file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #dfjch-;h4htm or #dfjch-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu b_/#dfjch_/pg#dfjch-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#df jch_/dfjch-;h4zip7 ,images of the original pages are available through ,internet ,archive_/,canadian ,libraries4 ,see https3_/_/archive4org_/details_/shintowa yofgods#jj;astouoft ,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 ,text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face 7bold74 ,inconsistent spelling and hyphenation in the original have not been changed4 ,,shinto 7,the ,way ,of ,the ,gods7 by ,w4 ,g4 ,,aston1 ,c4,m4,g1 ,d4,lit4 ,author of ',a ,grammar of the ,japanese ,spoken ,language1' ',a ,grammar of the ,japanese ,written ,language1' ',the ,nihongi' 7,translation71 ',a ,history of ,japanese ,literature1' c4 ,longmans1 ,green1 and ,co4 #ci ,paternoster ,row1 ,london ,new ,york and ,bombay #aije ,all rights reserved ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,chap4 ,,page4 ,i4 ,,materials ,,for ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,shinto #a ,,ii4 ,,general ,,features--,,personification #e ,,iii4 ,,general ,,features--,,deification ,,of ,,men #cf ,,iv4 ,,general ,,features--,,functions ,,of ,,gods1 ,c4 #fe ,v4 ,,myth #ge ,,vi4 ,,the ,,mythical ,,narrative #hd ,,vii4 ,,the ,,pantheon--,,nature-,,deities #aba ,,viii4 ,,the ,,pantheon--,,man-,,deities #agg ,,ix4 ,,the ,,priesthood #bjj ,x4 ,,worship #bjh ,,xi4 ,,morals1 ,,law1 ,,and ,,purity #bda ,,xii4 ,,ceremonial #bfh ,,xiii4 ,,magic1 ,,divination1 ,,inspiration #cbg ,,xiv4 ,,decay ,,of ,,shinto4 ,,modern ,,sects #cei ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,page4 ,ohonamochi and his ,double #bh-bi ,the ,sun-,goddess issuing from the ,rock-,cave of ,heaven #ih-ii ,sun ,worship at the ,twin-,rocks of ,ise #acj-ca ,hohodemi at the ,court of ,toyotama-hiko #adi ,kedzurikake4 ,the one on the right is the ordinary form1 the other a special kind called ihaigi #aib ,oho-nusa4 7,from ,dr4 ,florenz's paper in the ,t4,a4,s4,j47 #bad ,gohei #bae ,ema 7,horse-picture7 #bbb ,mikoshi #bbd-be ,himorogi4 7,from the ,t4,a4,s4,j47 #bbf ,shrines of ,ise #bbi-cj ,toriwi #bcc ,chi no wa #bff-fg ,misogi1 or ,purification ,ceremony #bih-ii ,tsuina1 or ,expulsion of ,devils #caj-aa ,wayside ,shrines #cff ,,abbreviations4 ,ch4 ,k4--,mr4 ,b4 ,h4 ,chamberlain's translation of the ,kojiki4 ,nihongi4--,translation of the ,nihongi by ,w4 ,g4 ,aston4 ,t4,a4,s4,j4--,transactions of the ,asiatic ,society of ,japan4 ,,errata4 ,for ,welhausen1 note to p4 #aac1 read ,wellhausen4 ,for of1 p4 #ab1 l4 #ah1 read on4 ,p4 #cce1 l4 #bd1 read to do her behests4 ,,addenda4 ,add1 bottom of p4 #fj1 ,st4 ,augustine says1 in his ',civitas ,dei1' that funeral observances are rather solace to the living than help to the dead4 ,p4 #da1 line #be1 after deities insert a phrase which closely resembles the ',zembla ,bogh' used of the ,czar by ,russians4 ,p4 #ca1 add to first note1 ,the ,romans had an evil counterpart of ,jupiter1 viz41 ,vediovis or ,vejovis4 ,,preface4 ,as compared with the great religions of the world1 ,shinto1 the old ,kami cult of ,japan1 is decidedly rudimentary in its character4 ,its polytheism1 the want of a ,supreme ,deity1 the comparative absence of images and of a moral code1 its feeble personifications and hesitating grasp of the conception of spirit1 the practical non-recognition of a future state1 and the general absence of a deep1 earnest faith--all stamp it as perhaps the least developed of religions which have an adequate literary record4 ,still1 it is not a primitive cult4 ,it had an organized priesthood and an elaborate ritual4 ,the general civilization of the ,japanese when ,shinto assumed the form in which we know it had left the primitive stage far behind4 ,they were already an agricultural nation1 a circumstance by which ,shinto has been deeply influenced4 ,they had a settled government1 and possessed the arts of brewing1 making pottery1 building ships and bridges1 and working in metals4 ,it is not among such surroundings that we can expect to find a primitive form of religion4 ,the present treatise has two objects4 ,it is intended1 primarily and chiefly1 as a repertory of the more significant facts of ,shinto for the use of scientific students of religion4 ,it also comprises an outline theory of the origin and earlier stages of the development of religion1 prepared with special reference to the ,shinto evidence4 ,the subject is treated from a positive1 not from a negative or agnostic standpoint1 ,religion being regarded as a normal function1 not a disease1 of humanity4 ,this element of the work owes much to the continental scholars ,rville1 ,goblet ,d',alviella1 and ,pfleiderer4 ,in anthropological matters1 ,i have been much indebted to ,dr4 ,tylor's ',primitive ,culture' and ,mr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer's ',golden ,bough4' ,i should not omit to express my obligations to my friend ,mr4 ,j4 ,troup for assistance with the proofs and for a number of useful corrections and suggestions4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,materials ,,for ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,shinto4 ,prehistoric ,shinto4--,ethnologists are agreed that the predominant element of the ,japanese race came to ,japan by way of ,korea from that part of ,asia which lies north of ,china1 probably by a succession of immigrations which extended over many centuries4 ,it is useless to speculate as to what rudiments of religious belief the ancestors of the ,japanese race may have brought with them from their continental home4 ,sun-worship has long been a central feature of ,tartar religions1 as it is of ,shinto2 but such a coincidence proves nothing1 as this cult is universal among nations in the barbaric stage of civilization4 ,it is impossible to say whether or not an acquaintance with the old ,state religion of ,china--essentially a nature-worship--had an influence on the prehistoric development of ,shinto4 ,the circumstance that the ,sun was the chief deity of the latter and ,heaven of the former is adverse to this supposition4 ,nor is there anything in ,japan which corresponds with the ,shangti of the ancient ,chinese4 ,there are definite traces of a ,korean element in ,shinto4 ,a ,kara no ,kami 7,god of ,kara in ,korea7 was worshipped in the ,imperial ,palace4 ,there were numerous shrines in honour of ,kara-,kuni ,idate no ,kami4 ,susa no wo and ,futsunushi have ,korean associations4 ,until the beginning of the fifth century of our era1 writing was practically unknown in ,japan4 ,it is certain1 however1 that a considerable body of myth1 together with formal rituals1 was already in existence1 having been transmitted from generation to generation by the ,nakatomi and ,imbe1 two hereditary priestly corporations attached to the ,mikado's ,court4 ,we hear also of ,kataribe1 or corporations of reciters1 who were established in various provinces1 especially in ,idzumo1 a primaeval centre of ,shinto worship4 ,they are mentioned in the ,nihongi under the date ,a4,d4 #dfe1 and were still in existence in the fifteenth century4 ,unfortunately we know little about them beyond the circumstance that they attended at the capital1 and delivered their recitals of ancient words on the occasion of the ,mikado's coronation4 ,these must have helped to furnish material for the written mythical and quasi-historical narratives which have come down to us4 ,kojiki4--,the oldest of these is a work entitled the ,kojiki1 or ',records of ,ancient ,matters4' ,it was compiled by ,imperial order1 and completed in ,a4,d4 #gab4 ,the preface states that it was taken down from the lips of one ,hiyeda no ,are1 who had so wonderful a memory that he could repeat with his mouth whatever was placed before his eyes and record in his heart whatever struck his ears4 ,english readers may study this work in an accurate translation contributed by ,mr4 ,b4 ,h4 ,chamberlain to the ,transactions of the ,asiatic ,society of ,japan in #ahhb4 ,it is preceded by a valuable introduction4 ,nihongi4--,the mythical narrative of the ,nihongi1 or ',chronicles of ,japan1' also an official compilation 7,a4,d4 #gbj71 is not quite so full as that of the ,kojiki1 and it has the disadvantage of being composed in the ,chinese language4 ,but it has one feature of great interest4 ,the author1 or some nearly contemporary writer1 has added to the original text a number of variants of the current myths1 thus enabling us to correct any impression of uniformity or consistency which might be left by the perusal of the ,kojiki or ,nihongi alone4 ,these addenda show that there was then in existence a large body of frequently irreconcilable mythical material1 which these works are attempts to harmonize4 ,a translation of the ,nihongi by the present writer forms ,supplement ,i4 of the ,transactions of the ,japan ,society 7#ahif74 ,dr4 ,florenz's excellent ,german version of the mythical part of this work may also be consulted with advantage4 ,it has copious notes4 ,kiujiki4--,a third source of information respecting the mythical lore of ,japan is the ,kiujiki4 ,a work with this name was compiled ,a4,d4 #fbj1 i4e41 one hundred years before the ,nihongi1 but the book now known by that title has been condemned as a forgery by native critics4 ,their arguments1 however1 are not quite convincing4 ,the ,kiujiki is in any case a very old book1 and we may accept it provisionally as of equal authority with the ,kojiki and ,nihongi4 ,it contains little which is not also to be found in these two works4 ,unlike them1 the ,kiujiki makes no attempt to be consistent4 ,it is a mere jumble of mythical material1 distinct and conflicting versions of the same narrative being often dovetailed into one another in the most clumsy fashion4 ,it has not been translated4 ,idzumo ,fudoki4--,this work1 a topography of the province of ,idzumo1 was compiled about ,a4,d4 #gcc4 ,it contains a few mythical passages4 ,the ,kogoshiui was written in #hjg4 ,it adds a very little to the information contained in the ,kojiki and ,nihongi4 ,shjiroku4--,in this work1 which is a sort of peerage of ,japan 7#hae71 the descent of many of the noble families is traced from the deities of the ,shinto ,pantheon4 ,yengishiki4--,our principal source of information for the ceremonial of ,shinto is the ,yengishiki1 or ',institutes of the ,period ,yengi' 7#ija-ibc74 ,it gives a minute description of the official ,shinto ritual as then practised1 together with ,red ,snow ,algatwenty-seven of the principal prayers used in worship4 ,these prayers1 called norito1 were now1 so far as we know1 for the first time reduced to writing1 but many of them must be in substance several hundreds of years older4 ,some have been translated by ,sir ,ernest ,satow for the ,asiatic ,society of ,japan 7#ahgi-ha71 and the series is now being continued by ,dr4 ,karl ,florenz1 whose translation of the ,ohoharahi 7#ahii7 is a notable addition to the ,english reader's means of studying ,shinto4 ,moto3ori and ,hirata4--,the writings of the native scholars ,moto3ori1 ,hirata1 and others during the second half of the eighteenth century and the first half of the nineteenth are an indispensable source of information4 ,no part of this voluminous literature has been1 or is likely to be1 translated4 ,the ,english reader will find a good account of it in ,sir ,ernest ,satow's ',revival of ,pure ,shinto1' contributed to the ,transactions of the ,asiatic ,society of ,japan in #ahge4 ,by ,pure ,shinto is meant the ,shinto of the ,kojiki1 ,nihongi1 and ,yengishiki1 as opposed to the corrupt forms of this religion which sprang up under ,buddhist influence in later times4 ,the above-named works contain fairly ample materials for the study of the older ,shinto4 ,they have the advantage of showing us this religion as seen by the ,japanese themselves1 thus leaving no room for the introduction of those errors which so often arise from the unconscious importation of modern ,european and ,christian ideas into the accounts of other rudimentary cults4 ,it should be observed that it is the ,state religion to which these records chiefly relate4 ,of the popular beliefs and practices at this time we are told but little4 ,the ,nihongi1 and1 to a lesser extent1 the ,kojiki1 are somewhat influenced by ,chinese ideas2 but this element is generally recognizable4 ,buddhism was introduced into ,japan towards the middle of the sixth century1 and was widely propagated under the regency of ,shtoku ,daishi1 who died ,a4,d4 #fba2 but there is little or no trace of it in the older ,shinto4 ,for a long time there was a marked antagonism between the two religions which served to protect the latter from such adulteration4 ,the ,fzoku ,gwah1 a modern illustrated magazine1 is a rich store of information respecting modern ,shinto and the folk-lore and superstitions which are associated with it4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,general ,,features4--,,personification4 ,religion4--,religion1 a general term which includes all our relations to the ,divine1 is a cord of three strands1 namely1 ,emotion1 ,thought1 and ,conduct4 ,emotion comprises gratitude1 hope1 and fear4 ,thought yields conceptions and beliefs4 ,religious conduct consists in doing that which is pleasing to the superior powers1 and in refraining from acts which are thought to be offensive to them4 ,it includes worship1 purity1 and morality4 ,these elements of religion are inseparable4 ,emotion stimulates and sharpens the intellectual faculties1 which in turn provide fresh food for emotion4 ,each without the other is evanescent and barren4 ,nothing worthy of the name of religion is possible without a long succession of alternate moods of thought and feeling4 ,emotion and thought lead in all healthy minds to action of some sort4 ,man is impelled by his very nature to testify his gratitude to the powers on which he feels himself dependent1 to express his hopes of future blessings from them1 and to avoid acts which might offend them4 ,moreover1 as a social animal1 he is prompted to communicate his religious thoughts and feelings to his fellow men4 ,without such intercommunication1 no religion is possible4 ,no individual man ever evolved a religion out of his own inner consciousness alone4 ,emotional ,source of ,religion4--,the emotional basis of religion is gratitude1 love1 and hope1 rather than fear4 ,if life is worth living--and what sane man doubts it8--there are necessarily far more frequent occasions for the former than for the latter4 ,the statement of the old ,roman poet that ,primus in orbe ,deus fecit timor is untrue even of the ,greek and ,roman mythology to which he more particularly referred4 ,zeus1 the ,shining ,one1 the ,father of ,gods and ,men1 though he may occasionally destroy a wicked man with his thunder1 is loved rather than feared4 ,alma ,venus1 hominum divomque voluptas1 is not the offspring of our terrors4 ,nor is ,ceres1 ,bacchus1 ,here ,eileithuia1 or ,kora4 ,in ,mars1 by an exception the malignant quality predominates4 ,shinto is essentially a religion of gratitude and love4 ,the great ,gods1 such as the ,sun-,goddess and the ,deity of ,food1 are beneficent beings4 ,they are addressed as parents1 or dear divine ancestors1 and their festivals have a joyous character4#a ,an eighth-century poet says1 ,every living man may feast his eyes with tokens of their love4 ,the ,kogoshiui tells us that when the ,sun-,goddess emerged from her cave1 ,heaven above at length became clear1 and all people could see each other's faces distinctly4 ,they stretched forth their hands and danced and sang together1 exclaiming1 ',oh6 how delightful6 how pleasant6 how clear6' ,the ,nihongi says that on the same occasion all the ,gods rejoiced greatly4 ,have we not here a rudiment of the beatific vision which in its higher developments embraces not only the sunlight but all things in ,heaven and earth1 and hell itself1 founded1 as ,dante says1 by the primo ,amore8 ,even the boisterous ,rain-,storm ,god1 who of the ,dii ,majores most nearly approaches the type of an evil deity1 has his good points4 ,the demons of disease and calamity are for the most part obscure and nameless personages4 ,intellectual ,basis of ,religion4 ,the ,idea of ,god4--,a ,god may be defined as a sentient being possessed of superhuman power4 ,the phrase supernatural being1 which is sometimes used as equivalent to ,god1 is open to objection ,the word supernatural belongs to the vocabulary of a comparatively scientific age4 ,to the savage1 phenomena are ordinary or strange1 not natural or supernatural4 ,moreover1 there are many objects of worship which are not at all supernatural1 as1 for instance1 the sun4 ,spiritual being is insufficiently comprehensive as an equivalent for ,god4 ,the ,lama of ,tibet is a ,god2 but he is not a spiritual being4 ,neither is the ,wind nor the ,moon4 ,the assumption that ,gods are always spirits has been the source of much confusion4 ,kami4--,the most common and comprehensive word for deity in the ,japanese language is ,kami4 ,it is probably connected with kaburu1 to cover1 and has the general meaning of above1 superior4 ,kami is the part of ,japan which lies near the capital1 as opposed to ,shimo1 the lower country or provinces4 ,kaha-kami means the upper waters of a river4 ,kami no ke1 or simply kami1 is the hair of the head4 ,kami is applied not only to ,gods1 but to ,mikados and nobles4 ,the heads of ,state ,departments were at one time called ,kami1 and in later times this word became equivalent to our ,lord in territorial titles4 ,o ,kami is frequently said vaguely of the authorities1 while ,o ,kami ,san is the domestic authority1 namely1 the mistress4 ,whether ,kami is used of ,gods or men1 it is in both cases a secondary application of the general meaning upper4 ,the ,gods are ,kami because they reside in ,heaven 7superi1 caelicoli1 1 ,most ,high1 ,father in ,heaven72 men are ,kami on account of their higher rank4 ,no doubt both gain prestige by their association under the same title--the ,gods by a reflection from the pomp and ceremony which attend on mortal ,kami2 and men by assimilation with the transcendent power and glory of the great nature-deities4 ,why should height come to be everywhere associated with excellence and rank8 ,herbert ,spencer's characteristic contribution#b to the solution of this problem is as follows3 ,in battle it is important to get the force of gravity to fight on your side1 and hence the anxiety to seize a position above that of the foe4 ,conversely the combatant who is thrown down cannot further resist without struggling against his own weight as well as against his antagonist's strength4 ,hence being below is so habitually associated with defeat as to have made maintainance of this relation 7literally expressed by the words superior and inferior7 a leading element in ceremony at large4 ,to this it may be added that the upper part of the human body--namely1 the head--is also the most important and honourable4 ,chief is derived from caput3 capital1 as an adjective1 means excellent4 ,headman1 head-centre1 head and front of my offending1 are familiar phrases which involve the assumption of the superior importance of the head4 ,a ,japanese raises to his head a present or other object to which he wishes to show respect4 ,a further and decisive consideration is the circumstance that the most incomparably glorious1 excellent1 and majestic thing with which we are acquainted is also immeasurably the highest4 ,even pre-religious man cannot have been wholly insensible to the glory of the sky--hoc sublime candens--with its sun and moon1 its dawns and sunsets1 its clouds1 thunders1 and storms4 ,no wonder that the words heavenly and celestial have come to convey the idea of supreme excellence4 ,the following quotations will help us to realize more fully what the ,japanese mean by the word ,kami4 ,motori says3-- ,the term ,kami is applied in the first place to the various deities of ,heaven and ,earth who are mentioned in the ancient records as well as to their spirits 7mi-tama7 which reside in the shrines where they are worshipped4 ,moreover1 not only human beings1 but birds1 beasts1 plants and trees1 seas and mountains1 and all other things whatsoever which deserve to be dreaded and revered for the extraordinary and pre-eminent powers which they possess1 are called ,kami4 ,they need not be eminent for surpassing nobleness1 goodness1 or serviceableness alone4 ,malignant and uncanny beings are also called ,kami if only they are the objects of general dread4#c ,among ,kami who are human beings ,i need hardly mention first of all the successive ,mikados--with reverence be it spoken4444 ,then there have been numerous examples of divine human beings1 both in ancient and modern times1 who1 although not accepted by the nation generally1 are treated as gods1 each of his several dignity1 in a single province1 village1 or family4444 ,amongst ,kami who are not human beings ,i need hardly mention ,thunder in ,japanese ,naru kami or the ,sounding ,god4 ,there are also the ,dragon1 the ,echo called in ,japanese ,ko-dama or the ,tree ,spirit1 and the ,fox1 who are ,kami by reason of their uncanny and fearful natures4 ,the term ,kami is applied in the ,nihongi and ,manyshiu to the tiger and wolf4 ,izanagi gave to the fruit of the peach and to the jewels round his neck names which implied that they were ,kami4444 ,there are many cases of seas and mountains being called ,kami4 ,it is not their spirits which are meant4 ,the word was applied directly to the seas#d or mountains themselves as being very awful things4 ,hirata defines kami as a term which comprises all things strange1 wondrous1 and possessing isao or virtue4 ,a recent dictionary gives the following essentially modern definitions of this word 3-- ,kami4 #a4 ,something which has no form but is only spirit1 has unlimited supernatural power1 dispenses calamity and good fortune1 punishes crime and rewards virtue4 #b4 ,sovereigns of all times1 wise and virtuous men1 valorous and heroic persons whose spirits are prayed to after their death4 #c4 ,divine things which transcend human intellect4 #d4 ,the ,christian ,god1 ,creator1 ,supreme ,lord4 ,double ,current of ,religious ,thought4--,if we accept the definition of a ,god as a sentient being possessed of superhuman power1 it follows that the idea of ,god may be arrived at in two ways4 ,we may ascribe sense to those superhuman elemental powers of whose action we are daily witnesses1 or we may reverse this process and endow sentient beings1 especially men1 with powers which they do not actually possess4 ,in other words1 the idea of ,god may be arrived at either by personification or by deification4 ,strictly speaking1 the first of these processes is the only legitimate one4 ,the second involves the assumption that man may be or may become ,god4 ,but without questioning the reality of an intimate union of the human with the divine1 both in this world and the next1 it is better to maintain a clear distinction between these two terms4 ,ultimately1 after the errors of anthropomorphism1 polytheism1 and spiritism have been eliminated1 the two methods of arriving at the idea of ,god yield the substantially identical formulas3-- ,a4 ,god infinite power absolute humanity4 ,b4 ,god absolute humanity infinite power4 ,but in the stage of religious progress represented by ,shinto1 we are far indeed from such a result4 ,the priority of the second of these two processes has been assumed or contended for by many writers1 notably by ,herbert ,spencer4 ,others argue that there can be no deification until the idea of deity has somehow been arrived at previously1 as for example1 by the personification of natural powers4 ,it appears to me impossible to say which of the two comes first in order of time4 ,the germs of both may be observed at a stage of intellectual development prior to all religion4 ,children1 as we have all observed1 sometimes personify inanimate objects4 ,i have known a boy of three years of age complain that1 ,bad mustard did bite my tongue4 ,the baby who cries for the moon credits his nurse--ignorantly1 of course--with powers far transcending those of humanity4 ,the argument that there can be no deification without a previous acquaintance with the idea of deity loses sight of the circumstance that deity is a compound conception1 which combines the ideas of great power and sense4 ,of these two a man has sense already4 ,to make him a ,god all that is necessary is to ascribe to him transcendent power4 ,deification1 therefore1 does not necessarily imply a previous knowledge of the conception of deity4 ,in practice1 however1 men are usually deified by being raised to the level of already known deities4#e ,each of these two processes rests on a basis of truth4 ,the personification of natural objects and powers springs from some glimmering notion that the so-called inanimate world is really alive4 ,everything physical has its metaphysical counterpart4 ,there is no motion without something akin to sensation1 and no sensation without motion4 ,as all our sensations1 emotions1 and thoughts are accompanied by corresponding disturbances of the molecules of our brain and nervous system1 so all natural phenomena have associated with them something varying in quality and intensity1 for which our human language has no better word than sensation1 while along with the sum of the infinitely interwoven physical energies of the universe there goes what we1 in our imperfect speech1 must call emotion1 purpose1 thought4 ,ordinarily the lower animal1 the child1 the savage1 and the primitive man do not realize this truth4 ,under the pressure of imperious practical necessities they recognize with sufficient accuracy the difference between the animate and the inanimate4 ,they do not take the further step of seeing that there is animation in the so-called inanimate4 ,sense and volition are not habitually attributed by them to inanimate objects4 ,much less do they assume1 as we are sometimes told1 the presence in them of a conscious agent not visible to the senses4 ,there are1 however1 exceptions to this rule4 ,some of these are simple mistakes4 ,i have known a dog take a doll for a living person1 and only discover his error after close examination and long consideration4 ,a large stone-ware image of the ,buddhist ,saint ,daruma1 of stern aspect1 which stood in my garden in ,tki1 caused unmistakable alarm to stray dogs who unexpectedly found themselves face to face with it4 ,children sometimes beat inanimate objects by which they have been hurt1 and savages have been known to regard a watch as a living being4 ,a second exception is the case of conscious make-believe1 of which we may observe instances in the play of children1 and even of the lower animals4 ,errors and fancies of this kind do not constitute religion1 though they may prepare the way for it4 ,a time comes1 however1 when some savage or primitive man1 gifted beyond his fellows1 arrives at a partial and hesitating recognition of the truth that with the energies of nature there really goes something of the same kind that he is conscious of in himself1 and has learned to recognize in his fellow beings--namely1 sense and will4 ,he sees the sun move across the heavens1 diffusing light and warmth1 and says to himself1 ,he is alive4 ,with the intellectual perception there is associated emotion4 ,he feels that the sun is kind to him1 and bows his head as he would to his chief1 partly to express his thanks and partly in order that others may share his thoughts and feelings4 ,this is religion4 ,it comprises the three elements of thought1 emotion1 and action4 ,religion is at first exceptional4 ,every primitive man is not a seer or maker of religious myth4 ,his ordinary attitude towards the powers of nature is that of the ,chinaman1 who thought that the moon was all the same lamp pigeon4 ,he is an unconscious ,agnostic1 and knows nothing of volition in the inanimate world4 ,the deification of men1 although involving a contradiction in terms1 has yet a substantial and most important truth associated with it4 ,great captains1 wise rulers1 inspired poets1 sages and seers1 whether alive or dead1 deserve honour to which it is not easy to place a limit4 ,napoleon said that one of his generals was worth an army division4 ,who shall estimate the value to their respective races1 and1 indeed1 to humanity1 of such men as ,shakespeare1 ,confucius1 ,mahomet1 or ,buddha8 ,nor are they dead4 ,they live in their works1 and subjectively in the hearts and minds of their countrymen4 ,and may we not go a step further8 ,our actions1 even the most insignificant1 do not remain locked up in ourselves4 ,as by sensation the whole universe affects us1 so does every impulse of our ego react upon the universe1 leaving an impression which is indelible4 ,the physical world is different for the most trifling act of the meanest human being that ever lived4 ,all our emotions and thoughts have a counterpart in our physical constitution1 which is resolvable into motion1 and is therefore indestructible4 ,the doctrine of the conservation of energy is the physical counterpart of the doctrine of the immortality of the soul4 ,each involves the other4 ,assuming1 therefore1 that all motion is accompanied by something akin to sensation1 it will be seen that dead men may continue to have perhaps even a sentient existence equal to the sum of the reactions of their ego upon its environment1 animate or inanimate1 during life4 ,it is the remembered total energies of the man which1 ,i take it1 form the object of honour and worship after he is dead1 and not his corpse or ghost4 ,the latter is a mere accident1 of secondary origin1 and is by no means universally recognized4 ,in justification of man-worship1 it may also be pleaded that if the nature-deity is truer1 the man-deity is nearer to us and more capable of vivid realization4 ,and as it is from the sympathetic recognition of life in our fellow men that we proceed to the recognition of life in the so-called inanimate universe1 so it is by the contemplation of the highest types of humanity that we are able to refine and exalt our conception of divinity4 ,the two great sources of religious thought1 personification and deification1 are constantly intermingling their streams and reacting upon each other4 ,a deity who begins his career as a ,nature-,god often in course of time loses this quality1 and becomes hardly distinguishable from a magnified man4 ,the ,zeus of ,homer is an example4 ,he is much more the ,father of ,gods and men than a ,sky or ,weather-,god4 ,in ,japan it is only the scholar who recognizes in ,susa no wo the deity of the ,rain-storm4 ,to the people even ,tenshdaijin 7the ,sun ,goddess7 is nothing more than the great providential deity who resides at ,ise4 ,her solar quality is practically forgotten4 ,men1 on the other hand1 may be exalted to such a height by the ascription to them of nature-powers that their original humanity is much obscured4 ,it is sometimes difficult to determine to which of the two currents of religious thought a particular deity belongs4 ,for example1 we find a sword worshipped as a deity4 ,is it on account of its wonderful cutting property1 or because it was once an offering to a nature or a man-deity1 and had therefore at length absorbed to itself a portion of his divinity8 ,or is it the ,excalibur of some forgotten deified chieftain8 ,there is no general answer to such questions4 ,they must be decided1 if at all1 by the evidence in each case4 ,to call objects of this kind fetishes helps us nothing4 ,in the ,yengishiki we find mention of a shrine to ,iha no hime 7the lady of the rock74 ,at first sight this looks like a ,nature-,god4 ,but when we find that an ,iha no hime was the mother of the ,mikado ,richiu 7end of fourth century7 it seems more probable that the ,iha no hime of this shrine was a deified mortal4 ,in ,shinto it is the first of the two great currents of religious thought with which we are chiefly concerned4 ,it is based much more on the conception--fragmentary1 shallow1 and imperfect as it is--of the universe as sentient than on the recognition of pre-eminent qualities in human beings1 alive or dead4 ,it springs primarily from gratitude to--and1 though in a less degree1 fear of--the great natural powers on which our existence depends4 ,the desire to commemorate the virtues and services of great men and to perpetuate a loving remembrance of departed parents and forefathers takes a secondary place4 ,classification of ,deities4--,both ,nature-,gods and ,man-,gods may be deities of individuals1 of classes1 or of abstract qualities4 ,we have1 therefore1 six classes of ,gods1 as follows3-- ,nature-,gods4 ,individuals1 as the ,sun4 ,classes1 as the ,god of ,trees4 ,properties1 as the ,god of ,growth4 ,man-,gods4 ,individuals1 as ,temmangu4 ,classes1 as ,koyane4 ,properties1 as ,ta-jikara no wo 7,hand-strength-male74 ,this is the logical sequence2 but it by no means follows that all ,gods of individuals precede all ,gods of classes1 or that there were no deities of abstractions before some of the later individual or class deities were evolved4 ,the distinction between individual objects deified and deities of classes is not always well maintained in ,shinto4 ,it is doubtful1 for example1 whether ,kamado no ,kami is the ,god of all cooking furnaces1 or whether there is a separate ,god for each4 ,different worshippers might give different answers4 ,the habitual neglect by the ,japanese nation of the grammatical distinction between singular and plural is a potent obstacle to clearness in such matters4 ,phases of ,conception4--,the conception of individual parts of the universe as deities passes through the phases represented in the following formulas3-- ,i4 ,the ,sun 7,moon1 ,wind1 ,sea1 c47 is alive4 ,,ii4 ,the ,sun is a man1 a father1 a chief or a king--first rhetorically1 and then literally4 ,,iii4 ,the ,sun is a material object1 ruled by an unseen but not incorporeal being with human form and passions4 ,,iv4 ,the ,sun is 7a7 a material object ruled by an anthropomorphic being which has a spiritual double1 or 7b7is animated by a spiritual being4 ,these formulas exhibit the logical sequence of development4 ,in practice the various phases are found to overlap one another considerably4 ,even in the latest ,shinto the direct conception of the natural object as alive is not forgotten4 ,the first stage1#f in which we have the religious conception before it is clothed in myth or metaphor1 is abundantly exemplified in ,shinto4 ,a well1 for example1 is1 like ,horace's ,fons ,bandusi1 worshipped without name or myth attached to it1 or anything to show whether it is regarded as male or female4 ,the same is the case with sites1 buildings1 provinces1 trees1 all of which are deified and have religious rites in their honour without any very definite personality being attributed to them4 ,they are simply thought of as in some sort of way living things4 ,mud and sand are dubbed ,kami1 and there the personification ends4 ,there are a good many colourless deities of this kind in ,shinto4 ,motori declares explicitly that when a sea or a mountain is called ,kami1 it is not the spirit of the sea or mountain which is meant1 but the sea or mountain itself4 ,a poet of the ,manyoshiu says of ,fujiyama3-- ,of ,yamato1 the ,land of ,sunrise1 ,it is the peace-giver1 it is the ,god1 ,it is the treasure4 ,when a kitchen wench at the present day speaks of the ,hettsui-sama--sama is a honorific and personifying word--she means the cooking-furnace itself regarded as a ,god1 not a spirit inhabiting it4 ,she will even speak of the plasterer making a ,hettsui-sama4 ,the second or anthropomorphic stage of the development of the idea of ,god arises out of the rhetorical necessity of rendering more vivid1 even at the expense of exact truth1 the presentation of the conception of the powers of nature as living things4 ,finding that the bare assertion that they are alive produces little impression1 the poet or seer goes a step further1 and boldly ascribes to them human form1 passions1 actions1 and character4 ,myth and metaphor are his instruments4 ,the ,god has bodily parts1 parents1 sex1 and children4 ,he eats1 drinks1 is angry or alarmed1 loves1 fights1 weaves1 cultivates the ground1 fishes1 hunts1 and dies4 ,with the advance of social organization he is a chief or a king4 ,sometimes in these metaphors we can trace a special application to the deity's natural functions4 ,sometimes they are introduced merely for general effect4 ,the results of this process for good and for evil are written large in the pages of human history4 ,it is1 on the one hand1 the indispensable means by which the high intuitions of the seer are brought home1 more or less imperfectly1 to the multitude4 ,on the other hand1 the true original nature divinity is often lost sight of in a profusion of anthropomorphic fancies1 and nothing is left but a magnified man1 whose ultimate fate it is to be disavowed by advancing knowledge and enlightenment4 ,it has been said that the primitive man knows no distinction between fancy and reality4 ,in truth1 life would be impossible for such a simpleton4 ,however primitive he may be1 he cannot hold a fire in his hand by thinking of the frosty ,caucasus4 ,the difference between a real dinner and an imaginary one is palpable even to his limited intelligence4 ,the hunter who could not distinguish between the game of his imagination and the reality could never earn a living4 ,he would be fit only for an imbecile asylum4 ,the child is well aware that his mud pies are not fit to eat4 ,the savage woman who pretends to herself that a stone is her lost baby1 knows in her heart that this is nothing more than make-believe4 ,even a dog appreciates the distinction between a real rat and the object which it pleases him to fancy one1 and worries accordingly4 ,the seer is conscious that his anthropomorphic language is only metaphorical4 ,dante felt this when he said3-- ,per questo la ,scrittura condescende ,a nostra facultate e piedi e mano ,attribuisce a ,dio ed altro intende4 ,metaphor is of the very essence of myth4 ,but the literal-minded vulgar are at all times prone to confound the altro which is clothed in myth and metaphor with its outward husk1 and the literal-minded scholar or scientific man is often little better4 ,hirata says that what we call kami are all men4 ,even among men those who are excellent are called kami4 ,the natural difference between men and ,gods is that the ,gods are high and men are low1 owing to the greater care taken by the creator deities in producing the former4 ,he thinks that the ,shinto deities are about ten feet high4 ,the humanization of the nature deities is reflected in the vocabulary of ,shinto4 ,the term mioya1 or august parent1 is frequently used of them4 ,tsuchi or tsutsu1 old forms of chichi1 father1 occurs in the names of several4 ,it is primarily by no means physical fatherhood which is meant in such cases1 although there are no doubt vulgar minds who are unable to rise above this conception and have thereby done much to corrupt religion4 ,in ,western religions a ,god must be either male or female4 ,the grammatical structure of their languages compels ,europeans to say either he or she in speaking of deities4 ,in ,japan this necessity does not exist4 ,the forms of ,japanese speech take little account of sex4 ,many ,shinto deities have no sex at all4 ,in others sex is indicated by the incidents of the myth or by the additions of such terminations as wo male1 me female4 ,there are several pairs of married deities4 ,in art1 sex is comparatively little distinguished in ,japan4 ,the reason for attributing one sex to a deity rather than the other is not always evident4 ,provinces and mountains are sometimes male and sometimes female4 ,the ,food ,goddess is naturally feminine1 as representing the productive principle of nature1 and perhaps also because cooking is the business of women4 ,the male sex is more suitable to ,susa no wo's violent character as the ,rain-storm4 ,warlike gods like ,hachiman are naturally masculine4 ,the chieftain conception of divinity is represented by the use of the word wo1 male1 i4e41 virile or valiant one1 in many of the names of deities1 and by the ascription to some of warlike qualities4 ,there is nothing to show that these are deified chieftains4 ,on the contrary1 the term wo is applied1 like tsuchi1 father1 to what are unmistakably nature deities1 such as the ,sea-,gods ,soko-tsutsu-wo 7bottom-father-male7 ,naka-tsutsu-wo 7middle-father-male71 and ,uwa-tsutsu-wo 7upper-father-male71 produced by the lustrations of ,izanagi in the sea after his return from ,yomi4 ,tohe1 another word for chieftain1 occurs in the name of the ,wind-,god1 ,shina tsu tohe4 ,nushi1 master1 is found in the names of several deities4 ,the application to the ,shinto deities of words implying sovereignty is illustrated by sube or sume1 which enters into a number of compounds relating to the ,gods or ,mikados4 ,this word means to collect together into one1 and hence to hold general rule over4 ,sumera or sumeragi no mikoto is the ,mikado4 ,several deities enjoy the honorary epithet of ,sume-gami1 or ,subera-gami4 ,mi-koto1 august thing1 is also applied equally to ,gods and ,mikados1 and in ancient times even to parents4 ,it is nearly equivalent to our majesty4 ,wake1 a branch1 that is to say1 a branch of the imperial family1 a prince1 is applied to deities4 ,hiko and hime occur frequently in the names of gods4 ,these words mean literally sun-child and sun-female1 but in practice they are equivalent to prince and princess1 or lord and lady4 ,in the history of these words one may observe the operation of both of the great currents of deity-forming thought4 ,hi1 sun1 is used as an epithet for the glorification of human personages1 and the compounds hiko and hime are in turn applied to nature powers as a personifying term4 ,the ,wind-,god is a hiko4 ,the rhetorical impulse to realize in its various phases the human character of the nature deities of ,shinto has produced a number of subsidiary personages1 who are attached to them as wives1 children1 ministers1 or attendants4 ,some of these are also nature deities4 ,in others we find a union of the two deity-making tendencies4 ,thus ,koyane1 by the circumstance of his descent from ,musubi1 the ,god of ,growth1 and by his position of high-priest to the ,sun-,goddess1 belongs to the category of nature deities1 while as an embodiment of the collective humanity of the ,nakatomi sacerdotal corporation1 whose ancestor he is feigned to be1 he belongs to the class of deified human beings4 ,in ,japan1 the myth and metaphor-making faculty--in other words the imagination--though prolific enough1 is comparatively feeble4 ,the ancient ,japanese especially were appreciably more neglectful than ,western races of the distinction between the animate and the inanimate1 and there was therefore less scope for the play of fancy in which religious personification consists4 ,like other ,far-,eastern peoples1 they realized the personal conception of deity with less intensity than the ,aryan or ,semitic nations4 ,in this respect ,homer and the ,bible stand at the opposite pole from ,confucius1 whose ,tien has as little about it of humanity as is possible for a being who is said to know1 to command1 to reward1 and to punish4 ,shinto approaches ,confucianism in this respect4 ,there is1 no doubt1 a profuse creation of personified nature-deities1 but we find on examination that they are shadowy personages with ill-defined functions and characters wanting in consistency4 ,moreover1 owing to the neglect by the ,japanese of grammatical forms indicating number1 it is frequently hard to tell whether a given name is that of one deity or of several4 ,musubi1 the ,god of ,growth1 is sometimes one ,god1 sometimes two1 while at a later period he became split up into five or more deities4 ,the ,wind-,god is at one time a single deity1 at another a married couple4 ,susa no wo has in recent times been made into a trinity4 ,such fissiparous reproduction of deities is characteristic of a low degree of organization4#g ,to meet the difficulties arising from this state of things ,motori1 in the eighteenth century1 propounded his theory of bun-shin1 or fractional bodies1 which may remind us of the three persons and one substance of ,christian theology4 ,hirata1 his pupil1 speaking of the three ,sea-deities1 ,uha tsutsu no wo1 ,naka tsutsu no wo1 and ,soko tsutsu no wo1 says3 ,this deity1 although1 strictly speaking1 born as three deities1 is described as though one deity were present4 ,this is to be understood of the ,god dividing his person and again uniting it4 ,the descent of the ,adzumi no ,muraji 7a noble family7 from him shows that in this respect he is to be regarded as one4 ,the circumstance that many of the ,gods1 like the ,japanese themselves1 have numerous aliases1 adds to the uncertainty4 ,the nomina and the numina do not invariably go together4 ,there is sometimes reason to suspect that it is the same ,god who appears under different names1 while1 on the other hand1 the same name may cover what are in reality two or more different deities4 ,there were no arts of sculpture or painting in ,japan before their introduction from ,china in historical times1 and the consequent want of images and pictures for which ,shinto has been commended must have contributed materially to prevent the ,gods from acquiring distinct personalities like those of ancient ,greece4 ,the feeble grasp of personality indicated by the above facts is profoundly characteristic of the ,japanese genius4 ,it is illustrated by their unimaginative literature1 which makes but sparing use of personification1 allegory1 and metaphor1 by their drama1 with its late and imperfect development1 and by their art1 which has produced little monumental sculpture or portrait painting of importance4 ,it may also be traced in the grammar1 which has practically no gender1 thus showing that the ,japanese mind is comparatively careless of marking the distinction between animate and inanimate and male and female4 ,the law takes far less cognizance of the individual and more of the family than with us4 ,another fact of the same order is the neglect of distinctions of person shown by the sparing use of personal and other pronouns4 ,in a passage translated from ,japanese into ,english1 without any intention of illustrating this fact1 there occur only six pronouns in the former against nearly one hundred in the latter4 ,the verb has no person4 ,yuku for example1 means equally ,i go1 thou goest1 he goes1 we go1 you go1 and they go4 ,it is true that person may be indicated by the use of honorifics to mark the second person and humble forms for the first1 but even when these are taken into account1 the absence from ,japanese of indications of person is very remarkable4 ,herbert ,spencer1 in his ',principles of ,sociology1' suggests that the comparative fewness of personal pronouns in the languages of the ,far ,east is owing to the circumstance that they establish with the individual addressed a relation too immediate to be allowed where distance is to be maintained4 ,now1 not only is it possible1 and even common1 for pronouns to be used for the express purpose of magnifying the distance between the speaker and the person whom he addresses1 as in the case of the ,german er when used as a pronoun of the second person1 but ,spencer's explanation does not meet the case of pronouns of the third person1 which are just as rare in these languages as those of the first and second4 ,nor is there anything in the relations between men of high and low degree in these countries which is so radically different from those which have prevailed in ,europe as to produce such a far-reaching difference in the language of all classes of society4 ,the truth is that these nations do not avoid pronouns4 ,their minds are still in a stage of development in which they have not yet realized the advantages in clearness of expression which are to be gained by a more systematic distribution of their ideas into the three categories of first1 second1 and third person4 ,it is with them not a matter of etiquette1 but of poverty of imagination1 that power which1 as ,mr4 ,p4 ,lowell has remarked1 is to the mental development what spontaneous variation is to organic development4#h ,in ,stages ,i4 and ,,ii4 of the evolution of nature-deities1 it is the nature power or object itself which is the deity4 ,stage ,,ii4 7,anthropomorphism71 so long as it is not meant literally1 is not inconsistent with a direct worship of natural objects and phenomena4 ,but the vulgar are always prone to mistake metaphor for reality4 ,when they are told that the ,sun is a goddess1 who walks1 weaves1 wears armour1 sows rice1 and so on1 they take these statements literally1 combining an implicit belief in them with the worship of the ,sun itself4 ,even ,motori says that it is the actual ,sun in ,heaven which we worship as ,amaterasu no ,oho-,kami 7the ,heaven-shining-great ,deity71 while he believes at the same time that the ,sun-myth of the ,kojiki is real history4 ,a time comes when it is objected that the ,sun has no arms or legs necessary for the performance of the actions attributed to her4 ,it is pointed out that the wind has no bodily form at all4 ,instead of going back to the true explanation--that these things are only metaphorical1 the literal-minded man prefers to accept the suggestion 7which brings us to ,stage ,,iii47 that the deity is not the actual sun1 or wind1 or sea1 or mountain1 but a powerful being who rules it4 ,such beings1 however1 are not at first conceived of as in any way incorporeal4 ,there is considerable confusion observable in ,shinto between ,stages ,i4 and ,,ii4 and ,stage ,,iii4 ,we have seen that ,motori identified ,ama-terasu with the ,sun4 ,his pupil ,hirata1 on the other hand1 says that the ,sun-,goddess was born on earth1 and was sent up to ,heaven as ,ruler of the ,sun4 ,and while it is true that a sea may be directly called ,kami1 we have also a ,sea-,god1 ,toyotama-hiko1 who is as clearly distinguished from the physical ocean as ,neptune is4 ,this fluctuation is common to all mythologies4 ,greek literature is full of examples of reverence paid at one time to natural objects and phenomena1 and at another to deities which rule them4 ,they adored ,apollo as well as ,helios4 ,muir1 in the introduction to vol4 v4 of his ',sanskrit ,texts1' says3--,the same visible object was at different times regarded diversely as being either a portion of the inanimate universe1 or an animated being and a cosmical power4 ,thus in the ,vedic hymns1 the sun1 the sky1 and the earth are severally considered1 sometimes as natural objects governed by particular gods1 and sometimes as themselves gods who generate and control other beings4 ,our own poets are not a whit disturbed by such inconsistencies4 ,in ',paradise ,lost' the ,sun is apostrophized in one place as the ,god of this new world1 while in another passage of the same poem we have a ,uriel1 ,regent of the ,sun4 ,shakespeare1 in the ',tempest1' puts into the mouth of an anthropomorphic ,iris the words3-- ,the ,queen of the ,sky1 ,whose watery arch and messenger am ,i4 ,spiritism4--,we now come to ,stage ,,iv41 or spiritism4 ,the great and obvious difficulties connected with the anthropomorphic conception of deity1 even in the modified form of a belief in corporeal beings detached from natural phenomena1 led to spiritism1 which may be defined as a partial or complete negation of the material properties of the ,gods4 ,spiritism is therefore far from being a primitive religious development1 as is so often supposed4 ,primitive man1 it has been said1 thinks that the world is pervaded by spiritual forces4 ,i would rather describe his mental attitude as a piecemeal conception of the universe as alive1 just as he looks on his fellow man as alive without analyzing him into the two distinct entities of body and soul4 ,a dog knows quite well the difference between alive and dead2 but the distinction between body and soul is far beyond his intellectual capacity4 ,in ,japan the process of spiritualizing the ,gods has not gone very far4 ,like the ,gods of the ,homeric ,olympus1#i the ,shinto deities are1 on the whole1 unspiritual beings4 ,the doctrine of spiritism is associated in ,shinto with the word ,mitama1 for which spirit is the nearest ,english equivalent4 ,strictly speaking1 the ,mitama is not the ,god1 but an emanation or effluence from him1 which inhabits his temple1 and is the vehicle of his action at a distance from the place where he himself resides4 ,it therefore corresponds to the ,shekinah 7that which dwells7 of the ,jews1 and1 though in a less marked degree1 to the ,roman numen4 ,the ,shekinah1 like the ,mitama1 is a later development4 ,where ,habakkuk1 ii4 #bj1 says1 ,the ,lord is in his holy temple1 the ,targums have1 ,jehovah was pleased to cause his ,shekinah to dwell in his holy temple4 ,i cannot see that the ,shekinah and ,mitama owe anything to the analogous doctrine of the separability of the human soul and body4 ,the ghost is not the parent of either4#aj ,the unavoidable assumption that an anthropomorphic ,god can act at a distance from his own abode in ,heaven or elsewhere really involves the doctrine of spiritism1 though time and thought are required for its development4 ,it is clearly not the ,sun-,goddess herself who lives in ,ise4 ,her true place is in ,heaven2 but she is present in some way on earth1 as is proved by her answering the prayers which are addressed to her at her shrine4 ,the explanation which is ultimately forthcoming is that it is the ,mitama1 or spirit1 of the ,goddess which resides there4 ,we have here a foreshadowing of the doctrine of the omnipresence of deity4 ,the etymology of the word ,mitama will repay examination4 ,mi is simply a honorific prefix4 ,tama contains the root of the verb tabu1 to give1 more often met with in its lengthened form tamafu4 ,tama retains its original signification in tama-mono1 a gift thing1 and toshi-dama1 a new year's present4 ,tama next means something valuable1 as a jewel4 ,then1 as jewels are mostly globular in shape1 it has come to mean anything round4 ,at the same time1 owing to its precious quality1 it is used symbolically for the sacred emanation from the ,god which dwells in his shrine1 and also for that most precious thing1 the human life or soul4#aa ,the meaning of tama is illustrated by the following story1 which is related in the ,nihongi of ,ohonamochi1 the ,creator or ,kosmos-deity of ,idzumo myth3-- ,coming at last to the province of ,idzumo1 he spake and said2 ',this ,central ,land of ,reed-plains had been always waste and wild4 ,the very rocks1 trees1 and herbs were all given to violence4 ,but ,i have now reduced them to submission1 and there is none that is not compliant6' ,therefore he said finally3 ',it is ,i1 and ,i alone1 who now govern this land4 ,is there perchance any one who could join with me in governing the world8' ,upon this a divine radiance#ab illuminated the sea1 and of a sudden there was something which floated towards him and said3 ',were ,i not here1 how couldst thou subdue this land8 ,it is because of my presence that thou hast been able to accomplish this mighty task6 ',who art thou8' asked ,ohonamochi4 ,it replied and said3 ',i am thy spirit 7tama7 of good luck1 the wondrous spirit4' ,then said ,ohonamochi3 ',true2 ,i know1 therefore1 that thou art my spirit 7tama7 of good luck1 the wondrous spirit4 ,where dost thou now wish to dwell8' ,the spirit answered and said3 ',i wish to dwell on ,mount ,mimoro1 in the province of ,yamato4' ,accordingly he built a shrine in that place and made the spirit to go and dwell there4 ,this is the ,god of ,oho-miwa4 ,illustration ,illustration ,the distinction between the ,god and his spiritual double so clearly indicated in this extract is often neglected and the deity of ,miwa spoken of simply as ,ohonamochi4 ,the same uncertainty as to the spiritual character of the ,god is reflected in his names ,oho-kuni-nushi 7great-country-master7 and ,oho-kuni-dama 7great-country-spirit71 and in a legend told of him in the ,kojiki1 where he is corporeal enough to have a child by a mortal woman and yet sufficiently spiritual to pass through a keyhole4 ,in the ,idzumo ,fudoki1 ,susa no wo speaks of the village of ,susa as the place where his mitama was settled1 that is to say1 where a shrine was dedicated to him4 ,the ,nihongi states that ,izanami's mitama was worshipped at ,kumano with music and offerings of flowers4 ,in a modern book the ,hi no mitama 7spirit of the ,sun7 is not the ,sun-,goddess1 but a separate deity of a lower class4 ,the element tama enters into the names of several deities4 ,the ,food-,goddess is called either ,ukemochi no ,kami or ,uka no mitama4#ac ,but the meaning spirit is not applicable in every case in which a ,god's name contains this element4 ,futo-dama1 for example1 the name of the supposed ancestor of the ,imbe priestly corporation1 probably means great gift or offering4 ,yorodzu-dama no ,kami is not the ,god of ten thousand spirits1 but the ,god of ten thousand offerings4 ,it is a curious circumstance that in later times the mitama par excellence were the phallic ,sahe no ,kami4 ,their festival was formerly called the mitama matsuri4 ,it is now known by the ,chinese equivalent ,goriye4 ,in a few cases the mitama is in duplicate1 a nigi-mitama1 or gentle spirit1 and an ara-mitama1 or rough spirit4#ad ,in the ,idzumo ,fudoki a man who is praying for revenge calls upon the nigi-tama of the ,oho-kami 7great deity7 to remain quiet1 and asks the ara-tama to attend to his petition4 ,the legendary ,empress ,jingo was attended on her expedition to ,korea by two such sea-god mitama1 one to guard her person1 the other to lead the van of her army4 ,but we hear little of this distinction in the older records4 ,the aragami-matsuri 7rough-,god-festival7 of later days was a sort of saturnalia when license was permitted to servants4 ,the ,kojiki and ,nihongi do not theorize about the mitama4 ,hirata's statement that they do not distinguish between the utsushi-mi-mi 7real-august-body7#ae and the mitama of the ,gods is1 as the case of ,ohonamochi shows1 not quite correct4 ,but there is much foundation for it4 ,in one myth1 for example1 the ,sun-,goddess in handing over the divine mirror to ,ninigi1 enjoins on him to regard it as her mitama1 and in another version of the story to look upon it as herself4 ,another indication of an advance towards spirituality in the older ,shinto literature is the distinction which is made between araha-goto 7public things7 and kakure-goto 7hidden things71 the former term being applied to temporal and the latter to spiritual matters1 namely1 the service of the unseen ,gods4 ,mystery is not the vital element of religion4 ,it depends on what we know1 not on what we do not know4 ,still1 there perhaps never was a religion which did not betray some feeling that what we know is only an infinitesimal portion of that infinite sum of knowledge for which mankind is possessed with an eternal yearning4 ,religion1 though not based in mystery1 must always proceed1 like other knowledge1 from the known towards the unknown4 ,a good deal1 however1 that is mysterious in religion is of our own making4 ,hirata1 when he can find no way out of the difficulties arising from his crude1 literal-minded anthropomorphism1 constantly resorts to the time-honoured expedient of declaring his problems mysteries which transcend human intelligence1 exclaiming1 ,oh6 how wonderful6 ,oh6 how strange6 ,oh6 how strange6 ,oh6 how wonderful6 ,motori and ,hirata account for the invisibility of such ,gods as ,musubi1 the ,god of ,growth1 by the theory that since the ,age of the ,gods they have removed further from the earth1 so that they are now beyond the scope of human vision4 ,in other respects1 however1 they have1 under unacknowledged ,chinese influence1 greatly developed the hints of the spiritual nature of the ,gods which are found in the ,kojiki and ,nihongi4 ,of the mitama1 ,motori says#af3-- ,in general1 when such or such a ,god is mentioned in the old scriptures1 we must distinguish between the real ,god and his mitama4 ,the real ,god is his actual body2 the mitama is his divine spirit3 the mitama-shiro 7spirit-token7 is the thing1 be it a mirror or aught else1 to which the divine spirit attaches itself4 ,it is commonly called the ,shintai 7,god-body74 ,now both the real body and the spirit are spoken of simply as the ,god4 ,thus when we are told that ,amaterasu no ,ohokami was entrusted to ,toyo-suki-iri-bime and ,yamato no ,oho-kuni-dama to ,nunaki-iri-bime1 it is not to be supposed that the real bodies of these two deities were in the ,imperial ,palace4 ,it is unquestionably their mitama-shiro which are spoken of as if they were the real bodies4444 ,again1 when we are told in the history of the same reign that the ,mikado assembled the eighty myriads of ,gods on the plain of ,kami-asachi and inquired of them by divination1 this is not like the assembly in the divine age of the real ,gods in the ,plain of ,high ,heaven4 ,the invitation is to their mitama4 ,the same writer says that of the attendant deities who came down from ,heaven with ,ninigi1 some came in their real bodies1 some as mitama4 ,among the former he naturally classes all those who are represented as having human descendants4 ,hirata regards this as a discovery which will endure to all ages4 ,the following quotation from ,hirata's ,koshiden 7vi4 #i7 illustrates further the ideas of this school of theology regarding the spiritual nature of the ,gods3-- ,both this ,god7,chigaheshi7 and ,kunado#ag were produced by the great mitama of the great ,god ,izanagi applying itself earnestly to preventing the entrance into this world of the things coming furiously from the ,land of ,yomi1 and which accordingly became separated from him and adhered to a staff and a stone4 ,remaining there1 it 7the mitama7 did good service in both cases4 ,these ,gods1 moreover1 sometimes reveal their real bodies and dispense blessings4 ,this may not be doubted4 ,we find below that ,kunado no ,kami acted as a guide to ,futsunushi2 and that ,chigaheshi no ,oho-,kami was two deities distinguished as hiko and hime 7prince and princess74 ,hirata thinks that ,gods 7and men too7 have two doubles1 the nigi-tama and an aratama mentioned above4 ,these he distinguishes from the ,zentai no mitama1 or spirit of the entire body4 ,but he admits that these distinctions are not recognized in the old ,shinto4 ,there is no limit to the subdivision of the mitama4 ,hirata explains that the deity is like a fire1 which may be communicated to a lamp or to firewood while the original fire remains the same4 ,but the world knows not this4 ,in other words1 this is a philosophic refinement too subtle for the popular taste4 ,while the old records rarely distinguish between the ,god's real body and his mitama1 in later times the mitama is often confounded with the mitama-shiro 7spirit-token71 or shintai 7god-body7 as the concrete representative of the ,god is called4 ,even in the ,nihongi there is a case in which a sword is called ,futsu no mitama4 ,the ,kiujiki calls the mirror of the ,sun-,goddess her mitama4 ,the ,shinto ,mimoku 7#afii7 says that ,futsu no mitama is the sword of the great deity of ,kashima1 and speaks of the ,toyo-uka no mitama 7the ,food-spirit7 as being1 or residing in1 a stone4 ,hirata himself calls a stone idol the mitama of the ,god1 and speaks of the ,sun-,goddess's mitama as going backward and forward between ,ise and the sky4 ,the unspiritual vulgar naturally find it hard to distinguish between the spirit of the ,god and its concrete representative4 ,the doctrine of the separability of the human body and soul1 and of the continued existence of the latter after death1 whether in a material or semi-material form1 or as a pure spirit1 may have been a factor in the spiritualizing of the cruder anthropomorphic conceptions of deity4 ,but there is little or no evidence to this effect in the old ,shinto scriptures1 and the above pages show that other important influences were at work in producing this result4 ,whether the idea of ,god had its origin in the doctrine of separable human souls is a question which may be left to the discerning reader's judgment4 ,gods of ,classes and ,qualities4--,no language is possible without some exercise of the powers of generalization and abstraction4 ,in ,japanese1 however1 we miss many of the more general1 and especially of the more abstract1 conceptions embodied in ,european languages1 a circumstance which limits the scope of the personifying faculty1 none too vigorous in itself4 ,supposing that we take the series of conceptions beginning with the concrete individual tree1 and passing through evergreen oak1 oak1 tree1 and vegetable1 to the definitive generalization of the universe4 ,the ,japanese language has no word for vegetable except smoku1 a recent compound of ,chinese origin4 ,the word for universe is ,ame-tsuchi 7,heaven earth7 which is almost certainly a translation of the ,chinese ten-chi4 ,the consequence is that neither the class of vegetables nor the universe is recognized in the ,japanese scheme of nature-deities4 ,individual trees are deified1 and there is a ,god of trees1 but that is all4 ,the neglect of grammatical number in the ,japanese language often obscures the distinction between the ,gods of individual objects and of classes4 ,ki no ,kami means equally the ,god of the tree and the ,god of trees4#ah ,there is a marked poverty of abstract terms in the ,japanese language1 and the personification of abstract qualities is correspondingly restricted4 ,there is scarcely anything in ,shinto to compare with the numerous personified abstractions of ,greek and ,roman mythology4 ,izanagi and ,izanami1 embodiments of the creative or generative powers of nature1 are probably not originally ,japanese1 but an echo of the ,yin and ,yang of ,chinese philosophy4 ,i have a suspicion that ,musubi1 the ,god of ,growth1 may yet be traced to a ,chinese source4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,at the festival of ,nifu ,mijin in ,ki1 when the procession bearing offerings arrives before the shrine1 the village chief calls out in a loud voice1 ,according to our annual custom1 let us all laugh4 ,to which a hearty response is given4 ,this is because this ,god does not go to ,idzumo for an annual visit like the others4 #b ',sociology1' p4 #aec4 #c ,compare with this the following description of the huacas of the ancient ,peruvians4 ,all those things which from their beauty and excellence are superior to other things of a like kind2 things that are ugly and monstrous or that cause horror and fright2 things out of the usual course of nature4 #d ,in the spirit of ,wordsworth's ,listen1 the mighty being is awake ,and doth with his eternal motion make ,a noise like thunder everlastingly4 #e ,m4 ,goblet d',alviella says3 ,i maintain that neither of these two forms of worship necessarily presupposes the other2 but that man having been led by different roads to personify the souls of the dead on the one hand and natural objects and phenomena on the other1 subsequently attributed to both alike the character of mysterious superhuman beings4 ,let us add that this must have taken place everywhere1 for there is not a people on earth in which we do not come upon these forms of belief side by side and intermingled4 ,dr4 ,pfleiderer's view is substantially identical4 #f ,max ,mller speaks of that ancient stratum of thought which postulated an agent in the sky1 the sun1 c4 ,this is really a secondary conception4 #g ,it was not unknown in ancient ,greece and ,rome4 ,zeus1 ,hercules1 and other deities became divided up in this way4 #h ,mr4 ,tyler has justly observed that the true lesson of the new science of ,comparative ,mythology is the barrenness in primitive times of the faculty which we most associate with mental fertility1 the imagination4444 ,among these multitudes 7the millions of men who fill what we vaguely call the ,east7 ,literature1 ,religion1 and ,art--or what correspond to them--move always within a distinctly drawn circle of unchanging notions4444 ,this condition of thought is rather the infancy of the human mind prolonged than a different maturity from that most familiar to us4--,maine1 ',early ,history of ,institutions1' pp4 #bbe-f4 ,this characteristic of the mental development of the races of the ,far ,east is discussed in ',a ,comparative ,study of the ,japanese and ,korean ,languages1' by ,w4 ,g4 ,aston1 in the ,transactions of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,august1 #ahgi1 and more fully by ,mr4 ,percival ,lowell1 in his ',soul of the ,far ,east1' #ahhh4 ,see also ,mr4 ,b4 ,h4 ,chamberlain's' ,kojiki1' ,introd41 lxvi4 #i ,homer implicitly denies the spirituality of his ,gods when he says that the ,hercules which was summoned up by ,ulysses was only his eidolon1 or phantom1 the real man being in ,olympus among the happy ,gods4 #aj ,see an instructive article on ',shekinah' in ,dr4 ,hastings's ',dictionary of the ,bible'4 #aa ,and mine eternal jewel given to the common enemy of man4--',macbeth1' ,act ,,iii4 scene i4 #ab ,the ,shekinah was also associated with a divine radiance1 or glory4 #ac ,mi mi 7august body7 in the names of others involves a more material conception of deity4 #ad ,corresponding to the mo acha1 uncle of peace1 and ski acha1 rough uncle1 of the ,ainus4 #ae ,homer's #af ,sakitake no ,ben1 #ba4 #ag ,see ,index4 #ah ,for deities of classes consult ,dr4 ,tylor's ',primitive ,culture1' ii4 #bdb4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,deification ,,of ,,men4 ,the importance of the deification of human beings in ,shinto has been grossly exaggerated both by ,european scholars and by modern ,japanese writers4 ,grant ,allen1 for example1 says1 in his ',evolution of the ,idea of ,god'3 ,we know that some whole great national creeds1 like the ,shinto of ,japan1 recognize no deities at all1 save living kings and dead ancestral spirits4 ,he was probably misled by the old writer ,kaempfer1 whose ignorance of the subject is stupendous4 ,the truth is that ,shinto is derived in a much less degree from the second of the two great currents of religious thought than from the first4 ,it has comparatively little worship of human beings4 ,in the ,kojiki1 ,nihongi1 and ,yengishiki we meet with hardly anything of this element4 ,none of their great ,gods are individual human beings1 though at a later period a few deities of this class attained to considerable eminence and popularity4 ,an analysis of a list of ,greater ,shrines1 prepared in the tenth century1 yields the following results3 ,of the ,gods comprised in it1 seventeen are nature deities1 one is a sword1 which probably represented a nature deity1 two are more or less legendary deceased ,mikados1 one is the deified type and supposed ancestor of a priestly corporation1 one is the ancestor of an empress1 and one a deceased statesman4 ,deified ,individual ,men4--,like ,nature-,gods1 ,man-,gods may be divided into three classes--namely1 deified individual men1 deified classes of men1 and deified human qualities4 ,the first of these classes comprises the ,mikados1 living or dead1 and numerous heroes1 of whom ,yamato-dake1 the legendary conqueror of the eastern part of ,japan1 and ,sugahara 7,tenjin71 the god of learning1 may be quoted as examples4 ,phases of ,conception4--,they are variously conceived of1 as follow3-- ,i4 ,x1 alive or dead1 is a great man1 worthy of our love1 reverence1 gratitude1 or fear4 ,,ii4 ,x1 sometimes when alive1 more frequently when dead1 is possessed of superhuman powers1 usually borrowed from those of nature1 such as the control of the weather and the seasons1 and of diseases4 ,,iii4 ,x's powers reside not in his body but in a more or less spiritual emanation from it4 ,in the first of these three phases1 man-worship is not religion4 ,so long as a man is honoured for those qualities only which he really possesses or possessed1 he cannot be called a ,god4 ,but although rational man-worship is not in itself religion1 it is a necessary factor in its development4 ,our sentiments of gratitude and awe towards the great nature-powers spring up in hearts already prepared by the feelings which we entertain towards our parents1 superiors1 and other fellow-men4 ,whether individually or collectively1 a man loves his parents before he loves ,god4 ,the outward signs of divine worship are almost exclusively in the first place acts of reverence towards men4 ,a man bows his head or makes presents to his superiors before he worships or sacrifices to a deity4 ,there is a tendency to restrict the word worship to the adoration of deity4 ,thus1 when we speak of ancestor-worship1 we are apt to think of it as implying deification4 ,but there is much worship of living and dead men which is perfectly rational1 and implies no ascription to them of superhuman powers4 ,the second1 or religious1 phase of man-worship involves the assumption that some men are possessed of powers of a kind different from those of ordinary mortals4 ,the mere exaggeration of the human faculties may produce an inferior sort of deity1 but no really great man-,god can be produced without borrowing some of the transcendent powers of ,nature1 or in some way identifying him with that increasing cosmic purpose1 which from one point of view is tendency and evolution1 and from another is a loving ,providence4 ,until this is done a deified king1 ancestor1 or ghost 7if there be such a thing7 is a poor specimen of a ,god4 ,to become a deity of any consequence1 the man-,god must make rain1 avert floods1 control the seasons1 send and stay plagues1 wield thunderbolts1 ride upon the storm1 or even act as ,creator of the world4#ai ,when the practice of deifying men was once established it was enough to entitle them ,gods1 the term itself implying the possession of those powers which we call supernatural1 but which are only so when predicated of men4 ,deification of ,mikados4--,the misunderstanding of metaphorical language is a fertile source of apotheosis4 ,the deification of the ,mikados is a case in point4 ,the ,mikado is called the ,heavenly ,grandchild1 his courtiers are men above the clouds1 rural districts are spoken of as distant from ,heaven1 that is1 from the ,imperial ,palace4 ,the heir to the throne was styled hi no miko1 or august child of the ,sun1 and his residence hi no miya1 the august house of the ,sun4 ,the native names of many of the ,mikados contain the element hiko1 or ,sun-child4 ,the appearance in ,court of the ,empress ,suiko 7,a4,d4 #fab7 is compared to the sun issuing from the clouds4 ,tenshi1 or ,son of ,heaven1 a ,chinese term freely applied to the ,mikado in later times1 is a variant of the same idea1 which1 it need hardly be said1 is known in other countries besides ,japan4 ,the ,chinese ,emperor is said to call the sun his elder brother1 and the moon his sister4 ,images of the sun and moon were depicted on the banners which were borne before him on ,state occasions4 ,the same practice had been adopted in ,japan as early as ,a4,d4 #gjj1 and there is a relic of it at the present day in the ,japanese national flag1 which is a red sun on a white ground4#bj ,the ancient kings of ,egypt called themselves earthly suns4 ,our own poet ,waller1 addressing ,james ,,ii41 says3-- ,to your great merrit given1 ,a title to be called the sonne of ,heaven4 ,let us not pass by these metaphors with a disdainful smile1 as mere unsubstantial poetic fancies4 ,they are more or less rude attempts to give expression to the very important truth that the benefits which a nation derives from the rule of a wise and good sovereign are comparable to the blessings of the sun's warmth and light4 ,as ,browning1 in ',saul1' has well said3-- ,each deed thou hast done ,dies1 revives1 goes to work in the world1 and is as the sun ,looking down on the earth1 though clouds spoil him1 though tempests efface1 ,can find nothing his own deed produced not1 must everywhere trace ,the results of his past summer prime--so each ray of thy will1 ,every flash of thy passion and prowess long over1 shall thrill ,thy whole people1 the countless1 with ardour till they too give forth ,a like cheer to their sons1 who in turn fill the south and the north ,with the radiance thy deed was the germ of----4 ,it may be objected that it is contrary to the general law of human development to make the higher metaphorical conception precede the lower physical one4 ,it is no doubt true that the physical idea of fatherhood must come before the metaphorical use of this relationship4 ,but it does not follow that when once the metaphor is arrived at1 it may not relapse into its original physical acceptation4 ,the forces which produce religious progress act by waves1 with intervals of stagnation or retrogression4 ,even when the general religious condition of a country is advancing it will be found that the lower popular stratum of thought consists less of undeveloped germs of future progress than of a breccia of the debased or imperfectly assimilated ideas of the wise men of preceding generations4 ,in this retrograde movement a large part is played by the invincible tendency of the vulgar to give metaphors their literal signification4 ,this1 ,i take it1 is the source of the numerous actual children or descendants of the ,sun and other deities who are found all over the world1 in ,greece1 ,peru1 ,japan1 and elsewhere4 ,the sequence of ideas may be thus represented3-- ,i4 ,the ,king or sage is like the ,sun4 ,,ii4 ,he is 7rhetorically7 a ,sun1 or the ,sun's brother or offspring4 ,,iii4 ,he is actually descended from the ,sun in the nth generation1 the intermediate links of the genealogy being a1 b1 c1 d1 c41 and he is therefore himself a divinity4 ,herbert ,spencer1 in his ',sociology1' says3-- ,there are proofs that like confusion of metaphor with fact leads to ,sun-worship4 ,complimentary naming after the sun occurs everywhere1 and where it is associated with power1 becomes inherited4 ,the chiefs of the ,hurons bore the name of the ,sun2 and ,humboldt remarks that 'the ,sun-,kings among the ,natches recall to mind the ,heliades of the first eastern colony of ,rhodes4' ,out of numerous illustrations from ,egypt may be quoted an inscription from ,silsilis--',hail to thee6 ,king of ,egypt6 ,sun of the foreign peoples 444 ,life1 salvation1 health to him6 he is a shining ,sun4' ,in such cases1 then1 worship of the ancestor readily becomes worship of the ,sun4444 ,personalization of the wind had an origin of this kind4 ,nature-worship1 then1 is but an aberrant form of ghost-worship4 ,surely this is an inversion of the true order of things4 ,why do kings bear the name of ,sun1 or child of the ,sun8 ,is it not because the ,sun is already looked upon as a glorious being 7a ,god87 with whom it is an honour to be associated8 ,herbert ,spencer himself speaks of complimentary naming after the ,sun4 ,the ,chinese call deification hai-ten1 or matching with ,heaven1 showing that with them at least it is the man who acquires his divinity by being placed on a level with ,heaven1 not vice vers4 ,worship of the ,sun must be anterior to the very existence of ,mikados1 and there are certainly more substantial reasons for it than the transfer to him1 suggested by metaphorical language1 of the reverence paid to human sovereigns or ancestors4 ,the deification of living ,mikados was titular rather than real4 ,i am not aware that any specific so-called miraculous powers#ba were authoritatively claimed for them4 ,in #fde a ,japanese minister1 addressing some envoys from ,korea1 described his sovereign as the ,emperor of ,japan1 who rules the world as a manifest deity4 ,the same official recognized the ,korean princes as ,sons of the ,gods4 ,the ,mikado ,keik1 admiring the strength and courage of his son ,yamatodake1 says to him3 ,whereas in outward form thou art our child1 in reality thou art a ,god4 ,the ,mikados called themselves1 in notifications and elsewhere1 ,akitsu ,kami1 that is1 manifest or incarnate deities1 and claimed a general authority over the ,gods of ,japan4 ,yriaku conversed on equal terms with the ,god ,hito-koto-nushi4 ,he expected obedience from the ,thunder-,god1 but speedily had cause to repent his audacity4#bb ,the honours paid to deceased ,mikados stand on a somewhat different footing4 ,there is little1 however1 in the earlier period of ,shinto to distinguish the respect shown to deceased ,mikados from the customary observances towards the undeified dead4 ,the ,kojiki and ,nihongi have hardly a trace of any practical recognition of their divinity4 ,we are told in the ,nihongi 7,a4,d4 #fgi7 that the ,mikado ,temmu did reverence to the tomb of his mother who had died eighteen years before4 ,in #fha worship was paid 7no doubt by the ,mikado7 to the august spirit of the ,mikado's grandfather 7or ancestor74 ,there is nothing in these notices to show that divine worship is intended4 ,an oath made by ,yemishi or ,ainus1 when tendering their submission in #eha1 is more to the point4 ,they pray that if we break this oath1 may all the ,gods of ,heaven and ,earth1 and also the spirits of the ,mikados destroy our race4 ,still it must be remembered that the author of the ,nihongi was a profound ,chinese scholar1 and that his work is deeply tinctured with ,chinese ideas4 ,i should not be surprised to find that the above oath was simply copied from some ,chinese book4 ,in the time of the ,yengishiki 7tenth century7 the honours paid to deceased ,mikados had become regularized1 and offerings similar to those made to nature-deities were tendered to them periodically4 ,it is1 however1 a significant circumstance that of the twenty-seven norito contained in that work not one relates to their worship1 and that the care of their tombs did not belong to the ,department of ,shinto4 ,hirata protests vigorously against a modern practice of using a ,chinese word meaning ,imperial ,mausoleum for the shrines of ,ise and ,kamo4 ,as early as the ninth century there are several cases of prayers addressed to deceased ,mikados for rain1 to stay a curse sent by them for disrespect to their tombs1 for the restoration of the ,mikado's health1 for preservation from calamity1 c4 ,in more recent times shrines were erected to them1 and prayers put up for blessings which it is far beyond the power of man to grant4 ,under the name of ,hachiman1 the ,mikado ,ojin1 visibly owing to ,chinese and ,buddhist influences1 became an important deity in later ,shinto4 ,the same may be said of the ,empress ,jingo4 ,the ,kojiki and ,nihongi treat both as mere mortals4 ,the honours paid to deceased ,mikados were much neglected before the ,restoration of #ahfh4 ,at present they consist in four solemn mourning services held in the ,palace1 one on the anniversary of the death of the late ,emperor1 the second on that of the death of ,jimmu ,tenn1 the third and fourth in spring and autumn1 in memory of all the ,imperial ancestors4#bc ,embassies are also despatched to the ,imperial tombs 7misasagi71 which now have toriwi 7the distinctive ,shinto honorary gateway7 erected in front of them4 ,two of the ,mikados1 namely1 ,ojin and ,kwammu1 have special ,state shrines dedicated to them4 ,concurrent with the enhancement of the political prestige of the ,crown there has been a strong tendency in the present reign to increase the respect paid to the ,imperial ,house1 so that it now amounts to something like religious worship4 ,the ceremony of the naishi dokoro1#bd which in ancient times was in honour of the sacred sun-mirror1 now includes the tablets of the deceased ,mikados4 ,other ,deifications4--,even in the case of the deification of living and dead ,mikados there is much room for suspicion of foreign influence4 ,of the deification of other men ,i find no clear evidence in the older records4 ,it is probable1 however1 that some of the numerous obscure deities mentioned in the ,kojiki and ,nihongi are deified men4 ,a number of the legendary and historical personages named in these works were deified at a subsequent period4 ,others have been added from time to time4 ,the case of the ,god of ,suha has a special interest4 ,here the ,god's living descendant1 real or supposed1 is regarded as a ,god1 and a cave 7probably a tomb7 occupies the place of the shrine4 ,a fuller account of this cult is given below4#be ,the high-priest of the ,great ,shrine of ,idzumo is called an iki-gami1 or living deity4 ,not only good but bad men might be deified or canonized1 as in the case of the archrebel ,masakado1 the robber ,kumasaka ,chohan1 and in our own day1 ,nishitaro ,buntar1 the murderer of ,mori1 the ,minister for ,education4 ,lafcadio ,hearn1 in his ',gleanings in ,buddha ,fields1' tells a typical story of the deification of a living man4 ,a certain ,hamaguchi ,gohei1 head man of his village1 saved the lives of his fellow villagers from destruction by a tidal wave1 at the sacrifice of his crop of rice1 which he set fire to in order to attract them away from the sea-shore to the higher ground4 ,so they declared him a ,god1 and thereafter called him ,hamaguchi ,daimyjin1 and when they rebuilt their village1 they built a temple to the spirit of him1 and fixed above the front of it a tablet bearing his name in ,chinese text of gold2 and they worshipped him there1 with prayer and with offerings4444 ,he continued to live in his old thatched home upon the hill1 while his soul was being worshipped in the shrine below4 ,a hundred years and more he has been dead2 but his temple1 they tell me1 still stands1 and the people still pray to the ghost of the good old farmer to help them in time of fear or trouble4 ,ancestor-,worship4--,if we restrict this term to the religious cult of one's own ancestors1 as in ,china1 this form of religion has hardly any place in ,shinto4 ,the only case of it1 except in modern times and under foreign influences1 is that of the ,mikados1 and even then there is no evidence of its existence before the sixth century4 ,the term ancestor-worship is often used more generally of the worship of dead men of former generations4 ,there is no good reason1 however1 for distinguishing between the cult of dead and that of living men4 ,if the former is the more common1 it is because absence and lapse of time are usually necessary to allow their obviously human character to be forgotten and to raise the popular imagination to the height of attributing to them superhuman powers4 ,deification is the result of an exaggerated appreciation of what the man was during life1 though there is often associated with this primary reason the ascription of imaginary powers to his corpse or ghost4 ,it is often assumed by ,english writers that ,shinto is substantially1 or at least is based on1 ancestor-worship4 ,the modern ,japanese1 imbued with ,chinese ideas1 throw them back into the old ,shinto1 and have persuaded themselves that it contains a far more important element of this kind than is actually the case4 ,a recent ,japanese writer says3 ,ancestor-worship was the basis of ,shinto4 ,the divinities1 whether celestial or terrestrial1 were the progenitors of the nation1 from the sovereign and the princes surrounding the throne to the nobles who discharged the services of the ,state and the soldiers who fought its battles4 ,hirata1 notwithstanding his anti-,chinese prejudices1 was unable to resist the influence of ,chinese ideas as regards ancestor-worship4 ,he devotes vol4 x4 of his ',tamadasuki' to the inculcation of an ancestor-worship which is plainly nothing but the well-known ,chinese cult4 ,his tama-ya 7spirit-house1 or domestic ancestral shrine7 is a ,chinese institution under a ,japanese name1 and the tama-shiro1 or spirit-token1 is the ,chinese ihai 7ancestral tablet74 ,he would have his followers address their prayers1 as in ,china1 to their ancestors of every generation1 from the parents of the worshipper up to the ,great ,ancestor1 the founder of the family4 ,their spirits 7mitama7 are to be adjured to avert evil from their descendants1 to keep watch over them by night and day1 and to grant them prosperity and long life4 ,this is genuine ancestor-worship1 but it is not ,shinto4 ,it was to meet the case of a failure of direct heirs to continue such ancestor-worship that the practice of adoption1 unknown in ancient ,japan1 was introduced from ,china4 ,the truth is that only a very small part of the ,japanese nation knew1 or pretended to know1 anything about their ancestors4 ,even of those who had genealogies1 many traced their descent from mere undeified mortals1 some being ,koreans or ,chinese4 ,there remain in the ,shjiroku and elsewhere a good number