,,how ,,to ,,ski ,,and ,,how ,,not ,,to ,,by ,,vivian ,,caulfeild ,,photographs ,,by ,k4 ,,delap ,,third ,,and ,,revised ,,edition ,,new ,,york ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons #eig-eii ,,fifth ,,avenue #aiad ,printed by ,,ballantyne1 ,,hanson ,,co4 at the ,ballantyne ,press1 ,edinburgh ,,randall',s ,,ski ,,boots ,,special ,,features3 ,,selected ,,moor ,,calf ,,uppers4 ,watertight ,tongues1 double thickness of leather round sides4 ,,stout ,,english ,,bark ,,tanned ,,soles4 ,,waterproof3 ,yet flexible as a dancing-shoe4 ,the new ,,belmont ,,heel4 ,,superior ,,to ,,all ,,makes ,,randall',s ,,ski ,,boots alone combine all the above excellent qualities1 and are made for ,gentlemen1 ,ladies1 and ,children4 ,illustration ,,randall',s ,for ,high-,grade ,footwear ,h4 ,e4 ,,randall1 ,,ltd4 #bd ,haymarket1 ,london1 ,s4,w4 #ci1 #dj #da ,poultry1 ,london1 ,e4,c4 #aj ,grand ,hotel ,buildings1 ,charing ,cross1 ,london1 ,w4,c4 ,,list ,,of ,,photographic ,,plates ,frontispiece4 ,the ,adelboden ,jumping-hill4 ,photo by ,miss ,e4 ,frisby4 ,i4 ,on the level4 ,,ii4 ,stopping a back-slip4 ,,iii4 ,before kick-turn4 ,,iv4 ,kick-turn4 ,v4 ,kick-turn4 ,,vi4 ,kick-turn4 ,,viia4 ,kick-turn4 ,,viib4 ,kick-turn3 wrong position4 ,,viii4 ,kick-turn3 finished4 ,,ix4 ,herring-boning4 ,x4 ,side-stepping4 ,xa4 ,h4,b41 ,herring-boning2 ,k41 ,kick-turn2 ,s41 ,side-stepping2 ,h4,s41 ,half-side-stepping4 ,,xi4 ,scraping right ski4 ,,xii4 ,scraping left ski4 ,,xiii4 ,starting a run on hillside4 ,,xiv4 ,straight-running3 normal position4 ,,xv4 ,straight-running3 normal position4 ,,xvi4 ,straight-running3 how not to do it4 ,,xvii4 ,straight-running3 ,telemark position4 ,,xviii4 ,straight-running3 ,telemark position4 ,,xix4 ,straight-running3 ,telemark position4 ,,xx4 ,snow-ploughing 7stemming with both skis74 ,,xxi4 ,braking with the sticks4 ,,xxii4 ,stemming with one ski1 or start of a downhill turn to left4 ,,xxiii4 ,downhill stemming-turn to left3 halfway round4 ,,xxiv4 ,finish of stemming-turn to left4 ,,xxv4 ,unsuccessful stemming-turn to left3 result of wrong balance or position4 ,,xxvi4 ,track of downhill stemming-turns4 ,,xxvii4 ,downhill stemming-turn to left in soft snow 7note wide stride and edged skis74 ,,xxviii4 ,how not to make a stemming-turn4 ,,xxix4 ,uphill ,telemark swing to left4 ,,xxx4 ,uphill ,telemark swing to left3 wrong balance and position of skis4 ,,xxxi4 ,uphill ,telemark swing to left 7seen from above74 ,,xxxii4 ,downhill ,telemark swing to left4 ,,xxxiii4 ,track of downhill ,telemark swings4 ,,xxxiv4 ,starting an uphill ,christiania swing to the right from traversing4 ,,xxxv4 ,starting an uphill ,christiania swing to the right from a direct descent4 ,,xxxvi4 ,finish of uphill ,christiania swing to right4 ,,xxxvii4 ,bad finish of uphill ,christiania swing to right4 ,,xxxviii4 ,start of a downhill ,christiania swing to right4 ,,xxxix4 ,bad finish of uphill ,christiania swing to right4 ,,xl4 ,uphill ,christiania swing to right 7seen from above74 ,,xli4 ,finish of uphill ,christiania swing to right 7seen from above74 ,,xlii4 ,track of downhill ,christiania swings4 ,,xliii4 ,downhill ,christiania swing to right3 halfway round4 ,photo by ,l4 ,bttner4 ,,xliv4 ,jerked ,christiania swing to right 7note position of arms and shoulders74 ,,xlv4 ,downhill ,telemark swing to left 7seen from above74 ,,xlvi4 ,uphill ,telemark swing to right4 ,,xlvii4 ,jumping round to the left3 bad position of skis4 ,,xlviii4 ,jumping round to the right4 ,,xlix4 ,jumping4 ,photo by ,l4 ,bttner4 ,l4 ,jumping4 ,photo by ,l4 ,bttner4 ,,li4 ,jumping4 ,,lii4 ,preparing for the ,sats4 ,,liii4 ,making the ,sats4 ,,liv4 ,hans ,klopfenstein jumping 7winner of inter-,swiss ,championship1 #aiaj74 ,,lv4 ,landing from a ,jump4 ,,lvi4 ,jumper just clear of the platform 7seen from above74 ,,lvii4 ,harald ,smith jumping at ,adelboden1 #aiji 7photographed from under the platform74 ,,lviii4 ,how to carry the skis4 ,,lix4 ,how to carry the skis4 7,the stick resting on the right shoulder takes some weight off the other47 ,,preface ,,to ,,revised ,,edition ,the alterations and additions to this book in its present form are due partly to fresh practical experience2 partly to adverse criticism of which ,i now see the justice2 and partly1 as ,i freely admit1 to the picking of other people's brains4 ,since this book was published ,i have read for the first time books on ski-ing by ,zdarsky1 ,bilgeri1 ,luther1 and ,arnold ,lunn1 and have re-read those of ,richardson1 ,rickmers1 ,paulcke1 and ,hoek4 ,as a result ,i have had to alter a good deal of my theory and some of my practice1 and to alter and enlarge this book accordingly4 ,to all the above-named authors1 therefore1 ,i am more or less indebted1 and feel correspondingly grateful4 ,in adopting an idea one can seldom help altering it more or less1 and if in the body of the book ,i have made few direct acknowledgments1 it has been from no lack of gratitude1 but rather from a doubt whether the originator of the idea would be gratified at its development or indignant at its distortion4 ,i must however make special acknowledgments to ,ober-,leutnant ,bilgeri4 ,from his excellent book ,i have gained much fresh knowledge of the theory and practice of ski-ing4 ,this book1 moreover1 while confirming me in my opinion of the vices of the ,lilienfeld system of ski-running1 has given me a fresh insight into the virtues of the ,lilienfeld system of teaching1 and consequently a fresh sense of my indebtedness to the chief apostle of this system1 my first teacher1 ,mr4 ,rickmers4 ,if ,herr ,bilgeri has ever happened to read my book1 certain resemblances between it and his own--the analogy of the bicycle and tricycle with the single and double-track runner1 for instance--may1 since his book was published first1 have struck him as remarkable4 ,i take this opportunity of assuring him that when ,i wrote this book ,i had not read his1 nor for that matter any of his writings1 and that1 if ,i had1 the resemblances would have been not only fully acknowledged1 but considerably more numerous4 ,to ,mr4 ,e4 ,c4 ,richardson ,i must return special thanks for criticism that has shown me the error of some of my ways of thinking2 ,i have also to thank ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,richardson for new ideas gained from an article by him on ,knee ,action in ,ski-ing4 ,finally1 ,i wish to express my gratitude to everyone whose suggestions ,i have adopted1 or who1 either by precept or example1 has taught me anything new and so has had a hand in the revision of this book1 but to whom ,i have not referred individually4 ,this heavy list of acknowledgments makes me realise more than ever how difficult it is nowadays for a writer on ski-ing technique--or at any rate for this writer--to say anything new4 ,i am afraid that even a succs de scandale as the fanatical prophet of complete sticklessness will soon be out of my reach1 if it is not already1 for we are all agreed now that the stick should be used as little as possible1 and therefore that not to use it at all is1 if possible1 best4 ,it is a short step from this to finding out by practical experience that1 so long as one is travelling on snow1 not ice1 and has a little more than room enough to place the skis horizontally across the slope1 one can move just as freely1 quickly1 and easily1 and with just as perfect control1 without the stick as with it4 ,e4 ,v4 ,s4 ,c4 ,december #aiab4 ,,contents ,,page ,,introductory-- ,,the ,,englishman ,,as ,a ,,ski-,,runner #a ,,equipment-- ,,the ,,ski #bc ,,clothing #da ,,the ,,management ,,of ,,the ,,skis-- ,,on ,,the ,,level ,,and ,,uphill #eb ,,general ,,principles ,,of ,,steering1 ,c4 #ge ,,straight-,,running #ig ,,braking #abj ,,the ,,stemming ,,turn #acf ,,the ,,telemark ,,swing #aei ,,the ,,christiania ,,swing #age ,,jumping ,,round #baj ,,skating #bad ,,jumping #bag ,,how ,,to ,,run ,,across ,,country #beb ,,appendix-- ,,how ,,to ,,practise #bhj ,,how ,,to ,,ski ,,introductory ,,the ,,englishman ,,as ,a ,,ski-,,runner ,probably every one likely to read this book knows that a ski is a snow-shoe or skate1 and that it is a long narrow plank turned up in front1 but he may not have a very clear idea of the use of it4 ,it may not have occurred to him1 for instance1 that in a country which is deeply covered with soft snow 7the surface of snow is sometimes a hard crust7 a man without snow-shoes of some kind is not merely unable to move quickly1 but is unable to move at all outside the cleared roads and beaten tracks4 ,merely to prevent sinking into the snow the ski is just as useful as a snow-shoe of the racquet form1 such as the ,canadian1 and it is never less useful than the other even when it seems most likely to be4 ,for moving through dense underwood1 for instance1 when its length would appear likely to be awkward1 or for hauling sledges1 when its slipperiness would seem a disadvantage1 experience shows that the ski is fully as useful as the other type4 ,as a means of locomotion it is altogether superior4 ,over level open country a man can slide along on skis a great deal faster than he can walk 7or run7 on ,canadian snow-shoes4 ,in hilly country the ski-runner has a further advantage4 ,if a hill is not steep a man may walk straight up it on racquets rather more quickly than a man on skis can climb it by zigzagging 7as he is obliged to do on all but the most gradual slopes72 but on the descent the ski-runner more than makes up the time he has lost2 for1 helped by gravity1 he slides down the hill at least three1 perhaps as much as thirty1 times as fast as he climbed it1 according to his expertness and the nature of the ground1 while the other takes almost as long to walk down as he did to walk up4 ,on very steep ground the ski-runner has a still greater advantage1 for here the narrowness of the ski allows him to move across the steepest snow slopes with little or no discomfort to his ankles1 while on a steep slope the man on racquets is practically helpless1 for1 on account of their shape1 it is only with the utmost difficulty1 if at all1 that he can move either up1 down1 or across the hill4 ,a moderately expert ski-runner can manoeuvre on any sort of ground which is covered with snow1 provided that the surface of the snow be not so hard that the edges of his skis can make absolutely no impression in it4 ,the steepness of a slope1 no matter how great1 is in itself no obstacle to his manoeuvring with perfect freedom2 it need only be reckoned with in so far as it relates to the danger of avalanche4 ,this should give some idea of the scope of ski-running considered merely as a means of locomotion4 ,with regard to the possibilities of ski-running considered purely as a sport1 it may be said that a good runner1 descending a steep hill where the ground is open1 will often cover a considerable distance at an average rate of #de miles an hour3 that when moving at half that speed he can thread his way among obstacles or stop suddenly2 and that the present record for a jump on skis is about #aed feet4 ,i need hardly say1 therefore1 that the opportunities afforded by the sport for the exercise not only of the runner's nerve1 but of his skill and judgment are almost unlimited4 ,now it is only by learning the best methods and style at the very outset 7or by changing them if he has started with bad ones7 that a man can develop to the utmost whatever latent capacity for ski-running he may possess1 and only in this way that he is ever likely to become expert enough to have any right to the title of a good runner4 ,at this point ,i had better1 for the benefit of those readers who have already used skis1 give some sort of definition of good ski-running as ,i understand it4 ,it is not quite easy to do so1 but ,i take it that the best judges would hardly call a man a good runner unless he could run steadily1 quickly1 and easily down any hill on which ski-ing was possible at all--no matter how difficult the ground might be as regards obstacles1 gradient1 and condition of snow--without ever using his stick as an aid to the balance or for steering1 or1 except on the very rarest occasions1 for helping him to slow up or stop2 and unless he could1 on an ordinary jumping hill1 make jumps of fair length without falling very often4 ,such a man would probably be able to make1 in that kind of snow which is appropriate to each1 all the swings and turns to either right or left while running at a good speed1 and would almost certainly both run and jump in really good style4 ,a good runner1 indeed1 can nearly always be recognised by his style1 although1 of course1 a man cannot be called a bad runner1 however bad his style1 if he is really fast and steady downhill1 and can make long jumps with certainty4 ,but a ski-runner with a bad style is below his proper form2 if1 with a bad style1 he is fairly fast and steady1 and is good at jumping1 he would with a good style be exceptionally so4 ,among the ,scandinavians or the best continental runners1 no one would be considered at all good on skis unless he more or less fulfilled the above definition4 ,among ,english runners1 ,i am sorry to say1 the standard1 not only of performance1 but of criticism1 is far lower1 and although there are by this time many ,englishmen who are capable tourists and mountaineers on skis1 there are almost none who can be called good runners in the above sense1 or who can be compared with the best continental runners even1 while to compare them with the best ,scandinavians would be ludicrous4 ,among the ,english at ,swiss winter-places a man is often spoken of as good at ski-ing for no better reason than that he spends most of his time on skis and has climbed several hills on them1 or has crossed several passes2 while if it is known that1 as a rule1 he gets through a day's run without falling1 he is sure to be considered a most accomplished ski-runner4 ,quite as reasonably might a man gain a reputation for fine horsemanship simply through being able to make long journeys on horseback without falling off or getting exhausted4 ,just as the latter may easily be a poor horseman1 so may the former be a very poor ski-runner2 the fact that he may happen to be a great mountaineer gives him no more claim to the title of a fine ski-runner than does the fact of his being a fine ski-runner to the title of a great mountaineer4 ,if asked his opinion of some such champion1 a good ,swiss runner will usually answer tactfully1 ,he is good1 for an ,englishman4 ,the full value of this compliment can only be appreciated by some one who1 like myself1 has overheard ,swiss runners criticise an exhibition of unusual awkwardness and timidity on the part of one of their own countrymen in the words1 ,he runs like an ,englishman4 ,it would be very nice to think that jealousy of our prowess in ski-ing made them talk like this1 but that1 unfortunately1 is out of the question4 ,the fact is that most ,english runners seem to be perfectly contented with just so much skill as will enable them to get up and down a hill at a moderate speed and without many falls4 ,having acquired this1 they give up practising altogether1 and devote the rest of their ski-ing lives to making tours1 never attempting to become really fast or skilful runners or to go in for jumping1 even in its mildest form4 ,it is rather curious that this should be the case1 for most ,english ski-runners are young and active men1 accustomed to other sports and games1 who1 ,i suppose1 take up ski-running at least as much for its own sake as with the object of using it as an aid to mountain-climbing and touring4 ,surely1 then1 one might reasonably expect that a fair number of them would become really fine runners1 that nearly all of them would try to1 and that even those who had no ambition to excel in the sport for its own sake would be anxious to increase their efficiency as mountaineers or tourists1 and would therefore1 at the very least1 try to run in good style2 for good style1 in ski-running as in every other game or athletic sport1 means economy of muscular force1 which is surely an important consideration to the mountaineer4 ,most good ,swiss runners1 ,i am sure1 think that the ,englishman is constitutionally incapable of becoming really good on skis4 ,to me1 at any rate1 it is by no means surprising that they should think so1 for1 taking any average pair of ski-runners1 ,swiss and ,english1 who are about equally matched in age1 physique1 and ski-ing experience1 even if there be little to choose between them in the matter of skill1 there is in one respect a very marked difference--the ,englishman nearly always running more slowly and cautiously and altogether with less dash than the ,swiss4 ,in fact1 not to put too fine a point upon it1 the ,englishman1 as compared with the ,swiss1 generally shows what an unsympathetic critic might call a distinct tendency to funk4 ,how ,english and ,swiss ski-runners compare1 in this respect1 with those of other countries ,i have had no opportunity of judging1 but that1 when compared with each other1 there is this difference between them must be obvious to any impartial observer4 ,if the ,englishman's lack of dash arises entirely from poorness of nerve1 he is1 of course1 very heavily handicapped1 though not1 perhaps1 hopelessly so1 for patience1 determination1 and careful training will do wonders in the improvement of bad nerve4 ,i should like1 however1 to think that there may be some more flattering explanation of this phenomenon--,i have1 for instance1 heard it said that the fact that most ,englishmen are unaccustomed to steep slopes may have something to do with it--but ,i must confess that1 so far1 ,i have not hit upon one that entirely satisfies me4 ,i have heard two excuses given 7by ,englishmen7 for the low standard of ,english ski-ing as compared with ,swiss4 ,one is that the ,englishman gets less practice than the ,swiss4 ,this is a mistake4 ,the average ,english runner perhaps gets only three or four weeks each winter1 but the average ,swiss gets no more1 for he has his work to do1 and though he spends his winter in the snow he usually only goes ski-ing on ,sundays4 ,the best ,swiss runners no doubt are usually guides1 or men who spend most of their time in the winter on skis2 but this is not always so1 and ,i know more than one first-class ,swiss runner who gets little more than one day a week4 ,among ,english runners the proportion of those who spend most of their winter on skis is much greater than among the ,swiss2 yet there are now many really first-rate ,swiss runners1 but1 as ,i have said1 hardly any ,english ones4 ,the other excuse is that most ,english ski-runners have taken up the sport comparatively late in life4 ,no doubt they have1 and so1 for that matter1 have many of the continental runners--and a few of the best of them4 ,but to begin late is much less of a handicap than might be imagined1 for a man may become a skilful ski-runner without possessing any of the characteristics of extreme youth4 ,that is to say that1 provided he has a fair stock of intelligence1 patience1 and nerve 7and a good teacher71 he need have no special aptitude for picking up the knack of unaccustomed movements1 nor need he have more than ordinary strength and activity4 ,the games and sports which are most difficult to learn late in life are those which call for knack--in other words1 the ability to perform easily a rapid and accurate co-ordinated movement of a number of muscles4 ,if this movement is an unaccustomed one1 the ability to perform it properly is only attainable by long practice4 ,the action of throwing1 for instance1 requires knack4 ,it is this which makes it so difficult to learn to throw with the left hand1 even though one already has the ability to move the left arm with quite sufficient strength and speed1 and not only knows how the movement should be made1 but even how it feels to make it with the other hand4 ,writing is another excellent example of knack4 ,in ski-running nothing which can strictly be called knack comes into play4 ,in this sport the voluntary muscular movements 7as distinguished from the involuntary ones used in keeping the balance7 are neither complicated nor unusual1 and1 except in jumping1 they need seldom be rapid4 ,any difficulty in learning them is due partly to the disturbing effect on one's clear-headedness of the speed at which one is travelling1 and partly to the fact that some of the movements1 though simple in themselves1 are almost the reverse of those one's natural instinct would prompt one to make in the circumstances4 ,this difficulty1 of course1 diminishes with practice1 but an effort of will goes just as far as1 or even farther than practice towards overcoming it4 ,were it not for this difficulty1 a man who had been told the right way to perform the various manoeuvres employed in ski-ing might very well do them fairly correctly the first time he tried 7as many people actually do71 while no amount of strength1 activity1 intelligence1 or confidence would enable him1 if right-handed1 to throw or to write properly with his left hand without long practice4 ,the balancing difficulty is far less serious than is usually supposed4 ,it is the unexpected movements of the skis which generally upset the balance2 and if one has a clear comprehension of the way in which various combinations of gradient1 speed1 quality of snow1 c41 affect their motion 7see p4 #gd1 c471 one will seldom be taken by surprise4 ,any one who can stand steadily on one leg1 when not on skis1 for a quarter of a minute1 without waving his other limbs about1 has sufficient sense of balance to become a first-rate ski-runner4 ,intelligence and nerve--the latter including both coolness and dash--are the main factors in good running4 ,it is hard to say which is the more important4 ,most of one's mistakes in ski-ing can perhaps be traced to want of nerve1 but the most perfect nerve will not compensate for lack of intelligence4 ,the intelligent man will soon see that there is very little to be afraid of1 that the risk of injury from falling 7on snow71 even when running fast or alighting after a long jump1 is very slight1 and that to run with confidence and dash will lessen the danger rather than increase it4 ,when he has thoroughly realised this1 the intelligent man1 though his nerve may be none of the best1 will probably1 if he has any determination1 soon beat the absolutely intrepid but stupid one4 ,unless1 then1 we are to believe that a man loses most of his nerve1 intelligence and will-power with his first youth1 there is nothing to prevent him from learning to ski well when no longer very young4 ,my own belief is that the best excuse for the low standard of ,british ski-running is ignorance and bad tuition4 ,a few ,english runners have learnt a good system of ski-ing2 but these have generally had bad teachers--,swiss guides1 very likely1 who1 though first-rate runners themselves1 had more instinct than science1 and were quite incapable of imparting clearly to a beginner whatever knowledge they possessed4 ,the majority of ,english ski-runners have learnt a thoroughly bad system1 and have very likely learnt at the same time to believe that it is an exceptionally sound one4 ,the members of both these classes are1 as a rule1 profoundly ignorant of what an expert can do on skis1 of the real advantage of becoming an expert--or1 at any rate1 as skilful as possible--and of the best way to set about doing so4 ,there is no reason whatever why1 with practice and good teaching1 any man should not become a fairly skilful runner2 even if he cannot run with great dash and speed1 he can1 at least1 learn to do so in good style1 without--or practically without--any help from his stick4 ,very few ,englishmen try to do this2 indeed1 next to caution1 the most prominent characteristic of ,english ski-running is bad style4 ,now nearly all the continental runners--certainly all the best of them--have taken the ,norwegians as their model1 and have1 in consequence1 aimed not only at running as fast and steadily1 but also1 in one sense1 as easily as possible2 that is to say1 with the least muscular effort compatible with a perfect control of their skis1 or1 to put it more simply1 in the best style4 ,most ,englishmen1 however1 have learnt a very different method of ski-ing4 ,this system also teaches the beginner to run as easily as possible1 but in quite another sense4 ,the whole aim of the system is to dispense as far as possible with skill rather than with effort4 ,that is to say1 it directly encourages bad style4 ,the system is the invention of an ,austrian1 ,herr ,zdarsky1 who1 having never seen a ski-runner and knowing nothing about skis or their management1 got a pair from ,norway1 and reasoned out a method of using them1 eventually altering them to suit his method4 ,this was certainly a very surprising achievement1 as every one will agree who realises not only the practical difficulty of ski-running1 but the complication of its dynamics4 ,what is less surprising1 when one remembers the origin of ,zdarsky's system1 is that it teaches not one simple method of controlling the skis that had not been discovered long before1 and but few of those that had been4 ,it must in fact be regarded1 not as a new and different system1 but as a small part of an old one--the whole ,norwegian system of ski-running4 ,the distinguishing features of ,zdarsky's system are an almost exclusive reliance on the snow-plough position 7or an approximation to it71 for either braking1 turning1 or stopping1 a deliberate use of the stick to assist these manoeuvres and to help the balance on all occasions1 an extreme dislike to going fast1 and1 in general1 a pronounced tendency to avoid difficulties of balance rather than to overcome them1 and to encourage timidity as well as clumsiness4 ,the main object of ,zdarsky's system is to enable a beginner to run safely on steep and difficult ground with the least possible preliminary practice2 and so far1 no doubt1 it is successful4 ,but its very weakness is what makes it successful1 for it turns out ski-runners quickly by allowing them to run badly4 ,it is the very worst school for a beginner who takes up ski-ing no less for its own sake than as a means to an end1 for if he begins in this way1 sooner or later he will have to alter his methods entirely1 and get rid of a lot of bad habits which he would never have acquired if he had1 from the outset1 learnt his ski-ing in the ,norwegian manner4 ,to become a fairly proficient stick-riding and zigzagging crawler is a very simple matter2 but to get beyond this point1 and1 discarding the help of the stick1 to learn an equally safe but considerably quicker and more comfortable style of running1 is impossible without devoting some time and pains to practising1 though far less of both than is usually supposed4 ,every one1 of course1 has a perfect right to choose the style of ski-ing that suits him best4 ,if a man looks upon ski-running simply as a means of locomotion1 or if he dislikes the trouble of practising1 or has exceptionally poor nerve1 or is extraordinarily clumsy1 he will very likely be perfectly satisfied with a slow stick-riding system1 and will quite reasonably refuse to try anything else4 ,so far there is no harm done4 ,unfortunately1 however1 many of those who choose this primitive method of ski-ing make the absurd mistake of thinking that their method is a particularly sound and practical one1 and delude the innocent novice into thinking the same4 ,realising that without the stick they themselves would be helpless1 they say that its help is indispensable for safe running4 ,anything which they cannot do themselves1 such as running with the skis together so as to leave a single track2 turning or stopping by a free use of the different swings1 c41 instead of by their own dreadful imitation of the ,stemming turn and ,christiania2 fast straight-running2 jumping1 and so on1 they condemn as showy1 unsafe1 and of no practical use1 and class under the general heading of fancy tricks4 ,the absurdity of this standpoint will be patent to any one who knows the immense superiority of good running to bad1 as regards ease1 sureness1 and speed4 ,let us compare ski-running with horsemanship4 ,just as the ski-runner undoubtedly finds it easier at first to run with the aid of the stick than without1 so the man who mounts a horse for the first time will certainly find it a good deal easier to keep in the saddle if he holds on to it by the pommel or cantle4 ,i believe1 however1 that there is no school of horsemanship which advocates this method of riding as being particularly practical4 ,the reasons against the use of the stick as an aid to the balance in ski-running are much the same as those against using the saddle for the same purpose in riding4 ,there is a waste of energy in each case1 for it is doing clumsily by brute force what can be done more comfortably1 gracefully1 and effectively by skill4 ,moreover1 the balance1 when helped in this way1 never improves1 but remains permanently bad4 ,correct position1 narrow track1 complete command of the different swings--all those things1 in fact1 which distinguish good style from bad--mean economy of force1 and are therefore eminently practical4 ,to say that jumping is a useless accomplishment may at first sight appear justifiable4 ,in one sense there is not much practical use in jumping1 for occasions are not very often met with in the course of a tour where a jump is the only way1 or even the safest way1 out of a difficulty4 ,but in another sense jumping is extremely practical4 ,it accustoms a runner to moving at the highest possible speed1 and shows him that he need not mind taking a fall at this speed2 moreover1 to quote from ,mr4 ,richardson's excellent jumping chapter in ,the ,ski-,runner1 the first thing which a jumper has to learn is how to keep calm and collected and to make up his mind instantly what to do next when travelling at top speed--just the very things1 in fact1 which he must learn if he wants to be a good cross-country runner4 ,for these reasons it is the very best and quickest way of generally improving a man's running4 ,a very common attitude of ,englishmen towards ski-jumping is to treat it as a showy and dangerous acrobatic display1 all very well for reckless and athletic youths1 but out of the question for any one else4 ,yet ,i suppose that among the men who take up this attitude there are many who ride to hounds1 and very few who1 though they may not themselves hunt1 would dream of attributing to men or even women who do so either undue recklessness or unusual acrobatic ability4 ,though there may be a doubt as to whether making a jump of moderate length on skis or riding a horse over a fence is the more difficult feat1 there can be none whatever as to which is the more dangerous4 ,ski-jumping1 indeed1 is so safe that perhaps it could hardly lay claim to the title of a great sport but for the fact that it is not only difficult1 but also exceedingly1 if unreasonably1 alarming--at all events to the beginner4 ,it seems strange that so many able-bodied ,english ski-runners never so much as give jumping a trial1 unless they have an altogether wrong idea of its danger4 ,i spoke just now of the ignorance which made many bad runners condemn a better style of ski-ing than their own4 ,it is not easy1 at first sight1 to see why this ignorance as to the comparative advantages of good and bad running should be so common as it is1 for at most of the ,swiss winter places there are among the natives some really good performers4 ,the ,english1 however1 get few opportunities of watching the ,swiss runners1 except on the jumping hill1 and seldom see them doing their best across country1 for these men1 unless they happen to be guides1 do most of their ski-ing with their own countrymen1 the members of their own local ski-club4 ,moreover1 a good ski-runner is not seen at his best when acting as a guide1 for he has to go slowly1 and look after the weaker members of the party1 and there is no element of competition to put him on his mettle4 ,whatever may be the reason1 the fact remains that the average ,british ski-runner has little or no idea of the superiority of good running to bad as regards safety1 comfort1 and speed--to say nothing of interest or beauty4 ,he would probably be surprised and somewhat sceptical if told that by learning a good style of ski-ing he would find it possible to do the downhill portion of his tours in about half the time 7or less71 with half the fatigue1 with just as few falls 7if he wished to avoid them71 and with far less chance of hurting himself when he did fall--for bad style means awkward falls2 that he would thus get infinitely more pleasure1 interest1 and excitement out of his ski-ing1 and that1 moreover1 by going in for jumping he would still further increase all these benefits without increasing his risks4 ,i hope that by means of this rather rambling discourse ,i may have managed1 not only to show what1 in my opinion1 are the reasons for the low standard of ,english ski-ing1 but at the same time to implant a conviction of sin in the conscience of the average ,english ski-runner4 ,the object of the rest of this book is to show him what1 to my thinking1 is the way of salvation1 and to place the innocent novice in the path of virtue at the very outset4 ,,equipment ,,the ,,ski ,the ,wood4--,skis are usually made of ash1 which is1 perhaps1 on the whole1 a more suitable wood than any other4 ,hickory is excellent1 but is said to be more brittle than ash1 and is also heavier4 ,it is1 however1 but little heavier than the best ash1 for in the latter wood lightness means bad quality4 ,the wood must be well seasoned1 and as free as possible from knots1 especially near the bend and the binding1 though small knots which do not extend through the whole thickness of the ski cannot do much harm4 ,the grain of the wood should be wide and well marked4 ,the way it runs in the ski is most important2 it should run parallel with the long axis of the ski throughout its length1 above all at the front bend and the binding2 for if the grain run out at these points1 the ski will be very liable to break there4 ,if anywhere else the grain runs out at all1 see that it does so in such a way that the lines on the side of the ski run backwards and downwards 7,fig4 #a1 ,a71 not forwards and downwards 7,fig4 #a1 ,b74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,cross-grain2 in ,a it does not much matter1 as it only occurs at some distance from the binding and points backwards2 ,b is very bad4 ,if the lines of grain on the sole of the ski run across at all instead of parallel to the sides1 the ski1 when it gets rather worn1 will not run straight4 ,if1 of a pair of skis1 one runs to the right and one to the left1 it does not much matter1 for in that case the former can be put on the left foot and the latter on the right2 they will then merely keep together and hold each other straight4 ,but if both skis run off to the same side there is nothing to be done1 so look carefully at the grain of the sole when choosing them1 to see that there is no chance of this 7,fig4 #b74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,cross-grain on running surface3 ,a converging1 not very serious2 ,b parallel1 very bad4 ,there is one more point to be noticed about the arrangement of the grain in the ski4 ,if you look at the heel end of the ski1 you will generally see the grain disposed in vertical lines1 as in ,fig4 #c1 ,b4 ,the ski will not only be stronger and more springy1 but will wear better and run faster if cut so that the grain lies horizontally 7,fig4 #c1 ,c74#a ,fig4 #c1 ,a shows a disposition of the grain which is likely to weaken the ski and should be avoided4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,a bad1 ,b good1 ,c still better4 ,the colour of a ski is a matter of taste4 ,dark colours have the disadvantage of causing the snow which collects on the top of the ski to melt more readily2 it may then refreeze and accumulate1 forming an unnecessary load of ice4 ,a dark colour also makes it more difficult to detect faults in the grain1 and it is wiser for this reason to buy plain varnished skis1 and colour them afterwards if you want them darker4 ,new skis should be given several coats of boiled linseed oil1 each being allowed to sink in before the next is applied4 ,when at last the wood will absorb no more1 give it a coat of raw linseed oil2 this dries hard1 with a surface just rough enough for easy climbing1 but slippery enough to make waxing unnecessary1 except for the very stickiest snow4 ,the more often skis are oiled1 even when in use1 the better4 ,dimensions4--,when you are standing with your arm stretched at full length above your head1 the ski1 placed upright1 should be at least long enough for its tip to reach the roots of your fingers2 it may well reach a few inches beyond the finger-ends4 ,the longer the ski the pleasanter you will find it for straight-running4 ,on a long ski you keep your balance more easily1 run more smoothly on rough ground1 and keep a straight course with less trouble4 ,a short ski is slightly easier for turning1 but if you learn correct methods of turning1 the difference is insignificant2 and in any case1 however much you may twist and turn1 you are bound for the greater part of the time to be running straight1 and you might as well do so as comfortably as possible4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,the ski should be as narrow as possible1 hardly more than #b-c_/d inches 7#g centimetres7 at the narrowest part--i4e4 where the foot rests on it--even for the biggest man4 ,if it measures #b-c_/d inches in width at the narrowest part1 it should be about #c-c_/d inches wide at the front bend1 and just over #c inches at the heel4 ,a narrow ski is in every way better than a wide one2 the only object of increasing the width of a ski is to make its bearing surface on the snow proportionate to the weight of a heavier man1 and so to prevent it from sinking more deeply and therefore running more slowly4 ,but this should be done by increasing the length rather than the width4 ,the beginner usually imagines that the wider the ski the more easily he will be able to balance on it4 ,this is a great mistake4 ,a narrow ski is far steadier than a wide one for straight running2 it is easier for turning1 and infinitely more comfortable for moving across a steep slope of hard snow1 the diminished leverage putting less strain on the ankles1 as the diagram shows4#b ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,the thickness of the ski is proportionate to its elasticity and the weight of the runner1 being about #a-a_/d inches at the binding and #c_/h inch at the front bend and the heel4 ,a stiff ski runs rather less comfortably than a thinner and more flexible one1 but it is safer to choose a ski of ample thickness near the binding1 especially if it is to be used for jumping4 ,the turn up at the front of the ski should begin at about one-fifth of the distance from the tip to the heel end4 ,it should be very gradual1 for a sudden bend makes the ski run more slowly and far less smoothly4 ,the under side of the tip need not be more than five inches above the ground4 ,there is a slight upward arch between the front bend and the heel4 ,it should be no more than #c_/d of an inch high at its highest point1 below the heel of the boot1 only just sufficient to prevent the ski when resting on soft snow from bending downwards in the middle under the weight of the runner4 ,the height of this arch should therefore vary slightly according to the length and stiffness of the ski1 and to the runner's weight4 ,of course any twist in the ski will prevent it from running true4 ,a simple way of making sure that a ski is free from any such twist is as follows3 draw a few lines across its sole1 at right angles to a line down the middle of it1 and1 holding the ski so that a very much fore-shortened view of the sole is obtained1 see if all these lines are parallel4 ,nothing is more uncomfortable and difficult to run on than a ski which has become warped and has a downward bend in the middle4 ,to prevent this happening and to preserve the upward arch1 a pair of skis1 when not in use1 should be placed sole to sole and bound together at the front bend and the heel1 with a block of wood about #a-c_/d inches thick put between them #h inches or so behind the binding1 just where the boot-heel rests on the ski4 ,most skis are made with a groove running along the middle of the sole from the front bend to the heel4 ,this groove greatly increases the ski's steadiness in straight-running1 and on no account should be omitted4 ,a smooth-soled ski makes turning easier for the runner who has not learnt the right way to