,transcriber's ,notes3 ,italics have been transcribed using underscores1 small capitals as ,,all ,,capitals4 ,depending on the hard- and software used to read this text1 not all characters may display properly or at all4 ,the alignment of the tables may depend on the font used4 ,spelling is kept as in the original4 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the end of the text4 ,,the ,,senses ,,and ,,the ,,mind4 ,,philadelphia3 ,,american ,,sunday-,,school ,,union1 ,,no4 #adf ,,chestnut ,,street4 ,,london3 ,,religious ,,tract ,,society4 ,,note4--,the ,american ,sunday-school ,union have made an arrangement with the ,london ,religious ,tract ,society1 to publish1 concurrently with them1 such of their valuable works as are best suited to our circulation4 ,in making the selection1 reference will be had to the general utility of the volumes1 and their sound moral tendency4 ,they will occupy a distinct place on our catalogue1 and will constitute a valuable addition to our stock of books for family and general reading4 ,as they will be1 substantially1 reprints of the ,london edition1 the credit of their general character will belong to our ,english brethren and not to us2 and we may add1 that the republication of them1 under our joint imprint1 involves us in no responsibility beyond that of a judicious selection4 ,we cheerfully avail ourselves of this arrangement for giving wider influence and value to the labours of a sister institution so catholic in its character and so efficient in its operations as the ,london ,religious ,tract ,society4 ,the present volume is issued under the above arrangement4 ,,contents4 ,page ,,chapter ,i4 #e ,,on ,,the ,,general ,,relationship ,,of ,,man ,,to ,,the ,,world ,,around ,,him1 ,,and ,,his ,,adaptation ,,to ,,the ,,planet ,,he ,,tenants ,,chapter ,,ii4 #de ,,man',s ,,knowledge ,,of ,,the ,,qualities ,,of ,,matter ,,obtained ,,through ,,the ,,medium ,,of ,,the ,,senses ,,chapter ,,iii4 #fi ,,the ,,senses1 ,,as ,,the ,,inlets ,,to ,,knowledge--,,sight ,,and ,,hearing ,,chapter ,,iv4 #aec ,,observations ,,on ,,the ,,agency ,,of ,,the ,,senses1 ,,relative ,,to ,,the ,,union ,,between ,,mind ,,and ,,matter2 ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,occasional ,,imperfection ,,of ,,the ,,bodily ,,organs ,,of ,,the ,,senses1 ,,with ,,the ,,results ,,depending ,,thereupon ,,the ,,senses ,,and ,,the ,,mind4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,on ,,the ,,general ,,relationship ,,of ,,man ,,to ,,the ,,world ,,around ,,him1 ,,and ,,his ,,adaptation ,,to ,,the ,,planet ,,he ,,tenants4 ,there are few1 at least among the reflecting portion of society1 who have not either mentally or verbally asked the question3 ,is the sun--is the moon--are the planets1 with their satellites--are the stars1 those suns of other systems1 tenanted1 as is our planet1 the earth1 by living beings1 which declare the omnipotence of ,god8 ,this is one of many questions which cannot be answered4 ,the probability1 to judge from analogy1 is1 that some1 if not all1 are inhabited2 that some are in a course of preparation for beings which ,god will1 in his own time1 call into existence2 and that in all1 changes have taken place more or less similar to those which have occurred on the globe we tenant1 and which have been connected with the extinction of races1 and the creation of others adapted and organized for an altered condition of the earth's surface1 and of the circumambient atmosphere4 ,but1 granting these suppositions1 it must be evident1 that the living beings in the sun1 the planets1 and the asteroids1 must not only be differently constructed from those which inhabit our planet1 the earth2 but1 also1 that in different worlds1 the living inhabitants must be very diversely constituted1 not only as regards their senses1 but also their organization and their powers of locomotion4 ,we cannot conceive of beings unlike ourselves1 and the animals1 terrestrial and aquatic1 which1 called into existence by ,almighty ,power1 people the surface of our earth2 that1 however1 is no reason why such beings should not exist1 for what is impossible with ,god8 ,nay1 as it is1 the senses1 the operations1 the powers1 and economy of insects confound us1 and lead us to suspect that they possess a sense1 or senses1 which1 because denied to us1 we cannot appreciate4 ,in our world1 atmospheric air1 in which oxygen prevails1 or water1 also oxygenated1 is essential to the maintenance of animal life4 ,but cannot the ,almighty construct organic beings1 independent of our air or our water--vitalized1 in fact1 on principles of which we can form no idea8 ,undoubtedly4 ,if1 for example1 no aquatic water-breathing animals1 as fishes1 crustacea1 etc41 existed on our earth1 could we conceive of the possibility of their being8 or1 were our race1 and all other animals furnished with gills instead of lungs1 and ordained to a sub-aquatic life1 making the wide ocean our home1 could we form any idea of what creatures could be constituted for living in the thin atmosphere1 and actively enjoying life under its pressure8 ,again1 let the attractive force of this earth be altered1 the organization of every living thing must 7granting its existence to be guaranteed7 be altered accordingly4 ,we take the following from ,miss ,somerville's ,connexion of the ,physical ,sciences1 p4 #gc3--,the densities of bodies are proportional to their masses1 divided by their volumes4 ,hence1 if the sun and planets be assumed to be spheres1 their volumes will be as the cubes of their diameters4 ,now1 the apparent diameters of the sun and earth1 at their mean distance1 are #aibb1 #h1 and #ag1 #aeeb1 and the mass of the earth is the #ced1icfth part of that of the sun1 taken as the unit4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that the earth is nearly four times as dense as the sun2 but the sun is so large that his attractive force would cause bodies to fall through about #cce feet in #a2 consequently1 if inhabited by human beings1 they would be unable to move1 since their weight would be thirty times as great as it is here4 ,a man of moderate size would weigh about two tons at the surface of the sun2 whereas1 at the surface of the asteroids1 7the clusters between ,mars and ,jupiter17 he would be so light that he could not stand steadily1 since he would only weigh a few pounds4 ,the densities1 that of water being #a1 as far as can be satisfactorily explained1 are as follow3--,sun1 #a-b_/ae2 ,mercury1 #i-a_/f2 ,venus1 #e-aa_/ae2 ,moon1 #d-a_/b2 ,mars1 #c-b_/g2 ,ceres1 #b2 ,pallas1 #b2 ,jupiter1 #a-a_/bd2 ,saturn1 #ac_/cb2 ,herschel1 #ii_/ajj4 ,similar observations apply to the influence of the atmosphere1 in whatever point of view we consider it1 that is1 whether we regard its weight1 its electrical condition1 its illumination1 its temperature1 its dryness1 or humidity4 #a4 ,its ,weight4--,the weight of the atmosphere 7an elastic1 compressible1 and expansible fluid17 is calculated to be from fourteen to fifteen pounds avoirdupois on every square inch1 7pure water1 taking bulk for bulk1 being about #hbh times as heavy47 ,now1 reckoning the surface of a middle-sized man to be fourteen feet1 he sustains the pressure of eleven tons4 ,many of our readers have seen the philosophical experiment of placing two hollow metallic hemispheres rim to rim1 the rims being nicely adjusted and smeared with lard2 this being done1 the air1 by means of a stop-cock on the lower hemisphere1 screwed into a powerful air-pump apparatus1 is drawn out or exhausted--the stop-cock is turned--the globe is unscrewed from the air-pump1 and placed in the hands of those who may consent to try their strength in pulling the two hemispheres asunder4 ,enormous is the force required2 if the diameter of the circle be fourteen inches1 the least force that will separate them will be equivalent to half a ton4 ,such1 then1 being the pressure of the atmosphere1 as is clearly proved by simple experiments1 it may at first create some surprise that the human body is capable of sustaining it without being crushed2 that the tiny insect1 with its delicate wings--and in some these amount to several square inches of surface--is not reduced to atoms4 ,but the wonder will cease1 when we reflect that this pressure1 or a pressure little short of it1 is essential to the existence1 not of man only1 but of all terrestrial organic beings4 ,dr4 ,robinson justly observes1 that the human body 7he might have said every organic body7 is a bundle of solids mixed with fluids1 and there are few or no parts of it which are empty4 ,all communicate either by vessels or by pores1 and the entire surface is a sieve1 through which the insensible perspiration is performed4 ,the whole extended surface of the lungs is open to the pressure of the atmosphere2 everything1 therefore1 is in equilibrio2 and if free or speedy access be given to every part1 the body will not be damaged by the pressure1 however great1 any more than a wet sponge would be deranged by pressing it to any depth in the water4#a #a ,mechanical ,philosophy1 vol4 iii4 p4 #ed4 ,on this we would remark1 that the human body1 and that of terrestrial animals in general1 is not adapted for the pressure of water at great depths2 even could man by any contrivance breathe1 such a pressure would destroy life2 and1 indeed1 few aquatic animals are constituted for oceanic existence in the depths of the sea4 ,while the surface is alive with its myriads1 the depths are still and untenanted2 while bays1 shores1 reefs1 and sandbanks1 covered by many fathoms of water1 are teeming with shelled mollusks1 fishes1 and thousands of wondrous creeping things1 the profundity of ocean is a comparative desert2 whatever lives there must be so constituted as to sustain a tremendous amount of aqueous pressure4 ,indeed1 whales1 which often plunge to a considerable depth1 and remain submerged for twenty minutes1 during which time respiration is suspended1 are provided by their coating of blubber1 and by the peculiar arrangement of their arterial and venous systems1 for the pressure they then undergo2 but this pressure often repeated1 as it is when the animal is wounded and hard driven1 soon produces great exhaustion4 ,captain ,scoresby1 for example1 harpooned a whale1 which1 on receiving the weapon1 descended four hundred fathoms1 at the rate of eight miles an hour2 but these animals1 when suffering from the torture of the harpoon1 often descend to a much greater depth1 and sometimes strike so violently against a hard bed of the ocean as to fracture their jaws4 ,at the depth of eight hundred fathoms1 captain ,scoresby calculates the pressure at #baa1bjj tons4 ,on the other hand1 the organization of man 7and other animals7 is as ill calculated for a much lighter pressure than that of our atmosphere at sea-level1 as it is for great pressure in the depths of ocean4 ,in proportion as we ascend the alpine elevations of our globe1 or mount upwards in a balloon1 we find the air more and more rarefied4 ,these elevations are1 however1 but trifling2 nevertheless1 trifling as they are1 what an effect the decrease of pressure produces on the human frame6 ,the heart beats with violence1 the lungs gasp for more air1 they have not pressure enough2 the blood begins to ooze out of the minute vessels ramifying through the tissue of their delicate cells2 blood issues from the nose1 the eyes1 the ears2 the slightest exertion becomes oppressive--a mile or two higher1 and death is inevitable4 ,the difficulties attendant upon the ascent of ,mont ,blanc1 the vast ,himalaya chain1 and the heights of the ,cordilleras1 are quite as much connected with the state of the air as with the terrible ravines and precipices which obstruct the way4 ,indeed1 as is well known1 on the elevated plateaus of ,south ,america or ,thibet1 men and animals accustomed to low plains1 or even to gently undulating grounds1 are for a long time distressed for breath1 and incapable of bodily exertion4 ,time alone habituates them to the rarer and lighter atmosphere4 ,but what is an elevation of #ac1jjj or #ad1jjj feet1 nay of #ae1ffh feet1 7,mont ,blanc17 of #be1gdg feet1 or #bh1jgg feet1 7,jewahir and ,dhawalagiri1 peaks of the ,himalaya17 to that of twenty or thirty miles8 ,at an elevation of twenty miles1 the heart of a human being would burst1 his lungs become gorged with blood1 from every pore of his body a sanguine stream would gush forth--he would immediately die4 ,is not1 then1 the pressure of the atmosphere necessary for the existence of man1 constituted as he is for the planet which he inhabits8 ,but the atmosphere1 with regard to its relationship to the solid globe it environs1 demands a few words4 ,this elastic fluid must be considered as a body of air revolving with the earth1 whence it must be evident that the velocity of the strata of air1 if we may use the word1 increases as we recede from the earth's axis2 for example1 at the equator1 that stratum of air1 7if such there be17 which is twice as distant from the centre of the earth as the surface is1 must revolve with twice the actual velocity of the air at the surface4 ,taking this fact into consideration1 it results that1 however attenuated1 however rarefied1 the atmosphere cannot extend beyond #bj1jjj miles from the surface of the earth2 far above that elevation the centrifugal force would counteract the centripetal1 or1 in other words1 the tendency of the particles to the earth would cease1 and1 consequently1 unless air pervaded the universe1 which is not the case1 #bj1jjj miles are within the utmost range of possibility4 ,the fact1 however1 appears to be demonstrated1 that the limits of our atmosphere do not exceed an elevation of above forty-five or fifty miles1 and that beyond this there is no refraction or reflection of the solar rays--that1 in fact1 air ceases4 ,the finite extent of the atmosphere has been ably discussed by ,dr4 ,wollaston1#b his arguments being based upon the ,atomic ,theory of matter4 ,we may thus condense his train of reasoning1 as far as it bears more immediately upon the present subject4--,if air extend throughout the universe1 we shall be obliged to admit that every planet must collect an atmosphere around itself proportionate to its attractive power4 ,in this case1 as he argues1 ,jupiter1 at whose surface the force of gravity must be much greater than that of our earth1 would certainly collect a large and dense atmosphere around him4 ,the effect of the refraction of light through this atmosphere would become visible on the approach of the satellites to the planet1 when they disappear behind his disc1 and would cause a sensible retardation in their rate of approach4 ,now1 it is allowed that no such retardation1 even in the minutest sensible degree1 can be observed1 and hence it follows that ,jupiter has no such atmosphere as that of our earth1 nor the means of collecting it2 consequently1 air1 such as that composing our atmosphere1 is not diffused in any degree of rarefaction through the solar system4 ,this finite character of our atmosphere is1 as ,dr4 ,wollaston contends1 more conformable to the atomic theory than to that of the infinite divisibility of matter2 since1 in the first case1 a boundary is possible1 and will exist at the point where the weight of a single atom is as great as the repulsive force of the medium2 while1 in the latter case1 it is difficult to see the possibility of any boundary4 #b ,phil4 ,trans41 #ahbb4 ,by way of note we would here add1 that the theory of the infinite divisibility of matter1 which all the laws of chemistry seem to deny1 has no good grounds for our acceptance4 ,god made matter1 and1 as we may humbly conceive1 in the form of ultimate atoms1 which1 however inconceivably minute1 must be definite--otherwise what is meant by creation8 ,that which is created must have definite figure1 size1 etc41 else it is nothing2 and to talk of a creation where size of figures is absent1 is absurd4 ,we know that atheistical philosophers advocate the theory of the infinite divisibility1 and infinite1 essentially infinite duration of matter1 for these points are steps to the theory of non-creation1 or rather involve it4 ,infinite duration1 infinite divisibility1 infinite extension1 and the plastic power of infinite time1 together with the innate1 ungiven laws of this infinite matter1 form the key-stones to their unholy temple entrance4 ,on this theory1 worlds formed themselves1 and harmonized with each other2 living microscopic monads called themselves into being1 and by voluntary exertion became developed through various phases into man4 ,thus1 then1 he owes no ,creator thanks6 ,impious1 irrational1 debasing doctrine6 ,supposing1 then1 that our atmosphere is not continued to an altitude exceeding fifty miles1 forming a sort of circumambient ocean1 at the bottom of which we live1 and which is created for our peculiar organization1 still it is not altogether improbable that some subtle ethereal fluid1 altogether different from our atmosphere1 may extend itself throughout space--a fluid of extreme attenuation1 the nature of which is to us unknown in fact--a fluid so impalpable as to cause no sensible retardation to the rate of motion in the planets4 ,we do not positively assert that such a subtle fluid exists1 though many astronomers are in favour of this hypothesis2 and1 indeed1 we believe that ,encke's comet appears in successive revolutions to show in some slight degree the effect of some medium resisting its motion1 and that the same observation applies to the comet of ,biela4 ,but when we consider the great tenuity of the substance of these comets1 through which even faint stars may be seen1 we shall be justified in regarding this resisting medium as being more subtle1 attenuated1 and elastic1 than can be well expressed in words4 ,to revert now to our atmosphere1 there is another interesting point which requires our notice2 namely1 are the constituents of this atmosphere chemically united together1 or only simply mixed in certain proportions8 ,we believe that it consists of a simple mixture only of two essential gases1 or elements1 namely1 oxygen and nitrogen1 with a small and variable quantity of carbonic acid1 and also with water in a state of vapour4 ,we may consider the last two as accidental ingredients1 essential as the vapour of the atmosphere may be to the necessities of animals and plants1 to luxuriance of scenery1 and fertility of soil4 ,the essentials of air are united in the following proportions1 namely1 one part of oxygen and two of nitrogen1 or one atom of oxygen and two atoms of nitrogen2 but as the atomic weights of oxygen are as #h to #ad1 the proportion of the weights of the two in any given quantity of air will be that of #h to #bh1 or two to seven2 in other words1 nine grains by weight of air will contain two grains of oxygen1 and seven of nitrogen1 supposing the air to be pure4 ,but1 as we have said1 a portion of carbonic acid gas is usually contained in air2 this gas is exhaled from the earth1 and collects in certain localities1 rendering the air more impure than it otherwise would be2 as a rule1 however1 the quantity of this gas in intermixture with the air we breathe--its lower strata--varies from three to eight parts out of a thousand in weight2 in its pure state1 it is immediately destructive to animal life2 but thus diluted is in this respect innoxious1 while to the vegetable kingdom it is necessary4 ,with respect to water in a state of viewless vapour1 the quantum in any given weight of air seldom exceeds #a-a_/b per cent4 ,now if1 as most philosophers of the present day seem to consider1 there is no chemical union of the gases constituting the atmosphere1 it may be supposed that1 according to their respective weights1 a partial separation and subsidence of the heavier will take place1 while the lighter will chiefly compose the upper portion--thus1 for example1 a stratum of nitrogen will surmount a stratum of mixed nitrogen and oxygen1 and this a stratum of mixed nitrogen1 oxygen1 and carbonic acid4 ,the following passage from the ,penny ,magazine will illustrate this theory3 ,a law is found to prevail in the mixture of gases and vapours1 as universal as is that relative to their expansion arising from temperature1 namely1 that two gases in a state of mixture exercise no influence one upon the other1 except communication of temperature1 but that each is disposed in exactly the same way as it would be if the other were not present4 ,thus it is found1 entirely contrary to all previous notions1 that no pressure of dry air upon water exerts the least influence in preventing the formation of steam1 which goes on exactly as if the space above were a vacuum1 and continues until further evaporation is stopped by the pressure of the steam already created4 ,it is found that no pressure of one gas can confine another in water2 but that1 supposing a bottle partly full of water1 the gas confined in the water will escape to the surface1 and distribute itself in precisely the same way as if the other gas were not present4 ,by this it is not meant that the action1 commonly called mechanical1 cannot take place1 or that a stream of hydrogen would not trouble the air2 but only that the permanent settlement of one gas is not affected in any way by the presence of another1 so long as no chemical action is excited4 ,from this principle1 ,mr4 ,dalton1#c taking into consideration the presumptions which exist against the chemical union of the ingredients of the atmosphere1 infers1 that the atmosphere does not altogether consist of the compound called air1 but that the nitrogen atmosphere is higher than the oxygen atmosphere4 ,in fact1 if there be no chemical union1 the above law of the mixture of gases requires us to allow that each is an atmosphere independent of the other1 and that the two are most probably of unequal heights4 ,from some considerations into which we cannot here enter1 ,mr4 ,dalton thinks that the actual pressures exerted by the oxygen and nitrogen are in the proportions of the volumes occupied by them1 that is1 as one to four2 and concludes that the oxygen atmosphere extends to thirty-eight miles in height1 that of nitrogen to fifty-four miles1 that of carbonic acid to ten miles1 and that of aqueous vapour to fifty miles4 ,it must be observed1 however1 that the state of the carbonic acid of the atmosphere is very variable2 that there is not the same quantity by night as by day1 in moist weather as in dry2 and that the higher strata of the atmosphere contain more of it than the lower1 which may arise from a rapid absorption by the earth4 ,against the hypothesis just described1 it might1 perhaps1 be asserted1 that the air which ,gay-,lussac brought down from a height of more than four miles was not found to differ from that of the earth's surface in the proportion of its oxygen to its nitrogen1 which would be the case if the oxygen atmosphere diminished in density more than in proportion to the diminution of that of the nitrogen1 or vice vers4 #c ,phil4 ,trans41 #ahbf4 ,without attempting to settle the question as to whether the component parts of the air are in a state of chemical union1 or only in a state of simple mixture1 of this we are sure1 that the air is essential to the existence of all organic beings which live on the surface of our planet1 that is to animals and plants1 though the relationship of each to the air is diverse4 ,the following comparison between the two great groups of organic creation1 which we copy from an admirable paper on the ,progress of ,organic ,chemistry in the ,companion to the ,almanack1 #ahdi1 shows the respective relationships of animals and plants to the elements around them1 as well as their mutual balance and dependence3-- ,an ,animal is an ,apparatus ,a ,vegetable is an ,apparatus of ,combustion4 of ,reduction4 ,burns ,carbon ,reduces ,carbon ,hydrogen ,hydrogen ,ammonium4 ,ammonium4 ,exhales ,carbonic ,acid ,fixes ,carbonic ,acid ,water ,water ,oxide of ,ammonium ,oxide of ,ammonium ,nitrogen1 or ,nitrogen1 or ,azote4 ,azote4 ,consumes ,oxygen ,produces ,oxygen ,proteine ,proteine ,fats ,fats ,starch ,starch ,sugar ,sugar ,gum4 ,gum4 ,produces ,heat ,absorbs ,heat4 ,electricity4 ,abstracts ,electricity4 ,restores ,its elements to ,derives ,its elements the air or from the air or earth4 from the earth4 ,transforms ,organized matter ,transforms ,mineral matter into mineral into organic matter4 matter4 ,is not the wisdom of ,god here manifest8--,the vegetable kingdom is made auxiliary to the animal1 and vice vers4--,yet1 how8 by mysterious changes1 appropriations1 productions1 and consumptions1 upon which modern researches are from time to time throwing new light2 or1 in other words1 unfolding to us new revelations of the power and wisdom of the ,great ,eternal1 who has condescended to give us a spiritual directory1 a guide to our feet1 and a lamp to our path1 by means of which we1 who at best only see through a glass darkly1 may be led into that glorious world where there are no clouds--where there is no night--where there is no need of the sun1 neither of the moon1 to shine in it3 for the glory of ,god doth lighten it1 and the ,lamb is the light thereof4 #b4 ,its ,electrical ,condition4--,with the electrical changes in the state of the atmosphere are connected various transitions from heat to cold1 dew1 rain1 hail1 snow1 clouds1 winds1 thunder-storms1 auror boreales1 haloes1 parhelia1 etc4 ,in this point of consideration the atmosphere bears upon organic life4 ,the solid globe itself may be regarded as a vast electrical or galvanic apparatus1 and all the vital functions of animal bodies involve electric or galvanic phenomena4 ,magnetism appears to be essentially identical with electricity2 both are most intimately connected with light and heat2 and not only electric sparks1 but all the phenomena of electricity1 can be obtained from a common magnet4 ,it is not here our purpose to enter into a philosophical treatise on electricity and galvanism2 a little consideration1 however1 will lead us to infer that the general diffusion of this subtle electric fluid1 if the term fluid be at all applicable1 is essential to the maintenance of organic life1 and that electrical changes are perpetually taking place in organic bodies4 ,this fluid is derived from the earth1 or its circumambient atmosphere1 and its currents obey definite laws1 which have been elucidated by the experiments of some of the most profound philosophers of modern times4 ,after what we have briefly said respecting the electric condition of our globe1 and the electrical phenomena which are involved in the processes of the vital functions1 to say nothing of electro-magnetism1 it must surely be apparent1 that even as the air is in itself necessary to our existence1 so the diffusion of that subtle matter1 now quick1 now slowly acting1 now energetic1 and now darting from the clouds to the solid earth a vivid flash1 creating a momentary light in darkness--is equally essential2 this is a point which1 by the world at large1 is but slightly taken into consideration4 ,remove this subtle element from the earth1 and what would be the result8 ,perhaps the globe would deviate from her course2 perhaps an alteration in her polar axis would take place4 ,perhaps--but why enter into such speculations8 ,this is certain--animal and vegetable life1 as at present constituted1 could not exist3 but all is ordered aright2 the organization of matter1 and the senses of living beings1 are involved in the presence of an element1 variable1 it may be1 in its phases1 but mighty in its effects4 ,here animals and plants play their part transversely1 for each other's benefit2 animals produce electricity1 by means of the vital operations of their organization1 and this produce1 given to the earth and air1 is abstracted by plants4 ,they antagonize each other1 and the result is harmony4 #c4 ,its ,illumination4--,light is evolved by and during the combustion of various bodies1 as wood1 coal1 tallow1 and spirits1 or alcoholic fluids2 it is the result of electricity--that is1 of the electric spark or flash2 it is evolved during many chemical experiments1 and by the attrition of two quartz pebbles4 ,the percussion of flint and steel produces luminous sparks2 these sparks consisting1 as the experiments of ,mr4 ,r4 ,hook have proved1 of minute ignited globules of iron1 struck off at the moment of percussion4 ,these1 and many other sources whence light proceeds1 need not here be detailed2 our object is with that general light1 the light of day1 which results from the influence of the solar rays4 ,for the reception of pictures on the retina by means of the rays of light reflected from all things within the scope of vision1 the eyes of animals are especially constructed4 ,to some animals a dim twilight suffices1 so far as regards their personal maintenance and their enjoyment of life2 to a few the little light1 which even in the darkest night is not absent1 is all that is required for their ordained habits and economy4 ,in such instances1 the retina is exquisitely susceptible1 and the iris dilates to admit the entrance of every feeble ray reflected from the objects either of their search or avoidance4 ,often have we seen the owl1 when twilight has melted into darkness1 skimming over the fields1 along the lane1 and around the barn1 quartering the ground in search of mice or moles1 which1 had they been at our feet1 would to our eyes have been invisible4 ,on the other hand1 they would have been nearly1 if not quite invisible to the owl in the full glare of sunshine4 ,yet1 be it understood1 light is as essential to the night-bird as to men1 or the giraffe of the glowing wilds of ,africa4 ,we know not what total darkness is1 unless perhaps we be walled up in a deep dungeon underground1 to which light is utterly denied access2 such living tombs have been contrived by the diabolical minds of tyrants1 pagan and papistical4 ,in the darkest night1 even our eyes dimly discern the form of things obscure--things which1 to a nocturnal animal1 would be boldly conspicuous4 ,light is a stimulus both to the animal and vegetable worlds4 ,it is when daylight breaks that man goeth forth unto his work and to his labour until the evening2 it is when light breaks that the feathered songsters of the grove join in one chorus of--why may we not say so8--instinct-urged thanksgiving4 ,o man1 gifted with reason6 ,o man1 the heir of immortality6 utter1 then1 thy song of praise1 of gratitude1 that the light of another day is bestowed upon thee3 and then be diligent in all that ,god has called upon thee to perform1 seeing that the night cometh1 when no man can work4 ,light is a stimulus1 more or less grateful to every living creature4 ,reader1 have you ever wandered along the sea-shore1 and explored the masses of rock left uncovered when the tide is fully out2 there1 adhering to the surface of the stone1 in little ponds1 mimic bays1 may be seen scores of sea-anemonies 7actinia47 ,if the sky be bright1 there will they be1 with their painted tentacles all expanded1 animal flowerets feeling the influence of light2 but let the sky change1 let clouds obscure the day1 and they retract their tentacles and shrink into repose4 ,these animals have no eyes1 but yet they are sentient of light4 ,we mention these sea-anemonies merely by way of example2 other eyeless1 and we may say1 apparently nerveless creatures evidently enjoy the influence of light1 as the hydra1 the medusa1 and the polyps of corals4 ,if light waken up some animals from their repose--if it rouse the cock1 and bid him sound his clarion shrill1 it warns others to retire to their obscure dormitory1 and slumber till twilight recalls them into activity4 ,the moth now flits abroad1 and the bat and the fern-owl are on the wing1 giving chase to their insect prey4 ,the hedgehog is all alert1 searching for slugs1 worms1 and various creeping things1 which revel in the dews of sunset4 ,it is then1 too1 that the fierce prowlers of the forest issue from their lair1 eager for blood2 but when the sun ariseth1 they gather themselves together1 and lay them down in their dens4 ,light is not only a stimulus to animals1 in the sense above noticed2 it appears to be essential to health and vigour4 ,of this we are the less aware1 because1 under ordinary circumstances1 we are always subject to its influence4 ,men have been confined for years in dark dungeons1 and have reappeared upon the stage of life1 pallid1 meagre1 weak1 and emaciated beings1 like breathing corpses2 confinement1 bad food1 ill ventilation1 and mental agony1 had no doubt done their work2 but want of light also had part in the sad devastation of the animal frame4 ,look1 for example1 at those parts of our bodies which are usually clothed1 and compare the colour of the skin with that of the hands and face2 strip the arm bare--the skin is acted upon by atmospheric air1 but yet how much whiter than that of the hand1 delicate as that hand may be4 ,it may be said that heat1 that is1 solar heat1 produces the difference4 ,partly so1 no doubt1 but not altogether4 ,the face and hands of the ,esquimaux are darker than his chest2 moreover1 suppose a severe and extensive cut happens1 and that the wound thus inflicted is bound up for weeks by adhesive plaster1 what do we see on removal of the straps and bandages8--a singular whiteness of the skin1 the result1 as it appears to us1 of the exclusion of light from the covered portion4 ,plants1 as all must have noticed1 have their leaves and flowers drawn towards the light1 and become pallid when kept in dark places4 ,thus1 for example1 some flowers open only when the sky is clear1 as the little pimpernel1 the index of fair weather2 others1 as the sunflower1 turn to the sun in his course from east to west2 the eyes1 or germinating stalk of the potato1 though they shoot vigorously in the dark1 are blanched2 so are the covered leaves of endive1 and the covered stalks of celery and sea-kale4 ,light is a chemical agent2 light1 as the apothecary well knows1 greatly impairs the activity of the dried and powdered leaves of foxglove1 and blanches castor oil4 ,light1 therefore1 is found to effect both chemical combination and chemical decomposition4 ,in nothing1 perhaps1 is the chemical agency of light more clearly shown than in the photogenic drawings1 which are the fac-simile representations of objects delineated by the action of light on a thin sensitive layer of ioduret of silver4 ,the following is the mode of preparing the plates for the reception of photogenic drawings1 given in the ,penny ,cyclopdia3--,these drawings are produced on plates of copper1 coated over with silver1 which are found to answer better than such as are entirely of the last-mentioned metal4 ,after being washed with a solution of nitric acid1 the plate is put into a well-closed box1 where it is exposed to the action of iodine1 a small quantity