of genealogies in which the descent of noble families from ,shinto deities is recorded4 ,to what class do these deities belong8 ,it is impossible to assert that some may not be genuine deified ancestors1 though ,i cannot point to any undoubted case of this kind4 ,many are nature-deities4 ,the descent of the imperial family from the ,sun-,goddess is a typical example4 ,the ,god of ,growth1 ,kuni-toko-tachi1 the ,yatagarasu or ,sun-,crow1 the sword ,futsunushi1 and many other nature-deities appear among the ancestors of the ,shjiroku4 ,in the ',ideals of the ,east1' a work recently published in ,english by ,mr4 ,takakura ,okasu1 the author speaks of the immaculate ancestrism of ,ise and ,idzumo4 ,the so-called ancestral ,gods worshipped at these places are the ,sun-,goddess1 the ,food-,goddess1 ,ohonamochi 7an ,earth-,god7 and ,susa no wo 7the ,rainstorm74 ,dr4 ,e4 ,caird's observation that in the majority of cases it is not that the being worshipped is conceived of by his worshipper as a ,god because he is an ancestor1 but rather that he is conceived as an ancestor because he is believed to be their ,god1#bf obviously applies to this feature of ,shinto4 ,other nobles traced their lineage from1 and paid a special worship to1 personages who never existed as individual human beings4 ,such is ,koyane1 the reputed ancestor1 but really only a personified type of the ,nakatomi priestly corporation4 ,if we have any regard for correct terminology we must call this recognition of nature-deities and class-types as ancestors not ancestor-worship1 but pseudo-ancestor-worship4 ,when ,britain's sons declare1 as they do with sufficient emphasis1 that ,britannia rules the waves1 is this ancestor-worship8 ,or supposing that ,macaulay's ,new ,zealander found a remnant of the ,english people worshipping ,john ,bull as their reputed ancestor1 would he be right to conclude that ancestor-worship was an ,english institution8 ,uji-,gami4--,these pseudo-ancestors are called in ,japanese uji-gami1 or surname gods4 ,the uji were originally official designations1 whether of ,court officials or of local officials or chieftains1 which1 as these offices became hereditary1 took the character of hereditary titles1 and eventually became mere surnames4 ,they may be compared with such titles as ,duke of ,wellington or with surnames like ,chamberlain1 ,constable1 or ,baillie4 ,in ancient times the common people had no surnames1 and therefore no ancestor-worship1 pseudo or real4 ,the word uji is also used collectively of the noble house of persons bearing the same surname4 ,it does not seem a very ancient institution1 and must date from a time when an organized ,government had already been established4 ,of the cult of the ,uji-gami as such we know very little4 ,the ,kojiki mentions the fact of various deities being worshipped by certain noble families4 ,a modern authority says3 ,all descendants of deities had uji4 ,every uji consisted of members called ukara4 ,the chief of the uji was termed the uji no kami 7the superior of the uji74 ,it was his duty1 on festival occasions1 to convene the ukara for the worship of the ancestral ,god4 ,in later times the ,uji-gami became simply the tutelary deity of one's birthplace1 and was also called ubusuna 7birth-sand74 ,infants born in his jurisdiction are presented to him soon after birth1 and parturient women pray to him for relief4 ,they also procure earth from the site of his shrine1 in the belief that it has a magical power to assist their delivery4 ,the same earth is credited with the property of relaxing the rigidity of a corpse4 ,the modern ,uji-gami are taken indiscriminately from all classes of deities1 perhaps including even a few genuine ancestors4 ,one or two ,indian deities have been made ,uji-gami4 ,the ,nakatomi had three ,uji-gami--namely1 ,take-mika-dzuchi1 ,futsunushi1 and ,koyane4 ,noble families have been known to change their ,uji-gami1 ,the ,uji-gami correspond in some respects to the ,greek 4,greek3 archghos ,biso4--,analogous to the ,uji-gami are the trades-deities of modern times4 ,they are called biso 7author or inventor71 and may be either nature-deities1 deceased men1 or merely the deified type of the particular trade or profession4 ,wrestlers worship ,nomi no ,sukune1 who was probably a real person1 and ,chinese doctors the legendary ,chinese ,emperor ,shinnung4 ,confucian pundits worship ,confucius1 poets honour ,hitomaro1 and ,haikwai poets ,bash4 ,professors of the art of tea-drinking show reverence to the founder of that particular branch of it which they practise4 ,soothsayers1 miko1 football players1 flower-arrangers1 and actors worship the so-called ancestral gods of their several professions4 ,there is a ,kaji-so-sha1 or blacksmith-ancestor-shrine4 ,carpenters1 for some reason1 have adopted ,shtoku ,daishi1 an ,imperial ,prince who lived in the seventh century1 as their patron4 ,merchants worship ,yebisu4 ,they also pay some sort of respect to ,fukusuke1#bg a dwarfish figure with a large head1 attired in the ceremonial kami-shimo1 and seated in a squatting position1 which may often be seen in the larger shops4 ,a figure of a cat with uplifted paw1 called the maneki-neko1 or beckoning cat1 and a recumbent cow covered with rugs are also objects of respect with them4 ,it is in many cases a question whether the honour shown amounts really to divine worship4 ,spirits4--,the older ,shinto scriptures afford but scanty evidence of the spiritualization of deified human beings4 ,in the ,nihongi there is one reference to the worship of a ,mikado's mitama 7spirit74 ,in another case the mitama of the ,mikados are called upon to punish oath-breakers4 ,yamato-dake's mitama is in one place said to have been changed into a white bird4 ,of the mitama of ordinary undeified human beings there is no mention in the ,kojiki or ,nihongi2 but1 of course1 this may be owing to the imperfection of the record4 ,tamashi1 a derivative of tama1 is the ordinary word for soul at the present day1 and is undoubtedly of considerable antiquity4 ,still there are cases where we should expect to find mitama spoken of1 but where a more material conception--namely1 that of metamorphosis--takes its place4 ,among several instances of this kind may be quoted that of ,yamato-dake4 ,he died1 and was buried1 upon which he took the form of a white bird1 which flew away leaving the tomb empty4 ,the modern name for ghost testifies to the prevalence of this conception in ,japan4 ,it is bake-mono1 or transformation1 and is applied to foxes which change into human form as well as to the ghosts of the dead and to hobgoblins of uncertain origin4 ,bake-mono are not worshipped in ,japan1 any more than ghosts are with ourselves1 but there is a beginning of reverence to them in the honorific particle o which is frequently prefixed to the word1 especially by women4 ,there are no proper ghosts in the ,kojiki or ,nihongi1 although the writers of these works were fond of recording strange and miraculous occurrences4 ,the metamorphosed appearances mentioned in them are never phantoms with a resemblance to the human form1 and possess no spiritual qualities4 ,even now the bakemono1 though differing little from our ghost1 is quite distinct from the human mitama or tamashi 7soul74 ,tama1 as we have seen above1#bh may mean either a jewel1 a round object1 or the effluence of a deity or a spirit4 ,here literal-minded ,dullness1 with whom the ,gods themselves contend in vain1 leaps to the conclusion that the physical globular tama is not merely a symbol of the soul1 but the soul itself4 ,by the ignorant in modern times it is conceived of as a small round black object1 which has the power of leaving the body during sleep4 ,the popular name for the will-of-the-wisp1 namely1 hito-dama 7man-ball-soul7 enshrines a like superstition4#bi ,it is asserted that the souls of the newly dead have been seen to float away over the eaves and roof as a transparent globe of impalpable essence4 ,we may compare with these ,japanese notions the following cases1 which ,i quote from ,herbert ,spencer's ',sociology'3 ,according to ,ximenes1 when a lord died in ,vera ,cruz1 the first thing they did after his death was to put a precious stone in his mouth4 ,the object of it was that the stone should receive his soul4 ,the ,mexicans along with a man's remains put a gem of more or less value1 which they said would serve him in place of a heart in the other world4 ,such material conceptions of the soul are to be found everywhere4 ,mr4 ,hartland1 in his ',legend of ,perseus1' observes3 ,to the savage1 as to our own forefathers1 and to the folk of all civilized countries still1 the idea of an incorporeal soul is incomprehensible4 ,it is everywhere in the lower culture conceived of as material1 though capable of changing its form and appearance without losing its identity4#cj ,hirata1 after pointing out correctly that the mitama 7jewel or spirit7 is so called because there is nothing in the body so precious as the soul1 immediately relapses into a more material conception when he proceeds to explain that1 although we cannot discern its shape1 seen from the ,gods it must have the shape of a jewel 7that is1 spherical74#ca ,the history of the mitama suggests that the material1 or partially material1 conceptions of the soul are a comparatively recent development4 ,though religion is on the whole progressive1 it by no means follows that all movements of religious thought are in a forward direction4 ,the spiritual edifice which poets and seers build up is being constantly reduced to ruin by the inept handling of the material-minded vulgar1 to be reared anew by others more splendid than before4 ,but let us not mistake the ruin for the first courses of a new building1 the dead husk for the living germ4 ,ghosts and ball-souls are aberrant conceptions which belong to the former category4 ,the dullards to whom such notions are due are quite incapable of originating the pregnant1 though artificial1 conception of body and soul as two distinct entities4 ,let me add a few more etymological facts which bear on the question of spirituality4 ,mi-kage1 or august shadow1 is an ancient synonym for mi-tama4 ,it is unnecessary to suppose that anything but a metaphorical meaning was originally intended4 ,there is1 however1 a modern superstition that when a man is near his death his shadow becomes thinner4 ,the ordinary ,japanese word for to die is shinuru1 that is to say1 breath-depart4 ,death is also called concealment1 long concealment1 body-concealment1 rock-concealment 7in allusion to the practice of burial in dolmens71 change1 and ending4 ,in the case of the ,gods1 death is called divine departure or divine ascent4 ,iki1 breath1 one of the vital functions1 is put by metonymy for their sum1 that is1 life4 ,it has not1 like our word spirit and the ,greek psyche1 taken the further step of coming to mean the human soul1 except we identify it with the ke of hotoke1 which has been plausibly derived from hito1 man1 and ke1 spirit4 ,it is now the common ,buddhist term for ,buddha and his saints1 and also for the spirits of the sainted dead4 ,the material-minded man1 as usual1 drags it down to his own level4 ,to him the corpse at a funeral is the hotoke4 ,it is not certain1 however1 that the element ke of this word is not of ,chinese origin1 ,china1 always far in advance of ,japan in spirituality1 has exercised a profound influence on the development of ,japanese ideas regarding spiritual matters4 ,another material conception of the life or soul is contained in a poem of the ,manyshiu1 in which a fisherman named ,urashima is related to have found his way to the ,toko yo no kuni1 or ,eternal ,land4 ,when about to return to earth he received from his wife a casket1 with the injunction that he must not open it4 ,he does open it1 upon which his life or soul comes out and flies away like a white cloud to the ,eternal ,land4 ,he dies soon after4 ,but this is a poetic fancy1 open to strong suspicions of ,chinese inspiration4 ,there is a ceremony called iki-mitama 7living soul71 which consists in paying respect to an absent parent1 c41 as if he were present4 ,another similar practice is that of kage-zen 7shadow-food71 in which a meal is set out for an absent member of the family1 especially when it is not known whether he is dead or alive4 ,the term iki-su-dama 7living spirit7 is applied to the angry spirit 7double87 of a living person1 which is supposed to work a curse1 sometimes unknown even to himself4 ,su-dama are defined as the essences of woods or mountains1 which assume a metamorphosed form--elves1 as we should say4 ,all these are comparatively modern ideas4 ,the ,shinto ,do-itsu1 a modern ,shinto manual1 frankly adopts the ,chinese views of the soul4 ,a manual of this sect has the following3 ,the kom-paku are in ,china the animal and rational souls4 ,when a man dies1 his kon goes up to ,heaven and his haku returns to ,earth4 ,man at birth derives his breath 7or life7 from ,heaven and ,earth4 ,therefore when he dies it returns to ,heaven and ,earth4 ,the kon is the yang or male1 positive spirit2 the haku is the yin or female1 negative spirit 7tama74 ,in everything there is the yin and the yang heart4 ,all men have ki 7breath71 kei 7form71 and sei 7life74 ,the kon rules the ki and the sei4 ,the haku rules the form and the body4 ,ki means literally breath1 on which man's life depends4 ,from the ,buddhist point of view there are two functions of the material body1 namely1 life and death1 each of which has its soul4 ,the saki-dama 7spirit of luck7 is the kon2 the kushi-dama 7wondrous spirit7 is the haku4#cb ,again the five viscera have each a ,god in shape like a man4 ,state of the ,dead4--,like the ,old ,testament1 the ancient ,japanese records afford but few and uncertain glimpses of the condition of the dead4 ,the doctrine of the immortality of the soul is nowhere taught explicitly4 ,there are no prayers for the dead or for happiness in a future life4 ,there is a land of yomi 7darkness7 which corresponds to the ,greek ,hades and the ,hebrew ,shel4 ,it is also termed ,ne no kuni 7root-land71 ,soko no kuni 7bottom-land71 ,shita-tsu-kuni 7lower-land71 or the ,yaso-kumade1 that is to say1 the eighty road-windings1 a euphemistic phrase resembling our going on a long journey4 ,yomi1 however1 does not seem to be peopled by human beings or ghosts4 ,nor do we find any actual cases of their descending thither at death1 although the conception was no doubt originally a metaphor for the grave4 ,in the ,nihongi myth we find that where one version speaks of ,izanami in ,yomi1 another uses the expression temporary burying-place4 ,the same work mentions an opinion that the ,even ,pass of ,yomi is not any place in particular1 but means only the space of time when the breath fails on the approach of death4 ,the ,kojiki1 after relating the death and burial of ,izanami on ,mount ,hiba1 at the boundary of the ,land of ,idzumo1 goes on to speak of her descent to ,yomi as if it were the same thing4 ,from this it would appear that to many persons1 even in these early times1 ,yomi was a tolerably transparent metaphor for the state of the dead4 ,how difficult it is for even learned and intelligent men to rise above the literal interpretation of metaphor is illustrated by the fact that ,motori treats this suggestion with great scorn1 pointing out that there is an actual entrance to ,yomi in the province of ,idzumo4 ,izanami went to ,yomi when she died4 ,she is called the ,great ,deity of ,yomi4 ,it is also spoken of as the abode of ,susa no wo1 who1 according to one myth1 was appointed to rule this region4 ,we also hear of the deities of ,yomi1 the armies of ,yomi1 the ugly females of ,yomi1 and the ,road-,wardens of ,yomi4 ,thunder-,gods are said to have been generated there from the dead body of ,izanami4 ,all these are probably various personifications of death and disease4 ,in modern times ,yomi has been identified with ,jigoku1 the inferno of the ,buddhists1 which is a place of torture for the wicked4 ,our own word hell has undergone a similar change of application4 ,in the ,manyshiu heaven is mentioned as the destination of a deceased ,mikado1 while in the very same poem a prince is spoken of as dwelling in his tomb in silence and solitude4 ,the ,toko-yo no kuni1 or ,eternal ,land1 is another home of the dead4 ,the ,god ,sukunabikona went thither when he died4 ,so did a brother of the first ,mikado1 ,jimmu4 ,the ,toko-yo no kuni is identified by some with ,hrai-san1 the ,chinese island paradise of the ,eastern ,sea1 and by others with ,china itself4 ,the orange is said to have been introduced from the ,toko-yo no kuni4 ,in the ,manyshiu poem of ,urashima1 the ,toko-yo no kuni is the same as the submarine palace of the ,sea-,gods1 where death and old age are unknown4 ,toko-yo tachi 7ye immortal ones67 is a complimentary exclamation in a poem of the ,nihongi4 ,the most definite statement regarding the continued existence of men after death occurs in the ,nihongi under the legendary date ,a4,d4 #cfg3-- ,the ,yemishi rebelled4 ,tamichi was sent to attack them4 ,he was worsted by the ,yemishi1 and slain at the harbour of ,ishimi4 ,now one of his followers obtained ,tamichi's armlet and gave it to his wife1 who embraced the armlet and strangled herself4 ,when the men of that time heard of this they shed tears4 ,after this the ,yemishi again made an incursion and dug up ,tamichi's tomb1 upon which a great serpent started up with glaring eyes and came out of the tomb4 ,it bit the ,yemishi1 who were every one affected by the serpent's poison1 so that many of them died1 and only one or two escaped4 ,therefore the men of that time said3 ',although dead ,tamichi at last had his revenge4 ,how can it be said that the dead have no knowledge8' ,evidently at this time there were two opinions on the subject4 ,motori says that this is a subject which transcends human comprehension4 ,he leans to the view of the old books1 that men when they die go to the ,land of ,yomi1 in preference to the sceptical ratiocinations of the ,chinese sophists4 ,hirata takes a more decided attitude4 ,he points to the story just quoted as an example of dead men executing vengeance upon those who were their enemies during life4 ,funeral ,customs4--,let us now inquire whether anything is to be learned regarding the views of the ancient ,japanese as to the condition of the dead from their funeral customs4 ,the bodies of nobles1 princes1 and sovereigns were deposited in megalithic vaults which were covered by huge mounds of earth4#cc ,pending the construction of these1 the body was placed temporarily in a building called a moya1 or mourning house4 ,it was enclosed in a wooden coffin and in some cases in a sarcophagus of stone or earthenware4 ,these sarcophagi have been found to contain traces of cinnabar4#cd ,in all the more modern megalithic tombs the entrance faces the south4 ,this arrangement is connected with the idea1 common to the ,japanese with the ,chinese and other far-eastern races1 that the north is the most honourable quarter4 ,the ,mikado1 on state occasions1 stands on the north side of the ,hall of ,audience4 ,his palace fronts the south4 ,immediately after death corpses are laid with the head to the north1 a position scrupulously avoided by many ,japanese for sleep4 ,they say they are unworthy of so great honour4 ,with the more eminent dead there were buried food1 weapons1 ornaments1 vessels of pottery1 and other valuables4 ,eulogies were pronounced over them1 and music was performed at the funeral4 ,posthumous honours--a ,chinese institution--were conferred on those who had merited them by distinguished services4 ,in the more ancient times human sacrifices ,were made at the tombs of deceased ,mikados and princes4 ,the ,nihongi1 under the legendary date ,b4,c4 #b1 states3-- #ajth month1 #eth day4 ,yamato-hiko1 the ,mikado's younger brother by the mother's side1 died4 #aath month1 #bnd day4 ,yamato-hiko was buried at ,tsuki-zaka in ,musa4 ,thereupon his personal attendants were assembled1 and were all buried alive upright in the precinct of the tomb4 ,for several days they died not1 but wept and wailed day and night4 ,at last they died and rotted4 ,dogs and crows gathered and ate them4 ,the ,emperor1 hearing the sound of their weeping and wailing1 was grieved at heart1 and commanded his high officers1 saying ',it is a very painful thing to force those whom one has loved in life to follow him in death4 ,though it be an ancient custom1 why follow it if it is bad8 ,from this time forward1 take counsel so as to put a stop to the following of the dead4' ,a4,d4 #c1 #gth month1 #fth day4 ,the ,empress ,hibasu-hime no ,mikoto died4 ,some time before the burial1 the ,emperor commanded his ,ministers1 saying3 ',we have already recognized that the practice of following the dead is not good4 ,what should now be done in performing this burial8' ,thereupon ,nomi no ,sukune came forward and said3 ',it is not good to bury living men upright at the tumulus of a prince4 ,how can such a practice be handed down to posterity8 ,i beg leave to propose an expedient which ,i will submit to ,your ,majesty4' ,so he sent messengers to summon up from the ,land of ,idzumo a hundred men of the clay-workers' ,be4 ,he himself directed the men of the clay-workers' ,be to take clay and form therewith shapes of men1 horses1 and various objects1 which he presented to the ,emperor1 saying3 ',henceforward let it be the law for future ages to substitute things of clay for living men1 and to set them up at tumuli4' ,then the ,emperor was greatly rejoiced1 and commanded ,nomi no ,sukune1 saying3 ',thy expedient hath greatly pleased ,our heart4' ,so the things of clay were first set up at the tomb of ,hibasu-hime no ,mikoto4 ,and a name was given to these clay objects4#ce ,they were called haniwa1 or clay rings4 ,then a decree was issued1 saying3 ',henceforth these clay figures must be set up at tumuli3 let not men be harmed4' ,the ,emperor bountifully rewarded ,nomi no ,sukune for this service1 and also bestowed on him a kneading-place1 and appointed him to the official charge of the clay-workers' ,be4 ,his original title was therefore changed1 and he was called ,hashi no ,omi4 ,this was how it came to pass that the ,hashi no ,muraji superintend the burials of the ,emperors4 ,this narrative is too much in accordance with what we know of other races in the barbaric stage of culture to allow us to doubt that we have here a genuine bit of history1 though perhaps the details may be inaccurate1 and the chronology is certainly wrong4 ,in an ancient ,chinese notice of ,japan we read that at this time 7,a4,d4 #bdg7 ,queen ,himeko died4 ,a great mound was raised over her1 and more than a hundred of her male and female attendants followed her in death4 ,funeral human sacrifice is well known to have existed among the ,manchu ,tartars and other races of ,north-,eastern ,asia until modern times4 ,the ,jesuit missionary ,du ,halde relates that the ,emperor ,shunchi1 of the ,t'sing dynasty 7died #affb71 inconsolable for the loss of his wife and infant child1 signified by his will that thirty men should kill themselves to appease her manes1 which ceremony the ,chinese look upon with horror1 and was abolished by the care of his successor--the famous ,kanghi4 ,another missionary1 ,alvarez ,semedo1 in his history of the ,tartar invasion1 says3 ,it is the custome of the ,tartars1 when any man of quality dieth1 to cast into that fire which consumes the dead corpse as many ,servants1 ,women1 and ,horses with ,bows and ,arrows as may be fit to atend and serve them in the next life4 ,this custom was also practised in ,china in the most ancient times1 though long condemned as barbarous4 ,an ode in the ',sheking' laments the death of three brothers who were sacrificed at the funeral of ,duke ,muh1 ,b4,c4 #fba4 ,when the ,emperor ,she ,hwang-ti died1 ,b4,c4 #bji1 his son ,urh said1 ,my father's palace-ladies who have no children must not leave the tomb1 and compelled them all to follow him in death4 ,their number was very great4 ,a ,king of ,kokury in ,corea died ,a4,d4 #bdh4 ,he was beloved for his virtues1 and many of his household wished to die with him4 ,his successor forbade them to do so1 saying that it was not a proper custom4 ,many of them1 however1 committed suicide at the tomb4 7',tongkam1' iii4 #bj47 ,in ,a4,d4 #ejb1 ,silla prohibited the custom of burying people alive at the funerals of the sovereigns4 ,before this time five men and five women were put to death at the ,king's tomb4 7',tongkam1' v4 #e47 ,cases of suicide at the tomb of a beloved lord or sovereign have not been uncommon in ,japan even in modern times4 ,there was one in #ahfh4 ,the ,japanese1 like the ,chinese1 make no distinction between voluntary deaths and human sacrifices4 ,both are called jun-shi1 a term which means following in death4 ,indeed1 as we may see by the ,indian suttee1 it is often hard to draw the line between these two forms of what is really the same custom4 ,in the case of common people1 of course1 no such costly form of burial could have been practised4 ,it was called no-okuri 7sending to a moor or waste place71 by which simple interment1 or perhaps exposure at a distance from human habitations1 was probably meant4 ,the offerings consisted of a little rice and water4 ,it is often assumed as too obvious to require proof that such funeral customs as these imply a belief in the continued sentient existence of the dead4 ,it is taken for granted that it is for their personal comfort and gratification that wives and attendants are put to death and offerings of food deposited at the tomb4#cf ',if we reflect1 however1 on the reasons for our own funeral observances1 which are less different in principle from those of barbarous nations than we are willing to admit1 we shall see cause to doubt whether this is really the ruling motive4 ,most of us have laid flowers on the coffin of some dear one1 or erected a tombstone to his memory1 or subscribed for a monument to a statesman who in life has deserved well of his country4 ,were these things done for the physical gratification of the dead8 ,we cannot divide them in principle from more barbarous rites4 ,we do not suppose that the dead see or smell the wreaths laid upon the coffin4 ,why should it be thought that in a more barbarous state of society it is believed that they enjoy the society of the wife who is sacrificed at the tomb8 ,the ruling motives for such rites are to be sought elsewhere4 ,in addition to the practical considerations which1 as ,sir ,alfred ,lyall has shown1 are potent in the case of the ,indian suttee1 it is to be remembered that the memory of the great dead is a national asset of the highest value 7as the memory of our parents is in the domestic circle71 and that it is worth while going to great expense in order to perpetuate it4 ,in an age before writing or epic poems existed1 cruel sacrifices1 pyramids1 great tumuli1 and other rude monuments were more necessary for this purpose than they are in our day4 ,and if barbarians sacrificed human beings1 do not we spend the financial equivalent of many human lives in statues1 memorials1 and otherwise useless funeral pageantry8 ,the difference between them and us lies not so much in the motive as in the lower value placed by them on human life4 ,the truth is that offerings to the dead1 from a flower or a few grains of rice to a human victim1 are partly a symbolical language addressed to the deceased1 and partly constitute an appeal for sympathy by the mourners and a response by their friends4 ,they symbolize the union of hearts among those who have suffered by a common bereavement4 ,we must also allow something for the despair which counts nothing that is left of any value1 and prompts the survivors to beating of breasts1 tearing of garments1 cutting the flesh1 sitting in sackcloth and ashes1 lavish expenditure1 and even suicide4 ,yet it must be admitted that there is a broad1 though secondary and lower1 current of opinion1 which holds that the dead benefit in some more or less obscure physical sense by the offerings at their tombs4 ,hirata believed that food offered to the dead loses its savour more rapidly than other food4 ,the ghosts summoned up by ,ulysses from ,erebus eagerly lapped up the blood offered them4 ,this1 although poetry1 no doubt represents a real belief4 ,mr4 ,andrew ,lang mentions the case of an ,irish peasant woman1 who1 when her husband died1 killed his horse1 and1 to some one who reproached her for her folly1 replied1 ,would you have my man go about on foot in the next world8 ,but may we not suspect that the real motive of my countrywoman's action was to express dumbly to the world the love she bore her husband by sacrificing something which she valued highly1 and that the answer quoted was nothing more than a consciously frivolous reason1 invented for the benefit of an unsympathetic1 dull-minded intruder8 ,whether or not the dead1 apart from any physical benefit from funeral offerings1 are grateful for the affectionate remembrance which they symbolize1 it may be doubted whether the recognition of such a feeling on their part enters very largely into our motives4 ,was it for the gratification of ,nelson's spirit that the column was erected in ,trafalgar ,square8 ,or do those who annually deposit primroses before the statue of ,lord ,beaconsfield think that his spirit is sensible of this observance8 ,funeral ceremonies were not recognized as having anything to do with the older ,shinto4 ,it avoided everything connected with death1 which was regarded as a source of pollution4 ,not until the revolution of #ahfh was there instituted an authorized form of ,shinto burial4#cg ,deified ,classes of ,men4--,in the older ,shinto this category of deities had more importance than it has at present4 ,several of the pseudo-ancestors are in reality deified types1 analogous to such conceptions as ,tommy ,atkins or ,mrs4 ,grundy4 ,as a general rule they have two aspects1 one as man-,gods1 and another as satellites of the ,sun-,goddess1 a nature deity4 ,they are more particularly described in a later chapter4 ,deities of ,human ,qualities4--,as might be expected1 ,shinto has comparatively few deities of this class4 ,it is represented by the ,gods of ,pestilence1 of ,good and ,ill ,luck1 the phallic deities1 and the oni1 or demons of disease4 ,such deified abstractions as the ,fates1 the ,furies1 ,old ,age1 ,time1 ,themis1 ,fear1 ,love1 c41 are conspicuously absent4 ,it will be observed that both of the two great currents of religion-making thought are concerned in the evolution of the last two categories of man-deities4 ,they involve not only the exaltation of human types and qualities to the rank of divinity1 but the personification of these general and abstract conceptions4 ,this complication indicates that they belong to a secondary stage of development4 ,ta-jikara no wo 7hand-strength-male71 for example1 is not a primary deity of the ,japanese ,pantheon4 ,he is little more than an ornamental adjunct to the myth of the ,sun-,goddess4 ,it may be gathered from the myths of the ,kojiki and ,nihongi that the phallic deities--personifications of lusty animal vigour--were at first mere magical appliances1 which were afterwards personified and raised to divine rank4 ,it was a personified human abstraction--namely1 ,psyche1 who was described by ,keats as ,the latest born and loveliest by far ,of all ,olympus' faded hierarchy4 ,mnemosyne1 ,styx1 and all the numerous deified abstractions of humanity in ,greek mythology are obviously of later origin than ,gaia and ,ouranos1 or even ,zeus and ,here4 ,it is on the narrow basis of these two secondary classes of conceptions that ,comte strove to establish his ,religion of ,humanity4 ,but it is difficult to conceive how on ,positivist principles ,humanity1 whether we regard it as a class or as a quality1 could have a sentient existence or transcendent power1 without a combination of which there can be no deity and no religion1 properly so called4 ,his worship of deceased individual men is open to the same objection4 ,comte's recognition of nature-deities is brief and contemptuous4 ,he allows a certain reverence to the ,sun and ,earth as fetishes4#ch ,animals ,in ,shinto4--,animals may be worshipped for their own sakes1 as wonderful1 terrible1 or uncanny beings4 ,the tiger1 the serpent1 and the wolf are for this reason called ,kami4 ,but there are no shrines in their honour1 and they have no regular cult4 ,a more common reason for honouring animals is their association with some deity as his servants or messengers4 ,thus the deer is sacred to ,take-mika-tsuchi at ,kasuga1 the monkey is sacred at ,hiyoshi1 the pigeon to the ,god ,hachiman1 the white egret at the shrine of ,kebi no ,miya1 the tortoise at ,matsuno1 and the crow at ,kumano4 ,the wani1 or sea-monster1 belongs to the sea-,god1 and the dragon belongs to 7or is7 ,taka okami 7the rain-,god74 ,there is also mention of a thunder-beast4 ,in later times the rat is sacred to ,daikokusama4 ,the pheasant is the messenger of the ,gods generally4 ,the best-known case of the worship of an associated animal is that of ,inari1 the rice-,god1 whose attendant foxes are mistaken by the ignorant for the ,god himself1 and whose effigies have offerings of food made to them4 ,the mythical ,yatagarasu1 or ,sun-,crow1 had formerly a shrine in its honour4 ,the stone ,koma-inu 7,korean dogs71 seen in front of many ,shinto shrines1 are meant not as ,gods1 but as guardians1 like the ,buddhist ,ni4 ,they are a later introduction4 ,the ,gods are sometimes represented as assuming animal form4 ,kushiyatama no ,kami changes into a cormorant1 ,koto-shiro-nushi into a wani 7sea-monster or dragon7 eight fathoms long4 ,the ,god of ,ohoyama takes the form of a white deer4 ,the most usual form assumed by deities is that of a snake1 serpent1 or dragon4 ,ohonamochi1 in his amours with a mortal princess1 showed himself to her as a small snake4 ,in the ,yamato-dake legend1 there is a mountain-deity who takes the shape of a great serpent4 ,at the command of the ,mikado ,yriaku1 the ,god of ,mimuro was brought to him by one of his courtiers4 ,it was a serpent4 ,water-,gods are usually serpents or dragons4 ,totemism4--,i find no distinct traces of totemism in ancient ,japan4 ,tattooing1 which some have associated with this form of belief1 existed as a means of distinguishing rank and occupation4 ,the most probable derivation of the tribal name ,kumaso is from kuma1 bear1 and oso1 otter4 ,a very few surnames are taken from names of animals4 ,dances1 in which the performers represented various animals1 were common4 ,the piecemeal immigration of the ,japanese race from the continent of ,asia must have done much to break up their original tribal system and to destroy any institutions associated with it4 ,the law of exogamy1 with which totemism is connected1 was very narrow in its operation in ancient ,japan4#ci ,,footnotes3 #ai ,laotze finit par n'tre plus que le principe vital universel existant avant le ciel et la terre et qui s'est plu chaque poque a se montrer sous les traits d'un personnage quelconque souvent des plus obscurs4--',religion de la ,chine1' ,de ,harlez4 #bj ,see a paper on the ,hi no maru 7sun-circle7 in the ,t4 ,a4 ,s4 ,j41 ,nov4 #hth1 #ahic4 #ba ,such as touching for scrofula or the assurance of fine weather4 #bb ,the statements of ,kaempfer1 in his ',history of ,japan1' regarding the sacred character of the ,mikado's person cannot be depended on4 ,his account of ,shinto generally is grossly erroneous1 or rather imaginary4 #bc ',japan1' edited by ,capt4 ,brinkley4 #bd ,see ,index1 sub voce4 #be ,see ,index--',suha4' #bf ',evolution of ,religion1' p4 #bci4 #bg ,fuku means good fortune4 #bh ,see p4 #bg4 #bi ,in ,teutonic mythology the will-of-the-wisps are souls which have not attained heavenly peace4 #cj ,see also ,mr4 ,frazer's ',golden ,bough1' ii4 #big4 #ca ,the ,stoics held that the world was not only animated and immortal1 but likewise happy and round1 because ,plato says that that is the most perfect form4 #cb ,hirata denies this4 #cc ,for full details of the construction of the ,japanese dolmen1 the reader may consult two admirable papers by ,mr4 ,w4 ,gowland1 in the ,japan ,society's ,transactions1 #ahig-h1 and the ,journal of the ,society of ,antiquaries1 #ahig4 #cd ,blood1 which is the life1 is the food frequently offered to the dead4444 ,by a substitution of similars1 it is considered sufficient to colour the corpse1 or some part thereof1 with some red substance taking the place thereof4--,jevons1 ',introduction to the ,history of ,religion1' p4 #eb4 ,but see ,index--',red4' #ce ,some of these figures are still in existence1 and one may be seen in the ,british ,museum1 where it constitutes the chief treasure of the ,gowland ,collection4 ,the ,uyeno ,museum1 in ,tokio1 also possesses specimens1 both of men and horses4 #cf ,rites1 performed at graves1 becoming afterwards religious rites performed at altars in temples1 were at first acts done for the benefit of the ghost4--,herbert ,spencer's ',sociology1' ii4 #h4 #cg ,see an article by ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,lay in ,t4 ,a4 ,s4 ,j41 #ahia4 #ch ,comte ramenait toutes les religions l'adoration de l'homme par l'homme4 ,comte1 il est vrai1 ne faisait pas de l'homme individuel l'objet du culte normal3 il proposait nos adorations l'homme en tant qu' espce en tant qu' humanit et parvenait deployer une vritable mysticit sur cette troite base4--,reville1 ',prolegomena1' p4 #bf4 #ci ,see ,index--',incest4' ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,general ,,features4 ,functions of ,gods4--,nature deities seldom confine themselves to their proper nature functions4 ,shinto exhibits an increasing tendency to recognize in them a providence that influences human affairs4 ,even in the older ,shinto there are examples of the ,gods exercising a providential care for mankind outside of their proper spheres of action4 ,the ,sun-,goddess not only bestows light on the world1 but preserves the seeds of grain for her beloved human beings4 ,she watches specially over the welfare of her descendants the ,mikados4 ,susa no wo1 the ,rain-storm personified1 is the provider of all kinds of useful trees4 ,practically1 all the deities are prayed to for a good harvest1 or for rain4 ,even man-,gods1 like ,temmangu1 may be appealed to for this purpose4 ,any ,god may send an earthquake or a pestilence4 ,in #hec there was a great epidemic of smallpox4 ,an oracle from ,tsukiyomi1 the ,moon-,god1 indicated the means of obtaining relief from this plague1 and since then people of every class pray to him when it is prevalent4 ,the ,ujigami and ,chinju1 family and local protective ,gods1 might be chosen from any class of deities4 ,a modern ,japanese writer#dj says3 ,no one knows what spirit of heaven or earth is venerated at the ,suiteng1#da in ,tokyo4 ,but despite the anonymity of the ,god1 people credit him with power to protect against all perils of sea and flood1 against burglary1 and1 by a strange juxtaposition of spheres of influence1 against the pains of parturition4 ,the deity of ,inari secures efficacy for prayer and abundance of crops2 the ,taisha great shrine of ,idzumo presides over wedlock2 the ,kompira shares with the ,suiteng the privilege of guarding those that 'go down to the deep4' ,the rest confer prosperity1 avert sickness1 cure sterility1 bestow literary talent1 endow with warlike powers1 and so on4 ,polytheistic ,character of ,shinto4--,a nature-worship1 such as the older ,shinto was in substance1 is inevitably polytheistic4 ,the worship of a single nature-,god1 as the ,sun1 is indeed conceivable4 ,but in practice1 the same impulse which leads to the personification of one nature object or phenomenon never rests there4 ,the ,living ,universe is a possible monotheistic nature-deity4 ,but this conception requires a greater amount of scientific knowledge than the ancient ,japanese possessed4 ,they had necessarily only imperfect and fragmentary glimpses of the vision splendid4 ,there is some evidence that ,shinto took the place of a still grosser and more indiscriminate polytheism4 ,we are told that ,take-mika-tsuchi and ,futsunushi prepared ,japan for the advent of ,ninigi by clearing it of savage deities who in the daytime buzzed like summer flies and at night shone like fire-pots1 while even the rocks1 trees1 and foam of water had all power of speech4 ,the number of ,shinto deities is very great4 ,the ,yengishiki enumerates #c1acb officially recognized shrines1 and although the same ,gods are reckoned more than once1 as being worshipped in different places1 still their name is legion4 ,they are popularly spoken of as eighty myriads1 eight hundred myriads1 or fifteen hundred myriads4 ,the number of effective deities fluctuates greatly4 ,oblivion disposes of many4 ,the identification of distinct deities is another cause of depletion in their ranks4 ,this happens very readily in a country where1 to parody ,pope's line1 most deities have no characters at all4 ,on the other hand their numbers are recruited from time to time by new ,gods produced by various processes4 ,the same deity1 worshipped at different places1 comes to be recognized as so many different deities4 ,horus in ancient ,egypt1 the ,virgin ,mary in ,italy1 and many of the ,greek and ,roman deities illustrate this principle4 ,we may be sure that the ,ephesians would have resented any attempt to identify their ,diana with that of other cities4 ,this process is facilitated in ,japan by the practice of speaking of the ,god1 not by his name1 but by that of his place of residence--another illustration of the impersonal habit of the ,japanese mind already noticed4 ,indeed the ,japanese care little what ,god it is that is worshipped at any particular place4 ,it is enough for the average pilgrim to know that some powerful deity resides there4 ,a poem composed at the great shrine of ,ise says3 ,what it is that dwelleth here ,i know not1 yet my heart is filled with gratitude and the tears trickle down4 ,of one of the ,greater ,shrines of the ,yengishiki ,murray's ',handbook' informs us that considerable divergence exists among scholars as to the identity of the ,gods to whom this temple is dedicated4 ,during the present reign ,kompira was converted by the ,japanese ,government from a ,buddhist to a ,shinto deity1 without detriment to the popularity of his shrine as a resort of pilgrims4 ,the same ,god may have greater credit for efficacy in one place than another4 ,thus the ,inari of a certain village has a high reputation for the recovery of stolen property4 ,such specialties were recognized even by the ,government1 which awarded different ranks to the same deity at different places4 ,distinctions of this kind1 of course1 facilitate the disruption of one deity into several4 ,another cause of multiplication is the mistake of supposing the same deity with different epithets to be different ,gods4 ,in modern times the ,shinto ,pantheon has been recruited pretty largely from the ranks of human beings4 ,trees are still deified1 and we have sometimes a new deity making his appearance from nobody knows where4 ,the polytheistic character of ,shinto is intimately connected with the weakness of the ,central ,government of ,japan during the period of its development4 ,or perhaps it may be more correct to say that it is another manifestation of the same want of national cohesion4#db ,the ancient ,mikados were anything but autocrats4 ,their authority was almost always overshadowed by the influence of ministers who struggled among themselves for the direction of the power nominally vested in the sovereign4 ,the ,central ,government had little effective jurisdiction beyond the capital and the five home provinces4 ,no wonder that under these circumstances local deities retained their vitality and prestige4 ,monotheism was an impossibility in ancient ,japan4 ,but we may trace certain tendencies in this direction which are not without interest4 ,a nation may pass from polytheism to monotheism in three ways3 ,firstly1 by singling out one deity and causing him to absorb the functions and the worship of the rest2 secondly1 by a fresh deification of a wider conception of the universe2 and thirdly1 by the dethroning of the native deities in favour of a single ,god of foreign origin4 ,it is this last1 the most usual fate of polytheisms1 which threatens the old ,gods of ,japan4 ,weakened by the encroachments of ,buddhism and the paralyzing influence of ,chinese sceptical philosophy1 they already begin to feel ,the rays of ,bethlehem blind their dusky eyne4 ,our business1 however1 is with the past1 not with the future4 ,the first of the three paths which lead to monotheism is illustrated by the tendency to ascribe to several of the ,shinto deities a certain superiority over the others4 ,the ,sun-,goddess1 ,kuni-toko-tachi1 the first ,god in point of time according to the ,nihongi1 ,ame no mi naka nushi1 and in ,idzumo1 ,ohonamochi have been in turn exalted to a unique position by their adherents4 ,but1 for reasons which will appear when we come to examine these deities more closely1 none of them really deserves the title of ,supreme ,being4 ,max ,mller's opinion that the belief in a ,supreme ,being is inevitable is not borne out by the facts of ,shinto4 ,the second path1 which leads to monotheism through a more comprehensive conception of the universe1 is exemplified by the ,creator deities1 ,izanagi and ,izanami1 personifications of the male and female principles of ,nature1 and still more so by ,musubi1 the ,god of ,growth1 which might conceivably have developed into a ,pantheistic ,supreme ,being4 ,but philosophic abstractions of this kind are unfitted for human nature's daily food4 ,musubi never acquired much hold on the people1 though at one time his worship held a very prominent place at the ,court of the ,mikados4 ,he eventually split up1 first into two1 then into a group of deities1 and finally became almost wholly neglected4 ,the ,nihongi1 under the date ,a4,d4 #fdd1 gives the following account of a blind and abortive movement towards a supreme monotheistic deity which claims from us a measure of sympathy3-- ,a man of the neighbourhood of the ,river ,fuji1 in the ,east ,country1 named ,ohofube no ,ohoshi1 urged his fellow-villagers to worship an insect1 saying3 ',this is the ,god of the ,everlasting ,world4 ,those who worship this ,god will have long life and riches4' ,at length the wizards kannagi and witches miko pretending an inspiration of the ,gods1 said3 ',those who worship the ,god of the ,everlasting ,world will1 if poor1 become rich1 and1 if old1 will become young again4' ,so they more and more persuaded the people to cast out the valuables of their houses1 and to set out by the roadside sake1 vegetables1 and the six domestic animals4 ,they also made them cry out3 ',the new riches have come6' ,both in the country and in the metropolis people took the insect of the ,everlasting ,world and1 placing it in a pure place1 with song and dance invoked happiness4 ,they threw away their treasures1 but to no purpose whatever4 ,the loss and waste was extreme4 ,hereupon ,kahakatsu1 ,kadono no ,hada no ,miyakko1 was wroth that the people should be so much deluded1 and slew ,ohofube no ,ohoshi4 ,the wizards and witches were intimidated1 and ceased to persuade people to this worship4 ,the men of that time made a song1 saying3 ,udzumasa ,has executed ,the ,god of the ,everlasting ,world ,who we were told ,was the very ,god of ,gods4 ,this insect is usually bred on orange trees1 and sometimes on the hosoki4 ,it is over four inches in length1 and about as thick as a thumb4 ,it is of a grass-green colour with black spots1 and in appearance very much resembles the silkworm4 ,we may note here the popular identification of the prophet with the ,god whom he served1 and the worship of a caterpillar1 which apparently played the part of the ear of corn in the ,eleusinian mysteries4 ,shintai4--,concurrent with the development of the spirituality of ,shinto there arose a greater necessity for some visible concrete token of the presence of the ,god4#dc ,this is known as the mitama-shiro 7spirit representative1 spirit-token71 or more commonly as the shintai 7god-body74 ,the shintai varies much in form4 ,it is frequently a mirror or a sword1 but may also be a tablet with the ,god's name1 a sprig of sakaki1 a gohei1 a bow and arrows1 a pillow1 a pot1 a string of beads1 a tree or river-bank1 or even the shrine itself4 ,a stone is a very common shintai1 doubtless because it is inexpensive and imperishable4 ,the shintai is usually enclosed in a box1 which is opened so seldom that sometimes the priest himself does not know what it contains4 ,it is not always the same for the same ,god worshipped in different places4 ,the shintai in some respects resembles the ,greek 4 ,both were originally offerings which became tokens of the ,god's presence1 and by virtue of immemorial association with the deities to whom they were presented came at length to be regarded as sharing their divinity4 ,the 1 however1 developed into the statue1 while the shintai1 with a very few exceptions of later origin1 did not take this form4 ,broadly speaking1 ,shinto has no idols4 ,there is usually no attempt to give the shintai any resemblance to the supposed form of the ,god whom it represents4 ,a few exceptions may be noted4 ,the mirror of the ,sun-,goddess1 which was in reality originally an offering1 is stated in one of the myths to have been made in imitation of the form of the sun4 ,the phallic ,gods1 ,yachimata-hiko and ,yachimata-hime1 were represented by human figures4 ,the scarecrow ,god1 ,kuhe-biko1 may be regarded as a rude idol4 ,in the province of ,noto there are stone idols said to be the images of the ,gods ,sukuna-bikona and ,ohonamochi4 ,the pictures of the ,gods sold at ,shinto shrines in the present day are owing to ,chinese or ,buddhist influence4 ,in the old language the word hashira1 pillar1 is added to the numerals for deities and ,mikados4 ,for instance1 three ,gods is ,kami mi-hashira1 that is to say1 three pillars of ,gods4 ,now in ,korea1 a country inhabited by a race closely allied to the ,japanese1 there are seen by the roadsides posts carved at the top into a rude semblance of the human form4#dd ,some serve as milestones1 and some are erected at the outskirts of villages to keep away the demon small-pox4 ,these figures are called the ,opang ,chang-gun1 or ,generals of the ,five ,quarters4 ,the name is ,chinese1 but the deities themselves may nevertheless be of ,korean origin4 ,if the ancient ,japanese had rude figures of this kind it would explain the use of hashira1 pillar1 as a numeral for ,gods4 ,i am rather disposed1 however1 to surmise that the use of this term was really owing to the fact that the symbols of divinity most familiar to the ancient ,japanese were the phallic emblems set up everywhere by the roadsides4 ,the term wo-bashira1 applied to the phallic end-post of the parapet of a bridge1 contains the same element4#de ,there is a tendency in ,japan1 as in other countries1 for the token of the ,god to become regarded1 firstly1 as the seat of his real presence1 and1 secondly1 as the ,god himself4 ,many persons do not distinguish between the mitama and the shintai1 and some go so far as to confound the latter with the ,god's utsushi-mi1 or real body4 ,this is a form of idolatry4 ,the shintai may even be erected into an independent deity4 ,the mirror1 which is the shintai of the ,sun-,goddess1 is the object of a separate worship1 under the name of ,ame kakasu no kami4 ,even at the present day religious honours are paid to this mirror or its representative4#df ,the sword ,futsu no mitama has shrines dedicated to it4 ,another sword1 called ,kusanagi1 has been worshipped for centuries at ,atsuta1 near ,nagoya4 ,it was this sword which ,susa no wo found in the tail of the great serpent slain by him to rescue the ,japanese ,andromeda1 and sent as an offering to his sister the ,sun-,goddess4 ,fetish worship of this kind is a later and degenerate form of religion2 and must not be confounded with the worship of the great nature-deities4 ,some artificial inanimate objects of worship are not shintai1 but are worshipped for their own sakes as helpers of humanity4 ,the fire-place is honoured as a deity4 ,potters at the present day pay respect to their bellows1 which are allowed one day of rest annually1 and have offerings made them4 ,the superstitious ,japanese housewife still1 on the #abth day of the #bnd month1 gives her needles a holiday1 laying them down on their side and making them little offerings of cakes1 c4#dg ,the absence of idols from ,shinto is not owing1 as in ,judaism and ,islam1 to a reaction against the evils caused by the use of anthropomorphic pictures and images1 but to the low artistic development of the ,japanese nation before the awakening impulse was received from ,china4 ,it indicated weakness rather than strength4 ,much of the vagueness which characterizes the ,japanese conceptions of their ,gods would have been avoided by a freer use of images4 ,in principle the image and the metaphor are the same4 ,there is no more harm in representing a ,god1 pictorially or in sculpture1 as an old man than there is in addressing him as ,father1 though practically a wide experience shows that the common people do not stop here in either case4 ,there is a strong tendency to debase religion by attributing special virtue to the particular physical object of devotion1 or even to forget that there is a ,god of which it is only a very imperfect symbol4 ,the ,infinite4--,max ,mller says that without the faculty of apprehending the ,infinite there can be no religion4 ,in that case ,shinto is not a religion4 ,the ,gods are not conceived of as infinite4 ,they are superior1 swift1 brave1 bright1 rich1 c41 but not immortal1 omnipresent1 omniscient1 or possessed of infinite power4 ,where the word infinite is used it is said of infinite time4 ,we hear of the infinite succession of the ,mikados1 and of infinite or perpetual night 7tokoyami74 ,perhaps what ,max ,mller really meant was transcendent1 that is1 beyond man's power to rival1 or even fully to comprehend4 ,,footnotes3 #dj ,in ',japan1' edited by ,capt4 ,brinkley4 #da ,dr4 ,florenz1 in his ',japanische ,mythologie1' says that ,sui-teng is a fusion of the ,sumiyoshi ,sea-,gods with the ,indian ,sea-,god ,sui-ten1 that is1 ,varuna1 subsequently identified with the youthful ,emperor ,antoku 7who lost his life by drowning in #aahe74 #db ,the different peoples conceived and developed this divine hierarchy pari passu with their own approximation to political unity 7,goblet d',alviella1 ,hibbert ,lectures74 ,aristotle recognized the same principle4 #dc ,the symbol or permanent object1 at and through which the worshipper came into direct contact with the ,god1 was not lacking in any ,semitic place of worship1 but had not always the same form1 and was sometimes a natural object1 sometimes an artificial erection4--,robertson ,smith1 ',religion of the ,semites1' p4 #afj4 #dd simulacra que maesta deorum ,arte carent1 csis extant informia truncis4 ,lucan1 ',pharsalia4' #de ,see ,index--,sake no kami4 #df ,see ,index--,naishidokoro4 #dg ,in an official report by ,mr4 ,h4 ,risley he says that at the time of the spring equinox there is a festival 7in ,india7 called ,sri ,panchami1 when it is incumbent on every religious-minded person to worship the implements or insignia of the vocation by which he lives4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,myth4 ,nature of ,myth4--,myth and religion have distinct sources4 ,we have seen above#dh that there is a phase of religion antecedent to myth4 ,on the other hand1 the earliest form of myth has no religious significance4 ,it is the result of an idle play of fancy without any definite purpose4 ,i have known a child of two or three years of age1 who1 when he saw a light cloud pass over the rising moon1 exclaimed ,she is putting on her clothes4 ,not that he believed the moon to be an animated being1 or that he thought that clouds were really her clothes4 ,his childish imagination was stirred by an instinctive impulse1 to be compared with that which prompts the gambolling of a kitten who rushes from one place to another without any definite object1 or to the butting of a young ruminant before his horns have grown4 ,closely related to such spontaneous efforts is the myth invented solely for the amusement of the hearer4 ,may we not place in this category some of the nature myths of savages which to all appearance have no worship or belief associated with them1 and belong to a pre-religious stage of development4 ,then we have the myths which are explanatory of some custom1 rite1 natural phenomenon1 political institution1 names of places or persons1 c4 ,with these we may associate the genealogical myth4 ,there is also the blunder myth1 arising frequently from a misunderstanding of language1 and the lie--a myth framed with intent to deceive4 ,all these classes of fiction are abundantly exemplified in the old ,japanese books4 ,more important for our present purpose is the religious myth1 that ,mysterious veil1 of brightness made1 ,at once the lustre and the shade of religious conceptions4 ,like the metaphor1 of which it may be regarded as an expansion1 it suggests the ,true by means of the ,untrue4 ,it is an acknowledged necessity of religious teaching4 ,in the infancy of language there is no other means of expressing spiritual verities than by physical symbols--in other words by myth and metaphor4 ,and even when a language has acquired some capacity for the direct expression of spiritual facts1 it is found that the old methods must still be resorted to in order to excite the interest and impress the imagination of the ignorant multitude4 ,it is not to be supposed that the makers of such myths believed that they were true in their natural physical acceptation4 ,take for example the parable of the prodigal son4 ,there is no reason to believe that the far country1 the husks that the swine did eat1 the fatted calf1 and the prodigal himself were not figments of ,our ,lord's imagination4 ,nor if the story had been true in all its details would this circumstance have added one whit to the value of the lesson taught by it4 ,i believe that the author of the ,mosaic story of the ,fall of ,man would be much surprised to know that his drama1 which deals so forcibly in concrete form with temptation1 sin1 and its punishment1 had been taken by the world for many centuries as a narrative of actual fact4 ,some high authorities apply a different measure to pagan and savage myth4 ,dr4 ,pfleiderer1 in his ',philosophy of ,religion1' says that it must be carefully borne in mind that the religious phantasy1 in producing such poetic symbolical legends1 is not in the habit of distinguishing1 nor can distinguish between the ideal truth and its sensible investment4 ,the late ,mr4 ,fiske held substantially the same view4 ,he goes so far as to apply it to ,dante1 whose ,charon beating the lagging shades with his oar1 ,satan crushing in his monstrous jaws the arch-traitors ,judas1 ,brutus1 and ,cassius1 ,bertrand de ,born looking at his own dissevered head1 he regards as in the minds of ,dante and his readers living1 terrible realities4 ,true it is that a stern reality underlies these grotesque fancies4 ,but it is not of the physical order4 ,no one knew better than ,dante the virtue of the altro intende in such matters4 ,we may be quite sure that he did not believe in a real inscription over the gate of ,hell1 in ,italian terza rima1 and composed by himself4 ,it is a mistake1 ,i submit1 to imagine him1 like ,katerfelto1 with his hair on end at his own wonders4 ,when ,dickens tells us that he decidedly looked on his heroes as living persons we must take this statement cum grano salis4 ,we know what would have happened if some one had offered him1 by way of payment1 a cheque bearing the signature of ,mr4 ,boffin1 ,dombey ,son1 or the ,brothers ,cheeryble4 ,mere inferences are often taken for facts1 but1 under normal conditions1 the imaginative man is not the dupe of his own inventive faculty4 ,it may be said that1 however true this may be of more modern religious myth1 the attitude of the primitive man towards the naive creations of his fancy is different4 ,strictly speaking1 there is no such thing as a primitive man4 ,however far we may go back1 we shall find men with parents1 and preceded by an infinite line of ancestors4 ,still there can be no harm in using this term to designate mankind at some ill-defined stage of progress above the highest lower animal and below the savage of our own days4 ,strange things are told us of the primitive man4 ,he is said to be unable to distinguish between his imaginations and facts1 and that he is in the habit of taking his dreams#di for real occurrences4 ,fiske says3 ,our primitive ancestors knew nothing about laws of nature1 nothing about physical forces1 nothing about the relations of cause and effect1 nothing about the necessary regularity of things4444 ,the only force they knew was the force of which they were directly conscious--the force of will4 ,accordingly1 they imagined all the outward world to be endowed with volition and to be directed by it4 ,of course our primitive ancestors expressed themselves differently from ourselves4 ,they did not talk about laws of nature and the necessary regularity of things4 ,but can we conceive them ignorant of the law of the regular alternation of night and day1 of summer and winter1 of the phases of the moon8 ,did not the primitive man know just as well as ,newton that when an apple is detached from a tree it falls to the ground8 ,he knew that from a blow as cause we may expect pain1 wounds1 or even death as the effect4 ,he had sufficient acquaintance with dynamics to be aware that he could not raise himself from the ground more than a few feet1 and with chemistry to have learnt that the savour of food is improved or spoilt1 according to circumstances1 by the application of fire4 ,nor is it true that he ascribed all forces to volition4 ,it is only by exception that the child1 the savage1 and the primitive man attribute life to inanimate things4 ,this requires imagination1 a faculty which is notoriously feebler with them than with the adult civilized man4 ,the progress of humanity is from a sporadic towards a general recognition of will in or behind the material universe1 from fitful and sportive fancies involving this idea to an earnest and steady conviction of its truth1 and from the fragmentary personification of the part as animated to the conception of a living1 universal whole4 ,agnosticism1 which ignores volition in matter1 belongs1 therefore1 to the lower end of the scale of progress4 ,where it appears in civilized man1 it is a case of arrested development4 ,the average savage is a materialist1 who associates volition with the energies of nature in a much less thorough and systematic way than the ,christian1 who believes that a sparrow cannot fall to the ground without the ,father4 ,we must not confound the primitive maker of religious myth with the primitive man4 ,it would lead to error if we modelled our idea of the average modern ,european on ,bunyan1 ,milton1 or ,dante4 ,it is sometimes asserted that the impossible and miraculous occurrences which we so often meet with in the narratives of the primval myth-maker are to him true4 ,why should he be limited to fact in this way8 ,no doubt his standard of truth is different from our own4 ,he would regard as possible many things which we know to be impossible4 ,but is it necessary to suppose that his knowledge that a thing was impossible should prevent him1 any more than our modern storytellers1 from utilizing it in his imaginative work8 ,jules ,verne well knew that a voyage round the moon is an impossibility4 ,the unknown author or authors of ',cinderella' surely need not be credited with a belief that pumpkins can be converted into coaches by the stroke of a fairy wand2 the inventor of the story of the birth of ,minerva from the brain of ,jupiter knew quite well that such obstetrical operations were not feasible2 and it is unnecessary to believe that the myth-makers of the ,kojiki and ,nihongi thought that children could be produced by crunching jewels in the mouth and spitting them out4 ,there is1 however1 an exception to the rule that a storyteller does not believe in the truth of his own inventions4 ,it is notoriously possible for the author of a fictitious narrative to become1 after a time1 unable to distinguish it from a statement of actual facts4 ,there is a case on record in which a learned judge communicated to the ,psychical ,society in perfect good faith a ghost story1 all the principal features of which were proved to be imaginary4 ,they had their origin in his own talent as a distinguished raconteur4 ,but this is a morbid phenomenon which must not be confounded with the normal action of the imagination in the child1 the savage1 or the primitive 7or1 indeed1 any other7 myth-maker4 ,the inability to distinguish between imagination and fact is really not a special characteristic of the primitive man or savage1 but of the literal-minded of all ages1 in presence of the creations of imaginative genius4 ,some few primitive men may distinguish between the spiritual kernel and its imaginative envelopment4 ,but for the multitude this is impossible4 ,unable to discriminate between these two elements1 and dimly conscious that the whole is a valuable possession1 they wisely accept it indiscriminately as actual fact4 ,de ,gubernatis1 in his ',zoological ,mythology1' relates a story which illustrates the respective attitudes of the myth-maker and his hearers4 ,he tells us that when he was four years old1 as he was walking one day with a brother1 the latter pointed to a fantastical cloud on the horizon1 and cried1 ',look down there3 that is a hungry wolf running after the sheep4' ,he convinced me so entirely of that cloud being really a hungry wolf that ,i instantly took to my heels and escaped precipitately into the house4 ,take1 again1 the following sun-myth1 fresh coined from the mint of ,mr4 ,george ,meredith3-- ,the sun is coming down to earth1 and the fields and the waters shout to him golden shouts4 ,he comes1 and his heralds run before him1 and touch the leaves of oaks and planes and beeches lucid green and the pine stems redder gold3 leaving brightest footprints upon thickly weeded banks1 where the foxglove's last upper bells incline and bramble shoots wander amid moist herbage1 c4 ,this myth1 like the old ,greek tales of ,prometheus and ,tantalus1 which ,wordsworth calls ,fictions in form1 but in their substance truths1 has a spiritual significance of which ,mr4 ,meredith cannot have been unconscious4 ,though nobody at the present day supposes that the author or his readers take it for a narrative of actual events1 cannot we fancy ,macaulay's ,new ,zealander1 being told as a fact some traditional1 time-worn1 corrupt1 and ill-interpreted version of it1 and1 especially if he is a literal-minded philosopher1 wondering how it was possible for the ,english to believe in such a concatenation of anthropomorphic fancies8 ,the literal acceptation of myth or metaphor is not confined to the lower class of intellect4 ,it was a teacher of ,israel who could not see how a man could enter into his mother's womb and be born again4 ,motori and ,hirata1 highly educated scholars1 well versed in ,chinese and ,indian religious literature1 received the stories of the ,kojiki and ,nihongi as genuine history4 ,even ,dante and ,milton1 men of profound spiritual insight1 probably accepted in their most literal sense some of the imaginative figments of their predecessors4 ,there have always been literal-minded unbelievers1 who reject the myth and its religious contents without discrimination1 and simply value it1 if at all1 for its aesthetic merits4 ,of them1 as of the literal-minded believer1 ,si exempla requiris1 circumspice4 ,the history of the religious myth may be summarized as follows3 ,a1 a man of genius1 creates it1 clearly distinguishing in his own mind between the kernel of religious truth and its imaginative embodiment4 ,his disciples ,b and ,c understand him thoroughly4 ,in this stage a myth is called a parable or allegory4 ,many myths proceed no further4 ,d1 ,f1 ,h1 99 99 99 ,t and ,v1 unable to discriminate the true element from the false1 accept the whole confusedly as actual fact4 ,e1 ,g1 99 99 ,s and ,u are dense to its religious significance1 and think it idle nonsense1 or at best1 simply a good story4 ,w and ,x have a glimmering notion that the imaginative part cannot be literally true1 but do not dare to question it1 lest they should sacrifice at the same time the valuable religious kernel4 ,z is a philosophic inquirer who1 not without difficulty1 regains the standpoint of ,b and ,c4 ,but by this time the myth has been superseded as a vehicle of religious truth by fuller and more exact forms of expression4 ,the chief ideas underlying ,japanese myth are1 firstly1 the conception--piecemeal it is true1 and inadequate--of the so-called inanimate universe as being really instinct with sentient life1 and exercising a loving providential care over mankind2#ej and secondly1 the doctrine that honour and obedience are due to the sovereign whose beneficent rule secures to the people blessings comparable to that of the sun's light and warmth4 ,for such1 ,i take it1 is the real meaning of the story by which the ,mikados are feigned to be descendants of the ,sun-,goddess4 ,it is the ,japanese version of the doctrine of the divine right of kings4 ,without these and similar vital elements ,japanese myth would be nothing more than what some writers have supposed it1 a farrago of absurdities1 and its examination would belong not to the physiology1 but to the pathology of the human mind4 ,it can hardly be maintained1 however1 that the poets and seers of ancient ,japan achieved much success in clothing their spiritual conceptions in mythical form4 ,there is little force or beauty in their stories1 and there is a plentiful admixture of matter which1 to us at least1 is frivolous1 revolting1 or devoid of religious significance4 ,there is no summer and winter myth in the old ,japanese books1 no deluge myth1 and no eclipse myth4 ,there is1 strange to say1 no earthquake myth1 and but one solitary mention of a ,god of ,earthquakes4 ,there are no astral myths1 no ,returning ,saviour myth1 and no ,journey of the ,dead beyond the bare mention of an ,even ,pass of ,yomi1 or ,hades4 ,the creation of mankind is not accounted for4 ,myth and ,ritual4--,when a myth and a ceremony relate to the same subject-matter1 which comes first in order of time8 ,is the ceremony a dramatic commemoration of the events related in the myth1 or1 vice vers1 is the myth an attempt to explain the origin of the ceremony8 ,some go so far as to say that ritual is the source of all religious myth4 ,the late ,mr4 ,d4 ,g4 ,brinton1 on the other hand1 held that every rite is originally based on a myth4 ,robertson ,smith's view was that in almost every case the myth was derived from the ritual1 and not the ritual from the myth4 ,no general rule can be laid down in these cases4 ,every such question must be decided according to the available evidence4 ,a myth is a narrative1 and a ceremony a kind of dramatic peformance4 ,it will not be disputed that dramas have been founded on narratives1 and that narratives are sometimes taken from dramas1 as in the case of ,lamb's ',tales from ,shakespeare4' ,novels are every day dramatized1 and the reverse process1 though not common with ourselves1 is familiar in ,japan4 ,several of the ,shinto deities are worshipped for no other reason than because they are mentioned in the myths of the ,kojiki and ,nihongi4 ,it was probably the mythical account of the friendship of ,ajisuki and ,ame-waka-hiko which led to shrines being erected to these deities side by side at ,idzumo4 ,a literal interpretation of the obviously allegorical story of ,iha-naga-hime and ,kono-saku-hime led1 in later times1 to an actual cult of these personages4 ,on the other hand1 the ceremony of religious ablution is certainly older than the myth which represents ,izanagi as washing in the sea in order to remove the pollutions of the land of ,yomi4 ,the worship of the ,sun is assuredly not the outcome1 but the source1 of the ,japanese solar myths1 though it may owe to them some of its more modern features4 ,many myths have no ceremonial associated with them1 and there is much ceremony for which the myth-makers have not attempted to account4 ,,footnotes3 #dh ,p4 #af4 #di ,see above1 p4 #ab1 and ,index--',dreams1' #ej ,see ,dr4 ,tylor's ',primitive ,culture1' second edition1 i4 #bhe4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,mythical ,,narrative4 ,no really adequate idea of the old ,japanese myths can be gained without a direct study of the ,kojiki1 ,nihongi1 and ,kiujiki1 with all their repetitions1 inconsistencies1 and obscurities4 ,in the following outline1 taken mainly from the two first-named works1 a selection has been made of such incidents as have an interest and significance for ,european students of mythology4 ,both the ,nihongi and the ,kiujiki begin with a passage which is justly repudiated by the modern school of ,shinto theologians as in reality belonging to the materialistic philosophy of ,china4#ea ,it runs as follows3-- ,of old1 ,heaven and ,earth were not yet separated1 and the ,in and ,yo#eb not yet divided4 ,they formed a chaotic mass like an egg1 which was of obscurely defined limits1 and contained germs4 ,the purer and clearer part was thinly diffused and formed ,heaven1 while the heavier and grosser element settled down and became ,earth4 ,the finer element easily became a united body1 but the consolidation of the heavy and gross element was accomplished with difficulty4 ,heaven was therefore formed first1 and ,earth established subsequently4 ,thereafter divine beings were produced between them4 ,pfleiderer says3#ec ,there is not unfrequently found in the mythology of the nature-religions a combination of ,theogony and a ,divine formation of matter in such a way that the ,gods--whether one or all of them--are the first products of chaos1 but then they form the rest of the world out of it4 ,in the ,indian mythology ,prajapati proceeded out of the golden world-egg and then became the creative former of the world4 ,likewise in the ,chaldan mythology the great ,gods arose at first out of chaos1 and they then created the other ,gods and the living beings of heaven and earth4 ,but are not such speculations later accretions on the original myth8 ,in ,japan1 at any rate1 formation out of chaos is undoubtedly an afterthought4 ,first ,gods4--,we have next what is called the seven generations of ,gods1 ending with the creator-deities1 ,izanagi and ,izanami4 ,of the first six of these generations the most confused and contradictory accounts are given in the various authorities4 ,there is no agreement as to the name of the first ,god on the list4 ,the ,nihongi tells us that the first deity produced between ,heaven and ,earth while still in a state of chaos sprang up like a reed-shoot1 which then changed into a ,god1#ed and was called ,kuni-toko-tachi no ,mikoto1#ee or ,earth-eternal-stand augustness4 ,the ,kojiki calls the first ,god ,ame no mi-naka nushi no ,kami1 that is to say1 ,heaven-august-centre-master-deity1 identified by some with the ,polar ,star1 a hypothesis for which there is no other ground than the name itself4 ,the same authority gives ,kuni-toko-tachi a place lower down in the genealogical table4 ,the ,kiujiki has a first ,god called ,ame yudzuru hi ame no sagiri kuni yudzuru tsuki kuni no sagiri1 and describes him 7or her1 for there is no indication of sex7 as the ,heavenly ,parent4 ,it is impossible to translate this rigmarole2 but as it contains the words earth1 sun1 moon1 and mist1 a nature-deity is evidently intended4 ,both the ,kojiki and ,kiujiki first ,gods disappear at once from the mythical record4 ,there is little trace of their worship in later times1 and they must be pronounced mere abortive attempts at deity-making4 ,two other first deities are mentioned in the various myths quoted in the ,nihongi1 namely1 ,umashi-ashi-kabi-hiko-ji 7sweet-reed-shoot-prince-father7 and ,ama-toko-tachi 7,heaven-eternal-stand74 ,the latter forms1 along with ,kuni-toko-tachi1 one of those pairs of deities1 not necessarily male and female1 which are common in ,japanese mythology4 ,an enumeration of the ,gods of the five generations which follow would be tedious and unprofitable4 ,some of them had probably no existence outside of the imagination of individual writers4 ,they were doubtless invented or collected in order to provide a genealogy for ,izanagi and ,izanami4 ,with one exception1 they have left no trace in myth or in ceremonial4 ,there are no shrines in their honour4 ,little is to be learnt from their names1 the derivation of which is often doubtful4 ,several of them1 however1 show that the divinely mysterious process of growth1 so all-important to an agricultural nation1 had attracted attention4#ef ,musubi no ,kami 7the ,god of ,growth71 who forms the sixth generation of deities1 is a genuine divinity1 of whom more remains to be said hereafter4 ,izanagi and ,izanami4--,the seventh generation consisted of two deities1 ,izanagi and ,izanami4 ,it is with them that ,japanese myth really begins1 all that precedes being merely introductory and for the most part of comparatively recent origin4 ,the ,nihongi tells us that-- ,izanagi and ,izanami stood on the floating bridge of ,heaven1 and held counsel together1 saying ',is there not a country beneath8' ,thereupon they thrust down the ',jewel-,spear of ,heaven' 7,ame no tama-boko7 and groping about with it1 found the ocean4 ,the brine which dripped from the point of the spear coagulated and formed an island which received the name of ,onogoro-jima or the ',self-,coagulating ,island4' ,the two deities thereupon descended and dwelt there4 ,accordingly they wished to be united as husband and wife1 and to produce countries4 ,so they made ,onogoro-jima the pillar of the centre of the land4 ,the ,kojiki says that ,izanagi and ,izanami were commanded by all the heavenly deities to regulate and fully consolidate the floating land beneath4 ,but all the accounts1 the ,kojiki included1 proceed to represent the islands of ,japan as having been generated by them in the ordinary manner4 ,we have therefore three distinct conceptions of creation in ,japanese myth--first as generation in the most literal sense1 second1 as reducing to order1 and third1 as growth 7,musubi74#eg ,the floating bridge of ,heaven is no doubt the rainbow4 ,it is represented on earth by the ,sori-bashi or ,taiko-bashi 7drum-bridge7 a semi-circular bridge over a pond before some ,shinto shrines4 ,it has too steep a slope for ordinary use1 and is reserved for the ,deity and for the priest on solemn occasions1 the custom having been in this instance probably suggested by the myth4 ,the ,ame no tama-boko or ,jewel-,spear of ,heaven has been the subject of much dissertation4 ,hirata1 whose view is endorsed by several eminent scholars1 native and foreign1 thinks that it is a phallus4 ,its use in creating1 which in ,japanese myth is the same thing as begetting1 the first island1 countenances this idea4 ,the derivation of tama-boko also lends itself to it4 ,tama may be rendered ball or knob as well as jewel1 and the tama-boko might therefore be a shaft surmounted by a knob representing the glans1 reminding us of the spears tipped with pine cones which were carried by the ,bacchantes in the ,dionysia4 ,we have another ,japanese case of a conventionalized phallus in the wo-bashira4#eh ,moreover1 on the theory that the tama-boko is a phallus1 we have a satisfactory explanation of the circumstance that tama-boko no is used as a standing epithet of michi1 road1 which has puzzled ,japanese scholars4 ,the tama-boko no michi would then mean the road where phallic symbols are set up4 ,there is abundant evidence that objects of this kind were a familiar sight by the roadsides near the capital in ancient times4 ,the poet ,tsura-yuki 7tenth century7 has left a short poem in which he expresses his intention of praying to the ,tamaboko no chiburi no kami when starting on a journey4 ,the ,chiburi no kami were the phallic road deities1 protectors of travellers4 ,notwithstanding the ,japanese poets' habit of using stock epithets without much regard to their proper meaning1 this juxtaposition is highly suggestive4 ,another name for the phallic ,sahe no kami#ei was ,chimata no kami1 or road-fork-gods1 because they had no temples and were worshipped by the road-sides and at cross-ways4 ,the road between ,utsu-nomiya and ,nikk1 when ,i travelled along it in #ahgj1 was still a tama-boko no michi--in the phallic sense4#fj ,another link between the hoko and the phallus is suggested by a statement in the ,shiki ,monogatari that the weapon which formed1 and still forms1 the central object in the great ,goriye festival procession at ,kioto is known as the ,sai no hoko4 ,now the ,goriye is a survival of the old festival in honour of the phallic ,sahe no kami4 ,but in mythology one explanation does not necessarily exclude another and apparently contradictory one4 ,whether the myth-makers had in their minds the phallus conception of the tama-boko--and ,i am persuaded that they had--it is impossible in this connexion to ignore the function of the hoko1 or spear1 as a symbol of authority4 ,herbert ,spencer#fa has shown how universally the spear has this meaning4 ,britannia's trident is a familiar example4 ,theseus1 in the ',hippolytus' of ,euripides1 speaks of the land ruled by my spear4 ,lances or arrows are emblems of authority in ,korea4 ,in ,japan itself there is an abundance of similar evidence4 ,in the ,nihongi we hear of local governors being granted shields and spears in token of authority4 ,when ,ohonamochi abdicates in favour of ,ninigi he delivers over the ,kuni-muke no hiro-boko1 or land-subduing-broad-spear4 ,the epithet ,ya-chi-boko no kami1 or ,god of eight thousand spears1 applied to the same deity1 has a similar symbolical meaning4 ,the ,empress ,jing set up her spear at the palace gate of the ,king of ,silla1 in ,korea1 as a token of conquest4 ,a holly spear1 eight fathoms long1 was given to ,prince ,yamatodake when he was despatched on his expedition to subdue ,eastern ,japan4 ,it will be observed that the tama-boko as a phallus belongs to the generative conception of creation1 and as a spear to the idea of it as a cosmic or regulating process3-- ,the two deities having descended on ,onogoro-jima erected there an eight fathom house with an august central pillar4 ,then ,izanagi addressed ,izanami1 saying3 ',how is thy body formed8' ,izanami replied1 ',my body is completely formed except one part which is incomplete4' ,then ,izanagi said1 ',my body is completely formed and there is one part which is superfluous4 ,suppose that we supplement that which is incomplete in thee with that which is superfluous in me1 and thereby procreate lands4' ,izanami replied1 ',it is well4' ,then ,izanagi said1 ',let me and thee go round the heavenly august pillar1 and having met at the other side1 let us become united in wedlock4' ,this being agreed to1 he said1 ',do thou go round from the left1 and ,i will go round from the right4' ,when they had gone round1 ,izanami spoke first and exclaimed1 ',how delightful6 ,i have met a lovely youth4' ,izanagi then said1 ',how delightful6 ,i have met a lovely maiden4' ,afterwards he said1 ',it was unlucky for the woman to speak first4' ,the child which was the first offspring of their union was the ,hiruko 7leech-child71 which at the age of three was still unable to stand upright1 and was therefore placed in a reed-boat and sent adrift4 ,the eight fathom house built by ,izanagi and ,izanami as a preliminary to their marriage is the fuseya1 or nuptial hut1 several times referred to in the old records4 ,it was erected less for practical purposes than to avoid the ceremonial contamination of the ordinary dwelling-house by the consummation of a marriage within it4 ,the number eight is often met with in ,japanese myth4 ,it would be a mistake1 however1 to regard it as in any way sacred4 ,the primary meaning of yatsu is many1 and it might be better to translate it so in this passage4 ,the central pillar of a house 7corresponding to our king-post7 is at the present day an object of honour in ,japan as in many other countries4 ,in the case of ,shinto shrines1 it is called the ,nakago no mibashira 7central august pillar71 and in ordinary houses the ,daikoku-bashira4 ,the circumambulation of the central post by ,izanagi and ,izanami reminds us of the ,hindu pradakchina4#fb ,hirata's conjecture that we have here an ancient marriage rite is very plausible4 ,the circumambulation of the dwelling1 the fire1 a tree1 or an altar by the bride and bridegroom is a familiar feature of marriage ritual4 ,it does not follow that the ,japanese rite had a religious character4 ,nothing in the mythical record suggests that this is the case1 and at no time in ,japanese history has the marriage ceremony had the sanction of religion4 ,shinto neither consecrates wedlock nor condemns adultery4 ,it must not be inferred from this narrative that unions between brothers and sisters of the full blood were permitted by ancient ,japanese custom4 ,cain and ,abel must have married their own sisters1 but this proves nothing against the morality of the ,jews4 ,the necessity of the story is the compelling motive in both cases4 ,it is true that marriages were allowed between a man and his sister by the father's side only1 but we learn from the ,nihongi#fc that in the case of full brothers and sisters such connexions were considered criminal4 ,the fact that imo1 younger sister1 is also used in addressing a wife proves no more than the ,how fair is thy love1 my sister1 my bride6 of the ,song of ,solomon4 ,the author of the myth of the ,sun-,goddess endeavours to smooth over the difficulty of her conjugal relations with her brother ,susa no wo by giving them a miraculous character4 ,the story of the abandonment of ,hiruko by his parents1 like the similar legends of ,sargon and ,moses1 is evidence that the custom of casting away weakly or deformed infants was known to the authors4 ,the real significance of the ,hiruko myth will be shown hereafter4 ,the two deities next gave birth to the islands of ,japan4 ,of the birth of ,tsukushi1 now called ,kiushiu1 the ,kojiki says3-- ,next they gave birth to the island of ,tsukushi4 ,this island likewise has four faces1 and each face has a name4 ,so the land of ,tsukushi is called ,shira-bi-wake 7white-sun-youth72 the land of ,toyo is called ,toyo-bi-wake 7rich-sun-youth72 the land of ,hi is called ,take-hi-mukahi-toyo-kuji-hine-wake 7brave-sun-confronting-rich-wondrous-lor d-youth72 the land of ,kumaso is called ,take-bi-wake 7brave-sun-youth74 ,at this point the ,nihongi inserts the rationalistic observation that the islands of ,tsushima and ,iki with the small islands in various parts were produced by the coagulation of the salt water4 ,izanagi and ,izanami then procreated a number of deities1 among whom were ,iha-tsuchi-biko 7rock-earth-prince71 ,oho-ya-biko 7great-house-prince71 the ,wind-,gods1 a variety of marine deities1 ,ame no ,mikumari 7the heavenly water distributor71 the ,god of ,moors 7who is also the ,god of ,herbs and ,grasses71 the ,god of ,trees1 the ,gods of ,mountains and ,valleys1 and the ,goddess of ,food4 ,the last deity to be produced was the ,god of ,fire1 ,kagu-tsuchi1 also called ,ho-musubi 7fire-growth74 ,in giving birth to him ,izanami was burnt so that she sickened and lay down4 ,from her vomit1 fces1 and urine were born deities which personify the elements#fd of metal1 water1 and clay1 while from the tears which ,izanagi shed when she died there was produced a deity called ,naki-saha-me1 or the ,weeping ,female4 ,in his rage and grief1 ,izanagi drew his sword and cut ,kagu-tsuchi to pieces1 generating thereby a number of deities4 ,of these two were widely worshipped in later times4 ,one1 named ,take-mika-tsuchi 7brave-awful-father71 is the ,god of the famous shrine of ,kashima in the east of ,japan4 ,the other1 named ,futsunushi1 is worshipped under the form of a sword at ,kadori in the same neighbourhood4 ,izanami1 by one account1 was buried at the village of ,arima at ,kumano1 in the province of ,ki4 ,in the time of flowers the inhabitants worship her mitama by offerings of flowers4 ,they also worship her with drums1 flutes1 flags1 singing and dancing4 ,when she died ,izanami went to the land of ,yomi1 or darkness4 ,thereafter ,izanagi went after ,izanami1 and entered the land of ,yomi4 ,when he rejoined her1 they conversed together4 ,izanami said3 ',my lord and husband1 why is thy coming so late8 ,i have already eaten of the cooking-furnace of ,yomi4 ,but ,i am about to lie down to rest4 ,do not thou look on me4' ,izanagi did not give ear to her1 but secretly took his many-toothed comb1 and breaking off its end-tooth#fe made of it a torch and looked at her4 ,her body was already putrid1 maggots swarmed over it1 and the eight thunder-gods had been generated in her various members4 ,izanagi1 greatly shocked1 exclaimed1 ',what a hideous and polluted land ,i have come to unawares6' ,so he speedily ran away4 ,izanami was angry1 and said1 ',why didst thou not observe that which ,i charged thee8 ,now am ,i put to shame4' ,so she sent the ,ugly ,females of ,yomi to pursue and slay him4 ,izanagi1 in his flight1 threw down his many-toothed comb1 which forthwith became changed into bamboo-shoots4 ,the ,ugly ,females pulled them up and ate them4 ,when they had done eating them they again gave chase4 ,he then threw down his headdress1 which became changed into grapes1 and so once more delayed his pursuers4 ,on reaching the foot of the ',even ,pass of ,yomi' he gathered three peaches#ff that were growing there1 and smote his pursuers with them1 so that they all fled back4 ,moreover1 he said to the peaches1 ',as ye have helped me1 so must ye help all living people in the ,central ,land of ,reed-plains when they are in trouble4' ,and he gave them the title ,oho-kamu-dzu-mi no mikoto 7their augustness great-divine fruit74 ,this was the origin of the custom of exorcising evil spirits by means of peaches4 ,at the ,even ,pass of ,yomi1 ,izanagi was overtaken by ,izanami herself4 ,he took a great rock#fg and blocked up the pass with it1 pronouncing at the same time the formula of divorce--namely1 ',our relationship is severed4' ,he also said1 ',come no further1' and threw down his staff1 which was called ,funado no ,kami 7pass-not-place-deity71 or ,kunado no ,kami 7come-not-place-deity74 ,moreover1 he threw down his girdle1 which was called ,nagachiha no ,kami4 ,moreover1 he threw down his upper garment1 which was called ,wadzurahi no ,kami 7,god of disease74 ,moreover1 he threw down his trowsers1 which were called ,aki-guhi no ,kami4 ,moreover1 he threw down his shoes1 which were called ,chi-shiki no ,kami4 ,the ,kojiki represents ,izanami as assuming the position of the ,great ,deity of ,yomi1 a personification of death4 ,in this character she says to ,izanagi1 ,if thou dost so 7divorce me71 ,i will in one day strangle to death a thousand of the people of thy land4 ,to which he replied ,if thou dost so1 ,i will in one day build a thousand and five hundred parturition houses4 ,the fatal consequences of tasting the food of the lower regions are well known to mythologists4 ,proserpine's return to the upper world became impossible when once ,puniceum curv decerpserat arbore pomum ,sumpta que pallenti septem de cortice grana ,presserat ore suo4 ,the same principle is recognized in ,indian myth3 ,three nights within his 7,yama's7 mansion stay1 ,but taste not1 though a guest1 his food4#fh ,the natural aversion of human beings from touching or even looking on the dead is made a characteristic of the ,gods in ,greek mythology as well as in ,japanese myth4 ,artemis1 in the ',hippolytus' of ,euripides1 says1 ,it is not themis for me to look upon the dead4 ,the ,even ,pass of ,yomi takes the place of the water to be crossed of other mythologies4 ,grimm1 in his ',teutonic ,mythology1' says that to ,death is ascribed a highway levelled1 smooth1 and kept in repair1 on which the dead travel4 ,on returning from ,yomi1 ,izanagi's first care was to bathe in the sea in order to purify himself from the pollutions which he had contracted by his visit to the ,land of ,yomi4 ,a number of deities were generated by this process1 among whom were the ,gods of ,good and ,ill ,luck1 and certain ocean deities held to be the ancestors of some families of local chieftains and worshipped by them4 ,the ,sun-,goddess was born from the washing of his left eye1 and the ,moon-,god from that of his right1 while a third deity1 named ,susa no wo1 was generated from the washing of his nose4 ,to the ,sun-,goddess ,izanagi gave charge of the ,plain of ,high ,heaven1 and to the ,moon-,god was allotted the realm of night4 ,susa no wo was at first appointed to rule the sea1 but he cried and wept till his beard grew down to the pit of his stomach4 ,he wept the green mountains bare and the seas and rivers dry4 ,izanagi inquired of him1 ,why dost thou continually weep8 ,he answered1 ,i wish to follow my mother to the ,nether ,land4 ,izanagi said1 ,go1 as thy heart bids thee1 and drove him away4 ,another account of the birth of these three deities says that they were born to ,izanagi and ,izanami on earth before the descent to ,yomi4 ,the ,sun-,goddess was sent up to ,heaven by the ,pillar of ,heaven1 which then served as a means of communication4 ,heaven and earth were still not far separated4 ,ame no mi-hashira 7,heaven-august-pillar7 is one of the names of the ,wind-,god4 ,an island is described as ,heaven's single pillar4 ,other myths speak of the ,ama no iha-bune1 or ,rock-boat of ,heaven1 as used for communication by the deities4 ,there is also mention of an ,ama no hashidate 7,heaven-bridge-erection7 which is distinguished by ,hirata from the ,pillar of ,heaven4 ,he thinks the former was a sort of pier used by the ,rock-boat of ,heaven4 ,a spit of land two miles long and #aij feet broad near ,miyadzu in ,tango is now called by this name4#fi ,ame1 or the firmament1 where the ,gods live1 is to be distinguished from ,oho-sora1 the ,great ,void1 which is the space between heaven and earth4 ,izanagi's ablutions 7harahi7#gj represent a wide-spread rite4 ,they remind us of ,juno's lustration by ,iris after a visit to ,hades1 and of ,dante's immersion in ,lethe when he had completed his ascent through ,purgatory and was preparing for admission to the circles of ,paradise4 ,alcestis1 after her rescue by ,herakles from ,thanatos1 had to be purified1 and was not allowed to speak for three days4 ,we have in the ,japanese myth the counterpart of a custom described by ,chinese travellers to ,japan centuries before the ,kojiki and ,nihongi were written4 ,it was then1 we are informed1 the practice1 when the funeral was over1 for the whole family of the deceased to go into the water and wash4 ,lustration is a wide-world practice1#ga and the myth was clearly suggested by it1 not vice vers4 ,izanagi's career having come to an end1 he built himself an abode of gloom in the island of ,ahaji1 where he dwelt in silence and concealment4 ,another account says that he ascended to ,heaven1 where he dwelt in the smaller ,palace of the ,sun4 ,it will be observed that ,izanagi was not immortal1 and that he did not go to ,yomi when he died4 ,susa no wo4--,the mythical narrative now turns to the doings of the ,sun-,goddess and her brother ,susa no wo 7the rainstorm personified74 ,susa no wo1 before proceeding to take up his charge as ,ruler of the ,nether ,region1 ascended to ,heaven to take leave of his elder sister1 the ,sun-,goddess4 ,by reason of the fierceness of his divine nature there was a commotion in the sea1 and the hills and mountains groaned aloud as he passed upwards4 ,the ,sun-,goddess1 in alarm1 arrayed herself in manly garb1 and confronted her brother#gb wearing her royal necklace of jewels1 and armed with sword and bow and arrows4 ,the pair stood face to face on opposite sides of the ,river of ,heaven4#gc ,susa no wo then assured his sister of the purity of his intentions1 and proposed to her that they should each produce children by biting off and crunching parts of the jewels and swords which they wore and blowing away the fragments4#gd ,eight children born in this way were worshipped in after times as the ,hachji1 or eight princely children4 ,they figure largely in the ,shjiroku genealogies of ,japanese noble families4 ,through one of them1 named ,masa-ya-a-katsu-kachi-haya-hi-ama-no-os hi-ho-mi-mi1 the ,mikados trace their descent from the ,sun-,goddess4 ,a-,katsu means ,i conquer4 ,the allusion is to ,susa no wo's having triumphantly proved the purity of his intentions by producing male children4#ge ,susa no wo's subsequent proceedings were very rude and unseemly4 ,he broke down the divisions between the rice-fields belonging to his sister1 sowed them over again1 let loose in them the piebald colt of ,heaven1 and committed nuisances in the hall where she was celebrating the solemn festival of first-fruits4 ,the climax to his misdeeds was to flay a piebald colt of ,heaven with a backward flaying and to fling it into the sacred weaving-hall where the ,sun-,goddess was engaged in weaving the garments of the deities4 ,she was so deeply indignant at this last insult that she entered the ,rock-cave of ,heaven and left the world to darkness4 ,illustration ,illustration ,the piebald colt of ,heaven may be compared to ,prisni1 the speckled cow of ,indian myth1 which is explained as a personification of the variegated appearance of the starry heavens4 ,the retirement of the ,sun-,goddess to the ,rock-cave of ,heaven produced great consternation among the heavenly deities4 ,they met on the dry bed of the ,river of ,heaven and took counsel how they should entice her from her seclusion4 ,by the advice of ,omohi-kane no ,mikoto 7the ,thought-combiner or ,counsellor deity7 the long-singing birds of the ,eternal ,land 7cocks7#gf were made to utter their prolonged cry before the door of the cave4 ,ame no ,koyane no ,mikoto1 ancestor of the ,nakatomi and ,futodama no ,mikoto1 ancestor of the ,imbe1 dug up by the roots a five-hundred branched true ,sakaki tree of ,heaven and hung on its higher branches strings of jewels1 on its middle branches a mirror1 and on its lower branches pieces of cloth4 ,then they recited their liturgy in her honour4 ,moreover1 ,ame no ,uzume 7the ,dread ,female of ,heaven7 arrayed herself in a fantastic manner1 kindled a fire and standing on a tub which resounded when she stamped upon it1 performed a 7not very decent7 mimic dance and gave forth an inspired utterance4 ,the ,plain of ,high ,heaven shook1 and the eight hundred myriad deities laughed together4 ,the ,sun-,goddess wondered how ,ame no ,uzume and the other gods could be so jolly while the world was wrapped in complete darkness1 and peeped out from the half-opened door of the cave4 ,she was at once seized by ,ta-jikara no wo 7,hand-strength-male7 and prevented by main force from re-entering1 to the great joy of all the deities4 ,susa no wo was then tried by a council of ,gods1 who mulcted him in a fine of a thousand tables of purification offerings4 ,they also pulled out the nails of his fingers and toes1 and banished him to the land of ,yomi4 ,finally ,ame no ,koyane1 the ancestor of the ,nakatomi1 recited his ,oho-harahi or ,great purification liturgy4 ,the above episode is the kernel of the mythical lore of ,japan4 ,belonging to the class of light and darkness myths1 it professes to give the origin of some of the principal ceremonies of the ,shinto religion as they were practised at the ,mikado's ,court at the time when they became current4 ,in addition to the ,nakatomi and ,imbe1 some versions of the story show the ,sun-,goddess surrounded by other officials1 such as jewel-makers1 mirror-makers1 c41 obviously borrowed from the actual functionaries of the ,court1 and introduced with an eye to genealogical requirements4 ,by a curious coincidence1 the ,smith-,god attached to her train1 like the ,cyclops of ,greek myth1 has but one eye4 ,ame no ,uzume1 the ,dread ,female of ,heaven1 who danced and gave forth an inspired utterance before the ,rock-cave where the ,sun ,goddess was hidden1 is the supposed ancestor of the ,sarume 7monkey-women7 or female mimes attached to the ,mikado's ,court1 whose performances were the origin of the pantomimic religious dances still kept up in ,japan and known as ,kagura1 while her divinely inspired utterance is the prototype of the revelations of the ,miko1 or ,shinto priestesses4 ,one version of the story gives us the actual words used by ,uzume on this occasion--namely1 ,hi1 fu1 mi1 yo1 itsu1 mu1 nana1 ya1 kokono1 towo4 ,a ,japanese baby knows that these are simply the numerals from one to ten4 ,but they have given much trouble to later ,shintoists1 who have endeavoured to read into them a deep mythical signification4 ,the fire kindled by her is the prototype of the nihabi1 or courtyard fire1 of ,shinto ceremonial4 ,it is plainly one of those numerous imitative magic devices for making sunshine1 of which ,mr4 ,frazer has given several examples4#gg ,modern ,shinto explains the darkness produced by the ,sun-,goddess's retirement as emblematic of the darkness of sin4 ,the renewal of light typifies repentance4 ,of course1 this was far from the thoughts of the original myth-makers4 ,susa no wo did not at once proceed to the land of ,yomi4 ,he went and begged food of the ,food-,goddess1 who produced dainty things of all kinds from various parts of her body1 and offered them to him4 ,but ,susa no wo took offence at her proceedings1 which he considered filthy1 and at once slew her4 ,whereupon there were produced in her head silkworms1 in her eyes rice1 in her ears millet1 in her nose small beans1 in her genitals barley1 and in her fundament large beans4 ,these ,musubi1 the ,god of ,growth1 took and caused to be used as seeds4 ,the above is the ,kojiki version of the story4 ,the ,nihongi makes the ,moon-,god the culprit1 and gives it as the reason of his alienation from the ,sun-,goddess1 who had sent him to visit the ,food-,goddess4 ,this is not the only attempt of myth-makers to account for the aloofness maintained by these two deities4 ,the same variant of this episode makes the ,sun-,goddess the recipient of the various seeds produced in the body of the ,food-,goddess3-- ,she was rejoiced1 and said1 ',these are the things which the race of visible men will eat and live4' ,so she made the millet1 the panic1 the wheat and the beans the seed for the dry fields1 and the rice she made the seed for the water-fields4 ,therefore she appointed a ,mura-gimi 7village-lord7 of ,heaven1 and forthwith sowed for the first time the rice-seed in the narrow fields and in the long fields of ,heaven4 ,probably in the slaying of the ,food-,goddess we have an echo of some of those practices so fully examined by ,mr4 ,frazer1 in which the ,corn-maiden1 or other representative of the corn1 is slain--a tragedy of perennial interest to mankind4 ,witness the rape of ,persephone and the death of ,john ,barleycorn4 ,susa no wo then visited ,corea1 but not finding that country to his liking1 returned to ,japan1 and went to the province of ,idzumo4 ,here he observed a chopstick floating down the river ,hi1 so thinking that there must be people living further up the stream1 he went in quest of them1 and found an old man and an old woman weeping1 with a young maiden set between them4 ,he asked of them1 ',who are ye8' ,the old man replied1 ',thy servant is a deity of earth1 and his name is ,ashinadzuchi1 son of the great ,god of the ,mountain4 ,my wife's name is ,tenadzuchi1 and my daughter is called ,kushinada hime4' ,he further inquired1 ',why weep ye8' ,he answered1 saying1 ',i have had eight children1 girls2 but the eight-forked serpent of ,koshi came year after year and devoured them4 ,it is now the time of its coming1 and therefore do we weep4' ',describe to me this serpent1' said ,susa no wo4 ',its eyes are as red as the winter cherry4 ,it has one body with eight heads and eight tails4 ,moreover1 its body is overgrown with moss1 pines and cedars4 ,its length extends over eight valleys and eight hills4 ,its belly is always all bloody and inflamed to look upon4' ,then ,susa no wo said to the old man1 ',if this be thy daughter1 wilt thou give her unto me8' ',with reverence be it said1' replied the old man1 ',i know not thy honourable name4' ',i am the elder brother of the ,sun-,goddess1 and have now come down from heaven1' replied ,susa no wo4 ,then the deities ,ashinadzuchi and ,tenadzuchi said1 ',in that case1 with reverence we offer her to thee4' ,susa no wo straightway took that young maiden and changed her into a many-toothed comb1 which he stuck into his hair1 and said to the deities ,ashinadzuchi and ,tenadzuchi1 ',do ye brew some sak of eight-fold strength4 ,also make a fence round about1 and in that fence let there be eight doors1 at each door let there be eight stands1 on each stand let there be a sak-tub1 and let each sak-tub be filled with the sak of eight-fold strength4 ,then wait4' ,so having prepared everything in accordance with his august bidding1 they waited4 ,then the eight-forked serpent came1 indeed1 as had been said1 and bending down one head into each of the tubs1 lapped up the sak4 ,hereupon it became drunken1 and all the heads lay down to sleep1 when straightway ,susa no wo drew his ten-span sword from his girdle and slew the serpent1 so that the river had its current changed to blood4 ,now1 when he cut the middle part of the tail the edge of his august sword was broken4 ,wondering at this1 he pierced it and split it open1 when he found that within there was a great sharp sword4 ,he took this sword1 and thinking it a wonderful thing1 reported his discovery to the ,sun ,goddess4 ,this is the great sword ,kusanagi 7,herb-queller74 ,on the occasion of his marriage to ,kushinada hime1 ,susa no wo composed the following verses3-- ,many clouds arise1 ,on all sides a manifold fence3 ,to receive within it the spouses1 ,they form a manifold fence1 ,ah6 that manifold fence6 ,eventually he entered the ,nether ,land4 ,few of my readers will require to have pointed out to them the striking resemblance of this story to that of ,perseus and ,andromeda1 or will need to be referred to ,mr4 ,sidney ,hartland's ',legend of ,perseus1' in which everything relating to its numerous variants has been so thoroughly examined4 ,i would direct special attention to chapter xviii4 of this work1 where the hypothesis is offered1 that we have in this incident a reminiscence of the abolition of human sacrifices to deities in the shape of the lower animals4444 ,in certain stages of civilization1 sacrifices of the kind are practised1 and are frequently offered to water-spirits conceived in animal form4444 ,it may1 of course1 be that the monster sent to devour ,andromeda is to be regarded simply as the personification of water1 or of specific rivers in their sinister aspect4#gh ,the circumstance that the scene of this episode in ,susa no wo's career is the bank of a river is therefore by no means immaterial4 ,indeed1 we may plausibly conjecture that the description of the serpent with its eight 7or many7 heads and eight tails1 its length extending over eight valleys and eight hills1 its body overgrown with moss1 pines1 and cedars1 and its propensity for devouring human beings is nothing more than a fanciful representation of the river1 with its serpentine course1 its numerous tributaries and branches1 its wooded banks1 and the danger by drowning in its pools or at its fords4 ,the poem ascribed to ,susa no wo cannot be older than the sixth or seventh century4 ,the word translated on all sides1 is idzumo4 ,there is therefore a punning allusion to the province of that name4 ,the manifold fence1 is the nuptial hut1 already referred to4#gi ,ohonamochi4--,susa no wo had numerous children1 among whom were ,oho-toshi 7great harvest71 and ,uka no mitama#hj 7food-spirit74 ,the most famous of his progeny was a ,god called ,ohonamochi4 ,this is the ,great ,deity of ,idzumo1 a place second only to ,ise for sanctity4 ,ohonamochi's eighty brothers went to pay court to a female deity named ,yakami-hime1 taking him with them as porter to carry the bag4 ,on arriving at ,cape ,keta1 they found a naked hare lying on the ground4 ,the brothers maliciously advised the hare to bathe in the sea1 and then expose himself to the wind on the slope of a high mountain4 ,the hare did so1 with the result that when the sea-water dried1 his skin split1 and he was weeping with pain1 when ,ohonamochi came up in the rear of the party4 ,he had pity on it1 and taught it remedies which gave relief4 ,the grateful hare promised that he should have the lady ,yakami-hime in marriage1 and not his brothers4 ,when their suit was accordingly rejected1 they devised several plans for the destruction of ,ohonamochi1 which were all unsuccessful4 ,he was then advised to go to the ,netherdistant land1 the abode of ,susa no wo4 ,in accordance with this counsel1 he went to the dwelling of ,susa no wo4 ,on arriving there he was met by his daughter ,suseri-hime1 who married him1 and then returning within told her father that a very beautiful deity had arrived4 ,the ,great ,deity came out1 and looking at him said1 ',this is the deity called the ,ugly-male-deity of the ,reed-,plain4 ,thereupon he invited him in1 and made him sleep in the snake-chamber4 ,now his wife ,suseri-hime gave her husband a snake-scarf1 saying1 ',when the snakes are about to bite thee1 drive them away by waving this scarf thrice4' ,he did as she had instructed him1 and the snakes were quieted1 so that he came forth again after a peaceful sleep4 ,again1 on the night of the next day1 he was put into the centipede and wasp chamber2 but as his wife again gave him a centipede-and-wasp scarf1 and instructed him as before1 he came forth unharmed4 ,again ,susa no wo shot a whizzing arrow into the middle of a great moor1 and bid him fetch it4 ,when ,ohonamochi went out to the moor1 ,susa no wo set fire to it all round4 ,ohonamochi could find no way of escape until a rat appeared1 and said1 ',within 'tis hollow-hollow1 without 'tis narrow-narrow4' ,hearing this1 ,ohonamochi stamped upon the place1 and fell in1 and hid himself until the fire had burnt past4 ,then the rat came with the whizzing arrow in its mouth and presented it to him4 ,the feathers of the arrow had all been gnawed by the rat's children4 ,hereupon his wife ,suseri-hime came weeping and bringing the funeral things4 ,her father1 the ,great ,deity1 thinking that ,ohonamochi was already dead1 went out and stood on the moor4 ,ohonamochi brought him the arrow and presented it to him4 ,susa no wo took him into the house1 and calling him into a large chamber of many mats1 bid him catch the lice on his head4 ,ohonamochi looked at his head1 and saw that it was swarming with centipedes4 ,then his wife gave him berries of the muku tree and red earth4 ,he chewed up the berries and took the red earth into his mouth4 ,then he spat them out1 and the ,great ,deity thought that he had chewed up and spat out the centipedes1 and feeling fond of him in his heart1 fell asleep4 ,ohonamochi then took hold of the hair of the ,great ,deity and tied it to the rafters of the chamber4 ,blocking up the door with a five-hundred-pull rock1 he took his wife ,suseri-hime on his back and made his escape1 carrying with him the ,great ,deity's live-sword1 live bow and arrows1 and speaking lute of ,heaven4 ,the speaking lute of ,heaven brushed against a tree and the earth resounded4 ,the ,great ,deity was startled out of his sleep by the sound and pulled down the chamber4 ,but while he was unloosing his hair from the rafters ,ohonamochi fled a long way off4 ,the ,great ,deity pursued him to the ,even ,pass of ,yomi1 and looking at him from afar1 called to him and said1 ',with the live sword and live bow and arrows which thou bearest1 pursue thy half-brethren till they lie down on the lower slopes of the passes1 pursue them till they are swept into the river rapids4 ,be thou the deity ,oho-kuni-nushi 7great-land-master7 and the deity ,utsushi-kuni-dama 7real-land-spirit74 ,make my daughter ,suseri-hime thy consort1 and basing thy stout palace-pillars on the bottom rock at the foot of ,mount ,uka1 and exalting thy crossbeams to the ,plain of ,high ,heaven1 dwell there1 thou rogue4' ,when ,ohonamochi had driven away and dispersed the eighty deities1 he pursued them till they lay down on the lower slopes of every pass1 and pursued them till they were swept into the rapids of every river4 ,then did he begin to make the land4 ,he was assisted in doing so by a dwarf deity called ,sukuna-bikona1 who wore garments of bird skins and came over the sea in a tiny boat4 ,there is probably some echo of real history in the myths of ,susa no wo1 ,ohonamochi1 and ,sukuna-bikona4 ,idzumo1 the scene of their doings1 was one of the earliest centres of civilization and religion in ,japan1 and its position over against ,korea is significant in view of the legends which connect ,susa no wo with that country4 ,the incident of ,sukuna-bikona's arrival by sea1 clothed in bird skins1 seems to indicate an acquaintance with some northern tribes1 who1 like the ,kurile islanders at this day1 wore garments of this material4 ,this ,ohonamochi myth belongs to a class of stories the main features of which have been thus outlined by ,mr4 ,a4 ,lang3 ,a young man is brought to the home of a hostile animal1 a giant1 cannibal1 wizard1 or malevolent king4 ,he is put by his unfriendly host to various severe trials1 in which it is hoped that he will perish4 ,in each trial he is assisted by the daughter of his host4 ,after achieving the adventures1 he elopes with the girl and is pursued by the father4 ,mr4 ,lang goes on to speak of the articles thrown down by the runaways in their flight4 ,this part of the story belongs in ,japanese myth to the history of ,izanagi and ,izanami4#ha ,ninigi4--,the dynasty of ,susa no wo was not recognized by the ,gods of ,heaven4 ,they sent down several other deities to prepare the world for the advent of ,ninigi1 a grandchild of the ,sun-,goddess1 as its ruler4 ,some versions of the story make ,taka-musubi the chief actor in these proceedings1 in others the ,sun-,goddess is more prominent4 ,one of the deities sent down for this purpose was ,ame-waka-hiko 7heaven-young-prince74 ,the ,nihongi says3-- ,as soon as he arrived he took to wife ,shita-teru-hime1 the daughter of ,utsushi-kuni-dama4 ,accordingly he remained1 and said3 ',i1 too1 wish to govern the ,central ,land of ,reed-,plains4' ,he never reported the result of his mission4 ,at this time ,taka-musubi1 wondering why he was so long in coming and making his report1 sent the pheasant ,na-naki to observe4 ,the pheasant flew down and perched on the top of a many-branched cassia-tree which grew before ,ame-waka-hiko's gate4 ,now ,ama-no ,sagu-me 7heaven-spying-woman7 saw this1 and told ,ame-waka-hiko1 saying3 ',a strange bird has come and is perched on the top of the cassia-tree4' ,then ,ame-waka-hiko took the heavenly deer-bow and the heavenly feathered arrows which had been given him by ,taka-mi-musubi no ,mikoto1 and shot the pheasant1 so that it died4 ,the arrow having passed through the pheasant's breast1 came before where ,taka-mi-musubi no ,kami was sitting4 ,then ,taka-mi-musubi no ,kami1 seeing this arrow1 said3 ',this arrow ,i formerly gave to ,ame-waka-hiko4 ,it is stained with blood1 it may be because he has been fighting with the ,earthly ,deities4' ,thereupon ,taka-mi-musubi no ,mikoto took up the arrow and flung it back down 7to earth74 ,this arrow1 when it fell1 hit ,ame-waka-hiko on the top of his breast4 ,at this time ,ame-waka-hiko was lying down after the feast of first-fruits1 and when hit by the arrow died immediately4 ,the sound of the weeping and mourning of ,ame-waka-hiko's wife ,shita-teru-hime reached ,heaven4 ,at this time ,ame no ,kuni-dama1 hearing the voice of her crying1 straightway knew that her son1 ,ame-waka-hiko1 was dead1 and sent down a swift wind to bring the body up to ,heaven4 ,forthwith a mortuary house was made1 in which it was temporarily deposited4 ,the river-geese were made head-hanging bearers and also broom-bearers1 the kingfisher was made the representative of the deceased1 the sparrows were made the pounding-women1 and the wrens the mourners4 ,altogether the assembled birds were entrusted with the matter4 ,for eight days and eight nights they wept and sang dirges4 ,futsunushi and ,take-mika-tsuchi4--,finally1 the deities ,futsunushi and ,take-mika-tsuchi#hb were sent down to prepare ,japan for ,ninigi's reception4 ,the two deities descended and arrived at the ,little ,shore of ,itasa in ,idzumo1 and asked ,ohonamochi1 saying3 ',wilt thou deliver up this country to the ,heavenly ,deity1 or not8' ,he answered and said3 ',i will not allow it4' ,thereupon ,futsunushi returned upwards1 and made his report4 ,now ,taka-mi-musubi sent the two ,gods back again1 and commanded ,ohonamochi1 saying3 ',having now heard what thou hast said1 ,i find that there is profound reason in thy words4 ,therefore again ,i issue my commands to thee more circumstantially1 that is to say3 ,let the public matters which thou hast charge of be conducted by my grandchild1 and do thou rule divine affairs4 ,moreover1 if thou wilt dwell in the palace of ,ama no ,hi-sumi1 ,i will now build it for thee4 ,i will take a thousand fathom rope of the 7bark of the7 paper mulberry1 and tie it in #ahj knots4 ,as to the dimensions of the building of the palace1 its pillars shall be high and massy1 and its planks broad and thick4 ,i will also cultivate thy rice-fields for thee1 and1 for thy provision when thou goest to take pleasure on the sea1 ,i will make for thee a high bridge1 a floating bridge1 and also a ,heavenly bird-boat4 ,moreover1 on the ,tranquil ,river of ,heaven ,i will make a flying bridge4 ,i will also make for thee white shields of #ahj seams1 and ,ame no ,ho-hi no ,mikoto shall be the president of the festivals in thy honour4' ,hereupon ,ohonamochi answered and said3 ',the instructions of the ,heavenly ,deity are so courteous that ,i may not presume to disobey his commands4 ,let the ,august ,grandchild direct the public affairs of which ,i have charge4 ,i will retire and direct secret matters4' ,so he introduced ,kunado no ,kami to the two ,gods1 saying3 ',he will take my place and will yield respectful obedience4 ,i will withdraw and depart hence4' ,he forthwith invested him with the pure ,yasaka jewels1 and then became concealed for ever4 ,therefore ,futsunushi no ,kami appointed ,kunado no ,kami as guide1 and went on a circuit of pacification4 ,any who were rebellious to his authority he put to death1 while those who rendered obedience were rewarded4 ,the chiefs of those who at this time rendered obedience were ,oho-mono-nushi and ,koto-shiro-nushi4 ,another version adds that-- ,he took the broad spear#hc which he had used as a staff when he was pacifying the land1 and gave it to the two ,gods saying3 ',by means of this spear ,i was at last successful4 ,if the ,heavenly ,grandchild will use this spear to rule the land1 he will undoubtedly subdue it to tranquillity4 ,i am now about to withdraw to the concealment of the eighty road-windings4' ,having said these words1 he at length became concealed4#hd ,thereupon the two ,gods put to death all the rebellious spirits and ,deities4 ,when ,ninigi was about to descend to earth1 the ,sun-,goddess addressed him1 saying3 ',this ,reed-plain-#aejj-;autumns-fair-ears ,land is the region which my descendants shall be lords of4 ,do thou1 my ,august ,grandchild1 proceed thither and govern it4 ,go6 and may prosperity attend thy dynasty1 and may it1 like ,heaven and ,earth1 endure for ever4' ,when he was about to descend1 one who had been sent in advance to clear the way1 returned and said3 ',there is one ,god who dwells at the eight-crossroads of ,heaven1 the length of whose nose is seven hands1 and whose stature is more than seven fathoms4 ,moreover1 a light shines from his mouth and from his posteriors4 ,his eye-balls are like an eight-hand mirror1 and have a ruddy glow like the physalis4' ,thereupon he sent one of his attendant ,deities to go and make inquiry4 ,now among all the eighty myriads of ,deities1 there was not one who could confront him and make inquiry4 ,therefore he specially commanded ,ame no ,uzume1 saying3 ',thou art superior to others in the power of thy looks4 ,thou hadst better go and question him4' ,so ,ame no ,uzume forthwith bared her breasts1 and1 pushing down the band of her garment below her navel1 confronted him with a mocking laugh4 ,then the ,god of the crossways asked her saying3 ',ame no ,uzume6 ,what meanest thou by this behaviour8' ,she answered and said3 ',i make bold to ask who art thou1 that dost thus remain in the road by which the child of ,ama-terasu no ,oho-kami is to make his progress8' ,the ,god of the crossways answered and said3 ',i have heard that the child of ,ama-terasu no ,oho-kami is now about to descend1 and therefore ,i have come respectfully to meet and attend upon him4 ,my name is ,saruta-hiko no ,oho-kami4' ,then ,ame no ,uzume again inquired of him1 saying3 ',wilt thou go before me1 or shall ,i go before thee8' ,he answered and said3 ',i will go before and be his harbinger4' ,ame no ,uzume returned and reported these circumstances4 ,thereupon the ,august ,grandchild1 leaving the heavenly rock-seat1 and thrusting apart the eight-piled clouds of ,heaven1 clove his way with an awful way-cleaving1 and descended to earth4 ,he alighted on a mountain in the western island of ,kiushiu4 ,he was attended by the ancestors of the five be1 or hereditary government corporations1 viz43 the ,nakatomi1 the ,imbe1 the ,sarume1 the mirror-makers be1 and the jewellers be1 to which some accounts add several others4 ,ninigi took to wife ,konohana-sakuyahime 7the lady blooming like the flowers of the trees74 ,her father ,oho-yamatsu mi 7great-mountain person7 had offered him both his daughters1 but the elder was rejected by ,ninigi as being too ugly4 ,her name was ,iha-naga-hime 7rock-long-lady74 ,the consequences of this choice were disastrous to his descendants4 ,iha-naga-hime1 in her shame and resentment1 uttered a curse and said3 ,the race of visible men shall change swiftly like the flowers of the trees and shall decay and pass away4 ,this is the reason why the life of man is so short4 ,when the time came for the younger sister's delivery1 she shut herself up in a doorless shed1 which1 on the birth of her three children1 she set fire to1 with the object of clearing herself from certain suspicions which her husband had entertained of her fidelity4 ,if1 said she1 the children are really the offspring of the ,heavenly ,grandchild1 the fire cannot harm them4 ,the children and their mother came forth unhurt1 and were thereupon recognized by ,ninigi as his true offspring and wife4 ,the doorless shed here mentioned1 is a parturition house4#he ,it was the custom in ancient ,japan for women1 when the time drew near for their delivery1 to retire to a shed specially constructed to receive them1 so that contamination to the dwelling-house might be avoided4 ,this was still the practice in the island of ,hachij in #ahgh1 and even in ,japan no longer than a century ago4 ,the burning of the parturition house represents the ordeal by fire1 which1 with the ordeal by boiling water or mud1 is well known in ,japan4 ,ho no ,susori and ,hohodemi4--,the story concerns itself no further with the youngest of these three children4 ,of the others1 the elder1 named ,ho no ,susori1 became a fisherman1 and the younger1 ,hohodemi1 a hunter4 ,ho no ,susori once proposed to his brother to exchange their respective callings4 ,hohodemi accordingly gave over to his elder brother his bow and arrows and received a fishhook in return4 ,but neither of them profited by the exchange1 so ,ho no ,susori gave back to his brother the bow and arrows and demanded from him the fish-hook4 ,hohodemi1 however1 had in the meantime lost it in the sea4 ,he took his sword and forged from it a number of new fish-hooks which he piled up in a winnowing tray and offered to his brother by way of compensation4 ,but the latter would have none but his own1 and demanded it so vehemently of ,hohodemi as to grieve him bitterly4 ,hohodemi went down to the sea-shore and stood there lamenting1 when there appeared to him the ,old ,man of the ,sea1 by whose advice he descended into the sea depths to the abode of the ,god of the ,sea1 a stately palace with lofty towers and battlements4 ,before the gate there was a well1 and over the well grew a thick-branching cassia tree1 into which ,hohodemi climbed4 ,the ,sea-,god's daughter ,toyo-tama-hime 7rich jewel maiden7 then came out from the palace to draw water4 ,she saw ,hohodemi's face reflected in the well1 and returning within reported to her father that she had seen a beautiful youth in the tree which grew by the well4 ,hohodemi was courteously received by the ,sea-,god1 ,toyo-tama-hiko 7rich jewel prince7 who when he heard his errand1 summoned before him all the fishes of the sea and made inquiry of them for the lost fish hook1 which was eventually discovered in the mouth of the ,tai4 ,toyo-tama-hiko delivered it to ,hohodemi1 telling him when he gave it back to his brother to say a hook of poverty1 a hook of ruin1 a hook of downfall1 to spit twice and to hand it over with averted face4 ,hohodemi married the ,sea-,god's daughter ,toyo-tama-hime and remained with her for three years4 ,he then became home-sick and returned to the upper world4 ,on the beach where he came to land1 he built for his wife1 who was soon to follow1 a parturition house which he thatched with cormorant's feathers4 ,the roofing was still unfinished when she arrived1 riding on a great tortoise4 ,she went straight into the hut1 begging her husband not to look at her4 ,but ,hohodemi's curiosity was too strong for him4 ,he peeped in1 and behold6 his wife had become changed into a wani 7sea-monster or dragon71 eight fathoms long4 ,deeply indignant at the disgrace put upon her1 ,toyo-tama-hime abandoned her new-born child to the care of her sister1 and barring behind her the sea-path in such a way that from that day to this all communication between the realms of land and sea has been cut off1 returned hastily to her father's palace4 ,the child thus born was the father of ,jimmu ,tenno1 the first human sovereign of ,japan4 ,hohodemi's troubles with his elder brother were renewed on his arrival home4 ,he was obliged to use against him two talismans given him by his father-in-law4 ,one of these had the virtue of making the tide flow and submerge ,ho no ,susori and thus compel him to sue for mercy 7another account says that ,hohodemi whistled and thereby raised the wind and the sea74 ,then by a second talisman the tide was made to recede and ,ho no ,susori's life was spared4 ,he yielded complete submission to his younger brother1 and promised that he and his descendants to all generations would serve ,hohodemi and his successors as mimes and bondservants4 ,the ,nihongi adds that in that day it was still customary for the ,hayato 7or ,imperial guards71 who were descended from ,ho no ,susori1 to perform a mimic dance before the ,mikados1 the descendants and successors of ,hohodemi1 in which the drowning struggles of their ancestor were represented4 ,the castle-gate and the tree before it1 at the bottom of which is a well which serves as a mirror1 form a combination not unknown to ,european folk-lore4 ,we may also note the partiality evinced for the younger of two brothers1 the virtue of spitting and of set forms of speech to bring good or ill luck1 and of whistling to raise the wind4 ,there are several features in this story which betray a recent origin and foreign influences4 ,a comparatively advanced civilization is indicated by the sword and fish-hooks forged of iron 7the ,homeric fish-hook was of horn74 ,the institution of the ,hayato as ,imperial ,guards belongs to a period not very long antecedent to the date of the ,nihongi and ,kojiki4 ,the palace of the sea-depths and its ,dragon-king are of ,chinese1 and therefore of recent1 origin4 ,the comparatively modern character of this important link in the genealogy which traces back the descent of the ,mikados to the ,sun-,goddess confirms the view that the so-called ancestor-worship of the ancient ,japanese is a later accretion upon what was in its origin a worship of the powers of ,nature4 ,jimmu ,tenn4--,though it is difficult to draw clearly a line which shall divide religious myth from legend with an historical kernel1 we may conveniently assume that in ,japan the latter begins with the story of ,jimmu1 as it has in all probability a foundation in actual fact1 namely1 the conquest of ,central ,japan by an invading army from the western island of ,kiushiu some centuries before the ,christian epoch4 ,jimmu ,tenn is said to have been the youngest of four brothers1 who lived in the province of ,hiuga4 ,when he reached the age of forty-five1 he addressed his elder brothers and his children1 saying3 ,of old1 our ,heavenly ,deities1 ,taka-mi-musubi1 and ,oho-hiru-me1 gave this land of fair rice-ears of the fertile reed-plain to our ,heavenly ancestor1 ,hiko-ho no ninigi4 ,now ,i have heard from the old sea-father that in the east there is a fair land encircled by blue mountains4 ,let us make our capital there4 ,so on the fifth day of the tenth month of the year corresponding to ,b4,c4 #fjghf they sailed northwards1 and passing through the ,bungo ,channel arrived at ,usa1#hg near the ,strait of ,shimonoseki4 ,at this time there appeared the ancestors of the local chieftains of ,usa1 named ,usa-tsu-hiko and ,usa-tsu-hime1 who built a palace raised on one pillar on the bank of the ,river ,usa1 and offered them a banquet4 ,then1 by imperial command1 ,usa-tsu-hime was given in marriage to the ,emperor's attendant minister ,ama no tane1 the remote ancestor of the ,nakatomi ,house4 ,proceeding on their voyage eastwards through the inland sea1 ,jimmu and his brothers arrived at the entrance of the river which falls into the sea near saka4 ,here they encountered a swift current1 for which reason that place was called ,nami-haya 7wave-swift7 or ,nami-hana 7wave-flower7 of which ,nani-ha 7a later poetical name of saka7 was thought a corruption4#hh ,the first encounter of ,jimmu's forces with the inhabitants of this part of ,japan was not to their advantage3-- ,the ,emperor was vexed1 and said3 ',i am the descendant of the ,sun-,goddess1 and if ,i proceed against the ,sun to attack the enemy1 ,i shall act contrary to the way of ,heaven4 ,better to retreat and make a show of weakness4 ,then sacrificing to the ,gods of ,heaven and ,earth1 and bringing on our backs the might of the ,sun-,goddess1 let us follow her rays and trample them down4' ,subsequently he proceeded southwards to ,kumano1 in the province of ,ki1 where he embarked with his army in the ,rock-boat of ,heaven4 ,in the midst of the sea they suddenly met with a violent wind1 and ,jimmu's ship was tossed about4 ,then ,ina-ihi1 one of ,jimmu's elder brothers1 exclaimed1 ,alas6 my ancestors were ,heavenly ,deities and my mother was a ,goddess of the ,sea4 ,why do they harass me by land1 and why1 moreover1 do they harass me by sea4 ,so he drew his sword and plunged into the sea1 where he became changed into the ,god ,sabimochi4#hi ,another brother of the ,emperor1 ,mike ,irino1 also indignant at this1 said3 ,my mother and my aunt are both ,sea-,goddesses3 why do they raise great billows to overwhelm us8 ,so treading upon the waves1 he went to the ,eternal ,land4 ,at this time the ,gods belched up a poisonous vapour1 which paralyzed the energies of ,jimmu's troops4 ,then there was there a man by name ,kumano no ,takakuraji1 who had a dream1 in which ,ama-terasu no ,ohokami spoke to ,take-mika-tsuchi no ,kami1 saying3 ',i still hear a sound of disturbance from the ,central ,land of ,reed-,plains4 ,do thou again go and chastise it4' ,take-mika-tsuchi no ,kami answered and said3 ',even if ,i go not1 ,i can send down my sword1 with which ,i subdued the land1 upon which the country will of its own accord become peaceful4' ,to this ,ama-terasu no ,kami assented4 ,thereupon ,take-mika-tsuchi no ,kami addressed ,takakuraji1 saying3 ',my sword1 which is called ,futsu no ,mitama1 ,i will now place in thy storehouse4 ,do thou take it and present it to the ,heavenly ,grandchild4' ,takakuraji said3 ',yes1' and thereupon awoke4 ,the next morning1 as instructed in his dream1 he opened the storehouse1 and on looking in there was indeed there a sword which had fallen down 7from ,heaven71 and was standing point upwards on the plank floor of the storehouse4 ,so he took it and offered it to the ,emperor4 ,then ,ama-terasu no ,oho-kami instructed the ,emperor in a dream of the night1 saying3 ',i will now send thee the ,yata-garasu1#ij make it thy guide through the land4' ,upon which the ,yata-garasu came flying down from the ,void1 and served as a guide to the army4 ,the progress of the ,imperial troops being again obstructed by the enemy1 the ,emperor prayed and then fell asleep4 ,the ,heavenly ,deity appeared to him in a dream1 and instructed him to take earth from within the shrine of the ,heavenly ,mount ,kagu1 and of it to make eighty heavenly platters4 ,moreover1 he was to make sacred jars1 and therewith sacrifice to the ,gods of ,heaven and ,earth1 pronouncing at the same time a solemn imprecation4 ,this had the desired effect of dispersing the enemy4 ,the ,emperor proceeded to utter a vow1 saying3 ,i will now make ame#ia in the eighty platters1 using no water4 ,if the ame forms1 then shall ,i assuredly1 without effort and without recourse to arms1 reduce the ,empire to peace4 ,the ame became formed of itself4 ,again he made a vow1 saying3-- ',i will now take the sacred jars and sink them in the ,river ,nifu4 ,if the fishes1 great or small1 become every one drunken and are carried down the stream like floating leaves1 then shall ,i assuredly succeed in establishing the land4' ,so he sank the jars in the river1 with their mouths turned downward1 and after a while the fish all came to the surface1 gaping and gasping as they floated down the stream4 ,the ,emperor then commanded ,michi no ,omi1 saying3 ',we are now in person#ib about to celebrate a festival to ,taka-mi-musubi4 ,i appoint thee ,ruler of the festival1 and grant thee the title of ,idzu-hime4#ic ,the earthen jars which are set up shall be called the ,idzube1 or sacred jars2 the fire shall be called ,idzu no ,kagu-tsuchi1 or sacred-fire-father2 the water shall be called ,idzu no ,midzu-ha no me1 or sacred-water-female2 the food shall be called ,idzu-uka no me1 or sacred-food-female2 the firewood shall be called ,idzu no ,yama-tsuchi1 or sacred-mountain-father2 and the grass shall be called ,idzu no ,no-tsuchi1 or sacred-moor-father4' ,in ,winter1 the #ajth month1 on the #ast day1#id the ,emperor tasted the food of the ,idzube1 and arraying his troops set forth upon his march4 ,among those who made submission to ,jimmu was ,nigi-haya-hi1 of whom it is told that he was a child of the ,heavenly ,deity1 who had come down from ,heaven riding in the ,rock-boat of ,heaven1 and married the sister of a local chieftain named ,naga-sune-hiko 7,prince ,long-shanks74 ,his name and that of his son appear very frequently in the ,shjiroku genealogies4 ,jimmu took to wife a daughter of the ,god ,koto-shiro-nushi1 or1 according to the ,kojiki1 ,oho-mono-nushi1 by a mortal woman1 and having established his capital at ,kashi-habara1 in ,yamato1 ,b4,c4 #ffj1ie reigned there until his death1 ,b4,c4 #ehe1 at the age of #abg4 ,,footnotes3 #ea ,see ',rig-veda1' x4 #abi1 for a similar rationalistic dissertation on the origin of the universe4 ,here and below the italics indicate translations4 #eb ,in ,chinese1 ,yin and ,yang4 ,the ,yin is the dark1 negative1 passive1 feminine1 and terrene principle2 the ,yang is light1 positive1 active1 male1 and celestial4 #ec ',philosophy of ,religion1' i4 #bfi4 #ed ,into human shape is another version4 #ee ,i shall usually omit this purely honorific addition to the names of ,japanese ,gods and sovereigns4 #ef ,hirata says that the five generations of deities which in the ,kojiki precede ,izanagi and ,izanami are only names descriptive of the successive stages of formation of these deities4 ,their functions are obscure1 and they have no shrines or worship4 ,they are unnecessary1 as all that are required are two ,gods for the creation of ,heaven1 two of ,yomi and two of ,earth4 #eg ,there is a close association in ,hebrew between the ideas of creation and begetting4 ,bara1 create1 and jalad1 beget1 are often interchanged4 #eh ,see ,index4 #ei ,see ,index4 #fj ,it was deprived of this character soon after by order of the ,mikado's ,government1 the only monument of the old cult left standing being ,nantai 7male form71 a mountain which towers above ,nikko to the height of #h1ejj feet4 #fa ',sociology1' ii4 #agg4 #fb ,see ,index1 ',circumambulation4' ,also ,simpson's ',praying ,wheel1' p4 #bhe1 and ,jevons's ',introduction to ,religion1' p4 #baj4 ,the corresponding ,highland ceremony1 called ,deasil1 is described in ,sir ,walter ,scott's ',fair ,maid of ,perth4' ,see also ,brand's ',british ,antiquities4' #fc ,i #cbd4 #fd ,a strong suspicion of ,chinese origin attaches to these elemental gods4 #fe ,the significance of the wo-bashira1 or end-tooth1 is explained elsewhere4 ,see ,index4 #ff ,see ,index--',peach4' #fg ,deified as ,chi-gaheshi no ,oho-kami 7road-send-back-great-deity74 #fh ,muir's ',sanskrit ,texts1' v4 #cbj4 #fi ,see ,murray's ',japan1' fifth edition1 p4 #djh4 #gj ,see ,index4 #ga ,see ,dr4 ,tylor's ',primitive ,culture1' ii4 #dce4 #gb ,as ,horus1 in ,egyptian myth1 confronts the powers of darkness4 #gc ,the ,milky ,way3 a ,chinese expression4 #gd ,this is one of several miraculous births and pregnancies in ,japanese myth4 ,mankind have a rooted propensity for imagining that it is possible to improve on the means ordained for this purpose by ,divine ,providence4 ,see ,mr4 ,hartland's ',legend of ,perseus' for numerous examples4 #ge ,the ,kiujiki makes ,masa-ya1 c41 the son of the ,sun-,goddess by ,takamusubi4 #gf ,represented at ,ise by dancers called tonako 7bird-cry74 #gg ',the ,golden ,bough1' second edition1 i4 #aae4 #gh ,see index--',river-deities4' #gi ,see above1 p4 #ij4 #hj ,another authority makes ,uka no mitama a daughter of ,izanagi and ,izanami4 #ha ,see above1 p4 #ic4 #hb ,see ,index--,futsunushi4 #hc ,like ,odin1 who lends his spear ,gungmir to heroes to win victories with4 #hd ,i4e41 died4 #he ,it was an ,arab custom in certain places to build a hut outside the camp1 where the parturient woman had to stay for a time4--,welhausen4 #hf ,there was no official recognition of the art of writing in ,japan until ,a4,d4 #dje1 and no mention of calendars until ,a4,d4 #eec4 ,so much for the authenticity of the above date4 #hg ,usa is not on the direct route from ,hiuga to ,yamato4 ,it was no doubt introduced because this place was anciently a famous centre of ,shinto worship4 #hh ,this is a specimen of the numerous derivations of the ,jimmu narrative4 ,the ,idzumo ,fudoki is also full of infantile etymologies1 which have usually a scrap of legend attached to them4 #hi ,blade-holder4 #ij ,yata-garasu means eight-hand-crow4 ,the guidance of conquerors or colonists to their destination by a supernatural bird or beast is a familiar feature of old-world story4 #ia ,ame is the name of a sweet substance made from millet1 of the same nature as our malt extract4 #ib ,the ,mikado deputed most of his priestly functions to the ,nakatomi4 #ic ,idzu-hime means dread or sacred princess4 ,michi no ,omi 7minister of the way7 seems therefore to have been given a feminine title for the occasion1 no doubt because the office was usually held by women4 #id ,it was at this season of the year that the harvest festival1 or rather the festival of tasting the new rice1 was celebrated4 ,see ,index--,nihiname4 #ie ,japanese history is said to begin from this date4 ,in reality nothing deserving the name existed for nearly one thousand years more4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,pantheon--,,nature ,,deities4 #a4 ,,gods ,,of ,,individuals ,,and ,,gods ,,of ,,classes4 ,the neglect of indications of number in the ,japanese language often renders it impossible to say whether a ,god belongs to an individual natural object or phenomenon or to a class4 ,i therefore take these two classes of deities together1 noting the distinction wherever it is possible or desirable4 ,the ,sun-,goddess4--,the most eminent of the ,shinto deities is the ,sun-,goddess4 ,nor is this surprising4 ,if1 as ,scotus ,erigena has well said1 every visible and invisible creature is a theophany or appearance of ,god1 what more striking aspect of ,him can there be to the uncultured mind than the ,sun8 ,in a later stage of intellectual development men find a fuller revelation of ,him in the moral order of the world1 in the laws of human progress1 and in the spiritual experiences of saints and sages1 culminating in a synthesis of all the divine aspects of the universe in one harmonious whole4 ,but1 naturally enough1 there is little of this in ,shinto4 ,the ancient ,japanese recognized the divinity of the universe in a very imperfect1 piecemeal fashion1 and almost exclusively in those physical aspects by which they were more directly affected4 ,among these the light and warmth of the ,sun and the sources of their daily food held the chief place4 ,sun-worship is specially natural to the ,japanese as an agricultural people4 ,almost all the peasant's doings are in some way dependent on1 or regulated by1 the ,sun4 ,the application of the term fetish to the ,sun considered as an object of adoration is to be deprecated4 ,it implies a stigma which is altogether out of place4 ,socrates prayed to the ,sun2 schylus's ,prometheus appeals to him against the tyranny of ,zeus2 in ,sophocles's' dipus ,tyrannus' the ,chorus swears by the ,sun1 chief of all the ,gods2 ,plato says that the soul of the ,sun should be deemed a ,god by every one who has the least particle of sense2 ,goethe admitted his claims to worship2 ,don ,quixote swears by ,god and by the ,sun in the same breath1 and ,tristram ,shandy by the great ,god of ,day4 ,milton1 in the character of ,satan1 it is true1 addresses the ,sun in terms of awe and wonder1 and ,swinburne calls him the living and visible ,god4 ,the name of the first day of the week still remains to show what an important place he held in the religion of our forefathers4 ,the association of the ideas of light1 splendour1 and brightness with divinity has its origin in a primval sun-worship4 ,william the ,conqueror swore by the splendour of ,god4 ,divine contains the root div1 brightness4 ,milton calls light of the eternal co-eternal beam4 ,no doubt so long as a nation is hesitating between sun-worship and a higher form of religion there is a reason for treating the former with contempt and aversion4 ,no form of faith is so odious--because of the danger of relapse--as that from which we have emerged with painful effort to something higher4 ,but such intolerance is no longer needed4 ,it is now unnecessary to punish with death the worship of the sun1 moon1 and stars1#if or even to stigmatize it as fetish-worship4 ,the meaning of the word fetish has become so blurred by indiscriminate use that there is a temptation to discard it altogether4 ,it is frequently applied to all concrete objects of devotion1 including not only great nature-gods1 like the earth and sun1 but their symbols1 images1 and seats of their real presence1 which have no intrinsic divinity of their own1 and are only worshipped by reason of their association with genuine deities4 ,the same objects1 after their association with the ,god has been forgotten and they are blindly adored as if they were themselves ,gods1 form a third class of fetishes4 ,the sword of the shrine of ,atsuta is an example4 ,probably originally an offering and then a shintai1 it is still worshipped1 for no known reason except1 perhaps1 an empiric belief in the efficacy of prayers addressed to it4 ,implements of trade1 honoured for the help which they render to man1 are a fourth class4 ,to these we may add a fifth1 consisting of stones1 sticks1 feathers1 c41 worshipped for their imaginary virtues or for no definite reason at all4 ,the indiscriminate application of the term fetish to objects of all these five classes is highly inconvenient1 especially when we come to discuss the question whether fetishism is a primitive form of religion4 ,the answer depends entirely on the kind of fetish which is intended4 ,if the word is used at all1 it would be better to confine it to the last three of these classes4 ,the ,sun-,goddess is described as the ,ruler of ,heaven and as unrivalled in dignity4 ,she wears royal insignia1 is surrounded by ministers1 of whom the ,court of the ,mikado is the obvious prototype1 and is spoken of in terms appropriate to personages of sovereign rank4 ,she is selected as the ancestor from whom the ,mikados derive their descent and authority4 ,yet she is hardly what we understand by a ,supreme ,being4 ,her power does not extend to the sea or to the ,land of ,yomi4 ,her charge as ,ruler even of ,heaven was conferred on her by her parents1 and did not by any means involve absolute control4 ,when grossly insulted by her younger brother1 instead of inflicting on him condign punishment1 she hid in a cave1 from which she was partly enticed1 partly dragged1 by the other deities4 ,this is not the behaviour of a ,supreme ,being4 ,the punishment of the culprit and other important celestial matters are determined1 not by the fiat of the so-called ,ruler of ,heaven1 but by a ,council of the ,gods4 ,the celestial constitution1 like its earthly counterpart1 was far from being an absolute monarchy4 ,the epithet sumera1 translated sovran1 and derived from a verb sumeru1 which means to hold general rule1 is applied not only to the ,sun-,goddess but to many other deities--the ,wind-,gods1 for example--and also to the ,mikados4 ,the same is the case with ,mikoto1 which corresponds roughly to our majesty4 ,of course ,japan is not the only country which attributes royalty to the ,sun4 ,milton speaks of the ,sun's sovran vital lamp4 ,in some parts of the ,shinto mythical narrative it is the actual ,sun that the author has in view1 as when he speaks of her radiance illuminating the universe1 or of the world being left to darkness when she entered the ,rock-cave4 ,elsewhere she is an anthropomorphic being1 with no specially solar characteristics4 ,she wears armour1 celebrates the feast of first-fruits1 cultivates rice1 c4 ,inconsistencies of this kind are inherent in all nature myths1 and trouble their authors not a whit4 ,some of the modern theologians1 however1 are much perplexed by them4 ,motori concludes that this great deity actually is the ,sun in ,heaven1 which even now illuminates the world before our eyes1 a fact which is extremely clear from the divine writings4 ,his pupil ,hirata1 on the other hand1 holds that the ,sun-,goddess is not the ,ruler of ,heaven but the ,ruler of the ,sun1 a distinction which never occurred to the myth-makers4 ,another modern writer attempts to smooth over difficulties by the explanation that the ,sun-,goddess is actually a female goddess1 but1 owing to the radiance which flows from her1 seen from a distance she appears round4 ,the transparent character of the names by which the ,sun-,goddess is known is a formidable obstacle to the tendency to neglect her solar quality and to give prominence to the anthropomorphic side of her character4 ,her most usual appellation is ,ama terasu no ,oho-kami1 or the ,heaven-shining-great-deity4 ,she is also called ,ama-terasu hiru-me1 or ,heaven-shining sun-female--more briefly ,hiru-me1 ,ama terasu mi oya1 or ,heaven-shining august parent1 and other variants4 ,of these names ,european writers have generally adopted ,ama-terasu1 which1 like ,phoibos1 is in reality a mere epithet1 and is applied to other deities4 ,hirume1 or sun-female1 is more expressive1 and probably older4 ,in modern times the appellation ,ama-terasu no ,oho-kami is little used1 its ,chinese equivalent ,tenshdaijin being substituted4 ,partly under cover of a name which is less clearly intelligible to the multitude1 the tendency has become accentuated to throw her solar functions into the background and to conceive of her simply as a general ,providence1 at the expense of other deities4 ,in other words1 she has made a distinct advance towards the position of a supreme monotheistic deity4 ,even in ancient times there was some recognition of the ,sun-,goddess as a ,providence that watches over human affairs1 more especially the welfare of the ,mikado and his ,government4 ,she provided ,jimmu with the yatagarasu1 or ,sun-crow1 as a guide to his army4 ,the following prayer1 addressed to her in #hgj by envoys despatched to ,ise with offerings1 illustrates this conception of her character3-- ,by order of the ,mikado we declare with deepest reverence in the spacious presence of 7with awe be her name pronounced7 the ,sovran ,great ,heaven-shining ,deity1 whose praises are fulfilled in the ,great ,shrine1 whose pillars are broad-based on the nethermost rocks1 and whose cross-beams rise aloft to the ,plain of ,high ,heaven on the bank of the ,river ,isuzu in ,uji1 of ,watarahi in ,ise1 as follows3-- ,since the past sixth month reports have been received from the ,dazaifu#ig that two pirate-ships of ,shiraki#ih appeared at ,aratsu1 in the district of ,naka1 in the province of ,chikuzen1 and carried off as plunder the silk of a tribute-ship of the province of ,buzen4 ,moreover1 that there having been an omen of a crane which alighted on the arsenal of the ,government ,house1 the diviners declared that it presaged war with a neighbouring country4 ,also that there had been earthquakes with storms and floods in the province of ,hizen by which all the houses had been overturned and many of the inhabitants swept away4 ,even the old men affirmed that no such great calamity had ever been heard of before4 ,meanwhile news was received from the province of ,michinoku of an unusually disastrous earthquake1 and from other provinces grave calamities were reported4 ,the mutual enmity between those men of ,shiraki and our ,land of ,yamato has existed for long ages4 ,their present invasion of our territory1 however1 and their plunder of tribute1 show that they have no fear of us4 ,when we reflect on this1 it seems possible that a germ of war may spring from it4 ,our government has for a long time had no warlike expeditions1 the provision for defence has been wholly forgotten1 and we cannot but look forward to war with dread and caution4 ,but our ,japan is known as the country of the ,gods4 ,if the ,gods deign to help and protect it1 what foe will dare to approach it8 ,much more so1 seeing that the ,great ,deity in her capacity 7with awe be it spoken7 as ancestress of the ,mikado bestows light and protection on the ,under-,heaven which he governs4 ,how1 therefore1 shall she not deign to restrain and ward off outrages by strangers from foreign lands as soon as she becomes aware of them8 ,under these circumstances1 we 7the names of the envoys follow7 present these great offerings by the hands of ,komaye1 ,imbe no ,sukune1 ,vice-,minister of the ,bureau of ,imbe1 who1 hanging stout straps on weak shoulders1 has purely prepared and brought them hither4 ,be pleased graciously to hearken to this memorial4 ,but if unfortunately such hostile acts as we have spoken of should be committed let the 7with awe be it spoken7 ,great ,deity1 placing herself at the head of all the deities of the land1 stay and ward off1 sweep away and expel the enemy before his first arrow is shot4 ,should his designs ripen so far that his ships must come hither1 let them not enter within our borders1 but send them back to drift and founder4 ,suffer not the solid reasons for our country being feared as the ,divine ,country to be sodden and destroyed4 ,if1 apart from these1 there should be danger of rebellion or riot by savages1 or of disturbance by brigands at home1 or again of drought1 flood or storm1 of pestilence or famine such as would cause great disaster to the ,state or deep sorrow to the people1 deign to sweep away and destroy it utterly before it takes form4 ,be pleased to let the ,under-,heaven be free from alarms and all the country enjoy peace by thy help and protection4 ,grant thy gracious favour to the ,sovran ,grandchild1 guarding his august person by day and by night1 firm and enduring as ,heaven and ,earth1 as the ,sun and the ,moon4 ,declared with deep reverence4 ,the solar character of ,ama-terasu or ,tenshdaijin having become obscured1 the people have personified the ,sun afresh under the names of ,nichi-rin sama 7sun-wheel-personage7 and ,o tent sama 7august-heaven-path-personage74 ,to the lower class of ,japanese at the present day1 and especially to women and children1 ,o tent sama is the actual sun--sexless1 mythless1 and unencumbered by any formal cult1 but looked up to as a moral being who rewards the good1 punishes the wicked1 and enforces oaths made in his name4 ,in his ',religions of ,japan1' ,dr4 ,griffis says3 ,to the common people the ,sun is actually a ,god1 as none can doubt who sees them worshipping it morning and evening4 ,the writer can never forget one of many similar scenes in ,tokio1 when1 late one afternoon1 ,o tent sama1 which had been hidden behind clouds for a fortnight1 shone out on the muddy streets4 ,in a moment1 as with the promptness of a military drill1 scores of people rushed out of their houses1 and with faces westward1 kneeling1 squatting1 began prayer and worship before the great luminary4 ,i reproduce a drawing by a ,japanese artist of a famous spot on the coast of ,ise to which pilgrims resort in order to worship the sun as he rises over distant ,fujiyama4 ,the tori-wi1 which in some prints of this scene is seen in the foreground1 fulfils the same function as the great trilithon at ,stonehenge1 viz41 to mark the direction of worship4 ,i have seen the eastern wall of a private courtyard which was pierced with a round hole for the convenience of worshipping the morning sun4 ,there is a modern custom1 called himachi 7sun-waiting71 of keeping awake the whole night of the #eth day of the #ajth month in order to worship the sun on his rising4 ,the rules of religious purity must be observed from the previous day4 ,many persons assemble at ,takanaha1 ,uheno1 ,atago1 and other open places in ,tokio to worship the rising ,sun on the first day of the year4 ,this is called hatsu no hi no de 7the first sunrise74 ,the myths mention several other deities which1 although not identical with ,ama-terasu or ,hirume1 are plainly of solar origin4 ,such is ,waka-hirume 7young-sun-female71 who1 according to ,motori1 is the ,morning ,sun4 ,the ,ise shrine is sometimes called ,asa-hi no ,jinja1 that is to say1 the shrine of the ,morning ,sun4 ,one version of the names of the three children of ,ninigi calls them ,ho no akari 7fire or sun-light71 ,ho no susori 7fire or sun-advance71 and ,ho no wori 7fire or sun-subside71 originally1 it may be suspected1 names for the rising1 noonday1 and setting sun4 ,such a distinction is recognized in ,egyptian mythology4 ,the mythical founder of the dynasty which preceded ,jimmu in ,yamato was called ,nigi-haya-hi--that is1 gentle-swift-sun--and he is said to have come flying down from ,heaven4 ,one myth gives him the epithet ,ama-teru kuni-teru 7,heaven-shining1 earth-shining74 ,i am disposed to regard this personage as the ,sun-deity of the earlier ,yamato ,japanese1 from whom their chieftains were feigned to be descended4 ,even in ,shjiroku times many noble families traced their descent from him1 as the ,mikados did from ,hirume4 ,there are a good many other names suggestive of solar deities4 ,but here caution is necessary1 in view of the habit1 common to the ,japanese with other nations1 of borrowing solar epithets for the adornment of human beings4 ,there is a ,take-hi 7brave-sun7 in the ,nihongi who is unquestionably a mere mortal4 ,and what could be more solar than ,takama no hara hiro nu hime 7high-heaven-plain-broad-moor-princess71 the last word meaning etymologically sun-female8 ,yet this is indubitably the name of an historical ,empress who came to the throne ,a4,d4 #fhg4 ,the ,mikado ,ktoku's ,japanese name was ,ame-yorodzu-toyo-hi 7heaven-myriad-abundant-sun74 ,although ,shinto contains no formal system of ethics1 moral elements are not wanting in the character of the ,sun-,goddess as delineated in the ancient myths4 ,she exhibits the virtues of courage and forbearance in her dealings with her mischievous younger brother ,susa no wo4 ,she is wroth with the ,moon-,god when he slays the ,goddess of ,food1 and banishes him from her presence4 ,her loving care for mankind is shown by her preserving for their use the seeds of grain and other useful vegetables1 and by setting them the example of cultivating rice4 ,there is a recognition of her beneficent character in the joy of ,gods and men when she emerged from the ,rock-cave4 ,illustration ,illustration ,the circumstance that1 according to one story1 the ,sun-,goddess was produced from the left and the ,moon-,god from the right eye of ,izanagi is suggestive of the influence of ,china1 where the left takes precedence of the right4 ,compare the ,chinese myth of ,p'anku3 ,p'anku came into being in the great waste2 his beginning is unknown4 ,in dying he gave birth to the material universe4 ,his breath was transmuted into the wind and clouds1 his voice into thunder1 his left eye into the sun1 and his right eye into the moon4 ,hirata endeavours to combat the obvious inference from this comparison by pointing out that the sun is masculine in ,china and feminine in ,japan4 ,how little weight is due to this objection appears from the fact that two so nearly allied nations as the ,english and the ,germans differ in the sex which they attribute to the sun1 as do also closely related tribes of ,australian aborigines and ,ainus of ,yezo4 ,and does not ,shakespeare make the sun both masculine and feminine in the same sentence1 when he says1 ,the blessed sun himself a fair hot wench in flame-coloured taffeta8 ,there is1 moreover1 unsuspected by ,hirata and his fellow-theologians1 an unmistakeable vestige in the old myths of an obsolete or abortive masculine ,sun-deity4 ,we are told that the first child of ,izanagi and ,izanami was ,hiruko4 ,hiru-ko is written with ,chinese characters1 which mean leech-child2 and it is stated that when this ,god had completed his third year he was still unable to stand upright4 ,he was therefore placed in a reed-boat and sent adrift4 ,but the original author of the ,hiru-ko was never guilty of such a palpable absurdity as to make a leech the first-born of creation1 preceding even the ,sun and the ,moon4 ,hiruko is in reality simply a masculine form of ,hirume1 the ,sun-female1 just as hiko1 prince1 is of hime1 princess2 musuko1 boy1 of musume1 girl2 and otoko1 youth1 of otome1 maiden4 ,egypt had a ,sun-,god ,ra and a ,sun-,goddess ,rt4 ,no doubt with the greater development of the ,sun-,goddess myth it was felt that there was no room for a male ,sun-,god4 ,the tag of story which is appended to the leech derivation is one of those perversions of true myth which arise from an ignorant misunderstanding or a wilful misapplication of language4 ,the leech-child can hardly be reckoned among the effective deities of ,shinto4 ,in modern times1 however1 he has1 for some inscrutable reason1 been identified with a widely worshipped deity of unknown origin called ,ebisu4 ,this ,god has to all appearance nothing in common either with the sun or the leech4 ,he is a favourite subject of the artist1 and is usually depicted with a smiling countenance 7emi or ebi means to smile71 in ancient ,japanese costume1 and holding a fishing-rod while a tahi struggles at the end of his line4 ,he is reckoned one of the seven ,gods of good fortune1 and is a favourite deity to pray to for success in trade4 ,merchants hold a great feast in his honour on the #bjth day of the #ajth month4 ,the ascription of the female sex to the most prominent among the ,shinto ,gods is not owing merely to caprice4 ,myth-makers have often more substantial reasons for their fancies than might be supposed4 ,in the present case there is evidence that women played a very important part in the real world of ancient ,japan as well as in that of imagination4 ,women rulers were at this time a familiar phenomenon4 ,both ,japanese and ,chinese history give us glimpses of a female ,mikado who lived about ,a4,d4 #bjj1 and whose commanding ability and strong character have not been wholly obscured by the mists of legend4 ,women chieftains are frequently mentioned4 ,indeed the ,chinese seem to have thought that feminine government was the rule in ,japan1 for their historians frequently refer to it as the ,queen-country4 ,in more historical times several of the ,mikados were women4 ,in some families descent was traced by the female line4 ,from the ,kojiki we learn that in ,suinin's time it was the custom for the mother to give children their names4 ,one might think that so obviously solar a ,goddess as the ,heaven-shining-great-deity1 or ,sun-female1 whose abode is the ,plain of ,high ,heaven1 who fills the universe with her radiance and leaves it to darkness when she conceals herself1 and who is even spoken of in so many words as the ,deity of the ,sun1 would have escaped the temerarious touch of the ,euhemerist4 ,yet ,i have before me a ',history of the ,empire of ,japan1' compiled by doctors of the ,imperial ,university1 and published in #ahic by order of the ,japanese ,government1 which speaks of the principles of rice-culture and the arts of weaving1 mining1 and of making swords1 hats1 and pantaloons being known in the reign of ,ama-terasu4 ,other writers are even more precise4 ,much to ,motori's indignation1 they say bluntly that she was a mortal empress who reigned in a locality on earth called ,takama no hara 7the ,plain of ,high ,heaven74 ,yatakagami4--,the shintai of the ,sun-,goddess is a mirror1#ii sometimes called the yatakagami1 or eight-hand-mirror1 probably because it had a number of leaves or projections round it4 ,it is also called the hi-kagami 7sun-mirror7 or hi-gata no kagami 7sun-form-mirror74 ,it appears from the ,nihongi that similar mirrors were honoured in ,korea4 ,ama no hihoko is stated to have brought a sun-mirror from that country in ,b4,c4 #bg4 ,the mythical notices of the yatakagami represent it in various aspects4 ,it is mentioned in the ,kojiki among the offerings made to the ,sun-,goddess to propitiate her after her retirement to the ,rock-cave of ,heaven4 ,in the same passage ,uzume calls it a deity more illustrious than thine 7the ,sun-,goddess's7 augustness4 ,when the ,sun-,goddess and ,musubi sent down ,ninigi to rule the earth they gave him the yatakagami1 saying3 ,regard this mirror exactly as our mitama1 and reverence it as if reverencing us4 ,the ,nihongi adds3 ,let it be with thee on thy couch and in thy hall1 and let it be to thee a holy mirror4 ,the yatakagami is frequently spoken of as if it were the ,sun-,goddess herself1 and is even called the ,great ,god of ,ise4 ,another sun-mirror received an independent worship at ,kumano4 ,the ,nihongi says1 under the date ,b4,c4 #ib3-- ,before this the two ,gods ,ama-terasu no ,oho-kami and ,yamato no ,oho-kuni-dama were worshipped together within the ,emperor's ,great ,hall4 ,he dreaded1 however1 the power of these ,gods1 and did not feel secure in their dwelling together4 ,therefore he entrusted ,ama-terasu no ,oho-kami to ,toyo-suki-iri-bime no ,mikoto to be worshipped at the village of ,kasanuhi1 in ,yamato4 ,here we must understand that it was the sun-mirror which was sent away from the palace4 ,it was subsequently 7,b4,c4 #e7 enshrined at ,ise1 where it is to this day preserved with the greatest care and reverence4#ajj ,it is about eight inches in diameter4 ,in ancient ,peru1 the ,sun-,god was represented by a golden disc1 the ,moon-,goddess by one of silver4 ,we find1 however1 that in ,a4,d4 #ejg a sacred mirror was still preserved in the ,imperial palace as one of the regalia4 ,it was destroyed by fire in the eleventh century1 but its successor is to this day transmitted from sovereign to sovereign as a token of royal authority4 ,the religious ceremony in its honour is described below4#aja ,associated with the mirror as regalia were a sword and a jewel4 ,these three objects are presented to the ,mikado on his accession with great ceremony4 ,in ancient times there were probably only two regalia1 the mirror and the sword4 ,the latter was lost in the sea at the battle of ,dannora4 ,but such losses are not irreparable4 ,the ,sun-,goddess in her capacity as sovereign is attended by a ,court of minor deities who belong to the class of man-deities1 and will be dealt with in the next chapter4 ,yatagarasu4--,like the ,greek ,phoibos1 who had his 1#ajb the ,egyptian ,ra1 who was accompanied by a hawk1 and the ,peruvian ,sun-,god1 who was attended by a condor1 the ,sun-,goddess is provided with a bird as her messenger and attendant4 ,this bird is called in ,japanese ya-ta-garasu1 which means eight-hand-crow4 ,it is not1 however1 a ,japanese invention1 but is borrowed from ,china1 where it is called the ,sun-crow or ,golden ,crow1 and described as a bird with three claws and of a red colour which roosts in the sun4 ,it is mentioned in a ,chinese poem written ,b4,c4 #cad4 ,possibly it may be traced even further back4 ,a three-legged bird was figured on coins of ,pamphylia and ,lycia in very ancient times4 ,in ,japan the yatagarasu1 as a symbol of the ,sun1 was depicted on the banners set up in front of the ,imperial ,palace on ,state occasions as a mark of sovereignty4 ,this custom is known to go back to ,a4,d4 #gjj1 and is probably much older4 ,the ,euhemerists have tried their hand on the yatagarasu4 ,mr4 ,takahashi ,gor informs us in his dictionary that this was the name of one of ,jimmu ,tenn's generals1 and ,klaproth thinks it probable that the corbeau huit pattes designe la boussole dont ,zimmu s'est servi pour se guider dans son expedition4 ,a ,japanese noble family claimed descent from it1 and a shrine in its honour is mentioned in the ,yengishiki4#ajc ,there is a ,god called ,ame no hi-washi 7heaven-sun-eagle71 which1 although not to be identified with the yatagarasu1 is no doubt a product of the same tendency to associate birds with the ,gods4 ,both are inhabitants of the same celestial region4 ,susa no wo4--,the history of ,susa no wo#ajd illustrates the tendency of ,nature-,gods to have their original character obscured by the anthropomorphic fancies of successive myth-makers4 ,the ,kojiki and ,nihongi accounts of him are extremely vague and contradictory4 ,later ,japanese1 writers have identified him with the ,moon-,god1 with an ,indian ,hades deity named ,godzu ,tenn1 and with ,emma1 the ,rhadamanthus of the ,buddhist ,hell4 ,he has also been made a ,god of ,pestilence1 of ,love and ,wedlock1 or of ,war4 ,european scholars have described him as a rotating-heavens ,god or as evidently a human being4 ,dr4 ,buckley1 of ,chicago1 was the first to suggest#aje that he is the ,rain-storm4 ,we need not adopt every detail of this scholar's explanations1 and indeed no one theory can solve all the problems presented by the mutually inconsistent stories related of this deity1 but there can be no hesitation in accepting ,dr4 ,buckley's view as substantially correct4 ,it is as the ,rain-storm that he is continually weeping1 wailing1 and fuming with rage2 that he weeps the mountains bare and the seas and rivers dry2 that he is a lover of destruction2#ajf that by reason of the fierceness of his divine nature he causes a commotion in the sea and makes the hills and mountains groan aloud when he ascends through cloud and mist to visit his elder sister the ,sun-,goddess4 ,torrent ,goddesses are born from the fragments of his sword4 ,he breaks down the divisions between the rice-fields and defiles his sister's dwelling1 disgusting her so that she hides in a cave and leaves the world to darkness4 ,he is further represented as going down to earth at the season of continuous rains1 and as wearing a broad hat and a rain-coat4 ,when he marries1 the nuptial hut to which he retires with his wife is built of thick clouds4 ,the sword which he takes from the serpent's tail is called ama no mura-kumo1 that is to say1 the gathering clouds of ,heaven4 ,another appropriate name for the weapon of a rain-storm deity is kusa-nagi1 the herb-queller4 ,his wife's name1 ,inada-hime 7the rice-field lady71 is probably not without significance4 ,but mythology is rarely consistent4 ,an explanation which suits one episode of a story may fail altogether when applied to others4 ,there is nothing of the rain-storm about the ,susa no wo who rescues a ,japanese ,andromeda from the great serpent which comes to devour her1 or in the provider of timber and fruit-trees for mankind1 or in the names and attributes of his very numerous children4 ,his visit to ,korea can hardly have a rain-storm significance4 ,moreover1 it is impossible to pass over the explicit statement of the ,nihongi that he was appointed to rule the land of ,yomi4 ,a ,kojiki myth#ajg gives an account of his abode here in which no trace of his rain-storm quality is perceptible4 ,dr4 ,florenz summarily rejects ,hirata's theory that ,susa no wo is identical with the ,moon-,god ,tsuki-yomi4 ,it must be admitted that if this deity ever had a lunar quality it had become forgotten in the times of the ,kojiki and ,nihongi4 ,both these works distinguish him unmistakably from the ,moon-,god4 ,nor is the ,european student likely to adopt the literal-minded ,hirata's notion that the land of ,yomi at first situated at the bottom of the ,earth1 became detached after ,susa no wo was made its ruler1 and was placed in the sky where we now see it--as the moon4 ,yet there is something to be said for his contention that the two deities were originally identical4 ,the analogy of other mythologies#ajh suggests that a ,god whose relations with the ,sun are at one time marital and at another hostile must be the ,moon4 ,there is nothing strange in the darkness of night and of the grave being presided over by the same divinity4 ,persephone1 ,queen of ,hades1 was a ,moon-,goddess4 ,the original identity of ,susa no wo and ,tsukiyomi would account for both deities being severally described in different myths as the slayer of the ,food-,goddess and as the ,ruler of the ,sea-plain4 ,it would also explain why the diviners at ,ise ascribed to a curse from ,tsukiyomi a storm of wind and rain which in #ggb uprooted trees and destroyed houses4 ,in an old book quoted by ,hirata1 ,susa no wo is called ,haya-,sasura no ,kami1 swift-banishment-deity4 ,his daughter while in ,yomi is called ,suseri-hime1 probably identical with the ,sasura-hime of the norito#aji who dwells in the ,root-country1 and whose business it is to banish and get rid of the pollutions of the people4 ,a ,manyshiu poem calls the moon ,sasurahe-otoko1 that is to say1 the banished or vagabond youth4 ,all this establishes a presumption that ,susa no wo was at one time a lunar deity4 ,if so he would appear in three closely related aspects1 the darkness of the storm1 of the grave1 and of night4 ,brinton1 writing without any special reference to ,japan1 observes#aaj3--;,associated with the gloom of night was the darkness of the storm1 which in many mythologies is contrasted with the sunshine in some divine struggle4 ,endless are the tales and rites which bear upon this contest in early religions4 ,if we remember the attributes of our own ,prince of ,darkness1 we shall not be surprised to find traces of a tendency to make of ,susa no wo a personification of the evil principle4 ,he is the arch offender of ,japanese myth4 ,the crimes committed by him against the ,sun-,goddess agree closely with the so-called celestial offences of the ,great ,purification ,ceremony4 ,hence his identification with the horned ,godzu ,tenn1 a minister of the ,buddhist hell4 ,the ,shinto ,miomoku1 which makes of him a ,trinity under the name ,samp ,kwjin 7three-treasure-rough-god71 consisting of ,kami ,susa no wo1 ,haya ,susa no wo1 and plain ,susa no wo1 by the epithet rough1 recognizes the sinister aspect of his character4 ,we may note the same element ara1 rough1 in the name of the ,moon-god's shrine at ,ise1 namely1 ,aratama no ,miya4 ,several of ,susa no wo's acts have an unmistakably beneficent character1 as his rescue of ,inada hime1 and his provision of useful trees for man4 ,the modern worship of him as 7with his wife7 a deity of love and wedlock also recognizes a beneficent aspect of his nature4 ,hirata explains this contradiction by the theory that he is beneficent when his nigi-tama 7gentle spirit7 is in the ascendant1 and malignant when his ara-tama 7rough-spirit7 gets the upper hand1 as in the leading case of ,jekyll and ,hyde1 reported by ,r4 ,l4 ,stevenson4 ,the female deity of ,yomi1 ,sasura-hime1 is called by ,hirata a waki-dama 7side spirit1 or double7 of ,susa no wo1 forming with him a dual divinity1 as in the case of the ,wind-,gods4 ,etymology helps us little in determining ,susa no wo's character4 ,the ordinary derivation connects his name with the verb susamu1 to be impetuous4 ,hence the ,impetuous ,male of ,english translators4 ,it agrees well with the rainstorm conception of this deity4 ,there is at the present day a festival celebrated in his honour at ,onomachi in ,bingo1 described as follows by a ,japanese writer3 ,the procession is a tumultuous trial of speed and strength4 ,bands of strong men seize the sacred cars1 race with them to the sea1 and having plunged in breast-deep1 their burden held aloft1 dash back at full speed to the shrine4 ,there refreshments are served out1 and then the race is resumed1 the goal being the central flag among a number set up in a large plain4 ,their feet beat time to a wildly shouted chorus1 and they sweep along wholly regardless of obstacles or collisions4 ,the ceremony here described is no doubt intended as a dramatic representation of the impetuous character of the ,god4 ,the susamu etymology derives some support from a comparison of that of ,woden1 from vatha 7the modern ,german wuthen71 to go violently1 to rush1 and of ,hermes1 from 2 but it is after all questionable4 ,it implies a noun susa1 impetuosity1 which does not exist4 ,moreover1 one of ,susa no wo's wife's names was ,susa no yatsu mimi1 where it is not disputed that ,susa is the name of a town in ,idzumo4 ,there is a legend which represents ,susa no wo as giving his name to this place and allowing his mitama to rest here4 ,susa no wo would therefore be simply the male 7,god7 of ,susa1 a territorial title 7of ,tsukiyomi87 for which there are many parallels in ,japanese mythology4#aaa ,the shintai of ,susa no wo1 or rather of his supposed modern representative1 ,godzu ,tenn1 is a naginata1 or halbert4 ,but there is some reason to think that the great festival of ,goriye1 now held in his honour at ,kioto1 was originally that of the ,sahe no kami1 and that the hoko or naginata carried in procession on this occasion is a substitute for an older phallus4 ,tsukl-yomi4--,this ,god1 although worshipped in many places1 ,ise and ,kadono amongst others1 is hardly one of the greater gods of ,japan4 ,the usual derivation of his name is from tsuki1 moon1 and yomi1 darkness4 ,it is to be observed1 however1 that this yomi is often written with a character which implies a derivation from yomu1 to reckon1 a word which contains the same root as yubi1 finger4 ,moon-reckoner is not an inappropriate name for a luminary which is recognized in so many countries as a measurer of time4 ,tsuki-yomi was represented at ,ise as a man riding on a horse1 clad in purple and girt with a golden sword4 ,another shintai of his was a mirror4 ,live horses were offered to him annually4 ,the ,kiujiki mentions a ,moon-,god among the suite of ,ninigi when he descended to earth1 and states that he was the ancestor of the agata-nushi 7local chiefs7 of ,iki4 ,this was probably a local ,moon-deity4 ,the phases of the ,moon are not recognized in ,japanese myth4 ,tsuki-machi 7moon-waiting74 ,on the #agth or #bcrd of the lunar month1 people assemble to greet the rising moon4 ,ritual purity must be observed beforehand4 ,this custom illustrates the tendency to revert to the direct worship of nature when the myths have become obscured by time and no longer fulfil their original purpose4 ,star-,god4--,there is only one mention of a ,star-,god in the ,nihongi4 ,he is called ,amatsu mika hoshi 7dread star of ,heaven71 or ,ame no ,kagase wo 7scarecrow male of ,heaven71 and was one of the malignant deities conquered by ,futsunushi and ,mika-tsuchi in preparation for ,ninigi's descent to earth4 ,the scarecrow is regarded as a