do it1 but this slight advantage by no means compensates for the wobbliness in straight-running which it entails4 ,if you want easy steering1 choose extra-flexible skis1 but not grooveless or extra-short ones4 ,most of the ordinary foot-bindings are fixed to the ski by means of a hole bored from side to side through its thickest part4 ,see that this hole is made almost entirely in the upper half of the ski's thickness1 well away from the sole4 ,when lifted by a strap passed through this hole1 the ski should point downwards at an angle of about #de degrees4 ,in order that they shall be stronger in relation to their weight and less flexible1 skis are sometimes made with a convex1 instead of a flat upper-surface4 ,the increased stiffness makes them less comfortable for ordinary running but safer for jumping4 ,the convexity should always stop short of the beginning of the front bend4 ,fig4 #f shows that it depends on how this convexity is obtained as to whether and how it is an advantage or otherwise4 ,supposing the wood in each case to be of exactly the same quality1 ,b will obviously be not only stiffer but heavier than ,a1 ,c will be stiffer but no heavier1 ,d will be equally stiff but lighter4 ,it is evident1 then1 that one cannot say off-hand that the convex shape is either better or worse than the flat1 but only that1 weight for weight1 the convex shape gives greater stiffness and strength1 the flat gives more elasticity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,the ,binding4--,the question of the binding1 by which the ski is fastened to the foot1 is a very vexed one2 ,i shall treat it as shortly as ,i can4 ,the binding should1 if possible1 fulfil the following conditions3-- 7#a7 ,it should be light2 7#b7 should be easily adjusted to fit the boot2 7#c7 should admit of being quickly and easily fastened and unfastened2 7#d7 should be difficult to break and easy to mend2 7#e7 should allow fairly free vertical movement of the foot1 but limit its lateral movement enough to make steering easy2 7#f7 should be comfortable1 and not likely to injure the runner in case of a fall4 ,there are innumerable forms of binding on the market1 not one of which is absolutely satisfactory in every respect2 the choice of a binding is largely a matter of taste4 ,but1 though it is not possible to say that any one binding is the best1 it is possible to say that certain forms are more generally popular than others4 ,the reader who is not a novice probably knows all there is to be said for and against the more common forms2 while to give a long description of several kinds of bindings1 setting forth their various good and bad points1 would be more likely to confuse a novice than to help him to choose one that suited him4 ,i shall therefore describe one binding only1 the ,huitfeldt1 which is by far the most generally popular one1 especially in ,norway1 and shall show how it answers to the above-mentioned requirements4 ,the ,huitfeldt binding 7,fig4 #g7 consists of an iron1 leather-lined toe-piece which is passed through the hole in the ski and bent up at each side2 a short strap passing over the toes and connecting the ends of the metal toe-piece2 and a long strap which passes through the hole in the ski and round the heel of the boot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,huitfeldt binding1 with ,ellefsen clamp ,x 7left foot74 ,a third strap1 which passes under the waist of the boot1 prevents the heel-strap from slipping up the side of the foot1 as it is sometimes inclined to do when the heel is much raised2 and a fourth strap1 crossing the foot behind the toe-strap1 prevents the heel-strap from slipping under the boot sole at the side4 ,the heel-strap1 however1 will often be found to keep in place perfectly without these two straps1 or1 at any rate1 without the latter1 and in that case there is no object in keeping them on the binding4 ,the ski is fastened on and taken off without buckling or unbuckling the straps when once they have been properly adjusted4 ,in order to put on the ski1 simply push the foot well home between the toe-irons1 and then pull the heel-strap up over the boot-heel4 ,the toe-strap may be quite loose2 the heel-strap must be so tight that it is only just possible to force it over the boot-heel4 ,the toe-irons must be hammered or bent 7a heavy screw-wrench is useful for this7 to fit the sole of the boot exactly1 so that when the boot is pushed home between them the centre of the heel lies in the very middle of the ski4 ,this means that for boots of an ordinary shape the inside toe-iron must be more nearly parallel to the side of the ski than the outside one1 as in diagram2 otherwise the boot-heel will rest on the inner side of the ski 7,fig4 #h74 ,if the toe-irons show any tendency to wobble1 small wooden wedges may be driven between them and the side of the cavity in the ski1 but by the sides of the toe-irons1 not below them1 or the ski may split4 ,the toe-irons should be so adjusted that when the boot is pushed right home the toe only projects a little way beyond the toe-strap 7see ,fig4 #g74 ,if the toe-strap crosses the foot too far back1 it does not allow a free enough movement when the heel is raised1 and in a fall forward may sprain the foot4 ,if the fastening fits properly there should be enough freedom to allow the knee just to touch the front of the ski4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,a ,a right1 ,b ,b wrong positions for toe-irons 7left ski74 ,in order to prevent the heel-strap from slipping off the boot1 the heel of the boot should be made to project at the back1 both top and bottom of the projection being rounded to allow of the strap being easily pulled on and off 7see ,fig4 #i1 p4 #da74 ,this is a better and a simpler arrangement than the strap and buckle at the back of the heel with which ski-boots are often fitted4 ,the heel-strap should be bent first downwards and then backwards on each side of the ski1 so that the side of it which is uppermost within the cavity of the ski becomes outermost round the foot4 ,this arrangement increases the tension when the heel rises4 ,it is most important that the heel-strap should be very tight1 for its tension not only limits the vertical movement of the foot1 and so makes it possible to lift the heel of the ski1 but also1 by keeping the boot firmly jammed between the toe-irons1 prevents nearly all lateral movement1 and so makes steering easy4 ,the heel-strap consists of two parts2 the back part should be fitted with a metal lever called ,the ,ellefsen ,shortening ,clamp 7,fig4 #g1 ,x74 ,opening and closing this lever lengthens and shortens the heel-strap2 the strap is buckled so that with the lever open it will just pass over the projection on the boot-heel2 it can be thoroughly tightened up1 when on1 by the closing of the lever4 ,this lever should be so fitted on the heel-strap that it comes on the outside of the heel near the back4 ,the advantages of the ,huitfeldt binding are as follows3-- ,it is very light4 ,if fitted with the shortening lever it can be put on and taken off in a second or two4 ,it is not easily broken1 and is not difficult to mend4 ,if properly fitted1 it limits the movement of the foot enough to give ample steering power4 ,it is quite comfortable1 and is most unlikely to injure the foot even in the worst fall4 ,its disadvantages are that great care is needed to adjust the toe-irons so as exactly to fit the boot1 and keep it in the middle of the ski2 and that the heel-strap is rather quickly worn at the points where it rubs against the edges of the toe-irons4 ,this wearing1 however1 can be diminished by filing down the sharp edges of the toe-iron where they touch the strap1 and by occasionally pulling the strap through the hole in the ski far enough to expose another part of it to the friction4 ,another slight drawback lies in the fact that the heel-strap1 where it projects on each side of the ski1 diminishes the speed somewhat by brushing against the snow2 but this is hardly worth mentioning4 ,on the whole1 then1 the ,huitfeldt binding has more good points than bad ones1 and is just as likely to suit the beginner permanently as any of the other bindings1 if he is obliged to buy his skis at the outset4 ,if he is able to try two or three different bindings before making his choice1 he no doubt will do so2 but it is not likely that he will fully understand the pros and cons of any good binding until he has given it a longish trial1 and has a fair practical knowledge of ski-running4 ,in any case1 ,i strongly advise him not to worry too much on the subject of bindings4 ,with all1 except the very worst and least widely used bindings1 it is possible to learn to ski well1 provided they fit properly4 ,he should be careful to see that the middle of the heel rests naturally on the middle of the ski2 that the foot has enough vertical freedom to allow the knee just to touch the ski in front1 but not enough to allow it to touch without considerable tension2 and that the lateral movement of the foot is very limited4 ,if these conditions are fulfilled1 the binding will be comfortable1 safe1 and will give ample steering power4 ,in the ,huitfeldt binding and several others of the same type1 the steering power and control of the ski is obtained by the tension between the heel-strap and toe-irons4 ,there is another type in which this power is obtained by a false sole1 generally made of driving-belting1 which is fixed to the ski under the toe of the boot and is free at the heel end4 ,this system gives greater1 or even absolute lateral rigidity1 and is therefore more likely to injure the foot4 ,the most widely used forms of this type of binding are the ,ellefsen1 a very good binding2 the ,black ,forest or ,balata binding1 in which the false sole is fitted with a socket for the heel1 a great favourite with shopkeepers who hire out skis1 because1 without adjustment1 it will fit anyone somehow--generally badly2 and the ,lilienfeld binding1 an ,austrian invention1 made almost completely of metal1 and giving absolute lateral rigidity1 but unsuitable for jumping and disliked by most good runners4#c ,absolute lateral rigidity is not only dangerous1 but is quite unnecessary for a runner who has learnt1 or who means to learn1 correct methods4 ,for in braking or steering1 when properly done1 the effect is produced by the distribution of the weight1 and by vertical pressure on the ski rather than by forcibly twisting or pushing it sideways4 ,with any binding on the ,huitfeldt principle it is necessary to wear a boot with a wide-welted sole which is double throughout its length1 in order that it may not buckle at the waist of the foot under the strain of the heel-strap4 ,the part of the ski on which the foot rests should be covered by a thin plate of some such metal as brass or tin1 which does not oxidise readily4 ,this protects the ski if nailed boots are worn1 and prevents snow from accumulating in an uncomfortable lump under the foot4 ,if the boots have no nails1 or if the binding has a false sole1 a plate of celluloid or linoleum is sufficient4 ,the ,stick4--,the ski-runner carries either one or two sticks4 ,he uses them to increase his pace on level ground1 or when running down a gentle slope2 to help him in walking uphill2 to steady him when turning while standing on a slope2 and possibly1 on very rare occasions1 to help to check his pace4 ,to use them while on the move1 either as a help to the balance or for steering1 is the mark of a bad runner4 ,the sticks 7for two are more useful than one7 should be light2 cane or hazel is the usual wood4 ,they should be long enough to reach two or three inches above the elbow1 when resting on the snow4 ,at the top the stick is provided with a leather loop to support the hand while punting4 ,at the other end it is shod with a metal spike1 a few inches above which a movable disc1 generally made of wicker1 is attached to prevent the stick from sinking into the snow4 ,choose some disc attachment which does not involve the passing of a thong through a hole in the stick1 for one of that sort wears out very soon4 ,,clothing ,boots4--,in order to avoid frost-bite1 to the risk of which the ski-runner is often exposed1 the boots must be stout1 flexible1 waterproof1 and exceedingly loose--large enough1 in fact1 to hold two pairs1 at any rate1 of the very thickest stockings without the least pressure1 especially on the toes4 ,boots made on the ,norwegian ,laupar principle are particularly good only in the respect of giving the toes perfect freedom4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,boot showing rounded projection on heel2 sole of uniform thickness from toe to beginning of heel2 and metal plates 7,x7 to prevent wear of toe-iron4 ,the heel must be very low1 and1 as explained above1 it should be made to project at the back to prevent the heel-strap from slipping off1 if the binding has one4 ,for a binding of the ,huitfeldt type the sole must be thick1 not only at the ball of the foot1 but at the waist2 it should have a widish welt to prevent the toe-irons from pressing against the foot4#d ,where the toe-irons touch the side of the sole1 they are apt to wear a hollow1 and the boot then works gradually forwards4 ,this can be prevented by screwing thin plates of metal to the side of the sole at this point4 ,to enable the toe-irons to hold the boot as steady as possible1 it is better that the sides of the sole should be rather straight 7though not parallel7 than curved4 ,the boots should be greased or oiled often enough to keep them quite soft and flexible4 ,some form of felt or canvas boot-cover is a great safeguard against frost-bite1 which is a danger that can by no means be overrated4 ,whether the boots shall be nailed or not is a matter of taste4 ,nails cut the skis and make the snow ball between them and the boots4 ,boots with no nails at all make climbing an icy path on foot rather troublesome4 ,if no nails are worn1 climbing irons can be carried to strap on to the boot for walking on icy places4 ,most people wear a few small nails1 though many 7myself included7 wear none4 ,a complete rubber sole 7which grips on ice but picks up no snow7 might work even better than the ,scafe rubber studs2 but ,i know these are good4 ,stockings4--,as ,i have said1 two or three pairs of stockings should be worn4 ,however waterproof the boot1 it is impossible to keep the stockings perfectly dry owing to the condensation of water vapour from the foot which takes place on the inner surface of the boot4 ,in severe cold this wet layer freezes1 and should therefore be kept as far as possible from the foot4 ,it is useless1 however1 to fill the boot with stockings to such an extent as to cause pressure on the foot and check the circulation1 for this is even more likely to cause frost-bite than is insufficient covering4 ,most ski-runners wear a pair of the thickest ordinary stockings1 or socks1 and over this a pair of goat's-hair socks which are more than twice as thick4 ,these goat's-hair socks 7or what are generally sold as such7 wear badly1 and a pair of socks of the same thickness1 but made of wool1 seem just as warm4 ,spare socks should always be carried on long expeditions in case the pair next the feet should get wet through4 ,gloves4--,these are an important item4 ,they should be of mitten-shape1 with a bag for the fingers1 and should have a gauntlet-shaped arm long enough to pull well over the sleeve4 ,like the boots1 they must be roomy4 ,felt or wool is the usual material4 ,a canvas outer covering makes them less liable to get wet through1 for the snow sticks to it less4 ,it is always difficult1 however1 to keep them dry1 and a spare pair is often as necessary as spare socks4 ,cap4--,some kind of cap which can at least be pulled down over the ears1 if not over the neck and chin1 is indispensable4 ,as an addition or substitute1 an ample scarf or muffler is useful1 especially1 perhaps1 for women4 ,no hat-brim protects the eyes sufficiently to be the least safeguard against snow-blindness4 ,dark glasses should always be carried1 especially above the tree-line1 and should be put on the instant that any discomfort is felt from the glare4 ,outer ,clothing4--,this should be as nearly windproof as possible1 and should have a smooth surface1 for if it be hairy the snow will stick to it1 and1 when that melts1 the clothes will become soaked4 ,for this reason a sweater is not satisfactory as the outermost garment on a long expedition4 ,any clothing which cannot be removed during a climb should be fairly light and not too hot1 for climbing is often excessively hot work4 ,a moderately stout whipcord is perhaps as good a material as anything4 ,in order to keep out the snow the collar of a coat should be made to button close round the neck1 and the sleeves round the wrists4 ,the pockets should have large flaps to button4 ,most ,english runners clothe themselves1 as to the legs1 in breeches and puttees1 which are a very efficient means of keeping out the snow4 ,leather gaiters are useless4 ,until recently most ,norwegians used to wear rather close-fitting trousers which buttoned tightly round the ankles inside the boots1 and a sort of very short puttee round the tops of the boots themselves4 ,for warmth1 comfort1 and simplicity this system seems hard to beat4 ,all the foregoing remarks as to boots1 stockings1 gloves1 caps1 and material1 of course1 apply equally to women's clothing4 ,whether in addition to snowproof knickerbockers and puttees a woman shall wear a skirt is1 of course1 a matter of taste or strength of mind4 ,in ,germany and ,austria most lady ski-runners dispense with it4 ,if a skirt is worn it is particularly important that both it and the knickerbockers shall be of very smooth texture1 otherwise the snow which works up between them in a fall will not shake out again1 but will accumulate in large quantities and soak the clothes in melting4 ,the shorter the skirt1 the better as regards comfort4 ,even a skirt which only just covers the knees will touch the snow during manoeuvres which involve a semi-kneeling position4 ,as to appearance1 ,i can assure any one who is distressed at the apparent size of her feet and ankles when properly clad that a longish skirt makes them far more conspicuous than a very short one2 a skirt long enough to hide them completely is1 of course1 out of the question4 ,if the thick goat's-hair or woollen oversock goes some way up the leg instead of stopping short just above the boot1 and if the puttee is thin and smooth instead of being about half an inch thick and woolly1 a less gloomy outlook on life will perhaps be induced4 ,underclothing4--,climbing a hill on skis is generally very hot work1 but one is often exposed to the most bitter cold on the top1 especially when the sun is hidden1 or when wind and sunshine come from the same quarter1 and it is impossible to take shelter from the former without losing the latter4 ,this makes it very difficult to regulate satisfactorily the thickness of one's clothing4 ,on the whole1 it is perhaps better to wear fairly light underclothing1 and to rely for warmth mainly on outer garments which can be carried1 instead of worn1 during the climb4 ,if light clothing is worn1 two extra sweaters or cardigans may well be carried4 ,in this case they must never be forgotten1 but must be carried always1 no matter what the weather may be1 for it may change quickly without the least warning1 and1 in any case1 there is often a bitter wind high up when the heat is almost tropical in the valley4 ,a windproof coat of thin oil-silk or of a kind of paper-cloth made by a ,paris firm1 is a very good substitute for a spare sweater4 ,it is warmer1 lighter1 and takes up hardly any space4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following things are very useful1 some of them indispensable on a long expedition4 ,they can mostly be bought ready made1 and ,i shall not attempt a description where their application is obvious4 ,wax1 either in a block or a collapsible tube1 which is used to prevent wet snow from sticking to the ski4 ,it is smeared on the ski and rubbed in with a rag4 ,it is better1 if possible1 to do this before starting out2 or1 at any rate1 to dry the ski first4 ,a good knife4 ,some blunt instrument for scraping ice off the ski without injuring the wood4 ,a metal ski-tip to fit on the ski1 if the point is broken off and lost4 ,a few tools for mending a broken ski--gimlet1 screw-driver1 and punch 7unless the knife is fitted with these72 perhaps also a hammer1 saw1 and file4 ,small cases of tools with a common handle can be bought4 ,one or two small steel plates and pieces of sheet brass or zinc with holes bored in them1 and a few screws to fit them2 or a clamp#e consisting of two metal plates connected by two bolts with wing-nuts4 ,fig4 #aj shows how these may be used to mend a broken ski4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,ski mended with 7,a7 metal plates1 7,b7 clamp4 ,spare parts of the binding itself may be carried in case it breaks1 and a thong of raw hide about two yards long1 with a loop at one end1 is often useful4 ,this thong1 when used as a substitute for the ,huitfeldt heel-strap1 constitutes what is known as the ,lapp binding4 ,this is a most firm and comfortable binding1 especially for jumping1 but since it cannot be adjusted quickly nor with gloved hands1 is unsuitable for occasions which involve frequent taking off and putting on of the skis1 or exposure to extreme cold4 ,fig4 #aa explains the arrangement of the thong4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,when arranged as above so that it passes twice round the heel of the boot1 the thong is hauled perfectly taut and made fast4 ,this can be done in slightly different ways2 ,i find the following a satisfactory one4 ,arrange the thong so that1 when it is pulled tight1 the points ,a ,b are about an inch in front of the heel of the boot1 the loop ,a being on the outside of the foot4 ,then pass the free end under the waist of the foot1 up across the thongs on the inner side1 over the instep1 and back to ,a1 finishing with a half-hitch round both parts of the thong at ,a4 ,if this half-hitch is made with the end of the thong pushed through it in a bight1 it can be pulled undone like a bow1 which is an advantage when the thong is frozen hard4 ,a few yards of strong cord1 some string1 and some brass wire are often useful4 ,a ski may be prevented from slipping backwards in hill-climbing by tying one end of a piece of cord to its tip1 passing a few half hitches round it at intervals1 hauling all taut1 and tying the other end of the cord to the binding4 ,this1 however1 makes it necessary to lift the ski forward at each step instead of sliding it4 ,the only satisfactory preventive of back-slip is a strip of sealskin fastened underneath the ski2 this also prevents wet snow from sticking to the ski1 as it sometimes does in masses almost too heavy to lift4 ,to prevent back-slip a strip half the length of the ski is sufficient2 for sticky snow1 however1 it is of course better for the ski to be quite covered4 ,which of the many forms of detachable sealskin in the market work the best ,i am not competent to say1 having so far managed to do without it4 ,there is no doubt that sealskin is a great labour saver4 ,with its help it is possible to climb so much more quickly than without1 that for long mountain tours it is almost indispensable4 ,moreover1 when it is used for the climb1 the soles of the skis can be kept polished or varnished to a degree of slipperiness that prevents even the worst of sticky snow from being much hindrance during the run down4 ,the rucksack1 in which these things1 spare clothing1 food1 c41 are carried1 should be very large1 snowproof and strong1 but not heavy4 ,its straps should be wide at the shoulder and long4 ,about food1 or the special equipment necessary for mountaineering1 or any other special application of ski-running1 ,i shall not attempt to speak1 this book being only concerned with what is absolutely necessary to the ski-runner qu ski-runner4 ,those who wish for further information will find it in a vast number of books on mountaineering proper1 in ,rickmers' ,ski-ing for ,beginners and ,mountaineers1 ,richardson's ,the ,ski-,runner1 ,arnold ,lunn's ,alpine ,ski ,club ,guide-books1 and in many books in other languages on ski-running and kindred subjects2 for instance1 ,der ,ski-lauf1 by ,paulcke 7of which a ,french translation1 ,manuel de ,ski1 is published71 and ,bilgeri's ,alpine ,ski-lauf4 ,,the ,,management ,,of ,,the ,,skis ,,on ,,the ,,level ,,and ,,uphill ,putting on ,skis4--,lay the skis side by side on the snow4 ,in order to put on the right ski1 place the left foot on it just behind the binding as in ,fig4 #ab1 the toe of the boot being on the left side of the ski and the heel on the right4 ,your weight then holds the ski steady while you push the right foot well home and fasten the binding4 ,now lift the right foot and ski1 stand them on the left ski in a similar way1 and fasten that to the foot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,on a hillside lay the skis across the slope2 stand below them1 and put on the lower ski first1 bringing the foot to it across the front of the other leg4 ,on the ,level4--,the ski-runner moves on the level with an action much like that of ordinary walking1 except that he does not lift his skis from the snow1 but slides them along it4 ,hold your skis exactly parallel and as close together as possible--not more than two inches apart--and take a long1 easy1 lunging step1 keeping the knee of the advancing leg well over the foot1 and leaning the body well forwards 7,plate ,i474 ,move the stick1 or sticks1 in time with the opposite leg1 giving a push at each1 or at every alternate stride1 according as you carry two sticks or one4 ,slide as far as you can after the advanced foot has received the weight1 and don't be in a hurry to bring forward the other one4 ,the body must be swayed slightly from side to side with each step in order to balance it well over the ski which carries the weight4 ,if you wish to get up the greatest possible speed on the level with two sticks1 take three running--not sliding--steps1 swinging the sticks forwards with the first two1 and1 at the third1 giving a push with both sticks1 followed by a long slide4 ,then do the same again1 starting with the other foot4 ,uphill4--,if the gradient is very slight1 you can slide straight uphill in just the same way as on the level4 ,at a rather steeper gradient 7the angle depending on the slipperiness of the snow and the skis7 you will still be able to move in the same way1 but without the extra forward slide after the weight has come on to the advanced ski4 ,if the slope becomes still steeper you will find that the friction is hardly enough to make the skis hold4 ,the moment you feel they have a tendency to slip backwards as the weight comes on them1 walk as upright as possible1 even leaning slightly backwards1 so as to bring the weight on the heels and throw a little tension on the toe-strap4 ,shorten your stride1 and1 instead of sliding the skis along the snow1 lift their points six inches or so into the air as you move them forwards 7but do not let their heel ends leave the snow71 and bring them down again in front of you with a gentle but decided stamp4 ,in making this stamping movement1 take care1 as you bring the foot to the ground1 to stamp it in a direction exactly at right angles to the surface of the slope4 ,the least suspicion of pawing backwards1 or lunging forwards1 as the ski touches the snow is sure to make it slip4 ,by moving steadily and carefully in this way it is possible to walk up an appreciably steeper gradient than the one at which the skis first show a tendency to slip back4 ,but it is no use attempting to struggle or hurry2 no amount of effort will help you1 and if you cannot do it easily you cannot do it at all4 ,if the gradient becomes any steeper than this--and except in the worst conditions of sticky snow1 the slope will still be quite gentle1 the skis will slip backwards in spite of all your care4 ,at the first sudden and unexpected back-slip instinct will prompt you to throw yourself forward1 strike out with the back foot1 and make a sort of pawing movement with the advanced one4 ,if you do this1 your skis will slip from under you and you will fall on your nose4 ,do nothing of the sort1 therefore1 but the moment the ski slips lean right backwards1 with a free swing of the body1 at the same time lifting the slipping ski quickly round behind the heel of1 and to right angles with1 the other ski1 to stop you 7,plate ,,ii4 p4 #ed74 ,to proceed as before being now impossible1 you have the choice of three different methods3 zigzagging1 herring-boning1 and side-stepping4 ,zigzagging4--,turn more or less sideways to the hill and then move forwards at a gradient just easy enough to prevent back-slipping4 ,the skis are held as close together as possible1 and moved just as before2 but now1 instead of being flat to the surface of the snow1 they are edged 7cutting more deeply into it with the edges which are nearest the hill7 and one ski is more or less above the other1 according to the steepness of the slope4 ,if the surface is very hard and icy1 and the skis cut in very little1 less than half their width may rest on the snow4 ,in order to lessen the muscular effort then needed to hold the ankles vertical 7see p4 #bh7 press both knees1 especially the lower one1 well over towards the hill4 ,hold the sticks in each hand1 and use them just as before1 no matter how steep the slope4 ,if the slope be very steep1 the stick on the uphill side can be held shorter1 but the two sticks should never 7except on a dangerous slope7 be put together and held across the body with both hands1 as a climber holds his ice-axe4 ,to do so will only get you into a bad habit of leaning towards the hill and supporting yourself with the stick1 and will prevent you from balancing yourself properly and walking freely4 ,if only one stick be used1 it should be carried in the hand which is nearest the hill4 ,if a steep slope is so hard and slippery that nothing will make the edges of the skis grip1 hold the point of each stick close against the downhill side of each foot1 move the sticks exactly in unison with the feet1 and dig their points hard into the crust at each step4 ,this gives a perfectly firm support for the skis and answers the purpose of climbing-irons4 ,it is1 however1 very seldom necessary4 ,having found the steepest gradient which you can negotiate without back-slipping1 so adjust your course across the hill that this gradient remains constant4 ,that is to say1 if you come to a spot which is steeper--no matter how slightly1 or for how short a distance--don't dream of trying to move on to it without altering your course2 but instantly turn more sideways to the hill1 so that although the direction of your course is altered its gradient remains the same as before4 ,by this means only will you avoid falling on your nose1 or1 at any rate1 struggling and slipping uselessly4 ,nothing is more common than to see a beginner making frantic efforts to cross a short bit of steeper ground without altering his course4 ,he could attempt nothing more hopeless4 ,it is amazing how many exhausting struggles and falls are usually needed to impress on a learner the fact that it is utterly impossible for him to advance even one single step on steeper ground--however slight the difference in gradient may be--without altering his course4 ,of course if the slope becomes less steep1 you turn less sideways to the hill and mount it more directly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,the diagram will1 perhaps1 help to explain the proper way of moving uphill across ground of varying gradient4 ,it represents a slope with a steep-sided gully running down it4 ,the conformation of the ground is indicated by contour lines1 as in a map--i4e4 imaginary horizontal lines running along the side of the hill1 with the same vertical distance between each pair4 ,where1 then1 the contour lines in the plan are far apart the slope is gradual1 and vice versa4 ,since the direction of the fall of the slope is everywhere at right angles with that of the contour lines1 its general direction only is shown by the arrow2 at either side of the gully its local direction is1 of course1 nearly at right angles to this4 ,,ab is the track of an experienced ski-runner4 ,observe that 7i7 in general shape the line ,,ab resembles the contour lines2 7ii7 it never cuts the same contour twice2 7iii7 when the contours are far apart it cuts them at a blunter angle than when they are close together4 ,in other words1 the expert 7i7 makes a dtour at the gully2 7ii7 never loses any height that he has once gained2 7iii7 moves steadily uphill at a constant gradient1 facing the hill more directly where it is less steep1 and vice versa4 ,,ac is the track of a beginner4 ,trying to cut across directly towards ,b he runs downhill into the gully1 but1 being of course unable to climb straight up the steep slope on the far side in the direction of ,b1 he has to bear away to the right2 and at ,c1 when his track from ,a is quite as long as the expert's at ,b1 he is not nearly so far up the hill4 ,remember that the variation of contour needs just as careful attention in its smallest details as in its main features1 and must be negotiated in exactly the same way4 ,in climbing in this way it is1 of course1 impossible to go on continually keeping the same side to the slope 7unless the hill is perfectly conical in shape and quite free from obstacles1 allowing one to wind round it to the top in a spiral74 ,having moved in one direction for a time1 you will eventually have to turn round and begin a fresh tack4 ,to shuffle round1 as you might do on the level1 is obviously impossible2 for1 whether you do so facing up or downhill1 the skis will at a certain angle begin to run away4 ,the usual procedure is to make what is known as a kick-turn4 ,the ,kick-,turn4--,suppose that you have been traversing the slope with the hill on your right side and wish to make a fresh tack4 ,stop with your skis pointing uphill at the angle at which they have just been moving1 and your sticks resting close to each foot4 ,then put your weight on the lower ski1 and draw back the other1 slightly bending the upper knee and raising the heel 7,plate ,,iii474 ,now swing your right leg from the hip vigorously forwards and upwards1 straightening it completely as it rises1 and turning up the toe as hard as you can1 as though trying to make a very high kick4 ,the leg must be swung freely1 not merely lifted4 ,the result of this movement1 if made with confidence1 will be to bring the ski to an upright position with its heel resting in the snow close to the bend of the other 7,plate ,,iv474 ,if there is any hesitation1 the knee is sure to remain bent1 and the toe to point forward1 the result of which will be that the heel of the ski will catch in the snow before it has moved far enough to the front4 ,the position in ,plate ,,iv4 is only momentary4 ,as soon as the ski is standing on end in the snow swing its point round to the right and downwards1 until the whole ski again rests on the snow1 pointing uphill in the opposite direction1 but at the same angle as before 7,plate ,v474 ,during this movement the heel of the right ski remains in the snow where it was placed at first1 and acts as a pivot4 ,the steeper and more slippery the slope1 and the less directly you have therefore been climbing it1 the narrower1 obviously1 will have to be the angle between the skis in the position of ,plate ,v41 but1 if your joints are normally supple1 it is only on very steep or icy slopes1 when the skis have to be brought nearly parallel1 that you will find it much of a strain to turn your feet and knees far enough outwards4 ,next shift the whole weight over on to the upper leg1 at the same time straightening it and letting the other hang slightly bent2 this movement will lift the lower ski and stick just off the snow 7,plate ,,vi474 ,then straightening the left knee and turning up the toe as hard as possible 7,plate ,,vii41 ,a71 face towards the point of the right ski and bring the left ski round to the side of it 7,plate ,,viii474 ,this time1 however1 make no attempt to kick or swing the leg1 as you did in turning the right ski1 but keep the left foot quite close to the right as it moves round it4 ,the only difficulty here is to keep the point of the ski from catching in the slope above you as it turns4 ,on a very steep slope1 in order to avoid this1 you will have to change from the position of ,plate ,,vi4 to that of ,plate ,,viii4 very quickly1 straightening the left knee and turning up the toe with a sudden jerk as you do so1 and also lifting the left hip as much as you can4 ,this will for a moment throw up the point of the left ski much higher than if the movement were made slowly4 ,but if you try to lift the whole ski high above the snow with knee bent and toe dropped1 or to swing the left leg away from the other1 the point is nearly certain to catch 7,plate ,,vii41 ,b74 ,the left stick is moved round with the left ski1 but the point of the other stays in the same place throughout the turn2 when only one stick is carried it should1 therefore1 be held in the hand which1 before the turn1 is the uphill one4 ,the sticks of course help to steady you1 but you should be able to turn without any stick in your hand1 and should learn to do so as soon as you can4 ,having reached the position of ,plate ,,viii41 you can1 of course1 begin a fresh tack1 at the end of which you can make another kick-turn by reversing the words right and left in these directions4 ,the kick-turn1 as ,i have described it1 is made with three distinct pauses at the positions of ,plates ,,iv41 ,v41 and ,,vi4 ,instead1 however1 of starting the turn by standing the upper ski on end and using its heel as a pivot1 it is quite possible to do so by just lifting it far enough for its heel to clear the front of the standing leg1 turning it in the air1 and bringing it directly to its final position on the snow in one continuous movement4 ,by then lifting the lower ski the instant the other comes to rest1 and turning it without any preliminary pause1 you can make the whole kick-turn so quickly that you hardly come to a standstill between one tack and the next4 ,on a steep slope1 however1 it is always safer to begin by standing the upper ski on end before turning it1 as otherwise its point is apt to catch in the snow before it has reached the proper new position4 ,there is another very convenient modification of the kick-turn which can be performed without coming to a standstill at all4 ,as you come to the end of a tack with1 say1 your left side to the hill1 take a long step forward with your right foot1 placing the right ski in front of the other one1 pointing it uphill as much as you can and edging it inwards 7,fig4 #ad1 #a74 ,then1 throwing the weight momentarily against the right ski rather than on it 7for if you actually stand on it it will slip backwards71 take a wide step round to the left with the left ski1 putting it down so that it points as nearly as possible in the direction of the new tack you are about to start1 with its heel quite close to the heel of the other ski 7,fig4 #ad1 #b74 ,as the left ski comes to the snow1 bring the right ski round beside it 7,fig4 #ad1 #c7 and walk on in the new direction4 ,the whole process must be carried out quickly and accurately1 for if there is any hesitation about the first two steps you are almost sure to slip backwards and fall on your nose4 ,it is1 however1 really very easy1 except on the steepest slopes1 and is a great saving of time4 ,the position in the middle of the turn is much the same as in ,herring-boning1 described later 7see ,plate ,,ix474 ,the sticks must be held up out of the way of the skis4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,another way of making the kick-turn is to go backwards through the whole process first described4 ,after finishing a tack to the right1 for instance1 you can move successively through the positions of ,plates ,,vii41 ,a1 ,,vi41 and ,v41 and then lift the upper ski round to the position of ,plate ,,iii4 ,by turning in this way1 however1 you lose a little height instead of gaining it2 this method is1 therefore1 rather more suitable for descending a hill in zigzags than for climbing it4 ,all the above ways of turning are known as uphill turns because one faces the hill during the process2 it is also possible to make the kick-turn facing downhill by turning the lower ski first4 ,in order to prevent strain in the intermediate position1 this downhill turn should be