of the latter being placed at the bottom of the box1 with a thin gauze between it and the plate4 ,a layer of ioduret of silver is thus formed on the surface of the plate1 and manifests itself by the yellow hue produced on the silver1 which shows that the process of giving the plate the sensitive coating on which the action of the light delineates objects is completed4 ,thus prepared1 the plate is placed within a camera obscura1 of particular construction1 and the delineation of the object is then effected in a very short space of time2 but has to be afterwards brought out and rendered distinct by another operation1 namely1 submitting the plate to the action of vapour of mercury4 ,even then the process is not completed1 for the plate has to be plunged into a solution of hyposulphate of soda1 and afterwards washed in distilled water1 which being done1 the impression is fixed1 and the plate may be exposed to light with perfect safety4#d ,with reflection1 refraction1 and polarization of light1 we have here no concern2 therefore1 interesting as the subjects are1 we must pass them by4 #d ,for further details1 see the ,handbook of ,heliography1 ,london1 #ahdj2 and 7for preparing-paper7 the ,visitor1 #ahci1 p4 #bij4 ,light radiates from the sun with almost inconceivable velocity2 that is1 at the rate of nearly #bjj1jjj miles in a second4 ,hence it is about eight minutes in traversing the intermediate space between our globe and its starting point or origin4 ,but here comes a question not easily answerable4 ,what is light8 ,is it matter8 ,it is imponderable--can we conceive of matter without weight8 ,again1 whence does it derive its velocity8 ,the term radiation from the sun is convenient2 but1 then1 what is radiation8 ,is there light1 7and is there heat17 above the limits of our atmosphere8 ,we cannot tell what the nature of the mysterious emanation of light and heat from the sun is1 nor whether there are such phenomena as light and heat in empty space4 ,again1 by what process is this enormous manufactory of solar emanation kept up8 ,we may here lose ourselves in vague conjectures3 ,he alone knows who said1 ,let there be light3 and there was light4 ,the few details which we have thrown together1 bearing upon the natural light of our planet1 derived from the sun1 will suggest to the mind of the ,christian those apt comparisons1 of the broad light of day to the light of the gospel1 transmitted to our souls from the ,sun of righteousness4 ,till illuminated from above1 man wanders in spiritual darkness2 he sees neither the dangers that encompass him1 nor the road by which he should go2 he may have the light of nature and the light of science within him1 but in spiritual affairs he is blind1 and will be chosen only by the blind as a leader4 ,let1 however1 the light of revelation begin but to dawn upon him1 and he learns to discover more and more clearly his real position1 his true character1 and the impossibility of his finding acceptance before ,god upon his own merits4 ,he feels himself to be a sinful creature1 and is led to rest upon the merits and atonement of the ,son of ,god1 who died for our sins1 and rose again for our justification4 ,thus enlightened1 he receives strength to pursue his journey to that bright and glorious kingdom of which ,god himself is the ,sun1 and where there shall no more be night1 where everlasting day abides1 and all is glory and refulgence4 #d4 ,its ,temperature4--,heat and light are distinct from each other1 though in many cases one accompanies the other1 and is produced by the same cause1 as1 for instance1 by combustion1 electricity1 percussion1 the sudden condensation of air1 etc4 ,heat without light1 however1 is developed by the physical or chemical changes of bodies1 as by the condensation of steam1 and the admixture of water with sulphuric acid4 ,it results1 moreover1 from the vital and mysterious operations which are constantly taking place in organic beings1 and especially in the classes of mammalia and birds4 ,but the great source of heat--that upon which the temperature of our atmosphere mainly depends--is produced by the influence of the solar rays4 ,there is1 indeed1 heat in the body of the globe itself2 to say nothing of volcanoes1 we may state1 that the deeper we penetrate into the earth1 the higher does its temperature become--a circumstance which has led many philosophers to infer1 that the centre of our globe is in a state of incandescence4 ,it is not here that we ought to moot this theory1 neither shall we enter into any speculations relative to the intrinsic nature of heat2 like light1 it is a mysterious agent or product1 imponderable1 yet subject to certain laws--laws which belong to a branch of philosophy into which it is not now our province to enter4 ,it may1 however1 be permitted us to state a few simple facts relative to the atmospheric temperature of our globe1 and the adaptation of organic beings to the different degrees of heat within the inter-tropics1 in the temperate and in the polar latitudes4 ,climate varies not only according to latitude1 but also according to elevation1 the relative proportions of land and water1 the nature of the surface of the land1 the extent of forests1 etc4 ,an island1 for example1 like ,england1 surrounded by the sea1 destitute of mountains of vast elevation1 or of extensive morasses or forests1 though lower in atmospheric temperature during the summer months than the parallel portions of the continent1 has a milder atmospheric temperature during winter4 ,the cold of ,north ,america during winter is greater than in the same parallels of latitude in the old world4 ,canada1 for example1 lies parallel to the northern half of ,spain and ,france1 7between #dj and #ej ,n4 lat47 ,the severity of a ,canadian winter is well known4 ,at ,quebec1 the summer is that of ,paris1 the winter that of ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,at ,new ,york1 the summer is that of ,rome1 the winter that of ,copenhagen4 ,the same observations apply to the eastern portions of ,asia4 ,at ,pekin1 the scorching heat of summer is greater than at ,cairo1 while the winters are as rigorous as at ,upsal4 ,to the different climates of the globe certain plants and animals are especially adapted2 organic existence ranges from the poles to the equator4 ,how varied1 how multitudinous1 how wonderful1 are the forms and structures of organic creation1 from the moss or lichen1 which creeps upon the surface of the rock1 to the towering palm or gigantic oak--from the microscopic animalcule or puny insect1 to the ponderous elephant or enormous whale6 ,but1 as we have said1 every distinct region has1 in a general sense1 its own flora and its own fauna4 ,it is in tropical countries1 beneath a fervid sun1 that vegetation presents us with its utmost magnificence4 ,there we see forests of evergreen trees1 palms1 and arborescent ferns--there bloom flowers of gorgeous hue1 and luscious scent--there ripen fruits of most exquisite flavour1 attractive both to the sight and the taste4 ,it is there1 too1 that the elephant1 the hippopotamus1 and the rhinoceros1 the largest of terrestrial quadrupeds1 roam the plain1 or wander in the dense forest2 there are the birds conspicuous for the gorgeous splendour of their metallic colours1 and the insects for their singular forms1 their lovely painting1 or dazzling effulgence4 ,receding from the inter-tropics1 we find vegetation on a less magnificent scale2 the trees are for the most part deciduous1 various species of corn are cultivated1 the meadows are clothed with grass1 and the vine and the olive flourish4 ,beautiful are the flowers1 richly tinted are the insects2 some few birds are splendid1 but there are no sun birds1 no humming birds1 no birds of paradise4 ,receding further1 we come to the extreme limits of the vine1 and pass from temperate to colder latitudes1 latitudes in which pines and firs form woods and forests1 in which a scanty flora greets a tardy sun1 in which the animals are covered with fur1 increasing in thickness on the approach of winter4 ,beyond this territory the arctic regions open upon us4 ,yet even here vegetable and animal life meet us2 but the species are few in number3 the reindeer1 the leming1 the white hare1 the musk ox1 the polar bear1 and arctic fox1 are among the most remarkable4 ,the birds are chiefly piscivorous1 and all are migratory1 passing southwards on the approach of winter4 ,coarse herbage1 lichens1 and mosses1 vegetate during the fleeting summer1 and lie buried beneath the snow during the winter4 ,yet are these animals and plants as well adapted for their dreary realms of snow and ice1 as are the animals and plants of the rich inter-tropics for their luxuriant region4 ,take the elephant1 the hippopotamus1 the bird of paradise1 or the glittering boa constrictor to ,greenland1 and they perish2 take thither the graceful palm1 palmetto1 or pandanus1 and they cease even to struggle for life4 ,on the contrary1 transport the polar bear and the reindeer to the torrid plains of the inter-tropics1 and their fate is sealed4 ,the hardy plants1 indeed1 which endure the arctic regions1 are1 in many instances1 at least identical with those that flourish in more temperate latitudes1 but they are not to be found in the low sultry plains of the inter-tropics4 ,they constitute the outskirts of northern vegetation4 ,the inter-tropical1 the temperate1 and the high northern regions of the globe1 are characterised1 then1 by their own flora and fauna2 but there is a distribution of organic life exclusive of latitude1 which cannot but claim the attention of the naturalist4 ,for example1 the marsupial animals are distributed between ,australia and central and southern ,america2 but the ,american forms1 very few in number1 are essentially distinct from those of ,australia4 ,again1 it is to the warmer regions of the old world that the larger pachydermatous animals are confined1 such as several species of rhinoceros1 the hippopotamus1 a tapir1 two species of elephant1 wild equine animals1 as the dziggetai1 wild ass1 quagga1 zebra1 etc41 and various species of wild hog4 ,the living indigenous pachydermata of ,america consist of two species of tapir1 and two of peccary4 ,on the contrary1 ,america is rich in the edentata1 namely1 sloths1 ant-eaters1 armadilloes1 etc4 ,the pangolins1 however1 7manis17 are found only in the warmer parts of the old world1 and the aard-vark 7orycteropus7 is a native of ,south ,africa4 ,we might enlarge greatly upon these observations1 and extend them to birds and reptiles1 etc41 were it our design to enter upon the question2 we shall only add1 that in all regions animals are expressly suited to the climate of the countries in which they respectively live2 they are constituted for the endurance either of heat or of cold1 for self-protection against all extremes of atmospheric temperature1 and for the enjoyment of existence1 some under the equinoctial line1 others within the arctic circle4 ,the foregoing observations do not apply to the human race4 ,man was ordained to replenish the earth2 hence the pliability and energy of his physical constitution1 which enables him to endure the heat of the inter-tropics1 and the cold of ,lapland or ,nova ,zembla--to dwell in the deep valley or on the lofty mountain4 ,when we say this1 we look at man as a species2 we do not apply our remarks to individuals1 or1 in other words1 we do not assert that a ,samoiede would enjoy the heat of ,ceylon or ,sumatra1 or that the ,ceylonese would endure the rigours of arctic ,siberia2 we only mean1 that the fact of hot and cold climates being inhabited by our race1 proves that the physical condition of man can accommodate itself to every extreme of natural temperature upon our globe4 ,it is true1 that as a general rule man modifies his food1 his clothing1 and even the nature of his habitation1 according to the temperature and products of the climate4 ,the ,laplander clothes his body in warm furs1 the ,ceylonese in a scanty vesture of thin cotton4 ,yet the wild ,indians of some parts of ,north ,america1 and the natives of the dreary regions of ,patagonia1 are but loosely defended from the severity of the cold1 either as it respects dress or their huts4 ,the ,scottish ,highlander of the olden time1 wrapped in his tartan1 could sleep on the heather of the mountain side during a bitter sleety night without injury4 ,after all1 however1 in the arctic regions the maintenance of life is a struggle2 the depressing influences of cold1 cheerless skies1 and scanty food1 tend to render the powers of the mind and the bodily frame alike stunted and undeveloped4 ,nature here holds out the means of life with a niggard hand1 and it is from the sea principally that the supply of food and other necessaries are obtained4 ,on the other hand1 within the tropics the means of existence are lavishly bestowed1 the stimulus of animal food is not required1 while the earth yields its vegetable productions in abundance2 but in these regions1 no strong motive stimulating to active exertion1 the mental powers become enfeebled1 and all those vices inseparable from habitual indolence are engendered4 ,it is in the temperate regions1 where nature is not lavish1 but liberal1 and yet requires the hand of labour and the head of thought1 that the human race is presented to us in its highest form1 whether bodily or mentally considered4 ,it is in such regions that arts attain to perfection2 that science walks hand in hand with religion4 ,a thousand necessities urge to exertion and enterprise1 and these are followed by a due reward4 ,thus1 then1 are organic bodies1 plants1 the lower animals1 and man1 affected by atmospheric temperature2 but man has called in heat1 artificially produced1 if we may use the word in a certain sense1 to his aid4 ,without heat1 ore could not be smelted1 or instruments of metal made2 glass and earthenware could not be manufactured2 houses could neither be built1 nor furnished with articles of utility2 the operations of agriculture could not be successively carried on1 nor ships built1 nor steam engines or machinery be constructed1 nor could man clothe himself or cook his food4 ,in short1 were it to please the ,almighty to suspend the laws of caloric1 man would be rendered at once helpless1 and his senses useless2 he must necessarily become a completely altered being1 granting even that his continuance as a species upon the face of the earth were guaranteed4 ,with what wisdom1 then1 are the laws of the ,almighty framed6 ,how happily do they all conjoin to fit this world for the exercise of our senses and our reason6 ,yet1 how mysterious they are6 ,we know not even what light and caloric really are2 they are incomprehensible1 and yet we experience their influence1 and daily test their laws4 ,who1 then1 can wonder that the fall of man1 the decrees of ,god1 the advent of ,christ1 his ,divine and human nature conjoined1 his death as an atonement of inestimable value1 his intercession for all who come to him with faith1 and the sanctification of the ,holy ,spirit1 are each and all mysteries8 ,canst thou by searching find out ,god8 ,yet the believer knows that ,god to be his ,father and his ,friend2 he walks by faith and not by sight1 by faith of ,jesus ,christ unto all and upon all them that believe1 and are justified freely by his grace through the redemption that is in ,christ ,jesus4 ,when we reflect upon the mysteries of nature1 let us also think upon the mysteries of grace2 let the consciousness of our own ignorance lead us to throw aside presumption1 and trust to the words dictated by ,him1 to whom all mysteries are open1 and whose wisdom and goodness have no bounds4 #e4 ,its ,dryness or ,humidity4--,evaporation from the waters of the globe1 from seas lakes1 rivers1 etc41 is perpetually taking place1 the ratio of evaporation being determined by the temperature of the atmosphere2 that is1 it increases as the temperature increases4 ,hence the actual quantity of water in a state of invisible vapour in the atmosphere will be the greatest when the temperature of the latter is the highest4 ,speaking according to our feelings1 we then call the air dry1 although1 in fact1 the quantity of water in solution in the atmosphere may balance the demands of the temperature4#e ,but this invisible vapour is liable from a thousand causes to condensation1 dependent upon one law1 namely1 that when a portion of air1 saturated with invisible vapour1 is cooled below the point of saturation1 a portion of the vapour becomes condensed1 according to the degree of cold1 so as to leave a due balance of vapour in the air1 according to its altered temperature4 ,who has not seen the window-panes of a heated room in cold weather bedewed with trickling moisture8 ,the vapour of the room is in abundance1 although invisible2 but certain strata of the air thus charged come in contact with the cold panes1 and lose a portion of their caloric1 and with their caloric a portion of their vapour1 7to which1 perhaps1 the respiration of a large party has contributed17 and this becomes condensed in the form of a visible fluid4 ,if we breathe against a cold pane of glass1 we soon render it dim by moisture4 ,on a hot summer's day1 we do not perceive the vapour of our breath2 but on a cold1 clear1 frosty day1 a visible vapour or little mist is exhaled4 #e ,the quantity of water in solution in the atmosphere can never be greater than the quantity proper to the temperature2 but it may be less4 ,from electric changes1 from currents of air1 from sudden or gradual depressions of atmospheric temperature--be the cause what it may--the condensation of invisible vapour in the atmosphere is perpetually taking place4 ,but the extent and degree of condensation is very variable4 ,sometimes1 or rather very commonly1 the quantity of water separated is small1 and condensed into such minute particles that they float in the air1 higher or lower1 forming wreaths of mist1 or clouds of various patterns1 density1 and extent2 sometimes they appear at a great altitude1 like silvery waves1 or snowy fleeces2 sometimes at a lower altitude they take the shape of dense irregular masses1 presenting to fancy's eye the outline of monstrous animals1 of mountains1 and castellated rocks2 and sometimes the whole horizon is beclouded and dark2 we then know that the condensation is increasing4 ,what is the result8 ,a fall of rain1 snow1 or hail1 in which latter case the water is not only condensed into its ordinary form1 but into pellets of ice4 ,the water has passed through a stratum of air at the freezing point4 ,sudden hail-storms in summer may1 we think1 be classed among phenomena dependent on electric changes and operations in certain atmospheric strata4 ,we have here1 then1 two processes--one of evaporation1 another of condensation2 and these1 by an express and admirable provision1 have a constant tendency to limit each other's operations4 ,evaporation is increased by heat1 but it produces cold in proportion to the rapidity with which it is carried on4 ,condensation is produced by cold1 and at the same time heat is liberated4 ,how happens it that clouds and rain are formed in the higher regions of the air1 and not closely round about us8 ,in consequence of certain laws1 the air incumbent on the earth's surface1 especially in the hotter latitudes1 is always under the point of saturation1 the air being really dryer than it is at a great elevation4 ,these laws depend on the difference in the tension or elastic force of vapour at different temperatures2 this elasticity increases rapidly from the temperature of #cb to #bab1 the increase being in a geometrical progression1 while the increase of the temperature of the air from a high altitude to the earth is in arithmetical progression4 ,now the air of our mixed atmosphere is the ingredient which controls the whole mixture4 ,the result is1 that the quantity of vapour present in a mixed atmosphere will1 at any successive diminution of height above the surface of the earth1 become successively less and less than that which would be required to saturate the air4 ,the consequences of this result are most important1 and are connected with our general well-being1 and the due exercise of some at least of our senses4 ,the following passage from ,dr4 ,prout's ,treatise is so pertinent1 that we beg leave to transcribe it3 ,over the greater portion of the earth1 the air which1 during the day at least1 is warmed by contact with the earth's surface1 and thus becomes lighter1 has a constant tendency to rise into the higher atmosphere4 ,now if this air were saturated with vapour1 of course1 whenever by rising it became mixed with colder air1 its vapour would be more or less condensed1 and a cloud would be formed4 ,hence1 if we lived in such an atmosphere1 we should be always enveloped in a mist1 through which the sun would not be visible4 ,but1 by the benevolent arrangement we enjoy1 this consequence is so entirely prevented1 that1 unless under peculiar circumstances1 and always for beneficial purposes1 the air at the earth's surface is hardly ever saturated with moisture4 ,the air which has been warmed by contact with the earth can1 therefore1 rise from the surface without any condensation of its moisture within the limits of its point of saturation4 ,thus1 at the equator1 before the air reaches the temperature of #fa1 the presumed point of its saturation1 it must ascend to the height of #f1jjj or #g1jjj feet4 ,at this height its vapour will be condensed1 and a cloud will be formed1 which may either be precipitated on the spot from which its constituent vapour had risen1 or may be transported by the currents of the atmosphere1 similarly to refresh a distant country1 or may again be dissolved in the air2 while1 under all these contingencies1 the whole of the lower portion of the atmosphere is exempt from mist1 and continues perfectly transparent4 ,these operations are unceasing2 moreover1 the very clouds1 by giving out their latent heat1 and shielding the earth's surface from the direct influence of the sun1 have a still further effect1 and have a constant tendency to modify their own formation and existence4 ,we might here enter largely into other points of high interest connected with the science of meteorology1 did the nature of our subject allow it4 ,we do not forget that it is upon the senses that we have to write1 and accordingly we can go no further here than to show1 in a brief and succinct manner1 a few of the principal arrangements instituted by ,almighty wisdom and power1 which render our solid globe and its circumambient atmosphere the fitting abode of such forms of organic life as we are acquainted with1 and for which1 in fact1 the world was created4 ,to this world all the senses of animals are expressly accommodated4 ,if there were no air1 there could be no organs of hearing--granting the existence of living beings without respiration4 ,if there were no light1 or the laws of light were otherwise than what they are1 our eyes would be useless4 ,were our lower stratum of atmosphere always enveloped in a dense mist1 obscuring the rays of the sun1 the sphere of our vision and its accuracy would be greatly circumscribed--nay1 sounds would fall more dully on our ears4 ,suppose the globe closely shrouded by an oppressive fog2 and then imagine the condition of plants1 animals1 and man4 ,yet1 did it please our great ,creator1 it is in his power to call into existence plants and animals fitted for so moist and obscure an atmosphere4 ,again1 the atmospheric temperature1 the varying degrees of heat and cold1 according to latitude and to the characters of land--that is1 its elevation1 its depression1 the nature of its surface1 and the arrangement of adjacent seas1 etc41 are in harmony with the development of life1 and the due exercise of animal functions4 ,then1 intimately connected with this subject1 are the laws of caloric1 the suspension of which would lead to the annihilation of all organic beings at present constituted4 ,neither can we forget the weight of the atmosphere1 its varying electric conditions1 nor the density and attractive force of our planet4 ,to these1 and many other laws impressed upon matter1 and the results of those laws1 are the physical organization of plants and animals adapted1 each in its own way1 but yet with a mutual relative bearing1 conducive to universal order4 ,to the constitution of this earth are plants1 living forms destitute of feeling1 hearing1 sight1 or indeed any sense known to us1 adapted--yet according to their kinds they know what nutriment to refuse or reject2 they are subject to the influence of temperature and of light and darkness2 some court the broad glare of the sun1 others flourish only in the shade4 ,the same observations apply to certain of the lowest forms of animal organization1 which lead a vegetable life1 and appear not to be aware of their own existence4 ,nor1 indeed1 is it until we ascend high in the scale of animal being1 and arrive at a point at which the senses are more or less developed1 and in accordance with this development1 that of mind also1 7for we can use no other term17 that we discover a decided consciousness of existence1 as manifested by anger1 fear1 and other passions2 by watchfulness1 sensibility to pain and pleasure of a mental kind2 a recourse to artifice or to force as a means of gaining certain ends2 and other proofs of a something--call it mind1 or any other name--to which the senses appeal4 ,for1 let us remember1 it is only in a certain sense that the eye sees1 or the ear hears2 in the former instance1 nothing more than an image of objects is inversely reflected on the retina1 and yet the mind recognises these objects in their proper position2 and what is more1 not double1 though the same object is figured on the retina of each eye1 or1 in the case of insects1 on the retina of scores of eyes4 ,in hearing1 the minute auditory nerves merely receive an impulse from the vibrations or wavelets of the elastic atmosphere1 and this constitutes what we call noise1 tones1 music1 voice4 ,but these tones or noises are in the mind only2 they are not appreciated by the exercise of any other sense4 ,having thus briefly endeavoured to show the harmony of the general order of nature1 as far as our globe and its animal and vegetable forms are concerned1 we shall proceed to the consideration of another portion of our subject1 and commence with it a fresh chapter4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,man',s ,,knowledge ,,of ,,the ,,qualities ,,of ,,matter ,,obtained ,,through ,,the ,,medium ,,of ,,the ,,senses4 ,if we reflect upon man1 beginning with the savage1 and ending with the philosopher1 we shall find1 that although the mental difference1 or rather the extent of acquired knowledge possessed by each respectively1 is very great1 that the little the one possesses1 and all that the other may boast of1 are based upon certain simple principles1 seized upon by the mind through the medium of the senses1 and made more or less the subjects of consideration and research4 ,if the philosopher can display a mass of knowledge of which the savage is ignorant1 the savage can show to the philosopher that his mind in some things is more ignorant than his own4 ,both have used their senses2 both have examined and reflected2 both have accumulated a store of information1 which they turn to account3 but the savage cares only for that which enables him to enjoy animal existence4 ,he1 therefore1 investigates the habits of the animals around him1 and the nature of the plants2 he tames some of the former1 he cultivates some of the latter2 he stores up provisions1 he invents rude weapons2 he builds kraals1 or huts2 he fashions boats1 kajaks1 or proas2 he employs fire2 and though he cannot discuss the laws of caloric1 he knows many of them practically4 ,in fact1 his senses are to him the inlets of ideas1 without any abstruse cogitation4 ,he cannot but acquire knowledge through his senses1 but he labours to acquire no more than is subservient to his present interest4 ,to the philosopher1 the senses are also the inlets of ideas2 but then he is thereby led to abstruse cogitation1 to experiments1 and reiterations upon these1 forming theories to be rejected or adopted1 as laborious investigation may determine4 ,and wherefore8--,not contented with the vacuity of mere animal enjoyments1 he antedates his spiritual existence1 and while yet on earth soars to other worlds1 or dives into the profound mysteries of nature4 ,between the rude savage and the philosopher there are innumerable gradations2 yet the rude savage1 if cultivated1 might become the philosopher--and why8--,because1 though mental powers1 like bodily powers1 differ1 the mental anatomy1 like the corporeal1 is on the same plan2 and1 figuratively speaking1 the muscles of the former may become by exercise as developed as the muscles of the latter4 ,to what fields1 then1 of knowledge are the senses avenues--and avenues1 because they are adapted to the condition of the globe we inhabit1 and because the impressions which they receive are seized upon by the mind1 being there alone made palpable2 and because the mind1 by a reflex action1 thence derives ideas1 and combines and analyzes them4 ,the higher animals possess the same senses as man2 and1 it may be asked1 ,why do they not gain a similar knowledge to that which man acquires8 ,we have already said1 that the higher animals possess something which cannot but be termed mind1 since they have passions and affections1 memory1 etc41 which are qualities of mind1 and not of matter4 ,but1 then1 their mind is not only inferior in degree to that of man1 but different in its anatomical construction4 ,certain animals1 moreover1 are inferior to others1 and among animals of the same species there are different degrees of mental as well as of bodily force4 ,here1 however1 we can only generalize4 ,let it suffice1 then1 that we adduce for the purpose of illustration an animal with which we are all familiar--a domesticated animal1 capable of a high degree of education1 and which man has trained to the most various and opposite purposes--we allude to that attached servant of our race1 the dog4 ,let it stand as a type of the higher quadrupeds4 ,that the dog remembers1 and even to a certain extent reasons1 cannot1 we think1 be contradicted4 ,a shepherd's dog not only obeys its master's directions1 but of its own accord will keep the sheep together1 prevent them from wandering out of the right track1 search for them when buried in the snow1 watch over them at night1 and defend them against the incursions of the wolf4 ,the sportsman's dog1 when he sees his master take down his fowling-piece1 examine the locks1 and equip himself for the field1 is quite aware of the result of these proceedings1 and manifests unequivocal symptoms of pleasure4 ,dogs1 moreover1 may be taught to beg1 to fetch and carry1 to feign themselves dead1 and continue motionless until the word of command be given1 and to take their part in a scenic representation4 ,there are1 indeed1 numerous authentic instances on record of dogs having acted with astonishing sagacity1 and which prove not only memory1 but a train of reasoning carried out with singular precision4 ,in such instances1 we cannot say that the animals are instinct-directed1 because the actions performed are out of the common course of events1 and are only occasional2 every dog1 under the same circumstances1 would not act in anything like the same manner4 ,there are1 however1 bounds beyond which the most intelligent dog cannot pass2 and why8--the anatomy of his mind is different from that of man4 ,his senses1 that of touch excepted1 are as acute as those of man1 some far more so1 but his reasoning powers are confined within a small circle4 ,for example1 education does not really elevate the dog over the wild packs of his own species--it rather rivets the chain which binds him to man as his lord2 it enfeebles his instinct1 and renders him at once more dependent and more useful2 it places him in many different1 and in a certain sense1 unnatural spheres of action2 it renders him a shepherd1 a guard1 a hunter1 but it adds not positively to his information2 he has no ideas of the beautiful or the sublime--of truth1 of virtue1 and vice--of humanity1 pity1 charity2 he reflects not that death is his doom1 even though he sees from time to time his companions expiring around him4 ,it is1 in fact1 first1 because the most elevated ideas or reasonings of the dog are merely simple1 and those within a narrow compass2 and1 secondly1 because the dog is utterly incapable of forming any abstract idea that education cannot elevate it above itself4 ,it has not man's mental anatomy4 ,the rudest savage can devise the bow1 and the spear1 and various other implements2 he can fashion them because he has hands1 but his hands are only the servants of his mind2 had not his mind been what it is1 his bodily organization would have been otherwise1 but still in just harmony4 ,in the savage lie the dormant germs of lofty intellect1 and in his line1 at some future generation1 may a ,milton1 a ,shakspere1 a ,newton1 arise2 sage poets1 statesmen1 and philanthropists1 men of whom ,england boasts--,england1 whose children are the descendants of a semi-barbaric horde1 which spread ruin in its westward progress4 ,but what the dog was in the earliest ages1 what it was in the times of classic history1 that it continues to be2 on the contrary1 man can emerge from a savage to a civilized state2 acquire new wants and supply them2 improve upon first principles1 and take step after step in the pursuit of knowledge2 add improvement to improvement2 begin by building a frail coracle1 and then launch his steam-ship on the water--begin by erecting a low kraal1 and then erect the palace of ,csar1 or the temple of ,athens4 ,reflex operations of the mind are denied to brutes--even to the dog1 an animal which the ,almighty evidently created for the special service of man3 hence1 though the avenues to their minds are the same1 reason has but a feeble grasp upon the sensations which there enter2 and that mysterious power1 quality1 or impulse1 which we term instinct1 rises predominant1 and leads to operations which in man could only be the result of reflection and experience4 ,yet1 as we have said1 the actions of the dog1 and we may add of the elephant1 the horse1 and other animals1 are not all instinctive1 neither do all the actions of man proceed from a train of reasoning1 for some of his1 even1 are instinctive3 the love of offspring on the part of the mother is entirely instinctive in its source4 ,it is1 then1 easy to see how it is that even the highest brute1 with a mind limited as we have described1 and with instincts which guide in the place of mind1 can never improve or add to any store of knowledge1 can never conceive one abstract idea--such