,,the ,,contemporary ,,science ,,series4 ,,edited ,,by ,,havelock ,,ellis4 ,,evolution ,,in ,,art4 ,,evolution ,,in ,,art3 ,,as ,,illustrated ,,by ,,the ,,life-,,histories ,,of ,,designs4 ,,by ,,alfred ,c4 ,,haddon1 ,professor of ,zoology1 ,royal ,college of ,science1 ,dublin1 ,corresponding ,member of the ,italian ,society of ,anthropology1 etc4 ,with #h ,plates1 and #acj ,figures in the ,text4 ,,london3 ,,walter ,,scott1 ,,ltd41 ,,paternoster ,,square4 ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons1 #aec-aeg ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york4 #ahie4 ,,the ,,walter ,,scott ,,press1 ,,newcastle-,,on-,,tyne4 ,,preface4 ,i would like to take the opportunity which a ,preface affords to thank those friends who have helped me in the preparation of this little book4 ,most of them will find their names mentioned somewhere in the text4 ,it is also my pleasant duty to heartily acknowledge the kindness ,i have everywhere experienced when collecting the materials on which these studies are based4 ,on many occasions ,i have entered a museum in ,britain or abroad1 not knowing any one on the staff4 ,on explaining my object every facility was at once offered1 cases were opened1 specimens were handed to me1 and various conveniences arranged2 often1 too1 help was rendered me at the time1 not only by curators and assistants1 but also by museum porters and gendarmes4 ,it is particularly gratifying for a stranger to be received as a colleague1 and to find that museum authorities everywhere recognise that the collections put under their charge serve their end best when they are utilised by students4 ,a word of apology may be needed for the copious extracts which have been made from the works of other writers4 ,my object in this has been to show that there has been quite a considerable number of investigators who have approached the subject of decorative art from a similar point of view to that elaborated in the present essay4 ,a quotation brings one more face to face with the author than does a mere abstract1 and personally ,i like to feel the comradeship of similar studies4 ,we all contribute our mites1 and the only pity is we cannot all be personally known to one another4 ,it would afford me great pleasure if this book leads to new students entering upon this important and intensely interesting field of inquiry1 and ,i shall always be pleased to correspond with those who are or who desire to be fellow-workers4 ,,alfred ,c4 ,,haddon4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,introduction #a ,,the ,,decorative ,,art ,,of ,,british ,,new ,,guinea3 ,,as ,,an ,,example ,,of ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,study #aa ,i4 ,torres ,straits and ,daudai #ac ,,ii4 ,the ,fly ,river #bf ,,iii4 ,the ,papuan ,gulf #bi ,,iv4 ,the ,central ,district #db ,v4 ,the ,massim ,district #dg ,,vi4 ,relation of the ,decorative ,art to the ,ethnology of ,british ,new ,guinea #ei ,,vii4 ,note on the ,scroll ,designs of ,british ,new ,guinea #fg ,,the ,,material ,,of ,,which ,,patterns ,,are ,,made #gd ,i4 ,the ,decorative ,transformation and ,transference of ,artificial ,objects 7,skeuomorphs7 #ge #a4 ,transformation of a ,solitary ,object #gf #b4 ,transference of ,fastenings #hd #c4 ,skeuomorphs of ,textiles #hi #d4 ,skeuomorphic ,pottery #ig #e4 ,stone ,skeuomorphs of ,wooden ,buildings #aad #f4 ,skeuomorphic ,inappropriateness #aaf ,,ii4 ,the ,decorative ,transformation of ,natural ,objects #aah #a4 ,physicomorphs #aah #b4 ,biomorphs2 ,a4 ,representation of ,abstract ,ideas of ,life2 ,b4 ,phyllomorphs3 ,the ,lotus and its ,wanderings2 ,c4 ,zoomorphs2 ,d4 ,anthropomorphs2 ,e4 ,biomorphic ,pottery #abf #c4 ,heteromorphs #aib ,,the ,,reasons ,,for ,,which ,,objects ,,are ,,decorated #bjj ,i4 ,art #bjj ,,ii4 ,information #bjc ,,iii4 ,wealth #bbb ,,iv4 ,magic and ,religion #bce #a4 ,sympathetic ,magic #bce #b4 ,totemism #bej #c4 ,religion #bfg #d4 ,religious ,symbolism2 ,a4 ,the ,meaning and ,distribution of the ,fylfot2 ,b4 ,the ,psychology of ,symbolism #bge ,,the ,,scientific ,,method ,,of ,,studying ,,decorative ,,art #cjf ,i4 ,application of ,biological ,deductions to ,designs #cjh ,,ii4 ,the ,geographical ,distribution of ,animals and of ,designs #cai ,,iii4 ,general ,remarks on the ,method of ,study #cca ,,index #ceg ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,figs4 #a4 ,bamboo tobacco-pipes2 one-tenth natural size4 ,torres ,straits4 ,drawn by the author from specimens in the ,british ,museum4 #b4 ,rubbing of the handle of a wooden comb2 one-half natural size4 ,torres ,straits4 ,in the author's possession4 7,original47 #c4 ,drawings of animals by the natives of ,torres ,straits2 about one-quarter natural size4 7,original47 ,a4 ,jelly-fish2 ,b4 ,star-fish2 ,c4 ,hammer headed shark 7,zygna72 ,d4 ,group of two sharks 7,charcarodon7 and a turtle2 ,e4 ,eagle-ray 7,atobatis72 ,f4 ,sucker-fish 7,echineis naucrates72 ,g4 ,tree-frog 7,hyla crulea72 ,h4 ,two snakes on a tobacco-pipe1 between them is the hole in which the bowl is inserted2 ,i4 ,crocodile 7,crocodilus porosus71 with footprints2 ,k4 ,cassowary 7,casuarius7 pecking at a seed1 and footprints1 cf4 ,fig4 #d2 ,l4 ,dolphin 7,delphinus72 ,m4 ,dugong 7,halicore australis7 spouting1 and indications of waves2 ,n4 ,native dog 7,canis dingo72 ,o4 ,man with a large mackerel-like fish4 ,a1 ,b1 ,g1 ,h1 ,l1 occur on bamboo tobacco-pipes2 ,c1 ,e1 ,i1 ,k1 ,m1 ,n1 ,o1 on drums2 ,d1 ,f1 on pearl shells4 ,a1 ,b1 ,h1 ,i1 ,l1 ,n1 ,o1 ,british ,museum2 ,c1 ,e1 ,k1 ,cambridge2 ,g4 ,oxford2 ,d1 ,f1 ,berlin4 #d4 ,drum from ,daudai2 #cg inches long4 ,sketched by the author from a specimen in the ,cambridge ,museum4 7,original47 #e4 ,rubbing of part of the decoration of a bamboo tobacco-pipe1 probably from the mouth of the ,fly ,river2 one-third natural size1 in the ,liverpool ,museum4 ,in the original the lines show dark on a light ground4 #f4 ,series of arrows from ,torres ,straits1 collected and sketched by the author1 and presented by him to the ,cambridge ,museum2 one-third natural size4 7,original47 #g4 ,snake arrow from ,torres ,straits 7cf4 ,fig4 #f74 7,original47 #h4 ,rubbing of one side of the decoration of a drum from the ,fly ,river1 in the museum at ,rome2 one-fourth natural size4 7,original47 #i4 ,rubbing of part of the carved border along a canoe from near ,cape ,blackwood4 ,taken by ,r4 ,bruce1 #ahid4 ,one-sixth natural size4 #aj-ai4 ,rubbings of carved wooden belts from the ,papuan ,gulf2 one-fourth natural size--#aj4 ,cambridge ,museum2 #aa4 ,glasgow ,museum2 #ab4 ,kerrama1 ,berlin ,museum2 #ac4 ,british ,museum2 #ad4 ,british ,museum2 #ae4 ,toaripi 7,author's ,collection72 #af4 ,berlin ,museum2 #ag4 ,maiva1 ,berlin ,museum2 #ah4 ,edinburgh ,museum2 #ai4 ,museum of the ,london ,missionary ,society4 #bj4 ,a4 ,drawing of ,tabuta1 a ,motu girl1 by ,rev4 ,w4 ,y4 ,turner1 ,m4,d4 7from ,journ4 ,anth4 ,inst41 vii41 #ahgh1 ,fig4 #d1 p4 #dhj74 ,b4 ,back view of the same4 7,the hair of this girl is incorrectly drawn1 it should be frizzly and not wavy47 #ba4 ,a4 ,design on a lime gourd from ,kerepunu2 ,b4 ,part of the decoration of a pipe from ,maiva2 ,c4 ,detail on a pipe from ,kupele1 in the ,berlin ,museum2 ,d-,i4 ,designs on pipes--,g4 from ,kupele 7,berlin72 ,h1 ,i4 from ,koiari 7,berlin74 ,all the ,figs4 are to different scales4 7,original47 #bb4 ,part of the decoration of a pipe in the ,cambridge ,museum2 one-sixth natural size4 7,original47 #bc4 ,clay pot1 with an incised pattern from ,wari 7,teste ,island71 after a sketch by ,dr4 ,h4 ,o4 ,forbes4 #bd4 ,rubbing of the half of one side of the handle of a spatula in the author's collection2 one-third natural size4 #be4 ,rubbings of both sides of a float for a fishing-net2 one-half natural size4 #bf4 ,rubbing of upper two-thirds of the decoration of a club in the ,glasgow ,museum2 one-third natural size4 #bg-cj4 ,rubbings of part of the decoration of clubs2 one-third natural size4 #bg1 #bh1 ,d',entrecasteaux1 ,edinburgh ,museum2 #bi1 #cj1 ,cambridge ,museum4 #ca4 ,rubbing of the pattern round the upper margin of a betel-pestle in the ,cambridge ,museum2 one-third natural size4 #cb4 ,rubbing of part of the carved rim of a wooden bowl from the ,d',entrecasteaux ,islands2 one-third natural size4 #cc4 ,rubbing of the handle of a turtle-shell spatula from the ,louisiades1 in the ,british ,museum2 one-half natural size4 #cd4 ,rubbing of the decoration of one side of a club2 one-third natural size4 ,the block is turned round to show the pattern more clearly1 the zigzag bands in reality run across the club4 #ce4 ,rubbing of the handle of a spatula in the ,british ,museum2 one-third natural size4 #cf4 ,rubbings of the three sides of the handle of a spatula from the d',entrecasteaux1 in the ,dublin ,museum2 one-half natural size4 #cg4 ,a4 ,b4 ,sketches of two stages of the 8bird bracket0 of two spatulas1 probably from the ,woodlarks1 in the author's collection2 ,c1 ,d1 analogous details from canoe carvings--,c4 from a photograph2 ,d4 from a specimen in the ,edinburgh ,museum4 7,original47 #ch4 ,rubbing of the decoration of a club in the ,dublin ,museum2 one-third natural size4 #ci4 ,rubbing of the decoration of a club in the ,dublin ,museum2 one-third natural size4 #dj4 ,rubbing of the central longitudinal band of a club from the d',entrecasteaux in the ,edinburgh ,museum2 one-third natural size4 #da4 ,rubbing of part of the decoration of a club from the d',entrecasteaux in the ,edinburgh ,museum2 one-third natural size4 #db4 ,bird and crocodile designs1 ,massim ,archipelago4 ,a4 ,canoe carving from ,wari 7,teste ,island71 about two-ninths natural size2 ,b4 ,handle of a paddle in the ,cambridge ,museum1 one-half natural size2 ,c4 ,handle of a spatula in the ,leiden ,museum1 three-sevenths natural size2 ,d4 ,handle of a spatula from ,tubutubu 7,engineer ,group7 in the ,cambridge ,museum1 three-sevenths natural size2 ,e4 ,handle of a paddle in the ,cambridge ,museum1 three-sevenths natural size4 7,original47 #dc4 ,rubbing of the decoration of a ,maori flute in the ,natural ,history ,museum1 ,belfast2 one-half natural size4 7,original47 #dd4 ,turtle-shell ornaments worn in ,torres ,straits4 ,the ratio of size of the illustrations to the originals is as #d 3 #ae2 ,a4 ,ordinary fish-hook1 made of turtle-shell2 ,b-,l4 ,series of ornaments1 probably derived from fish-hooks1 made of turtle-shell4 ,all in the ,british ,museum1 from a photograph by ,mr4 ,h4 ,oldland1 of the ,british ,museum4 #de4 ,sketches of two axes from the ,south-east ,peninsula of ,new ,guinea1 in the possession of the author2 about one-tenth natural size4 7,original47 #df4 ,mangaian symbolic adze in the ,copenhagen ,museum2 from ,dr4 ,c4 ,march4 #dg4 ,an erect drum1 ,kaara1 surmounted by the head of a god from ,java1 in the ,copenhagen ,museum2 from ,dr4 ,c4 ,march4 #dh4 ,rubbing of part of the decoration of a ,tongan club in the ,norwich ,museum2 one-third natural size4 7,original47 #di4 ,rubbing of part of the decoration of a ,tongan club in the ,norwich ,museum2 one-half natural size4 7,original47 #ej4 ,rubbing of part of the decoration of a ,tongan club in the ,norwich ,museum2 one-half natural size4 7,original47 #ea4 ,sketches of tapa belts from ,kerepunu1 ,british ,new ,guinea2 about three-quarters natural size4 7,original47 #eb4 ,designs derived from uluri 7women's covering72 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,bakari tribe1 ,central ,brazil2 ,d1 ,auet tribe1 ,central ,brazil4 ,after ,von den ,steinen2 greatly reduced4 #ec4 ,iroquois bark vessel2 after ,cushing4 #ed4 ,rectangular or ,iroquois type of earthen vessel2 after ,cushing4 #ee4 ,clay nucleus in base mould1 with beginning of spiral building2 a stage in the formation of a ,zui vessel2 after ,cushing4 #ef1 #eg4 ,variations in a motive through the influence of form4 ,pueblo pottery2 after ,holmes4 #eh4 ,a4 ,freehand form2 ,b4 ,form imposed by fabric4 ,forms of the same motive expressed in different arts2 after ,holmes4 #ei4 ,design of ,fig4 #fj2 after ,holmes1 from ,mason4 #fj4 ,ancient ,pueblo vase1 ,province of ,tusayan4 ,the height and width of the vase are fourteen inches2 after ,holmes1 from ,mason4 #fa4 8,unit of the ,design0 of ,fig4 #fj2 after ,holmes1 from ,mason4 #fb4 ,modern ,moki rain symbol2 after ,holmes4 #fc4 ,decorative detail from an ancient ,pueblo medicine-jar2 after ,holmes4 #fd4 ,rain-cloud tile of the ,south ,house in a ,tusayan ceremony2 after ,fewkes4 #fe4 ,zui prayer-meal-bowl2 after ,cushing4 #ff4 ,tracing of a landscape etched on a bamboo tobacco-pipe in ,berlin2 three-eighths natural size4 7,original47 #fg4 ,sketch of ,mer 7,murray ,island7 by the author1 from the south-west-by-west1 showing the hill ,gelam4 #fh4 ,pueblo water-jar2 after ,cushing4 #fi4 ,design based on a palmito leaf1 ,bakari tribe1 ,central ,brazil2 after ,von den ,steinen4 #gj4 ,rough sketch of the ,egyptian lotus 7,nympha lotus72 after original drawings by ,professor ,goodyear4 #ga4 ,sketch of the ,indian lotus 7,nelumbium speciosum72 after ,description de l',egypt3 ,histoire ,naturelle1 from ,goodyear4 #gb4 ,lotus flowers and bud painted on the coffin of a mummy from the ,necropolis of ,thebes1 ,twentieth ,dynasty2 after ,prisse d',avennes4 #gc4 ,lotus flower with two leaves1 on a vase1 from the ,necropolis of ,memphis1 ,fourth to ,fifth ,dynasties2 after ,prisse d',avennes4 #gd4 ,lotus border2 from ,goodyear1 after ,prisse d',avennes4 #ge4 ,lotus scroll detail on a ,melian vase2 from ,goodyear1 after ,conze4 #gf4 ,pattern from the ceiling of a tomb1 ,necropolis of ,thebes4 ,eighteenth ,dynasty2 from ,coffey1 after ,prisse d',avennes4 #gg4 ,pattern from the ceiling of a tomb1 ,necropolis of ,thebes1 ,eighteenth to ,nineteenth ,dynasties2 from ,coffey1 after ,prisse d',avennes4 #gh4 ,pattern from the ceiling of tomb ,no4 #cc1 ,abd-el-,kourneh1 ,thebes2 ,seventeenth to ,twentieth ,dynasties2 from ,coffey1 after ,prisse d',avennes and ,goodyear4 #gi4 ,pattern from the ceiling of a tomb from ,thebes1 ,seventeenth to ,twentieth ,dynasties2 from ,coffey1 after ,prisse d',avennes4 #hj4 ,anthemion and astragal moulding from the ,lt at ,allahabad2 from ,birdwood1 after ,fergusson4 #ha4 ,saracenic ,algerian detail2 from ,goodyear1 after ,ravoisi4 #hb4 ,ionic capital of the eastern portico of the ,erechtheium4 #hc4 ,early form of ,ionic capital from ,neandreia2 after ,clarke4 #hd4 ,lotus design from a 8geometric0 vase from ,cyprus2 after ,goodyear4 #he4 ,lotus derivative on a vase of the seventh century ,b4,c41 from ,melos2 from ,goodyear1 after ,conze4 #hf4 ,compound flower based on the lotus1 ,thebes1 ,eighteenth to ,twentieth ,dynasties2 from ,goodyear1 after ,prisse d',avennes4 #hg4 ,lotus pendant from an ,egyptian necklace of the ,nineteenth ,dynasty2 from ,goodyear4 #hh4 ,anthemion from the ,parthenon4 #hi4 ,hypothetical derivation of the 8egg-and-dart0 moulding1 from a lotus pattern according to ,goodyear4 ,a4 ,lotus anthemion on a vessel from ,rhodes1 after ,salzmann2 ,b1 ,c4 ,lotus anthemia on pottery from ,naukratis1 after ,flinders ,petrie2 ,d4 ,egg-and-dart moulding from the ,erechtheium2 ,e4 ,degraded egg-and-dart pattern painted on a ,grecian vase4 #ij4 ,horses etched on an antler from ,la ,madelaine2 from ,taylor4 #ia4 ,conventional alligator from the 8lost colour0 ware of ,chiriqui2 after ,holmes4 #ib4 ,simplified figure of an alligator from the 8alligator0 ware of ,chiriqui2 after ,holmes4 #ic4 ,alligator design1 ,chiriqui2 after ,holmes4 #id4 ,alligator delineation1 greatly modified1 ,chiriqui2 after ,holmes4 #ie4 ,highly conventionalised alligator derivative1 ,chiriqui2 after ,holmes4 #if4 ,series of derivatives of the alligator1 showing stages of simplification1 ,chiriqui2 after ,holmes4 #ig4 ,series of alligator derivatives showing modification through use in narrow zones1 ,chiriqui2 after ,holmes4 #ih4 ,scroll derived from the body-line of the alligator1 ,chiriqui2 after ,holmes4 #ii4 ,fret derived from the body-line of the alligator1 ,chiriqui2 after ,holmes4 #ajj4 ,series of alligator derivatives showing modification through use within a circular area1 ,chiriqui2 after ,holmes4 #aja4 ,pattern composed of alligator derivatives from a clay drum painted in the style of the 8lost colour group10 ,chiriqui2 after ,holmes4 #ajb4 ,patterns of the ,karaya1 ,central ,brazil2 after ,ehrenreich1 ,a4 ,lizards2 ,b4 ,flying bats2 ,c4 ,a rattlesnake2 ,d4 ,a snake1 ,a4 ,incised on a grave-post2 ,b1 ,c1 ,d4 ,plaited on the handles of combs4 #ajc4 ,patterns from ,central ,brazil2 after ,von den ,steinen4 ,a4 ,bakari paddle2 ,b-,e4 ,mereschu 7fish7 patterns of the ,auet2 ,f4 ,locust design1 ,bakari2 ,g4 ,fish-shaped bull-roarer1 ,nahuqu2 ,h4 ,sukuri 7snake7 and ray patterns2 ,i4 ,jiboya 7snake72 ,k4 ,agau 7snake72 ,h-,i4 ,bakari tribe4 #ajd4 ,patterns derived from bats2 after ,von den ,steinen1 ,a4 ,bakari2 ,b1 ,c4 ,auet4 #aje4 ,bird design1 ,bakari1 ,central ,brazil2 after ,von den ,steinen4 #ajf4 ,rubbing of part of the carved rim of a wooden bowl in the author's collection4 ,probably from the ,woodlarks or ,trobriands1 ,british ,new ,guinea4 ,one-third natural size4 #ajg4 ,gourd2 after ,holmes4 #ajh4 ,clay vessel made in imitation of a gourd1 from a mound in ,south-eastern ,missouri2 after ,holmes4 #aji4 ,clay vessels imitated from shells1 from the mounds and graves of the ,mississippi ,valley2 after ,holmes4 #aaj1 #aaa4 ,modified human figures on the shaft of a cross at ,ilam1 near ,ashbourne2 after ,browne4 #aab4 ,pictograph of a lasso1 ,dakota ,winter ,count1 #ahab-ac2 after ,mallery4 #aac4 ,alaskan notice of a hunt2 from ,mallery1 after ,hoffman4 #aad4 ,pictograph of starving hunters1 ,alaska2 after ,mallery4 #aae4 ,lean-,wolf's ,map1 ,hidatsa2 after ,mallery4 #aaf4 ,ivory carving with records1 ,alaska2 after ,mallery4 #aag4 ,blossom of an ,ixora2 from ,stevens4 #aah1 #aai4 ,magic combs of the ,orang ,smang2 from ,stevens4 #abj4 ,diagram of the uppermost pattern of ,fig4 #aai1 with rectification of that pattern2 from ,stevens4 #aba4 ,magical pictograph of the ,orang-htan against the slings of scorpions and centipedes2 size of original1 #i inches2 from ,stevens4 #abb4 ,magical device of the ,orang ,blendas against a skin disease2 size of original1 #ai inches2 from ,stevens4 #abc4 ,rain-charm of the ,orang ,blendas2 size of the original1 #aj inches2 from ,stevens4 #abd4 ,stretching-cleat of a drum from ,mangaia1 in the ,berlin ,museum2 from ,march1 after ,stolpe3 two-thirds natural size4 #abe4 ,rubbings from the handles of symbolic adzes from the ,hervey ,islands4 ,a4 ,free ,library ,museum1 ,belfast2 ,b1 ,c4 ,belfast ,natural ,history ,museum2 one-third natural size4 7,original47 #abf4 ,rubbing of part of the decoration of a ,mangaian symbolic paddle1 ,norwich ,museum2 natural size4 7,original47 #abg4 ,rubbing of part of the carving of the handle of a symbolic paddle from the ,hervey ,islands in the ,natural ,history ,museum1 ,belfast2 one-half natural size4 7,original47 #abh4 ,rubbing of 8part of the terminal of a paddle-shaped implement in the ,vienna ,museum02 from ,march1 after ,stolpe2 two-thirds natural size4 #abi4 ,hut-shaped ossuary2 from ,i4 ,taylor1 ,origin of the ,aryans4 #acj4 ,various forms of ,fylfot or ,svastika4 ,a4 ,whorl from ,hissarlik 7#aihg71 #g m41 third city1 ,the ,burnt ,city or ,ilios2 ,b4 ,do4 7#ahfa71 #c m41 fifth city2 ,c4 ,do4 7#aiij71 #d m41 fifth city2 ,d4 ,do4 7#ahgc72 ,e4 ,detail from whorl 7#aiic71 #e m41 fourth city2 ,f4 ,lotus derivative on a large amphora1 with 8geometric0 decoration1 ,cyprus2 ,g4 ,solar goose and lotus design on a ,rhodian vase1 from ,salzmann1 ,ncropole de ,camire2 ,h4 ,coin from ,selge1 ,pamphylia2 ,i4 ,symbols on ,lycian coins2 ,k4 ,triskelion on a ,celtiberian coin2 ,l4 ,on a silver bowl1 ,etruria2 also on ,chinese ware2 ,m4 ,coin from ,cnossus1 ,crete2 ,n4 ,ancient ,indian coin2 ,o4 ,on coin from ,ujjan1 ,central ,india2 ,p4 ,foot-print of ,buddha 7so-called71 ,amarvati ,tope1 ,india2 ,r4 ,thibetian symbol2 ,s4 ,roman altar at ,high ,rochester1 dedicated to ,minerva1 by ,lucius ,ccilius ,optatus2 ,t4 ,roman altar at ,high ,rochester1 dedicated to the standards of the faithful of the ,varduli by ,titus ,licinius ,valerianus2 ,u4 ,celto-,roman altar at ,birdoswald1 dedicated to ,jupiter ,optimus ,maximus 7,,iom71 apparently by ,dacians garrisoned in ,ambloganna2 the four-rayed wheels were solar symbols among the ,gauls2 ,w4 ,ogham stone1 ,aglish1 ,county ,kerry2 ,x4 ,ancient ,scandinavian symbols2 ,y4 ,legend on church bell1 ,hathersage1 ,derbyshire1 #afag4 ,a-,e1 ,p4 ,h4 ,schliemann1 ,ilios2 ,f1 ,g4 ,goodyear1 ,grammar of the ,lotus2 ,h1 ,l1 ,o1 ,x4 ,r4 ,p4 ,greg2 ,archologia1 xlviii41 #ahhe2 ,i1 ,k1 ,m1 ,n1 ,r4 ,count ,goblet d',alviella1 ,the ,migrations and ,symbols2 ,s1 ,t1 ,u1 ,w1 ,y4 ,h4 ,colley ,march1 ,trans4 ,lanc4 and ,cheshire ,ant4 ,soc41 #ahhf4 ,for further details the reader is referred to these authors4 ,,sources ,,of ,,the ,,illustrations ,,figs4 #i-ai1 #bd-cj1 #cc-cf1 #ch-da1 #fg were generously placed at my disposal by the ,council of the ,royal ,irish ,academy4 ,all the ,figures from #a to #da 7except ,figs4 #c1 #ba1 #cg71 and ,figs4 #db1 #dd1 #ea1 #ff1 #fg1 #ajf1 are either the originals or copies of illustrations which have appeared in the author's 8,the ,decorative ,art of ,british ,new ,guinea10 ,cunningham ,memoir1 x41 ,royal ,irish ,academy1 #ahid4 #bj1 #df1 #dg1 #abd1 #abh were kindly lent by the ,council of the ,anthropological ,institute4 7,fig4 #bj is from the ,journ4 ,anth4 ,inst41 vii41 #ahgh1 p4 #dhj1 and the others from loc4 cit4 xxii41 #ahic1 ,plate ,,xxiii47 #eb1 #fi1 #ajc-aje are copied by the kind permission of the author and publisher from ,unter den ,naturvlkern ,zentral-,brasiliens1 by ,professor ,dr4 ,karl von den ,steinen4 ,berlin1 #ahid1 ,dietrich ,reimer4 #ec-fc1 #fe1 #fh1 #ajg-aji1 #aab-aaf are copied by permission from the ,fourth ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 #ahhb-hc1 ,washington1 #ahhf1 and ,figs4 #ia-aja from the ,sixth ,annual ,report1 #ahhd-he 7#ahhh74 #ei-fa are from ,otis ,t4 ,mason1 ,the ,origins of ,inventions1 #ahie2 after ,holmes4 #fd is from the ,journal of ,american ,ethnol4 and ,arch41 ii41 #ahib1 p4 #aab4 #gj1 #ga1 #gd1 #ge1 #ha1 #he-hg are copied from ,professor ,goodyear's ,the ,grammar of the ,lotus4 ,special permission was kindly granted by ,messrs4 ,gilbert and ,rivington to copy ,figs4 #hg1 #acj ,f1 which are original illustrations in the ,grammar4 #gb1 #gc are traced from ,prisse d',avennes1 ,histoire de l',art ,egyptien d'aprs les ,monuments1 ,paris1 #ahgh4 #gf-gi are from tracings kindly lent by ,mr4 ,g4 ,coffey 7,journ4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,ant41 ,ireland1 ,dec4 #ahid2 after ,prisse d',avennes74 #hj is from ,sir ,g4 ,birdwood's ,industrial ,arts of ,india1 ii41 ,fig4 #bj1 p4 #afg4 #hb is from ,ryley's ,antiquities of ,athens1 #ahcg2 after ,stuart4 #hd is from ,the ,architectural ,record1 iii41 #ahid4 8,the ,lotiform ,origin of the ,greek ,anthemion10 p4 #bgd4 #ij1 #abi are from ,canon ,isaac ,taylor's ,origin of the ,aryans4 #ajb is copied by permission from ,dr4 ,p4 ,ehrenreich4 #aaj1 #aaa are from some plates specially prepared to illustrate the ,disney ,lectures of ,professor ,c4 ,r4 ,browne1 ,lent ,term1 ,cambridge1 #ahhi4 #aag1 #abj-abc are from the original drawings which illustrated ,professor ,grnwedel's account of ,h4 ,vaughan ,steven's investigations4 ,zeitschr4 fr ,ethnol41 xxv41 #ahic1 xxvi41 #ahid4 ,these were courteously lent to me by ,professor ,grnwedel and the ,redactions ,commission4 ,figs4 #aah1 #aai are from ,plate ,,ii41 vol4 xxv4 ,count ,goblet d',alviella was good enough to permit me to copy the table on p4 #bii1 from the ,english edition of ,the ,migration of ,symbols1 #ahid1 ,a4 ,constable ,co41 ,westminster4 ,all the figures not mentioned above are original4 ,plates ,i4-,,viii4 were very generously placed at my service by my friend ,dr4 ,h4 ,colley ,march2 they previously illustrated 8,the ,meaning of ,ornament1 or its ,archology and its ,psychology10 ,trans4 ,lancashire and ,cheshire ,ant4 ,soc41 #ahhi4 ,,evolution ,,in ,,art4 ,,introduction4 ,notwithstanding the immense number of books1 dissertations1 and papers which have been written on pictorial and decorative art1 ,i venture to add one more to their number4 ,i profess to be neither an artist nor an art critic1 but simply a biologist who has had his attention turned to the subject of decorative art4 ,one of my objects is to show that delineations have an individuality and a life-history which can be studied quite irrespectively of their artistic merit4 ,we are not now concerned with the sthetic aspect of the arts of design1 nor with those theories of art which artists and art critics like to discuss1 and concerning which ,john ,collier1 in his masterly little ,primer of ,art1 has expressed himself in no uncertain terms4 ,according to this author1 art may1 speaking broadly1 be defined as 8a creative operation of the intelligence1 the making of something either with a view to utility or pleasure40 ,as a matter of fact the term 8art0 now has a tendency to be confined to designate the ,fine ,arts as opposed to the ,useful ,arts2 not only so1 but instead of including personal decoration1 ornamentation1 painting1 sculpture1 dancing1 poetry1 music1 and the drama1 the term is very often limited to ornamentation1 painting1 and sculpture4 ,it is with these three that we are now more immediately concerned1 and more particularly with the first of them1 or decorative art4 8,in this narrower sense art may be defined as the making of something to please the eye4444 ,as to what is pleasing1 that each person must decide for himself40 ,art has also a physical and a physiological aspect1 such as 8the questions of harmony of line and colour1 which lie at the root of all art40 ,with ,dr4 ,collier1 we may leave these 8untouched1 not because they are unimportant1 but because1 not enough is known about them to make their discussion in the least profitable40 ,the scope1 then1 of the following pages is to deal with the arts of design from a biological or natural history point of view4 ,when difficult problems have to be investigated the most satisfactory method of procedure is to reduce them to their simplest elements1 and to deal with the latter before studying their more complex aspects4 ,the physiology of the highest animals is being elucidated largely by investigations upon the physiology of lower forms1 and that of the latter in their turn by a knowledge of the activities of the lowest organisms4 ,it is among these that the phenomena of life are displayed in their least complex manifestations2 and they1 so to speak1 give the key to a right apprehension of the others4 ,so1 too1 in studying the arts of design4 ,the artistic expression of a highly civilised community is a very complex matter1 and its complete unravelment would be an exceedingly difficult and perhaps impossible task4 ,in order to gain some insight into the principles which underlie the evolution of decorative art1 it is necessary to confine one's attention to less specialised conditions2 the less the complication1 the greater the facility for a comprehensive survey4 ,in order1 therefore1 to understand civilised art we must study barbaric art1 and to elucidate this savage art must be investigated4 ,of course it must be understood that no hard and fast line can be drawn between any two of these stages of culture2 ,i employ them merely as convenient general terms4 ,these are the reasons why ,i shall confine myself very largely to the decorative art of savage peoples4 ,there are two methods of studying the art of savages2 the one is to take a comparative view of the art of diverse backward peoples2 the other is to limit the attention to a particular district or people4 ,the former is extremely suggestive2 but one is very liable at times to be led astray by resemblances1 as ,i shall have frequent occasion to point out in the following pages4 ,the latter is in some respects much more certain in its conclusions1 and is the only way by which certain problems can be solved4 ,in the first part of this book ,i shall adopt the latter plan in order to indicate its particular value1 and to afford data for subsequent discussion4 ,in the remaining parts of the book ,i shall draw my illustrations from the most convenient sources1 irrespective of race or locality4 ,in my first section the decorative art of a particular region has been studied much in the same way as a zoologist would study a group of its fauna1 say the birds or butterflies4 ,naturally1 the methods of the purely systematic zoologist neither can nor should be entirely followed1 for the aim in life of the analytical zoologist is to record the fauna of a district and to classify the specimens in an orderly manner4 ,to the more synthetically-minded zoologist the problems of the geographical distribution of animals have a peculiar fascination1 and he takes pleasure in mapping out the geographical variations of a particular species and in endeavouring to account for the diversity of form and colour which obtains1 as well as to ascertain the place of its evolution and the migrations which have subsequently taken place4 ,the philosophical student also studies the development of animals and so learns something of the way in which they have come to be what they are1 and at the same time light is shed upon genealogies and relationships4 ,the beautifying of any object is due to impulses which are common to all men1 and have existed as far back as the period when men inhabited caves and hunted the reindeer and mammoth in ,western ,europe4 ,the craving for decorative art having been common to mankind for many thousand years1 it would be a very difficult task to determine its actual origin4 ,all we can do is to study the art of the most backward peoples1 in the hope of gaining sufficient light to cast a glimmer down the gloomy perspective of the past4 ,there are certain needs of man which appear to have constrained him to artistic effort2 these may be conveniently grouped under the four terms of ,art1 ,information1 ,wealth1 and ,religion4 ,art4--sthetics is the study or practice of art for art's sake1 for the sensuous pleasure of form1 line1 and colour4 ,information4--,it is not easy to find a term which will express all that should be dealt with in this section4 ,in order to convey information from one man to another1 when oral or gesture language is impossible1 recourse must be had to pictorial signs of one form or another4 ,it is the history of some of these that will be dealt with under this term4 ,wealth4--,it is difficult to distinguish among savages between the love of wealth or power4 ,in more organised societies1 power1 irrespective of wealth1 may dominate men's minds2 and it is probable that1 whereas money is at first sought after in order to feel the power which wealth can command1 later it often degenerates into the miser's greed for gain4 ,the desire for personal property1 and later for enhancing its value1 has led to the production of personal ornaments apart from the purely sthetic tendency in the same direction4 ,there are also emblems of wealth1 and besides these1 others of power or authority4 ,the practice of barter has led to the fixation of a unit of value1 and this in time became represented by symbols--i4e41 money4 ,religion4--,the need of man to put himself into sympathetic relation with unseen powers has always expressed itself in visual form1 and it has gathered unto it the foregoing secular triad4 ,representation and symbolism convey information or suggest ideas4 sthetics brings her trained eye and skilled hand4 ,fear1 custom1 or devotion have caused individual or secular wealth to be directed into other channels1 and have thereby entirely altered its character4 ,the spiritual and temporal power and authority of religion has also had immense and direct influence on art4 ,in a very large number of cases what ,i have termed the four needs of man act and react upon one another1 so that it is often difficult or impossible to distinguish between them1 nor do ,i profess to do so in every case4 ,it is sufficient for our present purpose to acknowledge their existence and to see how they may affect the form1 decoration1 or representation of objects4 ,having stated the objects for which these representations are made1 we must pass to a few other general considerations4 ,it is probable that suggestion in some cases first turned the human mind towards representation4 ,a chance form or contour suggested a resemblance to something else4 ,from what we know of the working of the mind of savages1 a mere resemblance is sufficient to indicate an actual affinity4 ,these chance resemblances have occupied a very important place in what has been termed sympathetic magic1 and natural objects which suggest other objects are frequently slightly carved1 engraved1 or painted in order to increase the fancied resemblance4 ,a large number of examples of this can be culled from the writings of missionaries and others1 or seen in large ethnographical collections4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,balfour#a has also given one or two interesting illustrations of this process4 ,for example1 a stone which suggests a human face is noted by a native and the features are slightly emphasised1 and ultimately the object may become a fetich or a charm4 ,the mandrake 7,mandragora7 is very important in sympathetic magic1#b and its human attributes have been suggested by the two roots which diverge from a common underground portion1 and which recall the body and legs of a man2 a slight amount of carving will considerably assist nature and a vegetable man results4 #a ,h4 ,balfour1 ,the ,evolution of ,decorative ,art1 #ahic4 #b ,p4 ,j4 ,veth1 8,de ,mandragora10 ,internat4 ,arch4 fr ,ethnogr41 vol4 vii41 #ahid1 p4 #aii 7with references to the literature74 ,suggestion does not operate only at the inception of a representation or design1 but it acts continuously1 and may at various times cause strange modifications to occur4 ,expectancy1 as ,dr4 ,colley ,march has pointed out2 has been a very important factor in the history of art4 ,this is intimately connected with the association of ideas4 ,if a particular form or marking was natural to a manufactured object1 the same form and analogous marking would be given to a similar object made in a different manner1 and which was not conditioned by the limitations of the former4 ,for beautiful and convincing illustrations of the operation of this mental attitude of expectancy the reader is referred to the section on skeuomorphic pottery 7p4 #ig74 ,we may regard suggestion and expectancy as the dynamic and static forces operating on the arts of design2 the former initiates and modifies1 the latter tends to conserve what already exists4 ,it is the play between these two operations which gives rise to what may be termed a distinctive 8life-history0 of artistic representations4 ,a life-history consists of three periods3 birth1 growth1 death4 ,the middle period is one which is usually marked by modifications which may conveniently be grouped under the term of evolution1 as they imply a gradual change or metamorphosis1 or even a series of metamorphoses4 ,for our present purpose we may recognise three stages of artistic development--origin1 evolution1 and decay4 ,the vast bulk of artistic expression owes its birth to realism2 the representations were meant to be life-like1 or to suggest real objects2 that they may not have been so was owing to the apathy or incapacity of the artist or to the unsuitability of his materials4 ,once born1 the design was acted upon by constraining and restraining forces which gave it1 so to speak1 an individuality of its own4 ,in the great majority of representations the life-history ran its course through various stages until it settled down to uneventful senility2 in some cases the representation ceased to be--in fact it died4 ,in the following pages ,i shall endeavour to trace the life-history of a few artistic ideas as moulded by suggestion and expectancy along the lines of the four needs1 and ,i have attempted in the accompanying diagram to visualise this method of studying art4 ,it will be found that the decorative art of primitive folk is directly conditioned by the environment of the artists2 and in order to understand the designs of a district1 the physical conditions1 climate1 flora1 fauna1 and anthropology1 all have to be taken into account2 thus furnishing another example of the fact that it is impossible to study any one subject comprehensively without touching many other branches of knowledge4 ,all human handiwork is subject to the same operation of external forces1 but the material on which these forces act is also infinitely varied4 ,the diverse races and people of mankind have different ideas and ideals1 unequal skill1 varied material to work upon1 and dissimilar tools to work with4 ,everywhere the environment is different4 ,so we get that bewildering confusion of ideas which crowd upon us when inspecting a large ethnographical collection or a museum of the decorative arts4 ,,stages ,,of ,,development4 --------------------------------------- _/ ,,origin4 ,,evolution4 ,,decay4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,degeneration of ,pictorial ,pictures4 ,art through incompetent ,copying4 ------------------------------ ,conventional ,treatment ,groups4 for ,decorative ,solitary ,purposes4 ,decorative ------------------------------ ,,art4 ,figures4 ,series ,simplification or through ,patterns4 repeated ,copying4 ------------------------------ ,degradation ,combinations resulting or from the ,heteromorphs4 ,monstrous in ,art4 _/ ,,realism4 ,phonograms4 ,alphabetical ,signs4 ------------------------------ ,conventionalised ,arithmetical ,pictographs4 or ,abbreviated ,signs4 ,,information ,pictographs4 ------------------------------ ,personal and ,emblems4 ,tribal ,signs or ,symbols4 _/ ,personal ,ornamented ,ornaments ,useful and ,objects ,objects4 emblematic of ,power or ,useful ,status4 ,,wealth4 ,objects4 ------------------------------ ,more or less ,conventionalised ,money4 ,models of ,useful ,ornaments4 _/ ,realism4 ,symbolism and ,auspicious and ,,religion4 ,conventionalism4,magical ,signs4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,the conclusion that forced itself upon me is that the decorative art of a people does1 to a certain extent1 reflect their character4 ,a poor1 miserable people have poor and miserable art4 ,even among savages leisure from the cares of life is essential for the culture of art4 ,it is too often supposed that all savages are lazy1 and have an abundance of spare time1 but this is by no means always the case4 ,savages do all that is necessary for life2 anything extra is for excitement1 sthetics1 or religion2 and even if there is abundance of time for these latter1 it does not follow that there is an equivalent superfluity of energy4 ,the white man1 who has trained faculties and overflows with energy1 is apt to brand as lazy those who are not so endowed4 ,in the case of ,british ,new ,guinea it appears pretty evident that art flourishes where food is abundant4 ,one is perhaps justified in making the general statement that the finer the man the better the art1 and that the artistic skill of a people is dependent upon the favourableness of their environment4 ,the relation of art to ethnology is an important problem4 ,so far as our information goes1 it appears that the same processes operate on the art of decoration whatever the subject1 wherever the country1 whenever the age--another illustration of the essential solidarity of mankind4 ,but there are1 at the same time1 numerous and often striking idiosyncrasies which have to be explained4 ,many will be found to be due to what may be termed the accidents of locality4 ,natural forms can only be intelligently represented where they occur1 and the materials at the disposal of the artist condition his art4 ,the ethnological aspect of decorative art is too complex a problem to be solved at present1 as sufficient data have not yet been collected4 ,so far as ,i am aware1 ,dr4 ,h4 ,stolpe of ,stockholm was the first to seriously attack this subject4 ,it was not until ,i had definitely entered on the same line of research that ,i found ,i was following in the footsteps of the ,swedish savant2 fortunately1 our work did not really overlap4 ,i have elsewhere#c thrown out the following suggestion3--8,it will often be found that the more pure or the more homogeneous a people are1 the more uniformity will be found in their art work1 and that florescence of decorative art is a frequent result of race mixture40 ,for although prolific art work may be dependent1 to some extent1 upon leisure due to an abundance of food1 this will not account for artistic aptitude1 though in process of time the latter may be a result of the employment of the leisure2 still less will it account for the artistic motives or for the technique4 #c ,illustrated ,archologist1 vol4 i1 #ahic1 p4 #ajh4 ,the art of a people must also be judged by what they need not do and yet accomplish4 ,the resources at their command1 and the limitations of their materials1 are very important factors2 but we must not1 at the same time1 ignore what they would do if they could1 nor should we project our own sentiment too much into their work4 ,in this1 as in all other branches of ethnographical inquiry1 we should endeavour to learn all we can about them from their own point of view before it is too late4 ,at the present stage knowledge will not be advanced much by looking at laggard peoples through the spectacles of old-world civilisation4 ,,decorative ,,art ,,of ,,british ,,new ,,guinea4 ,as stated in the ,introductory section1 we will commence our studies of the art of existing savages by a brief account of the decorative art of a limited area rather than wander over the earth's surface in order to cull random examples of ornamentation4 ,it is not sufficient to collect patterns or designs in illustration of a theory2 in pursuing such a course one is1 so to speak1 as likely to gather tares as wheat1 and they may become inextricably mixed4 ,in my studies ,i have preferred to limit myself for a time to one particular district1 and to gather together all the available material from that locality4 ,the region selected was ,british ,new ,guinea4 ,by putting together all the objects in our possession known to come from any one locality1 ,i found that the technique of the decoration and the style of the ornamentation were characteristic4 ,it soon became apparent that ,british ,new ,guinea could be divided into several artistic regions2 and so it became possible to allocate to a definite district objects in museums whose exact locality was unrecorded4 ,but this is not sufficient2 it is one thing to allocate a particular pattern or group of patterns and designs to their place of origin1 but quite a different matter to trace out the history or significance of the ornamentation4 ,in some cases the origin of a design is obvious on the face of it2 in most it is easy to suggest an origin2 in others even the most fertile imagination is at fault4 ,in studies such as these the investigator should restrain from theorising as far as possible2 it is a dangerous game1 for more than one can play at it1 and the explanation is as likely to be wrong as right4 ,the most satisfactory plan is to gather together as much material as possible1 and it will generally be found that the objects tell their own tale1 and all that has to be done is to record it4 ,when the meaning is not plain1 the fault lies in the imperfection of the series1 unless very great conventionalisation has already occurred1 and it is wiser to wait for authoritative information than to theorise4 ,one great advantage in the method of confining attention to a limited area is that similar designs very probably have a genetic connection1 whereas this is by no means the case if objects from different regions are compared together4 ,i have recently#d published a somewhat detailed study of the decorative art of ,british ,new ,guinea1 to which ,i may refer the reader who desires to enter into more minute details4 ,in the following account ,i shall first sketch the main characteristics of the art of each sthetic region1 and finally ,i shall discuss the influences which act on the decorative art of these and other districts of ,new ,guinea4 #d ,the ,decorative ,art of ,british ,new ,guinea3 ,a ,study in ,papuan ,ethnography1 ,cunningham ,memoir1 ,no4 x41 ,royal ,irish ,academy1 #ahid4 ,i4--,,torres ,,straits ,,and ,,daudai4 ,the natives who inhabit the islands of ,torres ,straits are a black1 frizzly-haired1 excitable people1 and therefore belong to the ,papuan1 as opposed to the ,australian stock4 ,daudai is the native name for the contiguous coast of ,new ,guinea1 and it forms with the islands one ethnographical province4 ,between their respective inhabitants was a regular trade1 chiefly in canoes1 bows and arrows from the mainland1 and in turtle-shell1 pearl shell1 and other marine shells from the islands4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,bamboo tobacco-pipes2 one-tenth natural size4 ,torres ,straits4 ,drawn by the author from specimens in the ,british ,museum4 ,unless otherwise stated1 the following description applies to objects from the ,torres ,straits islands1 the natives of which appear to be rather more artistic than those of ,daudai4 ,there are two methods of decorating smooth surfaces--7#a7 by carving the pattern1 the intaglio portion of which is often filled up with powdered lime 7,fig4 #b72 or 7#b7 the design is engraved on the surface of the object by means of fine punctate or minutely zigzag lines 7,fig4 #e74 ,the former method is alone applied to wooden objects1 and also mainly to those made of turtle-shell 78tortoise-shell072 the latter is that employed on bamboo pipes and on many turtle-shell objects4 ,unbroken lines are very rarely engraved4 ,it is characteristic of this district that the patterns are inscribed within parallel lines1 whether it be a comb 7,fig4 #b7 or a bamboo pipe 7,fig4 #a7 which is to be decorated4 ,the parallel lines are first drawn1 and then the pattern is delineated4 ,a noticeable peculiarity is the preponderance of straight or angled lines to the exclusion of curved lines4 ,simple semicircular curves and circles are common1 it is true1 but they are not combined into curved patterns2 reversed or looped coils and complex curved lines1 such as scrolls1 are completely absent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,rubbing of the handle of a wooden comb2 one-half natural size4 ,torres ,straits4 ,in the author's possession4 ,the most common pattern is the ubiquitous zigzag1 and this is pre-eminently characteristic of this region4 ,the zigzag may appear as an angular wavy line1 or each alternate triangle may be left in relief or emphasised by parallel lines1 thus forming a series of alternate light and dark triangles1 or what is sometimes termed a tooth pattern4 ,it is obvious that when several rows of this pattern are drawn1 a triangle of one row will so coincide with that of the contiguous row as to form a diamond or lozenge4 ,strange as it may seem1 it appears that this is the actual way in which even such a simple form as the lozenge was discovered in this district4 ,even now1 after generations upon generations of designers carving the same simple patterns1 the lozenge is very frequently made by drawing a median horizontal line parallel to the boundary lines and then cutting a more or less symmetrical triangle on each side of it 7,fig4 #b1 third and fifth bands74 ,a herring-bone pattern 7,fig4 #b1 fourth band7 and a few simple combinations of straight or angled lines complete the decorative attempts of these people4 ,we often find that a feeling for symmetry prompts the artist to more or less design his patterns with regard to the middle-line1 although the latter may not be indicated as such4 ,the same comb offers examples of this4 ,it must not be imagined that these people do not employ curved lines in their patterns because they cannot draw them4 ,on the contrary1 when they wish to represent animals1 they can do so with spirit and truthfulness4 ,the accompanying illustration 7,fig4 #c7 demonstrates a fair amount of skill and a faculty for seizing upon the salient features of the animal to be drawn4 ,the diversity of animals is also noteworthy4 ,nearly every great group of animals is represented in native art1 and often so faithfully that it is possible for the naturalist to give the animals their scientific names4 ,fig4 #c illustrates some of the animals delineated by the natives of ,torres ,straits4 ,on looking over the rubbings and tracings of animal drawings from this district which ,i have collected1 ,i find that over twenty different kinds of animals are represented4 ,like the ancient ,peruvians1 they have not disdained to copy jelly-fish 7,a7 and star-fishes 7,b72 the former appears to be a medusoid belonging to the ,leptomedus4 ,the remarkable hammer-headed shark 7,c7 is often represented by these people2 the group of two sharks and a turtle 7,d7 occurs on one of a series of pearl shells which are fastened to a band2 7,e7 is probably an eagle-ray2 the strange sucker-fish1 which is used in fishing1 is shown in 7,f71 the mouth1 however1 is on the opposite side of the body to the dorsal-sucker2 7,g7 is a green tree-frog1 the sucker-bearing toes are indicated in a generalised manner2 this is one of two frogs which are placed in the same position on a bamboo tobacco-pipe1 as are the two snakes 7,h7 on another pipe 7cf4 ,fig4 #a72 the black disc between them indicates the hole in which the bowl is inserted4 ,a crocodile is seen walking along the ground at 7,i71 and a cassowary 7,k7 is pecking at a seed2 its three-rayed tracks are also shown 7cf4 ,fig4 #d72 7,l7 is a cleverly drawn dolphin1 and 7,m7 is a dugong spouting1 and below it the waves are indicated4 ,the native dog1 or dingo1 is shown at 7,n71 and 7,o7 is a man who has caught a large mackerel-like fish2 his belt1 arm- and leg-bands are indicated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,drawings of animals by the natives of ,torres ,straits2 one-quarter natural size4 ,a4 ,jelly-fish2 ,b4 ,star-fish2 ,c4 ,hammer-headed shark 7,zygna72 ,d4 ,group of two sharks 7,charcarodon7 and a turtle2 ,e4 ,eagle-ray 7,atobatis72 ,f4 ,sucker-fish 7,echineis naucrates72 ,g4 ,tree-frog 7,hyla crulea72 ,h4 ,two snakes on a tobacco-pipe1 between them is the hole in which the bowl is inserted2 ,i4 ,crocodile 7,crocodilus porosus71 with foot-prints2 ,k4 ,cassowary 7,casuarius7 pecking at a seed the latter is unfortunately omitted in the figure1 and footprints1 cf4 ,fig4 #d2 ,l4 ,dolphin 7,delphinus72 ,m4 ,dugong 7,halicore australis7 spouting1 and indications of waves2 ,n4 ,native dog 7,canis dingo72 ,o4 ,man with a large mackerel-like fish4 ,a1 ,b1 ,g1 ,h1 ,l1 occur on bamboo tobacco-pipes2 ,c1 ,e1 ,i1 ,k1 ,m1 ,n1 ,o1 on drums2 ,d1 ,f1 on pearl shells4 ,a1 ,b1 ,h1 ,i1 ,l1 ,n1 ,o1 ,british ,museum2 ,c1 ,e1 ,k1 ,cambridge2 ,g1 ,oxford2 ,d1 ,f1 ,berlin4 ,as is to be expected among an insular people who are continually on the sea1 there is a preponderance of marine forms4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,drum from ,daudai2 #cg inches long4 ,sketched by author from a specimen in the ,cambridge ,museum4 ,it is somewhat remarkable that no case is known of the delineation of animals in a linear series1 or grouped in any way4 ,they are all scattered about on the objects decorated with them4 ,the only exceptions to this rule are in the cases of the drums1 pipes1 or in a few other objects2 in these two precisely similar animals are symmetrically disposed with regard to the middle line4 ,for example1 in the lower pipe of ,fig4 #a a snake will be seen near the left-hand end1 immediately below the orifice1 for the insertion of the bowl of the pipe1 and there is a corresponding snake on the opposite side4 ,i have also noticed a similar paired arrangement on the backs of four old women4 ,two women had scarified upon them a pair of dugong1 one a pair of snakes1 and the fourth a pair of objects1 which ,i believe indicated the sting-ray2 now these are three of their totem animals1 and the scars upon the women's backs indicated the clans to which they severally belonged4 ,as the paired animals on the drums 7,fig4 #d7 and pipes 7,fig4 #a1 ,b71 etc4 7,fig4 #c71 are known to be totem animals1 it appears probable that the symmetrical disposition of two animals among these people indicate that they are totem animals1 and marks the object1 or rather its owner1 as belonging to a particular clan4 ,this paired arrangement strangely recalls the 8supporters0 of our armorial bearings1 and there is reason to believe that these perpetuate in some instances the totem animals of our savage forefathers4 ,another point is worth mentioning4 ,many of the drums have engraved on each of their sides the representation of a cassowary 7,fig4 #d74 ,i understood that in ,mer 7,murray ,island7 only certain people could beat the drum2 thus it would appear that throughout this district the men of the cassowary clan1 at all events1 were the musicians4 ,like many other savages1 these people are more expert in depicting animals than men1 and the human form is rarely copied4 ,human faces are1 however1 very frequently represented in the wooden and turtle-shell masks for which the ,torres ,straits natives are famous1 and small wooden human figures were carved on arrows from the mainland1 or as wooden or stone images to act as charms4 ,for analogous purposes models of dugong and turtle were carved in wood1 and many of these are really skilfully executed works of art1 while others are merely conventional renderings1 with a minimum amount of labour expended upon them4 ,the great dance-masks1 to which mention has just been made1 are sometimes very elaborate objects1 and the animal forms1 which are often used in combination with the human face1 are doubtless symbolic1 but of their meaning we are ignorant4 ,various sharks1 such as the hammer-headed shark and the saw-fish1 the crocodile and a sea-bird1 are very commonly represented4 ,the association of a human being and crocodile is shown in ,fig4 #e1 which is taken from a rubbing of a bamboo tobacco-pipe 7the white spot in the centre indicates the hole for the insertion of the bowl74 ,only the face and arms of the man are represented4 ,this design is repeated four times on the same object4 ,the figure also illustrates a concentric treatment of designs which appears to be characteristic of the mainland near the mouth of the ,fly ,river4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,rubbing of part of the decoration of a bamboo tobacco-pipe1 probably from the mouth of the ,fly ,river2 one-third natural size1 in the ,liverpool ,museum4 ,in the original the lines show dark on a light ground4 ,from about the same district where the last object came from are made the carved wooden arrows1 which are traded by the natives to the islanders of ,torres ,straits1 and which may be found in many of our ethnographical museums4 ,all the arrows formerly used in ,torres ,straits were imported from the mainland of ,new ,guinea4 ,of these there were many kinds3 some were quite plain1 others had simple wooden barbs1 while others again had bone barbs2 it is only with these latter that ,i am now dealing4 ,no two of these arrows are precisely alike1 but they fall into four main groups--7#a7 undecorated1 or with an occasional simple band pattern below the barbs2 7#b7 those with the figure of a man carved upon them2 7#c7 those with a representation of a crocodile2 and finally 7#d7 those with simple patterns1 which usually have a longitudinal direction4 ,i will confine myself to the third group1 and will illustrate only a few of the numerous variations which occur2 these will suffice to indicate what sort of modifications take place1 and will enable any one to interpret the carving on the majority of arrows belonging to this class which may be met with in a museum4 ,the ,crocodile ,arrow and its ,derivatives4--,this class of arrows forms a very interesting series1 as it becomes greatly modified4 ,at one end of the series we have an easily recognisable crocodile2 at the other we have a lizard1 or a well-marked snake2 and possibly even this may degenerate into the simplest patterns4 7a47 ,the ,crocodile and its ,degenerate ,forms4--,in front of the main design there are usually a few barbs1 much as in the 8man-arrow10 but these barbs may be considerably increased in number in the more degenerate type1 or they may be altogether absent4 ,it is desirable to first describe a typical crocodile-arrow2 and it will be necessary to call attention to certain well-marked divisions of the total representation3 these are the snout1 the head and neck 7from the eyes1 inclusive1 to the fore-limbs71 the fore-limbs1 the trunk1 the hind-limbs1 and the tail4 7#a47 ,the snout is plain2 above1 at the anterior extremity1 are two elevations1 which are meant for the prominent valvular nostrils of the crocodile4 ,occasionally one is placed behind the other 7,fig4 #f1 ,a71 instead of their being side by side1 or even but one may be present4 ,laterally the jaws and teeth are usually characteristically rendered4 ,in one arrow 7,fig4 #f1 ,b71 the teeth of the upper jaw on one side have1 by an easy transition1 been transformed into a zigzag line4 ,the underside of the snout and head is ornamented with lines and dots which may have a longitudinal or transverse arrangement1 or both may occur1 as in ,fig4 #f1 ,b4 7#b47 ,the head and neck1 like the snout1 are plain above1 except for an occasional representation of scales on the neck 7,fig4 #f1 ,c71 and the ventral ornamentation is a continuation of that of the underside of the snout4 ,the eye is triangular1 with the apex behind1 rarely oval1 as in ,fig4 #f1 ,c2 a band-pattern1 usually a zigzag1 which is always distinguishable from the ventral ornamentation1 extends from the eye to the fore-limb4 7#c47 ,the region of the fore-limb has generally the greatest thickness of the whole arrow4 ,the limbs often arise from an ornamental band 7,fig4 #f1 ,a71 which represents the prominent scutes in this region of the real animal4 ,the fore-limbs first project backwardly1 and then run forwards towards the middle ventral line4 ,the toes are usually indicated by transverse lines4 7#d47 ,the trunk has usually a row of chevrons or diamonds running along the dorsal and ventral median lines2 the lateral ornamentation usually consists of transverse lines1 separated by rows of spots2 sometimes these run longitudinally4 7#e47 ,the hind-limbs may be separated dorsally by a triangular area 7,fig4 #f1 ,a71 or by a row of tubercles 7,fig4 #f1 ,e74 ,the limbs invariably bend forwards1 and then backwards4 ,the enclosed angle contains a row of spots or rarely a plain ridge4 7#f47 ,typically the tail is ornamented with three1 occasionally two1 dorsal rows of tubercles4 ,the median row is a continuation of the median series1 or the triangular area above noted2 sometimes the median row is directly continuous with the central series on the back of the trunk4 ,the lateral rows start from the insertions of the hind-limbs 7,fig4 #f1 ,a1 ,e1 ,d74 ,beneath there is a large quadrangular plate1 ornamented with concentric lines1 the sides of which often extend up to the dorso-lateral angle of the tail4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,series of arrows from ,torres ,straits1 collected and sketched by the author1 and presented by him to the ,cambridge ,museum2 one-third natural size4 ,on comparing a number of crocodile-arrows with the animal itself1 one is struck with the numerous realistic details which have survived the decorative treatment of the design4 ,it must be remembered that one is dealing with a work of decorative art1 and not an attempt at realistic carving4 ,in one arrow several anatomical characteristics of the crocodile will be suggestively rendered2 in a second other details will be more accurately carved2 but in the great majority of arrows belonging to this series1 variation has occurred to such an extent that the crocodile becomes almost unrecognisable as such4 ,a very typical crocodile arrow is to be seen in ,fig4 #f1 ,a2 the chief variation in this is the placing of one nostril behind the other4 ,in ,fig4 #f1 ,b1 the nostrils are side by side1 and the teeth of the upper jaw are represented by a zigzag line4 ,the hind-limbs and the tail are entirely absent4 ,fig4 #f1 ,c1 is important in several respects4 ,the nostril is single1 the mouth is partially closed2 but the teeth have not1 as yet1 entirely disappeared from the hinder closed moiety4 ,the eye is oval1 a rare feature1 and the dorsal scales of the neck are represented2 this is also rare4 ,the fore-limbs have been converted into a raised zigzag band1 which encircles the arrow4 ,the hind-limbs do the same1 except that the pattern is interrupted in the median dorsal line by a double row of tubercles1 which represent the prominent dorsal scutes of this region in the living animal4 ,the thigh is carved with a curved upper border and a straight lower border4 ,there is rather a gap in the series between ,fig4 #f1 ,c and ,d2 but it is easy to see that the hinder part of the mouth is closed1 and the teeth of both jaws are represented by different patterns2 the front part of the mouth is widely open1 but edentulous4 ,the nostril is single4 ,the eye has become enormously enlarged1 and constitutes what ,i propose to term an eye-panel2 it extends backwardly to the fore-limb4 ,the plain upper surface of the head and neck has become much reduced1 owing to the encroachment of a double row of spots on each side4 ,the artist mistook the upper for the lower surface when he carved the fore-limbs1 for it will be seen that the toes are above and the dorsal scutes are placed below4 ,another point of interest is the replacing of the central row of caudal scutes by a plain ridge2 so far as ,i am aware this is unique4 ,fig4 #f1 ,e1 is a type of a large number of arrows4 ,the front open part of the mouth is quite small1 and the surfaces of the jaws are scored by oblique lines4 ,the median dorsal plain band of the snout is no wider than the lateral bands which indicate the closed hinder part of the mouth4 ,in the gape of the mouth an elongated triangle is very generally present2 this is doubtless intended to represent a tongue4 ,sometimes it is notched4 ,the eye-panels are elongated and narrow1 and the dorsal median band of the head and neck extremely reduced4 ,the rest of the body in this arrow calls for no special mention4 ,sometimes eyes are carved on the dorsal surface of the gaping end of the upper jaw4 ,in the last arrow 7,fig4 #f1 ,f7 of the series which ,i figure1 the front part of the mouth has disappeared2 but the hinder part of the head is much the same as in the last arrow4 ,the fore-limbs and body are absent4 ,the hind-limbs are narrow1 but retain their characteristic forward bend2 the dorsal caudal scutes are replaced by numerous parallel transverse lines4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,snake-arrow from ,torres ,straits 7cf4 ,fig4 #f74 ,two features of the innumerable modifications of this design are worthy of special allusion1 the one is the remarkable retention of the projecting nostril1 which may often be found as a slight prominence in very degraded arrows2 and the other is the still greater persistence of the tail and hindquarters of the crocodile4 ,i suspect that the striking decorative effect of the concentrically marked cloacal plate has led not only to the retention of that part1 but also to that of the neighbouring organs4 7b47 ,the ,snake ,variety4--,we now pass on to a small group in which the open front part of the mouth of such an arrow as ,fig4 #f1 ,e1 has suggested a complete head1 and so eyes are added 7,fig4 #g72 the rest of the snout1 the head and fore-limbs are omitted2 the body is much elongated1 but the hind legs and tail are usually quite normal1 or subject to merely minor variations2 the patterns may run transversely as in the figure1 or longitudinally4 ,such a carving irresistibly calls to mind a snake2 the natives themselves told me it was a snake4 ,the tail and hindquarters1 however1 proclaim the crocodilian original4 ,in this group of arrows we have a very interesting example of the transition from one kind of animal into another2 but hitherto ,i have not seen a snake-arrow which has lost all trace of its saurian ancestry4 7c47 ,the ,lizard ,variety4--,a few arrows are known to me which pretty closely resemble ,fig4 #f1 ,e1 except that the hind-limbs are elongated and slender1 and the tail is not crocodilian4 ,the body is depressed and lozenge-shaped in section4 ,in other words1 the body1 hind legs1 and tail are lacertilian in character4 ,in these arrows1 the crocodile has been confounded with a lizard4 ,other illustrations of the decorative art of these people will be found in ,figs4 #dd1 #ff2 but as these examples illustrate other aspects of the subject1 ,i have described them in the relating sections of this book and refrain from repeating them here4 ,,ii4--,,the ,,fly ,,river4 ,the ,fly ,river is the largest river in ,new ,guinea4 ,it rises from about the area where the ,dutch1 ,german1 and ,british territories abut1 and flows into the western side of the ,gulf of ,papua4 ,for a great part of its course it flows through low-lying and often swampy country1 which is but sparsely inhabited1 except in the delta region4 ,for our present purpose we need only consider the delta and the middle region of the river4 ,owing to the carelessness of collectors1 it is very difficult to determine from what exact district many objects labelled 8,fly ,river0 actually come4 ,the largest island in the delta of the ,fly ,river is ,kiwai1 and this contains several villages4 ,almost the only objects which can be safely referred to ,kiwai are the tubular drums with 8jaws0 at one end4 ,there can be but little doubt that the carving represents the head of the crocodile1 just as in the large ,torres ,straits and ,daudai drum the 8jaws0 probably are derived from the same reptile4 ,the carving on the ,kiwai drums is boldly executed1 and usually filled in with red and white pigment4 ,so far as ,i can discover1 the etching on the bamboo tobacco-pipes is similar in many respects to that on those from the previous district1 but the zigzag lines are usually much coarser1 and the punctate line is either rare or absent4 ,in some of the islands in the delta of the ,fly ,river1 at ,daumori for example1 carved wooden slabs1 more or less ovoid in contour1 are suspended on the front of a house for good luck2 some of these are also employed as figure-heads for canoes to ensure successful voyages4 ,they have carved upon them conventional human faces1 and occasionally whole figures1 accompanied by simple patterns4#e #e ,i hope to publish shortly a paper in the ,internationales ,archiv fr ,ethnographie1 on the designs which are incised on the skin of these natives4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,rubbing of one side of the decoration of a drum from the ,fly ,river1 in the ,museum at ,rome2 one-fourth natural size4 ,middle ,district of the ,fly ,river4--,the most extensive collection of objects at present in ,europe from the interior of ,new ,guinea along the ,fly ,river is that in the museum in ,rome4 ,these were 8collected0 by ,signor d',albertis1 mainly at what he named 8,villaggio dei cocchi10 which is probably the same place reached by ,sir ,william ,mac,gregor on ,january #gth1 #ahij2 it is situated about #chj miles from the mouth of the river4 ,the drums from this district differ in shape from those from other parts of the ,possession1 and a somewhat elaborate ornamentation is carved on them in low relief4 ,the means do not at present exist for elucidating the significance of these designs 7,fig4 #h71 which are compounded of crescentic lines1 leaf-like and triradiate elements and spirals4 ,some of the figures certainly look as if they were intended to represent leaves2 if this is the case1 it may be due to some influence from the north1 for we find that leaf-designs are employed in the north of ,netherlands ,new ,guinea4 ,dr4 ,m4 ,uhle#f states that 8the influence of the plant ornamentation of the ,east ,indian ,archipelago is also found in ,west ,new ,guinea4 ,although it is essentially characteristic of the western portion of the ,east ,indian ,archipelago1 isolated examples are not wanting in the ornamentation of the eastern40 ,he thinks he can trace the plant motive in ,south-,west ,new ,guinea as far as ,wamuka ,river4 #f 8,holz- und ,bambus-,gerthe aus ,nord ,west ,neu ,guinea10 ,publicationen aus dem ,kniglichen ,ethnographiscen ,museum zu ,dresden1 vi41 #ahhf4 ,the bamboo pipes are also decorated in a characteristic manner1 the pattern being caused by a local removal of the skin of the bamboo1 so that it shows darker against a light background4 ,there is usually considerably more regularity in the decoration than occurs on the drums4 ,,iii4--,,the ,,papuan ,,gulf4 ,we have no information concerning the decorative art of the greater portion of the littoral of the ,papuan ,gulf1 but from two rubbings sent to me by my friend1 ,mr4 ,robert ,bruce1 in #ahid1 it appears that the human face is largely represented4 ,in ,fig4 #i we see that simplified faces constitute a pattern which adorns a canoe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,rubbing of part of a carved pattern1 along a canoe from near ,cape ,blackwood4 ,taken by ,r4 ,bruce1 #ahid4 ,one-sixth natural size4 ,at the eastern side of the bight of the ,gulf of ,papua there is a very energetic1 boisterous people of dark complexion1 who inhabit the vicinity of ,freshwater ,bay4 ,their best known village is ,toaripi 7,motu ,motu72 the term ,elema includes this and other tribes in the neighbourhood4 ,the district is fertile1 wooded1 and well-watered4 ,sago is abundant1 and fleets of trading canoes sail annually to and from the ,motu tribe of ,port ,moresby to exchange pottery for sago4 ,the decorative art of this district is so characteristic that it is impossible to mistake it4 ,objects of wood are cut in flat relief1 and those made of bamboo are similarly treated1 the design being emphasised by the colouring of the intaglio4 ,the vast majority of the designs are derived from the human figure1 and most particularly the face4 ,there are very few designs which cannot be traced to this origin2 occasionally a crocodile or a lizard may be introduced4 ,the employment of masks during sacred ceremonies1 which was such a notable feature of ,torres ,straits1 recurs here also to an equal degree1 but instead of the masks being made in wood or turtle-shell1 they are constructed of a light framework on which is stitched the inner bark of a tree4 ,the device is outlined by cloissons of the midrib of a leaf1 and the figures are picked out in red and black1 and the background is usually painted white4 ,this cloissone technique is peculiar to this district1 and it appears to have affected also the method of carving patterns in wood4 ,the form and decoration of these masks is so varied that it would be tedious to describe them4 ,in the majority of them a human face is readily recognisable1 but in some of the larger examples it has practically become lost4 ,in nearly all1 instead of a human mouth1 the mask is provided with a long snout1 the jaws of which are usually numerously toothed4 ,there can be little doubt that this represents a crocodile's snout4 ,almost wherever it occurs1 the crocodile or alligator1 as the case may be1 enters into the religion of people1 doubtless1 primarily1 on account of its size and predatory habits4 ,it is very frequently a totem1 as1 for example1 in ,torres ,straits1 and it is very probable that here also its presence in conjunction with the human form is symbolic of a totemistic relation between the man and the reptile4 ,we know extremely little about the use1 and nothing of the significance1 of the masks of this region1 but it appears that their use is in connection with the initiation of the lads into manhood1 and a common feature of initiation is the association of the totem with the individual4 ,some masks represent what appears to be intended for a pig's head2 a bird and other forms may also be introduced4 ,occasionally a human head may be given to a grotesque animal form4 ,the shields are oblong or ovoid in shape1 and have a central slit cut out at the top4 ,most of the former are decorated with an easily recognisable human face2 sometimes the face is doubled1 but in these cases it is only the nose and mouth that are repeated1 a single pair of eyes having to do duty for the two faces4 ,the faces are subject to considerable modification1 the two eyes1 or even only a single eye may alone be recognisable4 ,characteristic of typical ,new ,guinea villages are large houses which men alone may enter4 ,here the lads who are being initiated into manhood are lodged1 here the masks and other sacred objects are kept2 they combine the offices of clubs1 guest-houses1 and religious edifices4 ,in this district1 as well as in the ,fly ,river delta1 they are usually decorated with human and animal carvings1 and in them are suspended wooden slabs of an elongated oval shape1 which are carved in a similar manner to the shields4 ,these tablets appear to be employed as charms for good-luck1 but we do not know whether they are also used in the initiation ceremonies2 they are decorated with extremely conventional representations of the human form1 or may be only a face2 sometimes monstrous combinations of a man and animal may be carved4 ,when men have passed through all the stages of initiation1 they are entitled1 so ,mr4 ,chalmers informs us1 to wear broad1 carved wooden belts4 ,these belts encircle the body thrice1 and like many other symbols of distinction must be extremely inconvenient to wear4 ,i have made rubbings of quite a considerable number of these belts1 and have come across only a few in which human faces could not be distinguished4 ,the design is so engraved that the pattern is in flat relief2 this is kept dark in colour1 and shows up against the whitened background4 ,certain details of the design are often picked out in red1 the exposed uncarved portion of the belt and most usually the narrow plain border above and below the pattern are painted red4 ,the design commences at one end of the belt1 and terminates when one circumference is nearly attained4 ,there is a wonderful diversity of pattern in these belts1 yet1 at the same time1 there is a fundamental similarity in the style of the designs which clearly indicates a community of origin4 ,a very considerable proportion of the belts known to me exhibit a true decorative taste on the part of artists1 and in some cases pleasing and ingenious patterns have been evolved4 ,it may not be superfluous to point out that1 whereas 8eye-spots0 are usually intended for eyes1 they are sometimes employed as an appropriate decorative device2 similarly toothed lines may represent human teeth1 rarely hair1 and not infrequently they are purely ornamental4 ,i have made a selection of ten of these belts which sufficiently illustrate their character and the sort of modification which occurs4 ,figs4 #aa to #ai are photographed from rubbings of part of the decoration of wooden belts from the ,papuan ,gulf4 ,fig4 #aj represents the whole of the ornamentation4 ,all are one-fourth natural size4 ,,classification ,,of ,,carved ,,patterns ,,on ,,wooden ,,belts ,,from ,,the ,,gulf ,,of ,,papua4 ,human ,face ,derivatives4 ,,series ,i4--,,uniserial1 ,,vertical4 #a4 ,faces looking the same way4 #b4 ,faces alternately looking up and down4 ,,series ,,ii4--,,uniserial1 ,,horizontal4 #a4 ,faces looking the same way4 #b4 ,faces alternately looking towards and away from one another4 7a7 ,all faces separate4 7b7 ,faces looking towards one another grouped together4 7c7 ,faces looking away from one another grouped together4 ,,series ,,iii4--,,biserial1 ,,vertical4 #a4 ,faces only looking towards one another4 #b4 ,faces only looking away from one another4 #c4 ,faces alternately looking towards and away from one another4 7,a7 ,all faces of equal size4 7,b7 ,faces looking towards one another most prominent4 7,c7 ,faces looking away from one another most prominent4 ,,series ,,iv4--,,biserial1 ,,horizontal4 ,,series ,v4--,,triserial 7,,ii4 ,,iii474 ,i4 ,vertical faces looking towards one another4 #a4 ,horizontal faces looking the same way4 #b4 ,horizontal faces alternately looking towards or away from one another4 7,a7 ,all faces of equal size4 7,b7 ,vertical faces monopolising pattern4 7a7 ,horizontal faces separate4 7b7 ,horizontal faces looking towards one another grouped together4 7c7 ,horizontal faces looking away from one another grouped together4 7,c7 ,horizontal faces monopolising pattern4 7a7 ,horizontal faces separate4 7b7 ,horizontal faces looking towards one another grouped together4 7c7 ,horizontal faces looking away from one another grouped together4 ,,ii4 ,vertical faces looking away from one another4 ,i4 ,single row of faces disposed vertically1 the faces alternately looking up and down4 ,fig4 #aj is a reduced rubbing of the whole of the ornamentation of a belt2 to the left will be seen a face with two eyes1 a nose1 and a large red mouth beset with teeth4 ,the next face has only one eye1 while the other two faces are eyeless1 and there is nothing distinctive about their noses4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,cambridge ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,glasgow ,museum4 ,,ii4 ,single row of faces disposed horizontally4 7#a47 ,the faces looking the same way4--,the belt of ,fig4 #aa has four faces1 which are as degenerate as those in the last example2 three of these look one way1 and the fourth1 which is at one end of the pattern1 looks in the opposite direction4 ,it is not unusual for a face to be carved at each end of the decorated portion of a belt1 and as these faces almost always look towards the pattern1 the anomaly of one face in this belt looking a different way from the remainder