both started and finished with the skis pointing downwards as much as possible 7,fig4 #ae72 this makes it particularly convenient for joining two downhill tacks4 ,it can also1 of course1 be made backwards as well as forwards1 with a slight consequent gain instead of a loss of height4 ,in a downhill kick-turn the skis have more room to move freely1 but the balance is much less steady than if one faces the hill4 ,on the whole1 the forward uphill turn first described is far the most useful1 but when you want to turn in cramped corners1 among trees and the like1 you will find it a great help to know several ways of doing it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,downhill kick-turn4 ,although1 as ,i have said1 the skis need never be quite parallel at the middle stage of the turn1 you must take great care to bring the first ski far enough round to prevent the least chance of its slipping4 ,on a steep or icy slope1 where the skis at this stage must be brought nearly parallel1 the kick-turn becomes difficult for the stiff-jointed2 ,i have even known two cases in which it was apparently impossible4 ,if1 as is highly unlikely1 your case is similar1 you can always roll round on your back with your skis in the air--a simple but snowy process4 ,if you dislike this1 and if1 though the joints of your legs are stiff1 the muscles are strong and active 7a not unusual combination71 you can as a last resource jump round1 facing downhill as you turn4 ,the main difficulty in this is to prevent the heels of the skis from catching in the slope when halfway round1 and the best way to prevent them doing so is to jump as hard as possible not directly upwards1 but out from the hill1 so as to land below where you take off4 ,in order to bring round the skis close beside each other1 press the knees together throughout the jump4 ,hold the sticks near their middles1 and jump from the toes1 not the flat of the foot1 with a free swinging action1 not a hurried jerky one4 ,this jump needs little skill and is easy enough on a moderate slope1 but on a steep one becomes very hard work1 for there the skis have less room to turn1 and a powerful spring is necessary4 ,the jump round1 therefore1 being most difficult under the same conditions as the kick-turn1 and much more tiring1 is hardly a satisfactory substitute for it2 ,i only mention it as a perfectly possible one4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,zigzagging without turning4 ,the accompanying diagram1 which is practically the same as one in ,mr4 ,richardson's book1 ,the ,ski-,runner1 shows how1 by walking alternately backwards and forwards1 one can climb a steep passage1 just wide enough to allow zigzagging1 without wasting time in turning at the end of each tack4 ,a description is unnecessary4 ,it is1 of course1 possible to make the tacks of any length1 but the number of steps in each must always be an even one1 as the tack must be started with the upper foot and finished with the lower4 ,half ,side-stepping4--,in tacking uphill among obstacles you may want to traverse at an angle so steep that the skis would back-slip if you tried to move straight forward in the ordinary way4 ,you will then have to step sideways as well as forwards with each ski1 the upper one starting the process and the lower one being drawn up to it1 and then advanced4 ,fig4 #ag1 ,a1 shows the track that will be left4 ,this must of course be done without pointing the skis uphill more steeply than the angle at which they could traverse in the ordinary way4 ,in lifting the upper ski sideways you are sure at first to point it uphill too much 7,fig4 #ag1 ,b #c71 when1 if it does not slip back at once1 you will tread on it with the heel of the lower ski at the next step 7,fig4 #ag1 ,b #d74 ,to avoid this1 do your best at first to place the upper ski horizontally across the slope1 lifting its heel well upwards and away from the other1 pointing the foot downwards and inwards1 and turning your body so as to face a little downhill4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,half side-stepping2 ,a right1 ,b wrong4 ,on open ground1 if the snow is so slippery that the gradient of an ordinary straightforward traverse has to be very slight indeed1 this half side-stepping can be used simply to save time4 ,especial care must then be taken to place the upper ski nearly horizontally4 ,half side-stepping can be kept up for a long time without difficulty2 but it is more tiring than ordinary straightforward traversing1 and ,i think it is a waste of energy to employ it constantly when there is no special reason for it1 as some runners are fond of doing4 ,side-stepping4--,it is1 of course1 also possible to side-step directly uphill with the skis quite horizontal1 as in ,fig4 #ah1 but this1 though very easy1 is such a tiresome process that it is seldom used except in narrow passages where there is room for nothing else1 or for climbing short slopes that are very steep and icy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,side-stepping4 ,herring-boning 7,plate ,,ix474--,this is the quickest but far the most tiring way of going straight up a steep slope4 ,stand with skis together pointing as much uphill as they can without slipping4 ,lift the upper ski1 and1 keeping the feet close together1 turn it until it points across the hill in the opposite direction1 but at the same angle as before1 with its heel across that of the other4 ,then slide it forwards until it just clears the lower one2 stand up on it and draw up the lower foot so that the skis are again crossed at the back at the same angle as before1 but with the hitherto lower ski uppermost4 ,you can now take a new step in the other direction1 and so on4#f ,fig4 #ai shows the track4 ,the steeper the slope the wider must be the angle between the skis to prevent them from slipping back1 but you can always1 if you find it difficult to turn the feet enough outwards1 point the skis uphill more steeply than would otherwise be possible1 by simply throwing the weight momentarily against rather than on to each ski 7see p4 #fe71 and keeping the feet well apart the whole time instead of bringing them together between each step4 ,but though this is a quicker method1 it is a still more tiring one than the first4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,herring-boning4 ,if the slope is steep1 herring-boning is too exhausting to be kept up for more than a short time by anyone but a trained athlete1 but on a gradient which will allow the skis to diverge at only a slight angle it is easy enough4 ,getting up from a ,fall4--,if during any of these manoeuvres you should fall down1 you may find some difficulty in getting up again4 ,the first problem is to disentangle the skis1 if they have become jammed in a complicated position4 ,the best way to do this is generally to begin by moving your body as far away from them as possible4 ,if1 for instance1 you have fallen with your head downhill1 wriggle yourself still farther downhill4 ,next lift your skis into the air1 either by rolling on your back and raising the legs from the hips1 or by rolling on to your face and bending the legs backwards from the knees4 ,it is generally possible to free the skis in this way1 but occasionally one cannot move without unfastening them first4 ,having freed them1 place them parallel in the air1 and roll round on your side so as to bring them to the snow on the downhill side of you and exactly at right angles to the fall of the slope4 ,this is important1 for1 if they are pointing either up or down hill1 they will1 of course1 begin to slip the moment you put your weight on them4 ,if they are quite level1 and your feet are exactly below your body1 you have merely to push yourself up with the arm which is underneath you and stand erect4 ,if you want to help yourself up with your stick1 do not poke it vertically into the snow and try to climb up it1 for if the snow is deep and soft you will only plunge it farther in without getting any resistance4 ,lay it horizontally on the snow1 and it will then give you enough purchase to push up from4 ,on level ground it is harder to get up again than on a hill side1 owing to the difficulty of getting the skis underneath one in order to get to one's feet4 ,after freeing them and placing them parallel1 lie on your side1 draw your knees as close to your chest1 and your feet as close to your thighs as you can1 lay your stick flat under your side1 and1 with a vigorous push on it1 you ought to be able to get your weight over the skis and stand up4 ,never hurry1 or try to struggle frantically to your feet without any definite method4 ,you will merely exhaust yourself4 ,it is impossible1 as a rule1 to get up without going through the various manoeuvres that ,i have described1 but these take a very short time if they are performed smartly and accurately4 ,,general ,,principles ,,of ,,steering1 ,,etc4 ,this chapter is mildly theoretical1 and may be skipped by the reader who believes in nothing that is not1 in the ordinary sense of the word1 practical2 for in it he will find no definite instructions1 but only a description of the behaviour1 under different conditions1 of the skis when in motion1 and an attempt at an explanation of it4 ,i advise him1 however1 to try to read it1 for ,i think that what ,i have to say here is1 in a broad sense1 strictly practical4 ,i am convinced at any rate1 that if1 when ,i began ski-ing1 some one had given me the information which ,i am about to try to impart1 and which1 for the most part1 ,i have slowly collected for myself1 ,i could have reached in a month the very moderate degree of skill which it has taken me five seasons or so to arrive at4 ,if the reader can thoroughly grasp the few facts with which this chapter is concerned--and he can take my word for the facts1 whatever he may think about my comments on them--he will1 ,i think1 find it far easier to understand1 remember1 and put into practice the instructions which he will find in the subsequent chapters1 as to the various swings1 turns1 and other manoeuvres for controlling and steering the skis1 and keeping the balance while running downhill4 ,before proceeding any further1 ,i had better1 in order to avoid any chance of being misunderstood1 explain certain terms of which ,i shall constantly make use throughout the rest of the book4 ,these terms are the edging and flattening of the skis1 and the inside and outside of a curve4 ,if any reader feels that an explanation of these terms is an insult to his intelligence1 ,i can only assure him that such an explanation has been necessary in the case of many of my pupils4 ,the terms edging and flattening simply have reference to the relation of the plane of the ski's sole with that of the general surface on which it is resting1 and do not refer to its relation with a horizontal plane1 or1 in other words1 to its position in space4 ,thus a ski is flat when standing in the normal position on level ground2 but1 when standing in the normal position on the side of a slope1 it is not flat1 but edged1 for in this case the edge nearest the hill cuts deeper into the snow than the other although the plane of the sole is still horizontal4 7,fig4 #bj1 ,a and ,b47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,edging and flattening4 ,the case is altered when the ski is inclined sideways2 on level ground a ski that is inclined sideways is edged 7,c and ,e72 but on the side of a hill a ski when inclined sideways so that the plane of its sole becomes parallel with that of the surface of the slope1 is not edged but flat 7,d74 ,when inclined to the opposite side1 however1 it is1 of course1 edged even more strongly than in the normal position 7,f74 ,the inside and outside of a curve mean1 respectively1 the sides nearest to1 and farthest from1 the centre of the circle of which that curve is an arc2 that is to say1 that in speaking of a swing or a turn to the right1 the right ski1 foot1 and so forth are the inside1 and the left the outside ones1 while in the case of a turn to the left it is just the reverse4 ,this is simple enough4 ,a shade of ambiguity1 however1 may lie in the fact that the edges of a ski are generally called inside and outside with reference to their relation to the foot1 in the same way as those of a skate4 ,in speaking1 then1 of swings or turns1 the right edge1 say1 of the right ski may be referred to as its outside edge1 even when the right ski itself1 and the right leg1 shoulder1 and so on are all the inner ones in relation to the curve of the swing4 ,now for the facts referred to above4 ,when a ski is pointed directly downhill and is made to slide with its sole held flat on the snow1 it runs1 if properly constructed1 in a perfectly straight line4 ,if it is then edged to one side it runs round gradually to that side1 the curved point acting against the snow like a bow rudder and drawing it to that side4 ,the steering effect1 in theory1 increases with the edging until it reaches its maximum when the ski is edged to a right angle4 ,what happens in practice is that though the edging and the steering effect do increase together1 there is no use in edging the ski beyond a certain angle--less than #de--;as1 if that angle is exceeded1 the ski sinks deeply into the snow and refuses to slide4 ,if that angle is not exceeded1 however1 the deeper the ski sinks into the snow 7owing to the softness of the latter7 the greater is the steering effect1 for then a larger and more sharply curved surface of the point comes into action as a rudder4 ,if when going straight downhill the runner edges his ski--we will suppose he has only one--by simply leaning sideways1 he will equally simply fall down2 but if he edges it without leaning--if he edges it in relation to himself1 so to speak--it will begin to turn2 that he then leans sideways in order to keep his balance does not make the turn sharper4 ,if the runner traverses the slope with his ski held normally1 as in ,fig4 #bj1 ,b1 it will run straight1 for although it is then edged in relation to the slope it is not edged in relation to him4 ,if he edges it in relation to himself it will turn more or less according as the gradient of its previous traverse has been steep or gradual4 ,when a ski running straight downhill is made to turn by edging1 the further it turns1 and the less directly therefore it points downhill1 the less abrupt becomes the curve of its course4 ,this curve1 indeed1 eventually becomes so gradual that before the ski has turned far enough to point horizontally across the slope and come to a standstill1 the line of its track is practically straight4 ,when1 therefore1 a ski1 traversing directly at a moderate gradient1 is simply edged towards the slope1 there is no perceptible turning effect1 even if the runner does not lean inwards4 ,at first sight it might appear that the movement of a ski when edged and travelling in a curve would be precisely similar to that of a skate1 and so it is in a way4 ,since the edge of a skate is1 in shape1 the arc of a circle1 a skate1 when edged1 cuts cleanly round without side-slip1 and so in a sense does a ski1 when simply edged1 for its heel then follows in the track of its point4 ,an edged ski1 moreover1 like a skate1 turns more or less gradually1 according to the angle at which it is edged4 ,but while a skate1 the edge of which is curved throughout1 touches the ice with only a very small part of this edge1 and is able to make a curve of very small radius1 a ski touches the snow with nearly the whole length of its edge1 the greater part of which is quite straight4 ,this straight part so far neutralises the turning action of the curved point1 that a ski made to turn simply by edging is unable to make anything but a very long and gradual curve--so gradual1 indeed1 that for practical purposes of steering the edging of the ski1 unaided1 is absolutely useless4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,but though1 contrary to what one might expect1 the edging or flattening of the skis may practically be disregarded as primary factors in a turn1 they are1 as we shall see1 of the greatest importance as secondary ones4 ,before a ski can be made to turn at all sharply1 its heel must be got out of the track of its point and made to travel faster on a curve of its own 7as in ,fig4 #ba1 ,b74 ,the ski as a whole1 in fact1 must be made to side-slip more or less as well as move forward4 ,the first question1 then1 is how the ski-heel is to be got out of the track of the point in order that the side-slip may start4 ,if the ski is pointing nearly directly downhill1 whether flat and running straight1 or moving edged in a long curve1 there is--apart from the help of the other ski1 which we will leave out of the question for the present--only one possible way of doing it4 ,the runner1 by means of sudden--though not necessarily more than a very slight--muscular effort must jerk it more or less broadside on4 ,how he makes this effort need not be considered here2 we will also defer the consideration of the other ways in which the side-slip may be started4 ,supposing it has been started1 it must then1 by edging or flattening1 be encouraged to continue1 if the ski is to go on turning4 ,it depends on the quality of the snow as to whether a ski side-slips more freely when flat or when more or less edged4 ,if the surface of the snow is hard and icy1 or if there is a mere shallow layer of loose snow on a hard crust1 a ski will slip sideways either when quite flat or when slightly or even strongly edged on the side from which it is moving4 ,the flat position would in this case be the more favourable if the hard surface were perfectly smooth2 this1 however1 it seldom is2 it usually has small projections which1 when the ski is quite flat1 strike its side and check or stop it1 while1 if the edge is raised1 they strike its sole obliquely and affect its motion but little4 ,the flat position1 then1 is not advisable as an aid to side-slip even in the case of hard snow2 on snow of any other kind it is still less advisable1 for if the ski sinks deeply into loose soft snow1 or even but a little way into dense soft snow or into a thin crust1 it can hardly be induced to side-slip at all when held quite flat1 while when more or less edged1 it can usually 7if already in motion7 be made to do so without much difficulty4 ,the reason is not quite obvious1 for at first glance it would appear that the ski would meet more resistance from the snow in the edged position than in the flat1 but this is not the case1 for1 when the ski is edged1 most of the resistance is exerted obliquely against its sole1 and so tends to make the ski rise to the surface of the snow and relieves the pressure4 ,when1 however1 the ski is flat1 the resistance acts directly against the side of it1 and there is no lifting tendency to diminish the rapidity with which this resistance increases as the snow is compressed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,moreover1 since during a turn the runner must lean inwards to keep his balance1 the ski cannot remain in its normal position in relation to the leg unless it is more or less edged inwards 7,fig4 #bb1 ,a74 ,that the leg and ski should remain as nearly as possible in their normal relative positions is an advantage1 for the more nearly they do so the less is the strain on the ankle4 ,if the weighted ski is held quite flat during a turn in which it is outermost1 that ankle is placed in a very unstable position 7,fig4 #bb1 ,b71 and is liable to give way and so edge the ski on that side towards which it is moving 7,fig4 #bb1 ,c72 it will then cut more deeply into the snow and be brought instantly to a standstill4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,in all that ,i have said so far about side-slip1 ,i have assumed that the ski is moving more or less broadside on1 with its heel travelling outside the track of its tip and its pivoting point well forward1 and this is what either one or both skis actually do during the greater part of any swing or turn2 for1 in turning1 a ski usually passes through the positions of either ,b or ,c1 ,fig4 #bc4 ,a ski may also1 as1 for instance1 in turning downwards from a slow traverse1 move so that the curve in which its point travels is outside that of the heel 7,fig4 #bc1 ,d7 and its pivoting point is near the heel4 ,in each of these cases1 though one end is side-slipping faster than the other1 both ends are slipping to the same side1 and the ski1 as ,i have said1 has therefore to be edged to the opposite side4 ,if1 however1 the ski begins to turn as in ,d1 and finishes as in ,b or ,c1 it must of course be edged first to one side and then to the other1 as in ,e1 and for a moment be flat4 ,at this moment the pivoting point of the ski is at its centre1 and its heel is side-slipping in one direction as much as its point is in the other1 as in ,a4 ,if ever1 therefore1 a ski1 in turning1 continues to pivot on its centre 7,fig4 #bc1 ,a7 instead of only doing so for a moment1 it must obviously be held quite flat1 as otherwise either one end or the other will cut below the surface of the snow and be checked suddenly4 ,now the pivoting point of a ski is never behind its centre except during a downward turn1 and the faster the runner is moving before the turn1 and the sharper the turn is made1 the more quickly this point moves to the front2 the only case1 ,i believe1 in which it remains near the centre for an appreciable time1 and when1 therefore1 the ski has to be held deliberately flat1 being that of the outer ski during a steered ,christiania swing4 ,in order to facilitate side-slip1 therefore1 the outer edge of the ski must usually be raised as it turns or1 even if at first the inner edge must be raised1 a change of edge must usually take place almost immediately4 ,the flat position1 in fact1 must never be sustained--except1 as ,i have said1 during a ,christiania steered swing1 and even then only for a short time--it is simply a necessary incident in a change of edge4 ,in each figure in ,diagram #bc the dotted line with arrows shows the average direction of the ski's course at each point1 and whether1 therefore1 it must be edged or flat4 ,the foregoing remarks are an explanation of how the edging or flattening of the ski can be made to help the side-slip2 the next thing is to understand how the side-slip can be made to help the ski to turn sharply4 ,if1 when either standing still on the side of a slope or running across it in the normal1 edged position1 a ski is partially flattened1 it will begin to slip sideways--in the first case moving directly downhill1 and in the second obliquely1 i4e4 forwards as well as sideways4 ,now the foot stands on the ski at about halfway between the front bend and the heel--that is to say1 about the middle of that part of the blade which rests on the snow2 and as long as the runner's weight is placed equally on toe and heel1 a ski in side-slipping will continue to point in a direction parallel to that in which it was pointing when the side-slip began4 ,when1 however1 the runner's weight is placed on the heel1 that end of the ski will side-slip faster than the other1 and the farther the ski slips the more it will point uphill2 while when the weight is placed on the toe the reverse will happen4 ,fig4 #bd shows what will happen if a ski1 when 7,a1 ,b1 ,c7 at rest on1 or 7,d1 ,e1 ,f7 running across a slope1 is made to side-slip with the runner's weight variously distributed4 ,in this and succeeding diagrams the blackened portions of the skis are those on which the runner's weight is put4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,in ,a the ski slips broadside on downhill4 ,in ,b it gradually revolves as it slips1 and would finish by running downhill backwards if its shape did not prevent it from doing so4 ,in ,c its rotation is reversed1 and it finally runs straight downhill4 ,in ,d it runs slightly sideways1 but the direction of its course is a straight line4 ,in ,e it turns uphill and at a certain point stops4 ,in ,f it at first turns and finally runs straight downhill4 ,the side-slip can be stopped more or less quickly at any stage by the runner strongly edging the ski and at the same time again equalising the distribution of his weight on it4 ,whether the ski then runs on in the direction in which it is pointing1 or comes to a standstill1 of course depends on whether it is pointing downhill or not4 ,it is obvious1 then1 that when a ski is in motion across a slope the runner1 by means of the side-slip1 can make it turn in either direction and to any extent up to a certain limit1 and can in this way either come to a standstill1 slightly alter his direction1 or run straight downhill4 ,it is equally obvious that no matter what means are employed for starting a turn 7there are more ways of doing so than ,i have yet described71 the distribution of the runner's weight on the ski or skis which carry it may make all the difference to the success or failure of the manoeuvre4 ,i have already said that when a ski is running straight downhill it may be made to turn by the runner jerking it somewhat broadside on4 ,he can of course do the same with the two skis1 but a simpler plan is for him to stand on one1 point the other more or less in the direction in which he wants to go1 and hold it so for a moment4 ,it is thus of course made to stem--in other words1 to side-slip--and1 if the runner then throws his weight on to its heel1 it can1 as we have just seen1 be made to turn still further1 the previously weighted one being again brought parallel with it as it does so4 ,a turn can also be started from a traverse in the same way4 ,when one ski is held at an angle with the other in order to start a turn in the above way1 the relative position of the two usually produces some steering effect2 the two skis in fact act together something like a boat and rudder4 ,to say that one ski may be looked upon as the boat and the other as the rudder is hardly accurate1 for the steering effect is at its greatest when1 as the runner's weight is shifted from the ski that is running straight ahead to the one that is held sideways1 it rests equally on both2 at which moment1 since their area is equal1 either of the skis may equally well be looked upon as the rudder or as the boat4 ,if1 however1 it is remembered that the boat steers the rudder no less than the rudder steers the boat1 and that if the rudder is fixed in a certain position1 it and the boat together may be considered as one solid object whose shape determines whether and how it is able to turn1 one may1 by comparing the skis with a boat and rudder1 understand whether and how1 when held in various relative positions1 they are able to turn4 ,the diagram shows the skis as they are held at the beginning of--,a1 a ,telemark1 ,b1 a ,stemming turn1 and ,c1 a ,christiania4 ,it also shows a boat turning to the left steered by both a bow and a stern rudder4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,the darkened ski of each pair is the weighted one4 ,the steering action of the skis may be best understood by considering the blackened parts of each pair 7in which the steering effect is neutral7 as the sides of a boat1 and the light point and heel of each pair as a bow and stern rudder respectively4 ,it will then be seen that the boat is in each case helped to turn to the left by the action of both rudders1 or that if it can in some way be made to turn to the left without the help of the rudders1 they will at least not hinder it--than which1 as a matter of fact1 little more can be said in the case of the ,telemark2 though in the ,stemming turn there is a strong steering action while the skis remain in this position1 and a distinct1 if weak1 one in the ,christiania4 ,the principal factors1 then1 in the control and steering of the skis are the edging or flattening of them1 the distribution of the weight on them1 and the placing of them in certain positions in relation to each other4 ,how these various factors interact during the different swings1 turns1 c41 will be explained more fully in subsequent chapters1 but before closing this one ,i want to give some explanation of how a turn on skis depends as to its character on whether the ski at the moment of beginning the turn is running straight down the hill or across it1 on whether the speed is high or low1 and the slope steep or gentle1 and also on the quality of the snow4 ,the accompanying diagram shows the successive positions assumed by a ski 7the leading one1 the other is not shown7 during a turn to the right1 under various conditions4 ,the line passing through the middle of the skis shows the curve on which the runner himself travels during the turn2 the line ending in a double arrow shows the sort of curve on which he would travel if the ski were able to cut round without side-slip as a skate does4 ,it will be seen that if there were no side-slip he would in every case move steadily to the right of the line of his original course 7shown by a dotted line in the diagram71 but that1 on account of the side-slip1 the line on which he travels sometimes moves only slightly to the right of that line1 even when the turn itself is a sharp one1 that sometimes it moves to the left of it and then recrosses it1 and that sometimes it remains entirely on the left of it throughout the turn4 ,to understand how1 according to the conditions1 the curve of the runners actual course varies1 is a great help to the balance1 for at first one's instinct is to balance the body as if the ski were cutting round like a skate1 i4e4 to lean inwards too much1 which1 of course1 inevitably results in a fall4 ,in every case the turn is supposed to be made as sharply as the conditions allow4 ,it will be seen that on hard snow the runner1 when travelling fast1 will skid almost directly sideways for some distance from the spot where he actually finishes turning4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d are turns made while the runner is travelling straight downhill1 or1 which amounts to the same thing1 while he is running on the level at the end of a downhill slide4 ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 ,h are turns made while the runner is descending a slope obliquely4 ,a to ,f are what are known as uphill turns1 which bring the runner to a standstill2 ,g and ,h are downhill ones1 which enable him to join one tack to another when descending a hill in zigzags4 ,if anyone who has done no ski-ing at all reads this chapter1 he will1 no doubt1 think it very complicated2 but if1 while actually learning to ski1 and especially while learning the turns1 he looks through it from time to time1 ,i think he will soon understand whatever is not quite clear1 and will1 ,i hope1 find that it helps him to correct his mistakes and to understand and remember his instructions4 ,,straight-,,running ,cleaning ,skis4--,before attempting to start1 you must make sure that your skis will slide4 ,in thawy weather1 or very strong sunshine1 the snow may stick to their under surfaces--so badly1 sometimes1 that sliding is out of the question4 ,but it is seldom quite impossible to slide1 and under conditions which seem hopeless to a beginner one can generally get started1 if one knows how to set about it4 ,when once under weigh the great thing is to keep moving1 for the moment the skis stop sliding the snow will stick again1 and the whole cleaning process described below must be repeated4 ,in snow which is only slightly sticky you need merely stamp your skis hard once or twice1 and rub them firmly backwards and forwards on the hardened snow until you can feel that they are quite slippery4 ,then slide off at once4 ,if the snow sticks badly1 the skis must be scraped on each other 7unless there are any branches or hard objects lying about which will do as well74 ,to do this on level ground is easy2 on the side of a hill rather less so4 ,suppose you are obliged to start your run on the hillside and wish to scrape your skis4 ,first stand with your skis pointing across the slope1 and1 by vigorously stamping or jumping1 make as hard a place to stand in as possible4 ,if you are standing with your right side to the hill1 and want to scrape the right ski1 rest your left ski on its right 7inside7 edge1 lift round the right ski1 and put it across the other one1 at right angles to it1 just behind the left foot and pointing directly uphill4 ,then scrape it hard up and down across the raised outer edge of the left ski1 bending the left knee well and crouching down so as to get a long scrape from the heel right up to the bend of the right ski 7,plate ,,xi474 ,when the ski feels perfectly smooth1 lift it round again parallel to the other ski1 and without resting it on the snow for an instant stamp and rub it backwards and forwards until it is as slippery as possible and the snow beneath it as hard and smooth as you can make it4 ,then1 and not until then1 you can rest the ski on the snow1 placing it on its right 7outer7 edge and doing your best to prevent its sole from touching the snow4 ,now1 with your weight on the right ski1 but still holding it well on its edge1 face downhill1 lift round the left ski1 put it across the heel of the other one1 pointing downhill1 and1 crouching well down as before1 scrape it clean on the inside edge of the other 7,plate ,,xii472 this time it is the heel of the ski which it is difficult to get at4 ,then bring it round to the side of the right ski1 repeat the stamping and rubbing process1 and place it carefully on its inside edge4 ,now start instantly4 7,how to do so is explained later47 ,if the snow is very bad indeed1 it is best1 when on tour1 before beginning the descent1 to take off the skis1 scrape and wipe them absolutely clean1 and dry them thoroughly in the sun or air--but not1 if you can help it1 by standing them upright in the snow1 for if they are wet the water will run down and form ice at the heel ends4 ,then wax and polish them well1 let their soles cool in the shade if they are warm from the sun1 and put them on4 ,you will probably be able to slide off without trouble2 or1 if it is still necessary to scrape and rub them1 they will become clean more easily4 ,this scraping sounds an elaborate and wearisome process1 and so it is4 ,fortunately it is not often necessary2 but1 when the snow is really bad1 it is an enormous saving of time and trouble in the end to attend minutely to every detail1 and may be the only means of getting a run at all4 ,it is not unusual to see a beginner refuse to get his skis thoroughly clean1 under the impression that the slower pace will make things easier for him4 ,he could not make a greater mistake4 ,if he leaves any snow sticking to his skis they will certainly move slowly 7unless they refuse to slide altogether71 but they will do so with an irregular1 jerky motion which is ten times more upsetting than the fastest movement of polished skis4 ,starting4--,to start from the top of a hill is a simple matter4 ,you walk to the edge and slide over in any direction you choose4 ,on the side of a slope1 however1 there is a difficulty in starting a run straight downhill owing to the fact that1 as you move the skis round1 they begin to slide before you are facing the way you wish to go4 ,one way to overcome this difficulty is as follows3 ,suppose you are standing at right angles to the fall of the slope1 with the hill on your right1 and wish to start to run straight downhill4 ,first move both skis round a little way1 so that1 like the left ski in ,plate ,,xiii41 they point downhill as directly as possible without actually slipping4 ,then1 putting all the weight on the left ski1 lift the right ski and place it on the snow1 pointing straight downhill1 its tip being just in front of and below the tip of the other one1 as in the photograph4 ,the weight should still be on the left ski4 ,if there is any sign of slipping1 you can stop it by turning the skis on to their inside edges and pressing outwards against them with the legs4 ,you are now quite steady and ready to start4 ,in order to do so you merely have to throw all your weight on to the right foot and to lean well forward1 downhill4 ,the right ski will at once slide off1 the right foot will strike and push forward the point of the left ski1 which will1 if left to itself1 come round1 and fall into what1 as will appear later1 is its proper position close to the side of the other4 ,another simple and frequently used method of starting downhill from the horizontal position is to jump round4 ,the same points are to be noticed as when using a jump in the place of a kick-turn4 ,bring the feet level1 spring from the ball of the foot1 press the knees as well as the feet together1 hold the skis parallel1 and don't let their heels drop4 ,you must land leaning well forward1 so that the general direction of the body and legs is at right angles to the slope1 not vertical1 otherwise the skis will run from under you4 ,this jump round is easier than the first one described1 being only a quarter-turn1 while the other is a half-turn4 ,straight-running4--,as you begin to slide1 place yourself in the position of ,plates ,,xiv4 and ,,xv41 which is the normal one for running downhill--skis held in contact1 so that they leave a single track2 one ski about a foot in advance of the other2 the advanced leg almost straight at the knee1 the other more bent2 nearly all the weight on the back foot2 the inside of the front knee pressed against the kneecap of the other2 body erect2 arms hanging easily by the sides2 stick1 or sticks1 if carried1 held clear of the snow4 ,hold yourself perfectly easily and without stiffness1 especially at the knees1 which should give to the inequalities of the ground4 ,it is far better to stand too loosely1 and sway about somewhat1 than to keep every muscle tense4 ,you can keep the skis together without effort by bending the knees and ankles well inwards1 so as to place the skis slightly on their inside edges2 they will then tend to run together rather than to separate4 ,take the greatest care to avoid any approach to a bow-legged position1 which would edge the skis outwards4 ,there should be no daylight visible between your knees to a person standing in front of you4 ,if you should find the skis running wide apart with the weight equally on both1 don't try to force them together1 but throw all your weight on to one ski1 and then you will be able to move back the other quite easily to its proper position4 ,carry the stick1 or sticks1 as shown in the photographs 7,plates ,,xiv4 and ,,xv474 ,on no account hold a single stick 7or the two sticks placed together7 in both hands4 ,if you feel the smallest tendency to do so1 practise at first with nothing in your hands4 ,this will save you from acquiring the habit of falling into the deplorable attitude shown in ,plate ,,xvi41 or the almost equally bad one in which the stick is held out in front transversely like a balancing pole1 ready for the teeth of its owner if he happens to pitch forwards4 ,if their weight or length makes it difficult to keep the sticks clear of the snow when held by the ends1 hold them rather nearer the middle1 but not much nearer or they will be more likely to hurt you if you fall4 ,don't hold out the arms horizontally from the shoulders1 for that is tiring and ungraceful4 ,the knees1 as ,i said1 should give to small inequalities of the ground2 but as you are almost sure instinctively to stiffen them a little when you find yourself approaching a bump or hollow which looks likely to upset your balance1 it is as well to bend or straighten them voluntarily according to circumstances4 ,as you go over a mound1 for instance1 bend the knees and let the body sink2 if it is necessary to sink low1 raise the heel of the back foot and let more weight fall on the advanced one4 ,as you cross a hollow1 straighten the knees and rise as high as you can4 ,in this way the pressure of the skis on the snow will vary but little and the unevenness of the ground will scarcely be felt4 ,the feeling will be that of moving steadily and smoothly along1 lifting the skis over the hillocks1 and pressing them down into the hollows4 ,a spectator who can only see your head and body should hardly know that the ground over which you are moving is not perfectly smooth4 ,in this way you can negotiate short variations of gradient where the general angle of the slope remains constant4 ,in the case of larger inequalities1 or where the general angle of the slope changes1 you must alter your procedure4 ,the line from your centre of gravity to its point of support must always be at right angles to the surface of the slope1 so1 where the ground becomes steeper1 you will have to lean more forward1 and less so where it becomes less steep4 ,but though you will have to tilt yourself forward consciously