as eternity1 infinity1 matter1 space1 etc4--and can never investigate the laws of creation--can1 in fact1 be only what it is4 ,the utmost extent of something like knowledge which the most intelligent and sagacious dog acquires1 dies with it1 and its successor has to learn all for itself4 ,as for language1 in the true meaning of the word1 of what use would it be to brutes8 ,among the highest1 as far as the necessity of communication extends1 cries or modulations of tone and certain actions suffice to convey a distinct meaning2 among the lowest1 there is no necessity even for utterance1 and there is no sense of hearing1 nor even of vision4 ,language supposes a mind constructed like that of man1 and as he emerges from a rude to a cultivated state1 in like proportion will his language increase in copiousness and perspicuity1 if not in force4 ,let us here1 without bewildering our reader in a maze of metaphysics1 just glance at a few of the characteristics or faculties of mind1 briefly anatomizing them1 in order that we may clearly exhibit the mental distinction between man and the higher orders of beasts1 by way of showing what the mind in each case derives from the inlets of the senses4 #a4 ,a ,knowledge of ,self-existence1 or ,personality4--,this knowledge appears to us to be rather instinctive than the result of reflection1 as some believe2 we know intuitively that we exist1 because we feel1 because we see and hear1 because we move1 because we hope and fear2 nor will all the arguments which ,berkeley or his disciples can adduce1 convince any person that he exists only in idea4 ,that animals of the higher grades1 at least1 have this knowledge is very evident2 gregarious habits1 mutual recognition1 the watch and ward system1 characteristic of so many species both among mammalia and birds--a thousand circumstances which our readers may call to mind1 prove it4 ,we need not insist upon the subject4 ,it is a feeling rather than a portion of knowledge2 it is intuitive1 and experienced alike by the ploughman at his work1 by the horses who labour in the furrow1 and the busy rooks which follow in their track4 ,where there is fear1 or pleasure1 or pain1 or desire1 there must self-consciousness be--a feeling of self-existence4 ,we have no reason to believe that plants possess this feeling4 #b4 ,memory4--,memory is a mental exercise1 or faculty1 of the greatest importance to man2 it is in constant requisition2 without it our intellectual improvement would be confined within very narrow limits4 ,our acquirement of language1 and of the rules of sciences and arts1 depend upon this faculty1 and it is strengthened by habitual exercise4 ,between memory and recollection1 there is a slight shade of difference4 ,a man may say1 ,i remember the events of the year #ahdh--;,i recollect such an event1 now that you mention it4 ,events may be recollected after being forgotten1 and often are so in illness--nay1 forgotten languages have sometimes been fluently spoken4 ,it often happens--why so1 we cannot say--that circumstances or events1 long passed from the mind1 present themselves suddenly to it with extreme vividness1 and are thenceforth remembered2 but oftener does it happen1 that the sight of some object1 or that a sound1 a note1 a tune1 a word1 recalls to the mind forgotten events1 bygone circumstances1 hopes passed away1 pleasures long fled1 feelings long quiescent4 ,this species of recollection has been called by some writers the power of association4 ,it certainly depends upon an association of ideas1 which1 on the key-note being struck1 pass involuntarily through the mind2 a sight or sound will often call to mind1 with singular rapidity1 a vision of other years1 or of scenes far distant1 towards which the heart intently yearns4 ,witness the effects of the air of the ,ranz de ,vache upon the ,swiss soldiers in ,napoleon's army4 ,recollection is often the result of attention4 ,we remember a certain event1 but forget the year in which it occurred2 we direct our thoughts to the subject1 we compare circumstance with circumstance1 date with date1 until at last-- ,it breaks upon the mind1 and all is clear4 ,that brutes possess memory is indisputable2 indeed1 we might fill pages with instances of the power of memory in animals1 some rather startling2 but as common every-day observation enforces the fact upon almost every one1 we need not insist upon it4 ,however1 by way of adding interest to a disquisition some may deem dry1 we will introduce the following anecdote1 related by ,mr4 ,corse1 in his ,observations on the ,natural ,history of the ,elephant3#f ,in ,june1 #aghg1 ,fttra ,mungul1 a male elephant1 taken the year before1 was travelling in company with other elephants towards ,chittagong1 laden with a tent and some baggage for our accommodation on the journey4 ,having come upon a tiger's track1 which elephants discover readily by the smell1 he took fright and ran off to the woods1 in spite of the efforts of his driver4 ,on entering the wood1 the driver saved himself by springing from the elephant1 and clinging to the branch of a tree under which he was passing4 ,when the elephant had got rid of his driver1 he soon contrived to shake off his load4 ,as soon as he ran away1 a trained female was dispatched after him1 but could not get up in time to prevent his escape4 ,she1 however1 brought back his driver1 and the load he had thrown off1 and we proceeded without any hope of ever seeing him again4 ,eighteen months after this1 when a herd of elephants had been taken1 and had remained several days in the inclosure1 till they were enticed into the outlet1 there tied and led out in the usual manner1 one of the drivers1 viewing a male elephant very attentively1 declared he resembled the one which had run away4 ,this excited the curiosity of every one to go and look at him2 but when any person came near1 the animal struck at him with his trunk1 and in every respect appeared as wild and outrageous as any of the other elephants4 ,at length1 an old hunter coming up1 and examining him narrowly1 declared he was the very elephant that had made his escape about eighteen months before4 ,confident of this1 he boldly rode up to him on a tame elephant1 ordering him to lie down1 and pulling him by the ear at the same time4 ,the animal seemed quite taken by surprise1 and instantly obeyed the word of command1 with as much quickness as the ropes with which he was tied permitted2 uttering at the same time a peculiar shrill squeak through his trunk1 as he had formerly been known to do1 by which he was immediately recognised by every person who had ever been acquainted with this peculiarity4 ,the same observer informs us1 that another elephant1 a female1 taken in #agfe1 was turned loose in #agfg1 and retaken in #aghb4 ,she then recollected the customs and words of command learned during her former bondage2 she laid herself down at the command of her driver1 he fed her from his seat1 gave her his stick to hold1 which she took with her trunk1 put it into her mouth1 and returned it as she was directed1 and as she had been accustomed to do4 #f ,phil4 ,trans41 #agii4 #c4 ,attention4--,attention is an abstraction of the mind from a multifarious variety of trifles1 or circumstances1 and an energetic direction of it to one subject1 or object4 ,in attention many1 if not all1 the senses may be engaged4 ,for example1 a botanist gathers a flower2 its beauty1 the form and substance of its petals1 their colour1 its aroma1 the honey-dew of its nectary1 the peculiarity of its calyx1 and other qualities1 appeal to the mind through the senses of sight1 smell1 taste1 and feeling4 ,he has to describe this flower--he fixes his mind upon it1 and puts forth a graphic delineation in apt and concise language4 ,the ploughman is at work1 and the sower of grain follows him--both give their whole mind to their duty4 ,the critic 7oh1 word of fear67 gives his attention to the matter under his revision2 and so does the cook1 when preparing a recherch dish on the composition of which he prides himself4 ,and does not the tiger1 crouching in ambush1 give attention to his object1 stimulated in the meantime by hope8 ,who has not observed multitudes of cases1 affording examples of attention in brutes8 ,in fact1 attention is a faculty displayed by all brutes1 especially by those which lead a life of rapine1 for upon its exercise depends their daily support4 ,but man alone can direct his attention to things intellectual1 abstruse1 or religious4 ,the reason is evident--the brute is incapable of abstract ideas1 but quite awake to its own present necessities4 ,the high realms of thought belong to man alone1 of all terrestrial beings2 but in how far higher a degree to those spiritual existences1 those angels of light1 which surround the throne of ,god1 and who1 contemplating with amazement the finished work of salvation1 exclaim1 ,worthy is the ,lamb that was slain to receive power1 and riches1 and wisdom1 and strength1 and honour1 and glory1 and blessing6 nay1 till we mingle with these transcendent beings1 the powers of our mind will be pressed down beneath a load of clay2 then all that was dark shall be made clear1 and with angels we shall join in saying1 ,amen3 blessing and glory and wisdom and thanksgiving and honour and power and might be unto our ,god for ever and ever6 ,but we are told that there are angels which kept not their first estate1 and which are reserved unto judgment of the great day2 namely1 ,satan and his apostate subordinates4 ,fallen though they be1 their brightness has not lost all its original splendour2 but they exercise their high powers in tempting and seducing to his eternal ruin man1 whom ,satan by his wiles has already crushed1 and robbed of his original innocence4 ,let us strive against the tempter1 the deceiver1 who lays luxury1 licentiousness1 gold1 fame1 power1 before his willing slaves1 trying them on every point1 and inducing too many to fall irrecoverably4 ,but ,god's thoughts are higher than our thoughts1 or than the thoughts of man's crafty adversary2 and in wisdom he devised that mighty scheme1 through which rescue and pardon are freely granted to all who accept the invitation of the ,redeemer1 ,come unto me1 all ye that labour and are heavy laden1 and ,i will give you rest2 ,all1 he says1 that the ,father giveth me shall come to me2 and him that cometh to me ,i will in no wise cast out1 ,john vi4 #cg4 ,jesus is the ,conqueror1 and death is swallowed up in victory4 ,flee1 then1 from the city of destruction2 and though the slough of despond or the valley of humiliation be before1 press forward1 awakened sinner1 to the heavenly ,jerusalem6 on that let your thoughts be placed4 #d4 ,comparison4--,the direct comparison of one object with another1 with a view towards the acquisition of information1 is exercised by man alone of all animals2 but that superficial and involuntary comparison which leads to the simple distinction of things1 as of land from water1 or trees from houses1 is common both to animals and man4 ,choice supposes the exercise of comparison1 in a low degree1 and this a bird displays in the selection of a spot for its nest1 and the beaver in that of a site for its dam and village4 ,in both these cases1 however1 instinct impels to the labour1 and supplies the place of experience4 #e4 ,knowledge of ,cause and ,effect4--,a knowledge of the connexion between cause and effect is the result of experience alone4 ,we thus accumulate a number of facts1 and by reasoning upon those facts1 can infer with certainty what would be the result under such or such contingencies4 ,that brutes gain information to a certain extent by experience is very plain4 ,we have seen a monkey break nuts by hammering them upon a stone--we have seen the orang try to pick the lock of its door with a bit of stick--we know instances of horses disengaging themselves from their headstall1 unbolting the stable door1 and making off to the pasture2 a cat in our possession was accustomed to leap up and open the latch of the kitchen door1 whenever she wished to enjoy a stroll4 ,we might multiply examples1 but so many will suggest themselves to the reader's mind1 that we may spare ourselves the task4 ,with a knowledge of the connexion between cause and effect is associated that of power4 ,give me where to stand1 said ,archimedes1 and ,i could move the world4 ,man's natural powers are very limited1 but his comprehensive mind enables him to overcome the most formidable obstacles2 to bore through the mountain1 to uproot it from its base1 and scatter its fragments over the plain2 to over-arch rivers and arms of the sea with iron pathways2 to travel as rapidly as most birds fly2 to upheave ponderous masses of stone1 and to compress light and flocculent materials until they become solid and heavy4 ,but man accomplishes all this and far more1 not by his own bodily powers1 but by machinery of various kinds1 and of various degrees of simplicity or complexity2 nay1 he cannot even cultivate the soil1 except by the aid of implements1 that is1 simple machines4 ,brutes entirely depend upon their own bodily powers1 and gain a knowledge of the extent of those powers by experience4 ,an old hunter will never attempt a leap which he knows he cannot accomplish--a young1 fiery horse will make a dash at it1 and perhaps fail2 if he succeed1 his dependence upon himself will be confirmed2 on the other hand1 should he not succeed1 it is more than probable that he will lose all self-confidence1 and therefore be henceforward useless for the chase4 ,the elephant skilfully uses its tusks as levers1 in the uprooting of trees2 and when the megatherium and mylodon wrestled with the noblest productions of their primeval forests in ,south ,america1 they applied in the best manner their forces and the means at their command4 ,what is this but a knowledge 7limited1 we allow7 of the relationship between cause and effect8 ,the camel1 when overladen1 utters loud cries1 and refuses to rise at the command of the driver2 this was also a peculiarity of the llama1 when that animal was exclusively the carrier of the ,andes4 ,with respect to a knowledge of power1 as regards ourselves personally1 or as displayed by brutes1 we cannot help thinking that much depends on an instinctive perception1 added to1 no doubt1 by experience4 ,all animals1 from man downwards1 apply their force according to their conformation2 the horse kicks--the lion strikes with his terrible paw--the hyena seizes with his jaw--man uses his arms2 but man also brings art to aid him in his bodily exertions4 ,hence the strongest man falls under the skill of the trained wrestler2 but the contest of brutes is that of force4 ,hence it is that man invents weapons which render the weak and the strong on a level1 and which give to skill the predominance over force4 ,this1 too1 implies a knowledge of the relationship between cause and effect1 but a knowledge which brutes1 if we except the chimpanzee1 do not display4 ,the chimpanzee1 it is asserted1 uses a club as a weapon1 but we do not advance this as a fact positively established2 indeed1 we doubt it2 we have never seen this animal use a stick1 as we should use it in striking4 #f4 ,time4--,man alone can invent artificial methods of measuring time2 in an uncivilized condition he avails himself of the sun and moon1 of the changes of day and night1 of the tides1 of the seasons1 using them as natural chronometers4 ,the higher brutes evidently possess some knowledge of time1 as evidenced by the migration of birds1 the relief of each other1 as in the case of pigeons1 at stated intervals on the nest1 and1 perhaps we may add1 the storing up of food for future consumption4 ,on this latter point1 however1 we will not insist1 for most probably it is the result of an entirely instinctive impulse2 we have known a caged squirrel make a hoard4 ,the dog1 says ,m4 ,ebzar ,blaze1#g reasons1 calculates1 knows how to count the days of the week1 and even those of the year4 ,thus1 for example1 a dog belonging to ,m4 ,roger went every ,saturday1 at two o'clock precisely1 from ,locoyarne to ,hennebon1 7a distance of three kilomtres27 it set off in a straight line to the butcher's1 because that was their day for killing1 and he was certain of having a good regale upon tripe4 ,he was capable1 then1 of counting the days1 since he never left home except on the ,saturday4 ,at the house of the same ,m4 ,roger1 family prayer was kept up every evening1 and the dog listened to the service tranquilly1 but1 as may be supposed1 impatiently1 for as soon as the last paternoster was commenced1 he rose up and placed himself near the door1 in order to make his exit immediately on its being opened4 #g ,histoire du ,chien4 ,we do not pretend to say that all animals calculate time1 or that any have the power of calculation which man has2 and as for any abstract idea respecting time or eternity1 it is out of the question4 ,hence they neither look back upon time1 nor forward into the future4 ,their measure of knowledge is wisely allotted to them2 it is in due accordance with their animal wants1 and final destiny2 but man1 the heir of immortality1 destined to exist throughout eternity1 is so mentally gifted as to be able to think and reflect upon the past1 the present1 and the future4 ,were he not immortal1 he would never1 perhaps1 have been endowed by his ,maker with the idea of a future life4 ,however this may be1 the ,holy ,scriptures assure him of a life to come1 and for which he must prepare himself only by one way4 ,the hopes of the idolater are false4 ,oh1 then1 how desirable it is that a knowledge of the true way of salvation should be spread throughout the world2 that error and superstition should be banished2 and that the light of the gospel should cast its heavenly radiance over the benighted regions of the earth6 #g4 ,locality4--,a knowledge or perception of locality1 that is1 of one place as distinct from another1 is regarded by some as a result of the agency of an exclusive mental power2 but for ourselves1 we see in it only the exercise of attention1 leading to distinction1 and involving the aid of memory4 ,to attempt to prove that man is endowed with this capability is useless2 so is the dog1 so is the cat1 so are all our domestic animals4 ,attention1 distinction1 and memory1 are exercised by the carrier-pigeon2 when let free1 at a long distance from home1 it returns1 and rests on its old abode4 ,but what are we to say in the case of other animals1 as the dog1 the cat1 and the horse1 travelling back from a great distance to their home1 without having gained the experience of the pigeon by soaring aloft1 and surveying a wide extent of land below8 ,it is well known that year after year the swallow and the martin1 and other migratory birds1 return to the same spot1 in order to rear their brood4 ,swallows and martins have been marked1 so that there could be no possibility of mistake4 ,these birds take their departure in autumn1 journeying southwards2 they then traverse ,europe1 and cross the ,mediterranean2 they winter in the warmer regions of ,africa1 and on the return of spring they commence their northern flight4 ,what directs the course of a particular pair of swallows from central ,africa1 over land and sea1 to a particular cottage or barn in ,middlesex1 ,surrey1 or ,berkshire8 ,again1 with respect to the bee1 which wanders miles away from its hive1 visiting fields and gardens in quest of honey--how is it guided in its outward and homeward flight8 ,has it landmarks8--does it know each wall1 each hedge-row1 each tree1 each garden and field over which it passes8 ,if so1 how do the bees find their way to and from the floating apiaries on the rivers1 through various parts of the ,european continent1 and also in ,egypt1 the resting-place being continually changed according to the judgment of their owners8 ,in ,egypt it is the practice to transport the apiaries to distant places1 in order to take advantage of the succession of flowers4 ,in ,lower ,egypt1 for example1 about the end of ,october1 the bee-keepers embark on the ,nile1 and migrate with them to ,upper ,egypt1 calculating to arrive there when the inundation is rapidly subsiding1 and the flowers are beginning to bloom4 ,having stayed a short time in one place1 till they suppose that the bees have collected all the honey and wax of the district1 they remove two or three leagues lower down1 and so on1 as the plants come into bloom4 ,thus gradually returning homewards1 they collect the honey of the adjacent country2 and about the beginning of ,february1 having travelled the whole length of ,egypt1 arrive at the spots whence they had set out1 and at their habitations4 ,niebuhr saw1 between ,cairo and ,damietta1 a collection of four thousand hives1 in their transit from ,upper ,egypt to the ,delta4#h ,how do the bees1 their locality being thus changed from time to time1 find their way1 not only to the boat of hives1 but to their own peculiar hives respectively8 ,there are points in the economy of animals which we cannot fathom1 and it is better to confess our ignorance than to attempt a puerile theory4 ,to speak truly1 we cannot answer the question4 #h ,nat4 ,cyclop4 #h4 ,there are certain qualities of mind1 certain principles which1 whatever doubt may be held respecting our previous observations1 at once distinguish man1 and elevate him far above the highest brute4 ,in fact1 they take him out of the pale of the brute creation1 and isolate him amidst the living creatures by which he is surrounded4 ,he is the only animal being who can form any idea of ,god and his attributes1 of eternity1 of virtue and vice1 of justice and mercy2 in his breast alone are implanted conscience1 faith and hope1 repentance and spiritual peace4 ,herein have we an argument1 to prove that man is not made to begin and end his career on this world1 beautiful as it is1 and fitted to meet all his animal powers1 senses1 and enjoyments4 ,why1 indeed1 should these principles be implanted in man--principles immediately bearing upon a future state of existence1 if that future state were not ordained8 ,where in creation can a similar anomaly be demonstrated8 ,every brute is gifted with vital functions and organization fitted to its destined mode of life1 and with a kind and degree of mind 7where this is needed7 in exact accordance thereunto4 ,beyond this all is blank2 indeed1 the most wonderful works which brutes perform1 and which in man would argue great thought and experience1 are in them the result of instinct alone4 ,the beautiful corals and zoophytes1 which we so much admire1 are instinct-built tenements4 ,instinct teaches the bee how to arrange her waxen cells1 and load them with honey as a provision for the winter1 and the bird how to build her nest4 ,on the contrary1 the operations of what may be called mind1 in contradistinction to instinct1 are displayed only by the higher brutes1 and1 more over1 are limited within narrow bounds4 ,we have heard persons assert1 that a dog manifests the workings of conscience1 because it often betrays itself by its timid1 irresolute manner after pilfering1 as if conscious that it had done wrong4 ,the fact is1 that the dog is conscious of no moral guilt2 it has been previously punished for a like offence1 and fears a repetition of the punishment2 this is the solution of the whole affair4 ,we have so far shown the great superiority of the mind of man above that of even the highest brutes1 and not this only1 but its essential differences1 thereby rendering its possessor1 indeed1 the paragon of animals4 ,let us now endeavour to explain what information is gained by him from the exercise of the senses4 ,in speaking of ,god1 and of celestial beings1 we always use1 and cannot but use1 language drawn from the properties1 qualities1 and appearances of things around us1 or from the passions of our own minds1 or from the configuration and actions of our own bodies4 ,we cannot1 in fact1 conceive of ,god except figuratively--hence to the limit of our intellect is the language of ,scripture adapted4 ,though written under inspiration1 it was written by men1 and for men2 and1 therefore1 the personification of the ,almighty is unavoidable4 ,it is said1 ,thy way is in the sea1 and thy path in the great waters1 and thy footsteps are not known2#i we talk of the work of his hands1 of the arm of ,god1 etc41 and we know that we are speaking figuratively1 and it is because we know this1 that we turn with disgust from the pictures1 however elaborate1 which1 painted by ,roman ,catholics1 represent the ,god of heaven and earth under the similitude of an aged man1 with a long beard1 and white hair1 looking down from the clouds4 ,we know that ,god is a ,spirit1 but we have no conception of what a spirit is2 we know nothing of spirit--nay1 we know nothing of matter essentially2 it is only of some of its properties that our senses afford us information1 and it may have many properties1 for the discernment of which no senses have been bestowed upon us4 ,well1 then1 may it be written1 ,canst thou by searching find out ,god8 canst thou find out the ,almighty unto perfection8#aj ,we cannot1 however1 doubt1 that the ,almighty has given to us a mind and senses quite adequate1 not only to our animal wants1 but to our spiritual pilgrimage through this transitory scene1 until we arrive at those realms of bliss1 where ignorance shall be exchanged for knowledge1 and every difficulty cleared away4 #i ,psa4 lxxvii4 #ai4 #aj ,job xi4 #g4 ,considerations like these add interest to the inquiry--,what variety and extent of information do we1 as intellectual1 immortal beings1 gain through our senses8 ,a little thought will convince us that1 without the reflective agency of our minds on the impressions received by the senses1 and the power of conceiving abstract ideas1 the simple impressions of colour1 solidity1 weight1 sound1 flavour1 or odour1 would be but meagre sources of knowledge4 ,as it is1 they are the broad inlets of knowledge4 ,let us take them in succession1 commencing with a new chapter4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,senses1 ,,as ,,the ,,inlets ,,to ,,knowledge--,,sight ,,and ,,hearing4 #a4 ,sight4--,the information acquired by the mind through the sense of sight is more varied than that communicated through any other sense1 singly taken2 but it is less accurate4 ,the sense of sight requires education and assistance1 and both are given through the sense of touch4 ,we have already said1 that light radiates from bodies1 and forms a picture on the retina1 7a reversed picture17 conveying to the mind certain qualities of matter1 and1 first--colour4 ,by variations in the shades of colour1 and by contrasts of colour1 our eye1 aided by experience from the sense of touch1 determines the form of objects2 and the boundaries of these forms we term outlines4 ,all that we perceive is the limits of differently coloured spaces4 ,where1 however1 colours blend gradually into each other1 the limits of each space1 and1 consequently1 its outline1 are indefinite2 we do not see matter1 but a quality of matter4 ,there are circumstances under which the eye is deceived respecting colour1 two or more different colours producing a similar effect on the retina1 and being undistinguishable from each other4 ,moreover1 when the retina is fatigued by a prolonged impression from one colour1 its sensibility to colour is diminished1 and we cease to judge accurately2 in these instances1 the retina receives those only which are termed accidental1 namely1 which do not enter into the colour steadily gazed at previously4 ,for example1 if we look steadily at a white spot1 and afterwards turn the eye towards white bodies1 a dark spot will be perceived by the eye4 ,if we look at a red spot on a white ground1 and then direct the eye to another part of the white ground1 a green spot approaching to blue will be perceived4 ,in the first case1 the retina was fatigued by the white colour1 and could not be excited by any other colour having the rays which constituted it in its composition4 ,the accidental colour1 therefore1 was black4 ,in like manner1 after looking at the red spot1 the retina was insensible to the impressions of a compound colour1 having red rays in its composition4 ,hence1 the accidental colour consisted of the other rays of the prismatic spectrum1 forming a colour destitute of red4 ,the eye is subject to deception1 or illusion4 ,sometimes we mistake the shadow for the substance4 ,the rays of light1 passing through media of different densities1 are refracted at different angles2 hence the direction or nearness of different bodies becomes apparently altered1 and experience alone corrects the error4 ,on putting a pole or stick obliquely into clear water1 the submerged portion seems to be bent at the surface of the water1 and to rise higher in the water than it actually is4 ,the bottom of a deep1 clear river1 or pond1 seems to be nearer to the surface than it is in reality2 in other instances1 the water deceives by an apparent shallowness1 the truth of which the inexperienced bather should always test before venturing in4 ,if a gold or silver coin be put at the bottom of a basin1 and the basin be then filled with water1 and the eye be obliquely directed1 so as not to see the coin1 hidden by the rim of the basin1 it will become apparent when the basin is filled4 ,in spearing fish1 allowance is made by the experienced for the difference of refraction of the rays of light in a rare and more dense medium4 ,it is probable that birds which prey upon fish1 by darting at them while at a certain distance under the water1 as1 for example1 the fish-hawk1 or osprey1 and the gannet1 are taught by instinct to correct an apparent error of sense1 or rather1 an illusion1 which man corrects by practice and experience4 ,the eye is deluded by the mirage4 ,the mirage 7a ,french word1 adopted into our language7 is the name given to a phenomenon of unusual attraction1 for which we have no specific appellative1 unless it be the sea-term looming4 ,as a general definition1 we may say1 the mirage is an optical illusion1 occasioned by the refraction of light through contiguous masses of air of different density1 such refraction not unfrequently producing the same sensible effect as direct reflection4 ,the illusions of the mirage differ according to circumstances1 but they may be all arranged under one or other of the three following classes3 vertical reflection1 horizontal or lateral reflection1 and suspension4 ,in hot1 flat regions1 as certain portions of ,arabia1 ,egypt1 ,persia1 the western deserts of ,india1 etc41 the vertical mirage is extremely common2 it presents the illusive appearance of a wide1 clear lake1 or sheet of water1 in which trees1 buildings1 and other objects1 seem to be reflected1 and in a reversed position4 ,on approaching this deceptive lake1 it keeps receding as we advance1 the reflected images vanish1 to be succeeded by others1 as they come in rotation into sight4 ,and thus the wayworn and thirsty traveller across the desert is first cheated into hope1 and at length mocked into despair4 ,during the ,french campaign in ,egypt1 under ,napoleon1 the soldiers1 who suffered extremely from the torments of thirst1 were cruelly tantalized by the deceptive mirage4 ,m4 ,monge1 one of the savans who accompanied the army1 thus comments upon this phenomenon3 ,the soil of ,lower ,egypt1 he observes1 is a vast plain1 perfectly horizontal1 its uniformity being interrupted by a few eminences1 on which1 in order to secure them from the inundations of the ,nile1 the villages are built4 ,in the morning and the evening the aspect of the country presents nothing remarkable1 all objects appearing in their natural positions1 and at their proper distances2 but after the soil has become heated by the rays of the sun1 the prospect seems bounded by a general inundation4 ,the villages at a little distance appear as islands in the midst of an expansive lake1 and the image of each village is seen invertedly reflected1 as if the water were real4 ,as we advance1 the mimic water retires1 still reflecting image after image2 so that in this illusion the classic fable of ,tantalus is represented2 might not the fable have had its origin in the phenomenon of the mirage8 ,it is not1 however1 exclusively on sandy plains or in very hot climates1 that this mirage occurs4 ,it has been observed by ,biot over the sandy beach of ,dunkirk1 and is not unfrequent along the coast of ,calvados4 ,a strange and beautiful effect of the mirage was seen by captain ,maundy1 at the ,shallout ,pass in ,india1 and is thus described3 ,a deep precipitous valley1 at the bottom of which ,i had seen one or two miserable villages in the morning1 bore in the evening a complete resemblance to a beautiful lake4 ,the vapour which played the part of water1 ascended nearly half-way up the sides of the vale1 and on its bright surface the trees and rocks were distinctly reflected4 ,how like the vanities and pleasures of earth is the mirage6 ,bright1 sparkling1 illusive--an appearance without a substance--a mockery which deceives1 attracts1 and vanishes away6 ,he who pursues the pleasures of this world1 and all its tinsel gratifications1 resembles the fevered traveller in the burning desert1 who pursues the mirage1 which recedes as he presses eagerly towards it1 till at length1 discovering its nothingness1 he perishes4 ,we may next consider the mirage produced by horizontal or lateral reflection4 ,in the horizontal or lateral reflections1 the mirage represents the reflected image sideways4 ,thus1 on the #agth of ,september1 #ahah1 ,m4 ,jurine and ,soret observed a lateral mirage on the lake of ,geneva4 ,a bark1 about four thousand toises distant1 was seen approaching ,geneva by the left bank of the lake1 and at the same moment there was seen above the water an image of the sails1 which1 in place of following the direction of the bark1 receded from it1 and seemed to approach ,geneva by the right bank of the lake1 the image sailing from east to west1 while the bark was sailing from north to south4 ,this lateral mirage is known to the inhabitants of ,meroa1 who call it ,si-kot1 7castle of the cold season27 by those who live on the plains watered by the ,chumbul and the ,jumna1 it is termed ,dissaser1 7prognostic47 ,in particular situations1 both the vertical and lateral mirage may be observed together4 ,thus the late ,mr4 ,blackadder has described some phenomena1 both of vertical and lateral mirage1 as seen at king ,george's ,bastion1 ,leith1 which are very instructive4 ,the phenomenon called suspension1 which is the third kind of mirage1 and to which the term looming is most strictly applied1 is the picturing of an object immediately over it in the air1 frequently without reversion of the image4 ,sometimes the objects are merely raised above the height at which1 under ordinary circumstances1 they