is apparent rather than real4 ,but the most interesting feature in this belt is the meander or fret pattern4 ,the extremely degenerate face appears to be1 as in4 ,fig4 #aj1 a red mouth containing an eye-spot2 the central chevron also occurs in ,fig4 #ai1 where it represents the nose4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,kerrama1 ,berlin ,museum4 7#b47 ,the faces alternately looking towards and away from one another4--,i will omit examples in which 7a7 all the faces are separate1 and 7b7 the faces looking towards one another are grouped together1 and pass on to 7c7 the faces looking away from one another are grouped together4 ,an elegant example of this is seen in ,fig4 #ab4 ,the two pairs of eyes of the two faces which are turned away from each other are represented by a single eye from which a horizontal line extends on either side to the two mouths2 each line represents a nose1 the nostrils of which are placed quite close to the eye4 ,the eyes are surrounded by simple red areas4 ,the spaces between the mouths1 above and below the eye 7speaking in terms of the belt1 and not of the faces71 are occupied by additional mouths1 which are evidently inserted from a sense of symmetry2 that they are supplemented1 and not essential1 is proved by the absence of any nasal line connecting them with the eye4 ,the spirals below each mouth occur on several shields4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,british ,museum4 ,an interesting belt 7,fig4 #ac7 exhibits quite a different modification of the same motive4 ,the pattern consists of a series of eight-rayed figures with bent arms1 and a central eye-spot4 ,a comparison of these figures with the eyes on masks1 and other objects from this district1 proves that the six rays are but a symmetrical coalescence of two pairs of eye-areas4#g ,the angled double lines are clearly those prolongations of the eye-area which in many cases tend to enclose the mouth1 and which probably represent the cheek-folds2 and thus they demonstrate the interpretation that each star is derived from two horizontal faces which are looking away from each other1 and of which nothing remains but a confluent eye-area1 enclosing a single eye4 ,the terminal faces are sufficiently normal2 but if two such faces were placed back to back1 and the eye-areas were confluent1 and the four eyes fused into one1 and finally the nose and mouth were eliminated1 we should have star-like figures resembling those which do occur4 ,if a reflector is placed across the eyes in the terminal face in ,fig4 #ac 7at right angles to the plane of the paper1 and across the long axis of the belt7 a star-like figure can be seen1 which is very similar to those in the rest of the belt4 ,this is one of the few belts that have no border pattern4 #g ,i have adopted the term 8eye-area0 to denote the eye device1 which includes the eye1 the eye-lashes1 and often the cheek-fold of that side4 ,,iii4 ,double row of faces disposed vertically4 7#a47 ,the faces only looking towards one another4--,in the belt represented in ,fig4 #ad there is a double row of faces which are placed vis--vis4 ,the figure illustrates varying degrees of degeneracy in the faces2 each space between a pair of faces is occupied by a large red star with a central eye-spot4 ,the representation of a lizard on this belt is noteworthy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,british ,museum4 7#b47 ,the faces only looking away from one another4--,in ,fig4 #ae it is evident that we have a double series of faces which are placed back to back2 the two pairs of eyes are represented by a central eye4 ,the noses and mouths of the different faces are joined together and constitute a fairly regular pattern4 7#c47 ,the faces alternately looking towards and away from one another4--,in this series the faces may all be equally developed1 or those facing one another may be most prominent1 or1 on the other hand1 those looking away from one another may monopolise the design4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,toaripi 7,author's ,collection74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,berlin ,museum4 ,a simple modification of the subdivision in which the faces are all equal is to be found in ,fig4 #af4 ,in this case the two eyes of each face have amalgamated1 and a short line represents the nose2 but their disposition is still typical4 ,the oblique lines uniting the noses are evidently the remains of the mouths of their respective faces2 a tooth-pattern may be present or absent4 ,the chevrons merely fill up the vacant angles4 ,the terminal face is represented by a red three-rayed area1 containing an eye-spot4 ,,iv4 ,double row of faces disposed horizontally4 ,no example of this arrangement is known to me4 ,v4 ,treble row of faces4 ,this is a composite series which is composed of ,series ,,ii4 and ,,iii4 ,it resolves itself into two main groups1 the second of which1 so far as ,i am aware1 is represented by only a single specimen4 7,i47 ,vertical faces looking towards one another4--,owing to the variety of their component elements the patterns in this series of belts are liable to considerable variation1 but there is no need to enter into an analysis of the possible modifications4 ,in ,fig4 #ag we have an example of the preponderance of the horizontal faces1 while some of the vertical faces are extremely degraded4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,maiva1 ,berlin ,museum4 ,fig4 #ah represents a condition in which the vertical faces are monocular2 the line beneath the eye is evidently the suggestion of a nose1 and the angled dentate line indicates the mouth with its teeth4 ,all these faces are equally developed4 ,the horizontal series of faces belong to ,series ,,ii41 #b1 b1 as the faces looking towards one another are grouped together4 ,in the centre of each space between a pair of vertical faces is a mouth which has to do duty for two horizontal faces2 on each side of this is a horizontal line which is a vestigial nose1 the arrow-head figure on which indicates the nostrils4 ,the eye between the mouths of the vertical faces represents two pairs of eyes of the horizontal series4 7,,ii47 ,vertical faces looking away from one another4--,the only belt with which ,i am acquainted which probably belongs to this subdivision of the series is that reproduced in ,fig4 #ai4 ,the design is more regular and sustained than is usually the case on these belts4 ,the vertical series of faces is represented by a median series of fused mouths and eyes2 the chevron band indicates the nose1 on which nostrils may be located close to the mouth or close to the eye4 ,the eyes of the vertical series of faces are enclosed within confluent eye-areas2 the median nose-line runs to the border pattern of the belt1 but there is no trace of a mouth4 ,the border pattern is1 ,i believe1 unique on belts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,edinburgh ,museum4 ,the bamboo tobacco-pipes are ornamented by scraping away some of the rind of the bamboo and colouring the intaglio portions with brown pigment2 in these also the designs are based on human faces and their derivatives2 sometimes the human form is employed1 and occasionally zoomorphs are depicted4 ,it would be tedious to describe all the objects which are decorated by these artistic people2 enough examples have been given to illustrate the style of their art4 ,we cannot at present say why anthropomorphs should predominate in so marked a degree4 ,i suspect it has something to do with the importance of initiation ceremonies combined with the ancestor cult1 which is a marked feature of the true ,papuans4 ,i would also hazard the conjecture that animal totemism is not of such prominence amongst these people as it was recently in ,torres ,straits1 and still is on the neighbouring coast of ,new ,guinea and in ,australia4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,museum of the ,london ,missionary ,society4 ,,iv4--,,the ,,central ,,district4 ,in ,yule ,island1 and in the vicinity of ,hall ,sound1 and right away down the coast of ,new ,guinea as far as ,cloudy ,bay1 we come across a fairly uniform and rather uninteresting type of decorative art4 ,the designs are burnt into bamboo tobacco-pipes or gourds1 8with a glowing slice of the sheathing leaf of the coco-nut kept almost at a white heat by the native artist blowing upon it4 ,the end of the glowing ember forms a fine point1 which on being slowly moved along the desired lines leaves indelible tracks40 7,lindt1 ,picturesque ,new ,guinea1 #ahhh1 p4 #cd47 ,in ,cloudy ,bay the natives scratch the design on the rind of the bamboo before charring it2 this tends to limit the burning1 and to give a hard edge to the lines4 ,here also the designs run along the length of the pipes in distinct bands2 in other parts of the ,central ,district longitudinal bands are broken by encircling bands1 and are often replaced by panels4 ,the employment of isolated1 rectangular panels is very characteristic of this district4 ,on such objects as tobacco-pipes the panels must from necessity follow one another more or less serially1 but they need not be co-ordinated into a definite pattern4 ,when larger surfaces are ornamented1 as1 for example1 the bodies of women 7,fig4 #bj1 ,a1 ,b71 the panels may also be somewhat irregularly disposed2 but there is a tendency1 at all events in some places 7as in the figure71 for the designs to have an orderly and symmetrical arrangement1 but in no case is there absolute symmetry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj1 ,a4--,drawing of ,tabuta1 a ,motu girl1 by ,rev4 ,w4 ,y4 ,turner1 ,m4,d4 7from ,journ4 ,anth4 ,inst41 vii41 #ahgh1 ,fig4 #d1 p4 #dhj74 ,b4--,back view of the same4 7,the hair of this girl is incorrectly drawn1 it should be frizzly and not wavy47 ,a common form of panel is the ,maltese cross 7,fig4 #ba1 ,h1 ,i72 perhaps it would be more accurate to describe it as a light ,st4 ,andrew's cross on a dark rectangular panel4 ,a combination of light ,st4 ,george's and ,st4 ,andrew's crosses on dark fields is very frequent2 the arms of the latter cross often become leaf-like1 and may monopolise the field4 7,fig4 #ba1 ,e1 ,f47 ,some travellers have suggested that these designs are derived from the ,union ,jack1 but this is not the case4 ,another kind of panel is that shown in ,fig4 #ba1 ,g4 ,fig4 #ba1 ,d1 illustrates one form of a common type of band pattern4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,a4 ,design on a lime-gourd from ,kerepunu2 ,b4 ,part of the decoration of a pipe from ,maiva2 ,c4 ,detail on a pipe from ,kupele1 in the ,berlin ,museum2 ,d-,i4 ,designs on pipes--,g from ,kupele 7,berlin71 ,h1 ,i1 from ,koiari 7,berlin74 ,all the ,figs4 are to different scales4 ,one of the most widespread of the isolated designs is that shown in ,fig4 #ba1 ,a1 ,b1 and ,fig4 #bb1 but it is subject to many variations4 ,similar designs are tattooed on people below the armpit or on the shoulder4 ,now that attention has been called to this and other designs1 we shall probably learn what significance is attached to them4 ,occasionally we find what appear to be undoubted plant motives on pipes and other objects from this district1 as1 for example1 on a pipe from ,kupele in the ,berlin ,museum 7,fig4 #ba1 ,c71 and it is probable that the designs just alluded to are also plant derivatives4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,part of the decoration of a pipe in the ,cambridge ,museum2 one-sixth natural size4 ,throughout this district1 especially along the coast1 the women are tattooed1 and in some localities they are entirely covered with tattoo marks4 ,the men are much less tattooed than the women4#h ,the designs employed are for the most part the same as those used to decorate pipes and gourds4 ,the angled design tattooed on the chests of women 7,fig4 #bj1 ,a1 ,b7 is found on a pipe in the ,cambridge ,museum4 7,fig4 #bb47 #h ,according to ,mr4 ,a4 ,c4 ,english1 ,government ,agent for the ,rigo ,district1 among the ,sinaugolo tribe1 the design ,fig4 #ba1 ,d1 is called mulavapuli1 and is tattooed on both sexes as a distinction for taking life2 ,fig4 #ba1 ,h1 ,i1 biubiu1 have a similar value2 the angled chest-marks 7,fig4 #bj1 ,a1 ,b7 are called boaroko4 7,ann4 ,rep4 ,british ,new ,guinea1 #ahic-id1 pp4 #fh1 #fi47 ,noticeable features in the decorative art of this district are the preponderance of straight lines over curved lines2 as well as the occurrence of dotted lines and of very short lines1 which form a kind of fringe to many of the lines4 7,figs4 #ba1 #bb1 #ea47 ,very remarkable also is the absence of the delineation of the human or of animal forms4 ,bounded on the north-west by a luxuriant art based on human faces and forms1 and limited to the south-east by bird-scrolls and bird and crocodile derivatives1 not to mention human effigies and representations of various animals1 these central folk are unaffected by these two very distinct forms of artistic activity4 ,the only exceptions1 so far as my evidence goes1 is in the transitional country north of ,hall ,sound1 and a few carvings of crocodiles in certain tabu houses or dubus4 ,the rigid conservatism of the native mind is the sheet-anchor of the ethnographer2 no better example of this mental rigidity is needed than is supplied by the ,motu people who live in the vicinity of ,port ,moresby4 ,the women make large quantities of pottery1 which the men trade for sago up the ,papuan ,gulf even to a distance of two hundred miles4 ,three or more canoes lashed together and fitted with crates constitute a trading canoe or lakatoi4 ,a fleet of twenty lakatoi carrying about six hundred men1 each of whom would take about fifty pots1 has been known to sail from ,port ,moresby4 ,the #bj1jjj or #cj1jjj exported pots will bring in exchange a cargo of #aej tons1 or more1 of sago4 ,notwithstanding this great annual trading1 the decorative art of the ,motu is absolutely untouched by that of the ,gulf natives1 or vice vers2 the artistic motives1 scheme of decoration1 and technique are entirely different4 ,it seems probable that many of the decorated objects that are labelled in ,european museums as coming from this district are the work of the hill tribes1 or of that coast population which does not belong solely to the ,motu and allied tribes4 ,v4--,,the ,,massim ,,district4 ,the country at the extreme south-east end of ,new ,guinea round ,milne ,gulf1 together with the neighbouring groups of islands1 constitutes a natural province to which ,i have proposed to extend the name ,massim4 ,for the history of this term the reader is referred to ,professor ,hamy's paper1 8tude sur les ,papouas de la ,mer d',entrecasteaux0 7,rev4 d',ethnogr41 vii41 #ahhh1 p4 #ejc74 ,the various archipelagoes which collectively constitute this district are--7#a7 ,the ,moresby ,group1 including all the islands between ,milne ,gulf and ,wari 7,teste ,island72 7#b7 the ,louisiade ,group1 including ,misima1 ,tagula 7,sudest71 and all neighbouring islands2 7#c7 the ,d',entrecasteaux ,group1 including ,duau 7,normanby ,island71 ,goodenough1 and the other islands2 7#d7 the ,trobriand ,group1 the largest island in which is ,kiriwina2 and 7#e7 the ,woodlark ,group 7,murua1 etc471 and including ,nada 7the ,laughlan ,islands74 ,there is a considerable amount of indigenous trade between these islands4 ,for example1 the ,nada folk make annual trading voyages to ,murua to exchange coco-nuts for taro4 ,dr4 ,finsch says 7,samoafahrten1 #ahhh1 pp4 #bjg-bji71 8,a great many objects 7such as the beautiful lime calabashes7 are bartered from the ,woodlark ,islands1 the inhabitants of which with their large sea-going canoes undertake extensive trading voyages4444 ,at all events ,trobriand is visited from ,normanby1 ,welle a small island close by the latter and ,woodlark ,islands1 for the ,trobrianders themselves probably do not undertake trading voyages40 ,in describing the manufacture of earthen pots at ,wari 7,teste ,island71 ,finsch says 7,samoafahrten1 p4 #bha7 the upper border of these pots 8exhibits various simple band patterns which are scratched with fork-like bamboo instruments1 and which serve not for ornament but as trade marks4 ,thus here also each woman has her own mark with which she signs her fabrication4 ,the pottery has an extended sale as far as the ,d',entrecasteaux and to ,chads ,bay1 ,south ,cape1 ,woodlark ,island1 and perhaps also to the ,louisiades40 ,in my ,memoir 7p4 #bbc7 ,i have included a ,,ms4 description of the manufacture of pottery in the same island1 which was kindly placed at my disposal by ,dr4 ,h4 ,o4 ,forbes1 and ,i also copied ,dr4 ,forbes' sketches4 7,fig4 #bc47 ,the ,wari people have to import wood for their houses1 and also1 like the natives of the ,engineer ,group1 who are great traders1 they procure canoes from ,pannaet 7,deboyne ,island74 ,owing to the trading which occurs amongst these islands and with the mainland1 it is very difficult to determine from specimens of native work in ,european collections what style of work is characteristic of each of these groups1 especially as comparatively few specimens are properly labelled4 ,i have1 however1 but little doubt that each group has characteristic designs and forms1 and possibly in some cases these may be peculiar to them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,clay pot with an incised pattern1 from ,wari 7,teste ,island71 after a sketch by ,dr4 ,h4 ,o4 ,forbes4 ,throughout the whole of this district one finds lime-spatulas1#i wooden clubs1 canoe carvings1 and other objects ornamented with scrolls4 ,nowhere else in ,british ,new ,guinea do we find the continuous loop coil pattern1 the guilloche1 or loop coils4 ,the spiral is absent from the ,torres ,straits and ,daudai1 but present up the ,fly ,river and in the ,papuan ,gulf4 ,it is absent again in the ,central ,district1 but reappears in the ,massim ,archipelagoes4 ,it is only in the last district that we meet with a wealth of curved lines4 ,what is the meaning of this8 #i ,southward of the ,papuan ,gulf1 and in all the islands of the south-eastern extremity of ,new ,guinea1 the natives chew the betel-nut1 and when chewing transfer quick-lime from gourds 78lime-gourds07 to their mouths by means of flat carved sticks 78lime-spatulas074 ,these vary greatly in form and in the character of their carving4 ,the intaglio is filled in with lime1 so that the design appears white on the polished ebony handles4 ,these objects are often called 8chunam spoons10 but they are never spoon-shaped1 and there is no need to introduce an ,anglo-,tamil word for lime4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,rubbing of the half of one side of the handle of a spatula in the author's collection2 one-third natural size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,rubbings of both sides of a float for a fishing-net2 one-half natural size4 ,all over this district we find decorative art permeated with the influence of the frigate bird4 ,this beautiful bird is the sacred bird of the ,west ,pacific4 ,i shall allude to it again in a later section4 ,the bird1 or its head only1 is often carved more or less in the round1 especially for the decoration of canoes4 ,it must1 however1 be remembered that such representations are conventional and not strictly realistic4 ,the same head is repeated on the handle of a spatula 7,fig4 #bd71 the curved tip of the beak of one bird forming the head of the bird immediately in front of it4 ,from this simple origin the varied and beautiful scroll patterns have been developed4 ,one important factor in the evolution of this pattern has been the confining of the design within narrow bands4 ,when a band happens to be exceptionally broad1 one often finds that the pattern becomes erratic4 ,queer contorted designs also result from the attempt to cover a relatively broad area1 as in ,fig4 #be4 ,here there is nothing to guide or restrain the artist1 except the boundary of the float2 but on canoe carvings and some other objects there are usually structural or vestigial features1 round which the design may be said to crystallise1 and in these cases the pattern is approximately or entirely symmetrical4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,rubbing of upper two-thirds of the decoration of a club1 in the ,glasgow ,museum2 one-third natural size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,rubbings of part of the decoration of clubs2 one-third natural size4 ,figs4 #bg and #bh1 ,d',entrecasteaux1 ,edinburgh ,museum2 ,figs4 #bi and #cj1 ,cambridge ,museum4 ,the triangular spaces left above and below the beaks in the bird-scroll pattern are usually more or less filled up with crescentic lines1 as in ,fig4 #bf4 ,sometimes they are blank1 and in this case the triangles may be coloured red instead of the white lime which is rubbed into the carving4 ,the eyes of the birds are1 as often as not1 omitted altogether4 7,figs4 #bg-cj47 ,their presence seems to have a conservative effect on the design1 for where absent the elements of the design may slip upon or run into one another4 ,in ,fig4 #bg we have a good example of what ,i mean by the slipping of the elements of the design1 with the result that a guilloche is arrived at4 ,it will be noticed in this figure that the ends of the curved lines are mostly joined by an oblique bar4 ,these oblique bars have become emphasised in ,fig4 #bh1 and a degeneration of the curved lines results in a simple pattern4 ,an example of the elements of the design running into one another is shown in ,fig4 #bi1 which1 like the last two figures1 is a reduced rubbing of part of the decoration of a sword-shaped wooden club4 ,the band1 shown in ,fig4 #cj1 is on the handle of the same club2 the central pattern is clearly a simplification of that on the blade of the club1 and it passes naturally into the zigzag carved below it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,rubbing of the pattern round the upper margin of a betel-pestle in the ,cambridge ,museum2 one-third natural size4 ,in a carved border round the top of a betel-pestle 7,fig4 #ca7 the bird's-head scroll has become simplified1 and at the same time developed into a more convolute scroll4 ,a very degraded example is seen in the upper band of ,fig4 #cb4 ,it would be easy to multiply examples of simple and complex derivatives of the bird's-head motive1 but these few will serve to demonstrate the kind of modifications which occur4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,rubbing of part of the carved rim of a wooden bowl from the ,d',entrecasteaux ,islands2 one-third natural size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,rubbing of the handle of a turtle-shell spatula1 from the ,louisiades1 in the ,british ,museum2 one-half natural size4 ,instead of only the head with its beak1 the neck of the bird may be introduced4 ,fig4 #cc is from a rubbing of a beautiful spatula in the ,british ,museum1 carved in turtle-shell 7tortoise-shell72 in it will be seen the interlocking of birds' beaks and of birds' necks4 ,if the interlocking beaks were isolated we should get the band pattern which runs along the concavity of the crescentic handle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,rubbing of the decoration of one side of a club2 one-third natural size4 ,the block is turned round to show the pattern more clearly1 the zigzag bands in reality run across the blade of the flat club4 ,the birds' heads and necks are usually confined to bands1 and the design becomes subject to a new set of influences4 ,a careful inspection of ,fig4 #cd will give the key to many details that may be found in carved objects from this district4 ,in the band immediately below the central band are seen the heads and necks of three birds which have already undergone a slight transformation4 ,in the corresponding band above the central band a bird is readily recognisable1 but those on each side of it have degenerated into looped coils4 ,the other designs can easily be recognised as bird derivatives4 ,the birds' heads and necks may be so arranged in a linear series that interlocking takes place4 ,in some cases one can distinguish between the beaks and the necks2 in others1 as1 for example1 in the outer bands of ,fig4 #ce1 this is impossible4 ,the interlocking of the beaks or necks1 as the case may be1 and the isolation of the involved parts1 has given rise to the central pattern on this spatula4 ,simple or complex coils like the last are of frequent occurrence in decorated objects from these islands4 ,both kinds of coil are found in ,fig4 #cd1 and by far the greater number of them can be proved to be bird derivatives4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,rubbing of the handle of a spatula in the ,british ,museum2 one-third natural size4 ,the eyes of the heads in such a pattern as the two outer bands of ,fig4 #ce may disappear1 and here also the elements of the design may fuse with each other4 ,these two phases of decadence have overtaken the pattern shown in ,fig4 #cf1 ,a1 which is the decoration of a spatula with a three-sided handle2 on another side 7,b7 the degeneration has advanced a stage1 and on the third side 7,c7 it has run its course1 and again the bird-motive has degenerated into a zigzag4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,rubbings of the three sides of the handle of a spatula from the ,d',entrecasteaux1 in the ,dublin ,museum2 one-half natural size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,a1 ,b4 ,sketches of two stages of the 8bird bracket0 of two spatulas1 probably from the ,woodlarks1 in the author's collection1 ,c1 ,d4 ,analogous details from canoe carvings--,c4 ,from a photograph2 ,d4 ,from a specimen in the ,edinburgh ,museum4 ,not drawn to the same scale4 ,some spatulas have small lateral adjuncts or 8brackets10 as ,i have elsewhere termed them4 ,in spatulas which come1 ,i believe1 from the ,trobriands and ,woodlarks1 these brackets are often carved to represent two birds' heads1 whose necks are united together over their heads 7,fig4 #cg1 ,a74 ,i have examples of these showing a degeneration into a simple scroll 7,fig4 #cg1 ,b74 ,the same is taking place on a club 7,fig4 #ch71 where several phases of modification are illustrated1 one result of which is that the beaks break away from their respective heads2 the design in the left-hand lower corner is clearly an extreme stage1 where each beak is represented by two small marks4 ,this can be compared with the design in the right-hand lower corner of ,fig4 #ci1 where further simplification has occurred4 ,the mark in the centre of the design is the relic of the four which occur in the last figure1 and these are the disrupted remains of the beaks of the two birds4 ,the other spirals in this figure are serial repetitions of the involved bird's eye of the lower design2 the limitation of these within narrow bands causes their elongation1 and from these we are led to the concentric ovals4 ,all the concentric ovals met with in this district may not have been arrived at in this manner1 but those in ,fig4 #ci appear to have had this origin4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #ch and #ci4--,rubbings of the decorations of clubs in the ,dublin ,museum2 one-third natural size4 ,to return again to ,fig4 #cg1 in ,a and ,b we have two phases of the bird-bracket on spatulas2 ,c and ,d are analogous designs in which the birds' beaks are also united2 these are details from canoe carvings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,rubbing of the central longitudinal band of a club from the ,d',entrecasteaux1 in the ,edinburgh ,museum2 one-third natural size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,rubbing of part of the decoration of a club from the ,d',entrecasteaux1 in the ,edinburgh ,museum2 one-third natural size4 ,a simplified type of bird's head and neck is seen in ,fig4 #dj4 ,probably1 owing to the narrow space at his disposal1 the artist omitted the typical curvature of the beak4 ,in the centre of the band a looped arrangement is to be seen4 ,it is very tempting to imagine that the central band of ,fig4 #da has had a similar origin4 ,it is possible1 however1 that it may be an aberrant modification of the serial bird's head design4 ,i have no doubt that it is a bird derivative4 ,in this district1 but principally1 ,i believe1 on the mainland and in the neighbouring islands1 we find carvings which represent a bird and a crocodile2 often this design forms the handles of paddles1 spatulas1 and axes 7,fig4 #de1 ,a74 ,i have not at present direct proof that the animal is a crocodile1 but ,i have sufficient evidence to warrant the assumption4 ,with but very few exceptions the bird has a hooked beak2 often it is provided with a crest4 ,normally it has a body and wings1 but never any legs4 ,only the head with the eye1 jaws1 and tongue of the crocodile are carved4 ,the bird is undoubtedly based on the frigate-bird1 but the crest is a gratuitous addition2 in a few instances it seems as if the artist had a hornbill in his mind4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4--;,bird and ,crocodile designs1 ,massim ,archipelago4 ,a4 ,canoe carving from ,wari 7,teste ,island72 about two-ninths natural size4 ,b4 ,handle of a paddle in the ,cambridge ,museum2 one-half natural size4 ,c4 ,handle of a spatula in the ,leiden ,museum2 three-sevenths natural size4 ,d4 ,handle of a spatula from ,tubutubu 7,engineer ,group71 in the ,cambridge ,museum2 three-sevenths natural size4 ,e4 ,handle of a paddle in the ,cambridge ,museum2 three-sevenths natural size4 ,the body and wings of the bird are frequently omitted1 then the neck disappears2 in some examples only the eye and hooked beak persist 7,fig4 #db1 ,b1 ,d71 and in one or two examples known to me the eye alone remains of the vanished bird4 ,the eye of the crocodile may develop into a grooved sigmoid curve1 or degenerate into a simple loop4 ,one or both jaws may terminate in a loop2 the teeth are more often absent than present2 in one spatula they occur on the tongue only 7,fig4 #db1 ,c74 ,the tongue usually reaches the bird1 but it may be quite short2 though generally straight1 it may be carved and may terminate in a small bird's head2 indeed1 either jaw may occasionally have a similar termination4 ,for a selection of characteristic modifications of this motive ,i would refer the reader to ,plate ,,xii4 of my ,memoir1 from which ,i have borrowed the examples seen in ,fig4 #db4 ,of these ,a is a conventional but readily recognisable representation of both the bird and the crocodile2 ,b1 ,c1 ,d are varieties which present no difficulty of interpretation1 and ,e is a slightly carved handle of a paddle in which the design is very greatly simplified4 ,the decorative art of the outlying ,trobriands 7,kiriwina7 and ,woodlark 7,murua7 ,groups appears to differ in many respects from that which is characteristic of the other groups of this district2 this is especially noticeable in the lime-gourds1 and on the oval-painted shields4 ,the north-east coast of ,british ,new ,guinea is now being opened up by the ,administrator1 ,sir ,william ,mac,gregor1 but as yet no specimens of its decorative art have found their way to ,british museums4 ,,vi4--,,relation ,,of ,,the ,,decorative ,,art ,,to ,,the ,,ethnology ,,of ,,british ,,new ,,guinea4 ,a general survey of the decorative art of ,british ,new ,guinea clearly reveals the fact that there are distinct sthetic schools1 if the term may be permitted1 in each of which there is a characteristic set of motives and also of forms and technique4 ,the boundaries of these districts are not sharply defined1 but1 although our knowledge is still imperfect1 they can in most cases be traced with sufficient exactitude4 ,i expect that the ,papuan ,gulf district will be found to extend from the ,fly ,river to ,cape ,possession 7long4 #adf #be ,e471 and that the ,fly ,river district proper must be confined to what ,i have termed its ,middle ,region1 and perhaps the upper reaches of that river as well4 ,we may then take these five districts for granted4 ,the question now presents itself3 ,what is the meaning of their distinctness8 ,i do not think we have at present sufficient evidence to enable us to do more than make suggestions as to possible causes1 and naturally ethnology is first appealed to4 ,are these differences due to ethnic diversity8 ,many of those who have written on the natives of ,british ,new ,guinea have not sufficiently distinguished between the numerous tribes in our ,possession1 and they speak in vague terms of the ,papuans as if they were all alike4 ,now this is by no means the case1 and before we can gain an adequate comprehension of ,papuan ethnography and ethnology we must clearly distinguish between the characteristics of the various tribes1 their customs1 languages1 and handicrafts4 ,there is still much discussion concerning the limitation of the term ,papuan as applied to people1 and even whether it should not be dropped altogether1 as ,professor ,sergi suggests4 ,the ,italian anthropologist extends the term ,melanesian not only to comprise the natives of all the ,western ,oceanic islands1 including ,new ,guinea and the adjacent islands1 but also ,australia4 ,at present ,i adhere to what ,mr4 ,ray and myself#aj have considered to be the most convenient course1 and to employ the term ,papuan for what appear to be the autocthones of ,new ,guinea4 ,by ,melanesians we understand the present inhabitants of the great chain of islands off the east of ,new ,guinea1 and extending down to ,new ,caledonia4 ,these terms are used to designate peoples1 not races2 neither are pure races1 and at present we are unable to gauge the amount of race mixture in either1 or even to state precisely what are their components4 #aj ,s4 ,h4 ,ray and ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 8,a ,study of the ,languages of ,torres ,straits10 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,irish ,acad41 #ahic1 p4 #eji4 ,from the boundary of ,netherlands ,new ,guinea to ,cape ,possession on the eastern coast of the ,papuan ,gulf1 and inland from these coasts1 the natives are dark1 frizzly-haired ,papuans2 typically they are a dolichocephalic people1 and rather short in stature4 ,the ,papuans also occupy the greater part of the south-east peninsula of ,new ,guinea2 but along the southern coast-line1 almost uninterruptedly from ,cape ,possession to the farthest island of the ,louisiades1 is an immigrant ,melanesian population1 about whom ,i shall have more to say presently4 ,i will now enumerate a few facts which will clearly bring out the essential distinction between these two peoples4 ,we have not at present a sufficient amount of data on the physical characters of the two peoples by skilled observers to enable us to formulate what differences there may be between them4 ,there is no doubt that the ,papuans are more uniformly dark than are the ,melanesians 7,i am now referring solely to the ,melanesians in ,british ,new ,guinea71 and their hair is as constantly frizzly4 ,among the ,melanesians light-coloured people are constantly met with1 as are also individuals with curly and occasionally straight hair4 ,their skulls exhibit many variations1 and are occasionally brachycephalic4 ,judging from my experience of the ,western ,papuans1 the ,papuan men usually sit with their legs crossed under them like a tailor1 whereas the ,melanesians squat1 like a ,malay1 usually with their haunches just off the ground4 ,i do not know whether this rule holds good for the ,papuans of the south-east peninsula4 ,the ,western ,papuans may or may not scarify their skin1 as in ,torres ,straits1 but they do not tattoo2 the ,melanesians tattoo themselves1 especially the women4 ,tattooing has1 however1 spread to a certain extent among the ,papuan hill tribes of the peninsula2 the ,koitapu women appear to have thoroughly followed the fashion of their ,motu neighbours2 amongst the ,koiari and other hill tribes it occurs only occasionally4 ,the ,v-shaped chest mark gado 7,fig4 #bj7 occurs among the ,motu and ,loyalupu1 but not east of ,keppel ,bay4 ,among the two former the tattooing lacks symmetry1 but in ,aroma curved lines become more frequent and asymmetrical figures have a bilateral symmetry with regard to the body4 ,the houses of the ,gulf and ,western ,papuans are often of great size and contain numerous families1 and there appears to be more club-life among the men4 ,the houses of the ,melanesians are smaller1 each family possessing one2 those in the ,trobriand ,group are not built on piles4 ,very characteristic of the ,papuans are the houses which are confined to the use of the men4 ,these houses are the focus of the social life of the men1 and as religion among savages is largely social usage1 it is also in connection with these structures that most of their religious observances are held4 ,the initiation of lads into manhood is accompanied with sacred ceremonies in some of the ,papuan tribes1 but1 so far as is known1 by none of the ,melanesians in ,new ,guinea4 ,masks are usually1 perhaps invariably1 worn at these ceremonies1 and the bull-roarer is swung and shown to the lads4 ,there is no record of a bull-roarer among the ,melanesian folk4 ,masks are employed by many peoples during certain ceremonies2 their distribution in ,new ,guinea is interesting1 as it will be found that in the ,british ,possession they characterise the ,papuan as opposed to the ,melanesian elements4 ,they were common in ,torres ,straits1 have been obtained in ,daudai1 and are very abundant in the ,papuan ,gulf from ,maclatchie ,point to ,cape ,possession4 ,dancing may be a secular amusement or a ceremonial exercise2 in both aspects it is largely practised by the ,papuans proper4 ,we have very few accounts of dances among the ,melanesians1 and these do not appear to be of a specially interesting character4 ,of their weapons the stone-club is alone common to all the tribes4 ,the use of the bow and arrow is confined to the ,papuans1 and is universally employed to the west and in the ,papuan ,gulf4 ,heavy1 sword-like1 wooden clubs and wooden spears are common among the ,melanesians1 and the sling is employed in the ,d',entrecasteaux ,islands4 ,only the ,melanesians make pottery4 ,the ,papuans earlier adopted tobacco1 and grew their own tobacco before the white man came1 but they do not chew the betel to any great extent2 quite the reverse is the case with the ,melanesians4 ,i have now enumerated a sufficient body of evidence to demonstrate that two groups of people inhabit ,british ,new ,guinea4 ,we have now to see whether a further analysis is possible4 ,our knowledge of the ,western ,papuans is too imperfect for any definite generalisations to be made at present1 but ,i venture to present the following tentative suggestions3-- ,the most typical ,papuans in the ,british ,protectorate are probably the bush tribes from the ,dutch boundary to the back of the ,gulf of ,papua4 ,they are gradually being pushed inwards by the coast people4 ,macfarlane contrasts the high and broad skull of the latter with the 8long1 narrow skull1 with its low forehead and prominent zygomatic bones10 of the former1 whom he also states are 8greatly inferior1 both mentally and physically40 ,the observations of d',albertis of a racial mixture in this region are supported by de ,quatrefages and ,hamy4 ,the ,torres ,straits islanders are also a mixed people4 ,i do not think we have sufficient evidence before us to decide what are the component races of these ,western ,papuans4 ,i suspect that the ,fly ,river is to a slight extent what may be termed a 8culture route10 and that the natives of the higher reaches have indirect communication with those of the north coast of ,new ,guinea2 for example1 the rattan armour collected by d',albertis high up the river is similar to that obtained by ,finsch from ,angriffs ,haven1 near ,humboldt ,bay1 and recalls the coir armour of ,micronesia2 it is probable that this was the route by which tobacco found its way to ,torres ,straits and the ,gulf district1 and thence to the south-east4 ,the ,papuans also extend down the south-east peninsula and into the adjacent island groups4 ,on the mainland they have been conquered in certain places by ,melanesian immigrants1 and a mixture of these two peoples has taken place to a variable extent4 ,in the islands the amalgamation has been more complete4 ,the immigrant people are by the majority of writers spoken of as ,polynesians4 ,this identification is apparently based solely on the lighter colour of some of the former than that of the ,papuans proper1 and on numerous words common to them and the ,polynesians4 ,the light colour of the skin and the occasional presence of curly or even straight hair among some of the people of ,british ,new ,guinea certainly proves a racial mixture1 although ,comrie and ,finsch do not lay much stress on these points4 ,the latter 7,samoafahrten1 p4 #bcd7 writes3--8,the natives of ,bentley ,bay1 as at ,east ,cape1 are of a tolerably light skin colour and belong to what the ignorant would explain as a ,malay mixture4 ,but wrongly1 for they are true ,papuans1 amongst whom the individual occurrence of curly1 even of smooth hair1 is of no consequence40 ,the craniology of the natives of the south-eastern peninsula and neighbouring islands has been studied by ,comrie1 ,flower1 ,mikloucho-,maclay1 de ,quatrefages1 ,hamy1 and ,sergi1 most of whom admit with ,flower 8a considerable mixture of races among the inhabitants of this region of the world40 ,as at present anthropography cannot speak with precision concerning the racial elements in this immigrant people1 we must turn to other branches of anthropology1 and we will see what light ethnography and linguistics can throw on this ethnological problem4 ,a comparison of ,papuan and ,melanesian customs and handicrafts will prove that there is little of real importance in common1 say1 between the ,motu or the ,south ,cape natives and the ,samoans4 ,i need only allude to the almost total absence of a system of cosmogony or of a pantheon with a definite mythology2 associated with this lack of a theology is the absence of an organised priestcraft4 ,the democratic ,papuans and ,melanesians have no hereditary chieftainship1 and the power of tabu is much more limited than in ,polynesia4 ,strangely enough1 these so-called 8,polynesians0 in ,south-,east ,new ,guinea make pottery and do not drink kava4 ,there is also a well-marked distinction between the weapons1 implements1 etc41 and the decorative art of the ,new ,guinea people and those of the ,polynesians4 ,for the linguistic evidence ,i have consulted my friend and colleague1 ,mr4 ,s4 ,h4 ,ray1 who is our great authority on the languages of ,western ,oceania4 ,in an essay in my ,memoir#aa he discusses this question1 and as most is known about the ,motu language of the neighbourhood of ,port ,moresby1 he takes this as a basis for comparison2 what is proved for this applies1 in all probability1 to the other ,melanesian languages of ,british ,new ,guinea4 8,much could be written to show that it is with the ,melanesian tongues that the ,motu of ,new ,guinea should be included and not with the ,polynesian4 ,the same method applied to the ,kerepunu1 the ,aroma1 ,suau1 and other dialects akin to the ,motu1 points to the same relationship4 ,the ,motu grammar is entirely ,melanesian and non-,polynesian4 ,such words as are common to it and the ,eastern ,polynesian are equally common to the whole of ,melanesia4 ,melanesian words which are non-,polynesian are also found in ,motu and the allied languages of ,new ,guinea40 #aa ,the ,decorative ,art of ,british ,new ,guinea1 p4 #bfc4 ,i had long been puzzled by certain differences between the ,motu and allied tribes on the coast of ,british ,new ,guinea and the natives round ,milne ,gulf and of the neighbouring groups of islands1 all of whom ,i speak of collectively as the ,massim4 ,there is a difference in their physiognomy4 ,the ,motu and allied tribes are remarkably destitute of a religion1 and are 7or were7 at the mercy of the sorcerers of the indigenous hill tribes1 and1 what is more remarkable1 there is no trace of the cult of the sacred frigate-bird or of that of any other animal4 ,they make their pottery by beating a lump of clay into a pot1 whereas1 according to the only descriptions we have1 the ,massim women build up their pots with bands of clay laid in spirals4 ,a study of my ,memoir on the decorative art of ,british ,new ,guinea will clearly bring out the enormous difference between the ,motu and the ,massim in artistic feeling and execution4 ,my knowledge of ,melanesia was too slight to enable me to proceed further with this problem1 but in a recently published paper ,mr4 ,ray says#ab3--8,with regard to the place of origin of the ,melanesian population of ,new ,guinea it does not seem possible to ascertain the exact quarter from which it has come4 ,there is at first sight much dissimilarity between the languages west and east1 between the ,motu and ,kerepunu on the one side and the ,suau of ,south ,cape on the other4 ,though this dissimilarity disappears on closer examination1 it may be stated that the language of ,suau appears very similar to those of ,san ,cristoval in the ,solomon ,islands1 which lies almost due east of ,south ,cape4 ,the ,motu and ,kerepunu agree more with the languages of the ,efate district in the ,central ,new ,hebrides40 #ab ,s4 ,h4 ,ray1 8,the ,languages of ,british ,new ,guinea10 ,jour4 ,anth4 ,inst41 xxiv41 #ahid1 p4 #cb4 ,further evidence must be collected before ,mr4 ,ray's suggestion can be definitely accepted4 ,the decorative employment of the frigate-bird in the ,massims and ,solomon ,islands supports his first proposition2 but1 on the other hand1 inlaying with shell and nacre is very characteristic of the ,solomon ,islands1 and this is absent from the ,massims2 there are besides many other points of difference4 ,so far as ,i am acquainted with photographs of natives from the ,new ,hebrides ,i do not see any resemblance between them and the ,motu1 but it must be borne in mind that there can be culture-drift without appreciable actual mixture1 though amongst savage peoples the latter must to a certain extent be concurrent4 ,to return to the ,papuan peoples of ,british ,new ,guinea4 ,it is probable that these are also a mixed people1 and not a race in the ethnological sense of the term4 ,owing to continual inter-tribal warfare1 or at least mutual distrust1 there has not been much intercourse between the inhabitants of different districts2 this may partly account for such distinct styles of art as occur in ,daudai and the ,papuan ,gulf4 ,i have already hinted that influences from ,north-,western ,new ,guinea may have penetrated down the ,fly ,river1 but a discussion of the latter question opens up complicated problems of ,malaysian ethnography into which ,i cannot now enter4 ,,vii4--,,note ,,on ,,the ,,scroll ,,designs ,,of ,,british ,,new ,,guinea4 ,the occurrence of scrolls and spirals in ,south-,east ,new ,guinea1 and their general resemblance to certain ,maori patterns1 have led several observers to believe that there may have been intercourse between ,new ,guinea and ,new ,zealand4 ,as this problem raises some interesting questions ,i have thought it desirable to discuss it1 but to do so adequately would take far more room than can here be spared4 ,mr4 ,goodyear makes out a good case for the view that some1 at least1 of the spiral scroll motives in ,malaysia are due to ,mohammedan influence2 but he probably goes too far in ascribing all the scrolls of the decorative art of the ,malay ,archipelago to that source4 8,the ornamental system of ,india was in the first instance1 as known to us1 ,buddhist1 under ,greek influences2 second1 ,arab-,mohammedan4 ,the spiral scroll ornament of modern ,india is a mixture and survival of the two4 7,the more formal classic style of old ,buddhist ornament has disappeared in ,india47 ,this is the ornamental system of the ,malay ,archipelago4444 ,the present ornamental system of ,malaysia is mainly the ,mohammedan-,arab1 which is derived from ,byzantine ,greek4 ,the ,malay alphabet1 the ,malay ornament1 the ,malay religion1 and the ,malay culture are all derived from ,india4444 ,the spiral scroll is absolutely foreign to the ornamental systems of ,polynesia4 8,there only remains the case of ,new ,guinea and ,new ,zealand4 ,not only does ,new ,guinea border directly on the ,malay ,islands1 but it is geographically part of ,malaysia4 ,mr4 ,goodyear is wrong in this statement1 as in its geology1#ac fauna1 and flora ,new ,guinea is essentially ,australian4 ,the princes of the ,island of ,tidore have actually been the potentates of the ,northern ,coast of ,new ,guinea4 ,the ,new ,guinea ornamental system shows degraded and barbaric forms of the ,mohammedan spiral scrolls of ,malaysia4 ,from these once more are derived the spiral scroll ornaments of ,new ,zealand40#ad #ac ,haddon1 ,sollas1 and ,cole1 8,on the ,geology of ,torres ,straits10 ,trans4 ,royal ,irish ,acad41 vol4 xxx41 #ahid1 p4 #dai4 #ad ,architectural ,record1 ii41 #ahic1 p4 #dab4 ,the problem is by no means so simple as the reader might infer from ,mr4 ,goodyear's remarks4 ,it does not appear that he sufficiently allows for ethnic influence in decorative art4 ,my contention is that we must first try to obtain a definite conception of the racial elements in a given people before we can expect to thoroughly comprehend their art4 ,according to my experience1 the more backward the people1 the less they borrow artistic motives4 ,why should they8 ,their ornament has to them a significance and associations which foreign decoration lacks2 the latter appeals to them no more than does ,mexican or ,mangaian ornament to us4 ,from their mental attitude they are far less likely to copy foreign designs than are we4 ,i have already 7p4 #fe7 adduced an interesting example of this when ,i compared the art of the ,motu folk with that of the ,gulf ,papuans4 ,malaysia is peopled by various races1 of which the ,malay stock is undoubtedly predominant1 but the latter is regarded as having been1 comparatively speaking1 a late wave of migration1 and probably the advent of the ,malay was the disturbing cause which initiated the wanderings of the ,polynesians 7or ,sawaiori1 as ,mr4 ,a4 ,h4 ,keane terms them74 ,even in ,oceania the problem is complicated by the now generally received fact of an earlier population of many of the islands by ,melanesians4 ,personally1 ,i believe we can find distinct traces of their artistic skill in the decorative art which we are accustomed to put down as 8,polynesian02 indeed1 ,i suspect that most of the ,oceanic wood-carving is due to ,melanesian influence1 although it now illustrates ,sawaiori mythology4 ,i have not yet studied the decorative art of the ,malay ,archipelago2 but as my friend1 ,professor ,hickson1 has1 ,i will quote what he has said on the subject3--8,from collections in museums it might be supposed that the ,malays are very artistic2 this is perhaps due to the fact that collectors frequently will only obtain implements and the like that are ornamented with curious coloured designs and figures1 and leave behind all the spears1 shields1 and the like that are not so ornamented2 the result being that an unfair proportion of ornamented things appear in the cabinets of the museum4 ,i am inclined to believe that the ,malays are not artistic1 and that the few ornamented designs of their own are very poor and primitive40#ae ,after alluding to the ruined temples in ,sumatra and ,java1 and the complicated patterns on the people's costumes1 he continues1 8but this is not ,malay art4 ,it is the art that was brought by ,buddhist priests in the third century1 according to ,fa-hien1 the ,chinese pilgrim from ,further ,india4 #ae ,the ,academy1 #cjth ,may #ahia1 ,no4 #iie1 p4 #eai2 also ,journal of the ,cambridge ,ant4 ,soc41 vii41 p4 #bic4 8,nor should we judge of ,malay art from the specimens obtained in ,timor1 ,aru1 ,timor ,laut1 and ,ceram1 for in these islands there is undoubtedly a very great influence from the mixture of the race with the ,papuans4 ,in ,celebes1 ,south ,borneo1 and the ,moluccas1 there is very little art2 and this is due1 ,i believe1 to the fact that there has been very little ,buddhist influence and very little ,papuan influence4 8,the chief character of ,malay art1 if it can be so called1 is the absence of any good curves4 ,nearly all their designs are angular1 and those that they have copied from other races have a tendency to become angular40 ,the implements1 weapons1 cloths1 etc41 8of the people are frequently1 if not usually1 unornamented1 in striking contrast to similar things among the ,papuans4 ,nothing could be more impressive than the contrast in this respect between a ,malay and a ,papuan village40 ,there can be no doubt that the decorative art of ,north-,west ,new ,guinea has been affected by influences from ,malaysia2 but it is very doubtful whether this has penetrated very far inland1 or even very far down the coast4 ,it must be remembered that the ,papuans1 and ,melanesians generally1 are a fierce people1 and there is1 as a rule1 very little intercourse indeed between various tribes1 in fact there is an almost continual condition of inter-tribal war4 ,in a country containing great mountain ranges1 dense jungles1 or extensive swamps1 with no roads1 and innumerable tribes speaking different languages1 and at enmity with one another1 it is difficult to see how artistic motives could readily travel4 ,there are only two possible routes1 rivers and the coast-line4 ,i have elsewhere#af stated that the ,fly ,river 8has been to a certain extent what may be termed a #8culture route1' and that the natives of the higher reaches have indirect communication with those of the north coast of ,new ,guinea40 #af ,the ,decorative ,art of ,british ,new ,guinea1 #ahid1 p4 #bef4 ,if any one will take the trouble to study the evidence ,i have collected1 it will1 ,i think1 be incontestable that the scroll designs of the extreme south-east point of ,new ,guinea and of the adjacent islands could not have come overland4 ,with the possible exception of the central region of the ,fly ,river1 about which we at present know very little1 ,i can see no traces of 8,malayan0 culture in the decorative art of ,british ,new ,guinea4 ,the evidence at our disposal certainly points to the conclusion that the bulk1 at all events1 of the natives of the ,louisiades1 ,d',entrecasteaux1 and neighbouring islands and mainland are sea-borne immigrants4 ,and if their scroll designs have not been developed in the district where they now reside1 we must seek for their origin in the ancestral home of these travellers4 ,i have discussed this question in my ,memoir 7pp4 #beh-bfi71 and have stated it in a more concise form in ,science ,progress1 vol4 ii4 7#ahid71 pp4 #ia-ie1 and have come to the conclusion1 which is shared by ,mr4 ,s4 ,h4 ,ray1 on linguistic grounds1 that no ,malay influence can be shown1 but that the people came from the great chain of ,melanesian islands which stretches from the ,admiralty ,islands to ,new ,caledonia1 and possibly from the ,solomon group4 ,nowhere in the ,melanesian ,archipelago do we find scroll designs comparable with those of the district of ,new ,guinea now under consideration4 ,the conclusion1 then1 seems inevitable1 that until further evidence is adduced we must regard these scroll designs as having originated in this district1 and in the manner ,i have demonstrated--i4e41 from birds' heads4 ,to pass on to ,new ,zealand4 ,although we have innumerable specimens of the beautiful and very characteristic wood-carving of ,new ,zealand in our museums and in private collections1 yet no one has seriously studied the art1 or has offered a satisfactory explanation of it4 ,it is generally admitted that there was a ,melanesian population on the group before the ,maoris arrived some six hundred years ago4 ,the latter probably came from some of the islands between ,samoa and ,tahiti1 probably mainly from ,rarotonga4 ,the scroll designs have no resemblance to the patterns from the ,rarotongan region of ,oceania4 ,the only examples of this particular technique occur in one or two weapons from ,fiji2 these are of typical ,fijian shapes1 but the carving is in the ,new ,zealand manner4 ,one of these is in ,baron von ,hgel's collection in ,cambridge1 and another is in the ,british ,museum4 ,i have no explanation to offer for these facts that is satisfactory to myself4 ,apart from one or two isolated ,fijian specimens1 the wood-carving of ,new ,zealand is unique4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,rubbing of the decoration of a ,maori flute1 in the ,natural ,history ,museum1 ,belfast2 one-half natural size4 ,some of the ,new ,zealand patterns 7,fig4 #dc1 and ,plate ,,vi41 ,fig4 #ab7 certainly have a superficial resemblance to the more typical scroll patterns from the ,south-,eastern ,archipelago of ,new ,guinea1 but there is no ground for comparing them except for this casual resemblance4 ,the bird element is entirely lacking1 and there is far less interlocking in the ,maori than in the ,papuan scrolls2 there are also noticeable technical differences4 ,my impression is that the carved designs have been derived mainly from tattooing1 and possibly also partly from the dismemberment which so often befalls the conventionalised carvings of their ancestral figures4 7,plate ,,vi41 ,fig4 #aa47 ,when one looks at tattooed ,maori heads or carvings of human figures one finds that rounded surfaces1 such as the wings of the nose1 the cheeks1 the shoulders and thighs are usually decorated with spiral designs2 this is in such places an appropriate device1 as it accentuates the features which are ornamented1 and personally ,i am inclined to believe that artistic fitness is the explanation of this employment of the spiral1 and that it has been transferred to other objects as being a pleasing design1 and that connecting lines have been made to give coherence to the decoration4 ,it is worth noting that in early ,european art the shoulders and haunches of animals are often decorated with spirals4#ag #ag ,see1 for example1 ,plate ,,vii41 ,figs4 #b1 #e4 ,,the ,,material ,,of ,,which ,,patterns ,,are ,,made4 ,having sketched the main features of the decorative art of a definite locality1 ,i now pass on to a different field1 and will select examples from every age and clime1 in order to illustrate the life-histories of a number of designs4 ,in this ,i have a twofold object4 ,first1 ,i wish to indicate in this section the material out of which designs and patterns are formed--the objective originals which become gradually transformed into sthetic conceptions2 and1 secondly1 ,i also wish to illustrate the fact that this process of transformation is confined to no one people4 ,we shall see that the originals of decorative art are mainly either natural or artificial objects1 and the latter will first claim our attention4 ,i4--,,the ,,decorative ,,transformation ,,and ,,transference ,,of ,,artificial ,,objects4 ,dr4 ,h4 ,colley ,march has introduced the term 8,skeuomorph0#ah for the forms of ornament demonstrably due to structure4 ,professor ,g4 ,semper#ai 8was the first to show that the basket-maker1 the weaver1 and the potter originated those combinations of line and colour which the ornamentist turned to his own use when he had to decorate walls1 cornices1 and ceilings40 ,so write ,,mm4 ,perrot and ,chipiez2#bj but this statement is too sweeping4 ,a considerable amount of ornamentation is doubtless due to technique1 but in ,europe1 ,western ,asia1 and ,north ,africa plant forms have had a great influence in the origin of designs1 some of which have been modified by passing through a textile technique4 #ah ,from 1 implements1 utensils1 tools1 baggage1 tackle1 dresses4 #ai ,g4 ,semper1 ,der ,stil in den technischen und tektonischen ,knsten oder praktische ,aesthetik4 ,munich1 #ahfj-fc1 #b vols4 7,second ,edition1 #ahgh-gi47 #bj ,g4 ,perrot and ,c4 ,chipiez1 ,a ,history of ,art in ,ancient ,egypt1 ii4 p4 #cef1 #ahhc4 ,given any object1 two forces1 so to speak1 attack it--the utilitarian and the sthetic4 ,the resultant may be an implement which is solely useful and has little or no beauty to recommend it2 or while retaining a full measure of utility1 it may be beautified in form or in surface decoration2 or1 lastly1 the object may become so glorified by the artist as to be translated from earthly use into the realm of sthetics4 #a4 ,transformation of a ,solitary ,object4 ,there are numerous examples of the annihilation of the useful by the beautiful4 ,one instance came under my notice at the ,murray ,islands1 in ,torres ,straits4 ,formerly when a girl was engaged to be married1 in addition to numerous petticoats she wore a number of ornaments suspended from her neck and hanging down her back4 ,the more important of these were white triangular pieces of shell1 o1 cut out of ,conus millepunctatus2 turtle-shell 78tortoise-shell07 bodkins 7ter71 used for shredding the leaves of which their petticoats were made1 and for piercing the septum of the nose of infants2 turtle-shell fish-hooks1 and curious turtle-shell ornaments which are called sabagorar4 ,these latter vary considerably in size1 form1 and amount of decoration2 but by placing a number of them together a sequence can be obtained which illustrates the evolution of the sabagorar from the fish-hook 7,fig4 #dd74 ,some hook-like objects are slightly ornamented with incised lines1 and they might very well serve as fish-hooks2 others are clearly totally unfitted for practical use1 and may be quite plain or decorated4 ,fish-hooks 7,fig4 #dd1 ,a7 are used in pairs1 being fastened at each end of a piece of fine string1 which1 in its turn1 is tied at its middle to the fishing-line proper4 ,when the piece of twine with its hooks was thrown round a girl's neck1 the two hooks would often hang down her back shank to shank4 ,two sabagorar similarly arranged occur in the ,british ,museum collections4 ,what more natural than that this should be noticed1 and to save the trouble of making two sabagorar a double one should be cut out of one piece of turtle-shell4 ,the more remotely from the fish-hook did the sabagorar vary1 the larger it became1 and in some instances the double form became of considerable size1 and the hook portion acquired a slight spiral curvature 7,fig4 #dd1 ,k74 ,in one modified specimen the hooks are actually fused with the shank 7,fig4 #dd1 ,l74 ,it will be also seen that divergent -like processes often occur on the sabagorar1 but are never found on the fish-hook4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,turtle-shell ornaments worn in ,torres ,straits4 ,the ratio of size of the illustrations to the originals is as #d3ae4 ,a4 ,ordinary fish-hook1 made of turtle-shell4 ,b-,l4 ,series of ornaments1 probably derived from fish-hooks1 made of turtle shell4 ,all in the ,british ,museum1 from a photograph by ,mr4 ,h4 ,oldland1 of the ,british ,museum4 ,the betrothal equipment of a girl thus consisted in the main of objects of utility which had reference to her future condition4 ,the turtle-shell objects being easily cut1 afforded a convenient field for ornamentation1 and most of the ter implements exhibit a little decoration4 ,the comparatively slender fish-hooks provided insufficient surface for ornamentation2 the broadening of them for decorative purposes reduced their efficiency1 so that in time the latter was sacrificed and a mere ornament resulted4 ,in the chain of islands which stretch away from the south-eastern end of ,new ,guinea1 one finds an interesting metamorphosis of the stone axe4 ,the stone axe was very precious among these people1 to whom the art of working in metals is still unknown4 ,a large fine axe would have very considerable value1 and the exhibition of it would be a symbol of wealth1 and consequently of power4 ,the desire to be recognised as wealthy has resulted in the development of a stone axe of which the stone is very large1 often remarkably thin and beautifully polished1 and is hafted to an unwieldy handle which may be carved and decorated with shell-money and other ornaments4 ,the value of such an object seems to depend upon the amount of work required to produce it2 its inutility enhances the reputation of the wealth of its possessor2 thus we appear to arrive at certain primitive conceptions4 ,work done gives ownership or property4 ,one form of wealth is the possession of unnecessary or useless property2 the exhibition of this gives power to the owner4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,sketches of two axes from the ,south-east ,peninsula of ,new ,guinea in the possession of the author2 about one-tenth natural size4 ,i have made sketches 7,fig4 #de7 of two axes in my possession4 ,the first 7,a7 is decorated with characteristic ornamentation1 consisting in the upper part of birds' heads and at the handle of the bird and crocodile design2 but it is still a useful implement4 ,the second axe 7,b7 has a large thin stone1 and is an unwieldy and probably quite useless object4 ,the late ,mr4 ,h4 ,h4 ,romilly#ba tells us that at ,utian 7,brooker ,island71 in the ,louisiades1 8,the stone implements made here are very fine4 ,i got some axes of enormous size1 which ,i am sure could not be intended for use4 ,they seemed rather to be a common possession2 perhaps two or three belonged to the village1 and were exhibited on state occasions40 ,the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,wyatt ,gill1#bb at ,south ,cape1 saw 8two axes solemnly carried by the chiefs as a preliminary to peace 444 a glance at the slight artistic hafting will convince any one that they are not intended for cleaving timber40 ,this is all the information we have concerning these axes4 ,it appears that they have come to be recognised as symbols of authority1 but it is extremely doubtful whether they are anywhere held as a common possession4 #ba ,the ,western ,pacific and ,new ,guinea1 #ahhf1 p4 #ach4 #bb ,chalmers and ,gill1 ,work and ,adventure in ,new ,guinea1 #ahhe1 p4 #ccd4 ,a still more wonderful change has affected certain adzes in the ,hervey ,islands4 7,fig4 #df47 ,the stone blade is a carefully cut and polished piece of basalt1 and it has every appearance of being perfectly serviceable2 but the elaborately carved handles preclude the idea that in their present state they could be used for practical purposes4 ,in form the handles may be quadrangular1 gradually diminishing from the base to the blade1 or conical1 or polygonal or cylindrical4 ,when short the handles are thick1 even to the extent that they can scarcely be grasped by the two hands2 these forms too are often perforated by quadrangular holes4 ,one specimen in the ,archological and ,ethnological ,museum at ,cambridge is six feet three inches in length4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--,mangaian symbolic adze in the ,copenhagen ,museum2 from ,dr4 ,c4 ,march4 ,later on 7p4 #hc7 ,i shall describe the ornamentation on these adzes2 at present we are merely concerned with the fact that for some reason or another they have become functionless through increase in the size of the handle1 and by reason of the weakness caused by deep carving4 ,we have now to trace the meaning of this vagary4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,wyatt ,gill1 who resided for twenty-two years in the ,hervey ,islands1 and who has been a very careful observer and recorder of ,polynesian customs and beliefs1 informs us that 8,the adzes of the ,hervey ,islanders are frequently hafted with carved #8pua' wood4 ,the carving1 which is often admirable1 was formerly executed with sharks' teeth1 and was primarily intended for the adorning of their gods4 ,the fine-pointed pattern is known as #8the sharks' teeth pattern' 7#8nio mango'74 ,other figures are each supposed1 by a stretch of the imagination1 to represent a man squatting down 7#8tikitiki tangata'74 ,some patterns are of recent introduction1 and being mere imitations of ,european designs1 are destitute of the significations which invariably are attached to ancient ,polynesian carving4 ,the large square holes are known as #8eel-borings' 7#8ai tuna'72 the lateral openings are naturally enough called #8clefts' 7#8kavava'74 ,to carve was the employment of sacred men40 ,dr4 ,hjalmar ,stolpe1 of ,stockholm1 who has made a special study#bc of the ornamental art of these people1 found in the museum in ,chambry an adze of this kind2 according to the account on the label the stone had belonged to a chief1 and it was after the owner's death shafted in this manner that it might be preserved by his family as a remembrance4 ,dr4 ,stolpe continues1 8,the internal probability of the story confirms the truth of the account4 ,ancestor worship is a characteristic feature of ,polynesian religion4 ,the souls of the departed become the guardian spirits of the survivors4 ,their worship demanded a visible form1 under which offerings could be enjoyed by them1 and this was found sometimes in the skull itself of the deceased1 which was preserved in the house1 sometimes in some article of his property4 ,in the latter case scarcely anything could be more suitable than the stone adze1 which was the deceased's most important implement1 and which it required so much toil to make4 ,on the ,hervey ,islands the transition was easier1 as there the stone adze itself is considered as a god4 ,even the fine plait of coco-nut fibre with which the adze is fastened to the shaft was a god1 and the method of binding it had1 in ,mangaia1 been taught by the gods4 ,both during the operation of plaiting and during the decoration of the adze-shaft songs were sung in a low voice to the gods1 that they might further the work4 ,the #8pua' wood 7,fagra ,berteriana7 of which the carved adze-shafts are made may also have a religious significance1 for ,gill speaks of #8its long branches being regarded as the road by which the spirits of the dead descended to ,hades4'0 #bc ,h4 ,stolpe1 8,utvecklingsfreteelser i ,naturfolkens ,ornamentik0 7,ymer #ahij71 translated by ,mrs4 ,h4 ,c4 ,march1 8,evolution in the ,ornamental ,art of ,savage ,peoples10 ,trans4 ,rochdale ,lit4 and ,sci4 ,soc41 #ahia4 ,the following conclusions of ,dr4 ,stolpe's appear to be warranted3--8,from these researches it appears to me to follow that the peculiarly shafted stone adzes of the ,hervey ,islands have a religious signification1 that they are especially connected with ancestor worship1 and that they were probably the very symbols under which this worship was performed40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--;,an erect drum 7,kaara71 surmounted by the head of a god from ,java1 in the ,copenhagen ,museum2 from ,dr4 ,c4 ,march4 ,dr4 ,h4 ,colley ,march#bd has gone a step further1 and tries to account for the very remarkable form of the handle of the sacred adze4 ,he says1 8,it is remarkable that the typical ,mangaian axe adze was exclusively associated with #8,tane1 the royal-visaged4' ,this god was widely venerated over the ,pacific2 in ,mangaia he was especially the drum-god and the axe-god2 he presided over the erotic dance as well as over the war dance 444 it is evident that the drum was not only associated with a ,tane cult in the erotic dance1 but was regarded as ,tane's embodiment2 when the drum was beaten1 it was ,tane that was struck1 and from the fissure in the drum it was ,tane's voice that issued40 ,dr4 ,march quotes a number of extracts from early voyagers1 etc41 descriptive of various ,polynesian drums1 and he comes to the conclusion that the upright drums1 which were hollowed out of a single piece of wood1 were originally derived from bamboo instruments4 ,he figures a drum 7,fig4 #dg7 said to have come from ,java1 which1 with the exception of the terminal head1 corresponds closely with the drum called naffa which ,captain ,cook describes at ,tonga4 ,he concludes that after the drum 8had passed from bamboo to wood1 the horizontal instrument assumed the erect form1 more appropriate to the god1 and was then surmounted1 as in the so-called ,javan example1 by ,tane's head1 which subsequently gave place to ,tane's adze4 ,as the cult differentiated1 the symbolism differentiated too40 ,without going into further detail1 in the short thick form of the ,mangaian adze1 such as ,fig4 #df1 the upper portion of the handle is usually cylindrical4 ,the lower portion is usually quadrangular1 or may be polygonal1 and looks as if it might be a pedestal for the former4 ,according to ,dr4 ,march's interpretation1 the stone implement represents the head of ,tane2 the upper cylindrical part of the handle is his neck4 ,the lower part of the handle is an artistic analogue of the sacred drum2 8the useless transverse closings represent the original bamboo joints1 as well as the solid ends of the wooden drum4 ,in spite of the fact that their presence increased the difficulty of hollowing out the shaft1 they were reproduced in obedience to a well-recognised law4 ,the square and oblong rectangular openings have an analogous explanation4 ,they indicate the original aperture1 whether the slit in the bamboo1 or the single or double chink in the wooden drum which was excavated through the drum in order to secure its resonance4 ,the great increase in the number of apertures1 helped by rectangular designs on horizontal instruments1 took place as an evolution of ornament that largely consists in a multiplication of functionless details40 #bd 8,polynesian ,ornament a ,mythography2 or a ,symbolism of ,origin and ,descent10 ,journ4 ,anth4 ,inst41 xxii41 #ahic1 p4 #cjg4 ,it is possible that the adzes from the ,hervey ,islands1 with long1 unperforated carved handles1 may have a different history from the form illustrated in ,fig4 #df2 they may merely be decorated but useless adze handles4 ,in any case1 the above-quoted conclusions of ,dr4 ,stolpe may be accepted4 ,in the three examples of the metamorphosis of a practical object into an unpractical one just recorded1 we have an illustration of the effects of three dominant human forces on these several implements1 art1 display or wealth1 and religion4 ,the result is practically the same in all cases1 but the motive leading to it is different4 ,analogous modifications are everywhere to be met with4 #b4 ,transference of ,fastenings4 ,one of the earliest handicrafts was to fasten two things together4 ,to quote from ,dr4 ,h4 ,colley ,march1#be 8,as soon as man began to make things1 to fasten a handle to a stone implement1 to construct a wattled roof1 to weave a mat1 skeuomorphs became an inseparable part of his brain1 and ultimately occasioned a mental craving or expectancy40 #be ,h4 ,colley ,march1 8,the ,meaning of ,ornament1 or its ,archology and its ,psychology10 ,trans4 ,lanc4 and ,cheshire ,ant4 ,soc41 #ahhi4 ,in order to securely fasten two objects together1 such as splicing wood or fastening a handle to a stone implement1 a lashing is necessary1 and the nature of the latter varies more or less according to the conditions under which the artificers live4 ,where mammals are abundant1 their sinews afford a readily procured and very strong1 fine lashing1 but it occurs only in short lengths4 ,the hide of a newly-killed animal is pliant1 strong1 and can be so cut as to produce long thongs4 ,owing to the rarity of mammals in ,new ,guinea1 and their absence from the ,great ,ocean1 the ,papuans1 ,melanesians1 and ,polynesians make no use of skins or thongs2 sinews may be employed1 but the great bulk of all fastening is accomplished by the employment of vegetable fibres4 ,the inner bark of various trees supplies bast and tapa1 several vegetables have long fibres which are utilised1 but the most widespread and important of all lashings in ,oceania is the twisted or plaited string made from the fibres of the husk coco-nut4 ,the latter is known as sinnet1 and there are many degrees of excellence in its manufacture2 for rough work it is coarsely plaited1 but nothing can exceed the delicacy and beauty of the finest sinnet work1 such1 for example1 as occurs on the symbolic adzes of the ,hervey ,islands1 where it was even regarded as a god4 ,most of the stone implements of primitive man were fastened in various ways into handles1 and an inspection of almost any ethnological collection will demonstrate the diverse methods of lashing employed by even the most backward peoples4 ,for example1 we have in ,plate ,i41 ,fig4 #a1 an illustration of the fastening of the stone axe of ,montezuma ,,ii41 now in the ,ambras ,museum at ,vienna1#bf but analogous figures will be found in numerous books of travel1 or in ethnographical journals and treatises4 #bf ,copied from ,j4 ,evans1 ,bronze ,implements1 p4 #adh4 ,the even serving of the lashing gives rise to geometrical figures4 ,one might in some cases describe them as patterns1 whose symmetrical disposition gives a pleasing effect4 ,in process of time the stone spear points of our ancestors were replaced by bronze1 and during the evolution of the palstave1 or socketed bronze celt 7,plate ,i41 ,figs4 #d1 #aj1 #aa71 from the flat bronze celt1 the method of fastening also changed4 ,but by this time the old style of binding had become so associated in men's mind with the implement1 that it was engraved on the socket of the bronze head as a pattern4 ,hence most of the ornamentation of bronze implements4 7,plate ,i41 ,figs4 #b-d47 ,on socketed bronze celts one frequently finds 7,plate ,i41 ,figs4 #aj1 #aa7 two1 three1 or more ridges running from the base to some distance towards the end2 three is the most common number of these ridges4 ,they may fade away at their ends1 or terminate in slight knobs or annular prominences4 ,the meaning of these characteristic markings is at present obscure1 but they appear to be skeuomorphs of lashing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,rubbing of part of the decoration of a ,tongan club in the ,norwich ,museum2 one-third natural size4 ,what are known as 8beads0 have frequently the same origin2 that is1 they are reminiscences of fastenings4 ,this is especially evident when the bead is decorated with a twisted design1 as occurs in the zonal decoration of a bronze vessel from a ,swiss lake-dwelling4 7,plate ,i41 ,fig4 #e47 ,there is no reason to believe that lashing was actually employed on older forms of ,assyrian combs1 or prehistoric bone needles or bronze knives1 nevertheless the patterns shown in ,plate ,i41 ,figs4 #f1 #h1 and #i1 have doubtless been derived from ligatures2 more from the fact that such patterns were familiar1 and a feeling for a need of decoration1 than for any special appropriateness4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,rubbing of part of the decoration of a ,tongan club in the ,norwich ,museum2 one-half natural size4 ,one frequently finds designs in the ornamentation of objects from ,oceania which are evidently based upon sinnet lashings4 ,to take a few out of many examples now before me1 in ,fig4 #dh we have a reduced rubbing of a carved cylindrical club1 said to come from the ,friendly ,islands 7,tonga72 the same kind of club also occurs in ,fiji4 ,the decoration of this club irresistibly suggests bands of plaited sinnet irregularly bound round the club4 ,in these two groups of islands sinnet is often worked into a design that is also copied on the upper part of a carved wooden club4 7,fig4 #di47 ,the same kind of lashing is seen in ,plate ,i41 ,fig4 #a4 ,occasionally1 instead of being angular1 this pattern is carved in curved lines1 and so gives rise to an imbricate pattern1 which might be mistaken for a scale pattern4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,rubbing of part of the decoration of a ,tongan club in the ,norwich ,museum2 one-half natural size4 ,other sinnet patterns perhaps occur in the lower part of the decoration of a ,tongan club4 7,fig4 #ej47 ,the design on the upper left-hand corner is evidently copied from matting1 and it frequently occurs on these clubs4 ,this figure also illustrates the ,tongan peculiarity of inserting little figures into designs1 in this case a man and probably a frigate-bird4 ,i do not wish to suggest that all zigzags included within parallel lines1 as in ,fig4 #dh1 or such simple designs as those of ,fig4 #ej1 are everywhere sinnet derivatives1 or otherwise skeuomorphic2 some1 at least1 in the ,pacific certainly are4 ,we have seen that birds' head designs may degenerate into zigzags 7,figs4 #cj1 #cf71 and we shall see that frogs' legs 7,fig4 #abb1 ,b71 snakes 7,fig4 #ajc1 ,g1 ,h1 ,k71 alligators 7,fig4 #ig1 ,e1 ,f71 and even the human form 7,fig4 #abe1 ,a7 may pass into zigzags4 ,there are many other possible origins of the zigzag1 but in many cases it is probably only a purely decorative motive of no further significance4 ,the simple zigzag can be traced in ancient ,egyptian art as far back as #djjj ,b4,c41 and1 according to ,professor ,flinders ,petrie1 it continued popular with a few modifications for about #bjjj years1 when spots were associated with it1 but these were adopted from foreign art4 ,about the eighteenth dynasty the use of the zigzag was discarded in favour of the wavy line and various scroll designs4 ,in all cases it is necessary to study each pattern locally4 #c4 ,skeuomorphs of ,textiles4 ,in ,europe a very early form of fabric was wattle-work1 formed by the interlacing of flexible boughs and wands4 ,the most ancient huts were doubtless made of wattle-work daubed over with clay4 ,only very exceptionally are traces of these structures found1 as1 for example at ,ebersberg1 where ,dr4 ,keller#bg found1 among the dbris of a lake-village which had been destroyed by fire1 fragments of the clay daubing1 8smooth on one side1 and marked on the other1 with deep depressions of the basket-work40 ,the pattern thus impressed on the clay is one of repeated straight lines crossed by a contrasted series of curved ones4 7,plate ,,ii41 ,fig4 #a47 ,thus the fire which consumed the house baked its clayey coating1 and in this way preserved for us a record of what it destroyed4 #bg ,f4 ,keller1 ,the ,lake ,dwellings of ,switzerland and other parts of ,europe4 ,second edition1 #ahgh1 p4 #efe4 ,i do not know whether the wattle-work has been perpetuated on any object as a skeuomorph1 but it is possible that the shape of similarly constructed huts has been continued1 as ,mr4 ,charles de ,kay suggests1#bh into the round towers of ,ireland4 ,he says1 8,seeing how the ,irish kept heathen ideas in other things1 we can perceive how the round wicker house of the ,kelt1 such as we see it carved on the column of ,antoninus at ,rome1 developed into the wood and wicker outlook tower and beacon1 and in skilful hands became the ,irish round tower4 ,christian in usage1 they are pagan in design40 #bh 8,pagan ,ireland10 ,the ,century ,magazine1 xxxvii41 #ahhi1 p4 #cfh4 ,the predatory expeditions of the ,scandinavians created a demand for watch-towers and places of temporary refuge2 the pattern for these was supplied by the traditional erections of the ,gauls1 but their translation into 8towers more durable1 useful1 simple yet stately1 than anything ,ireland had seen before or has seen since10 was due to the skill and experience of 8,byzantine craftsmen driven from the ,east by the bigotry of the image-breaking emperors40 ,mr4 de ,kay also calls attention to the encircling stone bands1 or 8string-courses10 as in the round tower at ,ardmore1 8which repeat1 without any useful object in stone1 the horizontal bands that strengthened the tall wicker house of the ,gauls4 ,such apparently trivial points weigh heavily in favour of the indigenous character of the round tower of ,ireland40 ,the interlacing of flexible bands1 such as strips of bast1 entire leaves as of grass1 or shreds of large leaves1 is known to almost every people1 and is employed in making mats4 ,when the elements employed are all of one size1 and when the plaiting is straight1 the intersections form regular equilateral rectangles or squares4 7,plate ,,ii41 ,fig4 #c1 and compare the transferred design in ,fig4 #ej47 ,if the material consists of two colours simple patterns are readily produced1 but of necessity the patterns must consist of straight1 slanting1 or zigzag lines2 curves are an impossibility4 ,the same holds good for nearly all forms of matting and basketry which is made of strips of one material1 but the constructional surface marking may be rectangles of various shapes and sizes instead of simple squares4 7,plate ,,ii41 ,fig4 #d47 ,when one series of the components is twisted1 as in ,plate ,,ii41 ,fig4 #e1 there is a kind of flow effect in the intersections4 ,the making of baskets by laying down the material in a spiral gives rise to different effects1 especially when coloured strips are interwoven for decorative purposes--as1 for example1 in some ,african baskets and the baskets made by the natives of ,south ,australia1 in the neighbourhood of ,adelaide4 ,dr4 ,keller found in the ,lake of ,robenhausen a kind of basketry formed by bast1 the fibre of the lime-tree1 intertwisted among a series of willow rods1 the strips 8running concentrically in such a way that both together form a structure like that called #8herring-bone4'0#bi 7,plate ,,ii41 ,fig4 #b47 ,it is possible that the pattern in the middle band of ,fig4 #di1 and some of those in ,fig4 #ej1 may have been suggested by basketry or plaited fans4 #bi ,f4 ,keller1 ,the ,lake ,dwellings1 etc1 p4 #efe4 ,an early type of basket is seen in the ,roman corbula 7,plate ,,ii41 ,fig4 #f71 in which the osier rods are placed rectangularly2 another1 in an ivory plaque from ,boulak 7,plate ,,ii41 ,fig4 #g71 in which there is a chevron arrangement4 ,the latter is the more common skeuomorph on ,european prehistoric pottery1 but the rectangular type often occurs1 and it may be seen on a ,danish food-vessel of the ,stone ,age4 7,plate ,,ii41 ,fig4 #h47 ,the bottom of a basket1 with a cruciform arrangement of the bands1 due to the method of weaving1 was discovered by ,dr4 ,keller in the ,terramara marl-pits of ,northern ,italy 7,plate ,,ii41 ,fig4 #i72 and a piece of pottery from the same deposit is ornamented with a corresponding skeuomorph 7,plate ,,ii41 ,fig4 #aj74 ,dr4 ,colley ,march has further developed this subject1 and1 while ,i cannot commit myself to several of his conclusions1 ,i do not hesitate to give an exposition of his ingenious views1 as they are very suggestive1 and even if they are not finally accepted1 they will lead to a further examination of the problems3-- 8,the perpetual concentration of attention1 the strain of hand and eye and brain upon the forms of wattle-work and basketry produced an important decorative result4 ,the mind acquired an expectancy of a special mode of curved repetitions4 ,this particular skeuomorph is composed of a band that winds in and out among a row of rods or discs40 7,plate ,,iii41 ,fig4 ,a47 ,the 8discs0 are naturally the cross sections of the vertical elements of the wattle-work--that is the 8rods40 8,the device underwent a change in opposite directions4 ,the discs grew1 or they vanished4 ,in the latter case the band left by itself is the meander1 and may be called a curvilinear zigzag4 ,in the former case the discs often became the seat of phyllomorphic invasion1 and were transformed into leaves or flowers4 8,examples may be seen on the margin of a bronze shield from ,cyprus 7,plate ,,iii41 ,fig4 #b72 on a vessel of terra-cotta from the third sepulchre of ,mycen 7,plate ,,iii41 ,fig4 #h72 and on an enamelled ,roman vase found on ,bartlow ,hill 7,plate ,,iii41 ,fig4 #e72 whilst a twin-form1 which presents both contrast and repetition1 occurs on another bronze shield from the ,mediterranean 7,plate ,,iii41 ,fig4 #a7 and is the basis of the ,assyrian ornament and its ,greek variant called the guilloche4 7,plate ,,iii41 ,figs4 #d1 #c47 8,a different skeuomorph is derived from a different method of basketry1 in which a single fibre is turned round a row of osier-sticks1 so as to produce a wave repetition 7,plate ,,iii41 ,fig4 ,b71 as may be seen on the pottery of the ancient ,pueblos 7,plate ,,iii41 ,fig4 #f74 ,when these discs disappear1 the fibre by itself resembles the ,vitruvian scroll1 and may be called a curvilinear fret4 7,plate ,,iii41 ,fig4 ,b47 8,whenever the pattern has a stepped form1 as on many of the ,pueblo vases 7,plate ,,iii41 ,fig4 #g71 it indicates that the methods of textile manufacture had already influenced the eye and mind of the race before the invention or introduction of pottery40 ,the scroll-patterns illustrated by ,dr4 ,march may at one time and place have had the origin supposed by ,dr4 ,march1 but it does not appear to me to be probable that they would have arisen in this way both in ,south ,europe and in ,mexico4 ,i have shown 7p4 #ea1 ,fig4 #bg7 how a simple guilloche has arisen from interlocking birds' heads4 ,the ,vitruvian scroll design occurs among the ,tugeri head-hunters of ,new ,guinea1 and it is most improbable that it owes its origin to basketry4 ,it is probable that the ,pueblo pottery with curvilinear patterns1 such as ,plate ,,iii41 ,fig4 #f1 is more recent than that with angular designs2 but ,i shall return to this later on4 ,in fact1 ,i would feel inclined to state that ,dr4 ,march's view is possible for the origin of the patterns in question1 once and in a restricted locality1 but highly improbable for wide application4 ,there is a great tendency for spirals to degenerate into concentric circles2 examples could be given from ,new ,guinea1 ,america1 ,europe1 and elsewhere4 ,in fact1 one usually finds the two figures associated together1 and the sequence is one of decadence1 never the evolution of spirals from circles4 ,the intermediate stage has been aptly termed a 8bastard spiral0 by ,dr4 ,montelius1 8that is to say1 concentric circles to which the recurved junction-lines give1 to a casual glance1 the appearance of true spirals40#cj #cj ,o4 ,montelius1 8,sur les ,poignes des ,epes et des ,poignards en ,bronze10 ,congr4 prehist4 ,stockholm1 #ahgd1 ii4 p4 #hia4 8,the strangest skeuomorph of all10 writes ,dr4 ,march1 8was that common to the early inhabitants of ,northern ,europe4 ,they were adepts in basketry1 and in wattle-work for walls and ramparts4 ,moreover1 the pliant bark of the birch was ever ready to the hand for a thousand purposes of life4 ,the ,norwegian still makes hinges for gates and loops for the oar out of the entwisted fibre4 ,the old ,norseman spoke of the rudder withy1 for the earliest rudder was an oar2 and leather thongs were also used to keep the oar against the thole-pin4 ,the skeuomorph consists of a withy wound upon itself4 7,plate ,,vii41 ,fig4 #aa47 ,this device1 wrongly called a rope-pattern1 gained such an ascendency over the northern mind that it was employed sometimes as a symbol 7,plate ,,vii41 ,fig4 #ab71 like the reefing knot on ,roman altars4 7,plate ,,vii41 ,fig4 #ac47 ,it was used also by the ancient ,hittites4 7,plate ,,iv41 ,fig4 #a47 8,it is evident that the withy skeuomorph 7,plate ,,iv41 ,figs4 #b1 #c71 the ,scandinavian worm-knot1 established itself as a necessity of the mind before those men who were dominated by it had discarded a covering of skins for one of cloth2 for its type is antagonistic to the regular intersections and the stepped designs of textile fabrics1 and no trace of these appears on their early pottery4 8,when weaving was at last introduced1 so as to be practised by these people1 it was probably along with the introduction of metals4 ,but for a while the use of metal only increased the number of twisted things4 ,the words1 wire1 wicker1 and withy are all from the root ,,wi1 to plait1 and the ,teutonic ,,wira means filigree1 an ornament of twisted filaments of metal2 and as the simplest manner of terminating a wire is to coil its end1 the earliest filigree is preponderantly spiral4 7,plate ,,iv41 ,figs4 #e1 #f1 #g47 ,thus was the way prepared10 concludes ,dr4 ,march1 8for the advent of the serpent zoomorph1 so much affected by ,teutons and ,scandinavians40 ,in early times wooden bands were interwoven to form flat surfaces1 as1 for example1 in the floor of a lake-dwelling at ,niederwyl1 in ,switzerland 7,plate ,,iv41 ,fig4 #h71 but few traces of the art of 8fascining10 as ,dr4 ,march points out1 remain to us from antiquity1 since wood-work rapidly perishes by decay1 and is easily destroyed by fire4 ,this art produces a bold decorative effect which appears to have been perpetuated in various ways4 ,amongst others may be mentioned the interior decoration of an earthen vessel from ,ueberlingen ,see 7,plate ,,iv41 ,fig4 #i71 a crescent of red sandstone from ,ebersberg 7,plate ,,iv41 ,fig4 #aj71 and an incised stone from ,hadrian's ,wall1 in ,northumberland4 7,plate ,,iv41 ,fig4 #aa47 ,so far we have only considered the type of ornamentation which occurs on plaited or woven objects1 and these are seen to be conditioned by that particular technique4 ,we have now to see what occurs when a new material is substituted for the old4 ,there are many varieties of tapa in the ,pacific1 some of which are coarse and others of extreme fineness and softness4 ,the process of making and decorating tapa has often been described2 sometimes the tapa is ribbed1 having been beaten with more or less finely corrugated wooden mallets1 occasionally it is marked with squares which give it an appearance of having been stamped by a simply plaited mat1 but many pieces are quite smooth4 ,there is nothing in the texture or manufacture of tapa to prevent its being ornamented with intricate and involved patterns4 ,as a general rule1 all over the ,pacific we find that tapa patterns are largely geometrical--that is1 they are formed of straight and angled lines2 bowed lines1 which are grouped into leaf-like designs1 are not infrequent1 but doubly curved lines and scroll-like designs are extremely rare4 ,the evidence clearly points to a time anterior to the employment of tapa1 and when mats and other textiles were the only fabrics2 the decoration of these was necessarily angular in style4 ,when tapa became general the older designs were transferred to the new material1 and quite irrespective of its capabilities4 ,only gradually has it been found that the smooth surface of tapa lends itself to a more elaborate decorative treatment4 ,the essential conservatism of the savage precludes rapid emancipation from long existent thralls1 especially as the sthetic mind has1 so to speak1 become set in angularities4 ,it is probable that the practice of beating tapa with wooden mallets led to the discovery of printing in colours4 ,the transitions are slight between finding the natural graining of wood impressing itself on the soft tapa1 of so cutting the mallets as to produce a regularly grooved surface1 and of colouring the blocks1 and lastly of making the great printing blocks on which the pattern stands up in relief1 which were made in ,fiji4 ,sometimes the lines in relief of printing blocks are made by fastening the mid ribs of palm leaves on to a stout piece of tapa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,sketches of tapa belts from ,kerepunu1 ,british ,new ,guinea2 about three-quarters natural size4 ,in certain islands it has been discovered that fern fronds covered with pigment can be used for printing1 and thus what is known in this country as 8nature-printing0 has been independently arrived at4 ,what has happened in the ,great ,ocean apparently also took place in ,new ,guinea4 ,in the south-eastern peninsula the men wear tapa belts which are often painted4 ,about the district of ,kerepunu1 in ,british ,new ,guinea1 tapa belts are worn by the men which are painted in a peculiar manner with grey and orange pigments4 ,in ,fig4 #ea we have two typical patterns4 ,it is obvious that the interlaced design would be easily arrived at in a plaited belt1 but it is highly improbable that it is1 so to speak1 indigenous to the tapa4 ,in all the other examples of painted tapa known to me from ,british ,new ,guinea1 angular designs alone occur4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--;,designs derived from uluri 7women's covering72 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,bakari tribe1 ,central ,brazil2 ,d1 ,auet tribe1 ,central ,brazil4 ,after ,von den ,steinen2 greatly reduced4 ,professor von den ,steinen discovered in ,central ,brazil some patterns1 which most people would designate as 8geometrical10 painted on pieces of bark which formed a frieze round a chief's house4 ,these patterns 7,fig4 #eb7 are derived from serial repetitions of the minute triangular garment which constitutes the sole clothing of the women4 ,this is a good example of the necessity for local information concerning the significance of designs4 ,i would refer the reader to later pages for further examples of analogous patterns from the same district4 #d4 ,skeuomorphic ,pottery4 ,perhaps no manufacture is of such importance to anthropologists as pottery4 ,in ,europe pottery first appeared in what is termed by archologists the ,neolithic ,age1 or that period of human history when man had learnt to neatly chip and to polish his stone implements1 but had not as yet discovered metal4 ,amongst living people the ,australians and the ,polynesians are the only great groups among whom pottery is unknown4#ca ,there can be little doubt that the ceramic art has been independently discovered in various parts of the world1 and ,mr4 ,cushing believes that this has been the case even in ,america4 #ca ,in ,oceania pottery is unknown save in the ,west1 and there only sporadically4 ,it is absent in ,polynesia except in the ,tonga ,islands1 where it is doubtless due to ,fiji influence4 ,its distribution in ,melanesia is erratic2 for example1 it occurs in the ,fiji ,islands1 ,new ,caledonia1 and the ,loyalty ,islands4 ,rude1 unglazed dishes are made in ,espiritu ,santo 7,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 #ahia1 p4 #cae71 but not ,aurora1 in ,pentecost and ,lepers' ,island in the ,new ,hebrides1 nor in ,banks' ,islands1 ,torres ,islands1 ,santa ,cruz ,group1 and most of the ,solomon ,islands4 ,while wanting in the ,bismarck ,archipelago1 it occurs in ,new ,guinea4 ,but even where pottery is made it is very local and confined to certain tribes4 ,for example1 in ,british ,new ,guinea 7,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 ,the ,decorative ,art of ,british ,new ,guinea1 #ahid1 pp4 #adi1 #bbb-bbd7 it is made only in the south-east peninsula and in some of the adjacent islands4 ,in scattered villages1 or even in parts of villages1 from ,yule ,island to ,maopa in ,aroma1 pottery is made from clay in the lump2 but in the ,engineer ,group1 and especially in ,wari 7or ,teste ,island71 the clay is laid down in a spiral1 and no stone and beater are used1 but it is smoothed by a ,tellina shell4 ,this method is described and figured by ,dr4 ,finsch 7,o4 ,finsch1 ,samoafahrten1 #ahhh1 p4 #bhj2 ,ethnological ,atlas1 #ahhh1 ,plate ,,iv474 ,the upper border of these pots1 he says1 8exhibits various simple band patterns1 which are scratched with fork-like bamboo instruments1 and which serve not as ornamentation but as trade-marks4 ,thus here also 7as at ,bilibili7 each woman has her own mark1 with which she signs her fabrication40 ,i have elsewhere 7cf4 ,decorative ,art of ,british ,new ,guinea1 p4 #bbc7 printed an extract from the unpublished journal of ,dr4 ,h4 ,o4 ,forbes1 in which he gives an account of the method of making pottery at ,wari4 ,fig4 #bc is a copy of ,dr4 ,forbes' sketches of these slightly decorated vessels4 ,in ,german ,new ,guinea 7,kaiser ,wilhelm's ,land7 pottery is made from the lump1 as among the ,motu of ,british ,new ,guinea1 at ,sechstroh ,river 7,humboldt ,bay71 ,goose ,bay 7,dallmann ,harbour71 the island of ,bilia 7,eickstedt ,island in ,prince ,henry ,harbour71 and more especially at the island of ,bilibili in ,astrolabe ,bay4 ,dr4 ,finsch claims that this pottery is of better quality and better decorated than that of the south-east coast4 ,some of the vessels are ornamented with small bosses4 ,but the insignificant patterns1 frequently made with the finger-nail1 are probably intended1 as in ,port ,moresby1 for trade-marks1 and not merely for ornament4 ,from their extremely local and scattered distribution it is evident that the pottery makers of ,new ,guinea are not autocthones1 but belong to the waves of ,melanesian immigration that have washed the coast and neighbouring islands4 ,in speaking of ,new ,caledonia ,baron ,l4 de ,vaux 7,l4 de ,vaux1 8,les ,canaques de la ,nouvelle-,caldonie10 ,rev4 d',ethnog41 ii41 #ahhc1 p4 #cdj7 says1 8formerly the women of ,poubo1 ,oubatche1 and ,pam had the monopoly2 now the art tends more and more to disappear as the natives find it more practical to buy trade vessels4 ,they succeeded in making pots to the height of two feet1 and very often decorated externally with lizards and frogs in relief4 ,the base being ready1 they superimpose rings of well-prepared clay the one above the other1 holding them and joining them from the interior with the left hand1 whilst they smooth their work externally by means of the right hand and of a little beater of smooth1 hard wood40 ,mr4 ,atkinson 7,j4 ,j4 ,atkinson1 8,notes on ,pointed ,forms of ,pottery among ,primitive ,peoples10 ,journ4 ,anth4 ,inst41 xxiii41 #ahic1 p4 #ij7 also describes the ,new ,caledonian method of making pottery1 and draws attention to the fact that the occasional traces of faint horizontal marks occasioned by the technique 8imitate the marks left by pottery made on the system of plastering wickerwork employed by some people10 and therefrom he suggests a necessary warning not to take the latter method as having been of universal occurrence4 ,earthen vessels are comparatively easy to make1 and though they are brittle1 their fragments1 when properly baked1 are almost indestructible4 ,the history of man is unconsciously written largely on shards1 and the elucidation of these unwritten records is as interesting and important as the deciphering of the cuneiform inscriptions on the clay tablets of ,assyria4 ,the ,book of ,pots has yet to be written1 but materials for its compilation lie scattered throughout the great literature of archology1 anthropology1 and ceramics1 and in the specimens in a multitude of museums and collections4 ,the scientific treatment of the subject has been sketched out mainly by ,w4 ,h4 ,holmes and ,f4 ,h4 ,cushing1 and ,i have not hesitated to borrow largely from the publications of these ,american anthropologists4 ,there are three principal methods of making clay vessels--#a1 by coiling2 #b1 by modelling2 or #c1 by casting4 ,in the first method longer or shorter rope-like pieces of clay are formed4 ,these are laid down in a spiral1 and the vessel is built up by a continuation of the same process4 ,in modelling1 or moulding1 a lump of clay is taken1 and this is first worked with the hands1 and then the clay is gradually beaten into the desired shape and thickness by means of a wooden mallet1 which hits against a stone or other object that is held inside the incipient vessel4 ,the third method1 by casting1 is very rarely employed except by quite civilised peoples4 ,it was a comparatively late discovery that clay vessels could be cast within hollow moulds if the paste was made thin enough4 ,the coiling and moulding processes are in some places employed side by side1 and a vessel may be commenced in the latter method and finished by coiling4 7,fig4 #ee47 ,this is done by the ,nicobarese1#cb ,pueblo ,indians1 and other peoples4 #cb ,e4 ,h4 ,man1 8,nicobar ,pottery10 ,journ4 ,anth4 ,inst41 xxiii41 #ahic1 p4 #ba4 ,the subject of the forms and decoration of pottery is so important for our study that it will be advisable to quote at considerable length some of the ,american investigations which bear upon it4 ,nowhere than in that continent are conditions more favourable to a scientific study of the evolution of ceramics1 and our ,american colleagues happily are fully alive to this fact4 ,their researches afford valuable sidelights upon the probable history of ,european prehistoric ceramics4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,hunter1#cc writing of the ,mississippi tribes in #ahbc1 says that they spread the clay 8over blocks of wood1 which have been formed into shapes to suit their convenience or fancy4 ,when sufficiently dried they are removed from the moulds1 placed in proper situations1 and burned to a hardness suitable to their intended uses4 ,another method practised by them is to coat the inner surface of baskets1 made of rushes or willows1 with clay1 to any required thickness1 and when dry1 to burn them as above described40 #cc ,j4 ,d4 ,hunter1 ,manners and ,customs of several ,indian ,tribes located west of the ,mississippi4 ,philadelphia1 #ahbc1 p4 #bif4 ,messrs4 ,squier and ,davis1#cd referring to the vessels of the ,gulf ,indians1 say3--8,in the construction of those of large size1 it was customary to model them in baskets of willow or splints1 which at the proper period were burned off1 leaving the vessel perfect in form1 and retaining the somewhat ornamental markings of their moulds4 ,some of those found on the ,ohio seem to have been modelled in bags or nettings of coarse thread or twisted bark4 ,these practices are still retained by some of the remote western tribes40 #cd ,squier and ,davis1 ,ancient ,monuments of the ,mississippi ,valley1 #ahdh1 p4 #ahg4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,holmes#ce points out that 8clay has no inherent qualities of a nature to impose a given form or class of forms upon its products1 as have wood1 bark1 bone1 or stone4 ,it is so mobile as to be quite free to take form from surroundings4444 ,in early stages of culture the processes of art are closely akin to those of nature1 the human agent hardly ranking as more than a part of the environment4 ,the primitive artist does not proceed by methods identical with our own4 ,he does not deliberately and freely examine all departments of nature or art1 and select for models those things most convenient or most agreeable to fancy2 neither does he experiment with the view of inventing new forms4 ,what he attempts depends almost absolutely upon what happens to be suggested by preceding forms4 #ce ,w4 ,h4 ,holmes1 8,origin and ,development of ,form and ,ornament in ,ceramic ,art10 ,fourth ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 #ahhb-hc4 ,washington1 #ahhf4 8,the range of models in the ceramic art is at first very limited1 and includes only those utensils devoted to the particular use to which the clay vessels are to be applied2 later1 closely associated objects and utensils are copied4 ,in the first stages of art1 when a savage makes a weapon1 he modifies or copies a weapon2 when he makes a vessel he modifies or copies a vessel0 7pp4 #dde1 #ddf74 ,the discovery of the art of making pottery was probably in all cases adventitious1 the clay being first used for some other purpose4 8,the use of clay as a cement in repairing utensils1 in protecting combustible vessels from injury by fire1 or in building up the walls of shallow vessels1 may also have led to the formation of discs or cups1 afterwards independently constructed4 ,in any case the objects or utensils with which the clay was associated in its earliest use would impress their forms upon it4 ,thus1 if clay were used in deepening or mending vessels of stone by a given people1 it would1 when used independently by that people1 tend to assume shapes suggested by stone vessels4 ,the same may be said of its use in connection with wood and wicker1 or with vessels of other materials4 ,forms of vessels so derived may be said to have an adventitious origin1 yet they are essentially copies1 although not so by design0 7p4 #dde74 ,in other words1 such pottery is primitively skeuomorphic4 ,ceramic biomorphs will be dealt with in a later chapter4 ,mr4 ,holmes further points out that the shapes first assumed by vessels in clay depend upon the shape of the vessels employed at the time of the introduction of the art1 and these depend1 to a great extent1 upon the kind and grade of culture of the people acquiring the art1 and upon the resources of the country in which they live4 ,a few examples will suffice4 ,mr4 ,holmes 7loc4 cit41 pp4 #chc1 #ddh7 figures an oblong wooden vessel with a projecting rim1 which is narrow at the sides but broad at the ends2 it is in fact a sort of winged trough2 this is sometimes copied in clay4 ,it is evident that the elongated terminal shelf-like projections are more suited to a wooden than to an earthen vessel4 ,in ,fig4 #ec we have an ,iroquois bark-vessel4 ,mr4 ,cushing#cf informs us that in order to produce this form of utensil from a single piece of bark1 it is necessary to cut pieces out of the margin and fold it4 ,each fold1 when stitched together in the shaping of the vessel1 forms a corner at the rim4 ,these corners1 and the borders which they form1 are decorated with short lines and combinations of lines1 composed of coarse embroideries with dyed porcupine quills4 ,clay vessels 7,fig4 #ed71 which strikingly resemble the shape and decoration of these birch or linden bark vessels1 are of common occurrence in the lake regions of the ,united ,states4 ,there can be but little doubt that the clay vessels are directly derived from the bark vessels4 #cf ,f4 ,h4 ,cushing1 8,a ,study of ,pueblo ,pottery as illustrative of ,zui ,culture ,growth10 ,fourth ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 #ahhb-hc4 ,washington1 #ahhf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--;,iroquois bark vessel2 after ,cushing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,rectangular1 or ,iroquois1 type of earthen vessel2 after ,cushing4 ,mr4 ,cushing's long and intimate knowledge of the ,zui ,indians has enabled him to speak with authority on matters which might be merely happy suggestions by other anthropologists4 ,any one can guess at origins and meanings1 but there are few who know at first-hand1 and who therefore can act as interpreters to the student at home4 ,the following account of ,zui pottery is taken from ,mr4 ,cushing's paper1 entitled 8,a ,study of ,pueblo ,pottery as illustrative of ,zui ,culture ,growth40 ,so far as language indicates1 the earliest ,zui water vessels were tubes of wood or sections of cane4 ,the latter must speedily have given way to the use of gourds4 ,while the gourd was large and convenient in form1 it was difficult of transportation1 owing to its fragility4 ,to overcome this it was encased in a coarse sort of wicker-work4 ,of this there is evidence among the ,zuis1 in the shape of a series of rudely encased gourd vessels into which the sacred water is said to have been transferred from the tubes4 ,this crude beginning of the wicker-art in connection with water vessels points towards the development of the wonderful water-tight baskets of the south-west1 explaining1 too1 the resemblance of many of its typical forms to the shapes of gourd vessels4 ,the name for these vessels also supports this view4 ,mr4 ,cushing suggests that water-tight osiery1 once known1 however difficult of manufacture1 would displace the general use of gourd vessels4 ,while the growth of the gourd was restricted to limited areas1 the materials for basketry were anywhere at hand4 ,basket vessels were far stronger and more durable than gourds4 8,we may conclude1 then10 continues ,mr4 ,cushing1 8that so long as the ,pueblo ancestry were semi-nomadic1 basketry supplied the place of pottery1 as it still does for the less advanced tribes of the south-west1 except in cookery40 ,thus the ,ha va su pa1 or ,cooninos of ,cataract ,caon1 ,arizona1 in #ahha1 8had not yet forgotten how to boil food in water-tight basketry1 by means of hot stones1 and continued to roast seeds1 crickets1 and bits of meat in wicker-trays1 coated inside with gritty clay4 ,a round basket-tray1 either loosely or closely woven1 is evenly coated inside with clay1 into which has been kneaded a very large proportion of sand1 to prevent contraction and consequent cracking from drying4 ,this lining of clay is pressed1 while still soft1 into the basket as closely as possible with the hands1 and then allowed to dry4 ,the tray thus made is ready for use4 ,the seeds or other substances to be parched are placed inside of it1 together with a quantity of glowing wood coals20 these are made to rapidly revolve4 8,that this clay lining should grow hard from continual heating1 and in some instances separate from its matrix of osiers1 is apparent4 ,the clay form thus detached would itself be a perfect roasting vessel0 7pp4 #dhd1 #dhe74 ,the modern ,zui name for a parching pan indicates that the shallow vessel of twigs coated with clay for roasting had given birth to the parching pan of earthenware4 ,in the ancient ,zui country are found vessels of the same form as the basket-pot or boiling basket1 still surviving among the ,havasupa4 ,these baskets are good examples of the spirally-coiled type of basket4 8,seizing the suggestion afforded by the rude tray-moulded parching-bowls1 particularly after it was discovered that if well burned they resisted the effects of water as well as of heat1 the ancient potter would naturally attempt in time to reproduce the boiling-basket in clay4 ,she would find that to accomplish this she could not use as a mould the inside of the boiling-basket1 as she had the inside of the tray1 because its neck was smaller than its body4 ,nor could she form the vase by plastering the clay outside of the vessel1 not only for the same reason1 but also because the clay in drying would contract so much that it would crack or scale off4 ,naturally1 then1 she pursued the process she was accustomed to in the manufacture of the basket-bottle4 ,that is1 she formed a thin rope of soft clay1 which1 like the wisp of the basket1 she coiled around and around a centre to form the bottom1 then spirally upon itself1 now widening the diameter of each coil more and more1 then contracting as she progressed upward until the desired height and form were attained4 ,as the clay was adhesive1 each coil was attached to the one already formed by pinching or pressing together the connecting edges at short intervals as the widening went on4 ,this produced corrugations or indentations marvellously resembling the stitches of basket-work4 ,hence accidentally the vessels thus built up appeared so similar to the basket which had served for its model that evidently it did not seem complete until this feature had been heightened by art4 ,at any rate1 the majority of specimens belonging to this type of pottery1 especially those of the older periods during which it was predominant1 are distinguished by an indented or incised decoration exactly reproducing the zigzags1 serrations1 chevrons1 terraces1 and other characteristic devices of water-tight basketry4 ,evidently1 with a like intention1 two little cone-like projections were attached to the neck near the rim of the vessel1 which may hence be regarded as survivals of the loops whereby the ends of the strap-handle were attached to the boiling-basket4 ,although varied in later times to form scrolls1 rosettes1 and other ornate figures1 they continued ever after quite faithful features of the spiral type of pot1 and may even sometimes be seen on the cooking vessels of modern ,zui40 ,corroborative evidence of the connection between the two kinds of receptacles is found in their names1 the translation being 8coiled cooking-basket0 and 8coiled earthenware cooking-basket0 7pp4 #dhi-dia74 ,other earthenware vessels had a somewhat different evolutionary history1 but they had for their starting-point the food-trencher of coiled wicker-work4 ,when by a perfectly natural sequence of events ornamentation by painting came to be applied to the surface of the bowls a smooth surface was found preferable to a corrugated one1 not only because it took paint more readily1 but because it formed a far handsomer utensil for household use than if simply decorated by the older methods4 ,later the building up of large vessels was no longer accomplished by the spiral method exclusively4 8,a lump of clay1 hollowed out1 was shaped how rudely so ever on the bottom of the basket or in the hand1 then placed inside of a hemispherical basket-bowl1 and stroked until pressed outward to conform with the shape1 and to project a little above the edges of its temporary mould1 whence it was built up spirally 7,fig4 #ee7 until the desired form had been attained1 after which it was smoothed by scraping40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--;,clay nucleus in base mould1 with beginning of spiral building2 a stage in the formation of a ,zui vessel2 after ,cushing4 ,with regard to the employment of textile supports by the ancient peoples of ,north ,america for the clay vessels during the process of manufacture1 ,mr4 ,holmes#cg writes3--8,nets or sacks of pliable materials have been almost exclusively employed4 ,these have been applied to the surface of the vessel1 sometimes covering the exterior entirely1 and at others only the body or a part of the body4 ,the nets or other fabrics used have generally been removed before the vessel was burned or even dried4444 ,i have observed in many cases that handles and ornaments have been added1 and that impressed and incised designs have been made in the soft clay after the removal of the woven fabric4 ,there would be no need of the support of a net after the vessel had been fully finished and slightly hardened4 ,furthermore1 ,i have no doubt that these textilia were employed as much for the purpose of enhancing the appearance of the vessel as for supporting it during the process of construction4 ,in support of the idea that ornament was a leading consideration in the employment of these coarse fabrics1 we have the well-known fact that simple cord-markings1 arranged to form patterns1 have been employed by many peoples for embellishment alone4 ,this was a common practice of the ancient inhabitants of ,great ,britain0#ch 7p4 #cih74 #cg ,w4 ,h4 ,holmes1 8,prehistoric ,textile ,fabrics of the ,united ,states derived from ,impressions on ,pottery10 ,third ,ann4 ,rep4 ,bureau ,ethnol4 ,washington1 #ahhd4 #ch ,a very interesting collateral line of study has sprung from ,mr4 ,holmes' investigations of the impressions on pottery4 ,by the simple expedient of taking impressions in clay from ancient pottery1 and so throwing into high relief the rather obscure intaglio impressions in the originals1 he has been able to restore a considerable number of diverse fabrics which were used for the purposes just stated4 8,the perfect manner in which the fabric in all its details of plaiting and weaving can be brought out is a matter of astonishment2 the cloth itself could hardly make all the particulars of its construction more manifest40 ,the perishable material so impressed the clay that when it had long since crumbled into dust the latter was enabled to transmit the details of the structure of a fabric the very existence of which would otherwise never have been known4 ,the value of the bearing of such observations as the foregoing on the study of the prehistoric pottery of ,europe is obvious4 ,in ,america the record is unbroken2 with us1 like the great majority of our archological finds1 we are dealing with fragments1 and it is only by careful piecing together that a symmetrical whole can be restored4 ,dr4 ,klemm1#ci some half-century ago1 wrote3--8,the imitation 7of natural vessels7 in clay presupposes numerous trials4 ,in the ,friendly ,islands ,tonga#dj we find vessels which are still in an early stage2 they are made of clay1 slightly burnt1 and enclosed in plaited work2 so also the oldest ,german vessels seem to have been1 for we observe on those which remain an ornamentation in which plaiting is imitated by incised lines4 ,what was no longer wanted as a necessity was kept up as an ornament40 #ci ,g4 ,klemm1 ,allgemeine ,cultur-,geschichte der ,menschheit1 vol4 i4 p4 #ahh4 #dj ,pottery is made in ,fiji1 but not in ,tonga4 ,dr4 ,daniel ,wilson#da says that the early ,british urns may have been 8strengthened at first by being surrounded with a plaiting of cords or rushes4444 ,it is certain that very many of the indented patterns on ,british pottery have been produced by the impress of twisted cords on the wet clay--the intentional imitation it may be of undesigned indentations originally made up by the plaited network on ruder sun-dried urns40 #da ,d4 ,wilson1 ,prehistoric ,annals of ,scotland 7#bnd ed471 #ahfc1 i4 p4 #dcj4 ,professor ,tylor#db refers to ,mr4 ,g4 ,j4 ,french's experiments4#dc 8,he coated baskets with clay1 and found the wicker patterns came out on all the earthen vessels thus made2 and he seems to think that some ancient urns still preserved were actually moulded in this way1 judging from the lip being marked as if the wicker-work had been turned in over the clay coating inside40 #db ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 ,researches into the ,early ,history of ,mankind 7#crd edit471 #ahgh1 p4 #bgc4 #dc ,g4 ,j4 ,french1 ,an ,attempt1 etc41 #aheh4 8,on the surface of a few ancient vases or urns found in ,germany10 ,mr4 ,charles ,rau#dd says1 8,i noticed those markings which present the appearance of basket-work2 ,i was1 however1 in doubt whether they were impressions produced by the inside of baskets1 or simply ornamental lines traced on the wet clay4 ,yet1 even in the latter case1 it would seem that this kind of ornamentation was suggested by the former practice of modelling vessels in baskets40 #dd ,charles ,rau1 8,indian ,pottery10 ,smithsonian ,report1 #ahff1 p4 #cdf1 and #ahhb1 p4 #di4 ,it may be taken as proved that in a number of cases the forms of pots are taken from natural objects1 or from receptacles made of different materials4 ,we cannot demonstrate this in all cases1 nor should we expect to1 for even assuming this to have been the universal origin1 we cannot hope to have the earlier stages preserved to us4 ,the record is imperfect1 the evidence of origin is clear in some cases1 and probable in others2 in some the evidence is lacking4 ,what applies to the form of pottery applies equally to its decoration2 often it is impossible to disassociate them4 ,the actual or primitive technique of manufacture1 too1 may exhibit itself in and as an ornament1 as1 for example1 the spiral markings in pottery made in the coil method4 ,we have seen that in some places plaited or woven fabrics have been used to support the soft clay1 and these have left their impress4 ,if not previously destroyed1 these marks become indelible after the burning of the pottery4 ,these markings being due to the process of manufacture1 are repeated in the manufacture of every vessel1 and if not purposely smoothed out1 expectancy comes into operation1 and they may be imitated in a slightly conventional manner even when they may no longer occur in construction1 as1 for example1 when the supports are no longer employed1 or in pottery turned on a wheel4 ,various methods of plaiting1 intertwining1 netting1 and so forth may thus be transferred as skeuomorphic decoration to pottery4 ,these are at first produced by means of incisions1 puckerings of the clay by the fingers1 application of accessory coils or pieces of clay1 etc4 ,even the accidental imprints of nails or finger-tips1 or of implements1 may have suggested certain decoration4 ,later on1 when pottery was decorated by painting1 the same kind of ornamentation was reproduced in the new medium1 and as the changed conditions evoked freer treatment1 the designs underwent various transformations4 ,mr4 ,holmes#de discusses the modification of ornament 7#a7 through material1 7#b7 through form1 7#c7 through methods of realisation 7p4 #deh74 #de ,w4 ,h4 ,holmes1 8,origin and ,development of ,form and ,ornament in ,ceramic ,art10 ,fourth ,ann4 ,rep4 ,bureau ,ethnol4 ,washington1 #ahhf4 7#a47 ,the material of which an object is made must have a very definite effect upon its decoration1 and the material is to a very large extent dependent upon the locality4 ,metal1 stone1 clay1 wood1 bone1 skins1 and textiles are so varied in their structure that they require different artistic treatment1 and it has usually taken a considerable time for a people to discover what is the most suitable form of decoration for an object made of a particular substance4 7#b47 ,the forms of decorated objects exercise a strong influence upon the decorative designs employed4 ,an ornament1 as ,mr4 ,holmes remarks1 applied originally to a vessel of a given form1 accommodates itself to that form pretty much as a costume becomes adjusted to the individual4 ,when it came to be required for another form of vessel1 very decided changes might be necessary4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #ef and #eg4--,variations in a motive through the influence of form4 ,pueblo pottery2 after ,holmes4 ,the ancient ,pueblo peoples were very fond of rectilinear forms of meander patterns1 and many earthen vessels are found girdled with a beautiful angular pattern4 7,fig4 #ef47 ,when1 however1 the artist has to decorate a vessel which has rounded prominences in its central zone1 he finds it very difficult to apply his favourite device1 and he is practically compelled to convert his angled into a spiral meander4 7,fig4 #eg47 7#c47 ,ornament is modified by the method of its execution1 whether by incising1 modelling1 painting1 or stamping2 closely associated with these are the peculiarities of construction4 ,nearly all woven fabrics encourage1 even to compulsion1 the use of straight lines in their decoration4 ,curved lines are rendered as stepped or broken lines4 ,fig4 #eh illustrates1 in a diagrammatic manner1 two forms of the same motive as expressed in different arts4 ,the curvilinear freehand scroll1 which is readily painted1 incised1 or moulded in relief1 is forced by the constructional character of textiles into square forms1 and a rectangular meander or fret will result4 ,brickwork1 mosaics1 or whole-coloured tiles also lead to similar results4 ,in the small panel to the left of ,fig4 #ei it will be observed that careless or hurried work has resulted in the rounding of an angular hook1 which has been transmitted to pottery from a textile source4 ,i have noticed the angularisation of spirals occurring in ,new ,guinea2 this was due1 not to change in the material employed1 but to the preference which the natives of the ,papuan ,gulf have to straight and angled lines4 7,cf4 ,figs4 #aa1 #ab47 ,primitive spirals have been copied by these people1 and have gradually become angularised into a rectilinear meander4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--;,a1 ,freehand form2 ,b1 ,form imposed by fabric4 ,forms of the same motive expressed in different arts2 after ,holmes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--;,design of ,fig4 #fj2 after ,holmes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,ancient ,pueblo vase1 province of ,tusayan4 ,the height and width of the vase are #ad inches2 after ,holmes4 ,fig4 #fj is a drawing of the painted design of a large earthen vessel from the province of ,tusayan1 in the district of the ,colorado ,chiquito4 ,from the occurrence of an isolated stepped line in the decoration1 ,mr4 ,holmes suggests that the ornamentation had a textile ancestry4 ,the design is made by leaving the white colour of the pot and painting a black background4 ,the 8unit of the design10 as interpreted by ,mr4 ,holmes1 is given in black in ,fig4 #fa4 ,judging from ,fig4 #fj1 which is a representation of the vessel itself1 ,fig4 #ei is a fairly faithful copy of the design2 but there is no warrant on this vase for his joining the scroll pattern at each end with its enclosing line1 as in ,fig4 #fa4 ,it is obvious that if this design were logically worked out1 it would appear as in the last figure2 it may be so on other vases1 but ,mr4 ,holmes apparently is concerned with this one4 ,professor ,grnwedel#df has drawn attention to the mistake of rectifying aboriginal drawings1 as we are thereby preventing ourselves from studying the psychology of the natives4 ,according to the method we are employing1 we are concerned with what actually occurs1 and not with what might be4 #df ,cf4 p4 #ccd1 which is an abstract of what that author says4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--8,unit of the design0 of ,fig4 #fj2 after ,holmes4 #e4 ,stone ,skeuomorphs of ,wooden ,buildings4 ,sir ,c4 ,fellows1#dg in his interesting account of his travels in ,asia ,minor1 draws attention to the remarkable rock-tombs which he discovered in ,lycia1 and which clearly prove that these tombs were models in stone of wooden dwellings4 ,at ,antiphellus 7,plate ,v41 ,fig4 #a7 the timbering is reproduced to every detail of mortise and tenon4 ,the stems of trees1 laid horizontally to cover the chamber1 are imitated in masonry4 ,they project beyond the wall1 and show their ends1 as a row of circular sections1 in the middle of the entablature4 ,the tree trunk at each extremity of the row was larger than the rest1 and has been squared4 ,sometimes all the trunks are squared1 as may be seen at ,xanthus 7,plate ,v41 ,fig4 #b72 and we witness1 as ,dr4 ,march points out1 the origin of the well-known ,greek ornament called 8gutt40 ,he also calls attention to the fact that skeuomorphs of timbering were much affected by the ,normans1 as in their various billet patterns2 whilst their capitals often show sections1 not alone of branches springing from a tree trunk1 but of the enveloping bark also4 7,plate ,i41 ,fig4 ,b47 #dg ,c4 ,fellows1 ,a ,journal written during an ,excursion in ,asia ,minor1 #ahci4 ,another rock tomb at ,antiphellus 7,plate ,v41 ,fig4 #c7 shows a row of squared trunks projecting beyond the side of the building1 as would be a natural arrangement in any wooden house that had a length greater than its width4 ,in the same building are external indications of a second story4 ,they are indications only1 for the story does not exist4 ,the device is a skeuomorph1 because it is functionless4 8,but we understand10 to again quote from ,dr4 ,march1 8the origin of our #8string-course1' and we recognise one of the many reasons1 in the ancestral training of the eye of our race1 why the sight of a large unbroken surface produces in the mind a sense of disappointment1 a feeling of unsatisfied expectancy1 the anguish that ,hood sings-- 8#8,a wall so blank ,that my shadow ,i thank ,for sometimes falling there6'0 ,the gables of the roof of the old-time houses were often formed by the bent boughs of trees crossing each other at the ridge1 as witnessed by an ,etruscan hut-urn from ,monte ,albano 7,plate ,i41 ,fig4 ,c71 and ,pompeian wall-paintings4 7,plate ,v41 ,fig4 #d47 ,a finished treatment of the bent bough gable is seen in a tomb at ,antiphellus4 7,plate ,v41 ,fig4 #c47 ,in the wooden originals of the rock-tombs of ,asia ,minor 7,plate ,v41 ,figs4 #b1 #c7 one sees the birth of the gable which1 arising as a structural necessity1 was perpetuated in stone as the crowning glory of ,grecian temples1 and ever since has remained as a decorative adjunct to buildings1 or the functionless adornment of the humblest household furniture4 7,plate ,i41 ,figs4 ,d-,f47 #f4 ,skeuomorphic ,inappropriateness4 ,we have seen that as the bronze implement replaced the neolithic celt1 so the lashing of the latter became a skeuomorphic decoration on the former4 ,as tapa replaced matting the conditioned ornamentation of the early fabric was transmitted to a material which in itself imposed few artistic limitations4 ,the same also with pottery when it was derived from or suggested by baskets2 basketry impressed itself on the clay1 literally or figuratively as the case may be1 and thenceforward pots were doomed to basket-like ornamentation until the possibilities of clay worked out the freedom of the pot from the limitations of the basket4 ,in all the above we have a continuity in function1 and it is not very surprising that indications of structure stubbornly persisted4 ,everywhere the human mind has become accustomed to certain local patterns1 designs1 and structures4 ,these are bound up with the sacred associations of family and religion1 with the green memories of childhood1 and have become as it were indented into the consciousness of the individual4 ,to many minds new designs are unvalued2 they awaken no sympathy1 they are devoid of associations2 like alien plants1 they pine away and die4 ,the pleasure which people take in beauty prompts them to ornament almost everything which admits of decoration1 and it is the old patterns and designs which are most frequently copied4 ,so it comes about that these are scattered with an impartial hand1 and often without any regard to appropriateness4 ,by inappropriateness ,i do not wish to imply that the ornament may not be suitable1 but merely that it has no meaning so far as the decorated object is concerned4 ,as a rule the decorative art of the less advanced peoples is far more appropriate#dh than that of civilised4 ,we may not have the clue1 but the more we do know the more suitable do we find the decoration to be4 ,the symbols of religious ceremonies are usually depicted on the utensils employed in that rite2 the transference of such symbols to purely secular objects would clearly be inappropriate decoration4 ,our knowledge of the precise use of objects in ethnological collections1 and the significance of their form and decoration is in many cases so imperfect that we are not in a position to criticise their appropriateness2 but we have only to look around us at the objects of everyday life to see that ornamentation is quite as often inappropriate as appropriate4 ,it will afford continual pleasure to attempt to trace the skeuomorphic 7or 8technical10 as it is sometimes called7 origin of many patterns which have wandered far1 and have at last found themselves in strange company4 #dh ,a remarkable example of inappropriate skeuomorphic decoration occurs among some of the tribes of ,central ,brazil1 where the small triangular covering of the women is copied and made into patterns 7,fig4 #eb7 on various objects1 some being on the bark tablets which run as a frieze round a chief's house 7pp4 #ig1 #age74 ,,ii4--,,the ,,decorative ,,transformation ,,of ,,natural ,,objects4 ,from things made by hands ,i now pass to natural objects1 that we may see how these too are seized upon and modified by primitive folk4 ,natural objects fall naturally into two main classes--inanimate and animate subjects2 in other words1 physical phenomena and living beings4 #a4 ,physicomorphs4 ,under the term of 8physicomorph0#di ,i propose to describe any representation of an object or operation in the physical world4 ,the heavens and all the powers therein have been depicted in every age and by diverse peoples--usually1 but not invariably1 with some mystical or religious significance4 #di --of or concerning the order of external nature2 natural1 physical4 ,chief of the dreaded powers of the air were the thunder-storm1 with its concomitants1 the thunder and lightning4 ,these have impressed themselves upon the imagination of man1 not only on account of their majesty1 but also because of man's impotence4 ,the thunder is the voice of the god1 the lightning his destructive and blasting energy4 ,the most obvious sign for lightning1 a zigzag line1 is practically ubiquitous4 ,similarly the sun is variously depicted as a star with few or many rays2 as a circle1 with a cross or star inscribed within it1 or with rays projecting from its periphery4 ,a plain disc1 or more often a crescent1 stands for the moon4 ,as the heavenly powers are so generally associated with the heavens1 the celestial phenomena and bodies come to represent these cosmical deities1 and symbolism is born4 ,in the following pages ,i touch upon some of the symbolism of physicomorphs in ,america2 later1 in dealing with religion and its symbolism1 ,i shall discuss similar symbols in the ,old ,world4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--,modern ,moki rain symbol2 after ,holmes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--;,decorative detail from an ancient ,pueblo medicine-jar2 after ,holmes4 ,the symbolism of their autocthones has been1 and is still actively and sympathetically studied by ,american anthropologists1 as in a valuable paper#ej by ,f4 ,h4 ,cushing1 who remarks3--8,the semi-circle is classed as emblematic of the rainbow2 the obtuse angle as of the sky2 the zigzag as lightning2 terraces as the sky horizons1 and modifications of the latter as the mythic #8ancient sacred place of the spaces1'0 and so on4 #ej ,a ,study of ,pueblo ,pottery1 etc41 #ahhf4 ,by combining several of these elementary symbols in a single device1 sometimes a mythic idea was beautifully expressed4 ,for example1 ,fig4 #fb is the totem-badge ,major ,j4 ,w4 ,powell received from the ,moki ,pueblos of ,arizona as a token of his induction into the rain gens of that people4 ,an earlier and simpler form of this occurs on a very ancient sacred medicine jar4 7,fig4 #fc47 ,the sky 7,a71 the ancient place of the spaces--region of the sky gods--7,b71 the cloud-lines 7,c71 and the falling rain 7,d71 are combined1 and depicted to symbolise the storm1 which was the objective of the exhortations1 rituals1 and ceremonials to which the jar was an appurtenance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,rain-cloud tile of the ,south ,house in a ,tusayan ceremony2 after ,fewkes4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,walter ,fewkes1 in a more recent paper entitled 8,a few ,summer ,ceremonials at the ,tusayan ,pueblos10#ea gives an interesting account of the ,flute ,ceremony4 ,several ancient rain-cloud tiles are described2 one of them 7,fig4 #fd7 was in the room of the ,south ,house1 which contained the altar4 8,like its fellow1 this tile had an ,o'-mow-uh cloud symbol1 with falling rain and the two lightning snakes depicted upon it4 ,there were also fourteen broad black parallel lines on a white ground representing falling rain4 ,three rain-cloud semi-circles were outlined by a broad black band above the falling rain4 ,the field of the clouds was brown1 and the middle cloud1 which was the largest1 had a conventionalised half-ear of corn1#eb consisting of two parallel rows of rectangular kernels1 each with a dot in the middle4 ,a field of green occupied the whole face of the tile above the figures of the rain-clouds4 ,on this region1 rising from the depression which separates the lateral from the medial rain-cloud1 one on each side1 there was a brown zigzag lightning figure outlined in black4 ,each of these bore a simple terraced n'k-tci a terraced tablet placed on the head of certain figures on the head0 7p4 #aba74 #ea 8,a few ,summer ,ceremonials at the ,tusayan ,pueblos10 ,journal of ,american ,ethnology and ,archology1 ii41 #ahib4 #eb ,maize or ,indian corn4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,zui prayer-meal-bowl2 after ,cushing4 ,mr4 ,cushing#ec has drawn attention to a bowl of which the form as well as its decoration is symbolic4 ,he says1 8,thus1 upon all sacred vessels1 from the drums of the esoteric medicine societies of the priesthood and all vases pertaining to them1 to the keramic appurtenances of the sacred dance or ,k'k1 all decorations were intentionally emblematic4 ,of this numerous class of vessels ,i will choose but one for illustration--the prayer-meal-bowl of the ,k'k4 7,fig4 #fe47 ,in this both form and ornamentation are significant4 ,in explaining how the form of this vessel is held to be symbolic1 ,i will quote a passage from the #8creation myth1' as ,i rendered it in an article on the origin of corn1 belonging to a series on #8,zui ,bread-stuff1' published this year 8#ahhb in the ,millstone of ,indianapolis1 ,indiana4 #8,is not the bowl the emblem of the earth our mother8 ,for from her we draw both food and drink1 as a babe draws nourishment from the breast of its mother2 and round1 as is the rim of a bowl1 so is the horizon1 terraced with mountains1 whence rise the clouds4' ,this alludes to a medicine bowl1 not to one of the handled kind1 but ,i will apply it as far as it goes to the latter4 ,the two terraces on either side of the handle are in representation of the #8ancient sacred place of the spaces1' the handle being the line of the sky1 and sometimes painted with the rainbow figure4 ,now the decorations are a trifle more complex4 ,we may readily perceive that they represent tadpoles1 dragon-flies1 with also the frog or toad4 ,all this is of easy interpretation4 ,as the tadpole frequents the pools of springtime he has been adopted as the symbol of spring rains2 the dragon-fly hovers over pools in summer1 hence typifies the rains of summer2 and the frog1 maturing in them later1 symbolises the rains of the later seasons2 for all these pools are due to rainfall4 ,when1 sometimes1 the figure of the sacred butterfly replaces that of the dragon-fly1 or alternates with it1 it symbolises the beneficence of summer2 since1 by a reverse order of reasoning1 the ,zuis think that the butterflies and migratory birds bring the warm season from the #8,land of everlasting summer4' #ec ,loc4 cit41 p4 #eag4 8,upon vessels of special function1 like these we have just noticed1 peculiar figures may be regarded as emblematic4 ,on other classes1 no matter how evidently conventional and expressive decorations may seem 7excepting always totemic designs71 it is wise to use great caution in their interpretation as intentional and not merely imitative40 ,the study of symbols is a peculiarly difficult one1 and there is no branch of our subject which contains so many pitfalls for the unwary4 ,the two following paragraphs1 respectively by ,messrs4 ,holmes and ,cushing1#ed afford a useful warning3-- #ed ,annual ,report ,bureau of ,ethnology1 iv4 8,there are those who1 seeing these forms already endowed with symbolism1 begin at what ,i conceive to be the wrong end of the process4 ,they derive the form of the symbol directly from the thing symbolised4 ,thus the current scroll is1 with many races1 found to be a symbol of water1 and its origin is attributed to a literal rendering of the sweep and curl of the waves4 ,it is more probable that the scroll became the symbol of the sea long after its development through agencies similar to those described above1 and that the association resulted from the observation of incidental resemblances4 ,this same figure1 in use by the ,indians of the interior of the continent1 is regarded as symbolic of the whirlwind1 and it is probable that any symbol-using people will find in the features and phenomena of their environment1 whatever it may be1 sufficient resemblance to any of their decorative devices to lead to a symbolic association0 7p4 #dfj74 8,to both the scroll or volute and the fret1 and modifications of them ages later1 the ,pueblo has attached meanings4 ,those who have visited the ,south-west and ridden over the wide1 barren plains during late autumn or early spring have been astonished to find traced on the sand1 by no visible agency1 perfect concentric circles and scrolls or volutes yards long1 and as regular as though drawn by a skilled artist4 ,the circles are made by the wind driving partly broken weed-stalks around and around their places of attachment until the fibres by which they are anchored sever and the stalks are blown away4 ,the volutes are formed by the stems of red-top grass and of a round-topped variety of the ,chenopodium drifted onward by the whirlwind1 yet around and around their bushy adhesive tops4 ,the ,pueblos1 observing these marks1 especially that they are abundant after a wind storm1 have wondered at their similarity to the printed scrolls on the pottery of their ancestors4 ,even to-day they believe the sand marks to be the tracks of the whirlwind1 which is a god in their mythology of such distinctive personality that the circling eagle is supposed to be related to him4 ,they have naturally1 therefore1 explained the analogy above noted by the inference that their ancestors1 in painting the volute1 had intended to symbolise the whirlwind by representing his tracks4 ,thenceforward the scroll was drawn on certain classes of pottery to represent the whirlwind and modifications of it 7for instance1 by the colour-sign belonging to any one of the #8six regions'7 to signify other personified winds0 7p4 #eae74 ,it is interesting to note that colours are often symbolic4 ,thus in a footnote to p4 #aaa1 loc4 cit41 ,dr4 ,fewkes says3--8,red is the colour of the south1 yellow of the north1 blue of the west1 and white of the east4 ,for the west the available pigment used has1 however1 a green colour1 although blue is the colour corresponding to west40 ,a correspondence on the colours of the winds was carried on in the ,academy in #ahhc4 ,dr4 ,whitley ,stokes points out 7p4 #aad7 that among the ,mayas of ,yucatan red was associated with the east1 white with the north1 black with the west1 and yellow with the south4 7,cf4 ,brinton1 ,folk-,lore ,journal1 i4 p4 #bdf47 ,in ,ireland1 east was purple2 south1 white2 north1 black2 and west1 dun2 the sub-winds between ,s4 and ,e4 were red and yellow respectively2 between ,s4 and ,w41 green and blue2 between ,n4 and ,w41 grey and dark brown2 between ,n4 and ,e41 dark grey and speckled4 ,professor ,max ,mller 7p4 #cjb7 notes that among the ,navajos ,e4 is dark2 ,s41 blue2 ,w41 yellow2 ,n41 white 7cf4 ,mathews1 ,amer4 ,anth41 ,april #ahhc72 and in the ,veda ,e4 was red2 ,s41 white2 ,w41 dark or dark blue2 and ,n41 very dark4 ,lastly1 ,mr4 ,hilderic ,friend 7p4 #cah7 says that in ,china and ancient ,java there were five deities or rules--7#a7 black1 water1 ,n42 7#b7 red1 fire1 ,s42 7#c7 green1 wood1 ,e42 7#d7 white1 metal1 ,w42 7#e7 yellow1 earth1 middle4 ,colonel ,garrick ,mallery has also some notes on this subject1 ,fourth ,ann4 ,rep4 ,bureau ,ethnol41 ,washington1 p4 #ec1 and ,tenth ,ann4 ,rep41 p4 #fah4 ,it is very rarely that landscapes are drawn by savages purely for decorative purposes4 ,maps or plans1 or diagrams which are virtually a kind of elevation section1 or even a sort of bird's-eye view1 may be limned for mnemonic or directive purposes 7p4 #bji72 but pictorial views are so rare that it is worth while giving an illustration of one 7,fig4 #ff7 which ,i found etched on a bamboo tobacco-pipe1 from ,torres ,straits1 in the ,museum fr ,vlkerkunde1 in ,berlin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--,tracing of a landscape etched on a bamboo tobacco-pipe1 in ,berlin2 three-eighths natural size4 ,i have little doubt that the island of ,mer is here intended1 on account of the shape of the hill and the presence of dome-shaped structures1 which ,i take to be the beehive huts which characterise the eastern tribe of ,torres ,straits4 ,i add for comparison a rough sketch 7,fig4 #fg7 ,i took of this island1 as seen from the south-west by west4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--,sketch of ,mer 7,murray ,island71 by the author1 from the south-west-by-west1 showing the hill ,gelam4 ,the natives have a legend that this hill1 8,gelam10 was originally a dugong2 and ,i believe the eye-mark in the native's drawing is intended for the eye of ,gelam1 8,gelam dan10 and the projection to the extreme left to indicate ,gelam's nose1 8,gelam pit10 a small jutting rocky escarpment at the head end of the island1 which is enormously exaggerated in the drawing4 ,i take it that the break in the ground of ,fig4 #ff1 below the first bird1 indicates the hill 8,korkor10 which forms the tail of the dugong in my sketch1 and which is one end of the horse-shoe shaped crater of a volcano4 ,the part extending beyond this is the lava-flow which forms the north-eastern half of the island4#ee ,the vegetation is suggested in a very perfunctory manner4 ,i do not know what the lines that stream from the apex of the hill are intended for4 ,i should add that to make it approximately topographically accurate1 the native picture should be reversed1#ef assuming my identification to be correct4 ,what ,i imagine to have occurred is as follows3--,the artist intended to represent ,mer 7,murray ,island71 and he drew the peak of the principal hill1 ,gelam1 from a very characteristic point of view 7,i have sketches of my own similar to this72 in order to give a realistic touch he inserted the eye1 which is a prominent block of volcanic ash1 and added the nose4 ,the view is suggestive1 but it is an impossible one1 and it appears to me that this is characteristic of a great deal of the pictorial art of savages4 #ee ,cf4 map by author in a paper 8,on the ,geology of ,torres ,straits10 by ,professors ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 ,w4 ,j4 ,sollas1 and ,g4 ,a4 ,j4 ,cole4 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,irish ,acad41 xxx41 #ahid1 pp4 #dai-dgj4 #ef ,an interesting example of reversal is found on a bamboo tobacco-pipe which ,i obtained on the island of ,mabuiag in ,torres ,straits1 and which ,i have given to the ,national ,museum at ,washington1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,on one side of the pipe was cut ,a,i1 and on the other ,m,,rap2 the latter is the name for a bamboo pipe1 and the former ,i understood was the name of the place in ,daudai where the owner had cut the bamboo from which he made the pipe2 possibly it was his own name4 ,it will be observed that this name1 which is really ,,rirau1 is printed backwards1 and the final ,u is upside down4 ,i suspect that the occasional reversal of words is due to the method of counting on the fingers which these people employ4 ,they always begin with the little finger of the left hand1 and pass from the thumb of the left hand to that of the right4 ,if a man was spelling out a word letter by letter as if he were counting he might readily fall into the error of putting down the first letter in a place corresponding to the little finger of the left hand1 and so on4 ,if the man who carved the pipe began with ,,rirau1 that word would utilise all the digits of the left hand1 and so ,m,,rap would come right end foremost on the right hand4 #b4 ,biomorphs4 ,the terms 8zoomorph0 and 8phyllomorph0 have been employed for the representations in art of plants and animals4 ,although man is1 zoologically considered1 only a higher animal1 it is convenient to retain the term 8anthropomorph10 which has been used by some writers to express representations of the human form4 ,all three terms have reference to living beings1 hence the appropriateness of classing them under the general designation of 8biomorph40 ,the biomorph is the representation of anything living in contradistinction to the skeuomorph1 which1 as we have seen1 is the representation of anything made1 or of the physicomorph which is the representation of an object or operation in the physical world4 ,the fact that there is life in the original of the biomorph appears in most cases to exert an influence on the biomorph itself1 so that it comes to have what might almost be described as a borrowed vitality4 ,the distinctive activities or qualities of any living being1 more especially in the case of animals1 very often cause them to be taken as symbolic of that particular quality4 ,for example1 the harmless1 gentle1 and affectionate dove1 which only busies itself with parental cares1 has come to be symbolic of peace4 ,there are other reasons to which allusion will be made which have conspired to render biomorphs very important in decorative art4 ,biomorphs partake of one characteristic of their originals4 ,they have a life-history4 ,all organisms are born1 they grow1 they die4 ,during their growth they all pass through greater or less changes4 ,sometimes these changes1 as in the metamorphoses of most insects1 have attracted the attention of the least observant1 and have appeared to be of such significance as to have been utilised for the illustration of religious doctrines4 ,whether taking place in full daylight1 open to casual observation1 or hidden in obscurity1 or encapsuled within an egg-shell1 marvellous transformations invariably accompany the earlier stages of the development of animals1 from the egg stage4 ,the development records an evolution1 the history of which is being worked out in detail by the patient investigators of one of the most fascinating of all branches of study--embryology4 ,we have now to trace the birth1 the evolution1 and the decay of biomorphs1 and we shall find that the subject is scarcely less suggestive and interesting than that of the very animals themselves4 ,biomorphs are represented for varied purposes1 and with other representations may be classified according to the diagram given in the introductory section 7p4 #h74 ,a4 ,representation of ,abstract ,ideas of ,life4 ,even such an abstract idea as the ,principle of ,life1 or ,vital ,energy1 has been indicated in decorative art4 8,on every class of food- and water-vessels1 in collections of both ancient and modern ,pueblo pottery 7except on pitchers and some sacred receptacles71 it may be observed as a singular1 yet almost constant feature1 that encircling lines1 often even ornamental zones1 are left open or not1 as it were1 closed at the ends10 writes ,cushing#eg 7p4 #eaj71 who adds1 8,i asked the ,indian women1 when ,i saw them making these little spaces with great care1 why they took so much pains to leave them open4 ,they replied that to close them was #8fearful6'--that this little space through the line or zone on a vessel was the #8exit trail of life or being4' ,how it came to be first left open1 and why regarded as the #8exit trail1' they could not tell4 ,when a woman has made and painted a vessel she will tell you with an air of relief that it is a #8,made ,being'2 as she places the vessel in the kiln1 she also places in and beside it food4 ,the noise made by a pot when struck or when simmering on the fire is supposed to be the voice of its associated being4 ,the clang of a pot when it breaks or suddenly cracks in burning is the cry of this being as it escapes or separates from the vessel4 ,that it has departed is argued from the fact that the vase when cracked never resounds as it did when whole4 ,this vague existence never cries out violently unprovoked2 but it is supposed to acquire the power of doing so by imitation2 hence1 no one sings1 whistles1 or makes other strange or musical sounds resembling those of earthenware under the circumstances above described during the smoothing1 polishing1 painting1 or other processes of finishing4 ,the being thus incited1 they think1 would surely strive to come out1 and would break the vessel in so doing40 ,in their native philosophy and worship of water1 the latter is supposed to contain the source of continued life1 hence life also dwells in a vessel containing water1 and having once held water1 and in virtue of having done so1 it contains the source of life4 8,if the encircling lines inside of the eating bowl1 outside of the water jar1 were closed1 there would be no exit trail for this invisible source of life1 or for its influence or breath40 ,in attempting to arrive at the origin of this1 ,cushing points out that it is very 8difficult to smoothly join a line incised around a clay pot while still soft1 and that this difficulty is greater when the ornamental band is laid on in relief4 ,it would be a natural outgrowth of this predicament to leave the ends unjoined1 which indeed the savage often did4 ,when paint instead of incision or relief come to be the decorative agent1 the lines or bands would be left unjoined in imitation4 ,as those acquainted with ,tylor's ,early ,history of ,mankind will realise1 a #8myth of observation' like the above would come to be assigned in after ages40 #eg ,f4 ,h4 ,cushing1 8,a ,study of ,pueblo ,pottery as illustrative of ,zui ,culture ,growth10 ,fourth ,ann4 ,rep4 ,bureau ,ethnol41 #ahhb-hc4 ,washington1 #ahhf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--,pueblo water-jar2 after ,cushing4 ,the soul or spirit as it is supposed to emerge from a person at death is often represented in ,christian art as a miniature man or as a winged monstrosity1 as a butterfly by the ancient ,greeks1 or in various ways by different peoples4 ,souls of deceased persons may be enshrined in living fruit-eating bats1#eh frigate-birds1#ei crocodiles1#fj lizards1#fa sharks1#fb or other animals4 ,under certain conditions the representation of any of these forms would be emblematic of