as you pass on to a steeper slope1 you may safely leave to unconscious instinct the backward lean in the opposite case4 ,if you try to lean backward consciously1 you are almost certain to overdo it and to sit down4 ,there is a further safeguard in the case of sudden changes of gradient1 very rough ground1 snow of varying consistency which alternately checks and accelerates the speed1 and1 in fact1 anything which makes it difficult to keep the balance-that is1 to drop into what is generally known as the ,telemark position 7,plates ,,xvii41 ,,xviii41 ,,xix471 because it is the one held during the swing of that name4 ,to assume this attitude1 you shift the weight from the back foot to the advanced one1 and then sink down1 leaning the body forwards1 bending both knees1 and sliding the back ski still farther back until its bend is level with the leading ankle4 ,practically all your weight should then be upon the leading foot1 and upon its heel1 no less than its toes4 ,to make sure of this1 the advanced leg must be bent at the knee almost to a right angle1 and the knee must be kept well forward1 so that the leg1 from the knee downwards1 will be at right angles to the ski1 no matter how steep may be the slope4 ,if the front foot is thrust forward in advance of the knee1 too much weight will fall on the toe 7unlikely as it may appear7 and1 moreover1 some weight will be thrown on the back foot1 which should carry next to none4 ,let the back knee drop until quite close to the ski 7when crossing uneven ground it will very likely touch it7 and raise the heel of the back foot as far as possible4 ,that leg should then be perfectly relaxed and easy4 ,keep the skis close together as before1 so that they leave a single track1 by edging them a trifle inwards and pressing both knees1 especially the back one1 well inwards so that1 seen from in front or behind1 they overlap4 ,practise running in this position with either foot leading1 taking care to keep the weight well on the front foot4 ,it is an indispensable accomplishment2 and although at first it may not seem so easy a position as the normal one1 it is such a help to the balance that later on you must be on your guard or you may contract the bad habit of running constantly in this position when there is no real need for it4 ,in this position not only is the centre of gravity lowered1 but the base of support is considerably lengthened1 and the fore and aft stability is thus enormously increased4 ,by means of it you will be able to move with perfect steadiness over ground which would almost inevitably upset you if you were to stand up in the normal position4 ,in this1 just as in the normal position1 you can consciously raise and lower yourself to allow for uneven ground1 by bending or straightening the advanced leg2 but this will seldom be necessary1 except for very abrupt inequalities4 ,even sudden changes of speed have little power to disturb your balance when you are running in this attitude4 ,if the gradient suddenly becomes much steeper1 as in ,plates ,,xviii4 and ,,xix41 you should give a determined plunge forwards1 as though trying to get ahead of your skis4 ,if1 however1 you are taken by surprise1 and run suddenly on to an invisible icy patch or over a steep drop in bad light1 you will probably at the worst only find your weight thrown on to the back foot1 and will be able to recover yourself4 ,on the other hand1 if the speed is checked and you are thrown forwards1 the back foot will tend to rise into the air1 and1 receiving the weight of the ski1 will most likely just save you4 ,if the check is so abrupt as to throw you right off your balance forwards1 you can often save yourself by bringing1 with a quick stride1 the disengaged back foot to the front to receive your weight4 ,indeed you are almost sure to do so instinctively4 ,another position1 which is employed by some runners under circumstances such as ,i have just described1 is as follows3-- ,the runner crouches as low as possible1 almost sitting on the raised heel of the back foot2 the front leg1 from the knee downwards1 is perpendicular to the ski1 but its foot is not much farther ahead than in the normal running position2 the back knee is pressed against the inside of the front leg1 just above the ankle4 ,this attitude is less tiring to hold than the ,telemark position1 but is1 ,i think1 less of a safeguard to the balance when the speed changes suddenly or the ground is very rough4 ,all that ,i have just said has reference only to the preservation of the balance in a fore and aft direction4 ,the question of lateral stability is far simpler2 on all ordinary occasions it is sufficiently secured by keeping the skis as close together1 and so making as narrow a track as possible4 ,the reason for this is not quite self-evident1 but is easily explained4 ,if a bicycle be ridden on bumpy ground1 it will not be tilted sideways as it crosses the side of an undulation1 and will have no tendency to upset unless it actually side-slips4 ,a tricycle1 on the other hand1 or any vehicle with a wide wheel-base1 will under similar circumstances be more or less tilted according to the angle of the ground1 and will1 unless it has a very wide wheel-base and a low centre of gravity1 be easily upset by a sudden transverse variation in the angle of the ground1 especially when moving fast4 ,the diagram shows how a ski-runner when holding his skis apart may be compared with a tricycle1 when holding them together with a bicycle4 ,this is not quite a fair simile1 for1 while the cases of the bicycle and of the ski-runner in the single-track position are exactly analogous1 a man with his skis apart is not a rigid construction like a tricycle1 but1 by letting his knees give and by swaying his body1 can adapt himself to the change of gradient4 ,still1 the tendency is always1 especially in the case of the beginner1 for the legs to stiffen when they ought to yield1 and on this account alone the single-track position is the safer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,there are1 moreover1 two further objections--and very strong ones--to separating the skis4 ,one is that it is impossible to run with the skis apart without holding the feet about level1 instead of keeping one well ahead of the other4 ,with the feet level the runner has far less stability in a fore and aft direction1 and1 without support from his stick1 can hardly hope to keep his balance in the event of a very sudden change of speed4 ,the other objection is that when the skis are separated each one has to be kept straight independently4 ,at a low speed it is perhaps not very difficult to do this1 but at a high speed it is by no means easy1 and1 of course1 any divergence or convergence of the skis is almost certain to cause a fall before it can be checked4 ,when held against each other1 however1 the skis1 if properly made1 will run perfectly straight and need no attention at all4 ,obviously they cannot converge1 and the least inward pressure or edging will prevent them from running apart4 ,the single-track position1 then1 has many advantages4 ,the only thing against it is its unsteadiness in the event of side-slip4 ,but under ordinary conditions of snow1 a ski1 when moving straight ahead1 either directly down the slope or obliquely across it1 will show no tendency to side-slip1 not even when1 in the latter case1 the slope is very steep 7provided1 of course1 the ski be held normally1 i4e4 edged74 ,under such conditions you can always run with the skis held close together in either the normal or the ,telemark position1 and there can be no excuse for deliberately separating them4 ,when running on a hard icy crust1 however1 it is sometimes impossible to prevent the skis from side-slipping4 ,they are1 of course1 much more apt to side-slip when moving across a slope 7especially a steep one7 than when running straight down it2 indeed when traversing a steep slope they may side-slip even in soft snow if that is shallow and rests on a slippery crust4 ,but though they will generally run straight downhill with absolute steadiness on snow that makes them side-slip badly when traversing1 the surface may be so extremely slippery that they will side-slip even in a direct descent owing to small lateral undulations of the ground4 ,as soon1 in either case1 as the tendency to side-slip becomes so pronounced that you are really hopelessly unsteady in the single-track position1 you will1 if you still want to run at full speed1 have to separate the feet more or less and hold them about level4 ,do not separate the feet more than just enough to steady you1 and do not do it at all until you are quite sure it is absolutely necessary2 try merely to separate them a little for a moment when the side-slip unsteadies you and to recover the normal position instantly2 some runners seem able to hold the single-track position at any speed on the most slippery snow--possibly by making imperceptible jumps to one side or another as they feel the slip begin4 ,when running with your feet level and apart1 your fore and aft balance will1 of course1 be more precarious than in the normal position2 you had better1 therefore1 lower your centre of gravity by crouching as low as you can with steadiness1 i4e4 not so low that all your weight comes on the heels or that they have to be raised at all4 ,in the level-footed position your best safeguard in case of sudden changes of gradient or snow consistency is not to lean backwards or forwards1 but to move the feet forwards or backwards1 which amounts to exactly the same thing but is a much quicker process4 ,this may not be quite clear4 ,let me try to explain4 ,as ,i have already said1 the line from your centre of gravity to your point of support must always be about at right angles to the slope4 ,suppose then that you are running fast down a slope with an abrupt mound in front of you1 instead of trying to readjust your balance as you pass on to the mound by leaning suddenly backwards1 do so by still more suddenly doubling forwards a bit at the hips and1 so to speak1 lifting your feet forwards and placing them ,,against the mound to receive your weight4 ,if1 on the other hand1 you suddenly run off a gentle slope on to a steep one1 quickly hollow your back a little1 and1 by straightening yourself at the hips and bending your knees more1 lift your feet backwards and place them against the slope behind you4 ,by lifting the skis ,i do not mean actually raising them from the snow1 but only taking the weight off them a trifle1 and sliding them4 ,these movements are exactly the same as those you would make if1 when standing with your feet tied together1 you were pushed off your balance either forwards or backwards and were then to save yourself by a little jump in the corresponding direction4 ,leaning backwards and forwards1 which as it is done principally on the hinge of the ankles cannot be done quickly1 may be used as a preventive of loss of balance1 but is practically useless as a cure2 this moving of the feet1 however1 is particularly useful for the latter purpose4 ,if you try the two methods when running quickly down a very undulating icy path1 you will soon decide in favour of the latter4 ,you can1 of course1 do the same thing when running in steady snow with the skis together in the normal position1 but it is then simpler and quicker to move one foot backwards or forwards instead of moving both4 ,although1 as ,i have said1 side-slip occurs more readily when you are traversing a slope1 you will then find it far less upsetting than when you are running straight downhill4 ,when traversing in normal position with the skis together1 the upper foot should lead and the weight be on the lower2 with the lower foot weighted it will take a very sudden and pronounced side-slip to upset you1 for as the lower ski slips the upper will receive the weight1 and the sudden pressure will probably make its edge hold long enough for you to recover your balance4 ,moreover1 you will generally1 when traversing1 be running pretty slowly 7you can1 of course1 go as slowly as you like by making the angle of your traverse a very gradual one71 which makes side-slip still less likely to upset you4 ,it is1 therefore1 hardly ever necessary to traverse with your skis more than a few inches apart4 ,if you wish to run a traverse at high speed where the tendency to side-slip is very pronounced1 do not make violent efforts to prevent it by edging your skis extra hard1 but simply keep them normally edged with your ankles1 and especially your knees1 well over towards the hill1 and then let them side-slip if they want to4 ,make no attempt to lean towards the slope1 but keep your weight well outwards and forwards1 imagine that you are making for a spot rather below where your skis are pointing1 and run as lightly as possible1 cultivating1 if you can1 a sort of semi-sideways floating feeling1 which is hardly describable but which you will certainly recognise if you do as ,i have told you4 ,generally speaking1 the harder and slipperier the snow the more lightly you should try to run1 the softer the snow the more heavily you should try to drive your skis into it4 ,you can entirely disregard the hard ruts of ski tracks unless you are obliged to cross them at a narrow angle4 ,if you cannot help doing this 7which you should try to if running fast7 be ready1 if one of the skis or both get turned off their course1 to lift one quickly and put it straight again before you lose your balance4 ,you should never be afraid of lifting your skis1 especially on hard snow2 by stepping about quickly you can not only keep your balance even when running fast1 but can alter your course1 though in the latter case you must be careful as you put the first-lifted ski to the snow again to lift the other instantly1 or they will run apart for a moment and probably upset you4 ,the greater your speed1 the less of course will be the change of direction that you can make safely in one step1 but by pattering round quickly you can turn fairly short when going at a good rate4 ,when running straight downhill in either normal or ,telemark position either foot may lead1 and you should change about1 when practising1 until you find you can lead as easily with one as with the other4 ,when traversing in normal position the upper foot should lead1 in ,telemark position1 the lower foot--that is to say1 that in traversing the weighted foot should always be the lower one4 ,the more weight is carried by the lower ski1 the less difficulty will you find in keeping the other one close to the side of it4 ,should the upper ski show a tendency to run uphill1 away from the other1 put no more weight on it1 but merely turn its inner edge slightly downwards1 and press on the toe1 when it will run back to its proper position4 ,if you have any difficulty in preventing it from running downwards1 and crossing the other1 you can slide it to the rear1 and drop into ,telemark position1 lower foot leading4 ,although1 generally speaking1 you should avoid all effort and hold yourself easily and loosely1 you must1 when your balance is disturbed1 make every effort in your power to keep it4 ,one very often falls simply through expecting to fall1 and doing nothing to save oneself1 when a determination not to fall would carry one through4 ,don't be afraid of running straight down the steepest slope1 provided the ground is open and fairly smooth1 the snow easy and safe1#g and the change of gradient at the bottom not sudden4 ,remember that the pace does not go on increasing1 but attains its maximum in a second or two4 ,it is only while you are gathering way that the sensation is at all alarming2 when full speed is reached--provided the ground be smooth--a steep slope feels no more difficult than a gradual one4 ,if1 however1 there are any undulations--however small--you had better run down a steep slope in the ,telemark position4 ,for though on a moderate slope you might hardly notice them1 or could allow for them as directed above1 on a steep slope the high speed will very much increase their effect1 and to run over a small mound may shoot you into the air if your legs happen to be rigid at the moment4 ,whenever you are actually running freely and not trying to put on the brake1 or stop 7explained later71 the very best safeguard to the balance is a desire to go faster4 ,should you not happen to want to go faster1 pretend you do1 if you are not above such childishness4 ,no amount of wanting1 of course1 will affect your speed1 but this mental attitude will enormously increase your steadiness by removing the fatal tendency to lean backwards4 ,similarly1 to wish to go slower will not make you do so1 but will very likely be the sole cause of a fall4 ,some such sentence as ,this is very slow1 repeated to oneself as one goes over any difficult ground1 is a more potent spell than might be imagined4 ,,braking ,if you wish to reduce your speed or stop1 you can1 as a rule1 if you are not going fast--and sometimes even if you are--do so without altering your course1 by making one or both skis move more or less broadside on4 ,although ,i am only now about to describe the different ways in which this may be done1 you should begin to learn them at the very outset--or even before you try straight-running1 if you are very nervous--and should certainly not attempt to run very fast until you can brake perfectly by every method described in this chapter1 and are fairly proficient in the turns to be described later on4 ,single-,stemming or ,half-,snow-,plough4--,for this find a moderate slope on which the snow is neither very soft nor so hard that you cannot possibly traverse it without side-slipping--an ordinary practice-ground in its normal state is just the thing4 ,stand with your skis horizontally across the slope2 weight the lower one2 lift the upper1 and place it pointing steeply enough downhill to slide perfectly freely1 with its tip quite close to the other's1 but far enough behind it for the upper foot to be exactly above the lower one 7,fig4 #bh74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,single-stemming or half-snow-plough4 ,stopping4 ,l4 ,weighted and edged4 ,going4 ,r4 ,weighted and edged4 ,l4 ,unweighted and flattened4 ,now lean towards the upper leg1 and bend it until your weight is on it1 facing towards the point of the upper ski and edging it4 ,then1 keeping the lower leg in exactly the same position1 bend its ankle outwards1 and almost1 but not quite 7see p4 #hc71 flatten the ski4 ,the flattening of the ski will release you1 and you will slide off in the direction of the upper ski's point1 pushing the lower ski1 which must still remain horizontal1 forwards and sideways through the snow--stemming with it in fact4 ,you can go as slowly as you like1 or as fast as the conditions permit1 according as you keep the stemming ski more edged and weighted or less4 ,you can stop suddenly by throwing your whole weight on to the stemming ski1 facing round towards its point1 and quickly bringing the upper ski beside it and forward to the normal position4 ,now make a kick turn 7a downhill one for choice71 and repeat the process in the other direction1 stemming with the other foot4 ,practise this in both directions until you have complete control of your speed1 and can stop yourself almost instantly when moving at a fair rate1 remembering always to face round and bring the upper ski smartly into the normal position as you stop4 ,then practise it with the upper ski pointing more and more steeply downhill4 ,it is1 of course1 possible to start stemming in this way when running freely across the slope with the skis together1 and when accustomed to doing it from a standstill you should also practise this1 but only when running at a moderate pace1 as there are steadier and easier ways of stopping when running fast4 ,you must1 as ,i have said1 hold the lower foot exactly below the upper one1 because in that position you can push along the stemming ski with least effort1 and most quickly throw the weight on it if the other ski side-slips or you want to stop suddenly4 ,this means that the more directly downhill you go the farther forward you will have to hold the lower foot1 and the more1 consequently1 you will have to bend the upper leg 7in order still to keep the weight on the upper ski71 eventually having to lift its heel and finally to sit on it1 if you are to stem almost or quite directly downhill1 as it is quite possible to do4 ,if you find you can do all this fairly comfortably1 by all means do so2 if1 however1 you find that at a certain angle your position on the upper leg becomes very tiring or unsteady1 leave this manoeuvre and try stemming with both skis1 which is also called ,snow-ploughing4--,start straight downhill1 where the slope is quite gentle1 in the normal running position4 ,the moment you are moving bring your feet level1 put the weight on both1 raise the outer edges of the skis by bending your knees inwards a little1 and1 without letting the ski-tips separate1 push their heels as wide apart as you possibly can4 ,the legs must now be absolutely straight at the knees4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--;,double-stemming or snow-plough4 ,the blackened parts are those which should be weighted4 ,if you keep your knees straight and ankles relaxed the skis will travel nearly flat--they should never1 as ,i have said1 be quite flat or their outer edges will catch and trip you--and there will be but little braking effect4 ,if you bend your knees inwards a little1 and edge your skis strongly1 you will1 if the slope is moderate1 reduce your pace gradually and stop4 ,on very icy snow1 unless the slope is very gentle1 you cannot stop by snow-ploughing1 however hard you edge1 but can only reduce your speed more or less4 ,the ,v position is then1 however1 a very useful alternative to the position with the skis slightly apart and parallel as a safeguard to the balance in case of side-slip4 ,it of course gives the utmost lateral stability 7if the straddle is very wide1 as it always should be71 and the straight knees prevent it from being in the least tiring1 while1 when the skis are flattened1 the reduction of speed is hardly worth considering4 ,it is therefore usually preferable to the other position1 with its tiring crouch1 unless the slope is steep 7and the speed therefore very high7 or the ground rough1 when it becomes unsafe on account1 not only of its rigidity1 but of its greater fore and aft instability1 for with the legs in this position one cannot move the feet quickly backwards and forwards in the way described on p4 #aac4 ,on ground neither steep nor rough enough to make it unsteady1 one can1 if the snow is hard1 safely take the snow-plough position quite suddenly when running at full speed4 ,this is very convenient if when running in normal position one suddenly runs on to an icy patch4 ,on hard snow1 then1 snow-ploughing is only effective for braking purposes under certain conditions4 ,in soft snow1 if that is at all deep1 it is almost useless--except for those who can make an abnormally wide straddle--for if in soft snow the skis are put in the ,v position1 the inward pressure of the snow against them is so great that unless the legs can resist it almost directly they are forced together at once1 or1 at the best1 have to let the skis run almost parallel1 in which case there is not much object in holding them apart at all4 ,if1 however1 you are one of the fortunate few who can straddle more than three quarters of their height and point their feet almost directly inwards1 you will find that snow-ploughing gives you perfect control1 even in soft snow1 on all but the steepest slopes1 and that even there you may be able to manage by throwing most of the weight on one ski and making it slide nearly broadside on while the other points almost straight downhill1 the line of your course being still directly down the slope1 and the legs still straddled as widely as possible1 and straight at the knees4 ,you will1 however1 only be able to do this by paying particular attention to the edging of the weighted ski1 for if it is edged either too much or too little it will not slide at all when you try to move along slowly1 and will check you suddenly and throw you down when you try to stop4 ,it is important to remember in snow-ploughing that1 whether you want to brake hard or only slightly1 the straddle must always be as wide as possible2 the speed should depend on the flattening or edging of the skis1 not on the angle between them4 ,moreover1 if when running free with skis together you want to take the ,v position1 you must always--even if running fast--do so as quickly as possible 7not forgetting just to lift the outer edges of the skis before you push them out74 ,remember also that it is no use putting the feet wide apart unless the tips of the skis are close together 7closer than ,plate ,,xx41 p4 #aci74 ,you can start snow-ploughing from a standstill on a steep slope either by taking the position of ,plate ,,xiii4 and pushing the upper ski round to the proper angle as you throw your weight on to it1 or simply by thrusting both sticks into the snow below you and leaning on them while you put the skis in position4 ,if1 for structural reasons1 you have only been able to take an academic interest in the instructions for snow-ploughing in soft snow1 you can now learn a manoeuvre which will enable you in soft snow of any depth to stem as gradually or as steeply as you choose down a slope of any steepness4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,telemark-stemming4 ,stopping4 ,r4 ,unweighted4 ,l4 ,weighted and edged4 ,going4 ,r4 ,weighted4 ,l4 ,unweighted and flattened4 ,telemark ,stemming4--,find a steepish slope which is soft enough to prevent the least tendency to side-slip4 ,stand with the skis horizontal4 ,weight the lower1 and place the upper one at an angle which will let it slide freely1 as you did in learning ordinary stemming1 but this time with its front bend touching the lower ankle1 and its tip rather across the lower instep4 ,edge it normally1 kneel down on the front of it1 and slide off by flattening the other 7,fig4 #cj74 ,you are now stemming in what is practically ,telemark position2 the object of actually kneeling on the upper ski is to save effort1 which1 of course1 it does completely4 ,it also gives the utmost steadiness4 ,the centre of gravity being so low1 you can in this position stop yourself much more suddenly with safety than you can in either snow-ploughing or ordinary stemming1 and can also more safely take up the stemming position while running freely--if1 of course1 you then take the ordinary ,telemark position and kneel right down first4 ,in order to stem straight downhill you must place the upper ski at right angles to the horizontal lower ski 7you may have to get it in position with your hand before starting from a standstill on a steep slope72 its point will then be right across the front instep4 ,the front leg will be quite straight and the foot1 of course1 turned right inwards--a position which may sound awkward1 but which most people find surprisingly easy1 especially on a steep slope4 ,if you want to stop suddenly1 straighten--or rather1 diminish the bend of--the upper leg1 lifting its knee from the ski and throwing yourself well forward on to the lower one4 ,and always remember to face round quickly towards its point as you do so1 and to bring the other ski smartly to normal position by its side4 ,telemark-stemming straight downhill is not only easy in the softest snow1 but also on everything but the very hardest1 no matter how steep the slope4 ,this manoeuvre1 in fact1 is an extremely useful one 7though neither ,i nor1 ,i believe1 any other writer on ski-ing had the sense to realise its value until ,herr ,bilgeri pointed it out71 and you should lose no time in mastering it--not that it takes much mastering1 for the average beginner can do it with ease at the first attempt4 ,it is no use1 however1 for traversing1 either steeply or gradually1 on hard snow1 for the upper ski is then very apt to side-slip and upset the runner4 ,nor on very hard and slippery snow is it suitable even for a direct descent1 as it is then difficult to hold enough weight on the stemming ski to keep the pace down4 ,on this sort of snow1 however1 as long as it gives any grip at all--and1 when it does not1 it is no longer snow1 but ice1 for which skis are not intended--you can descend the steepest slopes either directly or obliquely with your speed under perfect control by ,side-,slipping4--,in order to side-slip straight downhill you simply stand with your skis horizontal and rather apart1 and start by flattening them a little and throwing your weight well outwards1 as if you wanted to go fast down the hill1 not slowly4 ,you will then not go fast1 but will keep your weight over your skis and be able by edging them again to check your pace or stop when you want to4 ,if you want to stop suddenly1 give a little jump and stamp the ski edges hard into the snow4 ,do not be too anxious to go slowly1 or in the effort to edge the skis extra hard you will probably lean towards the slope1 push them from under you1 and fall down4 ,the skis must remain horizontal as they slip2 if they begin to turn upwards or downwards1 put weight on the toes or heels respectively4 ,if by weighting the toes you make the skis point downwards a little they will slide forwards as well as sideways1 and the more they are then edged the more they will move forwards in comparison with their sideway motion4 ,by side-slipping1 therefore1 you can traverse slowly at any angle you choose if the slope is fairly steep4 ,you can also stop yourself by side-slipping if you wish to when running a free traverse in normal position4 ,you merely have to make the skis side-slip and instantly put your weight on the heels until they turn uphill a little1 when you can again edge and stop them4 ,a little practice will make the whole manoeuvre almost instantaneous2 it is then really a ,christiania swing 7see p4 #age71 and1 if the snow is not very soft1 is a far quicker and easier way than ordinary stemming or stopping or checking the pace for a moment4 ,throw your weight well outwards to keep it over your skis as they side-slip2 your tendency at first will be to fall towards the hill4 ,if you ever wish to make a stemming traverse at a steep angle on a moderate slope where the snow though hard is not quite slippery enough for you to side-slip down it1 you may be somewhat at a loss4 ,in the ,telemark position you will find a tendency to side-slip1 and you may1 in the ordinary stemming position1 with the lower ski held horizontally and the weight on the upper one1 be unable to manage the necessary squatting attitude comfortably4 ,you can then traverse in something between the ordinary stemming and the snow-plough positions with the upper ski edged outwards and pointing the way you are going1 but with the weight almost equally distributed between it and the lower1 which points somewhat downhill instead of horizontally and is held with its tip level with the other's1 not ahead4 ,the upper knee must be bent1 the lower straight4 ,we have so far talked only of hard and soft snow1 but the snow surface is sometimes a breakable crust1 into which the skis cut1 and in which no sort of stemming is possible4 ,your only way of going slowly in this is to traverse at a very slight angle2 if you then want to stop1 you must step round--that is1 you must lift the upper ski1 put it down again pointing horizontally across the slope1 and instantly lift the lower and bring it down parallel with the first4 ,be careful to throw your weight well upwards and forwards as you put down the upper ski1 and not to let the lower remain on the snow for a moment after the first has been brought to it again2 it is safest to give a little jump from one to the other4 ,either by stepping round1 or by any sort of stemming1 you can of course make a change of direction when traversing if the gradient of the slope varies2 as you pass on to steeper ground1 for instance1 you can weight the heel of the stemming ski for a moment until it is again horizontal1 at the same time flattening the running ski a little and letting it slip down to the angle at which it was pointing before4 ,this is really an embryo swing1 as you will see later2 one important reason1 in fact1 for learning all the methods of braking thoroughly is that they are the elements of which the swings are composed1 each variety of swing or turn being either a development of one method of braking1 or a combination of one with another4 ,when you become more expert you will not often have to stem while traversing if the ground is open1 though even then you will often find it convenient to brake in one way or other when going straight downhill4 ,in thick wood1 however1 you will find it indispensable to be able to go at a moderate speed in all sorts of snow and at any gradient4 ,it is also worth remembering that to stem straight downhill at an ordinary pace is a comparatively fast process4 ,it is not so pretty and needs much less skill1 but it is quicker than running freely in tacks of an ordinary gradient and connecting them by downhill turns 7explained later74 ,when running down a narrow path or the like it is sometimes impossible to brake effectually1 as there is not room to put the skis in a wide ,v position or to ,telemark-stem2 it may then be permissible to use the stick or sticks as an aid4 ,plate ,,xxi4 shows a way of doing this4 ,the arm supported against the thigh gives a firm purchase--firm enough1 in my experience1 to hurt the wrist a good deal if the points of the sticks catch something hard4 ,this manoeuvre is hardly ever necessary unless the path is very icy2 if there is much of this1 and you want to go slowly1 you may just as well walk with your skis on your shoulder4 ,when you can do all that has been explained so far1 you may 7if you have steadily refrained from using your stick except as ,i have directed7 consider yourself quite a respectable ski-runner in a small way4 ,there will be nothing to prevent you from going for any expedition of which the uphill climb is within your powers1 for whether you are going uphill or downhill1 there is no sort of ground that cannot be negotiated by one or other of the manoeuvres that ,i have described4 ,but1 though a perfectly efficient tourist1 you will not be a very fast one downhill until you have learnt how to stop and steer yourself in any sort of snow1 when running fast1 and will tire yourself unnecessarily on steep or difficult ground until you can run in zigzags without coming to a standstill between each tack4 ,the different ways of doing these things are described in the following sections4 ,,the ,,stemming ,,turn ,i must here apologise for the extreme ambiguity of ski-ing terminology1 which1 however1 as ,i did not invent it1 ,i have not the moral courage to try to improve4 ,the term stemming may be used in several different senses4 ,in its narrowest sense it means holding the skis in the ,v position and braking with one of them4 ,more broadly it means braking with both in the ,v position4 ,it also means braking with the skis in ,telemark position4 ,in fact in its broadest sense it means any sort of braking except side-slipping with the skis parallel4 ,in this sense almost any method of turning on skis might1 as we shall see later1 be called a stemming turn4 ,the expression stemming turn1 however1 is generally used in a special sense to denote a turn during which the skis are held in the ,v position with the feet nearly level4 ,by means of a stemming turn you can1 as you already know1 turn uphill or stop when traversing2 you can also do so from a direct descent4 ,you can1 moreover1 turn downhill from a traverse until you face in the opposite direction and run off on a new tack4 ,this turn is effected by putting the skis in a more or less wide ,v position1 and either simultaneously or immediately afterwards weighting and slightly advancing the one that is to be outermost in turning4 ,to show how in this as in all turns the various factors of side-slipping1 with the weight variously distributed1 combined steering action of both skis1 edging1 c41 come into play according to circumstances1 it will be necessary to describe in detail the two different uses of the turn4 ,for practising these turns find a moderate slope and snow in which it is easy to stem when running straight downhill2 a much trodden practice-ground is the very thing4 ,uphill ,turn to the ,left4--,you already know how to turn uphill from a traverse by stemming2 the following way of doing it is slightly simpler4 ,traverse to the left at an easy gradient in normal position1 weight on right foot4 ,when you want to turn1 draw the upper ski a little to the rear 7,fig4 #ca1 #a7 and then push the heels wide apart1 straightening both legs and putting all the weight on the lower heel 7,fig4 #ca1 #b and #c74 ,as the lower ski begins to turn uphill1 bring the other one smartly to its side again in normal position4 ,this is much the same thing as stopping when stemming with the lower ski1 as described above 7page #aba71 but is rather simpler1 for the uncomfortable crouching position necessary when stemming with the lower ski is avoided1 there is no shifting of the weight from one ski to the other1 and the preparatory movement of drawing back the upper ski can perfectly well be made simultaneously with the actual turn4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,uphill stemming turn to left4 ,the blackened parts are those which should be weighted4 ,to make an uphill stemming turn when running across a slope in normal position is rather a clumsy process1 and it is quite unnecessary to spend much time in practising it1 for an uphill turn from a traverse can be made more easily and effectively by the ,christiania swing1 in the way already explained1 or the ,telemark1 which will be described later4 ,just make sure1 however1 that you can turn uphill in this way from a traverse in either direction1 and then try the turn from a direct descent1 as follows4 ,run straight downhill in the stemming position with the weight equally on both skis and the feet as wide apart as possible1 taking care that the legs are quite straight at the knee1 and rigid 7,fig4 #cb1 #a74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,uphill stemming turn to left4 ,in order to turn to the left 7most people find it easiest to learn to turn to this side first7 you have simply to throw all the weight on to the heel of the right foot and turn the body to face the point of the right ski4 ,you will begin to turn to the left1 and as you do so the left foot will involuntarily fall slightly to the rear 7#b71 when the steering action due to the relative position of the skis will help the turn4 ,if you keep all the weight on the heel of the right foot you will go on turning until the right ski points slightly uphill1 when you will come to a standstill 7#c74 ,as you do so1 be sure to bring the inner ski quickly to the normal position4 ,this is extremely simple1 and1 if you keep both legs quite straight and the feet wide apart1 you can hardly fail to do it correctly4 ,the mistake you are most likely to make is that of letting the left knee bend as you begin to come round4 ,if it does so the left ski will get on its outside edge1 and1 instead of continuing to skid round1 will only run in the direction in which it is pointing1 so that if it does not run across the other 7,plate ,,xxv471 and throw you down1#h you will find yourself running obliquely across the slope1 stemming with the right ski only instead of turning uphill and stopping4 ,it is not sufficient1 however1 to keep the inner leg straight1 for unless at the same time you keep nearly all weight off it1 either the left ski will get in front and you will begin to face downhill again1 or it will get too much on to its inside edge1 and will at least prevent you from finishing the turn1 even if it does not trip you up4 ,as soon as you can turn to the left in this way1 learn to turn to the right1 of course substituting right for left and left for right in the directions4 ,if1 while running straight downhill1 you turn and come to a standstill in the way ,i have described1 you will1 when you have stopped1 find yourself a certain distance to one side or the other of your original course4 ,this may not always be convenient2 you may1 for instance1 want to stop while running down an icy road1 fenced on each side1 and so narrow that you have only just room enough to stem1 and would run into the fence if you swung to one side in stopping4 ,in a case of this sort you can turn suddenly and stop in your tracks in the following way3-- ,suppose you are running straight