,transcriber's note3 ,superscripts are  
indicated by the caret character1  as in
 ,,xviie and #ao4 ,italic text is       
indicated by underscores2  boldface text
 is indicated by equals signs4          
,,loyola4            ,the ,great        
,educators      ,,edited ,,by ,,nicholas
 ,,murray ,,butler        ,,loyola      
,,and      ,,the ,,educational ,,system 
,,of    ,,the ,,jesuits        ,,by     
,,the ,,reverend ,,thomas ,,hughes      
,,of ,,the ,,society ,,of ,,jesus       
,,new ,,york    ,,charles ,,scribner',s 
,,sons    #ahib            ,,copyright1 
#ahib1 ,,by    ,,charles ,,scribner',s  
,,sons4          ,,preface4      ,in the
 following work on the ,educational     
,system of the ,jesuits1 ,i  have       
endeavored to present a critical        
statement of the principles and  method 
adopted in the ,society of ,jesus4 ,the 
effort to explain the  sources1 process 
of development1 and present influence of
 the system  within and without the     
,order1 has made of the first part a    

biographical  and historical sketch1    
having for its chief subject the person 
of  the ,founder2 while the details and 
the pedagogical significance of  the    
various elements in the method appear1  
in the second part1 as a  critical      
analysis of the ,ratio ,studiorum4      
,the educational literature which treats
 of this system is very  extensive4     
,various estimates and conclusions have 
been arrived at1  on the merits of      
documents frequently referred to1 for an
 exposition  of the meaning and         
philosophy of the system4 ,hence1 with  
the view of  facilitating a clear and   
comprehensive judgment on the subject1  
,i have  thought it not inadvisable to  
quote accurately from such documents1   
omitting none which bore upon the       
matter1 if only they were within  reach4
 ,it so happens that1 at present1 a     
large number of the sources1            
regulations1 and commentaries1          
heretofore rare and altogether out of   
reach1 have been rendered easy of       

access1 being embodied in the great     
work1 ,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1   
which is already beyond its  tenth      
volume4 ,three of the volumes so far    
issued are upon the ,jesuit  ,system2   
they have been compiled by the late     
,rev4 ,g4 ,m4 ,pachtler1 ,s4 ,j4  ,if   
the three or four volumes1 which still  
remain to be issued by the  ,rev4       
,bernard ,duhr1 ,s4 ,j41 had been       
available1 they too could have been     
laid under contribution for examples and
 illustrations4 ,but perhaps the  theme 
will appear sufficiently illustrated as 
it is4    ,besides the original         
documents1 ,i have used no less         
authentic an  exponent than that which  
the maxim of law approves3 ,consuetudo1 
optima  legis interpres1 ,custom1 which 
is the best interpreter of law4         
,while all that is oldest and most      
authentic has thus been made use of  in 
explaining the ,ratio ,studiorum1 the   
actual condition of pedagogics  to-day  
is new1 and so is the state of the      

question involved4 ,hence1 to  satisfy  
the requirements of the present1        
reference has been made not  exclusively
 either to the customs or the learned   
documents of a former  age4    ,in a    
word1 the object aimed at has been to   
indicate the chief traits  which are    
characteristic of the system1 and which 
may be suggestive in  the development of
 pedagogical science4 ,whether such an  
object has been  attained1 so as to meet
 many questions which may possibly      
arise1 and  to satisfy the desire which 
actually exists1 it will be for others  
to  decide4      ,,thomas ,,hughes1 ,s4 
,j4      ,,st4 ,,louis ,,university4    
,,contents4                             
,,page      ,,preface                   
v        ,,part ,i4      ,,educational  
,,history ,,of ,,the ,,order4           
,,chapter ,i4      ,,introduction       
#c      ,,chapter ,,ii4      ,,knight1  
,,pilgrim1 ,,and ,,scholar              
#ai      ,,chapter ,,iii4      ,,the    
,,university ,,of ,,paris4 ,,rome       

#cj      ,,chapter ,,iv4      ,,colleges
 ,,as ,,proposed ,,in ,,the ,,jesuit    
,,constitution                 #eb      
,,chapter ,v4      ,,colleges ,,founded 
,,and ,,endowed                         
#fh      ,,chapter ,,vi4      ,,the     
,,intellectual ,,scope ,,and ,,method   
,,proposed                      #hb     
,,chapter ,,vii4      ,,the ,,moral     
,,scope ,,proposed                      
#ih      ,,chapter ,,viii4              
,,ignatius ,,administering ,,the        
,,collegiate ,,system4 ,,his ,,death    
#aji      ,,chapter ,,ix4               
,,subsequent ,,administrations          
#abd        ,,part ,,ii4      ,,analysis
 ,,of ,,the ,,system ,,of ,,studies4    
,,chapter ,x4      ,,aquaviva4 ,,the    
,,ratio ,,studiorum                     
#ada      ,,chapter ,,xi4               
,formation of the ,master4 ,,his        
,,courses ,,of ,,literature ,,and       
,,philosophy                            
#aef      ,,chapter ,,xii4              
,,youthful ,,masters                    

#age      ,,chapter ,,xiii4      ,,the  
,,courses ,,of ,,divinity ,,and ,,allied
 ,,sciences4 ,,private ,,study4         
,,repetition                            
#aia      ,,chapter ,,xiv4              
,,disputation4 ,,dictation              
#bjh      ,,chapter ,,xv4               
,formation of the ,scholar4 ,,symmetry  
,,of ,,the ,,courses4 ,,the             
,,prelection4 ,,books                   
#bbe      ,,chapter ,,xvi4      ,,the   
,,classical ,,literatures4 ,,school     
,,management ,,and ,,control       #bdh 
,,chapter ,,xvii4      ,,examinations   
,,and ,,graduation4 ,,schedule ,,of     
,,grades ,,and ,,courses    #bei        
,,chapter ,,xviii4      ,,conclusion    
#bhe        ,,bibliographical ,,appendix
                                        
#big          ,,part ,i4                
,,educational ,,history ,,of ,,the      
,,order          ,,loyola ,,and ,,the   
,,educational ,,system ,,of ,,the       
,,jesuits          ,,chapter ,i4        
,,introduction4      ,a learned and     

elegant work1 which narrates the rise   
and progress of  ,christian ,schools1   
from the sixtieth year of the ,christian
 era onwards1  ends its long journey at 
the date of the ,reformation1 and takes 
leave  of its varied subject1 and of its
 lines of ,christian ,scholars1 in these
  words3 ,we leave them at the moment   
when the episcopacy was recovering  its 
ancient jurisdiction over the           
ecclesiastical seminaries1 and when  a  
vast majority of the secular schools of 
,catholic ,christendom were  passing    
into the hands of a great ,religious    
,order1 raised up1 as it  would seem1   
with the special design of consolidating
 anew a system of  ,christian           
education4#a    ,two centuries and a    
half later1 when the ,society of ,jesus 
had run a  long course1 from the date of
 the ,reformation which had seen it     
rise1  up to the eve of the ,revolution 
which beheld it extinct1 a ,general of  
the ,order1 ,ignatius ,visconti1        
addressing the ,provincial ,superiors   

over  the world1 takes note of a new    
stage in the process of educational     
development3 ,the taste for letters now1
 he says1 is more keen and  exquisite1  
and the number of literary schools has  
increased so much1  that ours may no    
longer appear so necessary4 ,for ,i may 
mention the fact  that1 besides our     
schools of polite letters1 there were1  
for a long  while1 either none or very  
few4 ,so that parents were forced to    
send  their children to us1 even if     
otherwise they did not want it4#b       
,this refers in a quiet way to what     
,leopold von ,ranke states with more    
emphasis4 ,speaking of ,grammar classes1
 the ,german historian says3 ,here  also
 the ,jesuits succeeded to admiration4  
,it was found that young  people gained 
more with them in six months1 than with 
other teachers  in two years4 ,even     
,protestants removed their children from
 distant  gymnasia to confide them to   
the care of the ,jesuits4#c ,ranke      
narrates  in the same place how it was  

toward the universities above all that  
the efforts of the ,jesuits were        
directed4 ,and he describes what the    
results were in ,germany4               
,d',alembert writes of their progress in
 ,france3 ,hardly had the ,company  of  
,jesus begun to show itself in ,france1 
than it met with difficulties  without  
number1 in the endeavor to establish    
itself4 ,the universities  especially   
made the greatest efforts to keep the   
new-comers out4 ,it  is difficult to    
decide whether this opposition is a     
praise or a  condemnation of the        
,jesuits who stood it4 ,they announced  
gratuitous  teaching2 they counted among
 their number celebrated and learned    
men1  superior perhaps to those whom the
 universities could boast of1 etc4#d    
,speaking of the ,protestants in the    
,netherlands1 a chronicle1 which        
reviews the first century of the        
,order's existence1 records that the    
,jesuit schools were expressly          
interdicted1 under severe penalties1  to

 all members of the ,protestant         
communities4 ,even in a twelve-year     
truce which the ,order partially        
enjoyed1 a monthly fine of one hundred  
florins was still imposed upon all      
delinquents1 or on their parents1  who  
persisted in patronizing the ,jesuit    
schools4 ,to escape the fine1  parents  
sent their children under an assumed    
name4#e    ,in every country1 the same  
drama of struggle and contest evolved   
itself  through two and a half          
centuries1 till a momentous scene was   
witnessed4  ,it was a scene of such a   
kind as seldom has occurred in history2 
and  never certainly was any similar    
event thrown into such relief by the    
sequel4 ,the event which ,i refer to was
 a universal and instantaneous          
suppression of the ,order2 with         
consequences following thereupon which  
were exceptional1 both in the world that
 witnessed it1 and in the  subject-body 
that suffered it4    ,the sequel in the 
world at large was that1 a few years    

later1 at the  close of the eighteenth  
century1 there broke out the great      
,revolution  under the leadership of    
men1 of whom scarcely one had been more 
than  seven years of age at the date of 
the ,jesuits' expulsion4#f ,they        
represented in ,france the first        
generation which had not been educated  
by the ,society4 ,the remote causes     
which overwhelmed the ,order were  the  
same that ushered in the ,revolution4   
,but1 among the immediate  causes1      
assigned by historians to account for   
the precise form which  the great       
convulsion assumed1 and for the date at 
which it occurred1  is placed the       
dissolution of this ,order4 ,according  
to the ,count de  ,maistre1 who speaks  
of the political sentiment of his own   
times1 all  observers agreed that the   
revolution of ,europe1 still called the 
,french ,revolution1 was impossible     
without the preliminary destruction  of 
the ,jesuits4 ,and1 in keeping with     
this1 it was equally a subject  of      

observation1 as being a palpable        
historical fact1 that during two        
centuries the ,jesuits had formed in    
their ,college at ,paris1 the lite  of  
the ,french nobility2 and that1 only a  
few years after the expulsion  of the   
,jesuit ,masters1 the same college      
turned out the ,robespierres1  ,camille 
,desmoulins1 ,tallien1 ,nol1 ,frron1    
,chnier1 and other such  demagogues4    
,this ,college of ,clermont1 or         
,louis-le-,grand1 from which the        
,jesuits were expelled in #agfb1 had    
been immediately occupied by the        
,university of ,paris4 ,the ,revolution 
broke out twenty-seven years later4     
,another sequel1 not heard of before in 
history1 affected the ,society  itself4 
,europe1 having gone through the violent
 commotions which  changed the old order
 of things into the new1 reached the    
beginning  of this nineteenth century1  
and found the ,society alive again4     
,this  was in defiance of a political   
maxim1 which we may admit with ,baron   

von ,hbner1 that in politics1 in the    
affairs of states1 in the life of  all  
great social institutions1 when once    
death supervenes1 there is no           
resurrection4    ,and now1 at the end of
 the nineteenth century1 the same forces
 of  repulsion and attraction1 of       
devoted love on the part of friends1  of
 intense hatred on the part of enemies1 
have been seen operating  as always     
before4 ,it has become a commonplace in 
the philosophy of  history1--this hatred
 which has been sworn against the ,order
 of ,jesus1  and the multitude of       
enemies whom it has made4 ,one          
explanation suggests  itself to the     
,viscount de ,bonald1--the presence in  
it1 he thinks1 of  something good2 of   
that good which1 as it alone is the     
object of the  most ardent love1 can    
alone become the object of the intensest
 hate2  and therefore has always made   
persecutors and martyrs4    ,the purpose
 of this book is to give an historical  
sketch1 with a  proportionate analysis1 

of the educational development effected 
through  the ,society of ,jesus4 ,others
 have taken different fields of ,jesuit 
history to survey1 either general and   
comprehending all the paths of  external
 and internal activity1 or particular   
and comprising only parts  of the       
history4 ,some of these particular      
views1 especially in later  years1 are  
in the line of studies1 and are most    
valuable contributions  to the history  
of pedagogic development4 ,none of them1
 however1  happens to coincide with the 
scope1 purpose1 and form which have been
  designated for this2 as the ,series to
 which it belongs1 the ,editor in       
charge1 and the country for which it is 
intended1 sufficiently indicate4    ,the
 subject then is the educational system 
of the ,jesuits1 that system  which     
technically is called the ,ratio        
,studiorum4 ,it requires no  literary   
nor historical ingenuity to centre all  
that has to be said  about it in the    
personality and character of ,st4       

,ignatius of ,loyola4  ,i shall draw    
upon ,jesuit sources of information1    
except when it  will be necessary to    
state results1 or give estimates1 which 
imply  commendation4 ,then ,i shall     
quote freely from sources outside of the
  ,order4 ,otherwise1 for the purpose of
 explaining and analyzing domestic      
matters1 these extraneous references    
would be imperfect indeed4    ,the      
situation1 which met the military view  
of the cavalier1 lately  the knightly   
captain of ,loyola1 was a new one1 on an
 old field of  battle4 ,the demand1     
which it seemed to make upon tactical   
resources1  was as intense as the       
political and religious crisis which    
created the  situation4 ,from the year  
#aebb till #aedj1 while ,ignatius was   
prospecting  the scene in ,europe1 and  
preparing to take an active part in it1 
he  had time and the opportunities for  
observing1 what precisely1 at  that     
epoch1 were the accumulated results of  
all the ,christian ages  gone before2   

and why the results just then were only 
what they were4  ,the issue appeared    
fatally determined by social conditions 
around1  which more than neutralized the
 ,christianity visible4 ,education1 in  
particular1 was laboring under the      
action of causes1 which had begun  to   
operate several centuries earlier1 and  
which were then evidently  working      
themselves out to one final effort4     
,that was the undermining of  ,christian
 education4    ,in this respect1 it was 
the same question which had confronted  
the  ,augustines1 the ,basils1 and      
,jeromes1 of one thousand years before4 
,but  it was a different state of the   
question4 ,augustine1 the brilliant     
youth of ,hippo ,regius in ,africa1 will
 serve as an instance of what  the issue
 then had been4 ,he had made himself    
master of the very best  results1 which 
the public schools of the time were able
 to accomplish  in the most gifted of   
minds4 ,but he had lost his virtue4 ,he 
lived to  complain with bitterness1 that

 it was accounted a grievous error to   
pronounce homo a man1 without the h1 but
 it was no error at all  to hate a man1 
signified by the word1 homo4 ,the       
consequence with him  was that1 when he 
became a ,bishop of the ,church1 he met 
the need of  providing a ,christian     
education1 by instituting in his own    
house a kind  of school1 for the moral  
and spiritual education of his clergy4  
,thus arose the cathedral or canonical  
school4 ,so too1 the cloistral  schools 
came to flourish in the abbeys and the  
monasteries4 ,and1  even if these two   
kinds of educational centres had not    
also been1 as  they really were1 in the 
,middle ,ages1 the preordained means for
 the  salvation of learning in ,europe1 
they would still have had reason  enough
 for their existence1 in the paramount  
necessity of continuing1  for the tender
 age of youth1 the ministry of a        
virtuous education4    ,events took a   
new turn with the rise and progress of  
the university  system4 ,at first1 the  

universities were mostly annexed to     
cathedral  churches4 ,as they developed1
 the cloistral influence waned4 ,and    
again1  as they developed still more1   
they presented phenomena which          
originated  the subsequent system of the
 ,jesuits4    ,from the twelfth to the  
sixteenth centuries1 as many as         
sixty-six of  these universities were in
 existence2 sixteen of them are credited
  to ,germany2 about as many to ,france2
 and the rest to ,italy1 ,spain1  and   
other nations4 ,it is not within my     
province to describe their  formation1  
or the order of their foundation4 ,they 
received their  charters from the       
,popes1 who used their power thus1 and  
showed it  under a form1 which no age   
will be apt to depreciate2 least of all1
  our own4 ,addressing these habitations
 of ,general ,studies with the          
appellative1 ,universitas ,vestra1 the  
,sovereign ,pontiffs sent them  on their
 course1 and encouraged them in every   
line of ,theology1 ,law1  or ,medicine2 

whether all these lines were followed in
 each centre1 or  respectively some     
here1 some there4 ,orleans1 ,bourges1   
,bologna1 ,modena  professed ,law1      
either as their specialty1 or as their  
distinguishing  faculty2 ,montpellier1  
,salerno1 ,medicine2 ,padua1 the        
,liberal ,arts2  ,toledo1 ,mathematics2 
,salamanca1 and1 above all1 ,paris1     
general culture1  ,philosophy1 and      
,theology4    ,these universities became
 such well-springs of learning1 that for
  ,theology the ,bishops' seminaries    
practically ceased to exist2 and1 to    
acquire the general culture of the      
times1 the children of the faithful  no 
longer turned to the monastic schools4  
,nay1 in quite a contrary  sense1 the   
clergy and the monks themselves1 in     
pursuit of the best  learning that the  
age could give1 left their cloisters for
 a while1 and  betook themselves to the 
universities4 ,they followed up that    
step by  settling down there4 ,paris    
beheld the great old orders of          

,augustinians1  ,benedictines1          
,carthusians1 the ,carmelites1 the      
,bernardines1 all  establishing         
monasteries or colleges2 no otherwise   
than the newest  order of ,trinitarians1
 which was chiefly made up of university
 men4 ,two  institutes arose1 those of  
the ,dominicans and ,franciscans2 who   
with  men at their head1 like ,st4      
,thomas ,aquinas and ,st4 ,bonaventure1 
placed  themselves right in the heart of
 these intellectual centres2 and they   
became bulwarks of sound learning1 as   
opposed to the inanities of a  false    
scholasticism4 ,they kept the leaven of 
religion and virtue in  the midst of    
what was not quite a perverse           
generation1 but was most  certainly1    
from whatever side we view it1 a very   
dubious multitude1  belonging1 it is    
true1 to a ,christian generation4       
,consider the #aj1jjj  at ,bologna1     
which was the centre for ,law studies2  
the #cj1jjj at ,oxford2  or the #dj1jjj1
 all at one time studying1 or reckoned  

to be studying1 in  ,paris1 the         
acknowledged centre for ,theology4      
,an indiscriminate mass of humanity like
 this1 pressed1 thronged1 and  crowded  
together1 stimulated with all the ardor1
 and alive with all the  passions of    
youth1 could not fail to be little      
better than a nursery  for              
indiscriminate license4 ,whatever might 
be the vigilance of the  ,church1 or    
however strenuous the exercise of       
legitimate authority1  nothing in the   
usual course of human society could     
prevent its  becoming a prolific soil   
for the propagation of every species of 
error4  ,and1 as during three hundred   
years the intellectual and educational  
powers of ,europe followed this course1 
the law of evolution asserted  itself in
 many directions4    ,on the one side1  
those tens of thousands of ,christian   
youths1 who  were aiming at all the     
posts of influence in ,church and       
,state1 and  who1 entering their native 
university1 or journeying to foreign    

ones1  began life there at as early an  
age as twelve or fourteen years1 to     
remain in this environment some nine or 
twelve years more1 became1 as  was      
natural1 the living1 swarming members of
 a state of society so  dissolute1 that 
successive occupants of the ,papal ,see 
depicted the  condition of things as one
 of moral contagion4 ,in the manner of  
thought  and mind which prevailed1 no   
form of theoretic error was wanting4    
,in philosophy1 there was scepticism2 in
 theology1 heresy2 while1 in  politics1 
,csarism and absolutism became rife4    
,then1 at the end of  the fifteenth     
century1 the ,renaissance came2 and one 
of the first  things1 which it expressly
 and formally did1 was to renew in life1
  art1 and politics1 the same old       
paganism1 upon the ruins of which1 so   
many centuries before1 ,christianity had
 begun its upward and laborious  ascent4
 ,newly fashioning then much of what was
 old1 ,christianity had  augmented all  
this with so much which was new1 that in

 a thousand  years it had made a        
,renaissance possible4 ,and now the form
 of this  ,renaissance threatened its   
own ascendancy in morals and in life4   
,on the other hand1 the old spirit of   
conservatism in religion1 and of        
preservation in the matter of morals1   
maintained itself for a time1  through  
those bodies of religious men and       
clergymen1 who had left  the cloister or
 the seminary1 to take up their abode in
 the secular  seats of learning4 ,it was
 this spirit which originated the latest
 and  best development of the           
universities1 that of the college       
system1  established in their midst4    
,salamanca had twenty colleges2         
,louvain1  forty2 ,paris1 fifty4 ,still1
 in the final issue1 there was now      
scarcely  any reserve force of cloistral
 or episcopal learning behind the       
universities1 and outside of them4 ,and 
the religious and the clergy            
themselves1 who at best were not a      
little out of their element from the    

moment they migrated into the secular   
environment1 conformed insensibly  to   
the conditions in which they found      
themselves1 and so far ceased to  be the
 power they had been4    ,witness1 in   
the time of ,ignatius1 the ,paris       
,university1 as described  by           
contemporary records4 ,it was fallen    
from its ancient splendor4 ,the  bonds  
of discipline had been gradually        
relaxed2 studies were abandoned2  and   
with masters1 as with scholars1 all love
 of letters1 and respect  for the rule1 
had given place to sombre passions1 to  
political hate1 to  religious fanaticism
 and dissolute habits4#g    ,here then  
we have two elements in the educational 
condition of ,europe1  which explain the
 rise of the ,jesuit system4 ,one was   
the positive1  concrete fact1 embodied  
in that great developed system of       
university  learning4 ,the other was a  
negative element1 the decline therein of
 the  essential moral life4 ,these two  
factors are not mere antecedents in  the

 order of time1 as being only prior to  
the method of ,loyola4 ,one of  them1   
the university system1 supplied the very
 material out of which  his method and  
matter were taken2 yes1 and the men     
themselves1 the  ,jesuits who applied   
the principles of reform to education4  
,the other  factor1 which ,i have called
 negative1 that decline of the essential
  moral life1 was the adequate occasion1
 which prompted ,ignatius to  approach  
the question of education at all4 ,for  
we may say with  confidence that1 if the
 universities of the sixteenth century  
were  still doing the work which        
originally they had been chartered to   
do1  the founder of the ,society of     
,jesus would not only have omitted to   
draw out his system as a substitute for 
them1 and as an improvement  upon them1 
but he would have done1 what he always  
did with anything  good in existence2 he
 would have used what he found1 and have
 turned  his attention to other things  
more urgent4 ,he did use these          

university  centres for his own young   
men1 until he had better educational    
institutions1 and a better method of his
 own in progress4    ,hence the         
educational problem1 when it falls under
 the notice of  ,ignatius1 presents     
itself as the identical one of old1 that
 of moral  regeneration4 ,but it is a   
different state of the same question4   
,in  circumstances rendered acutely     
critical by the agitations of the epoch1
  social1 moral1 and religious1 it was a
 favorite contemplation of  his to look 
with compassion on men living like the  
blind1 dying1 and  sinking into eternal 
depths2 on men talking1 blaspheming1    
reviling one  another2 on their         
assaulting1 wounding1 slaying one       
another2 and all  together going to     
eternal perdition4#h ,it was from this  
moral point of  view that he descended  
into the arena of education4    ,but    
before he can teach men1 or mould       
teachers of men1 or even conceive  the  
first idea of legislating for the       

intellectual world1 he must  himself    
first learn4 ,there are two fundamental 
lessons which he does  learn1 and they  
go to form him4 ,one is that1 among all 
pursuits1 the  study of virtue is       
supreme2 the other1 that1 supreme as    
virtue is1  yet1 without secular        
learning1 the highest virtue goes       
unarmed1 and  at best is profitable to  
oneself alone4 ,he learns these two     
lessons1  not only in theory1 but in    
practice4 ,to accomplish the purpose of 
the  latter1 he takes his seat upon the 
scholars' bench1 and begins to learn    
with little children4 ,though he may not
 meet with brilliant success in  the art
 of learning1 still in the art of       
understanding what learning  is1 and in 
the lessons of experience1 he becomes a 
finished scholar4  ,he remains even then
 too much of a chevalier to give up a   
cherished  idea of his about a spiritual
 crusade in the ,east4 ,and it is only  
when  thwarted in this project that1    
like a true knight1 he simply turns  to 

another side of the field4 ,he stays in 
the ,west4 ,he is still the  ,captain of
 a ,company4 ,but he becomes also a     
legislator among doctors2  and1 amid his
 other works1 he effects an educational 
reform4    ,in his whole campaign1 we   
may discern two characteristics in the  
spirit of his movements4 ,one is that of
 defence1 the other that of  advance4   
,his method of defence showed itself in 
the reassertion of old  principles1 in  
the conservatism of morals1--a plan of  
campaign1 which  determines the whole   
frame of mind1 and the social           
construction of the  ,company4 ,it rests
 on the principle of upholding what is1 
and not moving  the ancient landmarks4  
,on the other hand1 his advance is      
towards the  solution of the highest    
questions which can interest mankind4   
,these  formed part of the very object  
and direction of the ,order's march4    
,and  so it came to pass1 that his      
,company drew to itself that class of   
minds  which are most powerfully        

arrested by the prospect of solving such
  questions1 especially when times are  
agitated4 ,his times were agitated1  if 
any ever were1 more so than our own1    
when the same questions still  must     
dominate4 ,his were times of wars with  
,turks in the ,east1 and  with          
,christians at home2 of battles lost and
 won1 with their effects  reaching into 
every household2 of royal and imperial  
administrations  confused and           
overthrown2 of new opinions without     
number2 of the ,church  losing ground   
along the whole line of the frontier1   
and withal new  worlds looming over an  
horizon1 where from the beginning of    
time the  unknown had brooded in        
absolute darkness4 ,at such a moment1   
,defence  and ,advance1 or as the ,papal
 authority expressed it in the solemn   
instrument which chartered his          
,institute1 ,defensio ac propagatio     
fidei1 were stirring watchwords to men  
of parts1 who felt restive  under the   
inactivity and inefficiency of older    

methods1 on older lines4    ,i will not 
pause to say1 that the personal poverty 
and exact obedience1  required in the   
new service1 presented no obstacles to  
the minds  and characters which were    
otherwise attracted to his standard4    
,the  antecedents of all antiquity seem 
to show that such conditions1 to  such  
minds1 are rather an inducement than a  
check4 ,and if one takes  notice that to
 this was added1 in the ,order of       
,jesus1 an absolute  equality1 whereby  
every formed member binds himself to    
accept no  dignity within or without1   
or1 at least1 to affect no dignity at   
home or abroad1 which will prejudice his
 full franchise as a member1  then1     
perhaps1 the attractiveness of such a   
life1 the conservatism  and intense     
concentration of the ,order1 as well as 
the alacrity and  endurance manifested  
in the service1 will not appear         
inexplicable to  the minds of this age1 
in which1 under a very different form1  
the same  equality is called liberty1 is

 made to construct republics1 to bring  
down monarchies1 and develop some of the
 most potent agencies for  unfolding the
 energies of men4 ,yet the liberty of   
this latter equality  reflects but      
faintly1 and as from a broken surface1  
the freedom of him1  who having         
liberated himself from the shackles of  
the world1 and from  all solicitude as  
to his movements1 office1 and place1    
finds in turn1  as the ,german historian
 expresses it1 his own personal         
development  imposed upon him2#i and1 in
 the firm companionship of one aim1     
formation1 and life1 enjoys the manifold
 support and ready sympathy of          
individualities as developed as his own4
    ,i shall narrate1 in the first part1
 the facts of ,ignatius' career1  so far
 as to indicate the stages of that      
magisterial art1 by which he  himself   
was formed1 and which then he reformed  
in the ,jesuit ,ratio  ,studiorum4 ,in  
the second part1 ,i shall sketch briefly
 the history of  the ,ratio itself1 and 

analyze the ,system as a theory and     
practice of  education4                 
,,chapter ,,ii4    ,,knight1 ,,pilgrim1 
,,and ,,scholar4      ,the story of the 
cavalier wounded on the ramparts of     
,pampeluna has  often been told4 ,loyola
 was not at the moment governor of the  
city1  nor in any responsible charge4   
,but official responsibility was not    
necessary for him to see the path of    
duty and follow it4 ,as one bound  to   
the service of his sovereign by the     
title of honor and nobility1  he retired
 to the citadel1 when the town          
surrendered2 and then1 when  the        
ramparts began to give way under the    
cannonading1 he stood in the  breach4 ,a
 ball shattering the rock laid him low1 
maimed in both his  limbs4 ,at once the 
defence collapsed4 ,cared for           
chivalrously by those  whose arms had   
struck him down in battle1 he was       
transported with every  delicate        
attention to his castle of ,loyola4 ,it 
was found that one of  his limbs had    

been ill set4 ,he had it broken again1  
to be set aright4  ,meanwhile1 instinct 
with all the ambition of a knight1      
belonging to  a chivalrous nation in an 
age of chivalry1 he was not insensible  
to  the charms of society and affection4
 ,and1 out of a sensitive care for  his 
personal appearance1 he must needs have 
a protruding bone1 which  still         
threatened to mar his figure1 sawed off 
while he looked on4 ,in  the loneliness 
and tedium of a sick-room1 he whiled    
away the hours by  dreaming of his      
ambitions and his aspirations1 and he   
sought to feed  them with suitable      
nourishment4 ,he wanted a romance to    
read4 ,there was  none to be had4 ,so1  
instead of the novel which was not      
forthcoming1 he  took what they gave    
him1 the ,life of ,christ1 and the      
,lives of some who  had served ,christ  
faithfully4 ,the soldier of the field   
and of blood  felt the objects of his   
ambition change2 he became a soldier of 
the  spirit and eternal life4 ,and1     

after the experiences of his bed of     
pain1  and the protracted communings    
with another world1 he arose another    
man2  he went forth a knight as ever1   
but not on an expedition terminating as 
before4 ,an evening and night spent in  
the sanctuary of ,montserrat1 as  once  
before he had passed a vigil of arms1   
when dubbed a chevalier by  the ,king of
 ,navarre2 a morning begun with the     
,holy ,sacrifice attended  and ,holy    
,communion received1 opened to him a new
 era2 and he went  forth1 bound now by a
 new oath of fealty to the service of   
the ,king of  ,heaven4    ,at the side  
of the altar in this sanctuary of       
,montserrat1 the ,abbot of  the         
monastery1 eighty-one years later1      
committed to a marble tablet the  record
 of this event1 for the perpetual memory
 of the future3 ,blessed  ,ignatius of  
,loyola here1 with many prayers and     
tears1 devoted himself  to ,god and the 
,virgin4 ,here1 as with spiritual arms1 
he fortified  himself in sack-cloth1 and

 spent the vigil of the night4 ,hence he
 went  forth to found the ,society of   
,jesus1 in the year ,,mdxxii4    ,he    
first looked about him to find a        
retreat1 and immerse himself in  the    
contemplation of time and eternity4 ,it 
was a ,saturday4 ,john  ,sacrista       
,pascual tells us that his mother1 a    
devout lady of ,manresa1  was in the    
church that morning2 and1 accompanied by
 two young men and  three women1 she was
 at her devotions in the chapel of the  
,apostles4  ,a young stranger came up   
and accosted them4 ,his clothing was of 
very  common serge2 for ,ignatius had   
given away his knightly robes to a poor 
man4 ,the youth looked like a pilgrim4  
,he was not tall2 he was fair  in       
complexion and ruddy in cheek4 ,his bare
 head was somewhat bald4  ,altogether he
 was of a fine and grave presence1 and  
most reserved in  look4 ,he scarcely    
raised his eyes from the ground4 ,coming
 up1 he asked  if there were a hospital 
anywhere which might serve him for      

shelter4  ,regarding his noble and fair 
features1 the lady1 as became a         
,christian  woman1 offered her services2
 if he would follow her company1 she    
would  provide for him1 in the best way 
possible4 ,courteously and thankfully   
he accepted her offer1 and followed the 
party as they left the  sanctuary4 ,they
 proceeded slowly2 for they noticed that
 he was lame4  ,however much they urged 
him1 they could not induce him to ride  
upon the  ass4 ,three leagues away from 
,montserrat1 they arrived at the little 
town of ,manresa2 and he took up his    
residence in the common hospital  for   
the poor and pilgrims4 ,whatever alms or
 food was henceforth sent  him first    
went to others1 whom1 in these matters1 
up to the end of his  life1 he always   
considered to be more in need than      
himself4    ,he now entered on his      
probation of ,christian virtue4 ,in the 
mind of  the ,catholic ,church1 the     
degree of virtue which he practised is  
that  accounted heroic4 ,as it is not   

for me to dwell on it here1 ,i will pass
  it over with one remark4 ,that which  
is accounted ordinary ,christian        
virtue1 resting as it does on faith and 
hope1 on principles not barely  natural 
but supernatural1 is not very           
intelligible to the world at  large4    
,still less the heroic degree of the    
same4 ,both however claim  to be        
estimated by their own proper motives   
and principles4 ,when they  enter into  
the very subject1 which the biographer  
means to treat1 it  appertains to his   
art not to ignore the objective motives 
and reasons  of things1 as they operated
 in his subject4 ,in the shortest       
monograph1  like the present1 we cannot 
separate from the work1 which he did1   
the man who did it4 ,and the man is made
 by his motives4 ,it were bad  literary 
art to describe feats1 which are        
confessedly great1 and not to  find     
motives which are proportionate4        
,ignatius1 after a year more or less    
spent at ,manresa1 took his  pilgrim's  

staff and journeyed on foot to ,italy1  
and thence to the ,holy  ,land4 ,it was 
in the spirit of the old ,crusaders1    
whose chivalry had  a charm for him up  
to the day many years later1 when1 with 
his first  associates of the ,company1  
he endeavored once more to cross over   
from  ,italy to ,palestine4 ,had he     
succeeded on this later occasion1 he    
would  most probably never have known   
the others who attached themselves to   
him2 nor might history have busied      
itself with him or with them4    ,at the
 date of his return from the ,holy      
,land1 we find that he has  advanced    
already to the second lesson in the     
development of his future4  ,it is1 that
 mature in years as he is1 and full of  
desires for doing  good to his          
neighbors1 yet neither does mere piety  
place in his hands  the instruments for 
such work2 nor1 if study alone can give 
the means  of apostolic zeal1 can he    
consider himself exempt from the law1   
that  he must labor to acquire what are 

only the results of labor4 ,he was      
thirty-one years of age1 when he betook 
himself1 after his night's  vigil1 to   
the cave of ,manresa4 ,he is two years  
older now4 ,so1 at the  age of          
thirty-three1 he sits down on the       
school-bench at ,barcelona1 and  begins 
his ,latin declensions4    ,begrudging  
his studies the time which they demand  
exclusively1 he  mistakes the situation1
 and allows himself the exercises of an 
apostolic life4 ,at his age1 even       
supposing his earlier pursuits to have  
been more in harmony with his present   
life of letters1 he is not an apt       
pupil4 ,however1 he labors              
conscientiously4 ,after two years spent 
at  ,grammar1 he is judged by his       
teacher1 who takes a lenient view of the
  case1 to be competent for approaching 
his higher studies4    ,he himself was  
dubious4 ,his friends recommended him to
 ascend4 ,he  still hesitated4 ,but1    
receiving the same favorable opinion    
from a  theologian whom he consulted1   

,ignatius acquiesced1 in accordance with
  his unvarying rule1 to follow         
competent direction4 ,how unfortunate   
this  step was for the happy progress of
 his studies1 but how advantageous  for 
his experience as a future legislator1  
,i shall proceed to show4    ,leaving   
,barcelona for ,alcal1 he meant to enjoy
 the best advantages  which a great     
university could afford4 ,he lived on   
alms as ever2 and  others lived on the  
alms which he received4 ,it was the year
 #afbf4 ,he  entered upon the study of  
,logic1 using the ,summa of ,di ,soto2  
also the  ,physics of ,aristotle2 and he
 pursued besides the ,master of         
,sentences4    ,he had stayed only a    
year and a half in this rich variety of 
pursuits1  scholastic as well as        
apostolic1 when the novelties apparent  
in his  manner of life ended by making  
him a suspected character to the        
ecclesiastical authorities4 ,to a few1  
among the population of the  city1 his  
fruitful zeal made him distinctly       

odious4 ,the result was  a juridical    
process against him1 which issued in a  
complimentary  verdict1 the ,vicar of   
the diocese pronouncing him and his     
companions  quite blameless4 ,but       
restrictions were imposed regarding his 
future  ministrations1 since ,ignatius  
was not yet in holy orders4 ,during a   
term of four years he was not to preach4
 ,after that time1 his progress  in     
studies would enable him to honor that  
important ministry1 without  giving     
offence4 ,this was a deathblow to the   
aspirations of the student4  ,he made up
 his mind to go elsewhere1 to the famous
 university of  ,salamanca2 and he      
turned his back on ,alcal4    ,the time 
was soon to come for a pleasant revenge2
 and apparently he  knew of it long     
before it came4 ,just six years after   
the foundation of  his ,order1 when he  
sent ,francis ,villanova to open a house
 at ,alcal1  not only did he find men of
 the university embracing his           
,institute1  but1 two years after that1 

the whilom persecuted pilgrim received1 
in  a single twelvemonth1 thirty-four   
,doctors into the ,society1 all from    
that one seat of learning4 ,the mere    
passing by of ,francis ,borgia1 ,duke   
of ,gandia1 who had become an humble    
follower of ,ignatius1 made the         
choicest spirits flock to his standard2 
and1 all over ,spain1 colleges  sprang  
up as if from the soil4    ,in          
,salamanca1 where likewise he and his   
were to figure in the future1  the      
personal history of ,ignatius is briefly
 told4 ,in ten or twelve  days after his
 arrival1 he was thrown into chains4 ,he
 spent twenty-two  days in prison4 ,when
 released1 with the same commendation   
for himself  and his doctrine as he had 
received at ,alcal1 but with a similar  
restriction on his action1 he thought it
 was not worth his while to  repeat the 
same experiences at the same cost4 ,so1 
in spite of all the  eloquence of       
dissuasion brought to bear on him by    
friends1 he took a  new departure1 which

 seemed plausible to him1 and therefore 
feasible4  ,he would try his fortunes in
 another land1 and continue his studies 
in  the greatest philosophical and      
theological centre of the world1 the    
,university of ,paris4    ,to any one   
who judged of things by an ordinary     
standard1 the project  was not feasible4
 ,war was raging between ,spain and     
,france2 the roads  were infested with  
hostile soldiery2 many murders and      
robberies1  committed on the persons of 
travellers1 were recently reported4 ,but
  these and other considerations of the 
kind had no weight with ,loyola1  to    
stay him in a course once deliberately  
adopted4 ,accepting some alms  from     
friends at ,barcelona1 to obtain on the 
way the necessaries of  life1 he        
accomplished on foot the whole journey  
from ,barcelona to the  ,french capital2
 where he arrived at the beginning of   
,february1 ,a4,d4  #aebh4    ,he has now
 had experience of prisons and chains1  
on the charge of  teaching error1 or of 

being a dangerous enthusiast4 ,one of   
the calmest  and coolest of men1 who    
never acted1 but he first calculated1   
and who  never allowed himself to       
approach a conclusion1 without first    
freeing  himself from all bias and      
impulse1 he had suffered repeated arrest
  for setting people beside themselves1 
for moving them to give up all  they had
 in behalf of piety1 or charity1 and    
inducing them to go and  live on alms   
themselves2 nay1 perhaps throw in their 
lives1 talents  and acquirements1 to    
serve others gratis4 ,the founder of the
 ,jesuits1  himself the first of an     
,order which has the reputation of being
 the  staunchest upholder1 as well of   
authority in every rank of society1  as 
of the truths taught by the ,catholic   
,church1 was put in chains1  or         
arraigned by the ecclesiastical         
authorities almost wherever he          
appeared1 though always acquitted as    
blameless4    ,in a letter written at a 
subsequent period of his life to ,king  

,john  ,,iii of ,portugal1 ,ignatius    
sums up his experiences1 as including   
two  imprisonments1 at ,alcal and       
,salamanca2 three judicial              
investigations1  at ,alcal1 ,salamanca1 
and ,paris2 later on1 another process at
 ,paris2  then one at ,venice2 finally  
another at ,rome2--eight investigations 
about this one man in ,spain1 ,france1  
and ,italy4#aj ,wherever he came1  in   
after life1 it passed as a proverb among
 the ,fathers1 that his  appearance was 
the sure harbinger of a storm1 soon to  
break out against  them somewhere1 in   
the social or religious world4 ,he      
braved all this  fury in his own manner1
 weighing as deliberately every word he 
spoke1  and measuring every step he     
took1 as when he had stood in the breach
  of the ramparts at ,pampeluna4 ,but   
his personal experience made him  commit
 to the sacred keeping of the ,spiritual
 ,exercises an important  principle of  
liberal and humane prudence4 ,it is     
couched in the first  words of his      

little book1 to guide teacher and       
learner alike4 ,he says3--    ,in the   
first place1 it is to be supposed that  
every pious ,christian  man should be   
more ready to interpret any obscure     
proposition of  another in a good rather
 than a bad sense4 ,if1 however1 he     
cannot  defend the proposition in any   
way1 let him inquire of the speaker     
himself2 and1 if then the speaker is    
found to be mistaken in sentiment  or   
understanding1 let him correct the same 
kindly4 ,if this is not  enough1 let him
 employ all available means to render   
him sound in  principle and secure from 
error4    ,how far the personal         
experiences of its founder attached by a
 law of  heritage to his ,order1 ,i can 
hardly undertake to describe4 ,but1 just
  for the sake of completing the family 
picture1 ,i will mention the heads  of a
 doleful list1 which an historian of the
 ,society catalogues4 ,he  enumerates1  
as objects of attack and                
misrepresentation1 the founder  himself1

 the name of the ,society of ,jesus1 the
 dress1 rules1 manners1  books1         
doctrine1 schools1 sermons2 the poverty1
 obedience1 gratuitous  service of the  
,jesuits2 that they affected a kind of  
literary empire1  under the spur of an  
intolerable ambition2 that they were    
lightly  tinctured1 and had just sipped 
of many things1 of which they had       
nothing solid to offer2 yes1 that they  
wanted to have it believed there  was no
 sanctuary of the ,muses1 no shrine of  
sacred or human wisdom in  existence1   
outside of their own colleges2 that1    
from these offices of  theirs1 all arts 
and sciences came forth1 done up in the 
best style4  ,in fine1 whatever they do 
or don't do1 granted that there are many
  false charges which their enemies     
concoct against them1--things too       
extreme to be believed1--granted that   
they are acquitted of many vices  laid  
to their account1 never certainly will  
they escape the suspicion1  at least1   
which these charges excite4#aa ,we      

believe it4 ,there is a  good homely    
,english proverb which expresses the    
very same idea--about  the happy        
adhesiveness of a clayey compound when  
cleverly thrown4    ,this retrospect of 
history was taken1 exactly one hundred  
years after  the foundation of the      
,order4 ,the story had begun some       
thirteen years  before it was founded4  
,when ,ignatius became a responsible    
leader with  associates1 he had recourse
 more than once to the process of       
justice1  to clear his reputation in    
full form4 ,but1 beyond the cases which 
rendered such defence prudent and       
necessary1 his practical policy was     
expressed in a practical maxim1 which   
after him his successor1 ,james         
,laynez1 had often in his mouth3 ,deus  
faxit ne unquam male loquantur et  vera 
dicant6 ,god grant they never talk ill  
of me and be saying the  truth6 ,indeed1
 as there is no use in trying to change 
men1 for they  will never be born anew1 
,ignatius looked rather in another      

direction  for the solution of          
difficulties2 expecting that troubles1  
which defied  other treatment1 might    
still not survive their authors4        
,speaking of  a powerful adversary1 who 
was raising a great storm at ,toledo and
  ,alcal1 and whom it took the royal    
council and then a brief from the  ,pope
 to quell1 ,ignatius said of him to     
,ribadeneira3 ,he is old1 the  ,society 
is young2 naturally the ,society will   
live longer than he will4  ,the same    
dignitary1 suppressed though he was1    
rose again in violent  opposition4      
,whereupon ,jouvancy makes the apt      
remark3 ,so difficult is  it for even   
the most eminent men1 and so rare a     
thing1 when once they  have conceived a 
notion1 to get it out of their heads    
again6#ab ,no1  men are not born anew4  
,it is time now to contemplate ,ignatius
 of ,loyola at ,paris1 where some  of   
the most precious elements in his       
educational experience are to be        
acquired4          ,,chapter ,,iii4     

,,the ,,university ,,of ,,paris4 ,,rome4
      ,voluntary poverty1 the austerest 
manner of life1 the ungrateful labor  of
 studies1 and the perpetual             
self-discipline of a mind like his1 ever
  bent on lofty thoughts and endeavoring
 to dominate the very first  movements  
of his soul1 all these conditions1 added
 to the climate and  the nature of the  
situation in which ,ignatius found      
himself at ,paris1  brought such a      
strain to bear on his broken-down       
constitution1 that1 to  keep up his     
course at all1 he had to interrupt it   
awhile1 and give some  relief to his    
overtaxed body1 or1 as he held it to be1
 his beast of  burden4    ,and what     
about the studies themselves8 ,if they  
had been a brilliant  success thus far1 
they could scarcely have outlived such  
conditions of  existence4 ,as it was1   
they were as good as if they had never  
begun2 or  somewhat worse4 ,he had gone 
about them the wrong way4 ,whatever     
solidity  of learning he had kept       

objectively in view1 something else1    
equally  important with solidity1 had   
been unwittingly omitted4 ,that was a   
good method4 ,logic1 ,philosophy1 and   
,theology1 all taken up together1  and  
with such compendious haste1 now went   
together in his mind like  a machine out
 of joint2 and his speed was nil6 ,the  
,latin language  itself1 the            
indispensable vehicle of all learning1  
was just so far  possessed by him as to 
show him that1 to be of any real use1 it
 had  better be commenced all over      
again4    ,here his character asserted  
itself4 ,and in no particular of his    
life  is he more like himself1 more     
thorough1 more of a brave cavalier1     
governing himself1 in great things and  
small1 by reasons most  high1 than when1
 having little facility for such        
pursuits1 and less  inclination1 he     
makes up his mind1 after a short        
breathing spell1 to  sit down again at  
the age of thirty-seven years1 and      
resume his ,latin  declensions6 ,in the 

college of ,montague1 he spends about   
two years  acquiring this tongue4       
,meanwhile1 he tries various plans to   
find  wherewithal to live4    ,i need   
not dwell on the nature of this great   
centre into which ,ignatius  had        
penetrated1 an unknown stranger1 just   
one of its tens of thousands  of        
scholars4 ,it had more than two scores  
of colleges4 ,to this1 the  queen of    
universities1 though she was going to be
 no kind alma mater  to him and his     
,order1 still the recollections of      
,loyola in his future  legislation would
 always turn back with reverence4 ,his  
first ,professors  for the ,roman       
,college1 the typical institution of the
 ,society1 would be  taken from those of
 his men who were ,doctors of this      
university4 ,and1  whatever might be the
 moral condition and the religious      
lassitude of  the university men1 as    
compared with this penniless stranger1  
in #aebi1  occasions were to come in    
after times1 when they showed themselves

 not  unworthy of the enemy whom they   
fought to the death4 ,when the plague   
of #aehj made a desert about them1 the  
university men and the ,jesuits1        
otherwise never seen together1 save in  
the lists and face to face1 now  were   
everywhere1 and fell fast1 side by side 
on the field of ,christian  charity4    
,for the understanding of the ,jesuit   
system1 in its origin and its form1     
attention must always be paid1 in the   
first place1 to the kinship  subsisting 
between it and the ,paris ,university4  
,there are1 besides1  many other degrees
 of relationship1 which do not go       
unacknowledged1  in the formation of the
 ,ratio ,studiorum4 ,the system of the  
,english  universities may be recognized
 in the line of ancestry4 ,whatever was 
best anywhere enters the pedigree2 as   
,lord ,bacon takes note1 when           
delivering himself like a good          
philosopher1 but also like a good       
,protestant1 he eulogizes and           
stigmatizes in the same breath3 ,the    

ancient wisdom of the best times1 he    
says1 did always make a just  complaint1
 that states were too busy with their   
laws1 and too negligent  in point of    
education2 which excellent part of the  
ancient discipline  hath been in some   
sort revived1 of late times1 by the     
colleges of the  ,jesuits2 of whom1     
although in regard of their superstition
 ,i may say1  'quo meliores1 eo         
deteriores'2 yet in regard of this1 and 
some other  points concerning human     
learning and moral matters1 ,i may say1 
as  ,agesilaus said to his enemy        
,pharnabaus1 ',talis quum sis1 utinam   
noster  esses4'#ac    ,in the           
,university of ,paris1 then1 as his real
 alma mater1 ,ignatius  commenced his   
course of ,philosophy in the year #aebi4
 ,he finished  it by standing           
successfully the severe examination1    
called examen  lapideum1 the rocky test1
 considered the most searching of all in
  the ,paris ,academy4 ,he thus became a
 ,master of ,arts1 after ,easter1 ,a4,d4

