o 
say+ t x did n conc]n him1 z an         
a/ronom]1 to "k any?+ ab\t ! prop]ties (
 circles & ellipses1 b t he _h to deal )
 ! ,sol> ,sy/em z x exi/s1 to :i* end x 
0 8 bus9ess to obs]ve & tabulate        
positions & directions & to be guid$ by 
! facts z he f\nd !m4  ,s1 too1 is x if 
we look at ! developm5t ( dynamical     
a/ronomy4 ,! fir/ proposition 9         
,newton's ,pr9cipia deals ) ! movem5t ( 
a s+le body r\nd a s+le c5t] ( =ce2 & ! 
ph5om5a ( c5tral motion are fir/ =mulat$
 9 a case :i* is n simply ideal1 b 9 :i*
 !re is no specification ( ! =ce        
conc]n$3 deta*m5t f ! real is ! greate/ 
possible4 ,aga91 po/ulat+ a pr9ciple (  
action con=m+ to an ideal law1 ! !ory ( 
gravitation deals ) ! sev]al problems ( 
! ,sol> ,sy/em 9 fictiti\s deta*m5t f ! 
re/2 & x makes c]ta9 fictiti\s          
assumptions1 su* z t ! mass ( ea* body  
conc]n$ is conc5trat$ 9 its c5t] (      

gravity4 ,only lat]1 aft] e/abli%+ !    
lead+ tru?s by ?is artifice ( dis5tangl+
 ! major factors f ! m9or factors1 is ! 
!ory appli$ to ! actual problems 9 _!   
asc5d+ degrees ( complexity2 tak+ 9 m & 
m ( ! m9or factors4 ,& if we ask :e!r ! 
dynamics ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em c\ld h be5    
e/abli%$ 9 any o!r way1 we see t "h1    
too1 simple tru?s hold+ "u ideal        
conditions1 h to be asc]ta9$ be=e real  
tru?s exi/+ "u complex conditions c be  
asc]ta9$4  ,! alleg$ necess>y prec$5ce (
 ,absolute ,e?ics ov] ,relative ,e?ics  
is ?us1 ,i ?9k1 fur!r elucidat$4 ,"o :o 
has foll[$ ! g5]al argum5t ?us f>1 w n  
d5y t an ideal social be+ may be        
conceiv$ z s con/itut$ t 8 spontane\s   
activities are congru\s ) ! conditions  
impos$ by ! social environm5t =m$ by o!r
 su* be+s4 ,9 _m places1 & 9 v>i\s ways1
 ,i h argu$ t con=mably ) ! laws (      
evolution 9 g5]al1 & con=mably ) ! laws 
( organization 9 p>ticul>1 !re has be51 
& is1 9 progress1 an adaptation (       
humanity to ! social /ate1 *ang+ x 9 !  

direction ( su* an ideal congruity4 ,& !
 coroll>y be=e drawn & "h repeat$1 is t 
! ultimate man is "o 9 :om ?is process  
has gone s f> z to produce a            
correspond5ce betwe5 all ! prompt+s ( 8 
nature & all ! requirem5ts ( 8 life z   
c>ri$ on 9 society4 ,if s x is a        
necess>y implication t !re exi/s an     
ideal code ( conduct =mulat+ ! behavior 
( ! completely adapt$ man 9 ! completely
 evolv$ society4 ,su* a code is t "h    
call$ ,absolute ,e?ics z di/+ui%$ f     
,relative ,e?ics--a code ! injunctions (
 :i* are alone to be consid]$ z         
absolutely "r 9 contra/ ) ^? t are      
relatively "r or lea/ wrong2 & :i*1 z a 
sy/em ( ideal conduct1 is to s]ve z a   
/&>d = our guidance 9 solv+1 z well z we
 c1 ! problems ( real conduct4    #aje4 
,a cle> conception ( ?is matt] is s     
important t ,i mu/ be excus$ = br++ 9   
aid ( x a fur!r illu/ration1 m obvi\sly 
appropriate z be+ furni%$ by organic    
sci5ce in/ead ( by inorganic sci5ce4 ,! 
relation betwe5 morality prop] &        