downhill in the double-stemming position2 when you want to stop1 give a vigorous push with one foot--say the left--and so throw all your weight suddenly right outwards on to the heel of the right foot1 turning the body quickly well round to the left as you do so4 ,if this is done with force and decision the right ski skids round quickly to a horizontal position1 and as it does so1 the left ski comes into the air1 is lifted smartly round1 and brought down parallel with and close to the other one4 ,you then find yourself at a standstill1 facing to the left across your original track1 but without having moved to one side of it 7,fig4 #cc74 ,just at first you may fail to do this properly through giving a timid1 jerky push with the left foot instead of a steady thrust4 ,this will prevent your weight from going sufficiently outwards over the right ski1 and the left ski will come to the snow again before you have had time to lift it round to the side of the other one and before that one has had time to skid round to right angles with your course4 ,after a very few trials1 however1 you should be able to do it correctly1 and you will then find that no great force is necessary1 and that the movement need not even be made particularly quickly provided it be done with a free swing4 ,in order to give the push you must1 of course1 bend the inside knee slightly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,uphill stemming turn to left4 ,the blackened parts are those which should be weighted4 ,provided the inner ski is brought parallel to the outer one1 it does not matter if it comes to the snow again before the latter has skidded round to right angles1 for then the turn can be finished with both skis side-slipping together--that is to say1 the turn can begin as a stemming turn and finish as a ,christiania1 a most useful combination which is beginning to be known by the dreadful name ,stemmiania1 which ,i only quote in order to record my dislike for it4 ,this way of making the turn is practically instantaneous1 and is so convenient that when you have once learnt it you will hardly ever use the one ,i described first4 ,by means of it you can stop suddenly when moving at a very fair rate1 especially if you stem hard with both skis well edged inwards just before making the turn4 ,practise this movement without skis at first1 and then at a standstill with skis1 on the most slippery snow you can find1 trying to make the outer ski spin right round to right angles4 ,these uphill stemming turns enable you to stop yourself wherever the quality of the snow and the gradient allow you to hold the double-stemming position while running straight downhill4 ,it is no use attempting to make them on very steep slopes or in snow into which the skis sink deeply2 in either of these cases you will have to stop yourself by means of the ,telemark or ,christiania swings1 described later4 ,i need hardly say that if you merely wish to alter your course and not to stop yourself1 you can finish the turn at any point4 ,you either wait until the outer1 weighted ski is pointing in the direction you want to go1 and then bring the other ski parallel to it in the normal position and run on at full speed2 or1 if you still wish to brake1 you turn rather farther until the inner ski is in line with your intended course1 and then shift the weight partly or entirely to that one and run on stemming4 ,downhill ,turn to the ,left4--,a turn made in a downward direction in order to join one tack to another when descending a hill in zigzags is often called an ,s turn1 on account of the shape of the track left by a number of these turns made in alternate directions 7,plates ,,xxvi41 ,,xxxiii41 ,,xlii474 ,any downhill turn1 therefore1 whether made by the stemming turn or by any other means1 can be called an ,s turn4 ,a good many people1 however1 having never seen a downhill turn made by any other means than the stemming turn--or at least the awkward manoeuvre which the average runner imagines to be the stemming turn--believe ,s turn and stemming turn to be synonymous4 ,as will be seen later on1 a downhill or ,s turn can quite well be made by means of the ,telemark or ,christiania swings1 the ,s having no reference whatever to stemming4 ,to avoid confusion1 ,i shall not use the term ,s turn at all1 but only speak of a downhill turn4 ,the best way to practise the turn at first is to run1 as before1 straight downhill in the double stemming position for a few yards1 then throw the weight on the left ski as if you meant to turn uphill to the right and stop 7,fig4 #cd1 #a and #b71 but just before the left ski points horizontally across the hill1 transfer the weight to the heel of the right foot1 and face round to the left a little4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,downhill stemming turn to left 7#c1 #d1 and #e74 ,the blackened parts are those which should be weighted4 ,you will find yourself beginning to turn downhill again--the left ski falling a little behind the other as you do so--and by keeping the weight on the right foot you will go round until you face across the slope in the opposite direction 7,fig4 #cd1 #c1 #d1 and #e71 when you can shift the weight to the left foot and reverse the process4 ,by repeating this you will descend the hill in short zigzags4 ,the important points are--7#a7 to hold the stemming position unaltered with the knees straight1 the heels of the skis wide apart1 and the tips close together2 7#b7 to throw the weight well on to the outer ski2 and 7#c7 not to let the inner ski get in front4 ,the last half of the turn1 from the point at which you are facing straight downhill1 is1 of course1 really an uphill one1 identical with what you have already learnt1 and can be finished at any point in any of the ways already described4 ,you can start a downhill turn1 like an uphill one1 from the normal position while running across a slope1 and under these conditions the turn is1 as in the case of the uphill one1 rather less easy2 this time1 however1 it is extremely important to be able to do it1 for this is by far the most useful application of the stemming turn1 and you can in this way1 provided the snow be suitable1 join one tack to another on a slope of any steepness1 where it would be impossible to run straight downhill in double stemming position4 ,suppose you wish to start a downhill turn to the left while running at a gentle gradient across a slope in the normal position 7i4e4 with the weight on the left foot and the right foot in front71 the first thing to do is to turn the right knee and ankle inwards so as to lift the outer edge of the ski as much as possible4 ,then1 keeping the point of the right ski ahead of the other1 push its heel uphill and out to the position of #b1 ,fig4 #ce1 ,b1 at the same time weighting the toe of the left foot and slightly flattening that ski1 which will then begin to point downwards and give the other more room to turn4 ,as they turn downwards push their heels wide apart and throw your weight quickly outwards so that a final thrust of the left leg sends it full on to the right heel just as you face straight downhill4 ,almost simultaneously lift the left ski round to the side of the other and finish the turn with the skis parallel4 ,as you lift the inner ski turn 7not lean7 the body inwards just enough to face squarely towards the point of the outer ski4 ,if you turn slowly there will be an interval between the pushing round of the outer ski and the final thrust of the inner leg during which the skis will be equally weighted4 ,if you turn sharply while running fast the checking of the outer ski's speed as it comes broadside on will throw the weight on it at once and lift the inner ski without an effort4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,downhill stemming turn to left 7two methods74 ,the blackened parts are those which should be weighted4 ,it is also possible to make the turn by putting the weight on the outer ski before it begins to stem at all1 and making it turn downhill by pressing on the toe 7as in ,fig4 #ce1 ,a74 ,i used to think this method the easier of the two1 but have changed my mind about it1 and can only apologise for leading people astray4 ,up to this point you have been practising on moderate slopes only1 but it is on steep slopes that you will generally have to use the downhill stemming turn1 and it is on steep slopes that you should practise it the instant that you can do it neatly on a gentle one4 ,you will then find a difficulty that has probably not bothered you much so far4 ,on a steep slope1 as you begin to turn downhill1 the increase of speed is sudden and considerable1 and if you do not compensate for this by throwing the weight more and more forwards1 the skis will shoot from under you1 and you will sit down4 ,don't1 however1 begin leaning downhill too soon1 while still facing across the slope1 for that will throw the weight on to the inside 7lower7 ski4 ,simply lean as far forwards over the front of your skis as possible1 so that as they turn downhill your weight will be well over them4 ,the difficulty of leaning forward sufficiently on a steep slope is partly due to the tendency to stand with the weight vertically above the feet1 as one would do when walking downhill4 ,the very best plan for overcoming this difficulty1 and one which will make it infinitely easier for you to perform the turn quickly and correctly1 is to keep your eyes fixed on the ground at your feet while you are turning1 and to imagine that it is almost or quite level4 ,you will then naturally hold yourself at right angles to the slope no matter how steep that may be4 ,you will find this downhill turn of very little practical use on a steep slope until you can make it quite shortly and sharply2 for if you make a long curve1 the pace increases so much in the middle of it that you are almost sure to lose control1 and fail to finish the turn1 even if you do not fall down4 ,the reason why to lift round the inner ski at the middle of the turn is safer than to keep it on the snow throughout is because the curve is thus considerably shortened4 ,the act of suddenly throwing yourself very far forward over the front of your skis as you face downhill will make them hang back a little for an instant--all the more so for the fact that at this point the stemming action of both is at its maximum--and at this moment it is easy to give a push with1 and then to lift round1 the inner ski4 ,be careful1 in lifting the ski round1 to bring it down again exactly parallel to the outer ski2 for the inner one1 if it comes down pointing towards the outer one1 will instantly run across it and upset you2 while if pointing away1 it will run uphill and draw your feet apart with a jerk that will probably have the same result4 ,although1 as ,i have said1 you should turn the body a little in throwing the weight outwards1 it is no use attempting to lean or swing it the way you want to go4 ,you must simply throw it forwards and outwards--that is1 rather away from where you want to go4 ,if you lean the way you want to go you will simply put weight on the inner ski1 which will then either trip you up or make you run away straight downhill instead of finishing the turn4 ,indeed1 paradoxical as it may sound1 you should1 in a sense1 try not to turn2 manoeuvre your skis as ,i have directed1 and try to keep a straight course1 turning sideways as you do so1 and you will probably come round without difficulty4 ,the faster you are running at the moment of beginning the turn1 the more difficulty you will at first have in making it4 ,you had better1 therefore1 when learning it1 run at a gradient which will only just allow you to keep moving smoothly 7,i am speaking of the gradient of your course across the slope1 not of the gradient of the slope itself71 otherwise1 before beginning the turn1 you may be inclined to stem with the lower ski in order to check the pace1 and1 when the lower ski is put in stemming position before the other is pushed round1 there is a tendency for the weight to get too far back in the effort of starting the turn1 which then misses fire4 ,if you are bound to slow up before you begin the turn1 do so by side-slipping with both skis and turning a little uphill 7i4e4 make a slight ,christiania swing7 as described in the last section1 p4 #aca4 ,on an icy and steep slope it is1 of course1 especially necessary to make the turn very sharply if you are not to lose control in the middle of it4 ,you can do this by running very slowly before turning1 and then quickly putting the upper ski far round1 and simultaneously weighting it by means of what is practically a jump from the other ski1 which comes into the air almost before the first is weighted1 and is brought down parallel with it almost instantly4 ,this is well worth practising assiduously1 for it makes all the difference to the safety of a turn on very steep and icy ground4 ,do not be contented until you can make a short1 sharp turn 7both to right and left1 of course7 with perfect steadiness1 on the steepest slope you can find4 ,for although on steep slopes a ,telemark or ,christiania swing is the best way of making an uphill turn1 there is no means so reliable as the stemming turn for turning downhill1 no matter how steep the slope1 provided the snow is hard1 or that1 if soft1 it is shallow4 ,it is almost useless1 though1 to attempt it in deep soft snow4 ,at the best you will probably only get halfway round with an uncomfortable effort1 and then the inner ski will be forced back1 and come round after the other in ,telemark position1 in which1 as you will find later1 it might just as well have started4 ,at the worst you may be tempted to drag yourself round with the stick in the position shown in the photograph 7,plate ,,xxviii474 ,this position1 which1 ,i hope1 is becoming less fashionable1 is the very essence of incorrectness and awkwardness1 and is an infallible sign either of poor nerve or of bad teaching4 ,here the weight falls principally on the inside ski and the stick1 instead of entirely on the outer ski1 while the skis are held parallel1 or nearly so1 instead of in the ,v position4 ,the general position is a crouching one with the knees bent1 instead of an erect one with straight and rigid legs2 except for a feeble stemming action of the outer ski1 which is too much edged1 the turning effect is entirely due to the drag of the stick4 ,those who make use of this method generally refer to it as a stemming turn1 ,s turn1 or ,alpine curve1 using either of these terms in contradistinction to the terms ,telemark and ,christiania1 evidently under the impression that an ,s curve can only be made by stemming1 and that by means of the ,telemark or ,christiania it is only possible to turn uphill and stop4 ,the only correct title for this manoeuvre is stick turn4 ,when ,i say that this method is awkward and incorrect1 ,i do not merely mean that it is ugly1 for ,i suppose that to the unsophisticated eye its attitude is no more ugly than the exaggerated straddle of the correct stemming position4 ,there are two strong reasons for considering it execrable in style and utterly to be avoided4 ,in the first place it is a waste of energy1 because it takes a considerable muscular effort to make a turn in this way1 even when the snow is easy1 and an exhausting one when it is not2 while by substituting correct methods one can always turn without the smallest strain4 ,the second objection to it is that it is inefficient1 for by turning in this way it is impossible to make a short curve1 especially in deep soft snow2 and until a runner can turn sharply in snow of any quality and on a slope of any steepness 7,i do not say at any speed71 he by no means can be said to have proper control of his skis4 ,i do not for a moment deny that it is the easiest way of turning1 in the sense that it is the one requiring the least skill4 ,but any one who knows what can be done by correct methods1 who has ordinary nerve1 and who does not look on ski-running solely as a means of locomotion1 for which a technique demanding the minimum of skill is the one to be preferred1 will shun the stick turn as he would the pestilence4 ,finally1 let me remind you once more that in stemming--and this holds equally good whether you are turning or going straight ahead--the skis should never be quite flat2 their outer edges must be lifted a little even when the snow is easy1 rather more so when it is not 7see p4 #hc74 ,to be quite accurate ,i ought to have said the skis must not be kept flat1 for obviously they must during a downhill turn each pass through the flat position1 since their edging1 on the tack before the turn1 is the reverse of what it is on the tack that follows it4 ,this change of edge1 as a matter of fact1 constitutes one of the difficulties of the turn4 ,the outer ski makes the change easily enough1 for the outer ankle 7which is bent inwards in order to start the turn7 does not have to alter its position while the change of edge takes place4 ,but the inner ski1 if kept on the snow throughout the turn1 is by no means easy to manage at the moment that the change has to be made4 ,this ski remains on its inside edge until nearly the end of the turn1 and if allowed to remain so for a moment too long is very apt to catch on this edge and run across the other or refuse to come round1 especially on a steep slope1 if 7as he should have done7 the runner has made a very wide straddle when facing straight downhill4 ,this difficulty is entirely avoided when the turn is finished by the lifting of the inner ski 7the change of edge then taking place1 so to speak1 in the air74 ,indeed1 although this lifting of the ski may sound somewhat acrobatic to any one who has not tried it1 it is really quite the reverse4 ,it needs far less adroitness than does a neat and steady finish of the turn with the ski kept on the snow1 and is1 in fact1 not only the quicker and more effective1 but also considerably the easier and safer of the two methods4 ,the runner can only make a true stemming turn when going at a moderate pace4 ,by finishing it as a ,christiania1 however1 he can turn either uphill or downhill when going much faster4 ,in fact the sooner the skis are brought parallel1 the greater the pace at which the turn can be started2 at very high speeds only a trifling preliminary stem being either necessary or safe4 ,short ,directions for a ,downhill ,stemming ,turn to the ,left ,from normal running position1 right foot leading1 left weighted4 ,bending and turning inwards right knee1 ankle1 and foot1 push heel of right ski outwards and forwards to the widest possible stemming position--its tip close to but ahead of the other's--at the same time slightly flattening the left ski and pressing on its toe4 ,as the skis turn downwards push their heels wide apart1 quickly shift your weight forwards and outwards1 and1 with a push from the inner ski1 throw it full on the right heel as you face straight downhill--at the same time lifting the left ski quickly round to the side of the other and finishing the turn with the skis parallel4 ,when moving slowly this is to be done in two motions2 when moving fast1 in one continuous one4 ,fix the eyes on the tips of the skis and try to lean in that direction only1 not inwards4 ,n4,b4--,the latter half of this turn is1 of course1 really an uphill one1 separate directions for which are therefore unnecessary4 ,,the ,,telemark ,,swing ,although by stemming you can make either up or downhill turns with perfect ease either on a hard icy surface or in shallow loose snow1 you will find it very difficult1 if not impossible1 to make a stemming turn in loose snow of more than a certain depth or density--unless you drag yourself round with the stick4 ,by means of the ,telemark swing1 however1 you can easily make turns in any sort of loose snow1 and can do so on any slope1 no matter how steep it may be4 ,if you can already both run and stem in the ,telemark position1 with either foot leading1 you will find it a very simple matter to learn the swing4 ,in fact you may be said to have learnt it after a fashion1 for to stop by ,telemark stemming is to make a clumsy ,telemark uphill turn4 ,for practising this swing1 find a moderate slope where the snow is soft and1 for choice1 deep or dense enough to make a stemming turn difficult4 ,uphill ,turn to the ,left4--,run at a gentle gradient across the slope with the hill on your left and the weight on the lower 7right7 foot1 not1 however1 in the normal position1 with the left foot advanced1 but in the ,telemark position1 with the right foot leading4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,uphill ,telemark swings to left 7,a from a traversing1 ,b from a direct descent74 ,the blackened parts are those which should be weighted4 ,the left ski should then be so far back that its bend is level with the right ankle1 the left heel should be raised1 and the left leg perfectly relaxed1 with the knee nearly touching the ski4 ,the right knee should be perpendicularly over the foot1 and both knees be pressed inwards4 ,this is only preparatory1 and you should1 in this position1 be able to run directly across the slope at whatever gradient you choose4 ,as soon as you are fairly under weigh1 make the swing as follows3 ,turn the right knee and foot a little inwards1 placing the front ski slightly at an angle with the other2 at the same time edge the right ski inwards and put the whole weight on the right heel1 pressing it down and trying to lift the toes4 ,you will at once begin to turn uphill4 ,the moment you start turning lean more forwards and face full towards the point of the front ski4 ,as you stop moving weight the toe of the front foot1 press the back knee inwards1 and so bring the skis parallel4 ,unless you are on the look-out for it1 you will find a tendency1 as you begin the turn1 to lean inwards 7towards the hill71 or backwards1 putting weight on the left foot1 and at the same time to straighten the right knee and relax the right ankle1 more or less flattening the ski 7,plate ,,xxx474 ,as a result you will1 if you do not fall inwards at once1 probably finish the swing in an awkward straddled position1 the right ski pointing uphill1 almost at right angles to the other ski1 which will not have altered its direction1 and the weight on both feet4 ,or else you will find that the weight on the left ski will make it run up level with the other again1 which will prevent you from turning1 or across it1 which will throw you down4 ,it will help you to avoid this inward lean if you remember that1 as explained on p4 #hb1 your right ski in turning does not cut round directly as a skate does1 but slips sideways as well as forwards1 and that1 therefore1 during the swing your right foot1 instead of moving more and more to the left of your original line of progress1 will at first move to the right of1 or below it2 and1 if the hill is steep or the snow shallow1 will hardly be above it even at the end of the swing4 ,it is obvious1 then1 that if you are to remain properly balanced on your right ski1 very little inward lean is necessary1 and the usual directions for leaning the body inwards while making the swing are most misleading4 ,in fact1 although one really has to lean inwards when the turn has begun1 the instinct to avoid an outward fall makes one overdo this to such an extent that at first it is better to try to throw the weight rather to the right and outwards1 downhill 7but well forwards71 in order to get the proper balance4 ,in the ,telemark swing the edging of the leading ski is an important factor in the turn1 and there is more forward motion in proportion to the side-slip than in the stemming turn1 which is almost entirely a skidding turn4 ,indeed1 when the swing is made while running fast in deep soft snow 7which reduces the side-slip to a minimum71 the runner1 as he comes at right angles to his original course at the end of the swing1 may find it necessary to lean consciously inwards1 but only at the end--never under any circumstances at the beginning of the swing4 ,in this swing1 as in the stemming turn1 it is a mistake1 when practising1 to look the way you want to go1 as is sometimes advised4 ,you must only look the way you are actually going at the moment--i4e4 rather to the outside of the point of the leading ski4 ,it is also useless to try to force the turn by swinging the body or in any other way2 and1 as in the stemming turn1 it is better to think nothing at all about turning1 simply confining your attention to the weighting and position of the skis1 and trying1 in a sense1 to go straight on4 ,the great thing at first is to prevent the weight getting back on the back foot4 ,there is1 of course1 no real necessity for running in the ,telemark position before beginning the swing1 but to do so whilst learning it gives you less to think about when starting the turn4 ,as soon as you get a little accustomed to it you can run in normal position with the upper foot leading until you wish to turn1 and can then drop into ,telemark position1 lower foot leading1 and begin the swing simultaneously4 ,when you can make the swing to the left1 run across the slope in the opposite direction1 and learn to make it to the right in the same way 7of course substituting left for right and right for left in the directions74 ,when you can do this1 practise it to the left again1 this time running more directly downhill than at first1 and then in the same way to the right1 until you can at last swing to a standstill either right or left when running straight downhill 7,fig4 #cf1 ,b74 ,but do not1 at any stage1 run far before beginning to swing2 get fairly under weigh and make the swing1 then run on and do it again1 and so on until you have gone as far as you wish4 ,in this way you will get less climbing uphill in proportion to the amount of practice4 ,it is at the end of a swing made when running straight downhill that you are almost sure to find it necessary to lean inwards if the snow is deep and the speed high1 but till you find a distinct tendency to fall outwards you need not concern yourself about it4 ,of course1 instead of coming to a standstill at the end of a swing1 you can1 if you wish1 stop turning before the leading ski comes to a horizontal position1 and can run on obliquely down the hill4 ,in order to do this you have only1 as soon as the leading ski is pointing the way you want to go1 to shift the weight from the heel to the toe1 stand erect1 and bring the back ski to the front in the normal position4 ,as soon as you can swing both to left and right when running straight downhill1 learn to make a downhill turn 7,s turn71 which will enable you to join one tack to another when descending a slope in zigzags4 ,downhill ,turn to the ,left4--,in this use of the swing the skis are held as before1 and weighted in much the same way1 but there are one or two points to be noticed4 ,run across the slope at a moderate gradient with the hill on your right1 in ,telemark position with the right foot leading 7or start in normal position1 and when you mean to turn1 shift the weight from left foot to right and drop back the left ski74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,downhill ,telemark swing to left at various stages4 ,the blackened parts are those which should be weighted4 ,then1 lifting the outer edge of the right ski1 turn the right foot and knee inwards1 and so place the ski at a slight angle with the other1 as in starting an uphill swing4 ,but1 while in an uphill swing this angle should be very slight indeed and the body should immediately turn towards the point of the front ski1 in a downhill swing the angle must be a trifle wider1 and the body must remain facing the point of the back ski until both have turned far enough for the front one to point nearly straight downhill4 ,the stemming of the front ski1 in fact1 and the combined steering action of both1 which in an uphill turn should hardly be perceptible1 should in a downhill one be more pronounced4 ,the weight1 moreover1 must just at first be placed on the toe of the front foot to help that ski to turn downwards4 ,the moment you are fairly heading downhill1 throw the whole weight on to the heel of the front ski1 face towards its point1 and finish the swing as before 7,fig4 #cg74 ,the faster you are running at the moment of beginning the swing1 the sooner you can transfer the weight from the toe to the heel1 and face in the direction of the leading ski2 in fact1 from a very fast traverse1 a downhill ,telemark swing is practically made in exactly the same way as an uphill one1 the preliminary stem of the front ski and the weighting of the toe being barely perceptible4 ,in putting the weight on the toe at the beginning of the swing1 take great care not to poke the foot forward1 but to keep the knee well over it2 otherwise you are sure to take the weight right off it4 ,be on your guard also against the tendency to try to start the swing by leaning to the left1 for1 if you do this1 you will either fall downhill or get the skis apart4 ,simply lean well forward1 look in that direction only1 and don't think of trying to turn1 but rather try to go on across the slope1 letting your skis carry you round4 ,as you turn downwards of course the pace increases1 and you must lean more forward1 but you will find it less difficult to do this sufficiently during the ,telemark swing than during a stemming turn4 ,the great secret is to keep the right knee well forward over the foot1 to try to lean over the front of the ski1 and to keep your eyes on the ground at your feet1 trying to imagine it flat1 as ,i advised in the case of the stemming turn4 ,the ,telemark swing1 when executed correctly1 at high speed1 requires no sustained muscular effort except that of holding the leading ski on its inside edge and pressing down the heel4 ,in deep soft snow this is easy enough1 if the knee is well over the leading foot and all the weight on that ski1 but in shallow snow it is sometimes difficult1 at a high speed1 to prevent the ankle from bending outwards1 which flattens the ski and makes it skid outwards with an irregular1 jerky movement1 leaving the weight on the back foot4 ,to prevent this1 press the knee in well1 turn the outside of the foot hard upwards1 and press the toe upwards against the toe-strap4 ,this will give the sensation of grinding the inner side of the heel into the snow1 and you should try to increase the pressure as the swing proceeds4 ,strictly speaking1 a very slight flattening of the front ski hastens the start of an uphill swing from a traverse4 ,but this flattening should be merely momentary1 and it is so difficult to make it so and instantly to edge the ski again that it is safer to leave it out altogether4 ,neither allow the back ski to come forward to the normal position1 nor weight it until the swing is quite finished and you are either standing still or running off in a new direction4 ,it may seem that1 owing to the position1 the ,telemark swing calls for more delicate balancing than the other methods of turning4 ,there is really not so much difference1 for in either the stemming turn or1 as will be seen later1 in one form of the ,christiania swing1 when these are properly executed1 the weight must for a time be balanced almost entirely on one ski4 ,it is1 however1 more difficult to avoid a fall in case of an error of balance or of unexpected side-slip in the ,telemark swing than in the ,christiania or stemming turns1 for in the two latter the unweighted foot is in a position to receive the weight and help the balance1 while in the former it can only do so in a very slight degree4 ,moreover1 it is especially at the finish of the swing 7when balancing is most difficult71 in the ,telemark1 that the weight must be entirely on the one ski1 while both the ,christiania and stemming turn can1 and should1 be finished with the weight equally on both4 ,if1 however1 the ,telemark is only employed in soft snow of fair depth1 the side-slip will be slight and perfectly regular1 and for that reason will not disturb the balance much4 ,on an icy surface1 or in shallow loose snow1 although it is easy enough to come round with a ,telemark swing1 the irregular side-slip as the swing ends makes it difficult to keep the balance2 but on snow of this kind1 which is particularly suitable for the stemming turn or ,christiania1 there is no necessity to use the ,telemark at all4 ,practise this swing at first on a moderate slope1 and then on steeper ones1 until you can finally make short downhill turns on the steepest slope you can find4 ,but do not1 at any rate at first1 waste time in trying to learn it where the quality of snow makes it difficult4 ,if at first1 through nervousness or bad balance1 you have much difficulty with the ,telemark1 you can learn it by easy stages either 7#a7 from a standstill1 7#b7 from the snow-plough position1 or 7#c7 from ,telemark stemming4 7#a7 ,place yourself in the starting position of ,plate ,,xiii4 ,throw your weight full on to the heel of the right ski1 pushing it a trifle farther outwards as you do so1 and sinking into ,telemark position as it slides off4 ,if you almost simultaneously face round towards its point and bring the other ski to its side by pressing the left knee inwards1 you will swing round to the left to a standstill almost before you have moved4 ,or1 holding yourself back with your sticks1 you can place your skis in ,telemark position1 both pointing straight downhill4 ,then letting your sticks go1 you can swing round instantly to a standstill4 7#b7 ,while snow-ploughing straight downhill1 throw the whole weight out on to the heel of one ski1 turning towards its point as you do so1 and dropping the other back into ,telemark position4 ,a downhill turn1 in the same way1 can1 as ,i have already said1 be started by snow-ploughing and finished as a ,telemark4 7#c7 ,to learn a downhill swing1 traverse very slowly in ,telemark position1 upper ski leading1 but kneeling down on and fully weighting the lower ski1 then turn the upper ski steadily as far round as possible into ,telemark stemming position pointing downhill1 immediately afterwards shifting the weight gradually forwards on to it1 but not letting the angle between the skis diminish until you are facing straight downhill1 when you can turn towards the front ski's point and bring the other round parallel4 ,i mention these kindergarten methods of learning the swing because ,i have found them really valuable for giving a nervous beginner confidence1 but1 if you try them1 you must remember that to start the swing either from snow-ploughing or pronounced ,telemark stemming is an exceedingly clumsy way of doing it1 and only possible at very low speeds4 ,there is always a suspicion of stemming at the start of even an expert's swing1 and therefore1 to be quite accurate1 the weight is never entirely on the front ski at the outset1 for it is of course impossible to place the front ski at an angle with the other without using the latter as a purchase1 and so weighting it slightly4 ,but the whole essence of a good swing1 which can be made1 steadily and easily1 at top speed1 is that the preliminary stem and consequent weighting of the back ski is reduced to a minimum--is in fact imperceptible1 the runner's weight coming on to the heel of the front ski at the very outset and being practically the sole factor in the turn4 ,by means of this swing it is even possible to make turns in a breakable crust1 if that is not very thick1 and if great care is taken to hold and weight the skis correctly4 ,the bend of the back ski must always be in contact with the front ankle4 ,the back knee must therefore be pressed slightly inwards even when the skis are at an angle with each other4 ,short ,directions for an ,uphill ,telemark ,swing to the ,left ,preparatory4--,with the right foot leading and weighted sink to a semi-kneeling position1 the right knee perpendicularly above the foot1 the left leg relaxed1 the left heel raised1 and the left knee almost touching the ski1 both knees pressed a little inwards1 the bend of the left ski level with the ankle of the right foot1 and close against it4 ,turn4--,turn right knee and foot inwards a little1 placing front ski at slight angle with the other4 ,as you do so 7not later7 lift outer edge of right ski and put the whole weight on right heel4 ,as turn begins face towards point of front ski4 ,lean more and more forwards throughout turn and edge front ski harder4 ,at finish weight toe of front foot and press back knee inwards1 bringing skis parallel4 ,fix your eyes on the front of the right ski1 and try to lean in that direction only1 not inwards4 ,n4,b4--,a downhill turn is made in the same way1 except that1 to start the swing1 the toe of the right foot must be weighted for a moment4 ,,the ,,christiania ,,swing ,a ,christiania is any turn in which the outer ski does not lead1 and the skis are not held convergently1 i4e4 the skis may be either parallel or divergent1 and either held level or with the inner leading4 ,this swing is1 according to the purpose for which it is used1 and the state of the snow1 either an extremely difficult or the very easiest way of turning or stopping4 ,it is easiest on a hard icy crust 7not a breakable one7 either with or without a shallow covering of loose snow1 and therefore for learning it one should find snow of this sort4 ,most practice-grounds1 trodden hard by ski-tracks1 are just the thing4 ,the gradient is not so important1 for it is quite as easy to learn this swing on a steepish slope as on a moderate one4 ,i have already shown 7p4 #ach7 how an uphill ,christiania may be started from a traverse by side-slipping1 and also how a stemming turn may be finished as a ,christiania 7p4 #adc74 ,the following method is more generally useful1 and a steadier way of making the swing at a high speed4 ,uphill ,turn to the ,right4--,in the normal position1 run across the slope at a gentle gradient with the hill on your right1 your weight on the left ski1 the right ski about a foot in advance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--,uphill ,christiania swing to right 7,a from a traverse1 ,b from a direct descent47 ,the blackened parts are those which should be weighted4 ,when fairly under weigh lean well forwards1 bend the front knee1 shift most of the weight from the left foot to the right heel1 and slide the left ski about six inches farther to the rear1 turning its point slightly outwards1 i4e4 downhill1 so that it takes the position shown in ,fig4 #ch1 ,a1 #a1 and at the same time flattening it by bending the left knee and ankle well outwards 7,plate ,,xxxiv474 ,owing partly to the steering effect produced by the relative position of the two skis and partly to the pressure on the heel of the right ski 7a very slight momentary flattening of which will help the turn to start if it hangs fire at all71 you will instantly begin to turn uphill4 ,immediately after beginning to turn press the left ski quickly inwards and forwards again to the normal position4 ,as it again comes parallel to the other it may be edged and its left heel receive half the weight2 until then it must be kept flat4 ,if you do all this correctly you should come to a standstill with the skis pointing more or less uphill1 in the normal position1 right ski leading 7,fig4 #ch1 ,a1 #c74 ,the difficulty in this1 as in all the turns1 is1 at the start1 to keep most of the weight on one ski only4 ,when1 at the beginning of the swing1 the weight has once been shifted on to the right ski1 it must be kept there until the skis are brought parallel again4 ,it is in order to ensure doing this that it is necessary to lean forwards1 and keep the right knee well over the foot4 ,this may appear likely to throw the weight on the toes1 but the tendency for that to happen is really less when the leg is in this position than when it is straighter4 ,a slight lifting of the left heel will lessen the tendency to throw weight on that foot4 ,if much weight is put on the left foot it will be difficult to hold the skis at the narrow angle shown in the diagram1 especially if the left ski has not been flattened1 but is still on its inside edge4 ,the skis1 then1 instead of turning together1 will probably run apart in the directions in which they are pointing 7,plate ,,xxxvii474 ,in this swing1 as in the ,telemark1 the tendency of the beginner is to lean too much inwards1 towards the hill4 ,what ,i said in this connection when describing the ,telemark swing is equally applicable here1 and to save you from referring back ,i will repeat it4 ,as explained on page #hb1 a ski can never cut round like a skate1 but slips sideways1 in turning1 as well as forwards2 and the shallower the snow1 the steeper the hill1 and the higher the speed1 the