  #aecd2 having become ,licentiate in   
the previous year4 ,particulars about   
his four examiners in the rocky test1   
his graduation1 the degrees  of his     
companions1 with the dates1 as found in 
the ,paris records1 are  given by the   
,bollandists4#ad    ,he now entered on  
his theological studies4 ,it was evident
 that the  obstructions1 which had      
thwarted so many of his efforts         
heretofore1  were disappearing one by   
one4 ,and more than that2 the means were
  being placed in his hands for the     
great work before him4 ,these means     
were a company of men4 ,he was in the   
midst of a devoted little band1  each   
one of whom he had won individually4    
,they were ,peter ,lefvre and  ,francis 
,xavier2 ,james ,lainez and ,alphonsus  
,salmeron1 both of them mere  youths2   
there were ,claude ,le ,jay1 ,john      
,coduri1 ,nicholas ,bobadilla1  ,simon  
,rodriguez2 and lastly1 the only one who
 at this time was a ,priest  among their
 number1 ,pasquier ,brouet4 ,among      

these1 never at their head  though      
considered a father by all1 never       
leading the way1 though on  that account
 showing himself the more effectively a 
leader1 ,ignatius  was all in all to    
each one of them4 ,he had previously    
acquired some  valuable experience in   
selecting and forming companions4 ,but  
such as  had gathered round him in      
,spain were no longer with him4 ,each   
one of  his present party was a picked  
man4    ,when six of them were          
sufficiently advanced1 he and they held 
a  solemnity1 which was the real        
birthday of the ,society of ,jesus4 ,on 
the fifteenth day of ,august1 #aecd1    
they took a vow1 in the church of  the  
,blessed ,virgin1 at ,montmartre in     
,paris4 ,they bound themselves to       
renounce all their goods by a given     
date1 and betake themselves to  the     
,holy ,land2 failing in that1 they would
 throw themselves at the  feet of the   
,sovereign ,pontiff1 and offer him their
 absolute service4  ,meanwhile they     

pursued their studies2 and1 as each of  
the two following  years brought round  
the fifteenth day of ,august1 it found  
them in the  same place1 and with the   
same solemnity1 and with an enlarged    
number1  renewing this vow4 ,the legal  
birthday of the ,order came only with   
the  ,papal charter on ,september #bg1  
#aedj4    ,i shall pass over the        
movements of ,loyola1 when bidden to go 
and  recuperate in his native climate4  
,he returned to ,spain1 in #aece1       
leaving his companions to study till    
#aecg2 and he settled the affairs  of   
his young ,spanish associates at their  
homes4 ,all1 when the time  came1       
disposed of their goods in a summary    
way4 ,they gave to the poor1  reserving 
nothing1 except what would pay their way
 to ,venice1 and  thence to the ,east4  
,their principle was1 ,dispersit1 dedit 
pauperibus1  ,he hath distributed1 he   
hath given to the poor4 ,besides this1  
,xavier1  at the date appointed1 gave up
 the last stage of his theological      

studies1 and resigned the glory of      
receiving the ,doctor's cap in ,paris2  
the brilliant young ,professor          
sacrificed the one thing which had      
appealed most powerfully to his ambition
 and imagination4 ,laynez was           
recuperating from a severe illness1 and 
could do scarcely more than  move4      
,nevertheless they are all in ,venice1  
when the early spring of  #aecg arrives4
    ,ignatius himself1 meeting them     
there1 has accomplished the work which  
faced him thirteen years before1 and    
which he had taken in hand with  his    
,latin grammar4 ,he is now forty-six    
years of age4    ,there are three lines 
of activity1 in which the ability and   
energy of  ,ignatius ,loyola stand out  
before the world4 ,one is the capacity  
he  showed as a governor or leader of   
men2 another is a similar competency  to
 direct souls in the spiritual life2 the
 third is that1 which we are            
considering at present1 his legislative 
genius in the intellectual  order4      

,admitting the innate talent which must 
have been the basis and  foundation of  
his gift for governing1 we may affirm of
 all the rest1  that the best part of   
his sagacity and tact had been acquired 
by  personal experience4 ,he learnt how 
to act by suffering4 ,he perfected  his 
natural gift of guiding and commanding  
by first submitting to all  the         
contingencies of human life4    ,we may 
develop the meaning of this in the      
present matter1 pedagogy2  and the      
meaning of it will help to unfold the   
subject4 ,in quest of  the necessaries  
of life1 he spent intervals of his      
studious career  in travelling from     
,paris to a great distance4 ,he found   
himself  returning each year to         
,belgium1 always on foot3 he visited    
,rouen1 and  even reached ,london1 to   
address the ,spanish merchants there4   
,it does  not seem to have been         
parsimony on their side that kept him in
 such  straitened circumstances4 ,it was
 his principles which were not all in   

keeping with his conditions of life4 ,he
 was endeavoring to combine  the life of
 a student with absolute poverty2 and he
 aggravated the  inconveniences of such 
a state of dependence by placing no     
limits to  the exercise of his charity4 
,it was his deliberate choice2 for he   
fed  his mind continuously upon the life
 and example of the ,king1 to whom  he  
had sworn his service1 ,christ poor and 
in labor from his youth4 ,he  spoke     
afterwards from the wisdom of           
experience1 when he said1 that in       
absolute penury the pursuit of science  
cannot easily subsist1 and the  culture 
of the mind is impeded by the duties of 
providing for the body4  ,hence he      
legislated that1 though poverty was to  
be the basis of his  ,institute1 still  
the members1 as long as they were       
engaged in studies1  should be set free 
from all care of seeking the means of   
subsistence4    ,he had endeavored to   
combine a life of apostolic             
ministrations1 though  not yet a        

,priest1 with that requisite absorption 
of mind1 which alone  can warrant       
scholastic success4 ,and he saw what it 
had come to4 ,the  very esteem and love1
 which he entertained for the exercises 
of the  higher spiritual life1          
interrupted with intrusive thoughts that
  application to study1 which was the   
duty in hand4 ,in order that no such    
intrusion of even the most sacred       
pursuits should obstruct the onward     
progress of the members in learning1 he 
defined by rule the measure of  such    
occupations1 as long as study was the   
main duty4    ,diseases weakened him4   
,therefore he took the greatest pains to
 protect  the health of the members4    
,while he lived1 he did this with a     
personal  and paternal solicitude4 ,in  
his ,institute1 he provided the same for
 the  future4    ,on commencing his     
studies1 he embraced many branches at   
the same  time2 and he had suffered all 
the consequences of disorder4 ,grasping 
at too many things1 he lost all2 and he 

had then to retrieve all with  loss of  
time4 ,to obviate any recurrence of such
 costly experiences1 he  provided that  
the courses followed in the ,society    
should have nothing  disordered in them1
 nothing mutilated or curtailed2        
everything was to  be in method and     
system2 until1 system and method having 
been carried  out in every line1 and the
 special good of each department having 
been  secured sufficiently for the      
general plan1 specialized perfection    
should be consulted1 after all that2 and
 this was to be the appointed  life of  
individuals1 while a rounded and        
complete education remained  the culture
 of all4    ,once in later years he let 
fall these words1 relative to his early 
experience3 ,he would very much question
 whether another but himself1  having to
 struggle with so many difficulties and 
obstacles in the  course of his studies1
 would have given so long a time to the 
acquisition of the sciences4#ae ,thus   
then was he oppressed with  poverty1    

without the satisfaction of acting under
 orders2 suffering so  many diseases1   
and yet looking neither to honor1       
dignity1 nor other  human reward1 such  
as is wont to draw men on1 and animate  
them under  fatigue2 finding no pleasure
 nor satisfaction in the life of        
studies1  an inducement which is so     
great an alleviation to mortals in the  
work  before them4 ,and1 in all these   
respects1 he was quite unlike the very  
men whom he singled out1 and enlisted in
 the new service of devotion2  unlike   
,francis ,xavier1 who had seen with     
perfect indifference all  his brothers  
take to their ancestral profession of   
arms1 or to a  courtier's life1 while he
 himself1 with the whole force of an    
ambitious  soul1 ran on successfully and
 brilliantly in his chosen career1 as a 
,professor2 unlike ,laynez and          
,salmeron1 whose extraordinary gifts had
  made them ,doctors of ,philosophy and 
,divinity1 while still1 in age1  little 
more than mere youths2 very unlike by   

nature to the gentle  make of ,lefvre1  
who began life as a shepherd boy1 and   
ever retained  a pastoral sweetness of  
character4 ,unlike all of them1 ,loyola1
 a  soldier born and bred1 and still    
true to his profession1 discarded  every
 consideration of taste1 comfort1 and   
convenience1 in view of one  objective  
point to be reached3 through thirteen   
years he struggled  towards it2 and1    
when that time of probation was over1 he
 was a marked  man4 ,according to the   
law1 that like attracts like1 and like  
begets  like1 he was surrounded by a    
company of marked men1 few if you count 
their number1 many if you consider the  
type4 ,his name was widely known1  and  
favorably so4 ,when he had been paying  
five times over the price of  his daily 
bread1 by travelling to ,belgium1 to    
,rouen1 and ,london1 and  collecting    
there some ,spanish florins1 the event  
seemed to show that  he had been but    
opening the door1 here and there and    
everywhere1 for  his colleges and       

universities in the future2 albeit1 if  
they came1  adversaries came too1 in    
proportion4 ,but clouds and storms      
purify the  air4 ,when they come again1 
they will still leave the air the       
clearer  for their coming4 ,if the laws 
of human conduct are consistent in one  
way1 they are consistent in another4    
,the disturbance comes1 but it does  its
 work and goes4    ,m4 ,cretineau-,joly1
 the popular ,french historian in our   
own times1  speaking of events at a     
later juncture in the life of ,loyola1  
makes  the following observation3       
,loyola1 he says1 could apply to himself
  admirably well that proverb which     
says1 ',when a ,spaniard is driving a   
nail into the wall1 and his hammer      
breaks1 the ,spaniard will drive the    
nail in with his head6' ,loyola would   
have his idea go through at any  cost4  
,we shall now follow him to ,italy and  
,rome4    ,in the year #aecg1 ,rome was 
not quite the luxurious capital which   
had  fallen under the sword of the      

,constable of ,bourbon4 ,the eternal    
city1  whose ,papal ,sovereigns have    
left it on record from time immemorial1 
that in no part of the world were they  
less recognized as lords than  in their 
own city1 had undergone a purification1 
which differed1 not  substantially1 but 
only in its consequences1 from what was 
called  for1 over half the countries of 
,europe4 ,the riches1 the luxury1 the   
idleness1 which elsewhere resulted in a 
complete change of religious  history   
for many of the northern nations1 had   
here brought about a  catastrophe which 
sobered minds4 ,and no longer an        
exclusive absorption  in elaborate sloth
 prevented a large portion of the       
influential element  here from doing    
honor to the ,queen of ,european        
civilization1 by doing  good to the     
world4    ,all roads still led to ,rome4
 ,thence too all roads diverged4 ,it was
  still true1 that whatever commanded   
this centre could reach out1 if  only by
 the force of prestige1 to the uttermost

 limits of the civilized  domain4       
,whatever this venerable source of      
authority chartered to go  on its way1  
in strength and benediction1 had reason 
to behold1 in the  privilege so         
bestowed1 the auspicious opening of a   
useful career1  intellectual or moral4  
,it is so to-day1 though not in a       
temporal sense4  ,the charter1 or       
confirmation1 or bull1 which conveys the
 recognition  of the ,church's ,head to 
a project1 a cause1 or an institute1    
bestows  thereupon a moral power which  
naturally transcends every franchise  in
 the gift of the most powerful          
governments4 ,compared with it1 they    
are local4 ,and1 standing no comparison 
with it1 under a moral aspect1  they do 
not pretend to such a power as touches  
the inner conscience of  nations4       
,when therefore ,ignatius turned to the 
great ,rome1 he was like the  skilful   
commander whom he describes in a certain
 place2 he was  possessing himself of   
the vantage-ground1 taking the citadel4 

,it would  be more correct to say1 as   
all history avers1 that he meant to     
defend  that citadel1 the ,see of ,rome4
 ,he had waited nearly a year at        
,venice1  to carry out his project of   
voyaging to ,jerusalem4 ,war made that  
impossible4 ,now1 in accordance with the
 express proviso in their vow1  he and  
his companions repaired to ,rome1 and   
offered their services to  the spiritual
 head of ,christendom4    ,to win       
approbation for a new religious         
institute was no easy matter2  then less
 than ever4 ,the recent occurrences in  
the ,north had been due  to this1 among 
other moral causes1 that the later      
history of certain  religious orders1   
which centuries before had begun one    
way1 latterly  had taken a novel and    
fatal turn4 ,still1 in spite of         
criticism and  hostility1 chiefly in the
 high places1 ,ignatius received at     
length the  approving word of the ,pope2
 and his ,institute was chartered with a
 bull  of confirmation4 ,henceforth1 the

 evolution of events belongs to general 
history4 ,what concerns us1 in this     
chartering of the plan and ,institute   
of ,ignatius ,loyola1 is the new        
character it gave to education1 and the 
epoch it made in the intellectual       
history of the world4 ,to explain  this 
matter1 we may follow briefly the       
deliberations which the ,fathers  held1 
and in the course of which1 among other 
conclusions1 they came to  decide upon  
restablishing education4    ,it was the 
fourth of ,may1 #aeci1 a year and a half
 before their services  were finally    
accepted by the ,pope4 ,such of the ten 
members as were then  in ,rome occupied 
themselves1 after the labors of the day1
 in nightly  deliberations1 which were  
protracted during three months4 ,they   
decreed1  among other things1 that they 
should teach boys and uncultured persons
  the necessary points of ,christian    
doctrine1 at least once a year1 and  for
 a definite time4 ,this decree obviously
 is not about that secondary  and       

superior education of youth1 which is   
our subject2 neither does it  concern   
primary education1 of which there is    
nowhere question in the  ,institute of  
the ,jesuits4 ,but1 as the ,constitution
 subsequently drawn  up says1 this work 
of charity1 in the ,divine service1 is  
more likely  to be consigned to         
oblivion1 and to pass into disuse1 than 
other duties  more specious in their    
character1 as preaching1 etc4#af        
,teaching ,christian doctrine pertains  
to the duty of those who have  the      
ordinary care of souls4 ,no duty of this
 kind1 as belonging to  the ordinary    
sphere of the ,church's clergy1 would   
,ignatius assume  as characteristic of  
his own ,institute1 except this one4 ,he
 was1  indeed1 more than ready to throw 
in his contribution of personal zeal    
and charity1 for the furtherance of all 
kinds of benevolence and  beneficence4  
,personally1 at the cost of untiring    
activity1 he sowed1  as ,genelli well   
observes1 the first seeds of those      

ameliorations in  social life1 and of   
those humane institutions1 which are so 
marked a  feature of later ages4#ag ,he 
was an original benefactor of humanity  
at the turning-point of modern history1 
which has since become an era  of social
 organized beneficence4 ,urban ,,viii   
solemnly testifies1 that  ,ignatius     
organized homes for orphans1 for        
catechumens1 for unprovided  women2 that
 the poor and the sick1 that children   
and the ignorant and  prisoners1 were   
all objects of his personal             
solicitude4#ah ,these works  of zeal and
 charity became1 in subsequent years1   
the specific reasons  of existence for  
various other communities1 which rose in
 order and in  number4 ,but he did not  
adopt them as specific in his           
,institute2 nor  did he assume as       
characteristic anything within the      
province of the  ordinary parochial     
clergy1 except the teaching of          
,christian doctrine  to boys and        
uncultured persons4 ,the rest he        

attended to1 while not  provided for2   
ready to drop them1 when provision      
should be made for  them4    ,but he did
 assume five works1 which were outside  
of the ordinary  lines2 and1 among them1
 is the subject of our study1 the       
,education of  ,youth4#ai ,as the       
selection of all these specialties for  
his ,institute  reveal the commander's  
eye resting on a field1 where many      
issues were  being fought out1 so1 in   
particular1 his selection of education  
as a  specialty betrayed the same       
masterly thought1 in the institutions he
  projected1 in the scope he proposed1  
and1 above all1 in the formation  of his
 teachers4    ,there had been1 among the
 ,fathers deliberating1 a difference of 
opinion1 with respect to ,christian     
doctrine4 ,bobadilla had dissented  from
 making that work the subject of a      
special vow2 and the others  deferred to
 him4 ,but there was unanimity with     
regard to every other  topic of         
deliberation1 including this one1 the   

education of youth1  having colleges in 
universities4#bj    ,as defined by      
,jesuit authors1 the education of youth 
means the  gratuitous teaching of       
,letters and ,science1 from almost the  
first  beginnings of ,grammar up to the 
culminating science of ,sacred          
,theology1  and that for boys and       
students of every kind1 in schools open 
to  all4#ba ,evidently these university 
men1 who were engaged in drawing  up the
 ,institute1 considered that1 if the    
greatest ,professor's talents  are well 
spent in the exposition of the gravest  
doctrines in ,theology1  ,philosophy1   
and ,science1 neither he1 nor any one   
else1 is too great  to be a             
schoolmaster1 a tutor1 and a father1 to 
the boy passing from  childhood on to   
the state of manhood1--that boyhood     
which1 as ,clement  of ,alexandria says1
 furnishes the very milk of age1 and    
from which the  constitution of the man 
receives its temper and complexion4     
,it is requisite here to observe1 that  

there was no such thing in  existence1  
as ,state ,education4 ,two reasons may  
briefly be mentioned for  this1 one of  
them intrinsic to the question1 the     
other an historical  fact4 ,the         
intrinsic and essential reason was the  
sacred character of  education1 as being
 an original function1 belonging to the 
primary  relations of parents and child4
 ,states1 or organized commonwealths1   
come only in the third or fourth degree 
of human society4 ,it was much  later1  
in that short interval between the      
extinction of the ,society  of ,jesus   
and the outburst of the ,french         
,revolution1 that new theories  came to 
be proclaimed1 as ,la ,chalotais did    
openly proclaim them1 of  a bald and    
blank deism in social life1 and         
therefore of secularizing  education4   
,between deism and secularization the   
connection was  reasonable4 ,for1 if the
 rights of ,god went by the board1 there
 was no  reason why the rights of       
parents and children should remain4 ,all

 alike1  the persons and souls of       
men1#bb fell back into the condition in 
which ,christianity had found them2 they
 became chattels of the state1          
mannikins of a bureau in peace1 food for
 powder in war4    ,the other reason was
 an historical fact4 ,for all the       
purposes of  charity1 mercy1 and        
philanthropy1 there were powers in      
existence1  as part of the normal       
religious life of general ,christian    
society4  ,they were the same powers    
that had made ,christendom1 and had     
carried  it on so far as the ,christian 
world1 the same to which we owe the     
civilization of to-day4 ,more than that4
 ,as there is not a single work  of     
charity or mercy1 say ,st4 ,thomas      
,aquinas1 which may not be made the     
object of an institution1 religious men 
or women devoting their lives  as a     
service to ,god1 in a special service   
towards their neighbors2  so1 in point  
of fact1 there were very few such       
objects which had not  originated some  

service of religious self-consecration  
in their behalf4    ,now1 as operating  
on education in particular1 the powers  
in the world  were1 as they had been1   
almost entirely clerical or religious4  
,in  the universities1 there were       
clergymen and ,religious4 ,all the great
  institutions had the religious cast   
about them4 ,the old ones have it       
still4 ,traces of it hang about ,oxford 
and ,cambridge4 ,the ,church founded    
them and supervised them4 ,kings        
protected them4 ,and the highest outcome
  of their schools was ,divinity in its 
widest sense2 that is to say1 the       
triple knowledge of ,god1 and of man as 
signed with the light of ,god's         
countenance1 and of nature as bearing   
the impress of ,god's footstep4 ,as  it 
was in the universities1 so1 outside    
too1 all pedagogic influence  had rested
 with religious men4    ,but no one of  
all these religious powers was bound by 
its constitution  to this labor of      
education1 which ,loyola now1 formally  

and expressly1  assumed as part of his  
work4 ,it is at this stage of history1  
that  education enters into the         
fundamental plan of a ,religious ,order4
 ,this  is a fact1 and an epoch1 of     
prime importance in ,pedagogics4        
,for1 inasmuch as education entered thus
 into the plan of a ,religious  ,order1 
it became the vocation of a moral body1 
which1 while  incorporated like other   
bodies1 did not confine itself1 like    
single  universities1 to limited        
circumstances of place2 it was a body   
diffusive4 ,and so with regard to       
conditions of time2 though all          
corporations give an assurance of       
perpetuity1 a diffusive body like  this 
does more2 it multiplies the assurance1 
in proportion to its own  diffusiveness4
    ,and again1 inasmuch as the body    
which undertook the work of education   
was a religious one1 bound to poverty1  
it guaranteed that the  members would   
endow the work1 at their own cost1 with 
that which is  the first1 the essential1

 and most expensive endowment1 among all
  others1--the labors1 the attainments1 
and the lives of competent men1  all    
gratuitously given4 ,this endowment1    
which is so substantial1 is  besides so 
far-reaching1 that no other temporal    
foundation would be  needed1 were it not
 that the necessaries of life1 and the  
apparatus for  their work1 are still    
necessary to living men1 even though    
they live in  personal poverty4    ,thus
 then it was that ,ignatius took in     
charge the secondary and  superior      
education of the ,christian world1 as   
far as his services  should be called   
for3 he threw into the work the         
endowment of a  ,religious ,order4      
,this1 as the sequel proved1 meant the  
whole revival of  learning4 ,lord ,bacon
 bears witness to it in a few words1    
when he says1  that the ,jesuits partly 
in themselves1 and partly by the        
emulation and  provocation of their     
example1 have much quickened and        
strengthened the  state of learning4#bc 

,father ,daniel gives some of the       
details in a  summary way4 ,he says3    
,the exclusively ,university rgime of   
the late  centuries replaced1 for a     
notable portion of students1 by a       
scholastic  discipline much more        
complete2 ,scholastic ,philosophy and   
,theology  renovated1 through the care  
applied to prevent young men from       
throwing  themselves too early into the 
disputes of the schools2 in fine1       
,literature and ,grammar resuming the   
place they had lost in the twelfth      
century1 and1 over and above that1      
enjoying the new resources created  for 
their use by the ,renaissance2 all this 
,i call a capital fact in the  history  
of the human mind1 and even in the      
history of the ,church4#bd    ,after the
 time of ,ignatius1 other religious     
congregations1 fortified  with their own
 special means for respective           
departments of activity1  entered upon  
the same general field of work4 ,they   
were the ,oratorians1  the ,barnabites1 

the ,fathers of the ,pious ,schools1 the
 ,brothers of the  ,christian ,schools1 
and others whose names may occur in the 
course of  this essay4 ,and1 for the    
education of women1 inferior and        
superior  alike1 congregations of       
devoted religious women came into being1
 and  opened their convents to supply   
the best and highest culture4    ,for   
fear that1 in the execution of this     
plan1 and in their other  enterprises of
 devotion and zeal1 any secondary       
intentions or results1  with regard to  
power and office1 might mar the purity  
of the work  and defeat the main object1
 the same men1 whose future under the   
generalship of such a leader was about  
to open as one of transcendent          
influence in the civilized world1 bound 
themselves by vow never to  accept any  
dignity or office in the ,church4       
,naturally they should keep  aloof from 
affairs of state4 ,in fact1 it would be 
incompatible with  their own purposes of
 literary and scientific competence1 to 

leave  themselves at the mercy of other 
men's views1 and be drafted into posts  
outside of the ,institute1 and be placed
 in an impossible situation for  working
 out the specific end intended4 ,it     
would be suicidal too4 ,just  when a man
 was capable of continuing his kind1 he 
would be lost to the  body1 and be      
rendered incapable thereby of           
propagating his own type  of eminence4  
,besides1 without touching upon the     
inner reasons of the  spiritual life1   
which made this resignation of all      
honors desirable1  it is a fact standing
 out in clear relief1 as history        
sketches the  marvellous fecundity of an
 ,order requiring such a high level of  
attainments1 that many of the choicest  
souls have felt specially  attracted to 
a kind of life1 which at one and the    
same time satisfied  their ideas of     
,christian perfection1 and cut them off 
from all the  paths of worldly glory4   
,and now1 to mention in the last place  
another point1 which is equally         

important for understanding the         
educational history of the ,order1 and  
to the general mind is equally obscure  
with some of those mentioned  already1  
there was introduced the principle of   
religious obedience4 ,it  was sanctioned
 by a unanimous vote4#be ,the ,fathers  
had concluded the  first deliberation1  
whether they should form a society at   
all2 and  they had decided in the       
affirmative sense4#bf ,then the question
 took  this phase4 ,if they were to     
found a closely-knitted society1 they   
could  do so only by assuming a strict  
bond4 ,that was none other than a strict
  obedience4    ,on this head1 as on all
 others that came in order1 they began  
the  deliberation by reasoning1 one day1
 in an adverse sense1 all having        
prepared their minds to emphasize every 
objection which they could find  against
 it4 ,the day following1 they argued in 
a positive sense4 ,the  motives in favor
 of strict obedience won their unanimous
 assent4 ,they  were such as these3--   

,if this congregation undertook the     
charge of affairs1 and the members  were
 not under orders1 no one could be held 
responsible for an exact  administration
 of the charge4 ,if the body were not   
bound together  by obedience1 it could  
not long persevere2 yet this was their  
first  intention1 to remain associated  
in a permanent body4 ,whence they       
concluded that scattered as they would  
be1 and already had been1 in  assiduous 
and diverse labors1 they must be united 
by a strict principle  of subordination1
 if they were to remain such a body4    
,another argued  thus3 ,obedience begets
 heroism of virtue2 since the truly     
obedient  man is most prompt to execute 
whatever duty is assigned him by one1   
whom1 as by a religious act1 he regards 
as being in the place of ,god1  and     
signifying to him ,god's will3 wherefore
 obedience and heroism go  together4    
,this reasoning seems to be enforced by 
the history of all great  nations1 in   
the crises of their military and other  

public affairs4 ,but1  as is clear1 the 
principles of religious obedience are of
 a different  order2 they are on a      
higher plane2 and they reach much       
farther in time  and eternity1 than     
those of obedience elsewhere4    ,here  
then we discern1 sufficiently for       
present purposes1 the meaning  and      
historical location of this ,institute4 
,the members have cut  themselves off   
from the possession of all private      
property1 by the  voluntary engagement  
to poverty1 and thereby they have       
prepared the  endowment1 on which       
education will chiefly rest1--that is to
 say1 the  endowment consisting of the  
men to teach1 and their services        
tendered  gratis4 ,position and dignity 
are alike rendered inaccessible by an   
express vow of the members professed4   
,obedience keeps the organization       
mobile as a company of trained soldiers4
 ,and1 if any observant mind1  well     
acquainted with the course of human     
affairs1 detects in these  principles   

some reasons for success1 normal1       
habitual1 and regular1  in the face of  
unnumbered obstacles1 and of unremitting
 hostility1  his view will be singularly
 corroborated when he rises to a plane  
higher1 and regards the same principles 
as religious1 carrying with  them the   
sanction of divine worship2 which ,i    
should be loath to call  enthusiasm1    
much less fanaticism4 ,these sentiments 
are never very  prudent1 nor            
enlightened1 nor cool2 they are either  
very natural or  are short-lived4 ,a    
mild fever of fanaticism can scarcely   
produce  high results2 and a high fever 
of the same can scarcely last three     
hundred and fifty years1 with perpetuity
 still threatening4 ,but ,i  would call 
this phenomenon1 in its origin1         
religious devotion2 in its              
consequences1 a supernatural efficiency2
 and1 taking it all in all1  that which 
is called a grace of vocation4    ,on   
the #bgth day of ,september1 #aedj1 the 
,society of ,jesus received  from the   

,see of ,rome its bull of confirmation1 
by which it became a  chartered body of 
the ,church4 ,while these pages were    
being penned1 the  #bgth day of         
,september came by1 #ahij4 ,it was the  
anniversary of that  foundation1 three  
hundred and fifty years ago4            
,,chapter ,,iv4    ,,colleges ,,as      
,,proposed ,,in ,,the ,,jesuit          
,,constitution4      ,the written rule  
about the system of education is found  
in a double  stage of development4 ,the 
first is that in which ,loyola left it3 
it  gives us the outline4 ,the second is
 that in which ,aquaviva completed  it3 
this presents us with the finished      
picture4 ,likewise in the  historical   
course of administration out in the     
world1 the development  is twofold4 ,it 
runs its first course from ,loyola to   
,aquaviva1 while  experience was still  
tentative4 ,its second course was       
subsequent to  ,aquaviva1 when          
experience1 having gathered in its      
results1 had only  to apply the approved

 form4 ,this was subject thenceforth to 
none  but incidental changes1 as times  
and places change4 ,and1 for these      
contingencies1 the application remained 
expressly and always pliable4    ,hence1
 whatever was embodied in the ,ratio    
,studiorum1 as completed1  had been the 
result of the most varied experience    
before legislating1  an experience in   
the life of the ,order extending over   
fifty-nine years4  ,whatever this       
universal experience had not yielded as 
a positive  result1 or as applicable to 
all places1 was not embodied4 ,teachers 
are different2 national customs vary2   
vernacular tongues are not the  same4   
,with regard to these mutable elements1 
the maxim of the ,order  in studies1 in 
teaching1 in conducting colleges1 was   
the same as that  which it proposed to  
itself in the various other functions of
 practical  life4 ,an exponent of the   
,institute states the maxim thus3 ,one  
should  have a most exact knowledge of  
the country1 nation1 city1 manner of    

government1 manners of the people1      
states of life1 inclinations1  etc42 and
 this from histories1 from intercourse1 
etc4#bg ,general  indications alone are 
given with regard to these variable     
factors4 ,the  same is done with respect
 to new sciences1 which from the time of
 the  ,renaissance were felt to be      
approaching and developing4 ,subsequent 
legislation arises to meet them as they 
come4    ,while the ,fathers were       
carrying on the same deliberations to   
which ,i  referred in the preceding     
chapter1 a resolution was taken to leave
 the  drafting of a ,constitution in the
 hands of those who should remain in    
,italy4 ,circumscribing the task still  
more1 they decided to appoint  a        
committee of two1 who should address    
themselves to this work1 and  report to 
the rest4 ,the general assembly when    
convened would issue the  final decree4 
,whatever that should be1 such of those 
present as might  then be absent hereby 
endorsed it beforehand4    ,their small 

number of ten was already reduced to six
 members present1  the other four being 
scattered in divers countries4 ,they    
designated as  a commission ,fathers    
,ignatius and ,john ,coduri4 ,soon      
afterwards ,coduri  died1 and the rest  
were distributed through the countries  
of ,europe1  ,africa1 and the far ,east4
 ,during the following years1 ,laynez1  
who  was for some time ,provincial of   
,italy1 remained more regularly than    
the rest within the reach of ,ignatius4 
,for this reason1 therefore1  besides   
several others1 we may understand why   
,ignatius paid such a  high tribute to  
this eminent man1 when he said1 as      
,ribadeneira tells  us1 that to no one  
of the first ,fathers did the ,society  
owe more  than to ,laynez4 ,whereupon   
the historian ,sacchini observes3 ,this1
 ,i  believe1 he said of ,laynez1 not   
only on account of the other eminent    
merits of so great a man1 and1 in       
particular1 for devising or arranging   
the system of ,colleges2 but most       

especially because the foundations1  on 
which this ,order largely rests1 were   
new1 and therefore likely to  excite    
astonishment2 and ,laynez1 having at    
command the resources of a  vast        
erudition1 was the person to confirm and
 commend them to public  opinion4 ,and  
that this praise was deserved by ,laynez
 will appear less  dubious to any one   
who considers that other period also1   
during which  he was himself ,general2  
if one reckons how many points1 as yet  
unshaped  and inceptive1 in the         
management of the ,society1 were reduced
 to form  and perfected by ,laynez2 how 
widely it was propagated and defended by
  him4#bh    ,but to return to          
,ignatius4 ,after ten years of          
government1 he gathered  together in    
,rome such of the first ,fathers as     
could be had1 besides  representatives  
from all the ,provinces4 ,forty-seven   
members were  present4 ,he submitted to 
them1 in general assembly1 the          
,constitution  as now drawn up1 and as  

acted upon in practical life1 during    
those ten  years4 ,the ,jesuits present 
did not exhaust the number of those     
whose  express opinions were desired4   
,that not a single one of the principal 
,fathers might be omitted in the        
deliberation1 he sent copies of the     
proposed code of laws to such as were   
absent4 ,with the suggestions and       
approbations received from all these    
representative men he was not yet       
content4 ,two more years had elapsed    
when1 having embodied the practical     
results of an ever-widening experience1 
he undertook to promulgate  the         
,constitution1 by virtue of the         
authority vested in him for that        
purpose4 ,but he only promulgated the   
rule2 he did not yet exercise his       
authority to the full1 and impose it as 
binding4 ,he desired that daily  use    
might bring out still farther1 how it   
felt under the test of being  tried1    
amid so many races and nations4 ,thus   
#aeec came and went2 and he  waited1    

until the whole matter should be revised
 and approved once more  by the entire  
,society in conclave4 ,his death        
intervened in #aeef4    ,two years      
later1 representatives from the twelve  
provinces of the  ,order met together1  
and elected ,james ,laynez as successor 
to ,father  ,ignatius4 ,examining once  
more this ,constitution in all its      
parts1  receiving the whole of it just  
as it stood with absolute unanimity1    
and with a degree of veneration1 they   
exercised the supreme authority  of the 
,order1 and confirmed this as the       
written ,constitution of the  ,society  
of ,jesus4 ,by this act nothing was     
wanting to it1 even from the  side of   
,papal authority4 ,yet1 that every      
plenitude of solemnity might  be added  
to it1 they presented it to the         
,sovereign ,pontiff1 ,paul ,,iv1  who   
committed the code to four ,cardinals   
for accurate revision4 ,the  commission 
returned it1 without having altered a   
word1 ,from that time1  whatever general

 legislation has been added1 has entered
 into the  corpus juris1 or ,institute  
at large1 as supplementing or explaining
  the ,constitution1 which remains the  
fundamental instrument of the           
,institute4    ,in the ,constitution    
there are ten parts4 ,the fourth is on  
studies4  ,in length1 this fourth part  
alone fills up some twenty-eight out of 
one hundred and eleven quarto pages in  
all1 as it stands printed in  the latest
 ,roman edition4 ,the legislation about 
studies is thus seen  to be one-fourth  
of the whole4 ,it has seventeen         
chapters4 ,in one of  them1 on the      
,method and ,order to be observed in    
treating the ,sciences1  the founder    
observes that a number of points will be
 treated of  separately1 in some        
document approved by the ,general       
,superior4 ,this  is the express        
warrant1 contained in the ,constitution1
 for the future  ,ratio ,studiorum1 or  
,system of ,studies in the ,society of  
,jesus4 ,in  the meantime1 he legislates

 in a more general way4 ,and he begins  
with  a subject pre-eminently dear to   
him1 the duty of gratitude4 ,since      
corporations are notoriously forgetful1 
and therefore ungrateful1 he  lays down 
in the first place the permanent duty of
 the ,order towards  benefactors3 then  
he continues with other topics4 ,they   
stand thus3--    ,the ,founders of      
,colleges2 and ,benefactors4 ,the       
,temporalities of  ,colleges4 ,the      
,students or ,scholastics1 belonging to 
the ,society4  ,the ,care to be taken of
 them1 during the time of their         
,studies4 ,the  ,learning they are to   
acquire4 ,the ,assistance to be rendered
 them  in various ways1 to ensure their 
success in studies4 ,the ,schools       
attached to the ,colleges of the        
,society1 i4e4 for external ,students   
not belonging to the ,order4 ,the       
,advancement of ,scholastics1 belonging 
to the ,order1 in the ,various ,arts    
which can make them useful to their     
,neighbor4 ,the ,withdrawal of them from

 ,studies4 ,the ,government of          
,colleges4 ,on ,admitting the ,control  
of ,universities into the ,society4     
,the ,sciences to be taught in          
,universities of the ,society4 ,the     
,method  and ,order to be observed in   
treating the foregoing ,sciences4 ,the  
,books  to be selected as ,standards4   
,courses and ,degrees4 ,what concerns   
,good  ,morals4 ,the ,officials and     
,assistants in ,universities4           
,reserving the pedagogic explanation for
 the next part of this essay1 ,i  shall 
here sketch some of the more general    
ideas running through the  whole        
legislation of ,ignatius of ,loyola2    
and1 first1 in the present  chapter1 ,i 
shall begin with his idea of ,colleges4 
,choosing personal poverty as the basis 
on which to rest this vast  enterprise  
of education1 he did not therefore mean 
to carry on  expensive works of zeal1   
without the means of meeting the        
expense4  ,obviously1 it is one thing   
not to have means1 as a personal        

property1  and therefore not to consume 
them on self2 it is quite another1 to   
have  them and to use them for the good 
of others4 ,the most self-denying men   
can use funds for the benefit of others2
 and can do so the better1 the  more    
they deny themselves4 ,it was in this   
sense that1 later on in the  century1   
,cardinal ,allen recognized the labors  
and needs of the ,english  ,jesuit1     
,robert ,parsons1 who was the superior  
and companion of ,edmund  ,campian1 the 
former a leading star of ,oxford1 the   
latter1 also an  ,oxford man1 and1 as   
,lord ,burghley called him1 a diamond of
 ,england4  ,since ,queen ,elizabeth was
 not benign enough to lend the ,jesuits 
a  little building-room on ,english     
soil1 but preferred to lend them a      
halter at ,tyburn1 ,parsons was engaged 
in founding ,english houses of  higher  
studies in ,france and ,spain1 at       
,valladolid1 ,seville1 ,lisbon1 ,eu1    
and ,st4 ,omer4 ,cardinal ,allen sent a 
contribution to the constructive        

,jesuit1 writing1 as he did so3         
,apostolic men should not only despise  
money2 they should also have it4 ,and   
just in this sense was ,ignatius        
himself a philosopher of no utopian     
school4 ,so we may examine1 with        
profit1 the material and temporal       
conditions required in his ,institute1  
for the establishment of public schools 
and universities4 ,i shall  endeavor to 
put these principles together and in    
order4#bi    ,first1 there should be a  
location provided with buildings and    
revenues1  not merely sufficient for the
 present1 but having reference to       
needful  development4    ,secondly1     
these material conditions include a     
reference to the  maintenance of the    
faculty4 ,the means must be provided to 
meet the  daily necessities of the      
actual ,professors1 with adequate       
assistance of  lay brothers belonging to
 the ,order2 also to support several    
substitute  ,professors2 besides1 to    
carry on the formation of men1 who will 

take  the places of the present         
,professors1 and so maintain the faculty
 as  perpetual2 moreover1 to provide for
 some more ,scholastic ,students of  the
 ,order1 seeing that there are so many  
occupied in the service and  promotion  
of the common weal4 ,these conditions   
also include a church  for conducting   
spiritual ministrations in the service  
of others4#cj    ,carrying out this     
idea1 ,laynez1 in #aefd1 promulgated a  
rule or ,form  regarding the acceptance 
of ,colleges4 ,he laid down the         
conditions1  on which alone the ,society
 would take in charge either a ,latin   
,school1 requiring a foundation for     
twenty ,jesuits2 or a ,lyceum1 with     
fifty persons2 or a ,university1 with   
seventy4#ca ,twenty-four years  later1  
,father ,aquaviva drew up a more        
complete and a final ,form1             
distributing colleges into the three    
classes1 the lowest1 the medium1  and   
the highest4 ,the lowest must have      
provision made for professing  in the   

departments of ,grammar1 ,humanities1   
,rhetoric1 ,languages1 and a  course of 
,moral ,theology2--fifty ,jesuits to be 
supported4 ,the medium  class of        
colleges consists of those whose        
founders desire1 in addition  to all the
 foregoing departments1 a triennial     
course of ,philosophy1  which begins    
each year anew2 eighty persons to be    
supported4 ,the  highest class is that  
of the ,studium ,generale1 or           
,university1 in which1  besides the     
above1 there are professed ,scholastic  
,theology1 ,sacred  ,scripture1 ,hebrew2
 one hundred and twenty persons to be   
provided for4  ,however1 the countries  
of the ,indies1 as well as the northern 
countries  of ,europe1 were not1 for the
 present1 brought under this            
ordinance4#cb    ,thirdly1 the locality 
is to be such that1 in the ordinary     
course of  events1 there should be no   
prospective likelihood of a deficiency  
in  the concourse of students1 and those
 of the right kind4 ,as1 on the  side of

 the ,jesuit ,province1 its educational 
forces are kept at least  equal to the  
posts which it has undertaken to fill1  
so1 on the side of  the population1 the 
prospect should correspond to this      
undertaking1  and give assurance of     
filling the courses4 ,hence it was only 
in larger  cities or towns that         
,ignatius contemplated the foundation of
 colleges2  as the distich has it1      
contrasting the different fields of     
activity  chosen by different orders in 
the ,church3--            ,bernardus    
valles1 montes ,benedictus amabat1      
,oppida ,franciscus1 magnas ,ignatius   
urbes4    ,that is to say1 ,the monks of
 ,clairvaux loved their valleys2 the    
,benedictines their mountain-tops2 the  
,franciscans the rural towns2  ,ignatius
 the great cities4    ,this was the more
 obviously his idea1 as we find him     
reluctantly  granting permission for    
ministerial excursions through a        
country1 if  thereby the ,fathers'      
influence in a great city be likely to  

suffer4  ,he writes to ,father ,kessel1 
the ,rector at ,cologne1 where as yet   
the  ,society had no college of its own1
 that under the circumstances he        
approves of ,kessel's making a short    
excursion through the province1         
provided he and his companions are not  
long absent from the city1 and  do not  
sacrifice the main thing to what is     
accessory2 but he does not  give them   
permission to fix their abode out of the
 town1 because places  of less          
importance afford fewer occasions of    
gathering the desired  fruit3 and1      
besides1 they must not leave so famous a
 university2 their  exertions will be   
more useful for the good of religion1 in
 forming  scholars to become priests and
 officers of the ,state1 than all the   
pains they may bestow on the small towns
 and villages4#cc ,again1  when in #aedg
 he had accepted the donation of a      
church1 buildings1 and  gardens at      
,tivoli from ,louis ,mendosa1 he found  
the place not suited  to the convenience

 of scholars2 it was too near ,rome1 and
 yet too  far2 subsequently1 the        
institution had to be transferred within
 the  city4#cd    ,fourthly1 in addition
 to these material and local conditions 
for the  normal conduct of colleges1 it 
is supposed that the external relations 
of political society are so far         
favorable1 as at least to tolerate      
freedom of action on the part of this   
educational ,institute4 ,such           
toleration was1 as a general rule1 not  
only the least that could be  asked for1
 but the most that was enjoyed4         
,these are the chief conditions1        
material and temporal1 which ,ignatius  
requires4 ,they give him a footing to   
commence his work1 and allow the        
animating principles of his ,institute  
to come into play4 ,the animating       
principles1 to which ,i refer1 may be   
reduced to three brief heads3  ,first1  
an intellectual and moral scope1 clearly
 defined1 as ,i shall  explain in the   
following chapters4 ,secondly1 the      

distinct intention  to promote rather   
the interests of public and universal   
order and  enlightenment1 than a mere   
local good of any city1 country1        
province4  ,thirdly1 a tendency in the  
intellectual institution itself to      
become  rather a great one than a small 
one1 with more degrees of instruction1  
more and more eminent ,professors1 a    
greater number of the right kind of     
scholars4#ce    ,as to the forces       
available for all this1 and the         
proportion of colleges  to be manned in 
perpetuity1 the mind of ,ignatius was   
most express1  and became more fixed    
from day to day4 ,cut your cloak        
according to  your cloth1 he said to    
,oliver ,manare1 when the latter1 on    
going to  establish a college at        
,loretto1 asked how he should distribute
 his  men4 ,ignatius preferred to refuse
 ,princes and ,bishops their requests1  
excusing himself on the score of limited
 resources1 than compromise the         
reputation of the ,society1 by an       

ill-advised assent4#cf ,and he said1  as
 ,polanco his secretary tells us1 that  
if anything ought to make him  wish to  
live a longer time1 it was that he might
 be severe in admitting  men into the   
,order4#cg ,he did not want to have many
 members in the  ,society2 still less1  
too many engagements4    ,having stated 
thus briefly the material conditions    
required by  ,ignatius1 and the         
animating principles or motives which   
determined  him1 we are in a position to
 discern more distinctly the central    
object of his attention1 that for which 
the material conditions were  provided1 
that by which the ultimate objects were 
to be attained4 ,it  was the teaching   
body1 the faculty1 the ,college1        
properly so called4  ,the ,college was  
the body of educators who were sent to a
 place4  ,for them the material         
conditions did but supply a local       
habitation1  subsistence1 books1        
apparatus4 ,the very first decree quoted
 by  ,pachtler1 from the first general  

assembly1 uses the term ,college in     
this sense3 ,no college is to be sent to
 any place1 etc4#ch    ,it is only by   
derivation from this meaning that the   
term is applied to  the buildings and   
appointments4 ,it is the body of men    
that makes the  institution4 ,it is this
 also which makes the institution       
perpetual2  and therefore must itself be
 so2 and must have the material         
conditions  provided for continuing     
itself1 by means of a constant stream of
  younger men under formation1 who will 
perpetuate the same work4    ,now it    
would be an ideal conception of         
practical life to be looking for        
virtuous and erudite men1 viri boni     
simul et eruditi1 as ,ignatius  calls   
them1 ever pouring into the ,order1     
straight from the chairs of             
universities1 from benefices1 and posts 
of leisured ease2 and1 armed  already   
with the full equipment of intellectual 
and moral endowments1  presenting       
themselves and their services           

thenceforth1 under the title  of        
absolute poverty1 to cities1 provinces1 
and countries1 which never  had anything
 to do with their formation4 ,these men1
 says ,ignatius1  are found to be few in
 number1 and of these few the majority  
would  prefer to rest1 after so many    
labors already undergone4 ,we apprehend 
that it will be difficult for this      
,society to grow1 on the mere  strength 
of those who are already both good and  
accomplished1 boni  simul ac literati2  
and this for two reasons1 the great     
labors which  this manner of life       
imposes1 and the great self-abnegation  
needed4  ,therefore1 444 another way has
 seemed good to adopt1 that of admitting
  young men1 who1 by their good lives   
and their talents afford us  ground to  
hope that they will grow up into        
virtuous and learned men1  in probos    
simul ac doctos viros2 of admitting also
 colleges1 on  those conditions which   
are expressed in the ,apostolic briefs1 
whether  these colleges be within       

universities1 or independent3 and1 if   
within  universities1 whether these     
institutions themselves are committed to
  the care of the ,society1 or not4444  
,wherefore1 we shall first speak of  the
 colleges2 then of the universities1    
etc4#ci    ,there were never wanting men
 of the former kind1 already            
accomplished  and of tried virtue1 who  
offered themselves for this service of a
  lifetime4 ,a noteworthy testimony to  
their numbers may be found in a  dispute
 with ,philip ,,ii of ,spain1 who       
objected to any moneys leaving the      
,jesuit ,provinces of his realm1 for the
 service and maintenance of the  great  
central college in ,rome2 and this1     
notwithstanding the fact that  ,spanish 
members were being maintained and formed
 there4 ,the general  assembly1 gathered
 in ,rome1 #aefe1 discussed the         
difficulty2 and one  of the             
circumstances mentioned was this3 ,the  
,provinces of ,spain did  not need the  
assistance of the ,roman ,college as    

much as others2 since  many entered the 
,society1 already mature in age and     
accomplished in  learning1 so that they 
could be employed at once in public     
positions2  nor had they to be taught1  
but they were able to teach others4444  
,it  was finally recommended that1 to   
lessen the burden of expense on the     
,roman ,college1 and in order that fewer
 scholastics need be called to  ,rome1  
each ,province1 as soon as convenient1  
should organize a general  university2  
especially as there was already a       
sufficiency of students  7members of the
 ,order7 and1 besides1 of               
,professors4#dj ,this was only          
twenty-six years after the foundation of
 the ,society4    ,but1 even with all   
the advantages accruing from these large
 contingents  of learned men already    
formed1 the idea of ,ignatius1 to train 
young men  within the ,order1 was more  
practical for the formation of          
faculties2  and it carried the general  
efficiency much further4 ,powerful and  

effective as the most pronounced        
personalities may be1 when each         
striking character goes forward into the
 open field of battle and leads  the    
way1 they are not more powerful than    
when also qualified to move in  the     
steady and regular march of the trained 
forces4 ,father ,montmorency1  referring
 to the strength which comes of         
uniformity1 sociability1 and  harmony1  
said1 ,homo unus1 homo nullus1 ,a man   
alone is as good as no  man at all4     
,ignatius then1 having perpetuity and   
development in view1 and therefore  the 
steady and trained development of       
talented and virtuous young  men1 would 
not accept foundations1 except on the   
basis of endowment1  just described4 ,he
 had not learned in vain the lessons of 
,barcelona1  ,alcal1 ,salamanca1 and    
,paris4 ,how wisely he acted is shown by
 the  troubles1 which later legislation 
reveals1 upon this very point of        
inadequately endowed colleges4 ,the     
questions of ill-endowed colleges1      

small colleges1 too many colleges for   
the forces of a ,province1 are  all     
excellently discussed and settled in the
 general assembly1 which1  in #aefe1    
elected ,francis ,borgia to succeed     
,laynez4 ,and on the same  day1 says    
,sacchini1 the ,fathers set the example 
of observing the  decree which they had 
just made1 with the same degree of      
severity  with which they had made it2  
for1 the letters of several ,bishops and
  municipalities being read1 in which   
foundations for five colleges were      
offered1 they decided that no one of    
them should be admitted2 and1  besides1 
they gave the new ,general full         
authority to dissolve certain  colleges 
already existing4#da ,in a similar vein1
 this was the theme  of an elegant      
apology delivered before ,king ,stephen 
by ,father ,campano1  ,provincial of    
,poland1 who requested the ,king to     
desist from urging on  the ,society the 
multiplication of its institutions4#db  
,a tuition-fee paid by the scholar to   

the ,professor1 or to the  institution1 
was nowhere contemplated4 ,at ,dijon1   
where ,bossuet was  afterwards a pupil1 
the magistrates when offering a college1
 in #afjc1  desired to supplement an    
inadequate endowment1 by requiring a fee
  from the students4 ,in the name of the
 ,order1 ,father ,coton1 the ,king's    
confessor1 remonstrated2 and ,henri ,,iv
 himself wrote to the ,parliament  of   
,bourgogne1 desiring another arrangement
 to be made2 which was  accordingly     
done4#dc ,the foundation was always to  
be received as a  gratuitous donation1  
for which the ,order owed permanent     
gratitude4  ,in turn1 thenceforward1 it 
gave gratuitously1 and allowed of no    
recompense4 ,no obligations or          
conditions are to be admitted that would
  impair the integrity of our principle1
 which is3 ,to give gratuitously1  what 
we have received gratis4#dd    ,thus    
then the faculty1 a competent and a     
permanent one1 is installed4  ,it is not
 one conspicuous for leisured ease4     

,professors and ,scholastics  alike are 
working for a purpose4 ,they are a      
college1 in the sense  of the ,society  
of ,jesus4 ,yet1 if there is not        
leisured ease1 but a  life of work and  
self-denial1 the system has been found  
to result in  all the consequences which
 may be looked for in literary ease with
  dignity2 and perhaps in more1 since no
 one does more1 than he who1  in his own
 line1 has as much as he can well do1   
and do well4 ,system  and method1 the   
great means for making time manifold1   
become so  absolutely necessary2 and the
 singleness of intention in a religious 
life intensifies results4 ,then1 after  
the general formation has been          
bestowed1 in the consecutive higher     
studies of seven or nine years  within  
the ,order1 the plan of ,ignatius leaves
 open to individual  talents the whole  
field of specialties1 in ,science and   
,literature4  ,hence1 to speak of our   
own day1 ,secchi or ,perry devotes      
himself to  astronomy1 ,garucci to      

archology1 ,strassmeyer to ,oriental    
inscriptions1  the ,de ,backers and     
,sommervogel to bibliography1 others to 
philology1  mathematics1 and the natural
 sciences2 while five hundred and more  
writers follow the lines of their own   
inclinations1 either for some  directly 
useful purpose1 or because their pursuit
 is in itself liberal4                  
,,chapter ,v4    ,,colleges ,,founded   
,,and ,,endowed4      ,what was the     
response of the ,christian world1 when  
it had become alive  to the nature of   
this new power in its midst1 and to the 
proposal  which the new power made8     
,what did the answer come to1 in the way
 of  providing temporalities1 necessary 
and sufficient8 ,strange enough6        
,loyola's own short official lifetime of
 fifteen years does not appear  to have 
been too short1 for the purpose of      
awakening the world with his  idea2     
which1 like a two-edged sword of his own
 make1 not only aroused  the keenest    
opposition at every thrust1 and at his  

every onward step1  but opened          
numberless resources in the apostolic1  
the charitable1 and  educational        
reserves of human nature4    ,this man1 
who had inserted in the authentic       
formula and charter of his  ,institute  
that watchword of his movements1        
,defence and ,advance2 who  had taken   
the whole world for the field of his    
operations1 in defending  and advancing2
 this cavalier of a new military type1  
who had only to  show himself upon the  
field to gather around him the flower of
 youth as  well as mature age1 from     
college and university1 from doctor's   
chair  and prince's throne1 left behind 
him1 as the work of fifteen years from  
the foundation of the ,order1 about one 
hundred colleges and houses1            
distributed into twelve ,provinces4 ,the
 territorial divisions were  named1     
after their chief centres1 the          
,provinces of ,portugal1 ,castile1      
,andalusia1 ,aragon1 ,italy1 ,naples1   
,sicily1 ,upper ,germany1 ,lower        