morality1 z commonly conceiv$1 is       
analog\s to ! relation betwe5 physiology
 & pa?ology2 & ! c\rse usually pursu$ by
 morali/s is mu* l ! c\rse ( "o :o      
/udies pa?ology )\t previ\s /udy (      
physiology4  ,physiology describes !    
v>i\s functions :i*1 z comb9$1 con/itute
 & ma9ta9 life2 & 9 treat+ ( !m x       
assumes t !y are sev]ally p]=m$ 9 "r    
ways1 9 due am\nts1 & 9 prop] ord]2 x   
recognizes only heal?y functions4 ,if x 
expla9s dige/ion1 x supposes t ! he>t is
 supply+ blood & t ! visc]al n]v\s sy/em
 is /imulat+ ! organs imm$iately        
conc]n$4 ,if x gives a !ory ( !         
circulation1 x assumes t blood has be5  
produc$ by ! comb9$ actions ( !         
/ructures devot$ to its production1 & t 
x is prop]ly rat$4 ,if ! relations      
betwe5 respiration & ! vital processes  
at l>ge are int]pret$1 x is on !        
presupposition t ! he>t goes on s5d+    
blood1 n only to ! lungs & to c]ta9     
n]v\s c5t]s1 b to ! diaphragm &         
int]co/al muscles4 ,physiology ignores  

failures 9 ! actions ( ^! sev]al organs4
 ,x takes no acc\nt ( imp]fections1 x   
neglects d]angem5ts1 x does n recognize 
pa91 x kn[s no?+ ( vital wrong4 ,x      
simply =mulates t :i* goes on z a result
 ( complete adaptation ( all p>ts to all
 ne$s4 ,t is to say1 9 relation to !    
inn] actions con/itut+ bodily life1     
physiological !ory has a position l t   
:i* e?ical !ory1 "u its absolute =m z   
above conceiv$1 has to ! out] actions   
con/itut+ conduct4 ,! mom5t cognizance  
is tak5 ( excess ( function1 or arre/ ( 
function1 or defect ( function1 ) !     
result+ evil1 physiology passes into    
pa?ology4 ,we beg9 n[ to take acc\nt (  
wrong actions 9 ! inn] life analog\s to 
! wrong actions 9 ! out] life tak5      
acc\nt ( by ord9>y !ories ( morals4  ,! 
anti!sis ?us drawn1 h[ev]1 is b         
prelim9>y4 ,aft] obs]v+ ! fact t !re is 
a sci5ce ( vital actions normally c>ri$ 
on1 :i* ignores abnormal actions1 we h m
 especially to obs]ve t ! sci5ce (      
abnormal actions c rea* su* def9it5ess z

 is possible to x only on condition t ! 
sci5ce ( normal actions has previ\sly   
become def9ite2 or r1 let u say t       
pa?ological sci5ce dep5ds = its advances
 on previ\s advances made by            
physiological sci5ce4 ,! v conception ( 
disord]$ action implies a preconception 
( well-ord]$ action4 ,be=e x c be decid$
 t ! he>t is beat+ fa/] or sl[] ?an x   
%\ld its heal?y rate ( beat+ mu/ be     
le>n$2 be=e ! pulse c be recogniz$ z too
 weak or too /rong1 its prop] /r5g? mu/ 
be kn[n1 & s ?r\gh\t4 ,ev5 ! rude/ & mo/
 empirical ideas ( diseases1 pre-suppose
 ideas ( ! heal?y /ates f :i* !y are    
deviations1 &1 obvi\sly1 ! diagnosis (  
diseases c become sci5tific only z fa/ z
 !re arises sci5tific k ( organic       
actions t are undiseas$4  ,simil>ly1 !n1
 is x ) ! relation betwe5 absolute      
morality1 or ! law ( p]fect "r 9 human  
conduct1 & relative morality :i*1       
recogniz+ wrong 9 human conduct1 has to 
decide 9 :at way ! wrong deviates f !   
"r1 & h[ ! "r is to be mo/ ne>ly        

approa*$4 ,:51 =mulat+ normal conduct 9 
an ideal society1 we h rea*$ a sci5ce ( 
absolute e?ics1 we h simultane\sly rea*$
 a sci5ce :i*1 :5 us$ to int]pret !     
ph5om5a ( real societies 9 _!           
transitional /ates1 full ( ! mis]ies due
 to non-adaptation 7:i* we may call     
pa?ological /ates7 enables u to =m      
approximately true conclusions respect+ 
! natures ( ! abnormalities1 & ! c\rses 
:i* t5d mo/ 9 ! direction ( ! normal4   
#ajf4 ,& n[ let x be obs]v$ t !         
conception ( e?ics ?us set =?1 /range z 
_m w ?9k x1 is "o :i* really lies lat5t 
9 ! beliefs ( morali/s at l>ge4 ,?\gh n 
def9itely ackn[l$g$ x is vaguely impli$ 
9 _m ( _! propositions4  ,f e>ly times  
d[nw>d we f9d 9 e?ical speculations1    
ref]5ces to ! ideal man1 8 acts1 8      
feel+s1 8 judgm5ts4 ,well-do+ is        
conceiv$ by ,socrates z ! do+ ( ! be/   
man1 :o1 z a husb&man1 p]=ms well !     
duties ( husb&ry2 z a surgeon1 ! duties 
( ! m$ical art2 9 political life1 8 duty
 t[>d ! commonweal?4 ,plato1 9 ,m9os1 z 

