,illustration3 ,h4,m4,s4 ,agamemnon entering ,valentia ,bay with first ,atlantic ,cable4 ,frontispiece4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,atlantic ,,cable ,,by ,,charles ,,bright ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 ,e41 ,a4 ,m4 ,,inst4 ,c4 ,e41 ,m4 ,i4 ,e4 ,e4 ,,author ,,of ,,submarine ,,telegraphs1 ,,science ,,and ,,engineering ,,during ,,the ,,victorian ,,era1 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,electric ,,telegraph1 #ahcg-ahig1 ,,the ,,life ,,story ,,of ,,sir ,,charles ,,tilston ,,bright ,,with ,,fifty-,,four ,,illustrations ,,new ,,york ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company #aijc ,,copyright1 #aijc1 ,,by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company ,published ,november1 #aijc ,,prefatory ,,note ,the jubilee of ,submarine ,telegraphy having lately been achieved1 and that connected with the ,atlantic cable being somewhat close at hand1 it has been thought a suitable moment for the appearance of this little volume4 ,in these days when the substitution of submarine cables by wireless telegraphy systems is a subject of common talk1 it may be well to pause for a moment and contemplate the period of time covered by the gradual evolution of old and existing methods which at length achieved the result we now enjoy--a practical commercial telegraphic system between all the nations of the world1 and notably between the ,united ,kingdom and ,america4 ,by a somewhat curious coincidence the engineer of the first ,atlantic cable accomplished his achievement at practically the same youthful age 7twenty-six7 as ,mr4 ,marconi when first transmitting signals across the ,atlantic without any intervening wires4 ,c4 ,b4 #ba ,,old ,,queen ,,street1 ,,westminster1 ,s4 ,w41 ,october1 #aijc4 ,,contents ,,part ,i ,,page ,,introductory #ac ,,part ,,ii ,,the ,,pioneer ,,line ,,chap4 ,i4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,atlantic ,,telegraphy ,,in ,,america ,,and ,,england #bg ,,ii4 ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,the ,,line #df ,,iii4 ,,the ,,first ,,start #fa ,,iv4 ,,preparations ,,for ,,another ,,attempt #gd ,v4 ,,the ,,trial ,,trip #hd ,,vi4 ,,the ,,storm #hi ,,vii4 ,,the ,,renewed ,,effort #aje ,,viii4 ,,finis ,,coronat ,,opus #aae ,,ix4 ,,the ,,celebration #acg ,x4 ,,working ,,the ,,line #add ,,xi4 ,,the ,,inquest #aee ,,part ,,iii ,,intermediate ,,knowledge ,,and ,,advance ,,xii4 ,,other ,,proposed ,,routes #afa ,,xiii4 ,,experience1 ,,investigation1 ,,and ,,progress #afi ,,part ,,iv ,,commercial ,,success ,,xiv4 ,,the #ahfe ,,cable ,,and ,,expedition #agg ,,xv4 ,,second ,,and ,,successful ,,attempt #ahh ,,xvi4 ,,recovery ,,and ,,completion ,,of ,,the #ahfe ,,cable #aig ,,xvii4 ,,jubilations #bjh ,,xviii4 ,,subsequent ,,atlantic ,,lines #bab ,,xix4 ,,atlantic ,,cable ,,systems ,,of ,,to-,,day #bai ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,h4,m4,s4 ,agamemnon entering ,valentia ,bay with first ,atlantic ,cable ,frontispiece ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,newfoundland ,telegraph ,station1 #ahee #bi #b4 ,the ,brooke ,sounder #cb #c4 ,specimen of the ,ocean ,bed #cd #d4 ,john ,watkins ,brett1 ,charles ,tilston ,bright1 ,cyrus ,west ,field--,projectors #ch #e4 ,manufacture of the ,core #di #f4 ,serving the ,core with ,hemp-,yarn #ej #g4 ,applying the ,iron ,sheathing #ea #h4 ,the ,deep-,sea ,cable #eb #i4 ,the ,shore-,end ,cable #eb #aj4 ,coiling the ,finished ,cable into the ,factory ,tanks #ed #aa4 ,u4,s4,n4,s4 ,niagara #ee #ab4 ,the ,paying-out ,machine1 #aheg #eg #ac4 ,coiling the ,cable on ,board #eh #ad4 ,landing the ,irish ,end of the ,cable #fc #ae4 ,reshipment of the ,cable aboard ,h4,m4,s4 ,agamemnon and ,u4,s4,n4,s4 ,niagara in ,keyham ,basin #ge #af4 ,the ,self-,releasing ,brake #gg #ag4 ,the ,principle of the ,brake #gh #ah4 ,bright's ,paying-out ,gear1 #aheh #hj #ai4 ,the ,reflecting ,magnet #hb #bj4 ,reflecting ,galvanometer and ,speaker #hc #ba4 ,principle of the ,reflecting ,instrument #hc #bb4 ,deck of ,h4,m4,s4 ,agamemnon with ,paying-out ,apparatus #hd #bc4 ,stowage of the ,cable ,coil on the ,niagara #he #bd4 ,the ,loading of the ,agamemnon #he #be4 ,experimental ,maneuvers in the ,bay of ,biscay #hh #bf4 ,h4,m4,s4 ,agamemnon in a ,storm #if #bg4 ,the ,agamemnon ,storm3 ,coals ,adrift #ajc #bh4 ,in ,collision with a ,whale while ,cable-,laying #abc #bi4 ,landing the ,american ,end #acc #cj4 ,newfoundland ,telegraph ,station1 #aheh #ace #ca4 ,facsimile of the ,first ,public ,news ,message ,received through the ,atlantic ,cable #aej #cb4 ,the ,north ,atlantic ,telegraph ,project1 #ahfj #afb #cc4 ,the ,north ,atlantic ,exploring ,expedition1 #ahfj #afg #cd4 ,the ,main ,cable1 #ahfe-'ff #ahj #ce4 ,the ,great ,eastern at ,sea #ahc #cf4 ,cable and ,machinery aboard ,s4,s4 ,great ,eastern #ahe #cg4 ,the ,picking-up ,machine1 #ahff #aia #ch4 ,buoys1 ,grapnels1 ,mushrooms--and ,men #aic #ci4 ,foul in ,tank while ,paying-out #aif #dj4 ,s4,s4 ,great ,eastern ,completing the ,second ,atlantic ,cable #aii #da4 ,diagram ,illustrative of the ,final ,tactics ,adopted for ,picking up the #ahfe ,cable #bjc #db4 ,s4,s4 ,great ,eastern with #ahfe ,cable at ,bows #bje #dc4 ,anglo-,american ,atlantic ,cable 7#ahid73 deep-sea type #bag #dd4 ,shore-,end of the #ahid ,anglo ,cable #bag #de4 ,atlantic ,cable ,systems1 #aijc #bba ,,part ,i ,,introductory ,the ,electric ,telegraph--,first ,land ,telegraphs--,first ,submarine ,cables3 ,dover to ,calais1 #ahej-'ea--,other ,early ,cables3 ,england to ,ireland1 #ahec1 etc4 ,the ,electric ,telegraph4--,the advances made in electric science are so bold and rapid that our still comparative ignorance of the precise nature of electricity must always seem strange4 ,we are not1 however1 here directly concerned with electricity as a physical science1 but rather with its practical applications to the still present system of telegraphy1 by way of introduction to the gradual development of ,trans-,atlantic telegraphy4 ,the electric telegraph1 together with the railway-train and the steamship1 constitute the three most conspicuous features of latter-day civilization4 ,indeed1 it may be truly said that the harnessing of this force of nature 7electricity7 to the service of man for human intercourse has effected a change in political1 commercial1 and social relations1 even more complete than that wrought by steam locomotion4 ,like its fellow emblems1 the telegraph was the outcome of many years of persevering effort on the part of numerous scientific investigators and inventors2 like them also1 it was perfected for practical use on both sides of the ,atlantic by men of our own race and speech1 such as ,cooke1 ,wheatstone1 and ,morse4 ,the ,first ,land ,telegraphs4--,the first practical telegraph-line in the world--namely1 that on the ,great ,western ,railway from ,paddington to ,west ,drayton1 shortly afterward extended to ,slough--was within the year of ,queen ,victoria's accession to the throne1 and in the same year as the first trunk line of railway and the first ocean steamer4#a ,improvements and novelties in telegraphic instruments were rapidly made by inventors from all the civilized nations--e4 g41 ,morse1 ,vail1 and ,henry in ,america2 ,breguet in ,france2 ,steinheil and ,siemens ,halske in ,germany2 and ,schilling in ,russia2 besides ,alexander ,bain1 ,bright1 and ,hughes in ,england4 ,commercial interests were soon formed to work the new invention1 and in ,england the ,electric and ,international ,telegraph ,company1 the ,british and ,irish ,magnetic ,telegraph ,company1 and other large concerns were the means of establishing telegraphic communication throughout the kingdom--only to be absorbed by ,government later on4 ,our theme does not include--even in the course of introduction--a study of the development of land telegraphy4 ,the apparatus and methods employed are1 to a great extent1 entirely different2 indeed1 the only point in common between the cardinal principles and submarine telegraphy is that electricity1 as generated by a voltaic battery1 is the common agent1 and consequently the metal conducting-wire is employed in both4#b ,but in subaqueous 7as well as in subterranean7 telegraphy the poles and porcelain insulators require to be substituted by an insulating covering round the entire conductor2 and the point of contact in practise between land and marine telegraphy is really1 therefore1 in the matter of insulation for subterranean or subaqueous wires4 ,first ,submarine ,cables4--,a ,spaniard named ,salva appears to have suggested the feasibility of submarine telegraphy as far back as #agie1 and in #ahaa ,sommering and ,schilling conducted a series of experiments1 more or less practical1 when a soluble material--said to have been india-rubber--was first used for insulating the wire4 ,but the earliest records of practical telegraphy under water of which there are any particulars relate to the experiments conducted by ,dr4 ,o',shaughnessy 7afterward ,sir ,william ,o',shaughnessy ,brooke1 ,f4,r4,s47 across the ,river ,hugli on behalf of the ,east ,indian ,company in #ahch4c ,referring to his practical researches a little later1 ,o',shaughnessy remarked3 ,insulation1 according to my experiments1 is best accomplished by enclosing the wire 7previously pitched7 in a split rattan1 and then paying the rattan round with tarred yarn2 or the wire may--as in some experiments by ,colonel ,pasley1 ,r4,e41 at ,chatham--be surrounded by strands of tarred rope1 and this by pitched yarn4 ,an insulated rope of this kind may be spread across a wet field--nay1 even led through a river--and will still conduct the electrical signals1 without any appreciable loss4 ,in #ahdj ,professor ,wheatstone 7afterward ,sir ,charles ,wheatstone1 ,f4,r4,s47 explained to a committee of the ,house of ,commons the methods by which he thought it possible to establish telegraphic communication between ,dover and ,calais4 ,he appears to have been unaware of the prior experiments just alluded to1 for his system of insulation1 though more fully developed1 was practically the same4 ,prof4 ,s4 ,f4 ,b4 ,morse1 the well-known inventor of the telegraph apparatus bearing his name1 also made a study of this problem in #ahdb1 when he laid down an insulated copper wire across ,new ,york harbor1 through which he transmitted electric currents4 ,hemp soaked in tar and pitch1 surrounded with a layer of india-rubber1 constituted the insulation4 ,morse was a great letter-writer1 and records of his early work are solely based on his own statements at a time when he noted in his diary3 ,i am crushed for want of means4 ,my stockings all want to see my mother1 and my hat is hoary with age4 ,in #ahde ,ezra ,cornell1 who was afterward the founder of ,cornell ,university1 laid a cable1 twelve miles long1 to connect ,fort ,lee with ,new ,york1 in the ,hudson ,river4 ,the cable consisted of two cotton-covered copper wires1 insulated with india-rubber1 and enclosed in a leaden pipe4 ,it worked well for several months1 but was broken by ice in #ahdf4 ,in that year ,mr4 ,charles ,west paid out by hand an india-rubber insulated wire in ,portsmouth harbor1 through which he signaled from a boat to the shore4 ,the experiment was intended as the forerunner of the establishment of telegraphic communication between ,england and ,france1 but for want of the necessary funds was not followed up4 ,subaqueous1 or marine1 telegraphy owed its institution1 however1 to the introduction of gutta-percha1 for insulating purposes4 ,the late ,dr4 ,werner ,siemens having invented a machine for applying gutta-percha to a wire--similar in principle to the machine for making macaroni--considerable lengths of gutta-percha-covered subterranean wires were laid in ,germany and ,prussia between #ahdf and #ahdi2 and in #ahdi ,siemens laid a gutta-percha insulated conductor in the harbor of ,kiel which was used for firing mines4 ,following this came the extensive system of underground lines laid down in ,england for the ,magnetic ,telegraph ,company by their engineer1 ,mr4 7afterward ,sir ,charles7 ,bright1 in accordance with a patent of his4 ,short lengths were also laid1 mostly through tunnels1 by the ,electric ,telegraph ,company a little later4 ,on the #ajth day of ,january1 #ahdi1 the late ,mr4 ,c4 ,v4 ,walker1 ,f4,r4,s41 electrician to the ,southeastern ,railway1 laid a gutta-percha-covered conductor1 two miles long1 in the ,english ,channel4 ,the wire was coiled on a drum on board the laying vessel1 from which it was paid out as the vessel progressed4 ,starting from the beach at ,folkestone1 the line was joined up to an aerial wire1 #hc miles in length1 along the ,southeastern ,railway1 and ,mr4 ,walker1 on board the ,princess ,clementine1 succeeded in exchanging telegrams with ,london4 ,on the #bc;d ,july1 #ahde1 the brothers ,jacob and ,john ,watkins ,brett addressed themselves to ,sir ,robert ,peel1 as ,prime ,minister and ,first ,lord of the ,treasury1 relative to a proposal of theirs for establishing a general system of telegraphic communication--oceanic and otherwise4 ,they were referred to the ,admiralty1 ,foreign ,office1 etc41 and gradually became involved in a departmental correspondence--more academic than useful--in which they were passed backward and forward from one government office to another4 ,after considerable negotiations with both governments concerned1 a concession was at last obtained by the ,messrs4 ,brett1 and a company formed for instituting telegraphy between ,england and ,france by means of a line from ,dover to ,calais4 ,twenty-five nautical miles of ,no4 #ad copper wire covered with #a_/b-;inch thickness of gutta-percha was then manufactured1 the electrician's tongue being the only test applied to some of the lengths4 ,the shore ends for about two miles from each terminus consisted of a ,no4 #af ,b4,w4,g4#d conductor covered with cotton soaked in india-rubber solution1 the whole being incased in a very thick lead tube4 ,the rest of the line was composed of the gutta-percha insulated wire above described1 with #cj-pound leaden weights fastened to it at #ajj-yard intervals1#e the laying vessel having to be stopped each time one was put on4 ,the submersion of the line was successfully effected1 but it only lived to speak a few more or less incoherent words--one being a short complimentary communication to ,louis ,napoleon ,bonaparte1 shortly afterward ,emperor of the ,french4 ,it subsequently transpired that a ,boulogne fisherman had hooked up the line with his trawl1 mistaking it for a new kind of seaweed6 ,this enterprise excited little attention at the time4 ,it was1 in fact1 regarded as a mad freak and even as a gigantic swindle4 ,when accomplished1 ,the ,times remarked1 in the words of ,shakespeare1 ,the jest of yesterday has become the fact of to-day2 and a few hours later it might with equal truth have been said that the fact of yesterday has become the jest of to-day6 ,the feasibility of laying such a line and of transmitting electric signals across the ,channel had1 however1 been proved4 ,the signals obtained had1 moreover1 the effect of eradicating the then very prevalent belief that1 even if the line were successfully submerged1 the current would become dissipated in the water4#f ,it now remained to find a satisfactory method of protecting the insulated conductor from injury during and after laying4 ,the excellence of the insulating material was recently testified to when some portions were recovered4 ,though the above line was not1 practically speaking1 turned to any account1 it was by no means abortive1 for the signals it had conveyed were sufficient to save the concession1 which was renewed by the ,french ,government on ,december #ai1 #ahej4 ,but the previous failure had made capitalists distrustful2 and only some weeks before the expiration of the time limit the necessary funds had not been raised4 ,dover-,calais1 #ahej-'ea4--,the undertaking was saved by the energy and talent of one man1 ,mr4 ,t4 ,r4 ,crampton1 an eminent railway engineer4 ,he raised the necessary capital 7#ae1jjj71 putting his own name down for half this amount and being joined by ,lord de ,mauley and the late ,sir ,james ,carmichael4 ,he 7,mr4 ,crampton7 also settled the type of cable to be laid--based on the iron pit-rope2 this1 in one form or another1 practically remains the type of to-day4 ,the cable contained four copper conducting-wires of ,no4 #af ,b4,w4,g41 each one covered with two layers of gutta-percha to ,no4 #a gage2 these four insulated conductors1 or cores1 were laid together and the interstices filled up with strands of tarred ,russian hemp4 ,the outer covering consisted of ten galvanized-iron wires of ,no4 #a gage wound spirally round the bundle of cores2 this armor was provided with a view to protecting the insulated conductors from the strains and chafing which had so seriously interfered with the chances of the previous line4 ,the completed cable weighed about seven tons to the mile4 ,it was coiled into the hold of an old pontoon hulk1 which was then taken in tow by two steamers4 ,a third tug to stand by1 and a small man-of-war steamer to act as pilot1 accompanied the laying expedition4 ,the cable was landed at the foot of the ,south ,foreland lighthouse and paid out toward ,cape ,sangatte1 but the weather was less favorable than on the previous occasion2 moreover1 the weight of the cable--in the absence of efficient holding-back gear--caused it to run out too rapidly1 notwithstanding the slight depth 7some #cj fathoms7 encountered4 ,added to this1 the tugs drifted with the wind and tide4 ,thus when the vessels arrived within about a mile of the ,french coast no more cable was left on board1 and a fresh length had to be procured and spliced on before the line was complete4 ,this cable proved a lasting success3 it underwent numerous and extensive repairs1 and it was only quite recently that its abandonment took place4 ,other ,early ,cables4--,the success of ,crampton's line gave considerable impetus to submarine telegraphy4 ,similar enterprises sprung up on all sides2 but many failures occurred before these operations came to be regarded as ordinary industrial undertakings4 ,in the course of the following year 7#aheb7 three unsuccessful attempts were made to establish telegraphic communication between ,england and ,ireland4 ,in the first--between ,holyhead and ,howth--the cable was not heavy enough to contend with the rough bottom1 and strong currents and disturbances from anchors experienced in these waters2 but this undertaking is remarkable as being the only instance in which an effort was made to do without any intermediate serving between the insulated conductor and the iron sheathing4 ,in the second attempt--between ,port ,patrick 7,scotland7 and ,donaghadee 7,ireland7--the cable consisted of a central copper conductor covered first with india-rubber1 then with gutta-percha1 and then hemp outside all4 ,this cable1 being far too light1 was actually carried away by the strong tidal currents and even broken into pieces during laying4 ,in the third endeavor1 between the same two points1 the arrangements for checking the cable while paying out being again inadequate1 there was not sufficient to reach the farther shore4 ,however1 in #ahec1 a heavy cable1 weighing #g tons per mile1 with six conductors1 was successfully laid for the ,magnetic ,telegraph ,company by the late ,sir ,charles ,bright4#g ,this was in upward of #ahj fathoms--the deepest water in which a cable was laid for some time--and proved a permanent success1 forming the first establishment of telegraphic communication with ,ireland4 ,only a year elapsed before it became evident that another cable was required to meet the traffic between ,england and the ,continent1 and an additional line was laid from ,dover to ,ostend4 ,anglo-,dutch and ,anglo-,german cables followed in due course2 and in less than ten years from the commencement of its operations over the first ,channel cable1 the ,submarine ,telegraph ,company 7since absorbed by the state7 was working at least half a dozen really excellent cables1 varying from #be to #aag miles in length1 connecting ,england with the rest of ,europe4 ,during the next few years submarine communication was established between ,denmark and ,sweden1 as well as between ,italy1 ,corsica1 and ,sardinia2 and between ,sardinia and the north coast of ,africa2 but where successful1 the measures adopted were1 in the main1 similar to those we have already described in connection with the preceding lines1 though special conditions were1 in some instances1 the means of introducing certain modifications and improvements4 ,several serious failures were1 however1 experienced in the deep water of the ,mediterranean which had a detracting effect--in the public mind--on the chances of the great undertaking which was to follow4 ,,part ,,ii ,,the ,,pioneer ,,line ,,chapter ,i ,,evolution ,,of ,,atlantic ,,telegraphy ,,in ,,america ,,and ,,england ,gradual ,evolution--,the ,projectors--,survey of the ,route--,soundings--,nature of the ,ocean ,bed--,formation of the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company--,raising ,capital--,critics1 ,croakers1 and ,crude ,inventors4 ,as has been shown in the introductory chapter1 the efforts of the early projectors of submarine telegraphy were at first confined to connecting countries divided only by narrow seas1 or establishing communication between points on the same seaboard4 ,the next step forward1 with which we are here immediately concerned--that of spanning the ,atlantic ,ocean between ,europe and ,america--was aptly characterized at the time as the great feat of the century4 ,by its means the people of the two great continents were to speak together in a few moments1 though separated by a vast ocean4 ,this was the first venture in transoceanic telegraphy4 ,there was no applicable data to go upon2 for the vast difference between laying short cable-lengths across rivers1 bays1 etc41 in shallow water1 and that of laying a long length of cable in depths of over two miles across an open ocean will be easily recognized--at any rate1 by the sailor and engineer4 ,the wires of the ,magnetic ,telegraph ,company had already been carried to various points on the west and south coast of ,ireland2 and1 in #aheb1 ,mr4 ,f4 ,n4 ,gisborne1 a very able ,english engineer1 obtained an exclusive concession for connecting ,st4 ,johns1 ,newfoundland1 with ,cape ,ray1 in the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence1 by an overhead telegraph-line4 ,the idea was to tap steamers coming from ,london to ,cape ,race at ,st4 ,johns1 and pass messages between that point and ,cape ,breton1 on the other side of the ,gulf1 by carrier-pigeons4 ,a few miles of cables were made in ,england1 and laid between ,prince ,edward ,island and ,new ,brunswick4 ,mr4 ,gisborne then surveyed the route for the land-line across ,newfoundland1 and had erected some forty miles of it1 when the work was stopped for want of funds4 ,when in ,new ,york in #ahed1 ,gisborne was introduced to ,mr4 ,cyrus ,west ,field1 a retired merchant1 who became enthusiastic on the subject1 and formed a small1 but strong1 syndicate for the practical realization of ,gisborne's scheme4 ,a cable eighty-five miles in length was made in ,england1 to be laid between ,cape ,breton and ,newfoundland2 but after forty miles had been paid out1 rough weather ensued1 and the undertaking had to be abandoned4 ,a fresh instalment was1 however1 sent out in #ahef1 and successfully laid across the ,gulf1 thus connecting ,st4 ,johns with ,canada and the ,american lines4 ,the conductor of this line instead of being a single solid wire was1 for the first time1 composed of several small wires laid up together in strand form--with a view to avoiding a flaw in any single wire stopping the conductivity1 besides affording increased mechanical pliability4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,newfoundland ,telegraph ,station1 #ahee4 ,the feasibility of uniting the two vast systems of telegraphy had engaged the consideration of some of those most prominently associated with electric telegraphy on both sides of the ,atlantic4 ,it had been already shown that cables could be successfully laid and maintained in comparatively moderate depths in the ,mediterranean1 ,black ,sea1 etc41 but the nearest points between the ,british ,isles and ,newfoundland are nearly #b1jjj miles apart4 ,the greatest length of submarine line which had hitherto been effectively submerged--#aaj miles--formed but an insignificant portion of such an enormous distance2 and that1 too1 involving a depth of nearly three miles for a large proportion of the way1 instead of about #cjj fathoms4 ,apart from the engineering difficulties entailed by this vast distance and depth1 the question was then undetermined as to the possibility of conveying electric currents through such a length in an unbroken circuit1 and at a speed that would enable messages to be passed rapidly enough in succession to prove remunerative4 ,various researches had been made--by ,faraday among others--with a view to determining the law in relation to the velocity of electricity through a conducting-wire4 ,the retarding effect of the insulating covering had already been discovered2 but the exact formula for the working speed of cables of definite proportions and lengths was not correctly arrived at till some years later4 ,the similarity1 in principle1 of a cable to a ,leyden jar was first pointed out by ,mr4 ,edward ,brailsford ,bright in the course of a paper read before the ,british ,association in #ahed4 ,he showed that on charging a gutta-percha-covered wire1 the insulating material tended to absorb and retain a part of the charge and to hold back1 as a static charge1 some of the electricity flowing as current through the conductor--just as the charge 7of opposite potential7 induced on the outside plate of a ,leyden jar statically holds the primary charge on the inner plate1 until either are neutralized4 ,the brothers1 ,edward and ,charles ,bright1 made a series of extensive experiments on long lengths of underground wires2 and these investigations were supplemented later by ,mr4 ,edward ,orange ,wildman ,whitehouse 7formerly a medical practitioner71 who became electrician to the first ,atlantic cable4 ,mr4 ,whitehouse was a man of very high intellectual and scientific attainments1 and a most ingenious and painstaking experimenter4 ,the retardation of the electric current through an insulated wire due to induction--a phenomenon practically unknown with bare1 aerial wires suspended on posts1 and of no consequence with quite short cables--was overcome by using a succession of opposite currents4 ,by this means the latter1 or retarded1 portion of each current was wiped out by the opposite current immediately following it2 and thus a series of electric waves could be made to traverse the cable1 one after the other1 several being in the act of passing onward at different points along the conductor at the same time4 ,the ,messrs4 ,bright devised a special key 7embodied with a patent for signaling through long cables7 for transmitting these alternating currents from the battery2 and this was followed by others to effect the same object--one by ,professor ,thomson 7now ,lord ,kelvin71 who became electrical adviser to the enterprise4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,the ,brooke ,sounder4 ,a certain degree of knowledge regarding the nature of the bed of the ,atlantic ,ocean was now available2 for in the summer of #ahef a series of soundings had been taken by ,lieutenant ,o4 ,h4 ,berryman1 ,u4,s4,n41 from ,u4,s4,n4 ,arctic1 and also independently by ,commander ,joseph ,dayman1 ,r4,n4 7,h4,m4,s4 ,cyclops71 showing what was called a gently undulating plateau extending the whole distance between ,ireland and ,british ,north ,america4 ,these depths 7averaging about #b-a_/b miles7 compared favorably with those that had presented themselves farther southward4 ,the ground was found to shoal gradually on the ,newfoundland side1 but rose more rapidly toward the ,irish shore4 ,the soundings were taken with the ingenious apparatus of ,lieut4 ,j4 ,m4 ,brooke1 ,u4,s4,n4 7,fig4 #b71 which formed the prototype of all similar deep-sea sounding-tubes of the present day4 ,in this1 at the extremity of the sounding-line a light iron rod1 ,c1 hollowed at its lower end1 passed loosely through a hole in the center of a cannon-ball weight1 ,a1 which is fastened to the line by a couple of links4 ,on the bottom being touched1 the links reverse position1 owing to the weight being taken off1 and the cannon-ball1 or plummet1 ,b1 being set free1 remains on the ground1 leaving the light tube only to be drawn up with the line4#h ,in the act of grounding1 however1 the open end of the tube presses into the bottom1 a specimen of which is consequently obtained--unless it be rock or coral4 ,an oozy bottom was found throughout the soundings4 ,the specimens brought up to the surface were shown under the microscope to consist 7,fig4 #c7 of the tiny shells of animalcul--the indestructible outside skeletons of the animal organisms known as diatomace and globigiren foraminifer largely composed of carbonate of lime4#i ,no sand or gravel was found on the ocean bed1 from which it was deduced that no currents1 or other disturbing elements1 existed at those depths2 for otherwise these frail shells would have been rubbed to pieces4 ,as it was1 they came up entire--without a sign of abrasion4 ,the plateau or ridge--which was found to extend for some #djj miles in breadth--was considered a veritable feather-bed for a cable4 ,indeed1 in his subsequent report to the ,united ,states navy1 ,lieut4 ,m4 ,f4 ,maury1 ,u4,s4,n41 spoke of this shallow platform or table-land as having been apparently placed for the express purpose of holding the wires of a submarine telegraph and of keeping them out of harm's way4 ,lieutenant ,maury concluded his report as follows3 ,i do not1 however1 pretend to consider the question as to the possibility of finding a time calm enough1 the sea smooth enough1 a wire long enough1 or a ship big enough1 to lay a coil of wire sixteen hundred miles in length4 ,these words form amusing reading nowadays1 as do also the suggestions of telegraph plateaus furnished by ,providence as a resting-place for the ,atlantic cable4 ,the plateau idea was only true to the extent that the bed of the ocean in these regions afforded a smooth surface as compared with the ,alpine character prevailing north and south of it4 ,these soundings at something like fifty-mile intervals were not1 however1 originally undertaken with the ,atlantic cable expressly in view4 ,indeed1 for many years--until experience pointed to the absolute necessity--no special surveys were made previous to the laying of a cable4#aj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,specimen of the ,ocean ,bed4 7,magnified #aj1jjj times47 ,formation of the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company1 #ahef4--;,cyrus ,field1 besides being a man of sanguine temperament and intense business energy1 also possessed shrewdness and foresight4 ,thus1 he immediately recognized the value of ,gisborne's concessions1 and determined to turn them to the fullest account4 ,his extraordinary acumen told him that by improving on the exclusive landing rights already obtained in ,america1 he would place himself in the strongest possible position in regard to the big notion of an ,atlantic cable4 ,no sooner had he made up his mind to this effect than he set to work to accomplish the idea2 and very soon exclusive rights were obtained in his name 7,gisborne having entirely dropped out of the negotiations7 for practically every important point in connection with the landing of an ,atlantic cable on ,british ,north ,american territory4 ,the period for these rights was fifty years1 besides which he obtained various grants of land4 ,thus it will be seen he had assured himself a very strong position in connection with any project for an ,atlantic cable without having had 7in the words of his brother1 ,henry ,field7 any experience in the business of laying a submarine telegraph4 ,mr4 ,field's syndicate was about this time registered as the ,new ,york1 ,newfoundland1 and ,london ,telegraph ,company1 which was now capable of debarring competition for a considerable period1 at any rate4 ,armed with this apparent monopoly1 ,mr4 ,field went over to ,england1 empowered by his associates to deal with the exclusive concession possessed by the above company for the coast of ,newfoundland and other rights in ,nova ,scotia1 etc4 ,he had already been over before in connection with the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence cable4 ,he had1 on that occasion1 met ,mr4 ,john ,watkins ,brett1 who thereupon interested himself financially in the ,newfoundland ,company4 ,on his second mission 7in ,july1 #ahef7 he at once put himself into communication with ,mr4 7afterward ,sir ,charles7 ,bright1 who was known to be already making various preparations with a view to an ,atlantic cable in connection with the ,magnetic ,telegraph system4 ,on ,september #bf1 #ahef1 an agreement was entered into between ,brett1 ,bright1 and ,field in the following terms1 their signatures being reproduced as they appear at the foot of the document3 ,mutually1 and on equal terms we engage to exert ourselves for the purpose of forming a ,company for establishing and working of electric telegraphic communication between ,newfoundland and ,ireland1 such ,company to be called the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company1 or by such other name as the parties hereto shall jointly agree upon4 ,illustration3 ,signatures1 from top to bottom3 ,john ,w4 ,brett1 ,charles ,t4 ,bright1 ,cyrus ,w4 ,field ,illustration3 ,john ,watkins ,brett 7,projector74 ,charles ,tilston ,bright 7,projector and ,engineer74 ,cyrus ,west ,field 7,projector74 ,,fig4 #d4 ,let us see now what the united efforts of these three projectors had before them4 ,the ground had already been to some extent cleared by their individual exertions when working independently1 as well as in other ways4 ,bright1 and also ,whitehouse1 had already proved the possibility of signaling through such a length of insulated wire as that involved by an ,atlantic line4 ,the soundings that had been recently taken showed that the depth was only unfavorable in the sense of being something far--but uniformly--greater than that in which any cable had previously been submerged4 ,finally1 the favorable nature of the landing rights secured by ,field on the other side went a long way toward insuring against competition1 apart from the actual permission4 ,there yet remained1 then1 the necessity of obtaining 7a7 ,government recognition1 and1 if possible1 ,government subsidies2 7b7 the confidence and pecuniary support of the moneyed mercantile class2 besides which a suitable form of cable had to be designed and manufactured1 as well as all the necessary apparatus for the laying of the same4 ,as a result of considerable discussion1 the two governments concerned eventually came to recognize the importance and feasibility of this undertaking for linking together the two great ,english-speaking nations1 and the benefits it would confer upon humanity4 ,both the ,british and ,united ,states ,governments gave a subsidy1 in return for free transmission of their messages1 with priority over others4#aa ,this1 however1 only jointly amounted to #h per cent of the capital1 and was payable only while the cable worked4#ab ,the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company was registered on ,october #bj1 #ahef1 and the #cej1jjj decided on as the necessary capital for the work was then sought and obtained in an absolutely unprecedented fashion4 ,there was no promotion money1 no prospectus was published1 no advertisements1 no brokers1 and no commissions1 neither was there at that time any board of directors or executive officers4 ,the election of a board was reserved for a meeting of shareholders1 to be held after allotment by the provisional committee1 consisting of the subscribers to the ,memorandum of ,association4 ,any remuneration to the projectors was left wholly dependent on1 and subsequent to1 the shareholders' profits being over #aj per cent per annum1 after which the projectors were to divide the surplus4 ,the campaign was opened in ,liverpool1 the headquarters of the ,magnetic ,company1 the greater proportion of whose shareholders were business men--merchants and shipowners--mainly hailing from ,liverpool1 ,manchester1 ,glasgow1 and ,london1 who appreciated the value of ,america being connected telegraphically with ,great ,britain and ,europe through their ,irish lines4 ,the first meeting of the ,atlantic ,company was convened for ,november #ab1 #ahef1 at the underwriters' rooms in the ,liverpool ,exchange4 ,this was called together by means of a small circular on a half-sheet of note-paper1 issued by ,mr4 ,e4 ,b4 ,bright1 manager of the ,magnetic ,company4 ,the result was a crowded gathering composed of the wealth1 enterprise1 and influence of ,liverpool and other important business and manufacturing centers4 ,similar meetings were also held in ,manchester and ,glasgow1 and a public subscription list was opened at the ,magnetic ,company's office of each town4 ,in the course of a few days the entire capital was raised1 by the issue of #cej shares of #a1jjj each1 chiefly taken up by the shareholders of the ,magnetic ,company4 ,mr4 ,cyrus ,field had reserved #ge1jjj for ,american subscription1 for which he signed1 but his confidence in his compatriots turned out to be greatly misplaced4 ,the result has been thus recounted by his brother3 ,he 7,cyrus ,field7 thought that one-fourth of the stock should be held in this country 7the ,united ,states71 and he did not doubt from the eagerness with which three-fourths had been taken in ,england1 that the remainder would be at once subscribed in ,america4 ,in point of fact1 it was only after much trouble that subscribers were obtained in the ,states for a total of twenty-seven shares1 or less than one-twelfth of the total capital4 ,thus1 notwithstanding their professed enthusiasm1 the faith of the ,americans in the project proved to be strictly limited4 ,at any rate1 they did not rise to the occasion4 ,indeed1 the undertaking