greater is this side-slip4 ,in making this turn to the right1 therefore1 your right foot1 instead of moving at once to the right of the line of your previous course1 will at first move to the left of1 and below it2 and1 if the hill is steep or the snow shallow1 may still be on its left even at the end of the swing1 though the fact that the points of the skis remain on the other side of the line prevents this from being apparent at first 7,fig4 #ch74 ,it is obvious1 then1 that if you are to remain properly balanced on your right ski1 very little inward lean is necessary1 and the usual directions as to leaning the body inwards while making the swing are most misleading4 ,in fact1 although one really has to lean inwards when the turn has begun1 the instinct to avoid an outward fall makes one overdo it to such an extent that at first it is better to try to throw the weight rather to the left and downhill--but forwards1 not backwards1 on to the left ski--in order to get the proper balance4 ,one must try to encourage the side-slip1 not to check it2 and the only way to do this is to try to throw the weight slightly outwards1 or1 at any rate1 to guard against the least tendency to lean in1 as one instinctively is inclined to do when the side-slip begins4 ,at the end of the swing the edging of the skis stops the side-slip1 rather suddenly if one makes a sharp turn in soft snow1 and it is only then that any conscious effort should be made to lean inwards1 never at the beginning of the swing4 ,it is useless to try to hasten the swing by turning1 leaning1 or swinging the body2 in fact1 as ,i have said before1 if you try to turn at all you are almost certain to fall4 ,if1 however1 you try to go straight on1 simply holding the skis1 and distributing the weight as ,i have directed1 you will probably turn without difficulty4 ,when you can make the swing to the right1 learn to make it to the left in the same way1 of course substituting left for right1 and right for left in the directions4 ,when you can do this1 practise it to the right again1 this time running more steeply downhill than at first1 and then in the same way to the left1 until you can at last turn to right or left when running straight downhill 7,fig4 #ch1 ,b74 ,but do not1 at any stage1 run far before beginning to swing2 get fairly under weigh and make the swing1 then run on and do it again1 and repeat this until you get to the bottom of your practice slope4 ,to run far between each swing only gives you more climbing in proportion to the amount of practice4 ,there is one thing to be noticed about making the swing when running straight downhill4 ,when running across the hill the skis are edged in the normal position1 and the inner ski1 which has to be slightly edged at the start of the swing1 is therefore already about right4 ,in running straight downhill both skis are flat in the normal position2 it is therefore necessary1 when turning to the right1 to edge the right ski a trifle in order to begin the swing 7,plate ,,xxxv474 ,the left ski is already flat2 but to make sure that it keeps so as the turn begins1 slightly bow the legs1 turning both knees--especially the left--rather outwards4 ,when running straight downhill preparatory to swinging1 always lead with the ski of the side to which you mean to turn4 ,downhill ,turn to the ,right4--,so far you have used the swing to make an uphill turn1 in order to bring yourself to a standstill4 ,when using the swing in order to make a downhill turn1 the skis are held in exactly the same relative positions as before1 and weighted in much the same way1 but it is necessary to notice carefully one or two details4 ,suppose you are running across the slope with the hill on your left and wish to turn downwards to the right and make a fresh tack4 ,your weight in the normal running position is then on the right ski1 and the left ski is advanced4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,downhill ,christiania swing to the right at various stages4 ,the blackened parts are those which should be weighted4 ,in order to start the turn it is not necessary to shift the weight1 which is already on the right ski2 you have merely to turn the right knee and ankle slightly outwards as before1 and to put the weight on the toe of the right foot1 at the same time sliding the left ski to the rear4 ,the right ski will now begin to point away from the other and turn downhill 7,fig4 #ci1 ,a1 #a1 #a74 ,take care to bend the right ankle only slightly outwards1 so that the ski is not actually edged outwards1 but only partially or completely flattened1 according as the slope is steep or gentle2 if there is any outward edging--or if the weight is on the heel--you will fail to start the turn4 ,as the right ski begins to turn downwards1 take care that the angle between it and the other one does not become too wide1 but that the left ski also begins to turn downhill 7pressing on it with the toes and partially flattening it by bending the ankle inwards will enable it to do so7 before the right has assumed the position of #b in the diagram4 ,if you put much weight on the left ski it will refuse to follow the other one round1 and will either get across the heel of it1 or run away from it and upset you4 ,the right knee and ankle are held in the same position throughout the swing1 and this will bring the right ski on to its outside edge as soon as it is pointing directly downhill 7in a sense1 indeed1 the right ski may be said to be edged throughout the swing if that expression is merely used to signify the depression of its outer edge and not its relation to the surface of the snow74 ,the left ankle1 however1 after being bent a trifle inwards1 to start the swing1 must1 with the knee1 be bent more and more outwards as the swing proceeds1 in order to keep the left ski perfectly flat until it can be brought back to the side of the other one and edged inwards as the swing ends4 ,as soon as you have turned so far that you are facing straight downhill1 shift the weight from the toe of the right foot to the heel and finish the swing as before4 ,if you make a downhill turn very sharply while running fast you can shift the weight from toe to heel before you are facing downhill--in fact almost immediately after the turn has begun4 ,in trying to put the weight on the toe at the beginning of the swing1 take great care not to poke the foot forward1 but to keep the knee well over it1 otherwise you are sure to put some weight back on the left foot4 ,be on your guard also against trying to start the swing by leaning to the right1 for1 if you do this1 you will either fall downhill1 or will find that the right ski refuses to turn downwards4 ,simply lean1 as before1 towards the tip of the right ski1 look in that direction only1 and don't think of trying to turn1 but rather try to go on across the slope4 ,as you turn downwards1 of course1 the pace increases1 and you must therefore lean more forwards2 the great thing is to keep the right knee well forward over the foot1 to try to lean over the front of the ski1 and to keep your eyes on the ground at your feet1 endeavouring to imagine it flat1 as ,i advised in the case of the ,telemark and stemming turns4 ,you will find this downhill turn of very little practical use on a steep slope until you can make it quite shortly and sharply1 for1 if you make a long curve1 the pace increases so much in the middle of it that you are almost sure to lose control and fail to finish the swing1 even if you do not fall down4 ,when performed in this way the ,christiania swing can be used for making either up or downhill turns on practically any slope and in any kind of snow except breakable crust4 ,the deeper1 however1 the skis sink into the snow1 the greater is the difficulty1 not only because they skid round less readily1 but because it then needs more force to hold the outer1 back ski at a narrow angle with the other owing to the increased outward pressure of the snow4 ,unless this ski is then held perfectly flat it will instantly run apart from the other4 ,in the method just described the turn is started by sliding back the ski which is to be the outer one and pointing it away from the side to which one is about to turn4 ,another way of starting the turn is to slide forward the ski which is to be the inner one and point it towards the side one means to turn to4 ,this practically amounts to the same thing looked at from another view2 the relative position of the skis is exactly the same1 and there is very little practical difference in the making of the turn4 ,as ,i find that beginners learn the swing more easily if told to do it in the first way1 ,i have given these directions first1 but ,i should have thought myself that the swing was easier to understand1 and therefore to perform1 when considered from this second point of view4 ,before going any further let me warn the reader1 if he is a beginner1 that the next three pages or so are not strictly practical1 but are rather meant to elucidate the theory of the swing4 ,if after glancing at them the reader does not feel very hopeful of enlightenment1 he may safely skip them4 ,i have so far talked about steering action starting the turn4 ,when the swing is looked at from this second standpoint1 one can say that stemming action starts it--or rather prepares for it4 ,suppose1 for instance1 you are traversing to the right at a gentle gradient1 and wish to turn uphill in this way4 ,you are in the normal position1 left foot weighted1 and right foot leading2 in order to prepare for the turn keep the left ski edged normally and weighted1 slide the right a little farther forward1 turn it rather away from the other1 i4e4 point it about horizontally across the slope 7the gradient of your course being very slight71 and nearly flatten it by keeping the right knee and ankle a little inwards4 ,what you are now doing is actually stemming--divergent stemming1 not convergent like ordinary or ,telemark stemming1 but still stemming2 ,christiania stemming if you like to call it so4 ,as long as you hold this position with the left ski edged and weighted and the body facing towards its point you will go straight ahead at a reduced pace4 ,you can now stop either by stemming alone or by stemming and turning4 7#a7 ,keep the left 7running7 ski normally edged1 and gradually edge and weight the right stemming ski more and more until you come to a standstill without a change of front--a true stemming stop1 but awkward1 because the skis tend to run apart as the upper ski receives the weight4 7#b7 ,you can stop more neatly by shifting the weight all at once to the stemming ski1 facing towards its point as you do so and instantly bringing round the lower ski--lifting it if you like1 or at any rate flattening it--to the side of the upper4 ,this is something between stopping by stemming and stopping by a step round4 ,there is no swing about either process1 and although the last may be called a turn because there is a change of front1 it cannot be more than a slight one1 because one cannot safely point away the upper ski at more than a slight angle4 ,apart from the question of speed1 with the increase of which the insecurity of any sort of stemming always increases1 you cannot1 of course1 stop in either of these ways if traversing steeply enough for the divergent upper ski to be no longer pointing quite horizontally4 ,you must then do so either 7#c7 by flattening the lower ski1 putting half the weight on the upper1 holding the divergent position until the consequent steering action brings the upper ski horizontal again1 and only then putting the whole weight on it and bringing the other parallel to it--a pure steered turn1 with the inevitable accompanying drawback of the tendency of the skis to run apart2 or 7#d7 by shifting the weight all at once to the stemming ski--facing towards its point as you do so1 bringing the other 7flattened7 quickly parallel to it1 and instantly weighting the heels of both 7see p4 #aca71 when they will turn upwards in side-slipping and come to a standstill4 ,if before you make the turn you only point the stemming ski at a very slight angle away from the other1 and if you throw your weight on it and face towards its point as1 and not after1 you point it outwards1 you will1 by the method just described1 make what1 for the sake of distinction1 may be called the steered ,christiania in the best way that it is possible to make it4 ,in coming to a standstill on a gentle slope from a slow traverse by any of the methods just described1 you will find that the practical differences between them are very small indeed2 but if running very fast you would find that the first two were impossible1 and the third awkward and unsafe1 but that by the last 7which1 as ,i have said1 is practically the same as the method described at the beginning of the chapter7 you could1 if your balance were good1 turn and stop with perfect ease and steadiness4 ,what ,i have called ,christiania stemming1 though possible1 is of so little practical use that1 in that respect1 it is hardly worth considering2 but to understand how it may be done1 and its exact relation to steering1 side-slipping1 c41 makes it so much easier to master the difficulties of the swing1 that ,i have risked exasperating the reader by describing it at length4 ,the upshot of all this is that when the ,christiania is made in either of the ways so far described in this chapter1 whatever steering or divergent stemming there is in it should be reduced to a minimum4 ,in this turn1 by whatever method it is made1 the main difficulty--apart from the question of balance--is in getting the turn started4 ,if once the heel of the leading ski can be got fairly outside the track of its point1 it is easy enough to keep the turn going4 ,it is the starting of the turn that is the main object of the divergent position of the skis2 in fact1 although this position produces some steering effect as long as there is any forward motion at all1 it produces less and less as the skis move more and more broadside on1 and is only really efficient as the turn begins4 ,this divergent position1 indeed1 although on the whole1 ,i think1 the best possible way of starting the swing1 becomes more hindrance than help as the turn proceeds1 owing to the accompanying tendency1 if most of the weight is on the inner ski1 for the outer one to run away from it2 or1 if the outer ski is most weighted1 for the inner one to whip round at right angles and cross the other's heel 7,plate ,,xxxix474 ,you should be careful1 therefore1 not to let the skis point much apart1 and not to let them do so at all for a moment longer than you can help1 but as soon as you are sure the steering has done its work thoroughly1 and the heel of the front ski has fairly begun to side-slip1 should quickly bring the skis parallel1 and carry through the rest of the turn simply by weighting both heels4 ,in the case of an uphill turn made while running fast1 you will generally find that the skis can be brought together again almost instantly4 ,the separation of the skis is then almost imperceptible1 and no doubt many runners do it quite unconsciously4 ,the skis merely make1 as it were1 a quick snip1 like a pair of scissors4 ,in order to get the skis parallel1 some people find it easier1 instead of keeping the outer ski unweighted and pressing its point inwards again1 to shift most of the weight back and out on to it1 and so thrust its heel outwards4 ,the latter method puts the skis parallel a little more quickly than the former1 but is apt to get them rather wide apart in doing so4 ,the two methods just described are1 as ,i have said1 identical in principle2 the divergent position of the skis1 with its accompanying steering effect1 being the main characteristic of each4 ,in each method1 moreover--apart from the question of balance--the only muscular effort necessary 7which should be very slight7 is that of checking and reducing the divergence of the skis2 the runner1 as soon as the skis are parallel1 being carried round without any effort whatever4 ,a third method--the one usually taught--is quite different in principle1 being precisely similar to a skating turn2 that is to say1 the runner uses the inertia1 or rather momentum1 of his upper body as a purchase from which1 by a muscular effort--though not necessarily a great one--he throws both skis simultaneously more or less athwart the line of his course2 the skis remaining parallel throughout and acting practically as one4 ,i said a muscular effort--,i ought rather to have said two muscular efforts1 for the movement which causes the skis to turn1 though it may be very slight1 and may then appear to the onlooker--and even feel to the expert performer--quite simple1 is really a compound one that consists of two distinct parts1 and should be learnt as such4 ,supposing you are running straight downhill and want to make a turn to the right in this way1 the preparation is as follows3 either slightly advance the right ski1 or hold both skis level1 place the weight equally on both1 edging them very slightly to the right1 bending the knees a little1 keeping both them and the skis in close contact1 and leaning well forwards4 ,these relative positions of the skis and legs are1 if possible1 held unaltered throughout the swing4 ,you can now make the double movement that produces the turn4 7#a7 ,without letting your head turn or straightening yourself up1 swing the arms1 shoulders1 and upper body well round to the right4 ,this swinging movement should be easy yet decided1 starting gently and increasing in force as it proceeds--in fact1 as ,mr4 ,richardson says1 it should be made crescendo1 not sforzando4 ,it should bring you to the position of ,fig4 #dj1 ,a1 right arm well back and left well across the front of the body1 which should be leaning more to its right than in the drawing1 with the hips1 therefore 7to keep the centre of gravity exactly over the skis71 projecting more to their left4 ,at the instant that the swinging movement of the arms and shoulders brings you into the above position--i4e4 just before the movement reaches its extreme limit and while its force is still increasing--make a sudden effort to reverse it--that is1 simultaneously make a vigorous stroke to the left with the arms1 and jerk the hips and knees round to the right by suddenly twisting the body at the waist4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--;,jerked ,christiania swing1 ,a before1 ,b after turn4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,this reverse twist of the body has practically no effect upon the shoulders--being there neutralised 7though this may not be obvious at first sight7 by the back-stroke of the arms--but acts almost entirely on the hips1 turning them until they face even farther to the right than did the shoulders at the end of their previous swing4 ,the result1 therefore1 of the whole double movement1 if made with force and precision1 should be that you find yourself in the position of ,fig4 #dj1 ,b1 or ,plate ,,xliv4--the skis having whipped round to right angles1 or thereabouts1 with their original direction--and that1 after more or less side-slip1 according to your speed and the quality of the snow1 you come to a standstill4 ,in saying that this double movement should be made with force1 ,i do not mean that it should be made violently4 ,if the turn is to be made very suddenly1 so that the skis whip round instantly to right angles1 some force is certainly necessary1 for then the whole of the turning movement of the skis is carried out by the double muscular effort of the body and arms4 ,but this double effort--the swing of the shoulders and the immediately following jerk of the hips--may be1 and indeed usually is1 used merely to start the turn by getting the heels of the skis outside the track of their points2 the rest of the turn being carried through by the weighting of the heels1 in the same way that1 as ,i have already explained1 the greater part of a steered ,christiania can so be carried through4 ,in this case the swing-and-jerk1 which takes the place of the snip of the skis in the other method1 may be an almost imperceptible effort1 the most obvious part of which is a slight twisting of the hips4 ,as absence of effort is of the greatest importance in ski-ing1 one may perhaps say that in a sense this is the best way of making the turn4 ,but even though you may seldom want to make the turn fully and instantaneously it is extremely useful to be able to do so in case of need1 and if you have learnt to complete a turn forcibly you will find it all the easier to start one gently4 ,if1 however1 you never try to do more than start the turn with a gentle swing-and-jerk1 it is quite likely that you will never do even that with real certainty--the subtlety of a gentle movement making it more difficult to learn correctly than a forcible one4 ,you are still more likely to be unsuccessful if you leave out half the movement1 as is sometimes directed1 and only try to swing the shoulders1 or to twist the hips1 or if you try to move both round simultaneously1 or if1 as ,i myself used wrongly to direct1 you treat the double movement as two quite separate ones--a merely preparatory turn of the shoulders with a pause between it and the hip-jerk4 ,not that the turn cannot be made in either of these ways2 it can in all1 but only awkwardly with the help of a good deal more force than would otherwise be necessary4 ,an expert making a jerked ,christiania--as this sort may perhaps be called1 since the jerk round of the hips and consequent thrusting forward of the ski-heels is the crucial part of it--whether he makes it powerfully or gently1 will do so with just the force needed and no more2 in other words1 he will do it gracefully4 ,the essential points of the movement so made are--7#a7 that it is a double one1 7#b7 that the second part of the movement follows the first without the least pause1 7#c7 that the force used1 however small1 is gradually increasing in the first part1 sudden in the second1 7#d7 that each part of the movement is made with about the same strength2 for feebleness in the one part has to be compensated for by undue violence in the other4 ,if these four conditions are complied with the movement will usually need very little force4 ,you had better try this swing-and-jerk movement1 first without skis1 on a smooth floor1 then with skis1 but at a standstill1 on the slipperiest bit of hard snow you can find--slightly convex1 for choice1 so that only the middles of the skis rest on it--before trying it while actually running4 ,the first time you try it you will probably find that1 in spite of the many words ,i have managed to use on it1 it is just what you would do by the light of nature if asked1 without letting your face turn1 to hold your feet together and make them turn suddenly as far round to the right as possible4 ,you will also find that in order to do it quickly you will be inclined to make the movement with a bit of a jump1 and this1 in fact1 is the best way to do it when on skis4 ,there should always be some dipping of the knees with the swing and the least suspicion of a spring with the jerk1 just sufficient to take most of the weight off the skis for a moment and enable them to come round with less effort from the body4 ,this spring may1 if the snow makes it difficult to start the turn1 be made strongly enough to lift the skis clear of it4 ,this is the only turn on skis in which the arms are used as an aid to turning4 ,in the stemming turn1 the ,telemark1 and the other variety of the ,christiania1 the arms will very likely wave about involuntarily to help the balance1 but as far as possible they should hang quietly by the sides1 a moderately expert runner being able to make either of these turns with his hands in his pockets or clasped behind his back4 ,in this form of the ,christiania1 however1 the double swing of the arms--especially their back-stroke--is the greatest help1 for it practically holds the shoulders at the end of their swing1 and enables the body muscles to use them as a purchase from which to pull the hips round4 ,you can easily convince yourself of the value of free and correct arm-action in this turn if1 after making it as ,i have directed1 you try to turn either with your arms tightly folded1 or clasped behind your back1 or by swinging them to the right only and then holding them in the position of ,fig4 #dj1 ,a1 instead of bringing them back again4 ,it is naturally far easiest to make a turn in this way on a hard smooth surface which allows the skis to skid round freely4 ,it is only on this sort of snow1 in fact1 that the whole turn can be jerked2 in deep soft snow it is hardly possible to do more than just start the turn by swing-and-jerking2 the heel-weighting must then do nearly all of it4 ,if this heel-weighting is not timed and adjusted quite nicely1 or if the skis are edged at all hard before they have made a considerable change of direction1 the turn is apt to miss fire altogether2 it is therefore1 ,i think1 a far less useful one to the average performer than the steered variety1 which will almost always get him round somehow1 even if clumsily4 ,for anyone who can make both kinds perfectly1 the steered turn involves just as little effort as the jerked1 and ,i certainly advise the beginner to get thoroughly accustomed to starting his turns by steering before he learns to jerk them4 ,i have only given directions for making the jerked turn from a direct descent2 jerked turns1 either uphill or downhill1 can of course be made from a traverse in just the same way4 ,downhill turns are always rather more difficult than uphill turns1 whatever be the method of turning2 downhill jerked turns have the added difficulty that if1 as is generally the case1 the angle between the two tacks is a small one1 the skis have to be jerked round farther than would usually be necessary in an uphill turn1 and the jerk therefore takes more effort4 ,in snow which allows you to make a complete jerked turn you can1 if not running very fast1 practically stop dead1 or change your course instantaneously1 by making the ,christiania in this way1 for the edging of the skis1 after the turn has been made1 stops the side-slip almost before it has had time to begin4 ,if1 on hard snow1 you make a ,christiania 7of any kind7 sharply while travelling at a high speed1 you will often find that1 after you have come round1 the side-slip1 which will then be very great1 will be too irregular to allow you to keep your balance without holding the skis at some distance apart4 ,even a good runner is sometimes compelled to separate his skis in this way1 but you should not do it if you can possibly help it1 and if compelled to1 should always bring the skis together as the side-slip grows less1 not for the look of the thing1 but because1 though possible1 it is difficult1 if the skis are apart1 to start a swing instantly in the other direction1 as you may often wish to do4 ,the ,christiania can also be started1 as ,bilgeri and his school advise1 and as ,i have practically said already1 from a very undeveloped ordinary stemming turn4 ,in order1 for instance1 to make a swing to the left1 one can advance the right ski1 push out its heel a little1 throw the weight on it1 and face towards its point1 and can then1 by instantly bringing the left ski parallel and to the front and weighting its heel as well as the other's1 finish the turn as a ,christiania4 ,this is very easy to learn1 and1 if the preliminary stem is reduced to a minimum1 is quite effective2 but it is a much less steady way of turning at a very high speed than a ,christiania started with the inside ski leading1 and high speed is the real test4 ,having said that a jerked ,christiania is like a skating turn1 ,i think ,i had better insert the following quotation from ,mr4 ,richardson's ,shilling ,ski-runner1 with the sentiment of which ,i heartily agree4 ,the beginner should remember that turns are only a means to an end1 and not1 as in figure skating1 an end in themselves4 ,the real object of all ski-ing technique is to enable the runner to cross the snow as fast as possible1 with as little effort as possible1 and as safely as possible4 ,any beginner who has followed me through this chapter on the ,christiania swing will probably think that a manoeuvre which takes so much description must be appallingly difficult4 ,i can assure him that it is nothing of the sort4 ,indeed the expert1 who does it instinctively1 will no doubt wonder why on earth ,i have made such a fuss about it4 ,i do not think1 however1 that ,i could have said much less and yet have given a really complete explanation of how it may be done4 ,the only authorities1 as far as ,i know1 who have said that there is more than one way of making the swing1 are ,richardson and ,hoek in ,der ,ski-lauf2 they do not explain the difference in the making of it1 but only in its results1 giving a diagram of the tracks of two swings1 one gerissen1 and the other gezogen1 i4e4 torn and drawn1 which1 ,i suppose1 are equivalent to jerked and swung4 ,some writers having given directions for one variety of the swing and some for the other2 their instructions at first sight appear so extraordinarily contradictory that ,i am almost afraid of confessing that ,i agree with them all1 lest the reader who knows something about ski-ing should set me down as an amiable idiot4 ,as soon1 however1 as one understands the cause of it1 this contradictoriness is seen to be more apparent than actual4 ,the difficulty in realising the existence of these variations of the swing is1 no doubt1 due to the fact that between the pure jerked ,christiania at one end of the scale1 and the pure swung1 steered1 drawn1 or whatever one likes to call it1 ,christiania at the other1 there are an infinite number of gradations1 one of them being a form of the swing that is often seen1 in which the turn is started by a slight jerk and a slight separation of the ski-points1 and is carried through by the weighting of the heels4 ,when one is running across the hill an uphill ,christiania of any kind can be made with perfect ease on any sort of snow short of breakable crust2 when one is running straight downhill it is less easy1 if the snow is very loose and deep2 while to make a downhill turn in deep loose snow by means of a ,christiania is decidedly difficult1 especially if the slope is steep1 though on hard snow and a moderate slope this downhill turn is easy enough and safer than a stemming turn1 if the speed is at all high4 ,but although at first1 when out on a run1 you will be wise if you only use the ,christiania for making uphill turns1 and that on snow which is easy for it1 you should when practising keep on trying it in deeper and deeper loose snow1 and should turn downhill as well as uphill1 not being satisfied until you can make fairly short downhill turns in deep loose snow on a really steep slope1 as it is perfectly possible to do4 ,as in the case of the ,telemark1 the beginner can of course learn to make an uphill steered ,christiania from a standstill by holding himself back with his sticks while he places the skis in the divergent position1 and then letting himself go and swinging round immediately4 ,this is in fact a very good way for him to begin to learn it1 for he can thus find out in a very short time exactly how to hold his skis and distribute his weight2 nor need he be afraid of contracting any bad habit by learning the swing in this way1 for though he may find it rather easier to learn the ,telemark by making it clumsily at first1 he will find nothing of the sort in the case of the ,christiania4 ,before leaving the subject of the swings1 let me impress upon the reader that in every swing or turn the runner at first starts the side-slip by stemming or steering with one ski held at an angle with the other or by moving both with a jerk--in short1 by a muscular effort1 however slight a one--and that having started the side-slip he lets his weight do the rest1 and is carried round without any effort at all4 ,it is the effortless side-slipping that gives a well-made swing its characteristic feeling and appearance4 ,the whole difference between a novice's turn and an expert's is that in the former's the preparatory stemming or steering preponderates1 in the latter's the finishing side-slip2 and that1 moreover1 in the novice's swing the initial and final movements are seen 7and felt7 to be distinct and separate1 while in the expert's swing the preparatory movement merges imperceptibly into the final side-slip4 ,the more the preparatory steering1 stemming1 or jerking is eliminated1 the more comfortable--,i will not say the easier--is the swing1 and the steadier the balance if the swing is made at high speed4 ,in the preparatory stemming or steering the weight is for a moment more equally distributed on both skis than ,i have intended the beginner to suspect from the previous directions4 ,even in the ,telemark1 in which the weight is apparently entirely on the leading ski both before and throughout the swing1 it is actually1 at the moment the front ski is turned inwards1 half supported by the back one4 ,the same thing happens at the moment the skis are made to diverge in starting a steered ,christiania4 ,but if the beginner makes any conscious effort to put the weight back--unless1 indeed1 he tries to keep it well forward--he will almost inevitably put it entirely on the back ski1 and in moving it on to the leading ski as the swing proceeds will find that his balance is liable to be disturbed4 ,the fact that the weight is always farther back than he imagines is one which the beginner must continually remind himself4 ,in every uphill turn the weight1 which is at first1 as ,i have just said1 about equally on both skis1 is almost immediately moved to the heel of the front foot--that is1 it is thrown forward1 and as the swing finishes it is thrown still more forward to prevent the ski from turning too far uphill4 ,in the directions for the swings1 therefore1 the beginner should remember that to weight first the heel and then the toe does not1 as a rule1 mean to throw the weight first backwards and then forwards1 but to throw it first forwards and then still more forwards4 ,short ,directions for an ,uphill ,christiania ,swing to the ,right4--#a4 7,steered7 for any kind of snow except breakable crust4 ,lean forwards and put all the weight on heel of right foot1 right knee rather bent and well forward over foot1 right ankle bent slightly outwards1 so as to lift the inner edge of right ski2 left ski about #ah inches to the rear1 pointed slightly away from the other1 and flat4 ,this position starts the swing2 as it proceeds press the left ski smartly inwards and forwards1 so that it returns as soon as possible to the normal position again1 parallel to and touching the right ski4 ,as it does so1 but not before1 it may be edged and receive half the weight2 unless parallel with the other1 it must be absolutely flat and almost unweighted4 ,fix your eyes on the point of the right ski and try to lean in that direction only1 not inwards4 ,n4,b4--,a downhill turn is made in the same way1 except that to start the swing the toes of both feet must be weighted for a moment4 #b4 7,jerked7 for hard snow1 or shallow loose snow4 ,preparation4--,press both knees and skis together and 7except before a downhill turn7 edge the latter slightly to the right2 weight on both and well forwards2 knees rather bent1 feet level1 or the right a little ahead4 ,turn4--7#a7 ,still stooping slightly1 move arms1 shoulders1 and upper body--not the head--well round to the right with an easy but decided swing4 7#b7 ,without the least pause simultaneously reverse the twist of the body1 make a vigorous stroke to the left with the arms1 and jerk hips and knees round to the right4 ,the movement of 7#a7 should be gradual1 of 7#b7 sudden1 but the force about the same in each4 ,the skis should whip round to right angles1 or nearly so1 with their previous course4 ,,jumping ,,round ,if you can make the stemming turn and the ,telemark and ,christiania swings1 you will1 under most ordinary conditions of snow1 be able to turn or stop with ease under any circumstances4 ,sometimes1 however1 you will encounter snow1 the surface of which is covered by a crust1 not thick enough to bear the runner's weight without breaking1 but sufficiently so to make it impossible for him to shear round through it even with a ,telemark swing 7for when the skis cut into a thick crust they will only run in a straight line74 ,under these circumstances the only neat and quick way of turning or stopping is to do so by means of a jump which places the skis more or less broadside on to their original course1 and this is not such a difficult matter as perhaps it sounds4 ,this jump is made with the feet level1 and the skis close together and parallel1 in just the same way as a jump used for starting on the side of a hill or as a substitute for the kick-turn4 ,pay the same attention to the points of getting the weight well on the toes before making the spring1 and of then crouching low and jumping with a free1 swinging action1 not a timid1 jerky one1 and be sure to press the knees together4 ,the skis should remain about parallel with the surface of the snow throughout the jump2 if the jump is used for making an uphill turn1 the points of the skis must be well lifted1 if for a downhill one1 their heels4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,you will find it far easier to keep your balance on landing1 if you remember not to jump to one side of your course 7,fig4 #db1 ,a71 but to come to the ground with your feet as nearly as possible on your original line of progress--though1 of course1 pointing across it1 instead of along it1 and1 according to the speed at which you were running1 more or less ahead of the place where you took off 7,fig4 #db1 ,b74 ,the secret of using the jump round successfully lies1 not in the actual making of the jump1 but in knowing the safest and most effective way of applying it4 ,suppose1 for instance1 you are running either across a slope or straight down it1 at a very moderate speed1 and wish to stop1 you can easily do so by means of a jump round towards the hill1 which will bring you almost or quite at right angles to your original course 7,plates ,,xlvii4 and ,,xlviii474 ,as you land you will naturally have to lean inwards to compensate for the outward throw4 ,the amount of inward lean necessary varies with the speed at which you are running before the jump4 ,when the speed is at all high the inclination at which you would be safe from an outward fall is so great that on landing after the jump1 if you were to make one1 the skis would almost certainly skid1 and you would fall inwards2 while1 if the skis did happen to hold1 your legs would not have enough strength to withstand the shock1 but would collapse under you4 ,when running at all fast1 therefore1 it is impossible to stop with one jump4 ,you must first jump a little way round1 so that you face less directly downhill1 and check your pace2 you can then jump again and stop yourself 7,fig4 #db1 ,c74 ,in the same way1 if you wish to jump round instead of making a downhill turn1 you must either make your tacks at a gradient which will keep down your speed sufficiently to allow you to make the complete turn in one jump1 or you must check your pace before making the downhill jump by turning slightly uphill with a preliminary jump4 ,this is exactly equivalent to checking the pace by making a slight uphill swing before making a downhill one4 ,the higher the speed1 the slighter the change of direction that one can safely make in one jump1 and at a very high speed it would1 for this reason1 be impossible to stop even in two jumps4 ,there is nothing to prevent a runner from stopping or making a downhill turn at the highest possible speed by means of a series of jumps1 but a turn so made covers so much ground that it is practically useless4 ,this does not much matter1 however1 for the kind of snow which makes jumping round necessary is not such as to tempt one to run very fast4 ,,skating ,it is possible on a gentle slope1 if the snow is shallow1 to use the skis like skates1 striking out with each alternately4 ,this needs little explanation4 ,you have merely1 while running straight downhill1 to lift one ski--say1 the right--and put it down again pointing outwards from the other at a widish angle1 their heels being close together4 ,the moment the right ski touches the snow1 give a vigorous push backwards and to the left with the left ski1 at the same time throwing the weight of the body well forwards and to the right over the right foot4 ,while sliding on the right ski1 bring the left forward and hold it close to the