sort of deity4 ,he is said to know everything in the empire1 though he cannot walk4 ,the worship of ,tanabata 7,vega7 and of the ,north ,star is also known in ,japan4 ,but these cults have been introduced from ,china4 ,they are not ,shinto4 ,ame no minaka-nushi4--,the ,sky is not deified in ,japan as it is in ,china4 ,ame is the region where the ,gods dwell1 not itself a ,god4 ,possibly1 however1 we should regard ,ame no mi-naka-nushi 7heaven-august-centre-master71 as a personification of the sky1 which has already reached that secondary phase in which the ,god has become distinct from the natural phenomenon4 ,some have endeavoured to make of him a sort of ,supreme ,being4 ,but his cult is recent4 ,motori says that he was not worshipped in ancient times4 ,in the ,shjiroku he is the ancestor of several noble families4 ,earth-,gods4--,comte calls ,earth a great fetish4 ,there are the same objections to calling the ,earth a fetish as there are to applying this epithet to the ,sun4 schylus's ,all-,mother ,earth1 and ,swinburne's ,hertha1 ought not to be so stigmatized4 ,the ,earth is not a factitious 7feitio1 fetish7 object of adoration1 but a real divinity4 ,it should not be discarded or neglected1 but1 along with other primary objects of worship1 merged in the supreme synthesis of all the glimpses of the ,divine which are vouchsafed to us4 ,several phases of earth worship are exemplified in ,shinto4 ,the simplest of all is the ji-matsuri1 or ji-chin-sai 7earth-festival or earth-calming-festival71 which is the ceremony of propitiating the site of a new building1 or a piece of ground to be reclaimed for cultivation4 ,here it is the ground itself that is worshipped1 without distinction of sex1 or the adjunct of myth1 metaphor1 or personal name4 ,this practice is as old as the ,yengishiki1 and is not extinct at the present day4 ,many peasants make sacrifice to the ta no kami1 or rice-field god1 when preparing the ground for a crop1 though here we perhaps pass into the next stage1 in which the ,god is something apart from the rice-field itself4 ,a similar phase of thought is implied by the use of such terms as ,iku-kuni#aab 7living country71 and ,taru-kuni 7perfect country71 though here too the norito of ,praying for ,harvest1 has already taken the further step of regarding this deity as a ,god who rules the islands of ,japan4 ,ikushima 7living island or region71 is also used both for the country regarded as a ,god and for the ,god of the country4 ,we have seen above that several of the provinces had two names1 one geographical1 the other when considered as a ,god or ,goddess1 like our ,britain and ,britannia1 ,scotland and ,caledonia4 ,a still further stage of progress is illustrated by the terms kuni-dama 7country spirit71 and iku-dama 7live spirit74 ,kuni-dama is a general term for deified localities4 ,iku-dama1 which has the same meaning1 is a contraction for iku kuni-dama4 ,motori says that any ,god who has done service by making a country or province is worshipped in that province as the ,kuni-dama or ,oho-kuni-dama4 ,the ,ichi no miya 7,no4 #a shrines7 of later times represent the old ,gods of localities4 ,the ,kunari no kami1 or ,kunari-hime1 were also apparently local earth-deities4 ,kunari is for kuni-nari 7earth-become74 ,ohonamochi4--,in the case of the great ,earth-,god of ,japan1 namely1 ,ohonamochi1 the direct worship and personification of the country have already retired into the background4 ,the myths speak of him not as the land itself1 but as the maker of the land4 ,his functions are variously described as constructing1 measuring out1 consolidating1 subduing1 and ordering or governing4 ,the ,idzumo ,fudoki frequently calls him the ame no shita tsukurashishi ,oho-kami1 that is to say1 the great ,god who made the ,under-,heaven4 ,the spear which he carries is indicative of warlike prowess and political sway1 while the mattock given to him by one myth points rather to agricultural development4 ,he is also1 along with ,sukuna-bikona1 the instructor of mankind in the arts of medicine and magic4 ,the usual tendency to enlarge the sphere of nature deities by attributing to them providential powers is illustrated by a poem in the ,manyshiu in which he is appealed to for the protection of the ship of an envoy who was about to proceed to ,china4 ,he could assume the form of a snake or of a human being4 ,the name ,ohonamochi tells us nothing4 ,it means great-name-possessor1 and is simply honorific4 ,an alternative title is ,oho-kuni-nushi1 or great land-master1 ,kuni-nushi being perhaps an honorary epithet equivalent to king4 ,another name of this deity1 ,oho-kuni-dama 7great land spirit71 is more significant4 ,it shows that he was regarded as one of the ,kuni-dama or earth-deities mentioned above4 ,his ,earth-,god quality is also implied by the alias ,oho-toko-nushi1 or great-place-master4 ,this ,god belongs mainly to the ,idzumo group of myths4 ,he is the son of ,susa no wo1 also an ,idzumo ,god4 ,the great centre of his worship to this day1 and the holiest spot in ,japan1 next after ,ise1 is ,kidzuki1 a town in that province4 ,his shrine here#aac is known all over ,japan as the ,taisha1 or ,great ,shrine1 and was formerly of exceptional magnificence4 ,there is a widespread belief that all the ,gods of ,japan resort hither in the tenth month1 which is therefore called ,kami-na-dzuki1 or the godless month4 ,but ,hirata's suggestion that ,kami-na-dzuki is really for ,kami-name-dzuki1 the divine tasting-month1 that is1 the month of the harvest festival1 is very plausible4 ,kaempfer transfers this annual visit of the ,gods from ,idzumo to the ,mikado's palace1 a blundering account of a myth which itself rests on a blunder4 ,the story of his deposition#aad by ,take-mika-dzuchi and ,futsunushi is probably an echo of a real historical event1 when the rulers of ,idzumo were compelled to yield up their temporal power to the conquerors of ,yamato1 retaining however1 their control of spiritual matters4 ,miwa1 in ,yamato1 was another seat of this deity's worship4 ,to be more exact1 it was his nigi-tama1 or gentle spirit1 which was worshipped here4 ,he is also associated with the numerous shrines called ,sann or ,hiye4 ,the ,sono no kami 7garden deity71 to whom there was a shrine in the ,palace1 is also believed to be ,ohomononushi1 the nigi-tama of ,ohonamochi4 ,along with ,sukuna-bikona he is worshipped at ,kanda1 ,tokio1 as showing special favour to the inhabitants of that city 7,yedokko no mitama no kami74 ,these two deities are supposed to grant protection against small-pox4 ,the ,kojiki story of ,ohonamochi's adventures in ,yomi#aae has no apparent connexion with his status as an ,earth-,god4 ,dr4 ,buckley argues that the ,ohonamochi of this narrative is a ,moon-,god1 and that his eighty brothers are the stars4 ,i think it will be found to contain foreign and later elements1 and that the introduction of ,ohonamochi's name is merely accidental4 ,the ,nihongi passes it over in silence4 ,the shintai of ,ohonamochi is a necklace of jewels4 ,his nigi-tama1 or gentle spirit1 is represented by a mirror1 the shintai of the ara-tama1 or rough spirit1 being a spear4 ,asuha4--,an obscure deity1 called ,asuha no kami1 said to be the child of ,oho-toshi1 the ,harvest-,god1 is referred to in one of the norito4 ,motori fails to identify him or her4 ,hirata thinks that ,asuha is for ashiba1 that is1 foot-place1 and that it means the plot of ground on which the dwelling stands4 ,he mentions a practice by persons whose friends were absent on pilgrimages of making a model of a house with a thatched roof to which they offered tea and rice every morning4 ,they could not tell him what ,god it was whom they wished to propitiate4 ,hirata had no doubt that it was ,asuha4 ,he quotes an old poem which says3 ,until he returns1 ,i will pray to the ,god ,asuha of the middle of the courtyard4 ,sir ,e4 ,satow calls ,asuha no kami the guardian deity of the courtyard4 ,i do not deny that this conception existed4 ,but we must not lose sight of the earlier phase of thought in which the courtyard is itself the deity4 ,other ,earth-,gods4--,another obscure earth-deity is ,haigi no kami1 said to be the ,god of the space between the door of the house and the outer gate4 ,the soil of the earth is deified under the names of ,uhijini1 ,suhijini1 and ,hani-yasu-hime1 personifications of mud1 sand1 and clay respectively4 ,the two former are just mentioned in myth4 ,hani-yasu means clay easy1 the latter adjective indicating its plastic quality4 ,clay was probably deified because it forms the material for the ,kamado1 or kitchen-furnace1 and is therefore deserving of gratitude for its service in restraining the unruly element fire4 ,the water-gourd was deified for the same reason4 ,earthquake-,gods4--,the old myths say nothing about earthquakes1 and although they are mentioned several times in the historical part of the ,nihongi1 in only one case#aaf is a ,god of ,earthquakes spoken of4 ,in ,a4,d4 #fhd there was a great earthquake1 and a new island was formed at ,idzu4 ,a drumming sound was heard1 which was thought to be made by the ,gods in constructing it4 ,the ,shoku-nihongi1 a continuation of the ,nihongi1 states that in the reign of ,shmu 7#gbd-dh71 there were shrines to the ,god of ,earthquakes in all the provinces4 ,but any ,god might cause an earthquake4 ,there is a legend that the ,god of ,kashima 7,take-mika-dzuchi7 sealed down the ,earthquake-,god--he has no particular name--by placing over him the ,kaname-ishi1 or pivot-stone1 which is still to be seen near his shrine4 ,the comparative insignificance of this deity in a country so notoriously subject to these convulsions as ,japan is an instructive commentary on ,buckle's well-known views of their importance in promoting superstition4 ,mountain-,gods4--,most mountains of importance have their deity1 who sometimes belongs to the general pantheon and is at others a specific mountain deity4 ,the ,mountain-,god sometimes assumes the form of a serpent4 ,though ,japan has one hundred volcanoes1 of which half are more or less active1 the feelings excited by volcanic phenomena have left little trace in the religion4 ,the ,kojiki1 ,nihongi1 and ,norito do not recognize any worship of volcanoes4 ,perhaps the ,aso-tsu-hiko and ,aso-tsu-hime of the ,nihongi#aag are to be reckoned an exception4 ,these are no doubt personifications of ,mount ,aso1 a remarkable volcano in the province of ,higo1 which is frequently referred to in later history4 ,the drying up or overflowing of a lake within its crater was supposed to portend famine1 pestilence1 drought1 or the death of the sovereign4 ,a ninth-century notice states that the ,mikado informed the ,sun-,goddess that the miraculous pond in the district of ,aso recently dried up for about four hundred feet1 and in the province of ,idzu there has been an earthquake4 ,after divination ,i learnt that a drought1 plague1 or war would ensue4 ,in order that this land might be peacefully ruled by the ,sun-,goddess1 ,i1 having chosen a day of happy omen1 send out the messengers 7named7 and present offerings4 ,on another similar occasion1 the ,god ,hachiman was appealed to for help4 ,the ,god 7or ,gods71 however1 of ,aso itself was not wholly neglected4 ,there were shrines to him on the mountain1 with hereditary guardians to attend to them1 and we hear of an offering of a horse4 ,but volcano gods were in no high estimation4 ,in #hfj a ,satsuma volcano received the junior branch of a lower division of the fourth rank1 which is much as if ,vesuvius were awarded the ,italian equivalent for a ,d4,s4,o4 ,a great eruption of a mountain in ,deha in the ninth century was attributed to the wrath of ,oho-mono-imi 7the ,food-,goddess71 on account of a pollution of the mountain water by dead bodies4 ,fuji no yama is worshipped under the name of ,sengen or ,asama4 ,at the present day nearly every volcano has its deity and a small shrine4 ,mountain ,class-,deities4--,the ,kojiki and ,nihongi mention a ,mountain-,god or ,gods1#aah called ,yama tsu mi 7mountain-body71 as among the children of ,izanagi and ,izanami1 or as born from the blood of ,kagutsuchi when slain by his father4 ,we hear little more of him or them4 ,the ,mountain-,god was worshipped before cutting trees for shrines or palaces4 ,sea-,gods4--,the chief sea-deities of ,shinto are the three ,gods produced by ,izanagi#aai when he washed in the sea after his return from ,yomi4 ,they are named respectively ,soko-tsu-wata-dzu-mi 7bottom-sea-body71 ,naka-tsu-wata-dzu-mi 7middle-sea-body7 and ,uha-tsu-wata-dz-umi 7upper-sea-body74 ,their chief shrine is at ,sumiyoshi1 near ,sakai1 and they are prayed to for rescue from shipwreck and for fair winds4#abj ,these three ,gods are frequently spoken of as one4 ,hirata identifies them with ,toyotama-hiko1 whose legend is related above4#aba ,illustration ,with ,toyotama-hiko there is associated a fabulous animal called a wani1 usually written with the ,chinese character for crocodile4 ,there can be little doubt that the wani is really the ,chinese dragon4 ,it is frequently so represented in ,japanese pictures4 ,i have before me a print which shows ,toyotama-hiko and his daughter with dragons' heads appearing over their human ones4 ,this shows that he was conceived of not only as a ,lord of ,dragons1 but as a dragon himself4 ,his daughter1 who in one version of the story changes at the moment of child-bearing into a wani as her true form1 in another is converted into a dragon4 ,in ,japanese myth the serpent or dragon is almost always associated with water in some of its forms4 ,we also hear of a ,shiho-tsuchi1 or brine-father1 and of local harbour deities4 ,river-,gods4--,the ,river ,gods have no individual names4 ,they are called generally midzu-chi1 or water-father4 ,japanese dictionaries describe the midzu-chi as an animal of the dragon species with four legs4 ,hepburn1 in his ',japanese-,english ,dictionary1' calls it a large water-snake4 ,the difference is not material4 ,the dragon-kings of ,chinese myth 7of whom ,toyotama-hiko is an echo7 are in ,india the ,naga ,raja1 or cobra-kings4 ,the conception of a stream as a snake1 serpent1 or dragon1 or of one of these animals as the embodiment of a water-deity is widespread4 ,dennys1 in his ',folk-,lore of ,china1' quotes from the ,north ,china ,herald the following3 ,the ,river-,god is in every case a small water-snake which popular fancy has converted into a deity4 ,robertson-,smith1 in his ',religion of the ,semites1' says that the living power that inhabits sacred waters and gives them their miraculous or healing quality is very often held to be a serpent1 a huge dragon1 or water monster4 ,reville tells us that ,le serpent joue en effet un grand rle symbolique dans le culte de ,tlaloc 7the ,mexican ,rain and ,water ,god7 en tant qu'il represente l'eau qui coule1 les nuages1 les cours d'eau4 ,it is easy to understand how a river1 with its sinuous course and its mysterious movement without legs1 should come to be thought of as a great serpent1 especially if we remember the aquatic habits of some of the ophidia4 ,rivers have their favourable and their maleficent aspects4 ,on the one hand they furnish water for irrigation1 and on the other they cause destruction and loss of life by their floods1 metaphorically expressed by the serpent's poison4 ,the ,river-,gods are prayed to for rain in time of drought4 ,we hear oftener of their sinister aspect4 ,the ,perseus and ,andromeda incident related above is probably a trace of former human sacrifices to rivers1 of which further evidence is afforded by the following extracts from the ,nihongi3-- ,a4,d4 #cgi4 ,this year1 at a fork of the ,river ,kahashima1 in the central division of the ,province of ,kibi1 there was a great water-dragon which harassed the people4 ,now when travellers were passing that place on their journey1 they were sure to be affected by its poison1 so that many died4 ,hereupon ,agatamori1 the ancestor of the ,omi of ,kasa1 a man of fierce temper and of great bodily strength1 stood over the pool of the river-fork and flung into the water three whole calabashes1 saying3 ',thou art continually belching up poison and therewithal plaguing travellers4 ,i will kill thee1 thou water-dragon4 ,if thou canst sink these calabashes1 then will ,i take myself away1 but if thou canst not sink them1 then will ,i cut thy body to pieces4' ,now the water-dragon changed itself into a deer and tried to draw down the calabashes1 but the calabashes would not sink4 ,so with upraised sword he entered the water and slew the water-dragon4 ,he further sought out the water-dragon's fellows4 ,now the tribe of all the water-dragons filled a cave in the bottom of the pool4 ,he slew them every one1 and the water of the river became changed to blood4 ,therefore that water was called the pool of ,agatamori4 ,a4,d4 #cbc4 ,in order to prevent the overflowing of the ,northern river the ,mamuta embankment was constructed4 ,at this time there were two parts of the construction which gave way and could not be stopped up4 ,then the ,emperor had a dream1 in which he was admonished by a ,god1 saying3 ',there are a man of ,musashi named ,koha-kubi and a man of ,kahachi named ,koromo no ko1 the ,muraji of ,mamuta4 ,let these two men be sacrificed to the ,river-,god1 and thou wilt surely be enabled to close the gaps4' ,so he sought for these two men1 and having found them1 offered them to the ,river-,god4 ,hereupon ,koha-kubi wept and lamented1 and plunging into the water1 died4 ,so that embankment was completed4 ,koroma no ko1 however1 took two whole calabashes1 and standing over the water which could not be dammed1 plunged the two calabashes into the mid-stream and prayed1 saying3 ',o thou ,river-,god1 who hast sent the curse to remove which ,i have now come hither as a sacrifice6 ,if thou dost persist in thy desire to have me1 sink these calabashes and let them not rise to the surface4 ,then shall ,i know that thou art a true ,god1 and will enter the water of my own accord4 ,but if thou canst not sink the calabashes1 ,i shall1 of course1 know that thou art a false ,god1 for whom why should ,i spend my life in vain8' ,hereupon a whirlwind arose suddenly which drew with it the calabashes and tried to submerge them in the water4 ,but the calabashes1 dancing on the waves1 would not sink1 and floated far away over the wide waters4 ,in this way that embankment was completed1 although ,koromo no ko did not die4 ,accordingly ,koromo no ko's cleverness saved his life4 ,therefore the men of that time gave a name to these two places1 calling them ',koha-kubi's ,gap' and ',koromo no ko's ,gap4' ,these stories1 like that of ,perseus and ,andromeda1 and the ,roman legend that ,hercules substituted images of straw for the living men hurled into the ,tiber from the ,sublician bridge1 belong to a period when the belief in the efficacy of human sacrifice for propitiating river-deities had been considerably shaken4 ,the abolition of sacrifices of living men at the tombs of deceased ,mikados is part of the same movement in the direction of a greater regard for human life4 ,the decay of the cult of rivers is also to be inferred from a statement in the ,nihongi 7,a4,d4 #fdb7 that prayers to the ,river-,gods for rain were condemned by the ,government as yielding no good result4 ,reading ,buddhist ,sutras was equally ineffectual1 but prayers by the ,mikado to the four quarters of ,heaven in ,chinese fashion were more successful4 ,there is a superstition at the present day that the mouths and pools of rivers are haunted by monsters called kappa1 which destroy human beings and domestic animals4 ,rain-,gods4--,two special ,rain-,gods are mentioned in the ,nihongi1 namely1 ,kura o ,kami 7valley-august-god7 and ,taka-o-,kami 7height-august-god74 ,both are often called simply ,o ,kami1 and are conceived of as having dragon shape4 ,but praying for rain was by no means confined to them4 ,the ,yengishiki gives a list of eighty-five shrines to which messengers were despatched by the ,court to pray for rain4 ,these included many river and water deities1 such as the ,yamaguchi 7mountain-mouth7 and ,mi-kumari 7water-distributor7 ,gods2 but the ,wind-,god1 the ,rice-,god1 the ,thunder-,god1 and many others were added4 ,even deified men like ,temmang2 might be prayed to for rain4 ,the following is a modern method of causing rain4 ,a procession is formed1 a ,shinto priest carrying gohei at its head4 ,next to him follows a conch-blower1 and then some men carrying a dragon made of straw1 bamboo1 c4 ,two flags inscribed to the ,dragon-kings come after4 ,next follows a drum1 then the people in disorderly rout1 shouting1 ,the black clouds of the honourable peak3 from the west the rain comes pouring4 ,the ceremony ends by the straw dragon being plunged into a waterfall4 ,water from the sacred lake of ,haruna is supposed to produce rain4 ,it is carried to the required place by relays of couriers1 for if it stopped on the way the rain would fall there instead4 ,well-,gods4--,sacred wells are known in ,japan4 ,they are called mi-wi 7august well7 or mana-wi 7true well74 ,there is one at ,kitsuki1 in ,idzumo1 called the ama no manawi 7heaven-true-well71 whence sacred water is drawn4 ,wells or well-gods are widely worshipped1 usually in association with such household deities as ,ashiba no ,kami 7the site deity7 and ,kamado no ,kami 7the furnace deity74 ,we hear of an ,iku-wi no ,kami 7live-well-god7 and a ,fuku-wi no ,kami 7luck-well-god74 ,special wells were sunk for the water used in the ohonihe ceremony1 and worship paid to them4 ,well-diggers 7idohori7 at the present day sometimes purify the ground previously to beginning their operations and set up gohei4 ,in fine weather1 at night1 they apply their ears to the ground1 when they can hear the water-veins below4 ,old wells should not be wholly closed1 or blindness to one of the family will be the result4 ,hence to appease the ,god of the well a bamboo is let down into it before filling it up4 ,wells are worshipped at the ,new ,year4 ,water-,gods4--,the element of water generally is deified under the name of ,midzuha no me 7water-female74 ,she is said to have been produced from the urine of ,izanami when dying1 or1 according to another account1 from the blood of ,kagu-tsuchi when he was slain by ,izanagi4#abb ,the ,jimmu legend says that the water used in sacrifice to ,musubi was entitled ,idzu no ,midzuha no me1 that is to say1 sacred-water-female1 thus identifying the element with the deity to whom it belongs4 ,wind-,gods4--,the ,nihongi speaks of one ,wind-,god named ,shinatsu-hiko 7wind-long-prince74 ,he was produced from ,izanagi's breath when he puffed away the mists which surrounded the newly formed country of ,japan4#abc ,the conception of the wind as the breath of the ,gods is also found in the ,vedas and elsewhere4 ,in the latter part of the ,nihongi frequent mention is made of embassies to ,tatsuta1 in ,yamato1 to pray to the ,wind-,gods for a good harvest4 ,a norito addressed to them#abd makes two ,wind-,gods--one masculine1 named ,shinatsu-hiko1 and one feminine1 called ,shinatobe4 ,they are also referred to as ,ame no ,mihashira 7august-pillar#abe of ,heaven7 and ,kuni no ,mihashira 7august-pillar of ,earth74 ,hirata supposes that it was by them that communication was maintained between earth and sky in the ,age of the ,gods1 and that it is due to their agency that the prayers of men are heard in ,heaven4 ,their shintai is a mirror4 ,another ,wind-,god is ,hayachi1 that is1 the swift father1 or perhaps swift wind4 ,he is more especially the whirlwind4 ,he acted as the messenger of the ,gods in bringing up to ,heaven the body of ,ame no waka-hiko1 who had died on earth4 ,take-mika-dzuchi and ,futsunushi4--,there is much confusion as to the character and functions of these two deities4 ,they are associated in myth and in worship4#abf ,their two oldest shrines at ,kashima and ,kadori are close to one another1 and they are worshipped together at ,kasuga and other places4 ,indeed ,hirata argues that they are one and the same deity4 ,he points out that ,futsunushi is not mentioned in the ,kojiki story of the pacification of ,japan in preparation for the advent of ,ninigi1 and that the same authority gives ,toyo-futsu no ,kami and ,take-futsu no ,kami as alternative names of ,take-mika-dzuchi4 ,on the other hand1 the ,jimmu legend calls ,futsu no mitama1#abg apparently a variant of ,futsunushi1 the sword of ,take-mika-dzuchi1 and ascribes a different parentage to these two deities4 ,there are other features in the ,nihongi myths which are inconsistent with the theory that they are identical4 ,take-mika-dzuchi means brave-dread-father4 ,his name is frequently written with ,chinese characters which imply that he is identical with ,ika-dzuchi1 or the ,thunder-,god4 ,this is probably correct1 although it is to be remembered that ,ika-dzuchi had in more ancient times the more general signification dread father1 and is applied to other than thunder deities4 ,in ,futsu-nushi the latter element admittedly means master4 ,but ,i cannot accept ,motori's explanation of futsu as an onomatopoetic word expressing the sound made when a thing is cleanly cut or snapped off4 ,the following facts suggest a different derivation3-- #a4 ,the ,sun-mirror 7hi-kagami1 which may also mean fire-mirror7 is called in one writing#abh the ,ma-futsu no kagami 7true-fire-mirror74 #b4 ,ama no hihoko is said to have brought over with him from ,korea a hi-kagami4 #c4 ,futsu is the regular ,japanese phonetic equivalent of the ,korean pul1 fire4 ,in ,furu-no mitama and ,furu-musubi 7for ,ho-musubi7 we have an intermediate form between futsu and pul4 ,there is a ,god called ,saji-futsu or ,satsu-futsu1 for which the ,korean phonetic equivalent would be ,sal-pul4 ,this would mean living fire 7,cicero's ignis animal74 ,i have no doubt that ,saji-futsu is an alias of ,futsu-nushi4 #d4 ,futsunushi was produced from the blood of ,kagu-tsuchi1 the ,god of ,fire1 when the latter was slain by ,izanagi4 ,the inference from these data is that ,futsunushi is a ,fire-,god of ,korean origin4#abi ,but while there is a strong probability that ,take-mika-dzuchi and ,futsunushi were originally ,thunder and ,fire deities1 by a tendency which there is for nature-gods to become credited with providential functions1 to the neglect or oblivion of their proper natural powers1 these two deities have in historical times been universally recognized as war-gods4 ,the myth which represents them as subduing ,ohonamochi and makes ,futsu no mitama a sword contains the germ of this view of their character4 ,a poet of the ,manyshiu speaks of praying to the ,god of ,kashima when about to start on a warlike expedition4 ,fencing and horsemanship were under ,futsunushi's special protection4 ,the shintai of both ,gods1 to some worshippers the ,gods themselves1 were swords4 ,that of ,take-mika-dzuchi was a sword1 five feet long1 which at the annual ,kashima festival was drawn from its sheath and worshipped by the priests1#acj all the people present wearing swords and drawing them before the shrine4 ,it is probably as a war-god that he was constituted the ,ujigami of the arrow-makers1 and that offerings of horses were made to him4 ,when savage tribes were subdued or foreign invaders repulsed these ,gods led the van and were followed by the other deities4 ,they were supposed to extend their special favour and protection to the ,mikado1 who sent frequent embassies to their various shrines4 ,they were also prayed to for a calm passage for envoys to ,china1 and for children4 ,predictions of the quality of the harvest were recently1 and probably still are1 hawked about by persons in the garb of ,shinto priests1 called ,kashima no koto-fure1 that is to say1 notifications from ,kashima4 ,believers in the ghost and grave theory of the origin of religion will be interested to learn that not far from ,kashima there is a large sepulchral mound called ,kame-yama 7pot-hill74 ,on the #hth day of the #ast month an ,imperial envoy offers gohei here and recites a norito4 ,there are dances and music1 and the mound is solemnly circumambulated4 ,traditions exist of a great battle in this neighbourhood4 ,smaller sepulchral mounds are also met with here1 as at all ancient centres of authority in ,japan4 ,ika-dzuchi4--,take-mika-dzuchi having been converted into a war-deity and general ,providence1 the ,thunder itself continued to be worshipped under the name of ,ika-dzuchi1 dread father1 which is short for ,naru ika-dzuchi1 the sounding dread father4 ,he is also called ,naru kami1 or the sounding ,god4 ,kami-nari 7god-sound7 is the modern word for thunder4 ,there are numerous shrines to this deity4 ,by the ,ika-dzuchi1 which were generated from the putrefying corpse of ,izanami1 we must understand not thunders but personified diseases1 the word being taken in its etymological signification4 ,the ,kojiki1 however1 in this passage does undoubtedly say thunders4 ,the distinction into eight thunders is a fancy of the writer1 little recognized in later ritual4 ,the ,nihongi ignores it4 ,the following story from the ,nihongi illustrates ,japanese ideas respecting the ,thunder-,god3-- ,a4,d4 #fah4 ,this year ,kahabe no ,omi was sent to the province of ,aki with orders to build ships4 ,on arriving at the mountain1 he sought for ship timber4 ,having found good timber1 he marked it and was about to cut it1 when a man appeared1 and said3 ',this is a thunder-tree1 and must not be cut4' ,kahabe no ,omi said3 ',shall even the ,thunder-,god oppose the ,imperial commands8' ,so having offered many mitegura1 he sent workmen to cut down the timber4 ,straightway a great rain fell1 and it thundered and lightened4 ,hereupon ,kahabe no ,omi drew his sword1 and said3 ',o ,thunder-,god1 harm not the workmen2 it is my person that thou shouldst injure4' ,so he looked up and waited4 ,but although the ,god thundered more than ten times1 he could not harm ,kahabe no ,omi4 ,then he changed himself into a small fish1 which stuck between the branches of the tree4 ,kahabe no ,omi forthwith took the fish and burnt it4 ,so at last the ships were built4 ,other ,fire-,gods4--,futsunushi's quality as a ,fire-,god had been quite forgotten even in the ,kojiki and ,nihongi times4 ,but there are several other ,fire-,gods1 or perhaps we should rather say local or occasional variants of the same deity4 ,kagu-tsuchi1 or radiant father1 is the name given to a ,fire-,god in the ,nihongi1 where he is said to have caused the death of his mother ,izanami4 ,kagu contains the same root as kagayaku1 to shine4 ,it also occurs in ,kaguyama1 a sacred mountain in ,yamato1 from which the needful objects for sacrifice were in early times provided4 ,this ,god is worshipped under the name of ,ho-musubi or fire-growth#aca on the summit of ,atago1 a mountain near ,kito4 ,there are many hill-shrines to this deity near other cities in ,japan4 ,his business is to give protection against conflagrations4 ,the ,jimmu legend speaks as if fire-worship arose from the deification of the sacrificial fire4 ,but there must have been other reasons4 ,the domestic fire renders important services to mankind1 and its relation to the sun is unmistakable4 ,indeed the ,japanese call fire and sun by the same name1 hi4 ,fire has also its terrible aspect1 which is recognized in myth and norito4#acb ,hirata identifies the ,god with the element4 ,he is obviously a class1 and not an individual ,god4 ,there is a festival at the present day called the ,hi-taki-matsuri 7fire-kindle-festival71 when bonfires are lit1 and small offerings made to the flames4 ,furnace ,gods4--,along with the ,gods of ,fire we may place the deities of the domestic cooking furnace1 namely ,kamado no ,kami and ,kudo no ,kami4 ,they are barely mentioned in the ,kojiki and not at all in the ,nihongi4 ,they have no myth1 and although there is a norito addressed to them it contains nothing characteristic4 ,this worship is nevertheless general1 from the ,mikado's palace to the home of the peasant4 ,sometimes we find a single deity1 sometimes a married pair called ,okitsu-hiko and ,okitsu-hime1 sometimes as many as eight co-existing furnace-gods are met with4 ,the vulgar call him an aragami 7rough deity71 and represent him with three heads1 a notion which1 according to ,hirata1 is taken from ,indian myth4 ,usually the cooking furnace is the deity4 ,the ,japanese kitchen wench at the present day calls her cooking range ,hettsui-sama1 the termination sama implying personification and respect4 ,she thinks it unlucky to lay down an edge-tool on it4 ,but the ,god is also conceived of as detached from the furnace4 ,thus he is said to have taught the art of cooking to mankind4 ,in that case the kama1 or pot1 is his shintai1 or material representative4 ,there was a ,kama-matsuri 7pot festival7 at ,kito before the revolution4 ,it was celebrated at the beginning of the year1 when ,shinto priests read harahi4 ,the pot was addressed in song and adjured to bring plenty of customers1 usually by dyers and others in whose business caldrons were used4 ,ukemochi 7the ,food ,goddess74--,cicero1 in his treatise ',de ,natura ,deorum1' asks whether any one is mad enough to believe that the food we eat is actually a ,god4 ,the modern student of religion has no difficulty in answering this question in the affirmative4 ,eating the ,god is a well-known institution1 from the custom of the ,ainus of ,yezo1 who worship a bear1#acc caught and caged for the purpose1 and wind up the festival in his honour by eating him1 up to the most solemn rite of ,roman ,catholic ,christianity4 ,an ,ainu prayer1 quoted by ,mr4 ,batchelor1 contains the following words3 ,o thou ,god6 ,o thou divine cereal1 do thou nourish the people4 ,i now partake of thee4 ,i worship thee and give thee thanks4 ,gratitude in the first place to1 and then for1 our daily bread1 is an important factor in the early growth of religion4 ,without it we should have had no ,roman ,ceres1 no ,mexican ,maize-,god ,centliotl1 and no ,ukemochi4 ,i do not find the direct worship of our daily food in ,shinto1 though perhaps a trace of an older identification of the food with the ,god is to be recognized in the myth which represents the ,food-,goddess as producing from her mouth and other parts of her body viands for the entertainment of the ,moon-,god4 ,hirata is indignant at the idea that there is anything metaphorical about this story4 ,it is usually the offerings of food which are deified4 ,jimmu is said to have directed that the food-offerings to ,taka-musubi should be called ,idzu-uka no me 7sacred-food-female71 which is another name for ,uke-mochi4 ,in a work of the eighth century the ,sun-,goddess is said to have appeared to the ,mikado ,yriaku in a dream4 ,she complained to him of her loneliness at ,ise1 and directed that ,aga mi ketsu no kami should be sent for to ,tamba in order to keep her company4 ,this was the legendary origin of the worship of the ,food-,goddess in the outer shrine 7,geku7 of ,ise4 ,as ,motori points out1 ,aga mi ketsu no kami means the deity of the food offered to me4 ,but in this last instance the offering and the deity of the offering are no longer identical4 ,it was usual for the participants in the ceremony to consume the food offered to the ,gods4 ,we are told that ,jimmu tasted the food of the sacred jars4 ,the ,mikado at all times followed this rule1 notably at the ,nihiname1 or harvest festival1 when he partook of ordinary food with1 but after1 the ,gods4 ,he does not eat the ,god1 but only associates himself with the deity as his table-companion--a very simple and intelligible form of communion4 ,it is on the same principle that in modern times pilgrims to ,ise buy from the priests and eat the rice which has been offered to the ,gods4 ,there is some confusion in regard to ,ukemochi4 ,her aliases are very numerous1 if1 indeed1 we ought not to reckon some of them as distinct deities4 ,no doubt food was deified over and over again in many places4 ,the etymology of most of her names is sufficiently transparent4 ,they contain the element ke or ka1 food4 ,one of these1 namely ,uka no mitama1 or the spirit of food1 should be mentioned1 as it embodies a more advanced and spiritual conception of the nature of this deity4 ,the parentage of the ,food-,goddess is variously given in different myths4 ,one story makes her the daughter of ,izanagi and ,izanami1 and another of ,susa no wo4 ,the latter is1 perhaps1 an expression of the idea that the rainstorm fits the rice-fields for producing grain4 ,after the ,sun-,goddess1 ,uke-mochi is1 perhaps 7especially if we identify her with ,inari71 the most universally popular deity in ,japan4 ,she was one of the eight deities of the ,jingikwan1 and was worshipped at four of the twenty-two ,greater ,shrines1 of which a list was made in #ajci4 ,there is abundant evidence that her cult was not confined to the ,state ceremonies4 ,hirata calls her an ihe no kami1 or household deity4 ,the ,sake 7rice-beer7 ,god is sometimes the same as the ,food-,goddess1 and at others ,sukuna-bikona4 ,inari4--,notwithstanding the difference of sex1 and to some extent of function1 the ,rice-,god ,inari is generally recognized by the ,japanese as identical with ,uke-mochi4 ,inari1 it is explained1 is only the name of the locality of her best-known shrine near ,kito1 first established in #gaa4 ,it is not to be doubted that in ,japan the name of the place of his worship has frequently been converted into the name of the ,god4 ,in the present case1 however1 it may be suspected that the reverse process has taken place4 ,might not ,inari be ine1 rice in a growing state1 and ri1 a termination implying personality8 ,naturally ,inari is much prayed to for agricultural prosperity4 ,but1 as so often happens1 the functions of this ,god have been enlarged so as to make him a sort of general ,providence who watches over all human concerns4 ,in a recent ,japanese novel he is supplicated by a wife to make her husband faithful2 by a mother to cause her son to divorce an obnoxious daughter-in-law2 by a wrestler for victory in his contests2 by a geisha for a wealthy protector who will give her plenty of money and rich clothes1 and1 getting tired of her within a month1 will dismiss her with a handsome present4 ,he is also appealed to for the restoration of stolen property1 to avert pestilence1 to cure colds1 to give wealth and prosperity1 and to unite friends4 ,the ,kito ,inari is the special patron of swordsmiths and of jrs4 ,another ,inari is celebrated for his protection of children from small-pox and measles4 ,people who desire his help in this way offer at his shrine a red clay monkey1 and take away with them one which has been deposited there by a previous worshipper4 ,the shintai of ,inari is a stone1 or a wooden ticket with his name inscribed on it4 ,he is represented as an elderly man with a long beard riding upright on a white fox4 ,the fox is always associated with this deity4 ,a pair of these animals carved in wood or stone may usually be seen in front of his shrines4 ,according to the modern theologians1 the fox is properly his servant or messenger4 ,but there is a more ignorant current of opinion which takes the animal for the ,god himself4 ,klaproth finds in ,japanese books that the people in ,japan worship the inari 7fox7 as a tutelar ,god3 little temples are dedicated to him in many houses1 especially of the commoner folk4 ,they ask his advice in difficulties1 and set rice or beans for him at night4 ,they take him to be a kami1 i4e41 the soul of a good man deceased4 ,be it observed that inari does not mean fox1 and that a kami is something quite different from the soul of a good man deceased4 ,it is just possible1 however1 that in this case the ignorant multitude are right1 and that the fox is a duplicate representative of the rice or rice-deity4 ,mr4 ,frazer1 in his ',golden ,bough1' adduces many instances of the ,corn-,god being represented by animals4 ,in ,poitou1 the spirit of the corn appears to be conceived in the shape of a fox4 ,the festival of ,inari is held on the first horse day of the second month4 ,the ,shguns celebrated it with great ceremony1 of which dramatic performances 7n7 were a part4 ,harvest-,gods4--,the ,harvest-,gods1 of which there are several1 as ,oho-toshi no ,kami 7,great-,harvest-,god71 ,mitoshi no ,kami 7,august-,harvest-,god71 ,waka-toshi no ,kami 7,young-,harvest-,god71 are not very clearly distinguished from the food and grain deities4 ,a myth relating to one of these deities will be found below1 p4 #aif4 ,the liturgy entitled ',praying for ,harvest' was addressed to all the chief deities4#acd ,the worship of the ,sun and of ,grain1 ,harvest and ,growth deities1 which forms so important a part of ,shinto1 is characteristic of an agricultural nation4 ,it is emphasized by the ancient custom of the ,mikado tilling land in person1 and by the ,miko at ,kasuga planting rice annually with much ceremony4 ,tree-,gods4--,individual trees of great age and size are everywhere worshipped in ,japan4 ,an ancient example of this cult is mentioned above1 p4 #aeh4 ,at the present day the sacred trees are often to be seen girt with shimenaha#ace and with tiny shrines at the bottom4 ,the novelist ,bakin1 writing in the early part of the nineteenth century1 tells of one which he visited near ,uraga4 ,it was a common-looking fir which had been struck by lightning1 no doubt1 ,bakin says1 before the spirit took up its abode there4 ,this tree healed diseases of all kinds and brought luck to fishermen4 ,people with sore eyes carried away the water which collected in a hollow part1 and washed their eyes with it4 ,incense was burned to it4 ,at the shrine of ,kamo in ,kito there are two sakaki 7sacred evergreen7 trees1 which are joined together by a branch which has grown from one trunk into that of the other4 ,these trees are much visited by women who desire to live in harmony with their husbands4 ,a small red tori-wi in front of them shows that they are considered sacred4#acf ,here the emblem of unity has come to be regarded as having intrinsic virtue4 ,a ,kami-gi 7,god-tree7 was often planted in front of ,shinto shrines4 ,it was sometimes set in a portable box1 which could be carried about by the devotees4 ,a case is recorded in which this was done for the sake of protection to the bearers4 ,the sacred tree of ,japan is the cleyera japonica4 ,it is an evergreen1 as the name1 derived from sakayuru1 to flourish1 indicates4 ,there is a modern custom in places where fruit trees are grown for two men to go out into the orchard4 ,one climbs up a tree while the other stands at the bottom with an axe4 ,the latter asks whether it will have a good crop the next season1 and threatens to cut it down if it fails to do so4 ,hereupon the man above answers for the tree1 promising that it will bear plentifully4 ,in ,hitachi at the time of the ,sai 7or ,sahe7 no ,kami feast 7the first full moon of the year7 a gruel is made of rice coloured red#acg with adzuki beans4 ,this is sprinkled on the fruit trees of the neighbourhood4 ,the man who does so wears the straw covering of a rice-bag by way of hat1 and takes with him an axe and the gruel vessel1 saying to each tree1 ,will you bear--will you bear1 of bags #a1jjj bags1 of sacks #a1jjj sacks8 ,say that you will bear4 ,i will bear1 ,i will bear4 ,then he gives the tree three cuts with the axe1 and pours the gruel on it4 ,similar customs are found all over the world4 ,m4 ,d',alviella1 in his ,hibbert ,lectures1 quotes as follows3 ,ibn al ,awam's agricultural treatise recommends the intimidation of trees that refuse to produce fruit4 ',you are to flog them mildly and threaten to cut them down if they go on bearing no fruit4' ,the ,bohemian ,slavs used to say to the garden trees1 ,bud6 ye trees1 bud6 or ,i will strip you of your bark4 ,brand's ',popular ,antiquities of ,britain' records several variants of this custom4 ,on ,christmas ,eve1 he says1 the farmers and their men in ,devonshire take a large bowl of cider1 with a toast in it1 and carrying it in state to the orchard1 they salute the apple-trees with much ceremony1 in order to make them bear well the next season4 ,this salutation consists in throwing some of the cider about the roots of the tree1 placing bits of the toast on the branches1 and then1 encircling one of the best bearing trees in the orchard1 they drink the following toast several times3-- ',here's to thee1 old apple-tree ,whence thou mayst bud1 and whence thou mayst blow1 ,and whence thou mayst bear apples enow6 ,hats-full6 caps-full6 ,bushel1 bushel sacks-full6 ,and my pockets full1 too6 ,hurra6' ,mr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer has treated this subject with his usual fulness in ',the ,golden ,bough4' ,i suspect that the pleasure we take in dramatic make-believe has more to do with such practices than any belief in their practical efficacy1 and that they rather contain the germ of a religious cult of trees than are a survival of a primitive tree-worship4 ,kukunochi4--,the older records mention a ,kukunochi 7trees-father71 a ,ki no mi-oya no ,kami 7tree-august-parent-deity74 ,there is also a ,ko-mata no ,kami 7tree-fork-deity7 and a ,ha-mori no ,kami 7leaf-guardian-deity74 ,these are class-deities4 ,kaya nu hime4--,the deity of herbs and grasses is called ,kaya nu hime 7reed-lady71 or ,nu-dzuchi 7moor-father7 or ,kaya no mi-oya no ,kami 7reed-august-parent-deity74 ,the chief reason for deifying trees and reeds was that they furnish materials for house-building1 and are therefore deserving of our gratitude and worship4 ,ko-dama4--,the echo is called in ,japan ,ko-dama1 or tree spirit4 ,house-,gods4--,our knowledge of these deities is chiefly derived from a norito in the ,yengishiki4#ach ,one part of this ritual speaks of ,yabune1 which may be either singular or plural2 but further on in the same document we find ,yabune ,kukunochi and ,yabune ,toyo-uke-hime4 ,perhaps an original single deity has been split up into a wedded pair by a process of which ,shinto affords other examples4 ,ya is house1 and fune1 which usually means ship1 may also be applied to other wooden vessels1 such as troughs or tubs4 ,the ya-bune is therefore the shell#aci of the house4 ,kukunochi1 as we have just seen1 is the name of the ,tree-,god4 ,toyo-uke-hime1 which means abundant-food-lady1 has been identified with the ,food-,goddess2 but it is more probable that the prefix yabune was intended to distinguish her from that deity1 as the same prefix made of ,kukunochi a distinct ,god from the ordinary ,tree-,god4 ,the functions of these ,gods was to guard the palace building from harm of all kinds4 ,no doubt each household had also its ,yabune no ,kami4 ,hirata1 in his ,tamadasuki1 gives a prayer to this deity intended for general use4 ,the ,oho-toma-hiko and ,oho-toma-hime of the ,nihongi and the ,oho-ya-hiko of the ,kojiki are also ,house-,gods4 ,nothing is known of them4 ,a certain sanctity attached to the central pillar of the house1 called ,daikoku-bashira or ,imi-bashira 7sacred pillar74 ,the ,daikoku-bashira is worshipped in some places on the #adth of the #ast month by offerings of rice-ears1 flowers1 rice bags1 c4 ,the date indicates a connexion with the phallic ,sahe no ,kami4#adj ,privy-,god4--,there is in modern times a ,god of the privy1 who has no particular name1 sex1 or mythic record4 ,hirata1 in his ,tamadasuki1 has provided a special form of prayer to him4 ,he himself was his devout worshipper4 ,he saluted the ,god on entering and leaving1 and1 that people might not forget this duty1 recommends that a card be nailed on the door1 with the inscription ,ojigi1 or good manners4 ,according to him privies1 as well as dunghills and all unclean places1 are a favourite resort of evil spirits4 ,they are haunted by flies and maggots1 which are the fractional souls of bad men 7a ,buddhist notion874 ,there is1 therefore1 all the greater need to put ourselves under the protection of the presiding deity of the place4 ,he deprecates spitting into it 7which causes ophthalmia7 or defiling it1 and says that women who sweep it out daily and make offering to the ,god of a light on the last day of each month will be free from diseases below the girdle4 ,all this shows that the original identity of demons and diseases has not yet been wholly lost sight of in ,japan4 ,gate-,gods4--,kushi-iha-mado 7wondrous-rock-door7 and ,toyo-iha-mado 7rich-rock-door74 ,these two ,gods are known to us from the norito entitled ,mikado no matsuri4#ada ,they are obviously personifications of the gates of the ,palace4 ,but the difficulty presents itself that these ,gods are 7apparently7 two in number1 these two being differentiated out of one original deity by the honorary epithets kushi and toyo1 while the gates of the ,palace were much more numerous4 ,if it is the gate itself1 and not the spirit of the gate1 which is worshipped1 there ought to be as many ,gods as gates4 ,hirata would no doubt explain this by saying that there are really only two ,gods1 but that each gate is occupied by a mitama1 or emanation from them4 ,it seems more probable that the ancient ,japanese had no very definite ideas on the subject4 ,they conceived of the gates as in some way or another instinct with life and exercising certain protective functions2 but whether there were two deities for each gate or two for all collectively was a question which did not occur to them4 ,it must be remembered that the ,japanese language seldom takes the trouble to distinguish between singular and plural4 ,this is merely another way of saying that the nation is comparatively indifferent to number1 whether of ,gods or gates4 ,whether the ,gate-divinity is one or several does not trouble them4 ,,gods ,,of ,,abstractions4 ,izanagi and ,izanami4--,the conspicuous position given by the mythical narrative#adb to these personifications of the dual creative powers of the universe has little to correspond with it in cult and ritual4 ,although they are no doubt to be reckoned among the ,dii majores of ,japan1 they occupy a much lower place than the ,sun-,goddess and the ,food-,goddess4 ,izanagi and ,izanami are evidently creations of subsequent date to the ,sun-,goddess and other concrete deities1 for whose existence they were intended to account4 ,i have little doubt that they were suggested by the ,yin and ,yang1#adc or female and male principles of ,chinese philosophy4 ,indeed there is a passage in the ,nihongi in which these terms are actually applied to them4 ,it may be said1 and ,motori does say1 that the ,yin and ,yang are foreign ideas which have found their way into a purely native myth4 ,we must remember1 however1 that the ,japanese myths as we have them date from a period three centuries after the introduction of ,chinese learning into ,japan1 and that there was communication with ,china hundreds of years earlier still4 ,it would1 therefore1 not be strange if some knowledge of the fundamental principle of ,chinese philosophy and science had reached the ,japanese long before the ,kojiki and ,nihongi were written4 ,i conjecture that the early part of the ,nihongi1 taken in the order of the original composition of the myths which it comprises1 would be somewhat as follows3--,first the ,sun-myth1 which is the nucleus of all1 next that of the creation by ,izanagi and ,izanami1 then the more abstract ,musubi and a number of ill-defined creations of some idle fancy which precede him4 ,last of all was composed the philosophic proem with which the book opens4 ,izanagi and ,izanami belong to that stage of religious progress in which the conception has been reached of powerful sentient beings separate from external nature4 ,untrue in itself1 it has served a useful purpose4 ,it is obviously easier for nations with little scientific knowledge to conceive of the same being as a ruler or parent of the ,sun1 ,moon1 and ,earth1 with all its human concerns1 than to recognize in these phenomena a harmonious living whole4 ,the common parentage of ,izanagi and ,izanami formed a link of union between the different aspects of nature which did not previously exist1 and thus was in so far a step towards monotheism4 ,the manner of creation is variously represented4 ,in no case is anything made out of nothing4 ,the first act of creation was the formation of an island out of the drippings of the brine of the chaos-ocean from a spear4 ,the other parts of ,japan and many of the deities were produced by the ordinary process of generation4 ,the functions of ,izanagi and ,izanami are elsewhere described as putting in order and fully consolidating the floating land beneath4 ,this is precisely what ,ohonamochi is represented as doing several generations of ,gods later4 ,deities were also produced from ,izanagi's clothing and staff which he threw down on his flight from ,yomi1 and from his eyes and nose when he washed in the sea to remove the impurity contracted by his visit thither4 ,the ,wind-,god was his breath and the ,gods of ,water and ,clay were formed of the urine and fces of ,izanami when she was about to die4 ,these ideas1 though not quite identical with1 are closely related to the legends of other countries which describe the creation of the universe from the fragments of a fabulous anthropomorphic being4 ,the ,chinese myth of ,p'anku has been already quoted4#add ,norse story tells how the vast frame of the world-giant ,hymi was completely cut up by the sons of ,bor1 with ,woden at their head4 ,from ,hymi's flesh they made the earth1 from his bones the mountains1 from his skull the heavens1 from his blood the sea4#ade ,there is nothing spiritual about these two deities4 ,all their actions are modelled not on those of ghosts1 but on those of living men4 ,even when ,izanami dies and goes down to the land of ,yomi1 she does not become a ghost1 but a putrefying corpse4 ,their shintai is a mirror4 ,a ,japanese writer#adf says3 ,in the beginning of all sentient things we have two ,supreme ,beings1 ,izanagi and ,izanami4 ,even if we admit the possible existence of two ,supreme ,beings1 ,izanagi and ,izanami hardly realize our conception of the ,supreme4 ,they acted by command of other pre-existing deities1 and their creation is limited4 ,it does not include all the ,gods1 and1 as is only natural1 is confined to ,japan4 ,the creation of mankind is nowhere accounted for in ,japanese myth4 ,there is1 however1 a modicum of truth in this writer's statement4 ,though not the first sentient beings1 ,izanagi and ,izanami are the first who stand out with any distinct characterization1 and1 although not supreme1 they represent a movement1 feeble and abortive it is true1 towards the co-ordination of all the aspects of divinity in one ,supreme ,being4 ,motori proposed1 and most ,european scholars have accepted1 a derivation of ,izanagi and ,izanami from izanafu1 a verb which means to invite1 to instigate1 the terminations gi and mi meaning respectively male deity and female deity4 ,hence the translation ,male who invites and ,female who invites4 ,there are1 however1 grave difficulties in the way of this interpretation4 ,it is scarcely appropriate in the case of the female deity4 ,moreover1 we must take into account the fact that these are not the only pairs of deities in which the terminations nagi and nami occur4 ,we have also an ,aha-nagi 7foam-,god7 and ,aha-nami 7foam-,goddess71 a ,tsura-nagi 7bubble-,god7 and ,tsura-nami 7bubble-,goddess71 and a ,sa-nagi 7rapid-,god7 and ,sa-nami 7rapid-,goddess71 in all of which na does not belong to the first part of the word1 but is put for no1 the genitive particle1 by a letter-change of which we have other examples4 ,the first element of ,izanagi is1 therefore1 not izana but iza1 which is met with as an exclamation of incitement4 ,the harshness of making an interjection followed by a genitive particle is obvious4 ,i am disposed to prefer the derivation which takes ,iza as the name of a place4 ,the ,nihongi mentions a true well of ,isa or ,iza4 ,there are two places called ,isa in ,hitachi1 and an ,isa no ,jinja1 or shrine of ,isa1 in ,idzumo4 ,it is even possible that these ,gods are simply the ,gods of ,ise 7,ise no gi and ,ise no mi74 ,a similar letter-change takes place in manabuta1 eyelid1 for me no futa1 and tanasuye for te no suye4 ,the difference between s and z is of little consequence in ,japanese4 ,musubi1 the ,god of ,growth4--,musubi illustrates a different conception of creation from that of the myths of ,ohonamochi and ,izanagi and ,izanami4 ,this ,god is the abstract process of growth personified--that is1 a power immanent in nature and not external to it4 ,the emotion which prompts this personification--so natural to an agricultural people--is well portrayed in the words of a ,kafir to the ,french traveller ,m4 ,arbrouseille3 ,do ,i know how the corn sprouts8 ,yesterday there was not a blade in my field3 to-day ,i returned to the field and found some4 ,who can have given the earth the wisdom and power to produce it8 ,then ,i buried my head in both hands4 ,but while the emotion is the same1 the ,japanese conception differs4 ,musubi means growth or production4 ,it is connected with the word umu1 to bear1 to bring forth1 and with musu1 to grow1 to be born4 ,musu is said of moss growing on a stone and of ice forming on water4 ,musuko1 a boy1 and musume1 a girl1 contain the same element4 ,as a ,god's name1 ,musubi is usually found with one of the laudatory adjectives1 taka1 high1 or kamu1 divine1 prefixed to it4 ,to these the honorific particle mi is commonly added1 giving the forms ,taka-mi-musubi and ,kamu-mi-musubi4 ,even in the ,kojiki and ,nihongi these are recognized as two distinct deities4 ,the ,yengishiki 7#ija-ibb7 enumerates three more ,musubi deities1 and to these still others might be added4 ,in poetry a single ,god ,musubi is alone met with1 and the ,wamish recognizes but one such deity4 ,probably the division into several persons was an esoteric refinement of which the people took little heed4 ,whether we have regard to his name or to the somewhat meagre notices in the ,kojiki and ,nihongi1 there is nothing spiritual in the ,japanese conception of ,musubi4 ,but the scribes learned in ,chinese who committed the old myths to writing sometimes use characters which imply a spiritual view of his nature4 ,they mean producing-spirit4 ,he is also called mi oya1 or august parent4 ,hirata thinks that ,taka-musubi and ,kamu-musubi are husband and wife1 the ,kamurogi 7progenitor7 and ,kamuromi 7progenitrix7 of the norito1 and condemns his master ,motori for holding that we have in these deities a unity in duality and a duality in unity4 ,but his reasons are not quite convincing1 and there is a passage in the ,kojiki which cannot be reconciled with his view4 ,the same author points out the resemblance of this ,god to the ,hindu ,siva1 who represents the fructifying principle1 the generating power that pervades the universe1 producing sun1 moon1 stars1 animals1 and plants4 ,siva is represented in his temples by a phallus1 and ,hirata conjectures that this was likewise the shintai of ,musubi4 ,musubi is sometimes called the ,inochi no ,kami1 or ,god of life4 ,the creation of mankind is attributed to him in a poem of the ,jiu-i-shiu1 where a rejected lover exclaims3-- ,i hate not thee1 ,it is the ,god ,i hate1 ,great ,musubi3-- ,why did he men create ,unto so hard a fate8 ,the ,kojiki speaks of the two deities ,taka-musubi and ,kamu-musubi as forming the second and third generations of ,gods4 ,the original text of the ,nihongi omits all mention of them in this part of the narrative1 but in a note there is a quotation from one writing in which they are named4 ,in the various accounts of the measures taken to prepare the earth for occupation by ,ninigi sometimes the ,sun-,goddess is represented as giving instructions1 sometimes ,taka-musubi1 sometimes both together1 and sometimes ,taka-musubi alone4 ,jimmu1 in making mention of the two deities1 gives precedence to ,taka-musubi4 ,this discordance in the various myths seems to indicate a struggle for ascendancy between the respective adherents of ,musubi and the ,sun-,goddess4 ,the ,nihongi states that in ,a4,d4 #dhg 7a fairly trustworthy date71 by request of the ,moon-,god and the ,sun-,goddess1 the worship of ,taka-mi-musubi1 whom these two deities call their ancestor and the ,creator of ,heaven and ,earth1 was established in two places1 and grants of lands and of peasants made for the maintenance of the shrines4 ,this is possibly the beginning of the official worship of this ,god4 ,in #hei several ,musubi deities were raised to the first grade of the first rank4 ,in the tenth century eight shrines to various ,musubi deities existed within the ,palace4 ,with the official classes ,musubi was a dangerous rival to the ,sun-,goddess1 more especially during the ,augustan age of ,japanese literature4 ,but he was too philosophical for popular favour4 ,his worship is now greatly neglected4 ,the ,musubu no ,kami of the present day is identified with the ,chinese ,gekka-rjin 7moon-under-old-man71 who presides over the fates of lovers4 ,the strips of cloth frequently seen hung on bushes by the roadsides are offerings to him4 ,the second meaning of ,musubi1 namely1 to tie1 has no doubt something to do with this new view of the ,god's function4 ,the ,shjiroku traces the descent of a large number of the noble families of ,japan from the various forms of ,musubi4 ,this is a literal rendering of a statement which1 in one sense1 is true of everybody4 ,we all resemble ,topsy4 ,kuni-toko-tachi4--,i place this deity provisionally among the personifications of abstractions4 ,the name means literally earth-eternal-stand4 ,he is1 therefore1 apparently a deification of the durability of earth4 ,motori and ,hirata take toko as for soko1 bottom or limit4 ,this would make this deity a personification of the horizon1 or perhaps more accurately ,lucretius's flammantia mnia mundi4 ,he has no sex and no special characteristics4 ,he is barely mentioned in myth1 and his cult1 which is comparatively modern1 was no doubt1 as ,hirata suggests1 a result of the prominent position given him in the ,nihongi as the first ,god in point of time1 and as the ancestor of the ,sun-,goddess1 before whom he was therefore entitled to precedence4 ,he was identified with the ,taikyoku1 or ,great ,absolute1 of the ,chinese philosophers1 was said to be immortal1 and to comprise all the ,gods in himself1 was called the name of the nameless1 the form of that which has no form1 and1 in short1 erected into a ,supreme ,being4 ,in the fourteenth century an unsuccessful attempt was made to substitute him for the ,food-,goddess as the deity of the outer shrine of ,ise4 ,at the present day he is worshipped at ,mount ,ontake1 in the province of ,shinano1 a place much resorted to by pilgrims4 ,o tent-sama 7august-heaven-way-personage7 was probably originally a personification of the natural order of things--,laotze's tao1 or ,pindar's 1 the of ,gods and men4 ,but this is too abstract for the common ,japanese4 ,to them ,o tent-sama is the ,sun itself1 endowed1 it is true1 with certain moral attributes4 ,drought and ,famine deities belong to this class4 ,none of these is of much importance4 ,,footnotes3 #if ,deuteronomy iv4 #ai2 xvii4 #c4 #ig ,the ,vice-,royalty of ,kiushiu4 #ih ,in ,korea4 #ii ,see above1 p4 #gj2 also ,index--',mirror4' #ajj ,the mirror is kept in a box of chamaecyparis wood1 which rests on a low stand covered with a piece of white silk4 ,it is wrapped in a bag of brocade1 which is never opened or renewed1 but when it begins to fall to pieces from age another bag is put on1 so that the actual covering consists of many layers4 ,over the whole is placed a sort of wooden cage1 with ornaments said to be of pure gold1 over which again is thrown a cloth of coarse silk falling to the floor on all sides4--,murray's ',japan1' fifth edition1 p4 #cjh4 #aja ,see ,index--,naishidokoro4 #ajb ,a kind of hawk4 ',odyssey1' xv4 #ebe4 #ajc ,vide ',the ,hinomaru' in the ,t4 ,a4 ,s4 ,j41 vol4 xxii4 p4 #bg4 #ajd ,see above1 p4 #fe4 #aje ',in the ,shinto ,pantheon1' in the ,new ,world1 ,december1 #ahif4 #ajf ,japan is annually visited by destructive typhoons1 accompanied by great darkness and a terrific downpour of rain4 #ajg ,see above1 p4 #ajf4 #ajh ,egyptian is one4 #aji ,see ,index--',sasura-hime4' #aaj ',religions of ,primitive ,peoples1' p4 #hj4 #aaa ,i offer1 for consideration only1 two conjectures3 first1 that ,tsuki-yomi was the ,ise ,moon-,god1 and ,susa no wo the ,idzumo lunar deity2 and second1 that ,susa may possibly be an allotropic form of sasura1 banish4 #aab ,the large1 deep love of living sea and land4--,swinburne1 ',kynance ,cove4' #aac ,graphically described in ,lafcadio ,hearn's ',glimpses of ,unfamiliar ,japan4' #aad ,see above1 p4 #ajh4 #aae ,see above1 p4 #ajf4 #aaf ,nihongi1 ii4 #cff4 #aag ,i4 #aih4 #aah ,see ',ch4 ,k41' p4 #cc4 #aai ,see above1 p4 #ie4 #abj ,see ,index--',sumiyoshi4' #aba ,see p4 #aad4 #abb ,see above1 p4 #ib4 #abc ,nihongi1 i4 #bb4 #abd ,see ,index--',wind-,gods4' #abe ,in ,yucatan there were four ,wind-,gods1 who upheld the four corners of ,heaven4 #abf ,see above1 p4 #aji4 #abg ,nihongi1 i4 #aae4 #abh ,nihongi1 i4 #dd4 #abi ,is it possible that ,fuji no yama is really for ,futsu no yama1 the mountain of fire8 #acj ,the sword was deified in ,teutonic myth4 #aca ,so called1 says ,hirata1 because heat makes things grow4 #acb ,see ,index--,ho-shidzume1 ,fire-drill4 #acc ,as a source of food8 #acd ,see ,index--,toshi-gohi4 #ace ,see ,index4 #acf ,murray's ',japan1' fifth edit41 p4 #chc4 #acg ,see ,index--',red4' #ach ,see ,index--,yabune4 #aci ,compare our nave1 from the ,latin navis4 #adj ,see below1 p4 #ahf4 #ada ,see ,index1 s4v4 #adb ,see above1 p4 #hf4 #adc ,in ,japanese ,in and ,y4 #add ,see above1 p4 #abi4 #ade ,rhys1 ',celtic ,heathendom1' p4 #aae4 #adf ',in ,japan1' edited by ,capt4 ,brinkley4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,pantheon1 ,,man ,,deities4 ,i4 ,,deified ,,individual ,,men4 ,none of the ,dii majores of the more ancient ,shinto are deified individual men1 and although it is highly probable that some of the inferior mythical personages were originally human beings1 ,i am unable to point to a case of this kind which rests on anything more than conjecture4 ,take-minakata1 the deity of ,suha in ,shinano1 may be a real ancestral deity4 ,he is very popular at the present day4 ,this ,god is not mentioned in the ,nihongi1 but his legend is given in the ,kojiki#adg and ,kiujiki4 ,he was a son of ,ohonamochi1 who1 after his father's submission1 refused allegiance to the ,sun-,goddess and fled to ,suha1 where he was obliged to surrender1 his life being spared4 ,tradition says that the present ,oho-hafuri1 or chief priests of ,suha1 are direct descendants of this deity4 ,the inhabitants hold that the ,god is the ,oho-hafuri1 and that the ,oho-hafuri is the ,god4 ,an oracle of the ,god is quoted to this effect3 ,i have no body1 the hafuri is my body4 ,his house is called the shinden or divine dwelling4 ,he never leaves the neighbourhood1 and takes precedence of the chief local official4 ,at every change of office the newly appointed high priest formerly received a cap of honour and robes from the ,palace of ,kito4 ,he takes no active part in the ceremonies of the annual festival1 but sits on a chair in the middle of the sacred plot of ground and receives the obeisances of the people4 ,this festival is called the mi-hashira-matsuri or festival of the august pillars4 ,it is so called because instead of a shrine there is only a plot of ground containing a rock-cave#adh with a great wooden post at each of the four corners4 ,hachiman4--,the ,war-,god ,hachiman is one of the most conspicuous of the later ,shinto deities4 ,his origin is really unknown1 but he is placed provisionally among deified human beings in accordance with the accepted tradition which makes him identical with the very legendary ,mikado jin4 ,the ultimate authority for this statement is an oracle of the ,god himself delivered hundreds of years after jin's death4 ,there is no mention of his worship in the ,kojiki or ,nihongi1 and the legends which carry it back to ,a4,d4 #egj are unworthy of credence4 ,the original seat of this cult was ,usa1 in the province of ,buzen1 an old ,shinto centre4 ,hachiman seems to have first come into notice in #gbj1 when he rendered efficient assistance in repelling a descent of ,koreans on ,japan4 ,forty years later ,kiyomaro1 the founder of the great ,minamoto family1 made use of his oracles to thwart the ambitious projects of a priest named ,dki1 the ,wolsey of ,japanese history4 ,the rise of the ,minamoto family carried with it that of the ,god who had been so useful to them4 ,in ,seiwa's reign 7#hei-hhj7 a temple was erected to him at ,ihashimidzu near ,kito1 where he received ,imperial presents1 and even visits4 ,in #ajci he was given a high place in the ,state religion4 ,hachiman is nominally a ,shinto ,god4 ,his ,shinto quality is recognized in various ways1 notably by the erection of the distinctive ,shinto gateways known as torii1 before his shrines4 ,but his cult is deeply tinctured with ,buddhism4 ,the numerous inspired utterances ascribed to him are thoroughly ,buddhist in character4 ,in several of these he calls himself ,bosatsu 7,bodhisattwa71 which is a ,buddhist term something like our saint4 ,he is also credited with giving instructions for the celebration of an annual festival for the release of living things1 which is1 of course1 a humanitarian ,buddhist institution1 wholly foreign to the rle of a ,japanese ,war-,god4 ,the shintai of ,hachiman may be a pillow1 a fly-brush1 an arm-rest1 or a white stone4 ,other legendary mortals1 who in later times were honoured as ,war-,gods1 are ,jimmu1 the founder of the ,imperial dynasty1 ,jing1 the conqueror of ,korea1 ,takechi no ,sakune1 her counsellor1 and ,prince ,yamato-dake1 the hero who subdued the east of ,japan4 ,none of these are treated as deities in the older ,shinto books4 ,temmangu1 the ,god of ,learning and ,calligraphy1 is undoubtedly a deified human being4 ,there is nobody in the world1 high or low1 old or young1 man or woman1 who does not look up with reverence to the ,divine power of ,temmangu4 ,more especially children who are learning to read and write1 and their teachers1 all without exception1 enjoy his blessings4 ,every one is therefore desirous of knowing the exact truth concerning him4 ,but there are many false notions handed down by vulgar tradition4 ,chinese scholars have wantonly done violence to the history of an awful deity by introducing ,chinese ideas1 while the ,buddhists1 on the other hand1 have been guilty of disfiguring the story by all manner of forced analogies4 ,sad to say1 there is no book in which the real facts have been set down after investigation4 ,the above is the exordium of a preface to a short life of ,temmangu1 prepared by ,shintoists of the ,hirata school4 ,of the work itself the following is a brief summary4 ,the main facts of the story are beyond question4 ,but the reader will see that1 notwithstanding the claims put forward in the preface1 this work must be taken with not a few grains of salt4 ,temmangu's name as a mortal man was ,sugahara ,michizane4 ,he was born in #hde1 and came of a family which had a hereditary reputation for learning4 ,nomi no ,sukune1 deified as the patron of wrestlers and potters1 was one of his ancestors4 ,through him ,michizane traced his descent up to the ,sun-,goddess herself4 ,as a child he was fond of study1 and at an early age his knowledge of ,chinese was such that he was appointed to entertain an ambassador from ,china4 ,being ordered by the ,mikado to pray for rain1 he observed the rules of ritual purity for several days1 and then prepared a form of prayer to the ,god of ,hakusan 7,izanagi71 which had the desired effect4 ,he established a system of national education1 and therefore became known as the ,father of letters4 ,on reaching his fiftieth year he received congratulations and a present of gold dust from a genie4 ,soon afterwards he was made ,prime ,minister4 ,in #ija1 owing to the calumnies of a rival statesman1 he fell into unmerited disgrace and was banished to ,kiushiu4 ,on his departure he addressed the following lines to a plum tree in his garden3-- ,when the east wind#adi blows1 ,emit thy perfume ,oh thou plum-blossom2 ,forget not the spring1 ,because thy master is away4 ,a branch of this tree broke off spontaneously and followed him into exile4 ,there it planted itself in the ground and took root4 ,two years after1 ,michizane climbed a high mountain and1 standing on tiptoe on the summit1 prayed with all his heart and all his body for seven days and seven nights to ,tentei 7the ,supreme ,lord of ,heaven74 ,whilst doing so his hair and beard turned white4 ,the ,tent 7way of ,heaven7 had doubtless pity on an innocent man1 for a cloud overspread the sky and bore up his petition into the ,great ,void4 ,michizane1 overjoyed that his prayers were answered1 made nine obeisances and retired4 ,he died soon after1 in his fifty-ninth year1 to the great grief of the whole nation4 ,two years later1 in accordance with a divine inspiration1 a small shrine was erected to him under the title of ,tem-man-ten-jin 7the heavenly ,kami who fills the heavens74 ,in a few years ,michizane's calumniator died by a curse from him4 ,other members of his family had the same fate4 ,from the ears of one of his enemies small snakes issued who declared themselves the messengers of ,michizane4 ,when ,prince ,yasuaki died1 in #ibc1 everybody said that his death was owing to a curse sent by ,michizane's spirit4 ,then the ,minister of ,state ,kintada died suddenly4 ,three days after1 he came alive again1 and informed the ,mikado that he had been to the ,court of the ,king of ,hades1 where he saw ,michizane1 ten feet high1 present a petition for an inquiry into the crime committed by the ,mikado in banishing him unjustly4 ,influenced by ,kintada's report1 the ,mikado burnt the decree of exile1 recalled ,michizane's children1 and conferred posthumous honours upon him4 ,but the angry ghost was still unappeased4 ,in #ibi it came down from ,heaven and appeared to a former friend of his4 ,terrible storms1 inundations1 and other portents ensued4 ,ministers who tried to stay him from further ravages were burnt or kicked to death4 ,ultimately the ghost appeared before the ,mikado and protested his innocence1 after which the ,kami1 as he is called1 ascended4 ,from this day forth the ,mikado suffered from a poison which1 in spite of prayers of all kinds1 grew worse and worse4 ,he abdicated in #icj1 and died a few days later4 ,michizane's ghost continued to plague the nation4 ,in #idc he appeared to a mean woman of ,kito1 and directed that a shrine should be erected to him in that city4 ,in #idg a boy of six years of age delivered an oracle from him to the following effect3 ,all the ,thunder-,gods and ,demons to the number of #afh1jjj have become my servants4 ,if any one does evil ,i have him trampled to death by them4 ,pestilence1 eruptive diseases1 and other calamities have been placed in my hands by the ,supreme ,lord of ,heaven1 and no ,kami1 however powerful1 can control me4 ,but ,i will give help to those who piously express their sorrow4 ,eight persons who were present took down this revelation in writing4 ,at this time the shrine of ,kitano at ,kito was erected to him4 ,but his wrath was not yet wholly stayed4 ,further honours were therefore awarded and gifts made to him4 ,in #ajjd the ,mikado visited ,kitano in person4 ,at the present day ,temmangu is one of the most widely worshipped of ,shinto deities4 ,in #ahbj there were twenty-five shrines to him in ,yedo and the neighbourhood4 ,he still hates the wicked1 who do not keep the way of filial piety1 and withholds his favour from those who dislike learning4 ,you must therefore attend strictly to the commands of your parents and the instructions of your teachers4 ,you must serve your chief with diligence1 be upright of heart1 eschew falsehood1 and be diligent in study so that you may conform to the wishes of ,temmangu4 ,if you fail to do so1 you will be cursed by him1 and sooner or later incur calamity4 ,for although the ,kami cannot be seen by men1 they will know whether their conduct is good or bad1 and whether their hearts are upright or perverted4 ,although the life of ,temmangu1 from which the above account is taken1 was compiled by men of the ,pure ,shinto school1 and though in the preface the importation of ,buddhist and ,chinese ideas is stigmatized1 it is itself penetrated with elements of this very kind4 ,the ,supreme ,lord of ,heaven is ,chinese1 and the ,hades to which ,michizane descended is not the ,shinto ,yomi1 but the ,buddhist ,jigoku4 ,no doubt the authors found these things in their materials1 and were loth to excise edifying incidents1 however badly they fitted in with ,shinto theology4 ,the acquaintance of the ,japanese with the ,chinese cult of ,confucius must have greatly promoted1 if it did not originate the worship of a native ,god of ,learning4 ,it will be observed that the attribution of nature-powers to ,michizane was a substantial part of the process of deification1 which was based on the alternate influence of the emotions of gratitude and fear4 ,nomi no ,sukune1 the ,patron-,god of wrestlers1 was probably a real human being4 ,hitomaro1 the ,poet-,god1 was undoubtedly so4 ,another muse of poetry1 ,sotori-hime1 belongs to more legendary times1 but was probably likewise a real person4 ,iyeyasu1 the founder of the last dynasty of ,shguns1 was deified under the title of ,tsh ,gongen1 but this1 like many other similar apotheoses1 is1 in reality1 ,buddhist rather than ,shinto4 ,,ii4 ,,gods ,,of ,,classes4 ,ministers and ,attendants of the ,sun-,goddess4--,the application of the hereditary principle to ,government offices has had many vicissitudes in ,japan4 ,when the country emerges into the light of history1 both ,court offices and local chieftaincies were usually transmitted from father to son4 ,among the hereditary institutions of this kind were the ,be4 ,the ,be were ,government corporations charged with some special branch of service4 ,there were ,be of weavers1 of farmers1 of potters1 c41 a ,be for the supply of necessaries to the ,palace1 an executioner's ,be1 and others4 ,if we imagine a dockyard staff in which the director and officials belonged to a governing caste1 the artisans being serfs1 and the whole having a more or less hereditary character1 we shall have a tolerably correct idea of a ,be4 ,the ,gods of five ,be are represented as in attendance on the ,sun-,goddess1 and as accompanying ,ninigi to ,earth when he was sent down to be its ruler4 ,these were3-- ,koyane1 ancestor of the ,nakatomi#aej ,house4 ,the etymology of ,koyane is uncertain4 ,the worship of this deity had a special importance1 from the fact that he was the ,ujigami#aea of the ,fujihara family1 a branch of the ,nakatomi1 which for many centuries supplied a large proportion of the ,empresses and ,ministers of ,state4 ,it would hardly be too much to say that the ,fujiharas were the ,imperial ,house4 ,the shintai of ,koyane was a jewel or shaku1 that is1 a tablet borne by ,ministers as an emblem of office4 ,hirata identifies with him a deity named ,koto no machi no ,kami1 or ,god of ,divination4 ,the corresponding deity in the ,idzumo myth of ,ohonamochi was ,ama no hohi4 ,the supposed descendants of this deity had charge of the sacred fire which was handed over by one generation to another with great ceremony4 ,futodama4--,futodama means great gift or offering4 ,the ,imi-be1#aeb his reputed descendants1 discharged a number of duties connected with the ,state religious ceremonies1 including the provision of sacrificial offerings4 ,uzume means dread female4 ,she was the ancestress of the ,sarume1 or monkey female1 who performed religious dances 7kagura7 at ,court and delivered inspired utterances4 ,hirata identifies this deity with ,oho-miya no me 7great-palace-female71 worshipped as one of the eight ,gods of the ,jingikwan1 or ,department of ,religion4 ,she represents the chief lady officials of the ,palace as a class4 ,uzume1 in announcing to the ,sun-,goddess the approach of ,susa no wo1 discharged one of their duties4 ,from another point of view she is a type of the wise woman1 sorceress1 or prophetess4 ,she was prayed to for long life1 for protection from evil by night and by day1 for honours1 and for posterity4 ,one of the norito splits up ,oho-miya no me into five separate deities4 ,ishikoridome means apparently the stonecutter4 ,why should the supposed ancestor of the mirror-makers have received this name8 ,the circumstance that stone moulds for casting bronze objects have been found in ,japan suggests a possible answer4 ,toyo-tama1 rich jewel1 the ancestor of the jewel-makers' ,be1 requires no explanation4 ,the ,kiujiki gives a list of thirty-two deities as forming the ,court of ,ninigi on his descent to ,earth1 and adds the names of the noble families who were descended from them4 ,a few of these are nature-deities4 ,of the remainder some may be deified real men1 but ,i prefer to reckon them provisionally along with such class conceptions as ,tommy ,atkins1 ,john ,bull1 ,brother ,jonathan1 and ,mrs4 ,grundy4 ,koto-shiro-nushi is one of those secondary formations in which the personification of nature and the deification of man meet and mingle4 ,as the son and counsellor of the ,earth-,god and ,creator ,ohonamochi he is related to the class of nature-deities1 while as an individualized type of a class of human beings and as the supposed ancestor of certain noble families he belongs to the current of thought which exalts man to divinity4 ,shiro in this ,god's name is for shiru1 to know1 and so to attend to1 to manage1 to govern4 ,koto-shiro-nushi is1 therefore1 thing-govern-master4 ,the character and functions of this deity are not well defined4 ,he was one of the ,gods who advised ,jing's famous expedition against ,korea1 on which occasion he described himself as the ,deity who rules in ,heaven1 who rules in the ,void1 the gem-casket-entering-prince1 the awful ,koto-shiro-nushi4 ,in the ,ohonamochi myth he is represented as his father's chief counsellor4 ,owing to his services in persuading him to transfer the ,government of ,japan to ,ninigi without resistance1 he was held in great honour at the ,mikado's ,court1 of which he was considered one of the principal protectors4 ,the ,jingikwan included him among the eight ,gods specially worshipped by them to the neglect of many more important deities1 including even his father1 ,ohonamochi4 ,in the ,manyshiu he is called upon by a lover to punish him if he is insincere in his protestations4 ,in modern times the cult of ,koto-shiro-nushi has fallen into decay1 while that of his rebellious younger brother1 the ,god of ,suha1 flourishes greatly4 ,the pious ,motori is much perplexed and grieved by this state of things4 ,sukuna-bikona4--,another ,god who is associated with ,ohonamochi in myth and worship is the dwarf deity1#aec ,sukuna-bikona 7little-prince74 ,he is said to have taught mankind the arts of brewing1 magic and medicine1 and to have provided medicinal thermal springs1 where he is still worshipped4 ,but in modern times his cult has been greatly superseded by that of ,yakushi the ,indian ,esculapius1 whose avatar he is supposed to be4 ,i take ,sukuna-bikona to be a deified type of medicine man1 a ,father of medicine in the abstract4 ,but the story related of him#aed may have some foundation in the history of a real person4 ,,iii4 ,,gods ,,of ,,abstract ,,human ,,qualities4 ,sahe no kami4--,the ,sahe no kami are phallic deities4 ,in approaching this subject1 it behoves me to walk warily4 ,for1 to some writers so repulsive that they shirk even its necessary elucidation1 it exercises a fascination upon others which is not conducive to sound reasoning4 ,has not a ,president of the ,anthropological ,institute declared that so soon as a man begins to study phallicism he goes crazy8 ,with phallicism we may conveniently associate the corresponding cult of the kteis4 ,in ,japan1 the phallus symbolizes two distinct1 although not unrelated1 principles4 ,primarily1 it represents the generative or procreative power1 and is recognized in this capacity by myth and custom4 ,by a natural transition it has become the symbol of the more abstract conception of lusty animal life1 the foe to death and disease4 ,hence its use as a magical prophylactic appliance4 ,in ,shinto1 this latter principle is much the more prominent4 ,it is embodied in the name ,sahe no kami1 which means preventive deities4 ,the application of this epithet is clear from the circumstance that in a norito they are invoked for protection against the unfriendly and savage beings of the ,root ,country1 that is to say ,yomi or ,hades4 ,these by no means imaginary personages are the same as the ,ugly ,females1 the thunders generated from ,izanami's dead body and the armies of ,yomi of myth4#aee ,they represent1 or rather are identical with1 diseases and other evils associated with death and the grave4 ,epidemic and contagious diseases are specially intended4 ,hence the ,sahe no kami are also called ,yakushin1 or ,pestilence ,deities1 meaning the ,gods who ward off pestilence1 a phrase wrongly taken in later times to signify the ,gods who produce pestilence4 ,the use of the phallus and kteis for this purpose is primarily magical1 and rests on the wellknown principle that a symbol possesses something of the virtue of the thing which it represents4 ,the deification of these symbols came later4 ,in the norito entitled ,michiahe#aef there are three ,sahe no kami1 namely1 ,yachimata-hiko1 ,yachimata-hime1 and ,kunado4 ,the first two of these names mean eight-road-fork-prince and eight-road-fork-princess4 ,kunado is the come-not-place1 and is1 therefore1 an equivalent to a notice of no thoroughfare addressed to any evil beings who might attempt to pass that way4 ,an alternative form of this word is ,funado1 or pass-not-place4 ,there is a good deal of confusion about the ,sahe no kami4 ,yachimata-hiko and ,yachimata-hime are not mentioned in the ,kojiki or ,nihongi4 ,the ,kiujiki has a ,chimata no kami 7,god of the ,crossways71 which it says is also termed ,kunado no kami1 and adds two others named ,naga-chiha no kami and ,michijiki no kami1 both of which names imply a connexion with highways4 ,the ,nihongi makes five of these deities1 adding two to the three of the ,kiujiki4 ,all are associated in some way or another with ,izanagi's descent to ,yomi1 having been produced either from the articles flung down by him during his flight thence1 or when he washed in the sea in order to purify himself from the pollutions contracted during his visit4 ,these deities had no temples4 ,the festivals in their honour took place at crossways on the four sides of the capital1 or at the frontier of the metropolitan province1 regularly at the close of the sixth and twelfth months1 and at other times upon occasions of emergency4 ,thus in #gce1 during an epidemic1 the ,governor of ,dazaifu in ,kiushiu was ordered to celebrate a michi-ahe1 or ,road festival1 and in #hci the ,mikado directed that honours should be paid to the ,gods of ,pestilence4 ,a ceremony in honour of the ,sahe no kami was also performed two days before the arrival of foreign envoys in the capital1 in order to guard against the danger of their bringing with them infection1 evil influences1 or demons from abroad4#aeg ,a work entitled ',fus ,ryakki' states that in #ich ,gods were carved in wood and set up face to face along the highways and byways1 or female forms were made and set up opposite to males4 ,children worshipped them boisterously1 and made reverent offerings of pieces of cloth and fragrant flowers4 ,they were called ,chimata no kami1 that is to say ,gods of the ,crossways1 or ,mitama 7august spirits71 a term which in its ,chinese form ,gory is still preserved in the name of the great festival 7,goryye7 of ,gion at ,kito4 ,the ,chimata no kami can be no other than ,yachimata-hiko and ,yachimata-hime4 ,a later notice speaks of the worship of wooden figures1 male and female1 provided with sexual organs4 ,similar figures in stone may still1 ,hirata says1 be seen in the eastern provinces1 where they are sometimes mistaken for ,jiz1 the ,buddhist children's ,god1 and honoured in the temples4 ,the third of the ,sahe no kami of the norito1 namely1 ,kunado1 can be nothing but a simple phallus4 ,its shape1 formed of ,izanagi's staff1 is consistent with this view4 ,in the ,tsujiura1 or ,cross ,roads divination1 this ,god was represented by a staff4 ,the same inference is suggested by its association with ,yachimata-hiko and ,yachimata-hime1 who1 as we have seen1 were unquestionably phallic deities2 and also with the peach1 which1 