was very much an affair of the ,magnetic ,telegraph ,company1 the officers of which led the shareholders to take a lively interest from the first in the ,atlantic project as forming the nucleus of a great extension of business4 ,the first meeting of shareholders took place on ,december #i1 #ahef1 when a board of directors was elected4 ,this included the late ,george ,peabody1 ,samuel ,gurney1 ,t4 ,h4 ,brooking1 ,t4 ,a4 ,hankey1 ,c4 ,m4 7afterward ,sir ,curtis7 ,lampson1 and ,sir ,william ,brown1 of ,liverpool1 no less than nine 7representing the interests of different towns7 being also directors of the ,magnetic ,company1 including ,mr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,brett4 ,the first chairman was ,sir ,william ,brown1 subsequently succeeded by the ,right ,hon4 ,james ,stuart-,wortley1 ,m4,p4 ,two names may be further specially referred to as destined1 in different ways1 to have the greatest possible influence in the subsequent development of submarine telegraphy4 ,mr4 7afterward ,sir ,john7 ,pender1 who was then a ,magnetic director1 afterward took a leading part in the vast extensions that have followed to the ,mediterranean1 ,india1 ,china1 ,australasia1 the ,cape1 and ,brazil1 besides several of the subsequent ,atlantic lines4 ,up to the time of his death he was chairman of something like a dozen1 more or less allied1 cable companies1 representing some #cj1jjj1jjj of capital1 and mainly organized through his foresight and business ability4 ,then1 again1 ,prof4 ,william ,thomson1 of ,glasgow ,university1 was a tower of scientific strength on the ,board4 ,he had been from the outset an ardent believer in the ,atlantic line4 ,his acquisition as a director was destined to prove of vast importance in influencing the development of transoceanic communication1 for his subsequent experiments on the cable during #aheg-'eh led up to his invention of the mirror galvanometer and signaling instrument1 whereby the most attenuated currents of electricity1 which are incapable of producing visible signals on other telegraphic apparatus1 are so magnified by the use of a reflected beam of light as to afford signals readily legible4 7,a full description of this invention will be found in its proper place--farther on47 ,mr4 7afterward ,sir ,charles7 ,bright was appointed engineer-in-chief1 with ,mr4 ,wildman ,whitehouse 7who had become closely associated with the project7 as electrician1 while ,mr4 ,cyrus ,field became general manager4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it must not be supposed that because the capital was raised without great difficulty1 and because the project had far-seeing supporters1 that there was any lack of croakers4 ,on the contrary1 the prejudice against the line as a mad scheme ran perhaps even higher than in the case of most great and novel undertakings4 ,the critics were many1 and with our present knowledge it is difficult to recognize that many of the assertions and suggestions emanated from men of science as well as from eminent engineers and sailors1 who1 we should say nowadays1 ought to have known better4 ,for example1 the late ,prof4 ,sir ,g4 ,b4 ,airy1 ,f4,r4,s4 7,astronomer ,royal71 announced to the world3 7#a7 that it was a mathematical impossibility to submerge a cable in safety at so great a depth2 and 7#b7 that if it were possible1 no signals could be transmitted through so great a length4 ,from the very outset of the project the engineer-in-chief 7as soon as appointed7 had to deal with wild and undeveloped criticisms and suggestions1 partly from inventors1 who desired to reap personal benefit by the scheme1 and amateurs in the art generally1 all of which appear singularly ludicrous nowadays4 ,the fallacy most frequently introduced was1 perhaps1 that the cable would be suspended in the water at a certain depth4 ,naturally the pressure increases with the depth on all sides of a cable 7or anything else7 in its descent through the sea1 but1 as practically everything on earth is more compressible than water1 it is obvious that the iron wire1 yarn1 gutta-percha1 and copper conductor1 forming the cable1 must be more and more compressed as they descend4 ,thus the cable constantly increases its density1 or specific gravity1 in going down1 while the equal bulk of the water surrounding it continues to have1 practically speaking1 very nearly the same specific gravity as at the surface4 ,without this valuable property of water1 the hydraulic press would not exist4 ,the strange blunder here described was participated in by some of the most distinguished naval men4 ,as an instance1 even at a comparatively recent period1 ,captain ,marryat1 ,r4,n41 the famous nautical author1 writes of the sea3 ,what a mine of wealth must lie buried in its sands4 ,what riches lie entangled among its rocks1 or remain suspended in its unfathomable gulf1 where the compressed fluid is equal in gravity to that which it encircles4#ac ,to obviate this non-existent difficulty1 it was gravely proposed to festoon the cable across1 at a given maximum depth between buoys and floats1 or even parachutes--at which ships might call1 hook on1 and talk telegraphically to shore6 ,others again proposed to apply gummed cotton to the outside of the cable in connection with the above burying system4 ,the idea was that the gum 7or glue7 would gradually dissolve and so let the cable down quietly6 ,as an example of the crude notions prevailing in the mind of one gentleman with a proposed invention1 to whom was shown an inch specimen of the cable1 he remarked3 ,now ,i understand how you stow it away on board4 ,you cut it up into bits beforehand1 and then join up the pieces as you lay4 ,some again absolutely went so far as to take out patents for converting the laying vessel into a huge factory1 with a view to making the cable on board in one continuous length1 and submerging it during the process6 ,finally1 one naval expert assured the company that no other machinery for paying out was necessary than a handspike to stop the egress of the cable4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,the ,,line ,design and ,construction--,ships--,testing1 ,shipment1 and ,stowage--,paying-out ,machinery--,staff--,preparations for the ,expedition4 ,the construction of the cable was taken in hand the following ,february 7#aheg74 ,the distance from ,valentia1 on the western ,irish coast1 to ,trinity ,bay1 ,newfoundland--the two landing-points selected#ad--;being #a1fdj nautical miles1 it was estimated that a length of #b1ejj ,n4,m4#ae would be sufficient to meet all requirements4 ,this would provide sufficient margin for a considerable amount of slack cable for accommodating the irregularities of the bottom4 ,the ,gutta-,percha ,company of ,london were entrusted with the manufacture of the core1 consisting of a strand of seven ,no4 #bb ,b4,w4,g4 copper wires 7total diameter ,no4 #ad gage7 weighing #ajg pounds per ,n4,m4 insulated1 with three coatings of gutta-percha 7to #c_/h-;inch diameter7 weighing #bfa pounds per ,n4,m41 the conductor being1 in fact1 covered to ,no4 #jj ,b4,w4,g4 ,this formed a far heavier core than had been previously adopted1 and on this account the difficulties of manufacture were proportionately increased4 ,the enormous pressure of the ocean at such depths involved also a much severer test for the core4 ,on the other hand1 as we now know1 the conductor--and consequently also the insulator--should have been still larger1 to a material degree4 ,the engineer of the line strongly urged a conductor weighing #cib pounds per ,n4,m41 with the same weight for the insulator2#af but his fellow projectors 7the business element of the undertaking7 were all for getting the work done1 while the weather permitted1 that year2 and they were perhaps overquick to recognize the difference in the capital required4 ,moreover1 they were here supported technically by the views of the responsible electrician1 as well as by such high authorities as ,michael ,faraday and ,morse4 ,the latter reported that large coated wires used beneath the water or the earth are worse conductors--so far as velocity of transmission is concerned--than small ones2 and1 therefore1 are not so well suited as small ones for the purposes of submarine transmission of telegraphic signals4 ,faraday had stated3 ,the larger the wire1 the more electricity was required to charge it2 and the greater was the retardation of that electric impulse which should be occupied in sending that charge forward4#ag ,thus it will be seen that although ,faraday laid the foundations of a large proportion of the electrical engineering of to-day1 his views in this instance did not prove to be correct4 ,the theoretical resemblance of a cable to a ,leyden jar--in reference to the effect of charging either--seems to have been prominently in mind1 without proper regard to the resistance offered by the wire to the electric current--a resistance which becomes less the greater the bulk of the wire4 ,besides the engineer being overridden in this matter1 the word of the electrical adviser on the ,board 7,professor ,thomson7 regarding the carrying capacity or working speed that would be obtained with such a core as that decided on--in view of the length involved--was also unavailing4 ,while no one can fail to appreciate the businesslike manner in which this undertaking was pushed through from the moment of inception--comparing only too favorably with some experiences of to-day--it was1 without doubt1 a vast pity that more time was not devoted to a fuller consideration of some of the problems1 such as that involved over the dimensions of the conductor and insulator4 ,no serious fault could1 however1 be detected with its actual manufacture1 though the methods of those days were primitive as compared with present practise1 and a system of efficient electrical testing altogether wanting4 ,after various experiments had been made with sample lengths of different iron wires made up into cable1 the contract for the outer sheathings was1 in order to get through the work quickly1 divided equally between ,messrs4 ,glass1 ,elliot ,co41 of ,greenwich1 and ,messrs4 ,r4 ,s4 ,newall ,co41 of ,birkenhead--both originally pit-rope makers4 ,the insulated core was first surrounded with a serving of hemp saturated with a mixture of tar1 pitch1 linseed-oil1 and wax2 and then sheathed spirally with an armor of eighteen strands1 each containing seven iron wires of ,no4 #bb ,b4,w4,g41 the completed strand being ,no4 #ad gage in diameter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,manufacture of the ,core4 ,the cable 7,fig4 #h7 was then finally drawn through another mixture of tar4 ,its weight in air was #a ton per ,n4,m41 and in water only #ac4d hundredweight1 bearing a strain of #c tons #e hundredweight before breaking--equivalent to nearly five miles of its weight in water4 ,for each end approaching the shore1 the sheathing 7see ,fig4 #i7 consisted of twelve wires of ,no4 #j gauge1 making a total weight of about nine tons to the mile4 ,this type was adopted for the first ten miles from the ,irish coast1 and for fifteen miles from the landing at ,newfoundland1 at both of which localities rocks had been found to abound plentifully--so much so that the armor was insufficient1 and present practise provides double the weight under similar conditions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,serving the ,core with ,hemp-,yarn4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,applying the ,iron ,sheathing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,the ,deep ,sea ,cable4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,the ,shore-,end ,cable4 ,only four months was allowed for the manufacture of this #b1ejj miles of cable1 which had to be delivered in ,june of that year 7#aheg74 ,this involved the preparation and drawing of #bj1ejj miles of copper wire 7providing for the lay7 and stranding into the #b1ejj miles of conductor4 ,for the insulation nearly #cjj tons of gutta-percha required to be prepared1 and the three separate layers of gutta-percha required to be applied to the wire1 subsequently followed by the spiral serving of yarn4 ,finally--and with a due allowance for lay--#cfg1ejj miles of wire had to be drawn1 from #a1fhg tons of charcoal iron1 and laid up into #ej1jjj miles of strand for the outer sheathing4 ,the entire length of copper and iron wire employed was1 therefore1 #cdj1ejj miles--enough to engirdle the earth thirteen times1 and considerably more than enough to extend from the earth to the moon4 ,the work was enormously increased1 of course1 on account of the sheathing being composed of a number of strands instead of several single wires4 ,while having certain mechanical advantages at the outset1 this stranded sheathing is not a durable type of cable--besides being somewhat costly--and is never adopted nowadays4 ,the contract price for the entire cable was #bbe1jjj1 the core costing #dj and the armor #ej per mile4#ah ,as fast as the cable was made at the respective factories1 it was coiled into iron tanks ready for shipment4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,coiling the ,finished ,cable into the ,factory ,tanks4 ,ships and ,paying-out ,machinery4--,the race against time--resulting from an unfortunate arrangement with ,american interests--was truly appalling2 for1 besides the manufacture of the line itself1 ships had to be selected and prepared for receiving the cable1 and machinery for paying out the line had to be designed and made4 ,so far as the manufacture went1 the machinery for that was already in existence1 in view of the cables that had previously been laid--apart from the fact that the sheathing machinery was practically the same as had already been used for making ropes with4 ,but this being the first ocean line1 special apparatus had to be worked out for submerging a cable satisfactorily in deep water4 ,so far as ships were concerned1 the ,british and ,united ,states ,governments had already expressed willingness to furnish these4 ,the former undertaking took shape by the ,admiralty placing ,h4,m4,s4 ,agamemnon 7a screw-propelled line-of-battle ship and one of the finest in the ,british navy7 at the company's disposal for the expedition4 ,she had been ,admiral ,lyons's flagship during the bombardment of ,sebastopol a couple of years before2 but1 in her coming mission1 was to do more to bring about the reign of peace--by drawing together in closer commune the several nations of the earth--than any man-of-war was ever called to do1 before or after4 ,with a somewhat peculiar construction1 she was admirably adapted for her work4 ,her engines were quite near the stern1 while amidships she had a magnificent hold1 forty-five feet square and about twenty feet deep4 ,in this capacious receptacle nearly half the cable was stowed from the works at ,greenwich4 ,the ,american ,government sent over the largest and finest ship of their navy1 the ,u4,s4 frigate ,niagara 7,fig4 #aa71 a screw-corvette of #e1bjj tons4 ,as a consort1 the ,u4,s4 paddle frigate ,susquehanna was also detailed for the expedition1 while ,h4,m4,s4 ,leopard and ,h4,m4 sounding-vessel ,cyclops were similarly provided by the ,british ,government4 ,the latter was to precede the fleet--nicknamed the ,wire ,squadron--to show the way4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,u4,s4,n4,s4 ,niagara4 ,the paying-out apparatus for the two laying vessels ,h4,m4,s4 ,agamemnon and ,u4,s4,n4,s4 ,niagara had to be somewhat hurriedly put together2 consequently not as much attention was paid to its design as the novelty of the undertaking really demanded4 ,the previous1 and somewhat primitive1 gear hitherto used had proved to possess too little strength1 the cable--when being laid in anything but quite shallow water--having more than once obtained the mastery1 through meeting insufficient restraining force4 ,in the new machine 7,fig4 #ab7 there was certainly no lack of holding-back power4 ,it erred1 indeed1 the other way1 being so heavy and powerful that it was liable to break the cable under any material strain4 ,the degree of retardation was regulated by a hand-wheel actuating a frame-clutch surrounding the outside of a brake-wheel4 ,the details of this machine were worked out by ,messrs4 ,c4 de ,bergue ,co41 the manufacturers4 ,the engineer-in-chief also furnished external guards to the propelling screws of each laying vessel to prevent a foul with the cable in the case of going astern4 ,this cage was nicknamed a crinoline 7then in fashion with ladies71 which1 indeed1 it somewhat resembled4 ,the above screw-guard may be seen in several of the illustrations of either ships farther on4 ,were it not for the necessity of sounding operations1 it would be applied to all telegraph-ships to-day4 ,preparations for ,starting4--,by the third week in ,july 7within the course of as many weeks7 the great ships had absorbed all their precious cargo--the ,agamemnon in the ,thames and the ,niagara in the ,mersey4 ,the process of coiling the cable on board the ,agamemnon is illustrated in ,fig4 #ac4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,the ,paying-out ,machine1 #aheg4 ,staff4--,for such an undertaking the staff had1 of course1 to be considerable4 ,besides the engineer-in-chief 7,mr4 ,bright71 the engineering department was composed as follows3 ,mr4 7afterward ,sir ,samuel7 ,canning1 formerly a railway engineer1 who had laid the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence and other cables2 ,mr4 ,william ,henry ,woodhouse1 who had laid some of the cables in the ,mediterranean2 ,mr4 ,f4 ,c4 ,webb1 with much experience in early cable work2 and1 finally1 ,mr4 ,henry ,clifford1 a mechanical engineer1 destined to be responsibly associated with a large proportion of the cables since laid4 ,besides ,mr4 ,whitehouse 7whose health1 however1 did not permit him to accompany the expedition7 there were on the electrical staff ,mr4 ,c4 ,v4 de ,sauty1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,c4 ,laws1 ,mr4 ,f4 ,lambert1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,a4 ,c4 ,saunders1 ,mr4 ,benjamin ,smith1 ,mr4 ,richard ,collett1 and ,mr4 ,charles ,gerhardi1 all of whom were afterward prominently connected with subsequent submarine cable undertakings4 ,their respective energies were divided up between the two laying ships4#ai ,the expedition was to be further strengthened by a representative of ,the ,times1 as well as of the ,daily ,news and ,new ,york ,herald4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,coiling the ,cable on ,board4 ,on the vessels being fully loaded ready for the start1 send-off festivities occurred1 in which all classes of those engaged on the work took part4 ,the ,times recounted the function on board the ,agamemnon as follows3 ,the three central tables were occupied by the crew of the ,agamemnon1 a fine1 active body of men1 who paid the greatest attention to the speeches1 and drank all the toasts with an admirable punctuality--at least1 so long as their three pints of beer per man lasted4 ,but we regret to add that with the heat of the day and the enthusiasm of ,jack in the cause of science1 the mugs were all empty long before the chairman's list of toasts had been gone through4 ,next in interest to the sailors were the workmen and their wives and babies1 all being permitted to assist4 ,the latter1 it is true1 sometimes squalled at an affecting peroration1 but that rather improved the effect than otherwise1 and the presence of their little ones only marked the genuine good feeling of the employers1 who had thus invited not only their workmen1 but their workmen's families to the feast4 ,it was a momentary return to the old patriarchal times4 ,this function having come to an end1 the ,agamemnon set out for ,sheerness4 ,when leaving her moorings1 opposite ,glass ,elliot's works1 the scene was one of considerable interest4 ,it is recorded that many thousands of persons thronged the riverside as far as ,greenwich ,hospital4 ,in the immediate neighborhood of the factory a salute was fired as the proud vessel moved away1 and a deafening cheer was raised by the assembled crowds4 ,the crew of ,h4,m4,s4 ,agamemnon manned the gunwales1 and returned the cheer with lusty lungs1 while from the stern gallery1 ladies waved their handkerchiefs1 and savants forgot for a while the mysteries of electricity and submarine-cable work1 as they returned the hearty cheers which reached them from the shore4 ,similar proceedings took place on board the ,niagara1 and the two ships met at ,queenstown1 ,county ,cork1 on ,july #cj1 #aheg4 ,they were moored about three-quarters of a mile apart1 and a piece of cable run between the two to enable the entire length of line 7#b1ejj ,n4,m47 to be tested and worked through4 ,the result was all that could be desired1 and the ,wire ,squadron set sail for the rendezvous at ,valentia ,bay on ,monday1 ,august #c;d4 ,besides the vessels already named1 there were ,h4,m4 tender ,advice and the steam-tug ,willing ,mind to assist in landing the cable at ,valentia1 as well as the ,u4,s4 screw-steamer ,arctic and the paddle-steamer ,victoria 7,newfoundland ,telegraph ,company7 on duty in ,trinity ,bay1 ,newfoundland1 to await the arrival of the fleet and assist in landing the cable at that end4 ,on arrival in harbor the following day1 the ships were hospitably welcomed by his ,excellency the ,lord-,lieutenant of ,ireland 7the ,earl of ,carlisle71 who had journeyed from ,dublin ,castle for the purpose4 ,a djeuner banquet was given by the ,knight of ,kerry 7,sir ,peter ,fitzgerald71 the lord of the manor for many miles round1 and this little corner of ,ireland--the next parish to ,america--was quite en fte for the occasion4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,first ,,start ,landing the ,end--,godspeed--,a ,bad ,beginning--,return ,home4 ,landing the ,cable at ,valentia1 ,ireland4--,the following day was occupied in landing the massive shore end1 which--weighing nearly ten tons to the mile1 as already described--was calculated to withstand damage from any anchorage in the bay1 besides being proof against disturbance and damage from surf or currents4 ,the landing-place which had been finally selected was a little cove known as ,ballycarberry1 about three miles from ,cahirciveen1 in ,valentia harbor 7,fig4 #ad74 ,the two small assistant steamers--,willing ,mind1 a tug with a zeal worthy of her name1 and ,advice1 ready not merely with advice but most lusty help--with several other launches and boats1 were employed in the operation1 which was thus described in one of the many newspaper reports3 ,valentia ,bay was studded with innumerable small craft decked with the gayest bunting4 ,small boats flitted hither and thither1 their occupants cheering enthusiastically as the work successfully progressed4 ,the cable-boats were managed by the sailors of the ,niagara and the ,susquehanna4 ,it was a well-designed compliment1 and indicative of the future fraternization of the nations1 that the shore rope was arranged to be presented on the ,english side of the ,atlantic to the representative of the ,queen by the officers and men of the ,united ,states navy1 and that on the ,american side the ,british officers and sailors should make a similar presentation to the ,president of the great republic4 ,from the mainland the operations were watched with intense interest4 ,for several hours the ,lord-,lieutenant stood on the beach1 surrounded by his staff and the directors of the railway and telegraph companies1 waiting the arrival of the cable4 ,when at length the ,american sailors jumped through the surge with the hawser to which it was attached1 his ,excellency was among the first to lay hold of it and pull it lustily to the shore4 ,indeed1 every one present seemed desirous of having a hand in the great work4 ,at half past seven that evening 7,august #e1 #aheg7 the cable was hauled on shore at ,ballycarberry ,strand1 and formal presentation was made of it by the officer in command of the ,niagara to the ,lord-,lieutenant1 his ,excellency expressing a hope that the work so well begun would be carried to a satisfactory completion4 ,the vicar of the parish then offered a prayer for the success of the undertaking4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,landing the ,irish ,end of the ,cable4 ,the work connected with the landing of the shore end was not actually completed till sunset2 so1 as it was too late then to set out and start cable-laying1 the ships remained at anchor in the bay till daybreak4 ,that night there was a grand ball at the little village of ,kingstown1 and the day dawn caught the merrymakers still engaged in their festivities4 ,laying the ,first ,ocean ,cable1 #aheg4--,owing to the fact that the cable had had to be divided between two ships it was obvious that a mid-ocean splice between the two lengths was involved4 ,the engineer-in-chief 7,mr4 ,bright7 was anxious both ships should start laying toward their respective shores from mid-ocean1 as by that plan favorable weather for the splice could be waited for1 besides halving the time occupied in laying the line1 thereby reducing chances of bad-weather experience and getting over the most difficult 7deep-water7 part of the work first4 ,the electricians1 however1 made much of the importance of being in continuous communication with shore during laying operations2 and this view appealed to the ,board--partly1 no doubt1 on account of the novelty of being able from headquarters to speak to a ship as she proceeded across the ,atlantic4 ,it had1 therefore1 been arranged for the laying of the cable to be started by the ,niagara from the ,irish coast1 the ,agamemnon laying the remaining half from mid-ocean4 ,the ships got under weigh at an early hour on the morning following the landing of the shore end4 ,paying out commenced from the ,niagara's forepart2 and as the distance from there to the stern was considerable1 a number of men were stationed at intervals1 like sentries1 to see that every foot of the line reached its destination in safety4 ,the machinery did not seem at first to take kindly to its work1 giving vent to many ominous groans4 ,after five miles had been disgorged1 the line caught in some of the apparatus and parted4 ,the good ship at once put back and the cable was underrun by the ,willing ,mind1 with boats1 the whole distance from the shore--a tedious and hard task1 as may be imagined4 ,at length the end was lifted out of the water and spliced to the coil on board2 and as the bight of the cable dropped safely to the bottom of the sea1 the mighty ship steamed ahead once more4 ,at first she moved very slowly1 not more than two miles an hour1 to avoid the danger of another accident1 but the feeling that they were at last away was in itself a relief4 ,the ships were all in sight1 and so near that they could hear each other's bells4 ,the ,niagara1 as if knowing she was bound for the land out of whose forests she came1 bowed her head proudly to the waves4 ,slowly passed the hours of that day1 in ,mr4 ,henry ,field's words1 but all went well1 and the ships were moving out into the broad ,atlantic4 ,at length the sun went down in the west1 and stars came out on the face of the deep4 ,but no man slept4 ,a thousand eyes were watching a great experiment1 including those who had a personal interest in the issue4 ,all through that night1 and through the anxious days and nights that followed1 there was a feeling in the heart of every soul on board1 as if some dear friend were at the turning-point of death1 and they were watching beside him4 ,there was a strange1 unnatural silence in the ship4 ,men paced the deck with soft and muffled tread1 speaking only in whispers1 as if a loud or heavy footfall might snap the vital cord4 ,so much had they grown to feel for the enterprise1 that the cable seemed to them like a human creature1 on whose fate they themselves hung1 as if it were to decide their own destiny4 ,there are some who will never forget that first night at sea4 ,perhaps the reaction from the excitement on shore made the impression the deeper4 ,there are moments in life when everything comes back to us4 ,what memories cropped up in those long night hours6 ,how many on board that ship1 as they stood on the deck and watched that mysterious cord disappearing in the darkness1 thought of homes beyond the sea1 of absent ones1 of the distant and of the dead4 ,but no musings turned them from the work in hand4 ,there were vigilant eyes on deck--,mr4 ,bright1 the engineer-in-chief1 was there2 also1 in turn1 ,mr4 ,woodhouse and ,mr4 ,canning1 his chief assistants4444 ,the paying-out machinery did its work1 and though it made a constant rumble in the ship1 that dull1 heavy sound was music in their ears1 as it told them that all was well4 ,if one should drop asleep1 and wake up at night1 he had only to hear the sound of 'the old coffee-mill' and1 his fears being relieved1 he would go to sleep again4 ,the next was a day of beautiful weather4 ,the ships were getting farther away from land1 and began to steam ahead at the rate of four and five knots4 ,the cable was paid out at a speed a little faster than the ship1 to allow for inequalities of surface on the bottom of the sea4 ,while it was thus going overboard1 communication was kept up constantly with the land1 partly by what are known as continuity signals--i4 e41 electrical signals at definite time intervals from ship to shore1 as a test of the continuity of the line4 ,to quote ,mr4 ,field again3 ,every moment the current was passing between ship and shore4 ,the communication was as perfect as between ,liverpool and ,london1 or ,boston and ,new ,york4 ,not only did the electricians telegraph back to ,valentia the progress they were making1 but the officers on board sent messages to their friends in ,america to go out by the steamers from ,liverpool4 ,the heavens seemed to smile on them that day4 ,the coils came up from below the deck without a kink1 and1 unwinding themselves easily1 passed over the stern into the sea4 ,all ,sunday 7#ith inst47 the same favoring fortune continued2 and when the officers who could be spared from the deck met in the cabin1 and ,captain ,hudson read the service1 it was with subdued voices and grateful hearts that they responded to the prayers to ',him who spreadeth out the heavens and ruleth the raging of the sea4' ,on ,monday 7#ajth7 they were over two hundred miles at sea4 ,they had got far beyond the shallow waters off the coast4 ,they had passed over the submarine mountain that figures on the charts of ,dayman and ,berryman1 and where ,mr4 ,bright's log gives a descent from #eej to #a1gej fathoms within eight miles4 ,then they came to the deeper waters of the ,atlantic where the cable sank to the awful depths of #b1jjj fathoms4 ,still the iron cord buried itself in the waves1 and every instant the flash of light in the darkened telegraph room told of the passage of the electric current4 ,everything went well till #c4de ,p4,m4 on the fourth day out 7,tuesday1 ,august #aath71 when the cable snapped1 after #chj miles had been laid1 owing to mismanagement on the part of the mechanic at the brakes4 ,thus the familiar thin line which had been streaming out from the ,niagara for six days was no longer to be seen by the accompanying vessels4 ,one who was present wrote3 ,the unbidden tear started to many a manly eye4 ,the interest taken in the enterprise by officers and men alike exceeded anything ever seen1 and there is no wonder that there should have been so much emotion on the occasion of the accident4 ,the following report from ,bright gives the details of the expedition up to the time of this regrettable occurrence3 ,,report ,,to ,,the ,,directors ,,of ,,the ,,atlantic ,,telegraph ,,company1 ,,august1 #aheg ,after leaving ,valentia on the evening of the #gth inst1 the paying out of the cable from the ,niagara progressed most satisfactorily until immediately before the mishap4 ,at the junction between the shore and the smaller cable1 about eight miles from the starting-point1 it was necessary to stop to renew the splice4 ,this was successfully effected1 and the end of the heavier cable lowered by a hawser until it reached the bottom1 two buoys being attached at a short distance apart to mark the place of union4 ,by noon of the #hth we had paid out #dj miles of cable1 including the heavy shore end4 ,our exact position at the time was in lat4 #ej #ei #cf ,n41 long4 #aa #ai #ae ,w41 and the depth of the water according to the soundings taken by the ,cyclops--whose course we nearly followed--ninety fathoms4 ,up to #d ,p4 ,m4 on that day the egress of the cable had been regulated by the power necessary to keep the machinery in motion at a slightly higher rate than that of the ship2 but as the water deepened it was necessary to place some further restraint upon the cable by applying pressure to the friction-drums in connection with the paying-out sheaves4 ,by midnight #he miles had been safely laid1 the depth of the water being then a little more than #bjj fathoms4 ,at eight o'clock on the morning of the #ith we had exhausted the deck coil in the after part of the ship1 having paid out #abj miles4 ,the change to the coil between decks forward was safely made4 ,by noon we had laid #acf miles of cable1 the ,niagara having reached lat4 #eb1 #aa #dj ,n41 long4 #ac #j #bj ,w41 and the depth of the water having increased to #daj fathoms4 ,in the evening the speed of the vessel was raised to five knots4 ,i had previously kept down the rate at from three to four knots for the small cable1 and two for the heavy end next the shore1 wishing to get the men and machinery well at work prior to attaining the speed which ,i had intended making4 ,by midnight #ahi miles of cable had been laid4 ,at four o'clock on the morning of the #ajth the depth began to increase rapidly from #eej to #a1gej fathoms in a distance of eight miles4 ,up to this time a strain of #g cwt4 sufficed to keep the rate of the cable near enough to that of the ship2 but as the water deepened the proportionate speed of the cable advanced1 and it was necessary to augment the pressure by degrees until at a depth of #a1gjj fathoms the indicator showed a strain of #ae cwt41 while the cable and the ship were running five and a half and five knots respectively4 ,at noon on the #ajth we had paid out #bee miles of cable--the vessel having made #bad miles from the shore--being then in lat4 #eb #bg #ej ,n41 long4 #af #ae ,w4 ,at this time we experienced an increasing swell1 followed later in the day by a strong breeze4 ,from this period1 having reached #b1jjj fathoms of water1 it was necessary to increase the strain by a ton1 by which the rate of the cable was maintained in due proportion to that of the ship4 ,at six o'clock in the evening some difficulty arose through the cable getting out of the sheaves of the paying-out machine1 owing to the pitch and tar hardening in the groove1#bj and a splice of large dimensions passing over them4 ,this was rectified by fixing additional guards and softening the tar with oil4 ,it was necessary to bring up the ship1 holding the cable by stoppers until it was again properly disposed around the pulleys4 ,some importance is due to this event1 as showing that it is possible to lay to in deep water without continuing to pay out the cable1 a point upon which doubts have frequently been expressed4 ,shortly after this the speed of the cable gained considerably on that of the ship1 and up to nine o'clock1 while the rate of the latter was about three knots1 by the log1 the cable was running out from five and a half to five and three-quarter knots4 ,the strain was then raised to #be cwt41 but the wind and the sea increasing1 and a current at the same time carrying the cable at an angle from the direct line of the ship's course1 it was found insufficient to check the cable1 which was at midnight making two and a half knots above the speed of the ship1 and sometimes imperiling the safe uncoiling in the hold4 ,the retarding force was therefore increased at two o'clock to an amount equivalent to #cj cwt41 and then again--in consequence of the speed continuing to be more than it would be prudent to permit--to #ce cwt4 ,by this the rate of the cable was brought to a little short of five knots1 at which it continued steadily until #c4de ,a4,m41 when it parted1 the length paid out at the time being #chj miles4 ,i had up to this attended personally to the regulation of the brakes1 but finding that all was going on well1 and it being necessary that ,i should be temporarily away from the machine--to ascertain the rate of the ship1 to see how the cable was coming out of the hold1 and also to visit the electrician's room--the machine was for the moment left in charge of a mechanic who had been engaged from the first in its construction and fitting1 and was acquainted with its operation4 ,in proceeding toward the fore part of the ship ,i heard the machine stop4 ,i immediately called out to relieve the brakes1 but when ,i reached the spot the cable was broken4 ,on examining the machine--which was otherwise in perfect order--,i found that the brakes had not been released1 and to this1 or to the hand-wheel of the brake being turned the wrong way1 may be attributed the stoppage and consequent fracture of the cable4 ,when the rate of the wheels grew slower1 as the ship dropped her stern in the swell1 the brake should have been eased4 ,this had been done regularly whenever an unusually sudden descent of the ship temporarily withdrew the pressure from the cable in the sea4 ,but owing to our entering the deep water the previous morning1 and having all hands ready for any emergency that might occur there1 the chief part of my staff had been compelled to give in at night through sheer exhaustion1 and hence1 being short-handed1 ,i was obliged for the time to leave the machine without1 as it proved1 sufficient intelligence to control it4 ,i perceive that on the next occasion it will be needful1 from the wearing and anxious nature of the work1 to have three separate relays of staff1 and to employ for attention to the brakes a higher degree of mechanical skill4 ,the origin of the accident was1 no doubt1 the amount of retarding strain put upon the cable1 but had the machine been properly manipulated at the time1 it could not possibly have taken place4 ,for three days