would appear4 ,thus sir ,r4 ,k4 ,porter mentions a phenomenon of suspension1 or looming1 in the plains near ,bagdad4 ',a little before morning1' says he1 ',i observed an elevated stream of water1 which1 from its situation1 must be the ,tigris4 ,its surface was brilliantly illuminated by the moon1 but the longer ,i kept my eye fixed on this noble river of many interests1 the more my surprise became excited at the extraordinary height of its waters above the level of the desert1 till at length ,i began to suspect that some optical illusion from refraction was assisting the apparent elevation of the stream2 but ,i had not conceived the extent of the deception1 for as the dawn advanced the phantom river totally sunk from my sight4' ,the phenomenon of looming is most generally observed at sea1 or near the shore4 ,at ,reggio1 in ,calabria1 the ,fata ,morgana 7,fairy ,morgana7 is visible1 which for many centuries astonished the vulgar and perplexed philosophers4 ,it frequently happens that the phenomenon of the vertical mirage is combined with that of suspension1 so as to show in the air both a direct and an inverted image of the subject1 the latter being undermost4 ,now all these phenomena1 and their various modifications1 depend on the different density of the lower strata of the air2 and as this difference of density may be occasioned both by heat and moisture1 and as heat may be reverberated from the mountain's side as well as from the horizontal surface of the plains1 from the sea as from the land--and1 further1 as contiguous columns of air1 as well as horizontal strata1 may be of different densities1 it is easy to conceive why the mirage may be seen in very different situations1 as also why it presents such varied appearances4 ,it will also be evident that any cause which re-establishes the equilibrium of density in the different portions of the air1 must cause the illusions of the mirage to vanish4#aa #aa ,penny ,cyclopdia4 ,it cannot be doubted that those appearances1 which sailors call ,cape ,fly-away1 the ,enchanted ,island1 and the ,flying ,dutchman1 etc41 are the effects of the mirage4 ,they are the objects of superstition1 and thus has an illusive appearance caused many a heart to beat with fear1 which never so beat in the tempest or the sea-fight4 ,the eye assists us greatly1 indeed almost exclusively1 in determining the motions of bodies2 yet in this we require experience1 and after all we are frequently deceived4 ,when a body moves in a straight line from us1 we cannot tell whether it moves or not1 and then only come to the conclusion that it recedes in consequence of its becoming more obscure1 and from a change in its relative position to other objects which we know to be stationary4 ,when we travel in a railway carriage1 the banks1 the hedge-rows1 and the fields1 seem as if gliding with extreme velocity away from us4 ,it is only by a course of reasoning that we know such is not the fact2 it is true that the course of reasoning is very short and simple1 yet still that reasoning is requisite2 indeed1 it has been acknowledged only in modern times that the sun is stationary1 and that the world moves4 ,bodies moving with extreme velocity produce a continuous impression on the eye2 thus1 for example1 if a stick burning at one end be rapidly whirled1 the burning end produces the appearance of a fiery circle4 ,the spokes of a coach-wheel1 rolling round very rapidly1 present the appearance of an indistinct expansion4 ,on the contrary1 bodies moving with extreme slowness appear to casual observation as stationary2 thus the act of growing1 in ordinary plants and animals1 is not appreciated1 though the result is demonstrated in due time4 ,the eye1 moreover1 may be deceived by artificial representations1 as by painting 7take the ,diorama as an example7 or by models4 ,we have seen flowers so truthfully modelled in wax that1 by the eye alone1 no distinction between them and natural flowers could have been detected4 ,the same observations apply to magnitude and distance4 ,objects of gigantic magnitude1 as1 for instance1 the pyramids of ,egypt1 at first appear less than they are in reality2 and it is only by admeasurement1 examination1 and comparison1 that the mind becomes impressed with the idea of their immensity4 ,a building1 the details of which are in just harmony1 always appears to be smaller than it is1 because no discordance betrays the vast preponderance of certain parts over the littleness of others4 ,habit1 or1 in other words1 education1 is essentially requisite to aid the eye in its appreciation of magnitude4 ,we may say the same with respect to distance4 ,an infant does not distinguish between near and distant objects2 its eyes have yet to become educated1 and so have those of adults placed in circumstances to which they are unaccustomed4 ,for example1 the walls of a city1 reared in a vast level plain1 and descried at a distance1 appear to be far nearer than the traveller will find them to be2 again1 when standing on the beach1 we look at a ship in the distance1 we are apt to think it closer to the shore than we should prove it to be were we to traverse the distance in a boat4 ,a sailor would judge of the distance accurately4 ,how much the accuracy and utility of the eye depend upon practice or education may be illustrated by the case of a boy1 who1 as described by ,cheselden1 was born quite blind1 but was suddenly restored to sight1 at the age of twelve1 by the skilful removal of the cataract4 ,at first1 he was impressed with the idea that all the objects which he saw around him touched his eyes1 in the same manner as in the act of touch they came in contact with the skin4 ,he could neither estimate distance1 nor distinguish one object from another1 until he had applied the test of touch as a corrective and assistant4 ,it may here be asked1 how the fact is to be explained that1 though images are pictured on the retina inverted1 we do not see them as such1 but in their true position8 ,when we say that the eye sees1 we use popular1 but not strictly correct language2 the eyes are the organs or instruments of vision--that is1 for transmitting certain qualities of matter to the mind2 it is not the image on the retina which the mind contemplates1 for we are utterly unconscious that such an image exists--it is the object itself4 ,to expect that the impression from an inverted image on the retina should produce the perception of a similar position in the object viewed1 is to commit the error of mistaking these images for the real objects of perception1 whereas they are only the means which suggest the true perceptions4 ,it is not the eye which sees2 it is the mind4 ,the analogy which the optical part of the eye bears to a camera obscura has perhaps contributed to the fallacy in question2 for in using that instrument we really contemplate the image which is received on the paper1 and reflected from it to our eyes2 but in our own vision nothing of this kind takes place4 ,we scarcely know whether we can place among optical illusions those strange apparitions of departed persons1 of friends at a distance1 or of singular and grotesque faces or figures1 of which we have many authentic narratives4 ,these we take to be strong impressions on the mind alone1 7for no image can there be on the retina17 the result of some morbid condition of the brain and nervous system4 ,such was the evil genius which ,brutus saw in his tent before the battle of ,philippi1 and such the air-drawn dagger of ,macbeth--such also were the phantoms seen by ,nicolai1 the philosophic bookseller of ,berlin1 who has given an admirable account of his mental visions1 referring them to their true source1 at the very time that the illusions visited him4 ,in some states of body1 we see grotesque and ludicrous objects1 while our eyes are shut1 and1 as we can testify1 often not before we have shut our eyes1 and thereby closed the door of access through those organs to the mind4 ,what horrible phantasms terrify the unhappy sleeper labouring under night-mare6 ,what strange things does the delirious sufferer mentally behold1 and through what strange scenes1 real to him1 does he pass6 ,we see1 we converse1 we laugh1 we mourn1 we feel pleasure and anguish1 even in our dreams4 ,these1 then1 are not optical but mental illusions--no figure is made upon the retina appealing to the mind1 but the mind itself sees things which are not1 and is delighted or terrified by its own involuntary creations4#ab #ab ,see ,an ,essay towards a ,theory of ,apparitions1 by ,john ,ferriar1 ,m4,d41 #ahac2 and ,sketches of the ,philosophy of ,apparitions2 or1 ,an ,attempt to trace such ,illusions to their ,physical ,causes1 by ,samuel ,hibbert1 ,m4,d41 #ahbd4 ,in former times1 craft1 under the name of religion1 availed herself of these mental illusions1 and extorted gifts of lands and gold from the terrified1 perhaps most guilty sufferer1 in order that his peace with the church 7so miscalled7 might be made1 and masses said for the repose of his soul4 ,he was taught to buy his entrance into heaven--not with the ,pearl of great price--not by presenting before the ,judge of all mankind the merits and the atonement of the ,messiah1 but by founding a monastery1 or by adding to its treasures and domains4 ,his faith was placed1 not on the promises of ,god in ,christ1 but on the promises of a mere mortal at best--yes1 a mortal1 who knew that while he promised he was weak as other men2 ,in concluding our observations upon the sense of sight1 we may refer to a few striking passages in ,scripture1 of great force1 and well calculated to excite reflection4 ,he that formed the eye1 shall he not see8#ac ,no secrets are hidden from ,god2 no1 not the secrets of the heart1 for these are written on a tablet which he1 and he alone1 can read4 ,may our prayer be1 ,let the meditation of my heart be acceptable in thy sight1 ,o ,lord1 my strength1 and my ,redeemer6#ad ,enter not into judgment with thy servant3 for in thy sight shall no man living be justified4#ae ,in the sight of ,god1 we speak figuratively1 all men are sinners1 and as sinners condemned2 but ,god will not enter into judgment with those who1 by faith in the atonement1 looking to the ,saviour1 as the ,israelites looked to the brazen serpent in the wilderness1 turn away from their wickedness1 and become examples of the believers1 in word1 in conversation1 in faith1 in purity4 #ac ,psa4 xciv4 #i4 #ad ,psa4 xix4 #ad4 #ae ,psa4 cxliii4 #b4 #b4 ,hearing4--,what we call sound1 noise1 or tone1 is a mental appreciation of the effects of the tremulous or vibratory motions of the particles of an elastic fluid1 such as air or water1 on the auditory or acoustic nerves of the internal ear4 ,sonorous vibrations are produced by the concussion of hard bodies1 by the bolt of lightning1 by the vibrations of stringed instruments of music1 by the forcible current of air thrown into the tubes of wind instruments1 and by the air driven from the lungs through the organs of voice in reptiles1 birds1 and mammalia4 ,there are1 indeed1 few movements1 few collisions1 few atmospheric disturbances1 which do not excite those tremulous wavelets of atmosphere1 those oscillations1 which produce in us the sensation of sound4 ,in fact1 during the day1 the sense of hearing is as perpetually employed as is that of sight2 yet1 strange to say1 from the impressions made through the medium of both these senses1 we can so far abstract the mind1 and throw it upon its own internal reflections and operations1 as to see without discrimination1 and to hear without attention or notice4 ,as sound is the result of the tremulous fluctuations of air1 it will not surprise our reader to know1 that no sound is conveyed from the percussion of bodies in a vacuum4 ,the experiment of suspending a bell in the exhausted receiver of the air-pump1 and causing the clapper to strike it as when rung1 has been very often repeated2 no sound is communicated to the listener1 although the vibrations of the bell are clearly perceived2 should a little air be now admitted1 a faint tinkling is heard1 which becomes stronger in proportion to the admission of air1 until it is natural2 on the contrary1 if the receiver be filled with greatly condensed air1 the tinkling of the bell is louder than it is when in an atmosphere of the ordinary degree of density4 ,sound1 or1 rather1 the wavelets of the atmosphere producing this sensation1 radiate from the sound-causing object in all directions2 these wavelets1 however1 extend only to a certain distance1 according to the violence of the central agitation2 they become gradually feebler and feebler1 and at last die away4 ,thunder1 the firing of cannon1 and the clang of trumpets1 are not heard beyond a certain distance1 and even at that distance1 whatever it may be1 the ear only faintly distinguishes the report1 for the vibratory action and reaction on each other of the atmospheric particles1 become feebler and feebler in proportion to the arial distance of the listener4 ,if we stand on an eminence commanding a view of a number of cannon1 say a mile distant1 which the soldiery are from time to time firing1 a decided difference of time will be perceived between the flash and the report2 the same observation applies to lightning1 a considerable interval often occurring between the flash and the thunder4 ,hence1 light is said to travel faster than sound4 ,sound travels at the ratio of about twelve miles and a half in a minute1 but its velocity is greater in a denser than in a rarer medium1 as is also the distance to which it is propagated4 ,these points are illustrated by a comparison of water with atmospheric air4 ,all aquatic animals are not constituted for hearing2 myriads1 indeed1 have neither sight nor hearing4 ,by the cuttle-fishes 7cephalopoda7 both these senses are enjoyed as well as by fishes1 aquatic reptiles1 and we need not say by such aquatic mammalia as whales1 grampuses1 porpoises1 etc4 ,to them the water is the medium of sound1 and granting that their auditory nerves have the same sensibility as those of man1 they will hear sounds not only more quickly1 more distinctly1 but at greater distances4 ,this is accounted for by the greater elasticity of the constituent particles of water1 within the minute distance required for their action in propagating sound4 ,stones struck together under water are heard at great distances by a person under water4 ,franklin found1 by experiment1 that sound1 after travelling above a mile through the water1 loses but little of its intensity4 ,according to ,chladini1 the velocity of water is about four thousand nine hundred feet in a second1 or between four and five times as great as it is in air4 ,different bodies conduct sound to the ear with more or less distinctness1 according to their susceptibility for vibrating1 and also with more or less rapidity4 ,ice1 for example1 conveys sound more speedily than water1 and far more rapidly than air2 thus1 if a cannon on the edge of a frozen lake be fired1 a person on the opposite side will find the flash to be followed by two reports1 the first conducted to him by the ice1 the second by the air4 ,if a long steel rod be applied to the orifice of the ear1 the gentlest jar given to its further extremity1 and which1 but for the intervention of the metal1 would not have been audible1 produces a strong and distinct impression4 ,cotton wool1 sheeps' wool1 and soft stuffs1 generally are bad conductors of sound4 ,the frozen earth conducts sound from great distances2 the approach of a horseman in clear1 frosty weather1 will be heard at a far greater distance than when the ground is moist1 or not hardened2 in the former case1 indeed1 a double sound may sometimes be heard1 one produced by the vibration of the ice-bound earth1 the other1 if distance allow1 by that of the air4 ,the distance to which sound can be conveyed through the speaking-trumpet is very surprising4 ,the invention of the modern speaking-trumpet is generally accorded to sir ,samuel ,moreland1 7#afgj17 and some of the large brass trumpets1 made under his direction1 carried the human voice from a mile and a half to between two and three miles distance4 ,the efficiency of this instrument has been attributed to the repeated reflection of the sound1 or waves of air1 7like rays of light17 from side to side along the course of the tube1 their ultimate efflux from the mouth of the instrument being in such a way1 as either to cause the rays of sound to be collected into a focus at a distance1 or to be projected forward in parallel lines1 instead of allowing them to diverge in all directions1 and on these principles various modifications in the form of the speaking-trumpet have been suggested4 ,the views1 however1 of professor ,leslie do not coincide with this theory4 ,the performance of the speaking-trumpet1 he says1 does certainly not depend upon any supposed repercussion of sound2 repeated echoes might divide1 but could not augment the quantity of impulse4 ,his idea is1 that the tube1 by its length and narrowness1 detains the efflux of air1 and has the same effect as if it diminished the volubility of that fluid1 or increased its density4 ,the organs of articulation1 he adds1 strike with concentrated force2 and the pulses thus so vigorously excited are1 from the reflected form of the aperture1 finally enabled to escape and spread themselves along the atmosphere4 ,the experiments of ,hassenfratz1 a ,french philosopher1 are cited in support of this theory4 ,he tried the power of a speaking-trumpet1 by measuring the distance at which the ticking of a watch could be heard through it1 and found the effect the same1 whether the metal tube were used simply1 or wrapped round in such a way as to prevent vibration4 ,it was also heard at the same distance when the inner surface was lined with linen1 or woollen cloth1 to diminish reflection2 and the range of a cylindrical trumpet was the same as that of a conical one4 ,in the ear-trumpet1 used by persons partially deaf1 and in the stethoscope1 it appears to us that we have concentrations of sound into a focus1 by repeated reflexions of the arial wavelets from side to side of the tube2 and we may ask1 does not the murmuring sound which we hear1 when we apply a conch shell to our ear1 arise from the same kind of percussion8 ,in echoes we have an instance of the reflection of atmospheric undulations1 and this reflection1 as in many natural situations1 may be multiplied till the last faint repetitions die away2 and when a succession of echoes is very rapid1 a loud exclamation of the monosyllable1 ,hah6 may be thrown back upon the ear like a boisterous laugh4 ,the echoes of old halls and galleries1 of vaults and dungeons1 of caverns1 rocks1 and grottoes1 have served as subject-matter for the writers of imaginative poetry and romance4 ,it is not only to old romantic halls and galleries that echoes are confined2 they are not uncommon in modern public buildings1 so that the speaker hears his words repeated4 ,the distribution of sound in public edifices1 so that the echoes 7or reflections of arial waves from the walls1 etc47 may be most advantageously brought to strengthen the original sound1 is a subject deserving of much attention4 ,for some observations on the errors of architects on this point we may refer to sir ,j4 ,herschel's ,treatise on ,sound4 ,when our auditory nerves receive a succession of uniform impulses at equal intervals of time1 the intervals being at the same time very small1 the impressions become so interblended with each other as to produce an apparently continuous sound1 even and equal1 except as to variation in loudness4 ,this sound we call a musical note1 produced by the string of the violin1 or piano2 if the intervals between the vibrations be1 comparatively speaking1 long1 the note is grave2 but if within the same given time the vibrations be very numerous1 the note is in proportion acute4 ,some notes harmonize with each1 and thereby please the mind through the ear2 others are discords1 and offend4 ,grave or acute notes depend upon the length and the tension of the strings of an instrument1 or the length of a wind instrument4 ,in the piano1 the low notes are produced by long1 thick strings1 the high notes by slender1 short wires1 in which the vibrations are excessively rapid4 ,in the violin1 which has strings of equal length1 the thin strings for producing the high tones are screwed to a far greater degree of tension than those of the lower tones2 and each string1 as its length 7that is1 vibratory length7 is shortened by the pressure of the finger at due intervals1 produces high and higher tones in proportion4 ,we have here said enough 7for we aim not at a treatise on acoustics7 to show what sound really is1 and what are the principal laws by which it is governed4 ,we have also shown1 that it is our mind alone that takes cognizance of the impulses given by vibratory wavelets of the atmosphere to the auditory nerves2 consequently1 that as the mind sees1 so the mind alone hears1 for vibration cannot in and of itself be that sensation which we call sound4 ,what is the knowledge gained through the ear by the appreciation of sound1 or in common language1 by hearing8 ,let us answer3--,we commonly judge of the distance and position of objects producing sound by the sense of hearing1 but in these points our accuracy greatly depends upon our attention and our experience4 ,yet are we liable to deception2 we are thoroughly deceived by a skilful ventriloquist1 who can so modulate his voice as to make it seem distant or near1 or to proceed from one quarter of the room or house1 or from another4 ,the voice of the corn-crake 7,crax pratensis7 is1 from some cause or other1 very perplexing2 sometimes it will appear as if the bird were only a few yards distant from us1 and the next instant in some far part of the field4 ,perhaps instinct leads it to alter the pitch of its monotonous cry1 in order to deceive the intruder4 ,again1 echoes deceive the ear2 not only may we mistake echo for the actual voice of the speaker1 but it may appear as if close or distant1 faint or loud1 and thus in every point lead to erroneous conclusions4 ,that the ordinary animals around hear will not be denied1 nor can we blind ourselves as to the fact1 that they acquire a limited share of information1 bearing upon their corporeal necessities1 through this sense4 ,animals have a natural language1 expressive of pain or pleasure1 of surprise1 of fear1 of anger2 and this language consists of cries or tones1 variously modulated1 each species having its own range of vocal intonations4 ,every species understands the simple instinctive language of its own species4 ,some birds1 for example1 as the wild geese1 have sentinels around the flock while feeding1 and rise en masse at the warning cry of their guards4 ,who has not marked the distress and agitation of the ewe1 when she hears the plaintive tremulous bleat of her lamb1 forcibly separated from her8 ,the warning note of the cock1 his cluck of invitation1 his scream of surprise or fear1 his cackle of agitation1 his crow of defiance1 are well understood by his train4 ,quadrupeds1 birds1 and even some insects call to each other1 and are answered again-- ,steed answers steed with loud and boastful neighing4 ,the bird invites his mate by a sweet strain1 and is answered by her low chirp4 ,the call of the young in their nests is responded to by the parents2 the parents call to each other1 as if to assure themselves of each other's safety1 or to find out where they mutually are1 and what they are doing4 ,imitation is an instinct2 we see it powerful in its dominion over children2 it is in exercise before reason assumes a definite sway2 it prompts to the acquisition of the mother-tongue1 till1 by repetition1 the true pronunciation is acquired1 and the names of all common articles known3 then reason steps in4 ,but imitation is not confined to the human race2 monkeys imitate1 and the grotesqueness of their imitations renders them ludicrous2 they do not imitate voice1 but action4 ,some birds1 however1 imitate the human voice1 and are easily taught to utter words or sentences1 7the parrot1 the mino-bird1 the magpie1 are examples17 nay1 even to sing musical airs with great accuracy4 ,but1 by all this acquisition through the organ of hearing1 they gain no information1 nor add to the limited number of their ideas4 ,the parrot may be1 indeed1 made by practice to associate the sound of a word1 say bread1 with the article thus denominated1 and to call for it by name when wanted2 but reason steps not in to give further assistance in the building up of idea upon idea1 without which there can be no definite language--no real speech4 ,though the dog and the horse cannot utter the sound1 they know what bread is quite as well as the parrot1 and1 indeed1 the ear of the dog is the inlet to an instinctive mind of no mean order1 for the ,almighty created the dog to be man's assistant and humble friend4 ,the question has been often mooted1 as to whether song-birds acquire their respective warble or song by the ear alone1 that is1 by listening and imitating1 as a child would do1 or whether it is intuitive2 the answer is not very easy4 ,there is an impulse in song-birds to express their feelings of pleasure or enjoyment1 by giving utterance to modulated sounds1 so pleasing to the human ear1 that their song leads too frequently to their friendly imprisonment4 ,young birds1 brought up by their parents1 and with a vocal pipe best fitted for the enunciation of the strain of their parents1 7or rather male parent17 rapidly acquire that strain1 and soon begin to record1 or try it over in an under tone1 and bearing it in memory1 break out into full song when leafy spring returns4 ,nevertheless1 birds1 taken early from the nest1 and put under the tuition of other birds1 acquire to a certain extent the song of the latter1 often1 indeed1 apparently perfect2 yet1 perhaps1 could our ears catch it1 we should find that the bird had much of the parent accent in its acquired language4 ,though birds receive ideas of a simple character1 and express simple feelings1 understood by each other1 through the medium of various sounds1 yet nothing from age to age is thereby added to their knowledge2 they remain what they have been from the commencement of their creation4 ,their ears are far less the inlets to knowledge than their eyes1 and this observation applies generally to the lower animals4 ,now let us turn to man4 ,setting aside meaningless sounds and noises1 7some of which1 however1 through the association of ideas1 are very grateful1 as those of the multifarious denizens of a farm-yard17 man derives both pleasure and knowledge from a definite succession of sounds1 which appeal to his mind1 as sound cannot appeal to the mind of the lower orders4 ,how laughable is the fabled contest of the lutist and the nightingale1 and of the death of the latter disappointed of the victory--the lutist might have enjoyed the warbling of the bird1 but the bird could not have entered as a rival into the strains of the lutist4 ,nevertheless1 from personal observation1 and from the most credible authorities1 we fearlessly assert1 that many animals are allured by sweet sounds2 we have seen rats peeping out of their holes1 listening to airs played on a flute2 and sir ,walter ,scott says1 ,rude ,heiskar's seals through surges dark1 ,will long pursue the minstrel's bark4 ,a little lizard 7the anolis7 in the ,west ,indies1 and snakes in ,north ,africa and ,india1 are attracted by the notes of a rude pipe2 to deny this is futile2 it has been proved in modern days1 and the fact is noticed in ,scripture4 ,some animals1 when certain notes are struck1 or certain keys tried over1 are decidedly agitated1 and perhaps feel as we do when some horrid sound sets our teeth on edge1--that is1 irritates by a mysterious sympathy the whole nervous system4 ,in the same way1 perhaps1 are animals pleased with certain sounds2 that is1 a sympathetic tranquillity or pleasing excitement of the nervous system is produced1 and they yield1 instinctively1 to the voice of the charmer4 ,with regard to ourselves1 music 7we need not enter into a learned explanation of what it is7 operates far less upon the reasoning than the instinctive faculties of man4 ,tones1 modulations1 swellings1 and cadences1 though no words be sung1 excite all the emotions of which our animal nature is capable4 ,but when words are used--when music is married to immortal verse1 and an appeal through language is also made to the mind1 then1 indeed1 the effect is tremendous4 ,a song shouted forth in the streets may overturn an empire4 ,who knows not what was the effect of the ,jacobite songs in ,scotland1 when ,charlie came o'er the water8 ,who knows not the effects resulting from ,caira and the ,marseillaise ,hymn8 ,whose bosom has not beat high when our own national hymn1 when ,rule ,britannia1 and other patriotic airs1 have been energetically and effectively delivered8 ,in fine1 who is there that is not affected by music8 very few2 it is and has been a natural expression of human feeling appealing to human feeling1 since the time of ,jubal even unto the present day2 and ,miriam's song of triumph1 and the songs 7how mournful67 of the daughters of ,judah on the willowy banks of ,babel's rivers1 were equally expressive of natural emotions4 ,music1 then1 without words1 appeals rather to our animal feelings than to our reason or mind2 music1 with suitable words1 appeals both to our animal feelings and our mind2 and music1 with merely recollected words1 does the same by concatenation of ideas2 and this also is often the result of tones1 passages1 and cadences1 to which we have never heard words applied2 hence1 we talk of a lively air1 a merry air1 a martial air1 a melancholy air2 and hence a great poet wrote-- ,that strain again6 it had a dying fall4 ,oh6 it came o'er my ear like the sweet south1 ,that breathes upon a bank of violets1 ,stealing and giving odour4 ,some airs1 again1 are solemn1 and tend to fill the mind with awe1 or a feeling of devotion2 deep strains of melody were those which resounded through the great temple1 when the holy psalms of the shepherd-king were chanted1 and deeply was every heart moved to the worship and adoration of the living ,god4 ,oh1 such should ever be our sacred music6 ,perhaps we are wrong1 but we confess that the sweetest air composed for an ordinary song1 7however pure1 elegant1 or patriotic that song may be17 when introduced into the house of ,god grates upon our feelings4 ,we divide literature into profane and sacred 7meaning nothing offensive by the term profane7--let1 then1 music be as strictly divided1 so that the association of ideas which a popular air will1 in spite of ourselves1 engender1 shall not creep in to intertwine with the sacred exercise of praise and thanksgiving to our ,creator and ,redeemer1 which alone should engage the full force of our mind4 ,the power of music in elevating the mind1 in cheering it1 or1 on the contrary1 in depressing it1 has been felt from the earliest ages4 ,when ,saul was troubled in spirit1 ,david took an harp1 and played with his hand3 so ,saul was refreshed1 and was well1 and the evil spirit departed from him4#af #af #a ,sam4 xvi4 #bc4 ,we have said1 that animals appeal to each other through the organs of hearing by cries or sounds1 nor is man destitute of natural cries1 which are universally understood--the shout of exultation1 the scream of terror1 the shriek of agony1 the moaning of mental or bodily suffering1 and the sobs of sorrow1 speak to every heart4 ,but1 besides these instinctive tones1 man acquires a definite language1 more or less extensive1 more or less capable of expressing abstract or complex ideas1 and ever in these points bearing progress with the advancement of the arts1 with the civilization and with the religion of the people4 ,there are some savage tribes who cannot count a hundred1 but we can count to hundreds of millions1 till the mind becomes overwhelmed with the vastness of the numerical progression1 which1 let each unit stand for a million of years1 would1 after all1 infringe not on eternity4 ,language is the appeal of definite sounds1 through the organs of hearing1 to the mind2 these sounds are arbitrary2 they do not in any way represent things1 or the qualities1 or the state of things2 for1 indeed1 language is based altogether on a system of association--it has to be acquired2 that is1 the mind has to be taught to associate certain sounds with certain mental perceptions2 but these sounds do not mean the same thing in every language or dialect4 ,on this point we need not insist1 neither need we give examples1 which must suggest themselves to every reader1 if he reflects that there are other tongues beside that which he speaks4 ,though language consists in a system of sounds uttered by the mouth1 appealing through the sense of hearing to the mind1 yet man has contrived to effect the same purpose through the eye1 and hence is enabled to convey to others at a distance his thoughts1 his observations1 his wishes1 and views--to transmit to posterity the results of his labours and researches1 or the outpourings of his genius4 ,his plan is to employ certain marks or characters1 drawn or impressed on paper1 bark1 wood1 metal1 or other materials1 which characters shall be understood4 ,these characters1 which we call an alphabet1 represent sounds2 they are made up into words1 and as our eye runs along them the varying sounds of the words are suggested1 and with them the meaning2 this is termed reading1 and if we utter the words1 reading aloud4 ,but there are other characters1 not alphabetical1 which have been1 and still are1 in use1 and which are symbols of ideas1 and not of sounds4 ,while the letters of our alphabet are mere symbols of sounds1 the ,chinese characters or written words are symbols of ideas1 and alike intelligible to the people of ,cochin-,china1 ,japan1 ,loo-choo1 and ,corea1 with those of ,china itself4 ,as the best practical illustration of a written character1 common to several nations who cannot understand each other's speech1 ,mr4 ,davis adduces the ,arabic numerals1 common to all ,europe4 ,an ,englishman1 who could not understand what an ,italian meant if he said venti-due1 could comprehend him immediately if he wrote down twenty-two4 ,this advantage1 which belongs to our numerals only1 pertains to the whole language of the ,chinese4 ,the uniformity1 however1 in the written character1 does not prevent the existence of great diversities in the oral languages of the neighbouring countries and ,china1 and even of the separate provinces of the latter country4 ,these diversities are precisely analogous to the different pronunciation given to the same numerical characters in the various countries of ,europe4 ,to adduce the foregoing example--the number #bb1 which the ,italian calls