like ,kunado himself1 was used by ,izanagi for his protection against the evil beings of ,yomi4 ,like the apricot in ,india and the pomegranate in ancient ,greece1 the peach is in ,china and ,japan the acknowledged representative of the kteis1 as the pestle and the mushroom are of the phallus4 ,peach-wood staves were used in the oni-yarahi 7demon-expelling7 ceremony on the last day of the year4 ,a similar interpretation is1 perhaps1 applicable to the horseshoes nailed over doors in ,england which1 intended at first to keep out evil spirits1 are now meant simply for luck1 in accordance with the tendency for the more special functions of ,gods and magical appliances to become obscured and merged in a hazy1 general notion of their beneficence or usefulness4 ,peach-shaped charms from ,china figure in a ,london tradesman's catalogue which has just reached me4 ,there is a custom1 called sammai1 of scattering rice1 which was formerly observed at purification ceremonies1 and is kept up at the present day in rooms where there is a new-born child4 ,hirata tells of a case in which the rice so scattered was found marked with blood-stains1 showing1 as he infers1 that the object of this practice was to drive off demons1 not to conciliate them by an offering4 ,i have more than a suspicion that the efficacy of rice for this purpose1 and also of the beans used to drive off demons on the last day of the year1#aeh is due to a resemblance of this kind4#aei ,the wo-bashira 7male-pillar7 is doubtless only a modified ,kunado4 ,this term is applied to the end-post of the railing of a bridge or of the balustrade of a staircase1 and is so called from its obviously phallic shape and function4 ,it is a post surmounted by a large knob1 and its position commanding the thoroughfare shows that it is intended to arrest the passage of evil beings or influences4 ,it is still to be seen everywhere in ,japan1 but its meaning is now forgotten4 ,the end-tooth of a comb was also called wo-bashira4 ,we now see the significance of ,izanagi's selection of this object for converting into a torch in order to light up the darkness of ,yomi4 ,in ,italy even at the present day the phallus fulfils a similar function4 ,the phallus appears in another form at the festival held in honour of the ,sahe no ,kami on the first full moon in every year4 ,the ,makura no ,sshi1 written about ,a4,d4 #ajjj1 tells us that it was then the custom for the boys in the ,imperial ,palace to go about striking the younger women with the potsticks used for making gruel on this occasion4 ,this was supposed to ensure fertility4 ,it reminds us of the ,roman practice at the spring festival of ,lupercalia1 alluded to by ,shakespeare in his ',julius ,csar'3-- ,forget not in your speed1 ,antonius1 ,to touch ,calphurnia2 for our elders say ,the barren touched in this holy chase ,shake off their steril curse4 ,the ,japanese novelist and antiquary ,kiden1 writing about a century ago1 informs us that a similar custom was at that time still practised in the province of ,echigo4 ,he gives a drawing of the sticks used for the purpose1 of the phallic character of which there can be no doubt4 ,they were called kedzurikake 7part-shaved71 and consisted of wands whittled near the top into a mass of adherent shavings1 as in the illustration4 ,kedzurikake of elder or willow are still made in some places4 ,in ,harima1 on the #adth day of the #ast month1 kedzurikake are hung up under the eaves in substitution for the kadomatsu1 or fir trees placed by the entrance gate at the ,new ,year4 ,in ,suwo1 kedzurikake1 made of a thorny tree called tara1 are placed on each side of the front and back doors at this season1 no doubt with the object of averting evil influences4 ,when the kadomatsu and other ,new ,year's decorations are removed on the #aeth day of the #ast month1 they are in many places collected by the boys as material for a bonfire4 ,this is called dondo or sagich1 and the burning of the kedzurikake is a feature of it4 ,in the ,yamagata ken1 wherever there are stone images of ,dsjin1 the phallic ,god of ,roads1#afj the boys at this time make a bonfire of fir trees and straw1 and build for themselves a hut beside it4 ,when the people assemble1 they come out and fire it4 ,if the dumplings made on the #adth are roasted in this fire and eaten1 malignant diseases need not be feared during the ensuing half year4 ,in ,hitachi this hut is called the ,hall of the ,sai no ,kami4 ,the embers are used for re-lighting the domestic fires or kept as charms against pestilence4 ,illustration ,fire1 kindled from kedzurikake after prayer1 was given out to the people by the priests of ,gion in ,kito on the last day of the year4 ,it was transferred to a slow match1 and used for rekindling the household fires1 the object being to prevent pestilence during the coming year4#afa ,the mythical burning of a wobashira 7also a phallic emblem7 by ,izanagi in ,yomi was probably suggested by some such custom4#afb ,it will be observed that the prophylactic virtue of the phallus has not been forgotten in the kedzurikake4 ,the kedzurikake are sometimes described as the shintai of ,dsjin1 and are placed on the domestic altar to be worshipped as his representative4 ,they are also1 by a known confusion of ideas1 presented to the ,gods as offerings4 ,the ,ainus of ,yezo1 who have adopted the kedzurikake as the general form of offering to their ,gods at all times1 and attach to it no phallic signification1 were no doubt familiar with this use of it by their ,japanese neighbours4 ,it is by them called inao or nusa1 the latter being the old ,japanese word for offering4 ,the facility with which such offerings could be prepared by savages must have been a recommendation4 ,the two cylindrical shingi1 or divine sticks1 eight or nine inches in circumference and one foot long1 thrown to the crowd by the priests of ,seidaiji1 near ,okayama1 on the night of the #adth day of the #ast month1 and called o fuku 7luck71 to keep off pestilence and bring prosperity1 are probably of phallic origin4 ,the gruel partaken of at the ,sahe no ,kami festival on the #aeth of the #ast month was made of rice1 and was coloured with an admixture of the small red bean called adzuki4#afc ,the bean is a well-known synonym in ,japan for the kteis4 ,the colour red is also significant4 ,it suggests the ruddy complexion of health caused by an abundance of life-giving blood in the lips and cheeks4 ,children love this colour4 ,max ,nordau says3 ,as a feeling of pleasure is always connected with dynamogeny or the production of force1 every living thing instinctively seeks for dynamogenous sense impressions4 ,now red is especially dynamogenous4 ,in 'dipus ,tyrannus1' the ,chorus invoke the aid of ruddy-faced ,bacchus against pestilence4 ,in ,korea red is a terror to devils4 ,a modern ,japanese writer says that red is obnoxious to devils on account of its cheerful appearance4 ,small-pox being a ,kijin bi1 or demon-sent disease1 the colour red is freely employed in combating it4 ,the candles at the bedside are red1 and the clothing of the patient and nurse4 ,the ,god of ,small-pox is worshipped with offerings of red gohei 7there is here some confusion of ideas7 and of red adzuki beans4 ,red paper is hung round the necks of the bottles of sake offered to him4 ,red papier mach figures of ,daruma are placed near the sick-bed4 ,it is explained that red1 being a y 7male1 bright1 positive7 colour1 is fitted to counteract dark1 wintry1 negative influences4 ,the potency of red as a charm against small-pox is not unknown to ,european folk-lore4 ,phalli are coloured a bright red1 or1 what comes to the same thing1 gilt4 ,saruta-hiko1 a phallic deity1 has a bright red complexion4 ,torii are painted red4 ,demons and stage villains have red faces1 probably as an indication of great animal vigour4 ,griffis1 in his ',mikado's ,empire1' tells us that when by reason of good fortune or a lucky course of events there is great joy in a family it is customary to make kowameshi1 or red rice1 and give an entertainment to friends and neighbours4 ,the rice is coloured by boiling red beans with it4 ,if for any cause the colour is not a fine red1 it is a bad omen for the family4 ,there is a modern superstition that if1 on the #gth day of the #ast month1 a male swallows seven1 and a female fourteen red beans1 they will be free from sickness all their lives4 ,the ,t-y-ki1 a work published in #agie1 has the following3-- ,in many places along the highway at ,atsumi1 in the province of ,deha1 where the cliffs stand up steeply on both sides1 shime-naha are stretched across from one cliff to another4 ,below these shime-naha there are placed skilfully carved wooden phalli fronting the road4 ,they are very large1 being seven or eight feet in length and perhaps three or four feet in circumference4 ,i thought this too shocking1 and questioned the inhabitants why they did so4 ,their answer was that it was a very ancient custom4 ,they were called ,sai no kami1#afd and were made afresh every year on the #aeth day of the #ast month4 ,as they were local ,gods1 they were by no means neglectful of them1 allowing them to remain even when high officials passed that way4 ,they were not at all1 ,i was told1 put up for the amusement of the young folks4 ,moreover1 seeing a number of slips of paper attached to the shime-naha1 ,i inquired what they might be4 ,it appeared that they were fastened there secretly by the women of the place as a prayer for handsome lovers4 ,truly this is one of those old customs which linger in remote parts4 ,phalli and ktenes of stone are worshipped by the country-folks in many places as the shintai of their ujigami4 ,the selection of a rocky pass for the erection of these objects1 and the association with them of shime-naha1#afe show that their original function1 namely1 to prevent the passage of evil beings or influences1 was not forgotten4 ,the prayers of the women betray a misconception of the proper object of this cult4 ,near the end of the ,kogojiui there is a passage which makes mention of the phallus as a magical appliance4 ,as it has some anthropological interest1 ,i quote it at length3 ,of yore1 in the age of the ,gods1 ,oho-toko-nushi no ,kami 7great-earth-master-deity71 on a day that he was cultivating a rice-field1 gave his labourers the flesh of oxen to eat4 ,at this time the child of ,mi-toshi no ,kami 7august-harvest-god7 went to that rice-field and spat upon the food1 after which he returned and reported the matter to his father4 ,mi-toshi no ,kami was wroth and let loose locusts on that field1 so that the leaves of the young rice suddenly withered away and it became like dwarf bamboos4 ,upon this ,oho-toko-nushi no ,kami caused the diviners to ascertain by their art the reason of this4 ,they replied that it was owing to a curse sent by ,mi-toshi no ,kami1 and advised him to offer a white pig1 a white horse1 and a white cock in order to dispel his anger4 ,when amends had been made to ,mi-toshi no ,kami in the manner directed1 the latter replied1 saying3 ',truly it was my doing4 ,take bare stalks of hemp1 and make of them a reel with which to reel it1 take the leaves and sweep it therewith1 take push-grass#aff of ,heaven and push it therewith4 ,take1 moreover1 crow-fan#afg and fan it1 and if then the locusts do not depart1 take ox-flesh and place it in the runnels1 adding to it shapes of the male stem 7phalli74 ,moreover1 strew the banks of earth between the fields with water-lily seeds1 ginger1 walnut leaves and salt4' ,when these instructions were carried out the leaves of the young rice became thick again1 and the harvest was a plentiful one4 ,this is the reason why at the present day the ,department of ,religion worships ,mi-toshi no ,kami with offerings of a white pig1 a white horse1 and a white cock4 ,the facts quoted in the preceding pages show that there was some confusion between the use of the male and female emblems as non-religious magical appliances and their cult as deities4 ,primarily they were symbols1 next objects of magic4 ,finally ,religion intervened1 and by her handmaids ,personification and ,myth raised them to the rank of deities1 consecrating this step still further by devoting a formal ritual to their service4 ,the kteis has received somewhat less attention than the phallus4 ,it is no doubt identical with the ,yachimata hime of the ,michiahe norito1 and in the ,kojiki1 its representative the peach is dubbed kami4 ,but the ,nihongi in the parallel passage merely speaks of its efficacy in repelling evil spirits1 and refrains from deifying or even personifying it4 ,the circumstance that the ,sahe no ,kami were worshipped by the roadsides and at crossways#afh led to their being looked upon as guide-,gods and the special friends of travellers4 ,saruta-hiko1 a phallic deity1 represented as dwelling at the eight crossways of ,heaven1 is said to have acted as guide to ,ninigi on his descent to earth4 ,he is popularly called ,dsjin1 or ,road-ancestor-deity1 and is depicted as of gigantic stature1 with a portentously long nose1 which 7the suggestion is not mine7 may perhaps have a phallic morphological signification4 ,the worship of these deities was extremely popular in ancient ,japan4 ,they were much appealed to in divination1#afi and were prayed to by most travellers when starting on a journey4 ,the phrase chi buri no ,kami 7,gods along the road7 means the ,sahe no ,kami4 ,the ,sahe no ,kami were the mitama par excellence4 ,they were also called tamuke no ,kami 7,gods of offerings7 because travellers were in the habit of carrying a nusa-bukuro 7offering-bag7 containing hemp leaves and rice1 of which a little was offered to each of them when passing4 ,all unforeseen disasters or illnesses on a journey were attributed to a neglect of the worship of these deities4 ,but a very little advance in enlightenment shows that the sexual instincts need restraint#agj rather than the stimulus which they must derive from such a cult4 ,so early as ,a4,d4 #ici a deity of this kind which stood in a conspicuous position in ,kito1 and was worshipped by all travellers1 was removed to a less prominent situation4 ,phallicism ultimately disappeared from official ,shinto4 ,but it lingered long in popular customs1 and is not quite extinct even at the present day1 especially in eastern ,japan4 ,i have myself witnessed a procession in which a phallus1 several feet high and painted a bright red1 was carried on a bier by a crowd of coolies in festal uniform1 shouting1 laughing1 and zig-zagging tumultuously from one side of the street to another4 ,in the lupanars they are honoured by having a lamp of simple construction kept burning before them1 and are prayed to by the proprietor for numerous clients4 ,the boys' festival of dondo1 on the #aeth of the #ast month1 still retains traces of its phallic origin4#aga ,oni4--,oni1 or demons1 have no individual names4 ,it is clear from the ,kojiki and ,nihongi mythical narratives that the oni exorcised by means of the peach#agb are the same as the thunders and the armies of ,yomi4 ,in other words1 they are primarily personified diseases4#agc ,they afterwards lost this specific character4 ,motori defines oni as ashiki kami1 or evil deity4 ,he condemns their identification by the ,wamish with the spirits of the dead4 ,there is a story of a tenth-century hero who cut off the arm of an oni and brought it home with him1 but was tricked out of it by the owner1 who came to his house in the disguise of an old woman4 ,the oni have red faces1 hairy persons1 horns1 and sometimes only one eye4 ,they are said to devour men4 ,the modern ideas respecting them are mostly borrowed from ,buddhist sources4 ,gods of ,good and ,ill ,luck4--,among deified human properties we may reckon the ,gods of ,good and ,ill ,luck produced when ,izanagi washed in the sea after his return from ,yomi4 ,their names1 ,naobi and ,magatsubi1 contain the elements nao1 straight1 and maga1 crooked4 ,naki-sahame1 the ,goddess of weeping1 ,ta-jikara-wo 7hand-strength-male71 whose shintai is a bow1 and ,omohi-kane1 the thought combiner1 are rather mythical personages than deities on the effective list4 ,it is doubtful whether ,mari no kami1 the foot-ball ,god1 who has three faces1 is a personification of skill or a hazy1 imaginative recollection of some distinguished player4 ,the very terrible deity known as ,bimb-gami1 the ,god of ,poverty1 is of later origin4 ,,footnotes3 #adg ,see ,ch4 ,k41 p4 #ajb4 #adh ,probably a sepulchral dolmen4 ,there are many in this district1 said to be the tombs of ,minakata's descendants4 #adi ,the east is in ,japan the soft wind--our zephyr4 #aej ,see ,index1 ,nakatomi4 #aea ,see ,index1 ,ujigami4 #aeb ,see ,index1 ,imibe4 #aec ,there lies in dwarfs a special acquaintance with the healing virtues hidden in herbs4--,grimm1 ',teutonic ,mythology4' #aed ,see above1 p4 #ajg4 #aee ,see above1 p4 #ic4 #aef ,see ,index1 ,michiahe4 #aeg ,before strangers are allowed to enter a district certain ceremonies are often performed by the natives of the country for the purpose of disarming them of their magical powers1 of counteracting the baleful influence which is believed to emanate from them1 or of disinfecting1 so to speak1 the tainted atmosphere with which they are supposed to be surrounded4--,frazer's ',golden ,bough1' i4 #aej4 #aeh ,see ,index1 ,tsuina4 #aei ,eustathius1 the commentator on ,homer1 points out that the barley-corn denoted the vulva with the writers upon the ,bacchic ,komuses4 #afj ,i have before me a picture of a ,dsjin4 ,it stands at cross-roads1 and is a phalloid natural boulder over which depends a shimenaha supported by two bamboos4 ,in front of it are little piles of stones1 of which the similar offerings to the ,buddhist children's ,god ,jizsama are doubtless a survival4 ,the modern practice of bringing the ,jiz of the neighbourhood and dumping them down before the lodging of a newly-married couple is no doubt a similar case of survival4 ,a custom which began with the ,dsjin is continued with the ,jiz1 which now occupy their place at crossways4 #afa ,we may compare with this an old ,english custom mentioned by ,brand of the priests blessing candles at ,candlemas and distributing them to the people1 so that the ,divil may fly out of the habitation4 #afb ,see above1 p4 #ic4 #afc ,phaseolus radiatus4 #afd ,the modern spelling sai implies an altered conception of the function of these objects4 ,it means good luck1 a vaguer and more general idea than sahe1 which means prevention 7of disease74 #afe ,see ,index4 #aff ,the names of plants4 #afg ,the names of plants4 #afh ,crossways had a special sanctity in many countries4 ,the ,herm of ancient ,greece stood at crossways4 #afi ,see ,index1 ,tsuji-ura4 #agj ,measures were taken in ancient ,greece to check the excesses of the ,bacchanalian rites4 #aga ,for further evidence on this subject1 ,dr4 ,buckley's ',phallicism in ,japan' 7,chicago1 #ahie71 the ,nihongi1 i4 #aa1 and ,dr4 ,griffis's ',religions of ,japan' may be consulted4 #agb ,nihongi1 i4 #cj4 #agc ,according to ,st4 ,augustine1 the devils of ,scripture are our passions and unbridled appetites4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,priesthood4 ,shinto illustrates the principle enunciated by ,herbert ,spencer1 that in early stages of social evolution the secular and the sacred are but little distinguished4 ,the ,mikado was at the same time high priest and king4 ,there was no well-marked distinction between secular and religious ceremonies4 ,the functionaries who performed the latter had no specially sacerdotal character and no distinctive costume4 ,the ,jingikwan1 or ,department of ,religion1 was simply a ,government bureau1 and the rites celebrated in its chapel were as much ,government proceedings as the issuing of decrees or the collection of taxes4 ,almost any official might be called upon to discharge religious functions4 ,the local governors on their appointment made a round of visits for worship to all the shrines in their jurisdiction4 ,all the principal shrines had ,state endowments4 ,the word matsuri-goto1 government1 is simply matsuri1 a religious festival1 with the termination koto1 thing1 which adds nothing to its etymological significance4 ,hirata says that the worship of the ,gods is the source of ,government--nay1 it is ,government4 ,the same word miya 7august-house7 was in common use both for shrines and palaces4 ,there was1 however1 a beginning of a differentiation of sacred and secular functions4 ,the ,mikado delegated some of his religious duties to the ,nakatomi ,house1 and1 as we shall see1 other religious duties were hereditary in other families4 ,thus a ,sun-worship ,be1 or hereditary corporation1 was established in #egg4 ,one version of the myth of ,ohonamochi represents him as giving up his authority with the words1 ,let the august grandchild direct the public affairs of which ,i have charge3 ,i will retire and direct secret matters4 ,evidently we have here an echo of some actual separation of civil and religious authority4 ,far on into historical times the guardians of the ,great ,shrine of ,ohonamochi in ,idzumo retained a title 7kuni no miyakko7 which1 like that of pontifex at ,rome1 implied the performance of secular duties4 ,in the reign of ,kwammu 7#ghb-hjf7 it was found that the local nobility 7kuni no miyakko71 many of whom still acted as governors1 neglected their civil functions1 on the pretence that their time was occupied by religious duties4 ,a decree was therefore issued that in future no local nobles should hold the office of civil governor4 ,the ,mikado4--,the chief priest of ,shinto is the ,mikado himself4 ,jimmu1 the legendary founder of the dynasty1 is represented as performing sacrifice in person4 ,jing is said to have acted on one occasion as kannushi4 ,in historical times ,mikados presided personally over the ceremonies of ,nihiname1 ,shinkonjiki1 ,kanname1 and other festivals4 ,even at the present day the ,mikado's priestly functions are not entirely obsolete4 ,nakatomi4--,for many centuries most of the ,mikado's sacerdotal functions have been delegated4 ,in the ,jimmu legend there is mention of the appointment of a ,michi no ,omi 7minister of the way7 as ruler of a festival in honour of ,taka-musubi4 ,at the dawn of history we find the ,nakatomi hereditary corporation the recognized vicars of the ,mikado4 ,tradition traces their descent from the ,god ,koyane4 ,the most probable etymology of ,nakatomi explains it as put for ,naka-tsu-omi1 that is to say1 the minister of the middle4 ,hirata understands by this that the ,nakatomi were mediators between the ,gods and the ,mikado1 reciting the ,mikado's norito to the ,gods1 and communicating to him their instructions received by divination4 ,in ,shinto1 however1 there was no indispensable sacerdotal mediator4 ,there was nothing to prevent the ,mikado1 or any one1 from holding direct communication with the deities4 ,a branch of the ,nakatomi ,house1 which in the seventh century took the name of ,fujihara1 was famous in later history4 ,up to #ahfh the nominal ,prime ,ministers and ,regents were invariably taken from it4 ,the officials of the ,jingikwan1 or ,department of ,religion1 were largely ,nakatomi1 as were also the ,chokushi1 or ,imperial envoys to the local shrines4 ,yet the ,nakatomi were hardly what we should call a priestly caste1 like the ,levites or ,brahmins4 ,the local priesthood were not ordinarily ,nakatomi1 and many of this ,house held purely civil appointments4 ,the ,jingikwan took precedence even of the ,dajkwan1 or ,grand ,council of ,state4 ,it was presided over by an official called ,haku4 ,he had the supreme control of all the ,shinto ,state ceremonies1 and authority over the local priesthood4 ,he was assisted by a vice-president1 and had a staff of ,imbe1 ,urabe1 and clerks4 ,the ,haku took the place of the ,mikado when the latter was prevented by illness from offering his daily prayers4 ,from the eleventh century up till quite recently the ,haku was one of the ,shirakaha family1 who trace their descent from the ,mikado ,kwazan 7#ihe-f71 and enjoyed the title of 1 or prince4 ,as explained above1 the ,nakatomi were practically the ,imperial family4 ,imbe4--,the ,imbe were another hereditary corporation1 descended1 it was said1 from the ,god ,futodama 7great-gift74 ,their chief business was to prepare the offerings1 and their name ,imi-be 7imi means avoidance1 or religious abstinence7 has reference to the care with which they avoided all sources of impurity in doing so4 ,the ,imbe1 after praying to the ,mountain-,god1 cut down with a sacred 7imi7 axe the trees required for shrines1 or at least began the work1 leaving it to be completed by ordinary workmen4 ,they also dug the foundations with a sacred 7imi7 mattock4 ,two of the norito1 namely1 the ,ohotono and the ,mikado1 were read by them4 ,it was also their duty1 at least at one period1 to deliver the regalia to the ,mikado at his coronation4 ,a ,chinese description of ,japan1 written long before the ,kojiki or ,nihongi1 gives the following account of what were in all probability the predecessors of the ,imbe3-- ,they 7the ,japanese7 appoint a man whom they call an 'abstainer4' ,he is not allowed to comb his hair1 to wash1 to eat flesh1 or to approach women4 ,when they are fortunate1 they make him presents1 but if they are ill1 or meet with disaster1 they set it down to the abstainer's failure to keep his vows1 and unite to put him to death4#agd ,this is a description of a typical ascetic4 ,in the ,imbe of historical times we have the closely allied idea of scrupulous attention to religious purity4 ,but they were not celibates or vegetarians except ad hoc when a festival was impending1 and so far from neglecting the care of their persons1 strict cleanliness was incumbent upon them4 ,urabe4--,a third hereditary religious corporation in ancient ,japan was that of the diviners or ,urabe4 ,they are mentioned in the ,nihongi under the date ,a4,d4 #ehe4 ,they were divided at a later period into four branches1 belonging respectively to the provinces of ,iki1 ,tsushima1 ,idzu1 and ,hitachi4 ,twenty of these diviners were attached to the ,jingikwan4 ,it was their duty to decide by the deer's shoulder-blade or tortoise-shell divination such matters as were referred to them by the superior officials of the department4 ,urabe were despatched to the provinces to fetch the rice which was used in the ,ohonihe ceremony4 ,it was also their duty to take away and throw into a river the harahe-tsu-mono1 or offerings of purification4 ,for many centuries this office has been in the hands of the ,yoshida family1 whose exorbitant pretensions fill ,hirata with indignation4 ,the ,nakatomi1 ,imbe1 ,urabe1 and 7princes of the ,shirakaha ,house71 constitute what are called the ,shi-sei1 or four surnames of the ,jingikwan4 ,saishu4--,the high-priest at ,ise was called ,saishu1 or worship-master4 ,this office was hereditary in the ,fujinami family1 a branch of the ,nakatomi4 ,daigji4--,the high-priests of ,atsuta1 ,kashima1 ,usa1 and ,aso were termed ,daigji1 or great-shrine-functionaries4 ,there was a ,dai-g-ji at ,ise1 subordinate to the ,saishu4 ,this office was also hereditary4 ,kannushi4--,kannushi is for kami-nushi1 that is1 deity-master4 ,it is the most general word for ,shinto priest4 ,properly it is only the chief priest of the shrine who is so designated4 ,the ,kannushi are appointed by the ,state4 ,in early times their duties were performed by officials who already held secular posts4 ,in #hbj a decree was made prohibiting this practice1 as it was found that such ,kannushi neglected the care of the shrines of which they had charge4 ,at the present time many ,kannushi combine other avocations with their sacerdotal functions4 ,the title may even be conferred on a layman by way of honour4 ,the late famous actor ,danjuro was an example4 ,kannushi are not exempted from military service4 ,they are not celibates1 and may return to the laity whenever they please4 ,it is only when engaged in worship that they wear the distinctive dress of their office1 which consists of a loose gown1 fastened at the waist with a girdle1 and a black cap called eboshi1 bound round the head with a broad white fillet4 ,even this is not really a sacerdotal costume1 but simply one of the old official dresses of the ,mikado's ,court4 ,no special education is necessary for the discharge of the duties of a ,kannushi1 which consist in the recital of the annual prayers and in attending to the repair of the shrine4 ,hafuri or ,hri4--,the hafuri are priests of an inferior grade4 ,this word1 though now written with ,chinese characters which mean prayer-official1 is connected with the verb hoburu or hafuru1 to slaughter1 to throw away4 ,hmuru1 to bury1 is another form of the same word4 ,the ,nihongi says that in #fdb1 at the bidding of the village hafuri1 horses and cattle were killed as a sacrifice in order to procure rain4 ,the high-priest of the ,god ,minagata at ,suha is styled ,oho-hafuri 7great hafuri74 ,at the festival of this ,god the heads of seventy-five deer are presented as offerings1 while the flesh is eaten by the priests4 ,if others than the priests wish to partake of it without pollution1 they get chopsticks from the priests which answer this purpose4 ,these facts point to the conclusion that the hafuri were originally sacrificers4 ,offerings of animal food were common in ancient times4 ,the term hafuri-tsu-mono 7flung-away-things7 is used as equivalent to harahi-tsu-mono 7expiatory offerings71 and is also applied to funeral offerings4 ,negi4--,this was another name for priests of lower rank4 ,the word is probably connected with negafu1 to pray4 ,the negi of ,miha and ,mikami are called imi-bi 7fire-avoid7 because they are specially careful to avoid impurity in respect to fire4 ,they will not use the same fire for cooking as other people4 ,miyakko4--,the hereditary chief priests of ,kitsuki in ,idzumo and the affiliated shrine of ,hinokuma in ,kir were called miyakko1 a term which originally meant local governor4 ,priestesses4--,there are several categories of priestesses attached to ,shinto shrines4 ,their mythical prototype is ,uzume1 the ,goddess who danced before the cave into which the ,sun-,goddess retired when insulted by her brother ,susa no wo4 ,saiw4--,at the beginning of every reign1 an unmarried princess of the ,imperial blood was chosen by divination and consecrated to the service of the ,sun-,goddess at ,ise4 ,for three years previous to taking up her duties she went every first day of the month to an imi-dono 7sacred-hall7 and worshipped towards the ,great ,shrine of ,ise4 ,this was called the mi-tose no mono-imi1 or three years' purity4 ,the ,saiw is also called ,itsuki no miya or ,saig1 sacred or worship-palace--properly the name of her residence4 ,there was a similar appointment to the shrine of ,kamo1 where the ,ujigami of the ,mikados was worshipped4 ,she was also called ,saiw1 and both herself and her residence were termed ,sai-in1 that is1 sacred hall4 ,these offices were discontinued early in the thirteenth century4 ,kamu no ko 7,god-child74--,the ,kamu no ko were also called miko1 august child1 or sometimes mono-imi1 that is1 avoiders of 7impure7 things4 ,they were young girls attached to all the principal shrines for the performance of the kagura dances1 and cooking the food for offerings4 ,they also occasionally became the medium of divinely inspired utterances4 ,from the ,yengishiki we learn that at that time there were a number of kamuko in the palace for the service of the numerous shrines there4 ,they were appointed at the age of seven or upwards from the families of the local nobles 7miyakko74 ,their places were supplied by others when they got married4 ,at ,kumano in ,tango there are certain families whose female children are devoted to the service of the ,shrine of ,susa no wo4 ,when a girl is born1 a divine arrow flies down and sticks in the roof-tree of the house4 ,at the age of four or five1 the child thus designated is sent to wait on the ,god4 ,though the place is among the mountains1 such children are never harmed by wild beasts4 ,when they begin to show signs of puberty1 a great dragon comes and glares fiercely at them4 ,thereupon they return home4#age ,ichi-ko4--,the ichi-ko or agata-miko are parish mediums who are called in when communication is desired with the spirits of the dead4 ,they are sometimes called adzusa miko1 from their use of a bow of adzusa wood in their conjurations4 ,there are also strolling ichiko of indifferent character1 who for a trifling consideration will throw open the gates of the spirit world4 ,these are modern institutions4 ,kamube4--,the peasants who tilled the glebe lands of the shrine and their place of residence were alike termed kamu-be 7,god-corporation74 ,the present city of ,kbe takes its name from one of these4 ,in the times when slavery was a ,japanese institution there were slaves attached to some of the shrines4 ,recent statistics give the number of ,shinto priests as #ad1gff4 ,their maximum salary is about #bj per month4 ,,footnotes3 #agd ,for an account of similar priests or medicine men in many other countries1 see ',the ,golden ,bough4' ,the ,nazirite 7,numbers vi47 is their ,jewish counterpart4 #age ,see ,hirata's ,koshiden1 xviii4 #bc4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,worship4 ,religious conduct includes worship1 morality in so far as it has obtained the sanction of religion1 and ceremonial purity4 ,the term worship applies both to the forms of courtesy and respect towards human beings and of reverence for the ,gods4 ,indeed the latter is not a separate kind of worship1 but is composed almost exclusively of the same elements in a new application4 ,nearly everything in the worship of the ,gods is borrowed from the forms of social respect4 ,it is sometimes maintained that these forms1 before they become a part of religious ritual1 pass through an intermediate stage1 namely1 the worship of the dead1 whether as ghosts or dead ancestors4 ,this view is based on the hypothesis that ,gods were originally deceased men4 ,it cannot well apply to ,shinto1 where all the ,great ,gods are nature-deities4 ,when a ,japanese greets the rising ,sun by bowing his head1 he does so because that is already with him an habitual form of respect4 ,no doubt he honours the dead in this way as well as the living4 ,but the occasions for the worship of the living so far outnumber those of paying respect to the dead that the latter may be regarded as a negligible quantity in the formation of the habit4 ,there is surely nothing to prevent a man who had never worshipped ghosts or ancestors from transferring direct to nature-deities forms of respect arising out of the relations of living men4 ,several practices of worship1 such as clapping the hands for joy and the avoidance of contamination by touching a dead body1 have no meaning in the case of the cult of the dead4 ,worship has a secondary but most important function4 ,it is addressed not only to the ,gods but to our fellow-men4 ,it is a means of communicating religious thoughts and emotions from man to man and from one generation to another4 ,obeisance4--,the simplest and most universal mode of showing reverence to the ,gods is by bowing4 ,in ,shinto it is the custom to bow twice before and after praying or making an offering4 ,the word ogamu1 to pray or worship1 means to bend4 ,kneeling is also practised--one of the norito has the phrase bending the knee like a deer--but is less common4 ,squatting 7kashikomaru7 is another form of obeisance4 ,clapping ,hands4--,clapping hands 7kashihade71 primarily a sign of joy1 as it still is in our nurseries1 was in ancient times in ,japan a general token of respect4 ,the ,nihongi#agf states that the ,ministers clapped hands in honour of the ,empress when she ascended the throne4 ,more recently1 this form was confined to divine worship4 ,one of the norito has the rubric1 ,offer three cups of sake1 clap hands1 and retire4 ,the number of hand-clappings was minutely prescribed in the old ritual4 ,in some ceremonies it was done thirty-two times4 ,a silent hand-clapping 7shinobi-te7 was sometimes directed4 ,it seems possible that in ,shinto at least this was the origin of the simple folding of the hands in prayer1 common to so many nations1 and explained by anthropologists as the attitude of an unresisting suppliant holding out his hands for the cord4 ,other ,gestures4--,respect may also be shown by raising objects to the forehead or placing them on the head 7ita-daku71 as the most honourable and important part of the body4 ,this is done in the case of the implements used in the greater divination4 ,among less formal gestures used in worship are reverent upward looks 7awogu71 an almost instinctive practice1 which has its root in the idea that ,heaven is the dwelling-place of the ,gods1 and has certainly nothing to do with ghost-worship4 ,i cannot point to any case of prostration or of uncovering the feet as a form of ,shinto worship4 ,uncovering the head is known in modern times1 but ,i do not find it mentioned in the older ritual4 ,offerings4--,as the attitude of devotees towards myth varies according to their intelligence and culture1 some distinguishing1 more or less clearly1 between the truth which it adumbrates and its fictitious embroidery1 and others accepting it indiscriminately as absolute fact1 as the image is by some regarded simply as an aid to devotion and by others as a true representation of the ,god1 or even as the ,god himself1 so in the case of offerings1 a double current of opinion is to be traced4 ,there are always worshippers who well know that the ,god does not eat the food1 drink the wine1 or wear the clothing which is laid upon his altar2 but there are also more literal-minded people who cling1 in the face of cogent evidence to the contrary1 to the idea that in some ill-defined way he does benefit physically by such offerings4 ,a story in the ,konjaku ,monogatari tells how a boy1 possessed of superior insight1 could see the devils carrying away the offerings of the purification ceremony4 ,even ,hirata1 a highly educated man1 thought that food-offerings lost their savour in a way that is inexplicable by natural causes4 ,incense and burnt-offerings are adapted to the mental capacity of worshippers of this class4#agg ,the true reason for making offerings1 whether to ,gods or to the dead1 is to be sought elsewhere4 ,men feel impelled to do something to show their gratitude for the great benefits which they are daily receiving1 and to conciliate the future favour of the powers from whom they proceed4 ,offerings are part of the language by which the intention of the worshipper is manifested to ,gods and men4 ,it is in this rather than in any supposed actual benefit that their chief value consists4 ,the norito state explicitly that the offerings were symbolical4 ,they are called iya-jiro no mitegura1 or offerings in token of respect4 ,there is frequent mention of fulfilling the praises of the ,gods by plenteous offerings4 ,symbolic gifts are1 of course1 not confined to religion4 ,in ancient ,greece a gift of earth and water indicated a surrender of political independence4 ,it is on the recognition of the symbolical value of offerings that the practice of substituting humaner1 cheaper1 or more convenient articles rests4 ,shinto has many illustrations of this principle4 ,i shall only mention ,herbert ,spencer's view that the origin of the practice of making offerings is to be found in the custom of leaving food and drink at the graves of the dead1 and as the ancestral spirit rose to divine rank1 the refreshments placed for the dead developed into sacrifices4 ,it must stand or fall with his general theory of the origin of religion1 of which the reader will form his own judgment4 ,i would suggest that the earliest offering was rather a portion of the ordinary meal set apart in grateful recognition of the source from which it came4 ,i find little or nothing in ,shinto to bear out ,jevons's opinion that the core of worship is communion4 ,offerings in the sense of gifts are a comparatively modern institution both in ancestor-worship and in the worship of the ,gods4 ,communion is1 of course1 out of the question in the case of the various offerings of clothing and implements4 ,even in the case of food-offerings there is no evidence in ,shinto of a joint participation in the living flesh and blood of a sacred victim4#agh ,the general object of making offerings is to propitiate the ,god4 ,there are several cases in the norito where they are made by way of reward for their services or in bargain for future blessings4#agi ,some are expiatory1 and are made with the object of absolving the worshipper from ritual impurity4 ,these are called aga-mono1 or ransom things4 ,offerings were frequently duplicated1 no doubt in order that one set at least of the things offered should be free from chance pollution4 ,offerings were sometimes personified1 and even deified1 as in the ,jimmu legend1#ahj where the food-offering is styled ,idzu-uka no me1 sacred-food-female4 ,most of the shintai were originally nothing more than offerings4 ,shinto offerings are of the most varied description4 ,the ,gods being conceived of as beings animated by human sentiments1 it is inferred that anything which would give pleasure to men is suitable for offering to a ,god4 ,food and ,drink4--,the primary and most important form of offering is food and drink4 ,the ,jimmu legend1 a very ancient document1 speaks of none but food-offerings4 ,the word nihe1 an element in the names of some of the great festivals1 means food-offerings4 ,the central feature of the most solemn rite of ,shinto1 namely1 the oho-nihe1 was the offering of rice and sake to the ,gods by the ,mikado on his accession to the throne4 ,the norito add clothing1 and the ,yengishiki a great variety of other articles4 ,there are several instances in history of the substitution of cloth for an older food-offering4 ,under food are included rice1 in ear and in grain1 hulled and in husk1 rice cakes1 fruit1 sea-ear1 shell-fish1 vegetables1 edible seaweed1 salt1 sake1 water1 deer1 pigs1 hare1 wild boar1 and birds of various kinds4 ,in #fdb horses and cattle were sacrificed in order to produce rain4 ,but even at this early period such sacrifices were condemned4 ,they were no doubt a revival in a case of national emergency of a practice which under ,buddhist influence had become more or less obsolete4 ,there are numerous indications that animal sacrifices were very common in the most ancient times4 ,in the ,yengishiki period offerings of four-footed animals or their flesh were confined to four services1 namely1 that of the ,food-,goddess1 of the ,wind-,gods1 of the ,road-,gods1 and that for driving away maleficent deities4 ,there is no evidence in the older ,shinto records of the use of incense or of burnt-offerings1 nor is any special importance attached to the blood of slaughtered animals4 ,white being considered an auspicious colour1 white animals were frequently selected for sacrifice4 ,at the present time the daily offerings made to the ,sun-,goddess and the ,food-,goddess at ,ise consist of four cups of sake1 sixteen saucers of rice and four of salt1 besides fish1 birds1 fruits1 seaweed1 and vegetables4 ,the annual offerings at the tomb of the first ,mikado1 ,jimmu1 are products of mountain1 river1 and sea1 including tahi 7a fish71 carp1 edible sea-weed1 salt1 water1 sake1 mochi 7rice-cake71 fern-flour1 pheasants1 and wild ducks4 ,illustration ,clothing4--,the clothing of the ancient ,japanese consisted of hemp1 yuju 7a fibre made of the inner bark of the paper mulberry71 and silk4 ,all these materials are represented in the ,shinto offerings enumerated in the ,yengishiki4 ,silk1 however1 was at this time still somewhat of a novelty1 and1 therefore1 religion being conservative1 it takes a less conspicuous place4 ,but hemp and bark-fibre1 with the textiles woven from them1 are very common offerings4 ,they were more convenient than perishable articles of food for sending to shrines at a distance from the capital1 and as cloth was the currency of the day1 it was a convenient substitute for unprocurable or objectionable articles4 ,in the ,yengishiki so many ounces of fibre or so many pieces of cloth are prescribed1 but at a later period a more specialized and conventional form1 called oho-nusa 7great-offering71 came into use4 ,the oho-nusa 7p4 #bad7 consists of two wands placed side by side1 from the ends of which depend a quantity of hempen fibre and a number of strips of paper4#aha ,one of the wands is of the cleyera japonica1 or evergreen sacred tree4 ,the other is a bamboo of a particular species4 ,their use is connected with an old ,japanese rule of etiquette that presents to a superior should be delivered attached to a branch of a tree1 the object being doubtless to mark a respectful aloofness of the giver from the receiver4 ,the paper slips represent the yufu1 or mulberry-bark fibre4 ,the use of yufu for clothing having become more or less obsolete1 owing to the introduction of cotton1 paper1 which in ,japan is made of the same material1 was substituted for it4 ,the oho-nusa are still employed on important occasions1 but for general use they are now replaced by the well-known gohei 7p4 #bae71 in which the hemp and one of the wands are omitted4 ,another form of nusa1 called ko-nusa 7little nusa7 or kiri-nusa 7cut-nusa71 consists of paper with leaves of the sacred tree chopped up and mixed with rice4 ,travellers in ancient times carried this mixture with them in a bag and made offerings of it to the phallic deities along their way4 ,it was also used when in danger of shipwreck4 ,the same system of accommodements avec le ciel is further illustrated by the substitution of the still more inexpensive hemp leaves for the original hempen fibre or fabric4 ,if1 it is argued1 the ,god does not really eat the food or wear the clothing placed on his altar1 a few grains of rice or a few leaves of hemp will answer the purpose of expressing the sentiments of the worshipper just as well as more costly gifts4 ,illustration ,there were sometimes sets of coloured gohei--blue1 yellow1 red1 white1 and black4 ,the awo-nigi-te 7blue-soft-articles7 and shira-nigi-te 7white-soft-articles7 consisted of hemp and bark fibre respectively4 ,tama-gushi are often mentioned4 ,i take it that in this combination tama means gift or offering1 not spirit or jewel1 as is taught by some modern ,japanese authorities4 ,kushi means skewer4 ,the tama-gushi are twigs of the sacred evergreen tree 7sakaki7 or of bamboo1 with tufts of yufu attached4 ,they are1 in short1 a simple form of nusa or gohei4 ,they have a striking resemblance to the 7suppliant branches7 mentioned in the opening lines of 'dipus ,tyrannus' and explained by ,jebb as olive branches wreathed with fillets of wool4 ,in one ,nihongi myth1 ,susa no wo is said to have planted kushi in the rice-fields of his sister1 the ,sun-,goddess1 by way of claiming ownership1 says a commentator4 ,compare with this the following quotation from ,hakluyt's ',historie of the ,west ,indies'3 ,every one of the ,caribs encloseth his portion of ground onely with a little cotton line1 and they account it a matter of sacriledge if any pass over the cord and treade on the possession of his neighbour1 and hold it for certayne that whoso violateth this sacred thing shall shortly perish4 ,along with the alteration in the form of the nusa to the present gohei there came a change in the mental attitude of the worshipper4 ,originally mere offerings1 they were at length1 by virtue of long association1 looked upon as representatives of the deity4 ,scholars like ,motori and ,hirata denounce this view as a corruption of later times1 but it is no doubt at present the prevailing conception4 ,hepburn's ,japanese dictionary knows no other4 ,it is illustrated by the fact that instead of the worshipper bringing gohei to the shrine1 these objects are now given out by the priest to the worshipper1 who takes them home and sets them up in his private ,kami-dana 7,god-shelf7 or domestic altar4 ,a further step is taken when it is believed that on festival occasions the ,god1 on a certain formula1 called the ,kami-oroshi1 or bringing down the ,god1 being pronounced1 descends into the gohei and remains there during the ceremony1 taking his departure at its close4 ,in the vulgar ,shinto of the present day this belief in a real presence of the ,god is associated with hypnotism4#ahb ,akin to the belief in an actual presence of a deity in the gohei is their modern use in the purification ceremony1 when they are flourished over or rubbed against the person to be absolved of ritual uncleanness or to dispel any evil influences which may have attached themselves to his person4 ,like the ,homeric and the host1 they were occasionally used for the protection of the bearer4 ,at the present time a gohei-katsugi1 or gohei bearer1 is synonymous with a superstitious person4 ,skins of oxen1 boar1 deer1 and bear were sometimes offered to the ,gods4 ,jewels 7tama7 were much worn by the ancient ,japanese nobility as ornaments for the head or as necklaces and bracelets4 ,they consisted of round beads1 tubes 7kuda-tama71 and comma-shaped objects 7maga-tama7 of chalcedony1 jasper1 nephrite1 chrysoprase1 serpentine1 steatite or crystal4 ,jewels occur sometimes in the lists of ,shinto offerings4 ,mirrors4--,the ancient ,japanese mirrors did not greatly differ from those in use at the present day4 ,they were made of a mixed metal1 which is described in the myths as white copper1 and were sometimes round and sometimes eight-cornered4 ,the mirror figures frequently in the old records4 ,mirrors are among the presents made by a female chieftain to a ,mikado1 and from a ,king of ,korea to another ,mikado4#ahc ,the mirror was primarily an offering1 and not to the ,sun-,goddess only4#ahd ,mirrors were presented to1 and even constituted the shintai of other ,gods as well4 ,in the ,tosa ,nikki 7,a4,d4 #ice7 the author relates that during a storm1 an offering of nusa having proved unavailing1 he bethought him of some more acceptable gift4 ,of eyes ,i have a pair1 said he1 then1 let me give the ,god my mirror of which ,i have only one4 ,the mirror was accordingly flung into the sea1 to my very great regret4 ,but no sooner had ,i done so than the sea itself became as smooth as a mirror4 ,mirrors do not appear among the periodical offerings enumerated in the ,yengishiki1 which consisted chiefly of perishable articles4 ,they belonged to a separate class called shimp1 or divine treasures1 which were not set out on the altar but stored in the treasury of the shrine4 ,weapons4--,swords were also among the permanent treasures of the shrine4 ,wonderful stories are related of them4 ,one which was stolen by a thief is said to have left him and returned to the treasury of its own accord4 ,swords were made shintai1 and even deified4#ahe ,the ,god worshipped at ,atsuta was the sword ,kusanagi1 found by ,susa no wo in the great serpent's tail1 and the ,god of ,isonokami was the sword called ,futsu no ,mitama 7spirit of fire87 given by the ,sun-,goddess to ,jimmu4 ,i have no doubt that these were originally divine treasures1 which owed their deification to long association with the ,god4 ,a sword is one of the regalia at the present day4 ,the principle of substitution is illustrated by the models of swords prescribed as offerings in the ,yengishiki4 ,i have seen on the top of ,ohoyama1 sacred to a ,goddess named ,sekison 7,iha-naga-hime871 a pit containing many hundreds of tiny wooden swords which had been deposited there as offerings4 ,other weapons which figure as offerings are spears1 spear-heads1 shields1 and bows and arrows4 ,agricultural implements1 bells1 pottery1 reels for reeling yarn1 are also mentioned4 ,it was the custom1 in the case of these and other durable offerings1 to offer the same objects again and again4 ,human sacrifices formed no part of the ,state ,shinto religion as described in the ancient records4 ,but there are several indications of the existence of this practice in still older times4 ,human sacrifices to river-,gods have been already mentioned4 ,we have seen that when a ,mikado died a number of his attendants were buried alive round his tomb1 from which it may be inferred that considerations of humanity would not have prevented similar sacrifices to the ,gods4 ,cases are also recorded of men being buried alive in the foundations of a bridge1 a castle1 or an artificial island4 ,these were called hito-bashira1 or human pillars4 ,the offerings of kane-hito-gata 7metal-man-form71 so often mentioned in the ,yengishiki1 were perhaps by way of substitution for human victims4 ,it is significant that the ,gods of water-distribution 7mikumari71 that is1 the river-,gods1 are specially distinguished as their recipients4 ,similar human effigies1 gilt or silvered1 formed part of the oho-harahi1 or absolution offerings4 ,in this case they were intended as ransom for the offenders whose ritual guilt was to be expiated4 ,they were touched with the lips or breathed upon before being offered4 ,peachwood or paper effigies might be substituted1 and in later times articles of clothing or anything which had been in contact with the person to be absolved4 ,these last were called nade-mono 7rub-thing7 or aga-mono 7ransom-thing74 ,when in danger of shipwreck the hair might be cut off and offered1 on the principle of a part for the whole1 as ransom to the ,dragon-,god4 ,the ,kogo-jiui applies the term aga-mono to the hair and nails of ,susa no wo1 which were cut off by the other ,gods4 ,the principle of ransom is also illustrated by the following extract from the ,shinto ,mimoku 7#afii73-- ,at the festival of ,nawoye1 held at the shrine of ,kokubu in the province of ,owari on the #aath day of the #ast month1 the ,shinto priests go out to the highway with banners and seize a passer-by4 ,they wash and purify him1 and make him put on pure clothing4 ,he is then brought before the ,god4 ,a block1 a wooden butcher's knife1 and chopsticks for eating flesh are provided4 ,separately a figure is made to represent the captive4 ,it is placed on the block with the captured man beside it1 and both are offered before the ,god4 ,they are left there for one night4 ,the next morning the priests come and remove the man and the effigy4 ,then they take clay1 and1 making it into the shape of a rice-cake1 place it on the captive's back1 hang a string of copper cash about his neck1 and drive him away4 ,as he runs off1 he is sure to fall down in a faint4 ,but he soon comes to his senses4 ,a mound is erected at the place where he falls down1 and the clay rice-cake deposited on it with ceremonies which are kept a profound mystery by the priestly house4 ,of late years couriers have been caught and subjected to purification4 ,this was put a stop to4 ,the custom is celebrated yearly1 so that nowadays everybody is aware of it1 and there are no passersby4 ,therefore the priests go to a neighbouring village and seize a man4 ,if they catch nobody on the #aath1 they bring in a man on the #abth4 ,the ,nawoye 7rectification7 festival had probably the same intention as the ,harahi1 namely1 to obtain absolution from ritual impurity1 and the captive is therefore apparently a scape-goat4 ,as readers of ,mr4 ,frazer's ',golden ,bough' need not be told1 the custom has numerous parallels in ,european folk-lore4 ,there is some difficulty in applying the principle of substitution for an actual human sacrifice to a custom which was in force so recently4 ,it does not appear probable that it could have descended from such a remote antiquity as the time when real human sacrifice was known in ,japan4 ,might not the instinct of dramatic make-believe alone account for it8 ,confucius condemned the practice of offering effigies of men on funeral occasions because he thought it led to the substitution of living victims4 ,slaves4--,another form of human offerings was the dedication of slaves to the service of a shrine4 ,such slaves were called kami-tsu-ko1 and are to be distinguished from the kamube1 who were freemen4 ,the gift by the legendary ,yamatodake to a shrine of a number of ,yemishi 7eastern savages7 whom he had captured is to be understood in this sense4 ,there is a more historical instance in the ,nihongi1 under the date ,a4,d4 #dfi1 when a seamstress was presented to the shrine of ,ohonamochi4 ,in #efb a man was allowed to be given over to the hafuri as a slave for the service of the ,gods instead of being burnt alive for a criminal offence committed by his father4 ,horses4--,presents of horses to shrines are often mentioned4 ,they were let loose in the precinct4 ,at the present day albinos are selected for this purpose1 white being considered an auspicious colour4 ,wooden figures might be substituted by those who could not afford real horses4 ,at the festivals of ,gion and ,hachiman men riding on hobby-horses 7koma-gata7 or with a wooden horse's head attached to their breasts formed part of the procession4 ,they no doubt represented riding-horses for the deity4 ,in more recent times the further step was taken of offering pictures of horses4 ,this practice became so common that special buildings1 called emad 7horse-picture-gallery7 were erected for their accommodation4 ,but they contained many other pictures as well4 ,the emad of ,kiyomidzu in ,kito and of ,itsukushima in the ,inland ,sea are very curious collections of this kind4 ,they correspond to the ex-voto churches of ,roman ,catholic countries4 ,illustration ,carriages4--,the ,mikoshi1 or carriage of the ,god 7pp4 #bbd1 #bbe71 in which his shintai is promenaded on festival occasions1 is usually a very elaborate and costly construction4 ,it is carried on men's shoulders to a tabi no miya 7travel-shrine7 or reposoir and back again to the shrine4 ,the confusion in many minds between the shintai and the mitama is illustrated by the fact that a standard modern dictionary speaks of the ,mikoshi as containing the ,god's mitama4 ,shrines4--,a shrine is a species of offering4 ,whatever may be the case in other countries1 in ,japan the shrine is not a development of the tomb4 ,they have no resemblance to each other4 ,the tomb is a partly subterranean megalithic vault enclosed in a huge mound of earth1 while the shrine is a wooden structure raised on posts some feet above the ground4 ,the ,japanese words for shrine indicate that it is intended as a house for the ,god4 ,miya1 august house1 is used equally of a shrine and of a palace1 but not of a tomb1 except poetically1 as when the ,manyshiu speaks of one as a toko no miya1 or long home4 ,araka1 another word for shrine1 probably means dwelling-place4 ,in yashiro1 a very common word for shrine1 ya means house and shiro representative or equivalent4 ,there is evidence#ahf that this word comes to us from a time when the yashiro was a plot of ground consecrated for the occasion to represent a place of abode for the deity4 ,the analogy of the ,roman templum will occur to the classical scholar4 ,the himorogi 7p4 #bbf71 a term which has been the subject of some controversy1 was probably1 as ,hirata suggests1 at first an enclosure of sakaki twigs stuck in the ground so as to represent a house4 ,it is probable that in all these cases the make-believe preceded any actual edifice1 and was not a substitute for it4 ,there is a somewhat rare word1 namely oki-tsuki1 properly a mound1 which is applied to both tombs and shrines4 ,old sepulchral mounds have frequently a small shrine on their summit4 ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration ,the ,shinto shrine is by no means so costly an edifice as its ,buddhist counterpart4 ,the hokora1#ahg as the smaller shrines are called1 are in many cases so small as to be easily transportable in a cart4 ,even the great shrines of ,ise 7pp4 #bbh1 #bbi7 are of no great size and of purposely plain and simple construction4 ,in #gga a greater shrine had only eighteen feet frontage4 ,some of the more important yashiro have smaller buildings attached to them1 such as an emad1 or gallery of votive pictures2 a haiden1 or oratory1 where the official representative of the ,mikado performed his devotions1 and a stage for the sacred pantomimic dance4 ,a number of smaller shrines 7sessha or massha7 dedicated to other ,gods are usually to be seen within the enclosure4 ,no accommodation is provided for the joint worship of the congregation of believers1 which is indeed exceptional4 ,the individual worshipper stands outside in front of the shrine1 calls the attention of the deity by ringing a gong provided for the purpose1 bows his head1 claps or folds his hands1 puts up his petition1 and retires4 ,a large box stands conveniently for receiving such small contributions of copper cash as he may make4 ,in many shrines more than one deity is worshipped4 ,these are called ahi-dono no kami1 that is to say1 deities of a joint shrine4 ,they may1 like ,izanagi and ,izanami1 have some mythical connexion with each other or they may not4 ,the ,yengishiki enumerates #c1acb officially recognized shrines4 ,of these #gcg were maintained at the cost of the ,central ,government4 ,some had permanent endowments of lands and peasants4 ,many minor shrines existed in all parts of the country4 ,the shrines are classed as great and small1 the respective numbers being #dib and #b1fdj4 ,they differed in the quantity of offerings and in the circumstance that in the former case the offerings were placed on an altar and in the latter on the ground4 ,thirty-six shrines were situated in the palace itself4 ,the most important deities worshipped here were eight in number1 comprising five obscurely differentiated ,musubi1 the ,goddess of ,food1 ,oho-miya-no me1 and ,koto-shiro-nushi4 ,there were also several ,well-,gods1 a ,sono no ,kami1 a ,kara no ,kami 7,korean ,god71 a ,thunder-,god1 a pair of sake deities1 and others of whom little is known4 ,illustration ,illustration ,in enumerating the officially recognized shrines throughout the rest of the country the ,yengishiki unfortunately1 in the great majority of cases1 does not name the ,god1 but only the locality where the shrine was situated1 as when we speak of ,downing ,street1 meaning the collective officialdom of the place4 ,this is in accordance with the impersonal habit of the ,japanese mind already referred to4 ,strange to say1 in some even of the most popular shrines1 the identity of the ,god is doubtful or unknown4 ,kompira is a conspicuous example4 ,according to some he is a demon1 the alligator of the ,ganges4 ,others say that ,buddha himself became the boy ,kompira in order to overcome the heretics and enemies of religion who pressed upon him one day as he was preaching4 ,the medival ,shintoists identified him with ,susa no wo4 ,more recently it has been declared officially that he is really ,kotohira1 an obscure ,shinto deity1 whose name has a resemblance in sound to that of the ,indian ,god4 ,his popularity has been little affected by these changes4#ahh ,in #ife a selection of sixteen of the more important shrines was made to which special offerings were sent4 ,these were as follows3-- ,name of ,shrine4 ,province4 ,god or ,gods ,worshipped4 ,ise4 ,ise4 ,sun-,goddess and ,food-,goddess4 ,ihashimidzu4 ,yamashiro4 ,hachiman1 ,jing4 ,kamo4 ,do4 8 ,matsunowo4 ,do4 ,thunder-,god4 ,hirano4 ,do4 ,probably ,gods of the ,cooking ,furnace and ,new ,rice4 ,inari4 ,do4 ,food-,goddess4 ,kasuga4 ,yamato4 ,koyane and his wife1 ,take mika-dzuchi1 ,futsunushi4 ,ohoharano4 ,yamashiro4 ,do4 ,miha4 ,yamato4 ,ohonamochi4 ,oho-yamato4 ,do4 ,do4 ,isonokami4 ,do4 ,futsu no mitama 7a deified sword74 ,hirose4 ,do4 ,food-,goddess4 ,tatsuta4 ,do4 ,wind-,gods4 ,sumiyoshi4 ,settsu4 ,sea-deities4 ,nifu4 -- ,doubtful4 ,kibune4 ,yamashiro4 ,rain-dragon-,god4 ,,footnotes3 #agf ,,ii4 #cie4 #agg ,the old ,hebrew idea 7,genesis viii4 #ba7 was that the food actually reached ,god in the form of the fragrant fire-distilled essence1 and thus gratified him as an agreeable gift4 ,hastings1 ',dict4 of the ,bible4' #agh ,robertson ,smith1 ',religion of the ,semites1' p4 #cde4 #agi ,see ,index1 ,toshigohi4 #ahj ,see above1 p4 #aai4 #aha ,reminding us of ,homer's 1 which consisted of tufted wool attached to a wand 774 ,the ancient ,jews made offerings of wool4 #ahb ,see ,index1 ',inspiration4' #ahc ,nihongi1 i4 #aic1 #bea4 #ahd ,see above1 p4 #gj4 #ahe ,agamemnon's sword was worshipped in ,greece in the time of ,pausanias4 #ahf ,nihongi1 ii4 #bic4 #ahg ,see illustration in ,chapter ,,xiv4 #ahh ,murray's ',japan1' fifth edition1 p4 #ej4 ,in #iia there were added the three following3-- ,name of ,shrine4 ,province4 ,god or ,gods ,worshipped4 ,yoshida4 ,yamashiro4 ,same as ,kasuga4 ,hirota4 ,settsu4 ,sun-,goddess's aratama4 ,kitano4 ,yamashiro4 ,temmang4 ,in #iid there was added ,name of ,shrine4 ,province4 ,god or ,gods ,worshipped4 ,mume no ,miya4 ,yamashiro4 ,ancestor of ,tachibana family4 ,the next to be added was ,name of ,shrine4 ,province4 ,god or ,gods ,worshipped4 ,gion4 ,yamashiro4 ,susa no wo4 ,the number was finally raised to twenty-two in #ajci by the addition of ,name of ,shrine4 ,province4 ,god or ,gods ,worshipped4 ,hiye or ,hiyoshi4 ,yamashiro4 ,ohonamochi4 ,proximity to the capital no doubt influenced this selection4 ,idzumo1 ,kashima1 ,katori1 ,usa1 ,suha1 and other important shrines are omitted4 ,all the principal deities1 however1 are included in this list4 ,at the present day there are #aic1dgf ,shinto shrines in ,japan4 ,of these the great majority are very small and have no priests or revenues4 ,capt4 ,brinkley1 in his ',japan and ,china1' gives the following list of the ten most popular shrines in ,japan at the present day3 ,ise1 ,idzumo1 ,hachiman 7,kyto71 ,temmang 7,hakata71 ,inari 7,kyto71 ,kasuga 7,nara71 ,atago 7,kyto71 ,kompira 7,sanuki71 ,suiteng 7,tky71 and ,suwa 7,shinano74 ,very many houses have their kamidana or domestic shrine1 where the ujigami1 the ancestor1 and the trade-,god1 with any others whom there is some special reason for honouring1 are worshipped4 ,tori-wi4--,the approach to a ,shinto shrine is marked by one or more gateways or arches of the special form shown in the illustration 7p4 #bcc7 and known as tori-wi4 ,this word means literally bird-perch1 in the sense of a henroost4 ,by analogy it was applied to anything of the same shape1 as a clothes-horse1 or the lintel of a door or gateway4 ,as an honorary gateway1 the tori-wi is a continental institution identical in purpose and resembling in form the turan of ,india1 the pailoo of ,china1 and the hong-sal-mun of ,korea4 ,when introduced into ,japan at some unknown date 7the ,kojiki and ,nihongi do not mention them7 the ,japanese called them tori-wi1 which then meant simply gateway1 but subsequently acquired its present more specific application4 ,it sometimes serves the purpose of marking the direction of a distant object of worship4#ahi ,hyaku-do ishi4--,near the front of the shrine may sometimes be seen a hyaku-do ishi1 or hundred-time-stone1 from which the worshipper may go back and forward to the door of the shrine a hundred times1 repeating a prayer each time4 ,a sori-bashi or taiko-bashi1 representing the mythical floating bridge of ,heaven 7the rainbow71 is also to be seen at the approach to some shrines4 ,prayer4--,private individual prayer is seldom mentioned in the old ,shinto records1 but of the official liturgies or norito we have abundant examples in the ,yengishiki and later works4 ,the authors are mostly unknown1 but they were no doubt members of the ,nakatomi ,house4 ,their literary quality is good4 ,motori observes that the elegance of their language is an offering acceptable to the ,gods4 ,the ,sun-,goddess is represented in the ,nihongi as expressing her satisfaction with the beauty of the norito recited in her honour4 ,illustration ,the norito are addressed sometimes to individual deities1 sometimes to categories of deities1 as the celebrated ,gods or the ,gods of ,nankaido1 and sometimes to all the ,gods without exception4 ,they contain petitions for rain in time of drought1 good harvests1 preservation from earthquake and conflagration1 children1 health and long life to the sovereign and enduring peace and prosperity to his rule1 the safety of his ambassadors to foreign countries1 the suppression of rebellion1 the repulse of invasion1 success to the ,imperial arms1 and general prosperity to the ,empire4 ,sometimes the ,mikado deprecates the wrath of deities whose services had been vitiated by ritual impurity1 or whose shrines had suffered from neglect or injury4 ,the phrase fulfilling of praises1 which occurs frequently in the norito1 must not be taken literally4 ,it is really equivalent to show all due honour to1 and usually applies to the offerings which were made in token of respect4 ,there is very little of praise in the ordinary meaning of the word4 ,the language of the norito presents a striking contrast to the profusion of laudatory epithets and images of the ,vedas1 or the sublime eulogies of the ,psalms of ,david4 ,the only element of this kind is a few adjectival prefixes to the names of the ,gods1 such as oho1 great2 take1 brave2 taka1 high2 haya1 swift2 toyo1 rich2 iku1 live2 yori1 good1 and perhaps one or two more4 ,the do ut des principle of offerings is plainly avowed in some of the norito4 ,besides petitions we find also announcements to the ,gods1 as of the appointment of a priestess1 the bestowal on the deity of a degree of rank1 and the beginning of a new reign4 ,the ,mongol invasion was notified to ,ise in #abgg with the happiest results4 ,the ,yengishiki contains no norito addressed to deceased ,mikados1 but several examples of this class1 due no doubt to ,chinese influence1 have come down to us from the ninth century4 ,in #hej ,jimmu was prayed to for the ,mikado1 who was dangerously ill1 and who died soon after4 ,in the same year1 evil influences 7the ,mikado's illness87 were attributed to his wrath1 and envoys despatched to his tomb1 in order to ascertain whether he might not have been offended by some pollution to it4 ,the ,empress ,jing was prayed to in #hff under similar circumstances4 ,other norito announce to the preceding ,mikado the accession of a new sovereign or the appointment of a ,prince ,imperial4 ,the norito contain few petitions for which we might not easily find parallels in modern ,europe1 but a comparison with ,christian1 ,jewish1 or even ,mohammedan and ,buddhist formul reveals enormous lacun in the ancient ,japanese conception of the scope of prayer4 ,moral and spiritual blessings are not even dreamt of4 ,such prayers as that we may live a godly1 righteous1 and sober life1 to grant us true repentance and ,his ,holy ,spirit1 are foreign to its character4 ,lead us not into temptation and ,thy will be done are conspicuously absent4 ,no ,shinto ,god is petitioned to endue the ,sovereign with heavenly gifts1 nor that after this life he may attain everlasting joy and felicity4 ,indeed1 there is no reference anywhere to a future life--a significant fact1 in view of the circumstance that human sacrifices at the tombs of great men were at one time common4 ,the commonly received opinion that the latter indicate a belief in a future state is1 perhaps1 after all1 erroneous4 ,nor does any one beseech a ,shinto deity to send down on the priesthood the healthful spirit of his grace4 ,numerous specimens of norito will be found in ,chap4 ,,xii4 ,in connexion with the attempted revival early in the last century of the pure ,shinto of ancient times1 ,hirata composed a book of prayer entitled ,tamadasuki1 not for official or temple use1 but as an aid to private devotion4 ,it was not printed until some years after his death1 and ,i doubt whether it was ever much used even by ,shinto devotees4 ,notwithstanding the author's professed abhorrence of ,buddhism and his condemnation of ,chinese religious notions1 the ,tamadasuki owes much to these sources4 ,he instructs his followers to get up early1 wash the face and hands1 rinse the mouth1 and cleanse the body4 ,then turn towards ,yamato1 clap hands twice1 and bow down the head before offering their petitions4 ,prayers to the ,shinto ,gods1 even at the present day1 are mostly for material blessings4 ,anything more which they contain may be confidently set down to ,buddhist influence4 ,there are prayers on reclaiming a new piece of ground1 building a house1 sowing a rice-field1 prayers for prosperity in trade and domestic happiness1 prayers promising to give up sake1 gambling1 or profligacy 7,buddhist71 thanks for escape from shipwreck or other danger1 c4 ,sometimes the prayer is written out on paper and deposited in the shrine1 perhaps accompanied by the petitioner's hair or a picture having some reference to the subject of his prayer4 ,when it is answered1 small paper nobori 7flags7 are set up at the shrine or its approaches4 ,a common prayer at the present day is for ,peace to the country1 safety to the family1 and plentiful crops4 ,oaths and ,curses4--,the ,nihongi mentions several cases of ,heaven or the ,gods being appealed to for the sanction of an oath4 ,thus in #efb an accused person declares3 ,this is false and not true4 ,if this is true1 let calamity from ,heaven befall me4 ,in #eha tribes of ,yemishi promised submission to the ,mikado1 saying3 ,if we break this oath1 may all the ,gods of ,heaven and ,earth and also the spirits of the ,emperors destroy our race4 ,in #fdd the ,mikado made an oath appealing to the ,gods of ,heaven and ,earth1 and saying3 ,on those who break this oath ,heaven will send a curse and ,earth a plague1 demons will slay them1 and men will smite them4 ,the author of the ,nihongi1 however1 is grievously open to the suspicion of adorning his narrative liberally with rhetorical ornaments of ,chinese origin4 ,the following is an example of a nonreligious oath said to have been made by a ,korean king in #bdi3 ,if ,i spread grass for us to sit on1 it might be burnt with fire2 if ,i took wood for a seat1 it might be washed away by water4 ,therefore1 sitting on a rock1 ,i make this solemn declaration of alliance4 ,a curse pronounced over a well in #def has likewise no religious quality4 ,it is simply ,this water may be drunk by the people only3 royal persons alone may not drink of it4 ,the instructions of the ,sea-,god to ,hohodemi1 ,when thou givest this fishhook back to thy brother1 say1 ',a hook of poverty1 a hook of ruin1 a hook of downfall1' are a kind of curse4 ,on the whole1 oaths and curses of a religious character are rare in ,japanese literature4 ,profanity is almost unknown4 ,a mild appeal to the three holy things 7of ,buddhism7 or to the ,sun1 or a wish that divine punishment 7bachi7 may strike one's enemy1 are almost the only things of the kind4 ,and they are infrequent4 ,probably this is due to the want of a deep-seated sentiment of piety in the ,japanese nation4 ,such expressions as ,thank ,god1 ,good-bye1 ,adieu1 ,god forbid1 are also rare1 whether in speech or in literature4 ,the ,mohammedans1 with their continual use of the name of ,allah1 are the antipodes of the ,japanese in this respect4 ,rank of ,deities4--,a system of official ranks1 borrowed from ,china1 was introduced into ,japan in the seventh century4 ,there were at one time forty-eight different grades1 each with its distinct costume1 insignia1 and privileges4 ,the first notice of deities being granted such ranks occurs in #fgb1 when we are told that three deities were raised in quality on account of useful military information supplied by their oracles4 ,this practice became systematized in the period #gdi-geg1 and was very prevalent for several centuries longer4 ,a rain of volcanic ashes which fell in many of the eastern provinces in #hch was attributed by the diviners to the jealousy of a ,goddess1 the true wife of a ,god1 and mother by him of five children1 at a step of official rank granted by the ,mikado to a younger rival4 ,tant ne animis clestibus ir6 ,in #hea ,susa no wo and ,oho-kuni-nushi received the lower third rank and in #hei were promoted to the upper third rank4 ,the ,mikado ,daigo1 on his accession in #hih1 raised the rank of #cdj shrines4 ,in #ajgf and #aagb wholesale promotions of deities took place4 ,after this time the custom fell into neglect1 owing partly to the circumstance that many of the ,gods had reached the highest class and could not be promoted any further4 ,several of the most important deities were not honoured in this way4 ,the ,sun-,goddess and the ,food-,goddess were among this number4 ,the same deity might have different ranks in different places4 ,the lowness of the ranks with which the inferior deities were thought to be gratified is rather surprising4 ,it throws a light on the mental attitude of the ,japanese towards them4 ,beings who could be supposed to take pleasure in a ,d4,s4,o4 or a brevet majority must have seemed to them not very far exalted above humanity4 ,kagura4--,this word is written with two ,chinese characters which mean ,god-pleasure4 ,it is a pantomimic dance with music1 usually representing some incident of the mythical narrative4 ,uzume's dance before the cave to which the ,sun-,goddess had retired is supposed to be its prototype4 ,important shrines have a stage and a corps of trained girl-dancers 7miko71 for the purpose of these representations4 ,kagura was also performed in the ,naishidokoro 7the chamber in the ,palace where the ,regalia were kept71 and under ,chinese influences became a very solemn function1 in which numerous officials were concerned4 ,many kinds of music1 song1 and dance are included in this term4 ,it was the parent in the fourteenth century of the ,no1 a sort of religious lyrical drama1 and less directly of the modern popular drama4 ,some authorities say that the music of the ,kagura consisted at first of flutes made by opening holes between the joints of a bamboo1 of wooden castanets1 and of a stringed instrument made by placing six bows together4 ,pilgrimages4--,paying visits is a recognized mode of showing respect to ,gods as it is to men4 ,the ,mikado himself formerly paid frequent visits to the shrines of ,kito and the vicinity1 and in all periods of history embassies were continually despatched by him to the great shrines of the ,empire4 ,the private worshipper1 besides visiting the shrine of his local deity1 generally makes it his business1 at least once in his lifetime1 to pay his respects to more distant ,gods1 such as those of ,ise1 ,miha1 ,ontake1 ,nantai 7at ,nikko71 ,kompira1 ,fujiyama1 ,miyajima1 c4 ,intending pilgrims associate themselves in clubs called ,k1 whose members each contribute five sen a month to the pilgrimage fund4 ,when the proper time of year comes round1 a certain number of members are chosen by lot to represent the club at the shrine of their devotion1 all expenses being defrayed out of the common fund4 ,one of the number who has made the pilgrimage before acts as leader and cicerone4 ,as a general rule the pilgrims wear no special garb1 but those bound for ,fuji1 ,ontake1 or other high mountains may be distinguished by their white clothes and sloping broad hats4 ,while making an ascent1 they often ring a bell and chant the prayer1 ,may our six senses be pure and the weather fair on the honourable mountain4#aij ,many thousand pilgrims annually ascend ,fuji1 and over #aa1jjj paid their devotions at ,ise on a recent ,new ,year's day4 ,almost all ,japanese cherish the hope of visiting this shrine at least once in their lives1 and many a ,tokio merchant thinks that his success in business depends largely on his doing so4 ,pilgrimages are an ancient institution in ,japan4 ,it is recorded that in the ninth month of #icd1 #aj1jjj1jjj pilgrims of all classes visited the shrines of ,ise4 ,boys and even girls often run away from their homes and beg their way to ,ise4 ,this is regarded as a pardonable escapade4 ,when an actual visit to a shrine is inconvenient or impossible1 the worshipper may offer his devotions from a distance4 ,this is called em-pai1 or distant worship4 ,special shrines are provided in some places where the ,god will accept such substituted service4 ,processions may be joint formal visits of the worshippers to the ,god's shrine1 but they oftener consist in attending him on an excursion from it to some place in the neighbourhood and back again4 ,they much resemble in character the carnival processions of ,southern ,europe4 ,circumambulation4--,the ,brahmanic and ,buddhist ceremony of pradakchina1 that is1 going round a holy object with one's right side turned to it1 is not found in ,shinto4 ,the principle1 however1 on which it rests--namely1 that of following or imitating the course of the ,sun--is recognized in the ,jimmu legend4 ,jimmu says3#aia ,if ,i should proceed against the ,sun to attack the enemy1 ,i should act contrary to the way of ,heaven4444 ,bringing on our backs the might of the ,sun-,goddess1 let us follow her rays and trample them down4 ,it is difficult to reconcile with this a passage in the ,kojiki#aib where it is counted unlucky for the ,mikado to travel from ,east to ,west1 because in so doing he must turn his back upon the ,sun4 ,horses presented to shrines were led round them eight times4 ,,footnotes3 #ahi ,see a contribution by ,mr4 ,s4 ,tuke to the ,japan ,society's ,transactions1 vol4 iv41 #ahif-g1 and a paper by the present writer in the ,t4,a4,s4,j4 for ,december1 #ahii4 ,mr4 ,b4 ,h4 ,chamberlain holds a different view1 which is stated in the ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 #ahie1 and in ',things ,japanese1' fourth edition4 #aij ,see ,index1 ,rokkon ,shj4 #aia ,nihongi1 i4 #aac4 #aib ,chamberlain's ,kojiki1 p4 #cab4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,morals1 ,,law1 ,,and ,,purity4 ,in the previous chapter we dealt with the positive side of religious conduct4 ,we have now to examine its negative aspect1 namely1 those prohibitions which fall under the general description of morality and ceremonial purity4 ,morals4--,before proceeding to examine the relation of morals to religion in ,shinto1 let us note some general considerations4 ,right conduct has three motives3 first1 selfish prudence2 second1 altruism1 in the various forms of domestic affection1 sympathy with others and respect for their rights1 public spirit1 patriotism and philanthropy2 and third1 the love of ,god4 ,conduct which is opposed to these three sanctions is called in the case of the first folly1 of the second crime1 and of the third sin2 to which are opposed prudence1 morality1 and holiness4 ,with the infant and the savage the first motive predominates4 ,with advancing age in the individual1 and civilization in the race1 the second and third assume more and more importance4 ,all but the lowest grades of animals have some idea of prudential restraint4 ,many are influenced by the domestic affections1 while the higher1 and especially the gregarious species1 have some rudiments of the feeling of obligation towards the community1 on which altruistic morality and eventually law are based4 ,but in the lower animals1 and even in many men1 the religious sanction is wanting4 ,right conduct may usually be easily referred to an origin in one or other of these three classes of motives4 ,the duty of refraining from excess in eating and drinking belongs primarily to the first1 the care of children and the avoidance of theft1 murder1 or adultery to the second1 acts of worship and abstinence from impiety and blasphemy to the third4 ,there is1 however1 a tendency for these motives to encroach on each other's provinces without relinquishing their own4 ,acts which belong at first to one category end by receiving the sanction of the other motives4 ,drunkenness1 at first thought harmless1 is soon recognized as folly1 though harming nobody but the drunkard himself4 ,it is eventually seen to be also a crime against the community1 and last of all a sin in the eyes of ,god4 ,criminal ,law is a systematic enforcement of the rights of others by adding prudential motives for respecting them4 ,it also punishes blasphemy and heresy1 no doubt for the protection of the interests of the community against the curse which such offences bring down4 ,with ourselves religion condemns not only direct offences against the ,deity as in the first three commandments1 but selfish folly1 and throws its gis over the rights of our neighbour1 by prohibiting theft1 murder1 adultery1 lying1 disrespect to parents1 c4 ,can it be doubted that these were already offences before the ten commandments were delivered from ,mount ,sinai8 ,there is no stronger proof of the rudimentary character of ,shinto than the exceedingly casual and imperfect sanction which it extends to altruistic morality4 ,it has scarcely anything in the nature of a code of ethics4 ,zeus had not yet wedded ,themis4 ,there is no direct moral teaching in its sacred books4 ,a schedule of offences against the ,gods1 to absolve which the ceremony of ,great ,purification was performed twice a year1#aic contains no one of the sins of the ,decalogue4#aid ,incest1 bestiality1 wounding1 witchcraft1 and certain interferences with agricultural operations are the only offences against the moral law which it enumerates4 ,the ,kojiki speaks of a case of homicide being followed by a purification of the actor in it4 ,but the homicide is represented as justifiable1 and the offence was therefore not so much moral as ritual4#aie ,modern ,japanese boldly claim this feature of their religion as a merit4 ,motori thought that moral codes were good for ,chinese1 whose inferior natures required such artificial means of restraint4 ,his pupil ,hirata denounced systems of morality as a disgrace to the country which produced them4 ,in ',japan1' a recent work published in ,english by ,japanese authors1 we are told that ,shinto provides no moral code1 and relies solely on the promptings of conscience for ethical guidance4 ,if man derives the first principles of his duties from intuition1 a schedule of rules and regulations for the direction of everyday conduct becomes not only superfluous but illogical4 ,but although there was little religious sanction of morality in ancient ,japan1 it by no means follows that there was no morality4 ,we have seen that there are moral elements in the character of the ,sun-,goddess as delineated in myth4#aif ,law1 which is the enforcement by penalties of a minimum altruistic morality1 certainly existed4 ,a ,chinese author1 in a description of ,japan as it was in the later ,han period 7,a4,d4 #be-bbj71 says that the wives and children of those who break the laws are confiscated1 and for grave crimes the offender's family is extirpated4444 ,the laws and customs are strict4 ,in #dij we hear of two men being thrown into prison for crimes4 ,the ,mikado ,muretsu 7#dhh-ejf7 is said to have been fond of criminal investigation4 ,the ,nihongi condemns theft1 robbery1 rebellion1 and non-payment of taxes1 none of which matters is taken formal cognizance of by ,shinto4 ,without some law1 unwritten and ill-defined though it was1 and unequal and fluctuating in its application as it must have been1 the ,japanese could not possibly have reached even the moderate degree of organized government which we find them enjoying at the dawn of their history4 ,the earliest so-called legislation which we meet with is embodied in a proclamation issued by the ,regent ,shtoku ,taishi in ,a4,d4 #fjd4 ,on examination these laws prove to be a sort of homily addressed to ,government officials1 recommending harmony1 good faith1 a respect for ,buddhism1 obedience to the ,imperial command1 early rising1 decorum1 disinterestedness in deciding legal cases1 fidelity to one's lord1 and benevolence to the people4 ,in #fde a beginning of regulations was promulgated4 ,it relates to the status of slaves and their children4 ,in the following year a set of rules was issued regulating the construction of tombs forbidding human sacrifice in honour of the dead1 c4 ,in the same year laws were promulgated dealing with dishonesty1 retaining slaves belonging to other people1 bringing plaints of adultery before the authorities without having the evidence of three credible witnesses1 c4 ,severe penalties are threatened in case of their infraction4 ,in #fha a sumptuary law in ninety-two articles was enacted4 ,in #fhb flogging was limited to #ajj blows3 in #fhi a book of laws was distributed to all the local authorities2 and in #gja the code known as the ,taihri was promulgated4 ,the latter was borrowed from ,china1 and no doubt ,chinese influences had much to do with the more partial legislation which preceded4 ,shtoku ,taishi's advice to officials is thoroughly ,chinese4 ,but the examples quoted show that such enactments were not made without reference to the wants of ,japan4 ,it may be inferred from ,shtoku ,taishi's mention of legal cases1 and from the regulation