in shallow and deep water1 as well as in rapid transitions from one to the other1 nothing could be more perfect than the working of the cable machinery4 ,it had been made extra heavy with a view to recovery work4 ,it1 however1 performed its duty so smoothly and efficiently in the smaller depths--where the weight of the cable had less ability to overcome its friction and resistance--that it can scarcely be said to be too heavy for paying out in deep water1 where it was necessary1 from the increased weight of cable1 to restrain its rapid motion1 by applying to it a considerable degree of additional friction4 ,its action was most complete1 and all parts worked well together4 ,i see how the gear can be improved by a modification in the form of sheave1 by an addition to the arrangement for adjusting the brakes1 and some other alterations2 but with proper management1 without any change whatever1 ,i am confident that the whole length of cable might have been safely laid by it4 ,and it must be remembered1 as a test of the work which it has done1 that unfortunate as this termination to the expedition is1 the longest length of cable ever laid has been paid out by it1 and that in the deepest water yet passed over4 ,after the accident had occurred1 soundings were taken by ,lieutenant ,dayman from the ,cyclops1 and the depth found to be #b1jjj fathoms4 ,it will be remembered that some importance was attached to the cable on board the ,niagara and ,agamemnon being manufactured in opposite lays4#ba ,i thought this a favorable opportunity to show that practically the difference was not of consequence in effecting the junction in mid-ocean4 ,we therefore made a splice between the two vessels4 ,this was then lowered in a heavy sea1 after which several miles were paid out without difficulty4 ,i requested the commanders of the several vessels to proceed to ,plymouth1 as the docks there afford better facilities than any other port for landing the cable should it be necessary to do so4 ,the whole of the cable remaining on board has been carefully tested and inspected1 and found to be in as perfect condition as when it left the works at ,greenwich and ,birkenhead respectively4 ,one important point presses for your consideration at an early period4 ,a large portion of cable already laid may be recovered at a comparatively small expense4 ,i append an estimate of the cost1 and shall be glad to receive your authority to proceed with this work4 ,i do not perceive in our present position any reason for discouragement2 but ,i have1 on the contrary1 a greater confidence than ever in the undertaking4 ,it has been proved beyond a doubt that no obstacle exists to prevent our ultimate success2 and ,i see clearly how every difficulty which has presented itself in this voyage can be effectually dealt with in the next4 ,the cable has been laid at the expected rate in the great depths2 its electric working through the entire length has been satisfactorily accomplished1 while the portion laid1 actually improved in efficiency by being submerged--from the low temperature of the water and the increased close texture of gutta-percha thereby effected4 ,mechanically speaking1 the structure of the cable has answered every expectation that ,i had formed of it4 ,its weight in water is so adjusted to the depth that strain is within a manageable scope2 while the effects of the undercurrents upon its surface prove how dangerous it would be to lay a much lighter rope1 which would1 by the greater time occupied in sinking1 expose an increased surface to their power1 besides its descent being at an angle such as would not provide for good laying at the bottom4 ,on the other hand1 in regard to any further length made1 ,i would take this opportunity of again strongly urging the desirability of a much larger conductor and corresponding increase in the weight of insulation1 in accordance with my original recommendation4--,i have the honor to remain1 gentlemen1 yours very faithfully1 ,,charles ,t4 ,,bright1 ,engineer-in-,chief4 ,to the ,directors of the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,preparations ,,for ,,another ,,attempt ,taking ,stock--,further ,capital--,alterations in ,paying-,out ,machinery--,improved ,testing and ,signaling ,apparatus4 ,this untoward interruption to the expedition was naturally a cause of great disappointment to all connected with the undertaking2 for there was not enough cable left to complete the work1 nor was there time to get more made and stowed on board to renew the attempt before the season would be too far advanced4 ,the squadron proceeded to ,plymouth to unload the cable into tanks at ,keyham 7now ,devonport7 ,dockyard1 chiefly because some of the ships could not be spared by their respective governments till the following year4 ,in the middle of ,october 7#aheg71 the engineer-in-chief proceeded to ,valentia in a small paddle-steamer with the object of picking up some of the lost line from this end4 ,after experiencing a series of gales1 over fifty miles of the main cable were recovered1 and the shore end buoyed ready for splicing on to in the coming year4 ,the first expedition had opened the eyes of the investing public to the vastness of the undertaking1 and led many to doubt who did not doubt before4 ,some began to look upon it as a romantic adventure of the sea1 rather than as a serious commercial undertaking4 ,this decline of popular faith was felt as soon as there was a call for more money4 ,the loss of #cce miles of cable1 with the postponement of the expedition to another year1 was equivalent to a loss of #ajj1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,reshipment of the ,cable aboard ,h4,m4,s4 ,agamemnon and ,u4,s4,n4,s4 ,niagara in ,keyham ,basin4 ,raising ,further ,capital4--,to make the above sum good1 the capital of the company had to be increased1 and this new capital was not so readily obtainable4 ,the projectors found that it was easy to go with the current of popular enthusiasm1 but very hard to stem a growing tide of popular distrust4 ,and it must also be remembered that1 from the very first1 the section of the public which looked with distrust upon the idea of an ,atlantic telegraph was far in excess of that which did not2 indeed1 the opposition encountered was much on a par with the great popular prejudice which ,george ,stephenson had to overcome when projecting his great railway schemes4 ,but whatever the depression at the untimely termination of the first expedition1 it did not interfere with renewed and vigorous efforts to prepare for a second4 ,in the end the appeal to the shareholders for more money was responded to2 and the directors were enabled to give orders for the manufacture of #gjj miles of new cable of the same description1 to make up for what had been lost1 and to provide a surplus against all contingencies4 ,thus1 #c1jjj nautical miles in all were shipped this time1 instead of #b1ejj miles4 ,alterations in the ,paying-,out ,gear4--,new paying-out machinery was devised with a view to obviating the possibility of a recurrence of the accident on the first expedition4 ,in the new apparatus the brake 7,fig4 #af7 was so arranged that a lever exercised a uniform holding power in exact proportion to the weights attached to it 7,fig4 #ag72 and while capable of being released by a hand-wheel1 it could not be tightened4 ,the general idea of this clever appliance had been originally introduced by ,mr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,appold in connection with the crank apparatus in jails2 and it was now especially adapted to the exigencies of cable work by the engineer 7,mr4 ,bright7 and ,mr4 ,c4 ,e4 ,amos1 a member of the famous engineering firm1 ,easton ,amos1 who constructed the entire machinery4 ,the great future of the apparatus was that it provided for automatic brake-release1 upon the strain exceeding that intended4 ,thus1 only a maximum agreed strain could be applied1 this being regulated from time to time by weights1 according to the depth of water and consequent weight of cable being paid out4 ,in passing from the hold to the stern of the laying vessel1 the cable is taken round a drum1 or drums4 ,fig4 #ah gives a general view of the apparatus4 ,attached to the axle of the drum is a wheel fitted with an iron friction-strap 7to which are fixed blocks of hard wood7 capable of exerting a given retarding power1 varying with the weights hung on to the lever which tightens the strap4 ,when the friction becomes great1 the wheels have an increased tendency to carry the wooden blocks round with them2 thus the lever-bars are deflected from the vertical line and the iron band opened sufficiently to lessen the brake-power4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,the ,self-,releasing ,brake4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,the ,principle of the ,brake4 ,bright also introduced a dynamometer apparatus for indicating and controlling the strain during paying out--a vast improvement on that embodied in the previous machines4 ,the working of the entire machine was as follows3 ,between the two brake-drums and the stern of the vessel1 the cable was led under the grooved wheel1 ,o1 of the dynamometer4 ,this wheel had a weight attached to it1 and could be moved up or down in an iron frame4 ,if the strain upon the cable was small1 the wheel would bend the cable downward1 and its index would show a low degree of pressure2 but whenever the strain increased1 the cable1 in straightening itself1 would at once lift the dynamometer-wheel with the indicator attached to it1 which showed the pressure in hundredweights and tons4 ,the amount of strain with a given weight upon the wheel1 ,g1 was determined by experiments1 and a hand-wheel in connection with the levers of the paying-out machine was placed immediately opposite the dynamometer2 so that1 directly the indicator showed strain increasing1 the person in charge could at once1 by turning the hand-wheel1 lift up the weights that tightened the friction-straps1 and so let the cable run freely through the paying-out machine4 ,although1 therefore1 the strain could be reduced--or entirely withdrawn--in a moment1 it could not be increased by the man at the wheel4 ,the cable in coming from the tanks1 passed under a lightly weighted 'jockey1'#bb ,j1 pulley4 ,this arrangement1 while leading the line on to the drums1 at the same time checked it slightly4 ,from here it was guided by a grooved pulley1 or ,v-sheave1#bc ,l1 along the tops of both drums1 at ,b1 then three times round them1 and hence over another ,v-sheave1 ,f1 and on to the dynamometer4 ,from this the cable was led over a second pulley1 and so into the sea by the stern-sheaves4#bd ,this entire apparatus--simplified as regards the brake--has since been universally adopted for submarine-cable work1#be with the exception that a single-flanged drum1 fitted with a sort of plow1 skid1 or knife-edge--to guide or fleet the incoming turn of cable correctly on to the drum--is now used in place of the grooved sheave1 or sheaves4 ,as soon as the new machinery was constructed1 all the engineering staff gathered together for the purpose of thoroughly acquainting themselves with its working4 ,mr4 ,f4 ,c4 ,webb1 having engagements elsewhere1 had been replaced by ,mr4 ,w4 ,e4 ,everett1 ,u4,s4,a41 who had been chief marine engineer of the ,niagara4 ,mr4 ,everett was to have charge of the machinery on the laying vessel1 while ,mr4 ,woodhouse controlled the cable operations4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,bright's ,paying-out ,gear1 #aheh4 ,alterations in the ,electrical ,apparatus4--,since the manufacture of the cable in #aheg1 ,professor ,thomson had become impressed with the conviction that the electric conductivity of copper varied greatly with its degree of purity4 ,as a result of the professor's further investigations1 the extra length of cable made for the coming expedition was subjected to systematic and searching tests for the purity and conductivity of the copper4 ,every hank of wire was tested1 and all whose conducting power fell below a certain value rejected4 ,here1 then1 we have the first instance of an organized system of testing for conductivity at the cable factory--a system which has ever since been rigorously insisted on4 ,professor ,thomson's ,mirror ,instrument4--,and now1 in the spring of #aheh1 an invention was perfected that was destined to have a remarkable effect on submarine-cable enterprise4 ,for ,professor ,thomson 7now ,lord ,kelvin7 devised and perfected the mirror-speaking instrument1 then often described as the marine galvanometer1#bf of which it may be fairly said that it entirely revolutionized long-distance signaling and electrical testing aboard ship4 ,this most ingenious apparatus consists of a small and exceedingly light steel magnet 7a7 7,fig4 #ai7 with a tiny reflector or mirror fixed to it1 both together weighing but a single grain or thereabouts4 ,this delicate magnet is suspended from its center by a filament of silk and surrounded by a coil 7b7 of the thinnest insulated copper wire4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,the ,reflecting ,magnet4 ,a very weak current is sufficient to produce a slight1 though nearly imperceptible1 movement of the suspended magnet when electricity passes through the surrounding coil4 ,a fine ray of light from a shaded lamp1 behind a screen 7,figs4 #bj and #ba7 at a short distance1 is directed through a slot in the screen1 thence to the open center of the coil 7c7 upon the mirror4 ,it is then reflected back to a graduated scale 7f74 ,as may be seen from ,fig4 #ba1 an exceedingly slight angle of motion on the part of the magnet 7a7 is thus made to magnify the movement of the spot of light upon the scale 7f71 and to render it so considerable as to be readily noted by the eye of the operating clerk4 ,the ray is brought to a focus by passing through a lens4 ,by combinations of these movements of the speck of light 7in length and direction7 upon the index1 an alphabet is readily formed4 ,the magnet is artificially brought back to zero with great precision after each signal by the earth's magnetism1 and also both by the natural torsion of the fiber and the controlling action of the adjusting magnet 7e7 7,fig4 #bj71 with the help of the thumb-screw 7d7 for regulation purposes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,reflecting ,galvanometer and ,speaker4 ,in a word1 ,professor ,thomson's combined mirror-telegraph and marine galvanometer transmitted messages by multiplying and magnifying the signals through a cable by the agency of imponderable light4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,it is only to be regretted that the electrician responsible for the subsequent working through operations did not sooner appreciate the great beauties of the above apparatus1 and the advantage of a small generating force such as it alone required4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,trial ,,trip ,rehearsal of ,cable ,operations--,successful ,experiments and ,performances4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,deck of ,h4,m4,s4 ,agamemnon with ,paying-out ,apparatus4 ,the engineer-in-chief 7,mr4 ,bright7 arranged that this time an experimental expedition should be first made1 during which a complete rehearsal was to be gone through of the various operations to be performed during cable maneuvers4 ,these operations were to consist of making splices1 picking up and buoying 7besides laying7 in deep water1 and exercising all hands in their work generally4 ,it was on this occasion also agreed that paying out should start from mid-ocean instead of from either shore4 ,it was further arranged that the main cable should be buoyed at each end1 and the connection to it by the heavy cable from shore effected at the earliest opportunity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,stowage of the ,cable ,coils on the ,niagara4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,the ,loading of the ,agamemnon4 ,all the #c1jjj miles of cable was coiled into the two large ships by the end of ,may4 ,fig4 #bb gives a general idea of the paying-out apparatus mounted on the deck of the ,agamemnon1 and ,fig4 #bc a view in section of the fore-tanks of the ,niagara when loaded with her cargo of cable4 ,the engineer had this time fitted cast-iron cones in the middle of each cable-coil to meet the requirements of safe paying out1 besides providing a large margin of space to the hatchway above4 ,fig4 #bd shows the loading of the ,agamemnon4 ,the rest of the telegraph squadron was on this occasion made up by ,h4,m4 ,gorgon1 ,h4,m4 paddle-steamer ,valorous1 and ,h4,m4 surveying-steamer ,porcupine4 ,the fleet set forth on their second cruise on ,may #bi1 #aheh--this time without any show of public enthusiasm4 ,mr4 ,bright was again assisted by the same engineering staff1 but ,professor ,thomson had agreed to take a more active part in the electrical work4 ,the ,bay of ,biscay was to be the scene of the experiments--the actual site being about #abj miles northwest of ,corunna1 where the ,gorgon obtained soundings of #b1ecj fathoms or nearly three statute miles4 ,the ,agamemnon and ,niagara were then backed close together1 stern on1 and a strong hawser was passed between them4 ,each ship had on board some defective cable for the experiments about to be conducted4 ,the proceedings may perhaps best be described by extracts from the engineer's diary3 ,monday1 ,may #cast1 #aj ,a4,m41 hove to1 lat4 #dg #aa1 long4 #i #cg4 ,up to midday engaged in making splice between experimental cable in fore coil and that in main hold1 besides other minor operations4 ,in afternoon getting hawser from ,niagara and her portion of cable to make joint and splice4 #d ,p4,m41 commenced splice2 #e4ae splice completed2 #e4be1 let go splice-frame 7weight #c cwt47 over gangway1 amidships1 starboard side4#bg #e4cj1 after getting splice-frame 7containing the splice7 clear of the ship and lowering it to the bottom1 each vessel 7then about a quarter of a mile apart7 commenced paying out in opposite directions4 #i ,p4,m41 got on board ,niagara's warp and her end of cable to make another splice for second experiment4 ,june #ast4--#a ,a4,m4 7night71 electrical continuity gone1 the cable having parted after two miles in all had been paid out4#bh ,since #a ,a4,m41 engaged in hauling in our cable4 ,recovered all our portion1 and even managed to heave up the splice-frame 7in perfect condition71 besides #ajj fathoms of ,niagara's cable1 which she had parted4 ,fastened splice to stern of vessel and ceased operations4 #i4bc ,a4,m41 second experiment4 ,started paying-out again4 ,weather very misty4 #i4dj1 one mile paid out at strain #af cwt42 angle of cable #af with the horizon3 running out straight2 rate of ship #b1 cable #c4 #i4de1 changed to lower hold4 #i4ef1 two miles out2 last mile in #af-a_/b minutes2 strain #ag to #bj cwt42 angle of cable #bj4 #aj4aj1 last of the three miles out in #ad minutes4 #aj4cb ,a4 ,m41 four and a half miles out4 ,third experiment--stopped ship1 lowered guard1 stoppered cable4 #aj4ej1 buoy let go1 strain #af cwt4 when let go1 the cable being nearly up and down4 #aa4f1 running at rate of #e-a_/b knots paying out1 strain #ba to #bc cwt41 varying4 ,cable shortly afterward parted through getting jammed in the machinery4 ,the subsequent experiments were mainly in the direction of buoying1 picking up1 and passing the cable from the stern to the bow sheave for picking up4 ,all of these operations were in turn successfully performed2 and finally1 in paying out a speed of seven knots was attained without difficulty4 ,during all this time electrical communication had been maintained between the ships2 and it is somewhat remarkable that1 through this more or less damaged cable1 the electricians were able to work a needle-instrument and obtain a deflection on it of #gj degrees4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--;,experimental ,maneuvers in the ,bay of ,biscay4 ,and now1 the program being exhausted1 the ships returned to ,plymouth4 ,on the whole1 the trip had proved eminently satisfactory4 ,the paying-out machinery had worked well1 the various engineering operations had been successfully performed1 and the electrical working through the whole cable was perfect4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,storm ,the wire ships thus additionally experienced arrived at ,plymouth on ,june #c;d1 and some further arrangements were made1 principally connected with the electrical department4 ,a week later--i4 e41 on ,thursday1 ,june #ajth--having taken in a fresh supply of coal1 the expedition again left ,england with fair skies and bright prospects4 ,the barometer standing at #cj4fd1 it was an auspicious start in what was declared by a consensus of nautical authorities to be the best time of the year for the ,atlantic4 ,this prognostication was doomed to a terrible disappointment1 for the voyage nearly ended in the ,agamemnon turning turtle4 ,she was repeatedly almost on her beam ends1 the cable was partly shifted1 and a large number of those on board were more or less seriously injured4 ,the load of cable made all the difference when brought into comparison with an ordinary ship1 under stress of weather4 ,it was bad enough to cruise with a dead weight forward of some #bej tons--a weight under which her planks gaped an inch apart1 and her beams threatened daily to give way4 ,but when to these evils were added the fear that in some of her heavy rolls the whole mass would slip and take the vessel's side out1 it will be seen that this precious coil was justly regarded as a standing danger--the millstone about the necks of all on board4#bi ,oddly enough1 owing to the fact that the ,agamemnon had scant accommodation left for fuel1 every one at the start was bemoaning the entire absence of breeze4 ,there were some even1 who1 never having been at sea before1 muttered rash hopes about meeting an ,atlantic gale4 ,their wishes were soon to be completely realized4 ,in order that laying operations should be started by the two ships in mid-ocean1 it was arranged that the entire fleet should meet in latitude #ec #b and longitude #cc #ah as a rendezvous4 ,as it is impossible to follow the movements of more than one ship at a time1 and as the ,agamemnon had the more exciting experience1 we will confine our attention to her up to the date of the rendezvous4 ,the day after starting there was no wind2 but on ,saturday1 ,june #abth1 a breeze sprung up1 and1 with screw hoisted and fires raked out1 the ,agamemnon bowled along at a rare pace under royals and studding-sails4 ,the barometer fell fast1 and squally weather coming on with the boisterous premonitory symptoms of an ,atlantic gale1 even those least versed in such matters could see at a glance that they were in for it4 ,the following day the sky wore a wretched mist--half rain1 half vapor--through which the attendant vessels loomed faintly like shadows4 ,the gale increased2 till at four in the afternoon the good ship was rushed through the foam under close-reefed topsails and foresail4 ,that night the storm got worse1 and most of the squadron gradually parted company4 ,the ocean resembled one vast snowdrift1 the whitish glare from which--reflected from the dark clouds that almost rested on the sea--had a tremendous and unnatural effect1 as if the ordinary laws of nature had been reversed4 ,very heavy weather continued till the following ,sunday 7,june #bjth71 which ushered in as fierce a storm as ever swept over the ,atlantic4 ,the narrative of this fight of nautical science with the elements may best be continued in the words of the representative of ,the ,times1 especially as it is probably the most intensely realistic description of a storm that has ever been written by an eye-witness3 ,the ,niagara1 which had hitherto kept close1 while the other smaller vessels had dropped out of sight1 began to give us a very wide berth1 and as darkness increased it was a case of every one for himself4 ,our ship1 the ,agamemnon1 rolling many degrees--not every one can imagine how she went at it that night--was laboring so heavily that she looked like breaking up4 ,the massive beams under her upper-deck coil cracked and snapped with a noise resembling that of small artillery1 almost drowning the hideous roar of the wind as it moaned and howled through the rigging1 jerking and straining the little storm-sails as though it meant to tear them from the yards4 ,those in the impoverished cabins on the main deck had little sleep that night1 for the upper-deck planks above them were working themselves free1 as sailors say2 and beyond a doubt they were infinitely more free than easy1 for they groaned under the pressure of the coil with a dreadful uproar1 and availed themselves of the opportunity to let in a little light1 with a good deal of water1 at every roll4 ,the sea1 too1 kept striking with dull1 heavy violence against the vessel's bows1 forcing its way through hawse-holes and ill-closed ports with a heavy slush2 and thence1 hissing and winding aft1 it roused the occupants of the cabins aforesaid to a knowledge that their floors were under water1 and that the flotsam and jetsam noises they heard beneath were only caused by their outfit for the voyage taking a cruise of its own in some five or six inches of dirty bilge4 ,such was ,sunday night1 and such was a fair average of all the nights throughout the week1 varying only from bad to worse4 ,on ,monday things became desperate4 ,the barometer was lower--and1 as a matter of course1 the wind and sea were infinitely higher--than the day before4 ,it was singular1 but at twelve o'clock the sun pierced through the pall of clouds and shone brilliantly for half an hour1 and during that brief time it blew as it had not often blown before4 ,so fierce was this gust that its roar drowned every other sound1 and it was almost impossible to give the watch the necessary orders for taking in the close-reefer foresail1 which1 when furled1 almost left the ,agamemnon under bare poles1 though still surging through the water at speed4 ,this gust passed1 the usual gale set in1 now blowing steadily from the southwest1 and taking us more and more out of our course each minute4 ,every hour the storm got worse1 till toward five in the afternoon1 when it seemed at its height--and raged with such a violence of wind and sea--that matters really looked desperate even for such a strong and large ship as the ,agamemnon4 ,the upper-deck coil had strained her decks throughout excessively1 and though this mass in theory was supposed to prevent her rolling so quickly and heavily as she would have done without it1 yet still she heeled over to such an alarming extent that fears of the coil itself shifting again occupied every mind1 and it was accordingly strengthened with additional shores bolted down to the deck4 ,the space occupied by the main coil below had deprived the ,agamemnon of several of her coal-bunkers1 and in order to make up for this deficiency1 as well as to endeavor to counterbalance the immense mass which weighed her down by the head1 a large quantity of coals had been stowed on the deck aft4 ,on each side of her main deck were thirty-five tons1 secured in a mass1 while on the lower deck ninety tons were stowed away in the same manner4 ,the precautions taken to secure these huge masses also required attention as the great ship surged from side to side4 ,but these coals seemed secure1 and were so1 in fact1 unless the vessel should almost capsize--an unpleasant alternative which no one certainly anticipated then4 ,everything1 therefore1 was made snug1 as sailors call it1 though their efforts by no means resulted in the comfort which might have been expected from the term4 ,the night1 however1 passed over without any mischance beyond the smashing of all things incautiously left loose and capable of rolling1 and one or two attempts which the ,agamemnon made in the middle watch to turn bottom upward4 ,in all other matters it was the mere ditto of ,sunday night1 except1 perhaps1 a little worse1 and certainly much more wet below4 ,tuesday the gale continued with almost unabated force1 though the barometer had risen to #bi4cj1 and there was sufficient sun to take a clear observation1 which showed our distance from the rendezvous to be #efc miles4 ,during this afternoon the ,niagara joined company1 and the wind going more ahead1 the ,agamemnon took to violent pitching1 plunging steadily into the trough of the sea as if she meant to break her back and lay the ,atlantic cable in a heap4 ,this change in her motion strained and taxed every inch of timber near the coils to the very utmost4 ,it was curious to see how they worked and bent as the ,agamemnon went at everything she met head first4 ,one time she pitched so heavily as to break one of the main beams of the lower deck1 which had to be shored with screw-jacks forthwith4 ,saturday1 the #aith of ,june1 things looked a little better4 ,the barometer seemed inclined to go up and the sea to go down2 and for the first time that morning since the gale began1 some six days previous1 the decks could be walked with tolerable comfort and security4 ,but alas6 appearances are as deceitful in the ,atlantic as elsewhere2 and during a comparative calm that afternoon the glass fell lower1 while a thin line of black haze to windward seemed to grow up into the sky1 until it covered the heavens with a somber darkness1 and warned us that1 after all1 the worst was yet to come4 ,there was much heavy rain that evening1 and then the wind began1 not violently1 nor in gusts1 but with a steadily increasing force1 as if the gale was determined to do its work slowly but do it well4 ,the sea was ready-built to hand1 as sailors say1 so at first the storm did little more than urge on the ponderous masses of water with redoubled force1 and fill the air with the foam and spray it tore from their rugged crests4 ,by and by1 however1 it grew more dangerous1 and ,captain ,preedy himself remained on deck throughout the middle watch1 for the wind was hourly getting worse and worse1 and the ,agamemnon1 rolling thirty degrees each way1 was straining to a dangerous extent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,h4,m4,s4 ,agamemnon in a ,storm4 ,at #d ,a4,m4 sail was shortened to close-reefer fore and main topsails and reefed foresail--a long and tedious job1 for the wind so roared and howled and the hiss of the boiling sea was so deafening that words of command were useless1 and the men aloft1 holding on with all their might to the yards as the ship rolled over and over almost to the water1 were quite incapable of struggling with the masses of wet canvas that flapped and plunged as if men and yards and everything were going away together4 ,the ship was almost as wet inside as out1 and so things wore on till eight or nine o'clock1 everything getting adrift and being smashed1 and every one on board jamming themselves up in corners or holding on to beams to prevent their going adrift likewise4 ,at ten o'clock the ,agamemnon was rolling and laboring fearfully1 with the sky getting darker1 and both wind and sea increasing every minute4 ,at about half-past ten o'clock three or four gigantic waves were seen approaching the ship1 coming slowly on through the mist nearer and nearer1 rolling on like hills of green water1 with a crown of foam that seemed to double their height4 ,the ,agamemnon rose heavily to the first1 and then went down quickly into the deep trough of the sea1 falling over as she did so1 so as almost to capsize completely on the port side4 ,there was a fearful crashing as she lay over this way1 for everything broke adrift1 whether secured or not1 and the uproar and confusion were terrific for a minute1 then back she came again on the starboard beam in the same manner1 only quicker1 and still deeper than before4 ,again there was the same noise and crashing1 and the officers in the ward-room1 who knew the danger of the ship1 struggled to their feet and opened the door leading to the main deck4 ,here1 for an instant1 the scene almost defies description4 ,amid loud shouts and efforts to save themselves1 a confused mass of sailors1 boys1 and marines1 with deck-buckets1 ropes1 ladders1 and everything that could get loose1 and which had fallen back again to the port side1 were being hurled again in a mass across the ship to starboard4 ,dimly1 and only for an instant1 could this be seen1 with groups of men clinging to the beams with all their might1 with a mass of water1 which had forced its way in through ports and decks1 surging about1 and then1 with a tremendous crash1 as the ship fell still deeper over1 the coals stowed on the main deck broke loose1 and smashing everything before them1 went over among the rest to leeward4 ,the coal-dust hid everything on the main deck in an instant1 but the crashing could still be heard going on in all directions1 as the lumps and sacks of coal1 with stanchions1 ladders1 and mess-tins1 went leaping about the decks1 pouring down the hatchways1 and crashing through the glass skylights into the engine-room below4 ,still it was not done1 and1 surging again over another tremendous wave1 the ,agamemnon dropped down still more to port1 and the coals on the starboard side of the lower deck gave way also1 and carried everything before them4 ,matters now became serious1 for it was evident that two or three more lurches and the masts would go like reeds1 while half the crew might be maimed or killed below4 ,captain ,preedy was already on the poop1 with ,lieutenant ,gibson1 and it was ,hands1 wear ship1 at once1 while ,mr4 ,brown1 the indefatigable chief engineer1 was ordered to get up steam immediately4 ,the crew gained the deck with difficulty1 and not till after a lapse of some minutes1 for all the ladders had been broken away2 the men were grimed with coal-dust1 and many bore still more serious marks upon their faces of how they had been knocked about below4 ,there was some confusion at first1 for the storm was fearful4 ,the officers were quite inaudible1 and a wild1 dangerous sea1 running mountains high1 heeled the great ship backward and forward1 so that the crew were unable to keep their feet for an instant1 and in some cases were thrown across the decks in a fearful manner4 ,two marines went with a rush head foremost into the paying-out machine1 as if they meant to butt it over the side1 yet1 strange to say1 neither the men nor the machine suffered4 ,what made matters worse1 the ship's barge1 though lashed down to the deck1 had partly broken loose1 and dropping from side to side as the vessel lurched1 it threatened to crush any who ventured to pass it4 ,the regular discipline of the ship1 however1 soon prevailed1 and the crew set to work to wear round the ship on the starboard tack1 while ,lieutenants ,robinson and ,murray went below to see after those who had been hurt1 and about the number of whom extravagant rumors prevailed among the men4 ,there were1 however1 unfortunately but too many4 ,the marine sentry outside the ward-room door on the main deck had not had time to escape1 and was completely buried under the coals4 ,some time elapsed before he could be got out1 for one of the beams used to shore up the sacks1 which had crushed his arm very badly1 still lay across the mangled limb1 jamming it in such a manner that it was found impossible to remove it without risking the man's life4 ,saws1 therefore1 had to be sent for1 and the timber sawn away before the poor fellow could be extricated4 ,another marine on the lower deck endeavored to save himself by catching hold of what seemed a ledge in the planks1 but1 unfortunately1 it was only caused by the beams straining apart1 and1 of course1 as the ,agamemnon righted they closed again1 and crushed his fingers flat4 ,one of the assistant engineers was also buried among the coals on the lower deck1 and sustained some severe internal injuries4 ,the lurch of the ship was calculated at forty-five degrees each way for five times in rapid succession4 ,the galley-coppers were only half filled with soup2 nevertheless1 it nearly all poured out1 and scalded some of the poor fellows who were extended on the decks1 holding on to anything in reach4 ,these1 with a dislocation1 were the chief casualties1 but there were others of bruises and contusions1 more or less severe1 and1 of course1 a long list of escapes more marvelous than any injury4 ,one poor fellow went head first from the main deck into the hold without being hurt1 and one on the orlop-deck was chevied about for some ten minutes by three large casks of oil which had got adrift1 and any one of which would have flattened him like a pancake had it overtaken him4 ,as soon as the ,agamemnon had gone round on the other tack the ,niagara wore also1 and bore down as if to render assistance4 ,she had witnessed our danger1 and1 as we afterward learned1 imagined that the upper-deck coil had broken loose1 and that we were sinking4 ,things1 however1 were not so bad as that1 though they were bad enough1 heaven knows1 for everything seemed to go wrong that day4 ,the upper-deck coil had strained the ship to the very utmost1 but still held on fast4 ,but not so the coil in the main hold1 which had begun to get adrift1 and the top kept working and shifting over from side to side1 as the ship lurched1 until some forty or fifty miles were in a hopeless state of tangle1 resembling nothing so much as a cargo of live eels1 and there was every prospect of the tangle spreading deeper and deeper as the bad weather continued4 ,going round upon the starboard tack had eased the ship to a certain extent1 but with such a wind and such a sea--both of which were getting worse than better--it was impossible to effect much for the ,agamemnon's relief1 and so by twelve o'clock she was rolling almost as badly as ever4 ,the crew1 who had been at work since nearly four in the morning1 were set to clear up the decks from the masses of coal that covered them2 and while this was going forward a heavy sea struck the stern1 and smashed the large iron guard-frame which had been fixed there to prevent the cable fouling the screw in paying out4 ,now that one side had broken1 it was expected every moment that other parts would go1 and the pieces hanging down either smash the screw or foul the rudder-post4 ,it is not overestimating