,germany1  ,france1 ,brazil1 and the    
,east ,indies4 ,individuals under his   
orders had  overrun ,ireland1 penetrated
 into ,scotland1 into ,congo1           
,abyssinia1 and  ,ethiopia4 ,the ,east  
,indies1 first traversed by ,francis    
,xavier either  on foot1 or in          
unseaworthy vessels1 signified the whole
 stretch of  countries from ,goa and    
,ceylon on the ,west1 to ,malacca1      
,japan1 and the  coast of ,china on the 
,east4 ,some of this activity might be  
credited to  apostolic zeal alone1 were 
it not that1 wherever the leaders       
advanced  into the heart of a new       
country1 it was always with the purpose1
 and  generally with the result1 that   
the country was to be occupied with     
educational institutions4 ,de ,backer   
notes this in another connection1  when1
 in the preface to his great work of    
bibliography1 ,the ,library  of ,writers
 of the ,company of ,jesus1 he says3    
,wherever a ,jesuit set  his foot1      
wherever there was founded a house1 a   

college1 a mission1  there too arose    
apostles of another class1 who labored1 
who taught1 who  wrote4#de    ,what this
 means1 with regard to its strategic    
value1 there is no need  of our being   
told4 ,the ,duke of ,parma1 writing1 in 
#aehj1 from the seat  of war in the     
,netherlands to ,philip ,,ii of ,spain1 
said3 ,your ,majesty  desired that ,i   
should build a citadel in ,maestricht2  
,i thought that a  college of the       
,jesuits would be a fortress more likely
 to protect the  inhabitants against the
 enemies of the ,altar and the ,throne4 
,i have  built it4#df    ,sixty years   
later1 after the long generalship of    
,aquaviva1 who during  #cd years        
governed the ,order with the ability of 
another ,ignatius1 the  number of       
colleges was #cgb4 ,well might his      
immediate successor1 ,mutius            
,vitelleschi1 writing to the whole      
,society about the ,education of ,youth1
  speak of the beautiful and precious   
mass of gold1 which we have in our      

hands to form and finish4#dg    ,one    
hundred and fifty years after the death 
of ,ignatius1 the collegiate  and       
university houses of education numbered 
#gfi4 ,two hundred years  after the same
 date1 when the ,order was on the verge 
of universal  suppression1 under the    
action of ,university men1              
,parliamentarians1  ,jansenists1        
,philosophers1 and of that new movement 
which was preparing  the ,revolution1   
the ,jesuit educational institutions    
stood at the  figure1 #gbh4 ,the        
colleges covered almost the whole world1
 distributed  into #ci ,provinces1      
besides #agb ,missions in the less      
organized regions  of the globe4#dh     
,if we look at these #gjj institutions  
of secondary and superior  education1   
under the aspect of their constitution1 
that is to say1  of their scope1 their  
system1 the supreme legislative and     
executive  power which characterized    
them1 we find that they were not so much
 a  plurality of institutions1 as a     

single one4 ,take the #ib colleges of   
,france alone4#di ,in one sense1 these  
may be considered as less united  than  
the #ej colleges of the ,paris          
,university1 for the ,paris ,university 
was in one quarter of a city1 which     
offers a material unity2 these1  on the 
contrary1 were spread over the whole of 
,france1 presenting the  characteristics
 of national education2 just as the #gjj
 were over  the whole world1 a          
cosmopolitan system4 ,but1 regarded in  
their formal  and essential bond1 they  
were vastly more of a unit1 as an       
identical  educational power1 than any  
faculty existing4 ,no faculty1 whether  
at ,paris or ,salamanca1 ,rome or       
,oxford1 ever possessed that control    
over its #ej1 #bj1 or even #h colleges1 
which each ,provincial ,superior        
exercised over his #aj1 #bj1 or #cj1 and
 the ,general over more than #gjj1  with
 #bb1abf members in the ,order4 ,in the 
one ,general lay the power  of an active
 headship2 from him the facultative     

power of conferring  degrees emanated2  
and he had one system of studies and    
discipline in  his charge to administer1
 with a latitude of discretion according
 to  times1 places1 and circumstances4  
,as to the numbers of students1 and the 
general estimate to be formed  of them1 
,i will record such data as fall under  
the eye1 while passing  rapidly over the
 literature of the subject4    ,in      
,rome1 the #bj colleges attending the   
classes of the ,roman ,college          
numbered1 in #aehd1 #bajh students4     
,father ,argento1 in his apology to  the
 ,states at ,klausenburg1 in #afjg1     
mentions that the schools in            
,transylvania were frequented by the    
flower of the nobility2 and1 in  his    
,history of the ,affairs in ,poland1    
dedicated to ,sigismund ,,iii1 he       
attests that from #hjjj to #aj1jjj      
youths1 chiefly of the nobility and     
gentry1 frequented the gymnasia of the  
,order in ,poland4 ,at ,rouen1 in       
,france1 there were regularly #bjjj4 ,at

 ,la ,flche there were #agjj during  a  
century2 #cjj being boarders1 the other 
#adjj finding accommodation  in the     
village1 but always remaining under the 
supervision of the  faculty4 ,throughout
 the seventeenth century1 the numbers at
 the  ,college of ,louis-le-,grand1 in  
,paris1 varied between #bjjj1 #ahbg1 and
  #cjjj2 including1 in the latter       
number1 #eej boarders4 ,in #afbg1 only a
  few years after the restoration of the
 ,society by ,henri ,,iv1 the one       
,province of ,paris had1 in its #ad     
colleges1 #ac1aie students2 which  would
 give an average of nearly #ajjj to a   
college4 ,cologne almost  began with    
#hjj students1--its roll in #aeeh4      
,dilingen in #afjg had #gfj2  in its    
convictus1 #aaj of the boarders were    
,religious1 besides other               
,ecclesiastics2 the next year1 out of   
#bej convictores or boarders1  #aah were
 ,religious of various ,orders1 the     
secular ,priesthood being  represented  
among the students generally4 ,at       

,utrecht1 during the first  century of  
the ,order's existence1 there were #ajjj
 scholars2 at ,antwerp  and ,brussels   
each1 #fjj2 in most of the ,belgian     
colleges1 #cjj4 ,as to  ,spain and      
,italy1 which first saw the ,society    
rise in their midst1 and  expand with   
immense vigor all over them1 ,i consider
 it superfluous to  dwell particularly  
upon them4    ,in many of the capitals  
and important centres throughout        
,europe1 there  were separate colleges  
for nobles4 ,elsewhere the nobility were
 mixed  with the rest2 thus #djj nobles 
and more were attending the ,jesuit     
schools in ,paris4 ,it was studiously   
aimed at by the ,order to eliminate1  in
 matters of education1 all              
distinguishing marks or privileges4     
,thus  ,father ,buys endeavors1 in      
#afaj1 to reduce the practice at        
,dilingen to  the custom of the other   
colleges in the upper ,german           
,province4#ej    ,most of the ,papal    
,seminaries founded by ,gregory ,,xiii1 

at ,vienna1  ,dilingen1 ,fulda1 ,prague1
 ,gratz1 ,olmtz1 ,wilna1 as well as in  
,japan and  other countries1 were put   
under the direction of the ,society2 as 
,pius  ,,iv did with his ,roman         
,seminary2 and ,st4 ,charles ,borromeo  
with that of  ,milan4    ,not knowing   
what the absolute average really was in 
these #gjj  institutions1 we may still  
form some idea of what the sum total of 
students must have been at its lowest   
figure4 ,for this purpose1 we can  take 
an average which seems about the lowest 
possible4 ,i have not met  with any     
distinct mention of a college having    
less than #cjj scholars4  ,there are    
indeed frequent complaints in the       
general assemblies1  regarding what are 
denounced as small colleges4 ,however1  
it seems  clear from numerous           
indications1 as1 for instance1 from the 
,encyclical  letter of the ,general     
,paul ,oliva1#ea that these colleges    
were called  small1 not primarily on    
account of an insufficient number of    

students1  but because of insufficient  
foundations1 which did not support the  
,professors actually employed4 ,a       
document for the ,rectors notes  that   
thus far almost all the colleges1 even  
such as have received  endowments1      
suffer want regularly1 and have         
frequently to borrow  money4#eb         
,hence we may be allowed to take1 as a  
tentative average1 #cjj students  to a  
college4 ,at once1 we rise to a sum     
total of more than #bjj1jjj  students in
 these collegiate and university grades1
 all being formed  at a given date under
 one system of studies and of           
government1  intellectual and moral4    
,if statistics1 in that nicely tabulated
 form which delights modern  bureaus1   
have failed us as we run over the whole 
world to decipher  the indications1     
there is yet another view which we may  
catch of the  same subject1 and one that
 is equally valuable4 ,it is the        
multitude  of nations into which this   
educational growth ramified4 ,at ,goa1  

in  ,hindustan1 the seminary1 which was 
inferior to none in ,europe1 had for    
its students1 ,brahmins1 ,persians1     
,arabians1 ,ethiopians1 ,armenians1     
,chaldeans1 ,malabari1 ,cananorii1      
,guzarates1 ,dacanii1 and others from   
the  countries beyond the ,ganges4      
,japan had its colleges at ,funai1      
,arima1  ,anzuchzana1 and ,nangasaki4   
,china had a college at ,macao2 and     
later  on many more1 reaching into the  
interior1 where the ,fathers became  the
 highest mandarins in the service of the
 ,emperor1 and built his  observatory4  
,towards the close of the eighteenth    
century a large number  of colleges were
 flourishing in ,central and ,south     
,america4 ,all of these  disappeared1   
when the ,order was suppressed4 ,the    
youth1 who could  afford to obtain the  
education needed1 went over to ,europe1 
whence they  returned1 a generation     
quite different from what had been known
 of  before4 ,they returned with the    
principles of the ,revolution4 ,and the 

whole history of ,central and ,south    
,america has changed1 from that date    
onwards1 into a series of revolutions1  
which are the standing marvel of        
political scientists to our day4    ,to 
consult a graphic representation of how 
this educational ,order  looked on the  
map of the world1 one may glance into   
the ninth volume  of the ,monumenta     
,germani ,pdagogica4 ,there ,father     
,pachtler1 as in  his other volumes of  
the series1 sketches only the ,german   
,assistency  of the ,society of ,jesus4 
,the five ,assistencies of the ,order   
served  the purposes of government1 by  
grouping many ,provinces together  into 
larger divisions4 ,in #agbe1 the ,german
 ,assistency comprised  nine out of     
thirty-two ,provinces4 ,the nine in     
question are those of                   
,flandro-,belgium1 ,french ,belgium1 the
 ,lower ,rhine1 the ,upper ,rhine1      
,upper ,germany1 ,bohemia1 ,austria1    
,poland1 ,lithuania4 ,the map at the end
  of ,father ,pachtler's volume         

represents all this country1 with the   
towns  marked differently1 according as 
they contained either universities of   
the ,order1 or colleges1 or convictus1  
that is1 boarding-colleges1 or          
seminaries1 or residences4 ,the         
chronological order of their rise is    
presented in a table at the beginning of
 the same volume1 with a note  to       
indicate more in particular the grade or
 amplitude of each1 as being  a ,studium
 ,generale1 otherwise called ,university
 or ,academy1 a ,college  or a          
,gymnasium1 as well as the annexes of   
each1 in the shape of one or  more      
convictus1 one or more ,episcopal or    
,papal ,seminaries1 a college  of       
nobles1 a convictus for poor scholars4  
,by means of this map1 a  graphic       
presentation is afforded of one         
,assistency1 from which1 by a  proper   
extension1 the whole world may be       
portrayed to the imagination4  ,in      
#agej1 within the limits of this map1   
there were #bag colleges1 #ee           

seminaries1 #gc residences1 #bd         
novitiates1 #afj missions1 #f professed 
houses4#ec    ,the universities here    
spoken of1 otherwise called ,studia     
,generalia1  or ,academies1 are quite   
typical1 a special ,jesuit development  
of the  medival style4 ,an exact and    
official form1 drawn up for the         
,university  of ,gratz1 may be found in 
the same ,monumenta4#ed ,as ,father     
,pachtler  remarks1 it shows at a glance
 the inner working of a ,jesuit         
university1  and the general system     
prevailing over the whole ,society4 ,he 
entitles  the document3 ,ordnung einer  
ausschlieschlich von ,jesuiten          
geleiteten  ,universitt1 or ,einer      
selbstndige ,universitt1 #afeh4 ,the    
,latin  title is3 ,forma et ,ratio      
,gubernandi ,academias et ,studia       
,generalia ,s4  ,j4 ,it was the         
compilation of ,father ,john ,argento4  
,upon this basis of the amount of work  
done1 as well as its intrinsic          
character1 shown by the results1 ,i was 

going to draw some inferences  with     
regard to the amount of the temporal    
endowments1 which must have  been       
required to support such a vast         
organization1 and must have been  vested
 in the ,order by the ,christian world4 
,one might compare the  work done with  
what ,oxford accomplishes2 and1 seeing  
that the latter  university supplies the
 facilities for higher education1 and   
that far  from gratuitously1 to only a  
couple of thousands among the nobility  
and gentry1 then1 since it spends upon  
this an annual revenue of  #b1ejj1jjj1  
how much would be required to conduct   
the education of a  quarter of a million
 of students8 ,our arithmetic would feel
 oppressed  by the calculation4    ,but 
the calculation is not necessary4 ,it is
 quite evident that  religious poverty  
gave the key to the situation1--poverty1
  self-abnegation1 the resignation of   
all temporal considerations in  life1 by
 men who had no families to provide for1
 no station to acquire2  who had        

themselves given up every station1 from 
that of the clerical  benefice1 or the  
liberal and martial careers1 to ducal   
coronets1  princedoms1 and even royalty2
 men therefore1 who were bestowing with 
themselves1 and in themselves1 the      
essential endowment of education  upon  
the world1 and who needed only to have  
that supplemented with  the few temporal
 necessities still remaining4 ,and the  
conclusion to  be drawn seems to be     
this4 ,the ,christian world1 whether    
ruler or  people1 republic or           
municipality1 was making a safe and     
lucrative  investment1 whether at home  
or abroad1 in the midst of civilization 
or of barbarism1 when it consigned the  
absolute use of sufficient              
temporalities to a world-wide faculty1  
inspired by the sentiment of  religious 
devotion4    ,for what is the object of 
any religious society whatsoever8 ,it is
 to  complete in each of its members the
 duties of the man1 the citizen  and the
 ,christian1 with other duties called   

religious1 which1  correlative with the 
former1 are nevertheless distinct from  
them4 ,they  are duties which presuppose
 the moral virtues1 the civil and       
,christian  virtues1 and tend to        
complete them with the highest qualities
 to which  perfect ,christianity        
aspires1 those of self-devotion and     
religious  self-consecration4    ,hence 
the experiences1 making a drama and a   
tragedy1 when the ,society  abruptly    
disappeared4 ,supposing even that enough
 of competent men1 with  all personal   
requirements1 could have been found to  
fill the void1 what  of their salaries  
and support8 ,take an instance4 ,the    
revenues1 which  at ,bourges had been   
enough for the support of thirty        
,jesuits1 were  found1 after the        
,suppression of the ,order1 not to      
afford an adequate  compensation for ten
 secular ,professors4#ee ,frederic ,,ii 
of ,prussia1  sending an agent to       
negotiate with ,pius ,,vi about         
retaining the ,order in  his ,states1   

expresses himself thus in a letter to   
,voltaire3 ,the surest  means 7to       
perpetuate a series of ,professors7 is  
to preserve a seminary  of men destined 
to teach4 ,in studying the sciences1    
they fit themselves  for the office of  
instructing4 ,it would be no easy task  
to fill  instantaneously a vacancy left 
by a skilful professor4 ,if the         
education  of ordinary citizens be      
necessary1 the training up of           
instructors must  be no less so4 ,and   
then1 coming to the point before us1 the
 ,king  continues3 ,besides1 there are  
reasons of economy for preferring such  
a body of men to mere secular           
individuals4 ,the professor taken from  
the latter class will cost more1 because
 he has a greater number of  wants4 ,it 
is needless to remark that the property 
of the ,jesuits would  not be sufficient
 to remunerate their successors2 and    
that revenues1  which pass over to the  
administration of the government1 always
 suffer  diminution4#ef ,speaking of    

,ganganelli1 ,pope ,clement ,,xiii1 who 
was  under pressure from various        
quarters to make him suppress the       
,order1  ,frederic writes to ,voltaire  
in #aggj3 ,for my own part1 ,i have no  
reason to complain of him2 he leaves me 
my dear ,jesuits1 whom they are         
persecuting everywhere4 ,i will save the
 precious seed1 to give some of  it1 one
 day1 to those who should wish to       
cultivate a plant so rare4#eg    ,the   
testimony of documents is uniform upon  
the poverty of these men1  whom         
,protestant historians like ,grotius1   
,robertson1 and others marvel  at1 for  
the authority they possessed in the     
world1 for the purity of  their lives1  
their success in teaching1 and their art
 of commanding  with wisdom as they     
themselves obeyed with fidelity4 ,their 
life was  one of straitened             
circumstances and self-abnegation4 ,we  
may see it  illustrated in ,dilingen4#eh
 ,or again1 at the great royal college1 
founded by ,henri ,,iv at ,la ,flche1   

where three hundred boarders were       
supposed to be paying their own         
expenses1 as pensionnaires1 we  find    
,louis ,,xiii issuing a royal decree    
that his magistrates are to  prosecute  
les rtardataires et les rcalcitrants par
 toutes les voyes  raisonnables1 persons
 who did not pay the expenses of their  
own  children1 but left that interesting
 occupation to the college4 ,with  all  
that1 says ,rochemonteix1 nothing came  
of it1 neither of the royal             
injunctions1 nor of judicial suits2     
things went on the same way1 the        
parents paying badly1 and the treasurers
 lamenting4#ei    ,i will close this    
chapter with one case1 because it serves
 to emphasize  a particular sequel of   
the ,suppression2 that is1 the revival  
of a  tuition-fee4 ,a recent author1    
writing in #ahij1 tells the history of  
the ,college of ,saint-,yves at ,vannes1
 in ,brittany4 ,he sums up its  revenues
 at #fjjj livres4 ,placed in the hands  
of the ,order1 this  college1 in #afcf1 

that is1 seven years after the ,society 
had assumed  charge1 directed #djj      
students2 later on1 #ijj2 and then      
#abjj4 ,in #agfb1  the faculty consisted
 of thirteen members1 besides the four  
,fathers  engaged in the adjoining house
 of retreats4 ,all rendered various     
services1 as is usual in a college of   
,jesuit instructors4 ,to these  we must 
add the requisite complement of the     
faculty1 at least half  as many more lay
 assistants1 belonging to the ,order1   
and to the same  local community4 ,here 
then are twenty-two at the least1       
subsisting  on #fjjj livres a year2 and 
meanwhile providing their house1 their  
library1 their physical cabinet1 which  
was fully fitted up with all  necessary 
instruments1 and their observatory4#fj  
,the moment after  the ,suppression1 he 
goes on to say1 it was quite another    
affair6 ,ten  secular professors cost   
#aa1jjj livres for their salaries alone6
 ,the  author gives the list of their   
salaries4 ,to restablish equilibrium1   

one of the first acts of the parliament 
was to exact from each scholar  a       
tuition-fee of twelve livres2 and yet   
they complained1 they could not  make   
ends meet4    ,observe1 a tuition-fee6  
,on the day after the ,suppression1 they
 begin  to undo the very work1 which1   
two hundred and thirty years before1 the
  ,order had begun to do at its birth1  
spreading education gratuitously1       
without drawing on pupils1 or drawing on
 the public treasury4    ,well might the
 ,general ,vincent ,caraffa say1 in the 
time of the ,thirty  ,years' ,war1 ,we  
abound rather in men than in revenues4  
,and he says  so1 in the same breath and
 in the same sentence1 in which he is   
asking  ,priests to offer themselves for
 life to the work of teaching the lower 
branches1 a work which he calls         
laborious1 in times which he specifies  
as disastrous1 and in circumstances     
which he describes as having no         
provision made for the means of         
living4#fa    ,this brief sketch will go

 to show how the ,christian world did1  
indeed1  meet the proposal of the       
,order1 and found seven hundred         
colleges4  ,but it also shows how the   
,order endowed the world1 and had even  
to  make good1 with its personal        
heroism1 the defects in many of the     
foundations4          ,,chapter ,,vi4   
,,the ,,intellectual ,,scope ,,and      
,,method ,,proposed4      ,as the second
 part of this book is intended to be a  
pedagogic analysis  of the mental       
culture imparted1 ,i need not sketch    
here1 save in a  general way1 the       
intellectual scope proposed by ,ignatius
 of ,loyola1 and  the method which he   
originated4 ,both scope and method vary 
somewhat1  according as the students    
contemplated are respectively external  
to the  ,order1 or members of it4 ,the  
latter are to be qualified for becoming 
future ,professors1 even though1 in     
point of fact1 only a certain           
proportion of them become so4           
,studious youth in general1 including   

,ecclesiastics and ,religious of  the   
various ,orders1 are considered by      
,ignatius as distributed amid two  kinds
 of educational institutions4 ,one of   
these he calls the ,public  ,school2 the
 other1 a ,university4 ,the first is    
that which extends1 in  its courses1    
from the rudiments of literature up to  
the lower level  of university          
education4 ,he says3 ,where it can      
conveniently be done1  let ,public      
,schools be opened1 at least in the     
departments of ,humane  ,letters4#fb ,in
 a note1 he explains that ,moral        
,theology may be treated  in a gymnasium
 of this kind4 ,father ,aquaviva1 in    
#aehh1 puts this  kind of school down as
 the lowest of three ranks of colleges2 
and  sums up the courses as being those 
of ,grammar1 ,humanities1 ,rhetoric1    
,languages1 and ,moral ,theology4#fc ,he
 also explains why the lowest  ,jesuit  
curriculum must fill these requirements1
 in order that the  ,society be not     
defrauded of the end it has in view1    

which is1 to carry  the students on at  
least as far as mediocrity in learning1 
so that they  may go forth into their   
respective vocations1 ,ecclesiastics to 
their  ministry1 lay students to their  
own work in life1 qualified in some     
degree with a sufficiency of literary   
culture4#fd ,this curriculum  served    
also the purpose of those1 who1 while   
members of the ,order1  were for some   
reason dispensed from the full course of
 studies4#fe ,if  any grades are wanting
 in a college1 it must be the lower ones
 which  are omitted1 the higher being   
retained4#ff ,ignatius goes on to limit 
the courses in a gymnasium of this kind3
 ,let not higher sciences be  treated   
here2 but1 to pursue them1 the students 
who have made due  progress in          
literature are to be sent from these    
colleges to the  universities4#fg       
,passing on to universities of the      
,order1 he defines for their scope1     
first1 in behalf of those who are to be 
,ecclesiastics1 ,scholastic  ,theology1 

,holy ,scripture1 and ,positive         
,theology2 secondly1 for all  students1 
,humane ,letters1 ,latin1 ,greek1       
,hebrew1 and other such  languages as   
,chaldaic1 ,arabic1 and ,indian1 subject
 to the demands of  necessity or        
utility2 moreover1 ,logic1 ,physics1    
,metaphysics1 ,moral  ,philosophy1 and  
,mathematics4 ,all these departments are
 to be provided  for by ,professors of  
the ,order4 ,if the departments of      
,civil ,law and  ,medicine are added1   
they will be conducted by ,professors   
not of the  ,society4#fh    ,as to the  
,scholastic members of the ,society1    
their mental culture in  the ,order     
begins1 of course1 where their          
collegiate curriculum had  closed1 that 
is1 at the end of their classical       
course4 ,their studies  henceforth are  
defined by two objects2 one1 that of    
professing1 as  formed ,jesuits in the  
future1 what they are studying now2 the 
other1  that of being differentiated1   
according to talent and circumstance1   

into preachers1 writers1 directors of   
consciences1 or managers of  affairs4   
,in view of this two-fold object1 all   
the examinations1 arranged for  members 
of the ,order in the advanced courses1  
are regulated by one  standard1 that the
 ,jesuit ,scholastics must be found     
competent1 at each  stage1 to teach the 
course in which they are being tested4  
,accordingly1  they review their        
previous literary acquirements1 in all  
the lines  which the ,society regularly 
professes2 then1 during three years1    
they  apply exclusively to ,philosophy  
and ,natural ,sciences2 and1 four years 
more1 to ,divinity and allied           
,sciences4#fi    ,this protracted       
course1 therefore1 as given more in     
detail by the  subsequent ,ratio1       
consists of ,poetry1 ,rhetoric1 and     
,literature2  ,mathematics1 ,physics1   
and ,chemistry2 ,logic1 ,ontology1      
,cosmology1  ,psychology1 and ,natural  
,theology2 ,ethics1 ,natural1 ,social   
and ,public  ,right1 ,moral ,theology1  

,canon ,law1 ,ecclesiastical ,history1  
,scholastic  ,theology1 ,hebrew1 ,sacred
 ,scripture4 ,the courses are to be     
pursued  either in the same classes     
which external students attend1 or1 in  
their  own university classes1 when a   
general house of studies is formed as a 
,scholasticate4 ,in both cases1 they    
have ,seminary exercises of their  own1 
beyond what is required in the most     
condensed university courses4    ,those 
whom health and excellence have approved
 at every step are  ordinarily to be    
withdrawn from studies1 when the course 
of ,arts has  been finished1 and when   
four years have been spent on           
,theology4#gj  ,specialties are to be   
cultivated4#ga ,subsequent legislation  
places  these specialties in the        
interval between the ,arts and          
,theology2 and1  again1 after the       
latter4    ,this1 in brief1 is the      
practical idea of the ,professorial     
,seminaries1  philological1             
philosophical1 scientific1 and          

theological1 through  which the stream  
of future ,professors is continually    
passing4 ,each  one is subject1 at every
 stage1 to examination tests which      
include  the most distinct reference to 
professorial capacity4 ,the technical   
standard in the examinations is that of 
surpassing mediocrity1 which  term is   
accurately defined1 as we shall see     
later1 when analyzing the  ,ratio4#gb   
,while the depleted ranks of the        
professorial body are thus regularly    
supplied1 it is clear that more services
 remain available in the  ,order at     
large1 than the single purpose of       
education would at any time  require4   
,but this only serves the wider scope   
which the ,society has in  view1 much   
wider than education taken alone4 ,and  
,ignatius makes mention  of this        
expressly when he says1 that the        
,scholastic students may never  come to 
profess the learning which they have    
acquired2 still they are  to consider   
that labor of studies as a work of great

 merit in the sight  of ,god4#gc    ,so 
much for the widest and highest         
intellectual objects aimed at in  these 
studies4 ,looking down now to its lowest
 limit1 we perceive that  education1 as 
imparted by the ,society to the external
 world1 is to  begin not below the      
rudiments of grammar1 in which boys must
 already  be versed2 they must know how 
to read and write2 nor is any allowance 
to be made in favor of any one1 whatever
 be his condition of life2  but those   
who press these petitions upon us are to
 be answered1 that  we are not permitted
 to teach the elements4 ,this is the    
ordinance  of ,aquaviva1 in #aeib1 and  
he simply refers to the                 
,constitution4#gd  ,he also notes1 in   
the same document1 that the new ,ratio  
,studiorum  elevates every grade1 as it 
stood at that date1 one year higher than
  it had been before4 ,the document is  
from the ,german archives4 ,pachtler    
observes that most of the ,latin        
schools1 particularly in ,protestant    

,germany1 took children up from the     
alphabet4#ge ,the effect of the  ,jesuit
 system was that of a constant upward   
trend to what was higher1  more         
systematic1 and complete4    ,this      
brings us to the question of method4    
,here a number of elements  occur1 some 
of them essential1 many of them         
subordinate4 ,these latter1  at least1  
were the products of ingenuity and      
industry on the part of  the teaching   
body1 and were productive of industry   
and life on the  part of scholars4 ,to  
illustrate the whole matter1 ,i will    
refer to  authors who were addressing   
the world1 soon after the ,society had  
taken  its stand as an educational      
power1 and when its institutions were   
conspicuous to the eyes of all4         
,first comes classification1 which was  
an essential feature of the  ,jesuit    
system4 ,ribadeneira1 the intimate      
friend of ,ignatius1 when  writing the  
life of ,loyola1 in the year #aehd1 and 
describing the work  of the ,order1 now 

forty-fours years old1 observes3        
,elsewhere one  ,professor has many     
grades of scholars before him2 he       
addresses himself  at one and the same  
time to scholars who are at the bottom1 
midway1 and  at the top2 and he can     
scarcely meet the demands of each4 ,but1
 in the  ,society1 we distinguish one   
rank of scholars from another1 dividing 
them into their own classes and orders2 
and separate ,professors are  placed    
over each4#gf    ,the division of       
classes1 a thing so natural to us1 was  
in those times  a novelty4 ,there were  
practically only two degrees of         
teaching2 one  superior1 embracing      
,theology1 ,law1 and ,medicine2 the     
other preparatory4  ,the preparatory    
instruction had already been tending    
towards the  later system of grading2   
the term class was an expression of the 
,renaissance4 ,father ,rochemonteix1    
speaking of the ,paris ,university1     
notes that the first authentic act1 in  
which the term is used1 dates  from     

#aeci4gg ,from #aece1 the division of   
studies1 by means of classes1  was      
already being accomplished4 ,still there
 was no definite number  of grades4 ,the
 study of literary models was defective4
 ,grammar was  beclouded with the       
subtleties of dialectics1 to the great  
prejudice  of written composition1 as   
well as of the reading and imitation of 
models4#gh    ,now it will be observed  
that ,ignatius was studying in the      
,university of  ,paris from #aebh to    
#aece2 and his companions remained till 
#aecf4 ,by the  time he published the   
,constitution as a rule of guidance1 he 
had become  surrounded by men1 who were 
not merely graduates of universities1   
but  had been ,doctors1 ,professors1 and
 ,rectors in ,portugal1 ,spain1 ,france1
  ,italy1 ,belgium1 ,germany4 ,one      
consequence was that ,ignatius1 from the
  very beginning1 formulated a complete 
system of graded classes4 ,he  relegated
 dialectics to its proper field1        
,philosophy and ,theology4 ,and1        

bringing into prominence the reading of 
authors1 and the practice of  style in  
imitation of the best models1 he defined
 a method4 ,this1 after  being          
elaborated during forty years1 was then 
found to be not only new1  but complete1
 and good for centuries to come4 ,it    
arranged courses in a  series1 having   
reference to one another2 it cordinated 
definite stages  of the courses with    
definite matter to be seen2 and1 in the 
lower  branches it distributed the      
students1 with their respective portions
  of the matter1 into five grades1      
classifying precepts1 authors1 and      
exercises1 as proportioned to each      
successive grade4 ,nothing more         
familiar to ourselves now2 nothing newer
 to the world then6 ,this was  the      
,ratio ,studiorum4    ,the grades of the
 gymnasium may include several          
divisions1 according  to the number of  
students2 but the grading itself remains
 fixed1 and  leaves no element1 either  
of actual culture1 or of future         

developments1  unprovided for1 or       
without a location4 ,nor do these grades
 mean five  years4 ,they mean a work to 
be done in each grade1 before the next  
is taken up4 ,on this1 the mind of      
,ignatius was most explicit4 ,as an     
almost universal rule1 they never mean  
less than five years4 ,and1 for  one of 
them1 the grade of ,rhetoric1 in which  
all literary perfection  is to be       
acquired1 the system contemplates two   
and even three years4  ,in this point1  
too1 we may note a characteristic view  
of ,ignatius4  ,it is that the longer   
term1 whenever provided1 whenever       
prescribed1  urged1 and insisted upon1  
is always for the talented student1 the 
one  who is to become eminent4 ,to use  
his own words1 when laying down the     
rules in this matter for the ,rector of 
a ,university1 his full idea  will be   
carried out1 when those who are of the  
proper age1 and have  the aptitude of   
genius1 endeavor to succeed in every    
branch and to be  conspicuous           

therein4#gi    ,to enumerate now some of
 the subordinate elements in the ,jesuit
 method1  ,i will quote from the same   
author1 ,ribadeneira4 ,he says1 speaking
 of  young scholars3 ,many means are    
devised1 and exercises employed1 to     
stimulate the minds of the              
young--assiduous disputation1 various   
trials  of genius1 prizes offered for   
excellence in talent and industry4      
,these  prerogatives and testimonies of 
virtue vehemently arouse the minds of   
students1 awake them even when sleeping1
 and1 when they are aroused and  are    
running on with a good will1 impel them 
and spur them on faster4  ,for1 as      
penalty and disgrace bridle the will and
 check it from pursuing  evil1 so honor 
and praise quicken the sense            
wonderfully1 to attain the  dignity and 
glory of virtue4 ,he quotes ,cicero and 
,quintilian to the  same effect4#hj     
,this was not to develop a false        
self-love in young hearts2 which  would 
have been little to the purpose with    

religious teachers4 ,let  them root out 
from themselves1 in every possible way1 
self-love and  the craving for vain     
glory1 says the oldest code of school   
rules  in the ,society1 probably from   
the pen of ,father ,peter ,canisius     
himself4#ha ,what is appealed to1 is the
 spirit of emulation1 and  that by a    
world of industries2 which1 disguising  
the aridity of  the work to be gone     
through1 spurs young students on to     
excellence  in whatever they undertake1 
and rewards the development of natural  
energies with the natural luxury of     
confessedly doing well4 ,in the  dry    
course of virtue and learning1          
satisfaction of this kind is not        
excited in the young1 without a sign1 a 
token1 a badge1 a prize4 ,then  they    
feel happy in having done well1 however 
little they enjoyed the  labor before4  
,honorable distinctions well managed1   
sometimes a share  in the unimportant   
direction of the class1 brilliancy of   
success in  single combat on the field  

of knowledge1 of memory1 or of          
intellectual  self-reliance1 the ordered
 discrimination of habitual merit1 all  
these means and many others keep the    
little army in a condition of  mental   
activity1 and sometimes of suspense2 and
 if not all are  victorious1 all at     
least have traversed the strengthening  
probation of  struggle4#hb    ,in all   
the courses of ,belles-lettres1         
,rhetoric1 ,philosophy1 and  ,theology1 
the institutions called ,academies      
gather into select  bodies the most     
talented and exemplary of the students4 
,the young  littrateurs1 or             
philosophers1 having their own          
officials1 special  reunions1 and       
archives1 hold their public sessions in 
presence of the  other students1 the    
,masters1 and illustrious personages    
invited for the  occasion4 ,in their    
poems1 speeches1 dialogues1 they        
discuss1 declaim1  and rise to great    
thoughts1 and to the conception of great
 deeds4    ,civil discords are not the  

subject of their debates1 but the       
glories  of their native country1 its   
success in arms1 all that is congenial  
to the young mind and fosters the       
sentiment of love of country4 ,among    
the students of ,rhetoric1 forensic     
debates and judicial trials are         
organized2 and when the advocates of    
both sides have pleaded their  cause in 
one or two sessions of the court1 then1 
says a document ,i  am quoting from1    
dated #aehj1 the judge1 who has been    
elected for the  purpose1 will pronounce
 his judgment in an oration of his own2 
this  will be the brilliant performance2
 and1 to hear it1 friends will be       
invited1 and the ,doctors of the        
,university and all the students will be
  in attendance4#hc ,in the programme   
for the distribution of rewards1  there 
is described an interesting element1    
puer lepidus1 a bright  young lad1 and  
what he is to do and how he is to bring 
out the name of  the victor1 whereupon  
the music will strike up a sweet        

symphony4#hd  ,at another time1 a set of
 published theses are defended against  
all  comers by some philosopher or      
theologian4 ,and1 while games and manly 
exercises outside develop physical      
strength1 gentility of demeanor and     
elegance of deportment have the stage at
 their service inside1 for the          
exhibition of refined manners4    ,in   
all this1 princes and nobles1 future men
 of letters and of action1  are mingling
 in daily life1 in contest and          
emulation1 with sons of  the simplest   
burghers4 ,descartes#he notes these     
points sagaciously1  when he recommends 
to a friend the ,college of ,la ,flche3 
,young people  are there1 he says1 from 
all parts of ,france2 there is a        
mingling  of characters2 their mutual   
intercourse effects almost the same good
  results as if they were actually      
travelling2 and1 in fine1 the equality  
which the ,jesuits establish among all1 
by treating just in the same  way those 
who are most illustrious and those who  

are not so1 is an  extremely good       
invention4#hf    ,as the new sciences   
came into vogue1 they received at once  
the freedom  of this city of intellect2 
and here they received it first4 ,it has
  been said1 indeed1 that the ,society  
of ,jesus1 obstinately bound to  its    
formalism1 refused to admit anything    
modern1 real1 and actual1  and that the 
national languages and literatures1 as  
well as the new  developing sciences1   
fared ill at its hands4 ,this statement1
 as far  as it concerns ,france1 is     
examined by ,father ,charles ,daniel1   
who to  other valuable works of his own 
has added the neat little essay called1 
,les ,jsuites ,instituteurs de la       
,jeunesse ,franaise1 au ,,xviie et au   
,,xviiie sicle4#hg ,as to ,germany1 we  
shall see indications enough  on all    
these subjects in the ,monumenta        
,germani ,pdagogica4 ,for all  countries
 there is a sufficiency of information1 
in the mere text of  the ,ratio         
,studiorum1 in ,jouvancy's classic      

commentary thereupon1 ,de  ,ratione     
,discendi et ,docendi1 and other        
authentic documents1 besides  the actual
 practice visible in the colleges4 ,but 
the whole question  about the vernacular
 tongues1 as if they were kept out of   
the colleges  by ,latin and ,greek1 is  
so far an anachronism for the dates and 
epochs1  regarding which some moderns   
have agitated the question1 that ,i     
shall  tell a little anecdote1 which    
will not be so much of a digression1 but
  that it will place us back just where 
we are at present4    ,in #afje1 ,lord  
,bacon published his two books on the   
,advancement of  ,learning4 ,the work is
 considered the first part of his ,novum
 ,organum4  ,he undertakes to make a    
small ,globe1 as he says1 of the        
,intellectual  ,world1 as truly and     
faithfully as he can discover4#hh ,his  
subject  is identical1 as far as it     
goes1 with the much more extensive and  
exhaustive work of ,father ,anthony     
,possevino1 a famous ,jesuit1 who had   

published1 twelve years before1 the     
results of twenty years' travel and     
observation1 while fulfilling1 in many  
countries1 the important duties  of     
,apostolic ,legate1 ,preacher1          
,professor4 ,i have two editions of his 
great tomes before me4 ,the first is    
that of ,rome1 #aeic2 the other that  of
 ,venice1 #afjc2 this latter is called  
the most recent edition4#hi  ,the only  
indication which ,i discern of ,bacon's 
not having profited by  ,possevino is   
this1 that he says3 ,no man hath        
propounded to himself  the general state
 of learning to be described and        
represented from age  to age4#ij ,now1  
as this is saying too much1 for it just 
indicates  what ,possevino's labors had 
been showing to the world during twelve 
years1 ,i must conclude that there is no
 assurance whatever1 but that  ,bacon   
profited by ,possevino3 he seems merely 
to have gone over the same  ground in   
,english1 and done justice to the       
subject1 in his own peculiar  way4      

,accordingly1 he did it what justice he 
could1 in ,english4 ,three  years later 
he writes to ,dr4 ,playfer1 ,margaret   
,professor of ,divinity  in the         
,university of ,cambridge1 requesting   
that the ,doctor would be  pleased to   
translate the work into ,latin2 and his 
lordship promises  eternal gratitude4   
,what reasons does the noble author urge
 for this  request8 ,two reasons1 of    
which the first is very noteworthy for  
our  purpose3--the privateness of the   
language1 wherein it is written1        
excluding so many readers6 ,and the     
second is almost as worthy of           
note3--the obscurity of the argument1 in
 many parts of it1 excluding  many      
others6#ia ,here we have our domestic   
classic author1 in the year  #afjh1     
endeavoring to get out of his narrow    
cell1 the privateness of  the ,english  
language1 into the broad world of the   
literary public1  where the ,jesuit with
 his tomes was enjoying to the full his 
literary  franchise4 ,this does not look

 as if the colleges1 at that time1 kept 
the languages down1 but rather that they
 had in their gift the full  freedom of 
the literary world1 and sent students   
forth to walk abroad  at their ease     
there1 where ,bacon humbly sued for     
admission6    ,i was going to quote from
 ,possevino1 describing in a graphic way
 the  daily intellectual life of the    
great ,roman ,college1 with its two     
thousand and more students1 besides the 
great body of ,professors4 ,but  my     
limits forbid me to do more than refer  
to it4#ib    ,there are two views which 
may be taken of a coin1 and its stamp4  
,one is  taken direct1 looking at it in 
itself2 the other is indirect1 observing
  the impression it leaves in the mould4
 ,it leaves a defined vacancy  there4   
,what kind of vacancy was left in the   
intellectual culture of  ,europe1 when  
this intellectual system was suddenly   
swept away8 ,before  the ,suppression of
 the ,society1 some of the institutions1
 which had  thriven at all1 had been    

inspired by a healthful rivalry4 ,they  
found1  when the ,society was gone1 that
 part of their life decayed4 ,and1 while
  they themselves began to languish1 the
 place of the ,jesuits they could  not  
fill4 ,of some others1 who lived a life 
barely discernible1 we are  given to    
understand1 that their vitality         
consisted in the effort to  keep the    
,jesuits out4 ,i will take an instance  
from ,bayonne4    ,a work has just been 
published on the municipal college of   
,bayonne1 by  the ,censor of ,studies1  
in the ,lyceum of ,agen4#ic ,in seventy 
pages1  which concern transactions with 
the ,jesuits1#id the author1 in no      
friendly tone1 narrates the entire      
history from the documents of the       
,jansenist party4 ,i will imitate this  
example of his so far as to  narrate the
 following entirely in his own words4   
,beginning his last chapter1 entitled   
,reform and ,conclusion1 he says  in a  
tone somewhat subdued1 but not more so  
than his subject3#ie ,this  then was the

 ,college of ,bayonne1 which1 for a few 
years more1 prolonged  an existence ever
 more and more precarious2 and it was   
finally closed  in #agib1 in spite of   
several generous efforts at restoring   
it4    ,but already1 he continues1 for  
thirty years1 a great literary  event   
had been accomplished in secondary      
education4 ,a decree of the  ,parliament
 of ,paris1 dated the #afth of ,august1 
#agfb1 had pronounced  the expulsion of 
the 'ci-devant soi-disants ,jsuites'2   
which decree  was this time definitively
 executed4 ,now the ,jesuits1 in their  
five  ,provinces of ,france1 possessed  
then nearly a hundred colleges4 ,judge  
of the immense void which was suddenly  
created in the secondary  instruction of
 the ,province1 ill prepared for so     
abrupt a departure6  ,there was a       
general confusion1 and a concert1 as it 
were1 of complaints  and recriminations4
 ,where get the new masters8444 ,the    
disciplinary and  financial             
administration of the colleges1 left    

vacant by the ,jesuits1  was confided to
 the bureaus1 that is to say1 assemblies
 composed of  the ,archbishop or        
,bishop1 the ,lieutenant ,general1 the  
,king's ,proctor1  and the senior       
,alderman4444 ,every one soon felt the  
inconveniences  of this system4 ,the    
municipal officers of the cities1 the   
bureaus  themselves hastened to petition
 the ,king1 that their colleges might be
  confided to religious communities4    
,thus it was that the greater part  of  
the old ,jesuit colleges fell into the  
hands of the ,benedictines and          
,bernardines1 of the ,carmelites and    
,minims1 of ,jacobins and ,cordeliers1  
of ,capuchins and ,recollects1 of       
,doctrinaires and ,barnabites1 and above
  all1 of the ,oratorians4 ,but all     
these ,religious1 except the            
,oratorians1  fell far short of the     
,jesuits4 ,the greater part had not even
 any idea  of teaching1 etc4 ,then the  
author devotes a heavy page to the novel
  systems which were introduced4 ,he    

closes the paragraph sadly3 ,all this   
agitation1 he says1 was unfortunately   
sterile2 and1 as ,i have just  said1    
secondary instruction1 on the eve of the
 ,french ,revolution1 had  not taken a  
step forward during fifty years4        
,,chapter ,,vii4    ,,the ,,moral       
,,scope ,,proposed4      ,sweet is the  
holiness of youth1 says ,chaucer4 ,nor  
less grateful to the  eye are those     
gentle manners of youth1 which another  
bard portrays as  impersonated in his   
celestial lights1 who say3--            
,we all          ,are ready at thy      
pleasure1 well disposed          ,to do 
thee gentle service4#if    ,christian   
morals and ,christian manners make the  
perfect gentleman4    ,plato had put it 
down that he who hath a good soul is    
good2 and he  insisted that no youth1   
who has had a personal acquaintance with
 evil1  can have a good soul4 ,he did   
not mean that a youth must be ignorant  
of what temptation is4 ,there is no     
hot-house raising in this world  which  

will keep off that blast4 ,every child1 
while keeping on the  royal road of     
innocence1 has enough in himself1 and in
 the choicest  of surroundings1 to know 
the realities of life and its warfare4  
,but  ,plato refers to a personal       
experience of the by-ways1 which are not
  virtue1 and which it is not necessary 
to travel by1 in order to know  enough  
about them4 ,the educational means1 the 
industry1 the vigilance1  which have for
 a result the preservation of youth in  
the freshness of  innocence1 signify a  
medium of respiration which is kept     
pure1 and a  moral nutriment which is   
good and is kept constantly supplied1   
until  tender virtue has risen steadily 
into a well-knit rectitude1 and is  able
 thenceforth to brave manfully the      
incidental storms of life4    ,for this 
moral strengthening of character1 no    
less than for the  invigorating of      
mental energies1 the system of ,ignatius
 ,loyola  prescribes an education which 
is public1--public1 as being that of    

many  students together1 public as      
opposed to private tutorism1 public1 in 
fine1 as requiring a sufficiency of the 
open1 fearless exercise both  of        
practical morality and of religion4     
,since the time of ,ignatius1           
,dupanloup has observed on this         
subject3--    ,i have heard a man of    
great sense utter this remarkable word4 
',if  a usurping and able government    
wanted to get rid of great races in  the
 country1 and root them out1 it need    
only come down to this1 that  it require
 of them1 out of respect for themselves1
 to bring up their  children at home1   
alone1 far from their equals1 shut up in
 the narrow  horizon of a private       
education and a private tutor4'#ig      
,the youthful material1 on which the    
,jesuit system had to work1 may be      
described from two points of view4      
,there were home conditions2 and  there 
were conditions too of the educational  
system1 which was commonly  prevalent in
 those centuries4    ,as to the         

circumstances of polite society at the  
boys' homes1 ,charles  ,lenormant1      
speaking of those times1 tells us that  
it was the privilege  of a gentleman to 
have from his infancy the responsibility
 of his own  actions4 ,the fathers of   
families were the first to launch their 
sons  into the midst of the perils of   
the world1 even before the age of       
discernment had begun4#ih ,even when    
boys' homes effect no positive  harm1   
still1 only too often1 they answer this 
description1 that they  undo the best of
 what the school training is endeavoring
 to effect1 by  the discipline of       
subordination and the practice of       
obedience4    ,it was this state of     
things which made the ,german ,jesuits1 
in spite  of themselves1 petition for   
the requisite authorization to open     
boarding colleges in the north1 as had  
already been done in ,portugal  and     
elsewhere4 ,reluctantly the             
authorization was given by the general  
assembly4#ii ,these convictus1 or       

pensionnats1 were known to  make great  
inroads on the time of the ,fathers1 on 
their study1 their  religious           
retirement1 and especially on that      
immunity of theirs  from financial      
transactions1 which they enjoyed as     
,religious4 ,the  ,constitution of      
,ignatius offers no more than a bare    
foothold for the  introduction of these 
colleges4#ajj ,yet they have proved to  
be the  most prolific nurseries of the  
eminent men1 whom the ,society has sent 
forth into all the walks of life4       
,not at home alone were effeminacy and  
dissoluteness to be feared4  ,there were
 conditions of life in the university   
system of the sixteenth  century1 which 
seemed considerably worse than those    
already described  in the first chapter 
of this book4 ,possevino1 who had spent 
ten years  in the midst of the religious
 turmoils of ,france1 and ten more in   
,papal  legations to ,germany1 ,poland1 
,hungary1 ,transylvania1 ,russia1       
,muscovy1  ,sweden1 and ,gothia1 and1   

after that1 four more years in visiting 
the  universities throughout ,europe1   
notices that there were five ways1      
whereby a general corruption of society 
had come about4 ,first1 he  mentions the
 dissemination of bad books4 ,secondly1 
the omission of  lectures2 or1 when     
lectures were held1 such disturbances   
during them1  with noise and yells1 that
 there scarce remained an appearance of 
human1 let alone of ,christian1 society4
 ,thirdly1 factions4 ,fourthly1         
sensuality1 to which cause must be      
referred that atrocious kind of         
iniquity1 whereby the very walls of the 
schools were defiled with  writing and  
the vilest pictures2#aja so that the    
tender age1 which  had come innocent1   
must go away more polluted with crime1  
than imbued  with learning1 becoming    
hateful to ,god himself4 ,fifthly1 an   
aversion  for ,divine worship1 inasmuch 
as disputations and graduating          
festivities  and lectures have          
constantly been transferred to those    

days and those  hours1 when by ,divine  
precept public worship is due4#ajb      
,the means organized by ,ignatius into a
 method of moral education ,i  will     
sketch in the words of his              
contemporaries4 ,ribadeneira1 his       
biographer1 says3 ,those means are      
employed by our ,masters1 whereby       
virtue is conceived in the hearts of the
 pupils1 is preserved and  augmented4   
,they are morning prayer1 for obtaining 
grace from ,god not  to fall into sin2  
night prayer and a diligent reflection  
on all the  thoughts1 words1 and actions
 of the day1 to do away by contrition of
  heart with all the faults committed2  
the attentive and devout hearing  of    
,mass every day2 frequent and humble    
confession of sins to a ,priest2  and if
 they are old enough1 and great devotion
 recommends it1 and their  confessor    
approves of it1 the reverent and pious  
reception of the ,body  of our ,lord    
,jesus ,christ2 teaching and explaining 
the rudiments of  the ,christian faith1 

whereby the boys are animated to live   
well and  happily4 ,besides1 great pains
 are taken to know and root out the     
vices  of boyhood1 especially such as   
are somehow inborn and native to that   
age4#ajc    ,here1 by the way1 the      
reader may advert to the fact that the  
confessional1 of which mention is made1 
never comes in as part of  the external 
means of moral development2 nor is a    
superior ever the  confessor of those   
under his charge1 except when desired to
 be so  by the free choice of the       
subordinate himself4 ,a general law of  
the  ,catholic ,church ordains it thus4 
,loyola's biographer goes on to the     
various means1 whereby1 in such  a      
multitude of young persons1 the bad     
element1 which unfortunately  will never
 die1 is either suppressed and kept at  
its lowest stage of  a struggling       
vitality1 or else1 if it happens to     
shoot up1 is weeded  out4 ,the garden   
will be none the poorer for that4       
,nil dabit inde minus6    ,there are1   

moreover1 the division of students into 
categories and  ranks1 with their own   
officers from among the boys themselves2
 the  degrees of honor and preminence   
assigned to good conduct and virtue2    
especially the pious societies or       
,sodalities1 into which none are        
admitted save the most studious and     
virtuous among the youths2 and that     
with a discrimination in favor of       
superior merit1 even among such as      
answer the general description4 ,the    
,sodalities of the ,society of ,jesus1  
as the subject of a study upon the      
management of youth1 and indeed upon    
the cultivation of all ranks in         
,christian society1 from ,peer and      
,field  ,marshal and ,viceroy1 down to  
the little boy beginning his career at  
school1 would deserve a special         
discourse for themselves4    ,i will    
continue now from ,possevino1 describing
 the ,roman ,college1 which  was an     
object of daily observation to the      
capital of the ,christian  world4#ajd   