the soul4 #eh ,according to a legend collected by the author in ,torres ,straits4 #ei ,dr4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 p4 #abf4 #fj ,m4 ,uhle1 8,holz- und ,bambus-,gerthe aus ,n4,w4 ,neu ,guinea10 ,k4 ,eth4 ,mus41 ,dresden1 vi41 #ahhf1 p4 #f4 #fa ,m4 ,d',estrey1 8tude ethnographique sur le ,lzard chez les ,peuples ,malais et ,polynsiens10 ,l',anthropologie1 iii41 #ahib1 p4 #gaa4 #fb ,dr4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesians1 p4 #abf4 ,the dove1 flames 7or tongues7 of fire1 wind1 and other emblems are symbolic of spirit in ,christian art4 ,b4 ,phyllomorphs4 ,it has been frequently remarked that plant forms are rarely represented by savages4 ,a possible explanation may be found in the fact that plant life is so passive1 it does nothing actively or aggressively as compared with the irrepressible vitality of animals4 ,thus it does not impress itself on the imagination of backward peoples4 ,another explanation has been suggested to me by ,dr4 ,colley ,march4 ,the need of ornament is based on expectancy4 ,the eye is so accustomed to something in a certain association1 that when this is not seen there is experienced a sense of loss4 ,among savage peoples the eye is accustomed to dwell on vegetal forms which are always present4 ,it is only when they cease to be present1 as in the exceptional circumstances of desert places1 or walled towns1 that the sense of loss can arise4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--;,design based on a palmito leaf1 ,bakari tribe1 ,central ,brazil2 after ,von den ,steinen4 ,it is very probable that the reputed paucity of ornamentation derived from the vegetable world amongst primitive folk may be partly due to our not recognising it as such4 ,their conventions are not the same as ours1 and they are often satisfied with what appears to us to be a very imperfect realism4 ,who1 for example1 would recognise in ,fig4 #fi the leaves of a small 8cabbage0-bearing wild palm8 ,yet the pattern on this painted bark-tablet of the ,bakari tribe of ,central ,brazil has this significance1 according to ,professor von den ,steinen 7cf4 p4 #age74 ,backward people have to be taught to see beauty in nature1 and it is very doubtful if the elegance of the form of flower or leaf appeals to them4 ,bright colours we know please all1 and it is the colour or scent of flowers and leaves which causes them to be worn or used in decoration4 ,one of the very few instances known to me in which vegetable forms are employed in ornamentation by the natives of ,british ,new ,guinea occurs along the ,fly ,river 7,figs4 #d1 #h74 ,these natives are fond of decorating their drums with leaves1 hence it may happen that1 on the principle of expectancy1 leaves become mentally associated with drum decoration1 and in consequence often carved upon drums1 and thence1 by the constraint of the feeling of expectancy transferred to pipes and other objects2 the casual decoration becomes an engraved ornament4 ,on the other hand1 the ,fly ,river appears to have been a culture route 7pp4 #bh1 #gj71 and the employment of plant motives 7if the majority of these devices are really such7 may be partly due to influence from ,malaysia4 ,dr4 ,m4 ,uhle#fc points out that 8,the influences of the plant ornamentation of the ,east ,indian ,archipelago are also found in ,western ,new ,guinea4 ,although essentially peculiar to the western portion of the ,east ,indian ,archipelago it is not wanting in isolated cases in the eastern4 ,plant ornamentations in perforated carving are known from ,halmahera which form a precise parallel with the carvings from ,geelvink ,bay4 ,further1 the plant ornamentation occurs in ,geelvink ,bay also in isolated four-petalled flowers1 as in ,celebes1 ,halmahera1 ,timor1 and ,borneo4 ,plant garlands are found on objects from the neighbourhood of ,geelvink and ,humboldt ,bays4 ,a complete tendril with four-rayed leaves or flowers occurs as a pattern on a pottery-beater from ,humboldt ,bay4#fd ,trustworthy examples from further east in ,north ,new ,guinea are either absent or are as yet unrecorded4 ,the influence of the western plant ornament is also felt in ,south-west ,new ,guinea in the district between ,kamrao and ,etna ,bays4 ,the formation of a cruciform pattern through the arrangement of four ,nassa shells1 which occurs not only in ,geelvink ,bay but also in ,south-west ,new ,guinea at ,wamuka ,river1 appears to be due to the influence of a plant pattern1 the frequent four-petalled flower40 #fc 8,holz- und ,bambus-,gerthe aus ,nord ,west ,neu ,guinea10 ,dresden ,ethnograph4 ,mus41 #ahhf4 #fd ,p4 ,mantegazza1 8,studii antrop4 ed etnogr4 sulla ,nuova ,guinea10 ,arch4 per l',antrop4 e la ,etnol41 vii41 #ahgg1 ,pl4 ,x41 ,no4 #iad4 ,in the central district of ,british ,new ,guinea plant forms appear to be again met with 7,fig4 #ba74 ,i say 8appear10 as unless there is direct information from natives it is always risky to hazard a guess as to the meaning of a particular design4 ,the reason for these designs is at present quite obscure1 but there can be no doubt that there is a reason for them1 and a good one too4 ,where plants are represented by savage peoples we shall probably find that as a rule their employment is primarily due to other causes than the selection of beautiful forms and graceful curves for their own sakes4 ,a very good example of this is found among the magic patterns on the combs of the ,negritos of ,malacca1 and ,i would refer the reader to the section on ,sympathetic ,magic 7p4 #bce71 where this is dealt with at considerable length4 ,it may be that this four-rayed flower which is credited with magical properties is the same which1 as ,dr4 ,uhle has pointed out1 is so widely spread in the decorative art of the ,malay ,archipelago and ,northern ,new ,guinea4 ,few plants have penetrated into the psychical life of man to the same extent as the lotus4 ,the food-plants1 which afford sustenance to his body1 rarely1 as such1 enter the portals of art4 ,even those used in fermentation do not necessarily fare much better4 ,the chief exception is the vine1 which from its graceful habit of growth and its decorative leaves and clusters of grapes readily lends itself to artistic treatment1 but in this case it was probably on account of the 8wine that maketh glad the heart of man10 rather than the beauty of the vine1 that this creeper became a favourite motive in decorative art4 ,having once effected an entrance by appealing to the lower senses1 the vine retained its position by gratifying the higher4 ,this chapter in the history of art has1 however1 yet to be written4 ,neither mere utility nor intrinsic beauty appear to be a necessary qualification for the establishing of plant-life in decorative art4 ,it is only1 so to speak1 when plants are provided with a soul1 when an inner meaning is read into them1 that they become immortalised4 ,the best example of this is found in the history of the lotus in decorative art4 ,religion introduced it1 symbolism established it1 and habit or expectancy retained it4 ,the ,lotus and its ,wanderings4 ,as many mistakes have arisen from the confusion of the ,egyptian lotus with the rose water-lily it is necessary to clearly distinguish between them4 ,the ,white lotus 7,nympha lotus7 and the ,blue lotus 7,n4 crulea71 which is only a colour variety of the former1 have a disc-like leaf1 cleft nearly to its centre1 which floats on the surface of the water4 ,the calyx has only four coarse sepals which are dark green in colour1 and which entirely encase the bud until it begins to open4 ,as it expands the delicate white or sapphire blue petals offer a marked contrast to the sepals4 ,from four points of view of the open flower a central and two lateral sepals will be evident1 often when the flower begins to fade the sepals bend downwards1 but the petals do not expand to a greater extent than is shown in the accompanying figure 7,fig4 #gj71 in which will also be seen the characteristic seed-capsule with its rosette-like apex4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,rough sketch of the ,egyptian lotus 7,nympha lotus72 after original drawings by ,professor ,goodyear4 ,the rose water-lily1 or water-bean 7,nelumbium speciosum71 according to ,professor ,goodyear1#fe is not represented in ,egyptian pattern ornament4 ,its leaves 7,fig4 #ga71 standing erect out of the water1 are bell-shaped and not slit4 ,the calyx has numerous1 over-lapping1 scale-like sepals4 ,the flower opens widely and the broad petals disappear from view by the expansion of the blossom4 ,the seed-pod resembles the spout of a watering-pot4 ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,wilkinson says1#ff 8,the ,nelumbium1 common in ,india1 grows no longer in ,egypt1 and the care taken in planting it formerly seems to show it was not indigenous in ,egypt40 #fe ,w4 ,h4 ,goodyear1 ,the ,grammar of the ,lotus1 #ahia4 #ff ,j4 ,g4 ,wilkinson1 ,the ,manners and ,customs of the ,ancient ,egyptians1 ii4 7#crd edition71 p4 #djg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,sketch of the ,indian lotus 7,nelumbium speciosum72 after ,description de l',egypt3 ,histoire ,naturelle1 from ,goodyear4 ,in every book dealing with ,ancient ,egypt numerous figures of the lotus will be noticed either in scenes illustrating the cult of some divinity and as sacred symbols1 or in later times employed merely for decorative effect4 ,the same remark applies1 though to a less extent1 to the art of ,chaldea1 ,assyria1 ,persia1 ,india1 ,phnicia1 and several of the ,mediterranean countries4 ,why should this motive be so widely spread8 ,the most obvious answer has already been suggested4 ,religion introduced the lotus to art4 ,we have already noticed the earthly original1 now allusion must be briefly made to its symbolism2 then its original home must be sought2 and finally1 some of its wanderings traced1 and a few of its variations and transformations noted4 ,it appears that in ,ancient ,egypt the lotus was symbolic of the sun2 a text at ,denderah says1 8,the ,sun1 which was from the beginning1 rises like a hawk from the midst of its lotus bud4 ,when the doors of its leaves open in sapphire-coloured brilliancy1 it has divided the night from the day40#fg ,at ,denderah a king makes an offering of the lotus to the ,sun-god1 ,horus1 with the words1 8,i offer thee the flower which was in the beginning1 the glorious lily of the ,great ,water40#fh #fg ,brugsch1 ,religion und ,mythologie der ,alten gypter1 i4 p4 #ajc2 cf4 ,goodyear1 p4 #f4 #fh ,brugsch1 ,religion1 etc41 i4 p4 #aba2 loc4 cit41 p4 #f4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--,lotus flowers and bud1 painted on the coffin of a mummy from the ,necropolis of ,thebes1 ,twentieth ,dynasty2 after ,prisse d',avennes4 ,fig4 #gb is a detail taken from a plate in the second volume of the magnificent atlas by ,prisse d',avennes2#fi it is part of the offerings on an altar before ,osiris1 who is crowned with the solar disc4 ,osiris is the sun in the ,lower ,world--i4e41 during the night1 and the father of ,horus4 ,horus is sometimes depicted seated on a lotus4 #fi ,histoire de l',art ,egyptien d'aprs les ,monuments1 #ahgh4 ,the various animals which were symbolic of the sun or associated with sun-divinities are also placed in direct connection with the lotus1 as if to emphasise its solar significance2 for example-- ,the solar-bull is well recognised in ,egyptian mythology1 the ,bull-god ,apis being an incarnation of ,osiris1 and an offspring of the ,sun-god1 ,ptah of ,memphis4 ,similarly also for ,assyria1 ,merodach1 8the ,bull of ,light10 was originally a ,sun-god2 his ,syrian equivalent was ,baal4 ,the ,phnician ,moon-goddess1 ,astarte1 had the bull as her symbol1 and the bull of ,europa was its counterpart4 ,the ,taurus of the ,chaldean ,zodiac commenced the year4 ,the lion was another sun-animal both in ,egypt and in ,chaldea and ,assyria4 ,among birds the hawk and the eagle were sun symbols1 especially the former1 and it is sometimes depicted standing on a lotus4 ,the solar-goose is also important in its association with the lotus4 7,fig4 #abi1 ,g47 ,in early ,cyprian pottery we find lotus derivatives grouped with the solar cross and other symbols of the sun4 7,fig4 #abi1 ,f47 ,the association of the lotus with the sun probably led to its other symbolic relations1 and these latter have rather drawn attention away from what is here regarded as the more primitive symbol4 ,the lotus was a well recognised symbol of life1 resurrection1 and immortality4 ,it was largely employed in funeral rites in ,egypt1 and is constantly associated with mummies1 and also symbolised the resurrection1 but this latter idea was associated in the ,egyptian mind with reproductive power1 and hence the relation of this also to the lotus4 ,professor ,maspero says3#gj 8,the assimilation and occasional complete identity of the ,supreme ,god with the sun being once admitted1 the assimilation and complete identity of the secondary divine beings with ,ra 7the sun7 were a matter of course4 ,amon1 ,osiris1 ,horus1 ,ptah1 were regarded sometimes as the living soul of ,ra1 sometimes as ,ra himself40 ,from this would result a mingling and extension of symbolism2 but upon these troubled waters the lotus calmly rides supreme4 ,its association with the sun1 its connection with reproductive energy1 its descent into the grave1 and its symbolism of a resurrection have given to the lotus that immortality which it symbolised4 #gj ,maspero1 ,histoire ancienne des ,peuples de l',orient1 p4 #ca1 cf4 ,goodyear1 p4 #aa4 ,although lotus designs are profusely scattered up and down in ,egyptian art there is no reason for believing that the ,egyptians regarded it as a national emblem1 but it was a universally recognised symbol4 ,at the beginning of the year it sprouted from its slimy bed and floated beautiful and pure on the surface of the waters4 ,at sunrise the buds opened and studded the water with white or cerulean asters1 which closed when night fell4 ,every autumn it died its annual death only as prelude to the vernal resurrection4 ,the intensely religious mind of the ,ancient ,egyptians was permeated with the problems of death and elevated by the prospect of immortality4 ,resurrection and future bliss were articles of firm faith1 not merely a pious hope4 ,what wonder then1 with this religious saturation of immortality1 that the flower which symbolised the resurrection should be depicted in such profusion in their tombs and elsewhere6 ,if the reader will take the trouble to compare lotus representations in books on ,egyptology it will be beyond dispute that it is the white or blue lotus 7,nympha71 and not the rose water-lily 7,nelumbium71 which is so ubiquitously delineated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--,lotus flower with two leaves1 on a vase from the ,necropolis of ,memphis1 ,fourth to ,fifth ,dynasties2 after ,prisse d',avennes4 ,a slightly conventionalised lotus with two of its leaves 7,fig4 #gc7 is drawn on a vase contemporaneous with the pyramids1 from the ,necropolis of ,memphis 7,fourth and ,fifth ,dynasties1 #ciih-cejc ,b4,c474 ,the same lotus flower 7,fig4 #gb7 appears some two thousand years later in a representation of an offering to ,osiris from the ,necropolis of ,thebes belonging to the ,twentieth ,dynasty4 ,indeed1 it was painted and carved so frequently for thousands of years that it would be impossible to describe its variations and applications4 ,i must1 however1 permit myself to allude to one or two examples which are interesting from other points of view4 ,in ,plate ,,viii41 ,fig4 #ab1 we see single lotus flowers employed in an isolated manner in a border pattern1 and alternating with these is another device4 ,the separation of the elements of a border pattern is by no means universal in ,egyptian decorative art2 for example1 the scroll pattern 7,fig4 #gd7 from the ,necropolis of ,thebes is a good example of a pattern which gives an idea of flow1 but even here there is a lack of continuity in the spiral band which creates a feeling of dissatisfaction when one attempts to trace out the construction of the design4 ,it is evident that in such patterns the spiral is quite a secondary motive1 and it thus has not been worked out logically2 the lotus flowers and the rosettes are the essential elements of the pattern4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--,lotus border2 from ,goodyear1 after ,prisse d',avennes4 ,with the last figure we may compare the scroll detail 7,fig4 #ge7 from a ,melian vase1 the lotus flower being represented by four black marks1 and the scroll has acquired that development which is so characteristic of gean art4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--,lotus scroll detail on a ,melian vase2 from ,goodyear1 after ,conze4 ,various causes may lead to the evolution of a recognised scheme of decoration of certain objects1 but when a new class of objects is to be decorated the artist has a chance to exhibit his originality2 even so this is about the last thing which decorative artists do manifest4 ,the constraint of custom appears to exert an influence too potent to be readily snapped1 and so the ,egyptian decorator1 being further tied by religious sentiment1 ornamented even extensive areas1 such as the ceilings of tombs1 with lotus designs1 the main elements of which had been elaborated elsewhere4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,pattern from the ceiling of a tomb1 ,necropolis of ,thebes1 ,eighteenth ,dynasty2 from ,coffey1 after ,prisse d',avennes4 ,in ,fig4 #gf we have a ceiling design in which the lotus is very apparent both in flower and bud2 the rosettes1 like spiders' webs1 may possibly represent the leaves of the lotus 7,fig4 #gj71 and we have the same interlocking but discontinuous spirals that occur in ,fig4 #gd4 ,a different treatment of the same motive is seen in ,fig4 #gg1 but here only the lotus flowers and the interlocking scrolls are employed4 ,below each flower is a fan-like portion apparently tied on to the former2 this may have some significance or it may be merely a convenient method of finishing off the flower4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,pattern from the ceiling of a tomb1 ,necropolis of ,thebes1 ,eighteenth to ,nineteenth ,dynasties2 from ,coffey1 after ,prisse d',avennes4 ,in these old ,egyptian designs the rosette is often associated with the lotus and lotus derivatives1 as in ,fig4 #gd2 and it may happen1 as in ,fig4 #gh1 that the former is the most prominent motive4 ,the lotus is here represented solely by the black triangles which occupy the angles of the quadrangular spaces which contain the rosettes2 at all events there is good evidence to support this view4 ,the angularisation of the last pattern gives us ,fig4 #gi1 which many people would imagine to be ,greek1 although1 as a matter of fact1 it is ancient ,egyptian4 ,the rosettes and the angled scrolls alone persist4 ,we cannot speak with certainty as to the reason for the modification of the scrolls1 but it is probable that it resulted from an attempt to copy such a painted design as ,fig4 #gh in textiles1 and the pattern metamorphosed by the new conditions was painted on the tomb ceilings along with its more flowing progenitor4 ,for further examples of analogous transference of designs from one technique to another1 and their consequent transformation1 the reader is referred to p4 #aab4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,pattern from the ceiling of tomb ,no4 #cc1 ,abd-el-,kourneh1 ,thebes1 ,seventeenth to ,twentieth ,dynasties2 from ,coffey1 after ,prisse d',avennes and ,goodyear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,pattern from the ceiling of a tomb from ,thebes1 ,seventeenth to ,twentieth ,dynasties2 from ,coffey1 after ,prisse d',avennes4 ,professor ,flinders ,petrie has stated that the scroll or spiral was one of the greatest factors in the early development of ornament1 and only second to the lotus in the part it played in the decorative ideas of the ancient world4 ,what it symbolised1 if symbolise anything it did1 we know not4 ,some affect to see in it a representation of the wanderings of the soul1 but why1 as ,professor ,petrie suggests1 some souls should come to the end of their wanderings in a spiral and others in an oval is not explained4 ,its oldest use was on the scarabs1 where it was clearly used first as 8filling-in0 ornament4 ,we can first trace it about #c1ejj ,b4,c4 ,at first in loose unconnected 8,c0 and 8,s0 links1 and afterwards in every variety of combination1 continuous as well as unconnected1 the scroll line winds its way for ages through the records of ,egyptian decoration4 ,yet there is a clear margin of #ajjj years at least between any ,egyptian date of its use and its appearance in the art of other ancient countries4 ,from the fact that it is generally coloured yellow in ,egyptian designs1 ,professor ,petrie infers that gold was used in these forms to enclose gems1 cloisonn and coloured stones2 indeed ,schliemann found such work in his explorations at ,mycen4 ,mr4 ,arthur ,evans remarks3#ga--8,on the twelfth dynasty about between #bggh and #befe ,b4,c4 scarabs the returning spiral motive1 as is well known to ,egyptologists1 was developed to an extraordinary degree4 ,these purely spiral types1 like the twelfth dynasty motives1 were also copied by the native ,cretan engravers4 ,from ,crete1 where we find these ,aegean forms in actual juxtaposition with their ,egyptian prototypes1 we can trace them to the early cemeteries of ,amorgos1 and here and in other ,aegean islands like ,melos can see them taking before our eyes more elaborate developments4 ,reinforced a thousand years later by renewed intimacy of contact between the ,aegean peoples and the ,egypt of ,amenophis ,,iii41 the same system was to regain a fresh vitality as the principal motive of the ,mycenan goldsmith's work4 ,but though this later influence reacted on ,mycenan art about #aejj ,b4,c41 as can be seen by the ,orchomenos ceiling1 the root of its spiral decoration is to be found in the earlier #8,aegean' system engrafted long before1 in the days of the twelfth dynasty4 #ga ,a4 ,j4 ,evans1 8,primitive ,pictographs and a ,prae-,phnician ,script1 from ,crete and the ,peloponnese10 ,journ4 ,hellenic ,studies1 xiv41 #ahid1 p4 #cbh4 8,in the wake of early commerce the same spiraliform motives were to spread still further afield to the ,danubian basin1 and thence in turn by the valley of the ,elbe to the ,amber ,coast of the ,north ,sea1 there to supply the ,scandinavian ,bronze ,age population with their leading decorative designs4 ,adopted by the ,celtic tribes in the ,central ,european area1 they took at a somewhat later date a westerly turn1 reached ,britain with the invading ,belgae1 and finally survived in ,irish ,art40#gb #gb ,cf4 also ,g4 ,coffey1 8,the ,origins of ,prehistoric ,ornament in ,ireland10 ,journ4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,ant4 ,ireland1 #ahid1 #ahie4 ,among the most frequent of the decorative designs employed by the ,assyrians are the knop 7or bud7 and flower pattern and the rosette1 and usually these are found in combination4 ,for the former design ,i shall employ the ,greek term 8,anthemion40 8,that flower10 write ,,mm4 ,perrot and ,chipiez1#gc 8has been recognised as the ,egyptian lotus1 but ,layard believes its type to have been furnished1 perhaps1 by a scarlet tulip which is very common towards the beginning of spring in ,mesopotamia4#gd ,we ourselves believe rather in the imitation of a motive from the stuffs1 the jewels1 the furniture1 and the pottery that ,mesopotamia drew from ,egypt at a very early date through the intermediary of the ,phnicians4 ,the ,phnicians themselves appropriated the same motive and introduced it with their own manufactures1 not only into ,mesopotamia but into every country washed by the ,mediterranean4 ,our conjecture is to some extent confirmed by an observation of ,sir ,h4 ,layard's4 ,this lotus flower is only to be found1 he says1 in the most recent of ,assyrian monuments1 in those1 namely1 that date from the eighth and seventh centuries ,b4,c41 centuries during which the ,assyrian kings more than once invaded ,phnicia and occupied ,egypt4#ge ,in the more ancient bas-reliefs1 flowers with a very different aspect--copied in all probability direct from nature--are alone to be found4 #gc ,g4 ,perrot and ,c4 ,chipiez1 ,a ,history of ,art in ,chalda and ,assyria1 #ahhd1 i4 p4 #cjc4 #gd ,a4 ,h4 ,layard1 ,discoveries in the ,ruins of ,nineveh and ,babylon1 i4 p4 #ahd1 note4 #ge ,nineveh and its ,remains1 ii4 p4 #bab1 note4 8,the lotus flower is to be found1 moreover1 in monuments much older than those of the ,sargonids1 but that does not in any way disprove the hypothesis of a direct plagiarism4 ,the commercial relations between the valleys of the ,nile and the ,euphrates date from a much more remote epoch1 and about the commencement of the eighteenth dynasty the ,egyptians seem to have occupied in force the basin of the ,khabour1 the principal affluent of the ,euphrates4 ,layard found many traces of their passage over and sojourn in that district1 among them a series of scarabs1 many of which bore the superscription of ,thothmes ,,iii4 #adha-addi ,b4,c44 ,so that the points of contact were numerous enough1 and the mutual intercourse sufficiently intimate and prolonged1 to account for the assimilation by ,mesopotamian artists of a motive taken from the flora of ,egypt1 and to be seen on almost every object imported from the ,nile ,valley4 ,this imitation appears all the more probable as in the paintings of ,theban tombs1 dating from a much more remote period than the oldest ,ninevite remains1 the pattern with its alternate bud and flower is complete 7,plate ,,viii41 ,fig4 #ab74 8,the ,assyrians borrowed their motive from ,egypt1 but they gave it more than ,egyptian perfection4 ,they gave it the definite shapes that even ,greece did not disdain to copy4 ,in the ,egyptian frieze the cones and flowers are disjointed2 their isolation is unsatisfactory both to the eye and the reason4 ,in the ,assyrian pattern they are attached to a continuous undulating stem1 whose sinuous lines add greatly to the elegance of the composition40 ,while admitting that the lotus motive overran ,assyrian art1 there is reason to believe that it did so only because there was an antecedent style upon which it could be engrafted4 ,the pattern shown in ,fig4 #aj1 ,plate ,,viii41 is an example of an ,assyrian anthemion engraved on an ivory panel in the ,british ,museum1 and of purely ,assyrian workmanship4 ,it is worth while attempting to trace this back as far as possible4 ,in ,fig4 #d1 ,plate ,,viii41 we have a pattern painted in red1 blue1 white1 and yellow upon plaster1 discovered by ,sir ,henry ,layard in ,nebuchadnezzar's palace in ,nineveh4 ,in this there is a serial repetition of a disc1 or sphere1 which is pendant2 all the pendants are connected by a single cord1 which appears as if it were drawn into loops by their weight4 ,in ,fig4 #g1 ,plate ,,viii41 we have a representation from a stone carving of an ,assyrian pavilion1 and in ,fig4 #b a 8tabernacle0 from the famous bronze gates of ,balawat1 which were made for ,shalmaneser ,,ii41 and are now in the ,british ,museum4 ,yet more simple is the tasselled canopy 7,fig4 #f7 from an enamelled brick from ,nimroud1 a king who is standing under this canopy has a fringe 7,fig4 #e7 to his robe which is composed of alternate white and yellow tassels4 ,king ,sargon 7about #gbb ,b4,c47 is also represented on a relief from ,khorsabad in the ,louvre1 with a similar fringe 7,fig4 #a7 to the hem of his robe4 ,any one who has done any plaiting in bands of two colours knows that if the intersections be truly alternate the fringe along the opposite borders will all be of the same colour as in ,a1 ,plate ,,viii41 but if the colours run in stripes the fringe all round will be composed of alternate patches of colour4 ,when bands composed of several threads are employed1 it is necessary to knot the strands together at the edge to prevent fraying4 ,a more pleasing border is formed by taking half the strands of one band and tying them to half the strands of the next band of the same colour1 and so on 7,b1 ,plate ,,viii474 ,by this means we naturally obtain a structural root-like origin for each tassel in the fringe1 which may be termed the connecting strand4 ,this appears to have been the common method of finishing off the edge of ,assyrian textiles4 ,there is thus no difficulty in accounting for a fringe of tassels 7,figs4 #a1 #e1 ,plate ,,viii474 ,awnings 7,fig4 #f7 as a protection from the blazing sun were a very common feature in ,assyrian life4 ,when the king went out on warlike or hunting expeditions he took with him a large royal tent or pavilion made of 8slender columns with rich capitals and a domed roof1 made1 no doubt1 of several skins sewn together1 and kept in place by metal weights4#gf ,the pavilion 7,fig4 #g7 was a civil edifice1 the temporary resting-place of the sovereign4 ,the same materials were employed in the same spirit in the erection of religious tabernacles0 7,fig4 #b74 ,it is1 however1 probable that brightly-woven rugs or mats were employed for the smaller canopies2 these would even more require the employment of weights to prevent the wind from blowing about the covering4 ,one can hardly interpret the pendants on the royal pavilion 7,fig4 #g7 in any other manner than as weights to steady the awning4 ,the pendants would in the case of textiles be fastened on to the tassels1 probably they would sometimes be placed on alternate tassels4 ,in the pavilion so often referred to the weight pendants are of two shapes1 in this also carrying out that alternate arrangement which manifests itself structurally in most textiles1 and which consequently gives rise to the feeling of expectancy in other objects4 ,another example of this is seen in the representation of the vine in ,assyrian art1 for the decorative sentiment has so possessed the artists as to cause them to depict the branches with a leaf and a bunch of grapes in regular succession4 #gf ,perrot and ,chipiez1 ,assyria1 i4 p4 #aid4 ,there is no need to go further than this for the origin of the ,assyrian anthemion4 ,we find a fringe of tassels in alternate colours1 we find a fringe of canopy weights of alternate design1 we assume an occasional alternation of fringe and weight4 ,in all cases these must be serially united by the 8connecting strand40 ,how can the stone-carver or the wall-decorator represent these three alternatives8 ,clearly they would indicate rather than imitate them4 ,what greater realism could we expect than that which we have8 ,there are many ways of making tassels--for example1 each one may be allowed to splay out fan-wise1 or it may be tightly tied round the middle1 or bound round so as to form a kind of cone or spindle4 ,whether as variously tied1 or differently coloured tassels1 or as alternate tassel and weight1 a border of alternate members organically springing from a common base was constantly before the sight of the artists of this great textile manufacturing people4 ,the conventionalising tendency of decorative art did the rest1 and the various forms of ,assyrian anthemion would easily follow4 ,a triple alternation 7,fig4 #i1 ,plate ,,viii47 occurs on an enamelled brick tile from ,nimroud in the ,british ,museum4 ,it is characteristically ,assyrian in style1 but it does not give that effect of repose and satisfied expectancy which we demand from a pattern1 and in this respect we cannot regard it as eminently successful4 ,if this hypothesis of ,dr4 ,march's of the evolution of the ,assyrian anthemion be correct1 this pattern is essentially a skeuomorph1 but at the same time certain local plant-forms were probably associated with it4 ,let us now turn to the border pattern 7,fig4 #h1 ,plate ,,viii47 of the carved stone thresholds1 which are occasionally found in a marvellous state of preservation4 ,here we have a 8knop and flower pattern0 which differs as much from the ,assyrian style as it resembles that of ,egypt4 ,a comparison of this figure with ,fig4 #ab1 ,plate ,,viii41 will convince most people that borrowing has taken place4 ,it is not always easy to determine how far the ,assyrian anthemion has been influenced by native foliage or by conventional designs derived from the local flora4 ,in these threshold borders1 however1 the ,egyptian phyllomorph has grown1 as ,dr4 ,march points out1 like a floral parasite on a skeuomorphic basis4 ,as introduced plants frequently overrun a new country and crowd out native forms1 so the lusty lotus invaded the field of ,assyrian art1 and largely supplanted pre-existing phyllomorphs4 ,to return for a moment to the ,egyptian pattern1 the 8proto-anthemion10 as one may term it1 is characterised by the absence of a connecting strand1 the buds and flowers springing from a basal line4 ,my friend1 ,dr4 ,march1 with his usual ingenuity1 has suggested to me a very plausible explanation of this fact4 ,the ,egyptian pattern was phyllomorphic from the beginning1 originating in symbolism it was primitively a realistic representation of an erect water-plant4 ,maspero says the decoration of each part of the ,egyptian temple was in consonance with its position4 ,the lower parts of the walls were adorned with long stems of lotus or papyrus--bouquets of water-plants emerging from the water4 ,this then is the solution of the difficulty4 ,the ,egyptian anthemion1 derived from plants emerging from the water1 has as a rule no connecting strand4 ,the ,assyrian variety1 derived from a tassel-skeuomorph1 is never without its looped base line1 is primarily pendant1 and consists in the earliest stage of plants that are non-aquatic4 ,the rosette 7,plate ,,viii41 ,figs4 #d1 #h1 #aj7 is usually stated to be an essentially ,mesopotamian device1 but it is scattered up and down in ,egyptian and ,mediterranean art4 7,figs4 #gd1 #gh1 #gi1 #hd47 ,it may be characteristic of ,assyria1 but it is by no means peculiar to it4 ,the rosette in ,egypt is probably mainly a lotus-motive2 the upper end of the yellow-rayed seed-vessel may be regarded as the chief original1 but some are undoubtedly fully expanded lotus flowers seen from above or below1 or a group of buds or of flowers arranged radially4 ,however conventionalised it may become1 the rosette is most constantly associated with the lotus in ,egypt1 the land of its birth4 ,their association elsewhere is only to be expected1 as there would naturally be a tendency for the rosette to accompany the knop and flower in their migrations4 ,according to ,professor ,flinders ,petrie1#gg it is even doubtful whether the rosette was truly of vegetable origin4 ,the use of leather-work seemed to have greatly modified the rosette4 ,its primitive form did not look floral at all1 merely a circle with white dotted lines radiating across4 ,later1 there were concentric rings of colours1 with the same white dotted lines4 ,the stitched leather theory explained a whole host of peculiar ornaments that could hardly otherwise be understood4 #gg ,newspaper ,report of a ,lecture delivered at the ,royal ,institution in ,may #ahid4 ,goodyear#gh points out 7p4 #aja7 that no dated example of the rosette is known in ,assyria or ,chaldea before the twelfth century ,b4,c4--i4e41 on the dress of ,merodach-idin-akhi1 ,king of ,babylon4 ,it occurs with other lotuses in ,egypt on the head-dress of ,nefert1 a statue of the ,fourth ,dynasty1 #ciih-cgba ,b4,c4 ,as previously stated1 the earlier ,egyptian kings of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty conquered ,assyria4 ,the reign of ,thothmes ,,iii41 who1 according to a contemporary expression1 8drew his frontiers where he pleased10 is placed by ,professor ,flinders ,petrie#gi from #adha-addi ,b4,c4 ,the ,egyptian empire then comprised ,abyssinia1 the ,soudan1 ,nubia1 ,syria1 ,mesopotamia1 part of ,arabia1 ,khurdistan1 and ,armenia4#hj #gh ,grammar of the ,lotus4 #gi ,w4 ,m4 ,flinders ,petrie1 ,a ,history of ,egypt1 i41 #ahid1 p4 #bea4 #hj ,perrot and ,chipiez1 ,egypt1 i4 p4 #ai4 ,in answer to the question1 ,how is it that the fact has been overlooked that the rosette is as familiar a feature of ,egyptian ornament as the earliest dated remains of other ornaments8 ,goodyear 7p4 #ajb7 says that the answer apparently is that the rosette is very abundantly known on carved slabs from ,nineveh1 while the architectural surface carvings in ,egypt are almost absolutely destitute of rosette ornament1 but it is very frequently represented in tomb paintings4 ,those who have argued for the ,assyrian origin of the rosette appear to have only compared the stone carvings of the two countries in question1 but it is well known that no borrowing of architecture took place4 ,there is evidence that portable objects were traded from ,egypt to ,mesopotamia1 and there is no doubt that the purely decorative mural paintings of ,egyptian tombs were analogous to the patterns on ,egyptian textiles1 and these were traded to the ,east4 ,the thresholds from ,assyria were undoubtedly carved in imitation of rugs2 from the monuments we may suppose that the walls were often decorated with woven stuffs1 the ornamentation of which was transferred to stone and glazed bricks4 ,we may then come to the conclusion that the mural decoration of ,assyria was affected by the designs of textiles and other portable articles of merchandise1 the idiosyncrasy of this country making itself felt in the selection and adaptation of ,egyptian originals4 ,in dealing with rosettes we must be very careful not to fall into the common error of imagining that things which are similar are necessarily the same4 ,in the course of this book there are several examples of the facility with which such a mistake could arise1 and sometimes has arisen4 ,patterns and designs must primarily be studied in situ1 and the wandering 8from ,dan to ,beersheba0 is to be deprecated as a method4 ,it is only when the indigenous material is insufficient1 or fails in its results1 that the comparative method should be employed1 and then only when history1 tradition1 or other lines of evidence warrant its use4 ,rosettes undoubtedly occur in ,egyptian decoration as well as in ,assyrian4 ,goodyear makes a special pleading for the derivation of the latter from the former4 ,the question really is--,are all ,assyrian rosettes lotus-motives which originally had their source in ,egypt8 ,few will doubt that ,egyptian rosettes may have travelled with other lotus derivatives to ,assyria1 but it is improbable that a wholly foreign ornament should stud itself so profusely and ubiquitously over ,assyrian architecture and manufactures4 ,i do not profess to be able to suggest what may be the original1 or originals1 of the primitive ,assyrian rosette2 but it does seem as if its vitality was increased and its employment further perpetuated by the cross-fertilisation1 to speak figuratively1 of the immigrant ,egyptian variety4 ,in studying the influence of the lotus in decorative art we have to travel far afield1 as it has left its trace even in ,india4 ,the art of modern ,india is1 so to speak1 a medley composed of foreign motives and influences associated with native designs and religion4 ,under the term 8native0 must be included all the artistic influences which have been afforded by the mixed races of that vast peninsula4 ,a very brief and limited survey of some of the historical aspects of the question must suffice4 ,in very early days 8the ,chaldeans1 whose cry is in their ships10 voyaged to ,india for commercial purposes4 ,proof of this is found in the discovery of teak wood among the ruins of ,mugheir4 ,it is agreed also that there are distinct traces of ,assyrian influences in ,indian art4 ,sir ,george ,birdwood#ha 7ii4 p4 #afb7 says1 8,the researches of ,mr4 ,fergusson have shown that stone architecture in ,india does not begin before the end of the third century ,b4,c420 and again 7i4 p4 #ii71 8,there is no known ,hindu temple older than the sixth or fifth century of the ,christian era2 and all the earlier stone buildings are ,buddhist40 #ha ,g4 ,c4 ,m4 ,birdwood1 ,the ,industrial ,arts of ,india1 #ahhj4 ,the same author has come to the conclusion 7i4 p4 #adf7 8that the remarkable ,european character of the ,buddhistic sculptures in the ,panjab and ,afghanistan is due1 not to ,byzantine1 but to ,greek influence4 ,they are unmistakably ,buddhistic sculptures1 and may therefore date from ,b4,c4 #bej to about ,a4,d4 #gjj2 and any of them which are later than the fourth century ,a4,d4 may have been executed under ,byzantine influence4444 ,dr4 ,leitner was the first to insist on describing 7the ,buddhistic remains in the neighbourhood of ,peshawar in the ,panjab7 as ,grco-,buddhistic sculptures4444 ,their resemblance is probably due to their having been executed by ,indian workmen from ,greek designs or models40 ,goodyear remarks1 8,at a later date ,hindu art became saturated with ,mahommedan lotus patterns4 ,these were all originally borrowed in the countries conquered by the ,mohammedan ,arabs1 during the seventh century ,a4,d41 ,syria1 ,egypt1 ,north ,africa1 and ,persia40 ,islam swept into her net the decorative art of the countries she conquered1 and as realism was denied to her owing to the ,prophet's injunction against depicting human or animal forms1 she had to fall back on patterns1 but1 unknown to her1 many of these were lotus derivatives4 ,it was these patterns that the ,arabs brought with them to ,india4#hb #hb ,i have a note to the following effect1 the origin of which ,i cannot now trace3--,art under the ,mahommedans in the first centuries appears to have been much encouraged1 as many drawings and pictures are shown1 thus upsetting the general belief that the ,koran forbade the representation of human and animal figures4 ,the picture of a rider belonging to the period of ,arab civilisation is remarkably spirited1 the folds of the rider's garments1 as well as the figure itself1 being admirably portrayed4 8,the history of ,india10 continues ,goodyear1 8thus explains why its apparently favourite water-lily the ,nelumbium has had so little influence on its ornamental patterns4 ,although naturalistic rendering of the rose water-lily is found in ancient and modern ,oriental art1 it must be remembered that this has nothing to do with the dominance of a pattern1 which is a matter of technical tradition4 ,it appears that the famous ,indian water-lily exercised no visible influence on the art of ,egypt1 and that ,egyptian patterns have invaded its own home by many paths1 at many times1 borne by waves of historic influence which are admitted to have determined the character of ,hindu art since the third century ,b4,c41 which is the first century in which this art is known to us40 ,examples of ,indian forms of the anthemion will be found on ,sindh pottery 7,plate ,,viii41 ,fig4 #aa71 on ,delhi and ,cashmere shawls1 and on innumerable other objects and temple carvings4 ,if one compares the anthemion combined with an 8astragal0 moulding in ,fig4 #hj1 which is from the ,lt at ,allahabad1 with ,figs4 #g and #e1 ,plate ,v41 which are purely ,greek1 it will be evident that borrowing has taken place4 ,one cannot follow ,sir ,george ,birdwood#hc when he says this 8necking immediately below the capital represents with considerable purity the honeysuckle ornament of the ,assyrians1 which the ,greeks borrowed from them with the ,ionic order4 ,its form is derived originally from the ,date ,hom1 but it really represents1 conventionally1 a flowery lotus1 as the ,bharhut sculptures enable us to determine4 ,the #8reel and bead' pattern running along the lower border of the necking represents the lotus stalks40 ,this author does not state which lotus he refers to1 probably it is the ,nelumbium or ,rose water-lily1 but the stalked flowers added on each side of the central anthemion have no distinctive character1 nor can ,i see that the figures he gives of the ,bharhut sculptures are any more definite4 #hc ,g4 ,c4 ,m4 ,birdwood1 ,the ,industrial ,arts of ,india1 ii41 #ahhj1 p4 #afg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--;,anthemion and astragal moulding from the ,lt 7stone column7 at ,allahabad2 from ,birdwood1 after ,fergusson4 ,the ,buddhist missionaries carried this pattern with them to ,china1 where on some of the pottery unmistakable lotus derivatives occur1 and those too of the anthemion series4 ,from the ,orient we must retrace our steps westward4 ,persian art may be left on one side1 as it was largely a legacy of ,assyrian4 ,among the ,mediterranean peoples the ,phnicians claim first attention on account of their early assumed rle of middle-men4 ,but as ,perrot and ,chipiez remark1 8,in the true sense of the word we can hardly say that ,phnicia had a national art4 ,she built much and sculptured much1 so we cannot say she had no art at all2 but if we attempt to define it1 it eludes us4 ,like an unstable chemical compound it dissolves into its elements1 and we recognise one as ,egyptian1 another as ,assyrian1 and yet another1 in its later years1 as purely ,greek4 ,the only thing that the ,phnicians can claim as their own is the recipe1 so to speak1 for the mixture40 ,herodotus tells us that the ,phnicians had in their ship 8,egyptian and ,assyrian goods40#hd #hd ,g4 ,perrot and ,c4 ,chipiez1 ,art in ,phnicia and its ,dependencies1 #ahhe1 ii4 p4 #dbg4 ,not only did the ,phnicians barter in foreign objects1 but they manufactured articles for trade1 and were expert craftsmen4 ,at the funeral games in honour of ,patroklos 8the son of ,peleus set forth other prizes for fleetness of foot2 a mixing-bowl of silver1 chased2 six measures it held1 and in beauty it was far the best in all the earth1 for artificers of ,sidon wrought it cunningly1 and men of the ,phnicians brought it over the misty sea40#he ,as their home-made goods were intended for foreign markets1 they probably copied more or less exactly from ,egyptian and ,assyrian sources4 ,they were artificers rather than original artists1 their object was gain4 #he ,iliad1 xxiii4 7,lang1 ,leaf1 ,myers47 ,on the whole it appears that the ,egyptian influence was more patent on ,phnician art than that of ,assyrian1 but on the other hand1 the ,phnician religion was ,semitic1 and by this they were far more closely allied to ,chaldea and ,assyrian than to ,egypt4 ,through far wanderings and endless trafficking the 8,phnician1 practised in deceit1 a greedy knave10 as ,homer dubs him1 introduced numberless objects into the ,mediterranean littoral which were ornamented with lotus designs or with patterns of lotus origin4 ,the great skill of the ,chaldeans and ,assyrians in weaving and embroidery enabled them to produce textiles which were highly valued wherever they found their way4 ,the appropriation of 8a goodly ,babylonish garment0 from the loot of ,jericho by the unfortunate ,achan shows how much these fabrics were prized4 ,we know that the decoration of these beautiful and precious commodities reacted on the designs of ,phnician manufacturers1 and directly or indirectly had some effect in guiding the nascent art of ,europe4 ,when the ,greeks were a young and growing people they1 like most of their neighbours1 were forced to trade with the ,phnicians they so despised1 and were thus acquainted with trade goods from ,mesopotamia and ,egypt4 ,the ,ionic ,greeks were more particularly influenced by ,oriental art4 ,the designs from early ,greek tombs and the spoils recovered by the spade in recent excavations clearly show the nationality of the foster-mothers of ,greek art4 ,the lessons learnt in childhood are hard to forget1 and so1 following the traditions of their fathers1 the decorators continued to employ the same general patterns and designs that they saw around them and which they had inherited4 ,for centuries we see the anthemion reproduced in architecture 7,fig4 #hb and ,pl4 ,v41 ,fig4 #g71 painting1 pottery1 varied it may be in detail1 but essentially the same pattern4 ,rarely going direct to nature for inspiration1 the ,greeks were content with endless repetitions of slight variants of the one eternal and highly unconventional design4 ,the mental unrest of the ,greeks1 which was always seeking something new1 was in marked contrast to their decorative conservatism4 ,when the trade of ,europe was taken up by ,greeks they further disseminated this dominant motive4 ,in less chaste form we find it in ,roman art4 ,the ,renaissance gave it1 with other matters classical1 a new lease of life4 ,but ,europe was not dependent on ,greek and ,roman influences alone for the spread of the anthemion4 ,the ,crusaders brought away with them many ,oriental goods1 and that1 too1 from the meeting-place of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa4 ,later the ,moors invaded ,spain1 and left as the jetsam of their retreat a wealth of matchless decorative art1 amongst which our old patterns may also be traced4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,saracenic ,algerian detail2 from ,goodyear1 after ,ravoisi4 ,by this time it is often flamboyant4 7,fig4 #ha47 ,the isolated elements of the design may have been the origin of the fleur de lis1 of which the ,prince of ,wales' ,feathers appear to be a variant4#hf #hf ,the reader is also referred to ,dr4 ,e4 ,bonavia's studies 7,the ,flora of the ,assyrian ,monuments and its ,outcomes1 #ahid7 for another theoretical origin of these designs4 ,he lays stress on the practice of fixing horns on trees1 and other places1 by the ,assyrians4 ,we not only see horns and modifications of horns symmetrically used on the stem of their sacred trees1 but we meet with them as decorative terminations on the poles of the royal tents 7,plate ,,viii41 ,figs4 #b and #g74 8,they were symbols of power against the evil eye and evil spirits0 7p4 #bje74 ,sooner or later they were sure 8to have been taken up by artists1 and modified in various ways into decorations for walls of temples1 palaces1 etc4 ,and so1 in truth1 we see these horns1 at first probably used solely from superstitious reasons1 passing afterwards into motives for various decorative purposes0 7p4 #ada74 8,what is called the honeysuckle pattern1 or anthemion1 is nothing but the date-tree head supported by horns4444 ,this so-called honeysuckle pattern is not1 ,i think1 the only outcome of the superstition of tying horns on trees1 for ,i believe the fleur-de-lys1 so much used in heraldry as a royal emblem1 and on many coats-of-arms1 seems but a modified imitation of the real horns tied on trees or posts0 7p4 #adb74 ,dr4 ,bonavia discusses the history of the latter motive4 ,it appears probable that it was introduced to ,french heraldry by ,louis ,,vii4 on his return from the ,crusades1 and it is also likely that the device was independently associated with the lily and the iris in various countries after its real origin had been forgotten4 7,this applies equally to ,goodyear's or to ,bonavia's theory47 8,the top of the ,assyrian sacred date-tree1 with its supporting horns1 was probably taken up by the ,greeks and modified into ornaments for friezes40 ,in support of this proposition ,dr4 ,bonavia illustrates an anthemion from the ,erechtheium 7,fig4 #hb74 8,there are numerous architectural and decorative designs which1 ,i think1 are traceable to the ,assyrian date-tree and its horns4 ,the ,prince of ,wales' feathers are perhaps also a descendant of the same motive4 ,there are in it three elements held together by means of a crown1 which may be a modification of the ligature0 7p4 #aed74 ,the trident and the caduceus are also supposed by this author to be 8luck-horns0 attached to a wand4 ,it must be remembered that the ligatures are usually very distinct in ,assyrian anthemia 7,plate ,,viii41 ,figs4 #i and #aj71 and they require an explanation as much as any other detail of the design4 ,dr4 ,bonavia regards them as the lashings of luck-horns which have become modified into volutes4 ,dr4 ,colley ,march1 as we have seen1 attributes them to a textile origin4 ,on the other hand1 we find ligatures in ,egyptian lotus designs1 as in ,fig4 #gg1 where there is no suspicion of ,assyrian influence2 future research will doubtless show whether the central ligatures in ,figs4 #he and #hi ,a are ,assyrian1 ,egyptian1 or local in origin4 ,throughout the art of the civilised world of to-day we find repeated1 again and again1 the misnamed honeysuckle pattern1 or the anthemion1 as it is preferable to call it4 ,most of our modern examples can be traced to ,ancient ,greece1 but even there it had a hoary antiquity and probably a multiple ancestry4 ,it is not improbable that future research will demonstrate that the history of this pattern is far more complex than that which ,i have endeavoured to sketch out4 ,its amazing longevity may be due to the fact that it arose from various radicles1 and when the branches met their differences were not too great to counterbalance their resemblances1 and so a fusion or mingling of elements could easily and naturally result4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--;,ionic capital of the eastern portico of the ,erechtheium4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,early form of ,ionic capital from ,neandreia2 after ,clarke4 ,mr4 ,goodyear has an elaborate study of the evolution of the ,ionic capital 7,fig4 #hb7 from the anthemion4 ,a ,german architect and critic1 ,semper1#hg appears to have been the first to derive the ,ionic capital from the volutes of the ,assyrian palmette 7,pl4 ,,viii41 ,figs4 #i1 #aj7 by a process of gradual suppression of the leafy portion and increase of the scroll4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,t4 ,clarke#hh supported and elaborated this theory4 ,at ,neandreia1 near ,assos1 in ,asia ,minor1 he discovered an ,ionic capital 7,fig4 #hc7 which is a valuable 8missing link40 ,but1 according to ,mr4 ,goodyear1 there is no need to seek an ,assyrian origin for this capital when all the intermediate stages can be found in ,egypt and in the ,greek ,islands4 #hg ,g4 ,semper1 ,der ,stil in den technischen und tektonischen ,knsten 7#bnd ed471 #ahgh4 #hh ,j4 ,t4 ,clarke1 8,a ,proto-,ionic ,capital from the ,site of ,neandreia10 ,american ,jour4 of ,archol41 #ahhf1 ii4 p4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--,lotus design from a geometric vase from ,cyprus2 after ,goodyear4 ,in ,fig4 #hd and ,fig4 #acj1 ,f1 we have a lotus with curling sepals on pots from ,cyprus2 no one can dispute that these are really lotuses4 ,the curling sepals become more spiral in ,rhodian 7,fig4 #acj1 ,g71 and especially in ,melian pottery 7,fig4 #he74 ,the central rosette has now become more leaf-like1 but there are numerous true ,egyptian examples of this1 as in a compound flower 7,fig4 #hf7 from a tomb ceiling1 or again 7,fig4 #hg71 on a blue-glazed lotus pendant from a necklace in the ,british ,museum1 of the ,nineteenth ,dynasty4 ,in the ,owens ,college ,museum1 ,manchester1 there is a somewhat similar enamel tomb amulet of the ,twelfth ,dynasty 7#bggh-befe ,b4,c474 ,the transition from these to the stone or terra-cotta anthemion of the ,parthenon 7,fig4 #hh7 is very gradual4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4--,lotus derivative on a vase of the seventh century ,b4,c41 from ,melos2 from ,goodyear1 after ,conze4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--;,compound flower1 based on the lotus1 ,thebes1 ,eighteenth to ,twentieth ,dynasties2 from ,goodyear1 after ,prisse d',avennes4 ,thus1 according to this view1 the volute of the ,ionic capital is merely a drooping lotus sepal1 which became spiral in the ,grecian ,archipelago4 ,many of the ,ionic capitals1 especially the earlier ones1 exhibit distinct traces of the central palmette1 but eventually only the spirals persisted1 and the cleft between the curling sepals was gradually reduced so that their stems came to appear as a transverse band ending in volutes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--,lotus pendant from an ,egyptian necklace of the ,nineteenth ,dynasty2 after ,goodyear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--;,anthemion from the ,parthenon4 ,in following this view of the history of the ,ionic capital we have practically traversed that of the anthemion4 ,the more typical examples of this pattern not only present us with the element which we have already briefly studied1 but alternating with it is a trefoil4 ,for this again there are any number of ,egyptian originals in which the trefoil indicates a lotus flower2 in this case all the petals have been eliminated and only the sepals persist4 ,lack of time prevents me from attempting to follow the fascinating evolution of various patterns and designs which adorn ,grecian temples and vases2 but ,i must permit myself to indicate a probable origin of an exceedingly common pattern which has also overrun our own art4 ,i refer to the so-called egg-and-dart moulding of ,greek entablatures 7,plate ,v41 ,fig4 #e71 and the same motive painted on vases or moulded on the later ,samian ware 7,plate ,v41 ,fig4 #f74 ,in these two figures the pattern is drawn in its usual position1 but1 the better to follow the argument1 a typical variety is figured 7,fig4 #hi7 reversed4 ,there are many varieties1 from a series of ,u-shaped figures with alternating dots1 as many ,greek vases 7,fig4 #hi1 ,e71 through the ,samian device 7,plate ,v41 ,fig4 #f7 and ,erechtheium variety 7,fig4 #hb and ,plate ,v41 ,fig4 #e71 to others in which there is greater complexity and more floral forms 7,fig4 #hi1 ,d74 ,with any given series of designs it is possible to begin at either end--in the one case there is an ascending evolution1 in the other a degeneration4 ,students of the biological method of treating decorative art will recognise that the latter is by far the most general order in the evolution of patterns1 and by adopting it in this case ,professor ,goodyear has been able to demonstrate the life-history of this pattern to the satisfaction of many students4 ,in ,fig4 #hi1 ,a1 we have a typical lotus flower and bud pattern or ,greek pattern from ,rhodes2 the same design occurs in a simplified form on a fragment of ,greek pottery from ,naukratis 7,fig4 #hi1 ,b71#hi in which the lotus flower is now a lotus trefoil2 and in ,fig4 #hi1 ,c1 the pattern is disrupted4 #hi ,w4 ,m4 ,flinders ,petrie1 ,naukratis1 i41 #ahhd-he2 ,egyptian ,exploration ,fund1 #ahhf1 ,plate ,,vii41 ,figs4 #a1 #f4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--;,hypothetical derivation of the 8egg-and-dart0 moulding from a lotus pattern2 according to ,goodyear4 ,a4 ,lotus anthemion on a vessel from ,rhodes2 after ,salzmann4 ,b1 ,c4 ,lotus anthemia on pottery from ,naukratis2 after ,flinders ,petrie4 ,d4 ,egg-and-dart moulding from the ,erechtheium4 ,e4 ,degraded egg-and-dart pattern painted on a ,grecian vase4 ,in ,greek vases we usually find that decoration has been made with a fine feeling for appropriateness2 thus the erect anthemion occurs when the vase is swelling1 but where it is contracting an inverted anthemion is placed1 because the decorative lines thus widen to correspond with the expansion of the vase4 ,again1 in ,egyptian tomb ceilings the bordering lotus pattern is inverted1 as the base line of the design naturally is made to correspond with the peripheral line of the ceiling--in other words1 the lotus anthemion was inverted4 ,we have then a painted lotus bud and trefoil pattern which was often inverted and as often a simple design4 ,according to this view1 the egg of the egg-and-dart pattern is simply a semi-oval left between two lotus trefoils1 the dart being the central sepal4 ,when this design came to be incised in stone1 the new technique very slightly modified the pattern1 and the flat oval areas necessarily came to be carved as rounded or leaf-shaped projections4 ,on these latter occasionally appear reminiscences of the intervening buds1 as on the ,erechtheium leaf-and-dart moulding4 ,many variants occur in this device1 especially in ,roman sculpture4 ,professor ,goodyear points out that the egg-and-dart moulding as such is unknown to ,egyptian patterns1 owing to the almost entire absence in ,egyptian art of carved or incised lotus borders of any kind1 a preference for flat ornament in colour being the rule4 ,stone carved patterns of any kind in ,egyptian art are quite rare before the ,ptolemaic period4 ,in ,greek art the absence of patterns in projected carving is also a general rule down to the time of the ,erechtheium4 ,in ,greek art also colour decoration on flat surfaces was the rule in architecture for earlier periods2 for example1 a leaf-and-dart pattern was painted on a ,doric capital in gina4#ij #ij ,w4 ,h4 ,goodyear1 8,origin of the ,acanthus motive and ,egg-and-,dart ,moulding10 ,the ,architectural ,record1 iv41 #ahid1 p4 #hh4 8,the ,ionic capital1 the #8honey-suckle1' the egg-and-dart moulding1 the meander1 the various forms of spiral ornament1 the guilloche and the rosette1 and some few other motives1 belong to one ornamental system1 and have never been used in ,europe1 apart from historic connections with their original system1 since the ,greeks1 and have never been used in ,europe since prehistoric ages1 without distinct dependance on the ,greeks4 ,as found with the ,greeks they can all be traced back to ,egyptian sources2 except the guilloche1 which is only the later variant of the spiral scroll4 ,the guilloche pattern has been found in ,egypt on pottery dated to the ,twelfth ,dynasty 7#bgjj ,b4,c471 which was probably made by foreigners resident in the country1 but it may easily be an ,egyptian pattern which has not yet been specified as such4 8,the ,egyptian rosette can be dated to the ,fourth ,dynasty1 #ciih-cgba ,b4,c4 ,since that time its history has been continuous4 ,since its first transmission to ,europe it has never been reinvented in ,europe1 for there was never an occasion or a chance to reinvent it there4 8,the spiral scroll is dated to the ,fifth ,dynasty1 and the meander 7at present7 to the ,thirteenth ,dynasty1 about #bejj-bjjj ,b4,c4 ,the ,egyptian ,ionic capital is dated to the ,eighteenth ,dynasty1 #aehg-acbg ,b4,c4 ,the ,egyptian anthemion 7#8honey-suckle' original7 is dated to the ,twelfth ,dynasty 7#bggh-befe ,b4,c474 ,a considerably higher antiquity than the given date must be assumed in all cases40#ia #ia ,w4 ,h4 ,goodyear1 8,are ,conventional ,patterns ,spontaneously ,generated10 ,the ,architectural ,record1 ii41 #ahic1 p4 #bia4 ,this in brief is ,professor ,goodyear's theory2#ib it is ingenious1 but time will show how far it will convince students of this subject4 ,it is quite possible that the egg-and-dart pattern may have had a multiple origin4 ,dr4 ,colley ,march is still inclined to see in it a kind of artistic reminiscence of the ends of beams 7,plate ,v41 ,fig4 #a7 of earlier wooden buildings2 but it is highly improbable that the conclusion arrived at by ,mr4 ,hulme is the correct one4 ,he says3 8,the echinus1 or horse-chestnut1 is also called the egg-and-tongue or egg-and-dart moulding1 a variety of names that may be taken as conclusive of the fact that it bears no great resemblance to anything at all1 but is a purely arbitrary form40#ic ,the variety of names is conclusive only of the ignorance of the name-givers as to what the pattern originated from4 ,in future those who write on decorative art will have to prove that any pattern or design is a purely arbitrary form2 that assumption is no longer permissible4 #ib ,prof4 ,goodyear acknowledges 7,grammar of ,lotus7 that ,p4 ,e4 ,newberry had independently arrived at a similar conclusion in #ahhe1 and that ,owen ,jones in #ahef and ,lon de ,vesley in #ahgj had suggested a lotus original for the egg-and-dart pattern4 #ic ,f4 ,e4 ,hulme1 ,the ,birth and ,development of ,ornament1 #ahic1 p4 #hf4 ,we have left the lotus far behind1 and though it is hard to believe that the multitudinous designs of so many ages and of such diverse countries are all derived from the sacred flower of ,ancient ,egypt1 yet it may well be that the oldest stock was a lotus derivative1 and that the symbolism of that flower gave to it sufficient vitality to spread and multiply and replenish the earth4 ,c4 ,zoomorphs4 ,it is a matter of common observation that our children very early take delight in pictures of animals and in making delineations of them4 ,it is further noticeable that the quality of the drawing makes no difference to children1 and they are as pleased with the crudest representation of an animal as their elders are with a life-like portrait4 ,in all this the child closely resembles the folk1 whether they be the backward classes among ourselves or the less advanced peoples4 ,all these agree in being satisfied with diagrammatic realism4 ,savages1 however1 vary greatly in their power of representing animal forms4 ,in ,fig4 #c we have a number of outlines of animals which were etched on bamboo pipes or carved on wooden drums by the ,papuan natives of the islands of ,torres ,straits or of the adjacent coast of ,new ,guinea4 ,the figures are all reduced to the same scale by photography from tracings of the original delineations1 and are therefore faithful copies of the originals4 ,a glance at the figure will show that the animals are drawn with a very fair degree of accuracy1 so that in most cases it is perfectly easy to identify the genus of the animal intended4 ,there are numerous little touches which appeal to the eye of the naturalist as indicating keen observation on the part of the artists2 for example1 the sharks 7,c1 ,d7 are always drawn with unequally lobed tails1 the tail of the dugong 7,m7 is accurately rendered2 several characteristic details are1 as a rule1 well brought out in the drawings of the cassowaries 7,k74 ,on the other hand1 there are several anatomical mistakes1 as for instance1 giving shark-like gill-slits to a bony-fish1 or even to a crocodile4 ,the mouth is represented in a sucker-fish 7,f7 as being on the upper side of the head1 whereas it should be underneath1 and the view of that fish's tail would be impossible from that particular point of view2 but these and numerous other similar examples which ,i could name are merely due to a desire to express several salient features1 without regard to the possibility of their being all seen at once4 ,the artists' aim was to give a recognisable representation of animals1 and in this they have as a rule succeeded perfectly2 it is captious to expect more from them4 ,on other parts of the mainland of ,new ,guinea one rarely meets with representations so life-like as these1#id and nowhere else on that largest of islands are so many kinds of animals drawn4 ,animals are often depicted by the ,australians1 but usually these are very poor as works of art2 they are also employed in pictography4 #id ,o4 ,schellong1 8,notizen ber das ,zeichnen der ,melanesier10 ,internat4 ,arch4 fr ,ethnogr41 viii41 #ahie1 p4 #eg4 7,plates ,,viii41 ,,ix47 ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 ,the ,decorative ,art of ,british ,new ,guinea4 ,although animals are so frequently drawn by the ,torres ,straits ,islanders1 they never arrange them in groups or in series4 ,they are pictures of individuals1 drawn for decorative effect1 but they have no story to tell4 ,the only exception to this rule occurs in the case of certain animals1 two of which are sometimes placed symmetrically on the decorated object4 ,representations of animals are not uncommon in ,melanesia1 but they are distinctly of rare occurrence in ,polynesia4 ,they occur in great profusion in ,america from north to south1 but here they are predominantly religious or pictographic in significance4 ,animal forms are not characteristic of ,african art1 except among the ,bushmen1 and there we find pictures of animals which are comparable with those of the ,eskimo or the natives of ,torres ,straits4 ,as far back as the time when men hunted the reindeer and wild horse in ,western ,europe do we find drawings of animals4 ,this was at the time period when the glacial cold was abating and when men lived in caves1 used chipped1 unpolished stone implements1 and were unacquainted with pottery4 ,in archological nomenclature this is known as the ,epoque ,magdalnienne of the ,cave ,period in the ,palolithic ,age4 ,the figures of the mammoth1 reindeer1 horse 7,fig4 #ij71 etc41 are usually cleverly etched on bone or ivory1 and sometimes they are wonderfully life-like and accurate2 the representation of human beings are as a rule very weak indeed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--;,horses etched on an antler from ,la ,madelaine2 from ,taylor4 8,the wild horse roamed in immense herds over ,europe1 and formed the chief food of the palolithic hunters4 ,in some of the caverns in ,france the remains of the horse are more abundant than those of any other animal1 more even than those of the wild ox4 ,thus at ,solutr1 near ,macon1 the bones of horses1 which had formed the food of the inhabitants of this station1 form a deposit nearly #aj feet in depth and more than #cjj feet in length1 the number of skeletons represented being estimated at from #bj1jjj to #dj1jjj4 ,this primitive horse was a diminutive animal1 not much larger than an ass1 standing about #ac hands high1 the largest specimens not exceeding #ad hands4 ,but the head was of disproportionate size1 and the teeth were very powerful4 ,he resembles the tarpan or wild horse of the ,caspian steppes4 ,a spirited representation of two of these wild horses is engraved on an antler found at the station of ,la ,madelaine in the ,department of the ,dordogne40#ie #ie ,isaac ,taylor1 ,the ,origin of the ,aryans1 p4 #aeh4 ,it is impossible for me to do more than just touch on the subject of the relation of animals to decorative and pictorial art2 the few examples ,i can offer will1 however1 demonstrate its importance4 ,wherever it occurs the crocodile or the alligator1 as the case may be1 almost invariably finds its way into the decorative art of the district4 ,from north to south the crocodile asserts itself in the decorative art of ,new ,guinea2 for further information the reader is referred to ,dr4 ,uhle1#if who has made an elaborate study of the crocodile in ,malayo-,papuan art1 has noted the strange metamorphoses to which it is subjected in north-west ,new ,guinea2 he also draws attention to the cult of the reptile in these parts4 ,the belief of a relationship between the crocodile and man occurs among the ,malays of ,sumatra1 ,batta1 ,java1 ,makassar and the ,bugis1 ,tagals1 in ,banka1 ,timor1 ,bouru1 ,aru1 and the south-western islands4 ,the ,javanese have no fear of the crocodile when bathing1 they believe that their 8grandfathers0 and 8fathers0 could do them no harm4 ,the crocodile is reverenced in ,borneo and killed only when the blood-revenge demands it2 their teeth are used as talismans all over the island4 ,the inhabitants of ,kupang and ,timor have an unconquerable fear of the killing of crocodiles and pray by dead ones4 ,even the ,malays 7,hovas7 of ,madagascar are afraid to kill crocodiles1 since they would revenge themselves4 #if ,m4 ,uhle1 8,holz- und ,bambus-,gerthe aus ,n4,w4 ,neu ,guinea10 ,k4 ,eth4 ,mus41 ,dresden1 vi41 #ahhf1 p4 #f4 ,from ,melanesia we will pass to ,central ,america and take advantage of ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,holmes's masterly study of the ancient art of the province of ,chiriqui in the ,isthmus of ,panama4#ig #ig ,w4 ,h4 ,holmes1 8,ancient ,art of the ,province of ,chiriqui1 ,colombia10 ,sixth ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 #ahhd-he4 ,washington1 #ahhh4 ,wherever it occurs1 the crocodile or the alligator1 as the case may be1 almost invariably finds its way into the decorative art of the district4 ,from north to south the crocodile asserts itself in the decorative art of ,new ,guinea2 and1 although associated with other animals1 the alligator predominates among the zoomorphs of the ,chiriqui4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--;,conventional alligator from the 8lost colour0 ware of ,chiriqui2 after ,holmes4 ,in ,fig4 #ia1 we have a highly conventionalised representation of an alligator4 ,the scutes 7or scales7 are represented by spotted triangles and run along the entire length of the back2 a row of dashes in the mouth indicates the teeth4 ,in another class of ware the treatment is quite different1 more clumsy1 but prominence is given to a number of corresponding features2 the strong curve of the back1 the triangles1 dots1 the muzzle1 and mouth4 ,in ,fig4 #ib all the leading features are recognisable1 but are very much simplified1 and the body is without indication of scales1 the head is without eyes1 the jaws are without teeth1 and the upward curve of the tip of the upper jaw in the last figure is greatly exaggerated1 but this is a common feature in these representations4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--,simplified figure of an alligator from the 8alligator0 ware of ,chiriqui2 after ,holmes4 ,the spaces to be decorated also largely determine the lines of modification4 ,in ,fig4 #ic we have an example crowding an elongated figure into a short rectangular space4 ,the head is turned back over the body1 the sunken curve of the back is enormously exaggerated1 and the tail is thrown down along the side of the panel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--;,alligator design1 ,chiriqui2 after ,holmes4 ,it often happens that the animal form1 literally rendered1 does not fill the panels satisfactorily4 ,the head and tail do not correspond1 and there is a lack of balance4 ,in such cases1 as ,mr4 ,holmes points out1 two heads have been preferred4 ,the body is given a uniform double curve and the heads are turned down1 as in ,fig4 #id4 ,this figure 8is extremely interesting on account of its complexity and the novel treatment of the various features4 ,the two feet are placed close together near the middle of the curved body1 and on either side of these are the under jaws turned back and armed with dental projections for teeth4 ,the characteristic scale symbols occur at intervals along the back2 and very curiously at one place1 where there is scant room1 simple dots are employed1 showing the identity of these two characters4 ,some curious auxiliary devices1 the origin of which is obscure1 are used to fill in marginal spaces40 ,judging from some of the figures in ,fig4 #ajj we may regard the upper supplementary device as another alligator derivative4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4--;,alligator delineation1 greatly modified1 ,chiriqui2 after ,holmes4 ,fig4 #ie is an extreme form of conventionalised alligator which has become metamorphosed into an apparently meaningless design which is intended to be symmetrical4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--;,highly conventionalised alligator derivative1 ,chiriqui2 after ,holmes4 ,in ,fig4 #if we have a series showing the degeneration of the alligator into a curved line and a spot4 ,the series shown in ,fig4 #ig illustrate the tendency of linear bands not only to cramp the original in a vertical direction1 but to force it into a serial pattern4 ,fig4 #ig1 ,a1 is a simplification of such a two-headed form as ,fig4 #id4 ,one might be tempted to regard it as a doubly tailed form1 but such do not appear to have been recognised by ,mr4 ,holmes4 ,the transition from this undoubted alligator derivative to the broad chevron of ,fig4 #ig1 ,e1 is quite obvious1 the conventional scutes1 dotted triangles1 together with the zigzag body alone forming the pattern1 and in ,fig4 #ig1 ,f1 the latter has disappeared4 ,mr4 ,holmes states 8there is little doubt that the series continues further1 ending with simple curved lines and even with straight lines unaccompanied by auxiliary devices40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4--,series of derivatives of the alligator1 showing stages of simplification1 ,chiriqui2 after ,holmes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--,series of alligator derivatives1 showing modification through use in narrow zones1 ,chiriqui2 after ,holmes4 ,mr4 ,holmes also points out that the ,chiriqui have arrived at the scroll and fret by way of the alligator4 ,i can here illustrate only two of these 7,figs4 #ih1 #ii72 in these the body of the reptile is the element of the design4 ,in other cases ,mr4 ,holmes finds that parts of the creature1 such as head1 feet1 eye1 or scales1 assume the role of radicles1 and pass through a series of modification ending in purely geometrical devices4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--,scroll derived from the body-line of the alligator1 ,chiriqui2 after ,holmes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--;,fret derived from the body-line of the alligator1 ,chiriqui2 after ,holmes4 ,the designs in ,fig4 #ajj are painted upon low rounded prominences on vases1 and hence are enclosed in circles4 ,in ,fig4 #ajj1 ,a1 the alligator is coiled up1 but still preserves some of the well-known characters of that reptile4 ,in ,b1 we have the double hook modification of the alligator's body1 but the triangles are placed separately against the encircling line4 ,in the next figure the body-line is omitted1 and three dotted scutes alone represent the animal4 ,the four scutes of the next designs assume a symmetrical position1 and the central crossed line may represent the alligator's body4 ,in the last figure of this series the cross has become the predominating feature1 and the spots have migrated into it1 so that the triangles have become mere interspaces4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--,series of alligator derivatives1 showing modification through use within a circular area1 ,chiriqui2 after ,holmes4 ,finally1 ,fig4 #aja is a zone pattern1 painted on an earthen drum1 the central zigzag line represents the body of the alligator1 and the notched hooks its extremities2 these are here arranged with perfect regularity1 but sometimes only the latter occur in patterns1 and then they are often somewhat irregularly disposed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--,pattern composed of alligator derivatives1 from a clay drum painted in the style of the 8lost colour group10 ,chiriqui2 after ,holmes4 ,from his prolonged study of ancient ,american art1 ,mr4 ,holmes formulates the following generalisation3--8,the agencies of modification inherent in the art in its practice are such that any particular animal form extensively employed in decoration is capable of changing into or giving rise to any or to all of the highly conventional decorative devices upon which our leading ornaments1 such as the meander1 the scroll1 the fret1 the chevron1 and the guilloche1 are based0 7p4 #ahg74 ,the importance of the following conclusion is obvious3--8,we are absolutely certain that no race1 no art1 no motive or element in nature or in art can claim the exclusive origination of any one of the well-known or standard conventional devices1 and that any race1 art1 or individual motive is capable of giving rise to any and to all such devices4 ,nothing can be more absurd than to suppose that the signification or symbolism attaching to a given form is uniform the world over1 as the ideas associated with each must vary with the channels through which they were developed0 7p4 #ahc74 ,the investigations of ,dr4 ,p4 ,ehrenreich and ,professor ,karl von den ,steinen on the decorative art of various tribes in ,central ,brazil have led to results which may1 without exaggeration1 be termed startling4 ,the patterns employed by these people typically belong to the class which is popularly described as geometrical4 ,on page #agf ,i have selected examples of these patterns which will give a fair idea of the style of design4 ,dr4 ,ehrenreich#ih informs us that in the ,bakari chiefs' huts a frieze of blackened bark tablets run along the wall which are painted in white clay with very characteristic figures and patterns of fish4 ,all the geometric figures are in reality diagrammatic representations of concrete objects1 mostly animals4 8,thus a wavy line with alternating spots denotes a large1 dark-spotted colossal snake1 the ,anaconda 7,eunectes murinus72 a rhomboidal mark signifies a lagoon-fish1 whereas a triangle does not by any means indicate that simple geometrical figure1 but the small1 three-cornered article of women's clothing0 7p4 #ih74 #ih 8,mittheilungen ber die zweite ,xingu-,expedition in ,brasilien10 ,zeitschrift fr ,ethnologie1 xxii41 #ahij1 p4 #hi4 ,the following quotation is also translated from ,dr4 ,ehrenreich#ii3--8,the ornaments of the ,karaya consist of patterns of zigzag lines1 crosses1 dots1 lozenges1 and peculiar interrupted meanders1 whereas the quadrate and triangle occur only incidentally 7that is1 owing to the filling up of other figures71 and circles are entirely absent4 ,as in the ornamentation of the ,xingus tribes1 so also here occur those apparently entirely arbitrary geometrical combinations fundamentally of wholly defined concrete presentments1 of which the most characteristic traits are therein reproduced4 ,unfortunately it is not always possible to correctly ascertain the respective natural objects4 ,the frequently occurring cross 7,fig4 #ajb1 ,a71 which in ,america has so often given occasion for amusing hypotheses1 is here nothing but a kind of lizard4444 ,also peculiarly characteristic are the extensive wings of a bat 7,fig4 #ajb1 ,b71 as well as the frequently occurring snake pattern1 such as ,fig4 #ajb1 ,c1 which represents the rattlesnake1 while another snake is represented in ,fig4 #ajb1 ,d4 ,accurate representations of men and animals1 as we know them to be done so excellently by the ,bushmen and ,eskimo1 do not appear to be forthcoming among the ,karaya40 #ii 8,beitrge zur ,vlkerkunde ,brasiliens10 ,verffentlichungen aus dem kniglichen ,museum fr ,vlkerkunde1 ,berlin1 ii41 #ahia1 pp4 #bd1 #be4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--,patterns of the ,karaya1 ,central ,brazil2 after ,ehrenreich4 ,a4 ,lizards2 ,b4 ,flying bats2 ,c4 ,a rattlesnake2 ,d4 ,a snake4 ,a4 ,incised on a grave-post2 ,b1 ,c1 ,d4 ,plaited on the handles of combs4 ,professor von den ,steinen#ajj describes the above-mentioned frieze more fully4 ,the pieces of bark1 which were from #ae cm4 to #dj cm4 7#f to #af inches7 broad1 were blackened with soot1 and the white or yellowish lime applied with the fingers4 ,the frieze itself was over #ef m4 7over #ahd feet7 in length4 #ajj ,unter den ,naturvlkern ,zentral-,brasiliens3 ,reiseschilderung und ,ergebnisse der ,zweiten ,sching-,expedition1 #ahhg-hh4 ,berlin1 #ahid4 ,i would ask the reader to refer back to ,fig4 #eb1 p4 #ig1 although this motive is not a zoomorph1 in order to show that triangular designs1 or resulting zigzags1 may have various origins4 ,only one tablet represented a plant4 7,fig4 #fi47 ,it indicates the leaves of a small 8cabbage0-bearing wild palm4 ,the bulk of the motives for the decorative art of these people1 the ,sching tribes 7the ,xingu tribes of ,ehrenreich71 are drawn from the animal world2 ,fig4 #ajc ,a1 ,h1 ,i1 ,k1 are ,bakari patterns1 and ,figs4 #ajc ,b-,f those of the ,auet4 ,the pattern to the right in ,fig4 #ajc1 ,h1 indicates a kind of ray1 the characteristic rings and dots which ornament the skin of this fish are here represented4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--,patterns from ,central ,brazil1 after ,von den ,steinen4 ,a4 ,bakari paddle2 ,b-,e4 ,mereschu 7fish7 patterns of the ,auet2 ,f4 ,locust design1 ,bakari2 ,g4 ,fish-shaped bull-roarer1 ,nahuqu2 ,h4 ,sukuri 7snake7 and ray patterns2 ,i4 ,jiboya 7snake72 ,k4 ,agau 7snake72 ,h-,i4 ,bakari tribe4 ,common to all the tribes of the ,sching stock is the employment of conventionalised representations of the mereschu4 ,this is a small compressed lagoon-fish1 about #ai cm4 7#g inches7 long1 and #i4e cm4 7#c inches7 deep2 its colour is silver-grey with brown spots4 ,the mereschu belongs to the genus ,serrasalmo or ,myletes2 the figure on p4 #bfj1 given by ,von den ,steinen1 looks as if it were drawn from a badly-preserved spirit specimen1 and one fails to see how ,fig4 #ajc1 ,c1 for example1 could by any stretch of the imagination be considered to suggest that fish4 ,on p4 #fac of ,dr4 ,gnther's ,introduction to the ,study of ,fishes 7,edinburgh1 #ahhj7 is an outline figure of ,serrasalmo scapularis2 the contour of this fish is approximately rhomboidal1 the head1 the dorsal fin1 and the tail fin occupy three of its angles1 and the anal fin practically runs up to the fourth angle4 ,von den ,steinen points out that in most cases representations of these animal-forms are incisions1 not paintings1 and the diagrammatic rendering of curved lines by angles is due to this fact4 ,the patterns which ,i am about to describe are common to numerous allied tribes1 and everywhere these patterns bear the name by which this kind of fish is locally known4 ,sometimes the mereschu fish is employed singly1 but most frequently a number of them are evenly distributed over the decorated surface1 and between the fishes single1 double1 or even several lines may be drawn1 as in ,fig4 #ajc1 ,b1 ,c1 ,e2 these latter represent the net by means of which these fish are caught4 ,thus we may have a fish-pattern or a fishes-in-net pattern4 ,these patterns are delineated on masks1 posts1 spinning-whorls1 and other objects4 ,fig4 #ajc1 ,b1 is a pattern of the mereschu fishes-in-net group1 but the fishes themselves are entirely filled up with black1 and not their angles only4 ,the ,auet pattern drawn in ,fig4 #ajc1 ,f1 is intended for a mailed- or armadillo-fish4 ,on a ,bakari paddle 7,fig4 #ajc1 ,a7 are incised four circles1 which are the ring-markings of a ray1 pinuki1 on the other side of a transverse line follow two mereschu in the meshes of a net1 then a pak1 and finally several kumi fish4 ,professor von den ,steinen believes that the object of this decoration is simply to bring fish close to the paddle4 8,but it is extremely instructive to see10 he continues1#aja 8that concerning these scribblings1 though they certainly do not denote anything in their order of arrangement1 consequently are not picture-writing2 however1 every single one is by no means a casual flourish1 but the diagram of a well-defined object1 and consequently1 in fact1 represents the element of a picture-writing40 #aja ,loc4 cit41 p4 #bfi4 ,zigzags and waved lines are snakes4 ,fig4 #ajc1 ,k1 represents common land-snake1 the agau1 or cobra of ,brazil2 to the left is the tail1 the head is simply rendered1 and as the skin of the snake is marked the artist characterised it by adding spots4 ,very similar is the sukuri water-snake or anaconda 7,boa scytale71 drawn to the left of ,fig4 #ajc1 ,h4 ,a boa-constrictor is indicated in ,fig4 #ajc1 ,i2 the row of diamonds left on the dark background1 between the two rows of triangles1 represents the marking of the snake's skin4 ,the larger terminal diamond to the left is probably the boa's head4 ,a snake is also painted on a ,nahuqu bull-roarer 7,fig4 #ajc1 ,g74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--,patterns derived from bats2 after ,von den ,steinen4 ,a4 ,bakari2 ,b1 ,c4 ,auet4 ,we have seen that rows of horizontal triangles are uluris1 women's triangles1 but when they are margined above by a line1 as in ,fig4 #ajd1 ,b1 they are bats2 but rows of triangles vertically disposed1 as in ,fig4 #ajd1 ,c1 are hanging bats2 ,fig4 #ajd1 ,a1 is also a bat device4 ,another triangular ornament 7,fig4 #aje7 represents small birds1 called by the ,bakari natives yaritamze1 that is1 they are a particular kind of bird1 not birds in general4 ,finally1 one would naturally consider that the ornament engraved on the post1 ,fig4 #ajc1 ,d1 is simply the favourite mereschu pattern2 but ,von den ,steinen assures us that the central design is not composed of mereschu1 in which the angles are only slightly filled up1 but that it is a locust1 the lines arising from the angles of the lozenge being the legs4 ,this locust pattern is1 however1 associated with true mereschus1 which may be seen between the legs of the locust4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--;,bird design1 ,bakari1 ,central ,brazil2 after ,von den ,steinen4 ,in ,europe and in our own country we can study analogous transformations4 ,more or less recognisable animals break out1 as it were into scrolls and floral devices1 as on ,samian vases 7,plate ,,vi41 ,fig4 #a71 on ,gaulish swords 7,fig4 #b71 on ,pompeian walls 7,fig4 #c71 and on the gold ornaments of ,tuscany 7,fig4 #e74 ,in ,fig4 #d1 ,plate ,,vi41 we have on an ancient pot from ,new ,mexico a decorative treatment of birds which recalls that of the mural paintings of ,pompeii4 ,often in ,greece and ,italy symmetrical scrolls are associated with a head4 7,plate ,,vi41 ,fig4 #f47 ,the scrolls themselves may1 in some cases1 be an animal form which has ended in a flourish1 as is taking place in ,plate ,,vi41 ,fig4 #e2 or in others they may be the remnants of plant motive4 ,dr4 ,colley ,march calls attention to old bench-ends of ,english churches1 notably those in ,cornwall1 which are frequently surmounted by a crouching quadruped2 at a later period this appears to be converted into a single scroll like that which adorned the old pews in ,ormskirk ,church4 7,plate ,,vi41 ,fig4 #g47 ,an ancient silver plate 7,plate ,,vi41 ,fig4 #h71 found in a tumulus at ,largo1 ,fifeshire1 is decorated with the distorted fore-half of an animal4 ,the transformation is advanced to flamboyant curves in the zoomorph of the ,dunnichen ,stone 7,plate ,,vi41 ,fig4 #i72 but the head and ear and legs can still be distinguished4 ,it is not quite certain what animal this is intended to represent4 ,earl ,southesk#ajb believes it to be the horse1 which was sacred to ,frey1 and is a special symbol of the sun4 ,the second figure is very remarkable1 but it seems to be an extreme and foliated form of the same zoomorph4 #ajb ,origins of ,pictish ,symbolism1 #ahic4 ,there are numerous examples of linear series of animals in the early art of ,egypt1 ,assyria1 ,greece1 and other artistic centres1 but these do not appear to have developed into patterns1 possibly because the units were readily recognisable1 on the other hand1 serially repeated conventionalised zoomorphs frequently metamorphose into patterns4 ,these patterns by repeated copying tend to become simplified till finally not only is all trace of the original long lost1 but the resultant pattern may so resemble other simple patterns as to be indistinguishable from them4 ,this may easily lead to confusion and cause the designs to be classed as one4 ,we thus come to the conclusion that before any pattern can be termed the same as another1 its life-history must be studied1 otherwise analogy may be confused with homology1 and false relationships erected4 ,things which are similar are not necessarily the same4 ,at the extreme south-east end of ,new ,guinea and in the adjacent archipelago the most frequent designs are beautiful scroll patterns1 which are subject to many variations4 ,i have already#ajc described many of these1 and so there is no need to again repeat what ,i have said1 except to remind the reader that all these patterns are variations of serially repeated conventionalised heads of the frigate-bird4 ,i shall again allude to this bird when ,i deal with the relation of religion to art4 #ajc ,pp4 #di-ef1 and at greater length in my ,memoir on the ,decorative ,art of ,british ,new ,guinea4 ,in the same district one occasionally meets with a pattern 7,fig4 #ajf7 which in some respects resembles the former and appears in some cases to have been confounded with it4 ,this one clearly arises from the serial repetition of conventionalised heads of crocodiles4 ,the illustration is part of the carved rim of a wooden bowl in my possession1 which probably came from the ,trobriands or the ,woodlarks4 ,the triangles above the crocodiles' snouts are coloured black1 those bounded by their jaws are painted red4 ,there is yet another method of representing animals which consists in grouping them so as to tell a story1 or1 in other words1 to make a picture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--,rubbing of part of the carved rim of a wooden bowl in the author's collection4 ,probably from the ,woodlarks or ,trobriands1 ,british ,new ,guinea4 ,one third natural size4 ,grouped animals rarely occur by themselves in decorative art2 men1 houses1 implements1 and even vegetation are frequently associated with them4 ,the ,arctic peoples1 such as the ,lapps1 ,eskimo1 etc41 greatly affect this form of art4 ,the bulk of these pictures are representations of hunting scenes1 and many incidents in the lives of these hyperboreans are depicted on bone and ivory4 ,there is reason for regarding these as records of particular events 7cf4 p4 #bjg72 but they are also very useful to us as illustrations of native life and industry4 ,animals are sometimes drawn foreshortened1 and confused herds of reindeer are often figured2 but the grouping is mainly linear1 without effects of perspective being attempted4 ,this kind of art is extremely rare amongst savage peoples1 in fact its presence may be regarded as one of the proofs that the people practising it have passed from a purely savage condition1 and have made some advance towards civilisation4 ,it has reached its highest point in the works of the great animal painters of the present day1 and thus has been one of the last forms of graphic art to be perfected4 ,as a general rule the inferior representations of animals in groups1 and of animal pictures generally1 are not due to the process of decay4 ,they are the bad workmanship of inferior craftsmen4 ,it is the imperfection of immaturity1 not the symptom of decadence4 ,the last stage of the life-cycle of this class of zoomorphs occurs when incompetent draughtsmen copy the work of a master2 when1 for example1 we see on the walls of country inns cheap and badly-drawn copies of ,landseer's pictures4 ,animals also play a large part in mythology1 and it is often very difficult to determine the limits of totemism in this direction4 ,there are1 however1 numberless instances of legendary communications and relationships1 of friendliness and enmity between animals and men1 which have no connection with totemism1 and these often form the subject of decorative art4 ,sometimes the animal alone is represented1 at other times both man and animal are depicted1 and according to their artistic treatment we may have pictures1 or should the zoomorph and anthropomorph be rendered schematically1 heteromorphism may result4 ,at present we have to deal with representations of animals which illustrate some belief1 myth1 or folk-tale4 ,the sacred art of the ,hebrews was almost free from zoomorphs1 and that of ,islam totally so2 with these exceptions there has scarcely been a religion in which zoomorphs have not played a greater or less part4 ,i need only remind the reader of the numerous examples in which animals are depicted in illustration of1 or as a kind of mnemonic of a folk-tale1 a legend1 or myth1 and of some sacred tradition or belief4 ,there are so many intermediate stages between these different phases that it is often impossible to draw the line between them4 ,the religious belief1 with its sacred tradition of one age1 becomes the myth or the legend of a later period1 subsequently it is perpetuated as a folk-tale2 later it may serve to amuse children1 and lastly it becomes the object of scientific study4 ,what ,i have termed the sthetic life-history may occur to the zoomorph at any or all of these stages of religious decadence4 ,there is no correlation between an extreme or medium phase in the sthetic cycle and a corresponding stage in the religious series4 ,to take a homely example1 the illustrations of the most recently published fairy-tales are as a whole of greater artistic merit than has been the average illustration of sacred narratives during any period of the world's history4 ,d4 ,anthropomorphs4 ,as a general rule1 savages are less skilful in the delineation of the human form than they are with representations of animals1 nor is it usually employed so frequently as might be expected4 ,it is for religious purposes that the human form is most frequently represented1 and ,i refer the reader to the section in which religion is dealt with for illustrations of this fact4 ,i employ the term 8human form0 advisedly1 as this includes the images of both gods and men4 ,at one stage of its evolution in the human mind1 deity1 like the ,spectre of ,brocken1 is the shadowy image of man projected on the clouds4 ,so the gods are most naturally represented as men1 but often with special attributes4 ,now1 these attributes are worthy of special study as being the milestones which indicate the distance which any given religious conception has traversed4 ,in the distant vista of time we can dimly perceive the transformation of the totem animal into the god4 ,in the highest period of ,greek sculpture the evolution was1 for example1 perfected in 8ox-eyed lady ,hera10 consort of ,olympian ,zeus1 and in the ,cnidian statue of ,demeter1 8,mother-,earth10 whose archaic representation was a wooden image of a woman with a mare's head and mane4 ,for thousands of years the ,egyptian pantheon was peopled by gods arrested in the process--gorgonised tadpoles of divinity4 ,still earlier stages may even now be noted among savage peoples4 ,i know of no example of the preponderating employment of the human face for decorative purposes to be compared with what ,i have established for the natives of the ,papuan ,gulf4 ,illustrations of this will be found in ,figs4 #aj-ai1 and in my ,memoir on ,papuan ,art1 but only an examination of a large number of objects from this district of ,british ,new ,guinea will bring home to the student the remarkable ubiquity of the motive4 ,we have no information concerning the reason for copying human faces2 my impression is that it is related to the initiation ceremonies1 which we know from the accounts of the ,rev4 ,james ,chalmers to be very prolonged and important4 ,one would expect to find more animal representations among these people than appear on objects in our ethnographical collections4 ,possibly these people are passing from the totemistic into the anthropomorphic phase of religion1 and the latter finds most expression in their art4 ,however1 such speculations are futile until we obtain far more detailed and extended information of their religion than we at present possess4 ,human beings are comparatively rarely represented merely for decorative purposes4 ,in pictographs they have no predominating position4 ,but when we come to portraiture the matter is very different2 here we have an adequate motive for the delineation of the human form and face2 it is1 however1 very noteworthy that portraiture1 as such1 only occurs amongst civilised communities4 ,possibly the explanation of this may be found in the widespread savage philosophy of sympathetic magic4 ,according to this system a portrait has a very vital connection with the subject1 and any damage done to the counterfeit would be experienced by the original4 ,portraiture then would be too hazardous to health1 or even life1 to be lightly undertaken4 ,what we have seen happening to plants and animals is also the fate of men in decorative art4 ,a few examples here will suffice4 ,new ,zealand is one of the places where anthropomorphs abound1 due in this case to ancestor cult4 ,the short series of three clubs 7,plate ,,vi41 ,figs4 #aj-ab7 illustrates the metamorphosis of the limbs into curvilinear forms4 ,in dealing with the religion of ,polynesia ,i give examples 7,figs4 #abd-abh7 of the degradation of the human form into 8geometrical0 patterns4 ,in the various illustrations which have been given representations of the human form may be isolated1 as in ,melanesia 7,fig4 #c1 ,o71 ,mangaia 7,fig4 #abd71 and ,new ,zealand 7,plate ,,vi41 ,figs4 #aj1 #ab71 or they may be double2 for example1 one frequently finds in ,polynesia two god-figures placed back to back1 and these may strangely degenerate1 as in the examples given by ,stolpe#ajd and ,read4#aje ,human forms placed in linear series are frequent in ,mangaian wood-carving 7,figs4 #abg and #abe1 ,a74 ,fig4 #abf illustrates the decoration of a broader area4 #ajd ,h4 ,stolpe1 ,evolution in the ,ornamental ,art of ,savage ,peoples4 ,figs4 #c1 #cd4 #aje ,c4 ,h4 ,read1 8,on the ,origin and ,sacred ,character of certain ,ornaments of the ,s4,e4 ,pacific10 ,journ4 ,anth4 ,inst41 xxi41 #ahia1 ,plate ,,xii4 ,we get examples of the selection of one portion of the man in the face patterns of the ,papuan ,gulf4 7,figs4 #aj-ai47 ,these are undoubtedly conscious selections from the very commencement1 but we find various parts of the body come to be perpetuated1 with the elimination of the remainder1 owing to differing causes4 ,the reason for the simplification of the body and the disappearance of the head in the ,mangaian art is probably partly due to the fact that savage peoples are usually quite content with suggestions of objects1 they do not demand what we term realism4 ,by conventionalising their representations the ,mangaians were better able to multiply them1 and at the same time to appropriately decorate the object with which they were concerned4 ,it could not be with a view of economising time or labour4 8,time10 as ,stolpe says1 8is for them of no importance1 they have plenty of it1 and usually they are not able even to reckon it40 ,judging by the skill exhibited by these clever carvers in wood1 we cannot put down the simplification of the human body to careless copying4 ,we have seen that the face may be represented to the exclusion of any other part of the body1 but there are examples of parts of the face becoming predominant4 ,professor ,moseley#ajf was1 ,i believe1 the first to indicate the evolution which occurred in the images of gods in the ,hawaian group4 ,in some instances the hollow crescent form1 which came to represent a face1 seems to have been arrived at by an enormous increase in the size of the mouth2 in others1 as in the case of some wicker images1 by a hollowing out of the face altogether2 the mouth in the latter1 though large1 not being widened so as to encroach upon the whole area of the face4 ,since1 in the worship of the gods1 food was placed in the mouths1 the mouths may have been gradually enlarged as the development of the religion proceeded1 in order to contain larger and larger offerings1 and the head in the wicker-work image may have been hollowed out for a similar purpose4 ,moseley traced the degeneration of the human 7or god's7 face down to a hook-shaped ornament cut out of a sperm whale's tooth4 #ajf ,h4 ,n4 ,moseley1 ,notes by a ,naturalist on the 8,challenger10 #ahgi1 pp4 #ejd-eaa4 ,some of the carvings of the human face from ,new ,zealand bear a general resemblance to those from ,hawaii2 but a very noticeable feature in the art of the former island is the protruding tongue4 ,the most interesting development of this member occurs in the ,maori hani1 or staff of office4 ,at the upper end is what appears1 at first sight1 to be a spear-point4 8,this portion1 however1 does not serve the purpose of offence1 but is simply a conventional representation of the human tongue1 which1 when thrust forth to its utmost conveys1 according to ,maori ideas1 the most bitter insult and defiance4 ,when the chief wishes to make war against any tribe1 he calls his own people together1 makes a fiery oration1 and repeatedly thrusts his hani in the direction of the enemy1 each such thrust being accepted as a putting forth of the tongue in defiance4 ,in order to show that the point of the hani is really intended to represent the human tongue1 the remainder of it is carved into a grotesque and far-fetched resemblance of the human face1 the chief features of which are two enormous circular eyes made of haliotis shell40#ajg #ajg ,j4 ,g4 ,wood1 ,the ,natural ,history of ,man1 ii41 #ahgj1 p4 #afa4 ,my friend1 ,s4 ,tsuboi1 has made a special study#ajh of the protruding tongue in ,new ,zealand art4 ,he gives illustrations of thirty-one specimens1 and with characteristic ,japanese ingenuity he has drawn figures of half-a-dozen models which he has constructed which illustrate the various possible variations1 and the lines they may have taken4 ,he has also made numerical tables of possible varieties4 ,i allude to1 this paper in order to draw the attention of students to graphic methods4 ,i regret that my ignorance of the ,japanese language precludes my giving the results of this investigation4 #ajh ,s4 ,tsuboi1 8,on the ,degeneration of ,tongue-thrusting ,figures in ,new ,zealand ,carvings10 ,ty ,gakugei ,zasshi 7,oriental ,scientific ,magazine71 ,no4 #aab1 ,jan4 #beth1 #ahia4 ,in ,ancient ,egypt the eye was symbolic1 and numberless amulets are found which exhibit one1 two1 or numerous eyes in varying stages of degeneracy1 or in strange modifications4 ,these1 too1 have been studied and described by ,tsuboi4#aji #aji ,oriental ,scientific ,magazine1 ,nov4 #beth1 #ahhi4 ,e4 ,biomorphic ,pottery4 ,in the description of the primitive methods of pottery manufacture1 allusion was made to the fact that vegetable and animal forms were copied by the early artificers4 ,although the immediate originals of many kinds of clay vessels were baskets of various kinds1 we must not forget that these also were often textile imitations of natural objects4 ,gourds which are of almost ubiquitous occurrence undoubtedly were early and independently utilised as vessels4 ,for the more convenient porterage of them they would be enclosed in netting or basketry4 ,the better the accessories became1 the less need for the original foundations1 especially as the latter were brittle4 ,from the fact that the shape of certain baskets in a district resemble those of the gourds of that district1 we may assume that this process of evolution has operated spontaneously in diverse places4 ,clay vessels which were modelled from the suggestion of such baskets would thus remotely be phyllomorphs but having an intermediate skeuomorphic stage4 ,instead of this indirect mode of origin a more direct one has often occurred4 ,messrs4 ,squier and ,davis#aaj record3 8,in some of the southern states 7of ,north ,america71 it is said1 the kilns1 in which the ancient pottery was baked1 are now occasionally to be met with4 ,some are represented still to contain the ware1 partially burned1 and retaining the rinds of the gourds1 etc41 over which they were modelled1 and which had not been entirely removed by the fire40 ,they also state that the ,indians along the ,gulf moulded their vessels 8over gourds and other models and baked them in ovens40 #aaj ,squier and ,davis1 ,ancient ,monuments of the ,mississippi ,valley1 #ahdh1 p4 #aie4 ,it is not necessary to believe that this has everywhere been the original ceramic gourd-derivatives1 even among savage peoples4 ,once the power of working in clay was acquired1 intentional copying of gourds 7,figs4 #ajg1 #ajh71 or other vegetable vessels1 may very well have occurred4 ,this is rendered all the more probable from the fact that animal forms are modelled as earthen vessels4 ,i am not here alluding to figures of men or of totem1 sacred1 or familiar animals which may belong to a somewhat higher stage of culture than that which we are now more particularly considering2 but to clay utensils which are copied from receptacles which are the shells or other parts of animals4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--;,gourd2 after ,holmes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--;,clay vessel1 made in imitation of a gourd1 from a mound in ,south-eastern ,missouri2 after ,holmes4 ,wherever shells of sufficient size are found they are utilised as food and water vessels1 and there are numerous instances in various parts of the world of vessels being modelled so as to represent the ancient and familiar utensils4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--;,clay vessels imitated from shells1 from the mounds and graves of the ,mississippi ,valley2 after ,holmes4 ,clay vessels imitating both marine and fresh-water shells are occasionally obtained from the mounds and graves of the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,the conch-shell appears to have been a favourite model 7,fig4 #aji1 ,a and ,b74 ,a clam shell is imitated in ,c and ,d4 ,the more conventional forms of these vessels are exceedingly interesting1 as they point out the tendencies and possibilities of modification4 ,the bowl 7,e7 has four rosettes1 each consisting of a large central boss with four or five smaller ones surrounding it4 ,the central boss1 as in a1 is derived from the spire of the conch shell1 and the encircling knobs from the nodulated rim of the outer whorl of the shell4 ,mr4 ,holmes suggests that in this case the conception is that of four conch shells united in one vessel1 the spouts being turned inwards and the spires outwards4 ,with all possible respect to ,mr4 ,holmes1 ,i venture to demur to this interpretation4 ,the fusion of elements which are essentially isolated is rare amongst primitive peoples2 it is difficult to imagine how they could conceive of the structural union and fusion of four conch shells4 ,this is very different from the amalgamation of the clay imitations of such vessels as gourds or coco-nuts1 for these are frequently fastened in pairs or in small groups to a common string handle1 and there is already the idea of multiplicity and the apposition of the vessels4 ,again1 ,mr4 ,holmes does not present us with any intermediate stages of this or similar clay vessels2 until such evidence is forthcoming it would be safer to regard this as an example of transference4 ,according to my interpretation1 the rosette derived from the spire of a conch shell was a pleasing motive1 and it was applied to and repeated upon a circular bowl1 which may1 as ,mr4 ,holmes elsewhere#aaa suggests1 be derived from the lower half of a gourd4 ,a single conch derivative would be entitled to one rosette only1 and the association of ideas would operate in favour of only one being moulded1 at all events until a very extreme stage of degeneration had been attained2 but in the case of transference there would be no continuity of custom to control the potter1 and consequently more scope could be given to his fancy4 #aaa ,w4 ,h4 ,holmes1 8,pottery of the ,ancient ,pueblos10 ,fourth ,annual ,report ,bureau of ,ethnology1 p4 #bga4 ,a highly conventionalised form is shown in ,f 7,fig4 #aji74 ,the cup is unsymmetrical in outline1 and has a few imperfect bosses near one corner1 but its resemblance to a shell would hardly be recognised by one unacquainted with more realistic renderings of similar subjects4 ,in ,g we have an imitation of a shell cup placed within a plain cup4 ,the skins1 bladders1 and stomachs of animals are very frequently employed as water-carriers4 ,the characteristic forms of these may often be traced in the pottery of the same districts1 odd details of form or of surface marking usually persist to a surprising degree4 ,in ,fiji and elsewhere the image of a turtle has been modelled in clay1 doubtless because the carapace is often used as a vessel4 ,while the use of an animal or the part of an animal as a vessel has often led to the imitation of that animal in clay or other material1 owing to an association of ideas1 we must be very careful not to run to the extreme and to say that there was a primitively utilitarian origin for all zoomorphic vessels4 ,sympathetic magic and religion are responsible for many1 and we must admit that mere fancy must sometimes come into play1 and when this is the case theorising is necessarily at fault4 #c4 ,heteromorphs4 ,as previously stated1 ,i propose to adopt the term ,heteromorph for a confusion with one another of two or more different skeuomorphs1 or with the amalgamation of any two or more biomorphs1 or with the combination of any skeuomorph with any biomorph4 ,we may thus have 7#a7 ,heteromorphs of skeuomorphs1 7#b7 ,heteromorphs of biomorphs1 and 7#c7 ,heteromorphs of skeuo-biomorphs4 ,to speak somewhat figuratively1 heteromorphism is a sort of disease that may attack the skeuomorph or the biomorph4 ,whereas the final term of the life-history of the biomorph is1 so to speak1 senile decay1 the result of heteromorphism is a teratological transformation4 ,accepting this view of the subject1 the present section might be entitled 8,the ,pathology of ,decorative ,art40 ,any stage of the life-history of a biomorph1 whether it is the expression of decorative or religious art1 is liable to be infected by heteromorphism4 ,the only section of graphic art which must from the nature of the case be free from it is pictorial art4 ,where heteromorphs are introduced into pictures they form one of the subjects of those pictures1 the picture itself is not subject to this modifying influence2 for example1 the introduction of the representation of a sphinx or a gryphon into a picture does not constitute the latter a heteromorph4 ,a4 ,heteromorphs of ,skeuomorphs4 ,the combination of two different kinds of skeuomorphs does not appear to be of very frequent occurrence1 or1 at all events1 we have not yet trained ourselves to appreciate them4 ,in ,fig4 #ej we have an example1 which1 however1 is not particularly satisfactory4 ,it will be noticed that various kinds of plaiting are indicated on this ,tongan club2 as a matter of fact1 if it had really been covered with plaited work1 the latter would have been uniform in its character1 although diverse patterns might have been worked into it4 ,if this club had been decorated in a consistent manner the simple in-and-out plaiting of the broad band1 as in the middle of the figure to the left1 could not occur along with the finer oblique plaiting in other parts of the object4 ,b4 ,heteromorphs of ,biomorphs4 ,wherever two or more animals or plants are represented in association there is a tendency for them to amalgamate in process of time4 ,i have shown numerous examples of this in the bird and crocodile motive in ,papuan art1 and it would be easy to multiply illustrations4 ,heteromorphism is especially characteristic of that style of decoration which we call arabesque1 or grotesque4 ,this is said to have been the invention of a painter named ,ludius in the reign of the ,emperor ,augustus4 ,that sovereign is said by ,pliny to have been the first who thought of covering whole walls with pictures and landscapes4 ,the fashion for the grotesque spread rapidly1 for all the buildings of about that date which have been found in good preservation afford numerous and beautiful examples of it4 ,vitruvius was entirely out of conceit with this sort of ornament1 and declares that such fanciful paintings as are not founded in truth cannot be beautiful2 but the general voice1 both in ancient and modern times1 has pronounced a very different opinion4 ,it was from the paintings found in the baths of ,rome that ,raphael derived the idea of those famous frescoes in the gallery of the ,vatican4 ,his example was immediately followed by other distinguished artists4 ,this style derived its name grotesque from the subterranean rooms 7grotte7 in which the originals were usually found--rooms not built below the surface of the ground1 but buried by the gradual accumulation of soil and ruined buildings4 ,a typical example of ,pompeian treatment is seen in ,plate ,,vi41 ,fig4 #c1 where a bird's tail passes into a floral scroll4 ,the representations of such mythical monsters of antiquity as the ,sphinx1 ,chimra1 the ,harpies1 and so forth1 are familiar to all4 ,originally these embodied distinct conceptions which were familiar to the initiated1 if not to all4 ,they were symbols and their origin in art was religious2 their retention was due to their decorative quality4 ,c4 ,complex ,heteromorphs4 ,we have now to consider the complications arising from a combination of skeuomorphs and biomorphs4 ,again ,i have recourse to ,dr4 ,colley ,march's suggestive essay4 ,he points out that in the north of ,europe animals were strangled by the withy-band1 as occurs on an incised stone from ,gosforth 7,plate ,,vii41 ,fig4 #c74 ,mr4 ,hildebrand endeavours to show that the so-called ,scandinavian sun-snake was produced by the breaking down into curves of the figure of a lion rampant1 copied by a succession of artificers1 all ignorant of the appearance of a lion4 ,but in the first place1 points out ,dr4 ,march1 the ,norse ,wurm is found long ago in prehistoric rock-sculptures4 ,in the next place1 the serpent of the north was symbolic of the sea and not of the sun4 ,and then1 it was not the unfamiliar lion that alone broke up into serpentine forms2 the skeuomorph assailed the stag1 as on ,king ,gorm's stone in ,denmark 7,plate ,,vii41 ,fig4 #b74 ,eikthysnir1 the stag of the sun1 who was an attendant and attribute of ,frey1 is here seen being strangled by the 8laidly worm0 of ,scandinavia4 ,dr4 ,march suggests that perhaps we may recognise the walrus in rock-sculptures at ,crichie in ,scotland 7,plate ,,vii41 ,figs4 #f1 #g74 ,that the walrus was well known to the ,northmen1 and highly prized both for its hide1 from which ships' ropes were made 7,plate ,,iv41 ,fig4 #d71 and for its tusks1 which were a source of ivory1 is proved by the ,orosian story 7,i4 ,orosius1 i4 #ad74 8,he went thither chiefly for walruses1 because they have noble bone in their teeth1 and their skin is very good for ships' ropes40 ,the ,earl of ,southesk1#aab however1 brings forward a considerable body of evidence in favour of the view that this 8elephant0 symbol1 as it has been absurdly termed1 is the sun-boar--a symbol of ,frey4 ,no animal held a higher place in ,scandinavia1 and at an early period it was adopted as the national emblem in ,denmark1 and borne on the standard4 #aab ,origins of ,pictish ,symbolism1 #ahic4 ,one frequently finds on early ,christian sculptured stones that the field on each side of the central cross is occupied by a writhing animal2 of these numerous examples occur in the ,isle of ,man1 where they are undoubtedly due to ,scandinavian influence4 ,this animal may be recognised in some cases as being a wolf1 as on a cross at ,michael 7,plate ,,vii41 ,fig4 #e74 ,two skeuomorphs attack the wolf4 ,the influence of thong-work is seen in ,plate ,,vii41 ,fig4 #a2 this may be compared with ,plate ,,iv41 ,fig4 #d1 which is copied from a sculptured stone at ,malew1 also in the ,isle of ,man4 ,the latter is one of several ,manx skeuomorphs of leather or strap-work4 ,the withy-band is even more frequently depicted1 and on a cross at ,gosforth 7,plate ,,vii41 ,fig4 #c7 the wolf is being strangled by it4 ,the serpent or dragon also is frequently represented1 indeed it seems as if the wolf and the serpent passed insensibly into one another1 and nothing is easier than to confound the latter with twisted bands4 ,so the animal fades away1 till finally the skeuomorph triumphs1 and only the ghost of a zoomorph remains in what1 to ordinary eyes1 is only an entwisted fibre 7,plate ,,vii41 ,fig4 #aa74 ,what then is the significance of this remarkable cycle8 ,the explanation must be sought in the pagan-,christian overlap1 at the time when the symbols of ,norse mythology were being homologised with those of the ,christian faith4 8,three mighty children to my father ,lok ,did ,angerbode1 the giantess1 bring forth-- ,fenris the wolf1 the serpent huge1 and me4 ,of these the serpent in the sea ye cast1 ,who since in your despite hath wax'd amain1 ,and now with gleaming ring enfolds the world4 ,me on this cheerless nether world he threw1 ,and gave me nine unlighted realms to rule4 ,while1 on his island in the lake1 afar1 ,made fast to the bored crag1 by wile not strength ,subdued1 with limber chains lives ,fenris bound40 ,so1 in the words of ,matthew ,arnold1 spoke ,hela to ,hermod on his quest for the restoration of the slain ,balder4 ,at the crack of doom1 the ,ragnaroks1 ,frey1 ,woden1 ,thor1 and ,tyr1 are predestined to perish4 ,a wolf shall devour the sun1 and another shall swallow the moon1 and the stars shall vanish out of heaven4 ,woden shall go first1 and shall encounter ,fenriswolf1 but the wise1 one-eyed god shall die4 ,the hammer of the 8friend of man0 shall not avail against the sea-dragon1 and though ,thor fights ,midgarthsorm1 and shall slay him1 he himself shall fall dead from the serpent's venom4 ,garm1 the hell-hound1 shall fasten upon the one-handed ,tyr1 and each shall kill the other4 ,frey shall fall before ,swart1 the giant with the flaming sword4 ,then shall ,vidar spring forward1 the mighty son of the ,father of ,victory1 and shall rend the wolf asunder4 8,vidar shall inhabit the city of the gods when all is over10 as the giant said to ,woden4 8,vidar1 who outlived the earth-fall1 became10 says ,professor ,stephens1#aac 8a fitting emblem for that ,almighty ,lord who overcame ,sin and ,death10 and he is represented on some sculptured stones as a divine ,hart1 trampling on ,fenriswolf and ,midgarthsorm4 #aac ,g4 ,stephens1 ,studies on ,northern ,mythology1 #ahhc1 p4 #afg4 ,these strangled wolves and writhing snakes of ,scandinavian art represent the portentous struggle of the powers of darkness with the gods when 8the ,wolf shall devour the ,sire of ,men2 but ,vid shall avenge him1 and shall rend the cold jaws of the ,beast40 ,but the new religion possessed a somewhat analogous imagery1 and the symbolism of the one readily passed into that of the other4 ,whether pagan or ,christian1 the symbolic animal was attacked by the plaited thong or twisted fibres1 and the secular handicraft choked the religious idea4 ,such a hold had this technique on the mind of the people that it predominated all their art1 and even led to the extinction of religious symbolism4 ,there was1 however1 another means by which the pagan dragon crept into ,christian art4 ,i refer to the legend of ,sigurd and ,fafni1 which was introduced into sepulchral and ecclesiastical carving as late as the fourteenth century by followers of the new faith4 ,i cannot now detail the foundation story of the ,nibelungen ,lied2 the point which at present concerns us is the slaying of ,fafni in the form of a dragon or serpent by ,sigurd with his magic sword4 ,this and other incidents of the legend are carved on wooden portals or door-pillars of churches1 on fonts1 and on ,christian crosses of stone in many parts of ,sweden and ,norway1 and also in some parts of ,england1 as on the ,hatton ,cross in ,lancaster4 ,fafni is often seen passing into a maze of beautiful scroll-work1 and in the ,hatton ,cross he is solely represented by a twisted knot4 ,under monkish influence1 no doubt1 the whole story came by degrees to be looked upon as containing types and proofs of the younger religion4 ,sigurd became the ,christian soldier1 forging the sword of the spirit1 and his defeat of the serpent could readily be adopted into ,christian symbolism4#aad #aad ,for a more detailed treatment the reader is referred to ,dr4 ,h4 ,colley ,march's essay on 8,the ,pagan-,christian ,overlap in the ,north10 ,trans4 ,lanc4 and ,cheshire ,antiquarian ,soc41 ix41 #ahib4 8,when the ,anglo-,saxon had almost forgotten ,midgarth's ,orm1 and the ancient ,egyptian snake-symbol1 as old as the ,rameside period1 had been introduced as a new design 7,plate ,,vii41 ,fig4 #h71 this itself fell a prey to the dominant skeuomorph1 and was doubled and entangled in obedience to the over-mastering expectancy of the day40 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #aaj1 #aaa4--,modified human figures on the shaft of a cross at ,ilam1 near ,ashbourne2 after ,browne4 8,it must be clear10 continues ,dr4 ,colley ,march1 8that such transformations as these were due to something more than the successive copying of a copy by ignorant and slovenly artificers1 as in those degenerate changes wrought by ,gaulish imitators of the stater of ,philip of ,macedon4 ,in that case the original coin was not before them2 they had no artistic impulse or intention1 their only object was to fabricate passable pieces of money4 ,but the men whose #8taste' is disclosed by the work we have just considered were swayed by an influence they could not have understood4 ,the expectancy that controlled them they inherited4 ,the withy-band had wrapped itself round all their conceptions40 ,but the result was enrichment and not degradation1 and the curious designs their art produced show us the only portal through which the animal form can enter into ornament1 by resolving itself1 namely1 into the angles1 curves1 and scrolls of symmetrical repetition4 8,many pauses took place ere the process was completed4 ,now one part of the body was surrendered to the skeuomorph and anon another4 ,conventionalism established a temporary truce1 but the war of structure against nature broke out afresh1 and the grotesque appeared4 ,we look upon the death-grasp of a writhing quadruped1 the knotted convolutions of a serpent1 the spectral gleam of a vanishing face4 ,and then1 when all was over1 when the battle on the ornamental field was lost and won1 nothing was left but a zoomorph of contrasted curves and symmetrical scrolls40 ,the human form is not exempt from the skeuomorphic inroad4 ,the two men in ,fig4 #d1 ,plate ,,vii41 which is taken from an illuminated page of the ,gospel of ,mac ,regol1 at ,oxford1 are suffering from but a mild attack1 but the men on the ,pre-,norman font at ,checkley1 near ,uttoxeter1 and similar figures 7,figs4 #aaj1 #aaa7 on a cross at ,ilam1 five miles from ,ashbourne1 have all but succumbed4 ,,the ,,reasons ,,for ,,which ,,objects ,,are ,,decorated4 ,in the ,introduction ,i referred to what were termed certain needs which constrained man to artistic effort4 ,these were art1 information1 wealth1 and religion1 and they will now be treated as briefly as may be1 since it is impossible to deal adequately with them4 ,i4 ,,art4 sthetics is the study and practice of art for art's sake1 that is1 for the pleasurable sensations which are induced by certain combinations of form1 line1 and colour4 ,it does not signify for our purpose how the feeling for art has been obtained1 nor is an analysis of the sensations necessary4 ,all men have this sense1 varying from a rudimentary to an exalted extent4 ,though it is naturally the basis of all art work1 it does not follow that the sthetic sense has been the sole cause of decorative work4 ,religion and the desire to convey information have both imitated and controlled pictorial and decorative art1 but the artistic sense has all along exerted its influence to a greater or less extent4 ,the artistic feeling has endeavoured to cast a glamour of beauty over the crude efforts of religion and science4 ,in the scheme of the life-history of pictorial or decorative designs given on p4 #h1 ,i have considered only those which have originated from various combinations of originally solitary figures4 ,separate portraits whether of men or animals1 either in the flat or in the round1 have been omitted as they remain in the lowest place of development1 though they may attain to the highest excellence of art4 ,those who have followed the brilliant researches in classical archology will appreciate what ,i mean by the life-history of representations4 ,the origin1 rise1 glorious consummation1 and decadence of ,greek statuary is a striking illustration of my theme4 ,figures may be grouped not only to convey a sentiment1 as in a picture1 but merely for decorative effect4 ,the artist in this case usually at once adopted a conventional treatment4 ,in some instances strict realism may be appropriate1 but in the greater number of conditions it is most inappropriate4 ,walls1 fabrics1 and platters have from time immemorial been decorated in this manner4 ,many books have been written illustrating this branch of art and laying down principles of design1 and the reader is referred to these1 as this subject does not fall within the scope of the present essay4 ,i would like to point out in this place that there is a very instructive field for study in the consideration of the decorative methods of various peoples4 ,the way in which areas are decorated1 the idea of symmetry1 and such-like subjects2 for example1 the essence of ,japanese decorative art is asymmetry1 and the results are charming to our eyes although we have been reared amongst symmetrical designing4 ,symmetry may be exhibited in the equal balancing of dissimilar designs1 as is commonly done by ,oriental artists1 or in the mechanical duplication in relation to a median line which is so dear to ,european decorators4 ,the style of the decorative art of a savage or barbaric people is a legacy and its perpetuation is usually binding1 not merely by custom but more frequently by religion4 ,when all the various factors are taken into account1 one finds that the sthetic sense of a savage artist is not so very different after all from that of his civilised fellow-craftsman1 and one can see in the disposition or the introduction of certain elements in a design1 that both are actuated by the same sthetic sense of what is suitable1--both are1 in fact1 artists4 ,in the section on ,physicomorphs ,i allude to the rarity of landscape drawing among savage peoples1 and give an illustration 7,fig4 #ff7 of one1 from ,torres ,straits1 which occurred casually on a bamboo pipe2 there is another but poorer landscape from the same locality in the ,oxford ,university ,museum4 ,early attempts1 such as these1 at pictures are especially interesting as illustrating the working of the mind of the artists4 ,it is not within the scope of this book to trace the history either of pictorial art or of individual pictures4 ,the genesis of a great picture is most interesting1 and it may occasionally be traced owing to the fortunate preservation of the artist's sketches and studies4 ,it often happens that some of the figures in the finished picture have lost the vitality which they had in the sketch stage1 even such a great artist as ,raffael could not always reproduce the spirit of his own work4 ,if the originating artist lost something out of his own handiwork1 it is no wonder that a copyist should lose more1 especially when the latter may not have access to the original1 but base his reproductions on copies several times removed from it4 ,a late stage of degeneration of pictorial art1 through more or less incompetent copying1 is seen in the cheap lithographs which occupy1 without adorning1 the walls of houses of the country folk1 many of which1 like the analogous frescoes of ,pompeii1 are the pictorial echoes of the works of masters of the craft4 ,,ii4 ,,information ,,or ,,communication4 ,i have already referred to the difficulty of finding a term which will express all that might be dealt with in this section4 ,in order to convey information from one man to another1 when oral or gesture language are impossible1 recourse must be had to pictorial signs in some form or another4 ,probably one of the earliest of this needs was that of indicating ownership1 and it may be that many devices on primitive implements and utensils have this as one reason for their existence1 although the nature of the ornamentation may be owing to quite a different reason4 ,as a matter of fact we know very little about owners'-marks1 but it is possible that while an object may frequently be decorated with a clan or tribal device1 the particular variety or delineation of that figure will serve to distinguish the ownership of the object4 ,allied to owners'-marks are trade-marks2 on this subject1 too1 information is lamentably deficient1 but we know that these do occur amongst primitive folk 7p4 #dh1 ,fig4 #bc74 ,most savages employ a more elaborate method of conveying information1 and this picture-writing1 as it is called1 has been of such importance in the history of the world1 especially in its later developments2 that it deserves a more detailed treatment4 ,pictographs4 ,a pictograph is writing by means of a picture4 ,it records and conveys a fact or an idea by graphic means1 without the employment of words or letters4 ,as pictography belongs to a low plane of culture1 so far as the visual communication of information is concerned1 the representations are generally very crude4 ,by no means should they be regarded as typical examples of the artistic skill of the people who execute them4 ,they are intended for picture-writing1 not for pictures4 ,an examination of pictographs shows at once that only essential or salient characters are noted1 and when objects are frequently repeated they become conventionalised1 and in their later forms cannot be regarded as in any sense objective portraitures4 ,nowhere in the world are pictographs so much employed as in ,america1 and fortunately it is possible to gain precise information respecting their signification4 ,colonel ,mallery#aae has devoted himself to an exhaustive study of ,north ,american pictography1 and ,i cannot do better than briefly detail a few of his deductions4 #aae ,garrick ,mallery1 8,on the ,pictographs of the ,north ,american ,indians10 ,fourth ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 #ahhb-hc 7#ahhf74 ,see also ,tenth ,ann4 ,rep41 #ahhh-hi 7#ahic74 8,a general deduction1 made after several years of study of pictographs of all kinds found among the ,north ,american ,indians1 is that they exhibit very little trace of mysticism or of esotericism in any form4 ,they are objective representations1 and cannot be treated as ciphers or cryptographs in any attempt at their interpretation4 ,a knowledge of the customs1 costumes1 including arrangement of the hair1 paint1 and all tribal designations1 and of their histories and traditions1 is essential to the understanding of their drawings4 ,comparatively few of their picture signs have become merely conventional4 ,a still smaller proportion are either symbolical or emblematic4 ,by far the larger part of them are merely mnemonic records1 and are treated of in connection with material objects formerly and1 perhaps1 still used mnemonically4 8,it is believed that the interpretation of the ancient forms is to be obtained1 if at all1 not by the discovery of any hermeneutic key1 but by an understanding of the modern forms1 some of which fortunately can be interpreted by living men2 and when this is not the case the more recent forms can be made intelligible1 at least in part1 by thorough knowledge of the historic tribes1 including their sociology1 philosophy1 and arts1 such as is now becoming acquired1 and of their sign language4 8,it is not believed that any considerable information of value in an historical point of view will be obtained directly from the interpretation of the pictographs in ,north ,america4 ,they refer generally to some insignificant fight or some season of plenty or famine4 8,ample evidence exists that many of the pictographs1 both ancient and modern1 are connected with the mythology and religious practices of their makers4 8,some of them were mere records of the visits of individuals to important springs or to fords on regularly established trails4 ,in this respect there seems to have been1 in the intention of the ,indians1 very much the same spirit as induces the civilised man to record his initials upon objects in the neighbourhood of places of general resort4 8,one very marked peculiarity of the drawings of the ,indians is that within each particular system1 such as may be called a tribal system1 of pictography1 every ,indian draws in precisely the same manner4 ,the figures of a man1 of a horse1 and of every other object delineated1 are made by every one who attempts to make any such figure with all the identity of which their mechanical skill is capable1 thus showing their conception of motive to be the same0 7pp4 #ae-ag2 all the quotations are from the ,fourth ,ann4 ,rep474 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4 ,pictograph of a lasso1 ,dakota ,winter ,count1 #ahab-ac2 after ,mallery4 ,the purposes for which pictography has been employed by the ,north ,american ,indians are3-- #a4 ,mnemonic4--,for the remembrance of the order of songs1 the figurative or representative pictures remind the singers of the order of the stanzas previously committed to memory2 as well as for traditions1 treaties1 and the records of events4 ,among the most interesting of the latter are the ,dakota ,winter ,counts4 ,the ,dakotas reckon time by winters1 and apply names to them instead of numbering them from an era4 ,each name refers to some notable occurrence of the year to which it belongs1 and ideographic records of these occurrences were formerly painted in colours on the hides of animals4 ,a single example will suffice1 it is for the year #ahab-ac4 8,many wild horses caught10 or 8catching wild-horses winter40 ,the wild horses were first run and caught by the ,dakotas4 ,the device is a lasso4 ,the date is of value1 as showing when the herds of prairie horses1 descended from those animals introduced by the ,spaniards1 had multiplied so as to extend into the far northern regions4 ,the ,dakotas undoubtedly learned the use of the horse1 and perhaps also of the lasso1 from southern tribes 444 in only two generations since they became familiar with the horse they have become so revolutionised in their habits as to be utterly helpless1 both in war and the chase1 when deprived of that animal0 7p4 #ajh74 #b4 ,notification4--,the pictographs of this division may be grouped as follows--7#a7 ,notice of departure1 direction1 etc42 7#b7 notice of condition1 suffering1 etc42 7#c7 warning and guidance2 7#d7 charts of geographical features2 7#e7 messages or communications2 7#f7 record of expedition1 and so forth4 ,the following 7,fig4 #aac7 is an example of a notice of departure on a hunting expedition4#aaf ,similar ones are made by the natives to inform their visitors or friends of their departure for a certain purpose4 ,they are depicted upon strips of wood1 which are placed in conspicuous places near the doors of the habitations4 #aaf ,originally published by ,dr4 ,w4 ,j4 ,hoffman1 ,trans4 ,anthrop4 ,soc41 ,washington1 ii41 #ahhc1 p4 #acd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac4--;,alaskan notice of a hunt2 from ,mallery1 after ,hoffman4 #a4 ,the speaker1 with the right hand indicating himself1 and with the left pointing in the direction to be taken4 #b4 ,holding a boat paddle--going by boat4 #c4 ,the right hand to the side of the head1 to denote sleep1 and the left elevated with one finger1 to signify one--one night4 #d4 ,a circle with two marks in the middle1 signifying an island with huts upon it4 #e4 ,same as ,no4 #a4 #f4 ,a circle to denote another island4 #g4 ,same as ,no4 #c1 with an additional finger elevated1 signifying two--two nights4 #h4 ,the speaker with his harpoon1 making the sign of a sea-lion with the left hand4 ,the flat hand is held edgewise with the thumb elevated1 then pushed outward from the body in a slightly downward curve4 #i4 ,a sea-lion4 #aj4 ,shooting with bow and arrow4 #aa4 ,the boat with two persons in it1 the paddles projecting downward4 #ab4 ,the winter1 a permanent habitation of the speaker4 ,the following is a translation of the native account3--8,i there go that island1 one sleep there2 then ,i go another that island1 there two sleeps2 ,i catch one sea-lion1 then return place mine40 8,hunters who have been unfortunate1 and are suffering from hunger1 scratch or draw upon a piece of wood characters similar to those figured 7,fig4 #aad71 and place the lower end of the stick in the ground on the trail where the greatest chance of its discovery occurs4 ,the stick is inclined toward the locality of the habitation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--,pictograph of starving hunters1 ,alaska2 after ,mallery4 8#a4 ,a horizontal line1 denoting a canoe1 showing the persons to be fishermen4 8#b4 ,an individual with both arms extended1 signifying nothing1 corresponding with the gesture for negation4 8#c4 ,a person with the right hand to the mouth1 signifying to eat1 the left hand pointing to the house occupied by the hunters4 8#d4 ,the habitation4 8,the whole signifies that there is nothing to eat in the house4 ,this is used by natives of ,southern ,alaska40 ,lean-,wolf1 of the ,hidatsa1 who drew the picture of which ,fig4 #aae is a fac-simile1 made a trip on foot from ,fort ,berthold to ,fort ,buford1 ,dakota1 to steal a horse from the ,dakotas encamped there4 ,the returning horse-tracks show that he attained the object in view and that he rode home4 ,the following explanation of characters was made to ,dr4 ,hoffman1 at ,fort ,berthold1 in #ahha3-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--,lean-,wolf's ,map1 ,hidatsa2 after ,mallery4 #a4 ,lean-,wolf1 the head only of a man to which is attached the outline of a wolf4 #b4 ,hidatsa earth lodges1 circular in form1 the spots representing the pillars supporting the roof4 ,indian village and ,fort ,berthold1 ,dakota4 #c4 ,human footprints2 the course taken by the recorder4 #d4 ,the ,government buildings at ,fort ,buford 7square74 #e4 ,several ,hidatsa lodges 7round71 the occupants of which had intermarried with the ,dakotas4 #f4 ,dakota lodges4 #g4 ,a small square--a white man's house--with a cross marked upon it1 to represent a ,dakota lodge4 ,this denotes that the owner1 a white man1 had married a ,dakota woman who dwelt there4 #h4 ,horse-tracks returning to ,fort ,berthold4 #i4 ,the ,missouri ,river4 #aj-af4 ,tule ,creek1 ,little ,knife ,river1 ,white ,earth ,river1 ,muddy ,creek1 ,yellowstone ,river1 ,little ,missouri ,river1 ,dancing ,beard ,creek4 #c4 ,designation4--,this group embraces tribal1 clan and personal names1 marks1 status of individual and signs of particular achievements4 ,the clan1 or gentile1 designations are totems2 these are depicted in the funeral pictographs to the exclusion of the personal names2 the latter are not indicative of an ,indian's totem4 ,in ,no4 #a of the last figure we have the usual signature of ,lean-,wolf4 ,during his boyhood he had another name4 #d4 ,religious4--,comprising mythic personages1 shamanism dances and ceremonies1 mortuary practices1 grave posts1 charms1 etc4 #e4 ,customs1 ,daily ,life and ,habits4--,the accompanying figure is from a carving made of a piece of walrus tusk and represents incidents in the life of an ,alaskan native4 ,the special purport of some of the characters and etchings is not apparent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4--;,ivory carving with records1 ,alaska2 after ,mallery4 #a4 ,a native with his left hand resting against a house4 ,to the right is a 8shaman stick0 surmounted by the emblem of a bird1 a 8good spirit10 in memory of some departed friend 78 of his wife74 #b4 ,a reindeer4 #c4 ,one man1 the recorder1 shot and killed another with an arrow4 #d4 ,a trading expedition with a dog sledge4 #e4 ,is a sail boat1 although the elevated paddle signifies that that was the manner in which the voyage was best made4 #f4 ,a dog-sled with the animal hitched up for a journey4 ,above is the sun4 #g4 ,a sacred lodge4 ,the four figures at the outer corners of the square represent the young men placed on guard armed with bows and arrows1 to keep away the uninitiated4 ,inside are the members of the band dancing2 the fire-place is in the centre4 ,the angled lines extending from the right side of the lodge to the partition line are a plan of the subterranean entrance to the lodge4 #h4 ,a pine tree1 up which a porcupine is climbing4 #i4 ,a pine tree1 from which a woodpecker is extracting larv for food4 #aj4 ,a bear4 #aa4 ,the recorder in his boat1 holding aloft his double-bladed paddle to drive fish into a net4 #ab4 ,an assistant fisherman driving fish into the net4 #ac4 ,the net4 ,the figure over the man 7,no4 #ab7 represents a whale1 with harpoon and line attached1 caught by the narrator4 #f4 ,historical4--,colonel ,mallery says3 8,it is very difficult1 if not impossible1 to distinguish in pictographs1 or indeed orally1 between historical and traditional accounts obtained from ,indians4444 ,the winter counts1 while having their chief value as calendars1 contain some material that is absolute and veritable tribal history40 #g4 ,biographic4--,pictographs are very common either of a continuous account of the chief events in the life of the subject of the sketch1 or of separate accounts of some particular exploit or event in the life of the person referred to4 ,in this and in another memoir#aag ,colonel ,mallery calls attention to the fact that it is necessary to distinguish between different kinds of pictorial signs1 but this becomes more difficult when the characters have become conventionalised4 ,they may be classified under--#a4 ,pictorial ,signs2 #b4 ,emblems2 #c4 ,symbols4 #aag ,garrick ,mallery1 8,sign ,language among ,north ,american ,indians10 ,first ,annual ,report of the ,bureau of ,ethnology1 #ahgi-hj 7#ahha74 #a4 ,the representation of any object when it is intended to express that object is a pictorial sign2 for example1 the figure of a fish in a pictograph would usually refer to fish in general or to some particular species of fish4 ,the pictorial translation of a personal name1 such as 8,lean-,wolf0 7,fig4 #aae1 #a71 comes under this heading4 #b4 ,tribal signs1 personal insignia1 etc41 are emblems2 and these do not necessarily require any analogy between the objects representing and the objects or qualities represented1 but may arise from pure accident4 ,the representation of a totem belongs to this category1 so that under certain conditions a drawing would not refer to any actual fish or that the individual was named 8fish10 but that he belonged to the fish clan2 it was emblematic of his clan or his family group1 like most of our armorial bearings4 ,tribal signs among savage peoples are emblems in the same way that the rose1 thistle1 leek1 and shamrock are the emblems of the main components of the ,british ,islands4 ,as ,mallery points out1 8,after a scurrilous jest the beggar's wallet became the emblem of the confederated nobles1 the ,gueux of the ,netherlands2 and a sling1 in the early minority of ,louis ,,xiv41 was adopted from the refrain of a song by the ,frondeur opponents of ,mazarin40 #c4 8,symbols are less obvious and more artificial than mere signs1 they are usually conventional1 and are not only abstract but metaphysical1 and often need explanation from history1 religion1 and customs4 ,they do not depict but suggest objects2 do not speak directly through the eye to the intelligence1 but presuppose in the mind knowledge of an event or fact which the sign recalls4 ,the symbols of the ark1 dove1 olive-branch1 and rainbow would be wholly meaningless to people unfamiliar with the ,mosaic or some similar cosmology1 as would be the cross and the crescent to those ignorant of history4 ,the last-named objects appeared in the class of emblems when used in designating the conflicting powers of ,christendom and ,islamism40 ,among the ,north ,american ,indians 8the pipe is generally the symbol of peace1 although in certain positions and connections it sometimes signifies preparation for war1 and again subsequent victory4 ,the hatchet is a common symbol for war1 and closed hands or approaching palms denote friendship4 ,the tortoise has been clearly used as a symbol for land40 ,many pictorial signs can be used as emblems1 and both can be converted into symbols or explained as such by perverted ingenuity4 ,an interesting example of the last is seen in the early ,christian conceit of the portraiture of a fish used for the name and title of ,jesus ,christ4 ,this is based on the ,greek word 8an acrostic composed of the initials of the several ,greek words signifying that name and title4 ,this origin being unknown to persons whose religious enthusiasm was in direct proportion to their ignorance1 they expended much rhetoric to prove that there was some true symbolic relation between an actual fish and the ,saviour of men4 ,apart from this misapplication1 the fish undoubtedly became an emblem of ,christ and of ,christianity40#aah #aah ,mallery1 8,sign ,language10 etc41 #ahha1 p4 #chi4 ,an interesting example of the transformation of a symbol into an emblem is found in the case of the triskele or triquetra4 ,this is now recognised to be a variant of the tetraskele1 fylfot1 gammadion1 or swastika1 as it is variously called4 ,originally this was a sun-symbol1 but many other meanings were doubtless associated with it4 ,the triskelion 8first appears on the coins of ,lycia1 about ,b4,c4 #dhj2 and then on those of ,sicily1 where it was adopted by ,agathocles1 ,b4,c4 #cag-cjg1 but not as a symbol of the morning1 mid-day1 and afternoon sun 7#8the ,three ,steps of ,vishnu'71 but of the #8three-sided' or rather #8three-ended' or #8three-pointed' 7triquetrous7 land of ,trin-akria1 i4e41 #8,three-,capes1' the ancient name of ,sicily2 and finally1 from the seventeenth century1 on the coins of the ,isle of ,man20#aai where covered with chain armour1 but without spurs1 it was introduced by ,alexander ,,iii4 of ,scotland in #abff1 when that prince took over the island from the ,norwegians2 he having become familiar with the device at the ,english ,court of ,henry ,,iii4 7#abaf-gb71 whose son ,edmund was for a short time styled ,king of ,sicily1 and who quartered the ,sicilian arms with the royal arms of ,england4#abj ,the triquetra is also met with in the armorial bearings of several noble families in ,england1 ,germany1 ,switzerland1 and ,poland1 but now the legs are appropriately clothed in armour and spurs are added2 probably these are relics of the ,crusades4 ,truly 8the ,three ,legs of ,man0 have run afar not only in historical time and geographical space1 but also in the unseen world of symbolism4 #aai ,j4 ,newton1 ,athenum1 ,no4 #cche1 ,september #aj1 #ahib1 p4 #cec2 and for further details cf4 ,manx ,note-,book1 ,january #ahhf4 #abj ,sir ,george ,birdwood1 ,introduction to ,count ,goblet d',alviella's ,the ,migration of ,symbols4 ,in the section devoted to ,religion ,i deal with the history and migration of the fylfot1 one of the most widely distributed symbols1 as this particular instance forms a good example of the method which should be adopted in studying symbols and their meaning4 ,pictography is so obvious a means for conveying information that there is no difficulty in supposing it to have originated independently among different peoples4 ,its use is1 and has been1 very widely spread4 ,petroglyphs are known from great antiquity in ,europe and ,asia4 ,they are still employed in ,australia2 they are found in ,new ,zealand1 but most of these1 like many of those which scattered throughout the continent of ,australia1 are comparatively ancient4 ,they are common in some parts of ,south ,africa1 where they are due to the artistic impulses of the ,bushmen2 neither the ,kafirs nor the ,hottentots paint human and animal forms on the rocks4 ,as petroglyphs are much more permanent than pictographs on more perishable materials1 they are more likely to be preserved from ancient times1 but it is probable that the latter were actually of more frequent occurrence4 ,there is no single system of pictography4 ,everywhere a figure of a man means a man1 and that of a tree stands for a tree1 and to this extent pictographs can be deciphered by any one4 ,more precise information can be gleaned when the figures are provided with some unmistakable determinative1 and are in a realistic attitude4 ,in the vast majority of cases a native interpreter is required to explain the exact significance of the figures1 or of the event which they commemorate4 ,once explained1 the representations are usually found to be sufficiently appropriate4 ,although the meaning of simple pictographs may be guessed at readily enough1 the elucidation of complex representations is a very different matter1 as there are usually some signs1 symbols1 or determinatives of which the significance is unknown4 ,in attempting to decipher pictographs1 not only is it necessary to have a thorough knowledge of the people who made them1 but it must be borne in mind that characters substantially the same1 or 8homomorphs0 7to use ,colonel ,mallery's term7 made by one set of people1 have a different signification among others4 ,further1 differing forms 78symmorphs07 for the same general conception or idea may occur4 ,it is usually comparatively easy for any one to get a meaning out of a pictograph2 but it is quite a different matter whether that was the meaning which the inscriber intended to convey4 ,i have dwelt at some length on pictographs1 or ideograms1 as they are used to so large an extent by backward peoples to convey ideas2 but this is only the threshold of a much larger and more important matter1 the ,art of ,writing4 ,these early steps1 as has already been mentioned1 have been traversed by various peoples1 but fewer have attained the next stage1 while the last has proved a laborious and tedious effort4 8,to invent and to bring to perfection the score or so of handy symbols for the expression of spoken sounds which we call our alphabet1 has proved to be the most arduous enterprise on which the human intellect has ever been engaged4 ,its achievement tasked the genius of the three most gifted races of the ancient world4 ,it was begun by the ,egyptians1 continued by the ,semites1 and finally perfected by the ,greeks4 ,from certain ,egyptian hieroglyphic pictures1 which were in use long before the ,pyramids were erected1 it is possible to deduce the actual outlines of almost every letter of our modern ,english alphabet40#aba #aba ,isaac ,taylor1 ,the ,alphabet1 an ,account of the ,origin and ,development of ,letters1 #ahhc4 ,the stages through which alphabetic writing has passed are as follow3-- #a4 ,pictographs4--,pictures or actual representations of objects4 #b4 ,ideograms4--,pictorial symbols1 which are used to suggest objects or abstract ideas4 ,phonograms4--,graphic symbols of sounds4 ,they have usually arisen out of conventionalised ideograms1 which have been taken to represent sounds instead of things4 #c4 7,a47 ,verbal signs1 representing entire words4 #d4 7,b47 ,syllabic signs which stand for the articulations of which words are composed4 #e4 ,alphabetic ,signs or ,letters1 which represent the elementary sounds into which the syllable can be resolved4 #a4 ,the least advanced of men can convey information1 that is1 they can write by means of ,pictographs4 #b4 ,probably all of them also employ more or fewer symbols or ,ideograms1 such as the depicting of a turtle for 8land0 by the ,north ,american ,indians4 ,the next stage is that in which from pictures which represent things or ideas were derived pictures which represent sounds or ,phonograms4 ,our children1 of their own initiative1 to amuse themselves1 pass through the two earlier stages of writing4 ,the stage we are now considering is a common amusement for children1 in the kind of conundrum known as the rebus4 8,in the rebus the picture of an object is taken to denote any word or part of a word which has the same sound as the name of the thing pictured4 ,as in the well-known rebus in which the sentence1 #8,i saw a boy swallow a gooseberry1' is represented by pictures of an eye1 a saw1 a boy1 a swallow1 a goose1 and a berry4 ,if1 for instance1 like the ancient ,egyptians1 we were to adopt a circle with a central dot as our ordinary written symbol for the sun1 this would be an ideogram4 ,but if we were to go on1 and after the ,egyptian or ,chinese method1 were to use the same symbol to express also the word #8son1' we should have a phonogram of that primitive type which has repeatedly served to bridge over the gap between picture ideograms and phonetic characters40 #c4 ,in all languages there are certain monosyllabic words which are pronounced alike1 but which have different significations1 for example1 stork1 stalk 7noun and verb74 ,in order to indicate which was intended in phonography1 it would be necessary to add a determinative or explanatory ideogram4 ,thus1 if a figure of the bird represented the first1 the same figure of a bird with a flower or some leaves by its side would indicate a stalk1 and a pair of legs by the side of another bird would determinate the action of stalking4 ,the ,chinese to the present day write in this cumbrous way1 as used to do the ancient ,egyptians and ,assyrians4 ,there is no need1 however1 to invent a rebus to show what one is when ,egyptian hieroglyphics are full of them4 ,i take the following from ,dr4 ,isaac ,taylor4 ,the picture of a lute was used symbolically by the ,egyptian scribes to denote 8excellence40 ,it then came to stand as a phonogram to express the word nefer1 8good40 ,but in the ,egyptian language this sound represented two homophonic similarly pronounced words1 nefer1 8good10 and nefer1 8as far as40 ,hence we find that the character may be used as a pictorial ideogram pictograph to represent a lute1 and as a symbolic ideogram to mean excellence2 then as a phonogram for the preposition nefer1 and lastly as a syllabic sign to denote ne1 the first syllable of the word nefer4 #d4 ,the problem of phonetic denotation having thus been solved1 the syllabic signs were combined so as to form compound phonograms on the principle of the rebus4 ,for example1 the name of lapis lazuli was khesteb4 ,now the word khesf meant to 8stop10 and the syllable teb denoted a 8pig40 ,hence the rebus 8stop-pig0 was invented to express graphically the name of lapis lazuli1 and this is figured by the picture of a man stopping a pig by pulling at its tail4 ,the ,japanese system of writing illustrates the later development4 ,they learnt the art of writing from the ,chinese1 but as their language is polysyllabic1 while the ,chinese is essentially monosyllabic1 8the ,chinese characters which are verbal phonograms could only be used for the expression of the polysyllabic ,japanese words by being treated as syllabic signs4 ,a number of characters sufficient to constitute a syllabary having been selected from the numerous ,chinese verbal phonograms1 it was found that the whole apparatus of determinatives 7or #8keys1' radicals1 or #8primitives1' as they are termed in describing ,chinese writing7 might be rejected1 being no longer indispensable to the reader4 ,by these two changes an almost incredible simplification of the ,chinese writing was effected4 ,but though syllabism is a great advance on a system of verbal phonograms1 yet it is necessarily somewhat cumbrous1 owing to the considerable number of characters which are required40 ,although the ,japanese have invented one of the best syllabaries which has ever been constructed1 the development stopped short there4 8,the fact that during more than a thousand years it should never have occurred to a people so ingenious and inventive as the ,japanese to develop their syllabary into an alphabet1 may suffice to show that the discovery of the alphabetic principle of writing is not such an easy or obvious a matter as might be supposed40 #e4 ,the final step consists in employing a sign to represent a sound4 ,it is a more refined analysis of a word1 and this gives simple phonetic elements1 few in number1 but which can be indefinitely combined4 ,the ancient ,egyptians curiously just stopped short of the final stage2 they developed alphabetical signs more than four thousand years ,b4,c41 but failed to make independent use of them4 ,their innate conservatism appeared to paralyse further growth2 truly the gods have not given all the gifts to any one man1 for they 7like ,hannibal7 did not know how to make use of their victory4 ,when a word was alphabetically written a phonogram was added to explain it1 and an ideogram 7or pictograph7 was added to explain the phonogram4 ,the word as finally written was an accretion of various stages in its own evolution4 ,those who would like to trace the processes by which one alphabet has been developed must be referred to ,dr4 ,taylor's great work1 from which ,i have abstracted so much4 ,for the sake of convenience ,egyptian scribes developed a hieratic writing from the hieroglyphics4 ,strangely enough this was twice accomplished1 the early ,hieratic was truly cursive and much bolder than the later and more delicate1 though less modified ,hieratic4 ,the former was invented before the period of the ,hyskos or ,shepherd ,kings1 and the latter1 or ,theban ,hieratic1 arose in the succeeding ,ramesidan dynasty4 ,the ,semites1 who dwelt in the ,delta of ,lower ,egypt during the five or six centuries of the ,hyskos dynasty1 seized on the alphabetic symbols of the cursive ,hieratic1 which was the secular writings as opposed to the sacred hieroglyphs4 ,their language and mode of thought being different from that of the ,egyptian scribe1 and having no sacred traditions to hamper them1 they were able to break away from the trammels of antiquity4 ,they were wise enough to drop the useless lumber of the phonogram and ideogram1 and so they dissected out1 as it were1 the alphabet from the cursive ,hieratic4 ,this was done in order to have a ready and simple method for recording business transactions4 ,along with their wares the ,phnicians distributed along the shores of the ,mediterranean this far more valuable acquisition4 ,the gift of the knowledge of letters with its vast potentialities more than counterbalanced the sharp practices of these keen traders4 ,it was reserved for yet another people1 the ,greeks1 to perfect the alphabet they had learnt from the ,phnicians to an extent which the ,semites were unable to accomplish1 and this improvement in notation enabled them to register thoughts more ennobling than the records of commerce4 ,it is scarcely conceivable that ,greece could have risen to her intellectual pre-eminence if she had been shackled with phonographic writing4 ,evolution in notation is necessary for the evolution of mental processes4 ,the evolution of the art of writing clearly shows that it was expedient for the utilitarian to destroy the sthetic1 for it must be admitted that the hieroglyphics of ,ancient ,egypt were the most decorative of all known writing symbols4 ,professor ,flinders ,petrie1 in a lecture delivered at the ,royal ,institute1 in ,may #ahid1 stated that 8the ,egyptian treatment of everything was essentially decorative2 the love of form and drawing was in ,egypt a greater force than amongst any other ancient people4 ,babylon and ,china1 from want of sufficient artistic taste1 allowed their pictorial writing to sink into a mere string of debased and conventional forms2 the ,egyptians1 on the contrary1 preserve the purely pictorial and artistic character of their hieroglyphs to the end4 ,the hieroglyphs were a decoration in themselves2 their very position in the sentence was subordinated to the decorative effect2 the ,egyptian could not be guilty of the barbarism seen on some of the ,assyrian sculpture1 where inscriptions were scrawled right across the work without regard to design4 ,so far was this idea carried that many words or ideas were represented by two distinct characters1 one wide and the other narrow and deep1 so that the harmony of the design should not be broken by an unsuitable element4 ,the result was that the ,egyptians were rewarded by having the most beautiful writing in the world40#abb ,the less the picture became like what it was intended to represent the more useful it became as a means for conveying thought4 ,but in the new-found method of expression sthetics has vastly gained1 and from our present point of view we may regard as the final term of the series1 vivid written descriptions of scenes and events or word-pictures4 #abb ,newspaper ,report4 ,,iii4 ,,wealth4 ,when dealing with the decorative transformation of artificial objects ,i referred 7p4 #gh7 to the large axes which are made in some of the islands in the archipelagoes off the south-east peninsula of ,new ,guinea1 and ,i pointed out how the desire for a reputation for wealth appears to have resulted in the production of a useless article1 which took a great deal of time to fabricate4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,balfour#abc gives a parallel example in the case of 8the development of our own civic and state maces4 ,in these the end which was originally the handle end has now become the #8clubbed' end1 through the small crown1 which originally embellished the handle1 having gradually developed into the enormous head so characteristic of the modern ceremonial mace2 the two ends have changed places1 and the sometime #8business' end is now the smaller40 #abc ,h4 ,balfour1 ,the ,evolution of ,decorative ,art1 #ahic1 p4 #gc4 ,an analogous modification often occurs in votive objects4 ,in prehistoric as well as in recent times objects are dedicated to certain shrines4 ,sometimes these may be objects in actual use1 but frequently they are specially made1 and in order to increase their value they are made in some more precious material or with more elaborate workmanship4 ,for example1 votive axes have the blade decorated and even often perforated1 so that it comes to be an elegant fretwork axe-blade1 artistic and valuable but utterly useless for material purposes4 ,this has happened amongst many peoples and at various times4 ,but there is also a reverse process which operates in votive offerings1 which may partly be due to the idea that the deities or powers to whom the offerings are made care more for the idea of offering than for the object offered1 as at a later stage it was recognised that 8to obey is better than sacrifice1 and to hearken than the fat of rams0 7#a ,samuel xv4 #bb74 ,it must1 however1 be confessed that another consideration has probably been operative1 and that is economy1 and it is conceivable that this motive has led to the reason being assigned that the idea of the gift1 or the essence of the gift1 was all that was necessary4 ,it is superfluous to detail many examples1 as the following will suffice to illustrate this retrograde tendency4 ,it was formerly a widely-spread custom to sacrifice attendants for the dead4 8,in the seventeenth century the practice is described as prevailing in ,japan1 where1 on the death of a nobleman1 from ten to thirty of his servants put themselves to death4 ,the ,japanese form of modern survival of such funeral sacrifices is the substitute for real men and animals1 images of stone1 or clay1 or wood1 placed by the corpse4#abd ,the ceremonies 7in ,china7 of providing sedan-bearers and an umbrella-bearer for the dead1 and sending mounted horsemen to announce beforehand his arrival to the authorities of ,hades1 although these bearers and messengers are only made of paper and burnt1 seem to represent survivals of a more murderous reality40#abe ,the ,chinese1 too1 on certain occasions make mock money in paper and then burn it as an offering4 #abd ,e4 ,b4 ,taylor1 ,primitive ,culture 7#bnd ed471 #ahgc1 p4 #dfc4 #abe ,loc4 cit41 p4 #dfd4 ,associated with wealth is the evolution of money4 ,money is essentially a symbol of value2 coin is always of less intrinsic worth than its nominal value1 and as money transactions increase the nominal value bears absolutely no relation to the real value1 as in the case of paper money4 ,in some parts of ,british ,new ,guinea we find at the present time a very interesting intermediate stage between mere barter and the evolution of money4 ,i have elsewhere#abf pointed out that there is no money in ,torres ,straits2 but certain articles have acquired a generally recognised exchange value4 ,some of the objects necessitate a considerable amount of skilled labour2 others1 such as certain shell ornaments1 vary in value according to the size of the shell1 although1 of course1 the labour in fabricating a small shell is very little less than that expended over a large one4 ,i noticed that1 as with our precious stones1 a comparatively small increase in size greatly enhances the value4 ,in the first case it is the labour that gives the value1 in the second it is the rarity4 ,thus these objects cannot be regarded as money as they have an intrinsic value4 ,those most generally employed are the dibidibi1 a round polished disc worn on the chest1 and formed from the apex of a large cone shell 7,conus millepunctatus72 the waiwi or wauri1 a shell armlet formed of a transverse section of the same shell2 a wap or dugong harpoon1 a long elegantly shaped instrument cut out of a tree2 a canoe4 #abf ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 8,the ,ethnography of the ,western ,tribe of ,torres ,straits10 ,jour4 ,anth4 ,inst41 xix41 #ahij4 ,a good waiwi1 one which can be worn on the arm of a man1 is a very valued possession1 the exchange value is a canoe or a dugong harpoon4 ,i gathered that ten or twelve dibidibi are considered of equal value to any of the above4 ,the ornaments vary in size and finish1 and the value varies correspondingly1 thus no table of equable exchange can be drawn up4 ,a wife was formerly rated at the highest unit of exchange1 her value being a canoe1 or a wap1 or a waiwi4 ,macgillivray#abg states that in #ahdi an iron knife or a glass bottle 7which1 when broken into fragments form so many knives7 was considered a sufficient price for a wife4 ,now the natives usually give trade articles to their prospective parents-in-law4 ,my friend ,maino1 the chief of ,tud1 informed me that he paid for his wife1 who came from the mainland of ,new ,guinea1 a camphor-wood chest containing seven bolts 7i4e41 pieces7 of calico1 one dozen shirts1 one dozen singlets 7jerseys71 one dozen trousers1 one dozen handkerchiefs1 two dozen tomahawks1 one pound of tobacco1 one long fish spear1 two fishing lines1 one dozen hooks1 and two pearl shells1 and he finished up by saying1 8,by golly1 he too dear60 ,if the above price was actually paid1 there was some foundation for his exclamation4 ,once when he sold me something he particularly demanded a tomahawk in exchange1 as he had to give one to his mother-in-law to 8pay0 for his last baby1 and he did too4 ,it appears that babies have to be paid for as well4 #abg ,voyage of the 8,rattlesnake10 #aheb4 ,at the opposite end of ,british ,new ,guinea1 ,sir ,william ,mac,gregor informs us that at ,pannaet 7,deboyne ,island71 in the ,louisiades1 the canoes for which this island is famous are cut out with adzes of hoop-iron1 but 8they sell the canoes when made at from ten to fifty stone axes4 ,they do not use the stone axe as a tool in this part of the country1 but it still represents the standard of currency in great transactions such as the purchase of a canoe1 or a pig1 or in obtaining a wife4 ,the natives always carefully explain that1 as concerns the wife1 the stone axes are not given as a payment for her1 but as a present to the father of the girl4 ,steel tomahawks will1 however1 now be accepted1 at least in some cases1 in payment of a canoe1 and no doubt the days of the currency of the stone axe for these and all other purposes are numbered0 7,july #ahij74abh ,in ,misima 7,st4 ,aignan ,island7 also 8they have entered the iron age1 and appear to have entirely given up the use of the stone axe except as a medium for purchasing wives0 7,october #ahhh74abi #abh ,annual ,report of ,british ,new ,guinea1 ,c4,a4 #a1 #ahib4 p4 #ff4 #abi ,further ,correspondence respecting ,new ,guinea1 #ahij1 ,c4 #ehhc1 p4 #bea4 ,the evolution of the money symbol is a very interesting history1 and ,i would refer those who would like to inquire further into it to the masterly work by ,professor ,ridgeway4#acj ,in the following brief sketch of this question ,i draw largely from that book4 #acj ,w4 ,ridgeway1 ,the ,origin of ,metallic ,currency and ,weight ,standards1 #ahib4 ,among the ,bahnars of ,annam1 who border on ,laos1 8everything10 says ,m4 ,aymonier1 8is by barter1 hence all objects of general use have a known relationship2 if we know the unit1 all the rest is easy40 ,after enumerating certain exchange values1 he continues1 8#a muk #aj mats1 that is to say1 ten of those hoes which are manufactured by the ,cedans1 and which are employed by all the savages of this region as their agricultural implement4 ,the hoe is the smallest amount used by the ,bahnars4 ,it is worth #aj centimes in ,european goods1 and is made of iron40#aca #aca ,loc4 cit41 p4 #bc4 8,the ,chinese likewise used hoes as money2 but in the course of time the hoe became a true currency1 and little hoes were employed as coins in some parts of ,china0 7tsin1 agricultural implements74#acb #acb ,loc4 cit41 p4 #bb4 ,at ,ras-el-,fyk1 in ,dafour1 the hoe also serves as currency1#acc and in ,west ,africa 8axes serve as currency2 these are too small to be really employed as an implement1 but are doubtless the survival of a period not long past when real axes served as money40#acd #acc ,loc4 cit41 p4 #de4 #acd ,loc4 cit41 p4 #dj4 ,at the time when the ,chinese made their great invasion into ,south-,eastern ,asia 7#bad ,b4,c471 they still were employing a bronze currency under the form of knives1 which were #ace millimetres 7#e ins47 in length1 bearing on the blade the character ,minh1 and finished with a ring at the end of the handle for stringing them4 ,under the ninth dynasty 7#dgi-eja ,a4,d471 they used knives of the same form and metal1 but #ahj mm4 7#g ins47 in length1 furnished with a large ring at the end of the handle and inscribed with the characters ,tsy ,ku'-u ,hoa4 ,next the form of the knife was modified1 the handle disappeared1 and the ring was attached directly to the blade2 but now1 as weight was regarded of importance1 its thickness was increased to preserve the full amount of metal1 and the ring became a flat round plate pierced with a hole for the string4#ace ,later on these knives became really a conventional currency1#acf and for convenience the blade was got rid of1 and all that was now left of the original knife was the ring in the shape of a round plate pierced with a square hole4 ,this is a brief history of the sapec 7more commonly known to us as cash71 the only native coin of ,china1 and which is found everywhere from ,malaysia to ,japan4#acg #ace ,j4 ,silvestre1 8,notes pour servir la recherche et au classement des monnaies et des mdailles de ,annam et de la ,cochin-,chine ,franaise10 ,excursions et ,reconnaissances1 ,no4 #ae 7#ahhc71 p4 #cie4 #acf ,w4 ,s4 ,ament1 8,the ,ancient ,coinage of ,china10 ,american ,journ4 ,archol41 iv41 #ahhh1 p4 #bhd1 ,pls4 ,,xii41 ,,xiii4 #acg ,h4 ,c4 ,millies1 ,recherches sur les ,monnaies des ,indignes de l',archipel ,indien et de la ,pninsule ,malaie1 #ahga4 8,among the fishermen who dwelt along the shores of the ,indian ,ocean1 from the ,persian ,gulf to the southern shores of ,hindustan1 ,ceylon1 and the ,maldive ,islands1 it would appear that the fish-hook1 to them the most important of all implements1 passed as currency4 ,in the course of time it became a true money1 just as did the hoe in ,china4 ,it still for a time retained its ancient form1 but gradually became degraded into a single piece of double wire4 ,these larins1 made both of silver and bronze1 were in use until the beginning of the last century1 and bear legends in ,arabic character4 ,had the process of degradation gone on without check1 in course of time the double wire would probably have shrunk up into a bullet-shaped mass of metal1 just as the ,siamese silver coins are the outcome of a process of degradation from a piece of silver wire twisted into the form of a ring and doubled up1 which probably originally formed some kind of ornament4 ,the bullet-shaped tical is now struck as a coin of ,european form4 ,just as1 perhaps1 the silver shells of ,burmah became the multiple unit of a large number of real cowries1 so the fish-hook made of real silver came into use as a multiple unit1 when the bronze fish-hook had already become conventionalised into a true coin40#ach #ach ,w4 ,ridgeway1 ,the ,origin of ,metallic ,currency and ,weight ,standards1 #ahib1 p4 #bg4 8,every medium of exchange either has an actual marketable value1 or represents something which either has1 or formerly had1 such a value just as a five-pound note represents five sovereigns1 and the piece of stamped walrus skin1 formerly employed by ,russians in ,alaska in paying the native trappers1 represented roubles or blankets4 ,this is an interesting parallel to the ancient tradition that the ,carthaginians employed leather money0 7p4 #dg74 ,to employ the language of geology1 we have found evidence pointing to certain general laws of stratification4 ,in ,further ,asia we have found a section which presents us with an almost complete series of strata1 whilst in other places where we have been only able to observe two or three layers1 we have nevertheless found that certain strata are invariably found superimposed upon others just as regularly as the coal seams are found lying over the carboniferous limestone4 ,as soon as the primitive savage has conceived the idea of obtaining some article which he desires but does not possess1 by giving in exchange to its owner something which the latter desires1 the principle of money has been conceived4 ,shells or necklaces of shells are found everywhere to be employed in the earliest stages4 ,when some men began to make weapons of superior material1 as for instance1 axes of jade instead of common stone1 such weapons naturally soon became media of exchange2 when the ox and the sheep1 the swine and the goat are tamed1 large additions are made to the circulating media of the more advanced communities2 then come the metals2 the older ornaments of shells and implements of stone are replaced by those of gold 7and much later by silver71 and by weapons of bronze as in ,asia and ,europe1 and by those of iron in ,africa4 ,copper and iron circulate either in the form of implements and weapons1 such as the axes of ,west ,africa1 the hoes of the early ,chinese and modern ,bahnars1 and the ancient ,chinese knives1 all of which remind us of the axes and half-axes in ,homer2 or in the form of rings and bracelets1 like the manillas of ,west ,africa and the ancient ,irish fibul1 or else in the form of plates or bars of metal1 ready to be employed for the manufacture of such articles1 as in the case of the iron bars of ,laos1 the iron discs of the ,madis1 and the brass rods of the ,congo4 ,again1 we are reminded of the mass of pig-iron which ,achilles offered as a prize4 ,it is of the highest importance to observe that such pieces of copper and iron are not weighed1 but are appraised by measurement4 ,we shall find that it is only at a period long subsequent to the weighing of gold that the inferior metals are estimated by weight4 ,the custom of capturing wives1 which prevails among the lowest savages1 is succeeded by the custom of purchasing wives4 ,the woman is only a chattel on the same footing as the cow or the sheep1 and she is accordingly appraised in terms of the ordinary media of exchange employed in her community1 whether it be in cows1 horses1 beads1 skins1 or blankets4 ,presently male captives are found useful both to tend flocks1 and1 as in the ,east and in the modern ,soudan1 to guard the harem4 ,with the discovery of gold1 ornaments made at first out of the rough nuggets supersede other ornaments1 and presently either such ornaments or portions of gold in plates or lumps are added to the list of media1 and the same follows with the discovery of silver4 ,such ornaments or pieces of gold and silver are estimated in terms of cattle1 and the standard unit of the bars or ingots naturally is adjusted to the unit by which it is appraised4 ,thus we find the ,homeric talent1 the silver bar of ,annam1 the ,irish unga all equated to the cow1 and the ,welsh libra1 ,anglo-,saxon libra1 similarly equated to the slave4 ,with the discovery of the art of weaving1 cloths of a definite size everywhere become a medium1 as the silk cloth of ancient ,china1 the woollen cloths of the old ,norsemen1 the toukkiyeh of the ,soudan1 and the blanket of ,north ,america4 ,this fact once more recalls ,homer and makes us believe that the robes and blankets and coverlets which ,priam brought along with the talents of gold to be the ransom of ,hector's body1 all had a definite place in the ,homeric monetary system4 8,we have seen the ,siamese piece of twisted silver wire passing into a coin of ,european style1 and the ,chinese bronze knife ending by becoming cash1 just as the ,homeric talent of gold appears1 in weight at least1 as the gold stater of historical times4 ,thus in every point the analogy between what we find in the ,homeric ,poems and in modern barbarous communities seems complete4 8,we may therefore with some confidence assume that we are at liberty to fill up the gaps in the strata of ,greek monetary history which lie between ,homer and the beginning of coined money on the analogy of the corresponding strata in other regions4 ,this assumption1 resting on a broad basis of induction and confirmed by a good deal of evidence special to ,greece and ,italy1 will be found to explain the origin1 not only of weight standards in those countries1 but of the types on the oldest coins1 such as the cow's head of ,samos1 the tunny fish of ,olbia and ,cyzicus1 the axe of ,tenedos1 the tortoise of ,aegina1 the shield of ,botia1 and the silphium of ,cyrene0 7pp4 #di1 #ej74 ,professor ,ridgeway's view is that while mythological and religious subjects do occur on ,greek coins1 it can be shown that certain coins1 even in historical times1 were regarded as the representations of the objects of barter of more primitive times4 ,the tunny fish continually passes in vast shoals through the sea of ,marmora from the ,black ,sea to the ,mediterranean4 ,a representation of this fish appears invariably on the electrum coins of ,cyzicus4 8,we know that the articles which form the staple commodities of a community in the age of barter virtually form its money4 ,in a city like ,cyzicus1 whose citizens depended for their wealth on their fisheries and trade1 rather than on flocks and herds and agriculture1 the tunny fish singly or in certain defined numbers1 as by the score or hundred and the like1 would naturally form a chief monetary unit1 just as the stock-fish 7dried cod7 were employed in medival ,iceland4 ,are we not then justified in considering the tunny fish1 which forms the invariable adjunct of the coins of ,cyzicus1 as an indication that these coins superseded a primitive system in which the tunny formed a monetary unit1 just as the kettle and pot countermarks on the coins of ,crete point back to the days when real kettles formed the chief medium of exchange8 8,but far stronger evidence is at hand to show that the tunny fish was used as a monetary unit in some parts of ,hellas4 ,the city of ,olbia1 which lay on the north shore of the ,black ,sea1 was a ,milesian colony1 and was the chief ,greek emporium in this region4 ,there are bronze coins of this city made in the shape of fishes and inscribed 1 which has been identified as the abbreviation of 1 tunny4 ,when we recall the ,chinese bronze cowries1 the ,burmese silver shells1 the silver fish-hooks of the ,indian ,ocean1 etc41 we are constrained to believe that in those coins of ,olbia1 shaped like a fish1 we have a distinct proof of the influence on the ,greek mind of the same principle which has impelled other peoples to imitate in metal the older object of barter which a metal currency is replacing4 ,the inhabitants of ,olbia were largely intermixed with the surrounding barbarians1 and may therefore have felt some difficulty in replacing their barter unit by a round piece of metal bearing merely the imprint of a fish1 while the pure-blooded ,greek of ,cyzicus had no hesitation in mentally bridging the gulf between a real fish and a piece of metal merely stamped with a fish1 and did not require the intermediate step of first shaping his metal unit into the form of a tunny4 ,the island of ,tenedos1 lying off the ,troad1 struck at a very early date silver coins bearing for device a double-headed axe4 ,pausanias1 in the second century ,a4,d41 saw at ,delphi axes dedicated by ,periclytus of ,tenedos4 ,it is probable1 according to ,professor ,ridgeway1 that such double axes as those stamped on the coins of ,tenedos formed part of the earliest ,greek system of currency4 ,the prizes offered in the funeral games of ,patroclus are of course merely the usual objects of barter and currency1 slavewomen1 oxen1 tripods1 talents of gold1 and the like4 8,but he 7,achilles7 set for the archers dark iron1 and he set down ten axes and ten half-axes20#aci that is1 ten double and ten single-headed axes4 ,that such axes were evidently an important article in ,tenedos is proved by the dedication at ,delphi1 and may not the axe on their coins represent the local unit of an earlier epoch8 #aci 8,ten double-headed axes he set and ten single10 in the translation by ,e4 ,meyers4 ,the ,iliad of ,homer1 xxiii4 #hej 7,macmillan ,co471 #ahhc4 ,the 8tortoise0 on the coins of ,aegina has been mythologised as an emblem of ,aphrodite1 but the connection is not very intimate4 ,according to a fragment of ,ephorus1 the ,aeginetans took to commerce on account of the barrenness of their island4 ,but they must have had something to give in exchange to the people before they could have developed a carrying trade1 and ,professor ,ridgeway suggests that the tortoise on the coins of ,aegina simply indicates that the old monetary unit of that island was the shell of the turtle 78tortoise-shell071 which was considerably larger1 and therefore more valuable for making bowls than that of the land or mountain tortoise4 ,the earliest coins represent a turtle1 for the feet are flippers quite distinct from the legs of the later tortoises2 also the thirteen plates of the dorsal shield1 or carapace1 are not so distinct in the turtle as in the tortoise1 and in the older coins these plates are not represented4 ,the earliest coins1 too1 have the incuse on the reverse divided into eight triangular compartments1 which may indicate the eight plates of the ventral shield1 or plastron1 of all these animals4 ,the same line of argument applies to the ,botian shield1 which has been confidently pronounced to be a sacred emblem1 but which we must now regard as a numismatic symbol of a real shield4 ,on the reverse of these coins the incuse forms a rude ,x1 bounded by a circle of dots1 which probably represents the back of the shield1 as the frame of an ox-hide shield consists of a circular rod with two crossbars4 8,the idea of making the incuse represent the other side of the object given in relief on the obverse seems to be just the stage between a complete representation of the object1 as in the tunny of ,olbia1 and that evinced by the early coins of ,magna ,grcia1 on which the reverse gives in the incuse exactly the same form as that in relief on the obverse40 ,the silphium plant of ,cyrene1 which yielded a salubrious but somewhat unpleasant medicine1 has also been held to have a mythological symbolism1 and without any evidence it has been foisted on to the hero ,aristacus1 8the protector of the corn-field and the vine and all growing crops1 and bees and flocks and shepherds1 and the averter of the scorching blasts of the ,sahara40 8,it seems far more reasonable to treat it on the same principle as the others just discussed4 ,the silphium formed the most important article produced in that region1 and it is perfectly in accordance with all analogy that certain quantities of this plant1 and of the juice extracted from it1 should be employed as money4 ,at the present moment tea is so employed on the borders of ,tibet and ,china1 and raw cotton in ,darfur40 ,professor ,ridgeway argues that the same holds good for representations of cattle on coins--the image of the cow or the ox indicates that the gold piece so marked is a substitute for that animal4 ,these researches of ,professor ,ridgeway's have thrown a new light on some of the images on ,greek coins4 ,he has transferred the symbolism of this class of coinage from the domain of religion to that of merchandise--from god to mammon4#adj #adj ,prof4 ,d',arcy ,w4 ,thompson1 jun41 has published a paper 78,on ,bird and ,beast in ,ancient ,symbolism10 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,edinb41 xxxviii4 pt4i41 #ahie1 p4 #agi71 in which he combats ,prof4 ,ridgeway's theory1 as being foreign to all we know of ancient symbolism4 8,we must see fallacy in any theory which treats as nascent and primitive the civilisation of a period of exalted poetry1 the offspring of ages of antecedent culture2 which sees but a small advance on recent barbarism in ways of life simple in some respects1 but rich in developed art and stored with refined tradition2 that looks only for the ways and habits and thoughts of primitive man in races supported by a background of philosophical and scientific culture of an unfathomed1 and may be unfathomable1 antiquity4 ,behind early ,hellenic civilisation was all the wisdom of ,egypt and the ,east1 and the first ,greeks of whom we have knowledge looked upon the old ,heaven and the old ,earth not with the half-open1 wondering eyes of wakening intelligence1 but with perceptions trained in an ancient inheritance of accumulated learning4 8,i print this extract1 as ,i consider that ,d',arcy ,thompson's reminder is needed in the present search after origins4 ,with regard to the point at issue1 it appears to me that both may be right4 ,some of the representations on ,greek coins may have the significance which ,ridgeway ascribes to them1 while others may bear the interpretation given by ,d',arcy ,thompson1 whose theory ,i shall refer to later4 ,,iv4 ,,magic ,,and ,,religion4 ,for the sake of simplicity1 in the ,introduction ,i included in the term ,religion the relation of man to unseen powers4 ,these have always been recognised1 and man has everywhere attempted to put himself into sympathetic relation with them4 ,it is1 however1 preferable to distinguish between ,sympathetic ,magic and ,religion proper1 as the former is impersonal and the latter is essentially personal in its operation4 ,sympathetic magic is1 so to speak1 the primitive protoplasm out of which natural science has been evolved1 in much the same way as1 together with ancestor-worship and totemism1 it lies at the base of most religious systems4 #a4 ,sympathetic ,magic4 ,as ,mr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer has pointed out1#ada primitive man has the germ of the modern notion of natural law1 or the view of nature as a series of events occurring in an invariable order without the intervention of personal agency4 ,this germ is involved in that sympathetic magic which plays a large part in most systems of superstition4 #ada ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 ,the ,golden ,bough3 ,a ,study in ,comparative ,religion1 #ahij1 p4 #i4 ,one of the principles of sympathetic magic1 or signature lore as it is sometimes called1 is that any effect may be produced by imitating it4 ,if it is wished to kill a person1 an image of him is made and then destroyed2 and it is believed that through a certain physical sympathy between the person and his image1 the man feels the injuries done to the image as if they were done to his own body1 and when it is destroyed he must simultaneously perish4 ,sometimes the magic sympathy takes effect1 not so much through an act as through a supposed resemblance of qualities4 ,some ,bechuana warriors wear the hair of an ox among their own hair and the skin of a frog on their mantle1 because a frog is slippery and the ox from which the hair has been taken has no horns and is therefore hard to catch2 so the warrior who is provided with these charms believes that he will be as hard to hold as the ox and the frog4 8,thus we see10 continues ,mr4 ,frazer1 8that in sympathetic magic one event is supposed to be followed necessarily and invariably by another1 without the intervention of any spiritual or personal agency4 ,this is1 in fact1 the modern conception of physical causation2 the conception1 indeed1 is misapplied1 but it is there none the less4 ,here1 then1 we have another mode in which primitive man seeks to bend nature to his wishes4 ,there is1 perhaps1 hardly a savage who does not fancy himself possessed of this power of influencing the course of nature by sympathetic magic4444 ,of all natural phenomena there are perhaps none which civilised man feels himself more powerless to influence than the rain1 the sun1 and the wind4 ,yet all these are commonly supposed by savages to be in some degree under their control40 ,magic practices are1 as a rule1 primarily a kind of mimetic representation combined with crude symbolism1 or the latter alone may be employed1 as in the previously mentioned ,bechuana custom4 ,we may regard pictorial representation of magic as probably indicating a higher stage of culture4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,vaughan ,stevens has recently made a number of valuable observations in the ,malay ,peninsula2 these have been edited by ,a4 ,grnwedel1#adb and they throw a new light on the importance of decorative art in the psychic life of savages4 ,the ,smang tribes are negritto in origin1 that is1 they belong to the short1 dark1 frizzly-haired stock which probably were the original inhabitants of that part of the world1 and are consequently a more primitive people than the ,malays4 #adb 8,die ,zaubermuster der ,orang ,smang10 ,zeitschr4 fr ,ethnologie1 xxv41 #ahic1 p4 #ga2 8,die ,zaubermuster der ,orang htan10 loc4 cit41 xxvi41 #ahid1 p4 #ada4 ,the ,smang tribes1 especially the ,orang ,panggang of ,east ,malacca1 possess a kind of picture writing which1 on the one hand1 serves to record mythological representations1 name-marks1 etc41 upon objects made of bamboo2 on the other hand it forms the foundation of complicated magic patterns which these tribes are accustomed to employ as a means of protection against illnesses4 ,but in so far as these patterns are incised in the bamboo as prescriptions for the healing herbs to be employed1 apart from the protecting charm which lies directly in them1 those elements which go to make them up can also be described as a kind of writing4 ,the magic patterns of the pure ,smang from ,east ,malacca are found on three classes of objects-- #a4 ,the bamboo combs 7tn-leig7 of the women4 #b4 ,the bamboos 7gor and gar7 which serve as quivers for the blow-pipe arrows and the tube of the blow-pipe4 ,these are the protective devices of the men4 #c4 ,the bamboos called gi1 which contain all the ordinary patterns4 ,with the exception of a remnant these have sunk into oblivion4 ,no example is known4 ,the combs are worn throughout the whole ,smang district1 but on the western side of the mountain chain of the ,peninsula1 from ,kdah to ,prak1 these are used more as ornament1 and the originals for the composition of the patterns are forgotten4 ,the patterns on the combs exhibit flowers1 or the principal parts of flowers1 which serve as simples against the disease4 ,the combs are only used by women against invisible sickness1 etc41 such as fever2 for injuries and wounds such as those caused by a falling bough in the jungle1 or the bite of a centipede1 other means are employed4 ,the combs are not used for combing the hair4 ,the women wear eight combs1 sometimes even sixteen1 which are placed horizontally with the teeth embedded in the hair and the handles projecting outwards2 when eight are worn1 two are inserted in the front1 back1 and sides of the head4 ,the choice of combs depends upon--7#a7 ,the diseases which are raging near the tribe2 7#b7 the diseases which are most feared2 and 7#c7 the number of women there are together4 ,according to the ,smang1 the winds bring these sicknesses with them as the punishment for some sin which ,keii1 the thunder-god1 wishes to revenge4 ,the wind-demon1 which is sent by ,keii on this message1 blows over the head of the person and deposits the sickness on the forehead1 from whence it spreads over the body4 ,the god ,pl1 however1 gives to the ,smang a magical remedy which the winds dare not approach1 and so the impending punishment is turned aside4 ,if a woman is protected by the right comb and the wind blows upon her head1 the demon meets the odour of the ws and falls down to the ground4 ,if the ws charm fails the pwr charm comes to the rescue1 so that the demon cannot get any further1 and recognising ,pl's power1 it falls down and is carried away by the wind4 ,if the illness comes from behind it is held back by mos1 that is the representation which runs across the comb at the insertion of the teeth4 ,the calyx of a flower is called mos1 and exactly as the flower lies embedded in its calyx1 so the parts of the handle named ws and pwr reach under the mos line1 although one cannot see them1 and are there just as effective as above4 ,when several women meet they wear different combs to protect themselves and others from all kinds of diseases4 ,different ws patterns are necessary1 as each sickness has its own wind1 and the wind does not bring any or all diseases4 ,as a rule a ws is necessary for each disease1 without1 however1 excluding others1 but sometimes it does for about six4 ,it does not often happen that the ,smang carves upon a comb a pattern for any other than the one object in view4 ,the ,smang women usually possess from twenty to thirty combs1 and they lend them to one another4 ,when in the huts and at night they lay them under the roof4 ,they are buried with the owner to keep the diseases from the spirit which have been averted during life4 ,as to the origin of the custom1 the ,smang unanimously declare that the patterns of the combs were the invention of the god ,pl for themselves1 and were not borrowed from any other folk4 ,in former times the combs had only three teeth4 ,the teeth are merely a means for fastening4 ,the men wear no combs as their hair is kept short4 ,their magical remedies are the gor's and gar's4 ,they say that in very ancient times women carried bamboo sticks on which were cut the whole seventy disease patterns4 ,the gi were stuck in the girdle4 ,the diseases for which the combs are effective attack women only1 and these1 the men say1 are mostly imaginary4 ,illnesses which attack both men and women are kept off by the quivers and blow-pipes 7sumpit7 of the men1 as the women are generally not very far off from the men4 ,the handle of a typical comb is divided into eight transverse bands1 each of which has its own name4 ,above the broad central band 7tn-wg7 are four narrow bands1 while below it are three narrow bands4 ,the first and second band of the upper series are called respectively ws and pwr4 ,the uppermost line1 above ws1 is called tp1 the lowest line below the eighth band 7nos71 and immediately above the teeth1 is called mos4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--;,blossom of an ,ixora2 from ,stevens4 ,ws and pwr are the protecting figures1 whose charm keeps off the diseases4 ,tp1 pwr and mos are also parts of a flower1 ws is the scent1 the stamens and pistil are called tp1 the line in the comb above the ws band has the same name1 the lengthened tube above the green calyx is known as pwr and the calyx as mos4 ,two jungle flowers now serve as pwr1 one a kind of ,ixora1 but the botanical name of the other has not been identified4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #aah1 #aai4--,magic combs of the ,orang ,smang2 from ,stevens4 ,in ,figs4 #aah and #aai we have two combs of the ,orang ,smang1 which illustrate the method of decoration4 ,they are intended for two different diseases1 the nature of either of which is obscure4 ,the pattern in the tn-wg band of ,fig4 #aah evidently represents the magical flower4 ,the ws pattern in ,fig4 #aai is faulty1 it is etched in the original comb as in the upper band of ,fig4 #abj3 ,whereas the elements ,a1 ,b1 ,c should have been engraved1 as in lower band of ,fig4 #abj4 ,such slight mistakes as these in the decoration of a comb may render the magic pattern of no avail against the appropriate disease4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--;,diagram of the uppermost pattern of ,fig4 #aai1 with rectification of that pattern2 from ,stevens4 ,if one looks through the patterns which represent ws and pwr one speedily finds that many are identical with each other1 or are parts of the patterns in the fifth band 7tn-wg7 which represent the illness4 ,the following account is given in explanation of this3 as the magic patterns were made by ,pl1 he wished1 as he settled one pattern for a definite disease1 at the same time to make it known which flower blooms most freely at the time when the illness rages1 and he gave to both a similar form4 ,if ws and pwr were obliged to get exactly the same figure1 in order to prevent confusion of the patterns with one another1 he ordained that differentiating marks should be added on the comb4 ,for us1 who do not see the patterns with ,smang eyes1 many deviations appear in the figures4 ,one reason for this is that the patterns of the combs are mostly incised by young men and not by the older men1 as is the case with the quivers and blow-pipes4 ,the young men1 unskilled in carving1 and not always perfectly acquainted with the patterns1 cut the combs for their sisters and future wives4 ,one mistake in the pattern does not necessarily do away with the efficacy of a comb1 as a ,panggang man once said1 8,it is like a gap or hole in a bird-trap3 the bird can hop through it1 but it is always a question whether it sees the gap40 ,all the figures of the combs1 except the ws1 pwr1 and tn-wg must be of the very simplest kind4 ,the rule is that they are borrowed from a ws or pwr pattern1 but the special characters must be omitted4 ,the youths who copy the combs overlook this and insert in the neighbouring bands the complete ws and pwr patterns4 ,the magicians engrave various devices on pieces of bamboo1 and1 as will be seen from the following examples1 these magic staves are supposed to be effectual for a great many difficulties and adversities4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--,magical pictograph of the ,orang htan against the stings of scorpions and centipedes2 size of original #i inches2 from ,stevens4 ,fig4 #aba4--,this bamboo shows as its middle figure an ,argus pheasant with its two long ocellated tail-feathers4 ,the wheel-like patterns at ,a represent these eye-marks1 the angular marks at ,b are the wings of the animal4 ,left of the ,argus is a long1 orange-coloured centipede4 ,the head of the animal is drawn in the direction towards the tail of the ,argus4 ,the lines with little dots on each side to the right and left of the centipede are the tracks which that animal leaves on the skin of a man4 ,two blue scorpions are represented on the other side of the ,argus4 ,the figure at the end of their tails is a swelling in the flesh of a person who has been stung by them4 ,the female of this kind of scorpion is more poisonous than the male1 and is said to cause double stings4 ,therefore the marks with two rows of points at ,c denote the sting of the female1 that with one row at ,d that of the male4 ,the significance of this bamboo is1 8as the ,argus pheasant feeds on centipedes and scorpions1 so its help is invoked against them by striking the bamboo against the ground40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--,magical device of the ,orang ,blendas against a skin disease2 size of original #ai inches2 from ,stevens4 ,fig4 #abb represents the devices etched on a piece of bamboo against two forms of a skin disease--the one exhibits leprous white ulcers1 the other hard knots on and under the skin4 ,the lowermost marking1 ,a1 when one holds the bamboo with the open end uppermost1 represents the bank of a river1 in which frogs have sunk holes4 ,the dots and lines are these holes imprinted in the soft slime1 some being under the water1 others being above it4 ,the zigzag lines at ,b represent frog's legs2 these limbs of the animal are abbreviations for the whole animal1 which is always conventionalised4 ,over these frogs one sees at ,c a pattern which is used to represent different things2 for example3 7#a7 an ant-hill2 7#b7 a ,hantu of an illness in the human body1 whose effect is felt like the crawling and biting of ants1 and indeed this ,hantu lives in forsaken ant-hills2 7#c7 the skin marked by this disease2 or 7#d7 even the seeds of a melon1 cucumber1 etc4 ,here the figure represents an ant-hill on the ground4 ,out of the ground there grow climbing plants 7,d71 whose winding round the trees is represented by the lines forming the ovals2 the little lines between these egg-shaped figures represent the body of the partially very voluminous lianas4 ,the little lines on the outside of the twists when they are long represent thorns2 but when they are mere points they indicate the tracks of insects' claws on the bark4 ,in our picture1 as the lines are midway between long streaks and dots1 they represent ants in two groups1 which are running up and down the lianas4 ,immediately under the line above ,d one sees four figures 7#a-d71 which are respectively a bird1 a butterfly1 a caterpillar1 and a tree-frog4 ,the band at ,e indicates a tree4 ,the figures are to be read off from right to left1 commencing at the vertical line x1 which represents the trunk of the tree without leaves2 to the left are five similar figures1 which are the fully developed leaves of the tree4 ,to the left is a dark beam with leaf-marks on the right side only1 these are the undeveloped young leaves at the top of the tree4 ,further to the left is a dark beam1 on each side of which are zigzags 7y y72 these are branches4 ,the black line to the left at z1 z1 represents the end of the lianas which are drawn in ,d2 these having sprung from the ground have reached the branches of the tree4 ,to the left of this is the topmost part of the tree1 with undeveloped leaf-shoots on the left side4 ,the sudden dwindling of this line is to show the tapering of the tree stem towards its top4 ,above this the pattern ,c is repeated1 and the three rows above the line show the spots on the skin1 which are supposed to look like melon seeds2 the rows respectively stand for the head1 body1 and feet which are thus affected4 ,lastly1 fish-scales are drawn to represent the leprous form of the disease2 these are also in three rows for the head1 body1 and feet4 ,they increase in size in order to show that they will gradually spread over the whole body if not cured in some way4 ,just at the place where the different rows of patterns end 7when one reads from left to right7 there is a group of dots on the scales1 which represent the last stage of the disease2 incurable holes out of which blood flows4 ,they are supposed to be like the wounds caused by the stings of any kind of poisonous fish4 ,these holes seldom appear on the legs4 ,the whole drawing is the remnant of an ancient pattern which was employed as a charm by the old magicians of the ,orang ,blendas4 ,the object of the pattern is even at the present time known to the laity1 but the story is probably lost as to how the figures came to be put together in this way4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abc4--,rain-charm of the ,orang ,blendas2 size of the original #aj inches2 from ,stevens4 ,fig4 #abc is a copy of a 8toon-tong10 which the man who owned it would not sell to ,mr4 ,stevens4 ,its use is to produce rain when the paddy-fields are suffering from an insufficient monsoon4 ,the oblique lines represent the rain driven by the wind1 the lines being the downpour and the dots are the rain-drops4 ,the lines from left to right stand for the north-east1 and those from right to left for the south-west monsoon4 ,the curved lines mean a storm4 ,the repetition of the rain-figures means 8much rain40 ,next to the rain on the right is a double row of tortoise#adc eggs 7doublemany71 as indicative of the tortoise1 which is a representative of dampness1 moisture1 and mud4 #adc ,probably a mud-tortoise4 ,the middle row of figures represents young 8piyung0 fruit4 ,the piyung has fruit when the rainy season begins1 and loses the ripe fruit at its close4 ,hence it is drawn as symbolic of the rainy season4 ,there now are1 as a matter of fact1 piyung trees that have fruit in the other months4 ,stevens showed some of these to the ,orang ,blendas1 and was informed that in the time of their ancestors the piyung trees had ripe fruit at the rainy season4 ,whether that was the case in their original home1 or whether another variety existed1 has yet to be settled4 ,probably the tradition of the ,orang ,blendas is correct1 even if it cannot be cleared up on all points4 ,the decoration of one bamboo is a formula to enable a man who wishes to build a house to easily find the necessary materials4 ,below is a band filled with cross-hatching1 like trellis-work1 meant for the wall of a house1 and standing for the whole house2 above this are several very diagrammatic representations of burnt trees which have remained after the firing of the jungle1 a forked branch of tree which is used as a prop1 palm leaves for thatching1 etc4 ,the rest of the bamboo is divided into longitudinal bands1 most of which look like attempts at decorative patterns1 but they really signify a liana with many leaves1 the frame-work of the roof of the house1 a ladder1 split leaves interlaced for thatching rattans1 while a zigzag line means the long path which goes from side to side1 and thus indicates the obstacles which befall the leaves for the thatch whilst they are being carried through the jungle4 ,one design is supposed to protect the harvest and the plantations round the house from injurious animals4 ,in it is represented a very diagrammatic house4 ,on the one side are plants with tubers growing on the sides of a hill1 for the ,orang ,blenda generally clear the sides of a hill for their plantations and houses4 ,on the other side of the house are depicted maize1 the kldi 7caladium7 with its edible tubers1 three sugar-canes with the edible shoots at the roots1 another plant of maize1 tapioca with its edible roots1 a variety of yam with its tubers1 and a banana2 in addition there are six immature trees1 and the punctate background denotes grass4 ,the upper part of the bamboo represents those animals which may destroy the gifts of the soil4 ,these are a caterpillar1 a rat1 two iguanas 7monitors or lace-lizards1 which go after hens' eggs72 next each lizard is a tree with leaves where they like to hide2 a row of dots on each side of the tree-trunks denote the upward and downward tracks of the animals at night4 ,there is also a tortoise with its young one1 and a pair of crescentic lines indicate the pool where the reptile lives4 ,another carved bamboo helps women to catch fish1 and also protects them from poisonous ones4 ,to the uninitiated many patterns would appear to be simple decorative devices1 but ,mr4 ,stevens has found that they have definite meanings2 for example1 rattan may be conventionally represented by a straight or a waved line1 or by two waved or zigzagged lines which1 when applied together1 form a series of ovals or diamonds4 ,a cross-hatched band may stand for a house1 the marking indicating a wall or the floor4 ,zigzags1 like those in ,fig4 #abb1 ,b1 indicate frogs' legs1 these stand for frogs themselves1 and these again are symbolic of water4 ,from the foregoing it is evident that it is only by making careful inquiries from the natives themselves that the meaning of most of the devices of savages can be elucidated4 ,what we are apt to consider as mere decoration may have a very definite magical or symbolic significance4 ,mr4 ,goodyear states#add that ,lieutenant ,frank ,cushing informed him that the patterns which the ,zuis borrow from foreign ware are supposed to endow their own pottery with the virtues of the foreign material and manufacture1 and that their use of borrowed patterns has this purpose4 #add ,the ,architectural ,record1 iii41 #ahic1 p4 #aci4 ,the same author1#ade referring to the decorative art of ,ancient ,egypt1 quotes as follows from ,professor ,maspero3--8,the object of decoration was not merely to delight the eye4 ,applied to a piece of furniture1 a coffin1 a house1 a temple1 decoration possessed a certain magical property1 of which the power or nature was determined by each word inscribed or spoken at the moment of consecration4 ,every object1 therefore1 was an amulet as well as an ornament40 #ade ,page #ade4 ,the tying of magic knots is a common expedient in sorcery1 as the following extracts from a short paper by ,dr4 ,march#adf will prove4 ,the malevolent tying of a knot brought mischief upon a man1 to be averted only by counter-plotting and counter-knotting4 ,sickness was caused by the invasion of a demon1 or by spells wrought by an enemy2 and evil spirits had to be exorcised1 and the knot of the spell-bound to be loosed4 #adf ,h4 ,colley ,march1 8,magic ,knots10 ,trans4 ,rochdale ,lit4 and ,sci4 ,soc4 ,the magical texts1 found in a biliteral form1 written in the ,accadian and the ,assyrian tongues1 furnish examples of which the following are specimens3-- ,may the god of herbs ,unloose the knot that has been knitted4 ,take the skin of a suckling that is still ungrown1 ,let the wise woman bind it to the right hand and double it on the left4 ,knit the knot seven times1 ,bind the head of the sick man4 ,so may the guardian priest cause the ban to depart ,from him1 and unloose the bond4 ,amongst the ,fins and the ,norsemen evil spells could be wrought by malevolently twisting into a magic knot the fibres of certain trees1 sometimes the birch1 but more often the willow2 and to unloose the knot was the surest way of undoing the mischief4 ,in the ,sigurd ,saga1 ,sigurd boasts to ,eystein1 8,on the way to ,palestine ,i came to ,apulia1 but1 brother1 ,i did not see thee there4 ,i went all the way to ,jordan and swam across the river4 ,on the bank there grows a bush of willows1 and there ,i twisted a knot of willows which is waiting there for thee4 ,for this knot ,i said thou shouldst untie1 brother1 or take the curse that is bound up in it40 ,tying knots as a means of witchcraft is still in force in the ,british ,islands1 as may be seen in the publications of the ,folk-,lore ,society4#adg ,these practices need not necessarily be with evil intent1 as the lovers' knot had for an object the firm binding of the lovers' affection to each other4 #adg ,cf4 for example1 ,folk-lore1 vi41 #ahie1 pp4 #aed1 #afj2 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,irish ,acad4 7#c71 ii41 #ahic1 p4 #hah4 ,it is probable that many of the knots carved on ancient monuments in ,northern ,europe have reference to this magical practice1 and it is conceivable from what is known to occur elsewhere that a representation of a knot might possess all the virtue of a real knot4 ,but knots in ,scandinavian art have also a symbolic significance and may be associated with ,midgarth's ,worm and the serpents in the ,norse pit of perdition4 ,on portals from ,veigusdal ,church1 in ,stersdal 7now in the ,christiania ,museum71 are carved incidents from the favourite legend of ,sigurd4 ,on one of them1 according to ,dr4 ,march1#adh may be seen the avaricious and ill-fated ,fafni slain and utterly dismembered1 passing into a maze of beautiful scrollwork4 ,the same story is illustrated on two sides of the ,halton ,cross2 here1 however1 the writhing knotted throes that elsewhere signify ,fafni's death take the form of a knot1 ,fafni himself not being represented4 #adh ,h4 ,c4 ,march1 8,the ,pagan-,christian ,overlap in the ,north10 ,trans4 ,lanc4 and ,cheshire ,ant4 ,soc41 ix41 #ahib4 #b4 ,totemism4 ,in the following brief account of totemism ,i borrow largely from a small but peculiarly valuable book by ,dr4 ,frazer4#adi 8,a totem is a class of material objects which a savage regards with superstitious respect1 believing that there exists between him and every member of the class an intimate and altogether special relation4444 ,as distinguished from a fetich1 a totem is never an isolated individual1 but always a class of objects1 generally a species of animals or plants4 #adi ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 ,totemism1 #ahhg4 7,an expansion of the article on 8,totemism0 in the ,encyclopedia ,britannica1 ninth edition47 8,considered in relation to men1 totems are of at least three kinds3--7#a7 ,the clan totem1 common to a whole clan1 and passing by inheritance from generation to generation2 7#b7 the sex totem1 common either to all the males or to all the females of a tribe1 to the exclusion in either case of the other sex2 7#c7 the individual totem1 belonging to a single individual and not passing to his descendants40 ,the first is by far the most important1 and we will confine ourselves to it alone4 8,the clan totem is reverenced by a body of men and women who call themselves by the name of the totem1 believe themselves to be of one blood1 descendants of a common ancestor1 and are bound together by common obligations to each other and by a common faith in the totem4 ,totemism is thus both a religious and a social system4 ,in its religious aspect it consists of the relations of mutual respect and protection between a man and his totem2 in its social aspect it consists of the relations of the clansmen to each other and to men of other clans4 ,in the later history of totemism these two sides tend to part company20 the social system sometimes survives the religious1 or the reverse may obtain4 ,the members of a totem clan call themselves by the name of their totem1 and commonly believe themselves to be actually descended from it4 ,for example1 ,i found that the following animals were totems in ,torres ,straits3 dog1 dugong1 cassowary1 crocodile1 snake1 turtle1 king-fish1 shark1 sting-ray1 giant-clam1 etc4 8,no cassowary-man would kill a cassowary2 if one was seen doing so his clansmen would #8fight him1 they feel sorry4 ,cassowary he all same as relation1 he belong same family4' ,the members of the cassowary clan were supposed to be especially good runners4 ,if there was going to be a fight a cassowary man would say to himself1 #8,my leg is long and thin1 ,i can run and not feel tired2 my legs will go quickly1 and the grass will not entangle them4'444 ,if a dog-man killed a dog his clansmen would #8fight' him1 but they would not do anything if an outsider killed one4 ,a member of this clan was supposed to have great sympathy with dogs1 and to understand them better than other men4444 ,no member of any clan might kill or eat the totem of that clan4 ,this prohibition did not apply to the totem of any clan other than that to which the person belonged40#aej #aej ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 8,the ,ethnography of the ,western ,tribe of ,torres ,straits10 ,journ4 ,anth4 ,inst41 xix41 #ahij1 p4 #cic4 ,the reader is referred to ,mr4 ,frazer's book for analogous beliefs and practices among various peoples4 ,the relation between a man and his totem is one of mutual help and protection4 ,if a man respects and cares for the totem1 he expects that the totem will do the same by him4 8,in order1 apparently1 to put himself more fully under the protection of the totem the clansman is in the habit of assimilating himself to the totem by dressing in the skin or other part of the totem animal1 arranging his hair and mutilating his body so as to resemble the totem1 and representing the totem on his body by cicatrices1 tattooing1 or paint0 7,frazer1 p4 #bf74 ,as a matter of fact1 there are comparatively few definite statements that markings on the person represent the totem of that person1 but there can be little doubt that this is of wide occurrence and probably has been universal4 ,some of the best authenticated examples come from ,north ,america4 ,hints have come from ,australia4 ,i have in ,torres ,straits seen four old women who had their totems cut into the small of their backs2 these were the dugong 7#b71 snake1 and sting-ray 7871 and ,i was informed that the men used to scarify the shoulder or the calf of the leg with the totem device1 or they carried about with them pieces of their totems or effigies of them4 ,the latest information on this subject is that collected by ,h4 ,vaughan ,stevens4#aea #aea 8,die ,zaubermuster der ,orang hutan10 ,hrolf ,vaughan ,stevens1 edited by ,albert ,grnwedel1 ,zeitschr4 f4 ,ethnol41 xxvi41 #ahid1 p4 #ada4 ,the ,orang ,sinnoi1 ,orang ,bersisi1 ,orang ,kenaboi1 ,orang ,tumior declare that they are descended from one and the same folk1 but that each tribe inhabited a separate island before the general immigration into ,malacca took place under ,bertjanggei ,besi4 ,the ,orang ,tumior were an exception to this collective migration1 as they had long before1 independently1 gone to ,malacca4 ,the tradition of this tribe is very vague1 but it is certain that they lived a long time separated from the other members of the group4 ,it appears that they learnt at that time tattooing from another people1 and confounded painting the face with tattooing4 ,for each of the three tribes1 ,orang ,sinnoi1 ,orang ,bersisi1 and ,orang ,kenaboi1 there was a distinct pattern1 which was identical as regards the way it was laid on and the materials employed1 but which varied in form4 ,in each of the three tribes the chief and the ordinary man and woman have the same race-marks4 ,only among the ,orang ,sinnoi the women and ordinary men had a particular pattern for the breast4 ,the sorcerer1 or medicine-man1 in each of the three tribes wore during an act of magic a painting suitable to the occasion2 when not performing1 he wore his usual painting4 ,the following is given as the origin of the pattern of the totem and its further development into the patterns of the different families3--,in the olden time1 when the people of the ,orang ,blendas still lived under their chiefs and under-chiefs1 paintings were made on the face for all assemblies1 which were the old indigenous patterns for the peninsula4 ,but as the group became broken up owing to the influx of the ,malays1 and intermarried with foreign and weakened folk1 the patterns fell through and sub-divisions arose4 ,among all the three tribes 7,sinnoi1 ,kenaboi1 and ,bersisi7 there was once a powerful clan1 which bore the snake totem4 ,owing to the many changes they had to undergo1 the members of this totem separated from one another and founded new families in different parts of the peninsula4 ,the totem varied according to the practice of the folk1 each newly-developed clan modified the ground pattern1 one took a python1 one a cobra1 another a hamadryas1 etc42 they all retained the snake and varied their pattern according to the species4 ,similarly arose the sub-divisions of the fish 7sting-fish7 and leaf clans4 ,these totem figures of the separated families then became used only to mark out objects appertaining to them2 they were scratched on the blow-pipes and used as a face-painting when the whole family assembled together on festivals or on important debates4 ,as the great assemblies of all the groups fell into disuse1 the old stem-marks gradually became worthless1 so that1 to-day1 but few know the appearance of the old stem-marks4 ,as regards the materials used1 all the ,orang ,blendas agree in saying that a red earth was employed1 which is not to be found on the peninsula4 ,the so-called 8anatto0 7,bixa orellana7 is used as a substitute for this earth1 but it is not worth much1 as it fades away in about an hour4 ,the black colour is made with charcoal1 the white with lime4 ,the red colour is always laid on with the finger1 consequently the stripe is narrower with the women than with the men4 ,these observations of ,mr4 ,stevens1 together with hints1 rather than definite statements1 which have been made from various parts of the world1 suggest the conclusion that the painting1 tattooing1 or scarifying of designs on the body is mainly due to totemism4 ,a good deal of body-painting has other significances1 as when it is done for religious ceremonies or for inspiring terror among the enemy when on the war-path2 but it would probably be fair to assume that the origin of what may be termed domestic tattooing or scarification belongs to totemism4 ,here1 again1 is a fascinating and unworked field for research4 ,there is a very practical reason for the custom of marking the body with the totem4 ,the religious aspect of totemism has been briefly described1 this is the relation between a man and his totem2 but there is also the relation of the men of a totem to each other and to men of other totems1 or the social aspect of totemism1 which deserves a passing notice4 8,all the members of a totem clan regard each other as kinsmen or brothers and sisters1 and are bound to help and protect each other4 ,the totem bond is stronger than the bond of blood or family in the modern sense4444 ,to kill a fellow-clansmen is a heinous offence4 ,in ,mangaia ,hervey ,islands #8such a blow was regarded as falling upon the god totem himself2 the literal sense of 8ta atua0 to kill a member of the same totem clan being god-striking or god-killing4'0#aeb #aeb ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs of the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #ch4 ,quoted by ,frazer1 loc4 cit41 p4 #eh4 ,persons of the same totem may not marry or have sexual intercourse with each other4 ,amongst some peoples this rule is rigidly adhered to2 the penalty for infringing this rule may be the vengeance of supernatural powers1 but most frequently the clan steps in and punishes the offenders4 ,amongst the more primitive totemistic peoples the death penalty is usually enforced1 but in any case the punishment is always severe4 ,when other social conditions modify totemism these sexual restrictions are weakened and the punishment for offences is diminished4 ,there are some ,australian tribes in which the members of any clan are free to marry members of any clan but their own2 but more frequently an ,australian tribe is divided into groups of clans1 and a person can marry only into certain of these groups2 an exogamous clan-group is known as a phratry4 ,thus a man is a possible husband to all the women of one or more phratries of his tribe1 but he is brother to all the women of the remaining phratries4 8,a remarkable feature of the ,australian social organisation is that divisions of one tribe have their recognised equivalent in other tribes1 whose languages1 including the names for the tribal divisions1 are quite different4 ,a native who travelled far and wide through ,australia stated that #8he was furnished with temporary wives by the various tribes with whom he sojourned in his travels2 that his right to these women was recognised as a matter of course2 and that he could always ascertain whether they belonged to the division into which he could legally marry1 though the places were one thousand miles apart1 and the languages quite different4'0#aec #aec ,fison and ,howitt1 ,kamilaroi and ,kurnai1 p4 #ec2 cf4 ,brough ,smyth1 ,the ,aborigines of ,victoria1 i4 p4 #ia1 quoted by ,frazer1 p4 #fg4 ,i am not aware that any one has attempted to study the totem and divisional body-marks of the ,australian tribes4 ,this can only be done through careful and laborious investigations conducted among the natives2 it cannot be accomplished in the study or in museums4 ,if ,australian anthropologists do not bestir themselves without delay this information will be irrevocably lost4 ,every year passed makes it more difficult to do1 and soon it will be too late4 ,the origin of tattooing or scarifying of the person receives a fresh significance from these ,australian customs4 ,the marks appear to be1 not so much tribal distinctions for political purposes1 but clan badges of social significance with the object of preventing persons from falling into the sin of unwitting clan incest2 they are1 in fact1 religious symbols which make for social purity4 ,it is obvious that the knowledge of these symbols has to be learnt by the young people1 and hence this forms an important part of the information of lads imparted during the initiation ceremonies4 ,the main religious object of these initiation ceremonies is the assimilation of the youth with his totem1 and the consequent formal adoption into the clan of that totem4 ,thence follows the social aspect of that adoption1 and the newly-made man is instructed in his social duties2 he is taught the code of sexual permissions and prohibitions1 and the knowledge of personal marks and gestures by means of which he can communicate his totem to1 or to ascertain the totems of1 strangers whose language he does not understand4 ,it is a common1 possibly a universal custom1 for totemistic peoples to decorate their belongings with their totems4 ,this is well known to occur in ,north ,america4 ,the ,thlinkets paint or carve their totem on shields1 helmets1 canoes1 blankets1 household furniture1 and houses4 ,in single combats between chosen champions of different ,thlinket clans1 each wears a helmet representing his totem4 ,in front of the houses of the chiefs and leading men of the ,haidas are erected posts carved with the totems of the inmates4 ,as the houses sometimes contain several families of different totems1 the post often exhibits a number of totems1 carved one above the other4 ,or these carvings one above the other represent the paternal totems in the female line1 which1 descent being in the female line1 necessarily change from generation to generation4 ,the totem is painted or carved on the clansman's tomb or grave-post1 the figure being sometimes reversed to denote death4 ,it is always the ,indian's totem name1 not his personal name1 which is thus recorded4 ,other examples will be found in ,mr4 ,frazer's valuable little book4 ,i have already 7p4 #ag7 referred to the delineation of totem animals on drums1 pipes1 and other objects from ,torres ,straits and the adjoining coast of ,new ,guinea4 ,two representations of a totem are usually placed symmetrically on the object2 ,i rather suspect that this is the rule4 ,the cassowary is the most frequent animal on the drums1 and ,i have reason to believe that only a certain clan1 or clans1 can beat the drums1 in which case it is evident that the cassowary men are the chief if not the sole musicians4 ,when the totem representations are realistic in character there is no difficulty in recognising them2 but this is by no means the usual case4 ,abundant evidence has been given in this book of the degeneration of animal forms into simple decorative devices4 ,many savages1 however1 lay no stress upon realism4 ,a certain simple or complex mark represents a given object1 it may not in the very least resemble that object any more than the written or printed name of an animal bears any relation to that animal4 ,the mark is a sign for that object1 and if it can be recognised1 it answers its purpose4 ,in many cases it can be shown that the mark is in reality a degraded picture of the object1 in a vast number of examples we have no evidence4 ,on looking through collections of ,australian weapons in museums1 or in glancing over the illustrations to works on ,australia1 one is struck by the fact that a large number of objects are decorated with simple devices1 and further that there is a very great deal of uniformity in the designs4 ,considering the size of that continent and the numerous tribes of its sparse native population1 the paucity of artistic motives is very remarkable4 ,the conclusion is pretty obvious1 these designs must be representations of totems4 ,at present we have no proof of this1 nor are there sufficient data for the collation and assignation of the designs4 ,dr4 ,e4 ,grosse#aed is the sole anthropologist who has studied ,australian art1 but he has not been able to do more than enunciate general principles1 owing to the absence of authoritative information from the natives4 ,it is to be hoped that residents in ,australia will learn all they can from the natives about their art before the knowledge is lost4 #aed ,e4 ,grosse1 ,die ,anfnge der ,kunst1 #ahid1 p4 #aab4 ,a slight acquaintance with decorated objects from ,australia will reveal the very common occurrence of angular designs--zigzags1 chevrons1 diamonds1 and so forth4 ,as ,dr4 ,grosse truly says3#aed 8,one is accustomed to describe these primitive ornaments as geometrical2 and then it is not difficult to confound the name with the thing1 so one quotes the geometric pattern occasionally as evidence for the natural predilection of the simplest people for the simplest sthetic motive1 but no proof is advanced for this peculiar predilection1 because in the bulk of the philosophy of art the a priori method remains unshaken4 ,all primitive ornaments are not what they seem to be4 ,we shall see that they have at bottom nothing whatever in common with geometric figures4444 ,it is certainly not always easy to recognise the original form of a primitive ornament4 ,when one considers the zigzag or the diamond pattern of an ,australian shield1 it appears that our assertion is without doubt that this is destitute of animal forms1 and it will appear doubly certain when we acknowledge that in most cases we cannot directly know it4 ,it was certainly a wonder to us when we knew it4 ,the ornament of the ,australians has been by no means systematically investigated4 ,even in the comprehensive work of ,brough ,smyth it is dismissed in some very general and very superficial remarks4 ,in fact1 no one has so much as taken the pains to ask the natives the meaning of the different patterns40 ,dr4 ,grosse then goes on to point out that 8most of the ornament of the lower folk1 as far as it has been investigated and as the ,australian should be studied1 is known to be imitations of animal or human forms4 ,nowhere has ornament so markedly a geometrical character as among the ,brazilian tribes4 ,their rectilinear patterns suggest to a ,european1 who contemplates them in a museum1 anything else rather than natural forms4 ,but ,ehrenreich1 who has studied them on the spot1 has irrefutably demonstrated that they represent neither more nor less than animals or parts of animals40 ,in the section which deals with zoomorphs ,i describe some of these remarkable patterns1 and to avoid repetition ,i would refer the reader to that description4 ,we must now review all the evidence which is before us1 and slender though it is1 there is sufficient to justify ,dr4 ,grosse in arriving at his general conclusions4 ,p4 ,chauncy1 in ,appendix ,a4 to ,brough ,smyth's work 7ii4 p4 #bea71 writes3 8,some of the ancients took much delight in ornamenting their shields with all sorts of figures--birds1 beasts1 and the inanimate works of ,nature4 ,in like manner1 the natives of ,western ,australia--at least some tribes north from ,perth--adorn their narrow shields40 ,brough ,smyth 7i4 p4 #bid7 