of procedure in cases of adultery1 that there was already in existence a body of unwritten common law by which a rude sort of justice was administered4 ,prisons are mentioned more than once in the seventh-century records4 ,dr4 ,weipert says3#aig ,there are in the ,kojiki and ,nihongi numerous instances of arbitrary punishment inflicted by rulers1 chieftains1 c41 or of private revenge1 but nothing shows the existence of fixed punitive laws or conventions4444 ,if we confine ourselves to the prehistoric times of ,japan1 we find in them no other traces of conceptions of a binding law than those handed down to us in the rituals dedicated to the ,gods4 ,it was indeed the power of the ruler which held the community together1 but the idea of the society being subject to lawful restraint was to be found only in the religious sentiments of the people4 ,to the extent of these sentiments alone can it be said that a lawfully regulated community and a consciousness of such existed in those days4 ,now since we take criminal law to be the publicly regulated reaction of a community against all acts of its members which are detrimental to the common interest1 we can scarcely hesitate to describe the ,ohoharahi#aih as the first source of ,japanese criminal law4 ,this is a special application to ,shinto of the principle laid down in general terms by ,dr4 ,pfleiderer that the beginnings of all social customs and legal ordinances are directly derived from religion4 ,max ,mller has expressed himself nearly to the same effect4 ,i hardly think that the ,japanese facts bear out these views4 ,it may be admitted that before the seventh century there were no fixed punitive laws or conventions in ,japan4 ,but between this and mere arbitrary punishment or private revenge there is a middle term1 and ,i submit that it was precisely to this stage that the ,japanese nation had arrived at this time4 ,a common law was in existence1 unwritten and ill defined1 leaving much room for arbitrary procedure and punishments1 but yet a reality4 ,it dealt1 as there is evidence to show1 with matters so essential to the welfare of the community as treason1 rebellion1 and robbery1 none of which is so much as mentioned in the ,ohoharahi4 ,indeed we could scarcely expect to find such offences noticed in it1 as the application of the criminal law in these cases places the guilty persons far beyond the reach of a purifying process4 ,in an organized community like the ancient ,japanese there must have been many torts recognized by public opinion4 ,we know that adultery and dishonesty were punishable4 ,yet ,shinto takes no notice of them4 ,the only civil wrongs singled out for religious denunciation relate to agriculture4 ,the ancient authorities enumerate1 among the misdeeds of ,susa no wo1 breaking down the divisions of rice fields1 filling up irrigation ditches1#aii sowing seed over again1 with one or two other offences of a similar kind1 and the ,ohoharahi includes them in its schedule of sins which require absolution4 ,but surely rights of property 7we can recognize germs of them in the lower animals7 are long antecedent to religion1 and offences against them are recognized as offences against man before they became sins against ,god4 ,moreover1 the ,ohoharahi is wanting in the first essential of a criminal law4 ,it provides no fixed punitive sanction4 ,it is true that the culprit was in some cases obliged to supply at his own cost the necessary offerings for the ceremony1 and that practically this amounted to a fine4 ,the original intention1 however1 was not to punish the offender1 but to avert the wrath of the ,gods4 ,and it must be remembered that individual cases of purification were exceptional4 ,for the offences of the nation generally1 which it was the main object of the ,ohoharahi to absolve1 no punishment was practicable1 or indeed dreamt of4 ,the ,ohoharahi fines of purificatory offerings may have contributed to a system of criminal law1 but they were certainly not its main source4 ,the case of ,japan seems to prove that1 in many cases at least1 altruistic morality1 even in the crystallized form of law1 is in advance of religion4 ,and may we not point to cases in our own country where religion withholds its sanction until the law has become well established8 ,the following extract from the ,nihongi shows that the distinction between criminal law and offences against the ,gods1 with their respective punishments1 was recognized at an early period3-- ,a4,d4 #djd ,winter1 #ajth month1 #aath day4 ,the ,imperial concubine was buried4 ,after this the ,emperor1 vexed with himself that he had not appeased the divine curse1 and had so caused the death of the ,imperial concubine1 again sought to ascertain where the fault lay4 ,some one said3 ',the ,kimi of the ,cart-keepers went to the ,land of ,tsukushi1 where he held a review of all the ,cart-keepers' ,be1 and he took along with them the men allotted to the service of the ,deities4 ,this must surely be the offence4' ,the ,emperor straightway summoned to him the ,kimi of the ,cart-keepers and questioned him4 ,the facts having been ascertained1 the ,emperor enumerated his offences1 saying3 ',thou1 although only ,kimi of the ,cart-keepers1 hast arbitrarily appropriated the subjects of the ,son of ,heaven4 ,this is one offence4 ,thou didst wrongfully take them1 comprising them in the ,cart-keepers' ,be after they had been allotted to the service of the ,gods of ,heaven and ,earth4 ,this is a second offence4' ,so he imposed on him the expiation of evil and the expiation of good1 and sent him away to ,cape ,nagasa1 there to perform the rites of expiation4 ,after he had done so1 the ,emperor commanded him1 saying3 ',henceforward thou mayest not have charge of the ,cart-keepers' ,be of ,tsukushi4' ,so he confiscated them all1 and allotted them anew1 giving them to the three ,deities4 ,ceremonial ,purity4--,things displeasing to the ,gods are called by the ,japanese tsumi 7guilt71 and the avoidance of such things by their worshippers is called imi 7avoidance74 ,as ,motori points out1 the tsumi of ,shinto comprises three distinct things1 namely1 uncleanness1 sin or crime1 and calamity4 ,the distinction between ceremonial impurity and moral guilt 7of certain specific kinds7 was probably obscure to the ancient ,japanese4 ,certain calamities are included among tsumi because they were looked upon as tokens of the displeasure of the ,gods for some offence1 known or unknown4 ,all tsumi involved religious disabilities or punishments4 ,uncleanness holds a far more important place in ,shinto than moral guilt4 ,as in the ,mosaic law1 it assumes various forms4 ,actual personal dirt was considered disrespectful to the ,gods1 as we see by the frequent mention of bathing and putting on fresh garments before the performance of religious functions4 ,the ,ohoharahi includes the committing of nuisances among the offences to be absolved by it4 ,sexual ,immorality and ,uncleanness4--,it was probably because the consummation of a marriage was thought to defile the house in which it took place that a special nuptial hut was in the most ancient times provided for this purpose4 ,the same idea is illustrated by the custom which existed until quite recently of sousing with buckets of water on ,new ,year's ,day young men who had been married during the preceding year4 ,according to a novel called ',hino-deshima' it is now the bride who is thus saluted while on her way to her husband's house4 ,the bridegroom is treated by the boys of the neighbourhood to volleys of stones which break his paper windows4 ,in later times sexual intercourse generally caused temporary uncleanness4 ,virgins were selected as priestesses and as dancers before the ,gods4 ,but there were no vows of perpetual chastity1 and they married in due time just like other girls4 ,the ,nihongi mentions a case of the appointment of a princess as priestess having been cancelled on account of her unchastity4 ,a modern ,japanese writer says3 ,at ,ise to-day ,las opens her doors to the pilgrim almost within sight of the sacred groves4 ,to accept her invitation does not disqualify him in his own eyes nor in the eyes of any one else for the subsequent achievement of his pious purpose4 ,a single act of lustration restores his moral as well as his physical purity4 ,perhaps this puts the matter too strongly4 ,those shameless wights ,yajir and ,kidahachi1 the heroes of the ,hizakurige1 were troubled with scruples in this matter1 which were not1 however1 invincible4 ,with such ideas of uncleanness it is not surprising that ,shinto never had a marriage ceremony4 ,no ,shinto or other priest is present4 ,we must1 therefore1 take with some reserve ,max ,mller's statement that marriage had a religious character from the very beginning of history4 ,it is to be noted1 however1 that in modern times ,susa no wo and his wife ,inadahime are thought to preside over connubial happiness1 and that something of a religious flavour is contributed to the marriage ceremony by setting out on a stand 7shimadai7 figures of the old man and old woman of ,takasago1 spirits of two ancient fir-trees1 who are the ,darby and ,joan of ,japanese legend4 ,uncleanness includes bestiality1 incest of parent and child1 of a man with his mother-in-law or stepdaughter1#bjj but not of brothers and half-sisters by the father's side4 ,unions with a sister by the mother's side were unlawful and offensive to the ,gods1 but they are not specially enumerated in the ,ohoharahi schedule4 ,in #dcd ,prince ,karu1 then ,heir to the ,throne1 fell in love with his younger sister by the same mother4 ,at first he dreaded the guilt and was silent4 ,but after a time he yielded to his passion4 ,the next year1 in the height of summer1 the soup for the ,mikado's meal froze and became ice4 ,the diviner said1 ,there is domestic disorder 7incest74 ,this led to the discovery of ,prince ,karu's crime1 but1 as he was successor to the ,throne1 he was not punished1 and his sister only was sent into banishment4 ,after his father's death1 however1 the ministers and people refused him their allegiance1 and he ultimately committed suicide1 or1 according to another version of the story1 went into exile4 ,it is difficult to say whether the religious or the merely moral element predominates in such a case4 ,the portent by which the ,prince's crime was followed and the application to the diviners indicate that the crime was thought offensive to the ,gods4 ,on the other hand1 banishment is a civil form of punishment1 and the idea that the offence might bring disaster on the community was probably at the root of the indignation which it caused4 ,nor is it to be forgotten that there is another non-religious reason for the law against incest4 ,consanguineous unions are notoriously unfavourable to the propagation of a numerous and healthy progeny1 and therefore to the welfare of the community4 ,the ',chen1' a ,chinese work written several centuries before the ,christian era1 says3 ,when the man and woman are of the same surname1 the race does not continue4 ,but in ,china too1 the religious sanction of the prohibition of incest is not absent4 ,it is one of those primarily non-religious sexual taboos1 having for their object to place a check on masculine tyranny over the weaker sex and the premature1 promiscuous1 and excessive indulgence of the sexual passion which even savages find to be fatal to the welfare of the individual and the community1 and whose transcendent importance and the difficulty of enforcing them by law lead to be reinforced everywhere by religious terrors4 ,the prohibition of unions between brothers and sisters by the mother's side--that is1 practically of the full blood--and not of those of the half-blood by the father's side1 may be partly due to the circumstance that the former are more commonly brought up together1 and a check on immature and consanguineous intercourse was more necessary in their case4 ,this taboo very likely dates from a period when parentage was reckoned chiefly by maternity4 ,vulgar licentiousness is not mentioned in the more ancient books as causing ceremonial impurity4 ,interference with the virgin priestesses was not only a source of uncleanness1 but was in some cases severely punished4 ,the ,nihongi states that in ,a4,d4 #dfe ,katabu and an ,uneme were sent to sacrifice to the ,deity of ,munagata4 ,katabu and the ,uneme1 having arrived at the altar-place1 were about to perform the rites1 when ,katabu debauched the ,uneme4 ,when the ,emperor heard this1 he said1 ',when we sacrifice to the ,gods and invoke from them blessings1 should we not be watchful over our conduct8' ,so he sent ,naniha no ,hidaka no ,kishi to put him to death4 ,but ,katabu straightway took to flight and was not to be found4 ,the ,emperor again sent ,toyoho1 ,yuge no ,muraji1 who searched the districts of that province far and wide1 and at length caught and slew him at ,awi no hara in the district of ,mishima4 ,here it is primarily the offence against the ,gods which is reprobated4 ,as in the ,mosaic law1 menstruation and child-birth were regarded as sources of uncleanness4#bja ,the custom of providing a special hut for parturient women has been already noted4#bjb ,in #haa the wife of a ,kannushi was delivered of a child close to the enclosure of the ,shrine of the ,goddess of ,food at ,ise4 ,both husband and wife had to perform an ,ohoharahi4 ,after that time no pregnant woman was admitted within the tori-wi of this shrine4 ,in #hhb a ,prince was sent as ,envoy to ,ise because a bitch had had puppies within the precincts of the ,imperial ,palace4 ,several days' religious abstinence had to be observed in consequence4 ,until recently births and deaths were prohibited on the sacred island of ,itsukushima in the ,inland ,sea4 ,disease1 ,wounds1 and ,death caused uncleanness4#bjc ,the death of a relation1 attending a funeral1 pronouncing or executing a capital sentence1 touching the dead body of a man or beast1 even eating food prepared in a house of mourning1 all involved various degrees of ritual impurity4 ,before the ,nara period of ,japanese history it was the custom on the death of a sovereign to remove the capital to a fresh site1 no doubt for the sake of purity4 ,the ,ainus of ,yezo destroy huts in which a death has taken place4 ,the modern ,japanese custom of turning upside down the screen which is placed round a corpse is perhaps a much attenuated survival of the same idea4 ,in #hja a ,great ,purification ceremony was performed1 because a dead dog had been discovered under one of the palace buildings4 ,the same ritual was celebrated in times of pestilence1 when a death took place close to the palace and on the ,mikado's putting off mourning4 ,if any one died within the precincts of a shrine1 no festival could be held there for thirty days4 ,a disability of five days was prescribed in the case of a dog or other beast dying there4 ,at the present day lucifer matches are advertised as fit for sacred purposes2 that is1 they contain no phosphorus which is made of bones1 and therefore unclean4 ,leprosy1 owing to its reputed contagious character1 is specially mentioned as a cause of uncleanness4#bjd ,wounds1 whether inflicted or received1 were objectionable1 not so much on grounds of humanity1 as because of their offensiveness4 ,the ,nihongi relates that in ,a4,d4 #djd the ,god ,izanagi expressed by the mouth of one of his priests his dislike for the stench of blood caused by branding some of the ,mikado's escort4 ,the striking of a ,shinto priest while on duty was a cause of uncleanness4 ,in grave cases1 however1 the offender was handed over to the civil authorities4 ,according to the strict ,shinto of a later period1 a man must abstain from worship at a shrine for thirty days if he has wounded somebody1 or1 if he has accidentally hurt himself1 so that more than three drops of blood have flowed1 for that day4 ,if he has vomited or passed blood1 he must not worship for two days1 if he has an abscess1 until it is cured1 for seven days after moxa is applied1 and for three days in the case of the operator4 ,at the present day the common word for wound is kega1 that is to say1 defilement4 ,baldness and emaciation were regarded as disqualifications for the position of ,imperial ,princess consecrated to the service of the ,gods4#bje ,it was no doubt the fear of contagion and an instinctive feeling of horror and repulsion which inspired this class of taboos4 ,contact with death1 disease1 and wounds are displeasing to living human beings1 and therefore to the ,gods4 ,in ancient ,greece it was not themis for the ,gods to look on death4 ,there is an obvious absurdity in referring such incidents of religious ritual to the principle that we must seek for the origin of forms of divine worship in observances towards the dead4 ,eating ,flesh4--,eating flesh is not included among the causes of uncleanness enumerated in the ,kojiki#bjf or in the ,ohoharahi4 ,a ,chinese notice of ,japan written centuries before the dawn of ,japanese history says that the abstainers 7medicine men7 of ,japan were not allowed to comb their hair1 to wash1 to eat flesh meat1 or to approach women4 ,but this was perhaps asceticism rather than religion4 ,a prohibition of the eating of the flesh of the ox1 the horse1 the dog1 the monkey1 and the fowl in ,a4,d4 #fdg was certainly due to ,buddhist influences4 ,the first hint that it was offensive to the ,shinto ,gods to eat flesh is found in the ,kogo-jiu1 where it is stated that when the son of ,mitoshi no ,kami saw that ,ohotokonushi no ,kami had given beef to his field labourers he spat upon their offering and reported the matter to his father1 who was angry and sent a blight upon the rice4 ,but this very passage speaks of a horse1 a pig1 and a cock as acceptable offerings4 ,in the norito things coarse of hair and things soft of hair occur frequently in the lists of offerings4 ,hirata points out that in sacrifices to the ,sun-,goddess no flesh was used4 ,in the most ancient times there was no prejudice against eating the flesh of animals4 ,the ,food-,goddess entertained ,tsuki-yomi with things soft of hair and things coarse of hair4 ,hohodemi was a hunter by profession4 ,the ancient ,mikados frequently went hunting1 and had no scruple in partaking of the products of the chase4 ,under ,buddhist influences1 however1 there came a change4 ,in the ,jgwan-shiki 7#hei-hgg7 we find that persons who ate flesh were unclean for one day4 ,in the ,yengishiki three days are the limit4 ,as time went on the prohibition was extended1 until in #afhc we find that to eat the flesh of horse1 cow1 pig1 goat1 wild boar1 deer1 monkey1 bear1 or antelope caused uncleanness for one hundred days4 ,birds and fish1 it will be observed1 are not included in this schedule4 ,whereas in ancient times the ,mikados ate the flesh of deer and wild boar as ha-gatame 7hardening the teeth7 on the third day of the year1 from which a person's age was reckoned1 fish1 fowl1 and rice-cake were substituted at a later period4 ,persons who are unclean for any cause must have nothing to do with the preparation or serving of the ,mikado's food4 ,intoxicating liquors are not tabooed in ,shinto4 ,there is1 however1 mention of an embassy to ,ise in #gdi1 the members of which were not allowed to take animal life1 to eat flesh1 or to drink sake4 ,impure food communicated its uncleanness to the fire with which it had been cooked4 ,persons who used such a fire 7kegare-bi7 for cooking were unclean for seven days4 ,hirata suggests that the reason why ,izanami was unable to return to the upper world after partaking of the food of ,yomi was because of the unclean fire with which it had been cooked4 ,on the first day of the sixth month1 the ,mikado was served with food specially prepared with pure fire 7imu-bi no zen74 ,buddhist ,rites4--,the performance of ,buddhist rites incapacitated a man from the service of the ,shinto ,gods until he had been subjected to purification4 ,for an infringement of this rule1 ,shinto functionaries might be fined or dismissed4 ,the use of ,buddhist terms was forbidden to every one concerned in the ,shinto ceremonies at ,ise and ,kamo4 ,a ,sutra was called tinted paper1 ,buddha the middle child1 a ,buddhist temple a tile roof4 ,buddhist priests and nuns were ironically styled the long-haired ones4 ,at ,ise ,buddhist priests were not admitted to the sacred precincts beyond a certain cryptomeria tree4 ,a separate place was assigned them for their prayers4 ,other words of ill omen were death1 for which recovery was used2 for disease the participant in a ,shinto festival said rest2 for weeping1 brine-dripping2 for blood1 sweat2 for strike1 stroke2 for flesh1 mushroom2 for tomb1 clod1 c4 ,these are later inventions4 ,calamities4--,we learn from the ,ohoharahi that snakebite1 being struck by lightning1 and other accidents were regarded as tsumi1 or sources of impurity4 ,at a later time1 a fire which destroyed a man's house made him unclean for seven days4 ,any neglect or irregularity in the divine services1 any interference with the treasures1 priests1 or slaves of the shrine1 or with the sacred grove around it1 or failure to repair it whenever necessary1 aroused the anger of the ,god and involved the uncleanness of the culprit4 ,magic or witchcraft 7majinahi7 is one of the sources of impurity enumerated by the ,ohoharahi4#bjg ,the above account of ,shinto offences must be taken with some qualifications4 ,it is drawn from various sources and different periods of history4 ,some applied to the whole people1 but in most cases it was only the priests and other persons concerned on whom the prohibitions were binding4 ,the ,shint ,mimoku has an enumeration of the six prohibited things which includes only mourning for a relative1 visiting the sick1 eating flesh of quadrupeds1 condemnation of criminals1 execution of criminals1 music1 and contact with impure things4 ,imi4--,the avoidance of impurity in preparation for a festival was called imi 7avoidance74 ,the intending officiator or worshipper remained indoors 7i-gomori71 abstained from speech and noise1 and ate food cooked at a pure fire4 ,for six days previous to the celebration of a festival at the ,great ,shrine of ,idzumo there was no singing or dancing1 no musical performances1 the shrine was not swept out1 no building operations were carried on1 and no rice pounded4 ,everything was done in stillness4 ,a special imi of one month was observed by the priests before participating in the greater festivals4 ,this was called araimi4 ,for middle-class festivals three days' imi were sufficient1 and for those of the third class one day4 ,at the present time imi is usually confined to abstinence from meat and from vegetables of the onion class4 ,by a natural transition imi is also used in the sense of sacred1 holy4 ,an imi-dono is a building in which purity is observed4 ,sacred 7imi7 axes and mattocks were used in some ceremonies4 ,the ,sun-,goddess was in her sacred weaving-hall when ,susa no wo outraged her by flinging the hide of a horse into it4 ,a modern derivative of imi1 namely1 imeimash1 is the nearest ,japanese equivalent for ,hang it6 ,compare the two meanings of the ,french sacr4 ,mourning is also called imi1 perhaps in the passive sense of something to be avoided in connexion with the service of the ,gods4 ,the following story illustrates the danger of appearing before the ,gods while in a state of impurity4 ,in #dfc the ,mikado ,yriaku desired to see the form of the deity of ,mimuro1 and ordered one of his ,ministers to fetch the ,god4 ,the ,minister brought him before the ,mikado in the form of a great serpent4 ,but the ,mikado had not practised religious abstinence1 and when the ,god showed his displeasure by rolling his thunder and showing his fiery eyeballs1 the ,mikado covered his eyes and fled into the interior of the palace4 ,fire-drill4--,in order to avoid the risk of using unclean fire in the great ,shinto ceremonies1 it was the custom at the shrines of ,idzumo1 ,ise1 ,kasuga1 ,kamo1 and perhaps other places1 to make fire afresh on each occasion by means of the fire-drill4 ,even when not produced in this way1 the sacrificial fire was called kiri-bi or drill-fire4 ,a description of the ,japanese form of the fire-drill will be found in a paper by ,sir ,ernest ,satow1 ,t4 ,a4 ,s4 ,j41 vol4 vi4 pt4 ii4 p4 #bbc1 and a good specimen from ,idzumo itself may be seen in the ,oxford ,university ,museum4 ,dr4 ,tylor1 in his ',early ,history of ,mankind1' has shown how universally this method of producing fire has been employed4 ,it is a natural development of the savage plan of rubbing two sticks together1 and no doubt originated independently in many places4 ,it is therefore unnecessary to assume that the ,japanese fire-drill was borrowed from ,india1 where it is used for sacred purposes1 or even from nearer ,china1 where it is also known4 ,it is frequently mentioned in the old ,japanese traditions4 ,the ,kojiki says that the ,god ,kushiyadama was appointed steward for the service of ,ohonamochi 7the ,god of ,idzumo71 in which capacity he recited prayers1 made a fire-drill1 and drilled out fire wherewith to cook the heavenly august banquet of fish for the deity4#bjh ,the priests of ,idzumo have always used pure fire produced in this way1 and pure water from a special well called the ,ama no mana-wi 7true well of ,heaven74 ,at the present day1 when the office is transmitted from one high priest to his successor1 they proceed to the ,shrine of the ,great ,precinct1 where the ceremony of divine fire and divine water is held4 ,the original fire-drill1 given by ,amaterasu to ,ame no hohi and preserved as the chief treasure of the shrine1 is carried in a bag slung round the neck of the chief priest1 who solemnly delivers it over to his successor4 ,this ceremony is called hi-tsugi 7fire-continuance74 ,it is curious that the same term 7hitsugi7 is constantly used of the succession to the ,mikado's throne1 and that the delivery of the sun-mirror formed part of the ceremony used on his accession4 ,hi means either sun or fire4 ,the old fire-drill was worshipped every ,new ,year's day at ,idzumo at a festival called hi no matsuri 7fire or sun-festival74 ,a fire-drill was among the objects carried in procession at the ,ohonihe1 or coronation ceremony1 and was used to produce the fire used for cooking the sacred rice offered on this occasion4 ,a modern ,japanese writer1 describing a festival celebrated at ,gion in ,kito on the last day of the year1 says3 ,a big bonfire burns within the precincts of the shrine4 ,it has been kindled from a year-old flame tended in a lamp under the eaves of the sacred building1 and people come there to light a taper1 which1 burning before the household altar1 shall be the beacon of domestic prosperity4 ,at #b ,a4,m4 the ,festival of ,pine ,shavings takes place4 ,a ,shinto priest reads a ritual4 ,his colleagues obtain a spark by the friction of two pieces of wood1 and set fire to a quantity of shavings packed into a large iron lamp4 ,these charred fragments of pine wood the worshippers receive and carry away as amulets against plague and pestilence4 ,a ,japanese book written two centuries ago informs us that sticks resembling the wands used for offerings at the purification ceremony were part shaven and set up in bundles at the four corners of the ,gion shrine on the last day of the year4 ,the priests1 after prayers were recited1 broke up the bundles and set fire to the sticks1 which the people then carried home to light their household fires with for the ,new ,year4#bji ,the object of this ceremony was to avert pestilence4 ,there is here a striking resemblance to the ,christian practice mentioned by ,m4 ,d',alviella3 ,the fire which the clergy1 on the dawn of ,easter1 had struck from the flint and steel1 served to rekindle the fires of individuals which had all been previously extinguished4 ,the use of such fire to prevent pestilence may also be illustrated from ,european customs4 ,the need-fire1 made by striking flints or by the fire-drill1 and used to rekindle all household fires1 is one of numerous examples4#baj ,removal of ,impurity4 ,lustration4--,with every precaution1 it is not always possible to avoid the pollution of dirt1 disease1 and sin4 ,in order1 therefore1 to do away with the offence to the ,gods arising from such impure conditions1 various expedients are resorted to4 ,the most natural and universal of these is washing or lustration4#baa ,the ,chinese notices of ancient ,japan already quoted from inform us that the ,japanese1 after the ten days' mourning was concluded1 all went into the river and washed4 ,hirata says that even at the present day1 when mourning is over1 people go to the bank of a stream or to the sea-beach and cleanse themselves4 ,the mythical account of ,izanagi's washing in the sea in order to remove the pollutions of ,yomi has been given above4 ,in a fourteenth-century work entitled ,kemmu nenchiu gigi1 the ablutions of the ,mikado previous to the ceremony of ,shingonjiki are described with great minuteness2 and if this preliminary is usually passed over in descriptions of ,shinto ceremonies1 the reason no doubt is that it was too well known to require special mention4 ,clean garments were put on at the same time4 ,both the ,japanese words for the purification ceremony show by their derivation that washing was originally its cardinal feature4 ,misogi means body-sprinkling1 and harahi is probably the same word as arahi1 wash4#bab ,penitence is not one of the old ,shinto means of purification4 ,salt4--,in ,japan1 as in other countries1 the antiseptic quality of salt has led to its religious use as a symbol for1 and means of1 purification4 ,in a modern harahi ceremony the priest purifies the himorogi with salt water4 ,at the entrances to theatres at the present day a saucer of salt is placed on a table in order to keep out evil influences4 ,the kaname-ishi1 or pivot stones of the earth1#bac are covered with salt1 which is then rubbed on a diseased part in order to obtain relief4 ,a housewife will not buy salt at night4 ,when obtained in the daytime1 a portion of it must first be thrown into the fire to ward off all danger1 and especially to prevent quarrelling in the family4 ,it is also used to scatter round the threshold and in the house after a funeral for purificatory purposes4#bad ,spitting4--,spitting1 or the ejection from the mouth of any disagreeable substance1 is naturally used by analogy as a symbol of dislike and disgust when other senses or feelings than that of taste are offended4 ,the modern writer ,fukuzawa tells us that when he left his home for the first time he spat in order to show his disgust with the narrowness and poverty of his life there4#bae ,spitting as a means of symbolical purification is a further corollary from the natural function of this act4 ,in the ,izanagi myth a ,god of the ,spittle 7,haya-tama no wo7 is the result of that deity's spitting during the ceremony of divorce4 ,the spittle deity is here associated with another ,god1 who is styled a ,god of ,purification4 ,a commentator on this passage says that at the present day spitting is essential in the purification ceremony4 ,the ritual1 however1 does not mention it4 ,another writer adds that this is the reason why at the present day people spit when they see anything impure4 ,in the myth of ,susa no wo spittle is mentioned along with the nails of the fingers and toes and nose-mucus among the materials for expiatory offerings4 ,when ,hohodemi is recommended to spit thrice before giving back the lost fish-hook to his brother1 a magical effect is probably intended1 such as to convey to him any impurity which may have become attached to his own person4 ,rinsing the mouth as a purifying ceremony before pronouncing an oath is mentioned in the ,nihongi4#baf ,breathing on4--,ritual impurity may also be conveyed away by the breath4 ,the origin of this practice is the sudden expulsion of air from the mouth when some offensive odour or vapour has found an entrance4 ,this instinctive action#bag is represented onomatopoetically in ,english by ,pooh6 ,faugh6 ,pshaw6 and in other languages by similar words1 which have come to express not only physical repulsion1 but dislike and contempt generally4 ,as a religious practice1 breathing away impurity is exemplified by the custom of the ,mikado breathing on certain aga mono 7ransom-objects7 of the harahi ceremony1 thus communicating to them the pollutions of his own person4 ,it is in order to avoid polluting the offerings by their breath that in some ceremonies the assistant priests cover their mouths with a white fillet and hold their arms outstretched4 ,even at the present day the stewards who prepare the ,mikado's food cover their mouths with a white paper mask4 ,the ,nihongi states that when ,izanagi washed in the sea in order to remove the pollutions of ,yomi1 he blew out and produced a number of deities1 among which were the ,great ,god of ,remedy and the ,great ,god of ,offences4 ,but the action of the ,sun-,goddess and ,susa no wo in producing children by crunching various objects and then blowing away the fragments1 and of ,izanagi's creation of the ,wind-,god by puffing away the mists1 requires further explanation4 ,these myths were probably the work of a person who had only a vague idea of the precise nature of the efficacy of this act1 and regarded it simply as attended with some magical power4 ,spitting1 primarily a mark of disgust1 then practised with the object of purification1 is finally done simply for luck4 ,ransom4--,the notion of expiating ritual guilt by giving ransom 7aga-mono7 is familiar to the ,japanese4 ,the more intimately the objects offered are connected with the person of the offender1 the more effectual is the sacrifice4 ,susa no wo is said to have expiated his offences by the loss of his hair and of his finger and toe nails4 ,among objects of ransom presented by the ,mikado at purification ceremonies clothing is the most important4 ,the ,mikado was measured with great ceremony for suits of garments4 ,bamboo sticks were used for this purpose1 which were broken to the required lengths4 ,hence the ceremony was called yo-ori 7joint-break74 ,the clothing when made was placed in a vase1 and set before the ,mikado by a ,nakatomi woman4 ,he breathed on it thrice1 and then returned it to be taken away by the ,urahe 7diviners7 and thrown into a stream4 ,other ransom offerings were human figures of iron1 wood1 or leather1 and swords1 which were similarly treated4 ,a special mi-aganahi no matsuri 7august-ransom-celebration7 was inaugurated in #had for the sake of the ,mikado1 who was then ill4 ,it was continued annually every sixth and twelfth month1 the miko officiating4 ,in the thirteenth century the ,onyshi 7diviners of the ,chinese school7 presented to the ,mikado human figures in a box1 inscribed with the place and name4 ,the ,mikado breathed on them1 rubbed them on his person1 and then returned them to the box4 ,the principle of ransom is illustrated in the present day by the custom of kata-shiro 7form-token7 or nade-mono 7rub-thing74 ,at a shrine of the ,sea-,gods in ,tokio a purification ceremony is performed twice a year4 ,a few days before1 the parishioners and other believers who wish to be purified go to the shrine and obtain from its official a katashiro1 that is1 a white paper cut into the shape of a garment4 ,on this the person to be purified writes the year and month of his birth and his or her sex1 and rubs it over his whole body4 ,when he has thus transferred his impurities to the paper he returns it to the shrine4 ,all the katashiro which are brought back are packed into two sheaths of reed and placed on a table of unbarked wood4 ,they are then called harahi tsu mono1 or things of purification4 ,finally they are put into a boat which is rowed out into the sea1 and they are thrown away there4#bah ,the bundles of reeds or rushes which are thrown into the sea at the shrine of ,gion at ,tsushima in ,owari1 to avert pestilence1 probably represent human figures4 ,it is said that wherever they float to1 pestilence breaks out4 ,a more expeditious form of the same custom is when the katashiro or nademono are simply bought from the ,kashima-fure1 strolling vendors belonging to the shrine of ,kashima1 rubbed over the body1 and cast into a stream4 ,the object1 however1 is not so much the removal of ritual pollution as protection against disease4 ,at the present day paper figures1 called ,ama-gatsu1 are made to avert calamity from children4 ,they are prepared before the birth of the child1 and are worn up to the age of three4 ,it is thought that evil spirits are diverted into these images from the infant4 ,it is an obvious degradation of these practices when they are used merely to procure good luck instead of to remove impurities offensive to the ,gods4 ,chi no wa 7,reed-ring74--,in a modern form of the harahi ceremony there is a kind of purification which consists in passing three times through a large ring made of reeds 7pp4 #bff1 #bfg71 holding in the hands hemp leaves and reeds1 and repeating the verse3-- ,the sixth month's ,summer--passing-away-- ,purification ,who ever doeth ,is said to extend his life ,to one thousand years4 ,or1 according to another version3-- ,to the end that ,my impure thoughts ,may be annihilated1 ,these hemp leaves1 ,cutting with many a cut1 ,i have performed purification4 ,the ,shinto ,mimoku 7#afii7 says that this ring represents the round of the universe4 ,the same work adds that the object of the ceremony is to avert the dangers connected with the change of summer influences to those of autumn4 ,but these explanations have a tincture of ,chinese philosophy4 ,the purification of the heart from evil thoughts is also a conception foreign to the older ,shinto4 ,the injunction to cleanse the inside of the cup and the platter belongs to a later stage of religious development4 ,the chi no wa is subsequently flung into the water4 ,another means of purification was to shake a gohei over the person or thing to be purified4 ,the virtue of set forms of speech in absolving from uncleanness is fully recognized in ,shinto1 as will be seen in the next chapter4 ,there were various forms of purification at various places for consecrating a new shrine1 or new utensils for it1 or for reconsecrating a place which had become unclean4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,footnotes3 #aic ,see ,index1 ,ohoharahi4 #aid ,i quote here1 not from any religious document1 but from a poem of the ,manyshiu1 a solitary instance of a religious stigma being attached to lying3 ,if1 while not loving1 ,i said that ,i loved thee1 ,the ,god who dwells ,in the grove of ,uneda in ,matori ,will take note of it4 #aie ,ch4 ,k4 #bia4 #aif ,see above1 p4 #abi4 #aig ,quoted by ,dr4 ,florenz in ,t4,a4,s4,j41 xxvii4 p4 #ef4 #aih ,see ,index1 s4v4 #aii ,in ancient ,egypt1 which presents numerous analogies with ,japan1 interference with the irrigation channels was deemed an offence against the deity4 #bjj ,compare ,leviticus xviii4 #ag4 #bja ,leviticus xii4 #a2 xv4 #ai4 #bjb ,see above1 p4 #aac4 ,the couvade was unknown4 #bjc ,compare ,leviticus xiii4 #b2 ,numbers xix4 #aa4 ,see also above1 p4 #ic4 #bjd ,numbers v4 #b4 #bje ,compare ,leviticus xxi4 #ag et seqq4 #bjf ,ch4 ,k4 #bcj4 #bjg ,deuteronomy xvii4 #aa4 ,see ,index1 ',magic4' #bjh ,ch4 ,k41 p4 #ajd4 ,see also ,ch4 ,k41 p4 #baa1 and ,nihongi1 i4 #bje4 #bji ,see a paper on the ,japanese gohei in the ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 vol4 xxxi41 #aija4 ,also a note in ,man1 ,october1 #ahib4 #baj ,see ,grimm's ',teutonic ,mythology1' ii4 #fjc1 ,stallybrass's translation4 #baa ,see ,dr4 ,tylor's ',primitive ,culture1' ii4 #dcd4 #bab ,sprinkle the water of expiation on them 444 and let them wash their clothes4--,numbers vii4 #g4 #bac ,the earth-fast stones of our own folk-lore4 #bad ,griffis1 ',mikado's ,empire1' p4 #dgj4 #bae ,we have a good illustration of the transition from the physical to the metaphorical use of spitting in ,revelation iii4 #af3 ,because thou art lukewarm and neither hot nor cold1 ,i will spew thee out of my mouth4 #baf ,,ii4 #if4 #bag ,hirata says that in books on magic ibukite harafu 7clearing away by puffing7 is a means adopted by men naturally1 without teaching1 for cleansing away evil influences4 ,see also ,darwin's ',expression of the ,emotions'1 pp4 #beh1 #bfa4 #bah ,dr4 ,florenz1 in ,t4 ,a4 ,s4 ,j41 ,december1 #ahii4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,ceremonial4 ,ceremonies are combinations for some specific purpose of the elements of worship described in the two preceding chapters4#bai ,the ,yengishiki is the chief authority for the following account of some of the more important ceremonies of ,shinto4 ,i have also availed myself freely of the results of ,sir ,e4 ,satow's researches contained in vols4 vii4 and ix4 of the ,t4 ,a4 ,s4 ,j4 ,ohonihe or ,daijowe4--,the ,yengishiki places the ,ohonihe in a class by itself1 as much the most solemn and important festival of the ,shinto religion4 ,oho means great1 and nihe food offering4 ,it was substantially a more elaborate and sumptuous ,nihi-name 7new-tasting71 or festival of first fruits1 performed soon after the accession of a ,mikado to the throne1 and1 like our coronation ceremony1 constituting the formal religious sanction of his sovereignty4 ,a modern ,japanese writer explains its object as follows3 ,anciently the ,mikado received the auspicious grain from the ,gods of ,heaven1 and therewithal nourished the people4 ,in the ,daijowe 7or ,ohonihe7 the ,mikado1 when the grain became ripe1 joined unto him the people in sincere veneration1 and1 as in duty bound1 made return to the ,gods of ,heaven4 ,he thereafter partook of it along with the nation4 ,thus the people learnt that the grain which they eat is no other than the seed bestowed on them by the ,gods of ,heaven4 ,in so far as the motive of the ,japanese worshipper is concerned1 this is1 ,i think1 nearer the mark than ,mr4 ,frazer's3 ,primitive peoples are1 as a rule1 reluctant to taste the annual first-fruits of any crop until some ceremony has been performed which makes it safe and pious for them to do so4 ,the reason of this reluctance appears to be that the first-fruits either are the property of1 or actually contain1 a divinity4 ,it is gratitude rather than fear which animates the ,japanese4 ,the preparations for the ,ohonihe began months in advance4 ,the first step was to designate by divination two provinces from which the rice used in the ceremony was to be provided4 ,these were called respectively yuki and suki4 ,the most probable meaning of the former term is religious purity4 ,suki is said to mean next or subsidiary4 ,the object of thus duplicating the offerings was1 no doubt1 that if any unnoticed irregularity or impurity occurred in one case1 the error might not vitiate the whole proceedings4 ,officers called nuki-ho no tsukahi 7messengers of the plucked-up ears7 were then selected by divination4 ,one of these was called the ,inami no ,urabe1 or rice-fruit diviner1 the other the ,negi no ,urabe1 or prayer-diviner4 ,these officers on arriving at the yuki or suki district performed a purification ceremony in presence of the local officials and people4 ,the site of the inami-dono1 or rice-fruit-hall1 was then chosen by divination and marked out at the four corners by twigs of the sacred evergreen tree 7sakaki7 hung with tree-fibre4#bbj ,it was #afj feet square4 ,somewhat more than an acre of rice-field was next set apart1 the owner being compensated by the authorities4 ,here two sakaki twigs hung with tree-fibre were planted1 and a guard of four labourers was set over it4 ,divination was also used for the selection of a local staff of religious functionaries4 ,it consisted of one ,saka-tsu-ko1 that is1 sake-child or brewer-maiden1 an unmarried girl of good family1 with several other girls as assistants1 an ,inami no kimi1 or rice-fruit-lord1#bba a charcoal-burner1 wood-cutters1 c4 ,a choir of twenty male and female singers was also provided4 ,then the site of the ,inami-dono was propitiated by prayer and offerings4 ,a pure mattock and sickle were used in clearing the ground for the buildings1 which comprised a shrine to the eight ,gods ,mi-toshi no ,kami 7august harvest deity71 ,taka mi musubi1 ,niha-taka-hi no ,kami 7courtyard-high-sun-deity71 ,mi ketsu no ,kami 7food-,goddess71 ,ohomiyanome no ,kami1 ,koto-shiro-nushi1 ,asuha1 and ,hahigi4#bbb ,a rice-fruit-store1 an office for the envoys from ,kito1 and lodgings for the rice-fruit-lord and for the brewer-maiden and her assistants were built of unbarked wood and grass4 ,the surrounding fence was made of brushwood and the gates consisted of hurdles4 ,offerings having been made to the eight ,gods above mentioned1 the diviners from ,kito1 accompanied by the local authorities and by the special staff of the inami-dono proceeded to the rice-field4 ,the brewer-maiden plucked up the first ears4 ,she was followed by the rice-fruit-lord and the people4 ,songs were sung during the operation4 ,the first four sheaves were reserved for the offering of boiled rice to be made by the ,mikado to the ,gods4 ,when all the rice was pulled up1 it was carried in procession to the capital1 with the four reserved sheaves in the place of honour and the rice-fruit-lord acting as guide4 ,it arrived at ,kito in the last decade of the ninth month4 ,meanwhile a general purification of the whole country had been performed1 and to prevent all possibility of error1 repeated at a short interval4 ,as soon as this formality was completed1 offerings of cloth and of material for wearing apparel were sent to all the ,gods4 ,the following norito#bbc was read on this occasion3-- ,he says3 ',hearken6 all ye assembled kannushi and hafuri4 ,i humbly declare in the presence of the sovran ,gods1 who1 according to the command of the dear divine ancestor and dear divine ancestress who dwell in the ,plain of ,high ,heaven1 bear sway as ,heavenly ,shrines and ,earthly ,shrines4' ,he says3 ',to the end that on the middle day of the ,hare of the #aath month of this year1 the ,sovran ,grandchild#bbd may partake of the ,great ,food 7ohonihe7 as ,heavenly ,food1 as ,long ,food1 as ,distant ,food1 ,i pray that ye sovran ,gods will jointly undertake to bless his reign1 to be firm and enduring1 and give it happiness as a prosperous reign4 ,therefore1 on behalf of the ,sovran ,grandchild1 who will rule peacefully and serenely for one thousand autumns and five hundred autumns with festive ruddy countenance1 do ,i set forth these fair offerings1 namely1 bright cloth1 shining cloth1 soft cloth1 and rough cloth4 ',hearken6 all of you to this fulfilling of praises as the morning sun rises in glory4' ,he says3 ',more especially would ,i enjoin on the kannushi and hafuri with all due ceremony to receive1 take up1 and present the offerings purely provided by the ,imbe1 hanging stout straps on weak shoulders4' ,a special embassy was sent to ,ise1 consisting of one ,prince1 one ,nakatomi1 one ,imbe1 and one ,urabe4 ,in the third decade of the tenth month the ,mikado went in state to a river-bank near ,kioto and performed a ceremonial ablution 7misogi74 ,for one month before the ,ohonihe lesser abstinence 7ara-imi7 was enjoined1 and for three days greater abstinence 7ma-imi74 ,buddhist ceremonies1 and the eating of impure food1 were interdicted throughout the five home provinces4 ,purity of language#bbe was also necessary4 ,during the three days of ma-imi1 no official was allowed to do any work except that connected with the ceremony4 ,special buildings were erected for the ,ohonihe at ,kitano1 a suburb of ,kito4 ,after a purification ceremony1 a site #dhj feet square was marked out by twigs of sakaki hung with tree-fibre4 ,on the arrival of the yuki and suki rice from the provinces1 this site was propitiated4 ,the ,brewer-maidens then with a pure mattock turned the first sod and dug the holes for the four corner posts4 ,the ,urabe went to the mountain where the timber was to be cut1 and worshipped the ,god of the mountain4 ,the ,brewer-maiden struck the first blow with a pure axe1 and wood-cutters completed the work4 ,similar formalities were practised in cutting the grass for thatch and in digging wells4 ,the sacred enclosure 7yu-niha7 was divided into two sections1 an inner and an outer1 and contained numerous buildings1 such as shrines to the eight ,gods already mentioned1 storehouses for the rice and other necessaries1 lodgings for the ,brewer-maidens and their assistants1 kitchens1 c4 ,the site of the principal building1 or ,ohonihe no ,miya1 measured #bad feet by #aej feet4 ,it was erected after the others and was in duplicate1 one being for the yuki1 the other for the suki4 ,each was forty feet long by sixteen feet wide4 ,the roof-tree ran north and south4 ,undressed wood was used for the erection1 which was covered by a roof of thatch4 ,the floor was strewn with bundles of grass over which bamboo mats were placed4 ,in the centre of the sleeping-chamber 7the sanctum7 several white tatami 7thick mats7 were laid down and upon them the ,saka-makura1 which was a cushion three feet broad by four feet long1 for the use of the ,god or ,gods4#bbf ,this was called the ,deity seat4 ,the ,mikado's seat was placed to the south of it4 ,the preparation of the sake for the ceremony was preceded by worship of the ,well-,god1 the ,furnace-,god1 and the ,sake-,god4 ,the first fire was produced by a fire-drill4 ,the ,brewer-maiden began to turn it and the ,rice-fruit-lord continued the work4 ,a third official blew the fire and the attendants then kindled a torch with it4 ,all the utensils had been provided by the ,imbe with great care1 performing harahi and worship at every step4 ,the ,mikado himself practised lesser abstinence for a month and greater abstinence for three days before the ceremony4 ,the procedure at the ,ohonihe is too elaborate to describe in detail4 ,it included the recitation before the ,mikado of old words 7myths and legends87 by the ,kataribe1 or corporation of reciters1 and songs by the women who pounded the rice for the offerings1 wishing him long life and prosperity4 ,the rice was presented to him by the ,nukiho no tsukahi1 with the words1 ,we bring a thousand and five hundred auspicious ears which we offer as divine food of a million loads4 ,old-fashioned music was performed and the regalia were delivered to him by the ,urabe4 ,the cardinal feature of the ,ohonihe was the offering of food to the ,god 7or ,gods7 by the ,mikado in person4 ,with his own hands he sprinkled rice with sake which he then placed before the ,deity-seat4 ,no one else was present but the ,uneme1 or ladies-in-waiting1 who repeated the formula1 ,let that which ye should clip first be clipped afterwards4 ,moreover1 whatever faults there be1 receive these offerings with divine amendment1 with great amendment4 ,the ,mikado then bowed his head slightly1 clapped his hands1 and said 7amen71 after which he joined the ,god in partaking of the food4 ,when the yuki ceremony was completed the ,mikado went to his retiring-room1 washed and changed his clothes1 after which he proceeded to the suki chamber and repeated the same ceremonial4 ,it is not quite certain what ,god or ,gods were worshipped4 ,some say that the offerings were to the ,sun-,goddess1 others think that all the ,gods were included4 ,the haziness on this point is highly characteristic of ,shinto4 ,the following norito1 ,no4 #bg of the ,yengishiki1 was pronounced by the ,idzumo no miyakko on this occasion4 ,they were the reputed descendants of ,ama no hohi1 who holds the same position in the ,ohonamochi myth that ,koyane does in that of the ,sun-,goddess4 ,they were originally the hereditary ,governors--perhaps even kings--of the province and had also sacerdotal functions4 ,they retained the latter after all lay jurisdiction had been taken from them4 ,the words of blessing of the ,miyakko of ,idzumo4 ,among the many tens of days that be1 on this day1 this living day1 this perfect day1 do ,i here insert name1 ,miyakko of the ,land of ,idzumo1 humbly declare with deepest reverence1 to wit3 ',with the object of pronouncing a blessing on the great august reign of our ,sovran ,lord1 who rules the ,great-eight-island country as--with fear be it said--a wise manifest deity1 and blessing it as a long and great reign1 did ,i1 hanging stout straps on weak shoulders1#bbg fastening the cords of the sacred offerings1 wearing the celestial cap1 shearing and spreading the coarse grass as a sacred mat in the sacred house1 blackening the sacred vessels1 dwelling in pure retirement by the celestial sake-jars1 calming the deities in their calm shrines by the avoidance of impurity1 did service first to the ,great ,god of ,kumano1 ,kushi mikenu1#bbh our divine ancestor1 the ,great-,grandchild of ,izanagi1 and to ,ohonamochi1 the maker of the land1 for whom within the blue hill-confines of the province of ,idzumo the temple pillars have been stoutly planted on the rock-roots below1 while the projecting crossbeams of the roof are exalted to the ,plain of ,high ,heaven4 ,thereafter ,i did worship to the ,sovran ,gods who dwell in the one hundred and eighty-six shrines4' ,then1 as the morning sun went up in glory1 there came these good words of divine blessing1 to wit3 ',when ,taka-mi-musubi and ,kami mi-musubi1 the ,high-,heaven divine ancestors1 bestowed upon the ,sovran ,grandchild this sub-celestial ,great-eight-island country1 ,ama no hohi1 the remote divine ancestor of the ,omi#bbi of ,idzumo1 was sent by them to view the condition of the land4 ,forcing his way through the eight-fold clouds of ,heaven1 soaring across the sky1 soaring over the earth1 he surveyed the ,under-,heaven on all sides1 and made report that the ,fair-,ear-,land of the ,rich-,reed-,plain was a savage land where there were ,gods who in the daytime swarmed like flies in the fifth month1 and at night shone like fire pots1 and where the rocks1 trees1 and blue water foam had power of speech4 ,however1 he promised that it should be subdued so that the ,sovran ,grandchild might rule it serenely as a peaceful land4 ,therefore his son ,ame-hina-dori1 and with him ,futsunushi were sent down from ,heaven4 ,they drove out and subdued the savage deities1 and persuaded the ,great ,god who made the ,land#bcj to divide off the visible outward things#bca of the ,great-eight-island ,country4' ,then ,ohonamochi said3 ',in the land to be governed by the ,sovran ,grandchild and called ,great ,yamato ,i will make my own gentle spirit 7nigi-tama7 to be attached to an eight-hand mirror1 and enshrined in ,miha1 under the title of ,yamato no ,oho-mono-nushi kushi-mika-tama no mikoto 7great-thing-master-wondrous-awful-spiri t71 the spirit of my son ,ajisuki-taka-hikone to be enshrined at ,kamo in ,katsuraki1 that of ,kotoshironushi at ,unade1 and that of ,kaya-narumi at ,asuka1 dedicating them to dwell there divinely as near guardian deities of the ,sovran ,grandchild4' ,he then went to rest in the shrine of fertile ,kitsuki4#bcb ,thereupon the ,sovran dear divine ancestor and ancestress 7of the ,mikado87 gave command1 saying3 ',do thou ,hohi no ,mikoto bless the ,sovran's long age so that it may be firm and enduring1 and make it happy as a prosperous age4' ,in accordance with this injunction1 ,i 7his successor7 perform this service of blessing1 and as the morning sun rises in glory1 bring tribute of congratulatory divine treasures in token of the ,god's 7,hohi7 regard and in token of the ,omi's 7his own7 regard4 7,these7 white jewels are 7a prognostic of7 the great august white hairs 7to which your majesty will reach74 ,the red jewels are the august1 healthful1 ruddy countenance1 and the green-estuary jewels are the harmonious fitness with which your ,majesty will establish far and wide1 as with a broad sword-blade1 his lasting great august reign over the ,great-eight-island-country which he governs4 ,as 7this7 white horse plants firmly his fore hoofs and his hind-hoofs1 so will the pillars of the ,great ,palace be set firmly on the upper rocks and frozen firmly on the lower rocks4 ,the pricking up of his ears is a sign that ,your ,majesty will1 with ears ever more erect1 rule the ,under-,heaven4 ,here follows a passage too corrupt for translation4 ,it continues to allude to the emblematic character of the offerings4 ,as a token that the visible deity 7the ,mikado7 shall peacefully and serenely rule the ,great-eight-island-country as long as ,heaven and ,earth1 the ,sun and ,moon endure1 ,i offer these congratulatory divine treasures by way of respect from the ,god1 and by way of respect from the ,omi1 with profound awe1 and pronounce these auspicious words of divine congratulation delivered to me from ,heaven4 ,the offerings were sixty jewels1 white1 red1 and green1 a sword with mountings of gold and silver1 a mirror1 two pieces of cloth1 a horse1 a swan1 and fifty trays of eatables4 ,the similar formula used by the ,nakatomi in #aadb1 invoking the blessing of the ,gods on the new sovereign1 is given in ,dr4 ,florenz's ,german translation of the ,nihongi1 ,book xxx41 ,appendix4 ,the above is the merest outline of a ceremony to a description of which ,hirata devotes #dhj pages of his ,koshiden4 ,it varied a good deal at different times1 and was altogether discontinued for eight reigns 7#adfe-afhg7 no doubt because it was found too heavy a burden on the people4 ,nihi-name4--,the ,nihi-name or new tasting1 when the rice of the new harvest was first partaken of1 was the same as the ,ohonihe1 except that it was simpler and was celebrated annually4 ,the festival is frequently referred to in the ,kojiki and ,nihongi4 ,the ,sun-,goddess is said to have celebrated a ,nihi-name in a ,new ,palace4 ,it was accompanied by songs and dances and was followed by feasting in holiday dress and presents to the ,court and officials4 ,at shrines not officially recognized1 the local official in charge conducted this ceremony4 ,it was then called o-hi-taki 7august-fire-kindling7 because a courtyard fire 7nihabi7 was made1 the ceremony taking place at night4 ,strict ,shinto devotees would not eat the new season's rice until it had been performed4 ,it appears from allusions in poetry and legend that there was also a household ,nihi-name4 ,it was celebrated with closed doors1 no stranger being admitted1 apparently in order to prevent pollution by impure persons4 ,the following legend from the ,hitachi ,fudoki illustrates this point4 ,when the ,god called the ',divine ,ancestor' went to the places of the various deities1 he came to the ,peak of ,fuji in ,suruga4 ,the sun went down and he asked for a lodging1 but the ,god of ,fuji refused1 saying that he was that day performing the ,nihi-name1 and his household were therefore practising abstinence4 ,so he ascended the ,peak of ,tsukuba1 and asked for a lodging4 ,the ,god of ,tsukuba said3 ',although ,i am this night celebrating the ,nihi-name1 why should that prevent me from acceding to your august behest8' ,nanakusa4--,there was in later times a corresponding spring festival called ,nana-kusa 7seven herbs71 in which wild potherbs of seven different kinds were gathered and eaten4 ,ahi-name or ,ahimbe4--,this word means joint-tasting4 ,it was a harvest festival not essentially differing from the ,nihi-name1 and was so called because the ,mikado joined the ,gods with himself in tasting the new season's rice and sake4 ,hirata thinks1 however1 that the expression joint-tasting refers to the association of certain inferior ,gods with the greater ,gods directly worshipped at this time4 ,it was celebrated on the first ,hare day of the eleventh month1 and was in honour of the deities of seventy-one shrines4 ,kan-name 7divine-tasting74--,this was another harvest festival1 distinguished from the preceding by being celebrated in the ninth month1 and being confined to the deities of the ,ise shrines4 ,an embassy of high officials was specially dispatched to ,ise for the purpose1 after an elaborate ceremonial in the ,palace1 in which the ,mikado himself took part4 ,the norito 7,nos4 #bj1 #ba1 and #bb7 used on this occasion are preserved in the ,yengishiki4 ,they contain nothing of interest4 ,when a princess was dedicated to the service of the shrines1 the following formula 7,no4 #bc7 was added3-- ,more especially do ,i humbly declare3 ',the offering of a ,sacred ,princess of the ,blood ,imperial to serve as the ,deities' staff1 having first1 according to custom1 observed the rules of religious purity for three years1 is to the end that thou mayst cause the ,sovran ,grandchild to live peacefully and firmly as long as ,heaven and ,earth1 the ,sun and ,moon1 may last4 ,i1 the ,great ,nakatomi1 holding the dread spear by the middle1#bcc with deepest awe pronounce this dedication of her by the ,mikado to the end that she may serve as an august staff4' ,kamu-ima-ge or ,shingonjiki4--,this festival was celebrated in the palace at night after the ,tsukinami4 ,the name means literally ,god-new-food4 ,it consisted in the ,mikado in person or by deputy making an offering of food to the ,sun-,goddess4 ,the forms resembled those in use for the ,ohonihe or ,nihi-name1 and included laying down a cushion 7saka-makura7 to represent the ,deity1 the use of a firedrill1 c4 ,hirano no ,matsuri4--,festival of ,hirano1 a village in the province of ,settsu4 ,there is much doubt as to the deities in whose honour this service 7,no4 #e of the ,yengishiki7 was first instituted4 ,it is believed that it was originally celebrated in honour of ,image no ,kami 7the ,god of ,new ,food7 and of ,kudo no ,kami and ,kobe no ,kami1 the ,gods of the kitchen-boiler and of the cooking-pan4 ,the ,image was probably1 as explained by ,sir ,e4 ,satow1 freshly hulled rice offered monthly to the ,gods4 ,after the ,mikado ,kwammu founded the shrine of ,hirano1 about the end of the eighth century1 it became the custom for all the branches of the ,imperial family to be represented at the two annual celebrations4 ,it was ,kitabatake ,chika-fusa 7#abic-acei7 who first invented the popular account of the ,gods worshipped here4 ,knowing that they were in some manner family deities1 he proceeded to allot as uji-gami to the ,tahira1 ,minamoto1 ,ohoye and ,takashina families1 ancient members of the ,imperial line taken here and there at random1 and comprising the ,sun-,goddess1 ,yamato-dake1 and the ,mikados ,chiuai and ,nintoku4 ,this is an instructive example of the intrusion of ancestor-worship so-called into the older ,shinto4 ,the norito read at this festival affords no clue to the identity of the ,gods worshipped4 ,it mentions the founding of the shrine at the behest of the ,sovran ,great ,god 7or ,gods7 and makes offerings in acknowledgment of his 7or their7 preserving the ,mikado's life and prospering his reign4#bcd ,kudo and ,kobe no ,matsuri4--,this service 7,no4 #f of the ,yengishiki7 is practically identical with the last1 which is natural1 if1 as is probable1 the ,gods worshipped are really the same4 ,toshigohi no ,matsuri 7harvest-praying service74--,this festival 7,no4 #a of the ,yengishiki7 was in honour of the deities of the #c1acb official shrines1 in other words1 the entire ,shinto ,pantheon4 ,it was celebrated on the #dth day of the #bnd month 7when the seed rice is sown7 in the ,sai-in1 or sacred precinct1 a courtyard in the ,palace measuring #bcj feet by #cgj feet1 with offices opening on to it on all sides4 ,on the west were the shrines of the eight deities#bce in a row1 surrounded by a fence to the interior of which three sacred archways gave access4 ,in the centre of the court a temporary shed was erected in which the altars were placed4 ,early on the morning of the festival day1 the offerings1 prepared by the ,imbe1 were set out here4 ,they are minutely described in the ,yengishiki1 and consisted of silk and cloth of various kinds1 some of the raw materials for the same1 models of swords1 shields1 spear-heads1 bows1 quivers1 stags' horns1 mattocks1 sake1 fish of various kinds1 edible seaweed1 salt1 and matting4 ,in the case of the ,ise temples1 a horse was added4 ,a white horse1 cock1 and boar were sent to ,mitoshi no ,kami1 the special deity of ,harvest1 and a horse to each of nineteen others1 including the ,god of ,growth and the water-deities of ,yamato4 ,when everything was ready1 the officials of the ,jingikwan1 accompanied by the miko1 or virgin priestesses1 entered by the middle gate and took their places in the western offices with their faces to the east1 the north being the upper 7or more honourable7 end4 ,the ,ministers of ,state and their subordinates entered by the north gate and took their places in the north office1 the ,ministers facing the south1 the others east or west4 ,the priestesses occupied seats below the office4 ,the other officials entered by the south gate and sat facing the north4 ,the subordinate ,shinto functionaries and hafuri stood in the courtyard south of the west office4 ,then the ,jingikwan officials came down and took their places in front of their office4 ,they were followed by the ,ministers of ,state4 ,a ,nakatomi read the norito1 the hafuri responding with 7,yes or ,amen7 at the end of every paragraph4 ,it is as follows3-- ,he#bcf says3 ',hearken all ye assembled ,kannushi and ,hafuri4' ,he says3 ',i humbly declare in the presence of the ,sovran ,gods1 whose praises are fulfilled as ,heavenly ,deities and as ,earthly ,deities1 by command of the ,sovran1 dear1 divine ancestor and ancestress who divinely dwell in the ,plain of ,high-,heaven4 ',in the second month of this year the ,sovran ,grandchild is graciously pleased to pray for harvest1 and ,i1 therefore1 as the morning sun rises in glory1 offer up his plenteous offerings1 thus fulfilling your praise4' ,here the ,kannushi and ,hafuri of the shrines concerned remove this set of offerings4 ,he says3 ',i humbly declare in the presence of the ,sovran ,gods of the harvest4 ',if the ,sovran ,gods will bestow in ears many a hand's breadth long and ears abundant the latter harvest which they will bestow1 the latter harvest produced by the labour of men from whose arms the foam drips down1 on whose opposing thighs the mud is gathered1 ,i will fulfil their praises by humbly offering first fruits1 of ears a thousand1 of ears many a hundred1 raising up the tops of the sake-jars1 and setting in rows the bellies of the sake-jars1 in juice and in ear will ,i present them1 of things growing in the great moor-plain1 sweet herbs and bitter herbs1 of things that dwell in the blue sea-plain1 the broad of fin and the narrow of fin1 edible seaweed1 too1 from the offing and seaweed from the shore1 of clothing1 bright stuffs and shining stuffs1 soft stuffs and coarse stuffs--with these ,i will fulfil your praises4 ,in the meantime having furnished a white horse1 a white boar1 and a white cock1 with things of various kinds before the ,sovran ,gods of the ,harvest1 ,i fulfil their praises by humbly presenting these plenteous offerings of the ,sovran ,grandchild4' ,he says3 ',i humbly declare in the presence of the ,sovran ,gods whose praises the chief priestess fulfils1 and ,i fulfil your praises1 namely1 ,kami-musubi1 ,taka-mi-musubi1 ,iku-musubi1 ,taru-musubi1 ,tama-tsume-musubi1 ,oho-miya no me1 ,oho-mi-ketsu no kami1 and ,kotoshironushi4 ,because you bless the ,sovran ,grandchild's reign as a long reign1 firm and enduring1 and render it a happy and prosperous reign1 ,i fulfil your praises as our ,sovran's dear1 divine ancestor and ancestress by making these plenteous offerings on his behalf4' ,he says3 ',i humbly declare in the presence of the ,sovran ,gods1 whose praises the priestess of ,wigasuri fulfils4 ,i fulfil your praises1 repeating your names1 to wit1 ,live ,well1 ,blessing ,well1 ,long-rope ,well1 ,asuha1 and ,hahigi4#bcg ,whereas1 on the nethermost rock-roots ruled by the ,sovran ,gods 7just named7 the palace pillars have been raised stout and high1 and the projecting cross-beams exalted to the ,plain of ,high-,heaven1 furnishing a fair abode for the ,sovran ,grandchild1 wherein1 finding shelter from the rain and shelter from the sun1 he serenely governs in peace the world on all sides1 ,i fulfil your praises by making these plenteous offerings on his behalf4' ,he says3 ',i humbly declare in the presence of the ,sovran ,gods1 whose praises are fulfilled by the priestess of the ,gate4 ,repeating your names1 to wit1 ,kushi-iha-mado 7wondrous-rock-gate7 and ,toyo-iha-mado 7rich-rock-gate71 ,i fulfil your praises4 ,whereas you guard the gates of the four quarters by night and day1 obstructing the passage like manifold piles of rock1 and whether you open them in the morning or close them in the evening1 guard below against unfriendly things coming from below1 and guard above against unfriendly things coming from above1 ,i fulfil your praises by making these offerings on behalf of the ,sovran ,grandchild4' ,he says3 ',i humbly declare in the presence of the ,sovran ,gods1 whose praises the priestess of ,ikushima 7live-island or region7 fulfils4 ,repeating your names1 to wit1 ,iku-kuni 7live country7 and ,taru-kuni#bch 7perfect country71 ,i fulfil your praises4 ,because you the ,sovran ,gods1 who rule the islands many tens in number wherever the frog of the valley finds his way1 wherever the ocean foam extends1 making wide the narrow regions and the steep regions level1 have granted these many islands to him every one1 ,i fulfil your praises by making these plenteous offerings on behalf of the ,sovran ,grandchild4' ,he says3 ',more especially do ,i humbly declare in the mighty presence of the ,great ,heaven-shining ,deity who dwells in ,ise4 ,because the ,great ,deity has bestowed on him the lands of the four quarters over which her glance extends as far as where the wall of ,heaven rises1 as far as where the bounds of ,earth stand up1 as far as the blue clouds are diffused1 as far as where the white clouds settle down opposite1 by the blue sea-plain1 as far as the prows of ships can go without letting dry their poles and oars2 by land1 as far as the hoofs of horses can go1 with tightened baggage-cords1 treading their way among rock-roots and tree-roots where the long road extends1 continuously widening the narrow regions and making the steep regions level1 drawing together1 as it were1 the distant regions by throwing over them 7a net of7 many ropes1--therefore will the first-fruits for the ,sovran ,great ,deity be piled up in her mighty presence like a range of hills1 leaving the remainder for him tranquilly to partake of4' ',moreover1 whereas you bless the ,sovran ,grandchild's reign as a long reign1 firm and enduring1 and render it a happy and prosperous reign1 ,i plunge down my neck cormorant-wise in reverence to you asour ,sovran's dear1 divine ancestress1 and fulfil your praises by making these plenteous offerings on his behalf4' ,he says3 ',i humbly declare in the presence of the ,sovran ,gods who dwell in the ,crown lands and name your august names1 to wit--,takechi1 ,katsuraki1 ,tohochi1 ,shiki1 ,yamanobe and ,sofu4#bci ,whereas the ,sovran ,grandchild partakes of1 as his long food1 his distant food1 the sweet herbs and bitter herbs which grow in and are brought from the six ,crown lands aforesaid1 ,i fulfil your praises by making these plenteous offerings on his behalf4' ',i humbly declare in the presence of the ,sovran ,gods who dwell in the mountain-mouths and name your august names1 to wit--,asuka1 ,ihare1 ,osaka1 ,hatsuse1 ,unebi1 and ,miminashi4#bdj ,whereas the great trees and the small trees which grow on the near mountains and on the far mountains are cut at the root and at the top1 and brought to furnish a fair abode for the ,sovran ,grandchild1 wherein1 sheltered from the rain and sun1 he serenely governs in peace the lands of the four quarters1 ,i fulfil your praises by making these plenteous offerings on his behalf4' ,he says3 ',i humbly declare in the presence of the ,gods who dwell in the water-partings1 and1 naming your august names1 to wit--,yoshinu1 ,uda1 ,tsuge1 and ,katsuraki1 fulfil your praises4 ,if you1 the ,sovran ,gods1 will bestow in ears many a handsbreadth long1 and ears abundant the latter harvest which you will bestow1 ,i will fulfil your praises by offering first-fruits in ear and in juice1 raising up the tops of the sake-jars and filling and setting in a row the bellies of the sake-jars4 ,the ,sovran ,grandchild will then partake with ruddy countenance of that which remains as the corn of his august morning meals and his august evening meals1 for his long food1 and for his distant food4 ,therefore do ,i now fulfil your praises by making these plenteous offerings on his behalf4 ',lend ear1 all of you4' ,he says3 ',more especially1 let the ,kannushi and ,hafuri1 having received the offerings which the ,imbe1 hanging stout straps on weak shoulders1 have prepared with purity1 take them away and offer them in all due form4' ,it will be observed that this norito contains paragraphs--possibly later accretions--which have nothing to do with the harvest4 ,in some of the petitions the do ut des principle is very thinly disguised4 ,tsukinami no ,matsuri4--,this festival was in honour of the ,gods of the ,greater ,shrines4 ,the name means monthly festival1 but it was really celebrated only twice a year1 on the eleventh day of the sixth and twelfth months4 ,the norito 7,no4 #g of the ,yengishiki7 is almost identical with the ,toshigohi4 ,the ,jingishiri1 a modern history of ,shinto1 describes it as a thanksgiving service for the protecting care of the ,gods4 ,another ,tsukinami ceremony was performed at ,ise by a ,nakatomi despatched thither as special envoy in connexion with the ,toshigohi and also in the sixth and twelfth months of every year4 ,the norito 7,no4 #af7 read on these occasions was as follows3-- ,he says3 ',by the great command of the ,mikado1 ,i humbly declare in the mighty presence of the ,great ,deity whose praises are fulfilled 7in the shrine built7 upon the nethermost rock-roots on the bank of the ,river ,isuzu in ,watarahi4 ,i1 of such a rank1 of such a name1 humbly repeat his commands1 as his envoy to convey hither and make offering of the customary great offerings of ,praying-for-,harvest in the second month 7or as the case may be74' ,a similar service 7,no4 #ag7 was performed at the same time in honour of the ,goddess of ,food4 ,the phraseology is somewhat less honorific4 ,on the two latter occasions1 the ,chief ,priest of ,ise read the following norito 7,no4 #ai74 ,he says3 ',hearken1 all ye kannushi and mono-imi to this celestial1 this great norito1 which ,i humbly pronounce in the mighty presence of the ,heaven-,shining ,great ,deity1 whose praises are fulfilled in ,uji of ,watarahi1 where on the bank of the ,river ,isuzu the pillars of the ,great ,shrine are stoutly erected1 and the projecting cross-beams are exalted to the ,plain of ,high-,heaven4 7,here the ,negi and ,uchi-bito1 priests of lower rank1 answer 1 that is1 ,yes1 or ,amen47 ,bless the life of our ,sovereign as a long life1 let his reign be prosperous1 firm and enduring as a pile of multitudinous rocks1 and show thy favour to the princes born of him4 ,as to the functionaries of every rank1 down to the peasants of the four quarters of the ,under-,heaven1 make the five grains which they long and peacefully cultivate to flourish abundantly4 ,favour them with thy protection1 and grant them thy blessing4 ',on this seventeenth day of the sixth month 7or as the case may be7 as the morning sun rises in glory1 ,i fulfil thy praises1 setting before thee in ample measure1 like seas and mountains1 the tribute yarn and the great food-offerings of holy rice and sake1 provided according to custom by the consecrated peasants of the three districts1 and the various localities of the various provinces1 while the ,great ,nakatomi himself is hidden in offering-branches4 ',hearken1 all ye kannushi and mono-imi4' ,he says3 ',this service is likewise addressed to the ,aramatsuri shrine and to the ,tsukiyomi 7,moon-,god7 shrine4' 7,the kannushi again answer '4'7 ,ki-u no ,matsuri 7praying for rain74 ,no norito of this ceremony is given in the ,yengishiki4 ,it was performed in honour of the ,gods of eighty-five shrines1 and was accompanied by the usual offerings of cloth-stuffs4 ,to a few out of the number a black horse was offered in addition4 ,the choice of a black animal for this purpose belongs to the magical pre-religious stage of thought4 ,black is the colour of the rain-clouds1 and therefore1 on the principle that what suggests a thing will actually produce it1 the exhibition of a black horse is thought likely to make the clouds collect and rain to fall4 ,a white horse was offered when fine weather was desired4 ,mr4 ,weston1 in his ',mountaineering in the ,japanese ,alps1' describes the sacrifice of a black dog symbolical of the wished-for storm-clouds in order to cause rain4 ,kama miso no matsuri 7divine-clothing-service74--,this ceremony consisted in presenting offerings of clothing to the ,sun-,goddess at ,ise4 ,it was celebrated twice a year1 in the fourth and ninth months4 ,the norito 7,no4 #ah7 is very short and uninteresting4 ,service for the ,removal of the ,ise ,shrine4--,the norito 7,no4 #bd7 is a very short formula4 ,it announces to the ,sun-,goddess the rebuilding of her shrine1 which took place every twentieth year4 ,a similar form was used in the case of the ,food-,goddess4 ,oho-tono hogahi 7luck-wishing or blessing of the ,great ,palace74--,this ceremony was performed on the morning after the ,kamu image and the ,nihi-name4 ,it was in honour of three deities1 namely1 the two ,yabune no ,kami1 or ,house deities1 and ,oho-miya no me1 a personified ,lady ,chamberlain4 ,i quote from ,sir ,ernest ,satow's ',ancient ,japanese ,rituals' in the ,t4 ,a4 ,s4 ,j41 vol4 ix4 pt4 ii41 a ninth-century description of this ceremony3-- ,the ,jingikwan took four boxes containing precious stones1 cut paper-mulberry bark1 rice and sake in bottles1 and placed them on two eight-legged tables1 which were then borne by four attendants1 preceded by ,nakatomi and ,imbe functionaries1 all wearing wreaths and scarfs of paper-mulberry bark1 walking in double line1 the rear being brought up by virgin priestesses4 ,on the procession arriving in front of the ,palace gate1 the tables were deposited under the arcade which ran along the outside of the wall4 ,a servant called out for admittance1 and the porter having announced the procession by saying that an officer of the ,imperial ,household had asked for admission in order to pronounce the ,luck-wishing of the ,great ,palace1 the order1 ',let him pronounce it1' was transmitted back from the ,mikado4 ,the porter thereupon called out ',let him declare his name and surname1' in reply to which the officer advanced to a spot previously marked out by a wooden ticket with his name on it1 and said3 ',it is so and so1 of the ,jingikwan1 who wish to perform the ,luck-wishing of the ,great ,palace4' ,to this the ,mikado's answer was ',call them4' ,the officer of the household replied '1' and retiring called the functionaries of the ,jingikwan1 who in their turn replied '4' ,the ,nakatomi and ,imbe then put on their wreaths of paper-mulberry1 to which the latter added straps of the same material1 and advanced ahead of the tables up to the ',hall of ,benevolence and ,long ,life4' ,the virgin priestesses had meanwhile entered by another gate1 and were waiting in the ,palace enclosure4 ,they now followed the tables1 and came up to the verandah on the east side of the building1 where they took charge of the boxes of offerings4 ,the procession then entered the building4 ,one virgin priestess went to the ,hall of ,audience and scattered rice about it1 while another proceeded to the gate on its south side and performed the same ceremony there4 ,the ,imbe took out the precious stones and hung them at the four corners of the ,hall1 and the priestesses withdrew1 after sprinkling sake and scattering rice and cut paper-mulberry fibre at the four corners of the interior4 ,the ,nakatomi stood on the south side of the building while the ,imbe turned to the south-east1 and in a low voice read the ritual4 ,the whole company next went to the ,mikado's bath-room1 and hung precious stones at its four angles1 and the same at his privy1 while the priestesses scattered rice and sprinkled sake as before4 ,the norito 7,no4 #h7 of this ceremony1 as appears from the archaic forms of language which it contains1 is probably very ancient4 ,it is quoted in the ,kogojiui2 and the ,nihongi describes as an ancient saying a sentence which forms part of it4 ,the reader will note the confusion--of a kind inherent in all mythologies--between the house considered as a deity and the protecting deity of the house4 ,when by command of the dear1 divine ancestor and ancestress who divinely dwell in the ,plain of ,high ,heaven1 the ,sovran ,grandchild#bda was made to take his seat on the high august throne of ,heaven1 and the ,heavenly ,emblems1 namely1 the mirror and the sword1 were delivered to him1 these words of blessing were pronounced3 ',let our sovran great offspring1 the ,sovran ,grandchild1 receiving over the celestial ,sun-succession on this high throne of ,heaven1 rule tranquilly for myriads of thousands of autumns1 for long autumns1 over the ,great-,eight-islands1 the ,rich ,reed-plain1 ,land of fair rice-ears1 as a peaceful country4' ,with these words they delivered it unto him4 ,then1 celestial counsel having been held1 they put to silence the rock-roots and tree-roots1 even to the smallest blades of grass1 that previously had power of speech4 ,and for the ,sovran ,grandchild who in ,heavenly ,sun-succession rules the ,under-,heaven1 to which he had descended1 trees are now cut down with the sacred axes of the ,imbe in the great valleys and the small valleys of the secluded mountains1 and sacrifice having been made of their tops and bottoms to the ,god of the mountains1 the middle parts are brought forth and set up as sacred pillars with sacred mattocks to form a fair ,palace wherein the ,sovran ,grandchild finds shelter from the sky and shelter from the sun4 ,to thee1 therefore1 ,ya-bune no ,mikoto the ,palace treated as a ,god ,i address these heavenly1 wondrous1 auspicious words of calm and blessing4 ,he says3 ',i humbly declare the names of the ,gods who calmly and peacefully watch so that this ,great ,palace where he holds rule1 as far downwards as the lowermost rock-roots1 suffer no harm from reptiles among its bottom-ropes1#bdb as far upwards as the blue clouds are diffused in the ,plain of ,high ,heaven1 may suffer no harm from flying birds in the celestial smoke-hole1#bdc that the joinings of the firmly planted pillars1 and of the crossbeams1 rafters1 doors1 and windows may not move or make a noise1 that there may be no slackening of the tied rope-knots and no dishevelment of the roof-thatch1 no creaking of the floor-joints or alarms by night4 ,i humbly praise your honoured names1 to wit1 ,yabune ,kukunochi no ,mikoto and ,yabune ,toyo-uke hime no ,mikoto ,house-tree ,god and ,house-food ,goddess4#bdd ,and inasmuch as you humbly preserve the ,sovran ,grandchild's reign to be firm and enduring1 and humbly bless it as a lasting1 prosperous1 and perfect reign1 the ,imbe no ,sukune name1 adding shining cloth and lustrous fine cloth to the countless strings of fair jewels prepared by the sacred jewel-makers with observance of purity and avoidance of pollution1 and hanging stout straps on weak shoulders will offer them to you1 with words of blessing and calm4 ,and let the ,gods ,kamu-nahobi and ,oho-nahobi peacefully and tranquilly exercise their office1 correcting1 whether in things heard or in things seen1 any omission which he may make in so doing4' ,more especially does he humbly declare3 ',naming her as ,oho-miya-no-me ,i humbly fulfil her praises because1 within the same ,palace as the ,sovran ,grandchild1 she blocks the way and takes cognizance and makes choice of the persons who go in and out1 with words amends and mollifies the hurry and roughness of the ,gods1 keeps from error the hands and feet of the scarf-wearing attendants and the strap-wearing attendants#bde who serve the morning meal and the evening meal of the ,sovran ,grandchild1 preventing the ,imperial ,princes1 ,princes1 ,ministers of ,state1 and all the functionaries from indulging their several inclinations and causing them1 pure of evil intents and base hearts1 to attend in the ,palace with a ,palace-attendance1 and to serve in the ,palace with a ,palace-service1 and amending to eye and ear all faults and errors1 so that their duties may be performed peacefully and tranquilly4' ,naishi-dokoro or ,kashiko-dokoro4--,every new moon offerings were presented in the naishi-dokoro 7naishi-place7 or kashiko-dokoro 7place of reverence#bdf7 by the naishi or female attendants of the ,palace to the sacred mirror which represented the ,sun-,goddess4 ,they consisted of rice1 cakes1 paper1 cloth1 egg-plant1 fish1 shellfish1 c4 ,twice a year ,kagura was performed4 ,the ceremonies used on these occasions were regulated in ,uda's reign 7#hhi-hih7 and closely resembled those of the ,great ,shrine of ,ise4 ,the ,yengishiki has not preserved the norito belonging to it4 ,a ,japanese writer thus describes the modern form of this ceremony3-- ,within the palace there is a large hall1 the kashiko-dokoro1 or place of reverence1 constructed of milk-white1 knotless timbers1 exquisitely joined and smooth as mirrors1 but absolutely devoid of decoration4 ,at one end stands a large shrine1 also of snow-pure wood1 with delicately chased mountings of silver gilt4 ,it encloses models of the divine insignia1 and a number of long1 narrow tablets of pine1 on which are inscribed the posthumous titles of all the ,emperors since the days of ,jimmu4 ,within the folding doors of the shrine hangs a curtain woven of bamboo threads4 ,at the appointed hour1 generally the grey of morning1 sakaki boughs are laid beside the shrine and provision of incense is made2 after which the officials of the ,bureau of ,rites and those of the ,imperial ,household file in and seat themselves on either side of the hall4 ,the doors of the shrine are then opened and offerings of various kinds--vegetables1 fish1 cloth1 and so forth--are carried in and ranged before it1 solemn music in ,japanese style being performed the while4 ,thereafter the princes of the blood and all officials of the two highest ranks as well as the peers of the 'musk-chamber' and the 'golden-pheasant chamber' enter1 and when they are seated the ,emperor himself appears and1 proceeding slowly to the shrine1 bows his head1 takes a branch of sakaki with pendant gohei1 and having waved it in token of the purification of sins1 ignites a stick of incense#bdg and places it upright in the censer1 thereafter repeating a ritual 7norito74 ,so long as his ,majesty is present in the hall1 all the officials remain standing4 ,his ,majesty then retires1 and1 on his departure1 worship of the same kind1 but without any prayer1 is performed by a representative of the ,prince ,imperial1 and subsequently by the other members of the ,court4 ,mitama ,shidzumuru no matsuri 7ceremony for settling or calming the august spirit74 ,there was an ancient ceremony called mitama furishiki that is1 shaking the august jewels1 which is referred to in the ,kiujiki4 ,we are there told that when the ,sun-,goddess sent down ,ninigi to rule the world1 she gave him ten auspicious treasures1 namely1 one mirror of the offing1 one mirror of the shore1 one eight-hands-breadth sword1 one jewel 7tama7 of birth1 one jewel of return from death1 one perfect jewel1 one road-returning jewel 7that is1 a jewel which has the property of making evil things return by the road they came71 one serpent-scarf 7a scarf which has power when waved to keep away serpents71 one bee-scarf1 and one scarf of various things1 saying3 ,in case of illness shake these treasures and repeat to them the words1 ',one1 two1 three1 four1 five1 six1 seven1 eight1 nine1 ten4' ,if thou doest so the dead will certainly return to life4 ,the ,nihongi states that in ,a4,d4 #fhe the ceremony of calling on the spirit 7mitama7 was performed for the ,mikado's sake4 ,an ancient gloss identifies this ceremony with that of the mitama furishiki just described4 ,the object of the two ceremonies was1 no doubt1 the same1 but it is to be noted that mitama1 which in the one case means jewel or talisman1 in the other means spirit--a rare case in the older ,shinto records of this word being applied to the human soul4 ,the phrases calling on the spirit and settling the spirit are of ,chinese origin1 mitama being in this connexion simply a translation of the ,chinese hun 7pronounced kon in ,japanese74 ,the same ceremony is known in ,china1 and some features of its ,japanese form were probably borrowed from that country4 ,its object1 according to a