the danger to say that had the latter accident occurred in such a sea1 and with a vessel so overladen the chances would have been sadly against the ,agamemnon ever appearing at the rendezvous4 ,fortunately it was found possible to secure the broken frame temporarily with hawsers so as to prevent it dropping farther1 though nothing could hinder the fractured end from striking against the vessel's side with such force as to lead to serious apprehensions that it would establish a dangerous leak under water4 ,it was near three in the afternoon before this was quite secured1 the gale still continuing1 and the sea running even worse4 ,the condition of the masts1 too1 at this time was a source of much anxiety both to ,captain ,preedy and ,mr4 ,moriarty1 the master4 ,the heavy rolling had strained and slackened the wire shrouds to such an extent that they had become perfectly useless as supports4 ,the lower masts bent visibly at every roll1 and once or twice it seemed as if they must go by the board4 ,unfortunately nothing whatever could be done to relieve this strain by sending down any of the upper spars1 since it was only her masts which prevented the ship rolling still more and quicker2 and so every one knew that if once they were carried away it might soon be all over with the ship1 as then the deck coil could not help going after them4 ,so there was nothing for it but to watch in anxious silence the way they bent and strained1 and trust in ,providence for the result4 ,about six in the evening it was thought better to wear ship again and stand for the rendezvous under easy steam1 and her head accordingly was put about and once more faced the storm4 ,as she went round she1 of course1 fell into the trough of the sea again1 and rolled so awfully as to break her waste-steampipe1 filling her engine-room with steam1 and depriving her of the services of one boiler when it was sorely needed4 ,the sun set upon as wild and wicked a night as ever taxed the courage and coolness of a sailor4 ,there were1 of course1 men on board who were familiar with gales and storms in all parts of the world2 and there were some who had witnessed the tremendous hurricane which swept the ,black ,sea on the memorable #adth of ,november1 when scores of vessels were lost and seamen perished by the thousands4 ,but of all on board none had ever seen a fiercer or more dangerous sea than raged throughout that night and the following morning1 tossing the ,agamemnon from side to side like a mere plaything among the waters4 ,the night was thick and very dark1 the low black clouds almost hemming the vessel in2 now and then a fiercer blast than usual drove the great masses slowly aside and showed the moon1 a dim1 greasy blotch upon the sky1 with the ocean1 white as driven snow1 boiling and seething like a caldron4 ,but these were only glimpses1 which were soon lost1 and again it was all darkness1 through which the waves1 suddenly upheaving1 rushed upon the ship as though they must overwhelm it1 and dealing it one staggering blow1 went hissing and surging past into the darkness again4 ,the grandeur of the scene was almost lost in its dangers and terrors1 for of all the many forms in which death approaches man there is none so easy1 in fact1 so terrific in appearance1 as death by shipwreck4 ,sleeping was impossible that night on board the ,agamemnon4 ,even those in cots were thrown out1 from their striking against the vessel's side as she pitched4 ,the berths of wood fixed athwartships in the cabins on the main deck had worked to pieces4 ,chairs and tables were broken1 chests of drawers capsized1 and a little surf was running over the floors of the cabins themselves1 pouring miniature seas into portmanteaus1 and breaking over carpetbags of clean linen4 ,fast as it flowed off by the scuppers it came in faster by the hawse-holes and ports1 while the beams and knees strained with a doleful noise1 as though it was impossible they could hold together much longer1 and on the whole it was as miserable and even anxious a night as ever was passed on board any line-of-battle ship in her ,majesty's service4 ,captain ,preedy never left the poop all night1 though it was hard work to remain there1 even holding on to the poop-rail with both hands4 ,morning brought no change1 save that the storm was as fierce as ever1 and though the sea could not be higher or wilder1 yet the additional amount of broken water made it still more dangerous to the ship4 ,very dimly1 and only now and then through the thick scud1 the ,niagara could be seen--one moment on a monstrous hill of water1 and the next quite lost to view1 as the ,agamemnon went down between the waves4 ,but even these glimpses showed us that our transatlantic consort was plunging heavily1 shipping seas1 and evidently having a bad time of it1 though she got through it better than the ,agamemnon1 as1 of course1 she could1 having only the same load1 though #b1jjj tons larger4 ,suddenly it came on darker and thicker1 and we lost sight of her in the thick spray1 and had only ourselves to look after4 ,this was quite enough1 for every minute made matters worse1 and the aspect of affairs began to excite most serious misgivings in the minds of those in charge4 ,the ,agamemnon is one of the finest line-of-battle ships in the whole navy1 but in such a storm1 and so heavily overladen1 what could she do but make bad weather worse1 and strain and labor and fall into the trough of the sea1 as if she were going down head foremost4 ,three or four hours more and the vessel had borne all she could bear with safety4 ,the masts were rapidly getting worse1 the deck coil worked more and more with each tremendous plunge1 and1 even if both these held1 it was evident that the ship itself would soon strain to pieces if the weather continued so4 ,the sea1 forcing its way through ports and hawse-holes1 had accumulated on the lower deck to such an extent that it flooded the stoke-hole1 so that the men could scarcely remain at their posts4 ,everything went smashing and rolling about4 ,one plunge put all the electrical instruments hors de combat at a blow1 and staved some barrels of strong solution of sulphate of copper1 which went cruising about1 turning all it touched to a light pea-green4 ,by and by she began to ship seas4 ,water came down the ventilators near the funnel into the engine-room4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,the ,agamemnon ,storm3 ,coals ,adrift4 ,then a tremendous sea struck her forward1 drenching those on deck1 and leaving them up to their knees in water1 and the least versed on board could see that things were fast going to the bad unless a change took place in the weather or the condition of the ship4 ,of the first there seemed little chance4 ,the weather certainly showed no disposition to clear--on the contrary1 livid-looking black clouds seemed to be closing round the vessel faster and faster than ever4 ,for the relief of the ship three courses were open to ,captain ,preedy--one1 to wear round and try her on the starboard tack1 as he had been compelled to do the day before2 another1 to fairly run for it before the wind2 and1 third and last1 to endeavor to lighten the vessel by getting some of the cable overboard4 ,of course the latter would not have been thought of till the first two had been tried and failed--in fact1 not till it was evident that nothing else could save the ship4 ,against wearing round there was the danger of her again falling off into the trough of the sea1 losing her masts1 shifting her upper-deck coil1 and so finding her way to the bottom in ten minutes1 while to attempt running before the storm with such a sea on was to risk her stern being stove in1 and a hundred tons of water added to her burden with each wave that came up afterward1 till the poor ,agamemnon went under them all for ever4 ,a little after ten o'clock on ,monday1 the #bast1 the aspect of affairs was so alarming that ,captain ,preedy resolved at all risks to try wearing the ship round on the other tack4 ,it was hard enough to make the words of command audible1 but to execute them seemed almost impossible4 ,the ship's head went round enough to leave her broadside on to the seas1 and then for a time it seemed as if nothing could be done4 ,all the rolls which she had ever given on the previous day seemed mere trifles compared with her performances then4 ,of more than #bjj men on deck1 at least #aej were thrown down1 and falling over from side to side in heaps1 while others1 holding on to the ropes1 swung to and fro with every heave4 ,it really appeared as if the last hour of the stout ship had come1 and to this minute it seems almost miraculous that her masts held on4 ,each time she fell over her main chains went deep under water4 ,the lower decks were flooded1 and those above could hear by the fearful crashing--audible amid the hoarse roar of the storm--that the coals had got loose again below1 and had broken into the engine-room1 and were carrying all before them4 ,during these rolls the main-deck coil shifted over to such a degree as quite to envelop four men1 who1 sitting on the top1 were trying to wedge it down with beams4 ,one of them was so much jammed by the mass which came over him that he was seriously contused4 ,he had to be removed to the sick-bay1 making up the sick-list to forty-five1 of which ten were from injuries caused by the rolling of the ship1 and very many of the rest from continual fatigue and exposure during the gale4 ,once round on the starboard tack1 and it was seen in an instant that the ship was in no degree relieved by the change4 ,another heavy sea struck her forward1 sweeping clean over the fore part of the vessel and carrying away the woodwork and platforms which had been placed there round the machinery for underrunning4 ,this and a few more plunges were quite sufficient to settle the matter1 and at last1 reluctantly1 ,captain ,preedy succumbed to the storm he could neither conquer nor contend against4 ,full steam was got on1 and with a foresail and a fore-topsail to lift her head the ,agamemnon ran before the storm1 rolling and tumbling over the huge waves at a tremendous pace4 ,it was well for all that the wind gave this much way on her1 or her stern would infallibly have been stove in4 ,as it was1 a wave partly struck her on the starboard quarter1 smashing the quarter-galley and ward-room windows on that side1 and sending such a sea into the ward-room itself as to literally wash two officers off a sofa on which they were resting on that side of the ship4 ,this was a kind of parting blow2 for the glass began to rise1 and the storm was evidently beginning to moderate1 and although the sea still ran as high as ever there was less broken water1 and altogether1 toward midday1 affairs assumed a better and more cheerful aspect4 ,the ward-room that afternoon was a study for an artist1 with its windows halfdarkened and smashed1 the sea-water still slushing about in odd corners1 with everything that was capable of being broken strewn over the floor in pieces1 and some fifteen or twenty officers1 seated amid the ruins1 holding on to the deck or table with one hand1 while with the other they contended at a disadvantage with a tough meal--the first which most had eaten for twenty-four hours4 ,little sleep had been indulged in though much lolloping about4 ,those1 however1 who prepared themselves for a night's rest in their berths rather than at the ocean bottom1 had great difficulty in finding their day-garments of a morning4 ,the boots especially went astray1 and got so hopelessly mixed that the man who could show up with both pairs of his own was1 indeed1 a man to be congratulated4 ,but all things have an end1 and this long gale--of over a week's duration--at last blew itself out1 and the weary ocean rocked itself to rest4 ,throughout the whole of ,monday the ,agamemnon ran before the wind1 which moderated so much that at #d ,a4,m4 on ,tuesday her head was again put about1 and for the second time she commenced beating up for the rendezvous1 then some #bjj miles farther from us than when the storm was at its height on ,sunday morning4 ,so little was gained against this wind that ,friday the #beth--sixteen days after leaving ,plymouth--still found us some fifty miles from the rendezvous4 ,so it was determined to get up steam and run down on it at once4 ,as we approached the place of meeting the angry sea went down4 ,the ,valorous hove in sight at noon2 in the afternoon the ,niagara came in from the north2 and at even the ,gorgon from the south3 and then1 almost for the first time since starting1 the squadron was reunited near the spot where the great work was to have commenced fifteen days previously--as tranquil in the middle of the ,atlantic as if in ,plymouth ,sound4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,renewed ,,effort ,that evening the four vessels lay together side by side1 and there was such a stillness in the sea and air as would have seemed remarkable even on an inland lake4 ,on the ,atlantic1 and after what had been so lately experienced1 it seemed almost unnatural4 ,the boats were out1 and the officers were passing from ship to ship1 telling their experiences of the voyage1 and forming plans for the morrow4 ,the captain of the ,agamemnon had a sorry tale to tell4 ,the strain to which she had been subjected had opened her waterways4#cj ,then1 again1 one of the crew1 a marine1 had been literally frightened out of his wits1 and remained crazy for some days4 ,one man had his arm fractured in two places1 and another his leg broken4 ,the ,niagara1 on the other hand1 had weathered the gale splendidly1 though it had been a hard and anxious time with her1 as well as with the smaller craft4 ,she had lost her jib-boom1 and the buoys she carried for suspending the cable had been washed from her sides--no man knew where4 ,after taking stock of things generally1 a start was made to repair the various damages2 but the shifting of the upper part of the main coil on the ,agamemnon into a hopeless tangle entailed recoiling a considerable length of cable1 a no light task1 occupying several days4 ,on the morning of ,saturday1 ,june #bfth1 all the preparations were completed for making the splice and once more commencing the great undertaking4 ,in the words of ,the ,times representative3 ,the end of the ,niagara's cable was sent on board the ,agamemnon1 the splice was made1 a bent sixpence put in for luck1 and at #b4ej ,greenwich time it was slowly lowered over the side and disappeared forever4 ,the weather was cold and foggy1 with a stiff breeze and dismal sort of sleet1 and as there was no cheering or manifestation of enthusiasm of any kind1 the whole ceremony had a most funereal effect1 and seemed as solemn as if we were burying a marine1 or some other mortuary task of the kind equally cheerful and enlivening4 ,as it turned out1 however1 it was just as well that no display took place1 as every one would have looked uncommonly silly when the same operation came to be repeated1 as it had to be1 an hour or so afterward4 ,it is needless making a long story longer1 so ,i may state at once that when each ship had paid out three miles or so1 and they were getting well apart1 the cable1 which had been allowed to run too slack1 broke on board the ,niagara owing to its overriding and getting off the pulley leading on to the machine4 ,the break was of course known instantly1 both vessels put about and returned1 a fresh splice was made1 and again lowered over at half past seven4 ,according to arrangement1 #aej fathoms were veered out from each ship1 and then all stood away on their course1 at first at two miles an hour1 and afterward at four4 ,everything then went well1 the machine working beautifully1 at thirty-two revolutions per minute1 the screw at twenty-six1 the cable running out easily at five and five and a half miles an hour1 the ship going four4 ,the greatest strain upon the dynamometer was #b1ejj lbs41 and this was only for a few minutes1 the average giving only #b1jjj lbs4 and #b1ajj lbs4 ,at midnight twenty-one nautical miles had been paid out1 and the angle of the cable with the horizon had been reduced considerably4 ,at about half past three forty miles had gone1 and nothing could be more perfect and regular than the working of everything1 when suddenly1 at #c4dj ,a4,m4 on ,sunday1 the #bgth1 ,professor ,thomson came on deck and reported a total break of continuity2 that the cable1 in fact1 had parted1 and as was believed at the time1 from the ,niagara4 ,the ,agamemnon was instantly stopped and the brakes applied to the machinery1 in order that the cable paid out might be severed from the mass in the hold1 and so enable ,professor ,thomson to discover by electrical tests at about what distance from the ship the fracture had taken place4#ca ,unfortunately1 however1 there was a strong breeze on at the time1 with rather a heavy swell1 which told severely upon the cable1 and before any means could be taken to ease entirely the motion on the ship1 it parted a few fathoms below the stern-wheel1 the dynamometer indicating a strain of nearly #d1jjj lbs4 ,in another instant a gun and a blue light warned the ,valorous of what had happened1 and roused all on board the ,agamemnon to a knowledge that the machinery was silent1 and that the first part of the ,atlantic cable had been laid and effectually lost4 ,the great length of cable on board both ships allowed a large margin for such mishaps as these1 and the arrangement made before leaving ,england was that the splices might be renewed and the work recommenced till each ship had lost #bej miles of wire1 after which they were to discontinue their efforts and return to ,queenstown4 ,accordingly1 after the breakage on ,sunday morning1 the ships' heads were put about1 and for the fourth time the ,agamemnon again began the weary work of beating up against the wind for that everlasting rendezvous which we seemed destined to be always seeking4 ,apart from the regret with which all regarded the loss of the cable1 there were other reasons for not wishing the cruise to be thus indefinitely prolonged1 since there had been a break in the continuity of the fresh provisions2 and for some days previously in the ward-room the pices de rsistance had been inflammatory-looking morceaux1 salted to an astonishing pitch1 and otherwise uneatable1 for it was beef which had been kept three years beyond its warranty for soundness1 and to which all were then reduced4 ,it was hard work beating up against the wind2 so hard1 indeed1 that it was not till the noon of ,monday1 the #bhth1 that we again met the ,niagara2 and while all were waiting with impatience for her explanation of how she broke the cable1 she electrified every one by running up the interrogatory1 ,how did the cable part8 ,this was astounding4 ,as soon as the boats could be lowered1 ,mr4 ,cyrus ,field1 with the electricians from the ,niagara1 came on board1 and a comparison of logs showed the painful and mysterious fact that at the same second of time each vessel discovered that a total fracture had taken place at a distance of certainly not less than ten miles from each ship1 as well as could be judged1 at the bottom of the ocean4 ,the logs on both sides were so clear as to the minute of time1 and as to the electrical tests showing not merely leakage or defective insulations of the wire1 but a total fracture1 that there was no room left on which to rest a moment's doubt of the certainty of this most disheartening fact4 ,that of all the many mishaps connected with the ,atlantic telegraph1 this was the worst and most disheartening1 since it proved that after all that human skill and science can effect to lay the wire down with safety has been accomplished1 there may be some fatal obstacles to success at the bottom of the ocean which can never be guarded against1 for even the nature of the peril must always remain as secret and unknown as the depths in which it is to be encountered4 ,was the bottom covered with a soft coating of ooze1 in which it had been said the cable might rest undisturbed for years as on a bed of down8 or were there1 after all1 sharp-pointed rocks lying on that supposed plateau of ,maury1 ,berryman1 and ,dayman8 ,these were the questions that some of those on board were asking4 ,but there was no use in further conjecture or in repining over what had already happened4 ,though the prospect of success appeared to be considerably impaired it was generally considered that there was but one course left1 and that was to splice again and make another--and what was fondly hoped would be a final--attempt4 ,accordingly no time was lost in making the third splice1 which was lowered over into #b1jjj fathoms of water at seven o'clock by ship's time the same night4 ,before steaming away1 as the ,agamemnon was now getting very short of coal1 and the two vessels had some #ajj miles of surplus cable between them1 it was agreed that if the wire parted again before the ships had gone each #ajj miles from the rendezvous they were to return and make another splice2 and as the ,agamemnon was to sail back1 the ,niagara1 it was decided1 was to wait eight days for her appearance4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the #ajj miles had been exceeded1 the ships were not to return1 but each make the best of its way to ,queenstown4 ,with this understanding the ships again parted1 and1 with the wire dropping steadily down between them1 the ,niagara and ,agamemnon steamed away1 and were soon lost in the cold1 raw fog1 which had hung over the rendezvous ever since the operations had commenced4 ,the cable1 as before1 paid out beautifully1 and nothing could have been more regular and more easy than the working of every part of the apparatus4 ,at first the ship's speed was only two knots1 the cable going three and three and a half with a strain of #a1ejj lbs41 the horizontal angle averaging as low as seven and the vertical about sixteen4 ,by and by1 however1 the speed was increased to four knots1 the cable going five1 at a strain of #b1jjj lbs41 and an angle of from twelve to fifteen4 ,at this rate it was kept with trifling variations throughout the whole of ,monday night1 and neither ,mr4 ,bright1 ,mr4 ,canning1 nor ,mr4 ,clifford ever quitted the machines for an instant4 ,toward the middle of the night1 while the rate of the ship continued the same1 the speed at which the cable paid out slackened nearly a knot1 while the dynamometer indicated as low as #a1cjj lbs4 ,this change could only be accounted for on the supposition that the water had shallowed to a considerable extent1 and that the vessel was in fact passing over some submarine ,ben ,nevis or ,skiddaw4 ,after an interval of about an hour the strain and rate of progress of the cable again increased1 while the increase of the vertical angle seemed to indicate that the wire was sinking down the side of a declivity4 ,beyond this there was no variation throughout ,monday night1 or indeed through ,tuesday4 ,the upper-deck coil1 which had weighed so heavily upon the ship--and still more heavily upon the minds of all during the past storms--was fast disappearing1 and by twelve at midday on ,tuesday1 the #bith1 seventy-six miles had been paid out to something like sixty miles' progress of the ship4 ,warned by repeated failures1 many of those on board scarcely dared hope for success4 ,still the spirits of all rose as the distance widened between the ships4 ,things were going in splendid style--in such splendid style that stock had gone up nearly #ajj per cent4 ,those who had leisure for sleep were able to dream about cable-laying and the terrible effects of too great a strain4 ,the first question which such as these ask on awakening is about the cable1 and on being informed that it is all right1 satisfaction ensues until the appearance of breakfast1 when it is presumed this feeling is intensified4 ,for those who do not derive any particular pleasure from the mere asking of questions1 the harmonious music made by the paying-out machine during its revolutions supplies the information4 ,then again1 the electrical continuity--after all1 the most important item--was perfect1 and the electricians reported that the signals passing between the ships were eminently satisfactory4 ,the door of the testing-room is almost always shut1 and the electricians pursue their work undisturbed2 but it is impossible to exclude that spirit of scientific inquiry which will satiate its thirst for information even through a keyhole4 ,further1 the weather was all that could be wished for4 ,indeed1 had the poet who was so anxious for life on the ocean wave and a home on the rolling deep been aboard1 he would have been absolutely happy1 and perhaps even more desirous for a fixed habitation4 ,the only cause that warranted anxiety was that it was evident the upper-deck coil would be finished by about eleven o'clock at night1 when the men would have to pass along in darkness the great loop which formed the communication between that and the coil in the main hold4 ,this was most unfortunate2 but the operation had been successfully performed in daylight during the experimental trip in the ,bay of ,biscay1 and every precaution was now taken that no accident should occur4 ,at nine o'clock by ship's time1 when #adf miles had been paid out and about #aab miles' distance from the rendezvous accomplished1 the last flake but one of the upper-deck coil came in turn to be used4 ,in order to make it easier in passing to the main coil the revolutions of the screw were reduced gradually1 by two revolutions at a time from thirty to twenty1 while the paying-out machine went slowly from thirty-six to twenty-two4 ,at this rate the vessel going three knots and the cable three and a half1 the operation was continued with perfect regularity1 the dynamometer indicating a strain of #b1ajj lbs4 ,suddenly without an instant's warning1 or the occurrence of any single incident that could account for it1 the cable parted when subjected to a strain of less than a ton4#cb ,the gun that again told the ,valorous of this fatal mishap brought all on board the ,agamemnon rushing to the deck1 for none could believe the rumor that had spread like wildfire about the ship4 ,but there stood the machinery1 silent and motionless1 while the fractured end of the wire hung over the stern-wheel1 swinging loosely to and fro4 ,it seemed almost impossible to realize the fact that an accident so instantaneous and irremediable should have occurred1 and at a time when all seemed to be going on so well4 ,of course a variety of ingenious suggestions were soon afloat1 showing most satisfactorily how the cable must and ought to have broken4 ,there was a regular gloom that night on board the ,agamemnon1 for from first to last the success of the expedition had been uppermost in the thoughts of all1 and all had labored for it early and late1 contending with every danger and overcoming every obstacle and disaster that had marked each day1 with an earnestness and devotion of purpose that is really beyond all praise4 ,immediately after the mishap1 a brief consultation was held by those in charge on board the ,agamemnon1 and as it was shown that they had only exceeded the distance from the rendezvous by fourteen miles1 and that there was still more cable on board the two vessels than the amount with which the original expedition last year was commenced1 it was determined to try for another chance and return to the rendezvous1 sailing there1 of course2 for ,mr4 ,brown1 the chief engineer1 as ultrazealous in the cause as a board of directors1 guarded the coal-bunkers like a very dragon1 lest1 if in coming to paying out the cable again1 steam should run short1 thereby endangering the success of the whole undertaking4 ,for the fifth time1 therefore1 the ,agamemnon's head went about1 and after twenty days at sea she again began beating up against the wind for the rendezvous to try1 if possible1 to recommence her labors4 ,the following day the wind was blowing from the southwest1 with mist and rain1 and ,thursday1 ,july #ast1 gave every one the most unfavorable opinion of ,july weather in the ,atlantic4 ,the wind and sea were both high--the wet fog so dense that one could scarcely see the mastheads1 while the damp cold was really biting4 ,altogether it was an atmosphere of which a ,londoner would have been ashamed even in ,november4 ,later in the day a heavy sea got on2 the wind increased without dissipating the fog1 and it was double-reefed topsails and pitching and rolling as before4 ,however1 the upper-deck coil of #bej tons being gone1 the ,agamemnon was as buoyant as a lifeboat1 and no one cared how much she took to kicking about1 though the cold wet fog was a miserable nuisance1 penetrating everywhere and making the ship as wet inside as out4 ,what made the matter worse was that in such weather there seemed no chance of meeting the ,niagara unless she ran into us1 when cable-laying would have gone on wholesale4 ,in order to avoid such a contretemps1 and also to inform the ,valorous of our whereabouts1 guns were fired1 fog-bells rung1 and the bugler stationed forward to warn the other vessels of our vicinity4 ,friday was the ditto of ,thursday and ,saturday1 worse than both together1 for it almost blew a gale and there was a heavy sea on4 ,on ,sunday1 the #dth1 it cleared1 and the ,agamemnon for the first time during the whole cruise1 reached the actual rendezvous and fell in with the ,valorous1 which had been there since ,friday1 the #b;d1 but the fog must have been even thicker there than elsewhere1 for she had scarcely seen herself1 much less anything else till ,sunday4 ,during the remainder of that day and ,monday1 when the weather was very clear1 both ships cruised over the place of meeting1 but neither the ,niagara nor ,gorgon was there1 though day and night the lookout for them was constant and incessant4 ,it was evident then that the ,niagara had rigidly1 but most unfortunately1 adhered to the mere letter of the agreement regarding the #ajj miles1 and after the last fracture had at once turned back for ,queenstown4 ,on ,tuesday1 the #fth1 therefore1 as the dense fogs and winds set in again it was agreed between the ,valorous and ,agamemnon to return once more to the rendezvous4 ,but as usual the fog was so thick that the whole ,american navy might have been cruising there unobserved2 so the search was given up1 and at eight o'clock that night the ship's head was turned for ,cork1 and1 under all sail1 the ,agamemnon at last stood homeward4 ,the voyage home was made with ease and swiftness considering the lightness of the wind1 the trim of the ship1 and that she only steamed three days1 and at midday on ,tuesday1 ,july #abth1 the ,agamemnon cast anchor in ,queenstown harbor1 having met with more dangerous weather1 and encountered more mishaps than often falls to the lot of any ship in a cruise of thirty-three days4 ,thus ends the most arduous and dangerous expedition that had ever been experienced in connection with cable-work4 ,it1 at any rate1 had the advantage of supplying the public with some exciting reading in the columns of ,the ,times1 whose graphic descriptions were much appreciated4 ,the ,niagara had reached ,queenstown as far back as ,july #eth4 ,having found that they had run out #aji miles when continuity ceased1 those in charge considered that1 in order to carry out their instructions1 they should return at once to the above port1 which they did4 ,on the two ships meeting at ,queenstown1 discussion immediately took place 7#a7 as to the cause of the cessation of continuity2 and 7#b7 regarding the course taken by the ,niagara in returning home so promptly4 ,the non-arrival of the ,agamemnon till nearly a week later had been the cause of much alarm regarding her safety4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,finis ,,coronat ,,opus ,renewed ,stock-,taking--,the ,last ,start--,successful ,termination--,general ,surprise and ,applause ,the sad tale of disaster commenced to spread abroad immediately on the ,niagara's arrival in ,queenstown2 and when ,mr4 ,field hastened to ,london to meet the other directors of the company1 he found that the news had not only preceded him1 but had already had its effect4 ,the ,board was soon called together4 ,it met as a council of war summoned after a terrific defeat to decide whether to surrender or to try once more the chances of battle4 ,says ,field3 ,most of the directors looked blankly in one another's faces4 ,with some the feeling was one akin to despair4 ,it was thought by many that there was nothing left on which to found an expectation of future success1 or to encourage the expenditure of further capital upon an adventure so completely visionary4 ,the chairman 7,sir ,william ,brown71 while recommending entire abandonment of the undertaking1 suggested a sale of the cable remaining on board the ships1 and a distribution of the proceeds among the shareholders4 ,bolder counsels were1 however1 destined to prevail4 ,there were those who thought there was still a chance1 like ,robert ,bruce1 who1 after twelve battles and twelve defeats1 yet believed that a thirteenth might bring victory1 notwithstanding the prejudice held by some against that number4 ,the projectors made a firm stand for immediate action1 as did also ,professor ,thomson and ,mr4 ,curtis ,lampson1 who succeeded ,mr4 ,brooking as deputy chairman1 at the same time that ,mr4 ,stuart ,wortley took the chair in place of ,sir ,w4 ,brown1 on the latter's resignation4 ,these advocates of non-surrender succeeded at length in carrying an order for the immediate sailing of the expedition for a final effort4 ,it was this effort which proved to the world the possibility of telegraphing from one hemisphere to the other4 ,the order to advance having been given1 the ships forthwith took in coal and other necessaries4 ,when everything and everybody had been shipped1 the squadron left ,queenstown once more on ,saturday1 ,july #ag1 #aheh4 ,as the ships sailed out of the harbor of ,cork1 it was with none of the enthusiasm which attended their departure from ,valentia the year before1 or even the small amount excited when leaving ,plymouth on ,june #ajth4 ,nobody so much as cheered4 ,in fact1 their mission was by this time spoken of as a mad freak of stubborn ignorance1 and was regarded with mixed feelings of derision and pity4#cc ,the squadron was the same as on the last occasion4 ,it was agreed that the ships should not attempt to keep together this time1 but that each should make its way to the given latitude and longitude4 ,the staffs were composed and berthed as before4 ,moreover1 the expedition was again accompanied by the same literary talent4 ,the ,last ,start4--,let us now turn to ,the ,times narrative1 as given at the conclusion of this final expedition3 ,as the ships left the harbor there was apparently no notice taken of their departure by those on shore or in the vessels anchored around them4 ,every one seemed impressed with the conviction that we were engaged in a hopeless enterprise2 and the squadron seemed rather to have slunk away on some discreditable mission than to have sailed for the accomplishment of a grand national scheme4 ,it was just dawn when the ,agamemnon got clear of ,queenstown harbor1 but1 as the wind blew stiff from the southwest1 it was nearly ten o'clock before she rounded the ,old ,head of ,kinsale1 a distance of only a few miles4 ,the weather remained fine during the day2 and as the ,agamemnon skirted along the wild and rocky shore of the southwest coast of ,ireland1 those on board had an excellent opportunity of seeing the stupendous rocks which rise from the water in the most grotesque and fantastic shapes4 ,about five o'clock in the afternoon ,cape ,clear was passed1 and though the coast gradually edged away to the northward of our course1 yet it was nearly dark before we lost sight of the rocky mountains which surround ,bantry ,bay and the shores of the ,kenmare ,river4 ,by ,monday1 the #aith1 we had left the land far behind us1 and thence fell into the usual dull monotony of sea life4 ,of the voyage out there is little to be said4 ,it was not checkered by the excitement of continual storms or the tedium of perpetual calms1 but we had a sufficient admixture of both to render our passage to the rendezvous a very ordinary and uninteresting one4 ,for the first week the barometer remained unusually low1 and the numbers of those natural barometers--,mother ,carey's chickens--that kept in our wake kept us in continual expectation of heavy weather4 ,with very little breeze or wind1 the screw was got up and sail made1 so as to husband our coals as much as possible2 but it generally soon fell calm1 and obliged ,captain ,preedy reluctantly to get up steam again4 ,in consequence of continued delays and changes from steam to sail1 and from sail to steam again1 much fuel was expended1 and not more than eighty miles of distance made good each day4 ,on ,sunday1 the #beth1 however1 the weather changed1 and for several days in succession there was an uninterrupted calm4 ,the moon was just at the full1 and for several nights it shone with a brilliancy which turned the smooth sea into one silvery sheet1 which brought out the dark hull and white sails of the ship in strong contrast to the sea and sky as the vessel lay all but motionless on the water1 the very impersonation of solitude and repose4 ,indeed1 until the rendezvous was gained1 we had such a succession of beautiful sunrises1 gorgeous sunsets1 and tranquil moonlight nights as would have excited the most enthusiastic admiration of any one but persons situated as we were4 ,but by us such scenes were regarded only as the annoying indications of the calm which delayed our progress and wasted our coals4 ,to say that it was calm is not doing full justice to it2 there was not a breath in the air1 and the water was as smooth as a mill-pond4 ,even the wake of the ship scarce ruffled the surface2 and the gulls which had visited us almost daily1 and to which our benevolent liberality had dispensed innumerable pieces of pork1 threw an almost unbroken shadow upon it as they stooped in their flight to pick up the largest and most tempting4 ,it was generally remarked that cable-laying under such circumstances would be mere child's play4 ,in spite of the unusual calmness of the weather in general1 