says3 8,in ornamenting their rugs they copied from nature4 ,one man told ,mr4 ,bulmer#aee that he got his ideas from the observation of natural objects4 ,he had copied the markings on a piece of wood made by the grub known as ,krang2 and from the scales of snakes and the markings of lizards he derived new forms4 ,the natives never1 in adorning their rugs or weapons1 as far as ,mr4 ,bulmer knows1 imitate the forms of plants or trees40 ,on p4 #bhd he says3 8,on a few of the weapons appear rude figures of men and four-footed animals4 ,one figure of a man shown by lines on a club is in the dress and attitude of a native dancing in a corroborree4 ,the carvings are confined to their weapons of wood4 ,not one of the bone implements in my possession has a single line engraven on it4 ,there are peculiarities in the arrangement of the lines on the ornamented shields of the ,west ,australian natives which suggest that some meaning--understood only by the warriors themselves--is conveyed by such representations4 ,the natives of ,victoria often used forms the meaning of which is discoverable now4444 ,in like manner1 the natives of the ,upper ,darling represented on their shields figures in imitation of the totems of their tribes4 ,one in my possession has engraven on it the figure of an iguana4 ,collins#aef states that in ornamenting their weapons and instruments1 each tribe used some peculiar form by which it was known to what part of the country they belonged40 ,in the ,introduction 7p4 liv47 we read1 8,there are1 amongst some tribes1 conventionalised forms1 evidently2 and it is of the utmost importance to ascertain to what extent these are used1 and by what tribes they are understood40 ,these remarks are as applicable to the designs on weapons and other objects as to the message-sticks to which our author was then more particularly referring4 ,after contrasting the drawings of the native human figure by the ,australians with the rude drawings of men made by ,european children1 he continues 7i4 p4 #bhe73 8,in like manner the natives have conventional forms for trees1 lakes1 and streams2 and in transmitting information to friends in remote tribes they use the conventional forms1 but in many cases modified1 and in some cases so simplified as to be in reality rather symbols than diagrams or pictures40 8,they often record events deemed worthy of note on their throwing-sticks0 7ii4 p4 #bei74 #aee ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,bulmer1 of ,lake ,tyers in ,gippsland4 #aef ,an ,account of the ,english ,colony in ,new ,south ,wales1 #ahjd1 p4 #cgg4 ,brough ,smyth describes the various kinds of angular patterns delineated by the natives of ,australia1 and concerning the figures cut on certain boomerangs and other missiles from ,queensland1 he says 7i4 p4 #bhe71 8,all these forms have a meaning intelligible to the blacks of that part of the continent40 8,the information which ,bulmer has preserved10 writes ,dr4 ,grosse1 8solves the problem of ,australian ornament4 ,it does not tell us how we can interpret it1 but it does tell us why we can know next to nothing about it4 ,if the whole form of an animal is represented as an ornamental motive1 it is possible to recognise it even in a diagrammatic distorted representation1 for this at least1 as a rule1 approaches the original form2 but in most ,australian patterns only portions of animals occur1 and the natives most frequently delineate their signs for skins2 in this case it is next to impossible for a ,european to elucidate their signification1 especially as the implicated natural forms are almost always conventionally rendered4 ,our explanation is1 as we previously stated1 not strictly proved2 but the old doctrine1 which takes primitive ornament for freely constructed geometrical figures1 is just as little so40 ,dr4 ,grosse maintains that his interpretation is in harmony with what is known of the nature of primitive folk1 and reminds us that ,ehrenreich has shown us that appearances may be deceptive4 ,he then goes on to suggest that the decoration on a certain shield that he figures is an imitation of a snake's skin1 that on another shield the representation of a bird1 and the diamonds and zigzags scored on other shields as conventional representations of feathers1 hairs1 or scales4 ,those interpretations may or may not be correct1 and the reader should be on his guard not to take suppositions for facts4 ,dr4 ,grosse may have more evidence than he has been able to present to his readers2 but1 while adopting his main thesis1 ,i do not think that1 without such evidence1 we can identify the originals of the designs4 8,besides such skin-patterns10 continues ,dr4 ,grosse1 8,australian ornament makes use of representations of entire men and animals4 ,on clubs and throwing-sticks one frequently finds the engraved outlines of kangaroos1 lizards1 snakes1 and fish1 and especially frequently the figure of a corroborree-dancer in a characteristic attitude4 ,the delineation of these figures is mainly crude and conventional2 but in spite of this their meaning is nearly always quite intelligible40 8,the ,australian warrior stands in the same relation to his kobong totem animal as the ,european knight did towards his heraldic animal 444 and as the ,european warrior paints a bear or an eagle on his shield1 so the ,australian ornaments his with a representation of a kangaroo or a snake's skin4 ,the knowledge that the ornaments on ,australian weapons are to a large extent heraldic designs1 clears up at the same time two points which we have already mentioned1 but have not yet elucidated--the frequent employment of animal skin-patterns1 and their peculiar conventional rendering4 ,the native whose kobong totem is perhaps a very large animal--and in this position most find themselves--manifestly can decorate his shield with no more suitable clan-mark and no more efficacious fetich than the skin of his heraldic animal4 ,the actual skin may or may not have been employed1 and in this latter case an engraved or painted representation was substituted4 ,these representations are scarcely ever true to nature1 most of them remind one in their angular and stiff regularity more of a plait-work than of a pelt or plumage40 ,dr4 ,grosse goes on to point out that this conventional treatment is intentional on the part of the ,australian native1 and is not due to lack of skill either in the delineation of animals or in wood-carving4 8,the fact is these skin-markings are heraldic designs2 but heraldic drawing aims at truth to nature as little in ,australia as in ,europe4 ,it therefore by no means happens that the actual pattern of a kangaroo or of a snake should be drawn true to nature1 but it comes about that a kangaroo or snake-pattern represents a definite clan40 ,although the greater part of ,australian decorative art is probably totemistic in origin1 there is a residue1 the elucidation of which must be sought in other directions1 but these do not at present concern us4 ,mr4 ,andrew ,lang has turned his attention to many anthropological subjects1 and that of 8the art of savages0#aeg has not been passed over by him2 but he has perhaps plunged into it without due consideration4 ,doubtless he himself would now modify the statement that 8the absence of the rude imitative art of heraldry among a race which possesses all the social conditions that produce this art is a fact worth noticing1 and itself proves that the native art of one of the most backward races we know is not essentially imitative40 ,instead of 8the patterns on ,australian shields and clubs1 the scars which they raise on their own flesh10 being 8very rarely imitations of any objects in nature10 we may now regard most of them as probably indicating such objects4 #aeg ,a4 ,lang1 ,custom and ,myth1 #ahhd1 p4 #bgf4 ,it is1 perhaps1 scarcely going too far to assert that a very considerable part of the decorative and glyptic art of many primitive peoples has been inspired by totemism2 but it must be remembered that we have no positive evidence of totemism among a very considerable number of peoples4 ,as animals are the most frequent totems1 so zoomorphs and their derivatives are as constantly in evidence in the art of these people4 ,the artistic representations become modified as totemism itself becomes modified4 ,i can only very briefly allude to some of the probable stages in the later evolution of totemism4 ,the attribution of human qualities to the totem is the essence of totemism1 and the tribal totem tends to pass into an anthropomorphic god4 ,mr4 ,frazer points out that there are often numerous sub-totems associated with each of the main totems1 and suggests that there is a sort of life-history of totems1 8as sub-totems they are growing2 as clan totems they are grown2 as sub-phratric and phratric totems they are in successive stages of decay40 ,he also puts forward the view that these subordinate totems are regarded as incarnations of the gods or god in process of evolution1 and as the latter rise more and more into human form1 so the former 8sink from the dignity of incarnations into the humbler character of favourites and clients2 until1 at a later age1 the links which bound them to the god having wholly faded from memory1 a generation of mythologists arises who seek to patch up the broken chain by the cheap method of symbolism4 ,but symbolism is only the decorous though transparent veil which a refined age loves to throw over its own ignorance of the past40 ,so far ,i have mainly referred to the employment of the representation of totem animals as badges1 but they are also made use of to indicate descent4 ,ancestor worship is an important element in the religion of many peoples1 and the art which illustrates this naturally varies according to the plane of culture at which a given people have arrived4 ,when a people are in a totemistic plane of culture their ancestors will usually be represented as animals1 the same holds good for those that have but recently emerged from this phase4 ,this we know is the explanation of some of the well-known totem-posts and animal carvings of the natives of ,british ,columbia1 and it probably holds good for many of the intricate grotesque carvings from ,new ,ireland4 ,when the totem has been evolved into an anthropomorphic god1 human 7i4e4 god7 forms are represented in the genealogy1 as occurs on the decorated adzes of the ,hervey ,islands 7pp4 #bgj-bgd74 ,it is incorrect to term all worship of or attention paid to animals as 8,totemism40 ,in a great number of cases this may have been the origin of a cult1 but it is a mistake to apply the lower term when the cult is sublimated into a higher form of religion4 ,that a considerable part of the religion of ancient ,greece had its origin in ,totemism is generally admitted2 but the animal attributes of most of their deities would not characterise the religion of the most cultured ,greeks as totemistic4#aeh ,the ox1 the bear1 the mouse1 wild beasts and birds1 and similar associates of the ,olympian hierarchy1 whatever they were to the ancients1 are to us milestones which marked the road traversed by ,hellenic religion2 the ,egyptian had been petrified at an earlier phase4 #aeh ,cf4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 8,animal ,worship in the ,mycenan ,age10 ,journ4 ,hellenic ,studies1 xiv41 #ahid1 p4 #ha4 ,mr4 ,cook says3 8,on the whole1 ,i gather that the ,mycenan worshippers were not totemists pure and simple1 but that the mode of the worship points to its having been developed out of still earlier totemism0 7p4 #aeh74 ,in the sacred bird of ,western ,oceania1 we can probably trace the commencement of totemistic sublimation4 ,the cult of the frigate-bird is characteristic of ,melanesia1 and apparently also extends to the ,pelew ,islands4 ,dr4 ,codrington 7,the ,melanesians1 #ahia1 p4 #ade7 informs us that at ,florida in the ,solomon ,group they pray as follows to 8,daula1 a tindalo generally known and connected with the frigate-bird a tindalo is the ghost or spirit of a man endowed with mana1 that is superhuman power or influence3 #8,do thou draw the canoe1 that it may reach the land2 speed my canoe1 grandfather1 that ,i may quickly reach the shore whither ,i am bound1' etc4 ,daula is invoked to aid in fishing 444 after a good catch he is praised40 ,on p4 #ahj we read1 8,the sacred character of the frigate-bird is certain2 the figure of it1 however conventional1 is the most common ornament employed in the ,solomon ,islands1 and is even cut upon the hands of the ,bugotu people2 the oath by its name of daula is solemn and binding in ,florida2 where ,daula is a tindalo1 many and powerful to aid at sea are the ghosts which abide in these birds40 ,who ,daula was1 when he was a living man1 has 8passed far away from any historical remembrance0 7p4 #abf74 ,in his interesting little book on ,the ,evolution of ,decorative ,art1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,balfour gives illustrations of conventional representations of the frigate-bird in the ,solomon ,islands 7,figs4 #aa1 #bf74 ,in ,figs4 #bf1 #bg1 #be1 he shows a gradation between a 8bird-like canoe charm10 through a 8human-headed bird canoe-charm10 to a 8canoe fetich10 the latter having a very prognathous human head4#aei ,the mergence of a frigate-bird's into a human head may be due1 as ,mr4 ,balfour suggests1 to one design acting upon the other1 or it may be the artistic expression of the cult described by ,dr4 ,codrington4 #aei ,in a letter ,dr4 ,codrington writes3 8,i do not think that the very prognathous human head has anything to do with a bird4 ,if you look at the very excellent coloured frontispiece to ,brenchley's ,voyage of the ,curaoa1 representing a canoe on a voyage1 you will see that all the men are excessively prognathous4 ,the original is in the ,maidstone ,museum4 ,i have looked at my few ,solomon ,island things--a common bowl supported by two human figures1 which are just the same4 ,a carved bit of soft stone and the head of a betel lime stick1 things just cut for amusement1 have the same prognathism4 ,in fact ,i believe that the ordinary representation of the human head is such1 the more prognathous the better it is liked40 ,the canoes of the ,solomon ,islands often have as a figure-head the carved representation of the upper part of a man who holds in his hands another human head4#afj ,the human figure is possibly an image of the tindalo in ,daula4 7,dr4 ,codrington states that a tindalo is always the spirit of a real deceased man4#afj7 ,the carvings of birds on the bow of a canoe are practically invocations to the sacred and powerful frigate-bird4 #afj 8,it is certain that1 according to the ,florida people 7and their neighbours who use the word71 a tindalo was once a man2 but there are some whose names they know and of whom they know nothing as men4 ,i am by no means of opinion that there was once a man named ,daula4 ,the name of the frigate-bird being kaula in ,ulawa is against that 7ktd74 ,rather daula is the name of the bird1 and the birds are vehicles of tindalos4 ,so as every tindalo who takes up his abode in a shark is ,bagea in ,florida 7a common shark being bagea71 so every tindalo in a frigate-bird is ,daula40--,,dr4 ,,codrington in a letter to the author4 ,the face or head carried in the hands of the human figure-heads 78canoe god10 8charm10 or 8fetich07 8represents that taken when the canoe was first used40 ,a canoe of importance 8required a life for its inauguration40 ,dr4 ,codrington 7loc4 cit41 p4 #bif7 alludes to other adjuncts to the bow of canoes which give protection and success4 #c4 ,religion4 ,the opening remarks in the section dealing with sympathetic magic were largely borrowed from ,dr4 ,frazer1 and ,i again have recourse to that author for the following sketch of the incipient religion of primitive folk4 ,the savage fails to recognise those limitations to his power over nature which seem so obvious to us4 ,in a society where every man is supposed to be endowed more or less with powers which we should call supernatural1 it is plain that the distinction between gods and men is somewhat blurred1 or rather has scarcely emerged4 ,the conception of gods as supernatural beings entirely distinct from and superior to man1 and wielding powers to which he possesses nothing comparable in degree and hardly even in kind1 has been slowly evolved in the course of history4 ,at first the world is regarded as a great democracy2 but with the growth of his knowledge man realises more clearly the vastness of nature and his own feebleness2 this1 however1 enhances his conception of the power of those supernatural beings with which his imagination peoples the universe4 ,if he feels himself to be so frail and slight1 how vast and powerful must he deem the beings who control the gigantic machinery of nature6 ,thus1 as his old sense of equality with gods slowly vanishes1 he resigns at the same time the hope of directing the course of nature by his own unaided resources1 that is1 by magic1 and looks more and more to the gods as the sole repositories of those supernatural powers which he once claimed to share with them4 ,with the first advance of knowledge1 therefore1 prayer and sacrifice assume the leading place in religious ritual2 and magic1 which once ranked with them as a legitimate equal1 is gradually relegated to the background1 and sinks to the level of a black art4 ,it is now regarded as an encroachment1 at once vain and impious1 on the domain of the gods1 and as such encounters the steady opposition of the priests1 whose reputation and influence gain or lose with those of their gods4 ,hence1 when at a late period the distinction between religion and superstition has emerged1 we find that sacrifice and prayer are the resource of the pious and enlightened portion of the community1 while magic is the refuge of the superstitious and ignorant4 ,throughout the whole of this slow evolution ornamental art has attempted to visualise the religious conceptions of the period4 ,it would probably be more correct to regard the pictorial representations of religion as usually illustrating a past rather than a present aspect of belief4 ,for a drawing1 like a creed1 fixes a type1 and the form has a tendency to be repeated unconscious of the fact that the spirit may have burst its bonds and soared into a higher region4 ,not only does the motive of religious art vary according to the stage of evolution of the religion which it illustrates1 but the art itself is subject to modification as it enters into new phases of what ,i have termed its life-history4 ,totemism is one phase of religion1 but owing to its great importance in the economy of primitive peoples ,i have treated it in an independent section4 ,as totemism gradually shades off into god-worship so its artistic symbolism is merged into that of divinities1 but it often persists to an unexpected extent4 ,it is only possible for me to touch lightly on a few of the aspects of religious art from the anthropologist's point of view4 ,as the gods were being evolved it was very important for men to retain the remembrance of those family ties between them and mankind which were in danger of being snapped through the length to which they were drawn and the degree of attenuation which consequently ensued4 ,the statements of tradition as to the descent of mortals from gods are re-enforced by the representations of artists of the unlettered races1 just as they are enshrined in the written cosmogonies of more cultured folk2 the main difference being that any one may understand the one if he knows the written characters1 whereas the other is practically a pictograph1 and requires the interpretation of the natives who have the traditional knowledge of the symbols4 ,we are probably justified in assuming that very early in time 7and it is still widely spread among backward peoples7 was the custom of carving or painting the pedigree of the man from the god--of the human from the divine4 ,as the god is lost down the ages in the totem so too his eikon is merged into the resemblance of some animal-form4 ,in the intermediary stage we have those monstrous forms which the enlightened pagans endeavoured to rationalise and even to spiritualise4 8,yet half a beast is the great god ,pan40 ,the beautiful wood-carving formerly executed by the natives of the ,hervey ,group in the ,south ,pacific affords an excellent example of the relation of religion to decorative art4 ,the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,wyatt ,gill states that a significance is 8invariably attached to ancient ,polynesian carving10 and he and a few other missionaries have given suggestive hints1 but without reference to the actual designs4 ,dr4 ,h4 ,stolpe1 of ,stockholm1 was the first ethnographer to study ,polynesian art from a scientific point of view1 and his paper#afa on ,evolution in the ,ornamental ,art of ,savages is a model of this particular kind of research4 ,he asserts 8,that the carved ornament in ,polynesia always had a meaning4444 ,polynesians cling tenaciously to ancient customs1 though often they are no longer capable of accounting for their original meaning4444 ,if one asks the reason of a device or a custom1 one usually gets no satisfactory information4444 ,should any one1 therefore1 to-day1 ask a native of these islands whether the ornamentation here delineated has any significance1 and the reply should be #8no1' ,i could not recognise in it any decisive evidence4 ,our previous investigations suffice of themselves to prove that the forms of development of the old primitive images1 highly conventionalised1 must have a symbolic significance4 ,they symbolise1 they stand in place of1 the primitive image4 ,they are to be considered as a sort of cryptograph4 ,by means of perpetual reiteration of certain ornamental elements1 they suggest the divinity to whose service the decorated implement was in some way dedicated40 ,a dozen years ago ,dr4 ,stolpe stated that the linear ornaments on the carved ,mangaian adzes were for the most part to be regarded as transformed figures of human beings1 or especially as divine beings4 7,fig4 #abd47 #afa ,h4 ,stolpe1 ,utvecklingsfreteelser i ,naturfolkens ,ornamentik4 ,ymer1 #ahij4 ,translated into ,english by ,mrs4 ,march1 8,evolution in the ,ornamental ,art of ,savage ,people10 ,trans4 ,rochdale ,lit4 and ,sci4 ,soc41 #ahib2 and into ,german1 ,mittheil4 ,anth4 ,gesell4 ,wien1 #ahib1 xxii4 p4 #dc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abd4--,stretching-cleat of a drum from ,mangaia1 in the ,berlin ,museum2 from ,march1 after ,stolpe4 ,two-thirds natural size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abe4--,rubbings from the handles of symbolic adzes from the ,hervey ,islands4 ,a1 ,free ,library ,museum1 ,belfast2 ,b1 ,c1 ,belfast ,nat4 ,hist4 ,mus4 ,one-third natural size4 ,mr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,read1 of the ,british ,museum1 independently#afb arrived at a similar conclusion to ,dr4 ,stolpe's1 and ,dr4 ,march#afc has carried the argument a step further4 ,dr4 ,stolpe proved that a design generally known as the ,k pattern1 but which it is better to call the tiki-tiki pattern1 sometimes interrupted1 but generally continuous1 is in reality a string of human figures1 the two horizontal zigzags being limbs1 and the vertical bars that join them being the headless bodies4 7,fig4 #abe1 ,a47 #afb ,c4 ,h4 ,read1 8,on the ,origin and ,sacred ,character of certain ,ornaments of the ,s4,e4 ,pacific10 ,jour4 ,anth4 ,inst41 xxi41 #ahia1 p4 #aci4 #afc ,h4 ,colley ,march1 8,polynesian ,ornament a ,mythography2 or a ,symbolism of ,origin and ,descent10 ,jour4 ,anth4 ,inst41 xxii41 #ahic1 p4 #cjg4 ,these figures1 which almost cover the handle of a ,mangaian paddle or adze1 are obviously related to the female forms that are carved on the terminal of its shaft 7,figs4 #abg1 #abh71 and are morphologically derived from them by a process of evolution4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abf4--,rubbing of part of the decoration of a ,mangaian symbolic paddle1 ,norwich ,museum4 ,natural size4 ,the headless figures are quite recognisable in ,fig4 #abe1 ,a1 but the fore-arms and shanks of each of them are absent1 their places being taken by the upper arms and thighs of the contiguous figures4 ,in ,b the serial individuals are separated by narrow vertical clefts2 the latter persist in ,c1 but the two boundary lines between the rows of figures are fused into a single line4 ,in ,fig4 #abf we have a large area 7the blade of a paddle7 divided into a number of parallel lines between which are diamonds1 which may or may not be connected by horizontal lines4 ,a careful inspection will show that the vertical lines are continuous body-lines2 the horizontal lines are the same as those in ,fig4 #abe1 ,a1 but the two lines are fused into one2 the zigzags are clearly limbs4 ,the absence of the horizontal lines simplifies the pattern1 and so each diamond consists in its upper part of the leg1 and in its lower part of the arms of human figures whose bodies are represented by the vertical lines4 ,the pattern in the lower half of ,fig4 #abg can be derived from the last by the introduction of an intermediate series of vertical lines4 ,curvilinear patterns1 as in the lower part of ,fig4 #abh1 are common on objects from these islands2 they are evidently derived from the thighs of serial human forms1 as in ,fig4 #abg1 and ,plate ,,vi41 ,fig4 #ac4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg4--,rubbing of part of the carving of the handle of a symbolic paddle from the ,hervey ,islands1 in the ,natural ,history ,museum1 ,belfast4 ,one-half natural size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--,rubbing of 8part of the terminal of a paddle-shaped implement in the ,vienna ,museum02 from ,march1 after ,stolpe4 ,two-thirds natural size4 8,it is abundantly certain10 adds ,dr4 ,march1 8that the forms that crown the shaft are those of women1 for they are invariably distinguished by pendant-pointed breasts4 ,the solitary exception that ,dr4 ,stolpe has been able to find is one in appearance only1 for in his ,fig4 #bc the breasts are really fused into a single cone1 exactly as are the legs in his ,fig4 #bd0 7p4 #cbb74 ,dr4 ,march's contribution is that these carved shafts of sacred paddles and adzes were pedigree-sticks4 ,descent is traced through the male line as a rule among the ,polynesians1 but it is certain that some tribes traced their descent through the female line4 ,dr4 ,gill states that this was in some places simply a matter of arrangement4 ,dr4 ,gill tells us that the designs on these shafts were called 8tiki-tiki-tangata20 tangata means a man1 or in this combination connotes human1 for in a ,polynesian word compounded of two nouns1 that which comes last has a secondary1 explanatory1 or adjectival force4 ,tiki was the first man1 and when he died1 ruled the entrance of the under-world4 ,the name signifies a 8fetched0 soul2 the spirit of a dead man the frequentative or plural tiki-tiki must mean spirits in succession1 or 8ancestors40 8,the conclusion now drawn is that tiki-tiki-tangata were the multitudinous human links between the divine ancestor and the chief of the living tribe4 ,but to what ancestry did these pedigrees of female lineage assert a claim8 ,from what goddess was it the pride of ,mangaians to be descended1 unless from the mother1 the wife and the daughter-wife of ,rongo--from ,tu-metua1 ,taka1 and ,tavake4 8,in ,mangaia all the gods were called the children of ,vatea1 and of these ,tane was one4 ,his name indicates the generative principle in ,nature4 ,in ,mangaia he was especially the drum-god and the axe#afd-;god2 he presided over the erotic dance as well as over the war-dances4 ,gill observes#afe that #8,tane mata ariki1' ,tane with the royal face1 was enshrined in a sacred triple axe1#afd which symbolised the three priestly families on the island of ,mangaia4 ,this axe was buried in a cave1 and has disappeared4 ,the ,k pattern which covers the shafts of the sacred ,mangaian axe1#afd is an assertion of a ,tane pedigree1 the tiki-tiki-tangata of the clan4 #8,awake ,tane6' was the invocation1#aff #8,awake unnumbered progeny of ,tane6'0 7,march1 p4 #cca74 #afd ,probably an adze1 not an axe4 #afe ,w4 ,wyatt ,gill1 ,jottings from the ,pacific1 #ahhe1 p4 #bbd4 #aff ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 #ahdj1 i4 p4 #cdc4 #d4 ,religious ,symbolism4 ,the study of religious symbols#afg is not only a very extensive and extremely attractive undertaking1 but it is one of peculiar difficulty1 for with it is combined1 not a danger1 but a certainty of falling into errors4 ,there is hardly a subject upon which such diverse views can be proposed and even maintained with a fair amount of presumptive evidence4 #afg ,cf4 pp4 #aai1 #abb1 #bac4 ,the danger of making mistakes is1 however1 considerably lessened if a scientific method of study is adopted1 and if speculation is reduced to a minimum4 ,no better example of the method of such a study is to be found than in ,count ,goblet d',alviella's book on ,the ,migration of ,symbols4#afh ,it is upon this valuable book that ,i have largely drawn in compiling the following account4 #afh ,the ,migration of ,symbols1 #ahid4 ,the meaning of the term ,symbol1 like the objects we connote by it1 has undergone a transformation from a concrete reality to an abstraction4 ,originally applied amongst the ,greeks to the two halves of the tablet they divided between themselves as a pledge of hospitality1 in the manner of our contract form1 detached along a line of perforations from the counterfoil record1 it was gradually extended to the engraved shells by which those initiated in the mysteries made themselves known to each other1 and even to the more or less esoteric formulas and sacramental rites that may be said to have constituted the visible bond of their fellowship4 ,then the meaning became amplified1 and 8the term came to gradually mean everything that1 whether by general agreement or by analogy1 conventionally represented something or somebody40#afi #afi ,loc4 cit41 p4 #a4 ,i have previously 7p4 #bab7 given ,colonel ,garrick ,mallery's definition of the word1 which sufficiently indicates the meaning generally applied to it4 ,a pictorial symbol has the following life-history3-- ,first1 it is simply a representation of an object or a phenomenon1 that is1 a pictograph4 ,thus the zigzag was the mark or sign of lightning4 ,secondly1 8the sign of the concrete grew to be the symbol of the abstract4 ,the zigzag of lightning1 for example1 became the emblem of power1 as in the thunderbolts grasped by ,jupiter2 or it stood alone for the supreme ,god2 and thus the sign developed into the ideograph40#agj #agj ,h4 ,colley ,march1 8,the ,fylfot and the ,futhorc ,tir10 ,trans4 ,lancashire and ,cheshire ,ant4 ,soc41 #ahhf4 ,thirdly1 retrogression set in when new religions and new ideas had sapped the vitality of the old conceptions1 and the ideograph came to have no more than a mystical meaning4 ,a religious or sacred savour1 so to speak1 still clung about it1 but it was not a living force within it2 the difference is as great as between the dried petals of a rose and the blooming flower itself4 8,the zigzag1 for instance1 was no longer used as a symbol of the deity1 but was applied auspiciously1 or as we should say1 for luck40#agj ,the last stage is reached when a sign ceases to have even a mystical or auspicious significance1 and is applied to an object as a merely ornamental device4 8,by symbolism10 writes ,count ,goblet d',alviella1 8the simplest1 the commonest objects are transformed1 idealised1 and acquire a new and1 so to say1 an illimitable value4 ,in the ,eleusinian mysteries1 the author of ,philosophoumena relates that1 at the initiation to the higher degree1 #8there was exhibited as the great1 the admirable1 the most perfect object of mystic contemplation1 an ear of corn that had been reaped in silence2 and two crossed lines suffice to recall to millions of ,christians the redemption of the world by the voluntary sacrifice of a god4'0 ,as that author points out1 8,we live in the midst of symbolic representations1 from the ceremonies celebrating a birth to the funeral emblems adorning the tomb2 from the shaking of hands all round of a morning to the applause with which we gratify the actor1 or lecturer1 of the evening4 ,we write as we speak in symbols4 8,it is sentiment1 and above all1 religious sentiment1 that resorts largely to symbolism2 and in order to place itself in more intimate communication with the being1 or abstraction1 it desires to approach4 ,to that end men are everywhere seen either choosing natural or artificial objects to remind them of the ,great ,hidden ,one1 or themselves imitating in a systematic manner the acts and deeds they attribute to ,him--which is a way of participating in ,his life40 ,the symbols with which we will here occupy ourselves are not those of acts or rites1 but those of objects or emblems4 ,in all but the last stages of its career a symbol is a living sign1 now this vitality is very real1 and by virtue of it1 strange modifications take place4 ,for example1 when a nation that employed a particular symbol came into contact with another nation that had a somewhat similar symbol1 the two symbols1 if quite alike1 were indistinguishable1 and one passed for the other2 but if there were slight differences between the symbols a process of amalgamation took place1 and they approximated more and more towards one another4 ,in either case the meanings of both would doubtless commingle1 and a more energetic vitality would ensue from the cross-fertilisation4 ,st4 ,anthony's cross1 ,t 7croix potence1 8gibbet-cross071 is found1 with almost the same symbolic signification1 in ,palestine1 in ,gaul1 and in ancient ,germany1 in the ,christian ,catacombs1 and amongst the ancient inhabitants of ,central ,america4 ,among the ,phnicians and kindred peoples this cross was an alphabetical sign1 tau1 and it was also used separately as a symbol4 ,from a passage in ,ezekiel#aga we learn that it was accounted a sign of preservation1 and was marked upon the forehead1 like its corresponding ,indian symbol4#agb ,the symbolic signification of the tau is explained by its resemblance to the ,key of ,life1 or crux ansata of ,egypt1 so widely diffused throughout all ,western ,asia4 #aga ,ezekiel ix4 #d-f4 #agb ,schliemann1 ,ilios1 p4 #cej4 8,this tau was unquestionably the emblem of life1 and1 therefore1 of the greatest virtue4 ,m4 ,letronne1 in his researches on the ,christian monuments of ,egypt1 has shown in the most conclusive manner that the first ,christians of that country adopted this sign1 possibly to establish that ,christ was pre-eminently the source of life1 or as a prophetic sign4 ,all the gods of the ancient ,egyptian mythology bore in their hand the sign of ,christianity1 the monogram of ,christ2 they were1 according to the first ,christians of ,egypt1 supposed to announce the coming of ,jesus40#agc #agc ,g4 ,ferrero1 ,les ,lois ,psychologiques du ,symbolisme1 #ahie1 p4 #adb4 ,the ,double ,hammer of the ,celtic ,tarann and of the ,teutonic and ,scandinavian ,thor is a symbol of the lightning4 8,thor was the sun-god proper2 god of the sun in its active aspect2 the thunder-god likewise1 and thus the wielder of the hammer or axe 7named ,mjolnir1 #8the crusher'7 representative of the thunderbolt1 rendered in the form ,t4 ,thor was also lord of the ,under-,world1 and guardian against the monsters that infested its precincts2 he was likewise a protector against sickness1 and was much worshipped by the franklin and peasant classes40#agd #agd ,the ,earl of ,southesk1 ,origins of ,pictish ,symbolism1 #ahic1 p4 #ab4 8,to this day a representation of the hammer of the ,god of ,thunder may be found on the barns and stable-doors of some ,german villages4 ,it is stated that in the northern1 midland1 and eastern counties of this country--wherever1 in fact1 the ,teutonic element has made its strongest imprint--some old church bells still bear the same sign as a charm against the tempest4 8,as applied to ,thor1 this tree-shaped cross symbol sustains his double quality as the fiery ,cleaver of the ,clouds1 who even as such represents the principle of fertility and the ,sanctifier of the fruitful union of hearts40#age #age ,karl ,blind1 8,discovery of ,odinic ,songs in ,shetland10 ,nineteenth ,century1 ,june #ahgi1 pp4 #ajig1 #ajih4 ,karl ,blind has also drawn attention to a medival ,german church legend which affords a good example of the persistence of pagan ideas and of the pagan-christian overlap4 8,thus ,trauenlob makes the ,virgin ,mary say of ,god the ,father--#8,the ,smith from the ,upper-,land 7,heaven7 threw his hammer into my lap 7schz74'0#agf #agf ,karl ,blind1 8,troy found again10 ,antiquary1 #ahhd1 p4 #bjj4 ,amongst the early ,christians it was a form sometimes given to the ,cross of ,christ1 itself called the ,tree of ,life2 but if they made of it a symbol of life1 it was spiritual life that it typified to them2 and if they sometimes gave it the form of the patibulum 7gallows71 it was because such was the instrument employed among the ,romans in the punishment by crucifixion4 ,in ,central ,america1 where1 according to ,m4 ,albert ,rville1 the ,cross was surnamed the ,tree of ,plenty1 it assumed also the form of the tau4 ,this pre-,columbian ,american ,cross1 ,t1 was a symbol of fertility because it represented the rain-god2 it is1 in fact1 an abbreviated rain-shower 7as will be seen on reference to ,figs4 #fb-fd74 ,similarly the four-rayed cross represented the four quarters whence comes the rain1 or rather the four main winds which bring rain1 and it thus became the symbol of the ,tlaloc1 god of rain and waters1 fertiliser of earth and lord of paradise1 and lastly1 of the mythical personage known by the name of ,quetzacoatl4 ,from ,north to ,south ,america the ,latin cross symbolises 8the ,father of the four winds0 7,argentine ,republic71 8the old man in the sun who rules the winds0 7,blackfeet ,indians71 or similar personages4 ,but all crosses are not the four quarters of the wind1 as will be seen on reference to ,figs4 #ajj ,d1 ,e1 #ajb ,a4 ,for an account of the ,american cross1 ,colonel ,mallery should be consulted1 ,tenth ,ann4 ,rep41 p4 #gbd4 ,mr4 ,beal1 in the same number of the ,indian ,antiquary1 which contains ,mr4 ,thomas's remarks on the ,svastika 7,march #ahhj71 has shown that in ,chinese is the symbol for an enclosed space of earth1 and that the simple cross occurs as a sign for earth in certain ideographic groups4#agg #agg ,max ,mller in ,schliemann1 ,ilios1 #ahhj1 ,eng4 edn41 p4 #cdi4 ,the four-rayed cross1 separate or inscribed within a circle1 is a very common symbol of the sun in prehistoric ,europe4 ,as different waves of culture drifted across ,europe1 as new religions permeated the mass of the people1 the stream-borne symbols found physical and spiritual analogues among the indigenous symbolism1 and union naturally took place4 ,in some cases1 at all events1 the cross fertilisation1 as ,i have termed it1 resulted in a higher or more spiritual meaning animating the old symbols2 thus the symbol of the ,avenger1 the crushing ,hammer of ,god1 became that of the ,god ,redeemer of the world4 ,when symbols become merely the dry-bones of defunct religions they may retain a certain magical quality1 but then they pass out of religion and enter the domain of magic1 where in fulness of time they may be born anew and start a fresh career as the symbols of modern science4 ,besides this natural approximation of analogous symbols and symbolism1 there is a more conscious and complex amalgamation1 a heteromorphism4 ,as ,count ,goblet d',alviella says1#agh 8,at other times the symbolic syncretism is intentional and premeditated2 whether it be in the desire to unite for the sake of greater efficacy1 the attributes of several divinities in a single figure1 as is shown in certain pantheistic figures of ,gnostic origin2 or a wish to state1 by the fusion of symbols1 the unity of the gods and the identity of creeds1 as in the mystic monogram wherein the ,brahmaists of contemporary ,india have testified to their religious eclecticism by interweaving the ,om of the ,hindus with the ,trident1 the ,crescent1 and the ,cross4 #agh ,loc4 cit41 p4 #bfd4 8,sometimes1 too1 the sacerdotal interest must have tended towards accentuating the analogies rather than the dissimilarities of symbols1 in order to assist the absorption or unification of the doctrines which they represented4 ,finally1 we must take into consideration the popular tendency towards syncretism1 which1 when not held in check by a rigorous orthodoxy1 acts upon symbols1 as well as upon creeds1 by introducing into the new form of worship the images consecrated by a long veneration4 ,or else it is the innovators themselves who take advantage of symbolism in order to disguise1 through borrowing from antique forms1 the newness of their doctrine and1 if need be1 to transform into allies the emblems or traditions which they are unable to boldly extirpate4 8,need ,i recall to mind ,constantine choosing as a standard that labarum which might be claimed both by the religion of ,christ and the worship of the sun8 ,the ,abb ,ansault has shown1 firstly1 that heathen nations used as religious emblems ,greek1 ,latin1 ,maltese1 pattes1 gammes1 potences1 anses1 trfles1 and other crosses2 and1 secondly1 that the ,christian ,church has always accepted these different forms of the cross as the representation of its own symbol4 8,buddhism was even less scrupulous4 ,in some of its sanctuaries it did not hesitate to preserve the images of the worship paid by the natives of ,india to the sun1 to fire1 or to serpents1 whilst ascribing these rites to its own traditions4 ,the ,solar ,wheel thus became easily the ,wheel of the ,law2 the ,cosmic ,tree represented the ,tree of ,knowledge1 under which ,sakya ,muni attained the perfect illumination2 the seven-headed serpent ,naga was transformed into the guardian of the impression left by the ,feet of ,vishnu1 itself to be attributed henceforth to ,buddha1 and so on40 ,the learned author from whom ,i have borrowed so much gives numerous examples of this process of the transference and amalgamation of symbols1 and ,i must refer the reader for these details to the book itself4 ,a4 ,the ,meaning and ,distribution of the ,fylfot4 ,the fylfot1 or 8fully- or many-footed0 cross1 is the ,anglo-,saxon name for that form of cross whose extremities are bent back at right angles 7,fig4 #acj74 ,it is otherwise known as the 8gammadion10 8tetraskele10 8croix gamme10 8croix cramponne10 not to mention various other names1 and in ,india 8svastika02 but when the feet are turned to the left it is called 8sauvastika02 both these words have much the same meaning1 and signify 8it is well40 ,at the present day in ,asia1 this 8mystical mark made on persons or things to denote good-luck0 7as ,monier ,williams describes it in his ,sanscrit dictionary7 is clearly in the third stage of its life-history1 and its meaning must have been introduced after its primary significance was lost4 ,at the risk of being somewhat tedious ,i will give a brief account of the distribution of this ancient symbol1 than which there are very few others so widely distributed4 ,dr4 ,schliemann found it represented exceeding numerously on objects 7,fig4 #acj1 ,a1 ,e7 from the 8second0 or 8burnt city0 of the mound at ,hissarlik4 ,in ,greece1 as in ,cyprus and at ,rhodes1 it first appears on pottery with painted 8geometrical0 ornamentation 7,fig4 #acj1 ,f71 that is in the second period of ,greek ceramics4 ,later it is found on the vases1 with decorations taken from living objects 7,fig4 ,g7 which appear to coincide with the development of ,phnician influences on the shores of ,greece4 ,lastly1 it became a favourite symbol on coins not only of ,greece proper and the ,archipelago1 but also of ,macedon1 ,thrace1 ,crete 7,fig4 #acj1 ,m71 ,lycia 7,fig4 #acj1 ,i71 and ,paphlagonia 7,fig4 #acj1 ,h74 ,from ,corinth1 where it figures amongst the most ancient mint marks1 it passed to ,syracuse under ,timoleon1 to be afterwards spread abroad on the coins of ,sicily and of ,magna ,grcia4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi4--;,hut-shaped ossuary2 ,i4 ,taylor1 ,origin of the ,aryans1 p4 #agf4 ,in ,northern ,italy it was known even before the advent of the ,etruscans1 for it has been met with on pottery dating from the terramara civilisation4 ,it appears also on the roof of some of those ossuaries in the form of a hut 7,pl4 ,i41 ,fig4 ,c71 which reproduce on a small scale the wicker huts of the people of that epoch4 ,in the ,villanova period it adorns vases with geometrical decoration found at ,cre1 ,chiusi1 ,albano1 and at ,cum4 ,finally1 it appears in ,roman mosaics4 ,it is singular that at ,rome itself it has not been met with1 so ,count ,goblet d',alviella informs us1 on any monument prior to the third1 or perhaps the fourth century of our era4 ,about that period the ,christians of the ,catacombs had no hesitation in including it amongst their representations of the ,cross of ,christ1 and they used it to ornament priestly garments4 ,at ,milan it forms a row of curved crosses round the pulpit of ,st4 ,ambrose4 ,it was widely distributed throughout the provinces of the ,roman ,empire 7,fig4 #acj1 ,s1 ,t71 especially among the ,celts1 from the ,danubian countries to the ,west of ,ireland 7,fig4 #acj1 ,k1 ,u72 but in many cases it is difficult to decide whether it is connected with imported civilisation or with indigenous tradition4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acj4--,various forms of the ,fylfot or ,svastika4 ,a4 ,whorl from ,hissarlik 7#aihg71 #g m41 third city1 ,the ,burnt ,city or ,ilios2 ,b4 ,do4 7#ahfa71 #c m41 fifth city2 ,c4 ,do4 7#aiij71 #d m41 fifth city2 ,d4 ,do4 7#ahgc72 ,e4 ,detail from whorl 7#aiic71 #e m41 fourth city2 ,f4 ,lotus derivative on a large amphora1 with 8geometric0 decoration1 ,cyprus2 ,g4 ,solar goose and lotus design on a ,rhodian vase1 from ,salzmann1 ,ncropole de ,camire2 ,h4 ,coin from ,selge1 ,pamphylia2 ,i4 ,symbols on ,lycian coins2 ,k4 ,triskelion on a ,celtiberian coin2 ,l4 ,on a silver bowl1 ,etruria2 also on ,chinese ware2 ,m4 ,coin from ,cnossus1 ,crete2 ,n4 ,ancient ,indian coin2 ,o4 ,on coin from ,ujjan1 ,central ,india2 ,p4 ,footprint of ,buddha 7so-called71 ,amarvati ,tope1 ,india2 ,r4 ,thibetian symbol2 ,s4 ,roman altar at ,high ,rochester1 dedicated to ,minerva by ,lucius ,ccilius ,optatus2 ,t4 ,roman altar at ,high ,rochester1 dedicated to the standards of the faithful of the ,varduli by ,titus ,licinius ,valerianus2 ,u4 ,celto-,roman altar at ,birdoswald1 dedicated to ,jupiter ,optimus ,maximus 7,,iom71 apparently by ,dacians garrisoned in ,ambloganna2 the four-rayed wheels were solar symbols among the ,gauls2 ,w4 ,ogham stone1 ,aglish1 ,county ,kerry2 ,x4 ,ancient ,scandinavian symbols2 ,y4 ,legend on church bell1 ,hathersage1 ,derbyshire1 #afag4 ,a-,e1 ,p4 ,h4 ,schliemann1 ,ilios2 ,f1 ,g4 ,goodyear1 ,grammar of the ,lotus2 ,h1 ,l1 ,o1 ,x4 ,r4 ,p4 ,greg1 ,archologia1 xlviii41 #ahhe2 ,i1 ,k1 ,m1 ,n1 ,r4 ,count ,goblet d',alviella1 ,the ,migration of ,symbols2 ,s1 ,t1 ,u1 ,w1 ,y4 ,h4 ,colley ,march1 ,trans4 ,lanc4 and ,cheshire ,ant4 ,soc41 #ahhf4 ,for further details the reader is referred to these authors4 ,in ,england it not unfrequently occurs on ,roman votive altars4 ,in ,ireland1 however1 and in ,scotland1 the fylfot seems to have marked ,christian sepulchres4 ,for example1 a fylfot occurs on either side of an arrow on an ogham stone 7,fig4 #acj1 ,w7 in an abandoned graveyard at ,aglish1 ,county ,kerry1 which is believed to belong to the sixth century4 ,in ,pagan ,scandinavia it occurs with other symbols 7,fig4 #acj1 ,x71 but it there ended by combining with1 doubtless 7as ,count ,goblet d',alviella points out7 under the influence of ,christianity1 the ,latin ,cross4 ,it ornaments early ,danish baptismal fonts1 and according to ,mr4 ,j4 ,a4 ,hjaltalin1 it 8was still used a few years since as a magic sign1 but with an obscured or corrupted meaning10 in ,iceland4 ,it arrived in that island in the ninth century1 ,a4,d4#agi #agi ,karl ,blind1 8,discovery of ,odinic ,songs in ,shetland10 ,nineteenth ,century1 ,june #ahgi1 p4 #ajih4 8,amongst the ,slavs and ,fins it has not yet been found save in a sporadic state1 and about the period of their conversion to ,christianity only4 ,we may remark1 by the way1 that it is very difficult to determine the age and nationality of the terra-cotta or bronze objects on which it has been observed in countries of mixed or superposed races1 such as ,hungary1 ,poland1 ,lithuania1 and ,bohemia4 8,in the ,caucasus1 ,m4 ,chantre has met with it on ear-drops1 ornamental plates1 sword-hilts1 and other objects found in burial-places dating back to the bronze period and the first iron age4 8,amongst the ,persians its presence has been pointed out on some ,arsacian and ,sassanian coins only4 8,the ,phnicians do not seem to have known1 or1 at least1 to have used it1 except on some of the coins which they struck in ,sicily in imitation of ,greek pieces4 8,it is not met with either in ,egypt1 in ,assyria1 or in ,chalda40#ahj #ahj ,goblet d',alviella1 loc4 cit41 p4 #dj4 ,the svastika is of common occurrence in ,india1 and is employed alike by ,hindus and ,buddhists4 ,it was used for ear-marking cattle1 appears on the oldest known ,indian coin 7,fig4 #acj1 ,n71 on which are other interesting symbols1 and occurs frequently at the beginning and the end of the most ancient ,buddhist inscriptions2 similarly it initials the legend ,,sca4 ,,ma4 ,,ria4 ,o4,p4,n4 at ,appleby1 in ,lincolnshire2 and at ,hathersage1 ,derbyshire1 a fylfot occurs on a church bell in the initial ,g of the legend ,gloria in ,excelsis ,deo1 #afag4 7,fig4 #acj1 ,y47 ,the svastika represents1 according to ,buddhist tradition1 the first of the sixty-five marks which distinguished the ,master's feet1 and the sauvastika is the fourth and the third1 a kind of labyrinth which is akin to the latter4 ,it is inscribed thrice on each sole and on each digit of the famous sculptured footprints of ,gautama at ,amarvati4 7,fig4 #acj1 ,p47 8,even at the present day1 according to ,mr4 ,taylor1 the ,hindus1 at the time of the new year1 paint a svastika in red at the commencement of their account books1 and in their weddings and other ceremonies they sketch it in flour on the floors of their houses4 ,it also figures at the end of manuscripts of a recent period--at least under a form which1 according to ,m4 ,kern1 is a development of the tetraskele0#aha 7i4e41 a variety with rounded angles74 #aha ,loc4 cit41 p4 #db4 ,the ,buddhist women of ,thibet ornament their skirts with it1 and it is placed on the breast of the dead4 ,a ,thibetian form is seen in ,fig4 #acj1 ,r4 ,the ,buddhists introduced it into ,china 7,fig4 #acj1 ,l7 and ,japan1 where it adorns vases1 caskets1 and the representations of divinities2 it is even figured upon the breasts of certain statues of ,buddha4 ,according to ,m4 ,g4 ,dumoutier1 it is nothing else than the ancient ,chinese character che1 which implies the idea of perfection1 of excellence1 and would seem to signify the renewal and the endless duration of life4 ,this suggests that the symbol was brought by the ,chinese across ,asia in their wandering from the ,west to their present home2 but against this view must be put the fact of its absence in ,chaldea and ,assyria2 and we know it has been introduced by the ,buddhist missionaries4 ,in ,japan1 according to ,m4 de ,millou1 it represents the number #aj1jjj1 which symbolises that which is infinite1 perfect1 excellent1 and is employed as a sign of felicity4 ,schliemann#ahb also records the fylfot in ,africa1 on bronzes brought from ,coomassie by the ,english ,ashantee expedition in #ahgd4 ,it is known from ,south ,america1 on a calabash from the ,lenguas tribe2 in ,north ,america1 on pottery from the mounds2 and from ,yucatan1 on ,zui pottery1 as also on the rattles made from a gourd which the ,pueblos ,indians use in their religious dances4 ,i have heard that bronze representations of the fylfot have been obtained from excavations in ,ohio1 the details of which will shortly be published4 #ahb ,ilios1 #ahhj1 ,eng4 edn41 p4 #cec4 ,there can be no doubt that the fylfot throughout ,eur-,asia had a symbolic significance1 which in many places it still retains4 ,its longevity is due to this cause alone2 occasionally1 when it was copied by peoples who did not understand or appreciate its symbolism1 it degenerated into a mere ornamental device4 ,although all phases of symbolic meaning are interesting1 ,i must restrict myself to origins and to a few of the later developments of this particular symbol4 ,the interpretations of the fylfot have been particularly varied1 and these have been further complicated by this sign having been confounded with the crux ansata of the ,egyptians1 the tau of the ,phnicians1 the vajra of ,india1 the ,hammer of ,thor1 or the ,arrow of ,perkun4 ,all these have a clearly defined form and meaning1 and even if the fylfot 8ever replaced one of them--as in the catacombs it sometimes takes the place of the ,cross of ,christ--it only did so as a substitute1 as the symbol of a symbol40#ahc #ahc ,goblet d',alviella1 loc4 cit41 p4 #de4 ,some archologists have ascribed a phallic import to the fylfot1 others recognise in it the symbol of the female sex2 8but it may very well have furnished a symbol of fecundity1 as elsewhere a common symbol of prosperity and of salvation1 without therefore being necessarily a phallic sign40#ahd ,these are probably secondary meanings superadded to a primitive and less abstract conception4 #ahd ,loc4 cit41 p4 #de4 ,it has been held to indicate water1 storm1 lightning1 fire1 or even the ,indian fire-drill1 the 8mystic double arani10 mentioned in one of the ,vedic hymns to ,agni1 the fire-god4 ,these views have been combated by ,greg1#ahe ,colley ,march1#ahf and ,goblet d',alviella4#ahg ,mr4 ,greg contends that the fylfot is a symbol of the air or sky1 or rather of the god who rules the phenomena of the atmosphere1 by whatever name men may call him4 ,dr4 ,march's theory is that it symbolises axial rotation1 and not merely gyratory motion2 in fact1 the axis of the heavens1 the celestial pole1 round which revolve all the stars of the firmament once in twenty-four hours4 ,this appearance of rotation is especially impressive in the ,great ,bear1 the largest and brightest of the ,northern constellations4444 ,about four thousand years ago1 the apparent pivot of rotation was not where it is now1 but occupied a point at a ,draconis much nearer to the ,great ,bear1 whose rapid circular sweep must then have been far more striking than it is at present4 ,in addition to the name ,ursa ,major1 the ,latins called this constellation ,septentriones1 #8the seven ploughing oxen' that dragged the stars round the pole1 and the ,greeks called it 1 from its vast spiral movement40#ahh #ahe ,r4,p4 ,greg1 8,the ,fylfot and the ,swastika10 ,archologia1 #ahhe1 p4 #bic4 #ahf ,h4 ,colley ,march1 8,the ,fylfot and the ,futhorc ,tir10 ,trans4 ,lanc4 and ,ches4 ,ant4 ,soc41 #ahhf4 #ahg ,loc4 cit41 pp4 #dd et seq4 #ahh ,we read in the fifth book of the ,odyssey 7v4 #bgj7 how ,odysseus 8sate and cunningly guided the craft with the helm1 nor did sleep fall upon his eyelids1 as he viewed the ,pleiads and ,botes1 that setteth late1 and the ,bear1 which they likewise call the ,wain1 which turneth ever in one place1 and keepeth watch upon ,orion1 and alone hath no part in the baths of ,ocean40 ,there is no need to follow ,dr4 ,march in his explanation1 and we must now turn to the view which has been supported by the greatest number of investigators1 who 8have succeeded1 by their studies of ,hindu1 ,greek1 ,celtic1 and ancient ,german monuments1 in establishing the fact that the gammadion has been1 among all these nations1 a symbolic representation of the sun or of a solar god40 ,count ,goblet d',alviella reinforces this theory by the following considerations3-- #a4 ,the form of the fylfot4--,to be convinced that the branches of the fylfot are rays in motion it is only necessary to cast one's eyes on the manner in which1 at all times1 the idea of solar movement has been graphically expressed4 ,thus on a whorl from ,troy1 crooked rays1 turned towards the right1 alternate with straight and undulating rays1 all of which proceed from the same disc 7,fig4 #acj1 ,e74 #b4 ,the triskele1 formed by the same process as the tetraskele1 was an undeniable representation of the solar movement4--,on coins from ,asia ,minor the triskele is frequently represented as three legs1 and on ,celtiberian coins 7,fig4 #acj1 ,k7 the face of the sun appears between the legs4 ,on the coins of ,aspendus in ,pamphylia the three legs are combined with animal representations of the sun1 the eagle1 the wild boar1 and the lion2 and on certain coins of ,syracuse the triskele permutes with the solar disc above the quadriga and the winged horse4 ,in various places transition occur between the tetraskele and triskele 7,fig4 #acj1 ,i74 ,i have already 7p4 #bac7 referred to the ultimate fate of the triskele4 #c4 ,the images oftenest associated with the fylfot are representations of the sun and the solar divinities4--,the fylfot and the solar disc are1 in a way1 counterparts1 not only amongst the ,greeks1 the ,romans1 and the ,celts1 but also with the ,hindus1 the ,chinese1 and the ,japanese4 ,the two are often combined into one figure1 and the rays have been converted into horses' heads1 as on ,gallo-,belgic coins1 or into cocks' heads and lions' busts which take the place of the rays of the triskele on ,lycian coins4 ,professor ,goodyear points out that the fylfot is associated on ,cyprian and ,rhodian pottery with the goose 7,fig4 #acj1 ,g71 deer1 antelope1 ibex1 ram1 horse1 lion1 etc4 ,all of these are solar animals4 ,it is associated with the lotus 7,fig4 #acj1 ,f71 which is also a solar symbol4 #d4 ,in certain symbolic combinations the fylfot alternates with the representation of the sun4--,among the ,jains of modern ,india1 a considerable ,hindoo sect1 the sun appears to be represented by the svastika1 and this symbol and the solar disc constantly replace each other on the ancient coins of ,ujjain in ,central ,india 7,fig4 #acj1 ,o71 and ,andhra in the ,deccan4 ,another proof of the equivalence between the fylfot and the sun1 or1 at least1 the light of the sun1 is found amongst the coins of the ancient city of ,mesembria in ,thrace4 ,professor ,percy ,gardner states1 8,mesembria1 as it stands1 is simply the ,greek word for 8noon0 or mid-day 772 and there can be no doubt that the ,greek inhabitants would suppose their city to be the place of noon2 and among the coins of ,mesembria occurs 40 ,five-rayed and three-rayed 7triskele7 sun symbols were associated with ,apollo on coins of ,megara1 now ,mesembria was founded by a colony of ,megarians4 ,sometimes three solar discs or three fylfots1 or combinations of both1 occur 7,figs4 #acj1 ,b1 ,c71 and in these ,count ,goblet d',alviella sees a symbolic representation of the three diurnal positions of the sun1 and suggests that when four symbols occur crosswise1 as frequently happens 7,fig4 #acj1 ,d71 they 8relate to four different positions of the luminary1 which would1 perhaps1 suggest no longer its daily course1 but its annual revolution marked by the solstices and equinoxes40#ahi #ahi ,the importance of astronomical lore in the cults of ancient civilisations is being more forcibly brought home to us as the remains of antiquity are being more critically and sympathetically investigated4 ,professor ,d',arcy ,w4 ,thompson1 ,junr41 has recently published a suggestive paper 78,on ,bird and ,beast in ,ancient ,symbolism10 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc41 ,edin41 xxxviii41 ,pt4 #a1 #ahie1 p4 #agi7 in which he suggests that many of the ,greek representations of animals on monument or coin indicate not the creatures themselves but their stellar namesakes4 ,m4 ,j4 ,svoronos 78,sur la signification des types montaires des anciens10 ,bull4 ,correspondance ,hellnique1 #ahid7 had simultaneously and independently arrived at a similar conclusion1 but ,d',arcy ,thompson carries the argument a step further1 and attempts to show that the associated emblems correspond to the positions relative to one another of the heavenly bodies1 in some cases to the configuration of the sky at critical periods of the year1 or at the festival seasons of the cities to which the coins belong4 8,the stellar symbolism that ,i here advocate is1 ,i maintain1 a different thing from the sun-myths1 dawn-myths1 and so forth1 which are now to a large extent deservedly repudiated4 ,we cannot ascribe to the civilised nations of antiquity the puerile conceptions of nature that are congruent with a stage of awakening intelligence and with the crude results of untrained observation4 ,rather are we dealing with the elaborated gain of ages of scientific knowledge1 with the thoughts of a people whose very temples were oriented to particular stars1 or to critical points in the journey of the sun2 whose representations of ,art1 on frieze and pediment1 in tragedy and epic1 were governed by what would at first appear to be a tyrannical convention1 which convention1 however1 so far from hampering their genius1 seems1 under the influence of a wholesome restraint1 to have moulded their art into more beautiful1 more poetic1 and more sanctified forms4444 ,the dominant priesthood1 whose domain was knowledge1 holding the keys of treasured learning opened the lock with chary hand1 and veiled plain speech in fantastic allegory4 ,in such allegory ,egyptian priests spoke to ,greek travellers1 who came to them as ,dervish-pilgrims or ,wandelnde ,studenten4444 ,at ,olympia1 in the beginning of each ,leap-year cycle1 the noblest youth of ,greece raced1 round the symbolic pillars1 their horses emblematic of the ,horses of the ,sun2 thereby glorifying a ,god whom they thus ignorantly worshipped4 ,even so1 we read in the ,second ,book of ,kings xvii4 #af2 xxi4 #c1 #e2 xxiii4 #e how their ,phnician cousins worshipped with like ceremony the same ,god4 ,and all the while1 in the evening and the morning1 priests and watched1 measured1 and compared the rising and setting of sun and stars1 in temples that were astronomical observatories1 to the glory of a religion whose mystery was astronomic science40 ,the fylfot would seem to occasionally replace the moon4 ,on coins of ,cnossus1 in ,crete 7,fig4 #acj1 ,m71 the ,lunar ,crescent takes the place of the solar disc in the centre of the fylfot2 in such instances it may have been applied to the revolutions or even the phases of the moon4 ,various suggestions have been made with regard to the reversed fylfot or sauvastika1 but it is still uncertain whether this is of primary 7,max ,mller1 ,birdwood1 ,colley ,march7 or secondary importance 7,greg1 d',alviella74#aij #aij ,p4 ,gardner1 8,ares as a ,sun-god10 ,numismatic ,chronicle1 xx41 ,n4,s41 #ahhj1 p4 #ei4 ,the last theory of the origin of the fylfot that ,i need mention is that propounded by ,professor ,goodyear#aia in the following words3--8,there is no proposition in archology which can be so easily demonstrated as the assertion that the swastika is originally a fragment of the ,egyptian meander1 provided ,greek geometric vases are called in evidence40 ,professor ,a4,s4 ,murray long since suggested that the 8crosses which ,dr4 ,schliemann calls svastikas1 but which1 in fact1 appear to be only the simplest form or element of the meander pattern40#aib ,sir ,g4 ,birdwood says3 8,i believe the ,buddhist swastika to be the origin of the key-pattern ornament of ,chinese decorative art40#aic ,professor ,goodyear makes him say that of ,greek decorative art as well4 #aia ,the ,grammar of the ,lotus1 p4 #ceb4 #aib 8,on the ,pottery of ,cyprus10 ,appendix to ,general ,l4 ,p4 di ,cesnola's ,cyprus1 #ahgg1 p4 #daj4 #aic ,the ,industrial ,arts of ,india1 #ahhj1 i4 p4 #ajg4 ,it is a pity that ,mr4 ,goodyear has pledged himself so fully as in the statement just quoted1 as it is apt to make critics more captious as to his main thesis4 ,if the fylfot is a detached intersection of the meander pattern1 why did not the ,egyptians hit on it8 ,granting that the meander may have had an indirect origin from a natural object in the ,mediterranean countries1 there is no proof that any religious or magical meaning was attached to it4 ,the manner in which the fylfot was employed proves that it certainly had a symbolic signification4 ,the strongest argument adduced by ,professor ,goodyear is in the case of some 8geometrically0 decorated ,greek vases1 in which between solar geese and other symbols occurs a small panel1 which is variously decorated with a fylfot1 or an element or varietal detail of the meander pattern4#aid ,but this1 after all1 may prove to be nothing more than that the ,greeks noticed that the fylfot occurred in certain varieties of the meander pattern which had been arrived at from quite a different source4 ,this occurrence of the fylfot in these patterns was quite accidental2 it would be better to say that a fylfot design could be picked out from these patterns rather than to suggest that it was inherent in them4 ,granting the sacred associations of the fylfot1 the fact that it could be separated from a pattern which itself may have had a recognised association with the symbolic lotus would probably appeal to a symbol-loving people4 ,if they recognised that the fylfot on the one hand1 and the lotus on the other1 were sun-symbols1 the isolation of the associate of a sun-symbol into another sun-symbol would be a pleasing exercise of ingenuity4 ,i do not pretend to say that this has occurred1 but it is to me quite a possible alternative4 ,the sequence which ,professor ,goodyear seeks to establish appears to me to be nothing more than the birth of an analogy4 #aid ,loc4 cit41 p4 #cec4 ,before a judgment upon the ,chinese meander pattern can be pronounced it would be necessary to make a detailed study of that pattern on objects from that part of the world1 and ,i have not access to the requisite data4 ,we now come to the interesting question of the birthplace of this important symbol4 ,it was long ago remarked that the fylfot is almost exclusively an ,aryan symbol4 ,it is completely absent among the ,egyptians1 the ,chaldeans1 the ,assyrians1 and even the ,phnicians1 although these middle-men traded useful objects and sacred symbols indiscriminately4 ,the ,semites did not employ it4 ,although widely spread and venerated among the ,tibetians 7,fig4 #acj1 ,r71 the ,chinese 7,fig4 #acj1 ,l71 and the ,japanese1 it can be proved that these ,mongolian peoples have adopted it along with ,buddhism from ,india4 ,as a recognised religious symbol it is unknown among all the other peoples of the globe4 ,the conclusion is evident that the fylfot was a symbol before the swarming-off of the ,aryan hordes4 ,there seems little doubt that it was originally an emblem of the sun4 ,it may1 in certain combinations1 have come to symbolise the apparent daily movement of the sun1 and perhaps also the annual change of seasons4 ,some see in it the symbol of a sun-god1 others believe it to be the god of the sky1 or air1 who in the course of time was variously known as ,indra1 ,zeus1 ,jupiter1 ,thor1 etc4 ,lastly1 it has been promoted to signify 8the emblem of the divinity who comprehended all the gods1 or1 again1 of the omnipotent ,god of the universe40 ,this latter is certainly not a primitive conception1 and we have no evidence that this meaning was ever read into the symbol4 ,count ,goblet d',alviella points out that in ,europe the geometric style of ornamentation embraces two periods1 that of painted and that of incised decoration4 8,now in this latter period1 which is everywhere the most ancient1 the gammadion is only found on the whorls of ,hissarlik and the pottery of the ,terramares4 ,we have1 therefore1 two early homes of our symbol1 one on the shores of the ,hellespont1 the other in the north of ,italy4 8,was it propagated from one country to another by the usual medium of commerce8 ,it must be admitted that at this period the relations between the ,troad and the basin of the ,po were very doubtful4 ,etruria certainly underwent ,asiatic influences2 but whether the legendary migration of ,tyrrhenius and of his ,lydians be admitted or not1 this influence was only felt at a period subsequent to the #8palafittes' pile dwellings of ,emilia1 if not to the ,necropolis of ,villanova4 8,there remains1 therefore1 the supposition that the gammadion might have been introduced into the two countries by the same nation4 8,we know the ,trojans came originally from ,thrace4 ,there is1 again1 a very plausible tradition to the effect that the ancestors1 or predecessors1 of the ,etruscans1 and1 in general1 the earliest known inhabitants of northern ,italy1 entered the peninsula from the north or north-east1 after leaving the valley of the ,danube4 ,it is1 therefore1 in this latter region that we must look for the first home of the gammadion4 ,it must be remarked that when1 later on1 the coinage reproduces the types and symbols of the local religions1 the countries nearest the ,danube1 such as ,macedon and ,thrace1 are amongst those whose coins frequently exhibit the gammadion1 the traskele1 and the triskele4 ,besides1 it is especially at ,athens that it is found on the pottery of ,greece proper1 and we know that ,attica is supposed to have been primitively colonised by the ,thracians4 #8,the nations who had invaded the ,balkan peninsula and colonised ,thrace1' writes ,m4 ,maspero1 #8crossed1 at a very early period1 the two arms of the sea which separated them from ,asia1 and transported there most of the names which they had already introduced into their ,european home4 ,there were ,dardanians in ,macedon1 on the borders of the ,axios1 as in the ,troad1 on the borders of the ,ida1 ,kebrenes at the foot of the ,balkans1 and a town1 ,kebrene1 near ,ilium4'#aie ,who will be astonished that these emigrants had taken with them1 to the opposite shore of the ,hellespont1 the symbols as well as the rites and traditions which formed the basis of their creed in the basin of the ,danube8 #aie ,g4 ,maspero1 ,histoire ancienne des peuples de l',orient1 #ahhf1 p4 #bda1 quoted by ,count ,g4 d',alviella4 8,even when it occurs in the north and west of ,europe1 with objects of the bronze period1 it is generally on pottery recalling the vases with geometric decorations of ,greece and ,etruria1 and later1 on coins reproducing1 more or less roughly1 the monetary types of ,greece4 ,it seems to have been introduced into ,germany1 ,denmark1 ,sweden1 ,norway1 and ,iceland1 in the same manner as that in which the runic writing was brought from the ,danube valley to the shores of the ,baltic and the ocean4 ,it may have penetrated into ,gaul1 and from there into ,england and ,ireland1 either through ,savoy1 from the time of the #8palafittes1' or with the pottery and jewelry imported by sea and by land from the ,east1 or1 lastly1 with the ,macedonian coins which represent the origin of ,gallic coinage4 8,we have already seen how it was brought among the islands of the ,mediterranean1 and into ,greece proper1 then from ,greece to ,sicily and even ,southern ,italy4 ,it must be observed that even at ,rome it seems to have always been connected with the traditions of the ,east4 ,we must not forget that the ,christianity of the ,catacombs was likewise a religion of ,oriental origin40 ,so much for the western fylfot4 ,the oriental form even in the extreme east of ,asia can be traced without difficulty to the svastika of ,india4 ,there can be no doubt that the fylfot and the svastika are genetically allied1 but it is not at present very easy to demonstrate all the links of the chain4 ,here again ,i quote from ,count ,goblet d',alviella4 8,the svastika does not appear on the coins struck in ,bactriana1 or in ,india1 by ,alexander and his ,indo-,greek successors4 ,even amongst the ,indo-,scythians1 whose coinage copies the ,greek types1 it is only visible on barbarous imitations of the coins of ,basu ,deva4 ,on the other hand1 as we have shown1 it adorns the coins of ,krananda and the most ancient monetary ingots of ,india4 ,moreover1 ,panina1 who already makes mention of the svastika1 is sometimes considered to have lived in the middle of the fourth century ,b4,c4 ,it might therefore be possible that the ,hindus had known the svastika before feeling in their arts1 and even in their symbolism1 the influence of the ,greek invasion4 8,yet1 for the best of reasons1 it is neither the ,chaldans1 the ,assyrians1 the ,phnicians1 nor even the ,egyptians1 who can have imported the gammadion to ,hindustan4 8,there only remain1 then1 the ,persians1 whose influence on the nascent arts of ,india was certainly felt before ,alexander4 ,but in ,persia itself the gammadion only appears as an exception on a few rare coins approaching our era4 8,perhaps we would do well to look towards the ,caucasus1 where the antique ornaments with gammadions1 collected by ,m4 ,chantre1 lead us back to a civilisation closely enough allied1 by its industrial and decorative types1 to that of ,mycen4 8,until new discoveries permit us to decide the question1 this gap in the genealogy of the svastika will be equally embarrassing for those who would like to make the gammadion the common property of the ,aryan race1 for it remains to be explained why it is wanting amongst the ancient ,persians4 ,it is right1 too1 to call attention to its absence on the most ancient pottery of ,greece and the ,archipelago1 where it only appears with geometric decoration4 8,if the gammadion is found amongst none of the nations composing the ,egypto-,semetic group2 if1 amongst the ,aryans of ,persia1 it never played but a secondary and obliterated part1 might it not be because the art and symbolism of these different nations possess other figures which discharge a similar function1 whether as a phylactery1 or else as an astronomical1 or a divine symbol8 ,the real talismanic cross of the countries stretching from ,persia to ,lybia is the crux ansata1 the key of life of the ,egyptian monuments4 ,as for their principal symbol of the sun in motion1 is it not the ,winged ,globe8 ,there would seem to be between these figures and the gammadion1 ,i will not say a natural antipathy1 but a repetition of the same idea4 ,where the gammadion predominates--that is to say1 in the whole ,aryan world1 except ,persia--the ,winged ,globe and the crux ansata have never succeeded in establishing themselves in good earnest4 ,even in ,india1 granting that these two last figures really crossed the ,indus with the ,greek1 or the ,iranian symbolism1 they are only met within an altered form1 or with a new meaning4 8,in brief1 the ancient world might be divided into two zones1 characterised1 one by the presence of the gammadion1 the other by that of the ,winged ,globe as well as of the crux ansata2 and these two provinces barely penetrate one another at a few points of their frontier1 in ,cyprus1 at ,rhodes1 in ,asia ,minor1 and in ,lybia4 ,the former belongs to ,greek civilisation1 the latter to ,egypto-,babylonian culture4 8,as for ,india1 everything1 so far1 tends to show that the svastika was introduced into that country from ,greece1 the ,caucasus1 or ,asia ,minor1 by ways which we do not yet know4 ,however that may be1 it is owing to its adoption by the ,buddhists of ,india that the gammadion still prevails amongst a great part of the ,mongolian races1 whilst1 with the exception of a few isolated and insignificant cases which still survive amongst the actual populations of ,hindustan1 and1 perhaps1 of ,iceland1 it has completely disappeared from ,aryan symbolism and even folk-lore40 ,,table ,,illustrating ,,the ,,migrations ,,of ,,the ,,fylfot 7,,after ,,goblet ,d',,alviella47 8 8 8 ,centuries ,b4,c4 ,a4,d4 4444444444444444 4 4 ,anterior to ,x,i,i,ith 4 ,troas 4 4 ------- 4 ,about ,,xiii or ,,xii4 4 -- ,mycen -- ----------------------- ,villanova ,greece ,from ,,xi to ,,vi4 -- 7,pottery7 44444 ,caucasus ----------------- -- 4 ----------- 4 ,etruria 4 ,greece 7,coins7 4 ,to ,,vi4 ----------- 4 8 ,thrace and 4 ,to ,v4 ,macedonia ,asia ,minor 4 ---------- 4 4 ,to ,,iv4 ,sicily 4 8 4 -------- 4444444444 ,to ,,iii4 ,gaul -- 8 44 4 8 ,india -------------------- 444 4444444- ,from ,,ii4 ,b4,c4 ,scandi- ,ger- ,british ,n4 444 4 to ,,ii4 ,a4,d4 navia mania ,isles ,africa444 ,persia ,china ,to ,,iii4 ,a4,d4 ,rome 7,catacombs7 - - from ,,iii to ,,viii4 - ,to ,,ix4 ,iceland ,thibet ,japan ,b4 ,the ,psychology of ,symbolism4 ,signor ,g4 ,ferrero#aif has investigated the psychological laws of symbolism1 using that term in its widest aspect4 ,after giving a sketch of the history of the ,fylfot1 which is largely borrowed from that by ,count ,goblet d',alviella1 he proceeds to give its psychological interpretation in the following words 7p4 #adh73-- #aif ,guillaume ,ferrero1 ,les ,lois ,psychologiques du ,symbolisme1 #ahie4 7,translated from the ,italian47 ,i am indebted to my friend ,havelock ,ellis for the reference to and loan of this book4 8,i believe that this symbol of the motion of the sun became transformed into a mystic symbol1 precisely because it was a metaphorical symbol4 ,the signification of a pictographic symbol can not be forgotten1 for the sensation of the symbol directly recalls the image or the idea of the object2 there are not in that case intermediate states of consciousness which can be eliminated4 ,but when it concerns a metaphorical symbol1 these intermediate states of consciousness exist1 for the symbol must be interpreted1 especially if a very imperfect and rude delineation is in question1 whose relation to the object represented is of the slightest4 ,the figure of a tree directly recalls to me the idea or image of the tree2 but a circle drawn with three or four legs does not directly suggest to me in itself the precise idea of the motion of the sun2 there is at least the possibility of different interpretations1 and at all events there must be an original and independent act of interpretation4 ,the significance of