modern writer1 was to summon back to and settle in the body the volatile kon4 ,it was performed every year in the eleventh month in the ,chapel of the ,jingikwan1 and also at one time in connexion with the coronation ceremony4 ,the norito 7,no4 #ae of the ,yengishiki7 begins with a recital of the ,mikado's divine claims to sovereignty4 ,then the offerings are enumerated4 ,it concludes with a prayer to the eight ,gods of the ,jingikwan to grant the ,mikado a long and prosperous reign1 and that he may dwell peacefully in his ,palace during the ensuing year4 ,it says nothing of the ,mikado's spirit1 an expression found only in the heading1 which may be supposed to be a later addition4 ,a performance by the ,miko resembling that of ,uzume before the ,rock-cave of ,heaven1 and comprising the repetition of the magic words one1 two1 three1 c41 formed part1 no doubt the oldest part1 of the ceremony4 ,it is now usually called by the ,chinese name ,chinkonsai4 ,there is a story of a thief having stolen the clothing presented on this occasion1 and also the string which tied the ,mikado's mitama1 whatever that may mean4 ,oho-harahi 7,great ,purification74#bdh--,this ceremony includes a preliminary lustration1 expiatory offerings1 and the recital of a norito or formula--not a prayer1 as it is sometimes called--in which the ,mikado1 by virtue of the authority transmitted to him from the ,sun-,goddess1 declares to his ministers and people the absolution of their sins and impurities4 ,this formula is often referred to as if it constituted the whole ceremony4 ,it is known as the ,nakatomi no ,oho-harahi1 because in ancient times it was usually read by the ,nakatomi as representatives of the ,mikado4 ,the myths which represent ,izanagi as flinging down his garments during his flight from ,yomi1 and washing away in the sea the pollution contracted by his visit there1 and describe the expiatory offerings exacted from ,susa no wo1 presume an acquaintance with the ceremony of which the ,oho-harahi norito forms a chief part4 ,the ,nihongi informs us1 under the legendary date ,a4,d4 #bjj1 that after the sudden death of the ,mikado ,chiuai1 his widow and successor ,jing commanded her ministers to purge offences and to rectify transgressions1 while in the parallel passage of the ,kojiki#bdi details are given of these offences1 which1 as far as they go1 are identical with those enumerated in the ,oho-harahi itself4 ,great ,purifications are mentioned as having been performed in #fgf1 #fgh1 and #fhf4 ,the ,japanese scholar ,mabuchi ascribes the present ,oho-harahi norito to this last-named period4 ,in substance it must be very much older4 ,the chief ceremony was performed in the capital twice yearly1 on the last days of the sixth and twelfth months4 ,these dates are not chosen arbitrarily4 ,there is a natural impulse at the close of the year to wipe out old scores and to make a fresh start with good resolutions4 ,the tsuina1#bej or demon-expelling ceremonies1 of the last day of the year1 described below1 are prompted by a similar motive4 ,tennyson gives expression to this feeling in his ',in ,memoriam'3-- ,the year is dying in the night1 ,ring out1 wild bells1 and let him die4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ring out the false1 ring in the true1 99 99 99 99 99 ,ring out the want1 the care1 the sin1 99 99 99 99 99 ,ring out old shapes of foul disease4 ,the summer celebration of the ,oho-harahi is analogous to the custom of lustration1 or bathing on ,st4 ,john's ,eve1 formerly practised in ,germany1 ,italy1 and other countries4 ,the ,chinese had an ,oho-harahi1 defined by ,mr4 ,giles in his ',chinese ,dictionary' as a religious ceremony of purification performed in spring and autumn1 with a view to secure divine protection for agricultural interests4 ,the ,ainus of ,yezo have a similar ceremony4#bea ,the ,oho-harahi was not confined to the last days of the sixth and twelfth months4 ,it was performed as a preliminary to several of the great ,shinto ceremonies1 notably the ,ohonihe1 and on other emergencies1 such as an outbreak of pestilence1#beb the finding of a dead body in the ,palace 7#hfe71 the officiating of a ,nakatomi who had performed ,buddhist rites 7#haf71 c4 ,we learn from the regulations of the period ,jgwan 7#hei-hgf7 that at that time the ceremony was performed at the southern gate of the ,kioto ,palace1 in front of which there was a canal4 ,the purification offerings were set out before this gate4 ,the officials took their seats in due order1 the women being separated off by a curtain4 ,the officials of the ,jingikwan then distributed kiri-nusa#bec among the audience1 upon which the ,nakatomi took his place and recited the ritual1 the officials responding after every paragraph4 ,when the purification was finished1 the ,oho-nusa ceremony was performed4 ,it had also a purifying influence1 and consisted1 according to ,dr4 ,florenz1 in brandishing the ,oho-nusa over the assembly1 first to left1 then to right1 and then again to left4 ,the norito 7,no4 #aj of the ,yengishiki7 is as follows3-- ,he#bed says3 ',give ear1 all ye ,imperial ,princes1 ,princes1 ,ministers of ,state1 and functionaries who are here assembled1 and hearken every one to the ,great ,purification by which at this year's interlune of the sixth 7or twelfth7 month he deigns to purge and absolve all manner of faults and transgressions which may have been committed by those who serve in the ,imperial ,court1 whether they wear the scarf or the shoulder-strap1 whether they bear on their back the quiver or gird on them the sword1 the eighty attendants of the attendants1 including1 moreover1 all those who do duty in the various offices of ,state4' ,he says3 ',hearken1 all of you4 ,the ,sovran dear ancestors1#bee who divinely dwell in the ,plain of ,high ,heaven1 having summoned to an assembly the eight hundred myriads of deities1 held divine counsel with them1 and then gave command1 saying3 ,let our ,august ,grandchild#bef hold serene rule over the fertile reed-plain1 the region of fair rice-ears1#beg as a land of peace4 ',but in the realm thus assigned to him there were savage deities4 ,these were called to a divine account and expelled with a divine expulsion4 ,moreover1 the rocks1 trees1 and smallest leaves of grass which had power of speech were put to silence4 ,then they despatched him downward from his celestial everlasting throne1 cleaving as he went with an awful way-cleaving the many-piled clouds of ,heaven1 and delivered to him the ,land4 ,at the middle point of the lands of the four quarters thus entrusted to him1 ,yamato1 the ,high-,sun-,land1 was established as a peaceful land1 and there was built here for the ,sovran ,grandchild a fair ,palace wherewithal to shelter him from sun and sky1#beh with massy pillars based deep on the nethermost rocks and upraising to the ,plain of ,high ,heaven the cross-timbers of its roof4 ',now of the various faults and transgressions to be committed by the celestial race destined more and more to people this land of his peaceful rule1 some are of ,heaven1 to wit1 the breaking down of divisions between rice-fields1 filling up of irrigation channels1 removing water-pipes1 sowing seed over again1#bei planting skewers1#bfj flaying alive1 ,illustration ,illustration flaying backwards4 ,these are distinguished as ,heavenly offences4#bfa ',earthly offences which will be committed are the cutting of living bodies1 the cutting of dead bodies1 leprosy1 kokumi1#bfb incest of a man with his mother or daughter1 with his mother-in-law or step-daughter1 bestiality1 calamities from creeping things1 from the high ,gods#bfc and from high birds1 killing animals1 bewitchments4#bfd ',whensoever they may be committed1 let the ,great ,nakatomi1 in accordance with the custom of the ,heavenly ,palace1 cut ,heavenly saplings at the top and cut them at the bottom1 and make thereof a complete array of one thousand stands for offerings4#bfe ',having trimmed rushes of heaven at the top and trimmed them at the bottom1 let him split them into manifold slivers4#bff ',then let him recite the mighty ritual words of the celestial ritual4#bfg ',when he does so1 the ,gods of ,heaven1 thrusting open the adamantine door of ,heaven and cleaving the many-piled clouds of ,heaven with an awful way-cleaving will lend ear4 ,the ,gods of ,earth1 climbing to the tops of the high mountains and to the tops of the low mountains1 sweeping apart the mists of the high mountains and the mists of the low mountains1 will lend ear4 ',when they have thus lent ear1 all offences whatsoever will be annulled1 from the ,court of the ,sovran ,grandchild to the provinces of the four quarters of the ,under-,heaven4 ',as the many-piled clouds of ,heaven are scattered by the breath of the ,wind-,gods2 as the morning breezes and the evening breezes dissipate the dense morning vapours and the dense evening vapours2 as a huge ship1 moored in a great harbour1 casting off its stern moorings1 casting off its bow moorings1 drives forth into the great sea-plain2 as yonder thick brushwood is smitten and cleared away by the sharp sickle forged in the fire1 so shall all offences be utterly annulled4 ,therefore he 7the ,mikado7 is graciously pleased to purify and cleanse them away4 ,the ,goddess called ,se-ori-tsu-hime who dwells in the rapids of the swift streams whose cataracts tumble headlong from the tops of the high mountains and from the tops of the low mountains will bear them out into the great sea-plain4 ,thereupon the ,goddess called ,haya-aki-tsu-hime1 who dwells in the myriad meetings of the tides of the myriad brine-paths of the myriad ways of the currents of the boisterous sea will swallow them up4 ,and the ,god ,ibuki-do nushi1 who dwells in the ,breath-blowing-place1#bfh will puff them away to the ,root-country1 the ,bottom ,country4#bfi ,then the ,goddess ,haya-sasura-hime1#bgj who dwells in the ,root-country1 the ,bottom-country1 will banish and abolish them4 ,when they have been so destroyed1 every one1 from the servants of the ,imperial ,court to the four quarters of the ,under-,heaven1 will remain void of all offences whatsoever4 ',attend1 therefore1 all of you to this ,great ,purification1 by which he is graciously pleased at sunset on this interlunar day of the sixth 7or twelfth7 month of this year to purify and cleanse you1 having led hither a horse as an animal that pricks up its ears to the ,plain of ,high-,heaven4'#bga ,he says3 ',ye diviners 7,urabe7 of the four provinces1 remove them to the great river-way and abolish them4'#bgb ,in addition to the ,oho-harahi1 or ,national ,purifications1 there were local and individual celebrations4 ,in the latter case1 of which ,susa no wo's punishment is the mythical type1 the harahi-tsu-mono were naturally furnished by the person for whose benefit they were performed1 and so amounted practically to a fine on the offender4 ,the ,nihongi 7,a4,d4 #fdf7 mentions a number of cases in which travellers and others were compelled by the country people to do harahi1 that is1 to pay a fine1 under various pretences4 ,for example1 when a man returning from forced labour fell down by the roadside and died1 the villagers of the place said1 ,why should a man be allowed to die on our road8 and detained the companions of the deceased until they had done harahi4 ,cases of drowning were followed by similar claims1 and even the cooking of rice by the roadside or the upsetting of a borrowed pot4 ,an ,imperial decree was issued prohibiting these extortions1 which are described as habitual with the unenlightened vulgar4 ,the application of the harahi to the purpose of a fine was regulated by an ordinance which was issued in #hja4 ,those who were guilty of neglect in connexion with the celebration of the ,ohonihe1 or who1 during the month of special avoidance of impurity1 contracted mourning1 visited the sick1 were concerned with capital sentences1 ate flesh1 or touched anything impure were mulcted in an oho-harahi1 which in this case meant simply a heavy fine4 ,it consisted of one horse1 two swords1 two bows1 and a long list of other sundries4 ,other offences of the same classes were fined in a naka-harahi1 or medium harahi4 ,dr4 ,florenz describes a more modern form of harahi as follows3 ,as a third species of harahi we may mention the purification preceding every greater festival of a ,shinto shrine1 through which the priests and others taking part in the ,matsuri are purified4 ,this ceremony takes place in a hall or open place specially prepared for the purpose1 called harahi-dokoro 7purification-place74 ,it consists in the ,kami-oroshi 7bringing down the spirits of the purifying deities7 into the himorogi1 which stands on an eight-legged table in the middle of the harahi-dokoro1 the recitation of the purification prayer1 various subsequent symbolic ceremonies1 and the ,kami-age1 or sending back the ,gods to their abodes4 ,thereupon the priests are considered to be pure1 and the ,matsuri proper can begin4 ,the prayer addressed to the ,gods is as follows3-- ,in reverence and awe3 ,the great gods of the purification place who came into existence when the ,great ,god ,izanagi deigned to wash and purify himself on the plain of ,ahagi east of ,tachibana near the ,river ,wot in ,himuka in ,tsukushi1 shall deign to purify and deign to cleanse whatever there may be of sins and pollutions committed inadvertently or deliberately by the officials serving here to-day4 ,listen ye to these my words4 ,thus ,i say reverentially4 ,in later times there were many abuses and perversions of the harahi1 due mainly to ,buddhist influence4 ,the formula was much modified1 and is found in numerous versions4 ,some of these are wholly ,buddhist1 such as the well-known ,rokkon shj 7may the six senses be pure71 so constantly in the mouths of pilgrims at this day4 ,others include a prayer for purity of heart1 which is an idea quite foreign to the ancient ,shinto4 ,harahi-bako 7harahi-boxes7 were sold at ,ise with inscriptions half ,buddhist and half ,shinto4 ,in imitation of a similar ,buddhist practice1 these boxes contained a certificate that the harahi had been recited one thousand or ten thousand times for the purchaser's benefit4 ,pieces of the gohei wand used by the priests at the ,oho-harahi of the sixth and twelfth months were enclosed with these certificates4 ,sometimes a small fragment of the old shrine1 which was broken up every twentieth year and a new one erected1 was compressed between two thin boards and called an o-harahi4 ,pilgrims received these in return for their offerings4 ,the devout could even purchase them from hawkers1 who went about the country 7like the sellers of indulgences in ,luther's time7 disposing of them for the benefit of the shrine4 ,this practice is now prohibited4#bgc ,the ideas associated with the harahi ceremony also underwent a change4 ,some writers speak of it as intended to propitiate evil deities4 ,the harahi sold by the priests of ,ise were set up in the ,kami-dana1 or domestic shrine1 and worshipped as the shintai of the deity4 ,they were supposed to be indestructible by fire or water1 to keep away robbers1 to heal diseases1 to make the old young1 and to protect against calamity of every kind4 ,in some later forms of the harahi the purifying ,gods are besought to cleanse from evil1 sin1 and pollution4 ,this marks a different attitude from that of the ,nakatomi no ,oho-harahi1 where they are merely a part of the machinery of purification4 ,invocation by the ,hereditary ,corporation of ,scholars of ,yamato and ,kahachi4--,this norito 7,no4 #aa of the ,yengishiki7 was read previous to the performance of the ,oho-harahi4 ,the two corporations named were descendants1 or1 at least1 successors of the ,korean scholars who in the fifth century introduced ,chinese learning into ,japan4 ,the language1 thought1 and sentiment of this norito are ,chinese4 ,the ,sun1 ,moon 7not ,hirume and ,tsukiyomi7 and stars1 the ,high ,emperor of ,supreme ,heaven 7,shangti71 the five ,emperors of the five cardinal points1 the ,king-father of the ,east1 the ,king-mother of the ,west1 the four influences of the four seasons1 and other ,chinese divinities are invoked to grant prosperity to the ,mikado4 ,an offering was made of a silver man in order that calamity might be averted from him1 and of a golden sword so that his reign might be lengthened4 ,the sword1 really of wood gilt1 was called the harahi-tsu-tachi1 or sword of purification1 and was breathed upon by the ,mikado before being taken away4 ,the silver man was also for use as an aga-mono1 or ransom-object4 ,michi-ahe no ,matsuri4--,the object of this ceremony was to invoke the aid of the ,sahe no ,kami in preventing evil spirits1 that is to say1 pestilences1 from entering ,kioto4#bgd ,the norito 7,no4 #ac of the ,yengishiki7 read on this occasion is as follows3-- ,i humbly declare in the presence of the ,sovran ,gods whose functions first began in the ,plain of ,high ,heaven1 when they fulfilled the praises#bge of the ,sovran ,grandchild by guarding the great eight-road-forks like a multitudinous assemblage of rocks4#bgf ,naming your honoured names1 to wit1 ,yachimata-hiko1 ,yachimata-hime1 and ,kunado1 ,i fulfil your praises4 ,whenever from the ,root-country the ,bottom-country there may come savage and unfriendly beings1 consort not and parley not with them1 but if they go below1 keep watch below1 if they go above1 keep watch above1 protecting us against pollution with a night guarding and with a day guarding4 ,the offerings ,i furnish in your honour are bright cloth1 shining cloth1 soft cloth1 and rough cloth4 ,of sake ,i raise up the tops of the jars and fill and range in order the bellies of the jars4 ,grain in juice and in ear ,i offer you4 ,of things that dwell in the mountains and on the moors ,i offer the soft of hair and the coarse of hair4 ,of things that dwell in the blue sea-plain1 the broad of fin and the narrow of fin1 even to the weeds of the offing and the weeds of the shore4 ,peacefully partaking of these plenteous offerings1 which ,i lay before you in full measure like a cross range of hills1 hold guard on the highways like a multitudinous assemblage of rocks1 preserving from pollution the ,sovran ,grandchild firmly and enduringly1 and bless his reign to be a prosperous reign4 ,also be pleased peacefully to preserve from pollution the ,imperial ,princes1 the ,princes1 the ,ministers of ,state1 and all the functionaries1 including1 moreover1 the people of the ,under-,heaven4 ,i1 as official of the ,department of ,religion1 humbly fulfil your praises by this celestial1 this great pronouncement4 ,the offerings included hides of oxen1 boar1 deer1 and bear1 in addition to those above enumerated4 ,sagi-ch4--,this is a modern ceremony1 which was also intended to repel evil influences4 ,the ,wakan-,sansai-dzuye 7#agac7 gives the following description of it as practised in the ,imperial ,palace3-- ,on the fifteenth day of the first month#bgg green bamboos are burnt in the courtyard of the ,seiryden1 and happy reports#bgh sent up to ,heaven therewith4 ,on the eighteenth also bamboos are dressed up with fans attached to them1 which are burnt at the same place4 ,there is a reader of spells called ,daikoku ,matsudaiyu1 who has four followers1 two old men and two old women4 ,these wear devil-masks and 'red-bear' wigs4 ,the two old women carry drums1 and the two old men run after them trying to beat the drums4 ,there are two boys without masks1 but with 'red-bear' wigs1 who beat double cymbals4 ,moreover1 there are five men in dress of ceremony who stand in a row and join in with cries of 'dondoya1' while one costumed somewhat differently calls out ',ha6' ,the ,wakan ,sansai does not know the origin of this ceremony1 which is said to expel demons4 ,there is a similar ,chinese practice1 though on a different date1 namely1 the first day of the year4 ,its object is said to be to drive away mountain elves4 ,mikado matsuri4--,this ceremony was in honour of two ,gate ,gods named ,kushi-iha-mado 7wondrous-rock-gate7 and ,toyo-iha-mado 7rich-rock-gate74#bgi ,the ,yengishiki contains a norito 7,no4 #i7 in which their praises are fulfilled1 because they prevent the entrance to the ,palace of noxious things and exercise a superintendence over the persons who come in and go out4 ,tsuina or ,oni-yarahi1 that is to say1 demon expelling1 is a sort of drama in which disease1 or more generally ill-luck1 is personified1 and driven away with threats and a show of violence4 ,like the ,oho-harahi1 it was performed on the last day of the year4 ,this association is only natural4 ,the demons of the tsuina are personified wintry influences1 with the diseases which they bring with them1 while the ,oho-harahi is intended to cleanse the people from sin and uncleanness1 things closely related to disease1 as well as from disease itself4 ,though probably of ,chinese origin1 the tsuina is a tolerably ancient rite4 ,it is alluded to in the ,nihongi under the date ,a4,d4 #fhi4 ,it was at one time performed at ,court on an imposing scale4 ,four bands of twenty youths1 each wearing a four-eyed mask1 and each carrying a halberd in the left hand1 marched simultaneously from the four gates of the ,palace1 driving the devils before them4 ,another account of this ceremony says that a man disguised himself as the demon of pestilence1 in which garb he was shot at and driven off by the courtiers armed with peach-wood bows and arrows of reed4 7,see illustration1 p4 #caj47 ,peach-wood staves were used for the same purpose4 ,there was formerly a practice at ,asa-kusa in ,tokio on the last day of the year for a man got up as a devil to be chased round the pagoda there by another wearing a mask4 ,after this #c1jjj tickets were scrambled for by the spectators4 ,these were carried away and pasted up over the doors as a charm against pestilence4 ,at the present day1 the popular form of tsuina consists in scattering parched beans with the cry1 ,oni ha soto3 fuku ha uchi1 that is1 ,out with the devils and in with the luck4 ,the former phrase is uttered in a loud voice1 the latter in a low tone4 ,this office should properly be discharged by the head of the family1 but it is frequently delegated to a servant4 ,the performer is called the toshi-otoko1 or year-man4 ,in the ,shgun's palace a specially appointed toshi-otoko sprinkled parched beans in all the principal rooms4 ,these beans were picked up by the women of the palace1 who wrapped them in paper in number equal to the years of their age1 and then flung them backwards out of doors4 ,sometimes tsuina beans were gathered by people who had reached an unlucky year 7yaku-toshi71 one for each year of their age and one over1 and wrapped in paper with a small copper coin1 which had been rubbed over their body to transfer the ill-luck4 ,these were placed in a bamboo tube and flung away at crossroads4 ,this was called yaku-sute 7flinging away ill-luck74 ,other people pass under seven tori-wi as an antidote4 ,the significance of the peach and bean in this ceremony has been already explained4#bhj ,the vulgar notion is that the beans hit the devils in the eye and blind them4 ,a more philosophical theory is that the beans dispel the in-aku no ki1 or female evil influences1 and welcome in the sei-y1 green male influences4 ,by the female influences are here meant wintry influences2 by male influences those of spring4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 in ',the ,golden ,bough1' iii4 #fg1 second edition1 gives an interesting account of another ,japanese form of this custom4 ,illustration ,illustration ,the tsuina is only a special form of a world-wide ceremony4 ,we may compare with it the ,roman ,lemuria1 a festival for the souls of the dead1 in which the celebrators threw black beans nine times behind their backs1 believing by this ceremony to secure themselves against the ,lemures4 ,some of my readers may have witnessed the ,scotch ,hogmanay1 when the house is thrice circumambulated on the last day of the year in order to frighten away devils4 ,in ,lady ,burton's life of her husband she tells us that at ,trieste on ,st4 ,sylvester's ,eve1 the servants went through a very usual ceremony of forming procession and chevying the evil spirits with sticks and brooms out of the house1 inviting the good spirits and good luck to come and dwell there4 ,this is curiously like the ,japanese formula just quoted4 ,at ,chronea1 in ,botia1 the chief magistrate at the town hall and every householder in his own house1 as we learn from ,plutarch1 had on a certain day to beat a slave with rods of agnus castus1 and turn him out of doors1 with the formula1 ,out hunger6 in health and wealth4 ,the expulsion of winter of ,teutonic and ,slavonic folklore belongs to the same class of customs4 ,it should be remembered that the ,japanese ,new ,year was later than our own1 and was recognized as the beginning of spring4 ,i must not quote further from the extensive literature of this subject4 ,the reader is referred to ',the ,golden ,bough1' second edition1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #ci et seqq41 for a rich collection of evidence relating to it4 ,new ,year in ,modern ,japan4--,although most of the ,new ,year's observances in modern ,japan belong to the province of popular magic rather than of ,shinto1 some general account of them may not be out of place here4 ,the preparations begin on the thirteenth day of the last month1 which is therefore called koto-hajime 7beginning of things74 ,on this day people eat okotojiru1 a kind of stew1 whose ingredients are generally red beans1 potatoes1 mushrooms1 sliced fish1 and a root called konnyaku4 ,presents of money are made to servants at this time4 ,about the same date there is a partly real1 partly ceremonial house-cleaning called susu-harahi 7soot-sweeping74 ,the other preparations for the ,new ,year consist in decorating the front entrance by planting at each side of it small fir-trees1 with which bamboos are frequently joined4 ,both of these symbolize an ever-green prosperity4 ,a shimenaha is hung over the door or gate1 attached to which are fern leaves1 and yudzuri-ha 7,daphniphyllum macropodum7 with daidai 7a kind of bitter orange74 ,daidai also means ages1 generations1 so that this is a sort of punning prayer for long life and the continuance of the family4 ,the prawn1 which forms part of the decorations1 is supposed by its curved back to suggest old age4 ,sometimes holly leaves1 of which the prickles are thought1 as in ,europe1 obnoxious to demons1 bean pods1 and a head of a salt sardine 7ihashi7 are added4 ,on the domestic shrine is placed an offering of unleavened cakes of glutinous pounded rice1 the preparation of which is a matter for much fun and excitement4 ,these cakes are called kagami-mochi1 or mirror-cakes1 on account of their shape1 which is that of a flattened sphere4 ,there are two of them4 ,one is said to represent the sun1 the y1 or male principle of ,chinese philosophy1 the parent and the husband1 while the other is put for the moon1 the female principle1 the child and the wife4 ,the kagami-mochi is also called the ha-gatame mochi 7tooth-hardening cake7 because it fortifies the constitution4 ,the explanation given is that the ,chinese character for ha1 tooth1 also means age4 ,the tsuina on the last day of the year is described above4 ,the first act of the ,new ,year is for the toshi-otoko to proceed at dawn to the well or stream whence the household water is supplied4 ,he throws into it a small offering of rice1 and draws water in a new pail crowned with shime-naha4 ,to drink this water1 called waka-midzu or young water1 brings luck and exemption from disease during the year4 ,on ,new ,year's day zni1 a stew of various kinds of vegetables is eaten and a spiced sake called toso is drunk and offered to visitors4 ,no work is done4 ,visits are exchanged between friends1 and formal calls made on superiors4 ,the phrase ,shinnen o medet gozarimasu 7,new ,year's congratulations to you7 is in everybody's mouth4 ,the ujigami are visited and also the ,shinto temples which lie in the direction 7eh7 indicated by the cyclic name of the year4 ,thus the year of the ,hare is associated with the ,east4 ,the ,gods who preside over this particular year are called the ,toshi-toku-jin 7year-virtue-,gods74 ,in some places a lamp1 consisting of a coarse earthenware saucer with a wick1 is lighted at the ,new ,year in honour of the ,god of the ,privy4 ,sick people at this time throw away their stockings or drawers on a frequented road1 and if any one picks them up they expect to recover4 ,samurai boys receive presents of hamayumi 7devil-quelling bows74 ,the seventh of the first month is called ,nanakusa1 or seven herbs1 because in ancient times people went out into the country to gather wild pot-herbs which were made into a mess with rice and eaten on this day4 ,the ,new ,year's celebrations end with the ,sahe no ,kami festival 7now called dondo or sagich7 on the fourteenth or fifteenth of the first month1 when the decorations above described are made the material for a bonfire4#bha ,tatari-gami wo utsushi-tatematsuru norito 7service for the respectful removal of deities who send a curse74--,this norito 7,no4 #be7 is long1 but it contains nothing worthy of special notice4 ,the mischievous deities are reminded of the divine right of the ,mikado1 and of the quelling by ,futsunushi and ,takemika-dzuchi of the evil beings who plagued ,japan before the descent of ,ninigi4 ,offerings of cloth1 a mirror1 jewels1 bows and arrows1 swords1 a horse1 sake1 rice in ear and in grain1 and various kinds of flesh and vegetables1 are set before them1 with the request that they should retire to enjoy these good things in some pure spot among the hills and streams and remain there1 rather than work curses and violence in the ,palace4 ,it is to be distinguished from the ,michiahe ritual1 which was addressed to the ,protective ,road-deities in order to keep off pestilence4 ,the present formula is a direct appeal to the evil deities themselves4 ,it is not quite clear who they were4 ,perhaps all possibly harmful ,gods were meant to be included4 ,ceremony when ,envoys were despatched to ,foreign ,countries4--,on such occasions the ,gods of ,heaven and ,earth1 with the phallic ,chiburi no ,kami1 or ,road-,gods1 were worshipped outside the city1 the envoys taking part in the ceremony and reading a norito4 ,the wood-,gods and mountain-,gods were worshipped before cutting the timber for building their ship4 ,the ,yengishiki preserves a norito 7,no4 #bf7 used on one of these occasions4 ,it is addressed to the ,sea-,gods of ,sumiyoshi1 and presents thank-offerings to them for providing a harbour there more convenient for the envoys to sail from than a more distant port in ,harima4 ,ho-shidzume no ,matsuri 7fire-calming-service74--,this ceremony was performed on the last days of the sixth and twelfth months by the ,urabe1 or diviners1 at the four outer corners of the ,imperial ,palace1 in order to prevent its destruction by fire4 ,the ,urabe kindled a fire by means of the fire-drill and worshipped it4 ,the following norito 7,no4 #ab7 was read on the occasion3-- ,i humbly declare according to the celestial the great pronouncement 7norito7 delivered to the ,sovran ,grandchild by his ,sovran1 dear1 divine ancestor and ancestress when they granted to him the ,under-,heaven1 commanding him to rule tranquilly as a peaceful realm the fair ,rice-ear-land of the ,rich-reed-plain1 as follows3 ',the two ,gods ,izanagi and ,izanami1 having become united as husband and wife1 procreated the eighty countries and the eighty islands and gave birth to the eight hundred myriads of deities4 ,when ,izanami's last son1 the ,god ,homusubi 7fire-growth71 was born her pudenda were burnt and she became rock-concealed4#bhb ,she said1 ,for nights seven and for days seven look not on me1 oh my husband4 ,but before the seven days were fulfilled1 ,izanagi1 wondering at her concealment1 viewed her1 and behold1 her pudenda had been burnt in giving birth to the ,fire4#bhc ,oh1 my honoured husband1 said ,izanami1 thou hast insulted me by looking on me despite my having besought thee to refrain from doing so at such a time4 ,therefore thou must govern the upper world and ,i the lower world4 ,so saying1 she was rock-concealed4 ,when she had reached the ,even ,pass of ,yomi1 she bethought herself3 ,i gave birth to1 and left behind me in the upper world ruled by my honoured husband1 an evil-hearted child4 ,so she went back and gave birth to other children1 namely1 the ,god of ,water1 the ,gourd1 the ,river-weed1 and the ,clay-mountain-lady1 four kinds in all4 ,moreover1 she taught him1 saying1 ,when the temper of this evil-hearted child becomes violent1 do thou assuage it with the ,water-,god1 the ,gourd1 the ,river-weed1 and the ,clay-mountain-lady4 ',therefore do ,i fulfil thy praises as follows3 ,to the end that thou mayest deign to control thy transports against the ,palace of the ,sovran ,grandchild1 ,i offer thee bright cloth1 shining cloth1 smooth cloth1 and rough cloth1 of various colours4 ,of things which dwell in the blue sea-plain1 ,i offer the broad of fin and the narrow of fin1 even unto the weeds of the offing and the weeds of the shore4 ,of sake1 ,i raise up the tops of the jars1 and fill and range in order the bellies of the jars4 ,nor do ,i omit rice1 cleaned and in the husk4 ,heaping up these things like a cross-range of hills1 ,i fulfil thy praises according to the ,celestial1 the ,great pronouncement4' ,it will be observed that the tone of this norito is not particularly reverent4 ,it reads more like an offer to pay blackmail than a prayer4 ,the phraseology implies that the ,mikado is the ,god's superior4 ,and surely there is a malicious humour in the reminder that the ,god was a bad boy1 to provide the means for whose control and chastisement his mother came back expressly from ,hades4 ,kasuga no ,matsuri4--,this service is comparatively modern1 having been first used in #hei4 ,it is in honour of the ,gods worshipped at ,kasuga1 near ,nara1 namely1 ,take-mika-dzuchi1 ,futsunushi1 ,koyane1 and a ,goddess who is supposed to be the wife of the last-named deity4 ,it was celebrated twice annually by a priestess despatched from ,kito to ,nara for the purpose4 ,i take from ,sir ,ernest ,satow's ',ancient ,japanese ,rituals' in the ,t4,a4,s4,j4 the following account of the ceremonies used on this occasion4 ,they may serve as an example of the elaborate ritual of ,shinto at this period1 and to illustrate the intimate association of government with religion4 ,before the celebration of the service1 orders were given to the ,divination ,office to fix a day1 hour1 and locality for a purification 7harahi7 to be performed4 ,on the day preceding the purification a sort of tent was erected near the river 7i4e41 the ,kamogaha at ,kito71 and at the hour appointed the priestess who had been selected for the occasion proceeded to the place of purification in a bullock-car4 ,the procession was magnificent1 and was ordered with extreme precision4 ,it consisted of nearly one hundred and forty persons1 besides porters4 ,first went two municipal men-at-arms1 followed by two citizens and eight officials of rank4 ,they were succeeded by the bailiff of the priestess's official residence with four attendants1 after whom came ten corporals of the ,guard of the ,palace ,gates1 and a few men from the other four ,imperial ,guards4 ,next came the car of the priestess herself1 with eight attendants in brown hempen mantles1 two young boys in brown1 and four running foot pages in white dresses with purple skirts4 ,a silk umbrella and a huge long-handled fan were borne on either side of the car by four men in scarlet coats4 ,ten more servants completed her immediate retinue4 ,then came a chest full of sacrificial utensils1 and two carriages containing a lady1 who seems to have acted as a sort of duenna to the priestess1 and the ,mikado's messengers1 surrounded by attendants in number suited to their rank4 ,close behind them were borne two chests full of food-offerings1 and four containing gifts from the ,mikado intended for those members of the ,fujihara family who attended on the occasion4 ,seven carriages carried the female servants of the priestess1 each of them being a lady of rank1 and therefore accompanied by half-a-dozen followers of both sexes4 ,two high officials of the provincial government of ,yamashiro awaited the procession at a convenient point1 and conducted it to the spot chosen for the ceremony of purification4 ,a member of the ,nakatomi tribe presented the nusa1 consisting of a white wand with hemp-fibre hanging from its upper end1 the symbol of the primitive offerings of greater value1 and a diviner read the purification ritual4 ,after the ceremony was over1 refreshments were served out1 and the ,mikado's gifts distributed4 ,the priestess then returned to her official residence4 ,on her journey to the temple of ,kasuga1 the priestess was preceded by various priests1 diviners1 musicians1 cooks1 and other functionaries of inferior grade1 who set out one day earlier in the charge of an officer of the ,ministry of ,religion4 ,at the boundary of the province of ,yamato she was received by officers of the ,provincial ,government1 who accompanied her to the temporary building erected for her accommodation on the bank of the ,saho-gaha4 ,during the day the rite of purification was performed on the western side of the temple1 and the offerings placed in readiness for the final ceremony4 ,at dawn on the following day officials of the ,ministry of ,religion superintended the cleaning of the shrine by a young girl 7mono imi7 who had been carefully guarded for some time previous from contracting any ceremonial uncleanness1 while other officials decorated the buildings and set out the sacred treasures close to the shrines and by the side of the arcade round the innermost enclosure4 ,everything being now in readiness1 the high officers of ,state who had come down from the capital for the service entered by the gate assigned to them1 and took their seats in the outer court1 followed by members of the ,fujihara family of the sixth rank and under4 ,the priestess now arrived in a palanquin1 with a numerous retinue of local functionaries1 infantry and cavalry soldiers1 and followed by porters carrying the offerings of the ,mikado1 his consort1 the heir-apparent1 and of the priestess herself4 ,next came race-horses sent by the ,mikado's consort1 by the heir-apparent1 and from the ,six ,guards of the ,palace1 the rear of the procession being brought up by a crowd of lesser officials and men-at-arms4 ,the palanquin of the priestess was surrounded by a large body of guards1 torch-bearers1 and running pages1 umbrella and screen-bearers1 and women and girls on horseback4 ,after them came the chest of sacrificial vessels1 a number of servants1 three chests full of food-offerings1 six chests of clothing for the ,gods1 with carriages containing some of the ,mikado's female attendants1 the priestess's duenna1 and some young girls4 ,on arriving at the north gate1 on the west side of the temple enclosure1 the men got off their horses and the women descended from their carriages4 ,the priestess then alighted from her palanquin1 and passing between curtains held by her attendants in such a way as to render her invisible to the crowd1 entered the waiting-room prepared for her inside the courtyard1 followed by the women of the ,mikado's household4 ,the ,mikado's offerings were now brought forward by the ,keeper of the ,privy ,purse and laid on a table outside the gate1 while the women of the ,household entered the inner enclosure1 and took their places in readiness to inspect the offerings4 ,in a few minutes they were joined by the priestess1 who had changed her travelling dress for sacrificial robes4 ,the ,keeper of the ,privy ,purse now brought the ,mikado's presents in through the gate1 and placing them on a table in front of the midzu-gaki1 or inner fence1 saluted the chapels by clapping his hands four times1 alternately standing upright and bowing down to the ground4 ,on his retiring1 the same ceremony was performed by the persons charged with the offerings of the ,mikado's consort and heir-apparent1 after which the offerings of the ,fujihara and other noble families were deposited on lower tables1 with similar ceremonies4 ,the kandomo1 or subordinate officials of the ,ministry of ,religion1 next carried up the ,mikado's offerings and delivered them to the mono-imi1 who carried them into the chapel4 ,the kandomo then spread matting on the ground in front of each of the four chapels1 and members of the ,fujihara clan#bhd who held a sufficiently high rank carried in and arranged the tables destined to receive the food-offerings4 ,two barrels of sake were then brought in and placed between the first and second and third and fourth chapels1 in a line with the tables1 a jar of sake brewed by the priests being also placed in front of each chapel4 ,this over1 every one quitted the enclosure1 making way for the women of the ,household1 who uncovered the food-offerings and poured out two cups of sake for each deity4 ,the liquor appears to have been of the turbid sort called nigori-zake4 ,all the preparations being thus complete1 the high officers of ,state and the messengers sent by the ,court entered the enclosure and took their seats4 ,four saddle-horses intended as offerings to the ,gods and eight race-horses were now led up in front of the temple1 preceded by a major-general of the ,guards and a ,master of the ,horse4 ,a superior priest1 with his brows bound with a fillet of paper mulberry fibre 7yufu-kadzura7 then advanced and read the ritual1 bowed twice1 clapped his hands four times1 and retired4 ,the congregation afterwards withdrew to the refectory1 where the food-offerings were consumed by the participants in the solemn act of worship1 and the sansai1 or thanksgiving service1 was conducted by the kandomo of the ,ministry of ,religion4 ,the sacred horses were then led eight times round the temple by the grooms of the ,mikado's stables1 who received a draught of consecrated sake as their reward4 ,the general of the body-guard next directed some of his men to perform the dance called ,adzuma-mahi1 and when they had finished a meal of rice was served to them with much ceremony by the ,mikado's cooks4 ,at the command of the ,vice-,minister of ,religion1 the harpists and flute-players were summoned to perform a piece of music1 called mi koto fuwe ahase 7the concert of harp and flute72 the flutes played a short movement alone1 and were then joined by the harps1 whereupon the singers struck in4 ,an officer of the ,ministry of ,religion sang the first few bars1 and the official singers finished the piece4 ,this was followed by one of the dances called ,yamato-mahi1 performed in turn by the principal priests of the temple1 by members of the ,fujihara family and by the ,vice-,minister of ,religion himself4 ,after the sake-cup had been passed round three times1 the company clapped their hands once and separated4 ,then everybody adjourned to the race-course1 and the day was wound up with galloping matches4 ,the norito 7,no4 #b of the ,yengishiki7 read on this occasion has been translated by ,sir ,ernest ,satow4 ,it is of minor interest4 ,hirose ,oho-imi no ,matsuri 7service in honour of the ,food-,goddess of ,hirose74--,the norito of this ceremony 7,no4 #c of the ,yengishiki7 announces offerings to the ,food-,goddess and makes promise of more if good harvests are granted by her4 ,the ,gods of the ravines which supply water for irrigating the ,crown-farms are joined with her in this service4 ,sir ,e4 ,satow has translated this norito4 ,it contains nothing of special interest4 ,tatsuta kaze no kami no ,matsuri 7service of the ,wind-,gods at ,tatsuta74--,the norito 7,no4 #d of the ,yengishiki7 of this service has been translated by ,sir ,e4 ,satow4 ,it contains a legend which professes to account for its first institution and for the founding of the shrine at which it was celebrated4 ,for several years in succession violent storms had destroyed the crops4 ,the diviners having in vain endeavoured to discover the cause of this calamity1 the ,wind-,gods revealed themselves to the ,mikado in a dream and proposed to him a bargain1 namely1 that if he built them a shrine1 and made them certain offerings1 they would in future bless and ripen the grain and vegetables4 ,the golden thread-box1 golden shuttle1 and golden reel enumerated in this norito as offerings to the ,goddess were in reality of painted wood1 one of the numerous cases of cheaper substitutes in ,shinto ritual4 ,the ,nihongi mentions very frequent embassies from the ,mikado to this shrine in the seventh century4 ,princes were selected for the office of envoy4 ,in addition to the above1 the ,yengishiki has brief mention of ceremonies for calming the roaring of the kitchen-furnace1 calming 7or propitiating87 the ,god of ,water1 the ,august ,abiding-place 7of the ,mikado71 the ,earth-,prince1 the site of a new palace1 in honour of the kitchen-furnace1 of the august well 7such as that from which water was taken for the ,ohonihe ceremony71 of the birth-well 7from which water was drawn for washing a new-born prince71 of the water of a privy1 and a ceremony performed when the ,mikado went out from the ,palace4 ,the same work contains schedules of offerings to various local deities1 of whom we know little or nothing4 ,more recent norito4--,in addition to the old norito of the ,yengishiki1 a good number have come down to us of more recent date1 chiefly from the ninth century4 ,we find among them for the first time norito addressed to deceased ,mikados1 a practice which was1 no doubt1 introduced from ,china4 ,i give the substance of some selected examples4#bhe ,they exhibit numerous traits of ,chinese origin4 ,a4,d4 #gcc4 ,the protection of the ,sea-,gods of ,suminoye was invoked for ships sailing to ,china4 #hje4 ,the wrath of the ,god of ,iso no kami was deprecated4 ,he was supposed to have sent an illness upon the ,mikado because his divine treasures had been removed for convenience to a place nearer the capital4 #hbe4 ,envoys were sent to the tomb of a deceased ,mikado to promise that it should be removed elsewhere the ,urabe having discovered that he was dissatisfied with its site4 #hbg4 ,the ,sun-,goddess was besought to stay a pestilence1 and a member of the ,imperial family promised her as priestess4 #hbg4 ,the diviners having attributed the ,mikado's illness to the cutting down of the trees of the shrine of ,inari1 envoys were sent to recite a norito asking for pardon1 and that he should be restored to health4 #hcf4 ,degrees of rank were conferred on ,futsunushi 7lower third71 ,mikatsuchi 7upper second71 and ,koyane 7upper third71 with the lower fourth rank for the ,himegami 7lady-deity74 ,prayer was made that the envoys should have a safe journey4 #hci4 ,trees on the ,empress ,jing's tomb having been cut down1 the ,mikado feared that a drought might be the consequence1 and sent envoys to deprecate her wrath4 #hdj4 ,the ,mikado being affected by an evil influence 7mono no ke71 the diviners attributed it to a curse from the ,great ,abstinence 7oho-imi7 deity of ,deha4#bhf ,at the same time envoys to ,china were cast away among southern savages4 ,the savages were many and they were few1 but by the help of some ,god1 they had the victory over them4 ,a report was received from ,deha that on the same date a noise of fighting was heard in the clouds of the ,great ,god and a rain of missile stones fell4 ,the ,mikado in a norito expressed his gratitude and wonder at the far-reaching power of the ,god1 and conferred on him the lower fourth rank with two households of peasants to serve him4 #hda4 ,the ,mikados ,jimmu and ,jing were prayed to for rain1 and apology made for previous neglect4 #hej4 ,the ,mikado ,mondoku announced to his predecessor his accession to the throne in the following norito1 which was read at his tomb by a high official commissioned for the purpose3-- ,i humbly make representation3 ',he the ,mikado with profound reverence declares--with respect be it spoken--to ,your ,sovran ,majesty4 ,in accordance with the commands bequeathed by ,your ,majesty the ,court nobles repeatedly besought him to take over the celestial succession1 but as the date of his predecessor's death was still fresh and his heart distracted by grief1 he twice and three times humbly declared his inability to accede to this request4 ,but when they strongly insisted1 saying that it was the wish of ,your ,majesty1 he felt that he ought not to indulge his own inclination4 ,after considering the matter in all its bearings1 he therefore purified the ,great ,abiding place1 and reverently assumed the celestial succession1 which he now with reverence announces to ,your ,majesty his intention to maintain4' ,furthermore he says1 with profoundest reverence1 ',that he hopes ,your 7with respect be it spoken7 ,sovran ,majesty will deign to bestow on him your gracious loving favour1 so that he may continue peacefully to maintain the government of the celestial succession as long as ,heaven and ,earth1 the ,sun and ,moon endure4' #hej4 ,the ,wind-,gods of ,tatsuta were thanked for their protection1 awarded the lower fifth rank1 and begged to continue their guardianship4 #hej4 ,the ,mikado ,jimmu was prayed to on behalf of the reigning ,mikado1 who was dangerously ill4 #hea4 ,floods having been caused by pollution1 prayer was made for fine weather to the ,gods of ,ise1 ,kamo1 ,matsu no wo1 and ,otokuni4 #heg4 ,the ,mikado ,mondoku despatched envoys to all the famous shrines to announce the change of the year-name 7neng7 to ,tenan 7celestial tranquillity7 which had been made in consequence of the good omens of trees whose branches had grown together and of the appearance of a white deer4 ,he sent offerings with prayers for abundance and immunity from storms and floods4 ,he further petitioned the ,gods to guard him by day and by night and to grant him a long reign4 #hfd4 ,envoys were sent to ,yahata 7,hachiman7 ,daibo-satsu#bhg in ,buzen to give thanks for preservation from calamity4 ,but as a boiling of the ,lake of ,aso 7a volcano in ,kiushiu7 was held by the diviners to portend war and pestilence1 and numerous other portents occurred1 a lucky day had been chosen and offerings 7which would have been sent sooner only for pollution7 made4 #hff4 ,envoys were sent to all the ,gods of ,nankaido asking their protection against rebellion1 for a good harvest c41 and apologizing for a delay caused by pollution4 #hff4 ,an envoy was sent to ,ihashimidzu with an offering of shields1 spears1 and saddles to the ,god ,hachiman ,bosatsu4 ,it is explained that of three saddles two only have been sent2 the third is to be despatched by a later opportunity4 ,he is asked to guard the ,mikado by day and by night and to watch over the affairs of the ,empire4 #hff4 ,a fire having destroyed one of the gates of the ,palace1 the diviners said that it portended sickness to the ,imperial person with disasters by conflagration and battle4 ,after some delay1 caused by various pollutions1 the ,mikado sent an envoy to the shrine of the ,sun-,goddess at ,ise with prayer to avert these calamities1 and more especially to send down a sweet rain on the land which was then suffering from drought4 #hfh4 ,envoys were sent to ,hirota and ,ikuta praying the ,gods of these places that earthquake shocks attributed to them should cease4 ,a patent of rank was sent to them1 and they were besought to bless the ,mikado and the country4 ,thanks were also given for a good harvest4 #hgd4 ,inari was raised in rank and prayed to for many blessings1 of which some do not apparently belong to the province of a ,rice-,god4 ,for an account of ,shinto festivals at the present day1 ,mr4 ,b4 ,h4 ,chamberlain's ',things ,japanese' or ,capt4 ,brinkley's ',japan and ,china' may be consulted4 ,their nearest counterpart is the carnival of ,southern ,europe4 ,the ,chinjiu ,matsuri1 or annual festival of the local patron deity1 is everywhere a great event1 with processions1 dramatic performances1 wrestling1 fireworks1 races1 new clothes for the children1 c4 ,,footnotes3 #bai ,un rite est un assemblage de symboles groups autour d'une ide religieuse ou d'un acte religieux1 destin en rehausser le caractre solennel ou bien en dvelopper le sens4--,reville1 ',prolegomnes4' #bbj ,see ,index1 ,yufu4 #bba ,have we here one of those human representatives of the grain so familiar to us in ,european folk-lore8 ,see ,mr4 ,frazer's ',golden ,bough4' #bbb ,see ,index for these deities4 #bbc ,no4 #ad of the ,yengishiki4 #bbd ,the ,mikado4 #bbe ,see above1 p4 #bee4 #bbf ,sir ,ernest ,satow says that sleeping in a house being regarded as the sign of ownership1 a pillow 7makura7 is often placed in the shrine as a symbol of the ,god's presence4 #bbg ,that is1 wearing the garb of a priest who makes offerings4 #bbh ,probably the same as ,ame no hohi1 from whom the ,miyakko claimed descent4 #bbi ,the same as the ,miyakko4 #bcj ,ohonamochi4 #bca ,that is1 to surrender the civil jurisdiction4 #bcb ,it is to be understood that after he had enshrined his nigi-tama1 or gentle spirit1 in ,yamato1 ,ohonamochi himself1 or perhaps his aratama1 or rough spirit1 retired to ,idzumo4 #bcc ,explained to mean in the discharge of my mediatory function4 #bcd ,for a more detailed discussion of this ritual1 see ,sir ,e4 ,satow in ,t4 ,a4 ,s4 ,j41 vol4 ix4 pt4 ii4 p4 #ahc4 #bce ,see above1 p4 #bgj4 #bcf ,the ,nakatomi4 #bcg ,see ,index for these two deities4 #bch ,see ,index4 #bci ,these are names of places4 ,the ,gods seem to have had no others4 #bdj ,these are names of mountains4 #bda ,ninigi4 ,below the same term means the ,mikado4 #bdb ,the ancient ,japanese houses had their timbers lashed together with ropes4 #bdc ,the translation is doubtful4 #bdd ,see above1 p4 #afg4 #bde ,male and female attendants4 #bdf ,these terms are often used as synonymous with the regalia1 of which the ,sun-mirror was the chief4 #bdg ,the incense is ,buddhist4 #bdh ,i am much indebted to ,dr4 ,florenz's exhaustive monograph on this rite in vol4 xxvii4 of the ,t4 ,a4 ,s4 ,j4 #bdi ,ch4 ,k41 p4 #bcj4 #bej ,see ,index1 sub voce4 #bea ,see ,mr4 ,batchelor in ,t4 ,a4 ,s4 ,j41 xxiv4 #df4 #beb ,it will be remembered that it was on an occasion of this kind that ,agamemnon ordered an ,oho-harahi to be performed3-- 444 1 ',iliad1' ,i4 #cac4 #bec ,see ,index4 #bed ,he is the officiating ,nakatomi1 speaking on behalf of the ,mikado4 #bee ,usually said to be ,taka-musubi1 ,kamu-musubi1 and the ,sun-,goddess4 #bef ,ninigi4 #beg ,poetical expressions for ,japan4 #beh ,that is1 rain4 #bei ,sowing wild oats was one of the misdeeds of ,loki1 the ,scandinavian mischief-,god4 ,compare also ,matthew xiii4 #bd3 ,the kingdom of ,heaven is likened unto a man that sowed good seed in his field3 but while men slept1 his enemy came and sowed tares also among the wheat4 ,see above1 p4 #ig4 #bfj ,motori says that this is with the malicious intention of injuring the feet of the owner of the ground4 ,i prefer the explanation suggested by the ,shiki1 an ancient commentary on the ,nihongi4 ,it says3 ,planting rods 7or skewers7 in the rice-fields with words of incantation is called 'skewer-planting4' ,the object is the destruction of any one who should wrongly claim that field4 ,the present custom of planting skewers in a field whose ownership is disputed is probably a survival of this4 ,kushi1 or skewer1 is the word used for the wand to which offerings are attached4 ,see ,florenz's ',ancient ,japanese ,rituals' in ,t4 ,a4 ,s4 ,j41 p4 #cb4 #bfa ,the native commentators point out that the ,heavenly ,offences are so called because they were first committed by ,susa no wo in ,heaven4 ,this passage of the norito was therefore suggested by the myth4 7,see above1 p4 #hc47 ,the object of the myth-maker1 however1 was simply to enhance the dramatic quality of his story by attributing to the boisterous ,rain-storm ,god misdeeds whose odious character would forcibly strike his audience1 a nation of agriculturists4 ,in the norito the further step is taken of recognizing the same acts1 committed on earth1 as offences not only against men1 but as sins before the ,gods4 ,he may have argued that the ,sun-,goddess has a tender care for the rice-fields of her beloved race of men as well as for her own1 and that any interference with them is therefore hateful to her4 ,the skewer-planting above mentioned points to a still earlier attempt to bring agriculture under religious protection4 ,there is no substantial basis for the distinction between ,heavenly and ,earthly offences4 ,the author's real object in making it was no doubt rhetorical4 ,he wished to break up the long list of offences into two balanced sentences1 after a fashion common in ,japanese poetry and poetical prose composition4 ,i suspect that the flaying alive and flaying backwards were magical practices of the same class as the witchcraft condemned just below4 ,the flaying was objected to1 not for its cruelty1 but on account of the malicious use to which the skins so procured were put4 ,see ,index1 ,inugami4 #bfb ,a disease which has not been clearly identified4 ,dr4 ,florenz renders afflicted with excrescences4 #bfc ,especially being struck by lightning4 #bfd ,another rendering is killing animals by bewitchments4 ,the ,chinese character used implies that it is for an evil purpose4 #bfe ,dr4 ,florenz1 following ,motori1 renders and deposit upon them in abundance the purification offerings4 ,the character of these offerings is indicated by a passage in the ,nihongi 7,a4,d4 #fgf73 ,the ,mikado commanded1 saying3 ',let a ,great ,purification 7,oho-harahi7 be held in all quarters4 ,the articles needed for this purpose are to be forwarded to the shrines of purification by the governors of each province1 to wit1 one horse and one piece of cloth4 ,the other things are to be supplied by the governors of districts1 namely1 each one sword1 one deerskin1 one mattock1 one smaller sword1 one sickle1 one set of arrows1 and one sheaf of rice in the ear4 ,further1 let each house provide a bundle of hemp4' ,this ,oho-harahi was doubtless celebrated in consequence of the appearance of a comet at this time4 ,on another occasion 7#fha7 each local governor supplied a slave as a purification offering4 ,in later times the ,harahi-tsu-mono1 or purification offerings1 were furnished by the central ,government4 #bff ,the meaning of this clause is doubtful4 ,the object seems to be to provide a brush for brushing away 7harahi7 offences4 ,sir ,e4 ,satow says1 with regard to a different ceremony3 ,the high priest waves before the company a sort of broom made of grass1 to symbolize the sweeping away of their offences4 #bfg ,in later times it was thought1 without sufficient reason1 that the ritual words here spoken of were a special form of incantation distinct from the norito itself4 #bfh ,see above1 p4 #bfa4 #bfi ,yomi or ,hades4 #bgj ,swift-banishment-lady4 #bga ,a horse was one of the expiatory offerings4 ,it seems here to typify the attentive attitude of the audience1 or perhaps of the deities concerned4 #bgb ,harahi-zare4 ,there is some confusion here between the offences and the expiatory offerings4 ,the harahi-tsu-mono were then taken away and thrown into some convenient river4 ,i suspect1 however1 that most of them were not thrown away1 but went to provide a fund for the expenses of the ceremony4 ,it is not clear what became of the horse or of the slaves4 ,the harahi-tsu-mono were not gifts to any particular ,gods1 but rather1 like the scape-goat of the ,mosaic law1 vehicles by which the transgressions of the people were conveyed away4 ,but it is better not to put this too sweepingly4 ,there is reason to think that by some they were thought to be offerings to ,se-ori-tsu-hime and the other deities mentioned4 ,at the present day they consist of a few pieces of cloth4 #bgc ,see ',notes of some ,minor ,japanese ,religious ,practices1' by ,mr4 ,b4 ,h4 ,chamberlain1 in the ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 ,may1 #ahic1 and ,sir ,e4 ,satow's ',visit to the ,shrines of ,ise1' ,t4 ,a4 ,s4 ,j41 #ahgd4 #bgd ,see above1 p4 #ahg4 #bge ,that is1 did honour to4 #bgf ,these deities were worshipped at cross-roads1 and were called the eight-cross-road deities4 #bgg ,the date of one ,sahe no ,kami festival4 #bgh ,written on paper and thrown into the flames4 #bgi ,see above1 p4 #afh4 #bhj ,see above1 pp4 #ahi1 #aij4 #bha ,see above1 p4 #cac4 #bhb ,that is1 died4 #bhc ,what was the ,god of ,fire in the previous sentence is here simply ,fire4 #bhd ,a branch of the ,nakatomi1 who claimed descent from ,koyane1 one of the four ,gods worshipped4 #bhe ,from a modern collection entitled ,norito ,bunrei4 #bhf ,in the north of ,japan4 #bhg ,a ,buddhist title4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,magic1 ,,divination1 ,,inspiration4 ,the reader will find few traces of normal religious development in the practices to be described in this chapter4 ,the pathological element is decidedly predominant4 ,magic4--,the older view of magic is that of ,prof4 ,zimmern1 who defines it as the attempt on man's part to influence1 persuade1 or compel spiritual beings to comply with certain requests or demands4 ,with this the view of the modern ,japanese lexicographer ,yamada1 who calls magic 7in ,japanese majinahi7 the keeping off of calamity by the aid of the supernatural power of ,kami and ,buddhas1 is in substantial agreement4 ,prof4 ,zimmern's definition is open to several objections4 ,it is too wide1 as it would include prayer and sacrifice2 it assumes that all the sentient beings appealed to are spiritual1 and it excludes the numerous cases of magic in which ,gods and spirits are in no wise concerned4 ,it is1 however1 impossible to leave out of consideration the last-mentioned class of magic1 though it might be convenient to distinguish it by a different name1 as charms4 ,sir ,alfred ,lyall and ,mr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer have shown that magic of this kind has preceded religion1 and that it is in principle the same as science1 although based on wrong premises4 ,magic and ,medicine4--,magic is the bastard brother of medicine4 ,the two arts are associated in many countries4 ,hirata says that in ,china medicine had its origin in magic4 ,in ,japan1 in ,ktoku's reign 7#fde-fed71 we find ,state departments of medicine and of magic organized on a similar footing4 ,a ,nihongi myth states that mankind owes both arts to the teaching of the ,gods ,ohonamochi and ,sukunabikona4 ,evidently the myth by which these institutions are referred to a divine origin is of later growth than the institutions themselves4 ,the same is plainly the case with the deification of the phallic emblems used to repel disease1#bhh and with the various magical appliances described on p4 #aif4 ,the object of the myth-maker in these cases was to lend a religious sanction to what was in its origin a non-religious magical procedure4 ,the same principle might be copiously illustrated from non-,japanese sources4 ,on the other hand1 there are cases in which a practice based on religion has its original character obliterated1 so that it might easily be mistaken for a charm of no religious import4 ,bakin on ,magic4--,i have before me a collection of vulgar magical practices 7majinahi7 made early in the last century by the famous novelist ,bakin4#bhi ,it illustrates the confusion1 even with highly educated men1 between science and magic on the one hand1 and between non-religious and religious magic on the other4 ,a good many of ,bakin's so-called majinahi turn out to be merely recipes1 such as how to remove oil stains from books by an application of lime2 to cure costiveness in fowls by doses of saltpetre2 to kill the parasites of gold-fish by means of a preparation of human excrement2 to keep away bookworms by exposing the books in the sun3 ,if a pot-tree withers in the middle and seems likely to die1 take it out1 shake the earth from its roots1 and expose it to the sun for one day4 ,then steep its roots in a drain for one night4 ,when replanted it will thrive4 ,the scrapings of a copper ladle mixed with fish will cure disease in cats4 ,we approach true magic more nearly in the following3 ,when stung by a wasp1 take up a pebble which is half sunk in the ground1 turn it over1 and replace it1 when the pain will at once leave you4 ,the cure of illness from eating poisonous fish by swallowing the ashes of an old almanac seems also to belong rather to magic than to medicine4 ,there are traces of a religious element in the following3 ,to cure toothache1 apply to the tooth the ashes of a sardine which has been set up over the door on the last day of the year4#bij ,another plan is3 ,inscribe on a slip of wood certain incantations 7given7 in the ordinary ,chinese character1 in the seal character1 and in ,sanskrit4 ,beside the inscription make two circles4 ,if the toothache is in the upper jaw1 knock a new nail with a purified hammer into the upper circle2 if in the lower jaw1 into the lower circle4 ,if the pain does not go away1 continue knocking the nail with the hammer4 ,the slip of wood should be afterwards thrown away into a stream4#bia ,bakin tried this plan and found it effectual4 ,he attributes his immunity from conflagration to his respect for fire4 ,he always avoided stamping it out with his foot1 and enjoins on his descendants to follow his example4 ,if the master of a house before going to bed goes round calling out1 ,be careful of fire3 fasten well the doors1 the spirit 7of his words7 will fill the house1 and it will be preserved against fire and robbery4 ,on the last night of the year1 and on other festival occasions1 water should be drawn from the well at sunset1 placed in a clean vessel1 and offered without a drop being spilled to the ,god of the kitchen furnace4 ,it should be returned to the well the next morning4 ,this will prevent danger of fire4 ,a ,korean book of household recipes contains1 along with instructions for making cakes1 spiced wine1 c41 such magical1 but non-religious devices as the following3 ,to make a runaway slave come back of his own accord4 ,take a garment which he has worn and put it down the well1 or hang some of his hair on a wheel and turn it round4 ,he will then not know where to go and will come back to you4 ,imitative or ,sympathetic ,magic4--,these ,korean examples illustrate the principle of imitative or sympathetic magic thus described by ,mr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer#bib3-- ,manifold as are the applications of this crude philosophy--for a philosophy it is as well as an art--the fundamental principles on which it is based would seem to be reducible to two2 first1 that like produces like1 or that an effect resembles its cause2 and second1 that things which have once been in contact1 but have ceased to be so1 continue to act on each other as if the contact still persisted4 ,from the first of these principles the savage infers that he can produce any desired effect merely by imitating it2 from the second he concludes that he can influence at pleasure and at any distance any person of whom1 or anything of which1 he possesses a particle4 ,magic of the latter sort1 resting as it does on the belief in a certain secret sympathy which unites indissolubly things that have once been connected with each other1 may appropriately be termed sympathetic in the strict sense of the term4 ,magic of the former kind1 in which the supposed cause resembles or simulates the supposed effect1 may conveniently be described as imitative or mimetic4 ,the sympathetic or imitative principle is not very conspicuous in the instances of vulgar 7that is1 non-professional7 magic quoted by ,bakin4 ,it is1 however1 illustrated by other ,japanese customs4 ,there is a round stone in a shrine in ,sagami which brings rain when water is poured over it4 ,the stone is supposed to be the shintai of an ,aburi no ,kami 7rain-fall-,god71 to whom the shrine is dedicated4 ,here we have a combination of religion with magic4#bic ,whistling in order to raise the wind#bid is a purely non-religious piece of imitative magic1 but in the ,nihongi myth it is associated with religion by being represented as taught by a ,god4 ,we should probably regard as a form of sympathetic magic the modern practice of devout visitors to the shrine of ,tenjin1 near ,kito1 who1 in order to obtain relief from their ailments1 rub the corresponding part of a bronze bull which stands before the shrine4 ,a characteristic example of non-religious imitative magic is the custom of kasedori4 ,when a marriage is unfruitful1 the old women of the neighbourhood come to the house and go through the form of delivering the wife of a child4 ,the infant is represented by a doll4 ,the date selected for this ceremony is not immaterial4 ,it is that of the festival of ,sahe no kami4 ,this1 no doubt1 gives it a quasi-religious flavour4 ,to this class we may also refer the ,new ,year's practice of going to sleep with a picture of a boat under the pillow4 ,if lucky dreams follow an anchor is painted to it1 if unlucky dreams a sail4 ,the ,nihongi#bie records a case in which a woman took earth from ,mount ,kako in ,yamato1 which she wrapped in her neckerchief and prayed1 saying3 ',this earth represents the country of ,yamato4' ,then she turned it upside down4 ,the common witchcraft of ill-treating a figure of the intended victim in order to make him suffer in a corresponding manner is well known in ,japan4 ,the ,nihongi 7,a4,d4 #ehg7 speaks of a rebellious ,minister preparing figures of the ,heir to the ,throne and loathing them4 ,dr4 ,griffis#bif gives the following description of a magical ceremony performed by a woman in revenge for her lover's desertion of her3-- ,at two o'clock in the morning she proceeds to the shrine of her patron-,god1 usually the ,ujigami4 ,sometimes she wears a crown1 made of an iron tripod reversed1 on which burn three candles4 ,in her left hand she carries a straw effigy of her victim2 in her right she grasps a hammer4 ,on her bosom is suspended a mirror4 ,reaching the sacred tree before the shrine1 she impales the effigy upon it with nails1 adjuring the ,gods to save their tree1 impute the guilt of desecration to the traitor1 and visit him with their deadly vengeance4 ,the visit is repeated nightly until the object of her sorcery sickens and dies4 ,at ,sabae1 before a shrine of ,kompira1 stood a pine tree about a foot thick1 plentifully studded with such nails4#big ,the possession by the operator of the hair or nails of his victim adds greatly to the potency of his devices4 ,hence they are carefully kept by the proper owners and thrown away together in the twelfth month4 ,another form of witchcraft is represented by the later custom of ,inu-gami 7dog-deity7 thus described by ,motori3 ,a hungry dog is tied up in sight of food which he is not allowed to eat4 ,when his desire is keenest1 his head is cut off and at once flies to seize the food4 ,this head is put into a vessel and worshipped4 ,a serpent or a weasel will do as well4 ,it constitutes a mighty charm1 which evidently owes its power to the keenness of the animal's sufferings4#bih ,the ,fzoku ,gwaho tells a story which was probably invented in order to account for this custom4 ,an old woman buried her pet dog1 leaving only the head above ground4 ,then she cut him about with a bamboo saw1 saying1 ',if thou hast a soul1 kill such a one1 and ,i will make thee a ,god4' ,the man really did die afterwards in strange fashion4 ,from that time the dog-deity dwelt in the old woman's house and wrought many wonderful curses4 ,in ,tosa each village has several ,inugami-mochi 7dog-deity-owners74 ,they are shunned by their neighbours4 ,a matchmaker's very first inquiry is whether there is such a person in the family4 ,leprosy is the next subject of his questions1 sudden death 7supposed to be hereditary71 riches or poverty1 wisdom or foolishness1 are of subsidiary importance4 ,the same idea of a materialized emotion is illustrated by a practice common near ,yamaguchi4 ,in order to drive away certain destructive insects from the rice-fields a straw figure1 made to resemble a cavalry soldier1 is led round in stately procession1 and finally flung into the sea4 ,this figure represents the leader of some fugitives from a battle who hid in these fields1 but were pursued and slain there4 ,the noxious insects are their materialized resentment at this fate4 ,the principles of sympathetic and imitative magic1 so copiously illustrated in ',the ,golden ,bough1' are not applicable to all magical procedures4 ,many defy specific explanation1 and are possibly the result of some chance association of ideas no longer traceable1 or of a mistaken empiricism4 ,post hoc1 ergo propter hoc is responsible for much that is called magic4 ,the description of magic in ,hastings's ',dictionary of the ,bible' as a means of binding superhuman powers1 either to restrain them from injuring oneself1 or to constrain them to injure others and put them under a spell1 or to reveal what to mortal man was unknown1 scarcely applies at all to ,japanese magic4 ,i have not met with any mention in the older literature of pacts with demons or the coercion of spirits4 ,the ,symbol in ,magic4--,in ,japan1 as in other countries1 magic makes great use of the ,symbol1 the ,talisman1 and the ,formula1 spoken or written4 ,this seems to depend on the more general notion that things which are associated in thought must have also a direct physical influence on each other1 of which a familiar example among ourselves is the objection to receive a knife as a present1 because it might cut the friendship between the giver and receiver4 ,possibly this association of the subjective with the objective 7in ,dr4 ,tylor's words mistaking an ideal for a real connexion7#bii was in ,hirata's mind when he used the somewhat cryptic phrase1 ,magic 7majinahi1 or magic1 means etymologically mixture7 is so called because it mixes the spirit 7tama7 of that which is here with the body of that which is there4 ,we have seen#cjj that the phallus1 as a symbol of robust animal life1 was used to exorcise evil things1 whether demons or diseases4 ,roof-tiles impressed with a symbol 7bubbles7 which is indicative of water1 are used at the present day as a charm to protect houses from fire4 ,the deification of the gourd1 the clay and the water-plant1 no doubt1 points to a previous magical use as preventives of conflagration4 ,rice1 perhaps as a representative of the kteis1 is used for several magical purposes4 ,in one of the ,fudoki1 unhulled rice is scattered broadcast by ,tsuchigumo1#cja to disperse a strange darkness which turned day into night4 ,the ,talisman4--,when the meaning of the symbol is altogether obliterated or unknown1 we have the ,talisman4 ,it is not clear what was meant by the tide-ebbing and tide-flowing jewels given by the ,sea-,god to ,hohodemi1#cjb or even that they had any meaning at all4 ,a sort of scarf 7hire7 was much used as a talisman4 ,in the ,kojiki we are told of a scarf1 which1 when waved thrice1 quieted snakes4 ,another kind gave protection against wasps and centipedes4#cjc ,the ,nihongi has the following account of magical practices1 suggested apparently by some acquaintance with the art of acupuncture3-- ,summer1 #dth month1 #ast day4 ,the ,kory student-priests said that their fellow-student ,kura-tsukuri no ,tokushi had made friends with a tiger1 and had learnt from him his arts1 such as to make a barren mountain change into a green mountain1 or to cause yellow earth to become clear water1 and all manner of wonderful arts too many to enumerate4 ,moreover1 the tiger bestowed on him his needle1 saying3 ',be watchful6 be watchful1 and let no one know6 ,treated with this1 there is no disease which may not be cured4' ,truly1 as the tiger had said1 there was no disease which was not cured when treated by it4 ,tokushi always kept the needle concealed in a pillar4 ,afterwards the tiger broke the pillar and ran away1 taking the needle with him4 ,shaking or jingling talismans or other objects is supposed to have a magical virtue4 ,izanagi shakes the jewels which he takes from his neck to bestow on the ,sun-,goddess4 ,the ,sun-,goddess and ,susa no wo shook the jewels from which their children were produced4 ,shaking a number of talismans was part of the ceremony of ,mitama furishiki1 above described4#cjd ,part of the outfit of a district wise-woman or sorceress in recent times was a small bow1 called adzusa-yumi1 by twanging which she could call from the vasty deep the spirits of the dead1 or even summon deities to her behests4 ,another small bow1 called ha-ma-yumi 7break-demon-bow7 is given to boys at the ,new ,year4 ,i conjecture that both of these had something to do with the bows used in the ceremony of tsuina described above4 ,another magical appliance for the restraint of demoniac or evil influences is the shime-naha1 or close-rope4 ,it is made of rice-straw plucked up by the roots1 the ends being allowed to dangle down at regular intervals4 ,a rope of this kind was used to prevent the ,sun-,goddess from returning into the ,rock-cave of ,heaven4 ,at the present day it is hung in front of shrines1 and at the ,new ,year before ordinary dwellings4 ,sacred trees are girt with it1 or it may be suspended across a road to prevent the passage of evil spirits4 ,some people wear shime-naha on their person4 ,the twin rocks at ,ise1 between which there is a view of ,fuji and the rising sun1 are connected by an immense shime-naha1 with which a legend is associated to the effect that ,susa no wo1 in return for hospitality1 taught his host how to keep out the ,god of ,pestilence by stretching such a rope across the door4 ,the shime-naha is sometimes called ,hi no mi tsuna 7sun-august-rope74 ,the shime-naha is the counterpart of the consecrated rope which in ,siam is fastened on the last day of the year round the city walls to prevent the banished demons from returning4 ,garlic has the same power over evil spirits in ,japan that it has in ,europe4 ,the ,formula in ,magic4--,the magic power of set forms of speech1 quite distinct from any meaning which they may possess1 is well illustrated by the use of the numerals from one to ten as a magic formula for the cure of disease4 ,but in the instructions of the ,sea-,god to ,hohodemi to return the lost fish-hook to his brother with the words1 ,a hook of poverty1 a hook of ruin1 a hook of downfall1 the proper meaning of the words is retained1 though they are evidently supposed to be accompanied by some mysterious potency1 independent of it4 ,beyond the circumstance that they were taught by ,gods1 these incantations do not seem to have had any religious character4 ,nor1 when a judge#cje is about to execute some criminals by casting them into the fire1 and uses the charm1 ,not by my hands are they cast1 is there apparently any ,god invoked4 ,the words themselves avert any evil result4 ,there is no hint of a religious origin in the passage of the ,nihongi which states that the first ,mikado1 ,jimmu1 invented magical formul for the dissipation of evil influences4 ,of course1 there are many formul of this kind which stand on a different footing4 ,when1 at the present day1 a ,japanese calls out ,kuhabara6 ,kuhabara6 7mulberry-grove7 during a thunderstorm1 it is no doubt with the idea of suggesting to the ,thunder-,god that the place is a mulberry grove1 which1 it is believed1 is never struck by lightning4 ,charms often consist of a ticket with the name of the ,god 7usually the ubusuna7 and a statement that the bearer is under his protection4 ,magic and ,shinto4--,the treatment of magic by ,shinto is not uniform4 ,we have seen that it lends its sanction to some practices of this kind by affirming that they were taught or practised by ,gods1 or by deifying the objects used in them4 ,but there are others which it condemns1 including them in the offences against the ,gods enumerated in the ,oho-harahi4#cjf ,it is1 however1 for their malicious purpose that they are reprobated4 ,there is no trace in the old records of any scepticism as to their efficacy4 ,a scientific knowledge sufficient to arouse doubts of the power of magic did not then exist1 and would have been equally fatal to much in ,shinto itself4 ,even in modern times such highly educated men as ,bakin and ,hirata had an implicit belief in the efficacy of this art4 ,the latter complains that there is a tendency among physicians of the ,chinese school to neglect it4 ,some diseases1 he says1 are caused by evil spirits and some by minute insects 7microbes874 ,magic and medicine should therefore1 in his opinion1 be combined4 ,the decay of magic in modern ,japan is not owing to religious but to scientific progress4 ,it is due to ,china1 whose philosophy1 imperfect as it is1 taught far truer views of the limitations of man's powers than anything ,japan was able to discover for herself4 ,divination4--,divination 7in ,japanese uranahi7 is magic which has a special object1 namely1 the revelation of the unknown4 ,this is implied by the ,japanese word1 which is derived from ura1 the rear1 heart1 lining1 obverse1 and hence that which is concealed4 ,ordinary experience1 and1 at a later stage of progress1 science1 enable us to reason with more or less certainty from the known to the unknown2 but mankind1 not satisfied with legitimate methods1 have supplemented them by divination1 which comprises various irregular and ineffective processes specially directed to discovering the will of the ,gods1 ascertaining what will be lucky or unlucky1 and predicting future events4 ,objects of ,divination4--,in ,japan we find divination practised to ascertain whether an expedition would be successful or unsuccessful1 the reason of the disturbed state of the country and its remedy1 the best site for a temple1 tomb1 or dwelling-house1 whether the ,mikado should make a progress to a certain place and perform sacrifices there1 what crops it is best to sow1 what days will be lucky or unlucky1 when to expect a lover1 the name of a future husband1 c4 ,the priestess of ,ise was selected by divination1 and the provinces from which the rice for the ,ohonihe ceremony should be taken4 ,ominous occurrences were interpreted by the help of this art4 ,the purity of persons about to take part in a religious ceremony was tested in this manner4 ,or divination might be applied to the baser use of recovering lost property or discovering thieves4 ,there was a special divination on the #ajth day of the #abth month to ascertain what ill luck threatened the ,mikado during the ensuing six months1 so that the ,gods whose curse was feared might be propitiated in advance4 ,religious and ,non-religious ,divination4--,divination1 like magic1 does not necessarily involve the intervention of superhuman sentient beings1 as we may see by our own palmistry1 fortune-telling by cards1 and ,shakespeare cryptograms4 ,that the art passed through a non-religious phase is highly probable4 ,in ,japan1 however1 the cases met with in the oldest records are commonly associated1 explicitly or implicitly1 with an appeal for divine guidance4 ,hirata defines divination as respectfully inquiring the heart 7ura7 of the ,gods4 ,motori takes the same view1 though both writers admit that in modern times divination which has no religious sanction is sometimes resorted to1 playfully1 or in unimportant matters4 ,the ,greater ,divination4--,the greater1 or official1 divination consists in drawing conclusions according to certain conventional rules from the cracks which appear in a deer's shoulder-blade when exposed to fire4 ,this practice is known not only to the ,chinese1 ,kalmucks1 ,cherkeses1 and other races of ,north-,eastern ,asia1 but to the ancient ,germans and ,greeks4 ,nearer home we have the reading the speal 7paule71 a sort of divination by examining the marks on a shoulder-blade of mutton1 practised not very long ago in the ,highlands of ,scotland4 ,the ,nihongi tells us that the ,gods themselves made use of the ,greater ,divination in order to learn the reason of ,izanagi and ,izanami's abortive children the ,hiruko and the ,island of ,ahaji4 ,the ,god ,koyane1 ancestor of the ,nakatomi1 was specially charged with this form of divination4 ,in the numerous passages of the ,nihongi where divination is mentioned without further description1 it is no doubt the ,greater ,divination which is intended4 ,chinese methods of divination were introduced into ,japan from ,korea at an early date4 ,in #eec it seems to have been an established practice that ,koreans learned in medicine1 in divination1 and in calendar-making should take turns of service at the ,court of ,japan4 ,it was no doubt owing to their influence that the tortoise-shell was substituted for the deer's shoulder-blade in this divination4 ,a reference to the divine ,tortoise in the ,nihongi under the legendary date ,b4,c4 #ib is merely an anachronism4 ,but the tortoise was really in use for this purpose in the eighth century4 ,the ,yengishiki recognizes no other1 though in the country districts the shoulder-blades of deer were long retained4 ,in an old book purporting to describe the practice of the ,tsushima college of diviners at a much later period than the ,yengishiki1 we are told that the diviner1 after practising religious abstinence for seven days1 took his place in the divination plot 7uraba or uraniha71 from which all other persons were rigorously excluded4 ,he was provided with the tortoise-shell1 some hahaka wood1 and other requisites4 ,having prayed to the ,god of the divination plot1#cjg who is besought to grant a true divination1 the diviner recites the ,kami-oroshi 7formula which brings down the ,god71 and kindles in a blazing fire a stick of hahaka about four or five inches long1 and of the thickness of a chopstick4 ,when it has taken fire1 he blows it out1 and with it pricks the tortoise-shell from the back4 ,divination is then made from the lines thus produced4 ,when the divination is over1 the ,kami-agari 7ascent of the ,god7 is recited1 and the ceremony is at an end4 ,the ,shint ,mimoku ,ruijiu gives the following description of a form of tortoise-shell divination practised at ,kashima to select young girls for the service of the ,god 7mono-imi74 ,two candidates who have not reached puberty perform rites to the ,god for #ajj days4 ,on the final day a caldron is set up before the shrine and two tortoise-shells are placed in it1 each of which bears the name of one of the girls4 ,these are roasted from early morning till dusk4 ,the tortoise-shell with the name of the successful candidate is then found to be wholly uninjured by the fire whilst the other is reduced to ashes4 ,it is said that the girl selected attains a great age and that she never menstruates4 ,tsuji-ura 7cross-roads divination74#cjh--,this form of divination was much practised in ancient ,japan1 especially by women and lovers4 ,it consisted in going out to the road at dusk1 planting a stick in the ground to represent ,kunado1 the phallic ,god of roads1 and interpreting the fragmentary talk of passers-by as an answer to the question4#cji ,another account says that to perform tsuji-ura you take a box-wood comb in your hand1 go to cross-roads and sound it three times by drawing your finger along it 7tsuge1 box-wood1 also means inform me74 ,then1 with devotion to the ,sahe no ,kami1 repeat this verse three times3 ,oh1 thou ,god of the cross-roads-divination1 grant me a true response4 ,good or bad luck is to be inferred from the words of the next 7or the third7 person who makes his appearance4 ,sometimes a boundary line was marked out and rice sprinkled to keep away evil influences4 ,the words of the passer-by who first entered the charmed limit constituted the response4 ,hashi-ura 7bridge-divination74 ,little is known of this kind of divination4 ,the procedure was the same as in tsuji-ura1 and the ,gods concerned were probably the ,sahe no ,kami4 ,the end-post of a bridge was1 and still is1 a wo-bashira1 that is1 male pillar or phallus4 ,ishi-ura1 or stone-divination1 is mentioned in the ,manyshiu along with tsuji-ura4 ,the stone is probably the stone emblem of ,kunado or ,sahe no ,kami4 ,it consisted in judging of future fortune by the apparent weight of the stone when lifted4 ,such stones were called ,ishi-gami 7stone-deities7 and were no doubt phallic4 ,mikayu-ura 7divination by gruel74 ,this kind of divination is also associated with the ,sahe no ,kami4 ,it was practised in various forms at ,kirawoka in ,kahachi1 ,suha in ,shinano1 and other places1 on the #aeth day of the #ast month#caj in order to ascertain what crops it would be best to sow that year4 ,a pot was set up before the ,god in which adzuki beans#caa were boiled4 ,then tubes of reed1 five or six inches long1 marked with the names of all manner