other1 but clear of the snow4 ,you are then ready to make a fresh stroke by putting down the left ski and pushing with the right4 ,a series of such movements leaves a track as in ,fig4 #dc1 ,a4 ,you will find it difficult at first to throw the weight sufficiently forward and outward at each stroke1 especially if1 instead of putting down the ski on which you are about to slide exactly level with the other1 as you should do 7,fig4 #dc1 ,b71 you put it farther forward 7,c74 ,this difficulty will cause each stroke to become shorter and shorter until it is impossible to continue the movement4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,in practising1 hold the ski which is off the snow parallel with and close to the other one until you are ready to make the next stroke1 and slide on each foot at least far enough to make sure that your balance is perfectly steady on it4 ,it has already been explained how1 by striking out to one side only1 one can change one's direction--for1 of course1 the action of stepping round is precisely the same as that of skating--and how one can in this way steer or stop oneself in breakable crust4 ,skating1 moreover1 is one of the best possible exercises for the balance1 for it teaches one to run steadily on one foot without the support of the other1 and on this account alone you should by no means omit to learn it4 ,it is generally supposed that by skating down a gentle slope it is possible to increase the speed1 but ,i think this is very doubtful4 ,a skating track is a zigzag one1 and is therefore not such a short way over a given distance as a direct slide4 ,then1 again1 although each stroke tends to increase the speed1 it must be remembered that the whole weight of the runner rests on one ski1 causing it to sink deeper and travel slower1 and also that the skis are travelling slightly across the slope instead of straight down it1 which reduces the speed still more4 ,besides this1 the stroke itself is not directly in the line of motion1 since it is impossible to place one ski at right angles with the other one4 ,a better way of increasing the speed downhill is probably to lunge directly downhill with each foot alternately1 keeping the skis close together--an exactly similar action to that of moving on level ground4 ,pushing with the sticks will1 of course1 make you go faster still4 ,,jumping ,ski-jumping no doubt arose from the discovery that a slight inequality of the surface would sometimes cause a ski-runner moving fast downhill to leave the ground involuntarily for a moment4 ,some abnormal person having liked the feeling and wanted more of it1 it is easy to see how his endeavour to accentuate the inequality1 and so lengthen the jump1 would lead him to construct a horizontal platform projecting from the hillside4 ,a competition jumping-hill at the present day is chosen1 as to shape1 and so arranged that the jumps may be as long as possible and the jumper may have a minimum of difficulty in keeping his feet on landing4 ,fig4 #dd shows the usual form of the hill and position of the platform4 7,see ,frontispiece47 ,the jumper starts at ,a and runs off the edge of the platform ,b into the air2 landing on the slope below at ,c1 he runs down it and out on the level1 where he swings to a standstill at ,d4 ,the gradient of the hill above the platform is preferably not more than #bj or so1 for the jumper must above all things be perfectly steady as he leaves the platform1 and if the upper part of the hill is very steep the sudden change of gradient as he runs on to the platform is likely to upset his balance4 ,the impetus can therefore be obtained more safely from a long run at a moderate gradient than from a short steep one4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,the steeper the slope below the platform1 other things being equal1 the longer obviously will the jump be1 and also the less will be the shock to the jumper as he lands1 on account of the narrower angle between the ground and his course through the air4 ,for this reason a steep gradient below the platform is an advantage1 and on big jumping-hills the angle of this part of the slope is from #be to #ce4 ,the dotted line in the diagram shows how1 if the platform were placed just at the point where the slope becomes steeper1 the length of the jump would be greater than if1 as is usually the case1 the platform were built farther back2 at the same time1 however1 the shock to the jumper on landing would be increased also1 for his course through the air the moment before alighting would then be more directly downwards1 and when in the air he would1 at his highest point1 be farther from the ground4 ,this is one reason why the platform is usually placed farther back4 ,there is sometimes another reason4 ,the gradient must remain the same for a sufficient distance below the point where the jumper lands to enable him to get a steady balance on landing1 and unless the steep part of the slope is very long1 it may only be possible by putting the platform farther back to ensure that the jumper shall not land too near the bottom of the hill4 ,for the same reason 7of making things easier for the jumper7 the change of angle between the top part of the hill and the platform1 and also between the lower part and the level outrun1 should take place as gradually as possible4 ,the preceding description shows what form of hill is most desirable1 and is always chosen for competition purposes where big jumps are to be made4 ,it is by no means on a hill of this shape alone that a jump can be made2 and for learning1 when you will only jump a short distance1 almost any hill will do1 provided the ground be fairly smooth and the slope below the platform and the level outrun beyond it be long enough4 ,if the shape of the hill in section is convex1 as in the diagram1 the best place for the platform1 as already explained1 is at or near the point where the angle changes1 provided always that the steeper part of the hill is fully ten yards longer than the longest jump you will make4 ,if it is a little less than this1 build the platform farther back2 if much less1 choose a slope where there is no change of gradient4 ,the slope below the platform1 or1 at any rate1 all of it except the part which the jumper would be certain to clear1 must be free from irregularities1 have a good covering of snow 7at least a foot when beaten down71 and fall at a steady gradient of not less than #bj for choice--if possible of more4 ,the platform itself may be built in different ways2 the high platforms used in competitions are generally built of planks supported at the outer corners by posts4 ,this is unnecessary in the case of a low platform1 such as you will use at first4 ,a simple way of making it1 if the materials are handy1 is to lay two or three planks on top of an old packing case1 and then to shovel snow over them4 ,another way is to stand two short sticks upright in the snow at the same level1 and a yard or so apart1 according to the intended width of the platform4 ,stack fir branches against them on the uphill side1 and then build a platform of snow1 or alternately snow and branches1 piling it high enough to rise well above the tops of the upright sticks4 ,beat it down with the spade and stamp it with the skis until it is quite solid4 ,for learning1 the platform should at first be quite low--not much more than a foot high at its front edge4 ,for big competitions1 the platform is generally #f or #h feet high1 or even more1 though ,huitfeldt1 a ,norwegian authority1 says it should hardly exceed #c feet4 ,raising the platform1 while increasing the length of the jump1 also increases the shock of landing1 and therefore the difficulty of the jump4 ,this difficulty1 however1 depends far less on the height of the platform 7which may1 so to speak1 be merely a negative quantity1 for of course it is possible to make the platform look high by cutting away the hillside below it without affecting the nature of the jump7 than upon the difference between the angle of its surface and that of the slope below1 the most difficult kind of platform to jump from being that called by the ,norwegians a ,spraet ,hop 7squirt jump71 which is higher at its front edge than where it joins the hillside4 ,at first1 therefore1 make the platform at almost the same angle as the slope below1 and join it gradually to the slope above1 so that there is no sudden change of gradient4 ,the length of the jump depends not only on the height1 position1 and angle of the platform in relation to the slope1 but also on its absolute angle in space4 ,other things being equal1 a platform sloping downwards at an angle of between five and ten degrees permits the longest jumps4 ,it would be easy to find by experiment exactly the most favourable angle1 and1 for all ,i know1 this may already have been done4 ,the platform's width1 for practice1 need be no more than a yard3 for competitions1 when the jumper may wish to take a fresh track1 it is about #d yards4 ,its length of course depends on its height1 and on the angle that it makes with the slope above it4 ,roughly speaking1 for a small jump the platform would be #b or #c yards long2 for a big competition one at least #f yards4 ,the top of the platform must1 of course1 be horizontal in transverse section2 take care to build it up well at the sides in order to prevent any convexity in the middle which might cause the jumper to side-slip while taking off4 ,carefully stamp down the snow not only on the platform1 but also up the track above it for #aj or #ae yards from the platform's edge4 ,this stamping should leave the snow as firm and smooth as possible1 but on the surface there should be just enough loose snow to give steerage way and prevent side-slip4 ,stamping with the edges of the skis on the hard trodden snow will generally loosen the surface sufficiently1 otherwise it will be necessary to sprinkle loose snow over it1 or to scratch it with a rake4 ,according to ,huitfeldt1 the ,telemarkings pile up the snow at the edge of the platform so as to form a shallow ridge4 ,he says that by waiting until they feel the fronts of their skis touch this1 they know when to make their spring1 and that it helps the forward tilt of the body which is necessary4 ,the latter seems quite likely1 but a man who timed his spring in this way when running fast would hardly even begin it before leaving the platform1 far less finish making it1 as he actually ought to do4 ,the same preparation of the track is necessary below the platform from the nearest point to it at which the jumper could possibly land to a point several yards below the longest possible jump4 ,pay particular attention here to stamping down the snow until it is absolutely firm1 and make this trodden track a good deal wider than the platform1 to avoid any possibility of the jumper landing outside it1 for if the skis sink deeply into the snow on landing1 a very bad fall may be the result4 ,after each jump snow should be thrown into any holes made in the track by the jumper himself or his skis1 and should then be stamped firm and smooth2 any natural hollows likely to upset the jumper can also be filled up in the same way4 ,if1 in order to prevent side-slip1 it is necessary to sprinkle the track with loose snow of a different quality to that on the track itself1 it must be thrown over the whole track2 for a small patch of new sticky snow1 or of old and fast granular snow1 would suddenly alter the runner's speed and disturb his balance4 ,it is better to stamp down too much of the track than too little1 for a fall on hard snow is quite harmless1 if the slope is steep enough1 while in soft snow it may easily be dangerous4 ,it is sometimes advisable to stamp down the whole of the outrun to where the jumper swings to a standstill4 ,equipment4--,skis for jumping should be long1 strong1 and fairly heavy1 and must be grooved underneath4 ,they should be but little arched1 and should not be flexible1 otherwise the shock of landing after a big jump will make them bend downwards in the middle so much as to check the pace and pitch the jumper forwards4 ,wax or polish their under surfaces as much as you like2 they cannot be too slippery for jumping4 ,only those bindings are suitable for jumping by means of which the heel end of the ski can easily be drawn up close to the foot when that is held clear of the ground4 ,to carry a stick while jumping is useless1 and1 except for an expert on an easy jump1 is exceedingly dangerous4 ,how to ,jump4--,stand far enough up the track to get up a moderate speed1 and not less than #ae yards from the edge of the platform4 ,by no means risk running off the platform so slowly that your skis simply tip over the edge and bury their points in the snow4 ,clean your skis and start off in any way you like4 ,if the start is on the side of the hill1 and not on a level place1 the jumper often thrusts his sticks into the snow on each side of the track1 and stands a little above them1 facing straight downhill1 holding himself back by resting his weight on them4 ,he can then1 by merely letting go the sticks1 start quite steadily without altering the position of his skis4 ,run in normal position until about #ae yards before the edge of the platform2 then bring the feet level1 and crouch down until you reach the position of ,plate ,,lii4 ,take care that the knees as well as the feet are pressed tightly together1 that the weight is well forward1 and that the hands hang as low as possible1 i4e4 with the finger-tips level with the ankles4 ,unless you pay particular attention to this last point1 and try to get as low as you possibly can1 it is probable that your position1 while feeling to yourself a decided crouch1 will only appear to a spectator as a rather half-hearted stoop at the knees and hips4 ,when this low crouch has become mechanical1 you had better hold your arms backwards in a horizontal position1 but to touch your ankles first is the best way of making sure that your position is correct4 ,i believe that ,norwegian authorities are not agreed as to whether the feet should be held level or in the normal position at this stage4 ,huitfeldt1 for instance1 whom ,i have already quoted1 says that the ,telemarkings1 who invented jumping1 always jump with the feet in the normal position4 ,however this may be1 most good jumpers take the level position1 and you can safely do the same1 but be sure1 as you bring the feet level1 that they do not get apart4 ,the ,sats4--,take the above crouching position soon enough to be running steadily in it with every detail correct by the time you reach the platform1 for before you reach the edge of this you must have your whole attention free to be concentrated on the actual take off1 or1 as the ,norwegians call it1 the ,sats4 ,this movement1 which1 if timed properly1 is completed at the instant that the jumper's feet come to the edge of the platform1 has two objects--to increase the length of the jump1 and to bring the jumper's body into a position at right angles with the slope below at the moment of landing4 ,the latter is the more important1 for unless it is effected1 the jumper is of course bound to fall4 ,now1 if the surface of the platform were inclined at the same angle as that part of the slope below it on which the jumper lands1 he might run down to the platform and into the air without ever moving from the normal position1 and though he would not increase the length of his jump1 he would have every chance of keeping his feet on landing1 for his body would be at the correct angle 7,fig4 #de1 ,a74 ,but the platform itself1 no matter how low it may be1 and no matter how steep the slope above it1 is nearly always less steep than the slope below it1 often a good deal less4 ,this1 of course1 means that the jumper in making the ,sats must not only spring1 but must throw his body forward1 or he will land as in ,b and ,c1 and fall instantly on his back4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,it depends almost entirely on the angle of the jumper's body on landing as to whether he shall fall or keep his balance1 and that angle depends absolutely on the way he makes the ,sats4 ,indeed1 at the moment of leaving the platform and completing the ,sats1 the jumper usually is almost certain whether he will stand or fall4 ,it follows1 then1 that the correct execution of the ,sats is the most important part of the jump4 ,it is certainly the most difficult1 and ,i think you will find it much easier to overcome its difficulty if you realise at the outset that the necessary forward tilt may be effected in two perfectly distinct ways4 ,the jumper may make the ,sats either so that he leaves the platform tilted at exactly the angle at which he will land1 or so that he is at right angles to the platform when leaving it and changes the angle of his body by degrees during his flight through the air4 7,see ,fig4 #df47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4 ,these two methods are none the less distinct for the fact that the ,sats1 as made by most jumpers1 is a combination of the two4 ,by using the first method you will be far more certain of landing at the proper angle1 but will barely increase the length of your jump2 by the second you will be able to lengthen your jump to the utmost possible extent1 but will find it exceedingly difficult at first to regulate the forward tilt accurately4 ,you had better1 therefore1 begin by practising the first method only1 and keep to that until you can jump with accuracy and certainty1 when you can little by little exchange it for the second one4 ,in order to make the ,sats by the first method1 you have1 from the crouching position of the first pair of figures1 merely to bring your body and thighs into line with the legs from the knees downwards2 for in the crouching position this lower part of the legs is already inclined forward at about the angle at which you will have to land4 ,in straightening up1 therefore1 be most careful to keep your legs below the knees1 and also your feet1 absolutely motionless4 ,when in the crouching position make sure that your knees are forced forwards to their utmost extent1 then try to imagine that they are being held immovably in this position1 and that your heels are fastened firmly down to the skis4 ,this will ensure your making the straightening movement of the ,sats from the knees upwards only1 and1 if you bring your thighs and body exactly into line with the motionless lower part of the legs1 will also ensure your landing at about the correct angle1 or even slightly more forward1 which will not matter4 ,as you straighten up1 swing your arms forwards and upwards to help the movement1 which1 when you are used to it1 you must try to make so smartly1 and even violently1 as to be almost instantaneous4 ,the sensation1 however1 will be quite different to that of an ordinary standing long jump1 in which the heels leave the ground as the jumper crouches1 and the spring is made from the toes4 ,in this form of the ,sats it is very important that some of the weight should remain on the heels1 which should not be allowed to rise from the skis in the smallest degree4 ,you will find that any pressure on the toes and lifting of the heels will1 though it may seem unlikely1 almost certainly tend to make you finish the ,sats in an erect instead of an inclined position4 ,the accurate timing of the ,sats is naturally most important4 ,if it is made too late and the knees are still somewhat bent as the jumper leaves the platform 7see ,plate ,,liii471 the completion of the movement in the air will push the skis below their natural line of flight1 and the jump will be shortened--not a very serious matter for the beginner4 ,if1 however1 the ,sats be made too soon1 and the jumper's weight comes on his skis again before they have left the platform1 he will have a nasty fall forward4 ,this need not trouble you1 for you are certain to find the greatest difficulty in managing to make the ,sats soon enough4 ,the more slowly you make the movement1 the sooner you will have to begin it1 and the more difficulty you will have in timing it accurately1 but at first if you try to make it quickly you will probably not do it correctly4 ,i strongly advise you therefore to go through the slow and careful practising stage1 not on the jumping-hill at all1 but without skis1 in your bedroom or anywhere else4 ,practise this movement at any odd moment2 it will soon become mechanical1 and if1 before you start jumping1 you have learnt to make this movement quickly and accurately1 you will have made things enormously easier for yourself4 ,when practising the ,sats without skis you will1 of course1 find that1 as your weight comes on your feet again at the end of the straightening movement1 you will be in the act of falling forwards4 ,you can prevent doing so by making a quick stride forward with one foot and dropping into the ,telemark position2 but don't do this until the last possible moment1 first making quite sure that you are perfectly straight from head to heels and inclined at a sufficient angle4 ,see also that your feet are held quite parallel and touching each other4 ,so much for the first method of making the ,sats4 ,the second is as follows4 ,from the preparatory crouching position spring straight into the air with a free1 swinging action1 but as strongly as possible1 at the same time giving the body a slight tilt forward1 so that it becomes more and more inclined during its flight through the air4 ,the spring is made from the toes this time1 but instead of the legs being drawn up as in ordinary jumping1 they should be quite straight and in line with the body as they leave the ground1 and the feet should be pointed downwards1 exactly parallel and close together4 ,this movement 7the arms are swung as before7 is much like that of a dive from a springboard2 but while the diver's body has to make half a revolution1 or pass through an angle of #ahj during its flight through the air1 the ski-jumper1 even in the case of the most exaggerated squirt jump on the steepest hill1 could hardly have to change his angle by more than #de4 ,the ski-jumper then would seem to have the easier task4 ,the difficulty is that1 whereas the diver wants to land 787 head first1 the ski-jumper would rather not1 and instinctively shrinks from the slight effort in that direction which is necessary4 ,the remarks in the description of the first method as to timing1 c41 hold good here1 and it is equally possible and advisable in this case to practise without skis4 ,when doing so you should1 after your spring into the air1 land on the ground on tiptoe1 tilted as much forward as possible1 with your feet just where they left the ground1 and absolutely parallel to and touching each other4 ,a fall is avoided as before by dropping into the ,telemark position4 ,when the ,sats is made very suddenly and energetically in this way1 the jumper may notice a tendency not merely to give an insufficient forward tilt to his body as he springs1 but even to tilt it slightly backwards1 so that he lands on his back with his skis in the air2 and this in spite of the fact that he may quite have overcome his nervousness and desire to shrink back4 ,i think it may be worth while to explain this4 ,a man in making a standing jump1 or a dive1 raises his heels and throws his weight on his toes as he crouches for the spring1 i4e4 before he begins the upward movement of the spring itself4 ,in this way his centre of gravity is brought exactly above the point from which he will push off4 ,a ski-jumper as he crouches for the spring keeps his foot flat on the ski and his centre of gravity over the middle of his foot1 instead of over the toes4 ,if1 then1 from this position he suddenly springs directly upwards1 the final pressure of the toes1 which are farther forward than his centre of gravity1 will tend to tilt him backwards4 ,to avoid this tendency1 try1 in the crouching position1 to keep your weight as far forward as possible 7not1 however1 raising the heels1 which would make you too unsteady7 and make your spring slightly forwards as well as upwards4 ,when practising1 without skis1 either method of making the ,sats1 always start the movement from the crouching position of ,plate ,,lii41 and be sure that it is correct in every detail before you make the spring4 ,remember that it is impossible to increase the length of a jump on skis by springing forward as you would for a standing long jump1 for you can1 of course1 get no purchase for the backward push4 ,even in the first method of making the ,sats1 although the body should shoot forwards1 the push of the feet is almost entirely downwards4 ,the ,sats1 in fact1 when it is a jump at all1 is a high jump only4 ,any pronounced attempt to make it a long jump will result in a fall4 ,position in the ,air 7,plate ,l41 c474--,having completed the movement of the ,sats1 do not alter the position of your body and legs1 but hold yourself perfectly erect during your flight through the air1 your feet and skis being perfectly level 7i4e4 neither ahead of the other71 close together1 and exactly parallel4 ,the skis must as soon as possible be brought parallel to the slope below you1 and therefore your feet must be pointed downwards1 if they are not so already1 and the toes must be pressed down to prevent the heels of the skis from dropping1 as they are very apt to do4 ,a jumper when in the air generally swings his arms round and round4 ,now the dog cannot wag its tail much without the tail wagging its dog a little1 and as the jumper is moving freely through space his shoulder-muscles cannot swing his arms round in one direction without at the same time swinging him--i4e4 his body and legs as a whole--round in the other1 though the movement of his body and legs will be much slower1 as their mass is much greater1 than that of the arms4 ,if1 then1 he is not tilted far enough forward1 the jumper can1 by swinging his arms in a forward-upward-backward-downward direction1 make the rest of himself revolve slowly in the opposite direction on the axis of his shoulder-joints1 and so tilt himself gradually forward2 or1 if his forward tilt is too great--which is not very likely--he can reduce it by swinging his arms round the other way4 ,landing4--,you should land in the above position1 with the feet level1 close together1 and pointed well down1 so that the skis strike the ground with their whole surface simultaneously1 not with their heels first4 ,although the legs should be kept straight during most of the flight through the air1 they should be bent slightly just before you touch the snow4 ,in bending them be sure to press the knees together1 for to do so will ensure that1 on landing1 the skis are level1 close together1 and parallel2 and also1 which is equally important1 that they strike the snow flat1 and not edged slightly outwards1 as they are apt to do if the feet only are held together4 ,this bringing together of the knees is therefore the greatest help to landing steadily1 and if you remember to do it you need not think about bending the legs1 for when his knees are touching and his feet parallel it is impossible for a man of normal build to keep his legs straight4 ,i strongly advise you to include this movement in your practice of the ,sats 7#bnd method7 without skis4 ,as you feel the ground1 but not before1 drop smartly into ,telemark position1 with the weight well forward4 ,this helps to diminish the shock1 and also1 of course1 the chance of a fall backwards or forwards4 ,it is such a help to the balance that when you have got into the habit of it1 you will be inclined to begin the forward stride in the air4 ,be careful to avoid doing so1 for1 if you do1 you may strike the snow with one ski sooner than with the other1 which will very likely upset you4 ,there is the same danger if you land with your skis apart instead of close together4 ,as the skis strike the snow1 they bend in the middle and each makes a depression in the snow4 ,from the deepest part of the hindmost of these depressions to the edge of the platform is the measure of the jump4 ,the record stands at present at #dg metres 7#aed feet72 you will do well if you jump a tenth of this distance without falling by the end of your first day's practice4 ,as you drop into the ,telemark position1 keep the ankles and knees well inwards and let the pressure be rather on the inside of the foot1 or your skis may run apart and upset you4 ,only run in ,telemark position until you are certain that you have your balance4 ,you should1 if possible1 make a merely momentary dip and then straighten up smartly and finish your run in the normal position1 stopping yourself on the level by a swing or a jump round as soon as you can4 ,,general ,,hints ,ski-jumping to the ordinarily constituted person who tries it for the first time is extremely alarming4 ,although when the whole of the hillside is of the same steepness he may from the starting-point see something of the lower part of the slope1 the exact spot on which he will land is nearly always hidden from the jumper until just before he reaches the edge of the platform1 and even from that point it is still invisible if the platform is built back from the edge of a steep slope4 ,when the lower part of the jumping-hill is steeper than the upper1 as it nearly always is1 the platform1 seen from above1 appears to be projecting over the edge of a cliff4 ,this at first gives all but exceptionally bold spirits an irresistible desire to shrink back on approaching it1 and it usually takes one some time to overcome this desire1 even after realising that there is practically no danger at all4 ,even when the jumper feels no fear his natural disinclination to make his spring until he can see where he is going to land will for some time tend to make him defer the ,sats until too late4 ,the instinct to shrink back is1 at any rate at first1 the principal difficulty in ski-jumping1 and ,i think you will find that the best way to overcome it is1 in a sense1 to give way to it--that is1 to start under conditions which are as little alarming as possible and to increase the difficulty by very slow degrees4 ,begin by making very short jumps on a quite moderate slope1 no steeper below than above the platform1 which must be quite low and long4 ,the fact of the slope being a gentle one does actually add to the difficulty of standing1 but only to a very slight extent if the platform is quite low2 and this form of hill is so much the least alarming1 that ,i advise you to choose it for your first attempts4 ,then make the same kind of jump on a fairly steep slope4 ,then build your platform1 still quite low1 rather back from the edge of as steep a slope as you can find1 the slope above it being a moderate one4 ,begin here with quite small jumps1 and gradually start farther and farther back until you can make1 with fair certainty of standing1 as long a jump as the form of the hill and platform will permit2 taking care1 of course1 that the lower slope is of ample length1 and that there is no sudden change of angle where it joins the level1 for this causes really bad falls4 ,after this you can make things more difficult for yourself in various ways1 such as increasing the height of the platform1 or building it at the very edge of a steep slope instead of rather back from it1 or making it point upwards so as to form a squirt jump4 ,a squirt jump on a moderate slope is excellent practice4 ,the considerable difference in angle between the platform and the alighting ground makes it necessary for the learner to throw himself well forward in making the ,sats1 and the fact that he drops from a good height on to comparatively flat ground makes the shock sufficient to compel him to bend his knees and take the ,telemark position on landing4 ,only jumps of a few yards should be made in this way1 however4 ,the shock is too great for safety if the drop is a really long one4 ,on no account allow yourself to forsake easy hills for more difficult ones until on the former you can make your jumps in perfect style1 correct to the smallest detail4 ,it is only by acquiring an absolutely perfect style that you can make anything but the smallest and easiest jumps with any certainty of standing1 and for this reason the only way to gain confidence is to improve your style4 ,it may be a fine moral discipline to force yourself over jumps of an alarming size from the very first1 but it will not make you a better jumper2 for if you are very nervous you will be able to think of nothing until the jump is finished1 and so will learn nothing and have no better prospect of standing at the twentieth jump than at the first4 ,after a course of this it is not unlikely that the last state of your nerve will be worse than the first4 ,it is a good thing to jump occasionally on big hills almost from the first if you can do so without feeling very nervous1 but do not give up small jumps until your style is perfect1 otherwise it never will be4 ,in ,norway the style of the jump is considered as important as1 if not more so than1 its length4 ,at a competition a jumper receives marks according to the manner in which he performs each stage of the jump--the approach1 the ,sats1 the flight through the air1 the landing1 the rest of the run1 and the swing at the finish4 ,under certain circumstances even a fall is not considered greatly to a jumper's discredit4 ,if1 for instance1 a man makes a jump in good style and is evidently steady on landing1 but1 after running a few yards1 loses his balance on a bad bit of ground1 he may score higher than a man who jumps rather farther and finishes without falling1 but does so in very bad style4 ,i do not mean to say that merely dribbling over the edge in a graceful attitude is encouraged1 for to jump as hard as possible is part of good style1 and to receive any consideration a jump must1 as to length1 be within reasonable distance of the maximum allowed by the form of the hill and platform4 ,those who jump farthest1 however1 almost invariably jump in the best style1 and a very long standing jump in really bad style is sure to be a fluke2 so that in rewarding the most accurate jumpers the ,norwegians probably reward those who in the aggregate have jumped the greatest distances1 whatever their performance on any single occasion may be4 ,i agree1 however1 with ,mr4 ,richardson in thinking that this system is likely to lead to too much stress being laid on the purely ornamental side of style1 and that on the whole it would be much better to consider only the length of the jump and whether the jumper stands or falls on landing4 ,always bearing in mind1 then1 that it is only a means to the end of jumping as far and of landing as steadily as possible1 do your utmost to improve your style1 watch for faults1 and get other people to criticise you as well4 ,check at the outset any tendency to acquire any of the following bad habits3-- ,in the crouching position before the ,sats3 ,separating your feet or knees2 only bending slightly1 instead of crouching quite low4 ,in the ,sats3 ,making a feeble1 timid effort1 and not straightening out completely1 instead of springing smartly and vigorously to an erect position1 with body and legs in a perfectly straight line4 ,in the air3 ,bending at the hips or knees2 separating the skis1 not keeping them parallel and in the same plane2 letting their heels drop2 not keeping the feet level2 not bringing the knees together before landing4 ,landing3 ,landing with the skis apart1 or edged outwards1 or not parallel1 or with one more ahead than the other2 letting their heels touch the snow first2 landing with straight legs 7or very bent ones72 not dropping into ,telemark position4 ,there is a method of jumping known in ,norway as the traekke op1 in which1 during the flight through the air1 the feet are drawn up as close as possible to the body1 which is bent forward4 ,this diminishes the resistance of the air and perhaps slightly increases the length of the jump1 but is considerably more difficult than the upright method1 because it has a greater tendency to make the jumper land leaning backwards1 or with the knees and feet separated so that the skis are pointed apart1 or with the legs so much bent that they are liable to collapse from the shock4 ,in ,norway this method is generally considered less good style than the other4 ,if you wish to try it you had better make the ,sats in the ordinary way1 straightening out completely before you begin to draw up the legs1 and almost completely again before landing4 ,be sure also1 in lifting the feet1 to raise the toes well in order to avoid any risk of plunging the points of your skis into the snow on landing4 ,it is very good practice for the balance to make jumps in this way when you cross small undulations in the course of a run1 or even when the ground is quite smooth4 ,you will then1 of course1 have to draw up your feet the moment you leave the ground4 ,be careful1 by holding your knees together1 to keep your skis from pointing outwards as you land4 ,an expert when running fast can in this way jump a low fence or1 to be precise1 an obstacle #b feet or so high4 ,in spite of all that ,i have said about the necessity for taking it gradually1 and keeping off big hills at first1 you need not be afraid of hurting yourself much1 no matter how far you may jump1 provided the hill and platform be properly arranged1 for in that case an accident is almost impossible4 ,you are far more likely to meet with one when running at a comparatively low speed on tour1 if the snow is soft and deep4 ,to be able to jump even moderately well will enormously improve your running generally1 and will give you a confidence and dash that can hardly be acquired in any other way4 ,it is an excellent plan for the beginner to practise all the motions of jumping while running down a slope1 without any platform1 and at first without even a change of gradient4 ,make a mark on the ground2 run towards it1 crouching2 make the ,sats as you reach it1 springing into the air if possible2 drop into ,telemark position1 and straighten up again4 ,practise this until on a slope where there is a slight change of gradient you can make a jump of #c or #d yards steadily1 and you will find things come much easier when you try from a platform4 ,finally1 let me remind you of the childish plan that ,i have already advocated1 of pretending that you want to go faster than you are actually moving4 ,you can now pretend that you want to stay in the air as long as possible--unless you really want to1 which is unlikely at first4 ,the man who wants to make a long jump is much more likely to stand than the one who merely wants not to fall4 ,short ,directions for the ,jump4--,run in normal position until within about #ae yards of the platform's edge 7not so close if running very fast71 then bring your feet level and1 keeping your knees pressed together and well forwards1 crouch down as low as possible4 ,when the hands can touch the ankles draw them right back4 ,just before reaching the edge of the platform make the ,sats by either of the following methods3-- #a4 ,without raising the heels or moving the feet or legs below the knees1 swing your arms forward and upward and straighten yourself smartly until your body and thighs are in a line with the lower part of the legs4 ,you will then1 if you have moved from the knees only1 be leaning well forward4 #b4 ,swinging the arms as before1 spring vigorously almost straight upwards from the platform1 giving the body a slight forward tilting motion as you do so1 and straightening out completely from head to foot1 but this time raising the heels and finishing the spring from the toes4 ,on completing the ,sats1 hold the erect position during the flight through the air1 keeping the feet level and close together and the skis parallel to each other and to the slope below4 ,just before landing press the knees together1 and1 as you feel your skis touch the snow1 but not until then1 drop into ,telemark position4 ,the moment you feel steady straighten up again1 finish your run in the normal position1 and swing or jump round4 ,,how ,,to ,,run ,,across ,,country ,as soon as you have acquired a moderate proficiency in the various manoeuvres that have been described1 you should have little difficulty in getting through a run quickly and comfortably without feeling any temptation to use your stick when once the descent has begun4 ,the following hints may help you when you go for an expedition3-- ,in the first place1 be sure1 especially if you are going far1 that you are taking everything you can possibly want--spare clothing1 food1 dark glasses1 wax and rag1 knife1 sealskin1 climbing-irons1 repair outfit1 map1 compass1 lantern1 matches1 c41 if you decide that any or all of these things are necessary4 ,if the first part of the climb is along a beaten path1 it will probably save time to cover that on foot4 ,you can then either drag the skis after you by a string tied to the holes in their tips1 or can carry them4 ,most people eventually prefer the latter method4 ,the best way of carrying the skis is to place them sole to sole 7tie them so if you like71 and then either to rest them almost horizontally on the shoulder1 points forward1 and hold them near the bend1 or to lean them nearly upright against the shoulder1 points up1 and1 with the arm hanging almost straight1 to hold them by the heel ends 7,plates ,,lviii4 and ,,lix474 ,they can also be carried by a sling from the shoulder1 a convenient plan if any scrambling is to be done4 ,if you are climbing the hill by the route that you mean to follow during the run down1 you should take every opportunity of making observations which will be useful to you later on1 and will enable you to make the descent as quickly and easily as possible4 ,try to plan out exactly how you will take the run down4 ,notice all the peculiarities of the ground and snow1 and fix in your head the principal landmarks4 ,but remember that the ground will look very different when approached from above1 and therefore keep on looking backwards at what you have passed4 ,pay particular attention to the points where the angle of the slope changes1 in order that when from above you are running towards an invisible piece of steeper ground1 you may have the clearest possible idea of what to expect4 ,the actual climbing will at first give you a good deal to think of4 ,the ordinary procedure1 when several ski-runners are climbing a hill1 is for one to lead and the rest to walk in his track in single file4 ,if the snow is soft and deep the leader's work may be very exhausting1 and each of the party will have to take his turn4 ,if you are leading1 make your tacks as long as possible to avoid wasting time in kick-turns4 ,remember all that has been said about adjusting your course to the contour of the hill so that you mount at a steady gradient which is too steep for no one in the party1 about not side-stepping unnecessarily1 and so on4 ,and never1 without good reason1 attempt to hurry4 ,if you are not leading1 and if the leader is a competent person1 you will not have much to think of4 ,if he is not1 you may find following him a tiresome business4 ,if it is really difficult to do so 7not merely irritating71 don't dream of suffering in silence1 but complain at once1 and if he is so stupid or inconsiderate as to persist in his misdeeds1 make a new track for yourself4 ,don't be at all disturbed if you find yourself being left behind1 but keep on steadily at your own pace4 ,if you make a halt and take your skis off1 clean them thoroughly at once1 and see that their soles are neither wet nor warm when you put them on again4 ,if you are likely to feel cold 7and you are likely as a rule71 put on spare clothing as soon as you stop1 not after you feel chilly4 ,wax your skis thoroughly before starting the run down if the snow is sticky1 or is likely to be so lower down2 and remember to button up your pockets1 or you may find at the bottom of the hill that snow has either taken the place of1 or ruined their contents4 ,i have so far attempted no description of the snow itself4 ,it varies infinitely in consistency1 but considerably less so in appearance1 and for this reason it is often impossible for the runner to be sure of the quality of the snow in front of him until his skis actually touch it4 ,this latter fact adds considerably to the difficulty of ski-running when patches of different slipperiness occur at short intervals4 ,the worst kind of patchy snow consists of a hard and slippery ice-crust in the hollows of which finely powdered wind-blown snow has accumulated2 fortunately in this case the difference is generally visible1 the slow powdery snow being perfectly white and the ice-crust rather greyer4 ,the safest way of negotiating snow of this sort while running straight has already been explained4 ,for practical purposes the ski-runner may consider the snow to be of three distinct varieties according to the consistency of its surface3 viz4 soft snow1 hard snow1 and breakable crust4 ,there is no real division between these varieties1 each melting into the other by imperceptible gradations2 but1 where the quality of the snow falls clearly under one of these headings1 the runner will be obliged to use certain definite methods of turning and stopping1 unless he is either a thorough expert1 or a stick-rider of the worst kind4 ,for1 as ,i have already said1 the former can make any kind of swing in almost any kind of snow1 while the latter has only one method of turning1 viz4 that of dragging himself to one side or the other by means of his stick1 carefully preserving while he does so his normal running position1 with the knees well bent and the skis level1 parallel1 and a yard or so apart1 which manoeuvre he calls making a stemming curve or a ,christiania swing1 according as the turn has been a downhill or an uphill one4 ,assuming1 then1 that you belong to neither of these classes1 you will have to know how to adapt the means of turning to the quality of the snow4 ,it should be fairly obvious from the descriptions of the different swings how this is to be done4 ,in deep loose snow make all your turns1 whether downhill or uphill1 by means of the ,telemark swing4 ,on hard snow1 whether quite bare or covered by a very shallow layer of loose snow1 make your downhill curves by means of the stemming turn1 and use the ,christiania swing for turning uphill4 ,in breakable crust1 if it is very thin1 you may find it possible to turn or stop with the ,telemark4 ,if this is out of the question you will have to jump or step round4 ,of course soft snow may be so dense that the ski sinks into it but little 7as in the case of watery spring snow72 you will find it just as easy to make stemming turns and ,christianias in this as to make ,telemarks--perhaps even easier4 ,in the same way the layer of loose snow on a crust may be deep enough to allow ,telemarks to be made as steadily as the other turns4 ,a breakable crust1 too1 may be so thin as to be hardly perceptible1 or so thick that only some extra pressure 7which occurs when a swing is made7 will make it give way2 but1 generally speaking1 you will find that you are limited to one method or the other--if you want to run with the maximum of steadiness4 ,evidently1 then1 the ,telemark is at least as generally useful as the other two turns to the moderately skilful runner who does not rely on the help of his stick4 ,yet most ,english runners undoubtedly look upon it as a pretty trick of no practical value1 and never attempt it during a run4 ,it is quite certain1 however1 that a man who can make a ,telemark swing with fair steadiness on a hard and slippery practice-ground 7and the average runner can do this7 will find it far easier to do so in the soft loose snow which is1 fortunately1 the variety most commonly met with during a run4 ,and if he can make the swing to the left1 he is certainly capable of learning to make it to the right1 and of turning downhill with it as well as uphill4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,s1 ,stemming ,turn2 ,t1 ,telemark2 ,c1 ,christiania2 ,j1 ,jump round4 ,but if the runner only learns the ,telemark to the left and the ,christiania to the right1 as most people are content to do1 it will be a long time before he can rely on them during a run2 for only the thorough expert can make both these swings with steadiness and certainty in any kind of snow1 especially if his speed be high or the slope steep4 ,with the ,christiania in particular it is exceedingly difficult1 if the snow is unsuitable1 to make a downhill turn1 and by no means easy to make an uphill one4 ,the stemming turn1 which is the only one attempted during a run by the average runner 7,i say attempted advisedly1 for an examination of his track will seldom reveal much trace of actual stemming71 is even more difficult to make in unsuitable snow than the ,christiania4 ,the most important thing for you to remember when you first begin to make practical use of the swings1 c41 while on a run1 is that if you wish to fall as little as possible1 you should never attempt to turn or stop while running at all fast4 ,if you run with judgment you can always avoid having to do this4 ,suppose1 for instance1 that you find yourself approaching the edge of a steep slope2 if your course is clear and the slope has an easy outrun on to level or nearly level ground1 by all means run straight down2 for at the bottom you will either run to a standstill or will slow up enough to be able to turn easily if necessary4 ,if1 however1 there is no clear outrun at the bottom of the slope1 or if there are obstacles in your path1 don't dream of dashing straight over the edge and trying to turn off lower down1 which you will certainly fail to do1 but either stem1 snow-plough1 or side-slip straight down the slope1 or turn off at once and take it in zigzags1 making a downhill turn at the end of each tack by whatever method the quality of the snow demands4 ,and unless you run each tack at a very gentle gradient indeed1 you should take the further precaution of slowing up by turning slightly uphill before beginning each downhill turn4 ,to check the pace by making an uphill swing is a much neater and easier way of doing it than by stemming with the lower foot2 the latter is a process which1 when the ground is open1 you need seldom use if you have a moderate command of the swings1 though among obstacles--in dense wood and the like--you may often find it necessary to have recourse to it4 ,the means you use for making this preliminary uphill turn will depend1 of course1 on the quality of the snow1 just as in the case of the downhill one4 ,fig4 #dg shows what turns to use in order to run in zigzags through snow of the three different qualities4 ,the downhill turns should be made as shortly and sharply as possible1 in order to prevent the pace from becoming unmanageable in the middle of them4 ,if on account of the nature of the ground you decide to run straight down a steep slope instead of taking it in zigzags1 you must1 of course1 be ready to drop into ,telemark position for any sudden undulations or difficult snow4 ,remember that the quality of the snow depends to a great extent on the direction in which the slope faces4 ,on slopes with a north aspect1 especially if they are steep1 the snow gets little or no sun1 and is generally soft and easy1 though even here it may sometimes get crusted by very strong winds or by frost after a warm wind or rain4 ,on slopes which face south the snow is exposed to the rays of the sun--more or less directly according to the steepness of the slope and the time of year4 ,during the day1 therefore1 the surface of the snow melts1 freezing at night into a crust1 and when the sun goes off these south slopes they are1 as a rule1 perfectly hard and icy1 though when the sun is full on them they may become so soft that you will find it difficult to use any turn except the ,telemark4 ,the most difficult snow occurs on slopes which face a little south of east or west1 and on due south slopes when the sun is just beginning to strike them1 or is going off them2 for then the hard crust generally becomes more or less breakable4 ,if you get these facts about the snow well into your head1 it will be a great help to you during a run4 ,you will very likely find that one kind of turn comes easier than another1 and at first1 when your principal object is to run steadily and avoid falls as far as you can1 your safest plan will be to shape your course so as to make most of your turns by the method that you find easiest4 ,if you thoroughly understand the conditions which affect the quality of the snow1 you will know where to look for that kind of snow which suits your favourite method of turning1 and what places to avoid for the probable unsuitability of their surface4 ,do not forget that what is true of the main slopes is also true of their minor features4 ,on slopes facing east or west1 for instance1 each small undulation has its north and south side1 the surface of which is affected by sun and frost in just the same way as the main slopes facing in that direction4 ,if you remember this you will often1 when running across a slope whose general surface is difficult1 be able to find small patches of snow on the sides of the undulations in which you can turn quite easily4 ,when beginning the run down always make up your mind before you start how you mean to negotiate that part of the hill which is visible4 ,if some way ahead the ground becomes steeper1 so as to be invisible1 and you do not know what it is like1 don't run at a high speed to where the slope changes1 but approach it in zigzags1 or at any rate slowly1 in case you should find it necessary to turn off or stop at the edge of the steeper slope4 ,by doing this you will preclude the possibility of dropping over a precipice on unknown ground4 ,as soon as you can see what was hidden from you1 plan out1 without stopping if possible1 the next visible piece of your course in the same way4 ,there is one difficulty about steering among obstacles which it may be as well to mention4 ,suppose you are running down or across a slope with a tree straight ahead of you which you mean to avoid when fairly close to it1 by swinging1 say1 to the left4 ,as you already know1 you must1 at the beginning of any turn1 lean forwards1 perhaps even a little outwards1 never inwards4 ,now1 if there were no tree in front of you1 you would probably have no difficulty whatever in making the turn1 but the fear of running into the tree will at first be almost certain to make you lean away from it as you begin the turn--that is1 backwards and to the left4 ,you will then1 if you don't fall down at once1 at any rate fail to turn sharply1 and so will probably do exactly what you were trying to avoid1 viz4 run into the tree4 propos of trees1 let me remind you that turns are mainly for steering1 and that therefore1 except just at first1 they should be practised where steering is necessary--i4e4 among trees or other obstacles4 ,unless you take every opportunity of practising them there1 they will be of little real use to you4 ,you should soon be able to make downhill turns on any open slope with ease1 and will soon afterwards cease to find much fun in doing so1 but there is no end to the difficulty and therefore the interest of turning quickly among obstacles1 and anyone who is or wishes to be a good ski-er will not be happy unless he gets plenty of wood-running4 ,nor1 for much the same reasons1 will he be contented without plenty of bad and difficult snow1 a fact which you should lay to heart at the outset4 ,i have already said that when running fast on ground that is covered with hard ski-tracks1 you should try to avoid crossing them at a narrow angle4 ,you will sometimes find that you want to run a traverse on a slope closely covered with hard parallel tracks1 leading exactly the way you want to go and steeply enough to make running in them extremely unsteady4 ,your best plan here is to run almost or quite directly downhill across them for a short distance1 and then to turn upwards with a ,christiania and make a longish traverse at a less steep angle than the tracks2 your low speed then enabling you to cross them at a narrow angle in safety4 ,by repeating this process you will reach the point to which the tracks lead almost as quickly and far more comfortably than by following them4 ,to make alternate direct descents and gradual traverses in this way is also convenient when you would otherwise have to run a steep stemming traverse4 ,by paying careful attention to all the above points you should soon be able to run safely and steadily1 and to get down any ordinary hill with few or no falls4 ,this also means that you will accomplish the descent in pretty quick time1 provided that you never stop if you can possibly help it1 and that after a fall you get up without either hurrying or dawdling4 ,this kind of running makes no great demands on your skill1 and still less on your nerve4 ,its main object is the avoidance of falls1 and at first this should certainly be your sole aim4 ,but if you wish to become a really good runner you should not allow it to remain so for long4 ,the first-rate runner has absolute command of the various swings1 c41 and can stop suddenly or dodge among obstacles at a pretty high speed with perfect steadiness 7at very high speeds it is impossible to turn or stop suddenly2 the curve of the swing is then bound to be more or less long and gradual74 ,he never turns or stops if he can help it1 however1 but runs everything as straight as he can1 and at the highest possible speed4 ,there is not the least doubt that to take a hill in this way not only demands the utmost skill1 but gives the greatest pleasure that ski-running1 pure and simple1 can afford4 ,it is not unusual to hear a man who never takes the easiest slope without constant zigzagging1 say that he does so because he prefers going slowly and spinning out the run to dashing down in a quarter of the time4 ,he infers1 if he does not actually say1 that the fear of speed has nothing to do with his choice4 ,you may be nearly sure that the man who talks in this way is inferring1 if not telling1 a lie1 though very likely unconsciously4 ,i used to say the same myself1 and did not realise for some time that every ski-runner1 whatever he may say or think1 runs just as fast as he dares4 ,i don't for a moment mean to say that there is anything to be ashamed of in being afraid of going fast4 ,indeed1 the man who realises and openly admits that he is afraid1 and who refuses to attempt anything which puts a great strain on his nerve1 is very likely a more reasonable and admirable person than the one who gradually becomes a better runner simply through being ashamed of admitting his cowardice even to himself4 ,i only want to impress upon you that the sine qua non of fine ski-running is speed1 and that if you want to become a fine runner1 you must be always trying to take things faster and faster4 ,one reason why jumping is such an excellent training for the ski-runner is that it accustoms him to running at the greatest possible speed1 and to falling occasionally while doing so4 ,to pay no particular attention to anything but straight running and speed from the first is of course absurd1 for if you do this you will fall about hopelessly when any steering is necessary1 and the most miserable stick-riding zigzagger will be down a hill long before you4 ,first of all1 practise all the turns until you can make them with steadiness1 for the special purposes and on the particular snow to which they are best adapted4 ,if you are weak in any turn1 practise that one especially1 not only on the practice-ground1 but during a run4 ,to do the latter will1 of course1 add considerably to the number of your falls during a run1 but it is the only way to improve1 and you should never1 except at the very outset1 or for some special reason1 be too anxious not to fall4 ,the boast of having accomplished a run without a single fall is usually sufficient to stamp the utterer of it as either a novice or a nervous person1 who has negotiated his whole run in the easiest possible way4 ,a very moderate runner1 if he chooses1 can thus avoid falling easily enough2 but if he wishes to become a better one1 he is bound to take chances1 where an unambitious or timid one would play for safety4 ,do not forget1 however1 that if to boast of not falling lays you open to suspicion in one way1 to boast of falling stamps you infallibly in another4 ,after you can make all the turns pretty well in the snow which is easiest for each1 begin to practise them in difficult snow4 ,when you can make them while running at a moderate speed1 try to do so at higher and higher speeds4 ,you can then practise running with the same foot leading the whole time1 and make only ,telemarks one way and ,christianias the other2 if you find this easier with the right foot leading1 run always with the left foot leading until that comes just as easy4 ,do your utmost1 in short1 to improve your steering in every possible way1 and then try to run everything as straight and fast as ever you can4 ,i don't1 of course1 mean that you are to become a past master at swinging and turning before you try to run straight and fast1 for the two things can be practised together4 ,but steering must come first1 and until you can steer as well with your long grooved ski and without the help of the stick as the most redoubtable ,lilienfeld stick-rider with his short smooth skis1 you must give much more attention to that than to speed4 ,your ultimate aim must1 as ,i have already said1 be to run in the utmost safety1 with the utmost skill 7i4e4 with the least effort7 and at the utmost speed2 but if ever1 as in a race1 speed is almost your sole object1 remember the following facts3-- ,apart from the question of obstacles1 the quickest way to get down a hill is of course to run freely straight down it4 ,the second quickest way is a free direct descent checked at intervals by uphill swings1 so that the speed never becomes high enough to be difficult4 ,the third quickest way is a direct stemming 7,telemark1 snow-plough1 or side-slip7 descent1 and not1 as most people imagine1 a free descent by tacks and downhill turns4 ,the latter method takes more skill and less effort1 but is a great deal slower4 ,to sum up1 let me advise you to take in succession each of the following series of ,don'ts as your guiding maxim when learning cross-country running3-- 7#a7 ,don't fall 7but stem1 kick-turn1 and stop ad lib474 7#b7 ,don't stop 7i4e4 stem ad lib41 but make no kick-turns74 7#c7 ,don't stem 7but make as gradual tacks as you like1 and check the pace when necessary by uphill swings74 7#d7 ,don't slow up before turning downhill4 7#e7 ,don't--if you can safely avoid it--turn at all4 ,when you can accomplish a run without falling or stopping1 you may consider yourself a third-rate cross-country runner1 being quite safe and not too slow4 ,when you can do so without falling1 stopping1 or stemming1 your running will be sufficiently safe1 fast1 and in particular effortless1 to be called second-rate4 ,when you can manage most of your run without either falling1 stopping1 stemming1 or turning1 you may be quite pleased with yourself4 ,the last sentence suggests a further word of advice4 ,it is seldom reasonable to feel very proud of one's running1 but it is often the greatest help to pretend to do so4 ,if after taking all possible pains to learn any manoeuvre you still find a difficulty in doing it1 try the effect of imagining yourself rather a desperate fellow--a careless1 skilful1 dashing person who has done this sort of thing all his life and thinks nothing of it4 ,you will very likely find that this acts like a charm1 and that it was only the stiffness that comes from over-carefulness which prevented you from succeeding before4 ,a certain amount of side1 in fact--whether natural or assumed--is really an excellent thing4 ,most good performers talk of their running--perhaps sincerely--with becoming modesty1 but they seldom show much sign of this modesty in their actions when ski-ing--evincing1 as a rule1 a healthy self-confidence which might almost be mistaken for a desire to show off4 ,in the above series of ,don'ts ,i have not included ,don't use the stick1 because ,i trust it would never enter your head to do so4 ,i might however have said1 ,don't be afraid of leaving your sticks at home1 for unless you want to race uphill or on the level you can easily dispense with them1 and to do so occasionally will prevent you from getting into the slovenly habit of prodding with the inner stick at the end of every swing4 ,not that this prodding need be considered a very serious crime1 for as long as a stick is used with one hand for pushing and not with both for pulling1 no great harm will be done to the style4 ,but this prodding is a slight waste of energy1 and therefore the tendency to do it should be checked4 ,to go without a stick at all occasionally is the best possible way to cultivate a perfectly free and effortless style1 not only of running down a hill1 but of climbing up it4 ,one sometimes hears the absurd statement that to tour without a stick is unnatural1 and therefore not permissible4 ,all ski-ing is unnatural4 ,if it is natural to carry a stick1 it is still more natural to lean on it hard the whole time4 ,the only real and searching test of the skill and ease of a man's running is to take away his stick altogether and see if he can run fast and steadily across any sort of country without it2 and ,i strongly advise you to test your own running in this way from time to time4 ,it is a curious coincidence1 if nothing more1 that in ,canada it is the regular thing for ski-ers to do their cross-country running without sticks1 and that in ,canada1 and nowhere else1 an ,anglo-,saxon 7,barney ,reilly7 has already done some first-rate jumping4 ,about the special dangers of ski-running a word or two may be useful4 ,the risk of injury from falling on snow is not very great1 and there is not much danger of any one but a lunatic dropping over a precipice in an unknown country1 or dashing at full speed into a solid obstacle1 instead of adopting the simple device of falling down before he reaches it1 if he cannot manage to turn4 ,i have never heard of anything worse than a broken leg 7which is no doubt quite bad enough7 resulting from a fall in snow4 ,the kind of snow most likely to lead to injury is not hard1 icy snow1 as the beginner generally fancies1 but deep soft snow1 especially if covered by a breakable crust2 for in this the skis may plunge beneath the surface1 and1 getting jammed1 may throw a strain on the foot or leg4 ,but even here the runner whose style is good is not very likely to hurt himself1 even when going fast1 if his binding fits properly2 it is the stick-rider with his feet level and skis apart who gets the most awkward falls4 ,in jumping1 owing to the firmness of the surface1 there is hardly any danger at all4 ,the real danger of injury in ski-running does not consist so much in the nature of the injury itself as in the fact that it may leave the runner incapable of movement in a dangerous situation4 ,if he is far from shelter he may be badly frost-bitten before he can be got home--therefore the more spare clothing he carries the better4 ,if he is alone1 he will be lucky if he gets home at all--and any one who thoroughly realises this will think twice before he goes ski-ing by himself without saying where he is going4 ,the advantage of carrying a map and compass1 and of knowing how to use them in case of losing one's way1 is obvious4 ,it is not only the mountaineer but the ordinary tourist who is exposed to this danger1 for even the latter should remember that when once he is above the tree-line a snow-storm or a fog may make it impossible for him to find his way for ten yards by eye alone4 ,in thick snow or fog nothing is visible except a blank whiteness4 ,when the fog or falling snow are thin1 objects which are darker than the snow 7rock1 trees1 c47 may be visible for some distance1 but all light and shade disappears in the snow itself1 all tracks1 holes1 and irregularities in its surface become quite invisible1 and it is then impossible1 in a bare tract of snow1 for the runner to tell whether the ground in front of him goes downhill1 uphill1 or level4 ,even an overcast sky causes this curious absence of light and shade2 and then1 though the main landmarks may be visible1 and there may be no danger of getting lost1 running becomes exceedingly difficult and uncomfortable1 perhaps even dangerous1 for the snow on the edge of a precipice or steep drop1 when seen from above1 is apparently continuous with the snow at the foot of it4 ,in the description of equipment ,i have already mentioned the necessary safeguards against frost-bite and snow blindness4 ,anything more than an allusion to the danger from avalanche is quite beyond the scope of this book4 ,it is an intricate subject1 about which whole books have been1 and no doubt will yet be1 written4 ,i believe that even now the conditions which produce winter avalanches are not fully understood4 ,on any open slope of more than certain steepness--#bc or so--an avalanche may start1 especially after a thaw1 or before the snow of a recent fall has had time to settle down4 ,an avalanche1 once started1 can of course travel over a less steep slope1 or even level ground4 ,lose no time in collecting all the information you can on the subject2 for1 although the ordinary tourist 7not the climber7 can usually avoid it1 the danger is a very serious one1 and you should never willingly expose yourself to the smallest risk of it4 ,if the risk is unavoidable1 make sure that you can get your skis off your feet in a moment1 for if you are caught in an avalanche this is the first thing to do4 ,the next is1 if possible1 to keep your head above the surface of the snow4 ,the ancient quip about presence of mind and absence of body is particularly applicable in a case of this sort4 ,i have said something about the special discomforts and dangers of the mountains and the snow1 but nothing about their extraordinary beauty and fascination4 ,if ,i were better fitted for the task than the ordinary guide-book writer1 ,i might attempt a description of them2 as ,i am not1 ,i will spare the reader4 ,to some ski-runners these beauties may be of secondary importance to the sport itself4 ,the ski-runner may even exist who looks upon climbing a mountain as an altogether exasperating1 but unfortunately inevitable1 preparation for a run down1 and whose ideal is an artificial jumping-hill in his garden provided with a lift4 ,i have never met him4 ,,appendix ,,how ,,to ,,practise ,broadly speaking1 your object in practising should be to learn to run first safely1 then easily1 and then quickly4 ,this is more or less equivalent to saying that you should first learn braking1 then turning1 and only then free straight-running1 and that you should practise on slopes of gradually increasing steepness as well as in all sorts of snow4 ,you should1 moreover1 by very easy stages1 learn jumping from the very outset4 ,you will hardly be able to follow the first part of this advice quite literally1 for to learn to brake without learning something about turning1 or to do either without learning to run straight at all is nearly impossible and quite unnecessary4 ,the following scheme for five days' practice is one way of setting to work4 ,if it does not suit you1 by all means vary it1 but stick to the principle of learning every manoeuvre in its easiest form pretty thoroughly before passing to more difficult ones1 for this is the best way to gain confidence if you are nervous1 and to steady yourself and avoid bad habits if you are inclined to be reckless4 ,never think of learning to do a ,telemark or anything else for its own sake alone1 and never look on jumping as an extra4 #ast ,morning4--,hard snow on a gentle slope 7#aj to #ae7 with level outrun4 ,about #ae minutes4--7#a7 ,level going4 ,hill-climbing 7kick-turns1 side-stepping and half side-stepping1 herring-boning1 c474 ,this will1 of course1 be distributed throughout the morning practice4 ,about #cj minutes4--7#b7 ,braking by single-stemming 7half snow-plough72 at first from a standstill in stemming position1 then from a traverse in normal running position4 ,about #cj minutes4--7#c7 ,braking by snow-ploughing2 at first nearly from a standstill on the hillside1 then on the level after a direct descent in normal running position4 ,about #aj minutes4--7#d7 ,uphill step round to standstill from slow traverse in normal running position4 ,about #ae minutes4--7#e7 ,uphill stemming turns from traverse in normal running position4 ,about #bj minutes4--7#f7 ,uphill stemming turns 7snow-plough and lift round inner ski7 on level from direct descent in normal running position4 ,total1 #b hours4 #ast ,afternoon4--,shallow soft snow on gentle slope with level outrun4 ,about #cj minutes4--7#a7 ,telemark-stemming while traversing2 at first from a standstill1 then from a traverse in ,telemark running position4 ,about #cj minutes4--7#b7 ,telemark-stemming straight downhill2 at first from a standstill1 then on the level after direct free descent in ,telemark position4 ,about #bj minutes4--7#c7 ,uphill ,telemark swings from traverse4 ,about #bj minutes4--7#d7 ,uphill ,telemark swings from direct descent4 ,about #bj minutes4--7#e7 ,zigzag descent in snow-plough position4 ,total1 #b hours4 #bnd ,morning4--,hard snow on moderate slope 7#bj or so74 ,about #cj minutes4--7#a7 ,repeat 7#b7 and 7#c7 of first morning's practice4 7,if slope steep enough to make snow-ploughing at all difficult1 substitute ,telemark-stemming47 ,about #cj minutes4--7#b7 ,uphill ,christiania swing from traverse2 first from a standstill1 then while running in normal position4 ,on gentle slope4 ,about #cj minutes4--7#c7 ,downhill stemming turns from a traverse in normal position4 ,about #bj minutes4--7#d7 ,uphill ,christiania swings from direct descent--at first from a standstill4 ,about #aj minutes4--7#e7 ,uphill jump round to standstill from slow traverse4 ,total1 #b hours4 #bnd ,afternoon4--,soft snow on moderate slope4 ,about #ej minutes4--7#a7 ,repeat 7#a7 to 7#c7 of first afternoon's practice1 running first in ,telemark1 then in normal position when practising the swing4 ,about #ae minutes4--7#b7 ,uphill ,christianias from direct descent4 ,about #e minutes4--7#c7 ,uphill jump round to standstill from traverse4 ,on gentle slope4 ,about #dj minutes4--7#d7 ,downhill ,telemarks4 ,about #aj minutes4--7#e7 ,practise positions of jumping 7,sats1 c47 during a direct descent4 ,total1 #b hours4 #crd ,morning4--,hard snow on steep slope 7#cj74 ,about #bj minutes4--7#a7 ,side-slipping 7both traversing at various angles and straight down the slope74 ,about #bj minutes4--7#b7 ,uphill ,christianias from traverse4 ,on moderate slope4 ,about #cj minutes4--7#c7 ,uphill ,christianias from direct descent4 ,about #fj minutes4--7#d7 ,downhill stemming turns4 ,repeat 7#c7 and 7#d7 on steep slope if you can4 ,total1 #b hours4 #crd ,afternoon4--,soft snow on steep slope4 ,about #aj minutes4--7#a7 ,telemark-stemming traverses and direct descents4 ,about #cj minutes4--7#b7 ,uphill ,telemarks and ,christianias from traverse in normal position4 ,on moderate slope4 ,about #bj minutes4--7#c7 ,uphill ,telemarks from direct descent4 ,about #fj minutes4--7#d7 ,downhill ,telemarks4 ,repeat 7#c7 and 7#d7 on steep slope if possible4 ,total1 #b hours4 #dth ,morning4--,jumping4 ,practise the positions first of all while running down a slope of #bj or so1 not merely straightening up when making the ,sats1 but springing into the air 7legs straight74 ,then do the same at the point where an upper slope of about #bj joins a lower one of1 say1 #be4 ,then build a low platform at the same point and practise on that4 #dth ,afternoon4 ,short practice run--say1 #ajjj-;ft4 climb4 #eth ,day4 ,practice expedition--about #bjjj-;ft4 climb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i do not expect for a moment that a single one of my readers will work through this course in detail exactly as ,i have set it down1 but these suggestions may at least give him something to disagree with and rearrange4 ,some further explanation of the arrangement of the first three days' practice may be a help4 ,the idea is that on each day the beginner shall practise both on hard and soft snow 7by all means let him find breakable crust1 too1 for his stepping and jumping round if he wants to be very thorough72 that on the first day he learns braking and the elements of uphill turning on gentle slopes1 that next day on steeper slopes he learns braking1 uphill turns1 and the elements of downhill turning1 and that on the third he learns to brake and turn uphill and1 if he can manage it1 downhill on really steep slopes4 ,incidentally he ought to learn quite enough about straight-running to find that the least difficult part of his first practice-run4 ,the jumping and short-expedition day might very well--perhaps better--be taken after the second day's ordinary practice instead of after the third1 where ,i have put it4 ,by cutting the downhill turns out of the three days' practice and learning them later1 or by cutting out everything but the various methods of braking1 the beginner can more quickly make himself efficient and safe 7though of course slow7 as a tourist if he is in a great hurry to become one4 ,but however he varies his procedure1 let him practise on different sorts of snow and slopes of every steepness up to #cj or so from the very first4 ,one mistake that nearly all beginners make is that they never practise on anything like a really steep slope1 the result being that the greater part of their practice is pure waste of time1 and utterly useless to them when they go for an expedition4 ,finally1 let me once more urge the beginner to do everything he can to make things easier for himself4 ,one excellent plan if he is very nervous--or even if he is not--is1 as ,lieutenant ,bilgeri suggests1 to learn the manoeuvres of the descent on the level at first1 by getting under way with a few running steps and then stemming or turning before he loses impetus4 ,another plan 7which should always be followed7 is to try the position for every manoeuvre at a standstill1 and to make sure that it is accurate in every detail before attempting that manoeuvre while running4 ,this can1 of course1 also be done without skis1 indoors4 ,indoor exercises being a pet fad of mine1 ,i herewith suggest a few as more or less direct aids to ski-ing--if ,i had not been actually asked to do so1 fear of ridicule would have prevented me4 7#a7 ,place heels together and knees touching1 and try to turn toes outwards until feet are in a straight line 7kick-turn74 7#b7 ,make as wide a straddle as possible1 then try to make it wider4 ,turn toes in as far as possible 7snow-plough74 7#c7 ,place yourself in ,telemark position1 right foot leading1 knees pressed inwards4 ,change with a jump to same position1 left foot leading4 ,repeat quickly1 bringing your feet to exactly the same places on the floor that they occupied before1 and not letting them point outwards4 7#d7 ,stand on tiptoe1 feet parallel and touching4 ,squat and straighten up again repeatedly4 7#e7 ,stand on one foot1 holding the other clear of the floor2 sit on the heel and rise again4 7#f7 ,stand on one leg and move the other about in all directions4 7#g7 ,stand with feet parallel and touching4 ,let yourself slowly fall forwards1 saving yourself at the last possible moment by a jump with the feet together4 ,repeat this in all directions4 7#h7 ,stand with feet in straight line1 one in front of the other4 ,jump as high as you can1 land1 steadily balanced1 on the spot you left4 7#i7 ,practise the ,sats1 both methods1 also drawing up your legs in the air1 saving yourself from a forward fall in each case either by dropping into ,telemark position or by a jump forward with both feet together4 7#aj7 ,stand with feet parallel and touching1 knees together and bent1 body slightly stooping4 ,swing arms and shoulders1 and turn head as far round to the right as you can4 ,reverse position sharply with a jump1 so that feet then point to the right1 shoulders and head full to left4 ,repeat this quickly4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if you find any of the balancing exercises too easy1 try them with your eyes shut4 ,number 7#aj7 may not teach you the jerked ,christiania1 but is highly beneficial to the liver4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,unless1 however1 this horizontal grain runs very straight throughout the ski1 the vertical arrangement is the better4 #b ,if however with a very narrow ski a very wide-soled boot is worn1 traversing a steep1 hard slope becomes uncomfortable1 as the projecting sole is then apt to catch in the crust and trip the runner4 #c ,the ,bilgeri binding1 a development of the ,lilienfeld1 is lighter and less rigid4 #d ,no wider a welt1 however1 than is absolutely necessary4 ,see note1 p4 #bh4 #e ,sold as griffe ,norvgienne4 #f ,for the above method of herring-boning ,i am indebted1 through ,mr4 ,rickmers1 to ,herr ,zdarsky4 #g ,soft enough to give steerage way1 and free from breakable crust or very soft patches that check the skis suddenly4 #h ,if1 when one ski crosses the other1 you put 7or keep7 all your weight on the one that is undermost1 you can easily withdraw the other and save yourself from falling4