,here1 he says1 you have two thousand   
youths1 among whom  reigns a deep       
silence2 there is no commotion4 ,in the 
classes there is  no reading of profane 
author or poet1 who might inoculate the 
mind with  defilement4 ,i may remark    
that ,ignatius had1 from the very first1
 begun  the method of expurgating       
authors1 a task which was then carried  
on  with diligence by the literary men  
of the ,society4 ,our author resumes3   
,a hundred daily occasions of sin and   
idleness are precluded2 a  continuous   
series is going on of lectures1         
repetitions1 disputations1  conferences4
 ,then he portrays1 as visible there in 
every-day life1  many of the features   
which ,ribadeneira has mentioned4       
,while idleness was under a ban1        
vacation was not debarred4 ,its         
principles1 however1 were defined on new
 lines4 ,there was a sufficiency  of    
rest to be provided2 but then no new    
intermissions were to be  granted4 ,the 
sufficiency would appear spare luxury to

 our looser  times4#aje ,one week of    
doing nothing1 say the ,fathers of      
,upper  ,germany to the ,general        
,aquaviva1 is more hurtful to students1 
than  four weeks in which some literary 
exercise is kept up2 and parents  take  
very much amiss this state of idleness1 
if the boys remain on our  hands4#ajf   
,in all this1 there was no question of  
making religious men of the  students4  
,it was a question only of ,religious   
making men of them4  ,father ,george    
,bader1 ,provincial of ,upper ,germany  
in #aehe1 left it in  his instructions  
for the management of the convictus1 at 
,dilingen1  that the ,prefects were not 
to despair or despond1 if they did not  
see  at once1 or in all1 the improvement
 desired2 nor were they to require  the 
perfection of ,religious from them1 nor 
introduce among them such  practices of 
life1 as elsewhere the students could   
not keep up in their  calling2 but the  
directors should be content with having 
a manner of  life followed1 which was   

ordinary1 virtuous1 and pious4#ajg      
,according to this idea1 the religious  
teacher being a man1 a  citizen1 and an 
ecclesiastic1 his educational industry  
has produced  its effect1 when it has   
made accomplished men1 worthy citizens1 
competent ,ecclesiastics1 or ,religious2
 when in the school1 says  ,ribadeneira1
 as in an arena1 the students1          
foreshadowing the future1  practise     
already1 in their own way1 those same   
virtues and duties1  which in maturer   
years they will exhibit1 in the         
management of the  republic4#ajh ,the   
rich material of the youthful mind and  
soul  receives the manifold influence   
which the teacher's mind and heart      
possess2 and receives it after the      
manner of the recipient1 according  to  
his future vocation4    ,what the       
,jesuit professors1 in fact1 were like1 
those who in after  years showed        
themselves but little friendly to the   
,order did not  omit to testify4 ,during
 the seven years1 says ,voltaire1 that  

,i  lived in the house of the ,jesuits1 
what did ,i see among them8 ,the  most  
laborious1 frugal1 and regular life1 all
 their hours divided  between the care  
they spent on us and the exercises of   
their austere  profession4 ,i attest the
 same as thousands of others brought up 
by  them1 like myself2 not one will be  
found to contradict me4 ,hence ,i  never
 cease wondering how any one can accuse 
them of teaching corrupt  morality4444  
,let any one place side by side the     
',provincial ,letters'  and the ,sermons
 of ,father ,bourdaloue2 he will learn  
in the former  the art of raillery1 the 
art of presenting things1 indifferent in
  themselves1 under aspects which make  
them appear criminal1 the art of        
insulting with eloquence2 he will learn 
from ,father ,bourdaloue1 that of  being
 severe to oneself1 and indulgent toward
 others4#aji    ,history is uniform in  
bearing witness that the general effects
 of their  teaching corresponded to the 
example of these ,professors1 in spite  

of the fact1 as ,cretineau-,joly puts   
it1 that even from the hands of         
religious men the impious can still come
 forth1 as1 in the school of  the wise1 
dunces and dolts may still be found4#aaj
 ,man is still and  always free4        
,however1 if it follows thence1 that not
 only a positive1  but a negative result
 may always be expected2 such a double  
result may  be set off by two consoling 
reflections1 which ,i will mention1 in  
order  to complete the picture of this  
education in practice4    ,the first is1
 that since1 from the school of virtue  
and religiousness1  vice can still issue
 forth1 and1 as the ,general            
,vitelleschi says1 a  good education1   
though almost omnipotent1 may1 like the 
morning dew1  evaporate and be lost in  
the first heat of manhood's             
passions1#aaa  what would be the results
 of the system1 if it had less piety to 
enlighten1 or less of an organized      
practice of virtue to confirm1 the      
minds and hearts of the young8          

,another reflection is this3 that human 
nature1 however erratic by  defect of   
will1 still remains beautiful1 thanks to
 the original  gift of ,god4 ,whence it 
comes1 that impiety is found beautifully
  inconsistent2 and1 in its lucid       
intervals1 it makes the due             
acknowledgment1 as he did1 who once     
said3--            ,o thou1 that with   
surpassing glory crowned1               
,look'st from thy sole dominion 444     
,to thee ,i call4444          ,to tell  
thee how ,i hate thy beams1             
,that bring to my remembrance from what 
state          ,i fell4#aab    ,the     
,society of ,jesus has many a time been 
elegantly blessed and cursed  by the    
same eloquent lips and pens4    ,the    
secret of this magisterial ascendency1  
as ,ignatius of ,loyola  projected it1  
was to be found in the ,masters'        
intellectual attainments1  which        
naturally impressed youthful minds2 and 
also in a paternal  affection which1 of 
course1 won youthful hearts4 ,does      

anything more  seem necessary for the   
full idea of authority8 ,the committee  
appointed  by the canton of ,fribourg1  
for restoring the ,fathers to their old 
college in #ahah1 mention as one reason 
for having done so1 that the  will      
cannot be chained2 it will not submit to
 restraint4 ,you can  win it1 but not   
subjugate it4 ,and they speak of that   
most lively  attachment ever abiding in 
the hearts of students towards members  
of  the ,order1 which they have known as
 the cradle of their youth4#aac ,the    
same ,father ,bader1 whom ,i have quoted
 before1 defines where authority  lies1 
when he says3 ,let not the ,prefects    
consider their authority  to consist in 
this1 that the students are on hand in  
obedience to  their nod1 their every    
word1 or their very look2 but in this1  
that the  boys love them1 approach with 
confidence1 and make their difficulties 
known4 ,speaking of penalties1 he goes  
on3 ,the pupils should be led to        
understand that such reprehensions are  

necessary and are prompted by           
affection2 and let it be the most       
grievous rebuke or penalty for them  to 
know that they have offended their      
,prefect4#aad    ,thus1 in the education
 of the sixteenth century1 there came   
into play  a gradual reaction against   
the harshness and brusquer manners of   
earlier times4 ,speaking of conversation
 with the students1 the ,general        
,vitelleschi1 in #afci1 gives           
characteristic directions3 ,it will be  
very  useful if from time to time the   
,professors treat with their auditors1  
and converse with them1 not about vain  
rumors and other affairs that  are not  
to the purpose1 but about those which   
appertain most to their  well-being and 
education2 going down to particulars    
that seem most to  meet their wants2 and
 showing them1 in a familiar way1 how   
they ought  to conduct themselves in    
studies and piety4 ,let the ,professors 
be  persuaded that a single talk in     
private1 animated with true zeal and    

prudence on their part1 will penetrate  
the heart more and work more            
powerfully1 than many lectures and      
sermons given in common4#aae    ,here   
then ,i have touched on the secrets of  
success1 those principles  which        
commanded esteem1 and shed about the    
,order an unmistakable halo  of         
educational prestige4          ,,chapter
 ,,viii4    ,,ignatius ,,administering  
,,the ,,collegiate ,,system4 ,,his      
,,death4      ,the first two colleges   
were established in the same year1      
#aedb1--one  of them in the royal       
university at ,coimbra in ,portugal1 the
 other at  ,goa in ,hindustan4 ,though  
they were organized at an early date1   
only  two years after the foundation of 
the ,order1 when as yet no system had   
been formally adopted1 nevertheless     
these two first colleges1 a good  many  
thousands of miles apart1 were found to 
have been established in  precisely the 
same way4 ,francis ,xavier1 having been 
assigned to the  apostolic ministry in  

the ,east1 began a university there1 in 
which  all the sciences and branches    
were professed1 just as in the ,european
  colleges4 ,this became the base of    
operations for ,japan1 ,china1 ,persia1 
,ethiopia1 and the other nations of the 
,east4 ,forty years later1 there  were  
as many as one hundred and twenty       
,jesuits in the college4    ,in #aedb1  
,ignatius had a select body of fifteen  
or sixteen young men  studying in       
,paris2 others he had placed in ,padua  
or elsewhere4 ,he  availed himself of   
the actual universities until such time 
as he should  have his own4 ,war        
breaking out between the ,emperor       
,charles ,v and the  ,french ,king      
,francis1 all ,spaniards and ,belgians  
were ordered out of  ,france4 ,such as  
were ,italians remaining in ,paris1 the 
other young  ,jesuits crossed the       
frontier to ,louvain1 under the charge  
of ,father  ,jerome ,domenech4 ,there   
the ,latin oratory of the youth1        
,francis ,strada1  whom ,lefvre1 on his 

way through ,belgium1 supplied with     
matter for his  orations1#aaf helped to 
build up the ,order rapidly with two    
kinds of  men1 talented youths1 who were
 captivated by the things they saw and  
heard1 and men already eminent1 who were
 equally attracted by the scope  of the 
new ,institute4 ,in the young ,strada   
preaching and the eminent  ,lefvre going
 out of his way to subsidize him with   
matter1 we catch a  family glimpse of   
that intensified force which can be     
developed in a  closely bound           
organization4    ,conspicuously wanting 
in gifts of presence and of learning1   
,francis  ,villanova1 sent by ,ignatius 
to the university seat of ,alcal1 won   
such an ascendency there by his other   
qualities as a ,priest1 that a          
commodious and flourishing college was  
soon founded4 ,father ,jerome  ,domenech
 endowed one in his native city of      
,valentia1 #aedc4 ,lefvre and  ,araoz1  
following awhile by royal request in the
 suite of the ,princess  ,mary1 daughter

 of the ,portuguese ,king1 and queen of 
the ,spanish ,king1  founded a college  
at ,valladolid4 ,in ,gandia1 his own    
duchy1 ,francis  ,borgia erected and    
richly equipped a university1 which was 
the first  placed in the hands of the   
,society4    ,colleges at ,barcelona1   
,bologna1 ,saragossa1 arose within the  
next two  or three years2 also at       
,messina1 ,palermo1 ,venice1 and        
,tivoli4 ,it is  evident that ,ignatius 
had a world of administration already on
 his  hands4 ,as early as ,march #af1   
#aedj1 he had excused himself from      
granting  an application1 because of    
much pains he was taking in sending some
  to the ,indies1 others to ,ireland and
 to parts of ,italy4 ,now1 though  his  
forces were increasing1 yet he was      
husbanding them2 and even so1  while    
refusing many applications1 he seemed to
 be everywhere4 ,but this  need not be  
so much a matter of wonder1 if we       
consider that it is the  right place1   
and the right move at the proper time1  

that commands other  places1 movements1 
and times4    ,at the death of ,lefvre1 
in #aedf1 the onward movement of these  
select  men1 coming in contact1 either  
friendly or adverse1 with every actual  
power in ,europe1 was so impressive for 
its strategic completeness1 and  so     
far-reaching in its results1 that1 as an
 historian remarks1 ,these  ten men1 so 
ably chosen1 had accomplished to their  
entire satisfaction1  in less than six  
years1 what the most absolute monarch   
would not have  ventured to exact of the
 most blind devotedness4#aag    ,hardly 
had ,lefvre departed this life1 when his
 place was taken by the  last man whom  
he had dealt with1 ,francis ,borgia1    
,duke of ,gandia1 the  friend and cousin
 of the ,emperor ,charles ,v4 ,still    
wearing his ducal  robes1 until his     
temporal affairs could be settled1 he   
came to ,rome in  #aeej4 ,he founds the 
,roman ,college1 which is the centre and
 type of all  ,jesuit colleges4    ,it  
was begun on ,february #ahth1 #aeea1 at 

the foot of the ,capitol1 with  fourteen
 members of the ,order1 and ,father     
,john ,peltier1 a ,frenchman1  at their 
head4 ,doubling this number in the      
following ,september1 the  ,college     
moved to a larger building4 ,the        
,professors taught ,rhetoric1  and three
 languages1 ,hebrew1 ,greek1 and ,latin4
 ,in #aeec1 the entire  course of       
,philosophy and ,theology was added4    
,the number of ,jesuit  students among  
the auditory amounted1 in this year1 to 
sixty1 and1  in the following year1 to  
one hundred4 ,a few years later1        
,vittoria  ,toffia1 niece of ,paul ,,iv1
 and wife of ,camillo ,orsini1 provided 
the  institution with a splendid        
property4 ,thenceforth1 the number of   
,jesuit  students alone was as high as  
#bbj1 brought together from sixteen or  
more different nations1 most of them    
familiar with many languages1 all       
speaking by rule the tongue of the      
country in which they were residing1    
and all competent to speak and teach in 

the one universal and learned  language 
of the time1 the ,latin tongue4    ,of  
students not belonging to the ,order1   
nearly twenty colleges are  enumerated1 
at some periods1 as following the       
courses of this central  ,roman         
,college4 ,they included the colleges of
 the ,english1 the ,greeks1  the        
,scotch1 the ,maronites1 the ,irish1 and
 the ,neophytes2 the ,colleges  named   
,capranica1 ,fuccioli1 ,mattei1         
,pamfili1 ,salviati1 ,ghislieri2 the    
,german ,college and the ,college       
,gymnasio2 also the ,roman ,seminary4   
,of  the #bajg students counted1 as     
following the courses at a given time1  
#cjj were in theology4 ,the most eminent
 professors filled the chairs1  in      
successive generations2 theologians like
 ,suarez and ,vasquez1  commentators    
like ,cornelius a ,lapide and           
,maldonado1 founders or leaders  in the 
schools of national history like        
,mariana and ,pallavicini2  ,clavius1   
reformer of the ,gregorian calendar2    

,kircher1 universal in all  exact       
sciences2 and so of the rest2 while the 
cycle of colleges over  the world       
remained provided with their requisite  
forces1 and maintained  their own       
prestige4#aah    ,the emblem of this    
institution was ,theology1 enthroned1 as
 it were1 in  a temple of imposing      
proportions4 ,at her right and left two 
,maids of  ,honor stand2 they are the   
,natural ,sciences4 ,one of them1       
representing  ,mathematics1 is placing  
the celestial sphere under the feet of  
the  august goddess seated2 the other1  
representing ,physics1 is subjecting1   
in like manner1 the orb of the earth4   
,the legend attached reads3 ,leges      
impone subactis4    ,in forty or fifty  
years such an investment of talent1     
character1 and  virtue1 had been made1  
by management within the ,order1 and by 
that  power to which ,ignatius always   
appealed1 ,divine ,providence1 that     
,rome  had seen pass through this house 
the most distinguished men of the  age1 

in every line of intellectual life1 of  
moral eminence1 and of all  that could  
elevate the thoughts of noble and       
generous minds4 ,for the  young1 in     
particular1 three characters came1      
figures that were to fill  the niches   
and terminate the aisles of             
contemplation1 as the ideal  choice of  
the bloom of youth--,stanislaus ,kostka1
 a young ,polish noble  of seventeen1   
,aloysius ,gonzaga1 an ,italian prince  
of twenty-three1 and  ,john ,berchmans1 
a ,flemish burgher of twenty-two4 ,being
 what they were1  and leaving this life 
at such an age1 they have appropriated  
in the  ,catholic ,church the honors of 
the young4    ,with regard to ,germany1 
it is with a classic touch1 as of       
,csar's  style1 that an historian       
introduces the subject thus3 ,germania1 
quo gravius laboravit1 hoc studiosius   
adjuta est2 ,ignatio nulla  regio       
commendatior4#aai ,nor will the         
association be considered  far-fetched1 
if1 substituting for ,csar's pen and    

,csar's sword1  ,loyola's legislation   
for letters and his strategic tactics1  
one catches  a suggestive idea1 on the  
present topic1 from that statue of the  
same  ,roman ,general1 which represents 
him as holding in one hand a sword1 and 
in the other a pen1 with the words      
inscribed underneath1 ,ex utroque       
,csar4    ,of the services of those nine
 men1 with whom he founded the ,order1  
he  spent a large part upon ,germany4   
,lefvre was there1 ,le ,jay1 ,bobadilla1
  ,salmeron1 ,laynez2 not to mention the
 great ,canisius 7de ,hondt71 a young   
man already in the field1 who was to    
stay there for half a century4  ,it is  
of these men and their work that ,ranke 
writes3 ,of what country  were these1   
the first of their ,order amongst us8   
,they were natives of  ,spain1 ,italy1  
the ,netherlands4 ,for a long time1 even
 the name of their  ,society was        
unknown1 and they were styled the       
,spanish ,priests4 ,they  filled the    
chairs of the universities1 and there   

met with disciples  willing to embrace  
their faith4 ,germany has no part in    
them2 their  doctrine1 their            
constitution1 had been completed and    
reduced to form1  before they appeared  
in our midst4 ,we may then regard the   
progress of  their ,institute here1 as a
 new participation of ,latin ,europe in 
,german  ,europe4 ,they have defeated us
 upon our own soil1 and wrested from us 
a  share of our fatherland4#abj    ,in  
concert with the ,duke of ,bavaria and  
the ,emperor ,ferdinand1  ,ingolstadt   
and ,vienna became the two first centres
 of operations4  ,ingolstadt was indeed 
destined to become soon one of the most 
representative universities of the      
,company1 and the ,german centre of     
what has been called the                
,counter-,reformation4#aba ,but         
,ignatius would  not accept it1 without 
the clearest enunciation of some        
fundamental  principles in the          
educational work of his ,institute4 ,i  
will mention  them4    ,first1 the      

condition of all higher studies1 and of 
lower studies  as well1 was such1 that1 
as ,ignatius said1 it was useless to    
begin  with the top1 which without a    
good foundation will never stand4 ,the  
disappointment of individual hopes and  
of general expectation would be  the    
only result1 with demoralization for the
 future4 ,let ,literature1  he said1 and
 ,philosophy be gone through            
satisfactorily2 then ,theology  may be  
approached4 ,literature must come first 
of all4 ,hence ,polanco1  the secretary 
of ,ignatius1 writes to the ,duke of    
,bavaria1 in #aeea1  that the ,jesuits  
must begin by undertaking preparatory   
teaching1 with  ,professors capable of  
inspiring their young students1 little  
by little1  with a taste for            
,theology4#abb    ,secondly1 we may     
recall to mind what was mentioned       
before1#abc that  ,ignatius provides for
 ,law and ,medicine in his universities1
 but the  professors of these           
departments are to be taken from without

 the ,order4  ,now1 quite as a          
counterpart to this1 we find him        
declaring to the ,duke  of ,bavaria1    
that it is at variance with his plan to 
lend any ,professors  or ,lecturers of  
the ,order for work outside of ,jesuit  
institutions4  ,therefore a college must
 be founded for them1 or the ,duke      
cannot have  them4    ,the reason for   
this reserve is not hard to discern4 ,in
 an organization  like his1 there are no
 men at large to lend4 ,and1 were the   
most  eminent men assigned for work     
outside of the ,jesuit colleges and     
universities1 the younger generation of 
the ,order would practically  be        
debarred from the influence of their    
type of eminence4 ,and again1  if there 
were eminent men laboring in a country1 
without the stable  abode of a ,jesuit  
college in the same place1 there would  
be no  propagating the distinctive work 
of the ,order itself1 by means of  the  
men of that country4 ,yet1 as he        
projected a native clergy for  ,germany1

 so he intended native ,jesuits for the 
,germans4 ,besides1 it  does not seem   
possible to accept of a chair outside1  
except on the  basis of some pecuniary  
consideration for the individual        
,professor4  ,now this is a situation   
which he does not accept4 ,a ,professed 
,father  is not to sacrifice his        
religious life and independence1 bound  
to  a work outside of the ,order's own  
houses1 and that for a valuable         
consideration4 ,ignatius accepts of no  
obligations to fill chairs1 save  as    
accepting universities1 which contain   
those chairs4#abd ,and1 as  to pecuniary
 considerations1 his principle is1      
,gratis accepistis1  gratis date2 ,give 
freely what you have freely received4   
,to this  cardinal principle the        
statutes of so many universities1 if not
 of all1  in which a ,jesuit ,college   
conducted any of the faculties1         
distinctly  refer1 as the ground for    
exempting ,religious of the ,society    
from all  pecuniary charges1 incidental 

to university affairs4#abe ,no ingenious
  compromise was admitted which tended  
to relax this principle1 regarding  a   
pecuniary consideration4#abf ,on the    
contrary1 the most legitimate  and ample
 revenues offered were not accepted as a
 recommendation for a  university1 if   
there were any conditions whatever not  
in keeping with  the ,institute4#abg    
,the ,german ,college in ,rome was      
founded by ,ignatius1 to form ,german   
ecclesiastics for the ,germans4 ,at that
 time benefices and parochial  cures1 in
 the ,german ,emperor's dominions1 were 
generally vacant for  want of ,priests4 
,it soon came to pass that ,priests were
 found to be in  waiting1 for want of   
benefices4 ,it was not merely for the   
ordinary cure  of souls that this       
college received so much attention from 
,loyola4 ,true  to himself1 ever        
contemplating something eminent1--rarum 
et eximium  facinus1 as he said once to 
the ,scholastics of ,coimbra1 that rare 
and excellent achievement2 which is     

worth more than six hundred common      
ones1--he was founding a seminary for   
preachers1 professors1 prelates4  ,if   
the students sent from ,germany1 to be  
admitted and supported on  this         
foundation1 are not noblemen1 at all    
events1 writes ,ignatius in  #aeeb1 let 
nobility of soul not be wanting to      
them4#abh ,this is the  institution     
which caused so much vexation to        
non-,catholic ,germany4 ,it  renovated  
the priesthood4    ,thus1 then1 in a    
short official career of sixteen years1 
,ignatius  had the gratification of     
seeing a new and vast educational policy
  crowned with success4 ,in spite of the
 active opposition which powerful       
interests in ,rome led against him--and 
a vigorous siege from the side  of the  
schoolmasters was not to be despised1   
nor should it fail to be  recorded1--in 
spite of the desperate hostility of the 
,sorbonne1 which  was but beginning its 
war upon the ,society in ,france1 with  
storms at  ,toledo and ,saragossa       

flanking his movements in ,spain2 in    
spite of the  open war with heresy in   
,protestant ,germany1 where acrimony1   
distilled  to its last degree of        
concentration1 was to embitter history1 
till the  days of ,ranke and ,janssen   
should come1 and begin to vindicate the 
truth  of history2 thanks to the labors 
of ,ignatius1 the monopoly of education 
was being broken down2 the old          
universities were no longer either the  
sole depositories of superior           
instruction1 or the arbiters of the     
intellectual life of ,europe2 and all   
the best learning1 which the most       
accomplished men could impart1 was now  
being given gratuitously1 and  in as    
many centres of educational activity as 
the ,society was allowed  to create4    
,and1 whereas it is put down to the     
credit of ,germany1 that  sixteen of the
 old universities had arisen on its     
soil1 now1 in the  ,german ,assistency  
of the ,society1 there arose more than  
sixteen ,jesuit  universities1 besides  

two hundred colleges4 ,and1 in virtue of
 ,papal  charters1 it was already an    
accomplished fact1 that all the powers  
of universities1 with regard to the     
degrees of ,bachelor1 ,master1          
,licentiate1 and ,doctor1 were vested in
 the head of the ,order1 who could      
delegate the same to subordinate        
,superiors4#abi    ,no wonder all the   
faculties of ,christendom considered the
 ,order an  intruder and an aggressor4  
,it might be considered so to-day4 ,free
 and  universal education was at the    
doors of all4 ,we1 men of the nineteenth
  century1 may flatter ourselves that it
 was the spirit of our age which        
breathed upon the ,order of ,jesus1     
three centuries before the time4        
,perhaps so4 ,but we shall have to wait 
a few centuries more1 even  beyond the  
nineteenth century1 before we come to   
such education given  universally and   
given gratuitously4 ,for it is one of   
the most palpable  characteristics of   
all educational and other philanthropy  

which we know  of1 that it is an        
extremely expensive thing4    ,let us   
now close our sketch of the great       
educator1 ,saint ,ignatius  of ,loyola4 
,all the particulars of his death have  
been preserved for  us by those who were
 with him at the last4 ,they were not   
his first  companions4 ,of these1 the   
few who survived at the present date1   
sixteen years after the foundation of   
the ,society1 were scattered in  various
 climes4 ,the members with him were     
,john ,polanco1 his polished  secretary1
 ,andr ,frusis1 a ,frenchman1 one of the
 most gifted of  linguists and of       
littrateurs1 ,christopher ,madrizi1 a   
university  ,doctor of ,alcal1 and      
,jerome ,nadal1 whom in ,paris1 long    
before1  ,ignatius had endeavored to    
enlist in the service of his ,institute2
  but ,nadal had rejected all overtures1
 pointing to the ,bible under his  arm1 
and saying he wanted no other institute 
save that4 ,he was a man  of the first  
quality in judgment and the governing   

cast of mind4 ,later  on1 when the      
exploits of ,saint ,francis ,xavier in  
,india and ,japan had  become the talk  
and admiration of ,europe1 ,nadal       
entered the ,order1 so  cautiously that 
one might say he did it reluctantly2 yet
 he did it4 ,his  subsequent career     
showed that he had made a mistake1 when 
he missed a  place in the very first    
ranks4    ,others were close by4 ,laynez
 lay in a sick-room2 as was thought1 on 
his  death-bed2 ,mendoza too1 and       
,martin ,olave4 ,the latter1 some thirty
 years  before1 was a boy whom ,ignatius
 met1 when as a poor pilgrim he reached 
,alcal from ,barcelona1 to take up his  
university studies4 ,the boy gave  him  
an alms1 the first received by ,ignatius
 in that city4 ,time had  passed since  
then4 ,the boy had become a ,master of  
,arts1 and1 in #aedc1 a  ,doctor of the 
,paris ,university1 remarkable in many  
ways for virtue and  learning4 ,now1 a  
man of mature age and great authority1  
he had embraced  the ,institute of      

,ignatius4 ,he alone of the invalids    
died immediately  after his master in   
religion4    ,the latter1 on ,july the  
#cjth1 told them he was about to die4   
,but1  diseases having preyed upon him  
for years1 the physicians did not       
confirm what he said2 and ,father       
,ignatius made no more statements on    
the subject4 ,he spent the evening in   
his usual manner1 transacted some       
business with perfect serenity of mind1 
and then was left alone till  the       
morrow4    ,the morrow is just dawning1 
when they find him breathing his last4  
,he  declines to accept any potion4     
,joining his hands together1 with his   
eyes fixed heavenward1 and pronouncing  
the name of ,jesus1 the founder  of the 
,society of ,jesus passes away from this
 life1 in the ,professed  ,house at     
,rome4    ,it was the thirty-first day  
of ,july1 #aeef4 ,he was sixty-five     
years of  age4 ,thirty-five years had   
passed1 since the ,knight of the ,king  
of  ,navarre had1 with such solemnity1  

changed his garb1 hung up his sword  and
 poniard in the sanctuary of            
,montserrat1 and vowed himself to be a  
,knight in the ,kingdom of ,christ4     
,all the time since then he had spent in
 extreme poverty1 in the  practice of   
austerity1 in the laborious travels of a
 pilgrim1 in the  more laborious pursuit
 of letters1 under the stress of        
persecution1  prisons1 and chains1 and  
under the relentless fatigue of a       
universal  foresight1 vigilance1 and    
administration4 ,he had proved himself a
  leader and commander of men1 as nature
 had made him to be1 and as  history    
shows that he was4    ,in an especial   
manner1 he is famous for his prudence4  
,approaching  every enterprise with the 
most varied and exhaustive deliberation1
  spending forty days of meditation on  
determining a single point of  the      
,constitution1 throwing upon his        
premises every kind of light  from      
consultation and advice1 and having     
habitually in his room1 for  reference1 

only two books1 the ,new ,testament1 and
 the ,imitation of  ,christ1 he thought 
out every plan to the last degree of    
definiteness  and consistency4 ,having  
once reached such a definite conclusion1
 he  was not easy to move thenceforth   
out of the direction taken4 ,quite      
otherwise4 ,with the utmost vigilance1  
he applied himself and he  applied all  
the means1 whether they were persons    
available or measures  necessary1 to the
 execution of his purpose4 ,even when1  
as often seemed  to be the case1 he was 
starting from principles other than     
those of  ordinary human foresight1     
apparently from a pure trust in ,divine 
,providence1 he did not exempt himself  
from applying1 with the same            
circumspection and diligence as ever1   
the means adequate to execute  what he  
had begun4 ,waiting fourteen hours1 and 
fasting withal1 in the  ante-chamber of 
a prince1 lest the propitious occasion  
should slip1  writing out the same      
letter twice1 thrice1 and oftener1 lest 

the right  thing should not be said in  
the right way1 and sending out thirty   
letters in one night1 he exhibited1 in  
the administration of great  things and 
small1 what had marked all his previous 
deliberation1 the  highest degree of    
consummate prudence and of practical    
perfection4    ,if1 in all this1 there  
are many eminent qualities to admire1   
there is a  resultant fact more         
marvellous still4 ,he did his work so   
that it went  on without him4 ,and      
hence1 if1 whenever he happened to be   
anywhere on  the field of action1       
account had to be taken of such a man1  
it will  not perhaps appear singular    
that his ,order too1 even when          
ostracized  and expatriated1 is taken   
into account1 if it is anywhere visible 
on  the social horizon4 ,while ,i am    
writing this1 three hundred and fifty   
years after his time1 the ,bundesrath1  
on closing the ,kulturkampf1 and        
admitting all the exiled ,orders of the 
,catholic ,church back into the  ,empire

 of ,germany1 makes an exception of the 
,jesuits4 ,it bans the ,order  of       
,jesus1 and gives no reason1 beyond the 
palpable fact that the ,order  is what  
it is4 ,evidently1 ,ignatius of ,loyola 
did his work so as to make  it go on    
without him2 and go on just as he made  
it4          ,,chapter ,,ix4            
,,subsequent ,,administrations4         
,according to a contemporary chronicle  
for the year #aeef1 the first           
announcement of the death of ,ignatius  
caused such a profound sentiment  of    
grief in all members of the ,order1 that
 a degree of stupor seemed  for the     
moment to possess them4 ,but this was   
only temporary4 ,it was  followed by a  
marked alacrity of spirit appearing     
everywhere4 ,the  ,society was beginning
 its course4#acj    ,in the first       
general assembly1 ,father ,james ,laynez
 was elected to  succeed the founder1 in
 the office of ,general ,superior4 ,the 
matters  which concerned the assembly in
 its legislation1 and the new ,general  

in  his administration1 were the proper 
temporal foundation of colleges1  the   
admission of convictus or               
boarding-colleges1 and other questions1 
which may be noted in the ,monumenta    
,germani ,pdagogica4#aca ,laynez        
governed the ,order during nine years1  
till #aefe4    ,father ,francis ,borgia1
 who had resigned his dukedom1 and by   
this  example led ,charles ,v to seek   
repose in the monastery of ,st4 ,yuste1 
was elected third ,general4 ,his virtues
 and his presence1 wherever he          
appeared1 exercised such a magic        
influence that1 when he had merely      
passed through ,spain1 colleges had     
sprung up as from the soil4 ,three      
,provinces had been formed in that      
country alone1 within thirteen  years   
from the foundation of the ,society4    
,but this multiplication of  colleges1  
often not sufficiently endowed for their
 future development1  was already seen  
to be one of the threatened weaknesses  
of the  ,company4 ,the special          

legislation passed at the time of his   
election  regarded the proper           
establishment1 in every ,province1 of   
philological1  philosophical1 and       
theological seminaries1 for the         
formation of  ,professors4#acb ,instead 
of the proportionate number of ,jesuit  
students  being supported on each       
collegiate foundation1 this legislation1
 and  much more that followed later1    
ordained a system of concentration in   
seminaries of humane letters1           
philosophy1 science1 and divinity1 which
  were conducted respectively by corps  
of eminent ,professors selected for  the
 purpose1 and were maintained either on 
some munificent foundation  specially   
made for this object1 or by a due       
proportion of the other  collegiate     
foundations4 ,at this date it was that  
colleges for the  formation of diocesan 
clergy1 or ,bishops' ,seminaries1 as    
they are  commonly called1 were coming  
into existence1 in accordance with the  
decrees of the ,council of ,trent4 ,the 

manner of admitting them1 as  annexed to
 colleges of the ,society1 and thereby  
availing themselves  of the ,jesuit     
courses1 was regulated by this assembly4
 ,in no case  were they to be provided  
with a corps of ,professors distinct    
from the  faculty of the college4    ,in
 #aegc ,father ,everard ,mercurian1 a   
,belgian1 was elected to succeed  ,saint
 ,francis ,borgia4 ,he was sixty-eight  
years old at the time of his  election1 
and lived eight years after4 ,he drew   
out of the ,constitution  various       
summaries of rules for the guidance of  
the chief officers in  the ,society4    
,those which concern studies are given  
in a few pages of  the ,monumenta4#acc  
,at his death1 a young man thirty-seven 
years old1 who had entered the  ,order  
only about twelve years before1 was     
elected to succeed him4 ,this  was      
,claudius ,aquaviva1 son of ,prince     
,john ,aquaviva1 ,duke of ,atri4 ,he    
was a man who1 for his superior         
executive abilities and his services    

rendered to the ,order in times most    
critical1 has been regarded as  a second
 founder4 ,as to what his administration
 saw effected in the  matter of         
education1 the ,ratio ,studiorum bears  
witness4 ,he governed  the ,society     
during thirty-four years4    ,mutius    
,vitelleschi1 one of the mildest and    
gentlest of men1 but not on  that       
account ineffective in his government1  
succeeded ,aquaviva1 filling  a term of 
thirty-one years1 from #afae to #afdf4  
,various pedagogic  interests occupied  
the attention of the general assembly1  
by which  he was elected2 in particular1
 the promotion of ,humane ,letters1 the 
means of supplying ,professors1 and the 
searching character of the  examinations
 ordained1 at every step in their       
studies1 for the members  of the        
,society4    ,the farther the ,society  
advanced in history1 the less there was 
of new  legislation4 ,the tension grew  
on the side of administration2 and the  
urgency shown by general assemblies     

evinces this4 ,the philological         
seminary was developed for the junior   
scholastics2 and a classic form  drawn  
up for it by ,jouvancy4 ,as             
distinguished talents for preaching  and
 governing were treated with the special
 favor of being allowed to  compensate  
for some deficiencies1 in the           
qualifications requisite for  the degree
 of ,profession in the ,order1 so       
special legislation provided  for       
similar eminence in literature1 in      
,oriental languages1 in ,greek and      
,hebrew4    ,mathematics had1 from the  
first1 been a department of activity    
native  to the energies of the ,company4
 ,the schools of ,geography and ,history
  developed in the seventeenth and at   
the beginning of the eighteenth         
centuries4 ,the school of modern        
,physics then asserting itself1 and     
running so close upon the field of      
,metaphysics1 was subjected to          
regulations in the assemblies of #agcj  
and #agea4    ,after the restoration of 

the ,order1 social and educational      
circumstances being so immensely        
altered1 the whole ground had to be     
surveyed again1 with a view to          
adaptation2 the curriculum had to be    
expanded1 and1 where necessary1         
prolonged to meet the growing demands   
of the exact sciences2 and an indefinite
 number of specialties to  be provided  
for1 by the selection and fostering of  
special talents4  ,these special lines  
are1 in the terms of the latest general 
assembly1  ,ancient ,languages1         
,philology1 ,ethnology1 ,archology1     
,history1 ,higher  ,mathematics1 and all
 the ,natural ,sciences4 ,we are thus   
brought down1  in the history of general
 legislation1 to the very recent date1  
#ahhc1  less than ten years ago4        
,meanwhile the ,generals1 on whom rested
 the burden of supervising all  this1   
discharged the functions of             
administration4 ,father ,vincent        
,caraffa promoted and urged on the      
pursuit of ,belles ,lettres1 and        

defined positions in ,mathematics4      
,father ,francis ,piccolomini1 in a     
general ordinance for all the higher    
studies1 defined the stand to  be taken 
by ,professors1 as representing the     
,society itself in their  chairs2 so1   
too1 ,father ,goswin ,nickel1 with      
reference to certain new  issues4 ,both 
he and his successor1 ,paul ,oliva1 had 
to face the new  contingencies which    
arose from the charges of the           
,jansenists against  what they called   
the loose moral teachings of the        
,jesuits4 ,father  ,oliva stimulated the
 pursuit of excellence in ,humane       
,letters1 in the  ,greek1 ,hebrew1      
,arabic1 and ,chaldaic languages4       
,positions of ,descartes1  ,leibnitz1 as
 well as of certain others in           
,philosophy and ,theology1  were        
animadverted upon by the ,generals      
,tamburini and ,retz4 ,father  ,ignatius
 ,visconti urged again the pursuit of   
perfection in literary  matters1 and in 
the manner of conducting the schools of 

literature4  ,and the ,general ,aloysius
 ,centurione1 shortly before the        
,suppression1  laid down the clearest   
principles with respect to the study of 
,moral  ,theology1 and the examinations 
therein4 ,since the restoration of the  
,order1 ,fathers ,roothaan1 ,beckx1 and 
the actual ,general1 ,anthony ,m4       
,anderledy1 have devoted their own      
attention and directed that of the      
,society to the ways of accepting1 with 
undiminished energy1 the altered  and   
unfavorable situation1 in which the     
present century has placed the  ,order1 
and hampers the revived ,institute4     
,for this immense organization had been 
almost entirely destroyed by the  stroke
 of a pen--the signature of ,clement    
,,xiv given in pencil4 ,they  dispute   
whether he gave it at all2 or1 at least1
 whether he meant it4  ,howsoever that  
be1 the ,order1 which had been erected  
on the principle  of obedience1 received
 the word and disappeared4 ,the rock on 
which it  had set its foot became the   

altar of a sacrifice2 and that a        
sacrifice  offered without a struggle or
 a remonstrance1 to betray any change in
  the spirit1 with which ,ignatius1 two 
hundred and thirty-three years  before1 
had vowed obedience to the ,vicar of    
,christ4 ,an epigram had  been written1 
on the occasion of the first centenary1 
under a picture  of ,archimedes and his 
lever2 ,archimedes is getting a foothold
 for his  lever to move the world2 and  
beneath is the epigram3--               
,fac pedem figat1 et terram movebit4    
,its footing was now taken away1 and it 
vanished from the world4    ,while the  
,catholic ,bourbon courts were thus     
successful in accomplishing  a          
manoeuvre1 which at fitful intervals    
they had essayed heretofore1  the       
schismatical ,empress1 ,catherine ,,ii  
of ,russia1 denounced it and  endeavored
 to counteract it4 ,she wrote to the    
,pope in #aghc1 that she  was resolved  
to maintain these ,priests against any  
power1 whatsoever it  was2 and she was  

good to her word2 the ,society remained 
unsuppressed  in ,white ,russia4 ,the   
,protestant ,king of ,prussia1          
,frederick the ,great1  without         
exhibiting all the temper of the        
irascible lady1 manipulated  things as  
best he could to preserve the ,society4 
,to sum up the ,order's experiences1 it 
may well be said that in public  life   
there is no resurrection2 and the ,state
 which dies is dead  forever4 ,from     
infancy on through maturity it goes its 
way decrepit to  the grave4 ,yet ,balmez
 observes1 the ,society of ,jesus did   
not follow  the common course of others1
 either in its foundation1 its          
development1  or its fall2 that ,order1 
of which it is truly and correctly said1
 that  it had neither infancy nor old   
age4#acd ,it rose again2 and the flag   
of the ,knight of ,loyola1 though worn  
and torn1 was none the less fair  for   
that3--            ,jam se ipso         
formosius est4    ,for neither the      
violence of endurance1 nor the vehemence

 of energy1  although begetting         
intensest fatigue1 is to be confounded  
with decay4    ,it was not decay1 a     
century ago1 when expropriation and     
exile were the  confessed policy of the 
courts in ,europe2 when1 as an ,american
 writer  states it1 in ,portugal ,pombal
 cut the ,gordian knot4444 ,he commenced
 by  the expulsion of the ,jesuits and  
the expropriation of their property4    
,nor is it decay in the ,order1 when a  
liberal confederation in  ,switzerland1 
on obtaining the political ascendency in
 #ahdh1 suppresses  the ,jesuit         
,university at ,fribourg1 and provides  
in this wise1 as an  ,american writer   
records3 ,no religious society shall be 
allowed to  teach2 and persons hereafter
 educated by the ,jesuits1 or by any of 
the  ,orders affiliated to the ,jesuits1
 shall be incapable of holding office   
in ,church or ,state4#ace ,policy like  
this1 whether in the countries          
expurgated1 or in countries thereunto   
affiliated1 proves no decay  in the     

,order4    ,but where decay may come in 
has been clearly pointed out by one of  
its ,generals4 ,speaking of the         
,education of ,youth and the ,promotion 
of  ,humane ,letters1 ,mutius           
,vitelleschi wrote1 in #afci1 ,if ever  
the ,society  were to decline from that 
lofty position which it holds with so   
many  provinces and peoples1 such an    
event could come about in no other way  
than by failing to walk in the same     
steps1 by which1 with the ,divine       
,grace1 it has acquired that high       
esteem4#acf    ,those steps had been    
taken in various paths1 of which only   
two have  concerned us here4 ,for its   
men of action were largely identified   
with  the general history of ,europe2   
and its men of the word1 who toiled in  
apostolic work1 at home or abroad1 have 
entwined their memories in the  history 
of souls1 often ungrateful1 yet always  
worthy of the toil4 ,but  its men of the
 school did a work which we have        
sketched in a general  way1 and which we

 shall analyze in the second part of    
this essay2 while  its men of the pen   
deserve a passing word of notice here4  
,they concern us from a pedagogic point 
of view1 in many ways4 ,they  wrote     
text-books1 many of which are the basis 
of manuals in almost  every line of     
education to-day1 sometimes without the 
change of a  word1 and generally without
 acknowledgment4 ,besides that1 their   
literary productions were1 as a rule1   
the offspring of their labors  in the   
schools4 ,it might not be safe to       
estimate their standing as  littrateurs1
 by the process which a ,scotch         
,professor uses1 who1  in the course of 
forty-seven elegant lectures on         
,rhetoric and ,belles  ,lettres1 sees   
little occasion to recognize the        
existence of this ,jesuit  school of    
literature1 except when he goes out of  
his way to salute ,pre  ,rapin in a     
somewhat questionable manner4#acg ,many 
of those whom the  ,scottish ,professor 
himself does honor to1 in his pages1    

were ,jesuit  scholars1--,bossuet1      
,corneille1 ,molire1 ,tasso1            
,fontenelle1 ,didrot1  ,voltaire1       
,bourdaloue1 himself a ,jesuit4 ,it     
would be safer then to  determine the   
standing of these ,professors1 who were 
in control of a  great literary age1 by 
looking at the golden age itself1 that  
of ,louis  ,,xiv4 ,the majority of the  
brilliant figures1 whom ,dr4 ,blair     
names as  illustrating the epoch1#ach   
were all ,jesuit scholars4 ,naturally1  
then1  the fifty ,professors of the     
,jesuit ,college at ,paris were1 as     
,cardinal  ,maury affirmed1 a permanent 
tribunal of literature for all men of   
letters1 a high court of judicature1 a  
focus of public attention from  which   
radiated the public opinion of the      
capital2 in short1 as ,piron  had       
emphatically said1 the ,star-chamber of 
literary reputations4#aci    ,devoted as
 they were to an austere profession1 we 
may say of many among  them1 that they  
were not themselves romancers of a      

lively fancy or  great poets2 and so far
 agree with ,voltaire1 who made this    
very remark  about his old ,professor1  
,pre ,pore4 ,yet also1 without          
inconsistency  ,i believe1 we may agree 
with the spirit of ,pre ,pore's         
rejoiner1 when  the remark was reported 
to him1 that he was not one of the great
  poets4 ,the ,jesuit replied1 ,at least
 you may grant that ,i have been  able  
to make some of them4    ,and1 should   
results be gauged on a wider basis than 
mere poetry1 not  a few of the most     
prominent men in ,european history would
 seem to  have been the outcome of this 
system1 men1 too1 who represented every 
possible school and tendency1 in their  
subsequent literary and public  life4 ,a
 few names show this4 ,there are those  
of ,descartes1 ,buffon1  ,justus        
,lipsius1 ,muratori1 ,calderon1 ,vico1  
the jurisconsult1 founder  of the       
philosophical school of history4 ,there 
are ,richelieu1 ,tilly1  ,malesherbes1  
,don ,john of ,austria1 ,luxembourg1    

,esterhazy1 ,choiseul1  with those of   
,saint ,francis de ,sales1 founder of a 
religious ,order1  ,lambertini1         
afterwards the most learned of ,popes1  
under the name of  ,benedict ,,xiv1 and 
the present ,pontiff1 ,leo ,,xiii1 also 
most erudite4  ,these certainly         
represent many schools and tendencies1  
and they come1  with many others1 from  
the same schools4#adj    ,as authors of 
every kind1 and in departments even far 
remote from  the regular courses of the 
schools1 ,jesuit writers were1 at the   
very  least1 so far related to ,jesuit  
teachers1 that1 as we see in the        
bibliographical dictionary of the       
,society1 all had been ,professors1     
with scarcely an exception2 and almost  
all had professed ,humanities1  ,belles 
,lettres1 ,rhetoric4    ,when ,father   
,nathaniel ,southwell of ,norfolk       
endeavored1 in #afgf1  to compile a     
dictionary of these authors1 he recorded
 those whose  works had the             
qualification of a respectable bulk to  

recommend them4  ,he entered the names  
and works of #bbdj authors who answered 
this  description4 ,this was #acf years 
after the foundation of the ,order4 ,the
  enterprise was repeatedly taken in    
hand afterwards4 ,the possibility of    
ever accomplishing it was much          
jeopardized by the ,suppression4 ,but at
  length the two ,fathers ,de ,backer   
published a series of seven quarto      
volumes1 in the years #ahec-ahfa2 and   
this first step they followed up1  in   
the years #ahfi-ahgf1 with a new        
edition1 in three immense folios1       
containing the names of #aa1ajj authors4
 ,this number does not include  the     
supplements1 with the names of writers  
in the present century1  and of the     
anonymous and pseudonymous authors4 ,of 
this last category1  ,father            
,sommervogel's researches1 up to #ahhd1 
enabled him to publish a  catalogue1    
which fills a full octavo volume of #fjj
 pages1 with double  columns4 ,the      
writers of this century1 whom the ,de   

,backers catalogued  in their           
supplement1 fill #fdg columns1 folio1   
very small print4  ,altogether1 the     
three folios contain #gjhf columns1     
compressed with  every art of           
typographical condensation4    ,suarez  
of course is to be seen there1 and      
,cornelius  ,lapide1 ,petau1  and the   
,bollandists4 ,a single name1 like that 
of ,zaccaria1 has #aag  works recorded  
under it1 whereof the #aafth is in #ac  
volumes quarto1 and  the #aagth in #bb  
volumes octavo4 ,the ,catechism of      
,canisius fills nearly  #aa columns with
 the notices of its principal editions1 
translations1  abridgments2 the         
commentaries upon it1 and critiques4    
,rossignol has #ff  works to his name4  
,the list of productions about ,edmund  
,campian1 for or  against him1 chiefly  
in ,english1 fills1 in ,de ,backers'    
folio1 two and a  half columns of       
minutest print4 ,bellarmine1 in ,father 
,sommervogel's new  edition1 fills #ej  
pages1 double column4#ada    ,under each

 work are recorded the editions1        
translations1 sometimes  made into every
 language1 including ,arabic1 ,chinese1 
,indian2 also the  critiques1 and the   
works published in refutation--a        
controversial  enterprise which largely 
built up the ,protestant theological    
literature  of the times1 and1 in       
,bellarmine's case alone1 meant the     
theological  ,protestant literature for 
#dj or #ej years afterwards4 ,oxford    
founded  an anti-,bellarmine chair4 ,the
 editions of one of this great man's    
works are catalogued by ,sommervogel    
under the distinct heads of #ed         
languages4#adb    ,in the methodical or 
synoptic table1 at the end of the ,de   
,backers'  work1 not only are the       
subjects well-nigh innumerable1 which   
have their  catalogues of authors' names
 attached to them1 but such subjects too
  are here as might not be expected4    
,thus ,military ,art has #cb authors'   
names under it2 ,agriculture #aa2 ,navy 
#ab2 ,music #de2 ,medicine #bh4    ,to  

conclude then our ,history of this      
,educational ,order1 we have one        
synoptical view of it in these twelve or
 thirteen thousand authors1  all of one 
family4 ,we have much more4 ,this one   
work attesting1 as  ,de ,backer says in 
his preface1 at one and the same time a 
prodigious  activity and often an       
indisputable merit1 whereof three and a 
half  centuries have been the course in 
time1 and the whole world the place  and
 theatre1 is a general record of        
religion1 letters1 science1 and         
education1 in every country1 civilized  
or barbarous1 where the ,society  of    
,jesus labored and travelled4 ,and where
 has it not done so8 ,in many  parts of 
the world it was the first to occupy the
 field with literary  men1 who then sent
 communications to their superiors1 or  
to learned  societies1 about the manners
 of different countries1 the state of   
religion there1 of letters1 science1 and
 education1 including reports  of their 
own observations in geography1          

meteorology1 botany1 astronomy1         
mineralogy1 etc4 ,original sources1 from
 which later history in ,north1  ,south1
 and ,central ,america is drawing       
materials1 are seen described  here as  
they appeared2 so too with regard to    
,japan1 ,china1 ,thibet1 the            
,philippine ,islands1 ,hindustan1       
,syria1 as also to-day with respect to  
the native tongues of the ,north        
,american ,indians4 ,here the record of 
published literature1 described and     
catalogued according to date1 marks  the
 stages of mathematical and physical    
science1 from the end of the  sixteenth 
century onwards1 and of magnetic and    
electrical researches  all through last 
century2 as well as the relationship    
between the books  of ,jesuit authors   
and similar or kindred ones1 by persons 
outside the  ,society1 in different     
countries and of divers religions4      
,in short1 works composed in most of the
 tongues of the world exhibit  the chief
 periods in universal culture1 and the  

developments elaborated  in the         
civilization of mankind4#adc            
,,part ,,ii4    ,,analysis ,,of ,,the   
,,system ,,of ,,studies                 
,,chapter ,x4    ,,aquaviva4 ,,the      
,,ratio ,,studiorum4      ,so           
centralized an ,order as the ,society of
 ,jesus1 which formed its  ,professors  
for every country1 and sent them from   
one place to another1  undertook1 in    
doing so1 to exhibit a definite system  
of education1 of  courses1 of method4   
,besides such a unity of method1 it     
professed also a  consistent uniformity 
of doctrine4    ,before its time there  
was no one method which could be        
considered  universal2 because there was
 no teaching body itself universal4 ,the
  ,order1 as it branched out into the   
world1 found a variety of systems  in   
vogue2 and the ,jesuit ,professors      
conformed1 as best they could1 to  the  
local traditions of populations very    
diverse1 in universities which  were    
distinct and mutually independent4 ,but1

 while they endeavored  to better such  
systems1 in accordance with the plan of 
their own  ,constitution1 it was clear  
that they fell short of realizing the   
idea  of their founder4 ,hence          
variations and dispensations were part  
of the  usual order of the day4    ,yet 
there is a best way of doing everything2
 and1 not least1 in  education4 ,in such
 a best way1 some elements are essential
 at all  times1 while others are        
accidental1 and vary with time1 place1  
and  circumstance4 ,the ideal system    
will preserve in its integrity all  that
 is essential1 and then will adapt the  
general principles with the  closest    
adjustment to the particular            
environment4    ,besides the unity of   
method desired1 which ,i may define to  
be the best  way best adjusted to       
circumstance1 there was need1 as ,i have
 just  said1 of a consistent uniformity 
of doctrine2 lest1 in the same chair  of
 philosophy1 of divinity1 or of science1
 or in chairs placed side  by side1 one 