of crops were plunged into the gruel4 ,the negi 7priests7 stood by1 and taking out the tubes with chopsticks divined from the manner in which the grains of rice 7mixed with the gruel7 entered them whether the crop in question would be good or bad4 ,at ,haruna the priests published the results to the peasants in a printed form4 ,hirata mentions another form of divination in which beans are set in a row round the hearth and fire brought close to them4 ,some are roasted black while others remain white1 and from this the weather and luck of the ensuing year are divined4 ,koto-ura 7harp-divination7 was formerly 7#aath century7 practised at ,ise with the object of ascertaining whether the priests who were to take part in the three great religious services of the year and the utensils employed were pure or not4 ,prayer having been made to the ,sun-,goddess1 the officiating priest struck a harp three times1#cab uttering with each note a loud ,hush6 ,he then recited the following ,kami-oroshi 7bringing-down the ,gods73-- ,ah6 we protest that we are in earnest1 ,to your pure seat deign to descend ,all ye ,gods of ,heaven and ,earth1 ,ah6 we protest that we are in earnest1 ,to thy pure seat deign to descend ,thou ,thunder-,god also4 ,ah6 we protest that we are in earnest1 ,to your pure seat deign to descend ,oh thou upper great brother and thou lower great brother4#cac ,the names of the priests were then called over and the question asked in the case of each1 ,is he clean or unclean8 ,the officiating priest then struck the harp and tried to whistle by drawing in his breath4 ,if the whistle was audible it was a sign of purity1 and vice vers4 ,the same procedure was observed with regard to the persons who had prepared the offerings1 the offerings themselves1 and the utensils required in the service4 ,caldron-,divination4--,at the shrine of ,kibitsu no miya in ,bittchu there is a mode of divining good and ill-luck from the sound made by a caldron in boiling4 ,the priests1 on the application of a worshipper1 recite norito and kindle a fire of brushwood under a caldron4 ,if the sound produced resembles the bellowing of a bull1 the prognostic is good1 if otherwise1 it is bad4 ,divination by ,lots4--,sticks with numbers inscribed on them1 or slips of paper1 were much used for divination4 ,the succession to the ,imperial throne has been decided in this way4 ,prayer to the ,kami often preceded their use4 ,the following is a form of divination by lot which is used by sailors when they have lost their reckoning4 ,the names of the points of the compass are written on slips of paper1 placed in a measure of rice1 and the whole mixed up4 ,a harahi-bako of the ,great ,deity of ,ise is put on the top4 ,prayer is offered and the lot which is found to adhere to the harahi-bako is looked upon as the answer of the ,deity4 ,another form of divination by lots is thus described3 ,you place three sticks1 numbered one1 two1 three1 in a bamboo tube and inquire of the ,god as to good or ill luck1 saying reverently1 ',if the thing is lucky1 let it be such a number1 if unlucky1 such another number4' ,in what is called harahi-kuji you write lucky or unlucky1 or whatever your prayer may be1 on papers which you fold up and roll into a ball4 ,then having offered reverent prayer to the ,god1 rub the lots with harahi ko-nusa1#cad when that which adheres to them is concluded to be the answer4 ,this is common at all shrines4 ,lots were1 and still are1 used for all manner of non-religious purposes4 ,if a solitary passenger appears at a jinriksha stand1 he is often cast lots for by means of a set of cords of various lengths knotted together at one end which is kept for the purpose4 ,the ',yih-,king1' a ,chinese book which sets forth a non-religious system of divination depending partly on drawing lots is much used in ,japan4 ,divination by ,means of the ,stars was first introduced in ,a4,d4 #fge by the ,korean teachers of ,chinese arts4 ,kitsune-tsukahi4--,amongst the ordinary diviners is one called ,kitsune-tsukahi1 i4e41 a fox-possessor4 ,the divination is carried on by means of a small image of a fox1 made in a very odd way4 ,a fox is buried alive in a hole with its head left free4 ,food of the sort of which foxes are known to be most fond is placed just beyond the animal's reach4 ,as days pass by the poor beast in its dying agony of hunger makes frantic efforts to reach the food2 but in vain4 ,at the moment of death the spirit of the fox is supposed to pass into the food1 which is then mixed with a quantity of clay1 and shaped into the form of the animal4 ,armed with this extraordinary object1 the miko is supposed to become an infallible guide to foretelling future events of every kind4#cae ,augury by various kinds of birds was known4 ,the geomancy practised to some extent in ,japan is of ,chinese origin4 ,the ,nihongi mentions a number of isolated cases of divination invented on the spur of the moment4 ,the following is an example3-- ,when the ,emperor was about to attack the enemy1 he made a station on the great moor of ,kashihawo4 ,on this moor there was a stone six feet in length1 three feet in breadth1 and one foot five inches in thickness4 ,the ,emperor prayed1 saying3 ',if we are to succeed in destroying the ,tsuchi-gumo1 when we kick this stone1 may we make it mount up like a kashiha leaf4' ,accordingly he kicked it1 upon which1 like a kashiha leaf1 it arose to the ,great ,void4 ,therefore that stone was called ,homishi4 ,the ,gods whom he prayed to at this time were the ,god of ,shiga1 the ,god of the ,mononobe of ,nawori1 and the ,god of the ,nakatomi of ,nawori--these three ,gods4#caf ,omens are frequently mentioned4 ,a leg-rest breaking without apparent cause was a bad omen4 ,the migration of rats from the capital1 the movements of a swarm of flies1 comets1 a dog bringing in a dead man's hand and depositing it in a shrine1 prolonged darkness1 to meet a blind or a lame person are examples of evil omens4 ,earthquakes1 floods and storms were supposed to portend war4 ,a wren's entering a parturition-house is described as a favourable omen4 ,white animals of all kinds were good omens1 and also three-legged crows or even sparrows1 no doubt because the ,sun-crow had three legs4 ,dreams4--,at all stages of human progress1 the rational1 normal1 and usual attitude of mankind towards dreams is a disbelief in their reality4 ,the ivory gate is recognized to be their ordinary1 every-day thoroughfare4 ,there are good reasons for this4 ,most dreams are so palpably absurd that the common sense even of the primitive man1 enlightened by daily experience1 rejects them as something not to be depended on4 ,a man dreams that he has partaken of a hearty meal and wakes up hungry4 ,the cogent logic of an empty belly leaves him no choice but to reject unhesitatingly the proposition that his dream was a reality4 ,he dreams that he has broken his leg4 ,will he1 therefore1 lie up for a month to give it time to heal8 ,in his dreams he can fly4 ,nature exacts a stern penalty if he is idiotic enough to act on the belief that he can do so in reality4 ,the practical necessities of life prohibit a man who has to earn a living and support a family from indulging in any such foolish imaginations4 ,the analogy of his own day-dreams1 which he must know to be unreal1 is too obvious to be disregarded4 ,it is true that we do not find much evidence of this attitude of mind in books of travel or history4 ,nobody thinks it worth while to commit to paper instances of so very evident a fact4 ,most men are comparatively uninterested in the normal and familiar4 ,travellers1 and sometimes even men of science1 are prone to neglect the universal and commonplace for the strange and unusual4 ,like ,desdemona1 they seriously incline to hear of ,the ,anthropophagi1 and men whose heads ,do grow beneath their shoulders4 ,herbert ,spencer#cag thinks that the primitive man accepts the events dreamed as events that have actually occurred1 and adduces evidence which no doubt shows that there really is a current of thought to that effect among savages and others4 ,for the reasons above stated ,i prefer to regard such cases as abnormal and exceptional4 ,the ,kojiki and ,nihongi have many instances of ,gods appearing to men in dreams and giving them instructions4 ,these are doubtless inventions of some scribe1 but they indicate a belief in the possibility of such occurrences4 ,hirata thought it possible by witchcraft to cause people to have dreams4 ,a more frequent view of dreams is that1 although not in themselves realities1 it is possible by suitable interpretation to deduce truth from them--usually in the form of predictions of the future4 ,there are cases of this kind in the old ,japanese records4 ,a deer1 for example1 dreams that a white mist has come down and covered him4 ,this portends that he will be killed by hunters and his body covered with white salt4 ,there is evidence that some men occasionally attain in dreams to a deeper spiritual insight and a keener emotional sensibility to divine influences than in their waking moments4 ,those who have had such experiences do not speak lightly of them4 ,at the present time science is not in a position to deal adequately with this matter4 ,shinto helps us nothing4 ,ordeal is a species of divination4 ,under the date ,a4,d4 #bgg the ,nihongi has the following3-- ,the ,emperor forthwith questioned ,takechi no ,sukune along with ,umashi no ,sukune1 upon which these two men were each obstinate1 and wrangled with one another1 so that it was impossible to ascertain the right and the wrong4 ,the ,emperor then gave orders to ask of the ,gods of ,heaven and ,earth the ordeal by boiling water4 ,hereupon ,takechi no ,sukune and ,umashi no ,sukune went out together to the bank of the ,shiki river1 and underwent the ordeal of boiling water4 ,takechi no ,sukune was victorious4 ,taking his cross-sword1 he threw down ,umashi no ,sukune1 and was at length about to slay him1 when the ,emperor ordered him to let him go4 ,so he gave him to the ancestor of the ,atahe of ,ki4 ,the same authority informs us that in ,a4,d4 #dae the ,mikado1 in consequence of the great confusion caused by the assumption of false names and titles1 commanded the people of the various houses and surnames to wash themselves and practise abstinence4 ,then let them1 each calling upon the ,gods to witness1 plunge their hands in boiling water4 ,hereupon every one put on straps of tree-fibre1 and coming to the caldrons1 plunged their hands in the boiling water1 when those who were true remained naturally uninjured1 and all those who were false were harmed4 ,therefore those who had falsified their titles were afraid1 and1 slipping away beforehand1 did not come forward4 ,from this time forward the ,houses and surnames were spontaneously ordered1 and there was no longer any one who falsified them4 ,a note adds3-- ,this is called ,kugadachi4 ,sometimes mud was put into a caldron and made to boil up4 ,then the arms were bared and the boiling mud stirred with them4 ,sometimes an axe was heated red-hot and placed on the palm of the hand4 ,in a case which occurred in ,a4,d4 #ecj1 it is stated that a judge1 in order to save himself trouble1 was too ready to resort to the boiling-water ordeal and that many persons were scalded to death in consequence4 ,at the present day plunging the hand into boiling water1 walking barefoot over a bed of live coals and climbing a ladder formed of sword-blades set edge upwards are practised1 not by way of ordeal1 but to excite the awe and stimulate the piety of the ignorant spectators4#cah ,inspiration4--,such knowledge as we possess of the divine will and nature comes in the first place to the nobler individuals of our race1 men in whom high intellectual powers are harmoniously allied to keen and healthy emotional susceptibilities and ripened by long years of experience and reflection4 ,they it is--the seers1 inspired prophets1 men of genius1 or by whatever name we may call them--who furnish the material out of which religion is developed1 not the vulgar1 with their superstitions which are only a product of its decay4 ,inspiration is not an isolated phenomenon4 ,like all our thoughts and doings1 it is the resultant of three component factors--namely1 our own ego and that of our fellow-men1 and the all-pervading influence of that divine environment in which we live1 and move1 and have our being4 ,each of these may predominate according to circumstances4 ,in what we call inspiration1 the two former are1 as far as may be1 in abeyance1 and the mind is left free to be acted on by such higher influences as it is capable of receiving4 ,in the case of ,shinto1 we have1 unfortunately1 no record of the conditions under which such truths as it contains became revealed4 ,the deification of the ,sun and the recognition of the fact that there is love for mankind in the warmth and light which proceed from him was a truly magnificent idea in a world destitute of religion4 ,the ,izanagi myth1 by which so many of the ,gods were assigned a common parentage1 was a brilliant conception1 paving the way towards monotheism4 ,musubi1 the ,god of ,growth1 marks a further stage of progress in this direction4 ,to these may be added such few and vague glimpses as were caught of the truth that offences against our neighbour are also displeasing to the ,gods4 ,but we have no knowledge of the circumstances attending these discoveries or of the persons who made them4 ,the only true seer of whom the old records tell us anything was an unfortunate man who in ,a4,d4 #fdd taught his countrymen to worship--albeit in the form of a caterpillar--the ,god of the ,everlasting ,world1 the ,god of ,gods1 and suffered death in consequence4 ,the seer is not equally clear sighted at all times4 ,he has temporary enhancements of lucidity due to conditions which are very imperfectly understood4 ,some are of a physical nature4 ,the moderate use of certain drugs and stimulants is an acknowledged help towards producing such exalted states of mind4 ,music1 quiet1 sympathy1 voluntary concentration of mind 7lapsing sometimes into the hypnotic trance1 or something resembling it71 general abstemiousness1 and occasional fasting1 are all aids of recognized value which are not neglected by the individual1 compact of common clay1 who vainly aspires to fill the high office of interpreter between ,gods and men4 ,the ,japanese word for inspiration is ,kangakari1 which means ,god-attachment1 and is nearly equivalent to our possession4 ,it is indicative of the passive attitude claimed by the seer in all countries1 with an earnestness which1 however genuine1 notoriously does not exclude the possibility of error4 ,the most transparent bodies deflect or modify the light which passes through them4 ,other words for inspiration are takusen and shintaku4 ,they are of ,chinese origin1 and involve the idea of a divine message or commission4 ,in the notices of inspired communications recorded in the ,shinto books we seldom or never recognize the true prophet4 ,instead of revelations of divine truth1 we are given the fruits of hypnotism1 imposture1 and a credulous interpretation of meaningless things4 ,the reader will discern few traces of genuine inspiration in the following examples1 of which the earlier are taken from the ,nihongi4 ,the ,goddess ,uzume gave forth an inspired utterance as part of her performance before the ,rock-cave of ,heaven into which the ,sun ,goddess had retired4 ,it consisted of the numerals from one to ten4 ,b4,c4 #e4 ,the ,sun-,goddess instructed the ,princess-priestess ,yamato-hime that a shrine should be erected to her in the province of ,ise4 ,b4,c4 #ch4 ,a young child pronounced an unintelligible speech which sounded like the names of deities1 and was thought to be inspired4 ,worship was offered in consequence4 ,b4,c4 #ia4 ,a ,god inspired ,yamato totohi momoso hime 7a ,princess7 to say as follows3 ,why is the ,emperor grieved at the disordered state of the country8 ,if he duly did us reverence it would assuredly become pacified of itself4 ,a4,d4 #aic4 ,the ,empress ,jingo was inspired by a certain ,god to urge her husband the ,mikado to invade ,korea4 #bjj4 #crd month1 #ast day4 ,the same ,empress1 having selected a lucky day1 entered the ,palace of worship1 and discharged in person the office of priest4#cai ,she commanded ,takechi no ,sukune to play on the lute1 and the ,nakatomi1 ,igatsu no ,omi1 was designated as ,saniha4#cbj ,then placing one thousand pieces of cloth1 high pieces of cloth1 on the top and bottom of the lute1 she prayed1 saying3 ',who is the ,god who on a former day instructed the ,emperor8 ,i pray that ,i may know his name4' ,after seven days and seven nights there came an answer1 saying3 ',i am the ,deity who dwells in the ,shrine of ,ise4' #dhg4 ,a certain man1 inspired by the ,moon-,god1 said1 ',my forefather ,taka-musubi had the merit of creating ,heaven and ,earth4 ,let him be honoured by dedicating to him people and land4 ,i am the ,moon-,god and ,i shall rejoice if this my desire is complied with4' #eee4 ,mention is made of a divine inspiration by which the ,hafuri1 a century before1 had advised humble prayer to the ,founder of the ,land before going to the assistance of a ,korean king4 #fgb4 ,kome1 ,takechi no ,agata-nushi1 ,governor of the district of ,takechi1 suddenly had his mouth closed so that he could not speak4 ,after three days1 a divine inspiration came upon him1 and he said3 ',i am the ,god who dwells in the ,shrine of ,takechi1 and my name is ,koto-shiro-nushi no ,kami4' ,again1 ',i am the ,god who dwells in the ,shrine of ,musa1 and my name is ,iku-ikadzuchi no ,kami4' ,this was their revelation3 ',let offerings of horses and weapons of all kinds be made at the misasagi 7tomb7 of the ,emperor ,kamu-yamato-ihare-biko4' ,further they said3 ',we stood in front and rear of the ,imperial descendant and escorted him to ,fuha1 whence we returned4 ,we have now again taken our stand in the midst of the ,imperial army for its protection4' ,further they said3 ',an army is about to arrive by the ,western road4 ,be on your guard4' ,when he had done speaking1 he awoke from his trance4 ,for this reason1 therefore1 ,kome was sent to worship at the ,imperial misasagi and to make offerings of horses and weapons4 ,he also made offerings of cloth and worshipped the ,gods of the ,shrines of ,takechi and ,musa4 ,after this ,karakuni1 ,iki no ,fubito1 arrived from ,ohosaka4 ,therefore the people of that day said3 ',the words of the instructions of the ,gods of the two ,shrines are in accordance with the fact4' ,moreover the ,goddess of ,muraya said by the mouth of a priest3 ',an army is now about to arrive by the middle road of my shrine4 ,therefore let the middle road of my shrine be blocked4' ,accordingly1 not many days after1 the army of ,kujira1 ,ihoriwi no ,miyakko1 arrived by the middle road4 ,the men of that day said3 ',so the words of the teaching of the ,god were right4' ,when the war was over1 the ,generals reported the monitions of these three ,gods to the ,emperor1 who straightway commanded that the three ,gods should be raised in rank and worshipped accordingly4 #hab4 ,a decree was passed denouncing punishment on peasants who1 without reason1 predicted good or bad fortune4 ,the authorities were at the same time enjoined to report any genuine predictions4 #ajca4 ,while a service to the ,sun-,goddess was being performed at ,ise1 a storm of thunder and lightning came on4 ,the ,saiw 7virgin priestess of ,imperial blood7 was inspired and said3 ,i am the ,ara-matsuri no miya1 the first of the separate shrines of the ,great ,shrine1 and ,i now speak by command of the ,great ,god4 ,the ,st an official designation ,sdzu and his wife have for years past made absurd pretensions1 such as that the two great ,deities have flown to and attached themselves to them1 the ,ara-matsuri and the ,takamiya to their children and the deities of the five separate shrines to their domestic4 ,such extraordinary assertions evince a want of loyalty both to the ,gods and to the ,mikado4 ,their disregard of the ceremonial regulations and the fewness of the offerings are not 7in themselves7 deserving of severe blame1 but they show a want of respect to the ,gods4 ,iga no ,kami reaped the rice officially set apart for the service of the shrine and slew the peasants of the ,deity4 ,yet1 by the remissness of the ,government officials1 it was the third year before he was banished4444 ,let ,sdzu be sent into exile at once4 ,after delivering this message the ,saiw drank several cups of the sacred sake4 ,nowadays1 with ourselves1 recourse is had1 under like circumstances1 to a letter to the ,times or a question in the ,house of ,commons4 #abbe-bg4 ,though not an inspiration1 ,i may mention here an oracle which was delivered at ,idzumo by wormholes in the wood of the old ,temple which took the form of ,chinese characters4 ,it intimated that the ,god did not care for lofty buildings1 but that the people should turn to virtue4 ,motori strongly suspects its authenticity4 ,no ,shinto ,god1 he thinks1 would be likely to use ,chinese for his oracles4 #acdh4 ,a ,buddhist priest of the province of ,ise1 having made prayer for #a1jjj days at the ,shrine of the ,great ,deity1 saw on the thousandth day a bright object floating on the sea4 ,this he found to be a sword two feet five or six inches in length4 ,at this time a boy of twelve or thirteen1 being divinely inspired1 said3 ,this is one of the three regalia1 the precious sword sunk in the sea4#cba ,the matter was reported to ,kioto1 where the authenticity of the sword was corroborated by dreams1 but ultimately not officially recognized4 ,the ,wa ,rongo1 a work published in #affi1 contains a number of oracles 7,kangakari7 attributed to a great variety of ,deities throughout ,japan4 ,some account of this work will be given in the next chapter4 ,numerous other cases of inspired utterances are recorded in ,japanese history4 ,they have generally relation to the worship of the ,god concerned1 directing the erection of a new shrine1 indicating religious observances which will do him pleasure1 or complaining that he is neglected or insulted4 ,the ,buddhist priests1 who converted ,shinto to their own purposes1 made frequent use of this means of sanctioning their encroachments1 and it was also made to serve political purposes4 ,some of the above notices are purely legendary1 and of the rest many are open to a suspicion of imposture4 ,it is probable1 however1 that in most cases the writers who recorded or invented them had in view the hypnotic trance1 a kind of condition which is well known in ,japan at the present day4 ,the following description of a hypnotic sance is abridged from ,mr4 ,percival ,lowell's interesting book1 ',occult ,japan4' ,a place having been chosen1 either holy or else purified ad hoc1 a gohei is set up with lighted candles beside it and flanking these1 sprigs of sakaki1 the sacred tree of ,shinto4 ,in front of the gohei is set out a feast for the ,god4 ,some five feet in front a porous earthenware bowl is placed on a stand1 and in the bowl a pyre of incense sticks4 ,the purification of the place consists in enclosing the spot with strings1 from which depend at intervals small gohei1 and from the space so shut off driving out all evil spirits by prayer1 finger-charms1#cbb sprinkling of salt1 striking of sparks by flint and steel1 and brandishing a gohei4 ,the persons of the officiators are purified by bathing and putting on fresh white garments4 ,in its full complement the company consists of eight persons1 the naka-za 7middle-seat7 corresponding to the medium1 the mae-za 7front-seat71 who is the director of the proceedings1 and puts the necessary questions to the medium1 and several others whose business it is to ward off evil influences1 c4 ,a purification service having been chanted under the leadership of the mae-za1 and songs sung to the accompaniment of the shaku-j1#cbc a sort of staff with metal rings attached to it1 the pyre is lighted1 and as the flames ascend into the air prayers go up to ,fudsama4#cbd ,the gohei having been removed and set up in the middle1 the men take their seats for the descent of the ,god4 ,facing the gohei1 they go through a further short incantation4 ,then one of the subordinates holds the gohei while the naka-za seats himself where it had been and closes his eyes4 ,the mae-za takes the gohei and places it between the hands of the naka-za4 ,then all the others join in chant1 and watch for the advent of the ,god4 ,for a few minutes1 the time varying with the particular naka-za1 the man remains perfectly motionless4 ,then suddenly the gohei begins to quiver4 ,the quiver gains till all at once the man is seized with a convulsive throe4 ,in some trances the eyes then open1 the eyeballs being rolled up half out of sight4 ,in others the eyes remain half shut4 ,then the throe subsides again to a permanent quiver1 the eyes1 if open1 fixed in the trance look4 ,the man has now become the ,god4 ,the mae-za1 bowed down1 then reverently asks the name of the ,god1 and the ,god answers1 after which the mae-za prefers his petitions1 to which the ,god makes reply4 ,when he has finished1 the naka-za falls forward on his face4 ,the mae-za concludes with a prayer1 then1 striking the naka-za on the back1 wakes him up4 ,one of the others gives him water from a cup1 and when he has been able to swallow it the rest set to and rub his arms and body out of their cataleptic contraction4 ,the ,sankairi1 a work published in #ahec1 mentions a kind of inspired medium known as yori-dai3-- ,there are numbers of these in saka who practise ,kami-oroshi 7bringing down the ,god74 ,an altar to ,sho-ichi-i ,inari ,mijin 7first of first rank illustrious ,god ,inari7 is consecrated within their dwelling-house1 before which the medium takes his seat4 ,some of these bringers-down of the ,god are men1 others women4 ,they take a gohei in each hand and repeat the ,rokkon shj no harahi a bastard ,buddhist form of harahi1 muttering at the same time something or another so that one might think they were veritable official bringers-down of the ,god4 ,at ,tenji there is a ,miko-machi1 or street of mediums who pretend that it was established by ,shtoku ,taishi4 ,when the cries of these mediums reach the street1 people look in at the windows4 ,they differ1 however1 from the ,inari-oroshi4 ,some there are who use the formula1 ',is it a living mouth or a dead mouth8' so that they probably belong to the ,shinano mediums1 who talk of the ,god being drawn by the adzusa bow4 ,there is also a kind of witchcraft called ,inugami4#cbe ,but the ,mijin-oroshi or yoridai we speak of repeats over and over again the phrase ',be pleased to cleanse1 be pleased to purify'1 so long as he retains his senses4 ,then his complexion changes and he becomes pale1 while the gohei in his hands shake themselves erect4 ,he will then answer1 one after another1 by manifest inspiration1 any questions which the applicant may put to him4 ,the ,sankairi is a ,buddhist book1 and goes on to tell a story of a ,kami being brought down by nembutsu 7,buddhist prayers7 and the medium repeating a ,buddhist hymn4#cbf ,it need hardly be said that1 as in the case of our own spiritualistic sances1 the net value of the information obtained by this process is nil4 ,it is hardly fair to ,shinto to call this sort of thing esoteric ,shinto1 as ,mr4 ,lowell does4 ,spiritualism is not esoteric ,christianity1 but a diseased excrescence on it4 ,the higher ,shinto functionaries do not condescend to such practices1 and1 indeed1 they are commonly performed by laymen1 or even by ,buddhist priests4 ,the official ,shinto mode of ascertaining the will of the ,gods was by the ,greater ,divination1 that is1 by the deer's shoulder-blade or the tortoise-shell4 ,kangakari1 or inspiration1 was1 however1 known at all periods of ,japanese history2 and although no detailed accounts have reached us of the methods used to produce it1 there are indications that they were of a similar character to those described by ,mr4 ,lowell4 ,the kannushi of the ceremony of the ,empress ,jing's inspiration#cbg seems to be the same as ,mr4 ,lowell's naka-za1 and the saniha corresponds to his mae-za4 ,we may presume that his office sometimes resembled that of the functionary at ,delphi1 whose business it was to clarify the obscurities of the ,pythian priestess's utterances4 ,the miko of the shrine of ,ise gave inspired utterances4 ,the sprinkling of boiling water is said to have been part of the process by which they were induced4 ,true inspiration1 such as that which touched ,isaiah's hallowed lips with fire1 belongs chiefly to the male sex4 ,the kangakari1 or hypnotic trance1 on the other hand1 has in ,japan1 as elsewhere1 a decided preference for women or boys4#cbh ',occult ,japan' deals only with the hypnotic trance as a condition in which communications are received from the ,gods4 ,but there are also mediums1 called miko or ichiko1 who when hypnotized deliver messages from deceased relatives and others4#cbi ,hirata speaks of the miko and hafuri providing yori-bito 7mediums71 by whom they brought near 7yoru7 by prayer the spirits of ,gods or men and questioned them4 ,ichiko is defined in the dictionary1 ,kotoba no ,idzumi1 as a woman who1 as the representative of a ,god or living soul1 or dead man's soul1 delivers their thoughts from her own mouth4 ,possession by foxes1 badgers1 and other animals is a well-known phenomenon in ,japan1 but as it has no special connexion with ,shinto ,i shall only refer the reader to ,mr4 ,b4 ,h4 ,chamberlain's ',things ,japanese1' which contains a scientific account of this form of disease from the pen of ,dr4 ,baelz4 ,there are in ,japan families who are believed to own foxes1 by whom they are assisted and protected1 and who watch over their fields and prevent outsiders from doing damage4 ,such families are avoided1 and none but members of similar fox-owning families will intermarry with them4#ccj ,,footnotes3 #bhh ,see above1 p4 #aig4 #bhi ',yenzeki ,zasshi1' v4 #a4 #bij ,when demons and evil influences are expelled4 ,see above1 p4 #cjh4 #bia ,after the manner of the ,oho-harahi offerings4 #bib ',the ,golden ,bough1' second edition1 p4 #i4 #bic ,i cannot offer any explanation of the magic used by women and children in order to bring fine weather4 ,they hang upside down to the eaves or on the branch of a tree human figures cut in paper1 and called ,teri-teri-bzu 7shine-shine-priest74 #bid ,see above1 p4 #aae4 #bie ,i4 #aeg4 #bif ',the ,mikado's ,empire1' p4 #dgd4 #big ,see also ,ch4 ,k4 #bfc4 #bih ,according to ,van ,helmont1 the reason why bull's fat is so powerful in a vulnerary ointment is that the bull at the time of slaughter is full of secret reluctancy and vindictive murmurs1 and therefore dies with a higher flame of revenge about him than any other animal4 #bii ,see ',primitive ,culture1' i4 #aaf1 where numerous examples of symbolic magic are given4 #cjj ,see above1 p4 #ahg4 #cja ,the ,tsuchigumo 7earth-hiders7 were men of a low class1 who lived in dwellings sunk in the earth1 and gave much trouble to the ,japanese ,government in ancient times4 ,dr4 ,tylor1 in his ',primitive ,culture1' i4 #aac1 has noted the tendency to attribute magical powers to pariahs and foreigners4 ,sukunabikona1 the teacher of magic to ,japan1 came from abroad4 #cjb ,see above1 p4 #aae4 #cjc ,see above1 p4 #ajf4 #cjd ,see p4 #bib4 #cje ,nihongi1 ii4 #hb4 #cjf ,see above1 p4 #bid4 #cjg ,koyane4 ,hirata speaks with scorn of the ,chinese methods of divining current in ,japan in later times1 in which no invocation of the ,gods was used4 ,sometimes other ,gods1 and even ,buddhas1 were invoked4 #cjh ,the ,king of ,babylon stood at the parting of the way1 at the head of the two ways1 to perform divination4--,ezekiel xxi4 #ba4 #cji ,pausanias says that in ancient ,greece the inquirer1 after asking his question of the ,god and making his offering1 took as the divine answer the first words he might hear on quitting the sanctuary4 #caj ,the date of the festival of the ,sahe no ,kami4 #caa ,see above1 p4 #aic4 #cab ,the ,kami-yori-ita 7,god-resort-board71 struck in later times to bring down the ,gods1 is believed to be a substitute for this harp4 #cac ,it is not known who these ,gods were4 #cad ,smaller gohei used in the harahi ceremony4 #cae ,weston1 ',mountaineering in the ,japanese ,alps1' p4 #cjg4 ,see also ,index1 ,inugami2 and ,mr4 ,chamberlain's ',things ,japanese1' third edition1 p4 #aaj4 #caf ,compare the story of ,gideon's fleece in ,judges vi4 #cg4 ,see also ,nihongi1 ,i4 #bcg1 and ,ch4 ,k4 #aid4 #cag ',sociology1' i4 #aed4 #cah ,see ,mr4 ,p4 ,lowell's ',occult ,japan1' p4 #cf4 #cai ,kannushi4 #cbj ,saniha 7pure court7 is explained as the official who examines the utterances prompted by the ,deity4 #cba ,at the battle of ,dannora1 in #aahd4 #cbb ,in-musubi1 a ,chinese practice4 #cbc ,a ,buddhist religious implement4 #cbd ,a ,buddhist deity4 ,the incense is also ,buddhist4 #cbe ,see above1 p4 #ccb4 #cbf ,an excellent account of a ,japanese hypnotic sance is given in ,mr4 ,weston's ',mountaineering in the ,japanese ,alps1' p4 #bhb4 #cbg ,see above1 p4 #cej4 #cbh ,antiquity regarded the soul of woman as more accessible to every sort of inspiration1 which also1 according to ancient opinion1 is a 4--,mller1 ',sc4 ,myth41' p4 #bag4 #cbi ,see above1 p4 #bjf4 #ccj ,see above1 p4 #cdd4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,decay ,,of ,,shinto4--,,its ,,modern ,,sects4 ,rise of ,buddhism4--,the later history of ,shinto is one of neglect and decay4 ,such vitality as it retained was owing mainly to the ,buddhist ideas which were engrafted upon it4 ,the influence of ,chinese systems of ethics and philosophy was also very perceptible1 especially in more recent times4 ,the ,buddhism of ,japan is not simply the doctrine of the founder1 described by some as atheistic4 ,it is a real religion1 and besides the worship of other ,buddhas1 comprises that of an ,infinite ,being--the ,buddha ,amida--having certain attributes which we should term divine1 and of his assessors1 with doctrines far more abstruse and profound than those which were taught by ,sakyamuni himself4 ,in the main a form of the northern branch of ,buddhism1 it found its way originally to ,japan vi ,tibet1 ,western ,china1 and ,korea4#cca ,in ,a4,d4 #eeb the ,king of ,pkch1 in ,korea1 sent an embassy to ,japan with a present to the ,mikado of an image of ,shaka 7,sakyamuni7 and several volumes of ,sutras4 ,they were gladly received1 and were entrusted to the charge of a ,minister with instructions to practise the new faith4 ,but the jealousy of the adherents of the older religion was aroused4 ,when a pestilence broke out soon after1 they attributed it to the wrath of the native deities1 and found means to have the ,buddhist temple burnt and the holy image thrown into a canal4 ,other attempts to propagate ,buddhism were little more successful1 and it was not until the time of the ,regent ,shtoku ,taishi that it made any substantial progress4 ,at his death in #fba there were in ,japan #df temples or monasteries and #ache monastics1 male and female4 ,in #fhf it was decreed that every household should have its domestic ,buddhist shrine4 ,when ,buddhism1 after ,christianity the great religion of the world1 had once gained a foothold in ,japan1 its ultimate victory was certain4 ,there was nothing in ,shinto which could rival in attraction the sculpture1 architecture1 painting1 costumes1 and ritual of the foreign faith4 ,its organization was more complete and effective4 ,it presented ideals of humanity1 charity1 self-abnegation1 and purity1 far higher than any previously known to the ,japanese nation4 ,its doctrines of sin and repentance1 of fate1 of future bliss and woe1 its profound metaphysics1 and1 perhaps more than aught else1 the satisfaction which it offered to the yearnings of many a wounded spirit for a holy contemplative life1 detached from the toil and worry1 the sorrow and the disturbing passions of the world1 were well calculated to find a welcome in their hearts4 ,at first the two religions held aloof from one another4 ,but while ,buddhism flourished more and more1 ,shinto was gradually weakened by the diversion into another channel of material resources and religious thought which might otherwise have been bestowed upon itself4 ,rybu ,shinto4--,the two religions came into more direct contact in the eighth century1 when there began a process of pacific penetration of the weaker by the stronger cult1 which yielded some curious and important results4 ,buddhism is not a militant religion in the sense that ,islam was4 ,it owes little or nothing to the aid of the secular arm1 and avoids rather than seeks open conflicts with other faiths4 ,what the ,japanese call hben 7pious device7 and to which we should often apply the harsher terms pious fraud or priestcraft1 are more congenial to it4 ,a notable application of the hben method occurred in the time of the ,mikado ,shmu1 who reigned at ,nara from #gbd to #gef4 ,wishing to celebrate his reign by the erection of a great ,buddhist temple and image1 he took advice of ,gygi1 a priest renowned to this day for many services to civilization1 and despatched him to ,ise with a present for the ,sun-,goddess of a relic of ,buddha4 ,gygi spent seven days and seven nights in prayer under a tree close to the gate of the shrine1 and was then vouchsafed an oracle in the form of some couplets of ,chinese verse couched in purely ,buddhistic phraseology4 ,it spoke of the ,sun of truth enlightening the long night of life and death and of the ,moon of eternal reality dispersing the clouds of sin and ignorance4 ,this was interpreted to mean that the ,sun-,goddess identified herself with ,vairochana1 called by the ,japanese ,birushana or ,dainichi 7great ,sun71 a person of a ,buddhist trinity and described as the personification of essential bodhi 7enlightenment7 and absolute purity4 ,the ,sun-,goddess subsequently appeared to the ,mikado in a dream and confirmed this view of her character4 ,the temple 7,tdaiji7 founded by ,shmu--though not the original building--is still in existence4 ,it contains the famous colossal statue of ,birushana1 which is at this day one of the wonders of ,japan4 ,the principle of recognizing the ,kami as avatars or incarnations of ,buddhist deities1 of which the case of the ,sun-,goddess and ,vairochana was the first in ,japan--it had been already applied in ,china to ,laotze and ,confucius--was subsequently much extended1 and1 with a spice of ,chinese philosophy added1 formed the basis of a new sect called ,rybu ,shinto4 ,its ,buddhist character is indicated by its name1 which means two parts1 the two parts being the two mystic worlds of ,buddhism1 namely1 the ,kongkai and the ,taizkai4 ,the principal founder of ,rybu was the famous 7and fabulous7 ,kb ,daishi 7died #hce71 to whom the invention of the ,hiragana syllabary and quite a miraculous number of sculptures1 writings1 and paintings are ascribed4 ,the sect of ,buddhism engrafted by him on ,shinto is that known as ,shingon 7true word74 ,it is not one of its highest forms1 and deals much in magic finger-twistings1 endless repetitions of mystic formul unintelligible to the worshipper1 and other superstitious practices4 ,despite its professions of eclecticism1 the soul of ,rybu is essentially ,buddhist4 ,it borrows little more from ,shinto than the names of a few deities1 notably ,kuni-toko-tachi1 to whom it gives an importance by no means justified by anything in the older ,shinto writings4#ccb ,rybu owed much of its success to forgeries and other means1 which were considered less objectionable in those days than they would be at present4 ,great indulgence has always been shown in ,japan towards means of edification 7hben7 that would hardly recommend themselves to our more scrupulous minds4 ,yet there was something more than priestcraft in the attempt to weld ,buddhism1 ,confucianism1 and ,shinto into one consistent whole4 ,it is surely a true instinct which leads mankind to recognize an essential unity in all religions1 and to reconcile1 as far as possible1 the outwardly conflicting forms in which it is clothed4 ,the religious history of ,japan is full of such endeavours4#ccc ,but ,shinto1 ,buddhism of various sects1 ,confucianism1 and ,sung philosophy constituted a very refractory mass of material1 and the results obtained1 while they testify to much industry and ingenuity1 are more curious than valuable4 ,yui-itsu4--,the ,yui-itsu ,shinto was a branch of ,rybu4 ,it was invented about the end of the fifteenth century4 ,yui-itsu is short for ,ten-jin-yui-itsu 7,heaven-man-only-one71 a doctrine borrowed1 according to ,hirata1 by the ,chinese philosophers from ,buddhism4 ,of course in this connexion ,ten does not mean the visible sky4 ,it is rather a conception which fluctuates between ,nature and ,god4 ,it will be seen that the fundamental problem which has so much occupied the minds of ,western theologians and philosophers--namely1 that of the relation which exists between the human and the divine--has not escaped the attention of ,far ,eastern thinkers4 ,motori treats the doctrine of the identity of ,ten and man with much contempt4 ,how can there be anything in common1 he asks1 between ,ten1 the country where the ,gods live1 and man8 ,to the people1 a ,rybu shrine was one where ,buddhist priests officiated1 a ,yui-itsu shrine one where none but ,shinto functionaries were seen4 ,other sects1 or rather schools1 of ,shinto were those of ,deguchi and ,suwiga1 both of which arose in the seventeenth century4 ,the former explains the phenomena of the ,divine ,age on principles derived from the ,yih-,king1 an ancient ,chinese book of divination2 the latter is a combination of ,yui-itsu ,shinto with ,sung philosophy4 ,all these sects were much given to strained analogies and fanciful comparisons in support of their views4 ,the conversion of ,saruta-hiko into a great moral teacher by the ,deguchi ,shinto is an example4 ,saruta-hiko is worshipped at road sides4 ,he therefore came to be considered the ,god of roads and the guide and protector of travellers4 ,but the road or way may be used metaphorically for the path of duty or virtue4 ,hence we have the astonishing result by which a phallic deity figures as the chief ,shinto apostle of morality4 ,other instances are the symbolic meanings ascribed to the regalia and the notion that the cross timbers of the roof of the typical ,shinto shrine represent the 7,chinese7 virtues of benevolence1 justice1 courtesy1 and wisdom4 ,these and many more of a similar character are argute scholastic speculations in which the people take little concern4 ,the ,rybu1 which retained its predominance until the eighteenth century1 was by far the most important of these so-called ,shinto sects4 ,it is impossible to trace here their somewhat complicated history4 ,i may1 however1 note a few facts which will illustrate the character and extent of the encroachment of ,buddhist and ,chinese ideas on the native faith and cult4 ,as early as the eighth century a ,mikado began the custom1 subsequently continued during many centuries1 of abdicating the throne after a few years' reign and assuming the ,buddhist tonsure4 ,the mode of imperial burial was modified in accordance with ,buddhist ideas of the worthlessness of these mortal frames of ours4 ,some ,mikados were cremated4 ,one described himself as a slave of ,buddha1 and another in an official ordinance spoke of the ,kami as obeying the laws of ,buddha4 ,after such an example was set by the high priests of ,shinto1 it could not be expected that their ,court should be more faithful to the older cult4 ,in the ,heian period the nobles could not be induced to trouble themselves about the ,shinto ceremonies1 which were either deputed to subordinates or omitted altogether4 ,the regular embassies to the shrines were neglected1 except on some great emergency1 such as famine1 plague1 or earthquake4 ,even the greatest ,shinto rite of all--the ,ohonihe1 or coronation ceremony--was in abeyance for eight reigns1 viz41 from #adfe to #afhg4 ,what would have seemed even more shocking to an old ,shintoist was the circumstance that ,buddhist priests were allowed to take part in it4 ,buddhist priests had the custody of nearly all the shrines1 read ,sutras1 and performed ,buddhist ceremonies there1 such as baptism and goma sprinkling4 ,relics of ,buddha were deposited in them4 ,buddhist temples had ,shinto shrines of a ,chinjiu1 or protecting ,kami1 built in their courtyards4 ,buddhist architecture and ornaments were used for the ,miya and ni-w 7the two kings1 guardians of the gate7 or shishi 7lions7 set up before them4 ,the latter are an ,indian conceit4 ,they were originally set up at cemeteries in order to frighten wild beasts and prevent them from tearing up the dead4 ,we are told that in the reign of ,horikawa 7#ajii7 nearly all the shrines were in ruin4 ,the ,onyshi1 or official college of professors of the ,yin and ,yang natural philosophy of ,china1 who were equally prepared to compute an almanac or to exorcise a demon1 were for many centuries entrusted with the performance of the harahi 7purification ceremonies71 and other ,shinto functions4 ,the accompanying illustration shows another form of the admixture of ,buddhism with ,shinto which prevailed until quite recently4 ,of the three shrines here represented1 the central only is dedicated to a ,shinto ,deity1 viz41 ,atago1 or the ,fire-,god1 who1 moreover1 has the ,buddhist epithet ,daigongen affixed to his name4 ,the other two are dedicated to the ,buddhist deities ,benzaiten and ,bishamon4 ,the myths of the ,kojiki and ,nihongi did not escape from admixture with ,indian cosmology and ,chinese philosophy1 a process which yielded the strangest results4 ,thus a fourteenth-century writer described the ,yin and ,yang as evolving by their mutual interaction ,izanagi and ,izanami1 the earlier generations of the ,nihongi story being omitted4 ,their child1 the ,sun ,goddess1 proves to be a manifestation of ,buddha1 one of whose services to humanity was at some far remote period to subdue the ,evil ,kings of the ,six ,heavens of ,indian myth1 and compel them to withdraw their opposition to the spread of the true doctrine 7that is1 ,buddhism7 in ,japan4 ,illustration ,still there were a few exceptions to the general decay4 ,at the two great shrines of ,ise and ,idzumo1 the old cult was maintained in tolerable purity1 and doubtless many local shrines were preserved by their insignificance from ,buddhist encroachment4 ,it should not be forgotten1 moreover1 that1 although the history of ,shinto under foreign influence was one of neglect and decay1 in so far as its original elements were concerned1 it borrowed from ,buddhism and ,confucianism germs of a higher thought1 which under more favourable circumstances might have borne precious fruit4 ,i have before me a book entitled1 ',wa ,rongo2 or1 ,japanese 7,confucian7 ,analects1' which shows the later ,shinto in a more favourable light4 ,it was published in #affi4 ,the preface states that the original work belongs to the reign of ,gotoba no ,in 7#aahd-aaih71 and gives a list of successive editors or compilers from #abai to #afbh4 ,it is a collection of oracles of ,shinto gods and wise utterances of mikados1 princes1 and others1 of a tolerably heterogeneous kind4 ,most of them1 however1 bear the stamp of the ,rybu ,shinto4 ,they are ,buddhism1 ,confucianism1 or ,sung philosophy in a ,shinto dress4 ,the first volume contains #ajh 7the number of beads in a ,buddhist rosary7 oracles attributed to the ,gods of various ,shinto shrines throughout ,japan4 ,these oracles are by no means consistent with one another4 ,some are frankly ,buddhist in character1 others inculcate the doctrine of the identity of ,kami and ,buddhas1 while others1 again1 denounce the practice of alien religions4 ,in some1 ,heaven-and-,earth is recognized as a sort of pantheistic deity1 distinct from the physical universe4 ,here we have ,chinese inspiration4 ,purity of heart1 charity to the poor1 and the avoidance of vain repetitions are much insisted on4 ,no moral code is anywhere set forth4 ,when virtue is spoken of1 it is the ,confucian morality1 or the observance of the ,buddhist commandments1 that must be understood4 ,in the following examples the reader will find himself in a wholly different and far higher moral and religious atmosphere from that of the unadulterated older ,shinto described in the preceding chapters4 ,shinto ,oracles4--,the ,sun-,goddess enjoins uprightness and truth1 on pain of being sent to ,ne no kuni4#ccd ,men should make their hearts like unto ,heaven-and-,earth4#cce ,wearisome ceremonies and repetitions 7of some ,buddhist sects7 should be abandoned1 and reverence shown to the ,gods of the ancestral shrines4#ccf ,the ,mikado ,gotoba no ,in received the following inspiration in a dream from the two shrines of ,ise3-- ,in the last days the world will be disturbed and all men troubled4 ,the sovereign house will show respect for the military house1 and local governors will make friends with wearisome fellows 7,buddhist monks74 ,buddhist priests will take to them wives1 eat flesh1 and propagate base doctrines4 ,the land of ,ashihara of the fair rice-ears is the rightful property of my descendants4 ,an oracle of ,hachiman3-- ,i refuse the offerings of the impure of heart4 ,some ,gods are great1 some small1 some good and others bad4 ,my name is ,dai jizai w bosatsu4#ccg ,an inspired poem 7,a4,d4 #abjd73-- ,loving-kindness is of the ,buddhas3 ,uprightness of the ,kami3 ,error of the sons of men4 ,thus of the same heart there is a triple division4 ,the ,gods of ,kamo promise their divine help and the fulfilment of their prayers to their worshippers1 especially those who regularly visit the shrine4 ,oracle of the ,gods of ,kasuga3-- ,even though men prepare for us a pure abode and offer there the rare things of the land1 though they hang up offerings of the seven precious things1 and with anxious hearts pray to us for hundreds of days1 yet will we refuse to enter the house of the depraved and miserly4 ,but we will surely visit the dwellings even of those in deep mourning#cch without an invitation1 if loving-kindness is there always4 ,the reason is that we make loving-kindness our shintai4 ,hear all men6 ,if you desire to obtain help from the ,gods1 put away pride4 ,even a hair of pride shuts you off from the ,gods as it were by a great cloud4 ,hear all men6 ,the good ,kami find their strength and their support in piety4 ,therefore they love not the offerings of those who practise tedious ceremonies4 ,the ,deity of ,matsunowo says3-- ,any one who makes a single obeisance to one ,kami will receive infinite help3 much more so any one who makes pure his heart and enters the great way of single-minded uprightness4 ,oracle of ,temman tenjin1 the deified ,minister ,sugahara no ,michizane#cci3-- ,all ye who come before me hoping to attain the accomplishment of your desires1 pray with hearts pure from falsehood1 clean within and without1 reflecting the truth like a mirror4 ,if those who are falsely accused of crime#cdj come to me for help1 within seven days their prayer will be granted1 or else call me not a ,god4 ,an oracle of ,mume no miya promises that if an offering of sand is made help will be given to women in child-birth1 and children to those who have none4 ,an oracle of ,atago 7the ,fire-,god7 denounces his vengeance on those who pollute fire1 and on the wealthy who do not assist their poorer neighbours4 ,leave the things of this world and come to me daily and monthly with pure bodies and pure hearts4 ,you will then enjoy paradise in this world and have all your desires accomplished4 ,oracle of the ,god of ,kashima#cda3-- ,i am the protector of ,japan against foreign violence and break the spear-points of ,heavenly demons and ,earthly demons4 ,all enjoy my divine power4 ,i derive strength from the multiplication of devout men in the land4 ,then do the forces of demons melt away like snow in the sun4 ,when devout men are few1 my powers dwindle1 my heart is distressed and the demon powers gain vigour while the divine power is weakened4 ,oracle of the ,god of ,atsuta3-- ,all ye men who dwell under ,heaven4 ,receive the just commands of the ,gods4 ,regard ,heaven as your father1 ,earth as your mother1 and all things as your brothers and sisters4 ,you will then enjoy this divine country which excels all others1 free from hate and sorrow4 ,obey the instructions of the ,heaven-shining ,deity and honour the ,mikado4 ,if any are rebellious1 come before me and name their names4 ,i will surely crush the foe and yield you satisfaction4 ,an oracle of the ,god of ,suha#cdb promises to hear the prayers of all true worshippers1 even though they may have eaten flesh4 ,no outward purity avails a whit4 ,oracle of ,tatsuta 7the ,wind-,god73-- ,all ye of high and low degree1 rather than pray to ,heaven-and-,earth1 rather than pray to all the ,kami1 dutifully serve your parents4 ,for your parents are the ,gods of without and within4#cdc ,if that which is within is not bright it is useless to pray only for that which is without4 ,an oracle of ,inari1 near ,kioto1 speaks of this polluted world 7a ,buddhist phrase71 and recommends the reading of ,sutras and ,dharani4 ,the following sentiments are ascribed to the ,god of ,fujiyama3-- ,ye men of mine4 ,shun desire4 ,if you shun desire you will ascend to a level with the ,gods4 ,every little yielding to anxiety is a step away from the natural heart of man4 ,if one leaves the natural heart of man1 he becomes a beast4 ,that men should be made so1 is to me intolerable pain and unending sorrow4 ,a son of a ,mikado received the following inspiration in a dream3-- ,it is the upright heart of all men which is identical with the highest of the high1 and therefore the ,god of ,gods4 ,there is no room in ,heaven-and-,earth for the false and crooked person4 ,the following poem was revealed in a dream to the ,mikado ,seiwa3-- ,if we keep unperverted the human heart1 which is like unto ,heaven and received from ,earth1 that is ,god4 ,the ,gods have their abode in the heart4 ,amongst the various ordinances none is more excellent than that of religious meditation4 ,the ,god of a ,tajima shrine says3-- ,when the sky is clear1 and the wind hums in the fir-trees1 'tis the heart of a ,god who thus reveals himself4 ,an oracle of ,hachiman 7the ,war-,god7 enjoins on his worshippers to be full of pity and mercy for beggars and lepers1 and even for ants and crickets4 ,those whose pity and charity are wide will have their precious cord 7of life7 extended immeasurably2 their posterity will be spread abroad like the wings of a crane4 ,they will become the upright heart of the ,gods of ,heaven4 ,another oracle of ,hachiman3-- ,all men's love of children and love of self are heinous crimes4 ,nothing is more admirable than to sever1 were it only for a time1 all earthly relations4 ,if men will have upright hearts they must be neither foolish nor clever1 they must indulge neither in grief nor in hate1 but be as the flowers which unfold under the genial warmth of a vernal sun4 ,if there be any who1 having studied the books of ,china or practised the teachings of ,india1 despise the instructions of the ,gods of our own ,japan1 ,i will go to their houses and either slay their infant children or visit them with sore disease1 or turn away from them their followers1 or by the ,god of ,fire destroy their dwellings4 ,this is not because ,i hate the doctrines of ,china or ,india1 but because it is rejecting the root for the branches4 ,oracle of ,itsukushima in ,aki3-- ,of old the people of my country knew not my name4 ,therefore ,i was born into the visible world and endured a base existence4 ,in highest ,heaven ,i am the ,deity of the ,sun1 in the mid-sky ,i show my doings4 ,i hide in the great ,earth and produce all things3 in the midst of the ,ocean ,i am the eight ,dragon-kings1 and my power pervades the four seas4 ,if the poorest of mankind come here once for worship1 show me their faces and declare their wishes1 within seven days1 fourteen days1 twenty-one days1 or it may be three years or seven years1 according to the person and the importance of his prayer1 ,i will surely grant their heart's desire4 ,but the wicked of heart must not apply to me4 ,those who do not abandon mercy will not be abandoned by me4 ,revival of ,pure ,shinto4--,the seventeenth century witnessed a great revival of ,chinese learning in ,japan4 ,it embraced not only the renewed study of the ancient classics of ,confucius and ,mencius1 but the philosophical writings of ,chu-hi and other sceptical writers of the ,sung ,dynasty 7#ifj-abgh74 ,the ,samurai1 or governing caste of the nation1 devoted themselves to these studies with amazing zeal and enthusiasm1 to the great neglect of ,buddhism1 which from this time forward was left mainly to the common people4 ,this movement reached a climax in the eighteenth century1 when a reaction set in4 ,kada1 ,mabuchi1 and other patriotic scholars1 resenting the undue preponderance allowed to ,chinese thought1 did their utmost1 by commentaries and exegetical treatises1 to recall attention to the monuments of the ancient national literature1 such as the ,kojiki1 ,nihongi1 and ,manyshiu1 which had been so long neglected that they were in great part unintelligible even to educated men4 ,under their pupil and successor ,motori 7#agcj-ahja71 this movement assumed a religious character4 ,his patriotic prejudices were offended by the foreign elements which he found in the ,rybu and other prevailing forms of ,shinto1 while the ,sung doctrine of a ,great ,absolute was not only odious to him on account of its alien origin1 but failed to satisfy his soul-hunger for a more personal object of worship4 ,he therefore turned back to the older form of ,shinto4 ,to its propagation by lectures and books he devoted many years of his life1 and not without success4 ,he had numerous followers among the more educated classes4 ,motori's principal work is the ,kojiki den1 a commentary on the ,kojiki1 in which he loses no opportunity of attacking everything ,chinese and of exalting the old ,japanese customs1 language1 and religion in a spirit of ardent and undiscriminating patriotism4 ,he seems to have been wholly blind to the fact that the exotic faiths and philosophies1 whose intrusion into ,shinto he so bitterly resented1 contain elements far otherwise valuable to mankind than the ritual of the ,yengishiki and the old-world myths of the ,kojiki4 ,his pupil ,hirata 7#aggf-ahdc7 was less of a literary man and more of a theologian than his master4 ,in a long life he wrote numbers of books1 amounting to hundreds of volumes1 and delivered innumerable lectures urging the claims of the old ,shinto4 ,his teaching was so successful that it at last drew upon him the attention of the ,shgun's ,government1 who1 finding that their own authority was being undermined by the prominence given to the de jure sovereign rights of the ,sun-,goddess's descendants1 forbade his lectures and banished him to his native province of ,dewa4 ,hirata's anti-foreign prejudices did not prevent him from believing in the immortality of the soul--a doctrine of ,buddhist origin--or from borrowing from ,china a worship of ancestors quite different from anything in the old ,shinto4 ,he adopts the ,chinese duty of filial piety1 and makes strenuous but unavailing efforts to find countenance for it in the ,kojiki and ,nihongi4 ,though he says that the ,kami detest ,buddhism because it teaches us to abandon lord and parent1 wife and child1 and is therefore destructive of morality1 and because its adherents are filthy beggars1 who boast of wearing cast-off rags and eating food given in charity1 in another place he goes so far as to admit ,buddha to his ,shinto ,pantheon1 on condition that he shall be content with an inferior position4 ,he tacitly accepts the moral code of ,china1 while protesting that such things are unnecessary1 as we are endowed by nature with an intuitive knowledge of right and wrong4 ,the agitation for the revival of ,pure ,shinto was a retrograde movement1 which could only end in failure4 ,it contributed substantially1 however1 to the success of the political revolution which in #ahfh brought about the restoration of the ,mikado to the sovereign position which was the logical outcome of ,motori's and ,hirata's teachings4 ,the ,shinto reformation of the same date1 when the ,buddhist priests were removed from the ,rybu shrines1 and a certain purification of ritual and ornaments was effected1 was also due to their influence4#cdd ,shingaku4--,a school of preachers who called their doctrine shingaku or heart-learning1 and professed to combine ,shinto with ,buddhism and ,confucianism1 had some vogue in the first half of the nineteenth century4 ,these men were in reality rationalists1 who took the maxims of ,confucius and ,mencius as the basis of their doctrines4 ,any ,shinto element which they may contain is quite inappreciable4 ,their sermons1 of which a good number have been printed1 are in the colloquial dialect4 ,they are very entertaining and1 despite an occasional bit of indecency1 not unedifying4 ,tenriky1#cde or the teaching of the ,heavenly ,reason1 is a modern sect4 ,the founder was a woman named ,omiki1 who was born in the province of ,yamato in #agih1 and died in #ahhg4 ,her religion owes much to the ,shingaku and ,rybu doctrines4 ,while professing to worship ,kunitokotachi1 ,izanagi1 ,izanami1 and seven other ,shinto deities1 practically ,izanagi and ,izanami are her only ,gods4 ,the former 7identified with the sun7 is taken to represent the male1 and the latter the female principle1 corresponding in nature to ,heaven and ,earth1 and in human society to husband and wife4 ,these ,gods are spiritual beings1 chiefly revealed in the heart of man1 and are endowed with personal attributes4 ,tenriky has high moral aims1 and has made rapid progress4 ,in #ahid there were claimed for it #aj1jjj priests and preachers1 and #a1djj1jjj adherents4 ,remmonky4#cdf--,the name of this sect implies that1 like the spotless lotus-flower1 which has its roots in the mud1 it attains to purity in the midst of a wicked world4 ,it is stated to have originated with a certain ,yanagita ,ichibeimon1 but its real founder was his disciple1 a woman named ,shimamura ,mitsuko1 who was still alive and preaching in #aija4 ,the ,remmonky professes to be a reformed ,shinto1 but in reality it owes little to this source beyond the names of the ,gods ,ame no minaka nushi1 ,taka-musubi1 and ,kami-musubi1 who are termed the three ,creator ,deities4 ,they are considered1 however1 to be only manifestations of the ,ji no ,myh1 or ,wonderful ,law of ,things1 and the real ,god of the sect is the personified ,myh 7wonderful law7 a conception borrowed from the ,buddhist ,nichiren sect4 ,the followers of ,shimamura call her an ikigami 7live ,god71 and regard her as identical with the ,myh4 ,how often in ,japanese religious history do we meet with this idea of the incarnation of the ,god in his priest or prophet6 ,the shintai1 or material representative of the ,myh1 is a slip of paper bearing the words ,ji no ,myh1 written by the founder herself4 ,it is sold as a charm against disease and danger4 ,faith-healing is a practice of this sect1 as it is of the ,tenriky4 ,their moral code is of the ordinary ,confucian type4 ,the last-named two sects are not likely to play an important part in religious history4 ,the founders of both were ignorant women1 and their doctrines are a mere jumble of conflicting ideas borrowed from various sources1 and inspired by no great central thought4 ,we may1 perhaps1 compare their position in ,japan to that of the ,salvation ,army or the ,plymouth ,brethren in this country4 ,official ,shinto4--,the official cult of the present day is substantially the ,pure ,shinto of ,motori and ,hirata4 ,but it has little vitality4 ,a rudimentary religion of this kind is quite inadequate for the spiritual sustenance of a nation which in these latter days has raised itself to so high a pitch of enlightenment and civilization4 ,no doubt some religious enthusiasm is excited by the great festivals of ,ise1 ,idzumo1 and a few other shrines1 and by the annual pilgrimages--which1 however1 have other raisons d'tre4 ,the reverence paid to the ,mikado is not devoid of a religious quality which has its source in ,shinto4 ,but the main stream of ,japanese piety has cut out for itself new channels4 ,it has turned to ,buddhism1 which1 at the time of the ,restoration in a languishing state1 is now showing signs of renewed life and activity4 ,another and still more formidable rival has appeared1 to whose progress1 daily increasing in momentum1 what limit shall be prescribed8 ,as a national religion1 ,shinto is almost extinct4 ,but it will long continue to survive in folk-lore and custom1 and in that lively sensibility to the divine in its simpler and more material aspects which characterizes the people of ,japan4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,footnotes3 #cca ,for an account of ,japanese ,buddhism1 consult ,murray's ',japan1' or the more comprehensive description in ,griffis's ',religions of ,japan4' #ccb ,see above1 p4 #age4 #ccc ,the novelist ,bakin1 who cannot be charged with priestcraft1 says3 ,shinto reverences the way of the ,sun2 the ,chinese philosophers honour ,heaven2 the teaching of ,shaka fails not to make the ,sun a deity4 ,among differences of doctrine the fundamental principle is the same4 #ccd ,in the old ,shinto1 ,ne no kuni1 or ,hades1 is not a place of punishment for the wicked4 ,here it stands for the ,jigoku1 or ,hell1 of the ,buddhists4 #cce ,that is1 ,nature--a ,chinese idea4 #ccf ,this is ,chinese4 #ccg ,a ,buddhist designation4 #cch ,and therefore unclean4 #cci ,see above1 p4 #agi4 #cdj ,as ,sugahara himself was4 #cda ,see above1 p4 #aee4 #cdb ,see above1 p4 #agg4 #cdc ,alluding to the inner and outer shrines of ,ise4 #cdd ,for a full account of the ,revival of ,pure ,shinto1 see ,sir ,e4 ,satow's papers contributed to the ,t4 ,a4 ,s4 ,j4 in #ahge4 ,our knowledge of ,shinto dates from this time4 #cde ,an interesting account of this sect is given in a paper by ,dr4 ,greene in the ,t4 ,a4 ,s4 ,j41 ,december1 #ahie4 #cdf ,see papers by ,dr4 ,greene and ,rev4 ,a4 ,lloyd in the ,t4 ,a4 ,s4 ,j41 #aija4 ,,index4 ,n4,b4--,where there are several references the most important is placed first4 ,a ,ablution1 #bei1 #hc1 #aga ,see ,lustration1 misogi4 ,abstinence1 #bga1 #bgc4 ,see ,imi4 ,abstractions1 ,gods of1 #fb1 #afi1 #ahf ,abstractions1 few in ,japanese1 #ce ,accession announced to ,gods1 #cbd ,acupuncture1 #ccd ,adoption1 #de ,adultery1 #ia1 #bdd1 #bdf ,adzuki4 ,see ,bean4 ,adzusa bow1 #bjf1 #cce ,agamono1 #bfa1 #cjf4 ,see ,ransom4 ,agnostic1 #ac1 #gh ,ahidono1 #bbg ,agriculture in ,shinto1 ,preface1 #hf1 #ajb1 #aba1 #afd1 #agb ,ahiname or ,ahimbe1 #bgh ,ainus1 #afj1 #aic1 #beb ,akitsu ,kami1 #da ,aliases of deities1 #bb ,allen1 ,grant1 #cf ,altar1 #bag1 #bah1 #bbg4 ,see ,kamidana4 ,altro intende1 #gg ,amagatsu1 #bfc ,ama no hohi1 #aaj1 #beh1 #bgd ,ama no sagume1 #aji ,amaterasu1 #abe ,ame 7heaven71 #if1 #adb ,ame no hashidate1 #ie ,ame no hiwashi1 #acf ,ame no kagase wo1 #adb ,ame no minaka nushi1 #fi1 #he1 #adb1 #cge ,ame yudzuru1 #he ,ame waka hiko1 #ajh ,amulet1 #beh4 ,see ,talisman4 ,ancestor-worship1 #dd1 #cf1 #ie1 #aaf1 #agg1 #bgi1 #cgd ,ancestor and ancestress of the ,mikado1 #bga1 #bif ,animals1 #fc ,animal sacrifices1 #bab1 #bac ,animal food1 offerings of1 #aif1 #bje1 impure1 #bec ,anthropomorphism1 #ag ,ara-mitama1 #ca1 #cc1 ,addenda4 ,see ,nigitama4 ,ascetic1 #bjc ,ashinadzuchi1 #ajc ,aso1 ,mount1 ,god of1 #adg ,asuha no ,kami1 #adf ,atago1 #aei1 #cfe1 #cfi4 ,see ,fire-,god4 ,augury1 #cdd ,august ,grandchild4 ,see ,sovran ,grandchild4 ,augustine1 ,st41 ,addenda1 #aih ,avatar1 #cfa1 #ahf ,avoidance of uncleanness4 ,see ,imi4 ,axe1 sacred1 #bhi ,b ,baelz1 ,dr41 #ceh ,bakemono 7ghost71 #di ,bakin1 #cbh1 #cfb ,baldness unclean1 #bec ,bargain with ,gods1 #bab4 ,see also ,do ut des4 ,bash1 #dh ,batchelor1 #bie ,be 7,government corporation71 #aab1 #ahc ,bean1 #aij1 #afe1 #aic1 #cji1 #cab1 #cac1 #cdb ,beneficent character of ,gods1 #f1 #ae1 #abi ,bestiality1 #cjj ,bewitchment1 #cjj ,birushana1 #cfa ,biso1 #dh ,black animals offered for rain1 #bhg ,blessing of the ,palace1 #bhg ,blood1 #bac ,bosatsu1 #agh1 #cbe1 #cfh ,bow as offering1 #cad ,bow as a stringed musical instrument1 #bch ,bow in magic1 #cce1 #bjf1 #cef4 ,see ,hama yumi1 ,adzusa yumi4 ,bowing1 #bji ,breath put for life1 #ea ,breathing on1 #bfa-fc ,brewer-maiden1 #bfi et seqq4 ,bridge-divination1 #cda ,brinkley1 ,capt41 #cbf ,brinton1 ,mr4 ,d4 ,g41 #hc1 #aci ,browning's ',saul1' #ci ,bubbles as a charm against fire1 #ccc ,buckley1 ,dr41 #acg1 #adi1 #aih ,buddhism1 #d1 #ced1 #cei1 #cfd1 #cec1 #agh1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #aii1 #bab1 #bec1 #bed1 #bee1 #cjd ,bun-shin1 #ba ,burial1 #ee-fa1 ,addenda ,burnt-offerings1 #bac1 #baj ,c ,caird1 ,dr4 ,e41 #df ,calamities causing uncleanness1 #bee ,caldron-divination1 #cdc ,carriage of ,god1 #bbb ,caterpillar worshipped1 #gj ,ceremonial1 #bfh ,chamberlain1 ,mr4 ,b4 ,h41 #b1 #bd1 #bcb1 #cje1 #cbf1 #cdd1 #ceg ,chaos1 #hd ,charm1 #aad1 #ahi1 #ccg4 ,see ,magic1 ,talisman4 ,chiburi no ,kami1 #aig1 #cae ,chieftain conception of ,gods1 #ai ,chimata no ,kami1 #ahh ,childbirth as a source of uncleanness1 #bea ,chinese philosophy1 #ib1 #afi1 #bcd1 #bdd1 #bfd1 #cje1 #cbc1 #cci1 #cdb1 #cgb ,chinese religion1 #a ,chinese traits in myth1 #ib1 #aae ,chinjiu1 #fe1 #cbf1 #cfd ,chinkonsai1 #bid ,chi no wa1 #bfd-f ,chronology1 #aaf ,church and ,state1 #bjj1 #bgd ,circumambulation1 #bdj1 #ij1 #aeg1 #cab1 #cba ,civilization of ancient ,japanese1 ,preface4 ,clapping hands1 #bji1 #cbj ,classes1 ,gods of1 #ae1 #cd ,classes1 deified classes of men1 #fa ,classification of ,gods1 #ae ,clay1 ,god of1 #ib1 #adf1 #caf ,cleyera japonica1 #ih1 #bae1 #baf1 #bfi1 #bic ,clothing1 offerings of1 #bac1 #bcg4 ,see ,yufu1 #bgj1 #bhg ,cock1 #ajj ,communion1 #abj1 #afa1 #baa ,comte1 #fb1 #fc1 #adb ,conception of deity1 phases of1 #af ,consanguineous unions1 #bej ,confucius1 #ba1 cult of1 #ahb1 #cfa ,cooking furnace1 #bgi1 #af1 #ag1 #bhj1 #cbb1 #cbi4 ,see also ,kamado and ,hettsui4 ,corn ,maiden1 #ajb ,coronation1 #bfh ,cosmogony1 #add4 ,see ,creation4 ,council of ,gods1 #ih1 #abd ,couvade1 #bea ,creation1 various conceptions of1 #hd1 #hg1 #hi1 #add1 #agj ,creation of mankind1 #hb1 #aga1 #agd ,creator-,gods1 #bg1 #he1 #cea1 #cgf4 ,see also ,izanagi1 ,ohonamochi1 ,musubi4 ,cremation1 #cfd ,criminal law1 #bde ,crossways1 deity of1 #aaa1 #ahh1 #aig4 ,see also ,sahe no ,kami4 1 sanctity of1 #aig 1 divination1 #cdj ,curses1 #bcf1 #aab1 #aha ,cyclops1 #aja ,czar deified1 ,addenda4 ,d ,daidai1 #cac ,daigji1 #bjd ,daijowe1 #bfh ,daikoku-bashira1 #ij1 #afg ,d',alviella1 ,preface1 #aa1 #afe ,dances1 sacred1 #ajj1 #cba4 ,see also ,kagura4 ,dante1 #ah1 #gf ,darwin1 #bfa ,deasil1 #ij4 ,see also ,circumambulation4 ,dead1 state of1 #ec1 #ee4 ,see ,yomi4 1 worship of1 #bjh ,death1 #ea1 #id1 #beb ,definition of ,god1 #g1 #aj ,de ,harlez1 #ch ,deification1 #cf1 #aj1 #aai ,deified men1 #i1 #agg1 #agi ,deluge1 #hb ,demon1 #f1 #cjh4 ,see also ,oni4 1 pacts with1 #ccc 1 and diseases identical1 #afh1 #ahg1 #aih ,derivations in myth1 #aag ,devil4 ,see ,demon1 ,oni4 ,diseases4 ,see ,smallpox1 ,leprosy1 ,pestilence4 personified1 #aih unclean1 #beb ,divination1 #ccg1 #aai1 #bdi1 #bfi1 #cbc1 ,god of1 #ahd ,divine country1 #abf1 #abg ,divine right of ,mikado1 #hb1 #aaa1 #bhi1 #big1 #bic1 #cad ,diviner4 ,see ,urabe4 ,divorce1 #id ,dog-deity1 #ccb ,dolmen1 #ee1 #agh ,dondo1 #aia1 #aih1 #cjg1 #cad ,dsjin1 #aia1 #aic1 #aig ,double1 #eb1 #adj4 ,see also ,mitama4 ,double current of deity-making thought1 #aj1 #ahe ,do ut des1 #bab1 #bcd1 #bhe ,dragon1 #i1 #aad1 #adi1 #aea4 ,see ,serpent4 ,dragon-king1 #aae1 #adi1 #aec ,drama1 #bch ,drama and narrative1 #hc ,dreams1 #cde1 #cdf1 #cbb1 #aah1 #cca ,dual divinity1 #adj1 #aga4 ,see also ,aramitama4 ,duplication of offerings and ceremonies1 #bfi1 #bgc ,dwarf-,god1 #ajg1 #ahf ,e ,earth-fast stones1 #adg1 #bfj ,earth-,gods1 #adb1 #bhc ,earthquakes1 #fe1 #hb1 #abf1 #adg1 #cbf ,eating the ,god1 #afj1 #ajb ,ebisu1 #acc ,echo personified1 #i1 #afg ,effigy in witchcraft1 #cca ,eh1 #cad ,eight1 #ij1 #ajc ,eight ,gods of ,ohonihe1 #bgj1 of ,jingikwan1 #afb1 #agd1 #bbg1 #bhb ,eighty road-windings1 #aaa ,elements1 ,gods of1 #ib ,emado1 #bbb1 #bbf ,emotional basis of religion1 #e ,epidemics1 #ahg ,esoteric ,shinto1 #cef ,eternal ,land1 #ih1 #aag ,ethics4 ,see ,morals4 ,euhemerism1 #acd1 #acf ,even pass of ,yomi1 #ec1 #ic1 #ie1 #ajg ,evergreen trees1 #cac ,everlasting world1 #eb1 #gj ,evil deities1 #f1 #i1 #aci1 #cad4 ,see ,aratama4 ,exogamy4 ,see ,incest4 ,exorcism1 #ic ,expiation4 ,see ,purification1 ,ransom4 ,expulsion of winter1 #cab ,f ,fatherhood of ,gods1 #f1 #ai1 #agc ,festivals4 ,see ,ceremonial4 ,fetish1 #abb1 #ae1 #fc1 #gc1 #adb ,figures of men as ransom objects1 #bfb1 #bfc ,fillet1 #bae ,fine for purification1 #ajj1 #bdf ,fine weather1 magic producing1 #ccj ,finger-charms1 #ced1 #cfb ,fire1 worship of1 #aei1 #cae1 #ib1 #aef1 #ahd4 ,see also ,nihabi1 ,kagutsuchi1 ,futsunushi1 ,homusubi4 ,fire1 respect for1 #cbi ,fire1 purity of1 #beg1 #bed1 #cfi ,fire-drill1 #beg1 #bgc ,fire-ordeal1 #aab1 #aac ,firmament1 #if ,first fruits4 ,see ,nihiname4 ,first ,gods1 #he ,fissiparous reproduction of deities1 #ba ,flag of ,japan1 #ci ,flaying alive1 #big ,flesh-eating unclean1 #bec ,floating bridge of ,heaven1 #hg ,florenz1 ,dr41 #c1 #fe1 #bfc1 #bid1 #bif1 #big1 #cjj1 #cjc ,folk-lore1 #d ,food-,goddess1 #afj1 #ai1 #aai1 #ajb1 #cba ,food-offerings1 #bab ,foot-ball ,god1 #aii ,foreign demons1 measures against1 #ahh ,formula in magic1 #ccf ,fox attendant of ,inari1 #fc1 #afc ,fox divination1 #cdd1 #ceh ,frazer1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,g41 ,preface1 #ii1 #afc1 #aff1 #ahh1 #bfi1 #bgj1 #cji ,fruit-trees ceremony1 #afe ,fujihara family1 #ahd1 #cbj ,fujiyama deified1 #ag1 #adh1 #aef1 #cga ,fukusuke1 #dh ,funado1 #id1 #ahg4 ,see ,kunado4 ,functions of ,gods1 #fe ,funerals1 unclean1 #beb ,funeral observances1 #aji1 #ee1 #if1 #dc1 #ei1 ,addenda4 ,see ,burial4 ,furnace4 ,see ,kitchen furnace4 ,futami no ura1 #acj1 #aca ,futodama1 #ahd1 #cj1 #ih1 #ajj1 #bjb ,futsu no mitama1 #aah1 #aee4 ,see also ,futsunushi4 ,futsunushi1 #aee1 #a1 #cd1 #ib1 #aji1 #cag1 #bge ,future life1 ,preface1 #bce4 ,see also ,yomi2 ,dead1 state of ,g ,garlic1 power against demons1 #ccf ,gate-,gods1 #afh1 #bhb1 #cjh ,gateway1 honorary4 ,see ,toriwi4 ,genealogy1 #abj ,generative power personified1 #ahf ,gender neglected in ,japanese ,grammar1 #bb ,geomancy1 #cdd ,ghost1 #ad1 #di1 #ec1 #aga1 #aha1 #bjh1 #baj ,gideon's fleece1 #cde ,gion1 ceremonies at1 #beh ,godzu ,tenn1 #acg1 #aci ,gohei1 #baf1 #bfd1 #cjd1 #ced4 ,see ,kushi4 ,gohei-katsugi1 #bag ,good-luck1 ,gods of1 #aii ,goriye1 #ca1 #hh1 #ada1 #ahi ,gourd deified1 #caf ,gowland1 ,mr4 ,w41 #ee1 #eg ,grain-,gods4 ,see ,ukemochi and ,inari4 ,grain1 worship of1 #afj ,grass and herbs1 ,god of4 ,see ,kaya nu hime4 ,gratitude a source of religion1 #e1 #ahc1 #baj1 #bfh1 #bfi1 #bhe ,great purification4 ,see ,ohoharahi4 ,greater ,divination1 #cci ,greene1 ,dr41 #cge ,griffis1 ,dr41 #abg1 #aid1 #aih1 #bfj1 #cca1 #cei ,growth deified1 #hf4 ,see ,musubi ,gruel-,divination1 #cda ,guide-,gods1 #aig ,gygi1 #cfa ,h ,hachiman1 #agh1 #ai1 #db1 #cbe ,hachji 7eight princes71 #ig ,hades4 ,see ,yomi4 ,hafuri1 #bjd4 ,see ,oho-hafuri ,hafuri-tsu-mono1 #bje ,haiden 7oratory71 #bbf ,haigi or ,hahiki no kami1 #adf1 #bhb ,hair and nails in witchcraft1 #ccb ,haiten 7deification71 #da ,haku1 #bjb ,hamayumi1 #cad1 #cce ,haniwa 7clay rings71 #eg ,haniyasu hime1 #adf ,harahi 7purification71 mythic origin1 #if2 also #bfd1 #cjc1 #cag1 #cfe ,harahi-bako1 #cjd1 #cdc ,harahi-tsu-mono1 #bfc1 #bjc1 #cja1 #cjb ,harahi-tsu-tachi1 #cjf ,hare and ,ohonamochi1 #aje ,harp divination1 #cdb ,hartland1 ,mr4 ,s41 #ej1 #ig ,harvest ,gods1 #afd ,harvest festival4 ,see ,nihi-name4 ,harvest1 praying for4 ,see ,toshi-gohi4 ,hashira 7pillar71 #ga ,hatsu no hinode1 #abh ,hayato 7,imperial ,guards71 #aae ,haya-aki-tsu-hime1 #cjb ,haya-sasura-hime1 #cjb ,haya-tama no wo1 #bfj ,hearn1 ,lafcadio1 #dd1 #ade ,heaven4 ,see ,ame1 ,ten1 ,tien4 ,heaven-and-,earth1 #ce1 #cgj1 #cga ,height equivalent to excellence1 #h ,hell1 ,buddhist1 #cfg1 #aha1 #ahb ,hemp1 offerings of1 #bac1 #bfd ,hereditary offices1 #ahc ,hettsui4 ,see ,kitchen furnace4 ,hiko and hime1 #bj1 #ch1 #acb ,himachi1 #abh ,himorogi1 #bbc1 #bbf1 #cjd1 #bfj ,hirano festival1 #bgi ,hirata1 #cgc1 #d1 #bb1 #be1 #afh1 #bce ,hirose1 #cba ,hiruko1 #ij1 #ia1 #acb ,hirume1 #aaf1 #abe4 ,see ,sun-,goddess4 ,hito-bashira1 #bai ,hito-dama1 #ej ,hito-gata1 human figures offered to ,gods1 #bai ,hito-koto-nushi1 #da ,hitomaro1 #dh1 #ahc ,hobby-horses1 #bbb ,hben1 #cfj ,hogmanay1 #cab ,hohodemi1 #aac ,hokora1 #bbc ,holly1 #cac ,homer1 #bae2 purification in1 #bie ,homusubi1 #ic1 #aei4 ,see ,fire-,god4 ,horses as offerings1 #caj1 #cbb ,house-,gods1 #afg1 #bhg1 #bij4 ,see ,yabune4 ,house-cleaning1 #cac ,ho-shidzume1 #cae4 ,see ,fire4 ,huacas of ,peru1 #i ,human sacrifice1 #ef1 #aea1 #aeb1 #bai1 #bbj ,hyaku-do-ishi1 #bcb ,hypnotism1 #ced1 #cdi ,i ,ichiko1 #bjf1 #ceg ,ichi no miya1 #add ,idea of ,god1 #f ,idols1 #ga-c1 #bb ,idzumo1 #ajh1 #aje1 #ajc ,idzumo ,fudoki1 #c ,iha-naga-hime1 #aab ,ihashimidzu1 #agh4 ,see ,hachiman4 ,ikadzuchi1 #aeg1 #aee ,iki 7breath1 life71 #ea ,ikigami 7living deity71 #dd ,iki mitama 7living soul71 #eb ,ikudama1 #adc ,ikukuni1 #adc ,iku-wi1 #aed ,imagination1 #ah1 #bb1 #bd1 #ba1 #bc1 #gg ,imbe1 #bjb1 #aab1 #a1 #ih1 #ahd ,imi1 #bef1 #bjb1 #bdf1 #bga1 #bgc ,imi-bashira1 #afg ,imi-dono1 #bje ,imitative magic1 #aja1 #aec1 #ccj1 #ii ,immortality1 #ac1 #ad ,impersonal habit of ,japanese mind1 #fg ,impetuous male1 #ada4 ,see ,suma no wo4 ,implements worshipped1 #gc ,impurity4 ,see ,uncleanness4 ,in and ,y4 ,see ,yin and ,yang4 ,inada hime1 #ach ,inao1 #aic ,inari1 #afb1 #f1 #cd1 #fc1 #fg1 #cee ,inauspicious words1 #bee ,incantations1 #cbi1 #ccf ,incarnation of the ,god in his prophet or priest1 #cgf1 #gj1 #agg ,incense1 #bac1 #bib1 #ced ,incest1 #cjj1 #fd1 #ia ,individuals1 ,gods of1 #ae ,individual men deified1 #cf1 #agg ,infinite1 #gc ,inspiration1 #cdh1 #ih4 ,see ,oracle4 ,inugami1 #ccb ,invocation4 ,see ,kami-oroshi4 ,iron fish-hooks1 #aae ,ishi-kori-dome1 #ahd ,ishigami1 #cda ,ise shrines1 #bbi1 festival on removal of1 #bhg ,iyeyasu1 #ahc ,izanagi and ,izanami1 #hf1 #aga1 #fi1 #if ,j ,jevons1 #bd1 #ij ,jewels as offerings1 #bah ,jewel-makers1 #ahe1 #bij ,jewel-spear of ,heaven1 #hg ,ji-chin-sai1 #adc ,jigoku1 #ed1 #cfg ,ji-matsuri1 #adc ,jimmu ,tenno1 #aaf1 #aae ,jingikwan1 #bjj1 #bjb1 #afb1 #ahd ,ji no myh1 #cgf ,jiz1 #ahi1 #aia ,junshi 7self-sacrifice at tomb71 #ei ,k ,kadomatsu1 #aia ,kadori1 #ib1 #aae ,kaempfer1 #cf1 #da ,kagami-mochi1 #cac ,kagase-wo1 #ga1 #adb ,kage-zen1 #eb ,kagura1 #bbg1 #bch1 #aja1 #ahd ,kagutsuchi1 #ib1 #aei ,kaji-so-sha1 #dh ,kamado no ,kami4 ,see ,kitchen furnace4 ,kama-naobi1 #bij ,kami1 #g-aj ,kami-agari1 #cdj ,kami-dana1 #bag1 #bca1 #cje ,kami-gi1 #afe ,kami-na-dzuki1 #ade ,kami-oroshi1 #cdb1 #bag1 #cjd1 #cdj ,kamu-be1 #bjg ,kamu-image1 #bgi ,kamu-musubi1 #agc1 #agd ,kamu-miso no matsuri1 #bhg ,kamunoko1 #bjf ,kamurogi and ,kamuromi1 #agc1 #bge1 #bhi1 #bif ,kaname-ishi1 #adg1 #bfj ,kangakari1 #cdi ,kan-name1 #bgh ,kannushi1 #bjd ,kappa1 #aec ,kasedori1 #cca ,kashihade1 #bji ,kashikodokoro1 #bia ,kashima1 #ib1 #aee1 #aeg1 #cgj ,kasuga no matsuri1 #cag ,kataribe1 #b1 #bgc ,katashiro1 #bfc ,kaya nu hime1 #aff ,kedzurikake1 #aia1 #aib ,kega 7wound or uncleanness71 #bec ,kidzuki1 #ade ,king-post1 #ij ,kiri-bi 7sacred fire71 #beg ,kiri-nusa1 #bif ,kitano1 #ahb ,kitsune-tsukahi1 #cdd ,kitchen furnace1 ,god of1 #aei1 #af1 #ag1 #gc1 #adf1 #bgb1 #bhj1 #cbb1 #cbi ,see ,haniyasu4 ,kiu 7festival for rain71 #bhf ,kiujiki1 #c ,kneeling1 #bji ,kbdaishi1 #cfa ,kodama 7echo71 #i1 #fg ,kogoshiui1 #c ,kojiki1 #b1 #hd ,kojikiden1 #cgc ,komagata1 #bbb1 #fg ,kompira1 #bcj ,konohana ,sakuyahime1 #aab ,ko-nusa1 #cdc ,korea1 #a1 #ajb1 #aef1 #cje ,koto-shiro-nushi1 #ahe1 #aaa ,kowameshi1 #aid ,koyane1 #ahc1 #bj1 #df1 #ajj1 #aja1 #bja1 #cag1 #cci ,kteis1 #ahf1 #aid1 #aig1 #ccd ,kugedachi1 #cdh ,kuhabara1 #ccg ,kuji4 ,see ,lots4 ,kukunochi1 #aff1 #afg1 #bij4 ,see ,tree-,god4 ,kumaso1 #fd ,kunado1 #ahg1 #ahi1 #cc1 #dj1 #id1 #aaj1 #cjf1 #cda4 ,see ,phallic deities4 ,kunari no kami1 #add ,kunidama1 #adc1 #add ,kunitokotachi1 #age1 #he1 #fh1 #cfb1 #cge ,kusanagi 7name of sword71 #ajd ,kushi1 #baf1 #big ,kushi-iha-mado1 #afh1 #cjh ,kushinada hime1 #ajc ,kuyebiko1 #ga ,l ,lang1 ,mr4 ,a41 #fa1 #ajh ,language1 myth arising from perversion of1 #acb ,laotze1 #ch1 #cfa ,laughing festival1 #f ,law1 #bdb1 #bdc1 #bde ,leanness unclean1 #bec ,learning1 ,god of4 ,see ,temmangu4 ,leech-child4 ,see ,hiruko4 ,left and right1 precedence of1 #abi ,legend and myth1 #aaf ,lemuria1 #cji ,leprosy1 #beb1 #cjj1 #ccb ,lite1 ,god of1 #agd4 ,see ,breath4 ,light and darkness myth1 #aja ,literal-minds1 #ah1 #bd1 #ej1 #ea1 #hj1 #ha ,liturgy1 #ajj4 ,see ,norito4 ,live bow1 #ajg ,lloyd1 ,rev4 ,a41 #cge ,lots1 #cdc ,lowell1 ,mr4 ,p41 #bd1 #ced ,luck1 #cji4 ,see ,tsuina4 ,luck1 ,gods of1 #ie ,luck-wishing1 #bhg ,lupercalia1 #aij ,lustration1 #if1 #bei1 #bid1 #bie ,lying stigmatized1 #bdb ,m ,mabuchi1 #cgc ,mayeza4 ,see ,medium4 ,magic1 #cbg1 #ii1 #add1 #ahg1 #aif1 #bee1 #cjj1 #ceg ,maine1 ,sir ,h41 #bd ,majinahi4 ,see ,magic4 ,make-believe1 #ab1 #bbc ,male who invites1 #aga ,mamori4 ,see ,charms4 ,maneki-neko1 #dh ,man-deities1 #cf1 chap4 viii4 ,manyshiu1 a collection of ancient poetry1 #i1 #ag ,mari no ,kami1 #aii ,marriage1 #ff1 #ij1 #ia1 #acg1 #adj1 #bdh1 #bdi4 ,see ,nuptial hut1 ,wedlock4 ,masaya a katsu1 #ig ,massha1 #bbg ,material souls1 #ej1 #ea1 #eb ,materialized feelings1 #ccb1 #ccc ,materials for study of ,shinto1 #a-d ,medicine1 #add1 #cbg ,medicine men1 #bjc ,medium1 #ced1 #cee1 #cef4 ,see ,ichiko1 ,miko4 ,menstruation1 #bea1 #cdj ,meredith1 ,mr4 ,geo41 #hj ,metal1 ,god of1 #ib ,metamorphosis1 #di1 #fd ,metaphor1 #af-ah1 #ch1 #gf ,michiahe1 #cjf1 #ahg1 #ahh ,michi no ,omi1 #aai ,midzuchi1 #aej ,mikado deified1 #i1 #ch divine right of1 #hb1 #bic prayer to1 #bce1 #cbd as high priest1 #bja1 #bib ,mikado matsuri1 #cjh ,mikage1 #ea ,miko1 #bjf1 #aja1 #ceg ,mikoshi1 #bbb1 #bbe ,mikoto1 #bj1 #he ,mimi1 #cj ,minagata1 #dc1 #agg ,mioya1 #ai ,miraculous births1 #ig ,mirror1 #bah1 #ca1 #gb1 #acd1 #bia ,mirror-makers1 #ahd ,misasagi1 #db1 #dc ,misogi1 #bfj1 #bga1 #bih ,mitama 7spirit71 #bf-ca1 #h1 #i1 #di1 #ahh1 #aig1 #bic1 #bid ,mitama furishiki1 #bib shidzumura no matsuri1 #bib shiro1 #cb4 ,see ,shintai4 ,mitegura 7offerings71 #aeh1 #baa ,mitoshi no ,kami1 #aif1 #bec ,miwa1 #ade4 ,see ,ohonamochi4 ,miya1 #bjj1 #bbc4 ,see ,shrine4 ,miyakko1 #bje1 #bjf ,modern ,shinto1 #cgf ,mono-imi1 #bjf1 #cah1 #cdj ,monotheism1 #ff1 #fh1 #fi1 #gj1 #abe1 #agj1 #aga1 #cdi ,moon-,god1 #fe1 #ie1 #ajb1 #ach4 ,see ,tsukiyomi1 ,tsuki-machi4 ,moral code1 #bda1 #abi1 #cfg1 #cgd ,mortuary house1 #aji ,mosaic law1 #abb1 #bae1 #bdh1 #bea1 #beb1 #cjb ,motion and sensation1 #aa ,motori1 #cgc1 #d1 #ba1 #bd1 #be ,mountain-,gods1 #adg1 #ib1 #bhd1 #bhi ,mourning4 ,see ,funeral4 ,muir1 ,dr4 ,j41 #id ,mller1 ,max1 #af1 #be ,multiplication of ,gods1 #fg ,mushroom1 #ahi1 #cab ,music1 #ef1 #ic1 #bch1 #bgj1 #bgc1 #bib1 #cba ,musubi1 #agb1 #bj1 #ba1 #ce1 #fi1 #ajb1 #bge ,mystery1 #ca1 #cb ,myth1 #ge1 #ag1 #b1 #af and legend1 #aaf and ritual1 #hc ,mythical narrative1 #hd ,n ,nademono1 #bbj ,naishidokoro1 #bia1 #dc1 #ace ,nakatomi1 #bja1 #a1 #ba1 #df1 #aab1 #ahc ,nakatsutsu no wo1 #bj-bb4 ,see ,sea-,gods4 ,nakatsu-wata-dzumi1 #adh4 ,see ,sea-,gods4 ,nakaza1 #ced ,nakisahame1 #ib1 #aii ,nanakusa1 #bgg1 #cdd ,naru ,kami1 #i4 ,see ,thunder4 ,nature deities1 #aba ,nature-,gods and ,man-,gods1 #ae ,need-fire1 #bei ,needles worshipped1 #gc ,negi 7priest71 #bje ,ne no kuni 7root-country74 ,see ,yomi4 ,nether ,land1 #ajd4 ,see ,yomi4 ,new ,year in modern ,japan1 #cab ,nichirin 7the sun71 #abg ,nigi-hayahi1 #abj1 #abh ,nigi-tama1 #ca1 #cc1 #adj1 #ade1 #bge ,nihabi1 #ii1 #aja1 #bgg ,nihiname 7festival of first-fruits71 #bgg1 #aji1 #aai1 #abd1 #afa1 #bfh1 #bfi ,nihongi1 #b1 #hd1 #afi ,ninigi1 #ajh1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aaf1 #ahe ,no dance1 #bch ,nomi no ,sukune1 #dh1 #eg1 #ahc ,norito1 chap4 xii4 passim1 #c1 #db1 #ih1 #ii1 #abf1 #bcb1 #bce1 #bgj1 #bgd1 #cbb ,north the honourable quarter1 #ef ,north star1 #adb ,number neglected in ,japanese grammar1 #af1 #ba1 #aba1 #afh1 #afi ,number of ,gods1 #ff1 #ih ,numerals1 magical use of1 #ii1 #ccf ,nuptial hut1 #ij1 #ajd1 #acg1 #bdh ,nusa1 #baf1 #bah1 #cah4 ,see ,offerings1 ,kirinusa1 ,ohonusa4 ,nusa-bukuro1 #aig ,nushi1 #bj ,o ,oaths1 #bcf ,obeisance1 #bji1 #bhd1 #cbj ',occult ,japan1' #ced ,offences1 #big ,offerings1 #baj1 #ih1 #aic1 #bhj deified1 #aai1 #afa1 #bab to dead1 #fj1 #baa consumed by worshippers1 #cba4 ,see ,communion4 ,offerings1 symbolical1 #baa1 #bgf ,oharahi1 #cje ,oho-hafuri1 #bje1 #agg ,oho-harahi1 #bid1 #d1 #bdb1 #bde1 #bdf1 #bgj ,oho-harahi offerings1 #cja ,oho-kuni-dama4 ,see ,ohonamochi4 ,oho-kuni-nushi4 ,see ,ohonamochi4 ,oho-miya no me1 #ahd1 #bhg1 #bij ,oho-mono-nushi1 #aaa ,oho-naobi1 #bij ,ohonamochi1 #add1 #aje1 #aaj1 #bg-cj1 #df1 #fi1 #bjj1 #bgd ,oho-nihe1 #bfh1 #cfd ,oho-nusa1 #bac ,oho-sora1 #if ,oho-toko-nushi1 #add1 #aif1 #bec4 ,see ,ohonamochi4 ,oho-tono hogahi1 #bhg ,oho-toshi1 #aje jin deified1 #agh4 ,see ,hachiman4 ,omens1 #aai1 #abf1 #cbe1 #cde ,omnipresence of ,deity1 #bg ,omohi-kane1 #aii1 #ih ,oni 7demon71 #aih ,oni-yarahi1 #ahi4 ,see 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#hi1 #ij ,pious fraud1 #cfj ,plain of ,high ,heaven1 #ih1 #ajg1 #acd ,poverty1 ,gods of4 ,see ,hitomaro1 ,sotori hime4 ,polar star1 #he ,polytheism1 #ff ,positive and negative4 ,see ,yin and ,yang4 ,possession1 #cdj1 #ceg ,potsticks1 striking women with1 to produce pregnancy1 #aij ,posthumous honours1 #ec ,poverty1 ,god of1 #aii ,pradakchina4 ,see ,circumambulation4 ,praise1 #bcd1 #cjf ,prayer1 #bcb1 #afb4 ,see ,norito4 ,prehistoric ,shinto1 #a ,priesthood1 #bjj ,priestess1 #bje ,primitive man1 #gg1 #ab1 #ah1 #bf1 #hj1 #cde ,primitive religion1 #ac1 #bf1 #aba1 #afj1 #aff1 #baa ,primitive religion1 ,shinto not a1 ,preface ,privy1 ,god of1 #afg1 #bhi1 #cad ,processions1 #bdj1 #cag ,procreative power deified4 ,see ,phallicism4 ,prophet1 #cdh1 #cej ,propitiation of evil deities1 #cje1 #cae ,prophylactic magic1 #ahg ,providential character of nature ,gods1 #fe1 #abe1 #aef1 #afb ,properties1 ,gods of1 #ae ,profanity1 #bcg ,pseudo-ancestor worship1 #df ,pure ,shinto1 #d1 #cgb ,purification1 #ahi ,purity1 #bdg1 #cdc of heart1 #bfd1 #cfh1 #cfi1 #cga of language1 #bga1 #bee ,q ,qualities1 ,gods of1 #ae1 #cd1 #fb ,r ,races1 #cba ,rain1 praying for1 #dc1 #aea1 #aeb1 #ahj1 #bhf ,rainbow1 #hg4 ,see ,taikobashi4 ,rain-,gods1 #aec ,rain-storm4 ,see ,susa no wo4 ,ransom offerings1 #bfb1 #bbj4 ,se ,agamono1 ,katashiro1 ,nademono1 ,scape-goat4 ,rank conferred on ,gods1 #bcg1 #cbc1 #cbd ,rationalism1 #ib1 #cge ,real presence1 #bag1 #bg1 #gb ,red colour1 #aid1 #ef1 #afc1 #afe ,regalia1 #ace1 #bjb1 #bgc1 #bhi1 #bia1 #cec1 #cfc ,relic1 ,buddhist1 #cfa ,religion1 nature and origin of1 #e1 #ac ,remmonky1 #cge ,repentance1 #ajb ,rville1 ,preface1 #bfh ,revival of ,pure ,shinto1 #d1 #cgb ,rice-,god4 ,see ,inari4 ,rice in magic and ritual1 #ahi1 #bhh1 #bhi1 #ccd1 #cda ,risley1 ,mr4 ,h41 #gc ,ritual1 #a1 #c1 #bfh ,river of ,heaven 7milky way71 #ig1 #ih1 #ajj1 #aaj ,river-,gods1 #aae1 #aej4 ,see ,water1 ,rain4 ,river-weed deified1 #caf ,road-,gods4 ,see ,sahe no ,kami4 ,rock-boat of ,heaven1 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,suhijini1 #adf ,suitengu1 #fe ,sukuna-bikona1 #ahf1 #ajg1 #abd1 #ade ,sumera1 #bj ,sumiyoshi1 ,gods of1 #adi ,sun-,goddess1 #aba1 #bd1 #df1 #fh1 #ie1 #bhc1 #cgb ,sun-,goddess's attendants1 #ahc address to ,ninigi1 #aaa unlucky to proceed against1 #aag ,sun-,goddess1 an avatar of ,buddha1 #cfa ,sun-birds1 #acf ,sun-crow4 ,see ,yatagarasu4 ,sun-children1 #ch1 #dj ,sun-deities1 sex of1 #acb1 #acc ,sun-mirror4 ,see ,yatakagami4 ,sun-myth1 #hj ,sun worship1 #a1 #da1 #hc1 #ii1 #abh4 ,see ,nichirin1 ,o tento sama4 ,supernatural1 #ch ,supreme ,being1 #fi1 #gj1 #abc1 #adb1 #aga1 #age1 #ahj1 #ahb1 #cje ,surnames1 #dg ,susa no wo1 #acf1 #if1 #a1 #ad1 #ai1 #ba1 #ie1 #ajf ,suseri hime1 #ajf ,susu-harahi1 #cac ,suttee1 #ei ,sword1 #gb1 #aah1 #aeg1 #bai ,symbol4 ,see ,shintai4 ,symbol in magic1 #ahg1 #ccc ,sympathetic magic1 #ccj ,t ,tabi no miya 7reposoir71 #bbb ,taboos1 sexual1 #bej ,taikobashi1 #hg1 #bcb ,taikyoku 7great absolute71 #age ,taisha 7great shrine of ,idzumo71 #ff1 #ade1 #cec ,tajikara 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,,john ,,edward ,,francis1 ,,bream',s ,,buildings ,,chancery ,,lane1 ,e4,c4