there were days on which our former unpleasant experiences of the ,atlantic were brought forcibly to our recollection1 when it blew hard and the sea ran sufficiently high to reproduce on a minor scale some of the discomforts of which the previous cruise had been so fruitful4 ,those days1 however1 were the exception and not the rule1 and served to show how much more pleasant was the inconvenient calm than the weather which had previously prevailed4 ,the precise point of the rendezvous--marked by a dot on the chart--was reached on the evening of ,wednesday1 ,july #bhth1 just eleven days after our departure from ,queenstown4 ,the voyage out was a lazy one4 ,now things are different1 and we no longer hear of the prospects of the heroes and heroines of the romances and novels which have formed the staple food for animated discussion for some days past4 ,the rest of the squadron were in sight at nightfall1 but at such a considerable distance that it was past ten o'clock on the morning of ,thursday the #bith1 before the ,agamemnon joined them4 ,some time previous to reaching the rendezvous the engineer-in-chief 7,mr4 ,bright7 went up in the shrouds on the lookout for the other ships1 and accordingly had to pay his footing--much to the amusement of his staff4 ,most of them being more advanced in years would not probably have been so equal to the task in an athletic sense4 ,after the ordinary laconic conversation which characterize code flag-signals1 we were as usual greeted by a perfect storm of questions as to what had kept us so much behind our time1 and learned that all had come to the conclusion that the ship must have got on shore on leaving ,queenstown harbor4 ,the ,niagara1 it appeared1 had arrived at the rendezvous on ,friday night1 the #bc;d1 the ,valorous on ,sunday1 the #beth1 and the ,gorgon on the afternoon of ,tuesday1 the #bgth4 ,the day was beautifully calm1 so no time was to be lost before making the splice in lat4 #eb #i ,n41 long4 #cb #bg ,w41 and soundings of #a1ejj fathoms4 ,boats were soon lowered from the attendant ships2 the two vessels made fast by a hawser1 and the ,niagara's end of the cable conveyed on board the ,agamemnon4 ,about half-past twelve o'clock the splice was effectually made1 but with a very different frame from the carefully rounded semi-circular boards which had been used to enclose the junctions on previous occasions4 ,it consisted merely of two straight boards hauled over the joint and splice1 with the iron rod and leaden plummet attached to the center4 ,in hoisting it out from the side of the ship1 however1 the leaden sinker broke short off and fell overboard4 ,there being no more convenient weight at hand a #cb-lb4 shot was fastened to the splice instead1 and the whole apparatus was quickly dropped into the sea without any formality--and1 indeed1 almost without a spectator--for those on board the ship had witnessed so many beginnings to the telegraphic line that it was evident they despaired of there ever being an end to it4 ,the stipulated #baj fathoms of cable having been paid out to allow the splice to sink well below the surface1 the signal to start was hoisted1 the hawser cut loose1 and the ,niagara and ,agamemnon start for the last time at about #a ,p4,m4 for their opposite destinations4 ,the announcement comes from the electrician's testing-room that the continuity is perfect1 and with this assurance the engineers go on more boldly with the work4 ,in point of fact the engineers may be said to be very much under the control of the electricians during paying out2 for if the latter report anything wrong with the cable1 the engineers are brought to a stand until they are allowed to go on with their operations by the announcement of the electricians that the insulation is perfect and the continuity all right4 ,the testing-room is where the subtle current which flows along the conductor is generated1 and where the mysterious apparatus by which electricity is weighed and measured--as a marketable commodity--is fitted up4 ,the system of testing and of transmitting and receiving signals through the cable from ship to ship during the process of paying out must now be briefly referred to4 ,it consists of an exchange of currents sent alternately every ten minutes by each ship4 ,these not only serve to give an accurate test of the continuity and insulation of the conducting-wire from end to end1 but also to give certain signals which it is desirable to send for information purposes4 ,for instance1 every ten miles of cable paid out is signalized from ship to ship1 as also the approach to land or momentary stoppage for splicing1 shifting to a fresh coil1 etc4 ,the current in its passage is made to pass through an electromagnetometer1#cd an instrument invented by ,mr4 ,whitehouse4 ,it is also conveyed in its passage at each end of the cable through the reflecting-galvanometer and speaking-instrument just invented by ,professor ,thomson2 and it is this latter which is so invaluable1 not only for the interchange of signals1 but also for testing purposes4 ,the deflections read on the galvanometer1 as also the degree of charge and discharge indicated by the magnetometer1 are carefully recorded4 ,thus1 if a defect of continuity or insulation occurs it is brought to light by comparison with those received before4 ,for the first three hours the ships proceeded very slowly1 paying out a great quantity of slack1 but after the expiration of this time the speed of the ,agamemnon was increased to about five knots1 the cable going at about six1 without indicating more than a few hundred pounds of strain upon the dynamometer4 ,shortly after four o'clock a very large whale was seen approaching the starboard bow at a great speed 7,fig4 #bh71 rolling and tossing the sea into foam all round2 and for the first time we felt a possibility for the supposition that our second mysterious breakage of the cable might have been caused1 after all1 by one of these animals getting foul of it under water4 ,it appeared as if it were making direct for the cable2 and great was the relief of all when the ponderous living mass was seen slowly to pass astern1 just grazing the cable where it entered the water--but fortunately without doing any mischief4 ,all seemed to go well up to about eight o'clock2 the cable paid out from the hold with an evenness and regularity which showed how carefully and perfectly it had been coiled away4 ,the paying-out machine also worked so smoothly that it left nothing to be desired4 ,the brakes are properly called self-releasing2 and although they can1 by means of additional weights1 be made to increase the pressure or strain upon the cable1 yet1 until these weights are still further increased 7at the engineer's instructions71 it is impossible to augment the strain in any other way4 ,to guard against accidents which might arise in consequence of the cable having suffered injury during the storm1 the indicated strain upon the dynamometer was never allowed to go beyond #a1gjj lbs4 or less than one-quarter what the cable is estimated to bear4 ,thus far everything looked promising4 ,but in such a hazardous work no one knows what a few minutes may bring forth1 for soon after eight o'clock an injured portion of the cable#ce was discovered about a mile or two from the portion paying out4 ,not a moment was lost by ,mr4 ,canning1 the engineer on duty1 in setting men to work to cobble up the injury as well as time would permit1 for the cable was going out at such a rate that the damaged portion would be paid overboard in less than twenty minutes1 and former experience had shown us that to check either the speed of the ship or the cable would1 in all probability1 be attended by the most fatal results4 ,just before the lapping was finished1 ,professor ,thomson reported that the electrical continuity of the wire had ceased1 but that the insulation was still perfect4 ,attention was naturally directed to the injured piece as the probable source of the stoppage1 and not a moment was lost in cutting the cable at that point with the intention of making a perfect splice4 ,to the consternation of all1 the electrical tests applied showed the fault to be overboard1 and in all probability some fifty miles from the ship4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,in ,collision with a ,whale while ,cable-,laying4 ,not a second was to be lost1 for it was evident that the cut portion must be paid overboard in a few minutes2 and in the meantime the tedious and difficult operation of making a splice had to be performed4 ,the ship was immediately stopped1 and no more cable paid out than was absolutely necessary to prevent it breaking4 ,as the stern of the ship was lifted by the waves a scene of the most intense excitement followed4 ,it seemed impossible1 even by using the greatest possible speed and paying out the least possible amount of cable1 that the junction could be finished before the part was taken out of the hands of the workmen4 ,the main hold presented an extraordinary scene4 ,nearly all the officers of the ship and of those connected with the expedition stood in groups about the coil1 watching with intense anxiety the cable as it slowly unwound itself nearer and nearer the joint1 while the workmen worked at the splice as only men could work who felt that the life and death of the expedition depended upon their rapidity4 ,but all their speed was to no purpose1 as the cable was unwinding within a hundred fathoms2 and1 as a last and desperate resource1 the cable was stopped altogether1 and for a few minutes the ship hung on by the end4 ,fortunately1 however1 it was only for a few minutes1 as the strain was continually rising above two tons and it would not hold on much longer4 ,when the splice was finished the signal was made to loose the stoppers1 and it passed overboard in safety4 ,when the excitement1 consequent upon having so narrowly saved the cable1 had passed away1 we awoke to the consciousness that the case was yet as hopeless as ever1 for the electrical continuity was still entirely wanting4 ,preparations were consequently made to pay out as little rope as possible1 and to hold on for six hours in the hope that the fault1 whatever it was1 might mend itself1 before cutting the cable and returning to the rendezvous to make another splice4 ,the magnetic needles on the receiving-instruments were watched closely for the returning signals1 when1 in a few minutes1 the last hope was extinguished by their suddenly indicating dead earth1 which tended to show that the cable had broken from the ,niagara1 or that the insulation had been completely destroyed4 ,nothing1 however1 could be done4 ,the only course was to wait until the current should return or take its final departure4 ,and it did return--with greater strength than ever--for in three minutes every one was agreeably surprised by the intelligence that the stoppage had disappeared and that the signals had again appeared at their regular intervals from the ,niagara#cf ,it is needless to say what a load of anxiety this news removed from the minds of every one1 but the general confidence in the ultimate success of the operations was much shaken by the occurrence1 for all felt that every minute a similar accident might occur4 ,for some time the paying out continued as usual1 but toward the morning another damaged place was discovered in the cable4 ,there was fortunately time1 however1 to repair it in the hold without in any way interfering with the operations1 beyond for a time reducing slightly the speed of the ship4 ,during the morning of ,friday1 the #cjth1 everything went well4 ,the ship had been kept at the speed of about five knots1 the cable going out at six1 the average angle with the horizon at which it left the ship being about #ae1 while the indicated strain upon the dynamometer seldom showed more than #a1fjj lbs4 to #a1gjj lbs4 ,observations made at noon showed that we had made good ninety miles from the starting-point since the previous day1 with an expenditure--including the loss in lowering the splice1 and during the subsequent stoppages--of #ace miles of cable4 ,during the latter portion of the day the barometer fell considerably1 and toward the evening it blew almost a gale of wind from the eastward1 dead ahead of our course4 ,as the breeze freshened the speed of the engines was gradually increased1 but the wind more than increased in proportion1 so that before the sun went down the ,agamemnon was going full steam against the wind1 only making a speed of about four knots4 ,during the evening1 topmasts were lowered1 and spars1 yards1 sails1 and indeed everything aloft that could offer resistance to the wind1 were sent down on deck4 ,still the ship made but little way1 chiefly in consequence of the heavy sea1 though the enormous quantity of fuel consumed showed us that if the wind lasted1 we should be reduced to burning the masts1 spars1 and even the decks1 to bring the ship into ,valentia4 ,it seemed to be our particular ill-fortune to meet with head-winds whichever way the ship's head was turned4 ,on our journey out we had been delayed and obliged to consume an undue proportion of coal for want of an easterly wind1 and now all our fuel was wanted because of one4 ,however1 during the next day the wind gradually went round to the southwest1 which1 though it raised a very heavy sea1 allowed us to husband our small remaining store of fuel4 ,at noon on ,saturday1 ,july #cast1 observations showed us to be in lat4 #eb #bc ,n41 and long4 #bf #dd ,w41 having made good #abj miles of distance since noon of the previous day1 with a loss of about #bg per cent of cable4 ,the ,niagara1 as far as could be judged from the amount of cable she paid out--which by a previous arrangement was signaled at every ten miles--kept pace with us1 within one or two miles1 the whole distance across4 ,during the afternoon of ,saturday1 the wind again freshened up1 and before nightfall it blew nearly a gale of wind1 and a tremendous sea ran before it from the southwest1 which made the ,agamemnon pitch and toss to such an extent that it was thought impossible the cable could hold through the night4 ,indeed1 had it not been for the constant care and watchfulness exercised by ,mr4 ,bright and the two energetic engineers1 ,mr4 ,canning and ,mr4 ,clifford1 who acted with him1 it could not have been done at all4 ,men were kept at the wheels of the machine to prevent their stopping 7as the stern of the ship rose and fell with the sea71 for had they done so1 the cable must undoubtedly have parted4 ,during ,sunday the sea and wind increased1 and before the evening it blew a smart gale4 ,now1 indeed1 were the energy and activity of all engaged in the operation tasked to the utmost4 ,mr4 ,hoar and ,mr4 ,moore--the two engineers who had the charge of the relieving-wheels of the dynamometer--had to keep watch and watch alternately every four hours1 and while on duty durst not let their attention be removed from their occupation for one moment2 for on their releasing the brakes every time the stern of the ship fell into the trough of the sea entirely depended the safety of the cable1 and the result shows how ably they discharged their duty4 ,throughout the night there were few who had the least expectation of the cable holding on till morning1 and many lay awake listening for the sound that all most dreaded to hear1 viz41 the gun which should announce the failure of all our hopes4 ,but still the cable--which in comparison with the ship from which it was paid out1 and the gigantic waves among which it was delivered1 was but a mere thread--continued to hold on1 only leaving a silvery phosphorescent line upon the stupendous seas as they rolled on toward the ship4 ,with ,sunday morning came no improvement in the weather1 still the sky remained black and stormy to windward1 and the constant violent squalls of wind and rain which prevailed during the whole day served to keep up1 if not to augment1 the height of the waves4 ,but the cable had gone through so much during the night that our confidence in its continuing to hold was much restored4 ,at noon observation showed us to be in lat4 #eb #bf ,n41 and long4 #bc #af ,w41 having made good #acj miles from noon of the previous day1 and about #cej from our starting-point in mid-ocean4 ,we had passed by the deepest soundings of #b1djj fathoms1 and over more than half of the deep water generally1 while the amount of cable still remaining in the ship was more than sufficient to carry us to the ,irish coast1 even supposing the continuance of the bad weather1 should oblige us to pay out nearly the same amount of slack cable as hitherto4 ,thus far things looked promising for our ultimate success4 ,but former experience showed us only too plainly that we could never suppose that some accident might not arise until the ends had been fairly landed on the opposite shores4 ,during ,sunday night and ,monday morning the weather continued as boisterous as ever4 ,it was only by the most indefatigable exertions of the engineer upon duty that the wheels could be prevented from stopping altogether as the vessel rose and fell with the sea2 and once or twice they did come completely to a standstill in spite of all that could be done to keep them moving4 ,fortunately1 however1 they were again set in motion before the stern of the ship was thrown up by the succeeding wave4 ,no strain could be placed upon the cable1 of course1 and though the dynamometer occasionally registered #a1gjj lbs41 as the ship lifted1 it was oftener below #a1jjj lbs41 and was frequently nothing1 the cable running out as fast as its own weight and the speed of the ship could draw it4 ,but even with all these forces acting unresistingly upon it1 the cable never paid itself out at a greater speed than eight knots at the time the ship was going at the rate of six knots and a half4 ,subsequently1 however1 when the speed of the ship even exceeded six knots and a half1 the cable never ran out so quickly4 ,the average speed maintained by the ship up to this time1 and1 indeed1 for the whole voyage1 was about five knots and a half1 the cable1 with occasional exceptions1 running some #cj per cent faster4 ,at noon on ,monday1 ,august #b;d1 observations showed us to be in lat4 #eb #ce ,n41 long4 #ai #dh ,w4 ,thus we had made good #abg-a_/b miles since noon of the previous day and had completed more than half-way to our ultimate destination4 ,during the afternoon1 an ,american three-masted schooner1 which afterward proved to be the ,chieftain1 was seen standing from the eastward toward us4 ,no notice was taken of her at first1 but when she was within about half a mile of the ,agamemnon1 she altered her course and bore right down across our bows4 ,a collision which might prove fatal to the cable now seemed inevitable2 or could only be avoided by the equally hazardous expedient of altering the ,agamemnon's course4 ,the ,valorous steamed ahead and fired a gun for her to heave to1 which as she did not appear to take much notice of1 was quickly followed by another from the bows of the ,agamemnon1 and a second and third from the ,valorous4 ,but still the vessel held on her course2 and1 as the only resource left to avoid a collision1 the course of the ,agamemnon was altered just in time to pass within a few yards of her4 ,it was evident that our proceedings were a source of the greatest possible astonishment to them1 for all her crew crowded upon her deck and rigging4 ,at length they evidently discovered who we were and what we were doing1 for the crew manned the rigging1 and1 dipping the ensign several times1 they gave us three hearty cheers4 ,though the ,agamemnon was obliged to acknowledge these congratulations in due form1 the feeling of annoyance with which we regarded the vessel--which 7either by the stupidity or carelessness of those on board7 was so near adding a fatal and unexpected mishap to the long chapter of accidents which had already been encountered--may easily be imagined4 ,to those below--who1 of course1 did not see the ship approaching--the sound of the first gun came like a thunderbolt1 for all took it as a signal of the breaking of the cable4 ,the dinner-tables were deserted in a moment1 and a general rush made up the hatches to the deck2 but before reaching it their fears were quickly banished by the report of the succeeding gun1 which all knew well could only be caused by a ship in our way or a man overboard4 ,throughout the greater part of ,monday morning the electrical signals from the ,niagara had been getting gradually weaker1 until they ceased altogether for nearly three-quarters of an hour4 ,then ,professor ,thomson sent a message to the effect that the signals were too weak to be read2 and1 in a little while1 the deflections returned even stronger than they had ever been before4 ,toward the evening1 however1 they again declined in force for a few minutes4#cg ,with the exception of these little stoppages1 the electrical condition of the submerged wire seemed to be much improved4 ,it was evident that the low temperature of the water at the immense depth improved considerably the insulating properties of the gutta-percha1 while the enormous pressure to which it must have been subjected probably tended to consolidate its texture1 and to fill up any air-bubbles or slight faults in manufacture which may have existed4 ,the weather during ,monday night moderated a little2 but still there was a very heavy sea on1 which endangered the wire every second minute4 ,about three o'clock on ,tuesday morning all on board were startled from their beds by the loud booming of a gun4 ,every one--without waiting for the performance of the most particular toilet--rushed on deck to ascertain the cause of the disturbance4 ,contrary to all expectation1 the cable was safe2 but just in the gray light could be seen the ,valorous--rounded to in the most warlike attitude--firing gun after gun in quick succession toward a large ,american bark1 which1 quite unconscious of our proceedings1 was standing right across our stern4 ,such loud and repeated remonstrances from a large steam-frigate were not to be despised2 and evidently without knowing the why or the wherefore she quickly threw her sails aback1 and remained hove to4 ,whether those on board her considered that we were engaged in some filibustering expedition1 or regarded our proceedings as another outrage upon the ,american flag1 it is impossible to say2 but certain it is that--apparently in great trepidation--she remained hove to until we had lost sight of her in the distance4 ,tuesday was a much finer day than any we had experienced for nearly a week1 but still there was a considerable sea running1 and our dangers were far from past2 yet the hopes of our ultimate success ran high4 ,we had accomplished nearly the whole of the deep portions of the route in safety1 and that1 too1 under the most unfavorable circumstances possible2 therefore there was every reason to believe that--unless some unforeseen accident should occur--we should accomplish the remainder4 ,observations at noon placed us in lat4 #e #bf ,n41 long4 #af #g #dj ,w41 having run #acd miles since the previous day4 ,about five o'clock in the evening the steep submarine mountain which divides the steep telegraphic plateau from the ,irish coast was reached1 and the sudden shallowing of water had a very marked effect upon the cable1 causing the strain and the speed to lessen every minute4 ,a great deal of slack was paid out1#ch to allow for any greater inequalities which might exist1 though undiscovered by the sounding-line4 ,about ten o'clock the shoal water of #bej fathoms was reached4 ,the only remaining anxiety now was the changing from the lower main coil to that upon the upper deck2 and this most dangerous operation was successfully performed between three and four o'clock on ,wednesday morning4 ,wednesday was a beautiful1 calm day2 indeed1 it was the first on which any one would have thought of making a splice since the day we started from the rendezvous4 ,we therefore congratulated ourselves on having saved a week by commencing operations on the ,thursday previous4 ,at noon we were in lat4 #eb #aa2 long4 #ab #dj #b ,w41 eighty-nine miles distant from the telegraph station at ,valentia4 ,the water was shallow1 so that there was no difficulty in paying out the wire almost without any loss by slack2 and all looked upon the undertaking as virtually accomplished4 ,at about one o'clock in the evening the second change from the upper-deck coil to that upon the orlop-deck was safely effected2 and shortly after the vessels exchanged signals that they were in #bjj fathoms water4 ,as night advanced the speed of the ship was reduced1 as it was known that we were only a short distance from the land1 and there would be no advantage in making it before daylight in the morning4 ,at about twelve o'clock1 however1 the ,skelligs ,light was seen in the distance1 and the ,valorous steamed on ahead to lead us in to the coast1 firing rockets at intervals to direct us1 which were answered by us from the ,agamemnon1 though--according to ,mr4 ,moriarty1 the master's1 wish--the ship1 disregarding the ,valorous1 kept her own course1 which proved to be the right one in the end4 ,by daylight on the morning of ,thursday1 the #eth1 the bold rocky mountains which entirely surround the wild and picturesque neighborhood of ,valentia rose right before us at a few miles distance4 ,never1 probably1 was the sight of land more welcome1 as it brought to a successful termination one of the greatest1 but at the same time most difficult1 schemes which was ever undertaken4 ,had it been the dullest and most melancholy swamp on the face of the earth that lay before us1 we should have found it a pleasant prospect2 but as the sun rose behind the estuary of ,dingle ,bay1 tingeing with a deep1 soft purple the lofty summits of the steep mountains which surround its shores1 illuminating the masses of morning vapor which hung upon them1 it was a scene which might vie in beauty with anything that could be produced by the most florid imagination of an artist4 ,successful ,termination4--,no one on shore was apparently conscious of our approach1 so the ,valorous went ahead to the mouth of the harbor and fired a gun4 ,both ships made straight for ,doulas ,bay1 the ,agamemnon steaming into the harbor 7see ,frontispiece7 with a feeling that she had done something1 and about #f ,a4,m4 came to anchor at the side of ,beginish ,island1 opposite to ,valentia4 ,as soon as the inhabitants became aware of our approach1 there was a general desertion of the place1 and hundreds of boats crowded round us--their passengers in the greatest state of excitement to hear all about our voyage4 ,the ,knight of ,kerry was absent in ,dingle1 but a messenger was immediately despatched for him1 and he soon arrived in her ,majesty's gunboat ,shamrock4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,landing the ,american ,end4 ,soon after our arrival a signal was received from the ,niagara that they were preparing to land1 having paid out #a1jcj nautical miles of cable1 while the ,agamemnon had accomplished her portion of the distance with an expenditure of #a1jbj miles1 making the total length of the wire submerged #b1jej geographical miles4 ,immediately after the ships cast anchor1 the paddle-box boats of the ,valorous were got ready1 and two miles of cable coiled away in them1 for the purpose of landing the end4 ,but it was late in the afternoon before the procession of boats left the ship1 under a salute of three rounds of small arms from the detachment of marines on board the ,agamemnon1 under the command of ,lieutenant ,morris4 ,the progress of the end to the shore was very slow1 in consequence of the stiff wind which blew at the time2 but at about #c ,p4,m4 the end was safely brought on shore at ,knight's ,town1 ,valentia1 by ,mr4 ,bright1 to whose exertions the success of the undertaking is attributable4 ,mr4 ,bright was accompanied by ,mr4 ,canning and the ,knight of ,kerry4 ,the end was immediately laid in the trench which had been dug to receive it2 while a royal salute1 making the neighboring rocks and mountains reverberate1 announced that the communication between the ,old and ,new ,world had been completed4 ,the cable was taken into the electrical room by ,mr4 ,whitehouse1 and attached to a galvanometer1 and the first message was received through the entire length now lying on the bed of the sea4 ,too much praise can not be bestowed upon both the officers and men of the ,agamemnon for the hearty way in which they have assisted in the arduous and difficult service they have been engaged in2 and the admirable manner in which the ship was navigated by ,mr4 ,moriarty materially reduced the difficulty of the company's operations4 ,it will1 in all probability1 be nearly a fortnight before the instruments are connected at the two termini for the transmission of regular messages4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,newfoundland ,telegraph ,station1 #aheh4 ,it is unnecessary here to expatiate upon the magnitude of the undertaking which has just been completed1 or upon the great political and social results which are likely to accrue from it2 but there can be but one feeling of universal admiration for the courage and perseverance which have been displayed by ,mr4 ,bright1 and those who acted under his orders1 in encountering the manifold difficulties which arose on their path at every step4#ci ,the ,american ,end4--,in contradistinction to the heavy seas and difficulties the ,agamemnon had to contend with1 her consort1 the ,niagara1 experienced very quiet weather1 and her part of the work was comparatively uneventful1 with the exception of a fault near the bottom of the ward-room coil4 ,this was detected during the operations on the night of ,august #b;d1 but was removed before it was paid out into the sea4 ,about four o'clock the next morning the continuity and insulation was accordingly restored1 and1 says ,mr4 ,mullaly 7the ,new ,york ,herald correspondent on board71 all was going on as if nothing had occurred to disturb the confidence we felt in the success of the expedition4 ,when nearing the end1 various icebergs were met with--some a hundred feet high4 ,mullaly dilates on their castle-like form and the effective appearance of the sun's rays thereon4 ,shortly after entering ,trinity ,bay1 ,newfoundland1 the ,niagara was met by ,h4,m4,s4 ,porcupine1 which had been sent out from ,england at the very beginning of the #aheh expedition to await her arrival and render any assistance which might be required4 ,the ,niagara anchored about #a ,a4,m4 on ,august #eth1 having completed her work1 and1 during the forenoon of that day1 the cable was landed in a little bay1 ,bull ,arm1#dj at the head of ,trinity ,bay1 when they received very strong currents of electricity through the whole cable from the other side of the ,atlantic4#da ,the telegraph-house at the ,newfoundland end was some two miles from the beach1 and connected to the cable by a land-line4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,celebration ,engineer's ,report--,jubilations--,banquets--,speec hes--,honor to the ,engineer-in-,chief4 ,on landing at ,valentia1 the engineer-in-chief at once sent the following startling but welcome message to his ,board1 which was at once passed on to the press3 ,charles ,bright1 to the ,directors of the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company4 ,,valentia1 ,august #eth4 ,the ,agamemnon has arrived at ,valentia1 and we are about to land the end of the cable4 ,the ,niagara is in ,trinity ,bay1 ,newfoundland4 ,there are good signals between the ships4 ,we reached the rendezvous on the night of the #bhth1 and the splice with the ,niagara cable was made on board the ,agamemnon the following morning4 ,by noon on the #cjth1 #bfe nautical miles were laid between the ships2 on the #cast1 #edj2 on the #ast ,august1 #hhd2 on the #b;d1 #a1bef2 on the #dth1 #a1hed2 on anchoring at six in the morning in ,doulas ,bay1 #b1jbb4 ,the speed of the ,niagara during the whole time has been nearly the same as ours1 the length of cable paid out from the two ships being generally within ten miles of each other4 ,with the exception of yesterday1 the weather has been very unfavorable4#db ,on the afternoon of ,thursday1 ,august #eth--as already described in ,the ,times report--,bright and his staff brought to shore the end of the cable1 at ,white ,strand ,bay1 near ,knight's ,town1 ,valentia1 in the boats of the ,valorous1 welcomed by the united cheers of the small crowd assembled4 ,taken entirely by surprise1 all ,england applauded the triumph of such undaunted perseverance and the engineering and nautical skill displayed in this victory over the elements4 ,the ,atlantic ,telegraph had been justly characterized as the great feat of the century1 and this was reechoed by all the press on its realization4 ,the following extracts from the leading article of ,the ,times the day after completion is an example of the comments upon the achievement3 ,mr4 ,bright1 having landed the end of the ,atlantic cable at ,valentia1 has brought to a successful termination his anxious and difficult task of linking the ,old ,world with the ,new1 thereby annihilating space4 ,since the discovery of ,columbus1 nothing has been done in any degree comparable to the vast enlargement which has thus been given to the sphere of human activity4 ,the rejoicing in ,america1 both in public and private1 knew no bounds4 ,the astounding news of the success of this unparalleled enterprise1 after such combats with storm and sea1 created universal enthusiasm1 exultation1 and joy1 such as was1 perhaps1 never before produced by any event1 not even the discovery of the ,western ,hemisphere4 ,many had predicted its failure1 some from ignorance1 others simply because they were anti-progressives by nature4 ,philanthropists everywhere hailed it as the greatest event of modern times1 heralding the good time coming of universal peace and brotherhood4 ,in ,newfoundland1 ,mr4 ,field1 together with ,mr4 ,bright's assistant engineers1 ,messrs4 ,everett and ,woodhouse1 and the electricians1 ,messrs1 de ,sauty and ,laws1 received the heartiest congratulations and welcome from the ,governor and ,legislative ,council of the colony4 ,while acknowledging these congratulations1 ,mr4 ,field remarked4 ,we have had many difficulties to surmount1 many discouragements to bear1 and some enemies to overcome1 whose very opposition has stimulated us to greater exertion4#dc ,it was a curious coincidence that the cable was successfully completed to ,valentia on the same day in #aheh on which the shore end had been landed the year before4 ,moreover1 it was exactly one hundred and eleven years since ,dr4 7afterward ,sir ,william7 ,watson had astonished the scientific world by sending an electric current through a wire two miles long1 using the earth as a return circuit4 ,it is also worthy of note that the first feat of telegraphy was executed by order of ,king ,agamemnon to his queen1 announcing the fall of ,troy1 #a1jhd years before the birth of ,christ1 and that the great feat which we have narrated was carried out by the great ship ,agamemnon1 as has been here shown4 ,mr4 ,bright and ,messrs4 ,canning and ,clifford and the rest of the staff1 as well as ,professor ,thomson and the electricians1 were absolutely exhausted with the incessant watching and almost unbearable anxiety attending their arduous travail4 ,valentia proved a haven of rest indeed for these toilers of the deep--completely knocked up with their experiences on the ,atlantic1 not to mention their previous trials and disappointments4 ,then came a series of banquets1 which had to be gone through4 ,soon after his duties at ,valentia were over1 ,bright made his way to ,dublin4 ,here he was entertained by the ,lord ,mayor and civic authorities of that capital on ,wednesday1 ,september #ast4 ,on this occasion ,cardinal ,wiseman1 who was present1 made an eloquent speech2 and the following account of the proceedings from the ,morning ,post may be suitably quoted3 ,the banquet given on ,wednesday1 the #ast1 by the ,lord ,mayor of ,dublin1 to ,mr4 ,c4 ,t4 ,bright1 ,engineer-in-,chief to the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company1 was a great success4 ,the assemblage embraced the highest names in the metropolis--civil1 military1 and official4 ,cardinal ,wiseman was present in full cardinalite costume4 ,the usual toasts were given1 and received with all honors4 ,the ,lord ,mayor1 in proposing the toast of the evening1 ,the health of ,mr4 ,bright1 dwelt with much eloquence on the achievements of science1 and paid a marked and merited compliment to the genius and perseverance which1 in the face of discouragement from the scientific world1 had succeeded in bringing about the accomplishment of the great undertaking of the laying of the ,atlantic telegraph4 ,his lordship's speech was most eloquent1 and highly complimentary to the distinguished guest1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,t4 ,bright4 ,mr4 ,bright rose1 amid loud cheers1 to respond4 ,he thanked the assemblage for their hearty welcome1 and said he was deeply sensible of the honor of having his name associated with the great work of the ,atlantic ,telegraph4 ,he next commented upon the value of this means of communication for the prevention of misunderstanding between the ,governments of the great powers1 and then referred to the services of the gentlemen who had been associated with him in laying the cable1 with whom he shared the honors done him that night4 7,mr4 ,bright was warmly cheered throughout his eloquent speech47 ,his ,eminence the ,cardinal descanted in glowing terms on the new achievement of science1 brought to a successful issue under the able superintendence of ,mr4 ,bright4 ,he warmly eulogized that gentleman's modest appreciation of his services to the world of commerce and to international communication in general4 ,charles ,bright was honored with a knighthood within a few days of landing4 ,as this was considered a special occasion1 and as ,queen ,victoria was at that time abroad1 the ceremony was performed there and then by his ,excellency the ,lord-,lieutenant of ,ireland on behalf of her ,majesty4 ,bright was but twenty-six years of age at the time1 being the youngest