,professor should say ,yea to a         
question1 and another ,nay  to the same 
question1 with no more material a reason
 evident for the  difference1 save that 
one taught here and the other there1 one
 spoke  yesterday1 the other speaks     
to-day4 ,the educational effects1       
however1  are far from being immaterial2
 for1 contradictory statements eliding  
one another1 it is quite possible that  
the students understand less the  next  
day than the day before4 ,and1 as to the
 ,professors themselves1  nothing can   
imperil more the harmony and efficiency 
of an educational  organization1 than   
disagreement of opinion in the function 
and act of  teaching4 ,in philosophy1   
the occasions for dispute spring off at 
every  turn4 ,theology1 as every one    
knows1 is made to bristle with them4    
,and1  among men who are themselves     
educated to the highest degree of mental
  culture1 interests and questions like 
these are far more absorbing than       
money1 place1 or power elsewhere4 ,if   

anywhere ideas rule1 it is among  men of
 profound thought2 as the intense       
intellectuality of the medival          
universities had shown1 with all the    
consequences of unlimited vagaries  in  
an unbridled scholasticism2 or1 again1  
as the whole history of the             
intellectual ,greek world had evidenced1
 whether in the early ages of  the      
,christian ,church1 or in the heathen   
generations before4    ,whatever1 then1 
a man may think privately1 and be free  
to think1 in  matters of mere opinion1  
the genius of education imposes limits  
on  the manner and matter of his actual 
teaching2 and the speculations  of a    
thinker1 a writer1 or an investigator1  
are not to be confounded  with the best 
results of an educator1 who1 doing his  
work in the best  way1 is to effect a   
definite and immediate object4 ,that    
object is  nothing less than the        
equipping of fresh young spirits with   
principles  of thought and habits of    
life1 to enter fully appointed on their 

respective paths of duty4 ,in this view1
 therefore1 definiteness of  matter1 no 
less than unity of method1 were required
 from the first for  an effective system
 of education4    ,during forty years1  
the individual enterprise of experienced
 and  responsible men had been          
interpreting the values and measuring   
the  results of existing methods4 ,the  
,society itself had mounted into such  a
 position1 as practically to command the
 whole field of secular  education4 ,its
 own system must have been excellent    
already4 ,nor could  that system have   
been uniformly excellent1 but for some  
uniformity  which characterized it4     
,still the unity was defective4 ,the    
,provinces  were petitioning for an     
improvement4 ,evils obstructed the way  
to  something better4 ,for these        
reasons1 the matter was taken in hand by
  one ,general after another4 ,and the  
final outcome of their work was a       
,form1 or ,method of ,studies1 ,formula1
 or ,ratio ,studiorum4    ,on the       

nineteenth day of ,february1 #aeha1     
,father ,claudius ,aquaviva  was elected
 fifth ,general ,superior of the        
,society4 ,taking up this  educational  
project where his predecessors had left 
it1 and1 like  them1 availing himself of
 his almost boundless resources for     
obtaining  information1 he began by     
putting the work through every possible 
stage  of consultation1 to which the    
traditions of his office1 and his own   
executive ability prompted him2 and1    
when all prudent means had been         
exhausted in deliberating1 he then used 
the executive power which  was vested in
 him2 and he required that what had been
 so laboriously  designed1 by the united
 efforts of many1 should henceforth be  
reduced  to practice1 with the good will
 of all4    ,it will be interesting to  
review briefly the process of           
elaboration4  ,in the general assembly  
which elected ,aquaviva1 a committee of 
twelve  ,fathers from different         
countries was appointed to draw up a    

method of  studies4 ,how far their work 
proceeded does not appear4 ,three years 
later1 in #aehd1 the ,general named a   
,commission of six1 ,john ,azor from    
,spain1 ,gaspar ,gonzalez from          
,portugal1 ,peter ,buys from ,austria1  
,anthony  ,guisani from ,upper ,germany1
 ,stephen ,tucci of ,rome1 and ,james   
,tyre to  represent ,france4 ,this      
last-named ,jesuit1 a ,scotchman1 was   
not unknown  in the lists of controversy
 to his countryman1 ,john ,knox4 ,they  
were  all experienced in the            
administration of colleges1 and versed  
in the  subjects of all the faculties4  
,entering on their labors1 they worked  
during six winter months in the         
,poenitentiaria of ,st4 ,peter's in     
,rome2  and1 during the next three      
summer months1 they resided in the      
,quirinal4  ,the eyes of the chief      
authorities in the ,catholic world were 
turned  in expectancy towards them4     
,indeed1 some of the chief interests of 
,catholic ,christendom seemed to depend 

upon them4    ,they spent three hours a 
day in consultation4 ,the rest of their 
time  they devoted to consulting authors
 and conning over methods1 in the  three
 fields of letters1 philosophy1 and     
divinity4 ,the documents which  they    
studied are enumerated by themselves as 
being the minutes of  previous          
deliberations held at ,rome1 or in the  
more prominent colleges  of the ,order2 
the letters1 consultations and laws of  
the universities1  and other such       
documents1 sent at different times up to
 that date  from ,italy1 ,spain1        
,france1 ,germany1 ,poland2 the fourth  
part of the  ,constitution1 as the      
standard of guidance2 the canons of the 
general  assemblies2 the rules and      
statutes of the schools2 moreover1 the  
customs and regulations of the ,roman   
,college4#add    ,after nine months of  
consecutive labor1 they presented the   
results to  the ,general1 in ,august1   
#aehe4 ,father ,aquaviva submitted the  
document  for examination to the        

,professors of the ,roman ,college4     
,then he took  the whole matter under   
his own personal consideration1 with his
 four  ,general ,assistants1 who        
represented each a certain number of    
,provinces4  ,at this stage1 the report 
was printed1 not as a rule determined   
on1 but  as the preliminary outline of a
 rule4 ,the copies struck off were few1 
just enough for the use of the          
,provinces4 ,the ,general's letter1     
which  accompanied the report1 defined  
the precise stage at which the process  
was now understood to be4#ade    ,he    
says that1 in a matter of such grave and
 universal consequence1 it  was not his 
intention to prescribe anything1 without
 first learning the  opinions of the    
chief ,doctors of the ,society4         
,accordingly1 he had been  content with 
reading the results of the ,commission's
 labors1 decreeing  nothing1 changing   
nothing1 except so far as was necessary 
to put it  in shape for distribution4   
,he now required the ,provincial        

,superiors1  immediately upon receipt of
 the present letter1 to select at least 
five  men1 who were the best qualified  
in point of learning and judgment1      
along with other members1 who were      
eminent in literature1 and whom  the    
,provincial might think fit to convoke4 
,to these the report was to  be         
submitted1 for each to examine          
privately1 and with great care4 ,on     
certain days1 several times in the week1
 they were to meet and hold             
consultations2 to put their conclusions 
in writing1 as well with regard  to the 
practical method of studies1 as with    
regard to the speculative  opinions     
which they favored2 they were to note   
whatever they thought  should be added1 
or be made clearer1 or otherwise        
regulated1 for the  greater perfection  
of the work4 ,if any of the ,fathers1   
designated for  this ,provincial        
committee1 could not possibly attend the
 meetings1  still they were to send     
their opinions in writing to the        

,fathers  actually in session2 so that  
full account might be taken of the      
public  opinion in that ,province4 ,the 
criterion they were to follow1 in making
  up their minds1 was not so much their 
own private sentiment or their  own     
leaning this way or that1 as the general
 good of the whole ,society1  the       
practice of the universities and        
schools1 and1 in fine1 the  judgment of 
,doctors most approved for their        
authority and solidity of  doctrine4    
,aquaviva refers to the idea and        
intention of ,ignatius with respect to  
the present undertaking2 and he adds3 ,i
 would have all steadfastly  keep this  
object in view1 that they endeavor to   
find out reasons1  not how a final      
decree may be prevented1 as if the      
enterprise were  hard1 and could not    
possibly be carried out 7for we have    
made up our  mind to carry it out1 since
 it is necessary1 and is recommended by 
the ,constitution72 but how the         
difficulties1 if any such there be1  may

 disappear1 and the whole ,order may    
combine in one and the same             
arrangement2 for otherwise the final    
result would only be the greater        
detriment of the ,society4    ,he calls 
their attention to an important point1  
in what is now styled  ,pedagogics1 or  
the ,science of ,education4 ,it is1     
that1 in the form now  sent out1 the    
,fathers had taken pains to explain     
their reasons for  arriving at          
conclusions4 ,that would not be done in 
the ,system to be  drawn up later1 which
 would contain only the statement of    
directions  for all to follow4 ,in these
 words1 we have a most important        
distinction  laid down between the      
science which underlies the system of   
education1  and the practical method    
itself which rests upon the science4    
,the  ,ratio ,studiorum1 as subsequently
 promulgated1 is a practical method4    
,the science is sketched1 as need       
arises1 in the preliminary ,ratio of    
#aehf4    ,at the same time1 ,father    

,aquaviva despatched another letter1    
about  which he says1 in a postscript to
 the foregoing1 that the six points     
provisionally laid down in it are to be 
subjected to the same  examination as   
the preliminary ,ratio itself4    ,in   
this supplementary epistle1 he premises 
that it will require much  time and     
consideration to issue the final code of
 rules2 and therefore1  as a direction  
for the time being1 he issues the       
following3--    ,first1 ,professors     
shall adhere to ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas as
 their standard  in theology4           
,secondly1 they shall take care1 in     
their manner of teaching1 always to     
consolidate faith and piety4            
,thirdly1 he lays down a principle of   
still wider application1 and one  which 
seems vital in the whole theory and     
practice of teaching3 ,let  no one      
defend any opinion which is judged by   
the generality of learned  men to go    
against the received tenets of          
philosophers and theologians1  or the   

common consent of theological schools4  
,this touches a vital  element in       
education4 ,if we suppose that the      
teacher's art lies1 not in  giving forth
 the lucubrations of his own private    
thoughts and theories1  but in imparting
 solid results1 approved and            
ascertained1 to those who  come for such
 results1 and wish to receive them in   
the most approved  way1 then the        
,professor in his chair ought not to    
mistake himself for  the author in his  
study1 nor should he practise on living 
men1 whose  life is all before them1    
what he might1 with more propriety1     
first  practise on the leisured world1  
and test elsewhere1 either in the       
printed page1 or in conference with his 
equals4 ,the ,professor1 as such1  is   
not the original investigator4 ,in      
mathematics1 he is notoriously  not so4 
,in that branch1 the best teacher is the
 man who walks along a  definite line1  
turns neither to the right nor left1 and
 finishes in  a definite time2 or else  

his scholars will never finish4 ,to a   
certain  degree1 the same holds in all  
courses4 ,if a man is theorizing1 when  
he ought to be instructing1 he goes off 
the line of perfect system1  however    
much pains he takes with his matter2    
just as much as if1 taking  no pains    
whatever1 he neglected his matter       
altogether1 went behind it1  or around  
it1 gave histories of his branch1       
methods of teaching it1 and  descanted  
on pedagogics1 to young people who were 
never sent to him for  that purpose4    
,they are sent to learn definite matter1
 and to be formed  therein on a good    
plan1 by the man who understands it4    
,then1 as ,loyola  said in another      
connection1 when they have experienced  
in themselves  the effects thereof1 they
 will be qualified for all the rest1 for
  understanding the plan itself on which
 they have been formed1 and  enjoying   
all the practical results of it2 and1 if
 their line of life  invites1 for       
understanding other plans too4 ,this is 

practical wisdom in  education2 neither 
dilettantism nor speculation4           
,fourthly1 ,aquaviva lays down a        
principle regarding the public  advocacy
 of opinions4 ,he is not referring to   
authorities denouncing1  or ,professors 
repudiating1 them2 but merely to certain
 conditions  for putting them forward3  
,if opinions1 no matter whose they be1  
are  found in a certain province or city
 to give offence to many ,catholics1    
whether members of the ,society or not1 
that is1 persons not unqualified  to    
judge1 let no one teach them or defend  
them there1 albeit the same  doctrines  
may be taught elsewhere without offence4
 ,the word defence1  in a context like  
this1 means publishing and sustaining   
theses against  all comers in public    
disputations2 wherein the ,professor    
represents  the school1 and the school  
is put to the account of the ,order4    
,the  principle seems discreet4 ,if a   
corporate body does not want to be      
compromised1 it is not for the member to

 compromise it4 ,if he wants to  use the
 perfect freedom of his opinions1 and   
deliver himself of his own              
pronouncements1 he ought first to assure
 himself that his circumstances  are    
such as to set him free from            
representing others4 ,this is an        
elementary principle of social and      
urbane existence4    ,the fifth point   
concerns the march of improvement in the
 advancement  of opinions4 ,it describes
 the method of discreet development3 ,in
  questions which have already been     
treated by others1 let no one follow    
new opinions1 or1 in matters which in   
any way pertain to religion1 or  are of 
some consequence1 let no one introduce  
new questions1 without  consulting the  
,prefect of ,studies1 or the ,superior4 
,if1 then1 it still  remains dubious1   
whether the new opinion1 or the new     
question1 is  permissible1 it will be   
proper for the said authority1 in order 
that  things may proceed more smoothly1 
to learn the judgment of others  in the 

,society upon the subject2 and then he  
will determine what  appears best for   
the greater glory of ,god4 ,in the sixth
 and last  point1 ,aquaviva calls       
attention to a former decree1 upon the  
manner of  treating the ,aristotelian   
philosophy4#adf    ,so much for this    
letter of ,aquaviva4 ,on the sense and  
purport thereof  he invited the         
communication of views from the ,order  
at large1 as  well as on the document   
which he encloses1 the preliminary      
,ratio  ,studiorum4 ,to this we may now 
turn our attention4    ,the six         
,fathers1 who drew it up1 state1 in     
their introduction1 that  there are two 
mainstays and supports of the ,society  
of ,jesus1 an  ardent pursuit of piety  
and an eminent degree of learning1      
ardens  pietatis studium et prstans     
rerum scientia4 ,if piety is not        
illumined  with the light of learning1  
it can be1 no doubt1 of great use to the
  person who possesses it1 but of       
scarcely any use in the service of the  

,church and of one's neighbor1 in the   
administration of the ,word and of  the 
,sacraments1 in the education of youth1 
in controversies with those  who are    
hostile to the faith1 in giving counsel1
 answering doubts1 and  in all other    
offices and functions1 which are proper 
to men of the  ,order4 ,all these call  
for an endowment of learning not common1
 but  excelling in its degree4    ,to   
acquire such learning1 it is of supreme 
consequence that we set  before         
ourselves what path we enter on1 what   
arts we employ1 and what  means we use2 
because1 unless a ready and tried method
 be adopted1  ratio facilis ac solers1  
much labor is spent in gathering but    
little fruit2 whereas1 if the labor of  
studies be guided by some sage  rule1   
great results are compendiously         
obtained1 at the cost of little         
research4    ,then the ,commission goes 
on to say3 ,we have undertaken to teach1
  not only members of the ,order1 but   
youth from the world outside4 ,the      

number of this latter class is vast2 it 
includes brilliant talent1 and          
represents the nobility4 ,we cannot     
imagine that we do justice to our       
functions1 or come up to the            
expectations formed of us1 if we do not 
feed this multitude of youths1 in the   
same way as nurses do1 with  food       
dressed in the best way1 for fear they  
grow up in our schools1  without growing
 much in learning4 ,an additional spur  
is felt in the  circumstance1 that      
whatever concerns us is public and1 day 
after day1  is before the eyes of all1  
even of those who are not well disposed 
towards us4 ,the ,fathers consider it   
unnecessary to enlarge upon that        
harmony of views1 so much commended in  
the ,constitution1 as to matters  of    
public policy or teaching2 they say1    
sufficient regard could not1  up to     
this1 be paid to such harmony2 for1 when
 no common order or  form was as yet    
prescribed1 every one thought that he   
could hold what  sentiments he liked1   

and teach them to others in the manner  
he himself  preferred2 so that sometimes
 the members of the ,order disagreed as 
much  among themselves1 as with others  
outside4#adg    ,after describing1 in   
vivid terms1 the manner in which they   
had  conducted their deliberations1 and 
arrived at conclusions1 and how1  when  
any keen dispute had arisen among       
them1#adh they had divided and          
distinguished the disputed matter1 and  
had examined it during two and  even    
three days1 till they came to settle at 
last on what all of them  accepted1 the 
critics come to the ,practice and ,order
 of ,studies2#adi  and upon this they   
enlarge1 in successive chapters1 under  
the following  heads3--    ,the ,sacred 
,scriptures4 ,the ,length of the ,course
 in ,divinity4 ,the ,means  of finishing
 that ,course in ,four ,years4 ,the     
,method of ,lecturing4 ,the  ,questions 
which are either not to be treated by   
the ,theological  ,professors1 or are to
 be treated only at a ,certain ,part of 

the ,course4  ,repetitions4             
,disputations4 ,the ,choice1            
,censorship1 and ,correcting of         
,opinions4 ,the ,private ,studies of    
,students4 ,vacations4 ,the ,degrees of 
,bachelor1 ,master1 ,doctor4            
,controversial ,theology4 ,moral        
,theology4  ,hebrew4 ,the ,study of     
,philosophy1 which includes ,physics4   
,mathematics4  ,literature1 that is1    
,grammar1 ,history1 ,poetry1 ,rhetoric4 
,seminaries  for ,literature and the    
,higher ,faculties4 ,the ,professors of 
,literature4  ,the ,grammar to be used4 
,greek4 ,different ,exercises in the    
,classics4  ,incitements to ,study4 ,the
 ,method of ,promotion4 ,books4         
,vacations in the  ,lower ,classes4     
,order and ,piety4 ,the ,respective     
,objects and ,exercises of  the ,classes
 of ,grammar and ,humanity4 ,the ,class 
of ,humanity4 ,the ,class  of ,rhetoric4
 ,general ,distribution of ,time during 
the ,year4    ,these are the matters    
handled in the publication of #aehf4 ,in

 the course  of treatment1 this document
 contains1 by way of a running          
commentary1  the complete theory of     
,education1 or ,science of ,pedagogics1 
as  understood by these critics4 ,it    
will not be possible1 within the brief  
limits of this work1 to give more than a
 bare sketch of the pedagogical         
elements contained in the one hundred   
and fifty pages of the ,monumenta       
,germani ,pdagogica4#aej    ,a second1  
partial edition of this preliminary     
,ratio was sent out by  ,father         
,aquaviva1 in #aeia1 to which an        
entertaining bibliographical  history is
 attached4#aea ,in #aeic1 the fifth     
general assembly of  the ,order met1    
,claudius ,aquaviva presiding4 ,by this 
time1 during the  interval of seven     
years which had elapsed since the first 
edition1  the book had been subjected to
 examination in all the ,provinces2     
observations and criticisms had been    
returned2 it had been re-committed  to  
the ,fathers at ,rome1 and revised by   

the ,general with his ,assistants2  and 
had again been sent out for trial4 ,the 
,provincials and ,deputies1  meeting in 
#aeic1 brought with them the reports of 
how the system  worked4 ,its slightest  
defects were noted4#aeb ,most asked for 
an  abridged form4    ,amid the very    
grave questions then pending1 the       
assembly took some  action on the       
,ratio4 ,it was re-committed once more  
to the competent  authorities for       
revision4 ,and it assumed its last and  
definite form1  in what was probably its
 ninth edition4 ,this last issue1 in the
 year  #aeii1 after fifteen years spent 
on the elaboration of it1 is the ,,ratio
  ,,studiorum4    ,one hundred and      
twenty-seven years later1 the great old 
,university of  ,paris seems to have    
become a disciple of its educational    
rival1 the  ,society of ,jesus4 ,querard
 observes that the ,rector1 ,rollin1    
without  saying anything about it1      
translated the ,ratio for his ,trait des
  tudes4#aec ,indeed1 as ,m4 ,bral1     

historian of that ,university1          
observes1 referring to the suppression  
of the ,order3 ,once delivered  from the
 ,jesuits1 the ,university installed    
itself in their houses1 and  continued  
their manner of teaching4#aed    ,in all
 general works on education1 there is   
question of this ,system4  ,its form is 
that of a practical method1 without     
reasons being assigned1  or arguments   
urged4 ,it is a legislative document1   
which superseded all  previous forms4   
,the ,general's letter1 which           
accompanied it1 ordered the  suppression
 of them all1 promulgating this one to  
the exclusion of the  rest4    ,the     
sentiment1 to which the last words of   
this letter gives expression  as a fond 
hope1 was fully responded to by the     
course of events1 in the  one hundred   
and seventy-four years which were to    
elapse before the  general suppression  
of the ,order3 ,it is believed1 he said1
 that it  will bring forth abundant     
fruit1 for the benefit of our scholars1 

,quae nostris auditoribus uberes fructus
 allatura creditur4 ,aquaviva's  letter 
is dated the eighth day of ,january1    
#aeii4aee          ,,chapter ,,xi4      
,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,master4 ,,his  
,,courses ,,of ,,literature ,,and       
,,philosophy4      ,it seems an apt     
distribution of our subject1 to         
consider1 first1 the  formation of the  
,master1 and secondly1 the formation of 
the ,scholar4  ,the ,master's           
development will conduct us chiefly     
through the higher  studies2 the        
,scholar's1 rather through the lower4   
,thus the two persons1  about whom the  
science of education revolves1 will be  
directly under  inspection2 while the   
elements which go to form them will1 at 
the same  time1 pass under review4      
,without theorizing on pedagogy1 the    
,jesuit system itself1 merely as        
observed and realized1 results in the   
formation of ,professors4 ,there  are   
several reasons1 apparent on the        
surface1 why it should do so4  ,the     

studies1 which the members of the ,order
 pursue1 are the same  courses as the   
,order professes for the world at large4
 ,but1 for the  ,jesuit members of the  
divers courses1 a most elaborate system 
of  examinations at every stage1 with a 
specially searching manner of  testing  
the students1 is made to regard one     
objective point1 which  is the capacity 
of the ,jesuit to teach what he has     
learnt1 and this1  as evinced1 while    
under examination4 ,the manner1 in which
 this point  is judicially determined1  
consists in referring the examiners to a
  standard1 called mediocrity4 ,after a 
personal and oral disputation  with the 
young ,jesuit1 lasting either half an   
hour1 or one hour1 or two  consecutive  
hours1 according to the stage at which  
he happens to be1  a preponderating vote
 of the four or five examining          
,professors must  aver that he has      
surpassed mediocrity4 ,the learning1    
prudence1 and  sincerity of the         
examiners are appealed to without       

further sanction1  except at the very   
last stage in the young man's progress1 
when success  under the ordeal will     
entitle him to ,profession in the       
,society4 ,then  each examiner's        
prudence is stimulated1 and his         
sincerity bound down1  by an oath4 ,only
 at one initial stage1 that of the first
 examination in  the course of his three
 years' ,philosophy1 is a certain margin
 allowed  the beginner1 in favor of bare
 mediocrity4    ,mediocrity is defined  
to be that degree of intelligence1 and  
comprehension of the matters studied1   
which can give an account of  them to   
one asking an explanation4 ,to surpass  
mediocrity designates  the student's    
ability to defend his entire ground with
 such erudition  and facility as show   
him qualified1 in point of actual       
attainments1 to  profess the philosophy 
or theology studied4 ,the final degree  
in the  ,order1 which is that of        
,profession1 requires this competency   
for all  ,philosophy and ,theology      

together4 ,here then we see1 that the   
capacity  to teach is made the criterion
 of having learned sufficiently well4   
,passing through all the grades with    
this mark of excellence1 the man  who1  
after a general formation of seventeen  
years1 and the requisite  development of
 other qualifications1 is then appointed
 to profess in a  chair of the higher   
faculties1 has been very much to the    
manner born  of surpassing mediocrity1  
and of doing so with the characteristics
  of a ,professor4#aef ,how the same    
principles1 if not in the same form1    
affect the conduct of the literary      
curriculum1 we shall now see in the     
rest of this chapter4    ,the literary  
curriculum has been already finished by 
the ,jesuit1  before entering the       
,order4 ,but1 after his admission1      
special means are  taken to have him    
revise those studies1 extend them1 and  
grasp them  from the standpoint of the  
teacher4 ,it happens in ,jesuit history1
 and  the nature of secondary education 

will always have it so1 that the        
largest amount of teaching has been done
 in the arena of these literary         
courses4 ,and it was no small part of   
the general revival of studies1         
effected by ,ignatius of ,loyola1 that  
justice was done to literature1  as well
 by students who were to enter on       
philosophical or scientific             
courses1#aeg as by those who            
contemplated embarking on life in the   
world4 ,we noticed1 on a former         
occasion1 the reasoning of ,aquaviva    
with  respect to this policy4#aeh ,the  
literary courses in question are those  
of ,grammar1 ,humanities1 and ,rhetoric1
 which fill from five to seven  years4  
,the ,fathers of #aehf urge the         
importance of these studies for the     
,english and ,german students in ,rome1 
as if special difficulties were         
experienced with them4#aei    ,if we    
inquire what were the results of the    
stringent regulations  adopted to       
enforce this policy1 and what degree of 

proficiency was  attained in the ,jesuit
 courses of ,belles-,lettres and        
eloquence1 we have  only to consult the 
concordant testimony of history upon the
 handsome  style and literary finish of 
the scholars4 ,an interesting answer1   
from  a domestic point of view1 is      
casually afforded us by a remark1 which 
the ,fathers of ,upper ,germany make1   
when in #afjb they send to ,aquaviva    
some animadversions of theirs upon the  
,ratio4 ,they say that students  in the 
class of ,rhetoric might deliver their  
own orations1 since there  are generally
 found in that class1 particularly among
 those of the  second year1 young men   
who often surpass even their own        
,professors in  genius1 and in the      
variety and fluency of their            
language4#afj    ,the bearing of all    
this is obvious1 in determining the     
grade of those  students who ask for    
admission into the ,order4 ,it is after 
a full  gymnasium course of this kind1  
that the life of the ,jesuit is to      

begin4  ,and these are the studies which
 he will have to possess after the      
manner of a teacher4 ,he will review    
them as soon as his two years of        
novitiate are over4    ,those years of  
novitiate are blank1 under the aspect of
 secular  pursuits4 ,but1 in other      
respects1 being a time for reflection   
and for  internal application to the    
affairs of his mind and heart1 they are 
worth a long season in the process of   
developing character1 by habits  of     
assiduous labor1 of acquiring a taste   
for retirement and virtue1 and          
practising the spirit of docility to    
counsel4 ,indeed1 on issuing from  this 
period of intense application to the    
knowledge of self1 the young  religious 
student is already started on his career
 of knowing men1 and  dealing           
successfully with human characters4     
,henceforth1 ecclesiastical  knowledge  
and other acquirements will be proper to
 his state1 as a  ,religious2 but1 for  
the special vocation of the ,society of 

,jesus1 he  returns to secular studies4 
,in view of his approaching regency1 or 
,professorship in the  curriculum of    
letters1 the critics of #aehf give this 
advice3 ,it  would be most profitable   
for the schools1 if those who are about 
to be ,preceptors were privately taken  
in hand by some one of great            
experience2 and1 for two months or more1
 were practised by him in  the method of
 reading1 teaching1 correcting1 writing1
 and managing a  class4 ,if teachers    
have not learnt these things beforehand1
 they are  forced to learn them         
afterwards at the expense of their      
scholars2 and  then they will acquire   
proficiency only when they have already 
lost  in reputation2 and perchance they 
will never unlearn a bad habit4         
,sometimes1 such a habit is neither very
 serious nor incorrigible1 if  taken at 
the beginning2 but1 if the habit is not 
corrected then1 it  comes to pass that a
 man1 who otherwise would have been most
 useful1  becomes well-nigh useless4    

,there is no describing how much amiss  
,preceptors take it1 if they are        
corrected1 when they have already       
adopted a fixed method of teaching2 and 
what continual disagreement  ensues on  
that score with the ,prefects of        
,studies4 ,to obviate this  evil1 in the
 case of our ,professors1 let the       
,prefect in the chief  ,college1 whence 
our ,professors of ,humanities and      
,grammar are usually  taken1 remind the 
,rector and ,provincial1 about three    
months before the  next scholastic year 
begins1 that1 if the ,province needs new
 ,professors  for the following term1   
they should select some one eminently   
versed  in the art of managing classes1 
whether he be1 at the time1 actually  a 
,professor1 or a student of ,theology or
 ,philosophy2 and to him the  future    
,masters are to go daily for an hour1 to
 be prepared by him for  their new      
ministry1 giving prelections in turn1   
writing1 dictating1  correcting1 and    
discharging the other duties of a good  

teacher4#afa    ,this advice was in     
keeping with an ordinance of the second 
general  assembly1 held in #aefe1 nine  
years after the death of ,ignatius4 ,it 
had been resolved1 that at least one    
perfect ,seminary of the ,society       
should be established in each ,province 
for the formation of ,professors  and   
others1 who would be competent workmen  
in the vineyard of ,christ1  in the     
department of ,humane ,letters1         
,philosophy1 and ,theology1 so as  to   
suffice for the needs of the whole      
,province4 ,this was to be done as  soon
 as convenient in each ,province4       
,henceforward1 it became a matter of    
general observance that all should  have
 spent at least two years in the school 
of eloquence1 besides  repeating        
grammar1 if that were necessary4#afb    
,and if any are so  gifted as to promise
 great success in these pursuits1 it    
will be worth  while seeing whether they
 should not spend three years in them1  
to lay  a more solid foundation4#afc ,to

 such a solid foundation in ,humane     
,letters corresponds a special privilege
 in the crowning of a member's          
formation1 inasmuch as the ,society     
admits to ,profession one who is        
altogether eminent in literature1 even  
though in ,theology he may not  have    
surpassed mediocrity2 a privilege which 
was extended to great  proficiency in   
the ,indian and ,oriental languages1 as 
also to a marked  excellence in ,greek  
and ,hebrew4#afd    ,examining more in  
detail this literary formation1 we may  
take up  the programme for the seminary 
of the junior members1 as drafted by    
,jouvancy4 ,he drew it up in pursuance  
of a decree to that effect1 passed  a   
hundred years later1 by the general     
assembly of #afif4 ,this decree         
required that1 besides the rules1       
whereby the ,masters of ,literature  are
 directed in the manner of teaching1    
they should be provided with  an        
,instruction and ,method of learning    
properly1 and so be guided in  their    

private studies even while they are     
actually teaching4#afe ,the  method in  
question is outlined in the first part  
of ,jouvancy's little  book1 entitled   
,ratio ,discendi et ,docendi1 ,the art  
of ,learning and of  ,teaching4 ,a      
cursory glance at this part shows that1 
while addressing  ,masters on the       
subject of their own private studies1   
his directions  bear chiefly upon their 
efficiency as teachers4    ,jouvancy    
divides his subject into three chapters3
 first1 the knowledge  and use of       
languages2 secondly1 the possession of  
sciences2 thirdly1  some aids to study4 
,as to languages1 they are three in     
number3 ,greek1 ,latin1 and the native  
tongue4 ,laying down some principles on 
style in general1 he says3 ,if a        
correct understanding1 according to     
,horace1 be the first principle and     
source of writing well1 it follows that 
style1 which is nothing else  than a    
certain manner of writing1 has two      
parts2 first1 the intelligent  thought  

or sentiment1 properly conceived2       
secondly1 the expression of  the same2  
so that1 as man himself is made up of   
soul and body1 all  style likewise      
consists of the underlying thought and  
the manner of  its expression4 ,thought 
must be true1 perspicuous1 and adapted  
to  the subject4 ,to think truly or     
justly of things1 there is required     
mental power and insight1 which         
distinguishes what is really the gist   
of a subject-matter from what is only a 
deceptive appearance1 or is             
superficial4 ,assistance is to be had   
for all this from the reading of  good  
books1 from accurate reflection and     
protracted thought1 which  does not     
merely skim over the subject1 or touch  
it in a desultory way2  again1 from the 
analysis of parts1 causes1 adjuncts2    
finally1 from the  prudent judgment of  
others1 or what is called criticism4 ,as
 to the ways  of acquiring proper       
diction1 ,jouvancy says3 ,i would have  
you avail  yourself of books which treat

 of this matter1 not so as to imagine   
all  is done by thumbing them2 you will 
gain much more by the plentiful  reading
 of the best writers2 and again1        
'abundance of diction1'  copia verborum1
 will be easily acquired by reading     
much4 ,it is by  reading1 writing1 and  
imitating the best authors that a good  
style is  formed2 and only the best     
authors are to be read1 lest the odor of
 a  foreign and vicious style cling to  
the mind1 as to new vases4    ,coming to
 treat of one's native tongue1 ,jouvancy
 lays down these  points3 ,the study of 
the vernacular consists chiefly in three
 things4  ,first1 since the ,latin      
authors are explained to the boys1 and  
are  rendered into the mother-tongue1   
the version so made should be as        
elegant as possible4 ,wherefore1 let the
 master elaborate his version  for      
himself1 or1 if he draws on any writer  
in the vernacular1 let him  compare     
first the ,latin text with the version  
before him2 thus he  will find it easy  

to perceive what is peculiar to either  
tongue1 and  what is the respective     
force and beauty of each4 ,the same     
method is  to be observed in explaining 
and translating histories in the lower  
classes4 ,secondly1 all the drafts of   
compositions1 which are dictated  in the
 vernacular1 must be in accord with the 
most exact rules of the  mother-tongue1 
free from every defect of style4        
,thirdly1 it will  be of use to bring up
 and discuss1 from time to time1        
whatever has  been noticed in the course
 of one's reading1 and whatever others  
have  observed regarding the vicious and
 excellent qualities of speech4 ,the    
younger ,master should be on his guard  
against indulging too much in the       
reading of vernacular authors1          
especially the poets1 to the loss of    
time1 and perhaps to the prejudice of   
virtue4    ,the interest here manifested
 in the vicious and excellent qualities 
of  the mother-tongue was a contribution
 of the schools to the development  of  

modern languages4 ,nor was the severity1
 which is here prescribed1  with        
reference to the use of poetry1 a       
barrier to the formation of  some good  
poets among the ,jesuits themselves4    
,friedrich von ,spee is  considered a   
distinguished lyric poet of the         
seventeenth century4  ,denis1 as the    
translator of ,ossian into ,german1     
helped to inaugurate  the later period  
of ,german literature4 ,in ,italian     
prose1 ,bartoli1  ,segneri1             
,pallavicini1 have ranked as classics2  
,tiraboschi1 as the  historian of       
literature2 ,bresciani1 in our days1 as 
the popular  novelist4 ,as writers of   
,french prose1 ,bourdaloue and ,bouhours
 appertain  to the choicest circle of   
,louis ,,xiv's golden age2 ,du ,cygne1  
,brumoy1  ,tournemine1 besides others   
already mentioned in these pages1 took  
their  place as literary critics4 ,and1 
in their several national literatures1  
,cahours1 ,martin1 ,garucci1 have       
attained their literary eminence as     

art-critics4    ,reverting to solidity  
of thought as the basis of style1       
,jouvancy  eliminates the false         
ornaments of a subtle and abrupt style1 
by  reducing the conceptions to a       
dialectical analysis3 ,what does the    
thing mean8 ,and he gives examples4     
,in the second chapter of the same part1
 the ,ars ,discendi1 he comes  to the   
acquisition of those sciences1 which are
 proper to a ,master  of ,literature4   
,he says3 ,the erudition of a religious 
master is  not confined to mere command 
of languages1 whereof we have spoken    
heretofore2 it must rise higher to the  
understanding of some sciences1  which  
it is usual to impart to youth4 ,such   
are ,rhetoric1 ,poetry1  ,history1      
,chronology1 ,geography1 and ,philology 
or ,polymathy1 which last  is not so    
much a single science as a series of    
erudite attainments1  whereof an        
accomplished person should at least have
 tasted4 ,history he  divides into      
,sacred1 ,universal1 and ,particular4   

,as to the histories  of particular     
nations1 writers of the respective      
nationalities record  them2 and if you  
do not add ,chronology to ,history1 you 
take out one  of ,history's eyes4 ,for  
,geography1 he designates the books and 
maps  which were then to be had4 ,and1  
for all the branches1 he indicates      
standard authors4    ,now1 in this      
little rhetorical sketch of ,jouvancy's1
 we may take  note of two features1 one 
pedagogical1 the other historical4 ,the 
distinctively pedagogical cast is put   
upon these private studies1 in  as much 
as they are magisterial1 being pursued  
with express reference  to the ,master's
 chair4 ,the historical feature1 to be  
noted here1 is  common to the ,jesuit   
educational literature in general2      
which1 in its  many departments1 marked 
several epochs and1 as a whole1 made an 
era in  education4    ,thus1 at the time
 of the ,ratio ,studiorum1 there were   
indeed several  guides of the very first
 rank1 in the path of a literary        

formation4  ,they were three in number1 
,cicero1 ,quintilian1 and ,aristotle4   
,from  these the ,professor of ,rhetoric
 had to derive his matter and make      
clear his method4 ,the ,ratio names them
 as his text-books for the              
,precepts4#aff ,from these sources the  
literary activity and experience  of    
many generations of ,professors1 in     
several hundred colleges of the  ,order1
 tended to mark out the best line to    
follow1 for the attainment  of literary 
perfection4 ,the literary course1 in    
which they themselves  were proximately 
formed for the duties of teaching1      
served but to  organize the matter1 and 
to digest it4 ,the numberless           
pedagogical  text-books1 issued before  
,jouvancy1 and after him1 exhibit the   
progress  of the movement during the    
several centuries4 ,and1 at present1 the
  system may be seen in its most        
developed form1 if one consults the     
newest guides1 like ,father ,kleutgen's 
,ars ,dicendi1 or ,father  ,broeckaert's

 ,le ,guide du ,jeune ,littrateur4 ,but1
 long before our day1  the most ordinary
 systems of literary instruction have   
embodied the  method2 and the commonest 
text-books have it4    ,a similar epoch 
was made1 as early as #aegb1 by the     
,grammar of ,father  ,emmanuel ,alvarez1
 ,de ,institutione ,grammatica ,libri   
,tres1 a work  adopted by the ,ratio1   
then republished in editions so numerous
 as  to baffle all calculation1         
translated either entire1 or in part1   
into  thirteen languages2 while one     
portion1 well-known in our times as a   
,latin ,prosody1 is credited to divers  
authors or publishers4#afg  ,the latest 
editions of this ,grammar1 issued in    
different languages1  are of the last   
twenty-five years4 ,this era of         
development in grammar  superseded the  
subtleties and metaphysical abstractions
 of medival  methods4#afh    ,in        
history1 not to mention the voluminous  
,james ,sirmond1 whose  researches among
 original sources were made before the  

sixteenth  century had closed1 ,father  
,denis ,petau 7,petavius71 early in the 
following century1 composed his great   
work on ,chronology1 laying down  the   
exact basis in this respect for         
,universal ,history1 both sacred and    
profane4#afi ,geneva and ,holland alike 
reproduced the work4 ,labbe's           
publications on ancient and modern      
,history and ,chronology1 the greater   
part of his eighty works being upon     
these subjects1 with several            
abridgments and geographical adjuncts2  
,father ,buffier's ,practical  ,history1
 which was published for the schools in 
#agja1 and then rapidly  went through   
divers editions1 to be supplemented in  
#agae by his  ,universal ,geography1 his
 treatise on the ,globe and his ,maps1  
all of  which went through some scores  
of ,french1 ,italian and ,dutch         
editions2  these and other works of the 
kind indicate the line of pedagogical   
development going on at the same time in
 the various colleges4 ,hence1  the ,new

 ,elements of ,history and ,geography   
for the use of the ,scholars  of the    
,collge ,louis-le-,grand1 which was an  
abridgment of ,buffier's  book1 could   
say1 with some propriety1 on its first  
page3 ,how great has  been the          
carelessness of an age1 otherwise so    
judicious and cultivated  as ours1 in   
not having as yet made the science of   
,history and ,geography  an essential   
part of the education of youth8 ,the    
public and posterity  will perhaps be   
grateful to the ,college of             
,louis-le-,grand1 for having  shown in  
this regard an example1 which ought to  
do honor to our  time4#agj ,thus the    
same resources were at the service of   
,jesuit  education as1 in the general   
literary world1 helped to form the      
,jesuit  historians3 ,mariana1 historian
 of ,spain2 ,damian ,strada1 of the ,war
 in  the ,netherlands2 ,balbin1 of      
,bohemia2 ,naruszewicz1 of ,poland2     
,katona1  of the ,kings of ,hungary2    
,damberger1 of the ,middle ,ages2       

,francis ,wagner1  of ,leopold ,i2 ,g4  
,daniel1 historiographer royal of       
,france4    ,geography is not to be     
separated from ,history4 ,up to the end 
of the  sixteenth century1 ,ptolemy's   
,geography1 corrected1 modified1        
altered1  according to the reports of   
navigators1 had been the scientific     
standard1 but uncertain1 vacillating1   
and self-contradictory4 ,from the       
earlier part of the seventeenth century1
 the astronomical observations1  sent   
from the far ,east by the ,jesuit       
missionaries1 emphasized the need  of a 
general reform1 already sufficiently    
evident4 ,father ,riccioli1  assisted by
 ,father ,grimaldi1 who is known in     
science as one of the  precursors of    
,newton1 undertook1 in his ,geographia  
,reformata1 the  reform of ,geography by
 means of ,astronomy4#aga ,for this     
purpose1 he  created first his own      
metrology1 identifying1 and reducing to 
a common  denomination1 all the measures
 received in reports from different     

parts  of the earth4 ,the first eclipse 
of the moon which he makes mention  of1 
among his astronomical reports1 had been
 observed on the night  of ,november #h1
 #afab1 by ,father ,scheiner at         
,ingolstadt and by ,father  ,charles    
,spinola at ,nangasaki in ,japan4 ,at   
the time that ,riccioli  was writing1   
the ,jesuit missionaries had multiplied 
in ,china4 ,adam  ,schall died in #afff1
 holding the post of ,president of the  
,mathematical  ,tribunal at ,pekin2 he  
was followed by ,ferdinand ,verbiest2   
and then a  long line of imperial       
astronomers of the ,celestial ,empire1  
,koegler1  ,hallerstein1 ,seixas1       
,francesco1 ,de ,rocha1 ,espinha1       
continued to send  their reports1 either
 to the colleges of their respective    
,provinces1 or  to other mathematical   
centres1 or to the learned societies in 
,europe1  whereof not a few ,jesuits    
were members4 ,meanwhile1 scientific    
returns  from ,hindustan1 ,siam1        
,thibet1 on one side of the globe1 and  

from ,san  ,domingo on the other side1  
poured into the ,collge                 
,louis-le-,grand1  and made of this     
educational centre an indispensable     
auxiliary to the  ,bureau of            
,longitudes4 ,all this1 reacting on     
education1 was received  with           
satisfaction by the general world1 and  
drew the pedagogic bodies  steadily1    
though with some difficulty1 on the line
 of progress4 ,the  ,university of      
,paris was quite tardy in following up  
the steps of the  ,jesuits4#agb    ,as  
to ,mathematics in education1 it is     
evident that a similar process  of      
development must have been the history  
of this branch1 with the  limitation    
however1 that mathematical science has  
not been so nearly  created anew within 
these last centuries1 as some other     
departments4  ,father ,christopher      
,clavius1 the ,euclid of his time1 was  
engaged by  ,gregory ,,xiii in reforming
 the ,calendar1 the same which we use   
to-day2  he died in #afab4 ,his death   

intervening1 while his complete works   
were  being republished1 ,father        
,ziegler superintended the new edition1 
till  it was finished in five tomes4    
,francis ,coster1 at ,cologne1 ,hurtado 
,perez1 at ,ingolstadt1 ,henry ,garnet1 
an ,englishman1 and ,grienberger1       
successor of ,clavius1 both at ,rome1   
belonged1 with other mathematicans  of  
the ,order1 to the sixteenth century4   
,the writers of the preliminary  ,ratio1
 #aehf1 require that1 in a brief course 
of ,mathematics1  ,euclid's ,elements be
 seasoned always with some application  
to  ,geography or the ,sphere2 then1 in 
the following year1 the rest of  ,father
 ,clavius' ,epitome of ,practical       
,arithmetic#agc is to be  finished2#agd 
and special courses are provided for    
members of the  ,order1 who give promise
 of eminence4#age    ,indeed1 whether as
 ,professors of officers for the army   
and navy1 or as  constructing and       
directing observatories1 the members    
pursued every  branch of ,mathematics1  

pure and applied4 ,father ,l',hoste's   
,treatise  on ,naval ,evolutions was    
used in the ,french navy1 as the ,book  
of the  ,jesuit4#agf ,of this book the  
,count de ,maistre writes quaintly in   
#ahbj3 ,an ,english ,admiral assured me 
less than ten years ago1 that  he had   
received his first instructions in the  
',book of the ,jesuit4'  ,if events are 
taken for results1 there is not a better
 book in the  world6#agg ,eximeno1 at   
the school of ,segovia1 instructed young
 nobles  in ,mathematics and the science
 of ,artillery4 ,and so1 in general1    
courses were provided1 according as the 
needs of respective localities          
required4 ,the ,republic of ,venice     
struck a gold medal in honor of         
,vincent ,riccolati1 the ,jesuit        
engineer1 just as the ,king of ,denmark 
honors ,de ,vico1 the astronomer1 with a
 gold medal struck in his honor1  and   
having the words inscribed1 ,comet      
,seen1 ,jan4 #bd1 #ahdf4agh    ,kircher1
 ,boscovich1 ,pianciani1 ,secchi1       

,perry1 honored with the  fellowship of 
so many learned and scientific          
,academies1 and exercising  a distinct  
influence to-day1 either by the         
far-reaching effects of  their          
researches1 or by their actual contact  
with science1 may be  looked upon as    
belonging to our most recent times4#agi 
,it is remarked that to the ,order was  
due the multiplication of               
observatories1 in the middle of last    
century4 ,father ,huberti  superintended
 the building of an observatory at      
,wrzburg2 ,father  ,maximilian ,hell1   
the court astronomer1 built one at      
,vienna4 ,at ,manheim1  a third was     
erected by ,mayer and ,metzger2 at      
,tyrnau1 one by ,keri2 at  ,prague1     
another by ,steppling2 one at the       
,jesuit ,college of ,gratz2  similarly  
at ,wilna1 ,milan1 ,florence1 ,parma1   
,venice1 ,brescia1 ,rome1  ,lisbon1     
,marseilles1 ,bonfa4 ,in short1         
,montucla remarks3 ,in ,germany  and the
 neighboring countries1 there were few  

,jesuit colleges without  an            
observatory4 ,they were to be found at  
,ingolstadt1 ,gratz1 ,breslau1  ,olmtz1 
,prague1 ,posen1 etc4 ,most of them seem
 to have shared the fate  of the        
,society2 though there are a few which  
survive the general  destruction4#ahj   
,these few indications go to illustrate 
the pedagogical epochs made  by the     
system of the ,order4 ,and the young    
member1 who is being  formed to         
contribute his own share towards        
carrying on the education  of the world1
 passes all these branches under review4
 ,one of them1  ,mathematics1 is        
conducted outside of the philological   
seminary1  which we have so far been    
considering2 it is left for his course  
of  ,philosophy1 which he will pursue   
during three years1 before actually     
embarking on the life of the class-room1
 or his regency4 ,we may now  suppose   
that the time has arrived for his       
entering the class-room1 as a  ,master  
of ,grammar and ,elementary ,literature4

    ,when he does so1 he has possessed  
himself1 in that philosophical          
triennium1 of positive intellectual     
attainments1 neither meagre  nor common4
 ,he has surveyed the whole field of    
natural thought and  investigation1 in  
the various branches1 mental1 physical1 
and ethical4  ,to enumerate them1 there 
is ,logic1 including dialectics1 and the
  criteria1 objective and subjective1 of
 truth2 ,ontology1 or general           
metaphysics2 ,special ,metaphysics1 in  
its three divisions3--,cosmology1  which
 immediately underlies physics1         
chemistry1 and biology2  ,psychology1   
which underlies all the anthropological 
sciences about  the human compound1 its 
principles1 and the formation of its    
ideas2  ,natural ,theology4 ,all this is
 theoretic or speculative philosophy4   
,there is besides the science of moral  
life1 which comprises ,ethics1  ,natural
 ,right1 and ,social ,right4 ,concurrent
 with ,philosophy1 there  has been a    
double course of ,physics and           