venti-due1 a ,frenchman pronounces vingt-deux1 and an ,englishman twenty-two1 though all three write them just alike4 ,it is in this manner that the universality of the ,chinese language extends only to the written character1 and that the natives of the two extremities of the empire1 who read the same books1 and understand each other perfectly on paper1 are all but mutually unintelligible in speech4 ,the roots1 or original characters of the ,chinese1 are only two hundred and fourteen in number1 and might1 indeed1 be reduced to a much smaller amount by a little dissection and analysis4 ,these are combined with each other to form other words1 or express other ideas1 very much in the same way that the individual ,arabic numerals are combined to express the infinite varieties of numbers4 ,by a species of analogy1 they may be called the alphabet of the language1 with the difference that exists between an alphabet of ideas1 and an alphabet of sounds4#ag ,when the ,chinese wish to write a ,european proper name1 they have recourse to a contrivance which in some respects approaches the phonetic hieroglyphics of ancient ,egypt4 ,the ,chinese characters when thus employed do not become alphabetic1 but represent the entire syllable or sound which they express in ordinary use4 ,thus1 if we suppose ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 to stand respectively in the place of three ,chinese characters1 intended to give the name ,maria1 the mode would be thus-- - ,a ,ma ,jasper ,b ,li ,profit ,c ,ya ,second in rank4#ag - #ag ,see ,klaproth's ,examen1 etc41 p4 #be4 ,in ancient ,egypt1 two modes of writing were practised1 namely1 the common and the hieroglyphic4 ,there were several kinds of common characters1 and also1 as it would appear1 of hieroglyphics4 ,clemens of ,alexandria distinguishes from both the hieratic1 which was used by the sacred registrars4 ,the ancient ,mexicans employed pictorial writing2 and of this nature we may consider the ,bayeux tapestry1 representing the chief incidents of the invasion of ,england by ,william ,i4 ,savages often give information to their friends1 or convey their wishes1 by cutting rude figures on the bark of trees1 the meaning of which is at once understood by every individual of the tribe4 ,on these points we have sufficiently enlarged4 ,our main purpose is now to show how great an inlet to knowledge the ear is4 ,to the eye speak the writings of antiquity1 the accumulated wisdom of successive generations1 the experience of sages1 and those holy records which contain the oracles of ,god1 the sacred truths1 and the revelation of the purposes of the ,almighty towards a fallen race4 ,it is by language1 as it appeals to the eye1 that we commune with the mighty dead--that we receive into our minds the sublime ideas of a ,milton1 the learning of a ,bacon1 or the philosophy of a ,newton4 ,but it is to the ear that the conversation of ordinary life is directed2 the directions1 the requests1 the commands that we continually issue forth or receive--words of congratulation1 consolation1 encouragement1 or information--the eloquence of the senate or the bar--the strenuous admonitions or exhortations of the preacher4 ,what a wonderful thing the mind of man is1 that a few atmospheric vibrations on the auditory nerves1 or a few pictures on the retina1 should produce sorrow or joy1 hope or fear--should communicate instruction or pleasure--should excite sympathy or love1 contempt or aversion6 ,and1 again1 how wonderfully is the organic frame constructed1 and adapted to the conditions of our planet1 that light and air should communicate through two of our external senses with the mind1 affording it food for cogitation1 stores of knowledge1 and intellectual gratification6 ,does this arise in any degree from the superiority of the organs of sight and hearing in man8 ,certainly not4 ,the vulture1 soaring in the upper sky1 far excels man in the power of vision4 ,yes1 and so does every bird that skims the air1 or hovers in quest of prey over the surface of the great deep4 ,the dog1 the horse1 the antelope1 and numerous other lower animals1 have quicker ears than man2 but then the mind6 it is there that the difference lies2 with a weaker sight than is usual1 with a more imperfect hearing than is ordinary1 sages and philosophers1 and historians and poets1 have left to posterity the brightest productions of mental power4 ,homer and ,milton were blind4 ,through the sense of hearing man communicates orally with man1 and man utters his prayers and praises orally to ,god1 as if ,god heard with ears like those of organic beings4 ,it is natural that we should thus address ourselves to the ,almighty1 because our conceptions of him are necessarily limited by the measure of our minds1 expansive as regards the lower creation1 but narrow--oh1 how narrow6--compared with the wisdom of the uncreate ,eternal4 ,he that planted the ear1 shall he not hear6#ah ,it matters not whether we murmur forth with our lips1 or silently think them in our mind--,god hears them4 ,he hears the language of our heart1 the aspirations and vows of our inmost soul3 and he knows1 too1 7and he alone can know17 whether we be sincere or the contrary4 ,the tongue of the hypocrite may deceive men1 but not ,god2 nay1 we may deceive ourselves by our own verbiage1 but ,god distinguishes the prayer inspired by the ,spirit of truth1 from the empty declaration of excitement4 #ah ,psa4 xciv4 #i4 ,thus1 then1 is the ear an inlet of a vast amount of knowledge to the mind2 it conveys what the eye cannot convey1 and it assists the eye1 while in turn by the eye it is assisted2 and1 indeed1 that one sense shall support another1 and be again supported1 or corrected1 is ordained by our ,creator1 who in wisdom has fashioned our mortal framework1 the tenement of an undying soul4 #c4 ,taste4--,the sense of taste conveys to the mind an impression from objects1 very dissimilar to that which is gained through the medium of the eye or of the ear2 nay1 dissimilar to that conveyed by the sense of touch4 ,the sense of taste resides in the mouth2 that is1 it pervades the tongue1 the palate1 and the pharynx1 on which are distributed fine ramifications of the fifth1 eighth1 and ninth pair of nerves4 ,taste is the appreciation of the savour of bodies1 or1 in other words1 of certain chemical qualities1 which1 acting on the nerves1 give to our mind an agreeable or disagreeable sensation2 hence the terms sweet1 luscious1 acid1 vinous1 sour1 bitter1 saline1 spicy1 aromatic1 etc4 ,some bodies1 however1 are tasteless--pure distilled water is tasteless1 and so would a small globe of glass be1 however long it was held in the mouth2 but if we put our tongue to a piece of brass1 or copper1 we perceive at once a peculiar flavour1 resulting from the oxydized film on its surface mingling with the saliva covering the nervous papill of the tongue4 ,the organs of taste are placed at the commencement of the apparatus of nutrition1 and their assigned work is to test the quality of the food received1 thereby giving warning lest any noxious substance be introduced into the stomach4 ,man1 indeed1 employs the sense of taste far less decidedly in this manner than do most other animals2 he is omnivorous2 in the north he relishes train-oil and blubber1 the blood of seals1 and animal food half raw1 while1 in tropical regions1 he feeds upon boiled rice or other grain1 seasoned with a little spice1 and accounts it a luxury4 ,in both cases1 the taste is in consonance with the requirements of the system1 placed under opposite circumstances4 ,man1 however1 acquires by habit an artificial taste1 and comes at last to relish things which he at first disliked1 and in many instances these things are more or less injurious4 ,nor is this artificial taste confined only to man--we have seen it in domestic animals--cats1 by nature exclusively carnivorous1 will eat boiled cabbage with relish2 the dog will acquire a partiality for bread and biscuit4 ,on the contrary1 some of our herbivorous animals may be taught to like animal food4 ,for example1 in some parts of ,arabia1 flesh1 raw as well as cooked1 is occasionally given to the horses1 with fragments of their owner's meals4 ,an inhabitant of ,hamah assured ,burckhardt1 that he had often given his horses roasted meat before the commencement of a fatiguing journey1 that they might be the better able to endure it2 this same person1 as we learn from the learned traveller1 fearing lest the governor should take from him his favourite horse1 fed it for a fortnight exclusively upon roasted pork1 which so excited its spirit and mettle1 that it became absolutely unmanageable1 and no longer an object of desire to the governor4 ,in the ,edinburgh ,journal of ,natural ,history we find the following passage3 ,we are assured by ,m4 ,yvart1 that in ,auvergne fat soups are given to cattle1 especially when sick or enfeebled1 for the purpose of invigorating them4 ,the same practice is observed in some parts of ,north ,america1 where the country people mix1 in winter1 fat broth with the vegetables given to their cattle1 in order to render them more capable of resisting the severity of the weather4 ,these broths have been long considered efficacious by the veterinary practitioners of our own country1 in restoring horses which have been enfeebled through long illness4 ,it is said by ,peall to be a common practice in some parts of ,india to mix animal substances with the grain given to feeble horses1 and to boil the mixture into a sort of paste1 which soon brings them into good condition1 and restores their vigour4 ,pallas tells us1 that the ,russian boors make use of the dried flesh of the hamster1 reduced to powder1 and mixed with oats1 and that this occasions their horses to acquire a sudden and extraordinary degree of embonpoint4 ,anderson relates1 in his ,history of ,iceland1 that the inhabitants feed their horses with dried fishes when the cold is very intense1 and that these animals are extremely vigorous1 though small4 ,we also know1 that in the ,fero ,islands1 the ,orkneys1 the ,western ,islands1 and in ,norway1 where the climate is still very cold1 this practice is also adopted2 and it is not uncommon1 in some very warm countries1 as in the kingdom of ,muskat1 in ,arabia ,felix1 near the ,straits of ,ormuz1 one of the most fertile parts of ,arabia2 fish and other animal substances are there given to the horses in the cold season1 as well as in times of scarcity4 ,in ,norway1 or at least in some districts of that country1 the cattle are housed during the long winter months1 and fed partially upon hay1 but more plentifully on a kind of diet1 which1 strange and disgusting as we may think it1 is said to be much relished4 ,this consists of a thick gelatinous soup1 made by boiling the heads of fish1 and mixing horse-dung with the broth2 so that the boat of a ,norwegian farmer supplies not only himself and his family with the staple portion of winter subsistence1 but his cows also4 ,we doubt much whether any wild herbivorous animals will feed upon poisonous plants2 they are constantly in the exercise of their instinctive faculties1 and to these faculties the organs of taste 7and smell7 administer4 ,hence they constantly reject all that is deleterious4 ,but this is not the case with domestic animals1 whose instinct is much enfeebled1 or curbed1 from the peculiar circumstances in which they are placed4 ,hence accidents often happen1 to the great loss of the farmer2 for example1 both horses and horned cattle will crop the foliage of the yew1 which offers a temptation to them1 especially if underfed1 or fed almost exclusively on dry fodder2 the foliage of the yew is poisonous4 ,cattle often perish from eating the long-leaved water hemlock1 or cowbane1 7,cicuta virosa47 ,when ,linnus visited ,tornea1 he found a terrible malady sweeping away the cattle of the district1 and which he at once traced to the long-leaved water hemlock4 ,scarcely1 in fact1 had he crossed the river1 and landed from his boat on the meadow1 before he felt convinced of the origin of the mischief4 ,this deadly plant grew there in abundance1 and it appeared that as soon as the cattle left off their winter fodder1 and returned to pasturage1 they died swollen and convulsed2 as the summer came on the mortality decreased1 and still more so with the advance of autumn4 ,the least attention1 says ,linnus1 will convince us that brutes reject whatever is hurtful to them1 and distinguish poisonous from salutary plants by natural instinct1 so that this plant is not eaten by them in the summer and autumn1 which is the reason that in those seasons so few cattle die2 namely1 such only as either by accident or pressed by extreme hunger eat of it4 ,but when they are let into the pastures in spring1 partly from their greediness after fresh herbs1 and partly from the emptiness and hunger they have undergone during a long winter1 they devour every green thing which comes in their way4 ,it happens1 moreover1 that herbs at this time are small1 and scarcely supply food in sufficient quantity4 ,they are1 besides1 more juicy1 and covered with water1 and smell less strong1 so that what is noxious is not easily discerned from what is wholesome4 ,i observed1 likewise1 that the radical leaves were always bitter1 the other not1 which confirms what ,i have just said4 ,i saw this plant in an adjoining meadow1 mowed along with grass for winter fodder2 and1 therefore1 it is not wonderful that some cattle1 though but a few1 should die of it in winter4 ,after ,i left ,tornea1 ,i saw no more of this plant till ,i came to the vast meadows near ,limmingen1 where it appeared along the road1 and when ,i got into the town ,i heard the same complaints as at ,tornea1 of the annual loss of cattle1 with the same circumstances4 ,monkshood1 meadow-sweet1 hemlock1 7,conium maculatum17 meadow-saffron1 foxglove1 etc41 are occasionally eaten by cows1 and prove fatal4 ,the sense of taste varies greatly in different animals2 in granivorous birds1 in reptiles and fishes generally1 we cannot suppose that the impressions made on the gustatory nerves are at all delicate2 they swallow their food entire at a single gulp1 and their tongue is covered with a thick or a horny cuticle4 ,among birds1 the carnivorous tribes1 the parrots1 and the swans1 and true ducks1 possess the sense of taste in considerable perfection4 ,among reptiles1 tortoises and vegetable-feeding lizards1 as the iguana1 are1 as it would seem1 superior to the others2 and among fishes1 it is probable that those which feed on marine or aquatic vegetables1 are endowed with a higher degree of taste than those which prey upon other fishes1 which they engulph at once4 ,it cannot be denied that many insects1 as bees1 wasps1 butterflies1 the house-fly1 and various others1 enjoy a keen sense of taste1 and relish the sweets which prove so attractive to them4 ,among the mollusca1 some1 at least1 are endowed with the sense of taste in no low degree2 the snail and the slug are examples in point1 as the gardener can readily testify4 ,what information do we gain by the sense of taste8 ,the eye and the ear conduce to our mental improvement1 to our store of knowledge1 to our appreciation of the sublime and beautiful4 ,eloquence1 music1 poetry1 painting1 sculpture1 architecture1 scenery--the glory of the sun1 and the moon1 and the stars--these appeal to our mind through the organs of sight and hearing2 but the sense of taste administers rather to our animal than to our intellectual being1 and1 doubtless1 the pleasures of taste contribute greatly to the enjoyments of our existence4 ,taste1 then1 belongs to us less as spiritual1 intellectual1 immortal beings1 than as corporeal1 mortal beings2 nevertheless1 it is part of our nature1 implanted in us by an all-wise ,god1 in order that we should relish the provisions for sustaining life1 which he has so bountifully provided4 ,to pretend that we are indifferent to the pleasure or the disgust resulting from taste is an untruth--nay1 it is to say that ,god's gifts to us are not worth our consideration4 ,our ,lord and ,saviour was one of a party at a marriage feast1 and when the wine was exhausted1 he turned water into wine1 which was superior to that previously passed round4 ,this beginning of miracles did ,jesus in ,cana of ,galilee1 and manifested forth his glory4#ai ,but while1 with a healthy appetite we relish our food1 giving thanks to ,god for his bounty1 let us not be epicures or gluttons2 let our moderation be seen2 let us use1 not abuse1 the gifts of our heavenly ,father4 #ai ,john ii4 #aa4 #d4 ,smell4--,on a fine1 filmy membrane1 which lines the labyrinth of the nasal cavities1 are distributed the delicate ramifications of the olfactory nerves1 or the nerves of smell4 ,these nerves are constructed for transmitting to the mind impressions arising from the floating exhalations of odoriferous substances4 ,it is through these nasal cavities1 principally1 that man and quadrupeds breathe2 hence the respiration of the air informs us of our proximity to objects disgusting and noxious1 or1 on the contrary1 attractive from their fragrance4 ,surely we need not adduce instances in proof of our position4 ,the scent of putrescent animal or vegetable matters is in itself a warning to us to retire from the locality of mortific corruption1 and escape from the region of disease4 ,how loathsome to our sense are these putrescent effluvia6 ,they nauseate us even to sickness--nay1 sometimes almost to fainting2 indeed1 the writer has seen a violent fit of epilepsy produced by the overpowering and horribly disgusting odour of the matter contained in the scent pouch of a small quadruped1 the grison1 7,galictis vittata17 which he was dissecting1 the sufferer being a practical zoologist1 accustomed to the dissecting-room4 ,but when the voice of the nightingale is heard1 and the air is loaded with the perfume of the hawthorn blossom1 and of thousands of spring flowers1 are we not invited1 as it were by a secret call1 to walk abroad through woodlands and meadows1 contemplating the works of ,god8 ,we are thus lured to beneficial exercise--to inhale ,the breezy fragrance of the morn-- to forget the trials of life1 and muse upon a still brighter world1 where the flowers perish not1 where storms come not1 and where winter is unknown4 ,thus1 to our bodily health do our senses administer2 and thus the sense of smell calls us from the close room of the populous city1 into the fresh air of the country--from the crowded town1 ,where houses thick and sewers annoy the air1 to issue forth on a summer's morn1 and breathe the pure air redolent of sweetest odours4 ,when overpoweringly offensive effluvia disgust us1 we endeavour to stop our breath--we breathe at protracted intervals1 take in as little air as possible1 and endeavour to escape from the infected locality2 but do we flee away from the gale bearing the scent of the honey-suckle1 the bean-field1 or the new-mown hay8 ,it is1 indeed1 rather to our pleasures1 to our mental enjoyment1 to our delight1 or to our disgust and abhorrence1 that our sense of smell administers4 ,we depend little upon it for our discrimination between things acting as poison1 and things nutritious or wholesome4 ,how pleasant is the smell of laurel-water or prussic acid--how dull and insipid the smell of wheaten flour6 ,we must not1 then1 always be guided by our sense of smell1 although in general it serves us as a monitor4 ,the sense of smell is intimately combined with that of taste2 indeed1 it is a powerful auxiliary to it1 for1 as a learned writer well observes1 taste1 without the aid of smell1 would be very vague in its indications1 and limited in its range4 ,nevertheless1 savage people1 in whom the sense of smell is far more acute than in civilized races1 do not appear to possess a greater refinement of taste--indeed1 what the former regard as delicacies would be rejected by the latter with abhorrence4 ,most quadrupeds possess the sense of smell in far greater perfection than man1 and are evidently influenced by it in their choice or rejection of food4 ,in the carnivorous tribes this sense is1 perhaps1 at its highest ratio1 and many pursue their prey guided by their olfactory organs alone4 ,certain odours are agreeable to some few animals1 irrespective of food2 but on this point our range of information is limited4 ,the cat delights in the scent of valerian1 and some other herbs1 although they are not among the articles of this animal's diet2 yet to the cat and the dog1 the odour of the sweetest flowers yields no pleasure4 ,birds1 in general1 are endowed with the sense of smell in a far lower degree than quadrupeds1 and the olfactory organs are far less developed4 ,birds of prey are guided by their keen powers of vision1 and1 indeed1 if we are to trust to the experiments of ,audubon1 the sense of smell even in the carrion-loving vulture1 contrary to the opinion of the ancients1 as well as of modern naturalists1 is at a low ratio2 for1 as he asserts1 the stuffed skin of an animal will attract a vulture from its pride of place1 in the upper regions of the air4 ,it is true that this assertion has been contradicted by ,mr4 ,waterton1 but it is again confirmed by the experiments and observations of ,mr4 ,bachman1 which are recorded in ,loudon's ,magazine of ,natural ,history1 viii4 #afg2 and ,m4 ,levuillant seems to have considered that it is by the eye chiefly1 if not exclusively1 that the vulture obtains its disgusting food4 ,the following observations from the proceedings of the ,zoological ,society will be here1 perhaps1 not unacceptable3-- ,march #adth1 #ahcg4--;,a paper was read on the habits of the ,vultur ,aura1 by ,mr4 ,w4 ,sells1 with notes of the dissections of the heads of two specimens1 by ,mr4 ,r4 ,owen4 ,the writer states1 that this bird is found in great abundance in the island of ,jamaica1 where it is known by the name of ,john ,crow2 and so valuable are its services in the removal of carrion and animal filth1 that the legislature have imposed a fine of #e upon any one destroying it within a stated distance of the principal towns4 ,its ordinary food is carrion1 but when pressed hard with hunger1 it will seize upon young fowls1 rats1 and snakes4 ,after noticing the highly offensive odour emitted from the eggs of this bird when broken1 ,mr4 ,sells relates the following instances which have come under his own personal observation1 for the purpose of proving that the ,vultur ,aura possesses the sense of smell in a very acute degree4 ,it has been questioned whether the vulture discovers its food by means of the organ of smell or that of sight4 ,i apprehend that its powers of vision are very considerable1 and of most important use2 but that it is principally from highly organized olfactories that it so speedily receives intelligence of where the savoury morsel is to be found1 will plainly appear by the following facts4 ,in hot climates1 the burial of the dead commonly takes place in about twenty-four hours after death1 and that necessarily1 so rapidly does decomposition take place4 ,on one occasion1 ,i had to make a post mortem examination of a body within twenty hours after death1 in a mill-house completely concealed1 and while so engaged the roof of the mill-house was thickly studded with these birds4 ,another instance was that of an old patient and much valued friend1 who died at midnight2 the family had to send for necessaries for the funeral to ,spanish ,town1 distant thirty miles1 so that the interment could not take place until noon of the second day1 or thirty-six hours after his decease1 long before which time--and a most painful sight it was--the ridge of the shingled roof of his house1 a large mansion of but one floor1 had a number of these melancholy heralds of death perched thereon1 beside many more which had settled in trees in its immediate vicinity4 ,in these cases1 the birds must have been directed by smell alone1 as sight was totally out of the question4 ,in opposition to the above opinion1 it has been stated by ,mr4 ,audubon1 that vultures and other birds of prey possess the sense of smell in a very inferior degree to carnivorous quadrupeds1 and that1 so far from guiding them to their prey from a distance1 it affords them no indication of its presence even when at hand4 ,in confirmation of this opinion1 he relates1 that he stuffed the skin of a deer full of hay1 and placed it in a field2 in a few minutes a vulture lighted near it1 and directly proceeded to attack it1 but finding no eatable food1 he at length quitted it4 ,and he further relates1 that a dead dog was concealed in a narrow ravine1 twenty feet below the surface of the earth around it1 and filled with briers and high canes2 that many vultures were seen sailing over the spot1 but none discovered it4 ,i may remark upon the above experiments1 that1 in the first case1 the stag was doubtless seen by the birds1 but it does not follow that they might not also have smelt the hide1 although inodorous to the human nose2 in the second case1 the birds had been undoubtedly attracted by the smell1 however embarrassed they might have been by the concealment of the object which caused it4 ,i have1 in many hundred instances1 seen the vulture feeding upon small objects under rocks1 bushes1 and in other situations1 where it was utterly impossible that the bird could have discovered them but through the sense of smell2 and we are to recollect1 that the habit of the vulture is that of soaring aloft in the air1 and not that of foraging upon the ground4 ,to this account are appended the details of a minute comparison1 by professor ,owen1 of the olfactory nerves and the olfactory branch of the fifth pair in the ,vultur ,aura1 with those of the common turkey and the goose4 ,the learned anatomist concludes by saying1 the above notes show that the vulture has a well-developed organ of smell1 but whether he finds his prey by that sense alone1 or in what degree it assists1 anatomy is not so well calculated to explain as experiment4 ,it is far from being impossible that ,mr4 ,waterton and ,mr4 ,wells on one side1 and ,mr4 ,audubon and his party on the other1 may be both correct1 for in different species of vulture the power of smell may greatly differ2 we know that it does among carnivorous quadrupeds1 which seek their prey1 some chiefly by sight1 others by their acuteness of scent4 ,among reptiles1 the sense of smell appears to be at a low ratio1 nor can we suppose that it is acute in fishes4 ,in fact1 in fishes the nasal cavities are rudimental1 and do not communicate with the organs of respiration4 ,they are nothing more than blind sacs1 placed one on each side in front of the head1 with two external openings appertaining to each sac4 ,the principal entrance is valvular1 and on a curiously plaited membrane in the sac itself1 or on tufted or arborescent filaments1 are the ramifications of the olfactory nerves distributed4 ,that fishes are attracted or repelled by the odorous effluvia of bodies1 diffused either through the water itself or through the air which the water contains1 is too well ascertained to be denied4 ,fishes1 in fact1 are attracted by certain odoriferous substances1 and anglers often use baits impregnated with some volatile oil4#bj #bj ,on this subject see ,izaak ,walton's ,complete ,angler4 ,we cannot for a moment doubt that insects smell2 that ants and bees are greatly directed by this sense in their search after food2 that carrion-loving beetles are thereby guided from a distance to their repast2 that the flesh-fly is led to putrescent animal substances2 and we know that the flesh-fly is sometimes deceived by the smell of certain plants emitting a cadaverous odour1 and deposits her eggs upon them1 the larv perishing for want of proper food4 ,in what organ the senses of smell in insects are placed does not appear very plain1 and the like observation applies to the crustacea1 as crabs and lobsters1 for which baited traps are set1 and into which they are allured by their sense of smell4 ,no distinct organs of smell have been discovered in the mollusca1 yet it is incontestable that some of these creatures are capable of appreciating odours4 ,we cannot suppose that in the highly-organized and savage cuttle-fish this sense is wanting2 and we know that snails and slugs are attracted from a distance by the odour of the favourite plants or fruits on which they feed4 ,the garden slugs are fond of animal food1 as we can testify1 and they will pick bones with relish2 we have seen the hollow of a marrow-bone thrown into the garden filled the next morning with slugs1 which had completely cleaned it4 ,whether the bivalve mollusks1 as mussels1 oysters1 clams1 etc41 have any definite sense of smell1 we cannot ascertain1 but we conjecture that they are endowed with the sense of taste1 for they know what to accept and what to refuse4 ,we have said that man derives pleasure or disgust from the exercise of the sense of smell1 and is greatly directed thereby what to choose and what to avoid2 yet this sense harmonizes with those of sight1 hearing1 and more particularly of taste1 to render this world delightful to us1 if we use ,god's gifts aright4 ,has he not scattered the loveliest flowers in garden and meadow8 ,has he not created fruits that gratify alike the sight1 the touch1 the taste1 and the smell8 ,has he not spread the beauties of nature around us8 ,was not the garden of ,eden prepared for our first parents8 ,yes2 but sin has entered the world1 and over flower and fruit has been the trail of the serpent4 ,a few passages from the ,scriptures1 on which we need not comment1 will serve to show the figurative notice of1 or reference to this sense by the sacred writers1 in order to influence the mind of man through an appeal to his own sensations4 ,an odour of a sweet smell1 a sacrifice acceptable1 well-pleasing to ,god1 ,phil4 iv4 #ah4 ,works pleasing to the ,lord1 deeds of charity and mercy1 done by the believer as a testimony of his lively faith1 and a proof to the world that faith engenders good works2 such works1 and not those of the pharisee1 are an odour acceptable to ,god4 ,walk in love1 as ,christ also hath loved us1 and hath given himself for us an offering and a sacrifice to ,god for a sweet-smelling savour1 ,eph4 v4 #b4 ,let us1 who call ourselves ,christians1 so walk1 that our conduct before men may be after the pattern of ,him1 who1 in love to a fallen race1 offered himself as a sacrifice fragrant unto ,god the ,father1 that we might escape the sword of justice4 ,when ,noah offered burnt-offerings on the altar1 the ,lord smelled a sweet savour1 ,gen4 viii4 #ba2 and to ,him even now1 ,o reader1 will be fragrant true penitence and faith in that ,mediator1 of whom the sacrifices under the primitive dispensation were but types1 and in this sense only did they waft incense to the throne of the ,almighty6 ,the language is altogether figurative2 but how pertinent to our feelings1 and therefore how clear to our understanding1 and how forcible6 #e4 ,touch4--,of all the senses1 not one is so important to us as that of tact or touch4 ,it is the foundation1 as it were1 of all our knowledge of the material world1 and according to their elevation in the scale of being do animals enjoy this sense in greater perfection1 and possess organs in which it is more especially concentrated4 ,we here distinguish1 between mere feeling and touch4 ,we consider the wings of the bat1 and the antenn of insects1 rather as feelers than as organs of exact appreciation4 ,the sense of feeling is diffused over the whole surface of our body2 but the sense of touch1 so far as man is concerned1 resides in the hand1 and especially in the pulpy tips of the fingers4 ,it is true that we use the word feel when we test the qualities of bodies with our hands1 and in this sense our hands are feelers4 ,but we derive a knowledge from the use of our hands1 which no other animal derives from the exercise of any organ of tact it may possess4 ,nor is this to be wondered at1 for in all other animals tact or touch administers only to their physical necessities4 ,for example1 the sense of touch in the pulpy end of the beak of the snipe or woodcock must be exquisite--multitudinous are the nerves supplying that part--for even the soft worm or larva in the oozy ground is felt1 and the finger of man would most probably fail here2 but in man the sense of touch appeals to the mind1 and communicates mental pleasure1 mental instruction1 or even mental disquietude4 ,even as discords in music1 or grating sounds1 such as the filing of a saw1 or the rubbing of cork against a wall1 excite the nervous system through the mind1 so does the sense of touch disturb the mind and body when that which is touched is discordant4 ,a lady of the writer's acquaintance1 by no means timid1 and by no means afraid of snakes1 was induced to let a common snake glide through her hand2 she bore the sensation with firmness1 but she nearly fainted when the snake had crept through her grasp1 and described the working of the reptile's ribs and abdominal plates as communicating an indescribable sensation4 ,yet that snake was a sort of pet1 and she used to stroke its head1 and feel its lambent tongue quiver against her hand4 ,she was not afraid1 but the sensation jarred like discordant notes4 ,were persons to write down their experiences of the pleasing and unpleasing sensations derived through the medium of the different senses1 and were those notes collected together1 we should have a mass of most interesting and instructive information1 well worthy the study of a physiologist4 ,after all1 however1 the sense of touch or tact gives less pleasure to man than that of sight1 hearing1 taste1 or smell2 it appreciates neither colours nor harmony1 nor the flavour of luscious viands1 nor the odour of flowers and perfumes2 but it communicates greatly to his store of information4 ,it is a matter of fact sense1 and though an old poet has said-- ,have you felt the wool of the beaver1 ,or swan's down1 ever8 it is not one of the senses which figure on the page of poetry or romance4 ,we discriminate1 then1 between the sense of touch and that of mere feeling4 ,most probably all animals1 even the lowest mollusks1 feel1--nay1 even animals in which no nerves are to be discovered1 as the acaleph1 or jelly fishes2 but touch is a refinement upon feeling1 which is restricted within certain zoological bounds4 ,a learned writer says3 ,the conditions on which the perfection of the sense of touch depends are1 first1 an abundant provision of soft papill1 supplied with numerous nerves2 secondly1 a certain degree of fineness in the cuticle2 thirdly1 a soft cushion of a cellular substance beneath the skin2 fourthly1 a hard resisting basis1 such as that which is provided in the nails of the human fingers2 and lastly1 it is requisite that the organ be so constructed as to be capable of being