man who had received the distinction for generations past1 and no similar instance has since occurred4 ,moreover1 it was the first title conferred on the telegraphic or electrical profession1 and remained so for many years4 ,with ,professor ,thomson and other colleagues1 ,sir ,charles ,bright was right royally entertained in ,dublin1 ,killarney1 and elsewhere1 the ,lord-,lieutenant taking a prominent part in the celebrations4 ,on the occasion of the ,killarney banquet1 his ,excellency made the following remarks propos of the cable and its engineers3#dd ,when we consider the extraordinary undertaking that has been accomplished within the last few weeks2 when we consider that a cable of about #b1jjj miles has been extended beneath the ocean--a length which1 if multiplied ten times1 would reach our farthest colonies and nearly surround the earth2 when we consider it is stretched along the bed of shingles and shells1 which appeared destined for it as a foundation by ,providence1 and stretching from the points which human enterprise would look to2 and when we consider the great results that will flow from the enterprise1 we are at a loss here how sufficiently to admire the genius and energy of those who planned it1 or how to be sufficiently thankful to the ,almighty for having delegated such a power to the human race1 for whose benefit it is to be put in force4 7,cheers47 ,and let us look at the career which this telegraph has passed since it was first discovered4 ,at first it was rapidly laid over the land1 uniting states1 communities1 and countries1 extending over hills and valleys1 roads and railways2 but the sea appeared to present an impenetrable barrier4 ,it could not stop here1 however2 submarine telegraphy was but a question of time1 and the first enterprise by which it was introduced was in connection with an old foe--and at present our best friend--,imperial ,france4 7,hear1 hear47 ,the next attempt which was successful was the junction of ,england and our island1 and which was1 ,i believe1 carried out by the same distinguished engineer 7,sir ,charles ,bright71 whose name is now in the mouth of every man4 7,hear1 hear47 ,other submarine attempts followed3 the telegraph paused before the great ,atlantic1 like another ,alexander1 weeping as if it had no more worlds to conquer2 but it has found another world1 and it has gained it--not bringing strife or conquest1 but carrying with it peace and good-will4 7,applause47 ,i feel ,i should be wanting if ,i did not allude in terms of admiration to the genius and skill of the engineer1 ,sir ,charles ,bright1 who has carried out this enterprise1 and to the zeal and courage of those who brought it to a successful termination4 7,applause47 ,it is not necessary1 ,i am certain1 to call attention to the diligence and attention shown by the crew of the ,agamemnon--7cheers7--because ,i am sure there is no one here who has not read the description of the voyage in the newspapers4 ,the zeal and enterprise were only to be equaled by the skill with which it was carried out4 ,i believe there was only a difference of twelve miles between the two ends of the cable when it came to the shore4 ,there are some questions with regard to the date at which the work was carried out to which ,i wish to call attention4 ,it was on the #eth ,august1 #aheg1 that this enterprise was first commenced under the auspices of my distinguished predecessor1 who ,i wish was here now to rejoice in its success--,i mean only in a private capacity4 7,cheers and laughter47 ,it was on the #eth ,august1 #aheh1 it was completed1 and it was on the #eth ,august1 more than three hundred years ago1 that ,columbus left the shores of ,spain to proceed on his ever-memorable voyage to ,america4 ,it was on the #eth of ,august1 #aehc1 that ,sir ,hugh ,gilbert1 a worthy countryman of ,raleigh and ,drake1 steered his good ship the ,squirrel to the shores of ,newfoundland and first unfurled the flag of ,england in the very bay where this triumph has now taken place--7applause7--and it was on the same #eth of ,august that your sovereign was received by her imperial friend amid the fortifications of ,cherbourg1 and thereby put an end to the ridiculous nonsense about strife and dissension4 7,applause47 ,let the #eth ,august be a day ever memorable among nations4 ,let it be1 if ,i may so term it1 the birthday of ,england4 7,applause47 ,among the many points which must have given every one satisfaction was the manner in which this great success was received in ,america4 7,hear47 ,there appears to have been but one feeling of rejoicing predominant among them2 and ,i can not but think that that was not only owing to their commercial enterprise--which they shared along with us--but also1 ,i trust1 more to the feelings of consanguinity and affection which ,i am sure we share1 though occasionally disturbed by international disputes1 and by differences caused by misrepresentations or hastiness4 ,it must still burn as brightly in their breasts as in ours4 7,applause47 ,i trust that1 not only with our friends across the ,atlantic1 but with every civilized nation1 this great triumph of science will prove the harbinger of peace1 good-will1 and friendship2 and that ,england and ,america will not verify the first line of the stanza1 ,lands intersected by a narrow firth ,abhor each other1 but that they will1 by mutual intercourse1 arrive at the last line of that stanza1 and like kindred drops1 be mingled into one4 7,warm applause47 ,,chapter ,x ,,working ,,the ,,line ,tests--,apparatus--,first ,messages--,gradual ,failing--,the ,last ,gasp--,engineering ,success--,electrical ,failure4 ,continuity ,tests during ,laying4--,as previously mentioned1 two descriptions of instruments were used on board the ships for testing and working through while laying the cable4 ,these were the detector of ,mr4 ,whitehouse and ,professor ,thomson's reflecting-apparatus4 ,the process of testing consisted in sending from one to the other vessel alternately1 during a period of ten minutes1 first a reversal every minute for five minutes1 and then a current in one direction for five minutes4 ,the results of these signals to test the continuity of the line were observed and recorded on board both ships4 ,there was also a special signal for each ten miles of cable paid out between the vessels4 ,when the splice was made on ,july #bith1 #gb degrees deflection were obtained on the ,agamemnon1 from seventy-five cells of a sawdust 7,daniell's7 battery on board the ,niagara1 which had previously given #hc degrees4 ,on arrival at ,valentia at #f4cj ,a4,m41 on ,august #eth1 the deflection on the same instruments 7detector and marine galvanometer being both in circuit as before7 was #fh degrees1 while the sending-battery power on the ,niagara had fallen off at entry to #fb-a_/b degrees through the marine galvanometer on board that vessel4 ,these figures show that the insulation of the cable had considerably improved by submersion1 and when the engineers had accomplished their part of the undertaking1 on ,august #eth1 the cable was handed over in perfect condition to ,mr4 ,whitehouse and his electrical assistant4 ,apparatus ,used in ,working4--,unfortunately for the life of the cable1 ,mr4 ,whitehouse was imbued with a belief that currents of very high intensity1 or potential1 were the best for signaling2 and he had enormous induction-coils1 five feet long1 excited by a series of very large cells1 yielding electricity estimated at about #b1jjj volts potential4 ,the insulation was unable to bear the strain1 and thus the signals began to gradually fail4#de ,for something like a week the efforts to work through the cable with the above apparatus proved ineffectual1 the power being constantly increased to no purpose4 ,professor ,thomson's reflecting galvanometer1 which had worked so well during the voyage1 was then used again with ordinary ,daniell cells4 ,messages4--,in this way communication was resumed1 the first clear message being received from ,newfoundland on ,august #ac1 #aheh1 and--after considerable delay in getting the ,american receiving-apparatus ready--on the #afth the following was got through from the directors in ,england to those in ,united ,states3 ,europe and ,america are united by telegraphy4 ,glory to ,god in the highest1 on earth peace1 good-will toward men6 ,then followed3 ,from her ,majesty the ,queen of ,great ,britain to his ,excellency the ,president of the ,united ,states3 ,the ,queen desires to congratulate the ,president upon the successful completion of this great international work1 in which the ,queen has taken the greatest interest4 ,the ,queen is convinced that the ,president will join with her in fervently hoping that the electric cable1 which now already connects ,great ,britain with the ,united ,states1 will prove an additional link between the two nations1 whose friendship is founded upon their common interest and reciprocal esteem4 ,the ,queen has much pleasure in thus directly communicating with the ,president1 and in renewing to him her best wishes for the prosperity of the ,united ,states4 ,this message was shortly afterward responded to as follows3 ,,washington ,,city4 ,the ,president of the ,united ,states to her ,majesty ,victoria1 ,queen of ,great ,britain3 ,the ,president cordially reciprocates the congratulations of her ,majesty the ,queen on the success of the great international enterprise accomplished by the skill1 science1 and indomitable energy of the two countries4 ,it is a triumph more glorious1 because far more useful to mankind than was ever won by a conqueror on the field of battle4 ,may the ,atlantic ,telegraph1 under the blessing of ,heaven1 prove to be a bond of perpetual peace and friendship between the kindred nations1 and an instrument destined by ,divine ,providence to diffuse religion1 civilization1 liberty1 and law throughout the world4 ,in this view will not all the nations of ,christendom spontaneously unite in the declaration that it shall be forever neutral and that its communications shall be held sacred in passing to the place of their destination1 even in the midst of hostilities8 ,,james ,,buchanan4 ,throughout the ,united ,states the arrival of the ,queen's message was the signal for a fresh outburst of popular enthusiasm4 ,says ,field3 ,the next morning1 ,august #agth1 the city of ,new ,york was awakened by the thunder of artillery4 ,a hundred guns were fired in the ,city ,hall ,park at daybreak1 and the salute was repeated at noon4 ,at this hour flags were flying from all the public buildings1 and the bells of the principal churches began to ring1 as ,christmas bells signal the birthday of ,one who came to bring peace and good-will to men--chimes that1 it was fondly hoped1 might usher in1 as they should1 a new era4 ,ring out the old1 ring in the new1 ,ring out the false1 ring in the true4 ,that night the city was illuminated4 ,never had it seen so brilliant a spectacle4 ,such was the blaze of light around the ,city ,hall that the cupola caught fire and was consumed1 and the hall itself narrowly escaped destruction4 ,but one night did not exhaust the public enthusiasm1 for the following evening witnessed one of those displays for which ,new ,york surpasses all the cities of the world--a firemen's torchlight procession4 ,moreover1 several wagon-loads 7each containing about twelve miles7 of the cable left on board the ,niagara were drawn through the principal streets of the city4 ,similar demonstrations took place in other parts of the ,united ,states4 ,from the ,atlantic to the ,valley of the ,mississippi1 and to the ,gulf of ,mexico1 in every city was heard the firing of guns and the ringing of bells4 ,nothing seemed too extravagant to give expression to the popular rejoicing4 ,the ,english press were warm in their recognition of those to whom the nation were indebted for bringing into action the greatest invention of the age1 expressing belief that the effect of bringing the three kingdoms and the ,united ,states into instantaneous communication with each other will be to render hostilities between the two nations almost impossible for the future4 ,and further1 more was done yesterday for the consideration of our empire than the wisdom of our statesmen1 the liberality of our legislature1 or the loyalty of our colonists could ever have effected4#df ,the sermons preached on the subject1 both in ,england and ,america1 were literally without number4 ,enough found their way into print to fill over one volume4 ,never had an event more deeply touched the spirit of religious enthusiasm4 ,with further reference to the active life of the cable1 the following communications have some interest3 ,first of all three long congratulatory messages were transmitted1 one on ,august #ahth from ,mr4 ,peter ,cooper1 president of the ,new ,york1 ,newfoundland1 and ,london ,telegraph ,company1 to the directors of the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company2 another from the ,mayor of ,new ,york to the ,lord ,mayor of ,london1 his reply in acknowledgment following4 ,then two of the great ,cunard mail-steamers1 the ,europa and ,arabia1 had come into collision on ,august #adth4 ,neither the news nor the injured vessels could reach those concerned on either side of the ,atlantic for some days2 but as soon as it became known in ,new ,york a message was sent by the cable1 a facsimile of the original of which is shown on p4 #aej4 ,this first public news message showed the relief given by speedy knowledge in dispelling doubt and fear4 ,subsequently messages giving the news on both continents were transmitted and published daily4 ,among others1 on ,august #bgth1 a despatch was sent by the secretary of the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company that was remarkable for the amount of important information contained in comparatively few words4 ,it read as follows3 ,to ,associated ,press1 ,new ,york4--,news for ,america by ,atlantic cable3--,emperor of ,france returned to ,paris1 ,saturday4 ,king of ,prussia too ill to visit ,queen ,victoria4 ,her ,majesty returns to ,england1 ,august #cjth4 ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,august #bast--,settlement of ,chinese ,question3 ,chinese ,empire opened to trade2 ,christian religion allowed2 foreign diplomatic agents admitted2 indemnity to ,england and ,france4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--;,facsimile of the ,first ,public ,news ,message ,received through the ,atlantic ,cable4 ,alexandria1 ,august #ith4--,the ,madras arrived at ,suez #gth inst4 ,dates ,bombay to the #aith1 ,aden #cast4 ,gwalior insurgent army broken up4 ,all ,india becoming tranquil4 ,the above was published in the ,american papers the same day4 ,further1 as exemplifying the aid the cable afforded to the ,british ,government1 mention may be made of two messages sent from the commander-in-chief at the ,horse ,guards1 on ,august #cast4 ,following the quelling of the ,indian mutiny1 they were despatched for the purpose of canceling previous orders which had already gone by mail to ,canada4 ,the first1 to ,general ,trollope1 ,halifax1 ran as follows3 ,the ,sixty-second ,regiment is not to return to ,england4 ,the other1 to the officer in command at ,montreal3 ,the ,thirty-ninth ,regiment is not to return to ,england4 ,from #ej1jjj to #fj1jjj was estimated by the authorities to have been saved1 in the unnecessary transportation of troops1 by these two cable communications4 ,but the insulation of the precious wire had1 unhappily1 been giving way4 ,the high-potential currents from ,mr4 ,whitehouse's enormous induction-coils were too much for it2 and the diminished flashes of light proved to be only the flickering of the flame that was soon to be extinguished in the external darkness of the waters4 ,after a period of confused signals1 the line ultimately breathed its last on ,october #bjth1 after #gcb messages in all had been conveyed during a period of three months4#dg ,the last word uttered--and which may be said to have come from beyond the sea--was forward4 ,the line had been subject to frequent interruptions throughout4 ,the wonder is that it did so much1 when we consider the lack of experience at that period in the manufacture of deep-sea cables1 the short time allowed1 and1 more than all1 the treatment received after being laid4 ,it is1 indeed1 extremely doubtful whether any cable1 even of the present day1 would long stand a trial with currents so generated1 and of such intensity4#dh ,an unusually violent lightning-storm occurred at ,newfoundland shortly after the cable had been laid4 ,this was considered a part cause of the actual failure of the line4 ,when all the efforts of the electricians failed to draw more than a few faint whispers--a dying gasp from the depths of the sea--there ensued1 in the public mind1 a feeling of profound discouragement4 ,but what a bitter disappointment for those officially concerned in the enterprise6 ,in all the experience of life there are no sadder moments than those in which1 after much anxious toil in striving for a great object1 and after a glorious triumph1 the achievement that seemed complete becomes a wreck4 ,engineering ,demonstration4--,still the engineer of this great undertaking had the satisfaction of knowing that he had demonstrated 7#a7 the possibility of laying over #b1jjj miles of cable in one continuous length across a by no means calm ocean at depths of two to three miles2 and 7#b7 that1 by the agency of an electric current1 distinct and regular signals could be transmitted and received throughout an insulated conductor1 even when at such a depth beneath the sea1 across this vast distance4 ,the feasibility of either of these had been scouted at on all sides4#di ,of course the gutta-percha coverings as then applied can not be compared with the methods and materials of later days1 though a great advance on that of previous cables4 ,it was a pity that--owing to the precipitation with which the undertaking was rushed through1 and the fear of failure for want of capital--more time was not given to the consideration of ,bright's recommendation for a conductor four times larger1 with a corresponding increase in the gutta-percha insulator4 ,under such conditions1 it is highly improbable that high potentials would have ever been applied to the line4 ,unhappily--besides ,faraday and ,whitehouse--,professor ,morse 7when advising the ,board in this matter7 promulgated views directly opposed to the above1 as has already been shown4 ,in the course of his report ,morse had said3 ,that by the use of comparatively small-coated wires1 and of electro-magnetic induction-coils for the exciting-magnets1 telegraphic signals can be transmitted through two thousand miles1 with a speed amply sufficient for all commercial and economical purposes4 ,still the cable1 inadequately constructed as it was from an electrical point of view1 would probably have worked for years--though slowly1 of course--had the fairly reasonable battery-power employed between the ships and up to the successful termination of the expeditions been continued in connection with ,professor ,thomson's delicate reflecting-apparatus4 ,the electrician1 however1 not only used much higher power immediately he took the cable in hand--for working his specially devised relay and ,morse electromagnetic recording-instrument in connection with his enormous induction-coils--but actually increased the power from time to time up to nearly #ejj cells1 till the five-foot coils yielded a current urged by a potential of something like #b1jjj volts4 ,hence1 when signaling was resumed1 as shown by the comparatively mild voltaic currents1 for actuating the ,thomson apparatus1 a fault 7or faults7 had been already developed1 necessitating a far higher battery-power than had been employed during the continuous communication between the ships while paying out4 ,the wounds opened farther under the various stimulating doses2 the insulation was unable to bear the strain1 and the circulation gradually ceased through a cable already in a state of dissolution4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,inquest ,expert ,trials--,expert ,evidence ,the great historical sea-line having collapsed1 some of the foremost of the electrical profession were called in--first to determine the nature of the interruption with a view to possible remedy1 next to elicit the cause4 ,expert ,opinions on the ,failure4--,mr4 ,cromwell ,fleetwood ,varley1 the electrician to the ,electric ,telegraph ,company1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,b4 ,bright1 the chief of the ,magnetic ,company2 and ,mr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,henley1 the well-known telegraph inventor1 were severally requested by the ,atlantic ,company to report on the subject in conjunction with ,sir ,charles ,bright and ,professor ,thomson4 ,first of all the dead line was subjected to a series of tests4 ,for this1 resistance-coils and ,messrs4 ,bright's apparatus for ascertaining the position of a fault were employed4 ,there was every evidence of a serious electrical leakage about #cjj miles from ,valentia1 but there did not appear to be any fracture in the conductor1 as exceedingly weak currents still came through fitfully4 ,according to the above location1 the main leak through the gutta-percha envelope was in water of a depth of about two miles4 ,at that time means were not devised for grappling and lifting a cable from such depths4 ,but from independent tests by ,thomson and ,bright1 it appeared likely that the ,valentia shore end was also especially faulty4 ,accordingly1 it was underrun from the catamaran-raft 7previously used in #aheg7 for some three miles1 but1 on being cut at the farthest point at which it was found possible to raise the cable1 the fault still appeared on the seaward side4 ,the idea of repairs had1 therefore1 to be abandoned1 and the cable was spliced up again4 ,the conductor being again intact1 efforts were made to renew signals with the curb-key recently invented by ,messrs4 ,bright4 ,by means of this1 currents of opposite character were transmitted so that each signaling current was followed instantly by one of opposite polarity1 which neutralized1 by a proportionate strength and duration1 all that remained of its predecessor4 ,though this was the right principle on which to work1 the patient was too far gone1 and all efforts proved unavailing2 for signaling purposes the poor cable was defunct4 ,having dealt with the nature of the interruption1 we now come to the cause4 ,it was first of all abundantly clear from the station-diaries kept by the electricians at ,valentia and ,newfoundland1 and by other irrefragable evidence1 that when the laying was completed1 and the cable ends were handed over to them from the ships on ,august #eth1 all was in good working order4 ,the authorities were unanimous in their opinion4 ,mr4 ,c4 ,f4 ,varley declared that had a more moderate power been used1 the cable would still have been capable of transmitting messages4 ,in giving extra force to the above opinion1 ,mr4 ,varley described an experiment he had made on the cable in conjunction with ,mr4 ,e4 ,b4 ,bright3 ,we attached to the cable a piece of gutta-percha-covered wire1 having first made a slight incision1 by a needle-prick1 in the gutta-percha to let the water reach the conductor4 ,the wire was then bent1 so as to close up the defect4 ,the defective wire was then placed in a jar of sea-water1 and the latter connected with the earth4 ,after a few momentary signals had been sent from the five-foot induction-coils into the cable1 and1 consequently into the test-wire1 the intense current burst through the excessively minute perforation1 rapidly burning a hole nearly one-tenth of an inch in diameter1 afterward increased to half an inch in length when passing the current through the faulty branch only4 ,the burned gutta-percha then came floating up to the surface of the water1 while the jar was one complete glow of light4 ,professor ,hughes1 the inventor of the type-printing telegraph1 and1 subsequently1 of the microphone1 considered that the cable was injured by the induction-coils1 and that the intense currents developed by them were strong enough to burst through gutta-percha4 ,professor ,wheatstone gave a similar opinion4 ,some one inquired of the electrician whether1 if any one touched the cable at the time when the current was discharged from the induction-coil1 he would receive a shock sufficiently strong to cause him to faint4 ,it was admitted in reply that those who touched the bare wire would suffer for their carelessness1 though not if discretion be exercised by grasping the gutta-percha only4 ,the chairman of the company 7the ,right ,honorable ,j4 ,stuart ,wortley1 ,m4,p471 in the course of a deputation to ,lord ,palmerston later on1 stated that far too high charges of electricity were forced into the conductor4 ,it was evidently thought at that time by certain electricians that you could not charge a cable of this sort too highly4 ,thus they proceeded somewhat like the man who bores a hole with a poker in a deal board2 he gets the hole1 to be sure1 but the board is burned in the operation4 ,professor ,thomson 7now ,lord ,kelvin71 writing in #ahfj1 expressed the following opinion3 ,it is quite certain that1 with a properly adjusted mirror-galvanometer as receiving-instrument at each end1 twenty cells of ,daniell's battery would have done the work required1 and at even a higher speed if worked by a key devised for diminishing inductive embarrassment2 and the writer--with the knowledge derived from disastrous experience--has now little doubt but that1 if such had been the arrangement from the beginning1 if no induction-coils and no battery-power exceeding twenty ,daniell cells had ever been applied to the cable since the landing of its ends1 imperfect as it then was1 it would be now in full work day and night1 with no prospect or probability of failure4#ej ,summing up the cause of the untimely ending to the ill-used cable1 perhaps the concisest verdict would be1 in mechanical-engineering parlance1 that high-pressure steam had been got up in a low-pressure boiler4 ,,part ,,iii ,,intermediate ,,knowledge ,,and ,,advance ,,chapter ,,xii ,,other ,,proposed ,,routes ,north ,atlantic ,telegraph ,project--,exploring ,expedition--,ice ,troubles--,south ,atlantic ,telegraph ,project4 ,the gradual failure of the #aheh cable after a short period of working1 and the slow rate at which messages were capable of being transmitted1 naturally deterred capitalists from providing the means for another cable of such length in deep water4 ,several schemes1 however1 for a fresh line on other routes were brought forward2 and there was an alternative route between ,great ,britain and ,america by which the transmission of the electric current could be subdivided into four comparatively short sections4 ,this was known in #ahfj as the ,north ,atlantic ,telegraph project1 in which the route was from the extreme north of ,scotland to the ,faroe ,islands1 thence to ,iceland2 from there to the southern point of ,greenland1 and so on to ,labrador or ,newfoundland4 ,the distances were 7varying a little according to landing-places selected7 approximately3 ,miles ,from the north of ,scotland to ,faroe ,islands #bbe ,from the ,faroe ,islands to ,iceland #bhj ,from ,iceland to ,greenland1 ,s4 ,w4 ,harbor #gjj ,from ,greenland to ,labrador #eej ---- ,total #agee ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,the ,north ,atlantic ,telegraph ,project1 #ahfj4 ,from the electrician's point of view1 these subdivisions were extremely favorable as compared with the long continuous length entailed by an ,atlantic cable between ,ireland and ,newfoundland4 ,then1 again1 the soundings 7except for a section between ,greenland and ,labrador7 did not yield anything approaching the more southern depths4 ,but against these obvious advantages there was the engineering objection--which at first seemed insurmountable--that the ,greenland coast was bound up by ice for a great part of the year1 in addition to the risk of injury to the cable from the grounding of icebergs4 ,this latter was of less moment1 for it could be provided against by keeping the cable when approaching shore in the middle of any inlet1 and thus away from the shallow sides where the icebergs ground4 ,there was also the probable difficulty of obtaining a trained staff to work a line when laid to such inhospitable regions4 ,however1 having regard to the anxiety exhibited by many to get to the ,north ,pole1 this did not present an insuperable obstacle4 ,this bold project1 with a route across the coldest and iciest regions of the ,atlantic1 was originally brought to the notice of the ,danish ,government by ,mr4 ,wyld1 the geographer1 even before the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company had been established4 ,it was again introduced in a different form by ,colonel ,t4 ,p4 ,shaffner1 an ,american electrician of some note4 ,colonel ,shaffner made a strong case of the series of short stages geographically afforded by the ,north ,atlantic deviation4 ,after the #aheh cable had ceased working1 to back up his belief in the advantages of the route1 which he characterized as having natural stepping-stones which ,providence had placed across the ocean in the north1 he actually chartered a small sailing vessel1 and1 with his family on board1 put forth from ,boston on ,august #bith1 #ahei1 for the purpose of making the preliminary survey4 ,he landed in ,glasgow in ,november of that year1 and presented to the public the results of his voyage4 ,during the voyage1 ,colonel ,shaffner sounded the deep seas to be traversed between ,labrador and ,greenland and between ,greenland and ,iceland4 ,his first object was to convince the public that there were no insuperable difficulties in the way4 ,he found a warm supporter in ,mr4 ,j4 ,rodney ,croskey1 of ,london1 who advanced the caution money to the ,danish ,government for the concessions requisite in the ,faroes1 ,iceland1 and ,greenland4#ea ,on ,may #aeth1 ,lord ,palmerston granted an audience to an influential deputation1 headed by the ,right ,honorable ,milner ,gibson1 ,m4,p41 and four other members of the ,house of ,commons1 to solicit the assistance of ,government in sending out ships and officers to make the necessary official survey for ascertaining the practicability of the proposed route4 ,the ,premier appeared fully to appreciate the advantages of the north-about scheme1 and in a very short time the ,admiralty were directed to send out an expedition for the purpose of making the required survey4 ,the ,admiralty selected for this duty ,captain ,m',clintock1 ,r4 ,n41#eb an officer of great experience in the navigation of the ,arctic seas1 and ,h4,m4,s4 ,bulldog was placed under his command4 ,this distinguished officer was directed to take the deep-sea soundings1 and he sailed from ,portsmouth on his mission in ,june1 #ahfj4 ,in the meantime1 the promoters of the enterprise purchased the ,fox1 the steam-yacht formerly employed in the successful search for the remains of the ,franklin expedition1 and fitted her out for the purpose of making surveys of the landing-places of the respective cables4 ,the ,fox was placed under the command of ,captain ,young1#ec of the mercantile marine1 an officer well known for his distinguished labors under ,m',clintock in the ,franklin search4 ,at the same time1 ,dr4 ,john ,rae1 ,f4,r4,g4,s41 an intrepid ,arctic explorer1 volunteered his services to join the ,fox1 and take charge of the overland expeditions in the ,faroe ,isles1 ,iceland1 and ,greenland4 ,colonel ,shaffner1 as concessionaire--besides two delegates on the part of the ,danish ,government1 ,lieutenant von ,zeilau and ,arnljot ,olafsson--also accompanied the ,fox expedition1 to take part in the necessary surveys4 ,before the departure of the ,fox1 which sailed on ,july #ah1 #ahfj1 her ,majesty ,queen ,victoria1 the ,prince ,consort1 and other members of the royal family1 honored the enterprise by a visit to that vessel1 while lying off ,osborne1 and showed a lively interest in the details of the expedition4 ,on the return of the expedition1 ,sir ,leopold ,m',clintock wrote a full report to ,sir ,charles ,bright1 the consulting engineer of the project4 ,in this1 ,sir ,leopold favored the route as perfectly practicable1 pointing out that the ice would not really prove a difficulty1 and strongly approving of the original intention of a land-line across ,iceland to ,faxe ,bay1 as by so doing you will avoid the only part of the sea where submarine volcanic disturbances may be suspected4 ,the results of the voyages of ,h4,m4,s4 ,bulldog and the steam-yacht ,fox were brought before a crowded meeting of the ,royal ,geographical ,society on ,january #bh1 #ahfa4 ,sir ,leopold ,m',clintock then gave the first public account of his numerous and careful soundings along1 and in the vicinity of1 the proposed course of the cable1 interspersed with many useful remarks and hints as to ice1 the best time for laying the line1 etc41 as well as the probable sphere of volcanic action in and off the south of ,iceland4 ,the above was followed by an exhaustive paper by ,sir ,charles ,bright1 giving a synopsis of ,captain ,young's report on his voyage in the ,fox1 including the examination of various estuaries and harbors1 so as to enable a decision to be arrived at as to the best landing-places1 the climatic conditions1 etc4 ,from both sets of soundings it was shown that1 as a rule1 the bottom was of ooze4 ,dr4 ,wallich1 the naturalist of the expedition1 had brought up brightly colored starfish from depths of over a mile1 whereas it had previously been believed that nothing could possibly live under such an enormous pressure of water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,the ,north ,atlantic ,exploring ,expedition1 #ahfj4 ,then came a highly instructive paper by ,dr4 ,rae4 ,he gave a number of interesting particulars of his land surveys1 the population1 price of food1 wages1 etc4 ,he also described the ride of the ,fox party across ,iceland1 while making important suggestions as to the route for the land-line with a view to avoiding the geysers4 ,captain ,r4 ,b4 ,beechey1 ,r4,n41 afterward made a beautiful oil-painting of the party1 including some of the ,eskimos on the occasion of landing to explore the inland ice at ,igaliko ,fiord 7see ,fig4 #cc74ed ,at this time1 however 7#ahfa71 there was still too much discouragement owing to the stoppage in working of the first ,atlantic cable1 and to other causes with which we are about to deal4 ,moreover1 there were those who still feared the ice-floes2 and in the end the public did not respond sufficiently4 ,thus1 after all1 the ,grand ,north ,atlantic ,telegraph project1 which had been worked out with so much trouble and expense1 was never actually realized4 99 99 99 99 99 ,another scheme which attracted some attention about the same time was described as the ,south ,atlantic ,telegraph4 ,this was for a long length of cable between the south of ,spain and the coast of ,brazil1 touching at ,madeira1 the ,canary ,islands1 ,cape de ,verde ,isles1 ,don ,pedro1 and ,fernando de ,noronha ,isles on the way1 and stretching out to the ,west ,indies and the ,united ,states4 ,then there was a project for a cable on an intermediate route from ,portugal to the ,azores1 and thence to ,america1 via ,bermuda and the ,southern ,states4 ,being1 however1 to a great extent foreign in their scope1 these latter schemes found little favor in this country at the time4 ,they have1 however1 since been realized in some shape or form4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,experience1 ,,investigation1 ,,and ,,progress ,the ,red ,sea ,line--,government ,inquiry--,electrical ,standards and ,units--,further ,cables--,improvements in ,manufacture1 ,testing1 and ,working--,completion of ,pioneer ,stage4 ,the ,red ,sea ,line4--,mr4 ,lionel ,gisborne had obtained powers from the ,turkish ,government to carry a telegraph-line across ,egypt and lay a cable down the ,red ,sea4 ,the importance of this line to ,great ,britain led the ,government to give definite assistance4 ,the first portion of the proposed cable--from ,suez to ,aden1 with intermediate landings--was laid in #ahei4 ,the different sections broke down one by one4 ,they were all laid very taut1 the slack in some cases being less than one per cent1 though the bottom was in certain parts very uneven4 ,the second portion of the line1 from ,aden to ,kurrachee1 with intermediate stations1 was laid during #ahfj1 the slack working out at #j4a per cent only4 ,faults developed very quickly in all the sections of both portions of the line4 ,apart from the small allowance for slack1 the type of cable adopted was of far too fragile a nature for some of its rough1 reef-like resting-spots2 indeed1 the undertaking was spoken of as like running a donkey for the ,leger6 ,the promoters of this enterprise1 having neither specially qualified men nor the necessary materials for carrying out repairs1 were obliged to abandon it before any commercial work had been effected4 ,this was a most unfortunate line in every way1 for a complete message was never got through the entire length1 but only through each section separately4 ,nevertheless1 until quite recently1 it cost ,great ,britain #cf1jjj per annum4 ,inquiry on the ,construction of ,submarine ,telegraphs4--,aroused more especially by the above failure1 the ,government1 in #ahei1 before undertaking further responsibility1 resolved to thoroughly investigate the construction of cables4 ,it was also felt that the ultimate failure of the ,atlantic line was possibly due1 in part1 to weak joints and general defects in the manufacture of the insulating envelope4 ,this committee--under the direction of the ,board of ,trade1 with ,captain1 afterward ,sir ,douglas1 ,galton1 ,r4,e41 in the chair--devoted twenty-two sittings 7covering a considerable period of time7 to questioning engineers1 electricians1 professors1 physicists1 manufacturers1 and seamen1 who had taken part in the various branches of cable-work and whose knowledge or experience might throw light on the subject4 ,investigations were instituted concerning the structure of all cables previously made1 and the quality of the different materials used1 as to special