,chemistry1 during one year1  with a    
course of higher ,mathematics1 varying  
from one year to three2  as well as a   
half-year's course of ,geology1         
,astronomy1 and some other  subsidiary  
matters4 ,this is the general formation4
 ,the principle which  guides individual
 cases was laid down by ,ignatius in    
these terms3 ,in  the superior          
faculties1 on account of the great      
inequality of talents  and age and other
 considerations1 the ,rector of the     
,university will  consider how much in  
each line individuals shall learn1 and  
how long  they shall stay in the        
courses2 although it is better for those
 who  are of the proper age1 and who    
have the requisite facility in point of 
talent1 that they should endeavor to    
advance and become conspicuous  in      
all4#aha ,during all this course of     
higher natural sciences1 some  attention
 has still been paid to accessories2    
literature has not been  entirely       
neglected2 oratory has been practised1  

and poems presented on  stated          
occasions4 ,and then the new ,master is 
introduced into his course  of regency4 
,,chapter ,,xii4    ,,youthful          
,,masters4      ,when ,ignatius of      
,loyola was governing the ,society1 the 
multiplicity  of affairs which he had to
 administer1 and the absorption of mind 
which they demanded1 did not prevent him
 from devoting to every minute  element 
the attention which it specially        
invited4 ,hence he required  the young  
,scholastics1 who were reviewing their  
literary studies at  ,valencia1 to send 
him their orations and a poem4 ,so1 too1
 with the  ,masters of the lower classes
 at ,messina1 in ,sicily4 ,this college 
had  opened with the higher courses of  
letters2 but the very next year such    
numerous throngs of younger boys came   
asking for admission1 that the  system1 
begun with ,rhetoric and ,humanities1   
was carried down to meet  their needs2  
and the entire course was distributed   
into five grades4  ,ignatius required   

the teachers of these lower grades1 no  
less than  those of the higher1 to write
 each week1 and send him an account of  
the  affairs of his class4#ahb    ,it is
 indeed an eventful moment1 when a man  
becomes a teacher of  others4 ,they may 
be boys4 ,but1 whether they are boys    
merely blossoming  into life1 or youths 
on the verge of manhood1 the teacher of 
them has  to be a teacher of men2 and   
perhaps more so with the boy than with  
the  man1 inasmuch as his control of the
 younger student has to be so much  the 
more complete4 ,it is not merely such a 
control as will address the  intellects 
of men mature1 whose characters are     
already far advanced  in the way of     
formation1 or are perhaps fixed for     
life2 but it must  be such as will form 
a whole human nature1 which is still    
pliable and  docile4    ,as an almost   
universal rule1 the ,jesuit ,scholastic1
 after his course  of ,philosophy1 takes
 his place in a college to teach        
,grammar or  ,literature4 ,if it be     

asked1 why should this be an almost     
universal  rule1 several reasons are at 
hand4 ,in the first place1 the candidate
  for admission into the ,order has been
 accepted with special reference  to    
this work4 ,if this reference was       
expressly overlooked1 the candidate  so 
admitted is in an exceptional category4 
,in the second place1 the  whole tenor  
of what has to be said in the present   
chapter will show the  pedagogical      
policy in the arrangement4 ,but1 in the 
third place1 not to  pass over too      
summarily one special fitness1 ,i will  
say a few words  upon it at once4       
,the manner of teaching the young is    
oral and tutorial4 ,all through the     
,jesuit ,system the manner followed is  
oral3 in the examinations of the  lower 
classes1 where writing is admitted1 it  
is only as a specimen of  style and     
composition that writing enters the     
examination exercises4  ,with the       
younger students1 the manner of teaching
 is oral in its  most specific sense4   

,it is not that generic quality which   
will suit  as well the lecturer or the  
public speaker4 ,but it is the tutorial 
manner1 which includes a fund of        
sympathy1 of that tact which supposes   
sympathy1 of such a superiority1 both   
moral and intellectual1 as  knows how to
 stoop1 and elevate the boy by stooping1
 and does it all  naturally1            
instinctively1 gracefully4 ,in the      
ordinary course of human  affairs1 this 
magnetic power of the teacher is more   
intense1 according  as in years he is   
nearer to the subject on whom his       
ascendancy plays1  and by whom it is    
spontaneously admitted4 ,i mean that    
inestimable and  precious subject1 the  
mind and heart of the impressionable    
boy1 who is  about to develop into      
manhood1 first young1 and then mature4  
,the youthful subject is rich1 though   
not in positive acquisitions  already   
made its own2 for1 in this respect1 it  
may rather be considered  parum         
fructuosa1 as ,sacchini says2 that is1  

bearing little fruit as  yet1 either of 
judgment or positive acquirements4 ,but 
it is rich in  its promise1 as it       
struggles upward into the sunshine of   
varied and  beautiful truth4 ,this is   
the fact which imposes upon liberal     
education  the duty of omitting nothing 
that is either beautiful or polished1   
in imagination1 thought1 or style4 ,it  
justifies ,belles ,lettres and  the most
 finished course of ,literature1 as     
being the chosen garden of  flowers and 
fruit1 to entertain withal1 richly and  
exquisitely1 the  youthful promise of   
mind1 sentiment1 and heart4    ,or1     
inverting the figure1 if we liken the   
mind itself in youth to  the choice and 
prolific soil of a garden1 we may note  
that1 to till  such soil1 there is need 
of a gardener who has a delicate hand   
and a  light touch4 ,he must not be a   
lecturer who stands off1 nor a speaker  
who declaims1 nor a text-book monger who
 reads1 and hears recitations  of what a
 book says2 nor is he to dole out       

methods and analyses to  an inquisitive 
sense and emotional fancy1 which1 in the
 youthful  soul1 are the temporary      
vesture of an unfolding intellect2 even1
 as  in nature around1 things tangible  
and palpable are bursting1 to the  boy's
 inquisitive eyes1 with the great       
intellectual truths which they  contain4
 ,analyses1 text-books1 lectures are not
 the powers with the  young mind4 ,but1 
often enough1 we see where the real     
power lies2 when  young men1 scarcely as
 yet approaching the prime of life1     
exercise  over impressionable and       
brilliant youths1 not much beneath      
themselves  in age1 such a personal     
influence as bids fair to rank them     
among the  greater forces of human      
nature--forces which are great in       
leading1  because they know so well how 
to follow4 ,that other form of          
ascendancy1  more purely intellectual1  
and originating in wide learning and    
maturity  of scholarship1 belongs to the
 ,university ,professor of a later stage

 of  life4 ,hence it appears that       
youthfulness in the ,master is an       
advantage  for the tutorial teaching of 
the young4    ,the critics who drew up  
the preliminary ,ratio in #aehf were of 
opinion  that the ,masters in the       
literary courses should be assigned to  
their  work1 not after their course of  
,philosophy1 but before4#ahc ,they      
would except from this arrangement only 
the ,professor of ,rhetoric2  perhaps1  
also1 in the chief colleges1 the        
,professor of ,humanity or  ,poetry2    
besides1 of course1 those whose age or  
deportment shows that  they are too     
young to become ,masters as yet1 or too 
far advanced in  years to be kept back  
from their ,philosophy4 ,in support of  
this view1  they urge several reasons1  
which do not much concern us here2 as1  
for  instance1 that1 if young men have  
once tasted of the subtleties of  the   
philosophers1 they can hardly bring     
themselves to take pleasure  any more in
 the insipid subject-matter of ,grammar2

 they will pore  over philosophical     
lore2 they will branch off1 during      
class1 into  philosophical digressions1 
which may serve for show1 but not for   
utility4 ,the critics also express a    
fear that these philosophers  will bring
 into the school-room a style of        
language infected with  philosophical   
terms2 and they quote the eminent       
,jesuit1 ,annibal ,codret1  to the      
effect that1 if ,philosophy has been    
tasted beforehand1 nothing  brilliant in
 literary style can subsequently be     
guaranteed4 ,but1 these  arguments      
notwithstanding1 the ,society1 when it  
came to sanction a  final arrangement1  
in the legislative document of #aeii1   
seems to have  entertained a higher idea
 of the younger members1 and of their   
ability  and resolution to shake off any
 deleterious effects of scholastic      
,latin1 when they advanced to the chair 
of purest ,latinity4 ,hence the         
legislation ordains that ,philosophy is 
to be studied before undertaking  to    

teach ,letters4#ahd    ,there are       
several reasons1 however1 which1 as     
urged by these critics1  are quite      
relevant to our present topic4 ,they    
urge that ,grammar studies  require a   
certain fervor1 or alacrity1 which is   
rather to be found  in persons who are  
younger1 and so far are nearer to the   
thoughts  and sentiments of boyhood4    
,the fuller results of education1 in    
this  respect1 are not to be had from   
them when older4 ,if authority or       
experience is felt to be wanting1 it can
 readily be supplemented by the         
,prefect of ,studies1 who is constantly 
in attendance on the classes of         
,grammar2 and his direction finds a     
sufficient response in the teacher's    
aptitude and docility4 ,indeed1 docility
 to counsel is so indispensable  a      
requisite1 on the part of young         
teachers1 that the ,general ,mutius     
,vitelleschi observes3 ,if they were to 
show themselves impatient  of           
correction1 and were to refuse the      

necessary aids for becoming  efficient1 
they should on all accounts be removed  
from teaching1  even if they had filled 
only half a year2 since it is more just 
and  expedient that one suffer shame1   
than that many be injured4#ahe          
,unless singular talents1 or the bare   
force of circumstance1 recommend        
another course of action1 it is not     
desirable that new teachers should  at  
once become ,masters of the higher class
 of ,grammar or of ,humanity1  though   
otherwise not unfit for these grades4   
,on all accounts1 say the  critics1 the 
rule should be that they start with the 
lowest classes1  and then1 year after   
year1 advance to the next higher grade1 
with the  best part of their scholars4  
,a certain crudeness and inexperience   
which1 at the beginning1 are unavoidable
 in their management1 will  cause1 as   
long as it lasts1 not so much evil with 
the younger as with  the older students4
 ,inexperience wears away with practice4
 ,then again1  if the ,masters go up    

each year1 and the scholars go with     
them1 the  same students are very much  
with the same teachers4 ,the young      
people  have not to pass so often from  
one kind of management to another4      
,frequent change entails a waste of     
time1 until each party comes to know    
the other1 and understand his own as    
well as the other's part4#ahf  ,in      
#aehc1 ,father ,oliver ,manare1 visiting
 the ,german ,provinces by the          
,general's authority1 had noticed this  
point1 in his ordinance for the         
management of convictus1 or boarding    
colleges2 that frequent changes  were   
burdensome to the students themselves1  
because they were forced to  accommodate
 themselves often to new teachers or    
prefects4#ahg    ,in the same sense1    
these critics1 whom we are following1   
consider it  undesirable that a ,master 
should resign his post in less than     
three  years4 ,frequent and manifold    
changes provoke complaints on the part  
of the outside world4 ,besides1 the     

,master's own efforts at acquiring      
perfection in the magisterial art will  
be cut short4 ,when there is no         
prospective permanency in a position1   
the mind is not so seriously  applied to
 the work in hand4#ahh    ,in all this1 
a most important question regarding boys
 is being faced  by these critics2 and a
 definite practical solution is adopted4
 ,the  question is1 which of the two    
alternatives to adopt1 whether to submit
  boys to one person's dominant         
influence1 or to pass them on through   
the hands of divers experienced and     
permanent ,professors1 stationed        
respectively in the different grades4   
,this latter alternative1 if it is      
understood to mean that one ,professor  
remains perpetually in one grade1  and  
another in another1 scarcely seems to   
merit consideration with  them1 except  
as regards the two highest literary     
classes1--of ,poetry  and               
,rhetoric1--where the requirements of   
erudition are so considerable  as to    

need a lengthened term of years for     
filling the chairs worthily4  ,but1 if  
the alternative regarding permanent     
,professors means that  the same        
teachers remain constantly within the   
limits of the same  curriculum1 then the
 question seems to be the one which the 
critics of  the preliminary ,ratio argue
 about in both senses1 for and against2 
and they finally arrive at a solution1  
or rather a compromise4#ahi    ,the     
severest thing they say against the plan
 is in this wise1 when  speaking        
directly of the two highest grades3     
,perpetuity of that  kind may give      
occasion to mere idleness and           
indifference2 for after  acquiring1 in  
the first years1 some esteem and name   
for their learning  7in ,poetry or      
,rhetoric71 ,masters prefer to enjoy the
 fruit and name  of the labor already   
undergone1 however moderate that was1   
rather  than wear themselves out with   
new labors4 ,hence they make no new     
acquisitions in the learning and        

accomplishments proper to their  branch2
 they get rooted in very much the same  
spot1 and teach what they  have taught  
before over and over again1 though with 
some variations4  ,what is worse1 as if 
they were quite worn out with their     
prolonged  exertions1 they say that they
 cannot any longer stand all the labor  
of  exercising their students2 whence   
everything freezes1 and they ask for  an
 assistant1 who1 if he is unlearned1    
does more harm than good2 if  learned1  
then why are two doing the work of one8 
,the solution which they arrive at is a 
compromise1 which recognizes  peculiar  
advantages in both arrangements4 ,it is 
embodied in several  rules of the ,ratio
 ,studiorum4#aij ,as many perpetual     
,professors  as possible1 for ,grammar  
and ,rhetoric1 are to be provided2 and  
some  candidates for admission to the   
,order1 who seem qualified for this     
field of work1 though apparently not    
likely to succeed in the higher  studies
 of the ,society1 may be admitted on    

this condition1 that they  devote       
themselves in perpetuity to this work of
 zeal4 ,thus such  exigencies are       
provided for as postulate a perpetuity  
of professorship  within the same       
limited curriculum4    ,on the other    
hand1 the normal process is that which  
arranges a constant  succession of      
teachers in the college1 but not a      
constant change with  the same boys4    
,the same boys go hand in hand with the 
one ,master1  with whom they have most  
to do4 ,and no one is to take charge of 
them1  however transiently1 says the    
,general ,vitelleschi1 whether on       
account  of fewness of numbers1 or      
merely to supply for another in his     
absence1  of whom it is not certain that
 he is qualified for the post4#aia ,the 
very frequent mention1 in all these     
discussions1 of something like  domestic
 tragedies resulting from the change of 
masters1 seems to  show two things2     
first1 it justifies the practice of     
keeping the same  ,professor over the   

same boys for a certain term of years1  
if not until  the class itself dissolves
 into higher courses2 secondly1 it shows
 what  a usual condition it was for     
masters to have won the most absolute   
attachment to themselves1 in the        
exercise of their magisterial duties1   
both on the side of parents and on the  
part of the scholars4 ,thus1  speaking  
of the ,professors mounting with their  
classes1 the critics  say3 ,they will   
have observed what their disciples need2
 they will take  them up to the next    
class4 ,and hence1 that changing of     
,masters1 which  has caused so many     
tragic scenes1 will not be felt so      
much4#aib    ,add to these elements of  
permanency and identity1 another which  
is most fundamental of all1 the identity
 of their formation as  ,masters2 so    
that the young ,jesuits1 as the ,general
 ,visconti sums up  the matter in #ageb1
 must have the most accomplished        
,professors of  ,rhetoric1 immediately  
after their novitiate1 men who not only 

are  altogether eminent in this faculty1
 but who know how to teach1 and  make   
everything smooth for them2 men of      
eminent talent and the widest           
experience in the art2 who are not      
merely to form good scholars1 but  to   
train good ,masters2 and that two years 
entire must be given to  ,rhetoric1     
according to the custom of the ,society1
 which term is not  to be abridged1     
unless necessity is urgent4#aic ,add1   
moreover1 the  uniformity of plan1 so   
that the form of our schools may be     
everywhere  as much as possible the     
same1 and1 when ,masters are changed1   
itself  need undergo no change4#aid ,it 
follows that1 though the flow of  new   
blood is constantly entering the        
pedagogic body1 and a constant  renewal 
is taking place1 neither the permanency 
nor the identity of  the teaching body  
and its system is found to depend upon  
the same  individuals remaining at the  
same posts4 ,naturally1 such conditions 
are not to be looked for1 except in the 

special circumstances of a  religious   
community1 with perfect organization in 
the body1 with the  conscientiousness of
 a self-denying formation actuating the 
members1  with the landmarks of         
traditions1 and a statutory method to   
show the  way2 and1 finally1 with       
executive officials adequate to control4
    ,as to this last-named condition of 
executive superintendence over  persons 
and things in the system1 several rules 
for the ,prefect of  ,studies of these  
literary courses will explain           
themselves4 ,the ,ratio  of #aeii says3 
,let him have the rules of the ,masters 
and scholars1 and  see that they are    
observed1 as if they were his own4 ,let 
him help the  ,masters themselves and   
direct them1 and be especially cautious 
that the  esteem and authority due to   
them be not in the least impaired4 ,let 
him  be very solicitous that the new    
,preceptors follow with accuracy the    
manner of teaching1 and other customs of
 their predecessors1 provided  that     

these were not foreign to our method2 so
 that persons outside may  not have     
reason to find fault with the frequent  
change of ,masters4 ,once  a fortnight1 
at least1 let him listen to each one    
teaching4#aie    ,this moral identity   
being secured1 in the ways1 means1 and  
views of the  teaching body1 the        
individual and personal elements1 which 
each ,master  brings to bear upon the   
work before him1 are no more interfered 
with1  or hampered by community of      
method1 than are all the varieties of   
race1  nation1 politics1 and            
environment1 slighted or interfered with
 by a  single system of collegiate      
institution being placed in their midst4
  ,it was in view of being everywhere1  
that the system was cast in its  precise
 and adjustable form1 so that1 in spite 
of being everywhere1 it  should be found
 equally manageable and effective4 ,and 
similarly1 in  spite of the system      
itself being one1 the play of individual
 talents  can be various1 as are the    

movable factors in any great            
organization4    ,we may close this     
chapter by observing several            
far-reaching  consequences of the       
foregoing principles4 ,in the first     
place1 those  who1 after personal       
experience in the classes1 come to take 
charge  of colleges in the capacity of  
,rectors1 are found1 say the critics  of
 #aehf1 to take full and accurate       
account of studies and ,professors      
alike2 for they themselves have borne   
the burden of the schools1 and  know how
 to sympathize with others from their   
own experience2 a fact  which is the    
more conducive to the end in view1 as   
colleges have been  instituted for the  
study of letters4 ,besides1 not         
unfrequently there  arise in the        
classes1 especially of the smaller      
colleges1 difficulties  which can       
scarcely be overcome1 except by a       
,rector who has personal  experience to 
guide him2 otherwise1 whether he chances
 to solve the  difficulty aright1 or    

solves it awry1 he will not do much good
 either  way1 since they do not give him
 the credit of knowing how4#aif  ,the   
smaller colleges spoken of here1 as more
 liable to encounter  internal          
difficulties1 are contrasted elsewhere  
by these critics with  the greater and  
principal ones1 in which there are many 
counsellors  or referees at hand1 to    
whom the ,masters can have recourse for 
assistance2 and the schools themselves  
have sufficient authority4  ,but1 in    
what they call the minor colleges1 the  
authority of the  schools depends for   
the most part on the reputation and     
authority of  the individual ,masters1  
who happen at a given time to be filling
 the  posts4#aig    ,in the spirit of   
this personal and experienced           
concurrence with all the  affairs of the
 college1 the ,rector is required so to 
moderate the other  concerns of his     
office1 as to be prompt in fostering and
 advancing  all literary exercises4 ,he 
is to go often to the classes1 those of 

the lower faculties as well as of the   
higher4#aih ,every month1 or  at least  
every other month1 he is to hold general
 consultations with  all the ,masters   
below the course of ,logic1 the several 
,prefects being  present2 and1 after the
 reading of some selection from the     
,ratio1  concerning the ,masters or the 
piety and good conduct of the students1 
he is to inquire what difficulties      
occur1 or what omissions are noticed  in
 the observance of rules4#aii ,books are
 never to be wanting1 in the            
sufficiency desired by the members      
generally1 whether they are engaged  in 
teaching1 or are pursuing their         
studies4#bjj ,to this regulation1  which
 concerns the chief authority in a      
,province1 the revised ,ratio  of #ahcb 
adds3 ,the same is to be said of        
literary periodicals for  the use of the
 ,professors2 of museums1 physical      
apparatus1 and other  equipments1 which 
are needed by a college according to its
 degree4  ,the ,general ,visconti       

observes somewhat emphatically1 that in 
buying  books the ,rectors will never   
consider the money of their colleges ill
  spent4#bja    ,jouvancy applies the   
same principle to publishing the        
literary  productions of the ,masters4  
,he first sketches the series of        
literary  productions expected from     
them1--the annual addresses of          
inauguration  to be given by each       
,professor in his own class1 the public 
and solemn  one to be delivered1 on the 
same inaugural occasion1 by the         
,professor  of ,rhetoric1 the poem to be
 composed and read by the ,master of    
,poetry2  then1 during the year1 a      
certain number of addresses to be       
delivered2  and1 at the end1 a tragedy  
composed by the ,professor of ,rhetoric1
 a  minor drama by the ,professor of    
,poetry1 both to be acted on the stage4 
,jouvancy goes on to recommend that no  
public occasion be allowed to  go by1   
without receiving the tribute of some   
such literary work4  ,then he adds3 ,nor

 is that expense to be considered       
useless which is  incurred for printing 
and publishing good poems4 ,in all these
 matter1  splendors should be added to  
literary exercises1 and to the          
exhibition  thereof1 in such wise that  
everything meanwhile tends to solidity  
of  erudition4#bjb    ,a second         
consequence of the literary cast1       
marking the whole ,order1  is the       
vantage-ground on which it placed the   
,jesuits1 with regard to  all the       
learning and the learned men of ,europe4
 ,the fluent and elegant  command of the
 ,latin language gave at once a mastery 
over the vehicle  of intercourse1 in    
which all learning was conveyed4 ,our   
critics of  #aehf sum up the bearings of
 this particular advantage under several
  heads3 ,the members of the ,order deal
 with so many nations2 scholastic       
disputations1 whether in ,philosophy or 
,theology1 are always conducted  in     
,latin2 the members write so many books2
 they can do justice to  the ancient    

,fathers of the ,church2 they have to   
deal constantly with  learned men4#bjc  
,a last consequence1 which ,i shall     
present1 is suggested by an  observation
 of the same writers1 in the same place4
 ,it throws no little  light upon the   
history of the ,society1 and it shows   
the practical  adjustment of the        
educational system to the times4 ,they  
say then1  it is by the studies of      
,belles-,lettres1 more than by the      
higher  faculties1 that the ,society    
has1 in a short time1 been propagated   
through all the principal parts of      
,christendom4 ,nor can it be preserved  
better or more solidly1 than by the same
 means through which it was  first      
introduced4 ,unless they endeavor to    
maintain this honorable  distinction1   
with which ,god has been pleased to     
grace the ,society1  there is reason to 
fear that they themselves may yet lapse 
into the  barbarism1 which they are far 
from admiring in others4 ,as to the     
other faculties1 which are brilliant    

enough of themselves1 there is  no      
trouble in cultivating them4 ,but1      
natural inclinations feeling a          
repugnance for less conspicuous         
pursuits1 people have1 as it were1 to   
drag themselves to these lower          
faculties4 ,they should take lesson1    
therefore1 by good husbandmen1 who      
bestow more care on transplanted  and   
exotic growths than on native           
shoots4#bjd ,and they proceed to  quote 
the rule1 formulated in the words of    
,ignatius1 by the ,general  ,everard    
,mercurian1 who required the institution
 and preservation of  the literary      
seminary4#bje ,so that we end here this 
discussion on the  lower faculties1 at  
the point where we began4    ,in all    
well-assorted plans each element has a  
reference to every other4  ,men must    
match the work1 and the work be suited  
to the men4 ,were the  men not formed1  
the best system would settle into an    
inert state2 and1  the more consistency 
and vitality of its own it offered to   

contribute1  the more inept and inert   
would it look1 a memorial of what it    
might do1  dead to what it can4 ,in     
itself1 and in its effects1 it might    
appear to  be out of date1 as not being 
understood4 ,only the practical working 
of  a thing1 by the man who understands 
it1 shows it off for what it is  worth4 
,this is a rule quite universal1        
wherever practical insight is  needed   
for the working of a mechanism4 ,it must
 be worked intelligently  to be         
understood4 ,once it is understood1 the 
practical intelligence  grows4          
,,chapter ,,xiii4    ,,the ,,courses    
,,of ,,divinity ,,and ,,allied          
,,sciences4 ,,private ,,study4          
,,repetition4      #a4 ,having finished 
his course of teaching literature1 the  
,jesuit  returns to his higher studies4 
,divinity and its allied sciences stand 
out in prominence for their intrinsic   
dignity2 but they have1 besides1  a     
studied preminence assigned them in the 
system before us4 ,the almost  universal

 rule1 of intermitting the higher       
studies with a course of  literary      
teaching1 undergoes a special exception 
in the case of those  theologians1 whose
 number is few1 and use so manifold2#bjf
 of whom  ,aquaviva says that1 according
 as the higher courses are developed1   
the fewer proportionately1 out of many  
students1 become qualified  to profess  
those exalted sciences4#bjg ,the same   
policy holds with  respect to those who 
have an eminent talent for oratory4     
,laynez1  himself a great preacher1 and 
a competent judge in the matter1        
relieved  ,father ,francis ,strada of   
the office of ,provincial1 to set him   
free for  the ministry of the pulpit2   
and he wrote1 as he did so3 ,if only he 
had  a sufficiency of those whom he     
could put in the office of ,provincial1 
he would relieve all preachers of that  
office1 that they might devote          
themselves entirely to spreading the    
seed of the ,divine ,word4#bjh  ,of     
these and others1 who give eminent      

promise of being equal to the  graver   
occupations1 or for whom an immediate   
need exists in that  direction1#bji an  
immediate application is to be made to  
the study of  ,theology4#baj    ,all who
 graduate in these higher courses do so1
 as qualified to  profess2 just as they 
had graduated in ,philosophy and its    
cognate  branches4#baa ,but1 though a   
master in the matter of his             
philosophical  triennium1 no student is 
called upon to profess any of those     
branches1  until he has graduated also  
in ,theology4 ,here we may advert to    
several lines of strict parallelism in  
the system1 both with regard  to        
admitting any students1 whether ,jesuits
 or not1 to the respective  courses of  
study1 and with regard to admitting     
,jesuits themselves to  profess in the  
chairs4    ,as a condition for admitting
 any students at all into the higher    
courses1 the ,society introduced a      
much-needed reform1 in requiring that   
literary qualifications of a            

sufficiently high grade should precede  
matriculation4 ,thus the ,university of 
,ingolstadt ordains that no one  shall  
be admitted to ,academic1 that is1      
,university lectures1 except  after one 
year of ,rhetoric2 and it adds very     
strict regulations about  the election  
of courses1 repetitions1 disputations1  
etc41 in the three  years' curriculum of
 ,philosophy4#bab    ,in like manner1 to
 be admitted as a student of ,divinity  
and its  correlative sciences1 it is    
necessary to have graduated in the      
course  of ,arts1 that is to say1       
,philosophy and its branches4 ,thus the 
,university of ,wrzburg ordains that no 
one shall be admitted as an  auditor of 
,scholastic ,theology1 unless he be     
,magisterio insignis1  a ,master of     
,arts2 it excepts only the members of   
religious ,orders  in attendance1 and   
also ,principis ,alumnos1 the ,prince's 
scholars4  ,others1 who have not so     
graduated1 it will admit to ,moral      
,theology  and its supplementary        

branches4 ,it will not even examine1 for
 the  ,mastership in ,arts1 any one1    
whether a ,religious or not1 who has    
studied ,philosophy in a private        
institution or a monastery4#bac ,to     
apply for ,academic ,degrees1 they must 
prove that they have followed  all the  
courses in some approved public         
,university4#bad    ,the curriculum1 now
 before the student1 is a quadriennium1 
or four-year  course4 ,it is prolonged  
into a fifth and sixth year1 for        
reviewing the  whole ground of one's    
studies2 for preparing a public defence 
against  all comers2 and1 in the case of
 ,jesuit students1 for an immediate     
preparation to fill the ,professor's    
chair1 the pulpit1 or to discharge      
other functions4 ,hence the ,university 
of ,cologne specifies1 in general1  a   
sexennium1 or six-year course for       
,theology4#bae    ,not unlike to this is
 the parallelism which we may notice1 in
  appointing the members of the ,society
 to ,professors' chairs4 ,though        

qualified to teach literature after his 
own complete course of  letters in the  
seminary1 yet1 as we have seen1 no one  
is to be put  over the classes of       
,grammar or ,humanity who has not first 
studied his  ,philosophy4 ,and so again1
 at this stage1 though apparently       
competent to  teach ,philosophy1 and    
approved as being qualified to profess  
it1 yet no  one is to be put in a chair 
of that course who has not also studied 
his  ,theology4#baf    ,the reasons for 
this are assigned by the critics of     
#aehf4 ,the  philosopher1 they say1 who 
has not yet become a theologian1 will   
not be so safe in his conclusions1 in   
his proofs1 in his manner of            
expression4 ,he will be of an age less  
mature4 ,his learning will be  less     
superabundant4 ,he will scarcely be able
 to answer the arguments  of            
unbelievers4 ,nor will he treat         
,philosophy in a way to render it       
useful to ,theology4 ,in fine1 the      
proprieties of things cannot be well    

observed1 if he who has just filled a   
chair of ,philosophy has to sit  down as
 a mere student in ,theology4#bag       
,the branches of this theological course
 are ,scholastic ,theology1  ,moral     
,theology1 ,sacred ,scripture1 ,hebrew  
and ,oriental ,languages1               
,ecclesiastical ,history1 and ,canon    
,law4 ,the general category of students 
is naturally more limited than in the   
philosophical curriculum4 ,there  the   
auditors were young men1 who would      
betake themselves1 at its  close1 to    
,medicine1 or other walks of life4 ,they
 may have taken to ,law2  though        
,possevino1 himself eminent in          
jurisprudence1 would seem to imply  that
 ,canon ,law must have been pursued     
first4#bah ,the students now are        
chiefly ,ecclesiastics1 with various    
careers before them2 or they are        
,religious of different ,orders2 or1    
finally1 the members of the ,society    
itself4 ,the principal object of our    
consideration is the formation of  these

 latter1 as qualified to profess4 ,the  
pedagogical elements before  us may be  
ranged under three heads3 ,private      
,study2 ,repetition1 which  includes    
,disputation2 ,lecturing1 which is      
supplemented by ,dictation4    #b4 ,as  
to the method of private study1 all the 
auditors of the course  are directed to 
look over1 prior to the lecture1#bai the
 text  in ,aristotle1 ,st4 ,thomas1     
etc41 which the ,professor is about to  
explain4#bbj ,then1 while the lecture is
 being delivered1 they take  down notes2
 the copying of mere dictation is not   
favored4 ,after the  lecture1 they are  
to read over the notes which they have  
taken down4  ,let them endeavor to      
understand their annotations4           
,understanding what  they have written1 
they are to make objections to          
themselves against  the thesis          
established1 and endeavor to solve their
 own objections4  ,if they cannot find a
 solution1 let them note the            
difficulties1 and  take occasion to ask 

the ,professor1 or reserve them for     
disputation4  ,such is the method of    
private study prescribed for the members
 of  the ,order1#bba and laid down in   
more general terms for the other        
students4#bbb ,to develop habits of such
 study1 and to afford the  requisite    
leisure1 a certain custom1 then         
prevailing in ,portugal1 of  keeping the
 ,professors of ,philosophy and their   
students during two  hours and a half   
consecutively in the lecture room is    
discountenanced  by the critics of      
#aehf3 ,that the philosophers should    
remain two  whole hours and a half in   
class1 as is now done1 is burdensome to 
the  ,professor and troublesome to the  
students2 for these latter should get   
accustomed to private study1 lest1 like 
parrots1 they seem to be always  talking
 by rote4#bbc    ,this curtailing of    
class hours was characteristic of the   
,society's  system4 ,in #aefg the       
,general ,father ,francis ,borgia wrote1
 through his  secretary ,polanco1       

correcting1 in this respect1 a          
school-regulation  which had been       
followed in the lower classes of the    
,german ,province4  ,the secretary      
writes3 ,it is found by experience1 in  
the schools of the  ,company1 that to   
teach three consecutive hours in the    
forenoon1 and  three more in the        
afternoon1 is injurious to the health of
 our ,masters1  and does no good to the 
health of the scholars2 for which reason
 it is  now ordained that in our schools
 the morning classes shall not last     
longer than two and a half hours1 and   
the same in the afternoon4#bbd          
,nothing intensifies more the results of
 studies than concentration1 nor        
dissipates them more than division of   
attention1 while a given pursuit  is in 
progress4 ,this principle applies to the
 number of courses taken  up at one     
time1 the conduct of private studies in 
any single course1  and the degree to   
which the appointed teachers and the    
standard authors  have full justice done

 them4 ,on this head1 the critics of    
#aehf give  recommendations1 derived    
from the ,constitution1 for the         
direction  of all the students in       
general1 and for the members of the     
,order in  particular4 ,the             
recommendations are embodied briefly in 
the ,ratio  ,studiorum4#bbe ,with       
,aristotle in ,philosophy1 or with ,st4 
,thomas in  ,theology1 one commentary is
 to be designated1 and that a specially 
chosen author1 suited to the            
individual's capacity4 ,in the second   
year  of ,theology1 one of the ,fathers 
of the ,church can be added1 to be  read
 at odds and ends of time1 or after the 
fatigue of a long stretch  of study4    
,another can be substituted1 if after a 
while they ask for  another4 ,but care  
should be taken that they do not spend  
too much time  on this reading1 as if   
they were getting up a sermon4#bbf      
,all this1 no doubt1 tends to make the  
student a man of one book1 who1  as the 
adage says1 is much to be feared4       

,however1 when he goes through  every   
course1 and is everywhere a man of      
concentrated attention1 while1  for the 
purpose of public disputation and the   
attempted refutation of  his own and the
 ,professor's conclusions1 the side     
avenues of various  authors and systems 
are studiously and necessarily kept     
open1 it is  probable that1 after being 
a man of one book1 in many courses      
successively1 he will also be           
well-rounded by the time his formation  
is complete4 ,with students in general1 
this can be accomplished by  the age of 
twenty-five2 with the ,jesuits          
themselves1 about the age of            
thirty-three4    #c4 ,i come now to the 
subject of ,repetition1 of which two    
chief forms  offer themselves4 ,one is  
just what the word of itself indicates2 
it  belongs to all the faculties1 but   
chiefly to the lower courses4 ,i  shall 
call it by the generic name of          
,repetition4 ,the other has place       
principally in the higher2 it is        

,disputation2 of which a preparatory    
exercise1 called ,concertatio1 prevails 
also from the lowest class of  ,grammar 
upwards4    ,repetition then rehearses  
in full class1 under various forms or   
modifications of that exercise1 what the
 ,professor has explained in  class4    
,just before the close of the hour spent
 on his lecture1 the  ,professor of     
,philosophy or ,theology signifies that 
he is ready for  questions on the matter
 treated2 he asks sometimes an account  
of the  lecture1 and he sees that it is 
repeated4 ,the revised ,ratio of  #ahcb 
puts it1 in more general terms1 thus3   
,he is often to require  an account of  
the lectures1 and to see that they are  
repeated2 and  then it desires that1    
after the lecture1 either in the        
class-room1 or  somewhere near1 he      
remain accessible to the students for at
 least a  quarter of an hour1 to answer 
their questions4#bbg ,this is all from  
the ,constitution of ,ignatius4    ,the 
,repetition1 which he is to see to      

personally1 is that which takes  place  
in small circles of about ten students  
each4 ,at the close of the  lectures let
 them1 in parties of about ten apiece1  
repeat for half an  hour what they have 
just heard2 one of the students1 and1 if
 possible1  a member of the ,society1   
presiding over each party1 decuria4#bbh 
,neither the preliminary1 nor the final1
 ,ratio demands that the  ,professor    
himself preside over any of these       
parties4 ,but those who  do preside will
 become more learned1 and will be       
practising to become  ,masters          
themselves4#bbi    ,it must be admitted 
that the tenor of many remarks in the   
earlier  document of #aehf1 shows the   
presence of ,jesuits among the auditors 
to have acted on the course as a leaven 
and a relief2 although the  concurrent  
testimony of historians1 about the      
,jesuit schools1 indicates  little or   
nothing there of that license of        
manners1 such as ,possevino  described  
for us in a former chapter4#bcj ,in a   

special manner1 those  ,jesuit students1
 already young priests1 who1 having gone
 through their  four-year course1 were  
now reviewing in a biennium1 of a fifth 
and  sixth year1 all their long studies 
of the higher sciences1 stood ready  at 
hand for many functions in the arena of 
direction and presidency1  either over  
the repetitions or the disputations1 or 
in the chair2 to  which as many of them 
as were needed would be officially      
assigned1 when  their private studies   
left them at last free4#bca    ,to say a
 word upon this class of ,jesuit        
students1 they show us the  ,professor's
 formation at its last stage4 ,they are 
reviewing all  ,theology1 ,philosophy1  
,sacred ,scripture1 ,canon ,law1        
,polemical or  ,controversial ,theology1
 and ecclesiastical erudition generally4
 ,the  last of their rules for          
self-guidance says3 ,in particular1 they
 are  to devote themselves most of all  
to that pursuit1 to which they feel     
chiefly drawn1 without1 however1        

omitting any of the rest4#bcb           
,meanwhile1 they present1 in various    
ways1 specimens of their talent  and    
erudition2 they throw into the form of a
 digest1 from their  own genius1 all    
,theology1 under certain heads and      
principles2 they  can choose some       
splendid subject1#bcc and deliver ten   
public  lectures thereupon to the       
auditors who choose to attend1 which1 we
 may  observe1 was precisely the status 
of all ,professors in the medival       
universities4 ,in their acts of public  
defence1 five of which are  prescribed  
during the two years1 they are free to  
follow or to leave  the opinions of     
their late ,professors4#bcd    ,these   
students then are assistant and         
extraordinary ,professors4 ,they  have  
begun the work1 which some of them will 
continue when called upon  to become    
,professors in ordinary4 ,they are      
already in training for  that           
independent work1 which the revised     
,ratio of #ahcb shows some  anxiety     

about preserving2 for it says to all who
 occupy any chair in  these faculties1  
that1 in case they adopt a standard     
author to follow  in their lectures1    
which is a custom rather prevalent in   
more recent  times1 they must           
nevertheless deliver each year some     
special question  elaborated            
independently by themselves4#bce ,this  
independence of  style1 perfect command 
of the matter1 with express leave for   
the  incipient ,professor1 in the course
 of his final biennium1 to relinquish   
the opinions of his late ,professors1   
are made the subject of many a  remark  
by the critics of #aehf4 ,withal1 it is 
clear enough that for a  younger man to 
leave an approved opinion safely1 it is 
very necessary  for him to know well    
what he is about2 and doubly necessary  
when he  comes forward in a public      
defence2 for his own late ,professors   
are  among the ,doctors present1 and are
 there to assail him in all his  tenets4
    ,these1 then1 or others presiding   

over the circles1 one person repeats1   
the others listening2 they propose      
difficulties mutually1 and1 if they     
cannot solve their own objections1 they 
consult the ,professor4#bcf  ,the one   
who repeats is to do so1 not from his   
notes1 but from memory4  ,thus the      
memory is exercised2 practice is        
afforded those who are to  be ,masters1 
so that they accustom themselves to     
develop their thoughts  before others2  
it makes them all keep alive and        
attentive during the  lecture1 to take  
down the necessary notes1 as they might 
not do1 if  they were free from such    
repetition4#bcg ,there are several other
  possible forms of conducting this     
exercise4    ,when once the first crude 
repetition is over1 the series of       
disputations begins1 daily1 weekly1     
monthly1 yearly4 ,without counting  in  
the ,grand ,acts of public defence      
against all objectors1 at stated  times 
and by specially designated persons1 we 
may enumerate as many as  seven ordinary

 rehearsals of the same matter4         
,first1 before going to the lecture     
hall1 the student looks over the  text4 
,this is done easily enough in ,st4     
,thomas or ,aristotle1 if one  of these 
is the standard4 ,as ,ignatius expected 
would be done1 many  standard works have
 been published by writers of the       
,society4#bch  ,their recommendation is1
 as he intimated1 that they are more    
adapted  to our times2 and they have    
incorporated recent researches in       
progressive branches4 ,in the sense of  
this adaptation to times and            
circumstances1 the theologians in       
,cologne1 making their announcement  for
 the year #aegh1 say that they follow   
,st4 ,thomas as a general  rule1 but not
 so as to treat all that he treats1 nor 
only what he  treats4444 ,every age1    
they say1 has its own debated ground in 
matters  of doctrine1 and this brings it
 to pass that ,theology is not only     
constantly enlarged with a variety of   
new disputations1 but assumes1 as  it   

were1 a new cast4#bci ,and the critics  
of the preliminary ,ratio1  treating of 
the ,scripture course1 lecture at some  
length all whom it  may                 
concern1--theologians1 professors1      
preachers1--precisely on this  ground1  
the need of amplifying and adapting the 
course of ,scripture  to the conditions 
of the times4#bdj ,accordingly1 works   
always new  and adapted to latest needs1
 have poured forth from the writers of  
the  ,order4 ,and such as furnish the   
conditions of a text1 which may readily 
be followed1 also supply the conditions 
for conning over1 before going  to the  
lecture hall1 what the ,professor means 
to treat4 ,if no such  standard is being
 followed1 still1 as ,i find noted in a 
documentary  report of #ahhf1 the       
,professors should always1 as far as    
possible1  throw out directions enough  
for the students to look up the subject 
before coming to the lecture4    ,in    
this connection many familiar names of  
authors occur4 ,for ,scholastic         

,theology and ,philosophy1 there is1 in 
the first place1 the prince  of modern  
theologians1 ,francis ,suarez1 with his 
library of tomes2  there are the three  
,cardinals ,toletus1 ,bellarmine1 ,de   
,lugo2 ,valentia1  ,vasquez1 ,lessius1  
,franzelin2 and1 in the modern school of
 ,scholastic  ,philosophy1 the elegant  
,liberatore1 ,kleutgen1 ,tongiorgi1     
,pesch1 along  with the writers of      
,louvain1 ,stonyhurst1 ,innsbruck1 and  
elsewhere2 in  ,positive ,theology and  
,controversy1 ,canisius1 ,becanus1      
,petau1 ,sardagna2  in ,exegesis1       
,maldonado1 ,salmeron1  ,lapide1        
,menochius1 ,patrizi1  ,cornely1 with   
the school of ,maria ,laach2 in ,moral  
,theology1 an endless  number1 ,sanchez1
 ,laymann1 ,busembaum1 with his two     
hundred editions1  ,gury1               
,ballerini4#bda    ,secondly1 the       
student hears the ,professor's lecture4 
,thirdly1 one of  the forms of regular  
repetition is gone through4 ,fourthly1  
the daily  disputation takes place1 at  

least among the ,jesuit ,scholastics3   
,at  home1 every day except on          
,saturdays1 free and feast days1 one    
hour is  to be appointed1 during which1 
after a preliminary summarizing of the  
matter for defence1 the disputation     
follows2 and1 if time remains over1     
difficulties may be proposed4 ,in order 
to have some time remain over1  the     
president must have the syllogistic form
 of discussion rigidly  observed2 and1  
if nothing new is being urged1 he will  
cut off the  debate4#bdb    ,fifthly1   
there is the weekly disputation3 ,on    
,saturday1 or some other  day1 as the   
custom of the ,university has it1 let   
them hold disputations  in the schools  
during two hours1 or longer still1      
whenever there is a  large concourse of 
persons who come to hear4#bdc ,sixthly1 
the more  solemn disputation follows1   
every month1 or nearly so3 ,each month1 
or1 if the students are few1 every other
 month1 let disputations be  held on a  
certain day1 both morning and afternoon4

 ,the number of  defendants will        
correspond to the number of ,professors 
whose theses  they defend4#bdd          
,seventhly1 towards the close of the    
scholastic year1  though no time is to  
be set aside for the purpose1 so as to  
prejudice  the continuous course of the 
,professor's lectures1 yet all the      
matter  of the year is to have been gone
 through1 by way of repetition1 when    
the time of vacation arrives4#bde ,the  
whole of this matter forms  the subject 
of the year's examination for the       
,jesuit members of the  course4#bdf ,to 
all these argumentative repetitions may 
be added  the discursive form1 in the   
shape of lectures given by the students 
themselves1 or dissertations read on    
stated occasions4#bdg    ,it is evident 
that the members of the ,society are the
 chief subjects of  this completeness of
 formation2 and that for two reasons4   
,in the first  place1 no other students1
 even if convictores1 that is1 boarders 
in the ,jesuit colleges1 can be brought 

under such a thoroughness of  system4   
,secondly1 other students are not in the
 same way subject to  the regular       
gradation of examinations from year to  
year4 ,when they are  competent1 they   
may apply for admission to the requisite
 public tests1  or ,acts of ,defence2   
and1 in the philosophical courses1 they 
become  ,bachelors1 ,licentiates1 and   
,masters of ,arts2 in ,theology1        
,bachelors  in the first and then in the
 second grade1 ,licentiates1 ,doctors4  
,no degree is to be conferred on any one
 who has not stood all the  tests1      
which1 according to the custom of       
,universities1 must precede  the        
conferring of these degrees4 ,the       
character of each degree1 its           
conditions1 tests1 formalities1 are     
treated of fully in the ,form and       
,method of conducting ,academies and    
,studia ,generalia ,s4 ,j41 #afeh4bdh   
,here1 then1 the spirit of the          
,constitution is fully observed1 with   
regard to repetition and also           

disputation4 ,the ,fathers remark that  
,ignatius recommends nothing with more  
urgency than disputation1 and  constancy
 in its exercise2 so much stress does he
 lay upon it1 as not  to let the        
students of ,letters and ,grammar go    
without it4#bdi ,in the  lower classes  
it takes the form of concertatio and    
mutual challenges1  in the matter of    
,grammar and literary doctrine4 ,here it
 is in its full  form2 and we may pass  
on to consider it in the next chapter1  
not as a  manner of repetition1 but on  
its own merits4    ,i will make the     
transition1 by quoting an important     
passage or two from  the preliminary    
,ratio4 ,they bear not only on          
disputation1 but on that  very essential
 point1 where it is that the vital power
 for actuating  the whole system lies2  
and what is the intrinsic value of any  
system1  as a mere code of legislation4 
,the critics say that1 to counteract the
 apparent decline of  disputation1 and  
to restore this exercise to its ancient 

form and  splendor1 everything depends  
on the vigilance and diligence of those 
in authority4 ,without this1 nothing    
will be effected1 even though1  for the 
proper administration of this department
 of studies1 many laws  and precepts are
 put down in writing4#bej ,elsewhere1   
acknowledging  in another connection    
that there is indeed a multitude of     
points  defined for observance1 the same
 writers go on to make these pertinent  
reflections3 ,the perfection of         
doctrine1 like the perfection of  moral 
life1 stands in need of many aids2      
whence it is that there is  no people   
under the direction of more laws than   
the ,christian people1  nor any         
,religious ,order more under the        
obligation of ,constitution  and        
,decrees than our own4 ,they undertake  
to prove the advantage of  this1 both   
from the side of those in authority1 and
 of those under  authority4 ,aristotle  
and ,st4 ,thomas1 they say1 are both of 
opinion  that as few points as possible 

should be left to the private opinions  
of a judge1 and as many as possible     
should be determined by the clear       
definition of law4 ,they prove it2 for  
it is easier to find the few  wise men1 
whose wisdom is equal to the task of    
determining fixed rules  of guidance1   
than to find the multitude1 which       
otherwise is required  to pass judgment 
in all contingencies of time and place2 
there is the  sanction of greater       
maturity in laws which have stood the   
test of time  and experience1 than in   
the off-hand decision of the present    
hour2  there is less of a corrupting    
influence on law-givers1 when they are  
defining things in general and for the  
future4 ,wherefore1 whatever  can be    
despatched by general law is so to be   
despatched2 what cannot  be provided for
 by such law is to be left to the judge1
 as the living  rule4 ,under this head  
come the particular decisions to be     
passed in  given junctures1 whereof the 
general law cannot take cognizance4  ,so

 far ,aristotle and ,st4 ,thomas2 and   
the ,fathers of #aehf agree with        
them4#bea          ,,chapter ,,xiv4     
,,disputation4 ,,dictation4      #a4    
,many wise things had been said by the  
experienced masters of old on  the      
subject of disputation4 ,thus ,robert of
 ,sorbon1 the founder of the  ,college  
of the ,sorbonne1 had put it down in one
 of his six essential  rules for the    
scholar1 that nothing is perfectly known
 unless  masticated by the tooth of     
disputation4#beb    ,our ,jesuit critics
 mention incidentally1 in one place1    
that their  age is eminently versed in  
disputation4#bec ,they are cautioning   
the  ,professor of ,scripture against   
using disputation at all1 lest he come  
thereby to relinquish his own eloquent  
style of commentary4 ,for every  chair  
has its own character2 and that which   
the ,ratio ,studiorum of  #aeii         
attributes to the chair of ,scripture   
includes1 among a number of             
qualifications1 this one1 which is      

mentioned in the last place1 that1  as  
far as possible1 the ,professors be well
 versed in eloquence4#bed    ,on the    
other hand1 in the proper arena of      
disputation1 they caution  ,professors  
against its abuse4 ,taking note1 in one 
place1 of the discord  which can arise  
among learned men1 they illustrate their
 point with  some instances1 taken      
precisely from a disputatious tendency1 
from that  exaggerated scholasticism    
which had run into dialectic excesses4  
,they  say3 ,for the disturbance of     
harmony1 it makes very little difference
  whether discord arises in great things
 or in little4 ,it is not only  the     
importance of a question1 it is also the
 spirit of emulation1 that  fosters     
contention2 so that sometimes a war of  
words and the bitterest  altercation is 
kept up on a single term and phrase4    
,forsooth1 what is  more trivial than to
 ask whether ,god is in imaginary space8
 ,yet what  tragic scenes does not this 
very question give rise to6#bee         