a /&>d to :i* ,/ate law %\ld con=m1     
po/ulates ! decision ( "s ideal wise    
man1 & 9 ,la*es ! wise man's k ( good & 
evil is suppos$ to furni% ! /&>d3       
disreg>d+ ! maxims ( ! exi/+ society z  
unsci5tific1 ,plato reg>ds z ! prop]    
guide1 t ,idea ( ! ,good :i* only a     
philosoph] c asc5d to4 ,ari/otle 7,e?4  
,bk4 iii4 *4 #d71 mak+ ! decisions ( !  
good man ! /&>d1 says3 ,= ! good man    
judges ev]y?+ rightly1 & 9 e case ! tru?
 appe>s s to him4444 ,&1 p]haps1 !      
pr9cipal diff]5ce betwe5 ! good & ! bad 
man is t ! good man sees ! tru? 9 e     
case1 s9ce he is1 z x 71 ! rule &       
measure ( x4 ,! ,/oics1 too1 conceiv$ ( 
complete rectitude ( action z t :i* none
 c\ld a*ieve except ! wise man--! ideal 
man4 ,& ,epicurus _h an ideal /&>d4 ,he 
held ! virtu\s /ate to be a tranquil1   
undi/urb$1 innocu\s1 non-competitive    
fruition1 :i* approa*$ mo/ ne>ly to !   
p]fect happ9ess ( ! gods1 :o nei!r      
suff]$ vexation 9 !mselves nor caus$    
vexation to o!rs4,l  ,if1 9 mod]n times1

 influ5c$ by !ological dogmas conc]n+ ! 
fall & human s9fulness1 & by a !ory (   
obligation d]iv$ f ! curr5t cre$1       
morali/s h less frequ5tly ref]r$ to an  
ideal1 yet ref]5ces are traceable4 ,we  
see "o 9 ! dictum ( ,kant--,act accord+ 
to ! maxim only1 :i* y c wi%1 at ! same 
"t1 to become a univ]sal law4 ,= ?is    
implies ! ?\ght ( a society 9 :i* !     
maxim is act$ ^u by all & univ]sal      
b5efit recogniz$ z ! effect3 !re is a   
conception ( ideal conduct "u ideal     
conditions4 ,& ?\gh ,mr4 ,sidgwick1 9 ! 
quotation above made f him1 implies t   
,e?ics is conc]n$ ) man z he is1 r ?an )
 man z he %\ld be2 yet1 9 else:]e speak+
 ( ,e?ics z deal+ ) conduct z x %\ld be1
 r ?an ) conduct z x is1 he po/ulates   
ideal conduct & indirectly ! ideal man4 
,on 8 fir/ page1 speak+ ( ,e?ics along )
 ,jurisprud5ce & ,politics1 he says t !y
 are di/+ui%$ by ! *>act]i/ic t !y      
attempt to det]m9e n ! actual b !       
ideal--:at ought to exi/1 n :at does    
exi/4  ,x requires only t ^! v>i\s      

conceptions ( an ideal conduct1 & ( an  
ideal humanity1 %\ld be made consi/5t & 
def9ite1 to br+ !m into agreem5t ) !    
conception above set =?4 ,at pres5t su* 
conceptions are habitually vague4 ,!    
ideal man hav+ be5 conceiv$ 9 t]ms ( !  
curr5t morality1 is !reupon erect$ into 
a moral /&>d by :i* ! goodness ( actions
 may be judg$2 & ! reason+ becomes      
circul>4 ,to make ! ideal man s]ve z a  
/&>d1 he has to be def9$ 9 t]ms ( !     
conditions :i* 8 nature fulfills--9 t]ms
 ( ^? objective requirem5ts :i* mu/ be  
met be=e conduct c be "r2 & ! common    
defect ( ^! conceptions ( ! ideal man is
 t !y suppose him out ( relation to su* 
conditions4  ,all ! above ref]5ces to   
him1 direct or indirect1 imply t ! ideal
 man is suppos$ to live & act "u exi/+  
social conditions4 ,! tacit inquiry is1 
n :at 8 actions w\ld be "u circum/ances 
altoge!r *ang$1 b :at !y w\ld be "u     
pres5t circum/ances4 ,& ?is inquiry is  
futile = two reasons4 ,! co-exi/5ce ( a 
p]fect man & an imp]fect society is     