points arising during manufacture and laying1 on the routes taken1 electrical testing1 and on sending and receiving instruments1 speed of signaling1 etc4 ,actual experiments were also made in connection with this inquiry1 to ascertain 7#a7 the electrical and mechanical qualities of copper1 pure and alloyed2 also of gutta-percha and other insulating substances2 7#b7 the chemical change in their condition when submerged2 7#c7 the effects of temperature and pressure on the insulating substances employed2 7#d7 the elongation and breaking strain of copper wires2 of iron1 steel1 and tarred hemp separately and combined2 7#e7 the phenomena connected with electrically charging and discharging conductors2 7#f7 methods of testing conductors and of locating faults2 besides the whole science and practise of cable-making and laying4 ,the report of the committee was not published till some time afterward4 ,it expressed a conviction that submarine telegraphy might be made sure and remunerative in the future1 based on the evidence adduced regarding the proper manufacture and working of submarine telegraphs4 ,formulation of ,electrical ,standards and ,units4--,this inquiry was shortly followed by an important paper before the ,british ,association for the advancement of science by ,sir ,charles ,bright and ,mr4 ,latimer ,clark 7then in partnership71 which put the practise of electrical testing on a systematic basis1 thereby considerably forwarding all electrical work connected with submarine telegraphy4 ,a committee was formed shortly afterward1 which gave the suggestions then brought forward the seal of universal officialdom4 ,further ,cables4--,about this time a number of other cable enterprises were set afoot1 some in shallow water and others in comparatively great depths4 ,though few of them were able to benefit by the information obtained in the inquiry1 they were1 in the main1 more or less successful4 ,these projects included cables between ,malta and ,alexandria1 besides others in the ,mediterranean and elsewhere4 ,sir ,charles ,bright1 ,mr4 7afterward ,sir ,c4 ,w47 ,siemens1 ,mr4 ,lionel ,gisborne1 and ,mr4 ,h4 ,c4 ,forde were mainly associated with them as engineers and electricians4 ,the line which met1 however1 with the most complete and lasting success was the first cable to ,india1 laid 7by ,sir ,charles ,bright7 in several sections along the ,persian ,gulf in #ahfc-'fd4 ,in this undertaking ,messrs4 ,bright ,clark 7engineers to the ,government7 introduced a complete system of electrical and mechanical testing4 ,every joint was1 for the first time1 efficiently tested1 and the insulated core submitted to a hydraulic pressure representative of that which it would experience when laid4#ee ,a formula was also arrived at by an elaborate series of experiments for the effect of temperature on the insulation1 which showed how enormously the resistance of gutta-percha increased by consolidation when submitted to the low temperatures of the bottom of the ocean4 ,chatterton's compound had been already introduced for adhering the gutta-percha envelope to the wires1 as well as for cementing together the different insulating coats2 but ,bright ,clark's preservative composition for the iron armor was first used in this enterprise4 ,this mixture not only evades the oxidation that iron wires1 even when galvanized1 are subject to1 but resists the attacks of the teredo and other objectionable animal life4 ,moreover1 besides the type of cable being eminently suitable1 the manufacture was carried out with extreme care and with all the advantage of experience and improved methods4#ef ,completion of ,pioneer ,stage4--,with the successful termination of the above enterprise1 forming the first telegraphic connection between the ,united ,kingdom1 ,europe1 and ,india1 the science of constructing and laying submarine telegraphs was pretty definitely worked out1 and no very striking departure has since been introduced4 ,the pioneer stage may1 indeed1 at this juncture1 be said to have reached completion4 ,for this reason the rest of our narrative on the ,atlantic cable will be told more briefly--though at greater length than the contents of this chapter1 recounting only the stepping-stones to what was to follow4 ,,part ,,iv ,,commercial ,,success ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the #ahfe ,,cable ,,and ,,expedition ,fresh ,efforts and ,funds--,the ,contractors' ,share--,design and ,construction--,provisions for ,laying--,s4,s4 ,great ,eastern--,sailing ,staff--,landing the ,irish ,end--,another ,bad ,start4 ,fresh ,efforts and ,funds4--,though their cable had ceased to work1 the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company was kept alive by the promoters4 ,in #ahfb the ,government was prevailed on to despatch ,h4,m4,s4 ,porcupine to further examine the ocean floor #cjj miles out from the coasts of ,ireland and ,newfoundland1 respectively4 ,it took a considerable time to raise the full amount of capital required for another ,atlantic cable1 for this could only be done gradually4 ,the great civil war in ,america stimulated capitalists to renew the undertaking4 ,one of the main advantages adduced was1 on this occasion as before1 the avoidance of misunderstandings between the two countries4 ,another--intended by ,mr4 ,cyrus ,field as a special inducement to his fellow countrymen--was the improvement of the agricultural position of the ,united ,states1 by extending to it the facilities already enjoyed by ,france of commanding the foreign grain-markets4#eg ,on this account the project was warmly supported by ,john ,bright and other eminent free-traders4 ,mr4 ,field1 however1 met with as little success in obtaining pecuniary support in the ,states as he had in connection with the previous line4 ,his brother1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,m4 ,field1 writes3 ,the summer of this year 7#ahfb7 ,mr4 ,field spent in ,america1 where he applied himself vigorously to raising capital for the new enterprise4 ,to this end he visited ,boston1 ,providence1 ,philadelphia1 ,albany1 and ,buffalo1 to address meetings of merchants and others4 ,he used to amuse us with the account of his visit to the first city1 where he was honored with the attendance of a large array of the solid men of ,boston1 who listened with an attention that was most flattering to the pride of the speaker addressing such an assemblage in the capital of his native ,state4 ,there was no mistaking the interest they felt in the subject4 ,they went still further2 they passed a series of resolutions1 in which they applauded the projected telegraph across the ocean as one of the grandest enterprises ever undertaken by man1 which they proudly commended to the confidence and support of the ,american public4 ,after this they went home feeling that they had done the generous thing in bestowing upon it such a mark of their approbation4 ,but not a man subscribed a dollar4 ,in point of fact1 as before1 the cable of #ahfe--;as well as that of #ahff--was provided for out of ,english pockets4 ,let us now substantiate this statement by a glance at events4 ,the late ,mr4 ,thomas ,brassey was the first to be appealed to in ,england1 and he supported the venture nobly4 ,then ,mr4 ,pender#eh was applied to1 and here also substantial aid was forthcoming4 ,both these gentlemen had joined the board of the ,telegraph ,construction and ,maintenance ,company1 which had just been formed 7in ,april1 #ahfd7 as the result of an amalgamation of the ,gutta-,percha ,company and ,messrs4 ,glass1 ,elliot ,co4 ,mr4 ,pender1 who had been largely instrumental in effecting this combination1 became the first chairman4 ,the ,contractors' ,share4--,shortly after the first ,atlantic cable was laid1 ,messrs4 ,glass1 ,elliot ,co4 availed themselves of the services of ,mr4 ,canning and ,mr4 ,clifford1 whose engagements on ,sir ,charles ,bright's staff for the ,atlantic ,company had terminated4 ,thus1 with an additional staff of electricians1 they had placed themselves in a position to undertake direct contracts for laying1 as well as manufacturing1 submarine telegraphs4 ,they had1 indeed1 carried out work of this character in the ,mediterranean during the year #ahfj2 and on the amalgamation of the two businesses above mentioned into a limited liability company1 their position was still further strengthened4 ,the capital raised for the new cable by the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company was #fjj1jjj2 and1 by agreeing to take a considerable proportion of their payment in ,atlantic shares1 the contractors practically found more than half of this amount4 ,in the result1 the undertaking became a contractors' affair from first to last4 ,design and ,construction4--,it will be seen that the new cable was to be an expensive one as compared with that of #aheg-'eh4 ,it was the outcome of six years' further experience1 during which several important lines1 referred to in the last chapter1 had been laid4 ,it also followed upon the exhaustive ,government inquiry to which allusion has been made4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,the ,main ,cable1 #ahfe-'ff4 ,the actual type adopted 7,fig4 #cd71 on the recommendation of ,sir ,charles ,bright and other engineers who were additionally consulted1 was much the same in respect to the conductor and insulator--#cjj pounds copper to #djj pounds gutta-percha per nautical mile--as that which the former had suggested for the previous ,atlantic line4 ,this combination for the length involved was based on ,professor ,thomson's law for the working speed of a cable1 as depending inversely on the resistance of the conductor as well as on the electrostatic capacity of the core4 ,the armor consisted of a combination of iron and hemp1 each wire being enveloped in manila yarns4 ,the object of incasing the separate wires in hemp was 7#a7 to protect them from rust due to exposure to air and water1 and 7#b7 to reduce the specific gravity of the cable1 with a view to rendering it more capable of supporting its own weight in water4 ,this form of cable1 bearing a stress of about eight tons1#ei and suspending eleven miles of itself1 was considered by most of the authorities at that period to perfectly fulfil the conditions required for deep-sea lines4#fj ,the claims of light hempen cables1 without any iron1 had been urged for meeting the difficulty of lay and recovery in deep water2 and this type formed a sort of compromise1 its total diameter being #a4a inch1 weighing #a ton #af hundredweight in air1 and only #ad hundredweight in water4 ,the shore end was to have a further outer sheathing of twelve strands1 each strand containing three stout galvanized-iron wires of ,no4 #b ,b4,w4,g41 bringing the weight up to #bj tons per mile4 ,this was to be joined on to the main deep-sea type by a gradually tapering length of twenty-five fathoms4 ,arrangements for ,laying4--,it was determined that this time the cable must be laid in one length1 with the exception of the shore ends1 by a single vessel4 ,there was but one ship that could carry such a cargo4 ,this ship was the ,great ,eastern1 the conception of that distinguished engineer1 ,isambard ,kingdom ,brunel4 ,she was in course of construction by the late ,mr4 ,scott ,russell at the time of the first cable1 and it was a subject for regret that she was not then available4 ,an enormous craft of #bb1ejj tons1 she did not prove suitable at that time as a cargo-boat2 and the laying of the second ,atlantic cable was the first piece of useful work she did1 after lying more or less idle for nearly ten years4#fa ,it is sad to think of the way this poor old ship was metaphorically passed from hand to hand4 ,even at this period three separate companies had already been formed one after another to work her4 ,as promoter and chairman of one of these1 ,mr4 7afterward ,sir ,daniel7 ,gooch took an active part in arranging for her charter on this undertaking1 and it was in this way that he became a prominent party in the enterprise4 ,all the cable machinery was fitted to the ,great ,eastern1 on behalf of the ,telegraph ,construction ,company1 by ,mr4 ,henry ,clifford to the designs of ,mr4 ,canning and himself4 ,it was constructed and set up by the famous firm of engineers1 ,messrs4 ,john ,penn ,son1 of ,greenwich4 ,in the main principles the apparatus employed was similar to that previously adopted in #aheh on the ,agamemnon and ,niagara4 ,there were1 however1 several modifications introduced1 as the result of the extra experience gained during the seven years' interval4 ,the main point of difference was the further application of jockeys to the paying-out gear in a more complete form4 ,as it was not practicable to moor so enormous a vessel off the works at ,east ,greenwich1 the cable had to be cut into lengths and coiled on two pontoons1 and thence transferred to the big ship4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,the ,great ,eastern at ,sea4 ,landing the ,irish ,end4--,at length all the cable having been manufactured and shipped from the ,greenwich works1 the ,great ,eastern1 under the command of ,captain 7later ,sir ,james7 ,anderson1#fb left the ,thames on ,july #bc1 #ahfe1 with a total dead weight of #ba1jjj tons1 and proceeded to ,foilhommerun ,bay1 ,valentia4 ,here she joined up her cable to the shore end1 which had been laid a day earlier by ,s4,s4 ,caroline1 a small vessel chartered and fitted up for the purpose4 ,the great ship then started paying out as she steamed away on her journey to ,america1 escorted by two ,british men-of-war1 the ,terrible and the ,sphinx4 ,the ,sailing ,staff4--,on behalf of the contractors1 ,mr4 7afterward ,sir ,samuel7 ,canning was the engineer in charge of the expedition1 with ,mr4 ,henry ,clifford as his chief assistant4 ,as we have seen1 both these gentlemen had been engaged with ,sir ,charles ,bright on the first line1 besides having much experience in mechanical engineering as well as in cable work4 ,on the contractors' engineering staff there were also ,mr4 ,john ,temple and ,mr4 ,robert ,london4 ,mr4 ,c4 ,v4 de ,sauty served as chief electrician1 assisted by ,mr4 ,h4 ,a4 ,c4 ,saunders and several others4 ,by arrangement with the ,admiralty1 ,staff-,commander ,h4 ,a4 ,moriarty1 ,r4,n41 acted as the navigator of the expedition4 ,captain ,moriarty was possessed of great skill in this direction1 a fact which had been made clear in the previous undertaking4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--;,cable and ,machinery aboard ,s4,s4 ,great ,eastern4 ,the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company was represented on board by ,professor ,thomson and ,mr4 ,c4 ,f4 ,varley as electricians1 the former acting mainly as scientific expert in a consultative sense4 ,mr4 ,willoughby ,smith1 the electrician to the ,gutta-,percha ,works1 was also on board at the request of the contractors1 though holding no exact official position4 ,both ,mr4 ,field and ,mr4 ,gooch accompanied the expedition1 the former as the initial promoter of the enterprise1 and the latter on behalf of the ,great ,eastern ,company4 ,representing the press there were also on board ,dr4 7afterward ,sir ,w4 ,h47 ,russell1 the well-known correspondent of ,the ,times1 as the historian of the enterprise1 and ,mr4 ,robert ,dudley1 an artist of repute1 who produced several excellent sketches of the work in its different stages for the ,illustrated ,london ,news4 ,a ,bad ,start4--,unfortunately trouble soon arose4 ,the first fault declared itself the day after starting1 when eighty-four miles had been paid out4 ,it was decided to pick up back to the fault1 which was discovered after ten and a half miles had been brought on board4 ,a piece of iron wire was found to have pierced the cable diametrically1 so as to make contact between the sea and the conductor4 ,the faulty portion was cut out1 and the paying out resumed as soon as the cable was spliced up again4 ,on ,july #bith1 when #gaf miles had been laid1 another and more serious fault appeared4 ,the arduous operation of picking up again commenced4 ,after nine hours' work the fault was safe inboard1 and the necessary repair effected4 ,on stripping the cable another piece of iron wire was discovered sticking right through the core4 ,anxiety and misgivings were now felt by all on board1 for it seemed that such reverses could only be attributed to malevolence4 ,on ,august #b;d yet a further fault was reported2 they were now two-thirds of the way across1 #a1ahf miles of cable being already laid4 ,again they had to pick up1 and this time in a depth of #b1jjj fathoms4 ,one mile only had been recovered1 when an accident of some kind happened to the machinery4 ,the great ship1 having stopped1 was at the mercy of the wind and swell1 and heavy strains were brought on the cable1 which consequently suffered badly in two places4 ,before the two injured portions could be secured on board the cable parted and sank4 ,mr4 ,canning at once decided to endeavor to recover the cable1 notwithstanding the fact that it lay in #b1jjj fathoms4 ,after maneuvering in this way for about fifteen hours1 #gjj fathoms of rope had been hove in1 when one of the connecting links gave way1 and all beyond it sank to the bottom4 ,the work was recommenced with hempen ropes1 two miles farther west1 in a depth of #b1cjj fathoms1 and on ,august #hth the cable was again hooked2 but when raised to within #a1ejj fathoms of the surface1 yet another connecting link parted1 the strain being about nine tons4 ,two more attempts were made1 but both were doomed to end in failure4 ,the store of rope being now quite exhausted1 the work had to be abandoned1 and on ,august #aa1 #ahfe1 the fleet of ships parted company to return home--shattered in hopes as well as in ropes6 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,second ,,and ,,successful ,,attempt ,further ,funds--,fresh ,provisions--,new ,picking-up ,machine--,staff--,cable-,laying again--,success4 ,the results of the last expedition1 disastrous as they were from a financial point of view1 in no wise abated the courage of the promoters of the enterprise4 ,during the heaviest weather the ,great ,eastern had shown exceptional stiffness1 while her great size and her maneuvering power 7afforded by the screw and paddles combined7 seemed to show her to be the very type of vessel for this kind of work4 ,the picking-up gear1 it was true1 had proved insufficient1 but with the paying-out machinery no serious fault was to be found4 ,the feasibility of grappling in mid-,atlantic had been demonstrated1 and they had gone far toward proving the possibility of recovering the cable from similar depths4 ,further ,funds4--,to overcome financial difficulties1 the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company was amalgamated with a new concern1 the ,anglo-,american ,telegraph ,company1 which was formed1 mainly by those interested in the older business1 with the object of raising fresh capital for the new and double ventures of #ahff4 ,the ultimate capital of this company amounted 7as before7 to #fjj1jjj4 ,in raising this1 ,mr4 ,field first secured the support of the late ,sir ,daniel ,gooch1 ,m4,p41 then chairman1 and previously locomotive superintendent of the ,great ,western ,railway ,company1 who1 after what he had seen on the previous expedition1 promised1 if necessary1 to subscribe as much as #bj1jjj4 ,on the same conditions1 ,mr4 ,brassey expressed his willingness to bear one-tenth of the total cost of the undertaking4 ,ultimately1 the ,telegraph ,construction ,company led off with #ajj1jjj1 this amount being followed by the signatures of ten directors interested in the contract 7as guarantors7 at #aj1jjj apiece4 ,then there were four subscriptions of #e1jjj1 and some of #b1ejj to #a1jjj1 principally from firms participating in the subcontracts4 ,these sums were all subscribed before even the prospectus was issued or the books opened to the public4 ,the remaining capital then quickly followed4 ,the ,telegraph ,construction ,company1 in undertaking the entire work1 were to receive #ejj1jjj for the new cable in any case2 and1 if it succeeded1 an extra #ajj1jjj4 ,if both cables came into successful operation1 the total amount payable to them was to be #gcg1adj4 ,in fact1 it was1 if possible1 even more of a contractor's enterprise than that of #ahfe4 ,it was now proposed not only to lay a new cable between ,ireland and ,newfoundland1 but also to repair and complete the one lying at the bottom of the sea4 ,a length of #a1fjj miles of cable was ordered from the contractors4 ,thus1 with the unexpended cable from the last expedition1 the total length available when the expedition started would be #b1gcj miles1 of which #a1ifj miles were allotted to the new cable1 and #fig to complete the old one1 leaving #aac miles as a reserve4 ,fresh ,provisions4--,the new main cable was similar to that of the year before1 but the shore-end cable determined on in this case was of a different description4 ,it had only one sheathing1 consisting of twelve contiguous iron wires of great individual surface and weight2 and outside all a covering of tarred hemp and compound4 ,that part of the line which was intended for shallow depths was composed of three different types4 ,starting from the coast of ,ireland1 eight miles of the heaviest was to be laid1 then eight miles of an intermediate type1 and lastly fourteen miles of a lighter type1 making thirty miles of shoal-water cable on the ,irish side4 ,five miles of shallow-water cable1 of the different types named1 were considered sufficient on the ,newfoundland coast4 ,the previous paying-out machinery on board the ,great ,eastern was altered to some extent by ,messrs4 ,penn to the instructions of ,messrs4 ,canning ,clifford4 ,though different in detail1 the main improvement over the #ahfe gear consisted in the fact that a #gj-;horse-power steam-engine was fitted to drive the two large drums in such a way that the paying-out machinery1 as in #aheh1 could be used to pick up cable during the laying1 if necessary1 thereby avoiding the risk incurred by changing the cable from the stern to the bows4 ,this addition of ,penn trunk-engines1 as well as the general strengthening of the entire machinery1 was made in accordance with the designs of ,mr4 ,henry ,clifford4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--,the ,picking-up ,machine1 #ahff4 ,the picking-up machinery forward 7,fig4 #cg7 after the previous expedition was considerably strengthened and improved with spur-wheels and pinion-gearing4 ,it had two drums worked by a similar pair of #gj-;horse-power engines4 ,this formed an exceedingly powerful machine1 and reflected great credit on those who devised and constructed it4 ,similar gear was fitted up on board the two vessels--,s4,s4 ,medway and ,s4,s4 ,albany--chartered to assist the ,great ,eastern4 ,for the purpose of grappling the #ahfe cable1 twenty miles of rope were manufactured1 which was constituted by forty-nine iron wires1 separately covered with manila hemp4 ,six wires so served were laid up strandwise round a seventh1 which formed the heart1 or core1 of the rope4 ,this rope would stand a longitudinal stress of #cj tons before breaking4 ,in addition1 five miles of buoy-rope were provided1 besides buoys of different shapes and sizes1 the largest of which 7,fig4 #ch7 would support a weight of twenty tons4 ,as on the previous expedition1 several kinds of grapnels were put on board1 some of the ordinary sort1 and some with springs to prevent the cable surging1 and thus escaping while the grapnel was still dragging on the bottom2 others1 again1 were fashioned like pincers1 to hold 7or jam7 the cable when raised to a required height1 or else to cut it only1 and so take off a large proportion of the strain previous to picking up4 ,most of this apparatus was furnished by ,messrs4 ,brown1 ,lenox ,co41 the famous chain1 cable1 anchor1 and buoy engineers1 several of the grapnels being to their design1 as well as the connections4 ,the propelling machinery of the ,great ,eastern had similarly received alteration and improvement in the intervals of the two expeditions4 ,moreover1 the screw propeller was surrounded with an iron cage1 to keep the cable and ropes from fouling it1 as had been provided for the ,agamemnon and ,niagara in #aheg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,buoys1 ,grapnels1 ,mushrooms--and ,men4 ,the testing arrangements had been perfected by ,mr4 ,willoughby ,smith in such a way that insulation readings could be continuously observed1 even while measuring the copper resistance1 or while exchanging signals with ,valentia4 ,thus there was no longer any danger of a fault being paid overboard without instant detection4 ,on this occasion also condensers were applied to the receiving-end of the cable1 having the effect of very materially increasing--indeed1 sometimes almost doubling--the working speed4 ,on ,june #cj1 #ahff1 the ,great ,eastern1 steaming from the ,thames--followed by the ,medway and ,albany--arrived at ,valentia1 where ,h4,m4,s4 ,terrible and ,racoon were found1 under orders to accompany the expedition4 ,the ,medway had on board forty-five miles of deep-sea cable in addition to the ,american shore end4 ,the principal members of the staff acting on behalf of the contractors in this expedition were the same as in that of the previous year4 ,mr4 ,canning was again in charge1 with ,mr4 ,clifford and ,mr4 ,temple as his chief assistants4 ,in the electrical department1 however1 the ,telegraph ,construction ,company had since secured the services of ,mr4 ,willoughby ,smith as their chief electrician1 while he still acted in that capacity at the ,wharf ,road ,gutta-,percha ,works4 ,mr4 ,smith1 therefore1 accompanied the expedition as chief electrician to the contractors4 ,captain ,james ,anderson and ,staff-,commander ,h4 ,a4 ,moriarty1 ,r4,n41 were once more to be seen on board the great ship1 the former as her captain1 and the latter as navigating officer4 ,professor ,thomson was aboard as consulting electrical adviser to the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company1 while ,mr4 ,c4 ,f4 ,varley was ashore at ,valentia as their electrician4 ,sir ,charles ,bright 7then ,m4,p4 for ,greenwich7 was at this period serving on various committees of the ,house of ,commons2#fc but his partner1 ,mr4 ,latimer ,clark1 took up quarters at ,valentia to personally represent the firm as consulting engineers to the ,anglo-,american ,telegraph ,company4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,c4 ,laws and ,mr4 ,richard ,collett#fd being respectively aboard and ashore at the ,newfoundland end in the same interests4 ,mr4 ,glass1 the managing director of the ,telegraph ,construction ,company1 was ashore at ,valentia for the purpose of giving any instructions to his 7the contractor's7 staff on board1 while ,mr4 ,gooch and ,mr4 ,field were aboard the ,great ,eastern as onlookers and watchers of their individual interests4 ,cable-,laying again4--,on ,july #gth the ,william ,cory--commonly known as the ,dirty ,billy--landed the shore end in ,foilhommerum ,bay1 and afterward laid twenty-seven miles of the intermediate cable4 ,on the #acth1 the ,great ,eastern took the end on board1 and having spliced on to her cable on board1 started paying out4 ,the track followed was parallel to that taken the year before1 but about twenty-seven miles farther north4 ,there were two instances of fouls in the tank1 due to broken wires catching neighboring turns and flakes1 and thus drawing up a whole bundle of cable in an apparently inextricable mass of kinks and twists quite close to the brake-drum4 ,in each case the ship was promptly got to a standstill and all hands set to unraveling the tangle4 ,with a certain amount of luck1 coupled with much care1 neither accident ended fatally2 and1 after straightening out the wire as far as possible1 paying out was resumed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,foul in ,tank while ,paying out4 ,successful ,completion4--,fourteen days after starting the ,great ,eastern arrived off ,heart's ,content1#fe ,trinity ,bay1 where the ,medway joined on and landed the shore end partly by boats1 thus bringing to a successful conclusion this part of the expedition4 ,the total length of cable laid was #a1heb nautical miles2 average depth1 #a1djj fathoms4 ,rejoicings then took place during the coaling of the ,great ,eastern--to provide for which as many as six coal-laden steamers had left ,cardiff some weeks before4 ,the rejoicings were somewhat damped by the fact that the cable between ,newfoundland and ,cape ,breton 7,nova ,scotia7 still remained interrupted1 and that consequently the entire telegraphic system was not even now completed4 ,however1 in the course of a few days this line was repaired1 and ,new ,york and the east of the ,united ,states and ,canada were once more put into telegraphic communication with ,europe4 ,the telegraphic fleet put to sea again on ,august #ith4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,recovery ,,and ,,completion ,,of ,,the #ahfe ,,cable ,prospects and ,plans--,setting to ,work--,repeated ,failures--,ultimate ,triumph--,electricians ,ashore--,spot-watching--,putting-throug h--,pioneering--,working the ,lines4 ,prospects and ,plans4--,it now remained to find the end of the cable lost on ,august #b1 #ahfe1 situated about #fjd miles from ,newfoundland1 to pick it up1 splice on to the cable remaining on board1 and finish the work so unfortunately interrupted the year before4 ,the difficulties to be overcome can be readily imagined1 the cable lying #b1jjj fathoms without mark of any kind to indicate its position4 ,the buoys put down after the accident had long since disappeared1 either their moorings having dragged during various gales of wind1 or the wire ropes which held them having chafed through1 owing to incessant rise and fall at the bottom4 ,the position of the lost end had to be determined by astronomical observations4 ,these necessitate clear weather1 and can then only give approximate results on account of the variable ocean currents1 which sometimes flow at the rate of three knots4 ,moreover1 for grappling and raising the cable to the bows1 the sea must be tolerably smooth2 and in that part where the work lay a succession of fine days is rare1 even in the month of ,august4 ,however1 they still had on board ,captain ,moriarty1 one of the ablest navigators in the world4 ,added to this1 the greater portion of the cable in deep water had been paid out with about #ae per cent slack4 ,the chiefs of the expedition1 fully confident of success1 hastened their preparations1 and on ,august #i1 #ahff1 the ,great ,eastern again put to sea1 accompanied by ,s4,s4 ,medway4 ,on the #abth the vessels arrived on the scene of action1 and joined company with ,h4,m4,s4 ,terrible and ,s4,s4 ,albany1 these vessels having left ,heart's ,content ,bay a week in advance to buoy the line of the #ahfe cable and commence grappling4 ,the plan decided on was to drag for the cable near the end with all three ships at once4 ,the cable when raised to a certain height1 was to be cut by the ,medway stationed to the westward of the ,great ,eastern1 so as to enable the latter vessel to lift the ,valentia end on board4 ,this was1 of course1 before the days of cutting and holding grapnels as we now have them1 which render it possible for a single ship to effect repairs--even where it is out of the question to recover the cable in one bight4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,s4,s4 ,great ,eastern ,completing the ,second ,atlantic ,cable4 ,setting to ,work3 ,repeated ,failures4--,when the ,great ,eastern arrived on the grappling ground1 the ,albany 7with ,mr4 ,temple in engineering charge7 had already hooked and buoyed the cable1 but the buoy-chain having been carried away1 they not only lost the cable1 but #b1jjj fathoms of wire rope besides4 ,on ,august #acth the ,great ,eastern made her first drag1 about fifteen miles from the end1 and1 after several vain attempts1 the cable was finally hooked and lifted about #a1cjj fathoms4 ,during the operation of buoying the grappling rope1 a mistake occurred which resulted in the rope slipping overboard and going to the bottom4 ,the ,great ,eastern now proceeded six miles to the eastward1 and commenced a new drag1 for raking the ocean bed with #b1djj fathoms of wire rope4 ,about eleven o'clock at night the grapnel came to the surface with the cable caught on two of the prongs4 ,boats were quickly in position alongside the grapnel4 ,shortly afterward they were endeavoring to secure the cable to the strong wire rope1 by means of a nipper1 when the grapnel canted1 allowing the line to slip away from the prongs--like a great eel--and disappear into the sea4 ,on the #aith the cable was once more hooked1 and raised about a mile from the bottom1 but the sea was too rough for buoying it4 ,during the following week all three vessels dragged for the cable at different points1 according to the plan previously arranged1 but the weather was unfavorable1 and the cable was not hooked--or1 if hooked1 had managed to slip away from the grapnels4 ,the ship's company about this time became discouraged--in fact1 more and more convinced of the futility of their efforts4 ,on the #bgth the ,albany signaled that they had got the cable on board with a strain of only three tons1 and had buoyed the end1 but it was soon discovered that her buoy was thirteen miles from the track of the cable1 and that she had recovered a length of three miles which had been purposely paid overboard a few days before4 ,shifting ground to the eastward about fifteen miles1 the vessels were now working in a depth of #b1ejj fathoms4 ,as the store of grappling rope was diminishing day by day1 and the fine season rapidly coming to an end1 it was decided to proceed at once eighty miles farther east1 where the depth was not expected to exceed #a1ijj fathoms1 and there try a last chance4 ,ultimate ,triumph4--,after the above repeated failures1 the cable was hooked on ,august #cast by the ,great ,eastern 7when the grapnel had been lowered for the thirtieth time71 and picking up commenced in very calm weather4 ,the monster vessel did her work admirably4 ,to quote the words of an eye-witness3 ,so delicately did she answer her helm1 and coil in the film of thread-like cable1 that she put one in mind of an elephant taking up a straw in its proboscis4 ,when the bight of cable was about #ijj fathoms from the surface1 the grappling-rope was buoyed4 ,the big ship then proceeded to grapple three miles west of the buoy 7,fig4 #da71 and the ,medway 7with ,mr4 ,london on board7 another two miles or so west of her again4 ,the cable was soon once more hooked by both ships1 and when the ,medway had raised her bight to within #cjj fathoms of the surface she was ordered to break it4 ,the ,great ,eastern having stopped picking up when the bight was #hjj fathoms from the surface1 proceeded to resume the operation as soon as the intentional rupture of the cable had eased the strain1 which1 with a loose end of about two nautical miles1 at once fell from #aj or #aa tons to #e tons4 ,slowly1 but surely1 and amid breathless silence1 the long-lost cable made its appearance at last 7see opposite71 for the third time above water1 a little before one o'clock 7early morn7 of ,september #b;d4#ff ,two hours afterward the precious end was on board1 and signals were immediately exchanged with ,valentia4 ,this was at once led into the testing-room1 where ,mr4 ,willoughby ,smith1 in the presence of all the leaders on board1 applied the tests which were to determine the important question regarding the condition of the cable1 and whether it was entirely continuous to each end4 ,in a few minutes all suspense was relieved1 the tests showed the cable to be healthy and complete1 and immediately afterward 7in response to the ship's call7 the answering signals were received from the ,valentia end1 which were received with loud cheers that echoed and reechoed throughout the great ship4 ,electricians ,ashore3 ,spot-watching4--,let us now look at those patiently watching day after day1 night after night1 in the wooden telegraph cabin on shore1 the experience of whom may be taken as a fair sample of that of the electrician ashore during repairing operations in the present day4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--;,diagram ,illustrative of the ,final ,tactics ,adopted for ,picking up the #ahfe ,cable4 ,a--,point where cable was buoyed by the ,great ,eastern4 ,b--,point where cable was broken by the ,medway4 ,c--,bight of cable ultimately brought to surface by ,great ,eastern4 ,such a length of time had elapsed since the expedition left ,newfoundland that the staff at ,foilhommerum1 under the superintendence of ,mr4 ,james ,graves1 felt they were almost hoping against hope4 ,suddenly1 on a ,sunday morning at a quarter to six1 while the tiny ray of light from the reflecting instrument was being watched1 the operator observed it moving to and fro upon the scale4 ,a few minutes later the unsteady flickering was changed to coherency4 ,the long-speechless cable began to talk1 and the welcome assurance arrived1 ,ship to shore2 ,i have much pleasure in speaking to you through the #ahfe cable4 ,just going to make splice4 ,glad tidings were also sent from the ship via ,valentia to ,london1 and1 by means of the #ahff cable1 to ,newfoundland and ,new ,york4 ,thus it happened that those being tossed about in a stormy sea held conversation with ,europe and ,america at one and the same time4#fg ,putting ,through4--,the recovered end was spliced on without delay to the cable on board1 and the same morning at seven o'clock the ,great ,eastern started paying out about #fhj nautical miles of cable toward ,newfoundland4 ,on ,september #hth1 when only thirteen miles from the ,bay of ,heart's ,content1 just after receiving a summary of the news in ,the ,times of that morning1 the tests showed a fault in the cable4 ,the mischief was soon found to be on board the ship1 and caused by the end of a broken wire1 which1 bending at right angles under the weight of the men employed in the tanks1 had been forced into the core4 ,this occurrence explained the probable cause of the faults 7of same character7 which had shown themselves during paying out the year before1 tending to remove