the symbol1 finally1 can only be known if one undertakes an investigation of induction and interpretation1 or if one associates with an inspection of the symbol the remembrance of an explanation which has been given1 or of an interpretation which we had formerly discovered for ourselves4 8,now this state of consciousness1 which serves for the interpretation of the symbol1 would have been necessary if the symbol of the cross had ministered to the needs of existence1 to commerce or politics1 for example2 but as it was a religious symbol whose use did not vary according to the truth and the exactness of its interpretation1 it is evident that this state of consciousness would become useless in the long run1 and the brain would relieve itself of it in a short time4 ,the croix gamme 7fylfot7 was1 like genuflexions and the other mimic symbols of ceremonial1 a symbol employed in relation with the divinity2 accordingly1 the same cause which rendered useless in the ceremonial the state of consciousness1 which we have called 1#aig has rendered useless the state of consciousness which could interpret the solar signification of the cross4 ,it was1 in short1 a religious symbol employed in relation to ,god2 rightly or wrongly interpreted as it may be1 prayer and other propitiations tended to the same result2 the state of consciousness which served for its interpretation was then not necessary1 and the brain little by little relieved itself from it4 ,this state of consciousness being eliminated1 it was forgotten that the sign of the cross represented the sun1 because this was a metaphorical symbol too vague to directly recall the idea of solar movement4 #aig ,see note on next page4 8,when the state of consciousness which served for the interpretation of the design was gradually eliminated1 all the religious sentiments which had the sun and its cult for their object were addressed to the cross2 that is why it has become the object of so profound a veneration1 without any one knowing its signification or origin2 the cross reaps for its profit the inheritance of the solar cult of which it has ceased to be a symbol1 in order to become almost a divinity by itself4 ,the cross thus became a mystic symbol of which the applications became very numerous1 and even very confused4 8,all this1 ,i repeat1 is only a supposition1 but it may enable us to affirm that1 whatever may be the origin of the cross1 its evolution1 very probably1 can only be explained from the point of view of the theory of the ideo-emotional arrest40 ,a4 ,note on ,mental ,inertia4 ,signor ,g4 ,ferrero has studied what he terms 8mental inertia0 and 8the law of least effort10 as applied to the mind1 and he finds that the mental operation may stop short at certain points2 thus he distinguishes 7#a7 mental arrest1 7#b7 emotional arrest1 and 7#c7 ideo-emotional arrest4 7#a47 ,the first is due to a deficiency in logic2 as1 for example1 when machinery was first introduced1 the workmen smashed the machines1 regarding them as the cause of the fall in wages1 and being ignorant of the fact that the altered conditions were caused by complicated economic conditions1 and not by the machines4 7#b47 ,an analogous phenomenon occurs in the domain of the emotions4 ,an emotion is not isolated1 it is always one link of a chain4 ,the emotions are always associated with a more or less great number of images or ideas which define them4 ,but the image or the idea of the thing which should define the emotion sometimes dwindles or entirely disappears2 it then follows that the emotion1 instead of being associated with the image or with the idea of this thing1 is associated with the symbol which represents this thing2 it stops short at the symbol instead of projecting itself beyond the symbol towards the thing represented4 ,this is the emotional arrest4 ,it is notorious that in religion the adoration which should be paid to ,god in heaven is often arrested at the images which represent the divinity1 as when the elders of ,israel said1 8,let us fetch the ark of the covenant of the ,lord out of ,shiloh unto us1 that1 when it cometh among us1 it may save us out of the hand of our enemies 444 and the ,philistines were afraid1 for they said1 ,god is come into the camp40#aih #aih #a ,samuel iv4 #c1 #g4 7#c47 ,there is yet a third psychological process by which the confusion between the symbol and the thing symbolised is possible2 it is the ideo-emotional arrest4 ,in an analysis of the mental state of a man who performs acts of social ceremonial1 this author finds 7p4 #acc7 that 8to each completed act there corresponds1 in the spirit of man1 three states of consciousness1 quite distinct and associated3-- 8#a4 ,the desire to cause the man to be favourable to him in whose presence the ceremonial act is accomplished 772 8#b4 ,the idea that the ceremonial act can serve this purpose 772 8#c4 ,the idea that the act can serve this purpose because the suppliant understands that he who has put himself in the position where he is unable to do harm cannot have any dangerous intention 774 8,the mental state of those who entreat the gods was1 in this primitive period1 composed of the same three states of consciousness1 quite distinct but inter-related3-- 8#a4 ,the desire to make the divinity favourable to oneself 772 8#b4 ,the idea that certain acts or practices 7prayers1 visits1 etc41 etc47 conduce to this result 772 8#c4 ,the idea of the reason for which these acts have this power--that is to say1 the conviction that they are adapted to the character attributed to the divinity 774 8,it is evident that if we compare the mental state of men who are in harmony with ceremonial observances in this primitive period of ceremonial with the mental state of civilised men who still observe ceremonial1 social1 and religious rules1 we find that in the mental state of civilised men the third state of consciousness--that is to say 1 has been eliminated4 ,in fact1 we have remarked that1 among civilised man1 the performance of a ceremonial act is determined by the desire to render himself favourable to1 or at least not to offend another person or a ,god 771 and from the idea that these acts can produce this effect 772 without knowing why 7that is to say that has been eliminated74 8,we have seen that by the law of mental inertia1 a state of consciousness--image1 idea1 emotion--cannot last for ever1 after the exciting cause has ceased to act1 for a state of consciousness is a transformation of energy1 and it finishes when it has exhausted its initial quantity of force4 8,only the states of consciousness which1 being necessary for the needs of existence1 are preserved by permanent excitation1--be this excitation simple and direct or complex and indirect--can have an apparently eternal persistence2 the duration of useless states of consciousness is limited4 8,this is true for individuals or bodies of men4 ,to each institution1 to each custom1 etc41 there correspond in the mind of man a certain number of associated ideas1 which have determined alike its birth and transformation2 but1 according to this law1 only the ideas which are necessary should be preserved in this association of ideas2 the others should be gradually eliminated4 8,this interesting psychological phenomenon of ideo-emotional arrest concludes by profoundly modifying ideas and feelings4 ,it modifies ideas1 for it induces what ,i have termed a mental arrest2 the ideation1 in fact1 by the loss of the state of consciousness 1 is arrested at 2 and the mind is contented to know that a certain act will produce a certain effect1 or will express a certain sentiment1 without troubling itself with the cause1 without seeking for an explanation4 ,it modifies1 and1 so to speak1 displaces the feelings1 for it produces that what ,i call an emotional arrest3 in fact1 when the idea of the true character of the ceremonial act is lost1 the act is no longer a sign of certain inclinations of sentiment1 but itself becomes an object of veneration4 ,we see men who pay attention only to ceremonial and who neglect the feelings on which it should be based 444 they believe they have fulfilled their religious duties1 even if love and devotion are wanting1 if they have not neglected the ceremonies4 ,it is the same with the social ceremonial2 for the majority of men1 social duty does not consist in loyalty1 in mutual affection1 in a spirit of justice towards others1 but in ceremonial observances2 and when the ceremonial code is not violated they are persuaded that they have nothing for which to reproach themselves4 ,it is a true emotional arrest1 for the sentiments of social and religious duty are1 so to speak1 arrested midway in purely external acts40#aii #aii ,loc4 cit41 p4 #aci4 ,,the ,,scientific ,,method ,,of ,,studying ,,decorative ,,art4 ,there are two ways in which art may be studied--the sthetic and the scientific4 ,the former deals with all manifestations of art from a purely subjective point of view1 and classifies objects according to certain so-called 8canons of art40 ,these may be the generally recognised rules of the country or race to which the critic belongs1 and may even have the sanction of antiquity1 or they may be due to the idiosyncrasy of the would-be mentor4 ,in criticising the art of another country it must be remembered that racial tendencies may give such a bias as to render it very difficult to treat foreign art sympathetically4 ,western ,europe and ,japan are cases in point4 ,dogmatism in sthetics is absurd1 for1 after all1 the sthetic sense is largely based upon personal likes and dislikes1 and it is difficult to see what sure ground there can be which would be common to the majority of people4 ,the sthetic study of art may very well be left to professional art critics4 ,we will now turn to a more promising field of inquiry1 and see what can be gained from a scientific treatment of art4 ,this naturally falls into two categories1 the physical and the biological4 ,i am not aware that much has been done towards establishing a physical basis for art4 ,the pleasurable sensations which line1 form1 and colour may give rise to are doubtless analogous to those caused by musical sounds1 but with this difference1 that the latter are caused by the orderly sequence of particular vibrations1 whereas the vibrations of the former are synchronous4 ,it is possible that not only must the character of these vibrations be taken into account1 but that the structure of the human eye and personal equation must be allowed for in an analysis of the pleasurable sensations caused by any work of art4 ,these remarks necessarily refer only to the forms of things2 their meaning and the sensations thereby evoked belong to the domain of psychology4 ,i4 ,,application ,,of ,,biological ,,deductions ,,to ,,designs4 ,at present1 however1 we are only concerned with the biological treatment of art4 ,nor need surprise be felt if an attempt is made to deal with art as a branch of biology4 ,for is not art necessarily associated with intelligence8 ,is not intelligence a function of the brain8 ,and is not the brain composed of some form of protoplasm8 ,art is thus one only of the myriad results of the activity of protoplasm4 ,if this be true1 art must be subject to the same general laws which act on all living beings4 ,the fundamental law in biology is that expressed in the well-known aphorism1 ,omne vivum e vivo 78,all life from life074 ,the belief in abiogenesis or spontaneous generation1 as now taking place1 has completely disappeared from biological teaching4 ,in studying savage art we are irresistibly forced to an analogous conclusion4 ,by carefully studying a number of designs we find1 providing the series is sufficiently extensive1 that a complex1 or even an apparently simple pattern1 is the result of a long series of variations from a quite dissimilar original4 ,the latter may in very many cases be proved to be a direct copy or representation of a natural or artificial object4 ,from this it is clear that a large number of patterns can be shown to be natural developments from a realistic representation of an actual object1 and not to be a mental creation on the part of the artist4 ,there are certain styles of ornamentation which1 at all events in particular cases1 may very well be original1 taking that word in its ordinary sense1 such1 for example1 as zigzag lines1 cross-hatching1 and so forth4 ,the mere toying with any implement which could make a mark on any surface might suggest the simplest ornamentation to the most savage mind4 ,this may or may not have been the case1 and it is entirely beyond proof either way1 and therefore we must not press our analogy too far4 ,it is1 however1 surprising1 and it is certainly very significant1 that the origin of so many designs can now be determined1 although they are of unknown age4 ,it is therefore not too much to say that savages do not deliberately invent patterns or designs2 in other words1 artistic expression is the result of a pre-existing visual impression4 ,great difficulty presents itself when we apply this statement to communities of a higher culture2 but there is no reason for believing that the case is different for barbaric races from what it is among the more savage4 ,it is when we come to highly civilised people that the problem becomes well-nigh insoluble4 ,people often designedly 8invent0 patterns1 and imagine that such designs are truly original4 ,it is impossible to prove whether or no the artist has ever seen either a similar pattern1 or at all events the elements of which his design is composed4 ,it is very difficult to conceive that the latter is not the case4 ,all that we can do is to fall back on the simple conditions1 and we have already seen what obtains there4 ,this argument is strengthened by the fact that those who wish to 8invent0 new designs so often have recourse to objective assistance4 ,the students in our schools of art are instructed to study natural forms1 especially plants4 ,not only have they to manipulate the plant as a whole1 but the flower has to be dissected1 and even such details as the cross-section of the seed capsule are taken into account4 ,intelligent selection and rejection and judicious grouping may give rise to an infinitude of designs and patterns4 ,more mechanical aids are often pressed into service1 and the compasses and other drawing instruments are employed1 perhaps as often on the chance of a pleasing combination resulting or being suggested1 as to elaborate some definite idea4 ,the well-known ,japanese pattern books afford a good foreign example of this method4 ,instructors have not overlooked such optical aids as the kaleidoscope or analogous apparatus for pattern-making4 ,once a design is started1 be it the simplest of geometrical forms or a representation of a definite object1 its subsequent fate is subject to vicissitudes very similar to those which beset the existence of any organism4 ,organisms have offspring which at the same time resemble and differ from their parents4 ,this is the commonest experience one meets with in studies in ornament2 certain simple patterns1 on account of their simplicity1 may be indefinitely repeated1 and that without appreciable variation4 ,like simple chemical compounds1 they are stable because there are few combining elements1 and these are well linked together4 ,on the other hand1 the more complex the original idea the greater opportunity there is for variation1 in fact variation is inevitable4 ,just as in the highly unstable molecules which build up protoplasm1 there is practically no alternative except for metabolism to take place4 ,in no case have we a series of designs which are known to be1 so to speak1 genetically related4 ,we cannot say that this was a copy of that1 and that of some other known form1 and so on4 ,neither have we in ,palontology4 ,a student of the latter science brings together as many specimens as he can from different geological horizons1 and finding that the forms of a more recent deposit resemble with but slight differences those from an earlier formation1 he not unreasonably concludes that the former were descended from the latter1 and that the differences in the species are to be accounted for by the fixing and isolating of variations such as are commonly to be met with in members of one family4 ,the biologist1 recognising the great importance of the theory of evolution1 now rears generation after generation of animals to see how far actual experience will bear out theoretical deductions1 and by this means definite facts are being accumulated4 ,the credit of first applying this principle to art is due to ,general ,pitt-,rivers4 ,he gave a certain drawing to some one 7,a7 to copy2 his rendering was sent on to another person 7,b7 to copy1 this copy was handed on to a third individual 7,c71 and so on1 each copyist having only the preceding person's performance before him4 ,in each case fresh variations occur according to the greater or less imitative skill of the artist4 ,the ,general has collected some very curious examples of series of this kind4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,balfour1#bjj following this suggestion1 describes how he started a similar experiment4 ,he says1 8,an original drawing of my own1 representing a snail crawling over a twig1 was given out to different people to be copied as ,i have described4 ,in a series of twelve to fifteen copies thus obtained1 the snail's shell gradually leaves the snail and becomes a kind of boss upon the twig1 and finally the design is turned upside down2 the artists at this stage being convinced that the sketch is intended to represent a bird1 the #8horns' of the snail having become the forked tail of the bird4 ,it is seen that the extremes of the series are absolutely unlike each other1 but in no case are any two adjacent sketches very dissimilar40 #bjj ,h4 ,balfour1 8,the ,origin of ,decorative ,art as illustrated by the ,art of ,modern ,savages10 ,midland ,naturalist1 xiii41 #ahij2 ,the ,evolution of ,decorative ,art1 #ahic1 p4 #bd2 8,evolution in ,decorative ,art10 ,journ4 ,soc4 ,arts1 xlii41 #ahid1 p4 #deh4 ,unfortunately1 in the examples given in the earlier pages of this book1 as in those presented by other writers1 we are not in a position to definitely affirm that one particular design is genetically related to another one4 ,we have the same difficulty in palontology2 but the impossibility of absolute proof does not weaken the strong presumptive evidence in its favour4 ,we are also brought face to face with another interesting zoological parallel1 and that is the co-existence of primitive1 intermediate1 and late types4 ,it is not always easy to suggest explanations in zoology why some forms should persist and others disappear1 but these difficulties are no argument against evolution having occurred4 ,amongst savage peoples we often find a surprising number of intermediate stages1 but one explanation is ready to hand4 ,the original is usually always before them1 and all stages in the evolution of a design are decorative2 they are all 8fit0 enough to survive1 and the majority of them may persist for an indefinite time4 ,in the animal world small changes in the environment may produce far-reaching effects on organisms1 and the persistence1 not the change of type1 is the greatest marvel4 ,in zoology it appears that the more complex animals1 or perhaps rather the more complex members of a group1 vary more than the simpler4 ,it would be interesting to work out whether the same occurs in patterns4 ,i am inclined to think that this will be found to be very generally the case4 ,increased variation occurs because there is more material to vary4 ,the next step is to determine what directions the variations take4 ,development may take place 7#a7 with a general tendency towards complexity1 or 7#b7 towards simplification1 or 7#c7 these two may be coincident4 ,that is1 there may be 7#a7 an upward or specialising evolution1 or 7#b7 degeneration1 or 7#c7 selection1 which implies partial elimination and a specialisation of the selected details4 7#a7 ,not many examples present themselves of the evolution of a particular motive as a whole2 as usually one portion of it diminishes and another increases4 ,what may be termed symmetrical evolution must necessarily be of rare occurrence4 ,an example will be found in the progressive development of a fish-hook into an ornament in ,torres ,straits 7p4 #gf1 ,fig4 #dd74 ,occasionally one meets with examples of a considerable amount of partial complexity without a degradation of the remainder4 7#b7 ,the simplification of original types is of extremely common occurrence in decorative art4 ,this has often impressed itself on those who have interested themselves in handicrafts of savages4 ,in addition to the numerous examples ,i have brought together in this book ,i need only refer to the pioneer observations of ,sir ,john ,evans in #ahdi in his well-known study#bja of the degeneration which occurred in the ,gaulish and ,british copying of the gold stater of ,philip ,,ii4 of ,macedon4 ,later1#bjb he says1 8those varieties appear to have become more or less persistent1 which1 in the #8struggle for existence1' have presented advantages over the present form in their relation to external conditions4 ,but in the succession of types of these ,british coins1 the requirements which new types had to fulfil in order to become to a certain extent persistent1 were1 firstly1 to present facility of imitation1 and secondly1 symmetry of form4 ,the natural instincts of uncivilised man seem to lead to the adoption of simple yet symmetrical forms of ornament1 while in all stages of culture the saving of trouble is an object of universal desire4#bjc ,the reduction of a complicated and artistic design into a symmetrical figure of easy execution was the object of each successive engraver of the dies of these coins1 though probably they were themselves unaware of any undue saving of trouble on their part1 or the results which ensued from it40 #bja 8,on the ,date of ,british ,coins10 ,numismatic ,chronicle1 xiii41 #ahej1 p4 #abg4 #bjb ,ancient ,british ,coins1 #ahfd1 p4 #bg4 #bjc ,i venture1 however1 to question whether this is in reality very operative among savages4 ,while degeneration is of so frequent occurrence in the history of decorative art1 one must not assume that this must invariably be the case2 every series must be judged independently4 ,one commonly finds that the earlier representations of glyptic art were crude and highly conventional1 but they became more life-like as the artists gained more command over their material1 and perhaps at the same time the fabricators or the purchasers were gradually educated to prefer greater truth to nature4 7#c7 ,the third alternative is by far the most frequent4 ,typical examples are to be met with in the rich field of the decorative art of the ,papuan ,gulf4 ,fig4 #ac1 p4 #cf1 will serve as an example3 here each star-like figure is the remains of two human faces2 the eye-spot is the amalgamation of the two pairs of eyes1 the lateral angled lines represent the cheek-folds1 and the curved lines next to these are the lower eye-lashes of each face1 and nothing more of the faces persists4 ,it would be absurd to endeavour to make the evolution of decorative art run on all fours with that of animals1 as there are certain art forms which have no parallel in zoology4 ,in patterns1 for example1 the two essential elements are symmetry and repetition2 the latter implicates not only the whole design but portions of it as well4 ,thus1 if in an early stage of a realistic design there is a blank area1 the vacancy will usually be filled up by repetitions of that detail of the whole design which is nearest to it4 ,for example1 the scroll pattern of the ,massim district of ,british ,new ,guinea originates1 as we have seen1 from serial repetitions of a bird's head4 ,in the simplest forms of this pattern there are blank triangular areas1 but these are usually filled up by a series of crescentic lines 7,fig4 #bf71 which are repetitions of the curve bounding the base of each triangle4 ,in the ,elema district the designs have an increasing tendency towards angularity1 so1 similarly1 areas unoccupied by the main design are very frequently filled up with chevrons1 as in ,fig4 #af4 ,the objection to this method of treating art may be urged that the decorated objects1 whatever their nature may be1 are inanimate1 that they are merely pieces of wood or stone1 and that they are therefore not to be compared with living beings4 ,it is perfectly obvious that ethnological objects cannot change themselves or develop themselves into anything else4 ,on the other hand1 though animals are alive they also have no voluntary power to alter themselves1 nor can they develop themselves in any direction4 ,they are almost as passive as fabricated objects4 ,the small amount of change which may occur in the adult existence of an animal 7,i purposely exclude all changes which take place during development and growth7 are due to forces acting upon the animal1 and to which the animal more or less responds2 they are not self-induced4 ,the zoological and ethnological specimens1 in this respect1 are in precisely the same case4 ,the direction which evolution takes1 whether it makes for a more highly sensitive being or for degeneration1 has reference to offspring alone and not to their parents1 immediate or remote4 ,there is no conscious and protracted effort on the part of a particular group of animals to evolve in a determinate direction1 this latter is circumscribed by the environment4 ,thus it comes about that consciousness has no part in evolution whether of an animal or of a pattern4 ,the offspring of an animal vary more or less from the parent just as copies of designs vary1 and both are alike subject to an external selection4 ,if this selection proceeds sufficiently long in one general direction1 a distinct and non-relapsing variation is established1 and so on indefinitely4 ,one distinction between the evolution of animals and that of patterns must not be lost sight of3 in the former the survival of the fittest appears to be mainly due to an elimination of the un-fittest1 whereas in the latter there is a certain amount of conscious selection4 ,a further argument against this view may be urged from the standpoint that however unconscious the evolution of the lower animals may be1 the case is very different with man4 ,he is conscious and self-conscious1 and he can direct his own evolution4 ,in the first place1 8,can he do so80 and in the second1 8,has he done so80 ,first let us see what has happened4 ,i suppose it is one of the best established teachings of history that the evolution of a nation has not been consciously directed by the individuals which compose it4 ,a few men may have sought to guide the course of politics or to adjust its foreign policy2 but their efforts are futile unless supported by the people themselves1 and the luxuriousness of living of the majority1 the laxity of their morals1 or some other irresponsible factor1 may entirely wreck individual effort4 ,nations as a whole have blindly worked out their own salvation or ruin in just the same way as a group of animals living in geological times may have survived to the present day or may have become extinct4 ,the essential conservatism of the human mind is a fact of prime importance4 ,savages1 children1 and the less intelligent of the civilised races are similar in this respect4 ,this has long been recognised1 and that 8there is no new thing under the sun0 is an oft-repeated1 widely-recognised truism4 ,in proportion as change is rare1 so progress is slow4 ,it is only the happy coincidence of certain combinations which acts as a stimulant to variation1 but this appears to have an increasing tendency to occur4 ,the more savage the race the more conservative it is as a rule4 ,just as the tendency to variability is of necessity a steadily increasing factor in the evolution of animals1 so it is in man1 and proportionately more so as he is raised above the level of the brute4 ,increase of complexity leads to that instability which is the mother of variability4 ,the above-mentioned statements are merely expressions of facts known to all4 ,it will probably be admitted that among less civilised peoples their evolution may have been undirected by themselves2 but with increased complexity comes augmented mental power1 and it may be urged that this may1 so to speak1 take the helm2 but ,i would venture to ask1 ,is there much evidence in support of this view8 ,the mind of man is subject1 like his body1 to the ordinary operations of the universe1 his individuality is apparent rather than real1 and just as one may move to and fro on the face of the earth yet at the same time the traveller and the bed-ridden person are revolving round the axis of the earth at the same rate1 and are equally trundling with the globe through space1 so1 too1 mind cannot escape from the forces which act on the body4 ,it is believed by some that there were periods in the history of organisms when evolution took place more rapidly than at other times2 perhaps this was due to variability occurring more extensively1 which again may have been partly due to changes in the environment4 ,there is no reason to believe that variation 7which is the material that makes evolution possible7 occurs uniformly4 ,there is no need to touch further upon these yet unsolved problems of ,biology2 at all events we find that in decorative art evolution has been spasmodic or discontinuous1 that there are periods of quiescence and of activity4 ,i have already suggested that the isolation of a people and uniformity in their existence will tend to stagnation in art1 and that intercourse with other peoples1 whether by trade1 war or migration1 serves as a stimulus to artistic expression4 ,to return to our more immediate subject1 consciousness of purpose has extremely little to do with human evolution1 nor has it much more to say to the evolution of patterns among primitive peoples4 ,the selection of one design instead of another1 or of a particular part of a design1 is a conscious act1 but probably in the great majority of cases an unreasoning one4 ,and the selection is limited to that individual object4 ,it is inconceivable that a savage should copy or adapt a certain design because it promises to develop into a more pleasing pattern4 ,while there is a certain amount of conscious selection1 the variation as a whole of any design is an entirely unguided operation so far as the intelligence of the human units is concerned4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,geographical ,,distribution ,,of ,,animals ,,and ,,of ,,designs4 ,no part of the study of ,biology is more fascinating than that which deals with the geographical distribution of organisms1 especially when treated by such a master as ,alfred ,russel ,wallace4 ,the geographical distribution of art is as yet uninvestigated1 but with careful and capable handling we may expect it to yield results not less interesting than those of the distribution of animals4 ,it is needless to point out that the subject is peculiarly difficult1 but as ,john ,ray said two hundred years ago concerning the study of ,natural ,history1 8much might be done did we but endeavour1 and nothing is insuperable to pains and patience40 ,it will not be superfluous to here indicate the general lines upon which such an inquiry may be profitably made1 taking the experience of zoologists as our guide in this matter4 ,it is a matter of general experience that animals are not uniformly scattered over the globe4 ,the absence of all land mammals and of snakes from ,new ,zealand2 the occurrence of the monotremes only in ,australia and ,new ,guinea2 that the ,american opossums are the only marsupials found out of ,australia and a few adjacent islands2 the absence of bears in ,africa and of lemurs in ,america1 are a few of the myriad cases in point4 ,by tabulating the denizens of different countries1 the latter can be grouped according to their animals1 and in this way zoologists have formed zoological regions1 which may be further subdivided into sub-regions or provinces4 ,all such divisions are characterised 7#a7 by their characteristic animals1 7#b7 by their peculiar animals1 and 7#c7 by the absence of certain groups of animals4 ,the negative character in this case being perhaps the most valuable one4 ,organisms may in a rough manner be distributed into zones corresponding with climate1 which may be horizontal and largely dependent upon latitude1 or vertical and directly dependent upon altitude1 which varies1 however1 according to latitude4 ,such a kind of distribution is much more manifest in plants than in animals4 ,further1 there is a phenomenon known as 8discontinuous distribution10 which is one of great importance4 ,for example1 the tapirs are only found in ,central ,america and in the ,malay ,archipelago1 the camel group in ,south ,america and the deserts of ,asia1 the ostrich group in ,south ,america1 ,africa1 ,australia1 ,new ,guinea1 and ,new ,zealand4 ,it is needless to multiply examples4 ,the explanation is simple enough4 ,the tapirs are representatives of old generalised ungulates of early tertiary times that formerly lived in the northern hemisphere1 but which have since become exterminated in the region of their origin and abundance1 and have survived at only two extreme points of their old habitat4 ,ancestral camels are common in the tertiary beds of ,north ,america2 the one group wandered southwards1 and finding competition less keen on the plateaux of ,south ,america1 were enabled to develop into llamas1 alpacas1 and so forth4 ,the other group was modified so as to exist in the deserts of ,asia1 the less specialised forms in the intermediate countries having died out4 ,the same general argument applies to the ostrich group1 and in the rhea of ,south ,america1 the ostrich of ,africa1 the cassowary of ,new ,guinea1 the emu of ,australia1 the diminutive apteryx and the gigantic extinct moas of ,new ,zealand we have outliers1 so to speak1 of an extremely ancient group of birds1 the other members of which have become exterminated in the intermediate districts4 ,then again1 there may be what are termed 8local types and species10 forms which differ but slightly from the characteristic or 8central0 type of the species1 and which are restricted to special regions4 ,for example1 in an island off a mainland there are often what are termed 8insular varieties10 and in an archipelago it is of frequent occurrence that each island is characterised by possessing its peculiar varieties and even peculiar species4 ,isolated geographical features1 such as commanding and separated mountains1 may have what may equally be termed 8insular faunas10 or again1 the various valleys of a mountain chain may have appreciable faunistic differences4 ,the reason for this is not far to seek4 ,these varieties differ from others merely by being intensified by local conditions and by isolation4 ,variation is more widespread than is generally supposed1 but granting freedom of intercourse over a wide area and a stability of environment1 the extreme variations are less liable to occur1 and1 furthermore1 it is the average organism which is the most stable4 ,thus a fairly constant mean level is maintained4 ,the isolation of portion of such a uniform population introduces new factors1 and the isolated individuals tend to arrive at a condition of stable equilibrium which must of necessity be different from that of the parent stem4 ,colonies are probably of rare occurrence in the zoological world4 ,by such ,i mean the sudden peopling of a district by an animal new to that part of the country4 ,an example of how this may occur is illustrated by the sporadic excursion into ,europe of ,pallas' sand-grouse4 ,it will be remembered that a few years ago large numbers of this ,siberian bird made their appearance in ,europe4 ,similar inroads are on record for past years4 ,supposing the conditions were favourable1 the sand-grouse might very well have established itself in one or more localities1 and then formed colonies in the true sense of the term4 ,artificial colonies are being continually formed by man3 witness the rabbits in ,australia and the pheasant in ,england4 ,the dispersion of animals is caused by the favouring conditions of physical features1 or by the carrying power of winds and currents4 ,the isolation of animals is also similarly caused2 winds and currents may be in such a direction as to prevent migration1 and the physical features may be otherwise unfavourable to dispersion4 ,we now have to apply these general remarks to the province of art1 and to see how far similar conclusions may be drawn4 ,the conclusions of the synthetical zoologist who studies the problems of zoogeography1 as it is sometimes called1 are entirely dependent upon the tedious labours of the analytical or systematic zoologist4 ,general conclusions are worth nothing if the data upon which they are erected are untrustworthy2 hence an accurate identification of the fauna of a country is an absolutely necessary precursor to any theorising upon its affinity4 ,this self-evident proposition equally applies to the geographical distribution of art-forms4 ,it is first of all necessary to determine the exact nature of any given pattern or design4 ,i have often called attention to the danger which there is in assuming that similarity is identity1 the most instructive example of this being exhibited in the fret-pattern group and the allied scroll-patterns4 ,instances could be multiplied were it necessary4 ,one of the main objects of the present volume is to emphasise this fact1 and to demonstrate that the signification of a design1 that is1 what it really is1 can only be ascertained by an exhaustive study of that particular region where it occurs or from whence it has been derived4 ,analysis must precede synthesis4 ,this has not yet been attempted on a large enough scale1 and so it is at present impossible to deduce wide generalisations4 ,art is subject to two prime factors--7#a7 the solidarity of the human race1 and 7#b7 ethnic idiosyncrasy4 ,it is the extreme difficulty in distinguishing between these two factors which complicates the comparative study of customs and beliefs4 ,to the second of these we owe1 for example1 the evolution of the various forms of fret and scroll pattern1 and to the first of them their world-wide retention as patterns4 ,it is difficult to avoid the expectation that whatever artistic provinces may be defined in the future1 they will ultimately prove to be related to racial divisions4 ,possibly certain stages of artistic evolution may be determined through which the artistic development of all the more cultivated people have passed4 ,these stages1 should they be established1 are illustrations of the solidarity of mankind1 but the precise level to which the art of particular country or district has attained1 or the direction it has taken 7irrespective of the stage of development71 these are ethnic idiosyncrasies4 ,before the geographical distribution of art can be mapped out it will be necessary to accurately define the various artistic expressions1 and to discriminate between designs1 which though apparently similar are fundamentally distinct4 ,not till then will it be possible to determine whether particular designs are world-wide in distribution on account of the essential identity of human thought1 or whether they are not really different patterns which admit of being grouped into definite regions having a more or less ethnic value4 ,it is not sufficient to attempt a rapid solution of this problem by assuming that artistic and ethnic boundaries are coterminous4 ,my study of ,papuan art indicates that the artistic expression of a people is more delicate than the characters usually utilised by ethnologists1 and that1 whereas the physical anthropologist can at present barely distinguish between the natives of contiguous districts1 their art at once suggests distinctions1 and then a fresh appeal has to be made to the physical anthropologist for a more searching investigation4 ,on the other hand1 there is no doubt that in some countries art is more uniform1 certainly so in countries which have long been civilised4 ,in ,australia the art appears to be very uniform1 this may be chiefly due to the fact that the ,australians1 though subdivided into numerous tribes1 are nevertheless a very homogeneous people4#bjd ,it is true that some anthropologists have sought to distinguish primitive divisions among these people2 but these endeavours have not yet been thoroughly established1 and no investigations have as yet been made as to whether the arts and crafts of the ,australians support these conclusions4 ,another factor in the uniformity of ,australian art arises from the fact that all the ,australians are virtually on the same level of evolution4 ,the uniformity of condition of life and environment induces uniformity in art4 #bjd ,i by no means wish to imply that a homogeneous people implies a pure race2 a people composed of several elements1 if well mixed up and isolated for a long time1 may become fairly homogeneous4 ,this latter fact may account for the general resemblance in artistic treatment which yet more distinct peoples may exhibit who live under very similar conditions2 their ethnic idiosyncrasy may be levelled by the monotony of their environment4 ,lastly1 uniformity may be arrived at1 as in most civilised countries of to-day1 by continual and rapid intercourse between peoples4 ,it is just this condition1 together with a certain amount of stability in the environment1 which makes for the uniformity and fixation of species in the animal world4 ,i am inclined to believe in an ethnical feeling for art1 but much more work will have to be done to establish this as a fact4 ,in our detailed study of the decorative art of ,british ,new ,guinea we find a sudden and very characteristic change in ,papuan art when we come to the ,massim district4 ,the characteristic ,papuan ornamentation by means of straight lines and angles suddenly gives way to a variety of scrolls and loops1 straight lines1 except as bounding a pattern1 rarely occur1 and angles are more rare than bowed lines are in other parts of ,new ,guinea4 ,the facies of the style of decoration is exactly reversed4 ,this surely has a deeper significance than tribal distinction1 and it was noticing this fact which first led me to study ,new ,guinea art4 ,the explanation which suggested itself to me was one which subsequent investigation has confirmed--namely1 that it is one expression of the influence of a foreign race on the ,papuans of the region in question4 ,professor ,e4 ,t4 ,hamy has marshalled numerous facts in support of this view in an able paper 78tude sur les ,papouas de la ,mer d',entrecasteaux10 ,revue d',ethnographie1 vii41 #ahhh1 pp4 #ejc-eai71 to which ,i have already referred4 ,so far then as present evidence goes1 we may assert that the ornamentation of the indigenes of ,new ,guinea is essentially composed of straight lines and angles4 ,the characteristic fretwork and carving of ,netherlands ,new ,guinea--notably that of ,geelvink ,bay--is clearly due to foreign influence4 ,the same also applies1 as we have just seen1 to the opposite corner of ,new ,guinea4 ,future research must determine the amount and geographical extension of analogous influences in these portions of ,new ,guinea1 and also extend this line of inquiry to other parts of the world4 ,in seeking to establish artistic provinces we must note 7#a7 the characteristic forms and designs1 7#b7 those that are peculiar to the district1 and 7#c7 the deficiencies4 ,to take examples3--7#a7 the white lotus 7,nympha lotus7 is as decidedly characteristic of the decorative art of ,ancient ,egypt as the frigate-bird is of that of the ,solomon ,islands or of the ,massim district of ,british ,new ,guinea2 but these are not peculiar to these districts1 as both the lotus and the frigate-bird motives extend beyond the regions named4 7#b7 ,the employment of highly conventionalised and degenerate human figures to cover comparatively large areas is1 so far as ,i am aware1 peculiar to the ,hervey ,group1#bje as also is the device of nature-printed ferns on tapa in certain ,polynesian islands4 #bje ,dr4 ,w4 ,hein has just published a well illustrated paper on anthropomorphic designs among the ,dyaks 7,borneo71 ,ann4 k4k4 nat4 ,hofmuseums1 ,vienna1 x41 #ahie1 p4 #id4 7#c7 ,the absence of the frigate-bird as a decorative motive throughout the greater part of ,british ,new ,guinea is as important a fact as its presence in a comparatively small district4 ,the absence of scroll designs1 and practically of sigmoid lines1 in ,torres ,straits and ,daudai and throughout the greater part of the ,central ,district of ,british ,new ,guinea1 is as significant as their occurrence in the ,massim district2 or their general absence in ,eastern ,polynesia with their prevalence in ,new ,zealand4 ,what is known as a zonal distribution in organisms only occurs in anthropology when a district is inhabited by different peoples that live concentrically to one another4 ,such1 for example1 as the ,negritto populations which inhabit the centre of the ,mollaccan ,peninsula or the centre of some of the islands of the ,malay ,archipelago and are surrounded by ,malay peoples2 here we have a core1 so to speak1 of one type of decorative art surrounded by a different type4 ,discontinuous distribution occurs in art as well as zoology1 and the solution of each problem must be attempted from the scientific standpoint4 ,a good example of such a problem is to be found in the distribution of the fret and scroll patterns to which ,i have frequently alluded4 ,further study is necessary before we can say definitely whether a given fret or meander pattern has been independently evolved1 or whether it has spread from elsewhere4 ,in our study the problem is more complicated than in zoology1 for a multiple origin of a given design or pattern is always possible and often probable1 whereas this is not known to occur for a single species of animal4 ,discontinuity in distribution in ethnography may mean either that the form has a multiple origin or that it has migrated without establishing itself in the intermediate districts1 or that it has disappeared from those districts4 ,it is evident that every pattern or set of patterns in the first instance has to be separately studied in a limited area1 in order to determine whether it is of indigenous or foreign origin4 ,no casual application of general principles will suffice1 for it is possible that in certain cases a design may be apparently fairly uniformly distributed over a certain area1 and on the face of it one might be tempted to regard this as a case of uniform distribution1 whereas on a more minute examination it may be found that the designs are analogues and not homologues1 that they have spread from different centres of origin1 and thus the apparent uniformity of distribution may be essentially invalid4 ,i suspect this is largely the case in the meander and scroll patterns4 ,we often find that a particular type of decoration occurs over a certain area1 but within the limits of that district there are several distinct varieties4 ,students at home usually have a great difficulty in studying this problem owing to the very imperfect and unsatisfactory way in which objects are labelled by collectors4 ,in my memoir on ,the ,decorative ,art of ,british ,new ,guinea ,i have attempted to work out the local varieties both of form and decoration of the lime spatulas of the ,massim district4 ,according to the material at my disposal1 it does seem that certain types are characteristic of1 if not peculiar to1 particular groups of islands4 ,the more or less complete isolation of tribes or peoples1 owing to geographical conditions or inter-tribal wars1 is sufficient to account for local types and insular varieties1 even when the people all belong to the one stock4 ,if that stock is a mixed one1 variations are much more likely to occur than if it is a pure race or a people that have become homogeneous by prolonged isolation4 ,local types may1 however1 be due to the presence of a colony from another district4 ,there are numerous examples of this in ,melanesia1 where colonies of ,polynesians have arrived from more eastern island groups in ,oceania1 and as ,i have pointed out1 there are ,melanesian colonies in ,british ,new ,guinea4 ,to use a geological term1 these are ethnological outliers4 ,as decorated objects must be conveyed by man1 the means for their dispersal and the barriers which militate against it are the same as those which operate on human migrations2 but there is one difference4 ,where men go we may assume that they carry their artistic efforts and proclivities with them1 but decorated objects may be carried further than the actual distance covered by the manufacturer1 or even than the recognised middleman or trader4 ,this brings us to a very important aspect of the subject1 and that is the question of trade-routes4 ,trade-routes are culture-routes1 and in order to appreciate the history of culture it is necessary to know the directions in which it flowed4 ,until we have a more complete knowledge of the ancient trade-routes of ,europe we cannot recover the history of pre-historic ,europe4 ,the information for this is being rapidly accumulated1 and for a summary of our information ,i would refer the reader to ,mr4 ,george ,coffey's 8,origins of ,pre-,historic ,ornament in ,ireland40#bjf ,i would support my position with the following quotations from ,count ,goblet d',alviella3-- #bjf ,journ4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,antiq4 of ,ireland1 v4 7#eth ser471 #ahie1 p4 #cb2 cf4 also the quotation from ,mr4 ,arthur ,evans1 p4 #adb1 ante4 8,whatever the similarity of form1 and even of meaning1 may be between two symbolic figures of different origin1 it is proper1 ere we assert their relationship1 to show the probability1 or at least the possibility1 of international relations which would have served as a vehicle for transport4 ,this point once set at rest1 it remains to be seen who was the giver and who the receiver4#bjg #bjg ,loc4 cit41 p4 #bfj4 8,whether we start from ,japan1 from ,greece1 from ,india1 or even from ,lybia1 from ,etruria1 or from ,gaul1 we always arrive1 after many halting-places1 at two great centres of artistic diffusion1 partially irreducible as regards one another1 ,egypt and ,chalda--with this difference1 that1 towards the eighth century before our era1 ,mesopotamia took lessons from ,egypt1 whilst ,egypt learnt little of any country4#bjh ,not only did symbols follow the same paths as purely ornamental schemes1 but they were also transmitted in the same manner1 at the same periods1 and in nearly the same proportion4 ,concerning symbols as well as artistic products1 we everywhere find1 by the side of aboriginal types1 the deposit of a powerful current which has its more or less distant origin in the symbolism of the banks of the ,euphrates1 or the ,nile4 ,in a word1 the two classes of importations are joined together to such a degree that in writing the history of art we write to a great extent the history of symbols1 or1 at least1 of their migrations40#bji #bjh ,cf4 pp4 #adc1 #add1 #adi ante4 #bji ,loc4 cit41 p4 #bfc4 ,these quotations from ,count ,goblet d',alviella enunciate the right method of studying symbols4 ,he points out1 as ,i have again and again insisted for patterns1 that mere resemblance must not be mistaken for identity2 before two similar symbols in different countries can be regarded as being the same symbol1 it must be proved that there has been direct or indirect intercourse between those countries4 ,hence the primary importance of the study of trade routes1 for these are also culture routes1 and patterns and symbols are the flotsam and jetsam of the influences that flow along them4 ,we may then recognise several main influences which may make for the distribution of designs--7#a7 the swarmings of peoples2 7#b7 the establishment of organised or adventitious colonies2 7#c7 the inroads of armies2 7#d7 a general drift which is so slight as to be scarcely appreciable2 and 7#e7 trade1 which usually proceeds along definite routes1 and it is these that armies also generally follow4 ,a word of caution is necessary in dealing with trade-routes4 ,whereas the decorated objects pass along them and are distributed far and wide1 it does not always necessarily follow that the ornamentation itself is naturalised4 ,it is probable that in many cases a certain style of decoration is associated with a particular kind of object1 and it might not occur to people to transfer that decorative style to other objects1 or at all events the process would doubtless be slow4 ,one very good reason is that the indigenous objects are already decorated1 a type of ornamentation is associated with a type of object and the feeling of expectancy demands for its satisfaction that this shall continue to be the case4 ,again1 we know that the majority of peoples do not appreciate new designs or patterns4 ,they know nothing about them1 they have no associations with them1 they take no interest in them4 ,in other words1 it may take a long time for an exotic to become naturalised4 ,an example of this occurs in ,british ,new ,guinea4 ,the great annual trading voyages between the ,motu and the ,gulf tribes have not1 so far as ,i am aware1 had the least influence on the art of the two peoples2 neither in technique nor designs have ,i seen any object which indicated that a borrowing had taken place4 ,i consider this a strong argument in favour of the value of art in ethnological inquiries4 ,,iii4 ,,general ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,study4 ,i have endeavoured in the foregoing pages to formulate and illustrate some of the principles underlying the evolution of decorative art4 ,the subject is so vast that it would be impossible to deal with it adequately unless a series of memoirs could be devoted to it4 ,here1 however1 ,i have been more concerned with the method of study2 ,i have not attempted to seriously investigate even a single department1 and various branches of the subject have either been merely hinted at or entirely passed over4 ,in all studies a right method is of fundamental importance1 and in an attempt to understand the meaning of decorative art1 as in other matters1 a slight deviation from the right method of procedure may lead one far from the truth4 ,nothing is easier than to be led astray by superficial resemblances1 and it is impossible to be too much on one's guard in this matter4 ,of this ,i have given some examples1 but ,i have refrained from giving as many as ,i might have done1 as it is not pleasant to show up the mistakes of pioneers1 even if it be only for the purpose of warning others4 ,as ,professor ,max ,mller has said1#baj 8,identity of form does as little prove identity of origin in archology as identity of sound proves identity of origin in etymology4 ,comparative studies are very useful1 so long as they do not neglect the old rule1 ,divide et impera--,distinguish1 and you will be master of your subject60 #baj ,from an essay in ,schliemann's ,ilios1 p4 #cdh4 ,there are practically but two methods of work--7#a7 ,inquiry from the people who employ the designs1 or the testimony of written evidence when the people no longer know the significance of the designs2 or 7#b7 an investigation of induction and interpretation where oral or written tradition fail4 ,beyond all question the most valuable results are obtained from oral information4 ,i need only refer the reader to the investigations of ,professors ,ehrenreich and ,karl von den ,steinen 7p4 #agd71 and of ,mr4 ,h4 ,vaughan ,stevens 7p4 #bcf71 to demonstrate that by no other method could we ever gain any idea as to what was the meaning of these particular patterns and designs4 ,in fact1 the observations of these travellers make one very sceptical of any interpretations by outsiders4 ,this is undoubtedly the most important and pressing work in this subject4 ,only those who have visited backward peoples of certain grades of culture who have come into contact with the white man1 can realise how rapidly the old lore is passing away4 ,this may or may not be advantageous1 but no one will deny that it is a thousand pities that scarcely any one thinks it his duty to inquire about and to put on record all that can be gathered about those peoples which our civilisation is either modifying or destroying4 ,every one who can will collect 8curios10 especially those which are decorated2 but out of the hundreds of collectors1 how many units have ever thought of asking the natives what was the significance of the ornamentation8 ,i have already drawn attention to this need for ,australia1 but it is equally pressing in many other parts of the world4 ,even museum curators have in the past regarded ethnographical specimens more as 8trophies0 than as materials for the study of a history of mankind4 ,there are still some 8collectors0 7that is1 purchasers of 8curios07 who think that when they know where an object comes from1 and1 may be1 what is its native name1 they know pretty well all that is worth knowing about it4 ,others have realised that there is a history in every form and pattern4 ,what is wanted is an interpretation of the form1 of the meaning of odd little details of contour1 of indentation1 or of projection4 ,no apparently insignificant superfluity is meaningless1 they are silently eloquent witnesses of a past signification like the mute letters in so many of our words4 ,almost every line or dot of every ornament has a meaning1 but we are without understanding1 and have eyes and see not4 ,but again1 we must not stop short when we have determined what a form means1 or what is the original of a device4 ,we have to discover why it was so4 ,the reasons for a motive1 the meaning of its present form1 have also to be sought4 ,so we come to higher and finer analysis1 and at last find ourselves studying psychology4 ,with so much to learn1 it is evident that we must be sure of our premises1 and hence the necessity for going to the original sources4 ,but there is always considerable difficulty in getting at the truth1 and a statement made by a native must never be accepted as evidence until it has been independently confirmed from other sources4 ,nothing is easier than to get unreliable information4 ,this is not the place to enter into the various possible sources of error1 but ,i would like to warn those who have the opportunity of getting information first hand1 that it is impossible to take too much care1 and all suggestive interrogation or leading questions should be totally avoided4 ,when we are dealing with written evidence the method is one of historical procedure4 ,the means of information of the writer1 his credibility1 and other factors have to be taken into account2 often1 too1 there is a sparsity1 or even an absence of corroborative evidence1 which tends to make the testimony uncertain4 ,failing these direct methods of obtaining information1 there remains the deductive and comparative method4 ,the best example of this mentioned in the preceding pages is ,count ,goblet d',alviella's investigation of the fylfot2 indeed his book is a model for method4 ,in another field ,dr4 ,stolpe's study of the decorative art of the ,hervey ,islands is a memorable and instructive piece of work4 ,with the examples of method which are here brought together the student should be in a position to prosecute researches in the innumerable fields which lay open to him4 ,i would1 however1 like to take this opportunity to say a word or two to those who wish to commence a study of decorative art from the biological standpoint4 ,no amount of trouble must be grudged in collecting the data1 whether it be in the form of photographs1 sketches1 tracings1 or rubbings2 right conclusions largely depend upon a wealth of suitable material4 ,rubbings of carved ornament can be made with great facility on tough1 thin ,japanese paper by means of heel-ball 7,ullathorne's is the best1 and it can be obtained from almost any working shoemaker2 the paper is more difficult to obtain74 ,the paper is firmly held on to the object1 and then rubbed hard with the heel-ball2 it is best to always rub the latter in one direction4 ,whenever possible it is desirable to make a rubbing of the whole of an object1 but if only a portion is decorated the outline of the remaining portions need alone be rubbed4 ,next to photographs1 rubbings are the most satisfactory method of obtaining copies of carved objects1 as every detail and vagary is accurately reproduced1 and they lend themselves very readily to reproduction in the form of 8process-blocks10 but it will be found that details will often have to be supplemented by sketches4 ,there are1 of course1 many carved objects of which it is impossible to make rubbings4 ,a very little experience will soon teach the beginner as to the best methods of procedure in any special case4 ,professor ,a4 ,grnwedel#baa calls attention to the necessity there is for absolute accuracy when copying the ornamentation of savages4 8,still more dangerous than mistaken interpretation is the attempted #8correct' reproduction of aboriginal ornament according to the ,european1 so-called1 feeling for beauty1 whereby somewhat crooked lines are replaced by straight ones1 and unequal halves1 which are deemed corresponding1 are made alike4 ,this method causes fundamental error1 since through its corrections1 it renders impossible a critical examination of the visual ability of wild races4 ,the ,orang-htan draws a curve and sees it as a straight line1 he makes too many legs1 too few fingers1 but has1 in spite of these faults1 according to our conceptions1 the power of seizing abbreviations of parts of the body in a picturesque manner1 of skilfully interpreting contours and of preparing intelligent ground-plans4 ,the diagrammatic copying of primitive ornamental forms can therefore have no scientific value40 #baa ,zeitschr4 fr ,ethnologie1 xxvi41 #ahid1 p4 #adb4 ,two most important points to note are the locality whence an object comes1 and the date of its manufacture and collection4 ,the former is essential1 and it is not sufficient to obtain a vague locality like 8,new ,guinea0 or the 8,solomon ,islands10 but it is necessary to know the district or the particular island1 and1 if possible1 the exact spot4 ,information must also be obtained whether the object was made there or merely procured there4 ,the native name of every object must be obtained1 also the name of the several parts of it as well as of the details of its ornamentation4 ,of course the meaning should1 if possible1 be ascertained1 but on no account should only one explanation be accepted as correct2 it is necessary to check all such information by inquiry from independent sources1 as there are numerous ways in which error can creep in1 even when there is no question of intentional deceit4 ,it is rarely possible to ascertain the date of manufacture when dealing with ordinary ethnographical specimens in museums2 as most of these are quite recent no sequence in time can be made out4 ,even when objects are collected in the field it is rarely possible to obtain a succession of objects from a historical point of view4 ,in all inquiries relating to historical or pre-historical objects1 the time-element is as important as the place-element1 and great care must be taken in order to ascertain dates and the relation of periods4 ,a great deal of light can often be thrown upon the meaning of ornament by a study of the manners and customs of a people2 this is especially the case for their religion1 using that term in its widest sense4 ,as long ago as #aheg ,mr4 ,kemble#bab urged that ornamentation should be taken 8seriously into consideration1 because it forms one of the most important and characteristic criterions by which to judge of the tendency of a race4 ,there is some reason in every ornament why it recommended itself to some particular people4 ,we do not know what the reason was1 but the difference itself is of the deepest moment40 ,he points out that the spirit or feeling of art may be made the measure of culture when the workman is at liberty to impose what form and lines he will upon his material4 ,quite recently ,professor ,flinders ,petrie said1#bac 8,art is one of the most important records of a race4 ,each group of mankind has its own style and favourite manner1 more particularly in the decorative arts4 ,a stray fragment of carving without date or locality can be surely fixed in its place if there is any sufficient knowledge of the art from which it springs4 ,this study of the art of a people is one of the highest branches of anthropology1 and one of the most important1 owing to its persistent connection with each race4 ,no physical characteristics have been more persistent than the style of decoration4 ,when we see on the ,celtic work of the period of ,la ,tne1 or on ,irish carvings1 the same forms as on medival ironwork1 and on the flamboyant architecture of ,france1 we realise how innate is the love of style1 and how similar expressions will blossom out again from the same people4 ,even later we see the hideous ,c-curves1 which are neither foliage nor geometry1 to be identical on late ,celtic bronze1 on ,louis ,,xv4 carvings1 and even descending by imitation into modern furniture4 ,such long descent of one style through great changes of history is not only characteristic of ,celtic art1 but is seen equally in ,italy4 ,further east1 the long-persistent styles of ,egypt1 of ,babylonia1 of ,india1 of ,china1 which outlived all changes of government and history1 show the same vitality of art4 ,we must recognise1 therefore1 a principle of #8racial taste1' which belongs to each people as much as their language1 which may be borrowed1 like language1 from one race by another1 but which survives changes and long eclipses even more than language4 ,such a means of research deserves more systematic study than it has yet received40 #bab ,john ,m4 ,kemble1 ,hor ,ferales1 or ,studies in the ,archology of the ,northern ,nations1 #ahfc1 p4 #hj4 #bac ,address to the ,anthropological ,section1 ,british ,association1 ,ipswich ,meeting1 #ahie4 ,it may be asked why ,i have so largely confined my attention to the decorative art of savage peoples4 ,the answer to this not unnatural question will be found in my introductory remarks4 ,the decorative art of civilised peoples is very complex1 and the motives which prompt it are obscure2 it appeared to me that our best chance of finding out the underlying principles was to study less complex conditions4 ,i must confess that ,i have been mainly concerned to provide an efficient tool for the use of other workers1 and ,i have not been anxious to elucidate the multitudinous designs and forms which beset us on every hand4 ,this task ,i leave to my readers1 and they need not confine themselves to decorative designs or patterns1 for the forms and the adjuncts of objects are susceptible of the same treatment1 and will yield analogous results4 ,almost any manufactured object that may first meet the reader's eyes has a history that is bound up with the history of man4 ,the eyes alike of the head and of the mind require to be opened4 ,too often we envy the traveller who has voyaged afar3 ,if we had had his opportunities1 if we had seen what he has seen--we too might have been able to make discoveries6 ,we pine for the unattainable and neglect our opportunities4 ,the world is before us1 and that too at our very doors4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,the ,,plates4 ,,plate ,i4--,,skeuomorphs ,,of ,,binding4 ,,figs4 #a4 ,part of the stone axe of ,montezuma ,,ii41 ,ambras ,museum1 ,vienna 7,j4 ,evans1 ,the ,ancient ,bronze ,implements of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 #ahha1 ,fig4 #ahj1 p4 #adh74 #b4 ,socket of a bronze spear-head1 ,co4 ,galway1 ,ireland 7,evans1 loc4 cit41 ,fig4 #cic1 p4 #cbj74 #c4 ,socket of a bronze spear-head1 ,ireland 7,evans1 loc4 cit41 ,fig4 #djb1 p4 #cbf74 #d4 ,bronze palstave 7socketed celt71 ,co4 ,meath1 ,ireland 7,evans1 loc4 cit41 ,fig4 #agb1 p4 #adj74 #e4 ,bronze vessel1 ,lake of ,bourget 7,f4 ,keller1 ,the ,lake ,dwellings of ,switzerland1 #bnd ed41 #ahgh1 ,plate ,,clix41 ,fig4 #a74 #f4 ,pattern on an ebony comb1 ,assyria 7,g4 ,perrot and ,c4 ,chipiez1 ,history of ,art in ,chalda and ,assyria1 ii41 #ahhd1 ,fig4 #bbg1 p4 #cej74 #g4 ,pattern on a sculptured stone cornice 7,perrot and ,chipiez1 ,history of ,ancient ,egyptian ,art1 ii41 #ahhc1 ,fig4 #bhh1 p4 #cfa1 from ,prisse d',avennes74 #h4 ,pattern on a perforated bone needle1 ,tumulus1 ,holyhead 7,w4 ,owen ,stanley1 ,arch1 ,journ41 xxxiii41 #ahgf1 pp4 #id1 #acc74 #i4 ,back of a bronze knife1 ,estavayer 7,keller1 loc4 cit41 ,plate ,,xcvi41 ,fig4 #ab74 #aj4 ,bronze palstave1 near ,kingston-on-,thames 7,evans1 loc4 cit41 ,fig4 #ada1 p4 #abe74 #aa4 ,bronze palstave1 ,fornham1 near ,bury ,st4 ,edmunds 7,evans1 loc4 cit41 ,fig4 #acc1 p4 #abb74 a4 8,angular ,meander10 ,wolvesey ,castle1 ,winchester1 temp4 ,stephen 7,archologia1 xvi41 #ahab1 p4 #cfa1 ,plate ,,lxii41 ,fig4 #c74 b4 ,norman capital1 8sections of branches0 or billet ends1 ,peterborough ,cathedral 7,archologia1 xii41 #agif1 ,plate ,,xxxi41 ,fig4 #d1 p4 #afh74 c4 ,hut-urn1 ,etruscan1 ,monte ,albano 7,museo ,kircheriano1 ,rome71 d-f4 ,skeuomorphs of the gable 7,household ,furniture74 ,illustration3 ,plate ,i ,,plate ,,ii4--,,skeuomorphs ,,of ,,wattle-,,work4 ,,figs4 #a4 ,impression of wattle-work on clay1 ,ebersberg 7,keller1 loc4 cit41 ,plate ,,cxliv41 ,fig4 #af74 #b4 ,bast twisted among willow rods1 ,robenhausen 7,keller1 loc4 cit41 ,plate ,,cxxxiv41 ,fig4 #e74 #c4 ,mat of bast1 ,robenhausen 7,keller1 loc4 cit41 ,plate ,,cxxxiv41 ,fig4 #b74 #d4 ,fabric of flax1 ,robenhausen 7,keller1 loc4 cit41 ,plate ,,cxxxvi41 ,fig4 #d74 #e4 ,fabric of bast1 ,robenhausen 7,keller1 loc4 cit41 ,plate ,,cxxxv41 ,fig4 #c74 #f4 ,corbula1 ,italy 7,w4 ,smith1 ,dict4 ,roman ,antiq41 p4 #bhe74 #g4 ,basket on ivory plaque1 ,boulak 7,perrot and ,chipiez1 ,egypt1 ii41 ,fig4 #cba1 p4 #chh74 #h4 ,earthenware food-vessel1 ,stone ,age1 ,denmark 7,worsaae1 ,danish ,arts1 p4 #cf74 #i4 ,bottom of a basket1 ,terramara ,beds1 ,northern ,italy 7,keller1 loc4 cit41 ,plate ,,cxvi41 ,fig4 #aa74 #aj4 ,fragment of ,pottery1 ,terramara ,beds1 ,northern ,italy 7,keller1 loc4 cit41 ,plate ,,cxiii41 ,fig4 #ac74 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,ii ,,plate ,,iii4--,,skeuomorphs ,,of ,,basketry4 ,,figs4 ,a4 ,hypothetical origin of a scroll from basket-work4 ,b4 ,hypothetical origin of a curvilinear fret from basket-work4 #a4 ,marginal pattern of a bronze buckler from ,amathus1 ,cyprus 7,g4 ,perrot and ,c4 ,chipiez1 ,history of ,art on ,phnicia and its ,dependencies1 ii41 #ahhe1 ,fig4 #cfc1 p4 #dbj74 #b4 ,pattern on a bronze buckler from ,dali1 ,cyprus 7,perrot and ,chipiez1 loc4 cit41 ,fig4 #cfj1 p4 #dah74 #c4 ,greek guilloche 7,wornum1 ,analysis of ,ornament1 #gth ed41 p4 #eh74 #d4 ,assyrian guilloche 7,glazier1 ,notes on ,ornament1 p4 #h74 #e4 ,pattern on an enamelled ,roman vase1 ,bartlow ,hills 7,arch4 ,journ41 xii41 #ahee1 p4 #dah74 #f4 ,bowl of ,ancient ,pueblos1 ,tusayan 7,w4 ,h4 ,holmes1 ,fourth ,ann4 ,rep4 ,bureau ,eth41 ,fig4 #cjh1 p4 #cca74 #g4 ,handled vase of ,ancient ,pueblos1 ,tusayan 7loc4 cit41 ,fig4 #ccf1 p4 #cdf74 #h4 ,terra-cotta vase1 ,third ,sepulchre of ,mycen 7,schliemann1 ,mycen1 #ahgh1 ,no4 #cbd1 p4 #bji74 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,iii ,,plate ,,iv4--,,skeuomorphs ,,of ,,the ,,withy-,,band4 #a4 8,the ,tarsus ,seal0 of hmatite1 ,hittite 7,nature1 ,april #bf1 #ahhh1 p4 #faj74 ,the right-hand design strongly resembles a course of the twisted fibre of basketry when removed from the upright osier-sticks4 #b4 ,detail on incised stone1 ,kirk ,maughold1 ,isle of ,man 7,runic ,remains1 ,fig4 #bd74 #c4 ,detail on incised stone1 ,church of ,mont ,majour1 ,nimes1 tenth century 7,wright1 ,hist4 of ,caricature1 p4 #dh74 #d4 ,detail on incised stone1 ,malew1 ,isle of ,man2 8,leather or strap-work0 7,runic ,remains1 ,fig4 #ae74 ,,filigree4 #e4 ,gold ornament1 ,lake ,mringen 7,keller1 loc4 cit41 ,plate ,,lvii41 ,fig4 #i74 #f4 ,gold ornament1 ,denmark 7,worsaae1 ,danish ,arts1 p4 #fb74 #g4 ,bronze pin1 ,nidau--,steinberg 7,keller1 loc4 cit41 ,plate ,,xxxiv41 ,fig4 #ad74 ,,skeuomorphs ,,of ,,fascining4 #h4 ,floor of lake-dwelling1 ,niederwyl1 #ahfd 7,keller1 loc4 cit41 ,plate ,,xvi41 ,fig4 #h74 #i4 ,bottom of inside of an earthen vessel1 ,ueberlingen ,see 7,keller1 loc4 cit41 ,plate ,,xxx41 ,fig4 #f74 #aj4 ,part of a crescent of red sandstone1 ,ebersberg 7,keller1 loc4 cit41 ,plate ,,cxliii41 ,fig4 #g74 #aa4 ,incised stone from ,hadrian's ,wall4 ,,skeuomorphs ,,of ,,weaving4 #ab4 ,greek fret 7,birch1 ,ancient ,pottery1 ,fig4 #d1 p4 #cje74 #ac4 ,greek fret 7,glazier1 ,notes on ,ornament1 p4 #h74 #ad4 ,japanese fret 7,glazier1 loc4 cit41 p4 #h74 #ae4 ,anglo-,saxon fret1 ,lambeth ,aldhelm 7,j4 ,o4 ,westwood1 8,early ,british ,anglo-,saxon and ,irish ,ornamentation10 ,arch4 ,journ41 x4 p4 #bij1 #ahec74 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,iv ,,plate ,v4--,,skeuomorphs ,,of ,,timbering4 ,,figs4 #a4 ,rock tomb1 ,antiphellus1 ,lycia 7,c4 ,fellows1 ,a ,journal written during an ,excursion in ,asia ,minor1 #ahci1 p4 #bbj74 #b4 ,rock tomb1 ,xanthus 7,fellows1 loc4 cit41 p4 #bbf74 #c4 ,rock tomb1 ,antiphellus 7,fellows1 loc4 cit41 p4 #bai74 #d4 ,painting of a house1 ,pompeii 7,gell1 ,plate #fj74 #e4 ,greek egg-and-dart1 or ,echinus pattern1 from entablature1 ,erechtheium4 #f4 ,similar pattern on ,samian vase 7,wornum1 loc4 cit41 p4 #eh74 #g4 ,greek anthemion1 ,apollo ,epicurius 7,wornum1 loc4 cit41 p4 #eh74 ,illustration3 ,plate ,v ,,plate ,,vi4--,,zoomorphs4 ,,figs4 #a4 ,detail on a vase from ,roman villa1 ,chesterford1 ,essex 7,r4 ,c4 ,neville1 8,roman ,remains at ,ickleton and ,chesterford10 ,arch4 ,journ41 vi41 #ahdi1 p4 #ai74 #b4 ,part of iron sword of ,gaulish workmanship1 ,marin ,lake 7,keller1 loc4 cit41 ,plate ,,cxxviii41 ,fig4 #f74 #c4 ,detail of mural decoration1 ,pompeii 7,art ,journal1 #ahgg1 p4 #bcc74 #d4 ,decoration of an ancient pot of ,new ,mexico 7,j4 ,stevenson1 8,illust4 ,cat4 of ,collections obtained from ,indians of ,new ,mexico and ,arizona10 ,second ,ann4 ,rep4 ,bureau ,ethnol41 #ahhc1 ,fig4 #cfc1 p4 #cdd74 #e4 ,lombardic gold ornament1 ,chiusi1 ,tuscany 7,s4 ,t4 ,baxter1 ,arch4 ,journ41 xxxiii41 #ahgf1 ,plate ,i41 p4 #aje74 #f4 ,decoration in ,greek terra-cotta 7,wornum1 loc4 cit41 p4 #bh74 #g4 ,top of bench-end1 ,ormskirk ,church 7,manchester ,guardian1 #ajth ,november #ahhh74 #h4 ,engraved silver plate1 ,tumulus1 ,norrie's ,law1 ,scotland 7,r4 ,dundas1 8,silver ,ornaments in ,tumulus at ,largo1 ,fifeshire10 ,arch4 ,journ41 vi41 #ahdi1 p4 #bec74 #i4 ,incised stone1 ,dunnichen1 ,scotland 7,boyd ,dawkins1 ,early ,man in ,britain1 p4 #dce74 #aj-ab4 ,carving on ,new ,zealand clubs1 in the collection of ,mr4 ,charles ,heape4 #ac4 ,part of carved handle of ,hervey ,island paddle1 in the collection of ,mr4 ,charles ,heape4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,vi ,,plate ,,vii4--,,zoomorphs4 ,,figs4 #a4 ,detail on incised-stone1 ,isle of ,man 7,runic ,remains1 ,fig4 #ae74 #b4 ,figure from ,king ,gorm's stone1 ,jellinge1 ,jutland 7,j4 ,ferguson1 ,rude ,stone ,monuments1 #ahgb1 ,fig4 #aje1 p4 #bif74 #c4 ,detail on carved cross1 ,gosforth1 ,w4 ,cumberland 7,w4 ,s4 ,calverley1 ,arch4 ,journ41 xl41 #ahhc1 p4 #adf74 #d4 ,panel in illumination1 ,gospels of ,mac ,regol1 at ,oxford 7,arch4 ,journal1 x41 #ahec1 p4 #bia1 ,fig4 #f74 #e4 ,detail on incised stone1 ,kirk ,michael1 ,isle of ,man 7,runic ,remains1 ,fig4 #ag74 #f1 #g4 ,figures on rock sculpture1 ,crichie1 ,scotland 7,arch4 ,journ4 xiv41 #aheg4 p1 #aic1 ,figs4 #ac1 #ad74 #h4 ,saxon silver ear-ring1 ,thetford 7,arch4 ,journ4 ii41 #ahdf1 p4 #djb74 #i4 ,saxon gold ring1 ,bormer1 ,sussex 7,arch4 ,journ4 xi41 #ahed1 p4 #bh74 #aj4 ,detail on ,saxon tomb1 ,bedale1 ,yorks 7,arch4 ,journ4 iii41 #ahdf1 p4 #beh74 ,,withy ,,band4 #aa4 ,detail on lid of a stone coffin1 ,cambridge ,castle 7,t4 ,kerrich1 ,arch4 xvii41 #ahad1 ,plate ,,xvi41 p4 #bbh74 #ab4 ,scandinavian triskele4 #ac4 ,reefing knot on ,britanno-,roman altar1 ,cohors quarta ,gallorum equitata1 ,risingham1 ,northumberland 7,arch4 ,journ4 xii41 #ahee1 p4 #bai74 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,vii ,,plate 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,woodlark1 ,group1 art of1 #eh2 trade of1 #dg2 spatulas of1 #ed ,worm-knot1 ,scandinavian1 #id ,writing1 evolution of1 #baf-bba2 reversed1 #abe ,yule ,island1 #db ,zigzag1 #ad1 #ed1 #bgf1 #cji2 from alligator1 #aga2 ,australian1 #beh1 #bei2 origin of1 #hh1 #hi2 in ,ancient ,egypt1 #hi2 ,brazil1 #agd-agh2 frogs' legs as1 #bdd1 #bdh ,zoomorphs1 #afd-ahc2 in mythology #ahb2 horse1 #ahj2 wolf1 #aie ,zui medicine bowl1 #aba2 pottery1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #abh ,transcriber's note ,text in italics has been surrounded with underscores1 bold with signs1 and underlined with signs4 ,small capitals have been replaced with all capitals4 ,the table on page #h has been rotated for better readability4 ,the table on page #bii was entirely in italics in the original1 this has been removed4 ,an extra title has been removed4 ,the footnotes were renumbered and placed after the paragraph they referred to4 ,errors in punctuation and spacing have been corrected silently4 ,also the following corrections were made1 on page #eh 8tha0 changed to 8that0 7to differ in many respects from that which is characteristic7 #fc 8,havn0 changed to 8,haven0 7from ,angriffs ,haven1 near ,humboldt ,bay7 #agi 8,,xi0 changed to 8,,vi0 7the ,dunnichen ,stone 7,plate ,,vi41 ,fig4 #i72 but the head7 and in footnote #afj 8tindados0 changed to 8tindalos0 7and the birds are vehicles of tindalos47 ,otherwise the original has been preserved1 including unusual spelling and inconsistent hyphenation4 ,additional3 some footnotes have more than one anchor4 ,the index has not been checked for errors in alphabetization or page numbers4