readily applied1 in a variety of directions1 to the unequal surfaces of bodies1 for the closer the contact1 the more accurate will be the perceptions conveyed4 ,in forming an estimate of the degree of perfection in which the sense is exercised in any particular animal1 we must accordingly take into account the mobility1 the capability of flexion1 and the figure of the parts employed as organs of touch4#ba #ba ,dr4 ,roget4 ,this is decidedly true as regards the higher orders of creation2 but let us look at insects--do not bees1 and wasps1 and flies feel8 can we watch a fly brushing its head and wings1 and rubbing its little paws against each other1 without an assurance that it enjoys the sense of touch8 and what shall we say of the spider1 that feels at each thread1 and lives along its line8 ,surely its sense of touch must be sufficiently acute2 yet it is limited to a certain given object1 and the spider gains only that information which bears upon its animal necessities4 ,but the sense of touch gives to man a number of the properties of matter1 which he retains as abstract ideas1 such as dimension1 form1 condition of surface1 hardness1 softness1 elasticity1 compressibility1 fluidity1 quiescence1 motion4 ,in many and most important respects it assists the eye2 and1 indeed1 the senses of sight and of touch appear to be correctors and supporters of each other4 ,as in the case of every other sense1 accuracy is greatly improved by habit1 yet the qualities of matter1 under the dominion of touch1 are ascertained in so correct a manner that we are scarcely ever deceived by the knowledge thus acquired4 ,dr4 ,fleming1 in his ,philosophy of ,zoology1 thus writes3 ,the sense of touch appears in man to be able to obtain nearly all the information1 with regard to external objects1 which it is capable of receiving4 ,in a few instances1 the lower animals surpass us in the delicacy of the sense1 as the bat1 which is warned indirectly by its aid of the presence of bodies previous to coming in contact with them4 ,the feelers of insects are likewise better adapted for exploring the condition of the surface of bodies than any organ which we possess4 ,but in all these the sensibility of touch is limited to particular qualities1 or confined within narrow bounds4 ,the human hand1 on the contrary1 by its motions1 the pliability and strength of the fingers1 and their softness1 is the most extensive and perfect organ of touch possessed by any animal4 ,the accuracy of the sense of touch is greatly improved by habit2 and when its resources are in constant demand1 as in the instance of persons deprived of sight1 or born blind1 its discriminating powers are wonderfully increased4 ,the same observation applies also to the sense of hearing1 which in blind persons generally is extremely acute and accurate in its perceptions4 ,in a ,monthly ,volume1 published by the ,religious ,tract ,society1 and entitled ,comparisons of ,structure in ,animals3 the ,hand and the ,arm1 the reader will find a general account of the structure and uses of the anterior limbs of man and the lower animals1 and of the substitutes for the hand1 as an organ of touch and prehension1 with which many of the latter are provided4 ,dr4 ,fleming regards the sense of heat as distinct from that of touch1 and1 in fact1 as claiming to be one of the senses4 ,the sense of touch1 he writes1 is exclusively occupied with examinations of the conditions of resistance4 ,contact1 therefore1 is indispensably requisite for enabling the organ to act upon the object1 and muscular exertion to examine its condition4 ,neither of these is necessary to enable the sense of heat to act4 ,caloric rays emanate from a heated body1 though at a distance2 and in order to ascertain their direction and intensity no muscular effort is required4 ,when the heated body happens to be in contact with us1 we in like manner examine its conditions in reference to temperature without any muscular exertions1 or1 rather1 we try to avoid them4 ,thus1 when ,i lay my hand upon the table to examine its hardness or smoothness1 ,i make an obvious muscular effort with my fingers2 but when ,i lay my hand upon the table to examine its temperature1 ,i endeavour to check all motion1 so as to keep my hand in the same position4 ,these qualities of the sense of heat sufficiently distinguish it from that of touch1 with which it has been confounded1 and justify its establishment as a distinct power of perception4 ,it is true that we cannot test caloric by the touch1 but it does not appear to us that an appreciation of caloric involves any other sense than that of ordinary cutaneous feeling2 the feeling of heat or cold is a mere sensation1 agreeable or painful as circumstances may be1 and it is natural that we should wish to experience that temperature which is most congenial to us4 ,we say that marble is cold and wood warm1 yet both may be of the same temperature2 but the marble produces a sensation of coolness1 because it rapidly abstracts caloric from the part applied to it2 the skin is1 in fact1 a very imperfect thermometer1 yet sufficient for all ordinary purposes4 ,it conceals the machinery of our bodies1 giving beauty of outline and appearance1 and being provided with a most minute network of nerves of sensation1 it gives us warning by the pain experienced of what things are to be avoided4 ,a burned child dreads the fire is an old saying1 and a boy who has been stung by a nettle will not rashly meddle with the plant again4 ,all our senses require training and education2 they are taught1 even as we are taught language4 ,it is some time before the infant sees distinctly1 or forms any idea of size1 proportion1 or distance2 long before it hears accurately1 and understands a word of speech2 longer still before it discriminates between musical notes2 it is long before delicious odours are relished1 and long before there is much distinction of flavour in food1 for instinct directs the infant to its mother's breast1 and for many a year sweet viands are chiefly acceptable4 ,habit1 exercise1 practice1 then improve the power and acuteness of the senses1 but simple feeling is blunted by habit and exercise4 ,it is1 we think1 ,mr4 ,lane who tells us1 that in ,egypt and elsewhere1 persons who have hoarded wealth are in the habit of inflicting the bastinado on themselves1 increasing the number of strokes by degrees1 in order to inure themselves to a mode of extortion of which they are constantly in dread4 ,they hope to be able to weary out their tormentors1 or convince them by endurance of their poverty1 and so preserve their bags of gold and silver4 ,idolatrous devotees in ,india accustom themselves to self-inflicted torture1 and feel much less than we might suppose2 nay1 even in our own country1 in times of spiritual darkness1 when by mortification and penance men hoped to merit heaven1 how many have worn a shirt of horsehair till custom had made it no hardship6 ,the ancient ,britons bore1 almost unclothed1 the severities of winter2 and we have read a story1 but where we cannot recollect1 to the following purport3--,a ,north ,american ,indian was asked1 how1 nearly naked as he was1 he bore with such ease the summer's heat and the winter's cold2 he asked the inquirer1 how his face1 exposed to the weather1 endured the changes4 ,my face1 said the white man1 is hardened to it2 and ,i1 retorted the red man1 am face all over4 ,we have said it is long before an infant is in the full use of its bodily senses3 now with regard to feeling the infant is acutely sensitive2 but who ever saw a child of a few months old examine the qualities of objects by the touch8 it cannot even manipulate2 it cannot use its hands2 it has to learn the art of touch1 and to improve by practice and the exercise of the mind4 ,for example1 some persons will pass a piece of silk or cloth between their fingers1 and tell you its quality2 and so with respect to other things2 this is the result of attention and exercise4 ,no one is born without the organization necessary for the development of the sense of touch1 for if the arms and hands be deficient1 some other part1 as the lips or tongue1 will take up the function1 and this alone shows what education effects2 but if a person be born deaf1 or blind1 or incapable of taste and smell1 7which latter appears to be very rare1 if1 indeed1 the case ever occur17 no other part can supply the loss2 but the loss1 as far as the sight at least is concerned1 is partly compensated for by the elevation of the sense of touch2 and in this we see the immediate bearing of these two senses on each other4 ,the boy born blind1 upon whom ,cheselden so successfully operated1 believed1 when first he saw1 that the objects touched his eyes1 as the things which he felt touched his skin2 consequently he had no idea of distance4 ,he did not know the form of any object1 nor could he distinguish one object from another1 however different their figure or size might be2 when objects were shown to him which he had known formerly by the touch1 he looked at them with attention1 and observed them carefully1 in order to know them again2 but as he had too many objects to retain at once1 he forgot the greater part of them1 and when he first learned1 as he said1 to see and to know objects1 he forgot a thousand for one that he recollected4 ,it was two months before he discovered that pictures represented solid bodies2 until that time he had considered them as planes and surfaces differently coloured1 and diversified by a variety of shades2 but when he began to conceive that these pictures represented solid bodies1 in touching the canvass of a picture with his hand he expected to find something in reality solid upon it1 and he was much astonished when1 on touching those parts which seemed round and unequal1 he found them flat and smooth like the rest4 ,he asked which was the sense that deceived him--the sight or the touch4 ,there was shown to him a little portrait of his father1 which was in the case of his mother's watch2 he said that he knew very well that it was the resemblance of his father1 but he asked with great astonishment how it was possible for so large a visage to be kept in so small a space1 as that appeared to him as impossible as that a bushel could be contained in a pint4#bb #bb ,phil4 ,trans41 #agbh4 ,in the ,philosophical ,transactions of #ahbf will be found the account of a case by ,mr4 ,wardrop1 which is very interesting2 it is that of an intelligent female of mature age1 who was born blind2 in her infancy1 operations were performed on both of her eyes1 but they failed1 one eye being irrecoverably destroyed1 and the other useless from closure of the pupil2 on this eye ,mr4 ,wardrop successfully operated3 but it was not with joy that objects for the first time were perceived2 she was confused by the appearance of a new world1 now for the first time opened to her sense of sight2 hitherto she had known it only through the sense of touch1 and touch and sight had still to be reconciled4 ,on the sixth day1 she said that she saw better than she had done on any preceding day1 but ,i cannot tell 7said she7 what ,i do see2 ,i am quite stupid4 ,she seemed1 indeed1 bewildered from not being able to combine the knowledge acquired by the senses of sight and touch1 and felt disappointed in not having the power of distinguishing at once by her eye1 objects which she could so readily distinguish from one another by feeling them4 ,the next day1 on examining with the eye the tea-cups and saucers1 and being asked what they were--,i don't know1 she replied2 they look very queer to me1 but ,i can tell in a minute when ,i touch them4 ,so with an orange which was lying before her1 she could make nothing of it until she actually touched it4 ,when the experiment was made of giving her a silver pencil-case and a large key to examine with her hands1 she discriminated and knew each distinctly2 but when they were placed on the table side by side1 though she distinguished each with her eye1 yet she could not tell which was the pencil-case and which the key4 ,in six weeks after the operation1 she returned home4 ,at this period1 she had learned a great deal2 she had acquired a pretty accurate notion of colours1 but with regard to forms and distance she was still very ignorant4 ,she had also great difficulty in directing her eye to an object1 so that when she attempted to look at anything she turned her head in various directions1 until her eye caught the object of which it was in search4 ,she still entertained1 however1 the same hope1 which she expressed soon after the operation1 that when she got home1 her knowledge of external things would be more accurate and intelligible1 and that when she came to look at those objects which had been so long familiar to her touch1 the confusion which the multiplicity of external objects now caused would in a great measure subside4 ,thus1 then1 it is from an association between the senses that correctness and precision in any one sense are acquired2 and especially do the eye and hand support each other1 and supply each other's deficiencies till both have learned their perfect lesson4 ,i can stretch my hand out to any object before me with certainty1 so truly does the eye tell me whether it is within my reach or not1 but the eye first learned that faculty from the hand1 after long discipline and many trials4 ,afterwards the eye speaks a silent language to the hand1 and is understood4 ,under what merciful circumstances are they placed that possess all their faculties and senses6 but1 alas6 how many are there that never dream of thanking a merciful ,god for his unbounded kindness6 nay1 there are some atheistical materialists who believe1 or rather pretend to believe1 that man's exquisite organization1 and that of animals and plants1 is self-developed--how1 they do not condescend to explain2 for1 granting them their premises1 namely1 that matter is eternal--and what then8 it must be inert1 and neither the laws of vitality nor chemistry1 involving electricity and galvanism1 could be taken on by inert particles--all would be chaotic1 did not ,god govern1 arrange1 and order all4 ,it is he who has created man1 and1 fallen as man is1 he still is an object of ,god's care2 for he sent his well-beloved ,son into the world for our redemption1 and the time is coming in which all nations shall know the ,lord1 and adore him in sincerity and truth4 ,like all the organs of our senses1 the hands are the instrument of wickedness to sinful man2 his sense of touch is the inlet of evil4 ,how refined that sense in the adroit pickpocket1 but to what an ill purpose is it devoted6 ,how dexterous are the hands of the shoplifter1 but to what a wretched course have they been trained6 ,the hand grasps the pen2 every stroke is guided by its delicate sense of touch2 it obeys the mind2 and1 oh6 what dictations from the depraved mind have polluted society6 ,god has been reviled1 ,jesus ,christ denied1 the ,holy ,spirit mocked1 and in letters written by hands which the almighty ,maker and ,preserver had endowed so supereminently4 ,their hands are mouldering2 dust has returned to dust2 but where are the immortal spirits which directed those hands to scatter poison abroad8 ,it is not for us to inquire or judge4 ,let us1 ourselves1 be watchful1 and let our hands be clean in the sight of ,god2 let us be diligent in business1 serving the ,lord2 let us fight the good fight of faith1 and lay hold on eternal life6 ,though we have described the hand as the great and main organ of touch1 let it be understood that it is not the first called into operation4 ,the hand requires rigid discipline2 for a long period it is useless as an organ of tact2 yet1 when educated1 how perfect1 how precise6 ,but it is made what it is by education4 ,our ideas coincide exactly with those of sir ,charles ,bell1 who thus writes3 ,the lips and the tongue are first exercised2 the next motion is to put the hand to the mouth in order to suck it2 and no sooner are the fingers capable of grasping1 than whatever they hold is carried to the mouth2 so that the sensibility to touch in the lips and tongue1 and their motions1 are the first inlets to knowledge1 and the use of the hand is a later acquirement4 ,another passage from the same gifted writer is as follows3 ,the first office of the hand1 then1 is to exercise the sensibility of the mouth2 and the infant as certainly questions the reality of things by that test1 as the dog does by its acute sense of smelling4 ,in the infant1 the sense of the lips and tongue is resigned only in favour of the sense of vision1 when that sense has improved1 and offers a greater gratification1 and a better means of judging of the qualities of bodies4 ,the hand very slowly acquires the sense of touch2 and many ineffectual efforts are seen in the arms and fingers of the child1 before the direction of objects or their distance is ascertained4 ,gradually the length of the arm1 and the extent of its motions1 become the measure of distance1 of form1 of relation1 and perhaps of time4 ,throughout life1 the sensibility1 as it regards tact1 of the tongue and lips continues paramount2 we can feel the slenderest hair with our tongue1 which our hands would not appreciate3 but1 on the contrary1 size1 form1 distance1 order1 and the general qualities of matter1 can only be gained through the hand1 after a persevering discipline4 ,a blind man may examine a statue with his hands1 and pronounce upon its excellence2 and this fact suggests to us an idea of sir ,charles ,bell1 who says3 ,the knowledge of external bodies1 as distinguished from ourselves1 cannot be acquired until the organs of touch in the hand have become familiar with our own limbs4 ,we cannot be supposed capable of exploring anything by the motion of the hand1 or of judging of the form or tangible qualities of an object pressed against the skin1 before we have a knowledge of our own body as distinguished from things external to us4 ,from these remarks we naturally slide into a dissertation on a sense1 allied to that of touch1 but yet different--we mean muscular sense4 #f4 ,muscular sense4--,god in his infinite wisdom has constructed all living things1 and no doubt there is much yet for the philosopher to discover in the organization of animal bodies2 there is1 moreover1 something that he never will understand1 namely1 life intrinsically considered1 and the manner in which the immortal spirit and the dying body communicate with and influence each other4 ,but though these points must ever remain a mystery1 still there are those the obscurity of which science has to a certain degree dispelled1 and it was reserved for a late scientific anatomist to prove to the world1 that the nerves of sensation and the nerves of motion are essentially distinct1 although interblended together they pervade every muscle4 ,hence1 as this philosopher observes1 7we mean sir ,charles ,bell17 we are sensible of the action of our muscles1 because these muscles have two classes of nerves2 and he found that in exciting one of these the muscle contracted1 while on exciting the other no action took place4 ,the nerve which had no power to make the muscle contract was the nerve of sensation4 ,continuing his experiments1 he proved that there is a nervous circle connecting the muscles with the brain1 that one nerve is not capable of transmitting what is called the nervous spirits in two different directions at one instant of time1 but that for the regulation of muscular action there is a nerve of sensibility1 to convey a sensation of the condition of the muscles to the sensorium1 as well as a nerve of motion for conveying the mandate of the will to the muscles4 ,he also demonstrated1 that in their distribution through the body1 the nerves which possess these two distinct powers of conveying sensation1 and of exciting the muscles to contraction1 are wrapped up1 or1 as it were1 woven together in the same sheath1 and that they present to the eye the single appearance of one nerve4 ,it was only by examining the nerves at their roots1 that is1 where they arise from different tracts of the brain and spinal marrow1 and before they coalesce1 that this philosophic anatomist succeeded in demonstrating their distinct functions4 ,in the face1 the nerve of motion passes by a circuitous route1 apart from the nerve of sensation1 to be distributed to the muscles2 and1 therefore1 the distinct characters of these two nerves were1 as sir ,c4 ,bell asserts1 more easily proved by experiment than in any other part of the body4 ,the nerves of sensation then feel1 or rather recognise1 those actions of the muscles which are excited through the medium of the nerves of contraction1 and these nerves of contraction1 as far as the voluntary muscles are concerned1 obey the commands of an immaterial being--mind1 spirit1 soul2 in the lower animals1 so far as we know1 this principle is transient1 for they have no ideas of life1 or of death1 or of futurity2 but in man1 the soul is immortal1 and for the future bliss of this immortal essence revelation affords a certain guide4 ,now the sense of touch and the muscular sense have1 by most writers1 been confounded together2 hence1 we are told that weight is determined by touch1 but this is erroneous2 it is determined by the muscular agency and sense1 under the dictation of the will4 ,the abb ,nollet says of touch1 that it not only puts it in our power to judge of what makes an impression upon us1 but also of what resists our impulsions4 ,here the sense of touch and the muscular sense are confounded together4 ,the agency of touch has nothing to do with weight or resistance2 and herein we differ from ,dr4 ,fleming1 and agree with sir ,charles ,bell1 by whom1 indeed1 this muscular sense was first demonstrated4 ,to feel1 or touch1 is not to resist or struggle4 ,laocoon1 striving with the serpents1 resists--his muscular sense is called into action1 as is that of the wrestler when engaged in a trial of skill or strength2 but what has muscular feeling to do with that tact1 which distinguishes between the texture of tissues1 or the smoothness or roughness of bodies8 ,for ourselves1 we refer the sensations of hardness and softness rather to a muscular sense than a simple sense of touch2 but1 as we have said1 the sense of touch and the muscular sense1 or sense of resistance1 inter-amalgamate with each other1 nevertheless1 there is a definite muscular sense of which every one is conscious1 and it is by the education of this sense that the infant learns to walk1 the man to ascend the lofty ladder1 or traverse the ledge of the precipice4 ,it is not connected with feeling alone1 but also with sight2 and1 indeed1 the senses of sight1 feeling and support1 or resistance1 are in as close relationship1 as are those of smell and taste4 ,this is exemplified in the fencer1 whose muscular sense obeys his eye1 and in the artist1 who strikes out the bold outline of a figure on the canvass4 ,this muscular sense is sometimes called the sense of motion2 and rightly1 because it is a feeling of muscular action2 not a feeling of extraneous bodies1 but a feeling of what passes within ourselves1 as far as such feeling is permitted 7many internal operations go on without our consciousness7--a feeling of what we do1 according to our will1 and the permission of ,god ,almighty4 ,does the uninstructed man1 who looks upon and admires a lovely landscape1 think about the inverted picture on his retina8 ,no4 ,does the athlete who lifts a great weight think of the biceps1 or the deltoid1 or the pectoral muscles8 ,no4 ,but does he not feel1 while he strives1 while he struggles1 while he runs1 an internal consciousness of action totally distinct from touch8 ,this perception is termed by sir ,charles ,bell the muscular sense4 ,he thus illustrates his idea3 ,when a blind man1 or a man with his eyes shut1 stands upright1 neither leaning upon nor touching aught1 by what means is it that he maintains the erect position8 ,the symmetry of his body is not the cause4 ,the statue of the finest proportions must be soldered to its pedestal1 or the wind will cast it down4 ,how is it1 then1 that a man sustains the perpendicular posture1 or inclines in a due degree towards the winds that blow upon him8 ,it is obvious1 that he has a sense by which he knows the inclination of his body1 and that he has a ready aptitude to adjust it1 and to correct any deviation from the perpendicular4 ,what sense1 then1 is this8 for he touches nothing1 and sees nothing2 there is no organ of sense hitherto observed which can serve him1 or in any degree aid him4 ,is it not that sense1 which is exhibited so early in the infant in the fear of falling8 ,is it not the full development of that property which was early shown in the struggle of the infant1 while it lay in the nurse's arms8 ,it can only be by the adjustment of muscles that the limbs are stiffened1 the body firmly balanced and kept erect4 ,there is no other source of knowledge but a sense of the degree of exertion in his muscular frame1 by which a man can know the position of his body and limbs1 while he has no point of vision to direct his efforts1 or the contact of any external body4 ,in truth1 we stand by so fine an exercise of this power1 and the muscles are1 from habit1 directed with so much precision and with an effort so slight1 that we do not know how we stand4 ,but if we attempt to walk on a narrow ledge1 or stand in a situation where we are in danger of falling1 or rest on one foot1 we become then subject to apprehension2 the actions of the muscles are1 as it were1 magnified1 and demonstrative of the degree in which they are excited4 ,we are sensible of the position of our limbs2 we know that the arms hang by the sides1 or that they are raised and held out1 although we touch nothing and see nothing4 ,it must be a property internal to the frame by which we thus know the position of the members of our body2 and what can it be but a consciousness of the degree of action1 and of the adjustment of the muscles8 ,at one time1 ,i entertained a doubt whether this proceeded from a knowledge of the condition of the muscles1 or from a consciousness of the degree of effort which was directed to them in volition4 ,it was with a view to elucidate this that ,i made the observations which terminated in the discovery that every muscle had two nerves2 one for sensation1 and one to convey the mandate of the will1 and direct its action4 ,i had reasoned in this manner3 we awake with a knowledge of the position of our limbs2 this cannot be from a recollection of the action which placed them where they are2 it must1 therefore1 be a consciousness of their present condition4 ,when a person in these circumstances moves1 he has a determined object1 and he must be conscious of a previous condition before he can desire a change1 or direct a movement4 ,in walking1 riding1 swimming1 and other bodily exercises2 in writing1 playing on the piano1 or any other instrument of music1 the muscular sense is called into activity1 and co-operates with the senses of sight1 touch1 etc4 ,muscular exertion is in itself pleasurable1 when not pushed too far2 and1 indeed1 the healthy condition1 both of the body and mind1 results from muscular exertion1 and the alternations of activity and repose4 ,the appointment of man1 after the fall1 to a life of labour1 was a judgment tempered by mercy4 ,man is not destined to lead a life of sloth or supineness1 but1 urged on by his natural wants1 he cultivates the ground1 he tames the wild beast of the forest or mountain1 he builds houses1 he constructs ships1 he clothes himself with fabrics1 he surrounds himself with the comforts1 the decencies1 the luxuries of life1 and in every work which his hands find to do his muscular sense is in requisition2 it is this sense which appreciates resistance1 which enables us to balance our bodies1 to move with gracefulness1 to run1 to walk1 to leap1 to throw the shuttle with precision1 or wield the hammer with skill4 ,it is improved by education2 the child learns first to walk1 and then to run and leap1 and in due time to know its own strength1 and also the best mode of employing that strength1 without reflecting upon the laws of mechanics1 or any philosophic theories4 ,it is evident1 then1 that we have a perception of the condition of the muscles previous to the exercise of the will1 and that with respect to the hand1 it is not more the freedom of its action which constitutes its perfection1 than the knowledge which we have of these motions1 and our consequent ability to direct it with the utmost precision4 ,that the lower animals are endowed with this muscular sense cannot be doubted4 ,it enables the tiger to spring with accuracy upon his prey1 the cat upon the mouse1 the greyhound in pursuit of the hare when to make the fatal snap1 and the horse to leap the fence1 which his eye tells him is within his power2 it teaches the loris to creep upon its victim1 as slowly but as surely as the hand on the clock-face traverses the dial-plate1 and attains the given number2 it is immediately connected with instinct1 and man1 when he steps aside to avoid a threatened stroke1 or raises his arm to parry a blow1 puts the muscular sense into exercise4 ,the muscular sense is1 to use a homely expression1 an every-day working sense2 touch and sight are its prime supporters1 and to these in turn it lends its aid4 ,nevertheless1 to a certain degree it is independent of them2 the infant seeks the breast as it were by an instinctive impulse1 or applies the coral to its mouth2 and in the dark as well as in the light1 we transmit our food directly and precisely to the organs of mastication and deglutition1 without thinking upon the manner in which the varied actions are performed1 or even transiently noting them4 ,we will to perform an act within our power of achievement1 and by the complicated action of muscles1 nerves1 vessels1 and bones1 we accomplish our object1 at the same time1 perchance1 we know not the origin and insertion of a single muscle1 the direction of a single nerve1 the course of a single artery4 ,the muscular sense is1 in fact1 in perpetual exercise2 it is intimately connected with self-consciousness1 for we feel that we corporeally exist1 that other bodies exist around us1 that they resist us1 that they lead us to calculate our own powers1 nor will all the arguments of the school of ,berkeley convince us that we exist only in idea4 ,when ,dr4 ,johnson stamped upon the ground to disprove ,berkeley's idea1 he was right4 ,so much for the senses with which we are endowed1 and the information which the mind receives through their respective channels4 ,they teach us all that we know concerning the qualities of matter1 and they subserve many of our enjoyments--they are essential to our comfort1 our activity1 our usefulness2 but we gain through their medium no abstract truths1 no determinate principles4 ,these are elaborated in the mind itself by its own self-analysis2 but1 then1 they do not teach us our own position as it respects time and eternity4 ,the wisest of the heathens of ,greece or ,rome lived in doubt1 entangled in the mazes of a vain system of philosophy2 and though they might believe in a god1 or in gods1 deducing their arguments as to the existence of an all-powerful ,being from the works of nature1 and from that internal conviction which seems common to the human race--they knew nothing of ,his attributes1 of his laws1 of his requirements1 of man's fallen nature1 of the intrinsic sinfulness of the heart1 of the means of grace1 of a hope of glory4 ,they could write noble poems1 deep philosophic treatises1 histories of empires1 narratives of events1 details of characters1 descriptions of works of art2 they could carve statues of matchless perfection1 and build temples of surpassing splendour4 ,they displayed an intellectual pre-eminence1 which still sheds a lustre over the civilized world4 ,who by searching can find out ,god8 ,unless ,god graciously reveals himself to us1 a true knowledge of him in our fallen state is impossible2 the capabilities of our minds are1 after all1 but limited2 and though1 through reflection on the evidences of our senses1 we may come to the conclusion that there is an omnipotent ,power1 we remain in ignorance as to what that ,power is1 and as to our relationship thereunto4 ,hence1 then1 the necessity of information beyond what the mind can gain through the senses1 or by its own reflex operations2 we are conscious of our position as respects the lower animals1 and we have natural longings after and hopes of immortality2 the soul whispers to itself1 ,non omnis moriar1 ,i shall not all die2 but here1 were it not for revelation--a revelation from ,god1 we should be left in darkness4 ,god gave a revelation of his will to ,adam2 our first parents transgressed1 but then in mercy a promise was given1 that the seed of the woman should bruise the serpent's head4 ,god gave a further revelation of his will to ,moses1 with promises and commands1 and elected from among the nations a peculiar people1 of whom from the line of ,jesse after the flesh should arise the ,messiah2 in ,him are all the promises and prophecies centred1 and through him the great revelation of ,god's purposes of mercy to a fallen world was ordained to be published4 ,the ,messiah came2 ,he of whom ,isaiah prophesied2 the despised and rejected of men--,god manifest in the flesh4 ,the prophet's words were verified1 ,he was wounded for our transgressions1 he was bruised for our iniquities3 the chastisement of our peace was upon him2 and with his stripes we are healed4#bc #bc ,isa4 liii4 #e4 ,this is the ,christian revelation1 which1 while it shows us our lost and sinful nature1 our utter unworthiness1 and the insufficiency of good works for salvation--whilst it humbles our pride1 and self-sufficiency1 and teaches that our place before ,god is in the dust1 yet it speaks of joy and peace1 for it points out what is all-important1 the mode of redemption1 the forgiveness of our sins1 our adoption as heirs of the kingdom of heaven4 ,in this was manifested the love of ,god toward us1 because that ,god sent his only begotten ,son into the world1 that we might live through him4#bd ,god reveals himself in his works as a ,god of wisdom and power2 but here he discovers himself as a ,god of truth1 justice1 and mercy4 ,he reveals himself as the triune ,jehovah1 the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,spirit1 one ,god for evermore2 and he gives us a revelation of the plan of salvation4 ,and what is this plan8 it is one by which justice and mercy are reconciled4 ,without shedding of blood is no remission of sins4 ,the ,son of ,god1 according to the ,divine promise1 took upon himself our human nature1 dwelt upon earth1 sinless1 and offered himself up as a sacrifice for sin on ,calvary4 ,he who1 being in the form of ,god1 thought it not