impossible2 & c\ld ! two co-exi/1 !     
result+ conduct w\ld n furni% ! e?ical  
/&>d s\ght4  ,9 ! fir/ place1 giv5 !    
laws ( life z !y are1 & a man ( ideal   
nature _c be produc$ 9 a society consi/+
 ( m5 hav+ natures remote f ! ideal4 ,z 
well might we expect a *ild ( ,engli%   
type to be borne among ,negroes1 z      
expect t among ! organically immoral1 "o
 :o is organically moral w arise4       
,unless x be d5i$ t "* results f inh]it$
 /ructure1 x mu/ be admitt$ t s9ce1 9   
any society1 ea* individual desc5ds f a 
/ock :i*1 trac$ back a few g5]ations1   
ramifies ev]y:]e ?r\gh ! society1 &     
p>ticipates 9 its av]age nature1 !re    
mu/1 not)/&+ m>k$ individual div]sities1
 be pres]v$ su* community z prev5ts any 
"o f rea*+ an ideal =m :ile ! re/ rema9 
f> bel[ x4  ,9 ! second place1 ideal    
conduct su* z e?ical !ory is conc]n$ )1 
is n possible = ! ideal man 9 ! mid/ (  
m5 o!rwise con/itut$4 ,an absolutely j  
or p]fectly sympa!tic p]son1 c\ld n live
 & act accord+ to 8 nature 9 a tribe (  

cannibals4 ,among p :o are trea*]\s &   
utt]ly )\t scruple1 entire tru?fulness &
 op5ness mu/ br+ ru94 ,if all ar\nd     
recognize only ! law ( ! /ronge/1 "o ^: 
nature w n all[ him to inflict pa9 on   
o!rs1 mu/ g to ! wall1 ,!re requires a  
c]ta9 congruity betwe5 ! conduct ( ea*  
memb] ( a society & o!r's conduct4 ,a   
mode ( action entirely ali5 to !        
prevail+ modes ( action _c be           
successfully p]si/$ 9--mu/ ev5tuate 9   
dea? ( self1 or po/]ity1 or bo?4  ,h5ce 
x is manife/ t we mu/ consid] ! ideal   
man z exi/+ 9 ! ideal social /ate4 ,on !
 evolution hypo!sis1 ! two presuppose "o
 ano!r2 & only :5 !y co-exi/ c !re exi/ 
t ideal conduct :i* ,absolute ,e?ics has
 to =mulate1 & :i* ,relative ,e?ics has 
to take z ! /&>d by :i* to e/imate      
div]g5cies f "r1 or degrees ( wrong4    
,,*apt] ,,xvi4  ,,! ,,scope ,,( ,,e?ics4
    #ajg4 ,at ! outset x 0 %[n t z !    
conduct ) :i* ,e?ics deals is a "p (    
conduct at l>ge1 conduct at l>ge mu/ be 
und]/ood be=e ?is "p c be und]/ood4     

,aft] tak+ a g5]al view ( conduct1 n    
human only b sub-human1 & n only z exi/+
 b z evolv+1 we saw t ,e?ics has = its  
subject-matt] ! mo/ highly-evolv$       
conduct z display$ by ! mo/             
highly-evolv$ be+1 ,man--is a           
specification ( ^? traits :i* 8 conduct 
assumes on rea*+ its limit ( evolution4 
,conceiv$ ?us z compreh5d+ ! laws ( "r  
liv+ at l>ge1 ,e?ics has a wid] field   
?an is commonly assign$ to x4 ,beyond ! 
conduct commonly approv$ or reprobat$ z 
"r or wrong1 x includes all conduct :i* 
fur!rs or h9d]s1 9 ei!r direct or       
indirect ways1 ! welf>e ( self or o!rs4 
,z =ego+ *apt]s 9 v>i\s places imply1 ! 
entire field ( ,e?ics includes ! two    
great divisions1 p]sonal & social4 ,!re 
is a class ( actions direct$ to p]sonal 
ends1 :i* are to be judg$ 9 _! relations
 to p]sonal well-be+1 consid]$ ap>t f ! 
well-be+ ( o!rs3 ?\gh !y second>ily     
affect fell[-m5 ^! prim>ily affect !    
ag5t himself1 & mu/ be class$ z         
intr9sically "r or wrong accord+ to _!  