,excesses of this kind being guarded    
against1 the ,fathers lay down the      
thesis that1 when employed in its proper
 place1 no exercise is more  useful than
 disputation4 ,you will see not a few   
wholly taken up with  reading1 writing1 
arranging1 and paging what they have    
written2 but  they eschew most carefully
 all disputation1 neglecting it1 looking
  upon it as an idle occupation1 having 
all their ,theology locked up1  not so  
much in their memory and intelligence1  
as in their paper books4  ,men of       
authority1 they go on to say1 have      
always been persuaded that  ,philosophy 
and ,theology are learnt1 not so much by
 hearing1 as by  discussing4 ,for1 in   
this exercise1 you have a most certain  
test how  much a man understands of what
 he is writing about or teaching2 also  
how much solidity there is in one's own 
private cogitations1 since it  happens  
not unfrequently that what appears      
brilliant in one's private  room is seen
 to drag in the mud1 when it comes to   

disputation4#bef  ,then1 too1 while we  
are hard pressed by our adversary1 we   
are forced  to strain every nerve of our
 wits1 and1 when others are bearing down
  heavily upon us1 we knock out of our  
brains many things which would  never   
have come into our heads1 while we      
stayed in the quiet of leisure  and     
rested in the shade4 ,we hear things    
which others have found out1  and which 
either throw light on doubtful points1  
or indicate the path  to some other     
point4 ,or1 if what is said does not    
commend itself to  our judgment1 we see 
through the opponent's artifice2 we meet
 him with  more facility1 and establish 
our own thesis with more stability4 ,the
  auditors1 meanwhile1 can take note of 
the good points one ,professor  makes1  
the strong points of another1 and1 after
 the example of their  ,doctors1 they   
quicken their wits for the fray1        
observing where  the arguments limp1    
which are the distinctions that tell1   
how the  whole doctrine of a ,professor 

hangs together4 ,in short1 it is well   
established by the authority of the     
gravest men1 and by the test of         
experience1 that one disputation does   
more good than many lectures2  not to   
mention the other consideration1 that   
there is nothing more  calculated to    
render our schools illustrious1 than    
making our students  competent to win   
great approbation and applause1 in      
public sessions  and disputations4#beg  
,these critics express their mind upon  
the need which exists1 of  reviving     
considerably the fervor and dignity of  
this exercise1 and so  restoring it to  
its former educational influence4 ,but  
we can observe  for ourselves1 how      
congenial an element the whole exercise 
must be in  a system like this1 which is
 preminently oral--oral examinations1   
oral and self-reliant defence and       
attack1 free and open lecturing1  with  
the influence of eye1 voice1 and person1
 to bring everything  home1 even though 
all the while there is no question of   

oratory1 but  of mere teaching4 ,in the 
earlier stages1 too1 of the scholar's   
life1  however much has been made of the
 acquirement of style1 forging the  word
 with ,grammar1 as ,robert of ,sorbon   
had said1 and polishing it  with        
,rhetoric1 to make it glow on the       
written page1 yet from the very  first1 
also1 no less account has been taken of 
the ability to express  one's thought1  
with perfect presence of mind1 without  
depending upon  note or book4 ,in the   
higher faculties1 this holds good more  
than ever4  ,now the time has come for  
matter of the most approved kind4 ,and  
the  independent1 self-possessed        
delivery of one's thoughts1 with the    
power  to force them home unto          
conviction1 or to maintain them against 
all  odds1 appears not only as the scope
 proposed in the system1 but also as    
the historical result1 effected in the  
public career of the ,order4    ,father 
,laynez1 at the ,conference of ,poissy1 
contended thus with ,peter  ,martyr and 

others2 ,possevino at ,lyons with       
,viret1 using1 not so much  the severe  
syllogistic form1 as copious and learned
 discussion4  ,maldonado was            
double-handed1 either syllogistic or    
discursive4 ,in the  ,conference at     
,sedan1 in #aegb1 he argued first in    
dialectic form2 then1  on the demand of 
his opponents for a different kind of   
weapon1 he  took with the same facility 
to discursive exposition4 ,edmund       
,campian1  in ,england1 on being removed
 from the rack more dead than alive1 was
  immediately brought face to face with 
,newell and ,day1 able champions  as    
well of the ,queen's spiritual          
supremacy1 as of the doctrine of        
,justification by ,faith alone4 ,he     
proceeded to argue3 ,if faith alone     
justifies1 it justifies without charity2
 but without charity it does  not       
justify2 therefore faith alone does not 
justify4 ,now for the  answer1 clear and
 incisive as the propositions4 ,deny or 
distinguish  major or minor proposition1

 if you want to deny the conclusion2    
for1  those premises standing1 the      
inference remains intact1 since the     
syllogism is perfect in form4 ,and so   
argumentations proceed4    ,to revive   
disputation in its best style1 the      
critics devote several  pages to a most 
valuable analysis of the conditions and 
method of the  exercise4#beh ,their     
suggestions are embodied in the final   
,ratio4  ,the ,rectors are to show their
 lively and active interest in the      
disputations1 by attending on public and
 private occasions alike1 and  by the   
various arts which such interest will   
inspire4 ,as argument  freezes except in
 a crowd1 the critics require that the  
attendance  of all be insisted on1 when 
the days and hours of disputation       
arrive4  ,this susceptibility of human  
nature1 which the ,fathers touch upon1  
when they speak of disputation freezing 
except in a concourse1 is not  without  
an exact counterpart1 when1 in another  
connection1 they are  speaking of the   

humanists1 or ,professors of the        
literary classes4 ,there  they adopt the
 view that the literary seminary of the 
,province should  be in the same great  
college1 along with the faculties of    
,philosophy  and ,theology2 for1 say    
they1 among other reasons1 the humanists
 would  languish in obscurity1 if they  
had not the philosophers and theologians
  to be witnesses1 spectators1 and      
applauding auditors of their literary   
achievements4 ,and again they plead     
sympathetically1 the philosophers  and  
theologians1 when composing the         
prefatory essays for their              
disputations1 call for the taste of the 
humanists1 by whose verses and          
orations1 moreover1 they are refreshed  
from time to time4#bei    ,continuing   
their remarks1 the ,fathers define the  
limits of the weekly  disputations to be
 two hours1 not more1 assigning four    
regular  objectors for that time4 ,the  
,professors1 belonging to different     
faculties1 should invite one another    

reciprocally to the private             
disputations in their classes1 at least 
for an hour or so1 that the             
intellectual contest may wax warm by the
 meeting of these ,doctors4  ,other     
,doctors1 too1 not of the faculty1 can  
be invited for the same  purpose4 ,but1 
continues the ,ratio of #aeii1 in       
undertaking to push  the arguments which
 are being urged1 they should not take  
the thread  out of the hands of an      
objector1 who is still ably and         
strenuously  following it up4#bfj       
,meanwhile1 the students who receive the
  commission to act as objectors1 on    
occasions of some publicity1 must be    
the more qualified members of the       
course2 the others have the practice  of
 their private arena1 until they can    
take part with dignity in a  public     
tournament4    ,if argument freezes     
except in a crowd1 so1 too1 it palls1 if
 it never  comes to a conclusion2 and no
 useful point of doctrine is carried    
away by the listeners4 ,truth is lost in

 clouds1 and there is no gain  to good  
humor4 ,acrimony or melancholy may well 
be the only outcome  of an unfinished or
 revolving argumentation4 ,it will not  
revolve1  if the disputants keep to     
strict syllogistic form4 ,but when both 
or  all parties become heated1 and wit  
becomes lively1 the syllogism may       
suffer1 and then1 when will they finish8
 ,to obviate this inconvenience1  two   
persons are charged with the            
responsibility of the performance1 one  
the ,professor himself1 who is presiding
 over his own disputation1 the  other1  
the ,general ,prefect of ,studies1 who  
controls the whole series of            
disputations1 as they follow one another
 in turn4    ,of the ,professor it is   
said1 that he is to consider the day of 
disputation as no less laborious and    
useful than that of his own  lecture2   
and that all the fruit and life of the  
exercise depends  upon him4 ,the earlier
 ,ratio lays even more stress upon the  
private  disputations1 which are wont to

 grow more frigid than the public  ones4
 ,he is to assist the two disputants1 so
 as to be himself  apparently the person
 contesting in each2 let him signify his
 approval1  if anything specially good  
is urged1 excite the attention of all   
when  any first-class difficulty is     
proposed1 throw out a hint now and then 
to support the respondent or direct the 
opponent2 call them back to  strict     
syllogistic form1 if they wander from   
it2 not always be silent1  nor yet be   
always talking1 so as to let the        
students bring out what  they know4     
,what is brought forward1 he can amend  
or improve2 let him  bid the objector   
proceed1 so long as his argument carries
 weight with  it2 carry on the          
objector's difficulty for him farther2  
nor connive at  it1 if he slips off to  
another track4 ,he is not to allow an   
argument  which has been well answered  
to be kept up1 nor an answer that is not
  solid to be long sustained2 but1 when 
the dispute has been sufficiently       

exhaustive1 let him briefly define the  
matter1 and explain it4#bfa    ,the     
,general ,prefect of ,studies is        
required to keep the series of          
disputations in due form2 arguing       
himself but sparingly1 and thereby      
discharging the duty of general         
direction with more dignity4 ,he is  not
 to suffer any difficulty which comes   
under debate1 to be agitated  this way  
and that1 so that it remains as much of 
a difficulty after  as before2 but when 
such an agitated question has been      
sufficiently  mooted1 he will see that  
an accurate explanation of it is given  
by the  ,professor who is presiding4#bfb
    ,with the last public act1 or       
general defence of ,philosophy and      
,theology1 the formation of the future  
,professor closes4 ,this public  defence
 occupies four or five hours1 in two    
sessions4 ,if the defendant  is not a   
member of the ,order1 special care is   
taken to honor it with  all solemnity1  
and with the attendance of all the      

faculties1 of guests  invited1 ,doctors 
from without1 and princes or the        
nobility4#bfc  ,this act will be        
followed by the solemnity of conferring 
the final  degree upon the ,licentiate4 
,when the student is a ,jesuit1 much    
more  is made of thoroughness in a      
searching examination then1 as at all   
times previously4 ,he has now passed    
through a long series of yearly         
examinations1 which were almost always  
disputations1 and that1 not with        
equals1 but with four or five           
,professors4#bfd ,so that1 on viewing   
him  at the close of his formation1 we  
are enabled to conceive1 with more      
distinctness1 the meaning of that       
standard1 surpassing mediocrity1  which1
 in a former chapter1 ,i endeavored to  
define4#bfe    #b4 ,on turning our      
attention now to the ,professor's chair1
 and examining  his manner of lecturing1
 of explaining1 of teaching1 whether in 
the  field of ,letters1 ,science1       
,philosophy1 or ,theology1 we have1 on  

the one  side1 to suppose him complete  
in his formation1 and1 on the other1 to 
regard the scholar as undergoing        
formation4 ,here1 then1 we begin the    
second part of this analysis4 ,the style
 of teaching and of management1  which  
is distinctively the ,jesuit type1 is   
presented in the ,ratio  ,studiorum     
under its practical and ideal aspect4   
,there is also a manner  of instruction 
which is not considered an ideal method1
 however much it  may sometimes         
recommend itself as practically         
expedient4 ,i will touch  upon this     
latter1 the negative side of the        
question1 first1 to be free1  in the    
next chapter1 for approaching the matter
 on its positive and  constructive side4
    ,in putting dictation down as not   
being the ideal form of teaching in  the
 ,society1 ,i do not speak of the proper
 use of dictation4 ,the ,ratio  itself  
leaves room for it4 ,it is the abuse of 
dictation that merits and  receives a   
protracted examination of its value1 at 

the hands of the  critics4 ,the         
discussion is of the highest importance4
 ,in analyzing a  style of instruction1 
with which they are not in harmony1 they
 bring  out the essential elements of   
all true teaching4 ,and1 if we approve  
at  all of their principles1 the implied
 disapproval for the rejected form      
becomes only aggravated1 on             
contemplating an exaggerated development
  of the same2 that is to say1 when1    
instead of dictating what has the  merit
 of being one's own laborious           
production1 the teacher is seen to      
become the servile dependant on a       
text-book printed by somebody else2  and
 neither does the teacher show any of   
the qualifications necessary  to have   
composed the book1 nor does the scholar 
expend the industry  which would have   
been necessary to copy it4 ,but it is   
left to speak as  best it may1 is read  
by the teacher1 instead of his teaching1
 is read  by the scholar as the talk of 
some third person1 and is found1 in the 

last issue1 to have spoken just         
articulately enough for the pupil to    
have learnt a memory lesson1 and perhaps
 to have gathered information  which may
 or may not adhere to his mental        
structure4 ,but1 as to  anything like   
mental training1 or what is properly    
education1 the final  result of a long  
series of years seems to show that1 if  
there has been  any of it1 possibly the 
man who wrote the book had it2 and with 
him it  has remained4 ,so must it always
 be under such conditions4 ,for when the
  living ,master has contributed so     
little in the way of live education1    
the scholar must1 of necessity1 go away 
with somewhat less4    ,these critics   
say trenchantly3 ,let no dictation be   
given1 unless the  explanation of very  
much all that is dictated has gone      
before1 or  accompanies1 or follows the 
dictation2 where the custom does not    
exist1  let no dictation be introduced2 
where it does1 an effort should be  made
 to do away with it1 as far as possible4

 ,then they support their  position by  
many quotations from the ,constitution  
of ,ignatius4#bff    ,they go on to     
state that this habit of dictating was a
 thing unheard  of till within the last 
forty years2 yet the auditors were not  
less  learned then than now4 ,in fact1  
but a slight acquaintance with the  old 
university system of ,europe will show  
how jealously the empire  of the spoken 
word was maintained--the spoken word1 as
 distinct1 not  only from reading what  
the ,doctor had himself composed1 but   
also from  consulting even notes1 while 
actually lecturing4 ,he might have the  
text  of ,aristotle1 or ,peter the      
,lombard1 before him2 he might himself  
have  written and published works2 the  
student might1 with permission1 take    
down notes in shorthand1 from which in  
part1 but chiefly from memory1  he would
 commit the whole lecture to            
writing1#bfg on his return from  school4
 ,it was not mere want of facilities    
that determined the system  so4 ,but the

 objective point was1 not to have       
learning in one's papers  and bound up2 
still less to have it in books1 bought  
for the learning  that is in them1 and  
left afterwards with the learning still 
remaining  there4 ,the object was to    
make learning one's personal possession1
 and  to profess the live mastery of it1
 with voice1 eye1 and person showing    
how live it was4    ,these ,doctors     
continue3 ,the common impression in     
men's minds is1 that  dictating is not  
lecturing2 also that it is one thing to 
write after  the manner of polishing off
 a treatise1 a different thing to have  
at  hand merely some brief heads and    
references4 ,and1 should the matter     
which is dictated be from some author1  
the labor of taking it down is          
superfluous4    ,the living voice       
actuates the mind more2 it expresses1 it
 impresses2  it arouses1 suspends the   
attention2 it explains4 ,all these      
effects are  nowhere in a dead-and-alive
 dictation4 ,nor do they give           

satisfaction1  who append the           
explanation afterwards2 for then both   
times seem to  be lost1 that taken up   
with dictation and that with the        
explanation4  ,first1 while the         
dictation was going on1 the auditors    
were intent upon  writing rather than   
understanding2 particularly as1 before  
the end of  a sentence is come to1 the  
beginning of it has already slipped from
  the mind2 and the writing has to go   
on1 without allowing any of that  time  
to breathe1 which is frequent enough if 
the ,professor lectures  and explains4  
,secondly1 when the time for explanation
 comes after the  dictation1 the        
students are tired2 they think they have
 all their  learning now1 down in their 
papers2 so they go off1 or they yawn1 or
  they read over their copy1 to see if  
anything is wanting4    ,after          
dictating1 the ,professor thinks that he
 has now done his part4  ,what follows1 
that is1 the work of explaining1 he     
gulps down1 as best  he can1--a         

laborious work1 requiring memory1       
promptitude1 facility of  development1  
fluency of speech2 whence he will       
gradually vanish away  into a nonentity1
 as we see actually taking place in some
 universities4    ,more time is lost4   
,for1 while he goes over his dictation  
to explain it1  he has to take up again 
things which were clear enough1 in order
 to  follow out the whole thread of his 
matter4 ,if he had lectured1 he would   
have said those things once for all4    
,then1 since it must be something       
polished and finished in style that a   
man dictates1 the poor scribes  have to 
take down much that is not necessary4   
,as if they had wearied themselves with 
this general assault on  dictation1 the 
,fathers go on to relieve their feelings
 by exclaiming3  ,what an amount of     
tedium meanwhile to those who are not   
writing1  especially to ,prelates and   
other illustrious persons present6 ,must
 they  be told not to come while the    
dictation is going on1 and to appear    

only  afterwards when the matter is     
being explained8 ,if so1 they will be in
  attendance barely half an hour1 and   
what they will hear will be meagre      
enough2 and the person they listen to   
will be one accustomed to languid       
dictation1 one who relies on his papers1
 and is but little practised in  the    
oral development of his thoughts4       
,besides1 the students themselves  ought
 to get accustomed to make things their 
own when they hear them1  and to        
exercise their own judgment in selecting
 what to write4 ,thus  they will        
understand things better1 and be kept   
more on the alert4    ,not to disguise  
inconveniences1 from whatever side they 
come1 these  critics take note of the   
difficulties which are thought to exist2
 that1  unless the matter is dictated1  
the students cannot do justice to it1   
that the lecturer is too quick1 or1 out 
of the many things he says1  they do not
 know how to select the necessary       
elements for annotation2  and1 while    

phrase is piled upon phrase1 they are at
 a loss1 their notes  are disordered1   
inept1 and sometimes simply wrong4      
,to this the critics promptly make      
answer3 ,those who are to lecture  in   
future are either such as are now       
beginning their career of               
,professorship1 or such as are long     
accustomed to dictation4 ,for those  who
 are now beginning1 previous exercise is
 to be recommended in the  most approved
 form of lecture1 or prlectio4 ,and they
 sketch the  form4 ,as to the others who
 are long habituated to dictating1 the  
critics ask such ,professors to give    
this form of lecturing the benefit  of a
 trial4 ,if they despair of being able  
to adopt it1 let them go  their own way1
 until another generation of ,professors
 is ready to take  their places4        
,dictation can also be permitted1 where 
our ,professors  have often tried to    
give it up1 but with the consequence    
that the  students took fright1 and     
abandoned the classes4 ,yet1 continue   

the  ,fathers1 they would not be apt to 
abandon the courses1 nor complain  so   
much1 if all the ,professors would      
devote themselves to brilliant          
lecturing1#bfh and would put away       
dictation4 ,for1 if one dictates and    
nurses the lazy folks1 and another does 
not1 who doubts but that sloth  will    
still be dearer to the slothful than the
 labors and thorns of  study8 ,yea1 by  
dictation they are made daily more and  
more lazy1 so as  to be always asking   
for more and more time2 whereas1 without
 dictation1  they become daily more     
prompt1 and need less time for          
everything4#bfi    ,the final ,ratio of 
#aeii embodies these suggestions1       
without being  absolute in excluding all
 dictation1 for which it suggests the   
form  most useful and in accord with the
 spirit of true lecturing4 ,it          
deprecates the dictation of what may be 
found in authors within reach  of the   
students4 ,let the ,professor refer his 
hearers to those authors  who have been 

copious and accurate in their treatment 
of any matter4  ,as to what the critics 
of #aehf recommend1 that1 if dictation  
be given1  the lecture should extend to 
five quarters of an hour1 the ,ratio    
says  nothing about it4#bgj             
,possevino1 in his ,bibliotheca         
,selecta1 has a chapter on this         
question1 ,whether mental culture       
suffers by the dictation of  lectures8  
,he answers in the affirmative1 and he  
speaks on the subject  with his usual   
erudition4 ,he refers to the            
,pythagorean acoustic  disciples1 who   
were never copyists1 and not even       
talkers1 until1 by a  prolonged silence 
for years1 they had thought enough to be
 able to talk  well1 to put questions1  
and make comments4 ,he quotes the       
cynicism of  ,diogenes1 about writing at
 the expense of true exercise4 ,he notes
 the  plan of ,xeniades the ,corinthian1
 who gave a written compendium to the   
young people1 but one so short that they
 had to have the best part of  their    

learning in their heads4 ,the ,socratic 
method was eminently one of  living     
speech4 ,and1 as to ,aristotle's        
peripatetic school1 which was  conducted
 while walking about the ,lyceum1 that  
was certainly neither  in practice nor  
in principle favorable to writing4      
,coming to speak  expressly of dictation
 and citing a pleasant old rhyme3--     
,quod si charta cadat1 secum sapientia  
vadat1#bga    ,possevino goes on to     
plead for the chests of the students1   
and says  that the ink is the price of  
their blood1 and the end of their       
studies  becomes the end of their lives4
 ,hence one singular result of it all   
is1 that scholars even employ amanuenses
 to go to school instead of  themselves1
 and bring back in writing what was     
said4 ,but all that  money1 says        
,possevino1 could have been reserved for
 the buying of  books1 to supplement    
real study4    ,then he enforces what he
 has said with a piece of university    
history1  wherein perhaps no one of his 

time was better versed4 ,the ,university
  of ,paris1 two and a half centuries   
before1 had legislated against          
dictating1 and against the ,doctors who 
used it1 and who were dubbed            
,nominatores ad pennam4 ,one century    
before1 the ,cardinal ,legate had  again
 formulated a law on the subject4 ,and  
finally the ,jesuits1 of  whom a great  
number are chiefly engaged in this      
profession1 taught  by experience the   
evils of that system1 have long         
understood the  necessity1 not merely of
 moderating it1 but simply doing away   
with it4  ,wherefore the ,fathers in the
 universities of ,portugal have already 
published a part of ,natural            
,philosophy1 whereby writing is         
dispensed  with1 room is left for       
quickening genius1 and much material    
stored up  to bring into the arena of   
discussion4#bgb          ,,chapter ,,xv4
    ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,scholar4   
,,symmetry ,,of ,,the ,,courses4 ,,the  
,,prelection4  ,,books4      ,what is   

developed to perfection can make other  
things like unto itself2  it is         
prolific4 ,so the ,aristotelian         
principle has it3 ,perfectum est1  quod 
generat simile sibi4 ,this is the       
outcome and test of perfection4  ,having
 followed the ,master1 therefore1 till  
he was complete in his  own formation1  
we have now turned to look in another   
direction1 and  see him reacting upon   
those whom he is to form4 ,though much  
has been  said already implicitly or    
otherwise1 on the method and principles 
of  this reactive process1 yet something
 remains1 especially with regard  to the
 lower faculties1 the literary courses4 
,in this chapter1 we may  consider the  
attitude which the ,professors take1    
singly and as a body1  towards the      
students and towards their own courses2 
and then their  chief manner of         
imparting knowledge1 or what is called  
in the ,ratio  the prlectio4 ,in the    
next chapter we can survey the principal
 class  exercises1 and the method of    

school management1 throughout the lower 
grades4 ,and1 in the chapter after that1
 ,i shall sketch the system of  grades  
from the lowest to the highest4    #a4  
,one of the first most general rules    
lays it down that the authority1  in    
whose hands is the appointment of       
,professors1 should foresee far  ahead  
what ,professors he can have for every  
faculty1 noting especially  those who   
seem to be more adapted for the work1   
who are learned1  diligent1 and         
assiduous1 and who are zealous for the  
advancement of  their students1 as well 
in their lectures 7or lessons7 as in    
other  literary exercises4#bgc ,they are
 to procure the advancement of each  of 
their scholars in particular1 says      
,ignatius4#bgd ,the ,professor is  not  
to show himself more familiar with one  
student than with another2  he is to    
disregard no one1 to foster the studies 
of the poor equally  with the rich4#bge 
,these are the regular and ordinary     
,professors1 who take account of  their 

students in particular4#bgf ,there can  
also be in a university  one or more of 
another kind1 who1 with more solemnity  
than the  ordinary lecturers1 treat     
,philosophy1 ,mathematical ,sciences1 or
 any  other branch1 after the manner of 
public ,professors4#bgg    ,in the      
lower1 or literary courses the ,masters 
must be good and  skilled1 who          
seriously1 and with all the attention of
 their mind1  work for the advancement  
of their scholars1 as well in what      
concerns  learning1 as in the matter of 
morals4 ,they will have to take care    
that  besides the ,christian doctrine1  
which is so integral a part of our      
,institute1 they also give frequent     
exhortations1 suited to the capacity  of
 the boys1 and not devised for empty    
ostentation2 let them endeavor  to      
instil solid affections of piety and    
love for the things of ,god1 and  a     
hatred for sin4#bgh    ,what is meant by
 good and skilled ,masters in these     
courses1 we have  already seen from     

,jouvancy's sketch of the               
accomplishments proper  to a teacher of 
,literature4#bgi ,if anything remained  
to be said on  this topic1 it would only
 be to note and reject false standards1 
by  which the position or efficiency of 
,professors might possibly1 but         
incorrectly1 be measured4 ,thus1 some   
five years ago1 that is to say1  three  
hundred years later than the drawing up 
of the ,ratio1 ,i find  two such false  
standards distinctly repudiated2 one is 
the idea of  gathering in just enough of
 doctrine beforehand to be able1 when   
occasion calls for it1 to develop the   
attainments of a ,professor2  another is
 that which would look only to the      
environment around1 and  would measure  
the intellectual formation of men1 and  
the supply of  learning1 by the estimate
 commonly formed of the article1 and the
  actual demand for it4    #b4 ,if we   
regard not individual ,professors1 but  
the whole moral body  or faculty of     
them1 there are two characteristics     

which it may be  difficult to find1 or  
at least to ensure1 outside of an       
organization  such as the ,society of   
,jesus4 ,one is the very strict unity of
  educational matter presented to the   
studious world4 ,the other is the       
degree of cordination and subordination 
of courses professed4 ,a word  upon     
each4    ,the unity of matter in        
question1 as designed for the purposes  
of  education1 is prescribed on the     
strength of a double maxim2 first1 that 
the sifting of many opinions1 by the    
varied and multiplied activity of  many 
minds1 leaves a residue of matter1 quite
 solid enough to support  a compact and 
reliable system of teaching2 secondly1  
that1 in point  of fact1 such matter1   
which ,i have called a residue1 is      
nothing  else than the basis of truth1  
divine and eternal2 since1 in clearing  
away the ground1 all the criteria of    
each order1 the natural and             
supernatural1 have been faithfully and  
assiduously regarded4    ,hereupon1     

intellectual concord is felt to be the  
result in the entire  teaching body4 ,of
 this concord the critics say1 that it  
is the  condition and cause of a wider  
and profounder learning in the faculties
  at large4 ,each ,professor is engaged1
 not in tilling some patch of  his own1 
but in contributing his industry to the 
general field of  all4 ,where is the    
gain1 they ask1 if what one establishes1
 another  upsets1 not as if he had      
always excogitated something better1 but
 for  fear he should be thought to      
profit by the fruits of another's       
genius8  ,sometimes it really makes no  
difference whether one or other tenet   
is held2 but1 if we are bent on         
receiving no support from another1      
then1 for all our labor1 we get no other
 fruit but dissension4#bhj ,i  presume  
there is not a university anywhere but  
will bear witness1 by  its internal     
history1 to the justice of this remark4 
,nor do these ,fathers apprehend that   
reputation for real science will  suffer

 by such concord1 since reputation for  
science does not  come from opinions    
contradicting one another1 but from     
their having  agreed4 ,they express no  
lofty esteem for the notoriety which may
 be  had1 by fighting no less with      
friends than with foes1 and reserving   
admiration for only what is at a        
respectable distance1 and turning  up   
one's nose at what is near4#bha ,this   
pungent remark seems to be  a new and   
pedagogical application of the old      
proverb1 ,nihil vicinia  molestius1     
,nothing more annoying than one's       
neighbors6 ,they hold  that1 upon a     
basis of concord1 there is always room  
and liberty for  the exercise of talent2
 first1 in those questions which are    
manifestly  indifferent2 secondly1 in   
thinking out new distinctions and       
reasons1  whereby truths already certain
 may be made more secure still2 thirdly1
  in attacking the same1 either when    
publicly disputing1 or also when        
actually teaching1 if what they acutely 

urge against a position1 they  more     
acutely refute2 fourthly1 in proposing  
new opinions and questions1  but after  
they have sought the approval of the    
responsible authorities1  lest the labor
 be spent amiss4 ,the most learned men  
have always been  persuaded that there  
is more subtlety shown1 more applause   
merited  and comfort enjoyed1 in        
pursuing the lines of approved and      
received  thought1 than in a general    
license and novelty of opinion4#bhb ,but
  these critics throw out an idea of    
theirs1 which quite possibly will  not  
meet with universal acceptance4 ,they   
say1 ,it is not every one who  can build
 up a ,theology for himself4 ,the remark
 they add is graceful1  that a modest   
genius does not court every kind of     
liberty1 but that  which is not divorced
 from virtue4    ,these principles      
explain for us the unity of educational 
matter1 as  presented to the studious   
world4 ,the same marshalling and        
husbanding  of force1 which effectuates 

this result1 operates another1 akin to  
the former4 ,it is the most definite    
cordination and subordination of        
courses1 with a mutual understanding    
between ,professors and faculties4      
,where grades exist1 either in their    
perfect form1 as in the five stages  of 
the classical or literary course1 or in 
a shape approximating to  that1 as in   
the three stages of the philosophical   
triennium1 such  subordination is easily
 secured4 ,but1 also1 elsewhere the     
conditions of  perfectly definite       
outlines are laid down for courses1     
which have any  points of mutual        
contact4    ,this may be illustrated by 
some rules of the ,ratio4 ,the two      
,professors of ,dogmatic ,theology are  
to consider themselves dispensed  from  
commenting on questions proper to       
,sacred ,scripture1 from treating       
philosophical matters1 from evolving    
cases of ,moral ,theology4  ,the        
,professor of ,moral ,theology is to    
despatch with the briefest  definitions 

the matter which belongs to dogma4 ,the 
,professor of ,holy  ,scripture is      
desired not to go at length into points 
of controverted  ,theology4 ,the        
,professor of ,ecclesiastical ,history  
need not treat canons  or dogma4 ,the   
,professor of ,canon ,law will not touch
 ,theology or ,public  ,right1 any more 
than his time permits1 and the necessary
 understanding  of ,canon ,law requires4
 ,the same reserve is practised between 
,theology  in general1 and ,philosophy4 
,thus a ,professor of ,moral ,theology  
despatches perhaps in ten minutes the   
definition of ,natural ,law1 upon  which
 he knows two days are spent by the     
,professor of ,moral ,philosophy4       
,half a century later1 this question of 
cordination received a still  fuller    
treatment at the hands of the ,general  
,francis ,piccolomini4  ,after requiring
 that philosophers and theologians alike
 finish  conscientiously all the matter 
assigned for each year1 he will not     
allow that the example of authors who   

have mixed up subjects1 or have         
followed out their questions into mere  
minuti1 can be cited as of any  weight  
with our ,professors4 ,for1 whatever is 
to be thought of them1  this method is  
not opportune for practical teaching in 
the schools4  ,the ,general scouts the  
idea of exploring the treasure-house of 
possibilities1 to find out new          
questions2 for there is reason to fear  
that while folks search about for truths
 not ascertained1 they will  catch at   
chimeras and shadows4#bhc ,hence1 as the
 ,ratio prescribes1  opinions which are 
useless1 obsolete1 absurd1 manifestly   
false1 are  not to receive treatment4   
,the ,professors are to run rapidly     
through  questions which are easy4 ,in  
,holy ,scripture1 difficult passages are
  not to be dwelt on indefinitely1 nor  
too much time to be given to            
chronological computations1 or          
topological surveys of the ,holy ,land4 
,in facing the objection1 that all this 
entails a great expenditure of  thought 

and matter1 when ,professors must       
despatch in such short courses  what    
might well be treated in longer terms1  
the preliminary ,ratio  draws a sharp   
line of demarcation between other       
universities and those  conducted by    
,jesuits4 ,whatever is the custom in    
other universities1  our method is very 
different from theirs1 so that no less  
progress  can be made in our schools    
during four years1 than in others during
  five2 because our ,professors are for 
the most part more laborious2 we  have  
more numerous exercises2 our ,society1  
as standing in need of many  workmen1   
requires that perfection of science     
which is necessary for its  men1 not    
that otiose method of others1 who1      
having no motive of this  kind to make  
them expeditious1 divide up into many   
lectures what could  well be treated in 
fewer2 their vacations too are for the  
most part  longer and more frequent4#bhd
    ,ex ungue leonem1 ,you can tell a   
lion by his paw4 ,let it appear that    

the brevity which you study is          
necessitated by your limits of time2    
let discernment be conspicuous in your  
selection of matter1 whether  to treat  
summarily or to treat copiously2 let the
 alternate courses  supplement one      
another1 so that what had to be skimmed 
over in one  quadriennium is dilated    
upon more at large in your next2 then1  
say the  ,fathers1 the authority which  
the ,professors enjoy with              
ecclesiastical  dignitaries will not    
suffer the detriment anticipated by     
some1 when  we give condensed and       
accurate treatment in a shorter time of 
what is  usually spread out through a   
longer4#bhe ,the paw shows the lion4    
#c4 ,we may proceed now to the typical  
form of ,jesuit instruction4  ,it is    
called prlectio4 ,this word is largely  
the equivalent of  lecturing1 in the    
higher faculties2 of explanation1 in the
 lower4  ,in either case1 however1 it is
 something specific4 ,for this reason1  
and  because ,i shall have to use the   

word often1 ,i may be allowed to put it 
in an ,english dress1 and speak of      
prelection4    ,its form1 as a lecture  
in the higher faculties1 is conceived   
thus3 ,the  whole proposition1 which is 
advanced1 is to be delivered            
consecutively1  without interposing any 
stoppages4 ,then it should be repeated  
in the  same words2 and this will be    
taken by the students as a sign that it 
is to be written down2 and the delivery 
of it should be marked by such          
inflections1 and proceed at such a pace1
 especially in its obscure and  finer   
points1 that the students may readily   
distinguish between what  is to be      
written and what is not4 ,now1 while the
 proposition is thus  being taken down1 
the lecturer ought not to advance new   
ideas1 but  should dally with the same1 
either explaining it in more phrases or 
clearer ones1 or adducing an example or 
similitude1 or amplifying the  topic1 or
 drawing out the same logical sequence  
in another order1 so  as to make it     

stand out more distinctly1 or throwing  
out a reason or  two1 which1 however1 it
 is not necessary for them to note4     
,indeed1 if  the ,professor brings his  
own papers into the school1 he might    
have in  them some select phrases1 brief
 but not obscure1 in which he sums up in
  few words the gist of the             
propositions4 ,longer development they  
will  receive only in the explanation1  
which is then to be given4#bhf ,in      
that1 the ,professor will endeavor to   
prove his thesis1 not so much by  the   
number of arguments1 as by their weight4
 ,he should not be excessive  in        
adducing authorities4 ,and it belongs to
 his dignity1 as a ,master1  scarcely   
ever to quote an author whom he has not 
himself read4#bhg    ,in the grade of   
,rhetoric1 which is the highest of the  
literary or  classical course1 the      
prelection is double2 one is upon the   
art of  eloquence1 wherein precepts are 
explained2 the other is upon an author1 
and has for its object the development  

of style4 ,taking up an author  such as 
,cicero1 the ,professor will1 in the    
first place1 make clear  the sense of   
the passage4 ,secondly1 the artistic    
structure is to be  analyzed and        
demonstrated3 the ,ratio here details   
the elements of  this analysis4         
,thirdly1 other passages which are      
similar in thought or  expression are to
 be adduced2 other orators and poets1   
whether in the  classics or in the      
vernacular1 are to be cited as employing
 the same  principles of art1 in        
persuading or narrating4 ,fourthly1 if  
the matter  allows of it1 the thoughts  
expressed by the author are to be       
confirmed  by what wise men have said on
 the same subject4 ,fifthly1 whatever   
else  will conduce to ornamenting the   
passage is here in place1 from history1 
mythology1 erudition of every kind4     
,finally1 the words are to be  weighed  
singly2 their propriety of use1 their   
beauty1 variety1 rhythm  to be commented
 upon4 ,the whole of this treatment1    

however1 does not  come within the      
limits of each and every lesson4#bhh    
,the erudition  for this grade is       
defined to comprise the history and     
manners of  nations1 the authority of   
various writers1 and all learning1 but  
sparingly1 to suit the capacity of the  
scholars4#bhi    ,the prelection on the 
precepts or rules1 the power of which1  
says  the ,ratio1 is very great for the 
purposes of oratory1 comprises  six     
points4 ,cicero is the rhetorician who  
supplies the precepts2  but ,quintilian 
and ,aristotle may also be used4 ,first1
 the meaning  of the rule is to be      
explained4 ,secondly1 upon the same     
rule1 the  rhetoricians are to be       
collated4 ,thirdly1 some reason for the 
rule is  to be expounded4 ,fourthly1    
some striking passages from prose       
writers1  and also from poets1 are to be
 adduced in exemplification of the rule4
  ,fifthly1 if anything in the way of   
varied erudition makes to the  purpose1 
it is to be added4 ,lastly1 an          

indication should be given how  this    
principle of art can be turned to use by
 ourselves2 the style  in which this is 
done must be marked by the most absolute
 choice and  finish of diction          
possible4#bij    ,in the grade of       
,humanity1 which is immediately below   
,rhetoric1 the  prelection is to be     
lightly adorned from time to time with  
the  ornaments of erudition1 as far as  
the passage requires4 ,the ,master      
should rather expatiate to the fullest  
extent upon the genius of the  ,latin   
tongue1 on the force and etymology of   
words as shown by approved  authors1 on 
the use and variety of phrases1 with a  
view to imitation4  ,here1 as in other  
rules of this kind1 we may notice the   
degree of  progress made in the native  
tongues during two centuries and a half4
  ,while the ,ratio of #aeii adds these 
words3 ,nor let him think it  out of his
 way to bring forward something from the
 vernacular1 if it  presents anything   
specially idiomatic for rendering the   

idea1 or offers  some remarkable        
construction2 the revised ,ratio of     
#ahcb substitutes  these words3 ,let him
 expatiate on a comparison between the  
genius of  both tongues1 with a view to 
imitation4 ,when he is explaining a     
prose  author1 he should investigate the
 precepts of art1 as exemplified        
therein4 ,lastly1 if he thinks fit1 he  
can give a version1 but a most  elegant 
one1 of the whole passage into the      
mother tongue4#bia ,greek  has its own  
form of prelection4    ,as to the prose 
writer just mentioned1 the manner of    
treating an  historical writer in       
,humanity1 which is otherwise called the
 class of  ,poetry1 will serve by the   
way to illustrate the difference between
  what is recognized as the staple of   
studies in a class1 and what comes  in  
as subsidiary--a most essential         
distinction1 characterizing this  system
 of literary teaching4 ,the critics of  
#aehf advert to it clearly4  ,after     
showing the importance of including the 

study of historians  in the course of   
,poetry1 they say3 ,this will not be too
 onerous to  the ,preceptor2 for the    
style of history is plainer and more    
lucid1  so as not to need great study2  
and it would be enough to explain the   
course of events1 as they are narrated  
by the author1 so that he  need not     
consult other authors who have written  
on the same matter4  ,the prelection of 
the historian ought to be easy2 after   
rendering a  sentence of the author1 the
 words may be lightly commented upon1   
and  only such as have some obscurity   
hanging about them4 ,the historians of  
whom there is question here1 are ,csar1 
,sallust1 ,q4 ,curtius1 ,justin1        
,tacitus1 ,livy4#bib    ,in both classes
 of ,rhetoric and ,humanities1 not      
everything  indiscriminately is to be   
dictated and taken down1 but only       
certain  interpretations of difficult   
passages1 which are not readily obvious 
to every one1 or which the ,master has  
elaborated as the outcome of  his       

personal study2 besides1 some rather    
striking remarks on various  passages of
 the author under examination1 such     
annotations as the  commentators give1  
who edit books of various readings4     
,this will  befit the ,master's dignity1
 and will be useful for the young men to
  know4#bic    ,the grades of ,grammar  
have respectively their own forms of    
prelection1  given in detail by the     
final ,ratio4 ,it will be enough for us 
to  sketch the general form of the      
earlier critics4#bid    ,according as it
 is a grammar or an author that is being
 explained1 a  very different method of 
prelection is to be followed4 ,in the   
grammar1  we acquire a fund of precepts2
 in an author1 a store of words and     
phrases4 ,wherefore1 in the books of    
grammar1 the boys must understand       
perfectly the things explained2 they    
need not attend scrupulously to  the    
words there1 with a view to forming     
style4 ,but1 in the letters of  ,cicero1
 and other texts of the kind1 it is not 

so much the substance of  the sentences1
 as the words and phrases that are of   
chief consequence2  the significance and
 force of his thoughts are to be        
reserved for the  higher classes1 when  
the students are no longer mere boys4   
,in the classes of ,grammar then1 let   
the ,master follow this method of       
explaining ,cicero1 or any other author4
 ,first1 he will sketch1 in the         
briefest way1 the meaning of the author1
 and the connection between  what has   
gone before and what is now to be       
explained4 ,then he will  give a version
 of the period literally1 preserving to 
the utmost  the collocation of words1 as
 they stand in the author2 and also the 
figures employed4 ,as to the collocation
 or arrangement of the words1  this is  
of such consequence that sometimes1 if a
 single word is put  out of its place1  
the whole thought seems to lose its     
force and fall  flat4 ,herein1 too1 is  
perceived that rhythmic flow of the     
style1  which of itself1 even if other  

ornaments are wanting1 pleases the ear  
wonderfully and gratifies the mind4     
,thirdly1 the whole period is to be     
resolved analytically into its          
structural elements1 so that the boys   
understand distinctly what every word   
governs2 and their attention  should be 
directed to some useful points of good  
,latinity4 ,as to this  structural      
analysis1 ,i may be allowed the passing 
remark1 which is  familiar to every     
judge of a classical education1 that the
 disciplinary  value of literary studies
 reaches here its highest degree of     
mental  exercise2 and that the two      
classical tongues1 ,latin and ,greek1   
are  altogether eminent as supplying    
materials for this exercise1 in their   
own native structure2 which1 in the     
,latin1 is an architectural build1      
characteristic of the reasoning ,roman  
mind2 and1 in the ,greek1 is a  subtle  
delicacy of conception and tracery1     
reflecting the art1 the  grace and      
versatility of ,athens and the ,ionian  

,isles4    ,after this1 each word is to 
be examined1 as to what it signifies1   
and  to what uses it may be applied2 the
 boy is to understand1 as far as may    
be1 the original and proper idea and    
force of every word1 not merely  its    
general significance1 as in a shadowy   
outline2 he should know1 too1  the      
phrases in his native tongue1 which     
correspond with precision and  propriety
 to the ,latin4 ,the metaphors and the  
figurative use of words1  especially as 
found in ,cicero1 are to be explained to
 the boys in an  extremely plain        
manner1#bie and by examples drawn from  
the plainest  objects4 ,unless this use 
of words is understood1 the true and    
genuine  knowledge of the tongue is     
seriously obstructed4 ,then1 picking out
  the more elegant turns of style1 the  
,master will dictate them to the        
scholars1 and afterwards require the use
 and imitation of these phrases  in     
their themes4 ,lastly1 he will go back  
and translate the words of the  author  

over again1 as he did at the beginning2 
and1 if need be1 do so a  third and a   
fourth time4    ,as to writing1 during  
all this1 let him forbid them absolutely
 to take  down a single letter1 except  
when told4 ,what he does dictate to     
them1  he is to finish within the time  
of the prelection1 and not prolong  this
 time for the sake of the writing4 ,it  
happens now and then that1  with much   
labor1 waste of time1 and to no good    
purpose whatever1 the  boys take down1  
and preserve with diligence1 a set of   
notes which  have not been thought out  
very judiciously nor been arranged very 
carefully1--notes simply trivial1       
common1 badly patched together1         
sometimes worse than worthless2 and     
these notes they commit to paper1  in   
wretched handwriting1 full of mistakes  
and errors4 ,therefore1 let  the        
dictation be only of a few points1 and  
those extremely select4    ,the ,masters
 are to be on their guard1 lest private 
tutors at the boys'  homes explain new  

lessons to them4 ,these tutors have     
merely to repeat  with the boys what has
 been heard in class4 ,otherwise1 the   
fruit of the  good explanation which is 
received at school is lost at home4     
,repetition is now in order4 ,two       
principles govern this exercise4        
,first1 what has often been repeated    
sinks deeper into the mind4#bif         
,secondly1 the industry of youths flags 
under nothing so much as  satiety4#big  
,as soon1 therefore1 as the prelection  
is over1 the  ,professor is to require  
at once an account of all that he has   
said1  and he is to see that the whole  
line of his explanation is followed in  
the repetition4 ,as if this seemed to   
imply that only the best scholars  were 
to be called upon1 the critics go on to 
note that not all of what  has been     
explained should be repeated by one     
only1 but that as many as  possible     
should be practised every day4 ,the     
,master should not follow  the order in 
which the boys are seated1 but take them

 here and there4  ,however1 the first to
 be called on are those more advanced2  
then1  the duller1 or perhaps lazier    
ones1 and these should rather be asked  
oftener1 to be kept up to the mark4#bih 
,the final ,ratio notes that the daily  
lesson should not exceed four  lines in 
the lowest class of ,grammar2 seven in  
,middle ,grammar4 ,there  is1 as ,i have
 already observed1 a prelection proper  
to grammatical  rules2 also to ,greek1  
whether it be in the grammar or in an   
author4  ,proportion in width and depth 
of matter is adjusted to each grade4  ,a
 careful dictation in the vernacular is 
to be given1 which1 when  rendered into 
,latin or ,greek1 will exemplify the    
precepts explained1  or the use of the  
phrases already dictated4 ,and one part 
of the school  exercises1 from the      
lowest class up to ,rhetoric1 is a      
concertatio  between rivals1 which is a 
lively discussion either upon matters   
explained in the prelections1 or upon   
one another's compositions4 ,in  this   

field of debate1 as is natural1 the     
activity of the students  grows1 both in
 the extent of the field to be covered1 
and in the  depth of erudition required1
 according as the grades are mounted4   
,and it is carried out of the class-room
 into select societies1  called         
academies1 the members whereof1 whether 
grammarians or  littrateurs1 conduct    
their debates1 give their own           
prelections or  repeat a choice one of  
their ,professor's1 award a place in the
 archives  to some specially meritorious
 production2 and they conduct all these 
exercises in exact keeping with their   
actual prelections and studies4  ,nor do
 they yield an inch in gravity or       
dignity to the great academy  of        
theologians and philosophers4#bii    ,as
 to the native tongue1 one of the       
earliest systems of studies in  the     
,society1 prior to the general ,ratio by
 about forty years1 lays  down for the  
middle class of ,grammar1 that on       
,mondays and ,wednesdays  the boys will 

receive the themes in ,bohemian and     
,german for their  epistolary           
exercises4#cjj ,this document is        
probably from the pen  of ,peter        
,canisius1 soon after the colleges were 
founded at ,prague1  ,ingolstadt and    
,cologne4 ,in a directive memorial of   
#afjb1 drawn up for  ,mayence by ,father
 ,ferdinand ,alber1 a postscript is     
added to the effect1  ,let exercise in  
the ,german tongue be furthered4#cja    
,jouvancy lays  down the practice in    
this manner3 ,after the correction and  
dictation  of the written exercises1 the
 ,latin author is rendered into the     
mother  tongue1 or a concertatio is     
held4 ,these two exercises can be held  
on alternate days1 if there is not      
enough of time every day for both4  ,in 
rendering the author into the           
vernacular1 you will observe three      
things3 first1 the idiom of the         
vernacular1 and its agreement in        
construction with the ,latin1 or else   
its disagreement1 so that the  scholars 

learn each tongue by the other2         
secondly1 the proper turns  and elegance
 of the ,latin style2 finally1 the      
thoughts of the author1  as having a    
moral bearing1 and as calculated to form
 and mould the  judgment of the boys2   
also the ways of men1 the punishments of
 the  wicked1 the maxims of sages4 ,some
 part of an historical author should  be
 given sometimes for their written      
exercise1 to translate into the  mother 
tongue2 or it may be added1 as an       
appendix1 to a shorter theme4  ,let the 
boys hold a discussion among themselves 
upon the merits of  the translation2    
they can write in that narrative style1 
to win the  best places in class2 as    
also1 at the close of the year1 for the 
premiums4 ,however1 the whole time of   
class is not to be taken up by  such    
translations1 as happens sometimes with 
negligent ,masters1 who  shirk the labor
 of the prelection1 and of the          
correction of themes4  ,while the boys  
dispute among themselves on the precepts

 of grammar1  poetry1 or eloquence1 one 
stands against many1 or several against 
several4 ,the subject1 time1 and manner 
of the concertatio is to be  defined    
beforehand2 umpires and judges are to be
 appointed1 prizes for  the victors1    
penalties for the vanquished4 ,the      
others1 who are merely  listening during
 the contest1 will show in writing what 
fruit they have  derived from it1 or    
will be asked questions thereupon4#cjb  
,in the following article1#cjc the same 
writer gives several specimens  of a    
prelection in ,cicero1 ,virgil1 ,phdrus1
 as adapted to the different  classes4  
,they are only passages4 ,the whole of  
this system goes by  passages1 taken    
consecutively1 until a whole piece has  
been mastered  by the students4 ,for it 
is in the prior perfection of detail    
that  perfection in a larger compass is 
attained4 ,and we may also note  that it
 is only in the original productions of 
perfect ,masters in  style1 that detail 
can ever be adequately studied4 ,the    

understanding  and enjoyment of an      
entire masterpiece1 taken as a whole1 is
 by every  law of nature and of art an  
easy resultant of understanding the     
parts4 ,if any writers on pedagogy have 
thought that no student could           
understand and take pleasure in an      
original classic1 and therefore  have   
advocated the reading of translations as
 a means of receiving the  literary     
impressions1 ,i fear that we need only  
point to the style  of literary writing 
which seems to have resulted from doing 
things in  this second-hand fashion--if 
indeed it is even second-hand4 ,for1    
after  all1 style itself never appears  
in a translation2 only the thoughts  are
 translated4 ,thoughts are the soul of  
style2 its expression was  the body2    
each fitted the other in the classic    
original2 and1 in an  eminent mutual    
fitness1 an eminent style was being     
studied4 ,the best  translation of a    
classic piece has never done more than  
produce a bare  equivalent4 ,wherefore1 

if with the striking original no        
thorough work  has been done1 it is more
 than probable that1 in the results1    
nothing  original and striking will ever
 be done4    ,this system of prelection1
 which in addition to the perfection of 
its  technique1 required erudition from 
every branch of learning1#cjd  made of  
the ,professor anything but a technical 
pedagogue4 ,voltaire  noticed it1       
speaking of his own ,professor4 ,nothing
 will efface  from my heart1 he wrote to
 ,pre de la ,tour1 ,rector of the       
,collge  ,louis-le-,grand1 the memory of
 ,father ,pore1 who is equally dear to  
all that studied under him4 ,never did  
man make study and virtue more  amiable4
 ,the hours of his lessons were         
delicious hours to us4 ,and ,i  should  
have wished that it was the custom at   
,paris1 as it used to be at  ,athens1   
that one1 at any age1 could listen to   
such lectures4 ,i should  often go to   
hear them4 ,i have had the good fortune 
to be formed by more  than one ,jesuit  

of the character of ,pre ,pore1 and ,i  
know that he has  successors worthy of  
him4#cje    ,the productions of such    
,professors replenished the literature  
of  the classics1 as we may see in the  
great editions1 or bibliothec  classic1 
published during the present century4   
,father ,de la ,cerda  of ,toledo1 in   
his three folio volumes on ,virgil1 in  
#afag1 gave to  literature an           
encyclopdia of political and moral      
observations1  including geography1     
history1 and the natural sciences4#cjf  
,his  technical work was not inferior2  
for his ,grammatical ,institutions      
became in #afac1 by an exclusive        
privilege1 the standard of all the      
public schools in ,spain4 ,father       
,nicholas ,abram1 whose ,epitome  of    
,greek ,precepts in ,latin ,verse went  
through fifty editions in  twenty-two   
years1 published in #afcb1 while        
,professor at the ,college  of          
,pont--,mousson1 two volumes octavo on  
,virgil1 which were then  republished   

constantly at ,rouen1 ,paris1 ,toulouse1
 ,poitiers1 ,lyons1  etc4#cjg           
,undertaking the same labor1 in behalf  
of ,cicero1 he issued  two volumes      
folio1 by which ,john ,george ,grvius   
profited in his  edition of ,cicero1    
,amsterdam1 #afii2 as well as the editor
 of ,cambridge1  whose work appeared in 
#afii1 #agaj1 and #agag4cjh ,father ,de 
la ,rue's  7,carolus ,ruus7 ,delphin    
,virgil is a familiar work in ,france1  
,holland1  ,england2 so1 too1 ,de       
,merouville's ,delphin edition of       
,cicero1 which was  often reproduced at 
,cambridge1 ,london1 ,dublin1 etc4 ,the 
same we see  with regard to ,sanadon on 
,horace1 ,brumoy's great work on the    
,greek  ,drama1 ,ren ,rapin's various   
critical and poetical works2 and so of  
the rest4 ,of ,pre ,rapin's thirty-five 
works1 there are few which were  not    
translated into various ,european       
languages2 and ,oxford1 ,london1        
,cambridge1 have been among the most    
active centres of republication1 or     

translation into ,english4#cji    #d4   
,this chapter1 which has extended beyond
 the usual limits1 cannot  close better 
than with a word on books1 a matter     
intimately connected  with its subject4 
,the ,fathers of #aehf set down some    
principles  with regard to the proper   
supply and use of books1 as well as the 
expurgation of the classical standard   
works2#caj and accordingly the  ,ratio  
of #aeii ordains that the students are  
neither to be without  useful books1 nor
 to abound in useless ones4#caa ,a      
multitude is  considered useless1       
because it oppresses the mind1 and      
interferes  with the convenient         
preparation of the lesson4 ,of books by 
more recent  authors few are to be      
allowed1 and those very carefully       
selected4  ,yet1 a variety of authors   
gives a richer vein to the boys1 and    
makes  imitation easier4#cab ,here the  
,fathers proceed to give directions  for
 the composition of an entirely new kind
 of work1 which would be  of great use  

in the colleges4 ,it is exactly the     
species so well known  in our days under
 the various titles of ,precepts of     
,rhetoric1 ,art  of ,composition1 etc4  
,as the development of pedagogical      
literature1  which we took note of in a 
former chapter1#cac had already made    
some  progress1 the critics say3 ,some  
one most versed in all these matters    
should be deputed to gather whatever is 
best in this line1 and to  compile in   
one treatise1 written in an elegant     
style1 all that he has  selected1 about 
the art of writing epigrams1 elegies1   
odes1 eclogues1  sylv 7that is1         
materials1 objects71 comedies1          
tragedies1 epopoei1  a brief method of  
chronology2 explaining also what is the 
historical  7or narrative7 style1 the   
poetic1 the epistolary1 the different   
kinds of speaking1 and other such       
matters1 all to be illustrated by       
examples4#cad ,elsewhere they call for a
 similar work of a higher  order1 on the
 ,art of ,oratory4 ,the sources which   

they designate for  such a compilation  
are the numerous publications of our    
,professors of  ,rhetoric1 as well on   
the art itself1 as on classical         
orations4#cae  ,these compendia1 or     
text-books1 were a new idea in          
education4          ,,chapter ,,xvi4    
,,the ,,classical ,,literatures4        
,,school ,,management ,,and ,,control4  
,the subject of ,literary ,exercises and
 ,school ,management is treated in  such
 a manner by the critics of #aehf1 that 
justice could be done to  it1 only by   
transcribing1 word for word1 the several
 chapters of the  preliminary ,ratio4   
,as that is impossible1 within the      
limits of space  remaining1 ,i shall    
endeavor to trace the outline4    #a4   
,there is one fundamental point1        
however1 which should be touched  on1 to
 meet a latent query in the mind4 ,it   
refers to the kind of  education        
projected throughout4 ,it is evidently  
not a special training  which is        
contemplated2 not the training of       

specialists1 or technical  students4    
,all through the system1 the field of   
pedagogical activity  is that of a      
general culture2 and1 therefore1        
properly an education4  ,the result     
aimed at is a general one1 that of      
developing in the  young mind all       
fundamental qualities2 of adjusting it1 
by the early  development of all natural
 fitnesses1 to any special work of      
thought  and labor in the mature life of
 the future4 ,it would lay a solid      
substructure1 in the whole mind and     
character1 for any superstructure  of   
science1 professional and special2 also 
for the entire building  up of moral    
life1 civil and religious4 ,that such a 
general culture  should go before the   
special seems to be obvious4 ,to        
supplant it by the  special1 or even to 
abridge the process1 is not only to     
sacrifice the  general culture2 it has a
 more serious effect than that4 ,by a   
false  economy1 it cramps1 curtails1 and
 reduces to the smallest proportions    

whatever possibilities existed of       
general and special qualifications  in  
the youthful mind4 ,without a broad1    
radical formation below1  the amplitude 
of organic growth above must necessarily
 fall short2  the roots underneath not  
having shot out1 the development above  
is  wanting in vigor1 to ramify         
according to its environment1 and use   
its  opportunities4 ,in a boy's mind1   
there is needed a suppleness of general 
powers1 as only the young mind can be   
made supple1 while at the same  time it 
is preminently apt to be general4 ,it is
 what ,seneca calls  curiosum ingenium1 
an inquisitive genius1 open to          
everything1 and  prying to open         
everything4 ,memory is then at its      
flourishing stage1  ready to be         
cultivated throughout the extent of a   
potential vastness1  which will never   
again be experienced in life4 ,if       
cultivated richly in  its season1 it    
will be capable afterwards of every kind
 of ready yield1  according to its      

acquired tenacity1 and according to the 
richness of  the seed deposited in it4  
,the imagination1 too1 is at the stage  
of  impressionable and vital expansion1 
and is keenly sensitive to the  lights  
and shades of objective life4 ,these are
 either brought under  its observation1 
or1 better still1 are pictured for it in
 beautiful  literature2 since the fine  
fancy of great minds paints nature1 as  
nature herself is not found dressed at  
every one's door4 ,the opening  judgment
 also is receptive of the thoughts and  
wisdom1 which other  minds have thought 
out and handed down1 encasing it1 as    
they did so1 in  a style worthy of their
 own vigor1 and presenting it as the    
heritage  of the past to the present1 of
 the wise old age of the world to its   
youth1 which may be wiser still4 ,and   
thus in each individual youth1 the      
judgment being tenderly nursed1 and     
learning ripening with age1 what  was   
before in the memory passes gradually   
into the whole character and  competency

 of the man4    ,in the system which we 
are considering1 the instrument employed
 for  working these effects is a        
literature in the hands of a competent  
teacher2 it is a great literature1 and a
 double one4 ,the great  literatures of 
,rome and ,greece have always been      
considered adequate  instruments of     
universal culture4 ,under a literary    
aspect1 the  eloquence and poetry of    
,greece had been the mistress of ,roman 
excellence4 ,under a philological       
aspect1 the ,latin tongue has been the  
principal basis of our modern languages1
 as formed in the history of            
,christendom4 ,in both of them1 the     
varied elements of richest thought  are 
brought into contact with the           
undeveloped1 but developing nature of   
the youth2 glimpses of human life1      
individual1 social1 and political1      
favor his inquiring eyes1 and lead him  
to feel the finest springs of  human    
sentiment4 ,better still1 he feels these
 springs as touched by the  greatest    

masters of expression2 and he conceives 
thought as rendered  in a style worthy  
of the greatest thinkers2 and that1 in  
languages1  one of them the most        
delicately organized1 the other perhaps 
the most  systematically elaborated1 of 
all tongues living or extinct4 ,and1    
besides1 these two literatures come down
 to us1 bearing in their own  right what
 no other tongues can convey4 ,not as   
translations1 which1 in  their best     
form1 exhibit only a respectable degree 
of mendicancy1 and  represent other     
men's living thoughts in a decent       
misfit1 these two  literatures come down
 to us bearing in their own right all   
the historic  memories of antiquity1 as 
well sacred as profane2 all the         
masterpieces  of eloquence and poetry1  
belonging to no less than two out of the
 very  few great epochs1 those of       
,pericles and ,augustus2 all human      
philosophy1  from ,socrates1 ,plato1 and
 ,aristotle1 down to ,st4 ,thomas       
,aquinas1 and1  further down1 to        