robbery to be equal with ,god3 but made himself of no reputation1 and took upon him the form of a servant1 and was made in the likeness of men3 and being found in fashion as a man1 he humbled himself1 and became obedient unto death1 even the death of the cross4 ,wherefore ,god also hath highly exalted him1 and given him a name which is above every name3 that at the name of ,jesus every knee should bow1 of things in heaven1 and things in earth1 and things under the earth2 and that every tongue should confess that ,jesus ,christ is ,lord1 to the glory of ,god the ,father4#be #bd #a ,john iv4 #i4 #be ,philippians ii4 #f-aa4 ,of the sacrifice of ,christ1 the crowning sacrifice1 those of the ,mosaic ritual were types or emblems4 ,by his sacrifice the claims of the law were satisfied4 ,what is required of us8 ,belief in the atonement4 ,jesus said unto ,martha1 ,i am the resurrection and the life3 he that believeth in me1 though he were dead1 yet shall he live3 and whosoever liveth and believeth in me shall never die4#bf ,a true1 living1 justifying faith is the gift of the ,holy ,spirit1 who sanctifies and renews the heart of the genuine believer4 ,the carnal mind is enmity against ,god3 for it is not subject to the law of ,god1 neither indeed can be2 but when the mind is enlightened by grace ,divine1 the awfulness of sin is perceived and deeply felt1 true repentance is awakened1 love and gratitude to ,god for every mercy are excited1 and the soul is warmed with adoration4 ,then does the converted man become prayerful and watchful2 then is he zealous in ,god's cause1 and anxious for the conversion of those that live in the darkness of ignorance1 and travel along the broad road that leadeth to destruction4 ,then will he be patient and trustful under trials and affliction1 and justify ,god's dealings with man4 #bf ,john xi4 #be1 #bf4 ,such are the truths revealed by ,god himself1 which through nothing but direct revelation could have enlightened1 cheered1 animated1 and guided the human affections and will4 ,man1 as an immortal being1 has not been left to himself4 ,true it is1 that there are many nations still in darkness1 and some in the most degraded ignorance4 ,to ask why this is so1 is to ask the reasons which determine ,god in his purposes2 we see as in a glass darkly1 and the deep things of ,god are hidden from our eyes2 but we are assured that the time will come when all nations shall know the ,lord1 and ,christ shall reign in fulness of glory4 ,let us be thankful if our trust is in ,christ1 if he is in us the hope of glory1 for eye hath not seen1 nor ear heard1 neither have entered into the heart of man1 the things which ,god hath prepared for them that love him4 ,we have sufficiently shown the necessity of a revelation to man relative to things essential to his eternal interest1 but of which he could gain no knowledge by his own mental exertions4 ,we know by internal conviction that we are immortal beings2 but unguided by revelation1 we shall look forward to the future with anxiety1 with a sort of vague apprehension1 but revelation dispels anxiety1 and fills us with all joy and peace in believing4 ,dr4 ,abercrombie1 in his work on the ,intellectual ,powers1 says3 ,there is thus1 in the consciousness of every man1 a deep impression of continued existence4 ,the casuist may reason against it till he bewilder himself in his own sophistries2 but a voice within gives the lie to his vain speculations1 and pleads with authority for a life which is to come4 ,the sincere and humble inquirer cherishes the impression while he seeks for further light on a subject so momentous2 and he thus receives with absolute conviction the truth which beams upon him from the revelation of ,god1 that the mysterious part of his being1 which thinks1 and wills1 and reasons1 shall1 indeed1 survive the wreck of its mortal tenement1 and is destined for immortality4 ,how mysterious is the union between mind and matter6 how little we know of ourselves6 how shallow is our deepest philosophy6 ,we know that the mind is that part of our being which thinks and wills1 reasons and remembers1 but we know nothing of it except from these functions4 ,by means of the corporeal senses it holds intercourse with the things of the external world1 and receives impressions from them1 but of this connexion also we know nothing but the facts2 when we attempt to speculate upon its nature and cause1 we wander at once from the path of philosophical inquiry into conjectures1 which are as far beyond the proper sphere as they are beyond the reach of human faculties4 ,the object of true science on such a subject1 therefore1 is simply to investigate the facts or relations of phenomena1 respecting the operations of mind itself1 and the intercourse which it carries on with the external world4 ,in a philosophic point of view1 all our knowledge of the world around us is referable to the operations of the mind on the impressions conveyed to it through the senses1 that is1 perception4 ,nevertheless1 in point of fact1 the knowledge which is acquired by an individual through perception and mental agency1 as reflection1 memory1 etc41 is but a small part of what he possesses2 it is to the perception and mental labour of others that he owes the great mass of knowledge he is gifted with4 ,generation after generation has contributed to accumulate a store of facts1 a treasury of thoughts and reflections1 to which succeeding generations have added1 leaving them as a legacy to generations yet to come1 who will contribute in their turn to the stock1 and bequeath the treasure to their successors4 ,thus are we enriched by the labour of others1 and not altogether by our own experience4 ,herein is a wide hiatus between man and the most sagacious of brutes4 ,the brute gains all from personal experience2 no generation can build upon the foundation left by a preceding generation--but man can2 and it is no objection to allege1 that some races remain in a savage state for ages2 they possess the power1 the capability1 the mental constitution1 which the brute does not4 ,besides1 they do improve under favourable circumstances4 ,what were the ,anglo-,saxon marauders1 our own ancestors8 ,savages4 ,is ,england now a savage country8 ,what were the ,celtic ,british in ,csar's time8 ,savages4 ,were they savages when the ,romans had held possession of the island for three hundred years8 ,no2 they had adopted the arts1 the manners1 the civilization of their conquerors4 ,how this very fact of the capability of man to give and receive knowledge demonstrates his superiority in creation6 ,it is true that the human intellect is limited1 and that there are mysteries into which he cannot penetrate2 nor is it needful for his welfare1 his improvement1 his happiness1 his hopes of a joyful immortality1 that he should be able to do so4 ,let him rely on the oracles of ,god4 ,mysteries1 indeed1 surround him4 ,how fluently does he talk about matter1 yet he knows nothing about it1 excepting what he gains through his senses2 and this knowledge is limited to certain qualities1 which may be termed primary and secondary4 ,the primary qualities of material bodies are in themselves essentials1 namely1 solidity and extension4 ,we cannot conceive of matter1 without an involvement of these two properties4 ,the secondary qualities of matter are colour1 texture1 temperature1 smell1 taste1 etc41 properties which differ in different bodies1 and which are fluctuating1 changeable1 uncertain4 ,of these1 and other properties of matter1 as motion1 sound1 lightness1 or heaviness1 etc41 our senses are the external tests1 though mind is1 in reality1 the discriminator4 ,our first knowledge of the existence and properties of the material world is evidently of a complex nature4 ,it seems to arise from the combined action of several senses1 conveying to us the general notion of certain essences1 which are solid and extended1 or possessed of those properties which characterize material things4 ,without this general knowledge previously acquired1 our various senses1 acting individually1 could convey to us no definite notion of the properties of external things4 ,a smell1 that is a mere odour1 for example1 might be perceived by us1 but would convey nothing more than the sensation simply4 ,it could not communicate the impression of this being a property of an external body1 until we had previously acquired a knowledge of the existence of that body1 and had come by observation to associate the sensation with the body from which it proceeds4 ,the same holds true of the other senses1 and we are thus led at the very first step of our inquiries to a complicated process of mind1 without which our mere sensations could convey to us no definite knowledge4#bg #bg ,abercrombie4 ,here1 then1 we conclude4 ,let us give thanks and praise to that ,god who has made us what we are--instruments of countless strings1 all in harmony1 the music of which reaches the soul1 and in the secret recesses of the mind is there analyzed1 reflected upon1 compared1 and stored up as knowledge4 ,we feel1 we see1 we hear1 we smell1 we taste1 we resist2 we are assured of our own individuality2 we are conscious of our own existence1 and we know that all around is external to our own individuality4 ,that sense of individuality is in the mind1 and we have within us the assurance of immortality4 ,let us look to ,him1 who is the ,saviour from an immortality of despair1 that at the day of judgment we may be found clothed in his robe of righteousness1 the garment of salvation4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,observations ,,on ,,the ,,agency ,,of ,,the ,,senses1 ,,relative ,,to ,,the ,,union ,,between ,,mind ,,and ,,matter2 ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,occasional ,,imperfection ,,of ,,the ,,bodily ,,organs ,,of ,,the ,,senses1 ,,with ,,the ,,results ,,depending ,,thereupon4 ,that the organs of the senses communicate with the mind1 through the mediation of certain mysterious filaments1 or thread-like bodies1 termed nerves1 cannot be denied2 but the manner in which this communication takes place1 the process by which mind receives information from matter1 and the subtle operations which enable matter to transfer impressions to mind1 are points around which1 as it appears to us1 the great ,author of our being has thrown an impenetrable veil4 ,it is true1 that1 in consequence of certain discoveries relative to what the older writers termed the nervous fluid1 discoveries which almost go to prove that the fluid is of an electric or electro-magnetic nature1 a bold theory has been promulgated1 namely1 that these electro-magnetic currents not only give an impress to the mind or soul1 but are in turn influenced by the agency of the immaterial principle1 and that thus the communication between mind and matter is carried on2 in fact1 that the link which unites body to mind is a mysterious agent1 which 7its name is of little importance7 cannot be recognised as belonging to the material world4 ,where revelation leaves a subject untouched1 it is1 we humbly think1 allowable to theorize from facts which science has laid open2 but let us remember that1 however we may incline to a theory which seems consonant to science1 a knowledge of the limitation of our intellectual powers should lead us to cultivate a spirit of humility and candour4 ,it is something to approximate towards truth2 let us1 then1 be content to leave much for a future revelation which science on this earth can never unfold before us4 ,the foregoing observations may be regarded as a slight introduction to a passage on the connexion between the mind and body1 well worthy of especial consideration3 ,in considering the connexion between the mind and the body1 it is of the highest importance always to remember that the mind1 or rather the being which thinks and wills1 is the active agent4 ,the body1 with all its beautiful and wondrous adaptations1 only supplies the means of perception and of acting4 ,nerve-matter is the evident medium and instrument of the being that perceives and acts through it4 ,physiologists appear to have demonstrated that an imponderable principle1 akin to electricity1 is evolved in the nervous system1 and that currents of this kind are constantly traversing the different sets of nerves1 according to their office and function1 either as the medium of sensation1 volition1 or of vegetative life4 ,there is1 in short1 an action going forward in all the nerves and their centres similar to the electro-magnetic1 and1 consequently1 every nerve is polarized4 ,the soul appears to operate upon these electro-magnetic currents1 and to be impressed by them4 ,the imponderable energia passing in these currents1 is apparently the medium between the soul and the more palpable materials forming the body4 ,this may be inferred from the fact1 that whatever alters the force of these currents1 alters the condition of the mind in relation to the body4 ,thus1 the arrest of the current in a nerve1 subservient to voluntary muscular action1 whether by chemical or mechanical means1 prevents the mind from exercising will in the use of the muscle1 with which the nerve experimented on is connected4 ,the same occurs1 also1 in the like case with any nerve through which we obtain sensation of the presence of any body1 which1 in a natural state1 would so affect the body as to produce feeling4 ,another evidence that the soul acts through this fluid is afforded in the circumstance1 that by strongly directing the attention to any part1 as1 for instance1 the eye1 a new sensation is perceived in the organ2 and if this kind of attention be persisted in1 or frequently repeated1 the eye becomes inflamed and painful4 ,it is also evident1 that those nerves which belong to parts1 the natural functions of which latter are carried on without our consciousness1 such as the stomach1 may be rendered sensitive by a strong action of the will2 and the operation of all the reflex1 or ordinary involuntary system1 is modified by mental emotion4 ,in fact1 every thought changes the nerve current4 ,moreover1 the brain itself1 and all the nerves connected with it1 are so far influenced by the will of the individual1 as to be not only directed into new modes1 so as to effect an entire alteration in the habit of mental and muscular action1 but also to such a degree1 that the completely organized brain is partly a creation of self-directing and self-repeating mental activity4 ,it is1 so to say1 developed by the habits of the soul4 ,how necessary1 then1 is early training6 as we bend the twig so is the tree inclined--a trite axiom1 but1 nevertheless1 very true4 ,the rapidity of the mental processes seems to require an electric1 or some similar medium1 by which they may be effected in connexion with the body1 since they result so instantaneously1 that the will to move1 for instance1 and the motion1 are simultaneous4 ,professor ,wheatstone has proved1 that electricity1 like light1 travels at the rate of #aib1jjj miles in a second1 and this appears to be an agency sufficiently subtle to answer all the purposes of the soul as an active being4 ,probably electricity and light are but one agent1 acting under different relations4 ,it is interesting to consider ourselves1 by each act of our will1 as operating upon embodied light2 but whatever be the immediate agency between mind and muscle1 it is vastly more interesting to know1 that willing being is something as really and distinctly existing as the light itself1 but in its nature infinitely more subtilely and exquisitely constituted1 since it is indivisably and inscrutinably associated with the ,being who said1 ,let light be1 and light was6 ,if we advance further in contemplating our mental existence with the body1 we shall more clearly perceive that the body itself is not the cause1 but the instrument of mind4 ,in order that it should be a ready instrument1 it is1 as we see1 constructed on electro-magnetic principles1 so that it serves the purposes of the mind in many spontaneous actions1 without even awakening consciousness4 ,whatever is essential to the processes of life is carried on in the economy without our consent2 and until some demand is made by the body1 requiring our voluntary interference for the removal of inconvenience1 or the supply of aliment1 our attention is not so far attracted to the body as that our desires are distinctly perceived to arise from its state4 ,thus1 we feel hunger or thirst1 and use means for their removal4 ,but our emotions and affections are at all times influenced by bodily condition1 and in many respects may be traced to a physical origin4 ,they are so far involuntary1 that their causes are in operation before we are aware1 and they are apt to evince their power against our wills2 yet reason is tested by their presence1 and she prevails over them1 in proportion to the clear perception and experience of spiritual motives1 or those moral convictions which arise from religious enlightenment4 ,were it not that our connexion with the body subjects us to feelings against which we are conscientiously and reasonably required to contend1 we should be incapable of that self consciousness by which we distinguish ourselves from our bodies4 ,in fact1 those who find no other inducement to thought and action than the body affords1 are really incapable of apprehending any other than bodily existence1 and they live not according to spiritual but sensual motive4#bh #bh ,dr4 ,george ,moore4 ,granting the truth1 or the approximation to truth1 of the foregoing theory1 it is evident1 not only that whatever alters the force of the electro-galvanic currents of which the nerves are conductors1 alters the condition of the mind in relation to the body1 thus making impressions weaker or stronger2 but that whatever deranges the tone or timbre of the nerves themselves1 produces mental illusions which are sometimes of a temporary1 sometimes of a permanent character4 ,for example1 in derangements of the digestive organs1 partial loss of sight in one or both eyes1 the appearance of black motes1 specks1 or flies floating in the atmosphere--coloured wavy lines or zigzags--nay1 even strange faces1 sometimes grotesque1 sometimes terrific1 palpable to vision like the air-drawn dagger of ,macbeth1 are by no means unfrequent phenomena4 ,but1 besides these transitory effects of nervous derangement1 there are others dependent upon a permanent condition of the nerves1 which is not well understood4 ,for example1 some persons are incapable of distinguishing between certain colours1 while at the same time there is no defect in the construction of the eye1 as an optical instrument4 ,sir ,j4 ,herschell examined the eyes of a person affected with this peculiarity1 and satisfied himself that all the prismatic rays had the power of affecting them with the sensation of light1 and of producing distinct vision4 ,hence1 therefore1 as he observes1 the defect arises from no insensibility of the retina to rays of any particular refrangibility1 nor to any colouring matter in the humours of the eye preventing certain rays from reaching the retina1 as has been ingeniously supposed1 but from a defect in the sensorium1 by which it is rendered incapable of appreciating exactly those differences between rays on which their colour depends4 ,the degree of defect in these singular cases is variable1 nor are the colours which the sensorium cannot appreciate by any means always the same4 ,generally1 however1 red and green are the colours which are not discerned1 while blue and yellow seldom fail to make a due impression4 ,seebeck1 on somewhat vague grounds1 as we think1 divides persons labouring under this defect of vision into two classes4 ,the first consists of individuals who have a very imperfect power of distinguishing the impressions of colours generally2 in these1 at the same time1 the defect is greatest with regard to red and green1 these colours being not distinguishable from grey2 blue is imperfectly distinguished1 and yellow the most perfectly4 ,the second class consists of individuals who err with regard to the distinction of red from blue2 and who1 as in the first class1 recognise yellow the best4 ,it is not1 as we have said1 to the eye itself that we are to look for the cause of this defect1 but to some mysterious peculiarity of the sensorium1 or to some want of harmony between the brain and the optic nerves2 but whether the failure is in the energia of the optic nerves1 or in the sensorial power of the brain1 we pretend not to say4 ,we have1 in fact1 in this instance1 as in so many others1 only to confess our ignorance4 ,it is scarcely needful for us to add1 that this visual defect is irremediable4 ,but there are defects of vision dependent upon the structure of the eye itself1 as an optical instrument2 and under this head we may first notice myopia1 or near-sightedness4 ,myopia results from an over-refractive condition of the eye1 the rays of light passing from any object being brought to a focus in the vitreous chamber of that organ1 before reaching or impinging on the retina4 ,in this case1 either the cornea or the crystalline lens is too convex1 or both are in this condition1 or the humours of the eye generally are too dense or too abundant1 and the pupil is large4 ,persons thus affected see all objects indistinctly which are viewed at the ordinary distance of distinct vision1 but objects held close to the eye are seen with microscopic accuracy4 ,the distance from the eye1 when in a normal state1 at which objects are surveyed with the utmost distinctness1 is from fifteen to twenty inches4 ,an eye which cannot discern objects with ease and accuracy beyond ten inches1 may be considered as myopic2 but not unfrequently persons affected with myopia cannot regard an object with distinctness which is beyond four1 three1 two1 or even one inch distant from the eye4 ,to myopic persons1 objects brought within their sphere of vision appear magnified2 a small type is read more easily than a large type2 and1 indeed1 such eyes see better through a pin-hole in a card than when not thus assisted2 the reason is1 that the pupil1 from its dilatation1 admits too many rays of light1 but by diminishing the aperture through which the rays of light are admitted1 all but those which are the most direct are excluded1 and the images on the retina will be1 therefore1 the more defined4 ,on the same principle1 myopic persons1 when endeavouring to see distant objects1 half close the eyelids1 7hence the term myopia1 from 1 ,i shut1 and 1 an eye47 ,myopic persons generally see better in the dusk1 or at twilight1 than others2 and their sight1 though short1 is strong and good1 often lasting4 ,it has been asserted1 that as the eye flattens in age1 the vision of myopic persons will improve as they advance in life1 and the theory1 it must be acknowledged1 seems feasible1 but experience proves that this is not the case2 indeed1 it would appear that the myopia rather increases than diminishes4 ,concave glasses greatly assist the myopic eye2 they cause a divergence of the rays of light before entering the pupil1 and thus counteract the over-refractive condition of that organ4 ,the degree of concavity best suited to particular cases can only be determined by trials4 ,from myopia we pass to its opposite1 presbyopia1 or far-sightedness1 71 old1 1 the eye17 this being a state of vision to which old age is so commonly subject4 ,in presbyopia the refractive powers of the eye are feeble2 that is1 the rays of light are concentrated into a focus beyond the retina1 and1 therefore1 too far back for the reception by the latter of a definite impression1 at the ordinary distance1 of normal vision4 ,this condition may result from flatness of the cornea1 from an insufficient convexity of the lens1 or from a shorter degree than natural of the antero-posterior axis of the eye itself4 ,the pupil is more or less contracted4 ,the far-sighted person either removes the object under examination further than is usual from the eye1 or he avails himself of convex glasses1 the effect of which is1 to increase the refraction1 or convergence of the rays of light1 before they enter the pupil4 ,although this condition of the eye is common in elderly or aged persons1 we are not to suppose that it is confined to such alone4 ,in aged persons it is one of those signs which bid man prepare for his last mortal change--a change1 the premonitory warnings of which are beautifully described in the twelfth chapter of ,ecclesiastes4 ,but this affection sometimes occurs in the young2 for a time it will remain stationary2 but after a certain period1 determined by various concomitant influences1 it will greatly increase1 till at length1 indeed1 it may be said1 those that look out of the windows be darkened4 ,another defect of vision may be next noticed2 namely1 diplopia1 or double vision4 ,this arises from various causes1 some of them obscure1 and1 perhaps1 connected with a morbid affection of the base of the brain1 such as a tumor pressing on the motor oculi nerve1 an inflammatory condition of the brain and its membranes1 or a sanguineous or serous effusion involving the origin of the third pair of nerves4 ,it is often the accompaniment of squinting or strabismus1 in which1 although there is a want of correspondence in the movements or position of the two eyes1 the vision of each singly is perfect4 ,sometimes1 however1 double vision occurs in one eye only1 while1 at the same time1 there is no disturbance1 as far as the harmony of the movements of the two eyes is concerned2 occasionally1 both eyes are affected by diplopia4 ,in these cases1 there must be some irregularity of refraction1 either in the cornea or the lens4 ,m4 ,prvost1 who published an account of his own case1 in the ,annales de ,chimie et de ,physique1 #ahcb1 thought that the diplopia under which he laboured might arise from a fracture1 bruise1 or partial flattening of the lens1 or from a separation of its lamin4 ,professor ,airy and ,mr4 ,babbage both experience the inconvenience of diplopia2 in the case of the latter1 both eyes are defective1 but he can obviate the defect by looking through a small hole in a card1 or through a convex lens4 ,professor ,airy finds that his eye refracts the rays to a nearer focus in the vertical than in the horizontal plane1 and he has ingeniously contrived to remedy it by the use of a double concave lens1 one surface of which is spherical and the other cylindrical4 ,the spherical surface is to correct the general effect of a too convex cornea2 the cylindrical is to converge or diverge those rays at right angles to the axis2 while the parallelism of those which impinge upon it in the plane of its axis is unaffected4 ,thus the focus of the spherical surface will remain unaltered in one plane1 but in the other it will be changed to that of a lens1 formed by it and a spherical surface of equal curvature with the cylinder4 ,with the aid of a glass of this description1 professor ,airy could read the smallest print at a considerable distance1 equally as well with the defective eye as the sound one4 ,he found that vision was most distinct when the glass was pretty close to the eye1 and the cylindrical surface turned from it4 ,with these precautions1 he observes1 ,i find that the eye which ,i once feared would become quite useless1 can be used in almost every respect as well as the other4 ,these are defects in vision which1 however distressing1 and in themselves1 that is1 as far as the eye itself is concerned1 incurable1 may be borne with resignation or remedied by scientific agency4 ,but human beings are often called to still greater trials--to total loss of sight--in other words1 to perfect blindness4 ,this calamity results from many causes2 for example1 the cornea may become so opaque as to be incapable of transmitting rays of light into the interior chamber of the eye2 or the crystalline lens1 also1 may become opaque 7cataract27 disease of the iris1 attended by closure of the pupil1 will produce blindness1 as will also paralysis1 or loss of energy1 in the retina or optic nerve1 7,amaurosis or ,gutta serena47 ,accidents may destroy the powers of the eye1 and a flash of lightning may produce ,amaurosis2 there are1 besides1 other causes of loss of vision1 into which it is not requisite that we should here enter4 ,in certain cases1 blindness is congenital1 that is1 the individual was born blind1 but in most instances blindness comes on at various periods of life1 subsequent to the age of infancy4 ,great as is the calamity of blindness1 it is not1 we think1 so heavy an affliction as total deafness4 ,privation of sight does1 indeed1 close one avenue leading from matter to mind1 but1 perhaps1 not the most important avenue2 we may assume this fact--had ,euclid been blind he could still have written on mathematics4 ,homer and ,milton were both blind1 and had ,shakspere been blind1 the extraordinary creations of his genius would have been what they are--the visions of mighty intellect4 ,an admirably written passage in one of our periodical publications may be here introduced2 it proves that blindness closes but a small inlet to the immortal soul3 ,we are all familiar with many well-authenticated instances of blind persons having attained to a distinguished position both in literature and science4 ,the celebrated ,saunderson1 who filled the chair of ,newton in the ,university of ,cambridge1 lost his very eye-balls by the small-pox1 when only twelve years old2 yet before he was thirty1 we find him giving public lectures on optics1 explaining clearly the theory of vision1 and discoursing admirably on the phenomena of light and colours--thus furnishing by his own extensive acquirements a convincing proof of the extraordinary powers of language1 and of the full efficiency of the ear1 as an avenue to the mind4 ,the darkness of the blind1 such as instances like this sufficiently show1 is but a physical darkness2 they still possess a ready channel1 through which the brightest beams of intellectual light may be freely poured3 but the darkness of the deaf mute is a mental and moral darkness2 and though he can gaze abroad upon creation1 yet it is little more than mere animal gratification that he feels2 he looks not through nature up to nature's ,god1 nor does he participate in that high communion which1 through the sublimity of her visible language1 she holds with the soul of an enlightened being4 ,the reason why the blind usually receive from us a deeper sympathy than the deaf1 is1 perhaps1 because the amount of privation borne by the former can be more accurately estimated4 ,we have only to close our eyes1 to shut out for a while the glorious light of heaven1 in order to conceive how great that privation must be1 but we can never for a moment occupy the place of the uneducated deaf and dumb2 we cannot shut out our moral and intellectual light2 we cannot dispossess our minds of all that language has conveyed there1 nor realize by any effort of imagination the melancholy condition of a being grown up in the midst of society1 yet deprived of all power of social intercourse2 whose mind has never been elevated by a single act of devotion1 nor soothed and comforted by a single impulse of religious feeling4 ,man naturally 'looketh on the outward appearance2' and when we see the bright eye1 and the contented1 and even joyous aspect of the deaf mute1 we forget that we may witness all this in the brutes that perish4 ,the ear has been happily called the vestibule of the soul1 and the annals of the blind who have become illustrious confirm the remark1 for they show that few intellectual studies are inaccessible to them4 ,it has even been said1 and the assertion has received a kind of universal assent among those who have associated much with the blind1 that in certain instances they have a facility which others rarely possess4 ,we would not go so far as ,huber1 who praised the advantages of blindness1 but for which1 as he says1 he might never have become celebrated2 nor as ,holman1 who has endeavoured to make it appear1 that in his blindness he possesses advantages over those travellers who have the use of their eyes1 most of whom1 as he intimates1 though they have the use of these organs in perfection1 yet see not4 ,huber and ,holman availed themselves of the eyes of others1 and in this capability the blind have great advantages over the deaf1 for their intercourse with the outward world by means of speech is direct1 hence they obtain a knowledge of things1 theories1 and events1 which have passed or are passing1 of their condition as men1 of the requirements of ,god1 and of the appointed mode of salvation4 ,the deaf and dumb see1 indeed1 all that passes within their immediate sphere1 but1 owing to the imperfect and circuitous mode of communication1 7by signs17 by means of which alone access to their mind is gained1 little definite information relative to things1 events1 their condition as fallen creatures1 the mode of salvation1 and regeneration by the influence of the ,holy ,spirit1 can be communicated4 ,they imitate1 as we can testify1 the actions of those who attempt to enlighten them2 they kneel1 they raise the eyes1 they mimic a solemnity of deportment1 and much more1 so as to persuade some that they have a clear perception of spiritual truths2 but faith cometh by hearing1 and though we would not presume to assign a limit to ,god in illuminating the darkest mind1 yet we doubt whether the soul can in this life become the recipient of the truths and promises of the gospel in all their glorious fulness4 ,deaf and dumb persons are generally irascible1 impatient1 suspicious1 and watchful2 they creep about stealthily1 and take you by surprise2 they form habits to which they adhere with unflinching pertinacity1 and fret if any trifle molests them4 ,they may attain to a certain degree of cleverness1 as the word is usually understood1 but we know not any deaf and dumb persons 7as far as records go7 who have attained to any great degree of eminence1 even under circumstances favourable to the development of their powers4 ,but with regard to the blind1 they have enriched the arts1 the sciences1 and literature1 by their successful pursuits1 and not unfrequently under circumstances of extraordinary difficulty4 ,viewing both these classes of men as devoid of education1 dependent upon themselves for support1 and for the enjoyment of life1 the blind are physically greater objects of compassion than the deaf1 because1 without peculiar modes of education1 suited to their privation1 they cannot obtain a livelihood2 but so far as happiness is dependent upon knowledge1 7and from this source some of the purest enjoyments arise17 they are nearly on a level with ordinary men4 ,through the ear they can acquire knowledge of the highest order1 but the case of the deaf is the reverse of this4 ,they are not physically so dependent