b5eficial or detrim5tal effects on him4 
,!re are actions ( ano!r class :i*      
affect fell[-m5 imm$iately & remotely1 &
 :i*1 ?\gh _! results to self are n to  
be ignor$1 mu/ be judg$ z good or bad   
ma9ly by _! results to o!rs4 ,actions ( 
?is la/ class fall into two gr\ps4 ,^? (
 ! "o gr\p a*ieve ends 9 ways t d or d n
 unduly int]f]e ) ! pursuit ( ends by   
o!rs--actions :i*1 because ( ?is        
diff]5ce1 we call respectively unju/ or 
j4 ,^? =m+ ! o!r gr\p are ( a k9d :i*   
influ5ce ! /ates ( o!rs )\t directly    
int]f]+ ) ! relations betwe5 _! labors &
 ! results1 9 "o way or ! o!r--actions  
:i* we speak ( z b5efic5t or malefic5t4 
,& ! conduct :i* we reg>d z b5efic5t is 
itself subdivisible accord+ z x %[s u a 
self-repression to avoid giv+ pa91 or an
 exp5diture ( ef=t to give              
pleasure--negative b5efic5ce & positive 
b5efic5ce4  ,ea* ( ^! divisions &       
sub-divisions has to be consid]$ fir/ z 
a "p ( ,absolute ,e?ics & !n z a "p (   
,relative ,e?ics4 ,hav+ se5 :at its     

injunctions mu/ be = ! ideal man "u !   
impli$ ideal conditions1 we %all be     
prep>$ to see h[ su* injunctions are to 
be mo/ ne>ly fulfill$ by actual m5 "u   
exi/+ conditions4    #ajh4 ,= reasons   
already po9t$ out1 a code ( p]fect      
p]sonal conduct c nev] be made def9ite4 
,_m =ms ( life1 div]g+ f "o ano!r 9     
consid]able degrees1 may be s c>ri$ on 9
 society z entirely to fulfill !        
conditions to h>moni\s co-op]ation4 ,&  
if v>i\s types ( m51 adapt$ to v>i\s    
types ( activities1 may ?us lead lives t
 are sev]ally complete aft] _! k9ds1 no 
specific /atem5t ( ! activities         
univ]sally requir$ = p]sonal well-be+ is
 possible4  ,b1 ?\gh1 ! p>ticul>        
requirem5ts to be fulfill$ = p]fect     
individual well-be+1 mu/ v>y along )    
v>iations 9 ! mat]ial conditions ( ea*  
society1 c]ta9 g5]al requirem5ts h to be
 fulfill$ by ! individuals ( all        
societies4 ,an av]age balance betwe5    
wa/e & nutrition has univ]sally to be   
pres]v$4 ,normal vitality implies a     

relation betwe5 activity & re/ fall+ )9 
mod]ate limits ( v>iation4 ,cont9uance (
 ! society dep5ds on satisfaction ( ^?  
prim>ily p]sonal ne$s :i* result 9      
m>riage & p>5?ood4 ,p]fection (         
individual life h5ce implies c]ta9 modes
 ( action :i* are approximately alike 9 
all cases1 & :i*1 !re=e1 become "p ( !  
subject matt] ( ,e?ics4  ,t x is        
possible to r$uce ev5 ?is re/rict$ "p to
 sci5tific def9it5ess1 c sc>cely be     
said4 ,b e?ical requirem5ts may "h be to
 su* ext5t affiliat$ ^u physical        
necessities1 z to give !m a p>tially    
sci5tific au?ority4 ,x is cle> t betwe5 
! exp5diture ( bodily sub/ance 9 vital  
activities1 & ! tak+ 9 ( mat]ials f :i* 
?is sub/ance may be r5ew$1 !re is a     
direct relation4 ,x is cle>1 too1 t !re 
is a direct relation betwe5 ! wa/+ (    
tissue by ef=t1 & ! ne$ = ^? cessations 
( ef=t dur+ :i* repair may ov]take wa/e4
 ,nor is x less cle> t betwe5 ! rate (  
mortality & ! rate ( multiplication 9   
any society1 !re is a relation su* t !  

la/ mu/ rea* a c]ta9 level be=e x c     
balance ! fir/1 & prev5t disappe>ance ( 
! society4 ,& x may be inf]r$ t pursuits
 ( o!r lead+ ends are1 9 l mann]1       
det]m9$ by c]ta9 natural necessities1 & 
f ^! d]ive _! e?ical sanctions4 ,t x w  
ev] be practicable to lay d[n precise   
rules = private conduct 9 con=mity ) su*
 requirem5ts1 may be d\bt$4 ,b !        
function ( ,absolute ,e?ics 9 relation  
to private conduct w h be5 dis*>g$ :5 x 
has produc$ ! w>rant = its requirem5ts z
 g5]ally express$2 :5 x has %[n !       
imp]ativ5ess ( ob$i5ce to !m2 & :5 x has
 ?us taught ! ne$ = delib]ately consid]+
 :e!r ! conduct fulfills !m z well may  
be4  ,"u ! e?ics ( p]sonal consid]$ 9   
relation to exi/+ conditions1 h to come 
all que/ions conc]n+ ! degree 9 :i*     
imm$iate p]sonal welf>e has to be       
po/pon$1 ei!r to ultimate p]sonal welf>e
 or to ! welf>e ( o!rs4 ,z n[ c>ri$ on1 
life h\rly sets ! claims ( pres5t self  
aga9/ ! claims ( future self1 & h\rly   
br+s individual int]e/s face to face ) !