all suspicion of malicious intent4 ,the faulty portion having been cut out1 and the splice made without delay1 paying out again proceeded1 finishing the same day at eleven o'clock in the forenoon4 ,the ,medway immediately set to work laying the shore end1 and that evening a second line of communication across the ,atlantic was completed4 ,the total length of this cable1 commenced in #ahfe1 was #a1hif miles2 average depth1 #a1ijj fathoms4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,s4,s4 ,great ,eastern with #ahfe ,cable at ,bows2 ,depth1 #b ,miles4 ,pioneering4--,the main feature and accomplishment in connection with the second and third ,atlantic cables of #ahfe and #ahff was1 without doubt1 the recovery of the former in deeper water than had ever been before effected1 and in the open ocean2 just as in the first #aheh line it was the demonstration of the fact that a cable could be successfully laid in such a depth and worked through electrically4 ,in the interval between the two undertakings cable repairs had certainly been carried out in the ,mediterranean in #a1djj fathoms4 ,moreover1 the recovery and repair of a cable from the depths of the open ocean are now matters of ordinary every-day occurrence1 forming part and parcel of cable operations generally4 ,these facts should not1 however1 in any way detract from the greatness of the achievement at that time in so vast and boisterous an ocean4 ,working the ,two ,lines4--,professor ,thomson's reflecting-apparatus for testing and signaling had been considerably improved since the first cable4 ,in illustration of the degree of sensibility and perfection attained at this period in the appliances for working the line1 the following experiment is of striking interest3 ,mr4 ,latimer ,clark1 who went to ,valentia to test the cable for the ,atlantic ,company1 had the conductor of the two lines joined together at the ,newfoundland end1 thus forming an unbroken length of #c1gjj miles in circuit4 ,he then placed some pure sulfuric acid in a silver thimble1#fh with a fragment of zinc weighing a grain or two4 ,by this primitive agency he succeeded in conveying signals twice through the breadth of the ,atlantic ,ocean in little more than a second of time after making contact4 ,the deflections were not of a dubious character1 but full and strong1 the spot of light traversing freely over a space of twelve inches or more1 from which it was manifest that an even smaller battery would suffice to produce somewhat similar effects4 ,again1 in testing these cables it was found that if either was disconnected from the earth and charged with electricity1 it required more than an hour for half of the charge to escape through the insulating material to the earth4 ,this speaks well for the electrical components assigned to the two lines1 and for the arrangements adopted in working them4 ,it also shows the benefit derived from seven years' extra experience in manufacture1 backed up by the previously mentioned exhaustive ,government inquiry thereon4 ,notwithstanding the dimensions of the core1 these cables were worked slowly at first1 and at a rate of about eight words per minute4 ,this1 however1 soon improved as the staff became more accustomed to the apparatus1 and steadily increased up to fifteen--and even seventeen--words per minute on each line1 with the application of condensers4 ,unfortunately both these cables broke down a few months later1 and one of them again during the following year4 ,the faults were localized with great accuracy from ,heart's ,content by ,mr4 ,f4 ,lambert on behalf of ,messrs4 ,bright ,clark1 engineers to the ,anglo-,american ,company4 ,unlike the #aheh line1 however1 these last cables had not been killed electrically1 and1 being worthy of repairs1 they were maintained for a considerable time4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,jubilations ,banquets--,speeches--,honors ,on the return of the #ahff ,expedition a banquet was given to the cable-layers by the ,liverpool ,chamber of ,commerce1 as soon as the ,great ,eastern was safely moored in the ,mersey4 ,the following from ,the ,times will be of some interest here3 ,the chair was occupied by the ,rt4 ,hon4 ,sir ,stafford ,northcote1 ,bart41#fi ,president of the ,board of ,trade4 ,the following were among the invited guests3 the ,rt4 ,hon4 ,lord ,stanley1 ,m4,p41 ,secretary of ,state for ,foreign ,affairs2 the ,rt4 ,hon4 ,lord ,carnarvon2 the ,rt4 ,rev4 the ,lord ,bishop of ,chester2 the ,rt4 ,hon4 ,w4 ,e4 ,gladstone1 ,m4,p42 ,sir ,charles ,bright1 ,m4,p41 original projector of the ,atlantic cable1 and ,engineer to the ,anglo-,american ,telegraph ,company2 ,prof4 ,w4 ,thomson1 electrical adviser to the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company2 ,mr4 ,latimer ,clark1 coengineer with ,sir ,charles ,bright2 ,mr4 ,r4 ,a4 ,glass1 managing director to the ,telegraph ,construction ,company 7contractors72 ,mr4 ,samuel ,canning1 engineer to the contractors2 ,mr4 ,henry ,clifford1 assistant engineer to the contractors2 ,mr4 ,willoughby ,smith1 electrician to the contractors2 ,captain ,james ,anderson1 commander of the ,great ,eastern2 ,mr4 ,william ,barber1 chairman of the ,great ,ship ,company2 ,mr4 ,john ,chatterton1 manager of the ,gutta-,percha ,works2 ,mr4 ,e4 ,b4 ,bright1 ,magnetic ,telegraph ,company2 ,mr4 ,t4 ,b4 ,horsfall1 ,m4,p42 and ,mr4 ,john ,laird1 ,m4,p4 ,after proposing toasts to ,her ,majesty the ,queen1 to the ,president of the ,united ,states1 and to the ,prince of ,wales1 the chairman 7,sir ,s4 ,northcote7 again rose amid applause1 and said it was a maxim of a great ,roman poet that a great work should be begun by plunging into the middle of the subject4 ,he would therefore do so by proposing a toast to the projectors of the ,atlantic ,telegraph--,sir ,charles ,bright and ,mr4 ,cyrus ,field1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,brett having since unfortunately died4 ,when they came in after years to relate the history of this cable1 they would find many who had contributed to it1 but it would be as impossible to say who were the originators of the great invention as it was to say who were the first inventors of steam4 ,he begged to couple with the toast the name of ,sir ,charles ,bright1 as1 perhaps1 the foremost representative from all points of view up to the present time 7applause74 ,the greatest honor is due to the indomitable perseverance and energy of ,sir ,charles ,bright that the original cable was successfully laid1 though1 through no fault of his1 it had but a short useful existence 7great cheering74 ,sir ,charles ,bright1 ,m4,p41 after acknowledging the compliment paid to the original projectors and to himself personally1 said that the idea of laying a cable across the ,atlantic was the natural outcome of the success which was attained in carrying short lines under the ,english and ,irish ,channels1 and was a common subject of discussion among those concerned in telegraph extension prior to the formation of the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company4 ,about ten years ago the science had sufficiently advanced to permit of the notion assuming a practical form4 ,soundings taken in the ,atlantic between ,ireland and ,newfoundland proved that the bottom was soft1 and that no serious currents or abrading agencies existed1 for the minute and fragile shells brought up by the sounding-line were perfect and uninjured4 ,there only remained the proof that electricity could be employed through so vast a length of conductor4 ,upon this point and the best mode of working such a line1 he had been experimenting for several years4 ,he had carried on a series of investigations which resulted in establishing the fact that messages could be practically passed through an unbroken circuit of more than #b1jjj miles of insulated wire1 a notion derided at that time by many distinguished authorities4 ,mr4 ,wildman ,whitehouse1 who subsequently became electrician to the company1 had been likewise engaged4 ,on comparing notes later1 it was discovered that we had arrived at similar results1 though holding somewhat different views1 for his 7,sir ,c4 ,bright's7 calculations1 using other instruments1 led him to believe that a conductor nearly four times the size of that adopted would be desirable with a slightly thicker insulator4 ,it was this type which the new cables just laid had been furnished with4 ,in #ahef1 ,mr4 ,cyrus ,field--to whom the world was as much indebted for the establishment of the line as to any man--came over to ,england upon the completion of the telegraph between ,nova ,scotia and ,newfoundland4 ,he then joined with the late ,mr4 ,brett and himself 7,sir ,c4 ,bright7 with the view of extending this system to ,europe1 and they mutually agreed1 as also did ,mr4 ,whitehouse later1 to carry out the undertaking4 ,a meeting was first held in ,liverpool1 and in the course of a few days their friends had subscribed the necessary capital4 ,so that in greeting those who had just returned from the last expedition--,mr4 ,canning1 ,mr4 ,clifford1 ,captain ,anderson1 and other guests of the evening--,liverpool was fitly welcoming those who had accomplished the crowning success of an enterprise to which at the outset she had so largely contributed 7applause74 ,the circumstances connected with the first cable would be in the recollection of every one1 and1 although the loss was considerable1 the experience gained was of no small moment4 ,a few months after the old line had ceased to work1 their chairman 7,sir ,s4 ,northcote7 consulted him on behalf of the ,government as to the best form of cable for connecting us telegraphically with ,gibraltar1 and he 7,sir ,c4 ,bright7 did not hesitate to recommend the same type of conductor and insulator which he had himself before suggested for the ,atlantic line--a higher speed being desirable4 ,this class of conductor in the newly laid ,atlantic cable appeared likely to give every satisfaction1 he was happy to say1 and the mechanical construction of the cable1 also the same as that he had previously specified for the ,gibraltar line1 appeared to have admirably met some of the difficulties experienced in cable operations4 ,the credit attached to these second and third ,atlantic cables must mainly rest with the ,telegraph ,construction ,company 7formerly ,messrs4 ,glass1 ,elliot ,co47 and their staff1 inasmuch as in this case the responsibility rested with them throughout4 ,the directors--including ,mr4 ,glass1 ,mr ,elliot1 ,mr4 ,gooch1 ,mr4 ,pender1 ,mr4 ,barclay1 and ,mr4 ,brassey--deserved the reward which they and the shareholders would no doubt reap4 ,to ,mr4 ,glass1 upon whom the principal responsibility of the manufacture devolved1 the greatest praise was due for his indomitable perseverance in the enterprise4 ,then the art of insulating the conducting-wire had been so wonderfully improved by ,mr4 ,chatterton and ,mr4 ,willoughby ,smith1 that1 nowadays1 a very feeble electrical current was sufficient to work the longest circuits1 an enormous advance on the state of affairs nine years previously4 ,again1 they must not forget how much of the success now attained was due to ,professor ,thomson and his delicate signaling-apparatus1 the advantages of which have since #aheh been more firmly established4 ,mr4 ,varley had also done most useful work since becoming electrician to the ,atlantic ,company4 ,moreover1 he 7,sir ,c4 ,bright7 hoped the active personal services of his partner1 ,mr4 ,latimer ,clark1 would not be forgotten4 ,it was satisfactory to find that the cables were already being worked at a very large profit4 ,this system would doubtless be quadrupled within a short period1 when the land-lines on the ,american side were improved 7hear1 hear1 and applause74 ,with this commercial success--combined with the improvements introduced into submarine cables1 and the power of picking up and repairing them from vast depths--there was a future for submarine telegraphy to which scarcely any bounds could be imagined4 ,a certain amount had already been done1 but ,china and ,japan1 ,australia and ,new ,zealand1 ,south ,america and the ,west ,india ,islands1 must all be placed within speaking-distance of ,england4 ,when this last has been accomplished1 but not till then1 telegraphic engineers might take a short rest from their labors and ask with some little pride3 ,quoe regio in terris nostri non plena laboris8 7loud applause74 ,then followed speeches from ,lord ,stanley1 the ,american ,consul 7on behalf of ,mr4 ,cyrus ,field71 and others4 ,honors were subsequently bestowed on some of the various gentlemen most immediately concerned in these--at last--wholly successful undertakings of #ahfe and #ahff1 which left their results behind in complete and lasting form4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,subsequent ,,atlantic ,,lines ,as a natural sequence other ,atlantic cables followed in course of time4 ,thus in #ahfi ,france was put into direct telegraphic communication with ,america by means of a cable from ,brest to the island of ,st4 ,pierre1 and another from ,st4 ,pierre to ,sydney1 ,u4,s4,a4#gj ,the former length was manufactured by the ,telegraph ,construction and ,maintenance ,company1 and the latter by ,mr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,henley4 ,the ,telegraph ,construction ,company were the contractors for laying the whole cable on behalf of the ,french ,atlantic ,cable ,company 7,socit du ,cble ,trans-,atlantique ,franais74#ga ,this work was successfully accomplished from the ,great ,eastern 7,captain ,robert ,halpin7 by the same staff as had laid the #ahff cable4 ,owing to the route1 this line was materially longer than the previous ,atlantic cables1 its length 7from ,brest to ,st4 ,pierre7 being as much as #b1fhe nautical miles4 ,the working-speed attained on the ,french ,atlantic cable was ten and a half words per minute4 ,the conductor of the ,brest-,st4 ,pierre section was composed of seven copper wires stranded together1 weighing #djj pounds per nautical mile1 covered with a gutta-percha insulator of the same weight4 ,the core of the ,st4 ,pierre-,sydney section was made up as follows3 ,copper #ajg pounds per nautical mile2 gutta-percha #aej pounds per nautical mile4 ,like the previous lines1 this cable has been down1 electrically speaking1 for some years4 ,it proved a very costly one in repairs1 one expedition alone having run into as much as #ie1jjj4 ,in #ahgc the ,direct ,united ,states ,cable ,company was formed1 being the first competitor--from this country--with the ,anglo-,american ,company4#gb ,messrs4 ,siemens ,brothers1 who had taken an active part in the promotion of the scheme1 were the contractors1 both for manufacture and for submersion4 ,it was1 indeed1 the first really important length with which this firm had been concerned as manufacturers4 ,the laying was attended with complete success1 and the line opened to the public in #ahge4 ,later on1 in #ahgg1 the ,direct ,united ,states ,company was reconstructed1 their system entering into the pool or joint purse4 ,the latter was established shortly after the #ahfi ,atlantic cable had been laid1 constituting one great financial combination4 ,in #ahgi another ,french company was formed to establish independent communication between ,france and the rest of the ,european ,continent on the one hand1 and the ,united ,states of ,america on the other4 ,the1 to ,english ears and lips1 somewhat cumbersome title of this concern was ,la ,compagnie ,franaise du ,tlgraphe de ,paris ,new ,york1 but it soon became styled in ,england the ,p4 ,q4 ,company1 after ,m4 ,pouyer-,quertier1 its presiding genius4 ,the cable was made and laid in the same year by ,messrs4 ,siemens ,brothers1 though the scheme had taken three years to reach contract point4 ,the ,p4 ,q4 ,company in #ahid amalgamated with ,la ,socit ,franaise des ,tlgraphes ,sous-marins1 under the title of ,la ,compagnie ,franaise des ,cbles ,tlgraphiques4 ,in #ahha an ,american company was formed1 under the guidance of the late ,mr4 ,jay ,gould1 entitled ,the ,american ,telegraph and ,cable ,company1 with a view to partaking in the profits of transatlantic telegraphy by establishing another line of communication between the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain1 and thence to the rest of ,europe4 ,this cable was also constructed and laid 7in the course of that year7 by ,messrs4 ,siemens ,brothers1 who were part promoters of the enterprise1 as well as another cable for the same system in the following year1 #ahhb4 ,this company's cables are leased by the ,western ,union ,telegraph ,company1 which was practically ,jay ,gould's property1 and remained so up to close on the time of his death1 a few years ago4 ,in #ahhc the above system entered the ,pool--the happy destination for which1 maybe1 it was originally launched into existence4 ,a fresh competitor arrived in #ahhd in the person of the ,commercial ,cable ,company4 ,two cables were laid across the ,atlantic for this company in the same year1 its promoters wisely foreseeing that1 in view of the continual chance of a breakdown1 this was the only way in which they could safely attempt to compete with their more firmly established rivals4 ,the ,commercial ,company was mainly promoted by two ,american millionaires1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,mackay1 the celebrated ,new ,york financier1 and ,mr4 ,gordon ,bennett1 the proprietor of the ,new ,york ,herald2 with them were associated ,messrs4 ,siemens ,brothers1 who afterward became the contractors for the enterprise4 ,these cables1 like the ,jay ,gould lines1 stretch from the extreme southwest point of ,ireland 7which is connected by special cable with ,england7 to ,nova ,scotia1 and thence to the ,united ,states1 one of them direct to ,new ,york4 ,the system is directly connected with that of the ,canadian ,pacific ,railroad ,company1 thus affording ready communication with the ,dominion4 ,neither the ,commercial ,company's system nor that of the ,compagnie ,franaise des ,cbles ,tlgraphiques is at present in the ,atlantic ,pool4 ,in #ahid yet two more additions were made to the list of ,atlantic cables--one on behalf of the ,commercial ,cable ,company1 and the other for the ,anglo-,american ,company4 ,the new ,commercial line was constructed and laid by ,messrs4 ,siemens ,brothers1 and the ,anglo cable by the ,telegraph ,construction ,company4 ,fig4 #dc shows the type adopted for the deepest water of the latter1 and ,fig4 #dd that for the shore ends4 ,here the wires1 besides being of a very large gauge1 are applied with an extremely short lay 7hence the elliptic appearance1 though circular in reality71 in order to increase the weight of iron1 and thereby avoid shifting and abrasion4 ,this type is now in constant use where rocks1 ice-floes1 strong currents1 or rough weather are experienced4 ,special arrangements were made in the design of both these cables to meet the requirements of increased speed4 ,since the successful application to submarine cables of various modifications of ,wheatstone's automatic transmitter1 the limit to the speed attainable only depends1 practically speaking1 upon the type of cable employed4 ,on these principles the core of the new ,commercial cable was composed of a copper conductor weighing #ejj pounds per nautical mile1 covered with a gutta-percha insulating-sheath weighing #cbj pounds per nautical mile1 while the new ,anglo has a core with conductor weighing #fej pounds per nautical mile1 and gutta-percha insulator #djj pounds per nautical mile1 involving a completed cable 7main type7 nearly double the weight of previous corresponding lines4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--;,anglo-,american ,atlantic ,cable 7#ahid73 deep-sea type4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,shore-end of the #ahid ,anglo ,cable4 ,reduced size4 ,the actual speed obtained by automatic transmission with the latter cable is as high as forty-seven 7or even up to fifty7 five-letter words per minute4 ,on the previous1 lighter1 ,atlantic cores twenty-five to twenty-eight words per minute was the usual maximum speed attainable2 the former1 say1 by average transmission and average receiving1 and the latter by automatic transmission--other circumstances corresponding4 ,practically all submarine cables between important points--and certainly all those across the ,atlantic--are now duplexed--a system of electrical working 7instituted by ,messrs4 ,muirhead in #ahge7 which enables messages to be sent in both directions at the same time4 ,the result of this is nowadays to practically double the carrying capacity and earning power of the line1 the effective speed in either direction remaining virtually the same as in simplex working1 provided the cable is in good condition4#gc ,the armor of this cable 7,fig4 #dc7 is also a good example of present-day practise1 each wire 7usually covered with compounded tape7 butting against the next2 this is found to be the most durable form for a deep-sea cable4 ,in #ahih another ,french ,atlantic line of a similar type to the above was laid4 ,this involved the longest ,atlantic cable-section in existence1 i4e41 #c1agd nautical miles1 from ,brest to ,cape ,cod1 and was the first ,atlantic line made and laid by ,frenchmen1 with the active assistance1 as regards laying1 of the ,silvertown ,company4 ,recently1 too1 a ,german ,atlantic cable has been laid by the ,telegraph ,construction ,company from ,emden to the ,azores1 and hence to ,new ,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the various proprietary companies here named have had duplicating lines laid for them from time to time1 but these it is not necessary to further allude to4 ,neither has it been thought necessary to give particulars regarding the methods of construction1 laying1 testing or working of any of these later lines following on the pioneer undertakings1 except where special novelties were introduced4 ,for similar reasons--and seeing that the responsibility of these later lines rested with contractors--the names of their permanent staff acting for them have not been introduced4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,atlantic ,,cable ,,systems ,,of ,,to-,,day ,connecting ,links--,tariff--,revenue ,as a part of the union between the old world and the new1 there are altogether fifteen cables now working across the ,north ,atlantic ,ocean 7see ,fig4 #de71 such as are usually termed ,atlantic cables4 ,some of the ,atlantic companies have special cables of their own from the landing place on the coast of ,ireland to points on the ,continental coasts4 ,the figure on page #bba suggests one of the difficulties any wireless system would have to contend with in attempting at transatlantic telegraphy on a commercial basis4#gd ,some of these cables at each end of the corresponding main section contain more than one insulated conductor4 ,tariff4--,in the early pioneer days of ocean telegraphy the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company started with a minimum tariff of #bj for twenty words1 and #a for each additional word4 ,this was first reduced to #aj for twenty words1 and was further altered later on to #e for ten words4 ,after this it stood for a long time at a minimum of #cjs4 for ten words of five letters each4 ,subsequently1 in #ahfg1 the ,anglo-,american ,company tried a word-rate of #a for the #ahfe and #ahff ,atlantic cables2 but it was not until #ahgb that ,mr4 ,henry ,weaver1 their able manager1 first instituted a regular word-rate system 7without any minimum7 of #ds4 per word4 ,at the present time 7#aijc71 thanks to competition1 to technical improvements in the plant1 and increased traffic--bringing in its train those economies in the working which are always possible in a larger scale of operation--the rate stands at #as4 a word with all the ,atlantic companies4 ,some day we may1 perhaps1 see a sixpenny transatlantic tariff in permanent force4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--;,atlantic ,cable ,systems1 #aijc4 ,revenue4--,the fifteen ,atlantic cables now in use represent a total capital of well over #bj1jjj1jjj sterling4 ,a knowledge of the profits derived from each system is not readily arrived at2 but from a comparison of the traffic receipts or money returns of the oldest existing ,atlantic company at different periods1 we are bound to conclude that the takings are1 roughly speaking1 very much the same now as they were twenty-five years ago4 ,this is explainable by the fact that1 although the number of messages now passing is much greater1 the reduction of the rate 7with the ever-increasing competition of rival lines7 just about cancels the advantage1 so far as receipts are concerned4 ,roughly speaking1 however1 the annual gross traffic on transatlantic telegraphy stands at about #a1bjj1jjj1 divided among two ,english companies1 two ,american1 one ,french1 and one ,german company4 ,both the two latter are materially subsidized by their respective ,governments1 who now foresee the desirability of being independent of cables under ,english control4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,for particulars regarding preelectrical telegraphy and previous researches in electrotelegraphy1 the reader is referred to ,a ,history of ,telegraphy to the year #ahcg1 by ,j4 ,j4 ,fahie1 ,m4,i4,e4,e4 7,e4 and ,f4 ,n4 ,spon1 #ahhd74 #b ,a certain knowledge regarding electric and magnetic science has to be assumed here2 and1 for further particulars on this subject1 the reader is referred to another volume of this series1 ,the ,story of ,electricity1 by ,john ,munro4 #c ,submarine ,telegraphs3 ,their ,history1 ,construction1 and ,working1 by ,charles ,bright1 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,a4,m4 ,inst4 ,c4,e41 ,m4,i4,e4,e4 7,london3 ,crosby ,lockwood ,son1 #ahih47 #d ,b4,w4,g4--,birmingham ,wire ,gage4 #e ,it was gravely suggested by a prominent naval officer to thread the line through old cannonades lying idle1 at ,portsmouth harbor4 ,this notion was not taken up2 but a light chain twined round the insulated conductor throughout its length would certainly have served the purpose better than the leaden weights1 inasmuch as it would have protected the line from chafing1 besides being less liable to damage the core4 #f ,some critics had actually supposed that the method of signaling was that of pulling the wire after the manner of mechanical house-bells2 and were at pains to point out that the bottom of the channel was too rough for that4 #g ,for further particulars1 see the ,life ,story of ,sir ,charles ,tilston ,bright4 7,london3 ,archibald ,constable ,co41 #ahih47 #h ,it will be readily understood that without this weight1 the line would not for certain descend to the bottom--and certainly not in a straight line--in any considerable depths4 ,on the other hand1 it would be impossible to recover an effective weight without great risk of breaking the line4 ,for this reason the weight is abandoned1 and a considerable number may be found at the bottom of the sea in every quarter of the globe4 #i ,these live near the surface of the ocean in myriads upon myriads1 incessantly sinking to the bottom as their short life is ended4 ,thus1 in the course of ages1 there grows constantly upward a formation similar to the chalk cliffs of ,england1 which contain the identical shells1 deposited when this country was submerged far below sea-level thousands of years ago4 #aj ,in the present day1 however1 soundings are taken at intervals of about ten miles along the proposed route1 and even then submarine hills and valleys are frequently encountered4 ,this is effected by means of the ,thomson steam sounding-apparatus1 the great feature of which is a fine steel wire 7the same as that in the treble notes of a piano7 in place of a hempen line of enormous bulk4 ,nowadays1 taking a sounding in the ,atlantic occupies well under an hour of time1 where by the old method it took at least six hours4 #aa ,the full particulars of the agreement with the ,english ,government were embodied in a letter from the ,treasury 7see ,life ,story of ,sir ,charles ,bright7 and form instructive reading even at the present time4 #ab ,submarine ,telegraphs4 #ac ,the ,pirate1 p4 #b4 #ad ,valentia is the ,irish terminus of several of the present ,atlantic lines4 #ae ,n4,m4--,nautical miles4 #af ,though such a core would have been a great novelty at the time1 it closely approximates to present-day practise4 #ag ,mins4 ,proc4 ,inst4 ,c4 ,e41 vol4 xvi4 #ah ,an ,atlantic cable of the present day runs into about half a million sterling4 ,gutta-percha was1 in those days1 less scarce2 on the other hand1 its manufacture was more of a novelty1 and there was comparatively little competition in cable-making4 #ai ,professor ,morse 7who held a sort of watching brief for the ,united ,states ,government7 also took passage1 but had to retire to his berth as soon as the elements asserted themselves1 and was scarcely visible again till all was over4 #bj ,the sheaves had several grooves which the cable fitted into in its passage4 ,though possessing some merits1 this plan was never again adopted1 owing partly to the above risk4 #ba ,this was owing to the two halves of the cable being made at different factories1 without any communication passing between them on the subject4 #bb ,this apparatus first gained its name from the nature of the part it plays in machinery1 being similar to that of a human jockey4 #bc ,so called on account of the form of grooving adopted for taking the under side of the table4 #bd ,submarine ,telegraphs4 #be ,it is partly for this reason that so full an account is given here4 #bf ,in those days all such instruments were spoken of as galvanometers1 no matter for what purpose they were employed4 ,moreover1 this instrument was also used sometimes for testing4 ,that which goes by the name of the marine galvanometer in the present day was not invented by ,lord ,kelvin till some years later4 #bg ,this splice-frame was an ingenious arrangement for neutralizing the untwisting tendency of two opposite lays when spliced together1 but is never required in present-day practise4 #bh ,this1 of course1 did not in any way come as a surprise1 for the length of cable employed for these experiments had long since been condemned as imperfect4 #bi ,and so it is sometimes with telegraph-ships--as regards the dead weight of cable--even in the present day1 when compared with the risks run by ordinary seagoing vessels4 #cj ,when these part to any extent a ship is always considered in a dangerous condition4 #ca ,by subsequent tests it was clear that at any rate the cable remaining on board was perfect4 ,but after com paring notes with the ,niagara1 a strong belief was held that the cable probably parted at the bottom4 #cb ,this was from the last turn in the coil1 and subsequently it was discovered that owing to the disturbance in the flooring of the tank during the storm1 the cable had been damaged here4 #cc ,life-,story of ,sir ,charles ,bright4 #cd ,though bearing this somewhat cumbersome and elaborate title1 this instrument was practically nothing more nor less than an ordinary detector1 its capacity for actually measuring the electric current being of an extremely limited character4 #ce ,this was some of the cable damaged during the storm1 like that which had been broken at the end of the previous attempt4 ,the bottom of the hold here was found afterward to be in a very disordered state4 #cf ,later on it was made clear that this mysterious temporary want of continuity1 accompanied by an apparent variation in the insulation1 was due to a defect in the more or less inconstant sand-battery used aboard the latter vessel4 #cg ,it subsequently transpired that the trouble had been due to a fault in the ,niagara's ward-room coil4 ,as soon as the electricians discovered this1 and had it cut out1 all went smoothly again4 #ch ,the amount of slack paid out had already been almost ruinous4 ,luckily its continuance was not necessary1 or it would have been impossible to reach ,ireland with the cable on board4 #ci ,the ,times1 ,wednesday1 ,august #aa1 #aheh4 #dj ,this spot had been selected on account of its seclusion from prevailing winds1 and owing to the shelter it afforded from drifting icebergs4 #da ,engineer's log1 ,u4,s4,n4,s4 ,niagara4 #db ,the ,times1 second edition1 ,august #eth1 #aheh4 #dc ,the ,times1 ,august #f1 #aheh4 #dd ,daily ,news1 ,august #bj1 #aheh4 #de ,the ,life-,story of ,sir ,charles ,bright1 ibid4 #df ,the ,times1 ,august #f1 #aheh4 #dg ,submarine ,telegraphs4 #dh ,in his work on the ,electric ,telegraph1 the late ,mr4 ,robert ,sabine said3 ,at the date of the first ,atlantic cable1 the engineering department was far ahead of the electrical4 ,the cable was successfully laid--mechanically good1 but electrically bad4 ,its electrical failure was1 of course1 bound to spell commercial failure1 no matter how great its success as an engineering feat4 #di ,in his presidential address to the ,institution of ,electrical ,engineers in #ahhi1 ,lord ,kelvin 7the ,professor ,thomson referred to in these pages7 said3 ,the first ,atlantic cable gave me the happiness and privilege of meeting and working with the late ,sir ,charles ,bright4 ,he was the engineer of this great undertaking--full of vigor1 full of enthusiasm4 ,we were shipmates on the ,agamemnon on the ever-memorable expedition of #aheh1 during which we were out of sight of land for thirty-three days4 ,to ,sir ,c4 ,bright's vigor1 earnestness1 and enthusiasm was due the successful laying of the cable4 ,we must always feel deeply indebted to our late colleague as a pioneer in that great work1 when other engineers would not look at it1 and thought it absolutely impracticable4 #ej ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 #hth edition1 #ahfj4 ,article on ,the ,electric ,telegraph1 by ,prof4 ,w4 ,thomson1 ,f4,r4,s4 #ea ,mr4 ,croskey also subsequently found the bulk of the capital for the exploring expeditions4 #eb ,later ,admiral ,sir ,leopold ,m',clintock1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 #ec ,now ,sir ,allen ,young1 ,c4 ,b4 #ed ,the reproduction given here is from a photograph kindly lent by ,sir ,allen ,young4 #ee ,in consolidating the texture of the gutta-percha1 pressure increases its electrical resistance1 unless a flaw exists such as would then be immediately brought to light4 #ef ,see ,submarine ,telegraphs4 #eg ,mr4 ,field compassed land and sea incessantly for the purpose of agitating the subject4 ,he is said to have crossed the ,atlantic altogether sixty-four times--suffering from sea sickness on each occasion--in connection with this great enterprise in which he formed so prominent a figure4 #eh ,afterward ,sir ,john ,pender1 ,g4,c4,m4,g41 ,m4,p4 #ei ,the increased breaking strain here afforded over that of the first ,atlantic line was partly due to the great improvement made in the manufacture of iron wire during the interval4 #fj ,experience has since taught us1 however1 that such a type lacks durability1 owing to the rapid decay of the hemp between the iron wires and the sea4 #fa ,the ,great ,eastern1 in point of size1 was only a little before her time4 ,in the present day1 with improved engines1 she could be usefully and profitably employed1 had she not been broken up4 #fb ,afterward the able manager of the ,eastern ,telegraph ,company4 #fc ,life-,story of ,sir ,c4 ,t4 ,bright4 #fd ,at a later period--after both the #ahfe and #ahff cables were in working order--,mr4 ,collett sent a message from ,newfoundland to ,valentia with a battery composed of a copper percussion-cap and a small strip of zinc1 which were excited by a drop of acidulated water--the bulk of a tear only4 #fe ,this is situated on the opposite side of ,trinity ,bay to ,bull ,arm1 where the #aheh cable had been landed1 and not so far up4 ,it was supposed to be even more protected than ,bull ,arm1 from which it is some eighteen miles distant4 #ff ,submarine ,telegraphs4 #fg ,this is1 of course1 nowadays quite an ordinary occurrence1 and by means of wireless telegraphy likely to become still more so4 ,then1 however1 it was a complete novelty4 #fh ,mr4 ,clark borrowed the thimble--which was a very small one--from ,miss ,fitzgerald1 the daughter of the ,knight of ,kerry1 living at ,valentia4 #fi ,afterward the first ,earl of ,iddesleigh1 ,g4,c4,b4 #gj ,this enterprise1 although mainly on behalf of ,france and the rest of the ,european continent1 was principally advanced by financiers in ,england2 the working of the cable was also chiefly under ,british direction and management4 #ga ,afterward1 in #ahgc1 merged with its cable into the ,anglo-,american ,telegraph ,company and its system4 #gb ,this company had just had two fresh cables laid for them 7#ahgc and #ahgd7 by the ,telegraph ,construction ,company with some of their usual staff4 ,the laying of the #ahgd ,atlantic was the last piece of telegraph work performed by the ,great ,eastern4 ,she has since been broken up1 after being employed1 among other things1 as a sort of variety show4 ,new cables were first rendered necessary--according to the joint-purse agreement previously referred to--by the final breakdown1 after several repairs1 of the #ahff cable in #ahgb4 ,later on 7in #ahgg7 the #ahfe also succumbed1 and another ,anglo cable was laid by the same contractors in #ahhj4 ,the ,telegraph ,construction and ,maintenance ,company laid this #ahhj cable without any hitch or stoppage within the surprisingly short space of twelve days1 the record up to date in ,atlantic cable-laying4 #gc ,thus the ,atlantic cable of to-day may be credited with an output of #ajj words a minute as compared with a single word in the same period1 such as was at first obtained in the pioneer days of one cable worked by one company4 #gd ,wireless telegraphy is at present a comparatively slow working affair2 and if it is to successfully compete with our ,atlantic cables1 this means a great multiplication of transatlantic circuits all more or less close together1 and1 in consequence1 all more or less liable to interfere with each other under existing conditions4 ,probably1 however1 any new company formed for the purposes of telegraphic communication between different countries would not confine itself--either in name or practise--to cables1 but would also cultivate the wireless system of telegraphy4