as the blind2 for1 having the advantage of sight1 they may acquire by application the simpler imitative arts1 and thus earn a subsistence2 but mentally1 their great inferiority1 their ignorance of themselves1 of all that bears upon the concerns of their existence1 and upon the condition1 order1 changes1 and phases of things extraneous to themselves1 is painfully palpable to every philanthropic observer of his fellow-beings4 ,the light of the eye is theirs1 but the light of the mind is exchanged for darkness4 ,we have already intimated1 that the obliteration of one organ of sense tends to the greater perceptibility or acuteness of others4 ,this follows almost of necessity1 because the loss of any given organ tends to the more finished education of those which are destined to aid it4 ,thus1 in a blind man1 the hearing is generally more than usually acute and accurate1 as is also the sense of touch2 while1 at the same time1 the muscular sense is surprisingly elevated4 ,blind guides have been known and celebrated for their extraordinary gifts in the wildest moorland and hilly districts4 ,john ,metcalf1 of ,knaresborough1 7#agag17 was road surveyor and contractor in the ,peak of ,derbyshire2 he built bridges over rivers1 and projected roads over the ridges of the ,pennine chain1 nor was he less remarkable for feats of daring1 such as hard riding1 swimming1 etc4 ,this person was blind from infancy4 ,how wonderful is the elasticity of the human mind1 which can reconcile itself in such an astonishing manner to the most adverse circumstances1 and triumph1 as it were1 over the loss of that inestimable possession--sight6 ,many men of note1 who were either born blind1 or had lost their sight at an early period1 have figured in the scientific1 literary1 and musical worlds4 ,a few of these may be here mentioned 7without going back to long past centuries1 that is1 to the days of ,homer1 or ,diodatus1 or even to the more recent time of ,henry1 the minstrel of ,scotland1 born blind #acfa1 or of sir ,john ,gower1 of ,london1 who died in #adjb47 ,take1 by way of example1 the following3--,huber1 the naturalist 7,geneva1 #aghd-he72 he became blind at the age of seventeen2 he wrote on the labours and instincts of bees and ants1 and also on education4 ,francis ,potter 7,london1 died #afgh72 he wrote on mechanics1 theology1 and painting4 ,f4 ,carulhi 7,nantes1 died #aghi72 born blind2 he wrote on music4 ,rev4 ,j4 ,troughton 7,coventry1 died #afha72 blind at four years of age2 he wrote on theological subjects4 ,john ,stanley 7,london1 died #agha72 blind at two years old2 a musical performer and composer2 he wrote the oratorios1 ,jephthah1 ,zimri1 etc4 ,john ,gough 7,kendal1 #ageg72 blind at the age of three years2 a writer of several communications to the ,manchester ,society1 and to ,nicholson's ,journal on ,botany and ,natural ,philosophy4 ,sir ,john ,fielding 7,westminster1 died #aghj72 blind from youth2 police magistrate1 and author of the ,universal ,mentor4 ,john ,mc,beath 7,dalkeith1 died #ahcd72 blind at an early age2 he studied music and mathematics1 and wrote on ,inventions for the ,blind4 ,he was a blind teacher in the ,edinburgh school4 ,james ,wilson1 author of the ,biography of the ,blind4 ,james ,holman1 whose published travels through many portions of the world have excited very general curiosity and interest4 ,alexander ,rodenback1 member of the ,belgian ,chamber of ,deputies1 and one of the principal actors in the ,belgian revolution2 he was a supporter of the democratic party1 and often made the chamber ring with his original and eloquent speeches4 ,we might add greatly to this list1 but we select the above merely as examples1 to show how1 when the acquisition of knowledge is debarred at the entrance of the eye1 the mind will collect it through the inlet of other senses4 ,of the numerous schools of instruction for the blind1 of which our country may well be proud--of the systems of training pursued in them--of the labours of pious individuals1 some themselves blind--it is not our place here to speak4 ,we devoutly pray that the blessing of the all-seeing ,god may be with them and upon them6 ,blindness is sometimes1 but1 we are happy to say1 not very often1 accompanied by deafness--utter deafness4 ,blindness is a sad calamity2 but when blindness and deafness meet in the same object1 what a deplorable picture presents itself to every feeling heart6 ,blind1 deaf1 mute6 ,christian reader1 reflect--by what means1 by what process1 shall access be gained to the undying mind8 ,how can we1 by human means1 instil into the soul the glad tidings of salvation1 demonstrate the corruptness of human nature1 the necessity of a new birth1 the efficacy of prayer1 and the perfections of the triune ,jehovah8 ,think of an immortal soul imprisoned in such a rayless1 silent tenement1 debarred from all acquaintance with the world around1 except as far as feeling may go1 and taste and smell4 ,but ,god often works in a mysterious way1 and perhaps communicates light to the mind1 when the visual orbs are sealed up in darkness1 and the invitations of ,christ cannot be heard from the lips of his pious minister--the good shepherd1 who is commanded to care for the little ones of the fold4 ,oh6 how thankful to our gracious ,god ought we to be1 for the full use of all our senses--those inlets to the knowledge either of good or of evil1 nay1 of both2 but let us say1 ,i and my house will serve the ,lord6 ,the following account is condensed from the ,american ,annals of ,education1 and from captain ,basil ,hall's ,travels in ,north ,america4 ,it refers to the deeply touching and most interesting case of ,julia ,brace1 a deaf1 dumb1 and blind ,american girl1 who resides in the ,institution for the ,deaf and ,dumb at ,hertford1 ,connecticut3 ,julia ,brace was seized with typhus fever at four years of age2 during the first week of her illness she became blind and deaf2 she retained her speech for about a year1 7the tongue acting mechanically1 according to acquired muscular habit17 frequently repeating her letters1 and spelling the names of her acquaintance2 but she gradually lost it1 and seems now condemned to perpetual silence4 ,for three years she continued to utter a few words2 one of the last was 'mother' 7that word clung to her tongue2 it was the earliest she heard and spoke1 and the last that died on her lips67 ,at first she was unconscious of her misfortune1 and imagined that a long night had come upon the world4 ,at length1 in passing a window1 she felt the sun shining warm upon her hand1 and she made signs indicating she was aware of it2 she was governed by her mother1 by means similar to those employed in the case of ,mitchell4 ,at first she was exceedingly irritable1 but she became at length habitually mild1 obedient1 and affectionate4 ,at nine years of age she was taught to sew1 7wonderful the conjunct operation of the nerves of sensibility and muscular sense67 and since that time to knit4 ,julia ,brace1 who is now nearly thirty years of age1 is supported in the ,hertford ,asylum1 in part by the contributions of visitors1 and in part by her own labours in sewing and knitting4 ,a language of palpable signs was early established as a means of communication with her friends2 this has been much improved by her intercourse with the deaf and dumb1 and is now sufficient for all ordinary purposes4 ,it is obvious1 that her means of perceiving external objects are the smell1 the taste1 and the touch4 ,the touch is her chief reliance1 and enables her to distinguish every object with which she has been familiar1 sometimes by the aid of her lips and tongue2 but her smell also is surprisingly acute1 and often enables her to ascertain facts which are beyond the reach of other persons4 ,her countenance as she sits at work exhibits the strongest evidence of an active mind and a feeling heart1 and thoughts and feelings seem to flit across it like the clouds in a summer sky4 ,a shade of pensiveness will be followed by a cloud of anxiety or gloom2 a peaceful look will perhaps succeed2 and not unfrequently a smile lights up her countenance1 which seems to make one forget her misfortunes4 ,but no one yet has penetrated the darkness of her prison house1 or found an avenue for moral or intellectual light4 ,blindness alone is a great calamity4 ,milton most affectingly deplores his deprivation3-- ------------,not to me returns ,day1 or the sweet approach of ev'n or morn2 ,or sight of vernal bloom or summer's rose2 ,or flocks1 or herds1 or human face divine1-- ,but clouds instead1 and ever during dark ,surround me1 from the cheerful ways of men ,cut off2 and for the book of knowledge fair ,presented with a universal blank4 ,there are two morbid conditions of the eye of which we ought not here to omit1 at least1 a passing notice2 we allude to hemeralopia1 71 the day1 1 blind1 and 1 the eye27 or1 in other words1 day-blindness2 and to nyctalopia1 71 the night1 and 1 the eye17 that is to say1 night-blindness4 ,we may observe that many modern writers1 as ,scarpa1 and others1 have reversed the plain meaning of these terms1 and have considered hemeralopia as denoting sight during the day1 and blindness during the night2 and nyctalopia as expressing the power of vision by night1 but not during the hours of daylight4 ,in order to prevent any confusion or misunderstanding1 we shall drop the scientific terms1 which by some are so strangely misconstrued1 and adopt their ,english equivalents4 ,perfect day-blindness1 or owl-sight1 as the ,french call it1 is of rare occurrence4 ,dr4 ,hillary never met but with two examples2 at the same time he notices a report1 that there are a people in the ,east ,indies1 and also in ,siam1 who are subject to the disease of being blind in the day-time1 yet who see clearly by night4#bi #bi ,mod4 ,univ4 ,hist4 vol4 vii4 ,day-blindness most probably never occurs as a separate disease2 it is immediately the result of a peculiarly irritable state of the retina1 insomuch that the stimulus of daylight cannot be borne2 and not of the retina only1 but of the iris also1 which1 in order to exclude the rays of light1 closes the pupil of the eye to a mere point4 ,all have heard of those singular beings termed ,albinos4 ,albinos are found among all nations1 and are noted1 from contrast of colour1 in ,african and not unfrequent among the dark tribes of ,africa2 indeed1 it would seem that there are families of negroes in which there is an hereditary tendency to the production of ,albino children4#cj #cj ,see ,dr4 ,prichard's ,researches into the ,physical ,history of ,mankind1 vol4 i4 p4 #cff4 ,among the lower animals1 albinism appears to occur most frequently in the race of tame rabbits2 they are known by their white fur and red eyes2 breeds of these may be propagated2 the same observation applies to white mice4 ,human albinos1 at least1 and probably albinos in the animal grade1 are affected by a certain degree1 more or less decided1 of day-blindness4 ,the characters of the albino result from a deficiency in the colouring principle1 common to the skin1 hair1 and eyes4 ,the eyes1 for example1 are entirely destitute of the dark pigment2 in fact1 the pink1 or red colour1 so observable1 depends on the fine vessels which are very numerous in the composition of the iris1 and on the still greater number of minute arterial ramifications which almost entirely form the choroid membrane1 and which1 under this condition1 are seen through the pupil4 ,to ,albinos the state of the eyes is their greatest source of inconvenience4 ,the absence of the black pigment1 which has the important office of absorbing superfluous portions of light1 renders the eye preternaturally sensible of this stimulus4 ,strong lights affect the organ painfully2 even the glare of open day produces a partial blindness1 and the admission of light is intolerable4 ,these evils are balanced in some measure by superior power of vision in dusk1 or imperfect darkness4#ca #ca ,on this subject see ,buffon1 ,supplement1 tom4 iv4 p4 #eei2 ,pallas in his ,nov ,species ,quadrupedum1 pp4 #aj1 #aa1 n41 and also ,blumenbach1 etc4 ,let us now turn to night-blindness4 ,nocturnal blindness1 says ,scarpa1 is properly nothing but a kind of imperfect periodical amaurosis1 most commonly sympathetic with the stomach4 ,its paroxysms come on towards the evening1 and disappear in the morning4 ,the disease is endemic in some countries1 and epidemic1 at certain seasons of the year1 in others4 ,at sunset1 objects appear to persons affected with the complaint1 as if covered with an ash-coloured veil1 which gradually changes into a dense cloud1 intervening between the eyes and surrounding objects4 ,persons thus affected have the pupil1 both in the day and night-time1 more dilated and less movable than it usually is in healthy eyes4 ,the majority of them1 however1 have the pupil more or less movable in the day-time1 and always expanded and motionless at night4 ,when brought into a room faintly lighted by a candle1 where all the bystanders can see tolerably well1 they cannot discern objects at all1 or at most in a very feeble manner1 or they only find themselves able to distinguish light from darkness1 and by moonlight their sight is still worse4 ,at daybreak they recover their sight1 which continues perfect all the rest of the day till sunset4#cb #cb ,cap4 xix4 p4 #cbb4 ,ed4 #hvo4 ,mr4 ,bamfield observes that the abolition of eyesight by night has occurred in all ages1 and is a common disease of seamen in the ,east and ,west ,indies1 the ,mediterranean1 and in all hot and tropical countries and latitudes1 and that it affects more or less the natives likewise of those regions of the globe4 ,it also occurs frequently among soldiers in the ,east and ,west ,indies1 but1 according to the information he has received1 it is by no means prevalent amongst sailors employed on shipboard4 ,it is not an uncommon complaint among the ,lascars employed in the ,east ,india ,company's ships1 trading between ,india and ,europe4 ,celsus has remarked that females in due health are exempt from this strange affection of the orbs of vision4#cc ,it may further be observed1 that the inhabitants of northerly latitudes are less subject to night-blindness than are the natives of tropical countries in theirs2 but that when the natives of cold climates visit the tropics1 they are peculiarly susceptible to this morbid condition of the eye4 #cc ,lib4 vi4 cap4 vi4 ,but we must now pass from the eye to the ear4 ,deafness from infancy1 that is1 total deafness1 involves the loss of speech1 or of the utterance of a definite language4 ,the deaf do1 indeed1 utter wild cries1 and1 as if impelled by instinct1 scream with rage1 howl with pain or fear1 and mutter when pleased2 but they hear not the sounds which they themselves utter1 and which are often harsh1 and even terrible4 ,the grand object for which the sense of hearing was given to man was for understanding1 acquiring1 and using language1 or speech1 for the enunciation of which the lips1 the teeth1 the tongue1 the palate1 in fact1 the whole organization of the mouth and lower part of the face1 is expressly modified1 as is also the conformation of the larynx2 but1 be it observed1 that without mind man could never have been a speaking animal4 ,here1 then1 we see a design often overlooked by those who study the economy of man4 ,the ox hears1 but it could not talk or utter language--that is1 sounds modified in accent1 in termination1 in length--even if it would1 for the organization of the vocal organs would prevent the required intonations2 but as the lower animals are not destined to think1 to argue1 to admonish1 to persuade--in short1 as they are not destined for immortality--in them the faculty of speech would be out of harmony with their real condition and destiny4 ,language is a mental as well as corporeal exercise1 for we have to learn what each sound uttered means1 till at length it becomes natural to us1 if we may use a popular expression4 ,we have already alluded to the pleasure which the mind derives from music4 ,now1 there are a few observations regarding deafness1 or the deprivation of hearing1 which cannot be out of place4 ,total deafness from various causes may take place in a person of mature years1 or after he has advanced in life to years of adolescence2 in such cases language will be retained1 but the voice will be under no control1 no modulation--one sentence may be shouted1 another spoken in a whisper4 ,we may adduce a case in point3 an officer 7a nobleman7 in the battle of ,waterloo had his auditory nerve destroyed by the concussion of the air from the bursting of a shell1 or from the report of a cannon4 ,he became totally deaf1 and consequently lost all control over his voice1 which became discordant1 and difficult to be understood even by those who were his intimate associates4 ,a similar instance is mentioned by an ,american writer1 in which entire deafness1 taking place at the age of eighteen1 so affected the articulation1 that the individual was no longer intelligible1 even to his nearest friends4 ,but1 besides total loss of hearing1 whether congenital1 7that is1 from birth17 or occurring at any future period1 auditory incapacity manifests itself in various degrees1 and under singular modifications4 ,for example1 a friend of the writer1 who is extremely musical1 and plays brilliantly on the piano1 is so deaf that she scarcely understands a word of the conversation of persons around her2 yet let a discordant note be struck1 and she feelingly appreciates it4 ,another lady1 with whom the writer is acquainted1 cannot hear the shrill high-toned squeak of the shrew-mouse2 and the writer knows some who cannot hear the cries of other shrill-toned animals1 as the bat1 or mouse1 while to deeper1 not louder notes1 their ears are perfectly awake4 ,dr4 ,wollaston constructed a small organ1 whose notes began where the notes of ordinary instruments end2 the notes of his organ increased in sharpness till they became inaudible1 though he was certain that it continued to give sound1 from feeling the vibrations equally with the lower notes4 ,he thus found that some people could hear seven or eight notes higher than others1 and that children could generally hear two or three notes higher than grown-up people4 ,in some persons1 the accuracy of the ear is merely impaired in distinguishing faint sounds1 and sounds somewhat similar2 instances of this kind are particularly evident in infants1 whose first attempts at speech are a very remote similarity to the sounds they hear1 and become more perfect as their ear is educated1 and in some cases remain imperfect through life1 in consequence of defect in the organs of hearing4 ,all imperfections of speech do not arise from imperfect hearing2 an indistinct articulation may result from various other causes2 from carelessness1 from defective organs of speech1 or from an imperfect formation of those organs2 from irregular respiration1 producing hesitation1 and in some instances proceeding from nervousness4#cd #cd ,see ,dr4 ,arnott's ,elements of ,physics1 #ahbg4 ,the writer is acquainted with a lady1 whose organs of hearing are in full activity1 but she cannot distinguish one tune from another2 her ear appreciates piano1 forte1 or fortissime1 but neither modulation nor rhythm4 ,the defect here must be in the mind1 7a phrenologist would say that the organ of music in the brain was undeveloped17 yet this lady is sensible1 pious1 and strenuous in her exertions for the extension of the knowledge of ,christ4 ,to revert1 however1 to the deaf and dumb 7or deaf-mute7 not deprived of eyesight1 we may observe1 that these persons1 formerly neglected and deemed incapable of instruction1 are not now excluded from the school of knowledge and of religion4 ,men have at length confessed that they possess rational souls--that they are capable of receiving information--and that the mind may be made the recipient of a certain amount of knowledge1 varying of course according to the natural powers of the intellect4 ,not that the amount of knowledge acquired by such persons can ever1 cteris paribus1 equal that which may be acquired by those who labour under no defect2 nevertheless1 the inferiority is only one of degree1 and is easily accounted for4 ,an able writer makes the following pertinent remarks3 ,from the advantages which instruction has afforded to a certain proportion of the deaf and dumb for the last half century1 a tolerably correct estimate may be formed of their capabilities for improvement4 ,the deaf-mute1 living in society1 but without instruction1 must be regarded as one of the most solitary and melancholy of beings4 ,he is shut out from all but the most imperfect intercourse with his species1 and the very intellect1 by the possession of which he is raised above the lower creation1 serves only to heighten his calamity1 and render the sense of his deprivation more acute4 ,his perceptions of external objects are indeed accurate1 but superficial1 and confined to a very small sphere4 ,of the various arts by which the necessaries and conveniences of life are produced1 he can have no knowledge beyond that which is included in the range of his own vision4 ,animal desires he feels1 and he is led by the conventional usages of society to the performance of moral duties1 and the avoidance of open and flagrant crime4 ,thus he becomes experienced1 as other human beings are1 in what is right or wrong4 ,he sees that virtuous actions have a certain amount of reward in the opinions of good men1 for he learns to discriminate between those whose actions are proper1 and those who do wrong2 and1 again1 he sees that in many cases vice meets with disapprobation and punishment among mankind4 ,how this kind of experience shall affect his own conduct1 must depend not only on the circumstances in which he is placed1 as to example1 and the moral influence of those with whom he has to associate1 but also on his own natural tendencies4 ,the performance of moral duties implies the exercise of intellectual faculties1 and from his birth the deaf-mute makes use of his reasoning powers4 ,he is subject to changes of purpose1 to changes of feeling1 the pleasures and the infirmities common to his species4 ,he is sensible of kindness2 he gives proof of affection4 ,that such is the uneducated state of the deaf and dumb might be proved by the observations of their parents1 friends1 and instructors1 in hundreds of instances4 ,that such must necessarily be the case1 supposing them not to be idiots1 it would be easy to show4 ,we affirm1 in contradiction to those who contend that deaf-mutes are naturally more debased than other men in intellect and in morals1 that there is not an individual deaf-mute1 now under instruction1 improving1 and thereby evincing rational faculties1 who1 previous to his instruction1 however disadvantageous the circumstances which attended his earlier years1 did not evince moral sentiments and intellectual operations4 ,we have traced the history of many of this class1 in different ranks of society1 down to the period when the deprivation under which they have laboured was first ascertained2 and we have invariably found that mixture of good and evil in their actions and tendencies1 which is seen amongst other children4 ,we have also had sufficient proofs of the exercise of intellect even while they were in a state of childhood4 ,the parents of deaf and dumb children can sufficiently attest the truth of these observations4 ,the writer can attest them3 he can adduce facts within his own knowledge1 proving the correctness of the views entertained by the author just quoted2 reasons1 however1 sufficiently obvious prevent him expatiating on this part of the subject1 and1 indeed1 have influenced him in adopting the words of another1 whose means of observation have been very extensive4 ,we cannot here enter into the modes of instruction employed in order to illuminate the minds of the deaf-mutes2 all we need say is1 that it is by a system of apt signs1 or of hieroglyphics1 at least in the commencement2 but minds of capacity soon advance still further2 reading and writing are acquired--nay1 even the power of articulate speech4 ,but we must pass from this part of our subject1 on which indeed much might be said4 ,the senses of smell and taste require a passing notice4 ,we conjoin these senses together1 because the latter depends much for its discrimination on the functional perfection of the former2 in fact1 much of that which in the enjoyment of food is commonly attributed to the sense of taste1 depends on the odour carried from the mouth to the nose4 ,if1 for example1 we masticate any spice1 or aromatic substance1 as cinnamon1 while at the same time the nostrils are strongly compressed1 and breathing through those channels obstructed1 we perceive no definite flavour from the spice1 although the essential oil expressed may sting the tongue and palate4 ,stoppage of the nasal passages1 from catarrh1 influenza1 or other affections1 and preternatural dryness or thickening of the schneiderian membrane1 impair or destroy both the sense of smell and taste4 ,we may here observe1 that irritation of the schneiderian membrane by ammonia1 by snuff1 and other things of the like nature1 has nothing to do with the sense of smell residing in the nerves of that membrane3 smell is the appreciation of odours2 any delicate membrane may be irritated1 as1 for example1 the conjunctiva of the eye4 ,with irritants1 scents may be combined2 in such admixtures for the stimulation of the olfactory nerves many persons eagerly indulge1 and under certain circumstances they are medicinally useful2 but it is the perception of scent or odour1 irrespective of irritation1 which is the proper function of the olfactory nerves4 ,with respect to taste1 this sense resides in a branch of the fifth cerebral nerve1 called1 from its function1 gustatory4 ,for the sensation of taste1 moisture must be present2 an utterly insoluble body1 as crystal1 is tasteless2 we reduce to a pulp1 by means of the teeth and the saliva1 the food which we eat1 excepting1 indeed1 such articles as come under the denomination of drink1 or1 in other words1 viands in a fluid state1 such as wine1 ale1 coffee1 etc4 ,perfectly pure water is tasteless4 ,the contact of two metals in the mouth1 producing a galvanic discharge1 excites a sensation or flavour which cannot be well described2 but the moisture of the saliva is requisite for the effect4 ,it is said1 that the superior flavour of porter drunk out of a pewter vessel results from a slight galvanic action going on4 ,mr4 ,mayo says1 various substances1 after exciting the sense of touch on the fauces1 and that of taste on the tongue1 are capable of producing a third impression1 which is popularly referred to the palate1 but which is really felt upon the sentient membrane of the nostrils4 ,in the case of metals taken into the mouth1 this mode of the reception of flavour would appear to take place4 ,loss of taste1 like that of smell1 may arise from various causes2 when the mouth is parched up by fever or intense thirst1 the sense of taste is greatly impaired1 or even altogether suspended2 but this condition may be regarded as temporary4 ,a few instances have come under our own observation1 in which1 though the senses of smell and taste were not obliterated1 they were extremely obtuse1 insomuch that the most nauseous medicines or offensive odours created no feeling of repugnance or disgust1 and the most delicate viands1 or the fragrance of sweetest flowers1 no pleasurable sensation4 ,in idiots1 this loss of taste and smell is far from being uncommon2 but it is not to such that we here allude1 nor is it to those who have suffered from repeated partial strokes of paralysis or apoplexy1 but to persons of sane mind and sound health4 ,in such cases1 the deficiency is either in the sensitive and conducting power of the nerves1 or in some a loss of tone in the portion of the brain to which they immediately lead--at all events1 a barrier is interposed between organic structure and the mind4 ,as far as the operations of intellect are concerned1 the loss of smell or of taste is of secondary consideration2 these senses administer to our animal enjoyments rather than to the spiritual part of our being2 nevertheless1 mind and body are so united that the breath of early flowers1 the incense of the fields1 the balmy breeze1 the taste of wholesome food1 or of the refreshing draught1 call forth the feelings of the mind1 awaken gratitude1 and lead us to offer up our thanks to ,him who is the ,giver of every good4 ,with respect to the sense of touch1 we have few additional observations to make2 this sense is trained to its highest perfection in those who are born blind1 and who from early childhood have acquired the habit of supplying by its exercise their visual deficiency1 as far as one sense can compensate for the loss of another4 ,in the educated blind1 the faculty of distinguishing minute differences in impression1 and of receiving from a given surface of sentient integument the largest number of separate sensations of contact1 appears most remarkably developed2 in the blind1 too1 the exploring movements of touch are performed with the most skill and delicacy4 ,to so high a pitch1 indeed1 is the sense of touch elevated1 that many have been led to believe that the blind are even capable of appreciating colour2 it may be1 we admit1 that they are able to detect by touch certain differences of texture1 which depend on the chemical processes of dyeing1 or on certain modes of preparation connected with the impartation of colour to the surface of objects1 and thus discriminating or analyzing1 may be taught to associate the name of blue with one sensation1 of red with another1 and so on--more than this is impossible4 ,obtuseness of feeling1 or of tact1 arises from various causes2 the horny hand of the labourer is less discriminative than that of the man who is not called to toil in the field1 or work at the anvil4 ,as regards feeling1 independent of the pure sense of touch1 there is much difference even among individuals1 according to the general nervous susceptibility of the frame4 ,among the ,north ,american ,indians this susceptibility is less than among ,europeans1 as may be concluded from the horrid details given by ,mr4 ,catlin1 and others1 who have witnessed the revolting practices of the red men of the western world4 ,loss of feeling1 or of tact1 in one or more limbs1 is the result of paralysis1 and other morbid conditions of the system1 to which our frail tenement is subject4 ,the same observations apply to the muscular sense1 which sense is moreover deranged1 or suspended1 during a fit of intoxication1 7,proh pudor67 or when placed on some dizzy height1 one1 unaccustomed to such a situation1 is agitated by extreme terror4 ,the sailor in the rigging of the topmast1 the cragsman of the ,hebrides1 the hunter of the chamois1 have learned to surmount such a sense of fear1 and are secure in their place of peril4 ,the loss of sensibility1 and the loss of the muscular sense1 can never pervade the whole frame1 till that hour arrives when the soul is about to quit its mortal abode1 and enter the regions of another world4 ,to this condition all are destined--the sentence of death is gone forth6 ,oh that1 while living1 while in the enjoyment of our senses1 and of the energies of our body1 we may lay hold upon eternal life1 and live as dying daily6 ,let us aim at being able to appropriate to ourselves the expression of the psalmist1 ,my flesh and my heart faileth3 but ,god is the strength of my heart1 and my portion for ever4#ce ,no one can say this in verity1 who is not established on the ,rock of ,ages4 #ce ,psa4 lxxiii4 #bf4 ,the ,almighty has not designed that man1 even in this his probationary state1 should pass through his pilgrimage without experiencing pure pleasures and delights4 ,it is to these that the senses administer1 each in its appointed way4 ,the sublimity and the beauty of natural scenery--the grandeur of mountains1 forests1 and seas--the glory of the sun1 moon1 and starry expanse above--the works of art1 towers1 and temples--all these1 and more1 received into the mind through vision1 produce the most delightful emotions4 ,the flowers that strew our pathway1 the insects glittering in the sun1 the waving cornfields1 the grazing cattle1 the rustic cottage of the hardy labourer--all combine to fill the soul with pleasure and thankfulness4 ,can we listen to the roar of waters1 to the deep murmur of the wind rushing through the forest1 to the song of birds1 or the notes of sweet melody1 and feel no pleasure--no spirit of praise and gratitude8 ,is not food sweet to the healthy appetite8 ,do we not rejoice in our strength1 in the use of our limbs1 and in our manual address and precision8 ,are not the perfumes of flowers1 the scent of the bean-field1 of the bower of honey-suckle1 of the new-mown hay1 delicious8 ,is not the earth full of riches8 ,has not the ,creator adapted it to our pleasures1 as well as our necessities1 and endowed us with every sense requisite for enjoyment8 ,how delightful to the ,christian--how doubly enjoyed by him is nature in all her phases1 in all her manifestations1 in all her variety6 ,to him nothing is uninteresting1 from the mightiest creature to the animalcule1 from the cedar to the humble weed2 and reflecting that knowledge stores his mind1 and pleasure gladdens1 refreshes1 and animates him1 through each respective medium2 and delighting in life1 and life's enjoyments1 he praises ,god for every bodily and mental endowment1 and for all the glorious works which his hands have created--works which lead him to muse upon that inscrutable wisdom1 power1 love1 and consideration1 which the ,almighty has displayed in fitting the earth for him as his temporary abode--glorious in its mountains1 its plains1 its seas1 and rivers--glorious in the light of day and the darkness of night--glorious in the air and the clouds1 in the lightning and the rainbow2 but yet an abode to be exchanged by the believer for one infinitely more glorious1 in which sin and pain are unknown1 and from which mortality is banished for ever4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,page #fe3 ,contrary to the other sections1 section #h4 of ,,chapter ,i4 has no header in the original4 ,footnotes have been moved to directly under the text they refer to4 ,changes made to the text3 ,page #ai 7table73 ,heats in the right column changed to ,heat ,page #fg_/fh3 ,added a 4 at the end of the footnote ,page #aec3 ,the original read ,,chapter ,v4 as heading of the last chapter1 this has been changed to ,,chapter ,,iv4 as there are only four chapters4 ,page #agh3 ,quotes removed 7originally3 in others4 ,at sunset17 ,page #agi3 effects changed to affects 7it affects more or less7 ,page #ahd3 ,quotes added 7,of the various arts7