 int]e/s ( o!r individuals1 tak5 s+ly or
 z associat$4 ,9 _m ( su* cases !       
decisions c be no?+ m ?an compromises2 &
 e?ical sci5ce1 "h necess>ily empirical1
 c d no m ?an aid 9 mak+ compromises t  
are ! lea/ objectionable4 ,to arrive at 
! be/ compromise 9 any case1 implies    
correct conceptions ( ! alt]native      
results ( ?is or t c\rse4 ,&1           
consequ5tly 9 s f> z ! absolute e?ics ( 
individual conduct c be made def9ite1 x 
mu/ help u to decide betwe5 conflict+   
p]sonal requirem5ts1 & also betwe5 !    
ne$s = ass]t+ self & ! ne$s = subord9at+
 self4    #aji4 ,f t division ( ,e?ics  
:i* deals ) ! "r regulation ( private   
conduct1 consid]$ ap>t f ! effects      
directly produc$ on o!rs1 we pass n[ to 
t division ( ,e?ics :i*1 consid]+       
exclusively ! effects ( conduct on o!rs1
 treats ( ! "r regulation ( x ) a view  
to su* effects4  ,! fir/ set (          
regulations com+ "u ?is head are ^?     
conc]n+ :at we di/+ui% z ju/ice4        
,individual life is possible only on    

condition t ea* organ is paid = its     
action by an equival5t ( blood1 :ile !  
organism z a :ole obta9s f ! environm5t 
assimilable matt]s t comp5sate = its    
ef=ts2 & ! mutual dep5d5ce ( p>ts 9 !   
social organism1 necessitates t1 alike =
 its total life & ! lives ( its units1  
!re simil>ly %all be ma9ta9$ a due      
proportion betwe5 returns & labors3 !   
natural relation betwe5 "w & welf>e %all
 be pres]v$ intact4 ,ju/ice1 :i*        
=mulates ! range ( conduct & limitations
 to conduct h5ce aris+1 is at once ! mo/
 important division ( ,e?ics & !        
division :i* admits ( ! greate/         
def9it5ess4 ,t pr9ciple ( equival5ce :i*
 meets u :5 we seek its roots 9 ! laws (
 individual life1 involves ! idea (     
measure2 & on pass+ to social life1 !   
same pr9ciple introduces u to !         
conception ( equity or equalness1 9 !   
relations ( citiz5s to "o ano!r3 !      
elem5ts ( ! que/ions aris+ are          
quantitative1 & h5ce ! solutions assume 
a m sci5tific =m4 ,?\gh1 hav+ to        

recognize diff]5ces among individuals   
due to age1 sex1 or o!r cause1 we _c    
reg>d ! memb]s ( a society z absolutely 
equal1 & !re=e _c deal ) problems gr[+  
out ( _! relations ) t precision :i*    
absolute equality might make possible2  
yet1 consid]+ !m z approximately equal 9
 virtue ( _! common human nature1 &     
deal+ ) que/ions ( equity on ?is        
supposition1 we may rea* conclusions ( a
 suffici5tly def9ite k9d4  ,?is division
 ( ,e?ics consid]$ "u its absolute =m1  
has to def9e ! equitable relations among
 p]fect individuals :o limit "o ano!r's 
sph]es ( action by co-exi/+1 & :o a*ieve
 _! ends by co-op]ation4 ,x has to d mu*
 m ?an ?is4 ,beyond ju/ice betwe5 man & 
man1 ju/ice betwe5 ea* man & ! aggregate
 ( m5 has to be dealt ) by x4 ,!        
relations betwe5 ! individual & ! ,/ate1
 consid]$ z repres5t+ all individuals1 h
 to be d$uc$--an important & a          
relatively difficult matt]4 ,:at is !   
e?ical w>rant = gov]nm5tal au?ority8 ,to
 :at ends may x be legitimately ex]cis$8

 ,h[ f> may x rightly be c>ri$8 ,up to  
:at po9t is ! citiz5 b\nd to recognize !
 collective decisions ( o!r citiz5s1 &  
beyond :at po9t may he prop]ly refuse to
 obey !m8  ,^! relations1 private &     
public1 consid]$ z ma9ta9$ "u ideal     
conditions1 hav+ be5 =mulat$1 !re come  
to be dealt ) ! analog\s relations "u   
real conditions--absolute ju/ice be+ !  
/&>d1 relative ju/ice has to be det]m9$ 
by consid]+ h[ ne> an approa* may1 "u   
pres5t circum/ances1 be made to x4 ,z   
already impli$ 9 v>i\s places1 x is     
impossible dur+ /ages ( transition :i*  
necessitate ev] *ang+ compromises1 to   
fulfill ! dictates ( absolute equity2 & 
no?+ beyond empirical judgm5ts c be =m$ 
( ! ext5t to :i* !y may be1 at any giv5 
"t1 fulfill$4 ,:ile w> cont9ues &       
inju/ice is done betwe5 societies1 !re  
_c be any?+ l complete ju/ice )9 ea*    
society4 ,militant organization no less 
?an militant action1 is irreconcilable )
 pure equity2 & ! inequity impli$ by x  
inevitably ramifies ?r\gh\t all social  

relations4 ,b !re is at e /age 9 social 
evolution1 a c]ta9 range ( v>iation )9  
:i* x is possible to approa* ne>] to1 or
 div]ge fur!r f1 ! requirem5ts (        
absolute equity4 ,h5ce ^! requirem5ts h 
ev] to be kept 9 view t relative equity 
may be asc]ta9$4    #aaj4 ,( ! two      
subdivisions into :i* b5efic5ce falls1 !
 negative & ! positive1 nei!r c be      
specializ$4 ,"u ideal conditions ! fir/ 
( !m has b a nom9al exi/5ce2 & ! second 
( !m passes l>gely into a transfigur$ =m
 admitt+ ( b g5]al def9ition4  ,9 !     
conduct ( ! ideal man among ideal m51 t 
self-regulation :i* has = its motive to 
avoid giv+ pa91 practically disappe>s4  
,no "o hav+ feel+s :i* prompt acts t    
disagreeably affect o!rs1 !re c exi/ no 
code ( re/ra9ts ref]r+ to ?is division (
 conduct4  ,b ?\gh negative b5efic5ce is
 only a nom9al "p ( ,absolute ,e?ics1 x 
is an actual & consid]able "p (         
,relative ,e?ics4 ,= :ile m5's natures  
rema9 imp]fectly adapt$ to social life1 
!re mu/ cont9ue 9 !m impulses :i*1 caus+

 9 "s cases ! actions we "n unju/1 cause
 9 o!r cases ! actions we "n            
unk9d--unk9d n[ 9 de$ & n[ 9 ^w2 & 9    
respect ( ^! modes ( behavior :i*1 ?\gh 
n aggressive1 give pa91 !re arise num]\s
 & complicat$ problems4 ,pa9 is         
sometimes giv5 to o!rs simply by ma9ta9+
 an equitable claim2 pa9 is at o!r times
 giv5 by refus+ a reque/2 & aga9 at o!r 
times by ma9ta9+ an op9ion4 ,9 ^! &     
num]\s cases sugge/$ by !m1 !re h to be 
answ]$ ! que/ions :e!r1 to avoid        
inflict+ pa91 p]sonal feel+s %\ld be    
sacrific$1 & h[ f> sacrific$4 ,aga91 9  
cases ( ano!r class1 pa9 is giv5 n by a 
passive c\rse1 b by an active c\rse4 ,h[
 f> %all a p]son :o has misbehav$ be    
griev$ by %[+ av]sion to him8 ,%all "o  
^: action is to be reprobat$ h !        
reprobation express$ to him or %all no?+
 be said8 ,is x "r to annoy by condemn+ 
a prejudice :i* ano!r displays8 ,^! &   
k9dr$ qu]ies h to be answ]$ aft] tak+   
into acc\nt ! imm$iate pa9 giv51 !      
possible b5efit caus$ by giv+ x1 & !    

possible evil caus$ by n giv+ x4 ,9     
solv+ problems ( ?is class1 ! only help 
,absolute ,e?ics gives1 is by en=c+ !   
consid]ation t inflict+ m pa9 ?an is    
necessitat$ by prop] self-reg>d1 or by  
desire = ano!r's b5efit1 or by !        
ma9t5ance ( a g5]al pr9ciple is         
unw>rant$4  ,( positive b5efic5ce "u its
 absolute =m no?+ m specific c be said  
?an t x mu/ become co-ext5sive ) :atev] 
sph]e rema9s = x2 aid+ to complete !    
life ( ea* z a recipi5t ( s]vices & to  
exalt ! life ( ea* z a r5d]] ( s]vices4 
,z ) a develop$ humanity ! desire = x by
 e "o w s increase1 & ! sph]e = ex]cise 
( x s decrease1 z to involve an         
altrui/ic competition1 analog\s to !    
exi/+ egoi/ic competition1 x may be t   
,absolute ,e?ics w ev5tually include :at
 we be=e call$ a high] equity1 prescrib+
 ! mutual limitations ( altrui/ic       
activities4  ,"u its relative =m1       
positive b5efic5ce pres5ts num]\s       
problems1 alike important & difficult1  
admitt+ only ( empirical solutions4 ,h[ 

f> is self-sacrifice = ano!r's b5efit to
 be c>ri$ 9 ea* case8--a "q :i* mu/ be  
answ]$ diff]5tly accord+ to ! "* ( !    
o!r1 ! ne$s ( ! o!r1 & ! v>i\s claims ( 
self & belong+s :i* h to be met4 ,to :at
 ext5t "u giv5 circum/ances %all private
 welf>e be subord9at$ to public         
welf>e8--a "q to be answ]$ aft] consid]+
 ! importance ( ! end & ! s]i\sness ( ! 
sacrifice4 ,:at b5efit & :at detrim5t w 
result f gratuit\s aid yield$ to        
ano!r8--a "q 9 ea* case imply+ an       
e/imate ( probabilities4 ,is !re any    
unfair treatm5t ( sundry o!rs1 involv$  
by m ?an fair treatm5t ( ?is "o o!r8 ,up
 to :at limit may help be giv5 to !     
exi/+ g5]ation ( ! inf]ior1 )\t entail+ 
mis*ief on future g5]ations ( ! sup]ior8
 ,evid5tly to ^! & _m k9dr$ que/ions    
includ$ 9 ?is division ( ,relative      
,e?ics1 approximately true answ]s only c
 be giv54  ,b ?\gh "h ,absolute ,e?ics1 
by ! /&>d x supplies1 does n greatly aid
 ,relative ,e?ics1 yet1 z 9 o!r cases1 x
 aids some:at by keep+ be=e consci\sness

 an ideal conciliation ( ! v>i\s claims 
involv$2 & by sugge/+ ! se>* = su*      
compromise among !m1 z %all n disreg>d  
any1 b %all satisfy all to ! greate/    
ext5t practicable4     ,,footnotes3   ,a
 ,levia?an1 *4 xv4  ,b ,i c c\nt up m   
?an a doz5 su* cases among ^? p]sonally 
well kn[n to me4  ,c ,con/itutional     
,code1 *ap4 xvi1 ,supreme               
,legislative--,section vi4              
,omnicompet5ce4  ,d ,republic1 ,bk4 ix4 
,e ,nicoma*ean ,e?ics1 ,bk4 i1 *ap #h4  
,f ,bk4 x1 *ap4 #g4  ,g ,?is univ]sal   
requirem5t x 0 :i* ,i _h 9 view :5 *oos+
 = my fir/ "w1 publi%$ 9 #ahej1 ! title 
,social ,/atics4  ,h ,on ,idiocy &      
,imbecility1 by ,william ,w4 ,irel&1 ,m4
 ,d41 p4 #bee-f4  ,i ,= in/ances see    
,=tnightly ,review1 ,vol4 ,,xxiv 7,new  
,s]ies71 p4 #gab4  ,j ,see ,essay on ,! 
,orig9 & ,function ( ,music4  ,k ,i d n 
f9d ?is passage 9 ! second edition2 b ! 
omission ( x appe>s to h aris5 n f any  
*ange ( view1 b because x did n         
naturally come into ! reca/ =m ( !      

argum5t :i* ! section conta9s4  ,l ,mo/ 
( ^! quotations ,i make f ,dr4 ,ba9's   
,m5tal & ,moral ,sci5ce4           99   
99      99      99      99      99      
,transcrib]'s note3  ,punctuation1      
hyph5ation1 & spell+ 7 made consi/5t :5 
a pr$om9ant pref]5ce 0 f\nd 9 ?is book2 
o!rwise !y 7 n *ang$4  ,simple          
typographical errors 7 correct$2        
occasional unpair$ quotation m>ks 7     
reta9$4  ,ambigu\s hyph5s at ! ends (   
l9es 7 reta9$4  ,!re are two ,section   
#ad's1 #bb's & #aje's2 & no ,section    
#af4  ,page #id3 ph>ynx 0 mispr9t$ z    
phayrnx42 *ang$ "h4  ,page #aaa3 p\r+   
half ! night may be a mispr9t = por+4   
,page #bjj3 ,miss+ clos+ quotation m>k  
add$ aft] 'a means ( happ9ess8'4 ,! text
 f ?is 0 quot$ ends 9 a p]iod1 n a "q   
m>k4  ,page #bbf3 ?is all all-important 
factor 0 pr9t$ ) ! ^w all duplicat$ & 0 
n correct$4