,leibnitz and ,newton1 both of them men 
of classical  letters2 in fine1 all the 
traditions1 the ,faith1 and ,divinity of
  ,christendom4    ,to these            
considerations we may add one more      
characteristic of the  classical        
literatures1 as instruments in the      
class-room1 and we shall  have seen     
enough on our present topic1 to         
understand the theory which  underlies  
the ,ratio ,studiorum4 ,these tongues   
are dead4 ,they are not  the language of
 common life4 ,they are not picked up by
 instinct1 and  without reflection4     
,everything has to be learned by system1
 rule1  and formula4 ,the relations of  
grammar and logic must be attended to   
with deliberation4 ,thought and judgment
 are constantly exercised in  assigning 
the exact equivalents of the mother     
tongue for every phrase  of the         
original4 ,the coincidence of           
construction is too little1 the         
community of idiomatic thought too      
remote1 for the boy's mind to catch  at 

the idea1 by force of that prestablished
 harmony which exists  among most modern
 tongues4 ,only the law of thought and  
logic guides  him1 with the assistance  
of a teacher to lead the way1 and       
reassure his  struggling conception4    
,and when1 in the last instance1 the boy
 comes to write and to speak the        
language so learned1 and quickens it1   
though dead1 with the very life  of     
actual speech which makes modern        
languages live1 we have the supreme     
test and proof of successful toil1 that 
which consists in the power  to         
reproduce4 ,we have also the very       
specific advantage1 in this case1  that 
the toil has been of the most valuable  
kind2 it has been personal  labor1 spent
 in the freshness of life on complete   
self-culture4 ,for  that great law of   
all success in life1 personal labor1 has
 been honored  in the most remunerative 
way1 by cultivating memory1 exercising  
judgment1 and acquiring in the same     
thoughtful1 reflective manner two       

languages together1 ,latin and the      
mother tongue1 ,greek and the mother    
tongue1 each systematically helping the 
others by analogy and contrast4  ,and1  
withal1 what is more congenial to the   
young than letters1  language1 talk8    
,as to the working of this ,jesuit      
system1 it is very much of a            
commonplace1 in pedagogic history1 that 
a handsome style was aimed  at1 and a   
handsome style was the outcome4 ,the    
,scottish ,professor1  whom ,i quoted on
 a former occasion1 states very exactly 
the value of  this result4 ,speaking of 
the ,structure of ,sentences1 he says3  
,logic  and ,rhetoric have here1 as in  
many cases1 a strict connection2 and he 
that is learning to arrange his         
sentences with order1 is learning to    
think with accuracy and order2 an       
observation which alone would justify   
all the care and attention we have      
bestowed on this subject4#caf  ,and1 in 
another connection1 he quotes1 with the 
approval which it  merits1 the ,roman   

rhetorician's saying3 ,curam verborum1  
rerum volo  esse sollicitudinem1 ,i     
would have a sufficient care be given to
  the diction1 but the thoughts must be 
the object of scrupulous  attention4#cag
 ,this latter principle1 of diction     
first and matter  afterwards1 as        
translated into a process of educational
 development1  assigns1 in the ,ratio1  
five grades1 or seven years1 more or    
less1  to be spent on the acquirement of
 style1 chiefly as to its body1 or1  if 
you like1 its form2 then two great      
courses of ,science1 natural and        
revealed1 or ,philosophy and ,theology1 
for the acquirement of the same  style1 
chiefly as to its soul1 or1 if you wish 
so to call it1 the  substratum of       
matter4 ,from both together issues the  
thoroughly cultured  man2 as the        
well-known phrase has it3 ,le style     
c'est l'homme1 ,a  style is the man     
himself4 ,and1 if we have just had      
occasion to take  notice that two of the
 great literary epochs of the world's   

history1  those of ,pericles and        
,augustus1 are made present to us by the
 classical  literatures1 it is a subject
 of historical verification that a third
  great literary epoch1 the age of      
,louis ,,xiv1 was created under the     
influence of this system4    ,the manner
 in which the critics of #aehf discuss  
the question of ,greek  shows the       
practical eye they kept on the          
requirements of actual life1  and the   
conditions of concrete surroundings4#cah
 ,their conclusions are  embodied in a  
rule of the ,director or ,prefect of    
,studies3 ,he should  not grant an      
immunity1 particularly for any length of
 time1 from either  versification or    
,greek1 except for a grave reason4#cai  
,upon this theme there is a facetious   
touch in the report of the ,upper       
,german ,province1 which was sent to    
,father ,aquaviva some three years      
after the final ,ratio was published4   
,the deputies say3 ,some ask for  an    
exemption from ,greek and versification1

 in behalf of the older monks  and      
nobles4 ,but as the rule itself         
insinuates that an exception can be     
made1 for a sufficiently grave cause1   
there is no need of a change4 ,if  we   
are facile in the matter1 whether with  
monks or nobles1 we shall end  by       
eliminating ,greek altogether4 ,but1 if 
one is seen to be altogether  inept and 
incapable1 the impossibility of the     
thing exempts him2 for1  if ,god himself
 does not enjoin impossibilities1 why1  
neither should  we impose ,greek on such
 disciples4 ,father ,aquaviva replies1  
,that is  correct4#cbj    #b4 ,under the
 head of ,exercises1 the preliminary    
,ratio treats  elaborately and minutely 
the literary direction of a class4 ,the 
subjects are orthography1 and all that  
pertains to it2 the prelection1  as     
explained before2 the repetitions1 daily
 themes1 and the method of  daily       
correction2 the recitation of lessons by
 heart2 parsing2 and  the speaking of   
,latin4 ,jouvancy gives the order of the

 daily class  exercises4 ,and he makes  
this reflection3 ,few things are to be  
taught  in each class1 but accurately1  
so that they remain in the minds of the 
boys2 the teacher is to remember that   
these young intellects are like  vases  
with a narrow orifice1 which waste the  
liquid1 if it is poured in  copiously1  
but take it all1 if it comes in by      
drops4#cba    ,there are1 besides1 a    
number of aids to ,school ,management4  
,these are  the division of the class   
into parties of ten apiece1 or decuri2  
the  exposition1 once or twice a month1 
of some passage by a student1 in  the   
presence of invited friends2 contests   
between rivals or parties2  the delivery
 of an original piece or else an        
oratorical contest1  every week2 the    
exhibition or delivery of original      
poems2 the annual  distribution of      
premiums2 the use of the stage1 when the
 boys can  produce some specimen of     
their studies1 their delivery and powers
 of  memory4 ,the composition of the    

tragedy and minor drama devolves1 as we 
saw before1 upon the ,professors of     
,rhetoric and ,poetry4    ,a general    
condition in the management of a class  
is absolute silence  and attention4     
,besides1 it belongs to the college     
programme to insure  application1 not   
only in school to class exercises1 but  
out of school  to private study1        
especially when holidays intervene4 ,the
 usual weekly  relaxations scarcely rise
 to the rank of holidays4 ,for the      
amount  of time to be assigned in       
private study to composition and other  
work is part of the daily order1 whether
 the students be alumni1  day-scholars1 
or convictores1 boarders4 ,all must have
 enough to  occupy them1 that the boys  
be deterred from roaming about to their 
hurt4 ,the same applies to the ordinary 
intervals between school hours1         
particularly1 say the ,fathers1 on the  
days in summer1 when there  is much time
 in the early afternoon1 before classes 
are resumed2 and  we hear the court-yard

 resounding with cries and noisy        
pastimes1 hour  after hour4#cbb    ,boys
 were the same genus then as now4 ,it   
took all the efficacy of a  benign      
firmness to control that element which  
tries the experience  of every age4 ,the
 ,german ,fathers draw a graphic picture
 of these  sixteenth century boys4 ,they
 are commenting on the rule which       
requires  the ,prefect of ,studies at   
the end of school to be on the ground   
and  supervise4 ,they write thus to     
,father ,aquaviva3 ,many object to this2
  but it seems reasonable4 ,for1 if     
somebody is not on hand1 some one  whom 
the scholars revere1 then like a        
herd1#cbc all in a heap1 they  will fill
 the whole place with their yells and   
uproar1 their tussling1  laughter1 and  
jostling4 ,now1 it is necessary to      
require the observance  of decorum on   
the part of our scholars2 since1 if we  
leave room  anywhere for unmannerliness1
 it will get at once into the           
school-rooms  and ruin everything4#cbd  

,in this sense1 a certain small number  
of  rules in the ,ratio1 only fifteen in
 number1 and very short1 are  directly  
presented to the students for their     
observance4 ,none of  our students shall
 come to college with arms1 poniards1   
knives1 or  anything else that is       
prohibited1 according to the            
circumstances of  time or place4 ,swords
 and daggers were part of a gentleman's 
personal  equipment in those times4     
,they must abstain entirely from        
swearing1  injurious language or        
actions1 detraction1 lies1 forbidden    
games1  from places1 too1 that are      
dangerous1 or are forbidden by the      
,prefect  of ,schools2 in fine1 from    
everything which is adverse to purity of
  morals4 ,other rules follow1 equally  
radical for those times1 and            
reconstructive of education for the     
future4#cbe    ,for1 in these days of   
ours1 we are not accustomed to see      
students  walk in and out of a lecture  
room as they choose4 ,and many other    

inconveniences of the sixteenth century 
are not usual with us4 ,but the  reason 
is1 that we come three hundred years    
later than those times1 and  are        
enjoying the fruits of other people's   
labors4    ,an ascendency of personal   
tact and address1 conspicuous in the    
,jesuit  teachers1 is usually commented 
upon and referred to some cause or      
other1 in themselves or in the general  
organization of the ,society4  ,omitting
 that1 ,i prefer to designate one secret
 of control1 which is  full of          
significance1 though not so likely to   
arrest attention4 ,it  is an insensible 
method of organization1 making its way  
among the  youths themselves1 and       
subserving the purpose of general       
collegiate  control4 ,there were1 in    
all1 four classes of auditors1 mingled  
together1 and intermingling their       
influences4 ,that of the strongest  of  
course preponderated4 ,there were       
,jesuits themselves in the higher       
courses4 ,there were boarders1          

convictores1 who remained for ten1  or  
rather eleven months of the year1       
entirely under the control and          
direction of the ,fathers4 ,among these 
were whole houses of ,religious  or     
,ecclesiastics4 ,besides1 there were    
alumni1 day scholars1 that  great body  
of students originally contemplated in  
the ,constitution  of ,ignatius4 ,these1
 however1 owing to their divided life1  
partly at  school1 partly at home1 were 
not found to represent1 as a rule1 the  
fullest effects of the education4       
,finally1 there were externi1  external 
students1 such as not being entered on  
the books1 still  attended lectures2 and
 to this category we must refer such    
general  gatherings as those several    
thousand hearers1 who were in attendance
  for hours1 before the time1 at ,father
 ,maldonado's lectures in ,paris1  and  
made him go out into the open air to    
satisfy all4 ,now1 besides the  bond of 
affection which attached scholars to the
 ,professors1 there was  another bond1  

that of their character as ,sodalists4  
,this character  denoted membership in  
the ,sodality of the ,blessed ,virgin   
,mary1 a  religious association which is
 most highly commended in the ,ratio    
,studiorum1 and which gathered into     
itself all that was excellent  in the   
body of students4 ,the literary and     
scientific academies  were recruited    
only from the ,sodality4 ,thus1 by a    
double process1  an aristocracy of      
virtue and talent was created among the 
students  themselves1 tending not only  
to the maintenance of order1 but to the 
active development of all those         
qualities which an educational system   
most desires4          ,,chapter ,,xvii4
    ,,examinations ,,and ,,graduation4  
,,schedule ,,of ,,grades ,,and          
,,courses4      #a4 ,all examinations1  
as projected by the ,ratio ,studiorum1  
are  conducted by word of mouth4        
,writing enters the examinations1 only  
when  the written word itself is the    
subject of investigation4 ,thus1 in the 

grades of the literary course1 the      
composition of the student1 from  its   
elementary qualities of spelling1       
punctuation1 grammar1 up to  the most   
varied forms and species of style1 comes
 under examination  for advancing to the
 next grade4 ,but even then1 after each 
of the  three examiners has inspected   
carefully the written composition1 and  
consulted the ,master's reports of the  
individual's progress during the  year1 
they call in the writer1 submit his     
paper to him1 and subject him  to an    
oral investigation upon it4 ,after that1
 they proceed to the other  branches1   
all by word of mouth4    ,in the higher 
courses1 where style is no longer a     
matter of study1  writing never appears 
in examinations4 ,written dissertations1
 special  lectures1 literary pieces of  
all kinds1 composed for certain         
occasions1  are merely a part           
thenceforth of the exercises incident to
 those  courses4    ,to speak here only 
of ,grammar and the ,humanities1 each   

new-comer1 on  presentation of the      
credentials required1 is examined by the
 ,director  or ,prefect of ,studies1 who
 places him in the class1 and with the  
,professor1 adapted to the boy's        
qualifications2 in such a manner1       
however1 that the young person be rather
 worthy of the class above1  than       
unworthy of the class in which he is    
placed4#cbf ,it is the  remark of the   
earlier critics1 that severity must be  
practised in  examinations1 since it is 
more injurious for boys to ascend a     
grade1  when not fit1 than1 if really   
fit1 to be kept where they are2 and1 in 
addition to that1 if they are advanced  
when not qualified1 they create  no     
slight disturbance in the upper         
class4#cbg    ,into the lowest grade1   
neither youths advanced in age1 nor boys
 of very  tender years1 are to be       
admitted4 ,the plea that parents merely 
want  the children to be in good hands  
is not a sufficient reason for taking   
them2 the only exception is for young   

boys who are really far advanced  for   
their years4    ,these conditions of    
age1 and sufficient preparation for     
entering the  classical course1         
illustrate very distinctly several      
features of the  policy which the       
,society pursued4 ,father ,joseph       
,calasanzio1 a priest  of great zeal1   
petitioned the ,rector of the ,roman    
,college1 which was  flourishing with   
more than two thousand students1 to open
 some schools  for the unprovided       
children of ,rome4 ,there is a ,latin   
word coined  from the first four letters
 of the alphabet1 for designating this  
elementary class of scholars1 who are   
not yet qualified for literature4  ,the 
word is abecedarii4 ,the term is        
employed both in the ,constitution  of  
,loyola and in the ,ratio4 ,the ,rector 
declined4 ,father ,joseph  applied to   
the ,general ,claudius ,aquaviva4 ,he   
too declined2 he referred  to the       
,constitution of the ,society1 which had
 been distinctly and in  all its parts  

approved by the ,popes4 ,unable to have 
his idea carried  out by the ,jesuits1  
,father ,joseph opened his first ,pious 
,school in  ,rome1 which was soon       
frequented by #abjj little boys1        
abecedarii4  ,after the founder's death 
in #afdh1 his work spread into the vast 
system  of ,scuole ,pie4 ,in our times1 
the revised ,ratio of #ahcb recognizes  
the element of ,preparatory             
,departments4 ,it merely requires that  
they be  entirely under the same        
jurisdiction as the ,college proper4#cbh
    ,another feature of the policy which
 these conditions illustrate and  which 
they also further1 is that of their     
tending to discriminate  between the    
right kind of scholars and others1 whose
 circumstances will  debar them from    
ever reaching the ultimate end of higher
 culture4 ,where  circumstances are not 
propitious1 neither is the culture      
altogether  desirable4 ,for what is more
 injurious to society at large than to  
have  young people hurt in two ways1    

positively and negatively2 positively1  
by placing them in a false environment  
of culture1 which cannot be  theirs in  
future life2 negatively1 by taking up   
with such culture  all the time and     
labor which might usefully be spent in  
receiving a  plainer education1 and     
reach its term in any commonest walk of 
life8  ,besides1 the liberal education  
itself suffers prejudice2 for it is     
misinterpreted2 since it comes to be    
estimated then by results and by        
circumstances which do not appertain to 
it4 ,every system should be set  on its 
own basis1 and be built up subject to   
its own conditions4 ,the  absoluteness  
of ,loyola's ,constitution throughout1  
and of the ,ratio  ,studiorum in        
particular1 throws this policy into     
relief at every turn4    ,after the     
boy's admission into a class1 he        
advances thenceforward1  either with the
 whole class1 at the general and solemn 
promotion every  year1 or1 if he excels1
 as the reports and the ,master will    

determine1  he is not to be detained in 
that grade1 but may ascend1 at any time 
of  the year1 after a fitting           
examination4 ,a number of conditions1   
hard to  realize1 make this special     
promotion barely possible from the grade
 of  ,first ,grammar to ,humanity1 or   
from ,humanity to ,rhetoric4#cbi ,on the
  other hand1 if any one is found to be 
utterly incapable of entering  the next 
grade1 no account is to be taken of any 
petitions4    #b4 ,in the philosophical 
and theological courses1 both of which  
terminate in the conferring of degrees1 
the system of examinations  for all     
students1 who are not members of the    
,society1 refers only to  those degrees1
 at the time when application is made   
for them4 ,for the  philosophical       
degree1 the first preliminary is an     
hour's disputation  with three          
examiners1 on the matter of the whole   
course1 and that  in presence of the    
other students4 ,the result being       
satisfactory1  permission will then be  

granted to prepare for a public defence 
of  all ,philosophy4 ,this is the method
 for the solemn form of graduation1     
which1 in the old style1 confers upon   
the successful student1 after  three    
years of ,natural ,sciences1 or         
,philosophy1 the title of ,master of    
,arts4    ,at this point start the three
 professional lines of ,medicine1       
,jurisprudence1 ,theology4 ,the         
last-named faculty ends in much the     
same manner as that of ,philosophy1 but 
with a much greater amplitude  of public
 acts or defence1 and then finally with 
a defence of all  ,philosophy and       
,theology together4 ,this entitles the  
defendant to the  degree of ,doctor of  
,divinity1 which is conferred in the    
most solemn  manner4    ,there is a     
pedagogical history connected with the  
present subject1  which it may be well  
to sketch in two stages1 first1 that of 
the  sixteenth century1 and secondly1   
that of the nineteenth4    ,ignatius of 
,loyola had legislated in his           

,constitution to this effect3  ,in the  
study of ,arts1 courses shall be        
arranged in which the ,natural          
,sciences shall be taught2 and1 for     
these1 less than three years will  not  
suffice2 besides which1 another         
half-year shall be assigned the         
students1 for repeating the matters they
 have heard1 for holding public  acts of
 defence1 and for receiving the degree  
of ,master4 ,the whole  course1         
therefore1 shall be three years and a   
half1 up to the reception  of the       
degree4#ccj ,again1 ,ignatius had       
legislated for ,divinity3 ,the  course  
of ,theology shall be six years in      
length2 all the matters that  have to be
 read will be treated in the first four2
 in the other two1  besides making a    
repetition1 those who are to be promoted
 to the degree  of ,doctor will make the
 usual acts of defence4#cca    ,having  
this legislation before them1 with the  
experience of forty  years to illustrate
 its working1 the critics of #aehf are  

confronted1  at the same time1 with a   
set of historical facts1 which seem not 
to be  in harmony with the legislation4 
,while ,loyola's system was obviously   
the organization of education1 the      
facts1 which they notice1 show  a       
concomitant process going on1 in an     
inverse sense1 towards the  dissolution 
of system4 ,this1 no doubt1 was owing to
 the disturbed  condition of the        
sixteenth century4 ,making an effort to 
bring the  ,ratio and the facts more    
into harmony1 the critics reason in this
  manner3--    ,it is hard to expect    
everywhere that external students will  
be  content to hold their acts of public
 defence1 only after their course  of   
,philosophy or ,theology2 and that1     
during the half-year1 or the two  years 
specified beyond4 ,for1 in ,italy1      
scarcely any are promoted to the        
degrees by our faculties1 except our own
 alumni1 or convictores1 who  cannot    
wait so long as that in expectancy1 and 
who will readily slip  away to ,medicine

 or ,jurisprudence2 nay1 they are       
alienated from us1 and  are offended at 
this severity1 seeing that1 in the other
 universities  of ,italy1 they can most 
easily obtain the degree if they want   
it4  ,in ,germany1 too1 such intervals  
of protracted waiting are scarcely      
tolerated2 and they rather think they   
have done something1 if they have  gone 
through a four-year course in ,theology4
 ,and it would seem proper  to grant    
them a relaxation there2 otherwise1 the 
men are deterred from  seeking the      
,doctorate2 so that ,germany will have  
but few ,catholic  ,doctors in the      
future2 whereas1 it abounds in          
non-catholic ,doctors1  whose promotion 
is to be had any day4 ,in ,france1 too1 
the philosophers  do not wait beyond the
 close of the triennium to be made      
,masters of  ,arts2 they could not put  
up with delay1 for they are hurrying on 
to  ,law4 ,the same is the condition of 
things with the ,german philosophers1   
for other reasons4 ,therefore the       

,reverend ,father ,general might        
consider  whether he will dispense with 
the observance of the ,constitution in  
the  ,italian and ,transalpine          
,provinces2 the more so1 as the         
,constitution  itself says that it is to
 be observed1 as far as may be4#ccb     
,in accordance with this1 the ,ratio    
,studiorum is not absolute in its       
general legislation1 and leaves room for
 the special conditions of  different   
countries4 ,a most distinct conception  
of the meaning and  process of          
conferring degrees may be had1 by       
consulting the typical  constitution of 
an exclusively ,jesuit university1 as   
exhibited in  the ,monumenta ,germani   
,pdagogica4#ccc ,the third part of this 
document treats exclusively of the      
,variety of ,academic ,degrees and  the 
,conditions for ,each4 ,and it begins by
 saying3 ,as it is expedient  to confer 
,academic degrees on those who are found
 worthy of the same1  so the utmost     
caution is to be practised1 lest1 at any

 time1 they be  conferred on such as    
would only bring the name of the        
,academy into  discredit1 and the       
degrees themselves into contempt4       
,wherefore no  degree is ever to be     
conferred upon any one1 who has not     
undergone all  the tests which the      
customs of universities require4        
,passing on from the sixteenth century  
to our time1 an important gap  has to be
 crossed in the educational history of  
the ,order4 ,it is  that of the         
,suppression1 during about forty years  
at the end of the  last century and the 
beginning of the present4 ,these blank  
pages  signify the total loss of        
property and position1 with a severance 
in  many places of the educational      
traditions for almost sixty years1  and 
the entire destruction of them in many  
other parts4 ,besides1  like goods      
derelict1 the whole system of education 
which1 by means  of the ,society1 had   
passed out of a limited number of       
medival  universities1 and had been     

accommodated with a home gratuitously in
  over seven hundred cities and towns of
 a dozen nationalities1 was  found by   
the ,order1 at its resurrection1 to be  
largely in the hands  of ,state         
authorities1 or1 at least1 not          
independent of ,state control4          
,restored1 but having had to struggle   
into existence1 under altered and       
unfavorable circumstances1 this         
pedagogical system may be viewed with   
interest1 as it stands towards the close
 of the nineteenth century4 ,for  this  
purpose ,i may be allowed to glance at  
it1 in several parts of the  world1     
under the precise aspect which ,i have  
just been regarding1 that  of           
endeavoring to complete its work of     
education with ,academic degrees4    ,in
 the ,united ,states1 it has the same   
freedom of action as any other  system  
of higher education1 with none of the   
special support which is  given to      
organizations endowed by the ,state4    
,in many parts of the continent of      

,europe1 the property of the ,order is  
in an habitual or chronic state of      
confiscation1 and the members1 as       
educators1 are legally outlawed4        
,education can scarcely thrive when on  
the wing4    ,in ,austria1 where the    
,society is fully recognized1 its       
teachers are1 by  a cross-move1         
practically debarred from ,state        
recognition4 ,to pass on  their students
 for ,state degrees1 it is required that
 they themselves  be certified ,state   
teachers4 ,to become such teachers1 they
 must have  followed in actual          
attendance1 and during four years1 the  
special  course of ,grammar1 ,history1  
etc41 in which their certificate        
afterwards  will be recognized4         
,meanwhile1 as ,jesuits1 they have gone 
through the  courses which ,i have      
sketched in the pages of this essay2 and
 they are  certainly1 by this time1 not 
to be confounded with young persons1 who
  are merely prospecting some limited   
field of pedagogic activity1 as the     

scope of their lives4 ,hence1 at this   
most energetic and ripe period  of their
 lives1 they must waste four years1 as  
if they were young  normal scholars1 in 
following out some one or two lines of  
pedagogical  formation2 and that1 merely
 to have their word admitted when they  
pass  their students on for the ,state  
degrees4    ,in ,great ,britain and the 
dependencies of the ,british ,empire    
there are  no such harassing            
restrictions4 ,the conditions for       
matriculation1  and for the subsequent  
series of examinations1 in such         
universities  as those of ,london1      
,calcutta1 or ,laval1 are quite in      
keeping with  the ,american ideas of    
social liberality2 however high and     
exacting  otherwise may be the standard 
requisite for success1 either in the    
pass-examinations or in the ,honors4    
,nor1 if special matriculation is  again
 required in certain ,english           
universities1 before entering their     
courses of ,medicine1 does that impose  

any special hardship4 ,hence1 ,st4      
,francis ,xavier's1 ,calcutta1 ranks    
among the highest of what are called    
the ,christian schools of ,india4 ,to   
make matters clearer1 ,i shall  take two
 instances1 one from ,great ,britain    
itself1 the other from the  ,dominion of
 ,canada4    ,stonyhurst will illustrate
 the working of the ,state system1 as   
coming  in contact with the ,ratio      
,studiorum4 ,the matriculation          
examinations  at the ,london ,university
 create no special difficulty1 although 
the  higher classes of the literary     
curriculum may be regarded as under a   
strain1 in the double effort to satisfy 
the ,ratio1 and to matriculate  at that 
university4 ,after matriculation1 the   
process is considerably  smoother4 ,to  
take the classical or mathematical      
,honors1 in the ,b4  ,a4 or ,m4 ,a4     
examinations1 is altogether in harmony  
with the usual  course of the ,jesuit   
system4 ,at once1 after the ,b4 ,a4     
,honors1 a good  place on the ,indian   

,civil ,service list is within easy     
reach4 ,and1 in  general1 changes made  
by the ,civil ,service ,commissioners   
have all been  in the direction of      
adapting their competitive examinations 
to the  ordinary school curriculum4 ,in 
preparation for the military academies  
of ,woolwich and ,sandhurst1 students   
follow the regular school course  at    
,stonyhurst1 to within two years or so  
of the time for entrance2  and then they
 merely take up their special course1   
designed for the  military cadetship4   
,the same is now possible with regard to
 the navy1  since the age for entering  
that service has been somewhat raised4  
,and1 to mention one of the courses     
which are altogether proper to  the     
,jesuit system1 that of ,philosophy1 the
 usual lectures of the two  years'      
philosophical curriculum have only to be
 supplemented with a  few special       
lectures1 and the students are ready for
 the philosophical  papers of the ,b4   
,a4 examination1 in the ,london         

,university4    ,montreal exhibits the  
relations of ,jesuit and ,state systems 
in a  ,catholic country4 ,the           
,university of ,laval is at the same    
time chartered  by the ,state and by the
 ,pope4 ,the ,jesuit ,professors in the 
,college at  ,montreal conduct their own
 studies1 examine their students1 and   
merely  send them with certificates to  
receive degrees at the ,university4     
,from this history it appears1 that1    
though the curriculum of ,divinity  in  
the ,jesuit system need have undergone  
no great change during three  centuries1
 beyond the usual self-accommodation of 
the courses to  new and pressing        
questions1 its curriculum of ,philosophy
 has been  materially affected1 with    
reference to the general world of       
students4  ,this1 as foreseen in the    
,ratio ,studiorum of #aehf1 and as      
referred  to again in the revised ,ratio
 of #ahcb1 causes a double arrangement  
to be made4 ,first1 wherever members of 
the ,order are pursuing their  studies1 

the philosophical triennium is1 as a    
matter of course1 in full  operation1   
and is prolonged with individuals into a
 fourth year1 for  reviewing the        
subjects and prosecuting them further2  
and this seminary  course1 if connected 
with a public college1 remains open as  
ever to the  outside world4 ,secondly1  
to meet the requirements of external    
students1  who do not desire the full   
triennium1 the ,provincial will see that
  a course of ,philosophy be established
 according to the customs and           
necessities of the country4#ccd ,hence a
 biennium1 or two-year course1  is      
commonly established2 and1 according to 
the needs or desires of the  locality1  
it is conducted either in ,latin or in  
the vernacular4    #c4 ,now we may      
review succinctly the different courses 
as conducted by  the year1 and as       
distributed through the week4      ,,the
 ,,literary ,,curriculum4    ,the       
grading is based upon the principles of 
a classical education4  ,other branches 

enter a classical course1 as completing 
the staple  studies4 ,but1 on their own 
merits1 they receive a special          
distribution  of their own4 ,the        
,prefect of the lower studies is        
instructed to  distribute ,history1     
,geography1 the elements of             
,mathematics1 and  whatever else is     
usually treated in these classes1 in    
such a manner  that each ,master can    
satisfactorily and conveniently finish  
the matter  assigned to him4 ,this is to
 be done after consulting the           
,provincial  authority1 which assures   
stability in the manner of organizing   
these  branches4#cce ,as to the mother  
tongue1 the study of which is bound up  
intimately with the classic literatures1
 a general direction is given  once for 
all to the ,professors of these grades3 
,in learning the mother  tongue1 very   
much the same method will be followed as
 in the study of  ,latin4 ,and1 in the  
form of prelection to be used1 they are 
to adopt  the method specified as       

peculiar to the historian and the poet1 
which  is more summary than the         
prelection of the central prose author3 
,much  the same method will be followed 
in giving the prelection on classic     
authors in the vernacular4#ccf          
,,lower ,,grammar4 ,the grade of this   
class is the perfect knowledge of the   
rudiments1 and an incipient knowledge of
 syntax4 ,in ,greek3 reading1  writing1 
and a certain portion of the grammar4   
,the authors used for  prelection will  
be some easy selections from ,cicero1   
besides fables of  ,phdrus and lives of 
,nepos4      ,,middle ,,grammar4 ,the   
grade is the knowledge1 though not      
entire1 of all  grammar2 another portion
 of the ,greek grammar2 and1 for the    
prelection1  only the select epistles1  
narrations1 descriptions1 and the like  
from  ,cicero1 with the ,commentaries of
 ,csar1 and some of the easiest poems   
of ,ovid4 ,in ,greek3 the fables of sop1
 select and expurgated dialogues  of    
,lucian1 the ,table of ,cebes4          

,,upper ,,grammar4 ,the grade is the    
complete knowledge of grammar1          
including all the exceptions and idioms 
in syntax1 figures of rhetoric1  and the
 art of versification4 ,in ,greek3 the  
eight parts of speech1  or all the      
rudiments4 ,for the lessons3 in prose1  
the most difficult  epistles of ,cicero1
 the books ,de ,amicitia1 ,de           
,senectute1 and others of  the kind1 or 
even some of the easier orations2 in    
poetry1 some select  elegies and        
epistles of ,ovid1 also selections from 
,catullus1 ,tibullus1  ,propertius1 and 
the eclogues of ,virgil1 or some of     
,virgil's easier  books4 ,in ,greek3    
,st4 ,chrysostom1 ,xenophon1 and the    
like4      ,,humanity4 ,the grade is to 
prepare1 as it were1 the ground for     
eloquence1 which is done in three ways1 
by a knowledge of the language1  some   
erudition1 and a sketch of the precepts 
pertaining to ,rhetoric4  ,for a command
 of the language1 which consists chiefly
 in acquiring  propriety of expression  

and fluency1 the one prose author       
employed in  daily prelections is       
,cicero2 as historical writers1 ,csar1  
,sallust1  ,livy1 ,curtius1 and others  
of the kind2 the poets used are1 first  
of  all1 ,virgil2 also select odes of   
,horace1 with the elegies1 epigrams1    
and other productions of illustrious    
poets1 expurgated2 in like manner1      
orators1 historians1 and poets1 in the  
vernacular4 ,the erudition  conveyed    
should be slight1 and only to stimulate 
and recreate the mind1  not to impede   
progress in learning the tongue4 ,the   
precepts will be  the general rules of  
expression and style1 and the special   
rules on  the minor kinds of            
composition1 epistles1 narrations1      
descriptions1  both in verse and prose4 
,in ,greek3 the art of versification1   
and some  notions of the dialects2 also 
a clear understanding of authors1 and   
some composition in ,greek4 ,the ,greek 
prose authors will be ,saints           
,chrysostom and ,basil1 epistles of     

,plato and ,synesius1 some selections   
from ,plutarch2 the poets1 ,homer1      
,phocylides1 ,theognis1 ,st4 ,gregory   
,nazianzen1 ,synesius1 and others like  
them4      ,,rhetoric4 ,the grade of    
this class cannot easily be defined4    
,for it  trains to perfect eloquence1   
which comprises two great faculties1    
the oratorical and poetical1 the former 
chiefly being the object of  culture2   
nor does it regard only the practical1  
but the beautiful  also4 ,for the       
precepts1 ,cicero may be supplemented   
with ,quintilian and  ,aristotle4 ,the  
style1 which may be assisted by drawing 
on the most  approved historians and    
poets1 is to be formed on ,cicero2 all  
of his  works are most fitted for this  
purpose1 but only his speeches should   
be made the subject of prelection1 that 
the precepts of the art may be  seen in 
practice4 ,as to the vernacular1 the    
style should be formed on  the best     
authors4 ,the erudition will be derived 
from the history and  manners of        

nations1 from the authority of writers  
and all learning2  but moderately1 as   
befits the capacity of the students4 ,in
 ,greek1 the  fuller knowledge of       
authors and of dialects is to be        
acquired4 ,the  ,greek authors1 whether 
orators1 historians1 or poets1 are to be
 ancient  and classic3 ,demosthenes1    
,plato1 ,thucydides1 ,homer1 ,hesiod1   
,pindar1 and  others of the kind1       
including ,saints ,nazianzen1 ,basil1   
and ,chrysostom4    ,the compilers of   
the preliminary ,ratio throw out some   
very useful  hints1 relative to the work
 and scope of this class4 ,they say1 for
  instance1 that the students of        
,rhetoric are to be assisted with almost
  a daily exposition of some poet1 to   
derive thence the variety and  richness 
of poetic imitation and diction4 ,again1
 nothing dialectic is  to be made the   
subject of prelection in this class1    
since rhetoricians  are to be kept as   
far away as possible from the style1    
invention1 and  spirit of dialectics4   

,two or three years are spoken of as    
spent in  this grade4#ccg ,at any rate1 
all our day-scholars or boarders#cch    
should spend one year in ,rhetoric      
before they enter on ,philosophy2 this  
should be brought home to their parents4
 ,the others1 who attend our  courses   
from outside1#cci should be persuaded to
 do the same4#cdj  ,if they still insist
 upon entering the philosophical        
curriculum at too  early an age1 special
 means are suggested to discountenance  
such a  practice4    ,all these five    
grades are evidently so connected as not
 to overlap one  another4 ,neither are  
they to be multiplied1 except in the    
sense of  allowing more than a single   
division1 when scholars are very        
numerous4  ,if all the grades cannot be 
maintained in any place1 the higher     
ones1 as far as possible1 are to be     
kept1 the lower being dispensed         
with4#cda      ,,the ,,philosophical    
,,curriculum4    ,with the side branches
 sufficiently learned1 with the boy's   

native  talents stimulated or           
cultivated1 as the ,ratio frequently    
expresses itself1#cdb and his memory    
enriched with the fullest  materials for
 style in two languages1 ,latin and the 
vernacular1 while  ,greek has subsidized
 his culture1 the student enters on the 
study of  ,philosophy1 using scholastic 
,latin as the vehicle of expression4    
,this instrument for the expression of  
philosophical thought possesses  the    
qualities of subtlety1 keenness1 and    
precision1 which the dialectic  practice
 of all universities had tended to      
develop in it1 from the  twelfth century
 onwards4 ,with the addition of         
,cicero's fulness and  richness1 which  
the colleges cultivated with so much    
ardor1 the  scholastic ,latin of men    
like ,molina1 ,ripalda1 ,liberatore1    
,franzelin1  and so many others1 has    
flourished to a degree of literary      
excellence4    ,mathematics runs        
parallel with the course of ,philosophy1
 and upon  that branch of science there 

is a rather eloquent passage in the     
,ratio of #aehf4cdc ,physics was always 
included in the ,aristotelian           
philosophy4 ,the career of ,modern      
,physics was then in the future4 ,but1  
as in ,mathematics pure and applied1 the
 courses were always advanced to  the   
foremost rank1 and in ,arithmetic and   
,geometry we notice that1 as  early as  
#affg1 a single public course1 under the
 direction of ,jesuits  at ,caen1       
numbered four hundred students1#cdd so1 
in the middle of the  next century1 the 
eighteenth1 we find physical cabinets in
 regular  use1 and experimental lectures
 given to the classes by the ,professors
  of ,physics4#cde ,the basis of the    
study is thus laid down in the rules  of
 the revised ,ratio3 ,the ,professor is 
to expose theories1 systems1  and       
hypotheses1 so as to make it clear what 
degree of certitude or  probability     
belongs to each4 ,since this faculty    
makes new progress  every day1 the      
,professor must consider it part of his 

duty to know the  more recent           
discoveries1 so that in his prelections 
he may advance  with the science        
itself4#cdf ,the general assemblies had 
legislated  on this subject1 as ,i      
indicated before2 assigning its proper  
place in  ,philosophy to what they      
called the more pleasant or the lighter 
form of ,physics4 ,indeed1 ,philosophy  
itself in the course of three  centuries
 came to feel many new needs and        
submitted to new lines of  treatment4   
,first ,year4 ,,logic ,,and ,,general   
,,metaphysics4 ,one ,professor3 eight   
hours a week4 ,introductory sketch of   
,philosophy4 ,dialectics or  ,minor     
,logic3 ideas1 judgment1 reasoning4     
,logic ,proper3 ,the criteria  of truth2
 species of knowledge1 and general rules
 of criticism and  hermeneutics4        
,general ,metaphysics or ,ontology3 ,the
 notions of being and  the categories4  
,,mathematics4 ,one ,professor3 six     
hours a week4 ,all  that prepares for   
the ,physics of the following year1     

viz41 algebra1  geometry1 plane and     
spherical trigonometry1 and conic       
sections4 ,this  rapid course1 in so    
short a time1 supposes that the matter  
is not  entirely new1 but has been      
studied already in the literary course4 
,second ,year and part of the ,third4   
,,special ,,metaphysics4 ,one           
,professor3 four hours a week4 ,first1  
,cosmology3 ,the origin of the  world1  
the elements of bodies1 the perfection  
of the world1 its  nature and laws1     
supernatural effects and their criteria1
 as examined  by philosophical          
principles4 ,secondly1 ,psychology3 ,the
 essence of  the human soul1 and its    
faculties3 sensation1 imagination1      
memory1  the nature of intelligence and 
reason1 appetite1 will1 freedom2  the   
essential difference between soul and   
body2 the simplicity1  spirituality1 and
 immortality of the soul2 the union of  
soul and body1  the nature and origin of
 ideas2 the vital principle of brutes4  
,thirdly1  ,natural ,theology3 ,god1    

,his existence and attributes1 etc41 as 
viewed  by the light of human reason4   
,,physics4 ,one ,professor3 nine hours a
  week4 ,mechanics1 dynamics2 the       
properties of bodies1 hydrostatics1     
hydraulics1 aerostatics1 pneumatics2 the
 elements of astronomy2 light1  caloric1
 electricity1 magnetism1 meteorology4   
,what is not completed  in this year is 
continued in the next1 with the elements
 of natural  history4 ,much of this     
course may have been seen in the        
literary  curriculum4 ,the matters are  
not to be treated so exclusively from a 
rational standpoint1 as to leave barely 
any time for experiments2 nor  are      
experiments so to occupy the time1 that 
it looks like a merely  experimental    
science4 ,,chemistry4 ,one ,professor3  
three hours a week4  ,inorganic and     
organic4    ,third ,year4 ,,metaphysics4
 ,one ,professor3 four hours a week4    
,what  remains of the course just       
described1 under the second year4       
,,moral  ,,philosophy4 ,one ,professor3 

four hours a week4 ,the end of man1 the 
morality of human actions1 natural law1 
natural rights and duties2  the         
principles of public right4 ,,physics4  
,one ,professor3 two hours a  week4     
,geology1 astronomy1 physiology4 ,part  
of the course above can  be reserved for
 this year4 ,,mathematics4 ,one         
,professor3 three hours a  week4        
,analytical geometry and differential   
calculus4    ,in these courses of       
,natural ,science1 if the matter is not 
altogether  new1 as having been studied 
in the lower faculties1 the             
philosophical  attitude of theoretic    
criticism is quite specific throughout  
this  curriculum4      ,,the            
,,theological ,,curriculum4    ,as the  
,jesuit theologians of ,cologne         
announced in their programme  of #aegh  
that1 while they followed ,st4 ,thomas1 
yet neither all the  matters1 nor those 
alone which he treated1 were to be      
handled by them2  so1 in every age1 the 
standard adopted has been adhered to1   

with the  same practical eye to the     
needs of the times4 ,the reason is the  
same as  those theologians assigned2    
because1 they said1 ,every age has      
definite  fields of conflict1 which     
render it necessary that ,theology be   
enlarged  with a variety of newly       
disputed questions1 and1 in fact1 that  
it  assume a new form4#cdg ,in the      
arrangement of ,scholastic ,theology the
  ,ratio suggests the following form3-- 
,scholastic ,theology4 ,,four ,,years4  
,two ,professors3 each four hours  a    
week4 ,one course4 ,religion and the    
,church2 ,god in ,unity and  ,trinity2  
,his attributes1 predestination3 ,god as
 ,creator2 the ,angels2  the creation of
 ,man and his fall2 the ,incarnation2   
,three of the ,seven  ,sacraments4 ,the 
other course4 ,human acts1 virtues1 and 
vices2 the  theological virtues2 the    
cardinal virtues2 right and justice2    
religion2  grace2 the ,sacraments in    
general2 the rest of the ,seven         
,sacraments4    ,moral ,theology4 ,,two 

,,years4 ,one ,professor3 five and a    
half hours a  week4 ,the scope of this  
course is to form ,ministers of the     
,sacraments4  ,one year4 ,human acts1   
conscience1 laws1 sins1 the             
,commandments1  excepting the seventh4  
,the other year4 ,the seventh           
,commandment1 which  includes contracts2
 the ,sacraments1 censures1 the states  
and duties of  life4    ,ecclesiastical 
,history4 ,,two ,,years4 ,one           
,professor3 two hours a week4  ,the     
questions1 necessary and opportune1 in  
the history of each century4    ,canon  
,law4 ,,two ,,years4 ,one ,professor3   
two hours a week4 ,one year4  ,persons1 
judgments1 penalties4 ,the other year4  
,things4    ,sacred ,scripture4 ,,two   
,,years4 ,one ,professor3 four hours a  
week4  ,general prolegomena4 ,a book    
from the ,old and ,new ,testament       
alternately4    ,hebrew4 ,,one ,,year4  
,one ,professor3 two hours a week4      
,supplemented  with one hour a week on  
,syriac1 ,arabic1 ,chaldaic1 during four

 years4      ,,general ,,distribution   
,,of ,,time4    ,the compilers of the   
preliminary ,ratio made an effort to    
draw up a  uniform system for the       
distribution of time in the various     
countries4  ,but the final ,ratio       
preferred to leave the matter thus3     
,since the  variety of countries1 times1
 and persons is apt to introduce variety
  in the order to be observed1 and in   
the distribution of hours for  study1   
repetitions1 disputations1 and other    
exercises1 as also in  vacations1 the   
proper authority will report to the     
,general whatever he  thinks more       
expedient in his ,province1 for the     
better advancement of  studies1 that a  
definite arrangement may be come to1    
which will meet  all exigencies2        
keeping1 however1 as near as possible to
 the common  order of our studies4#cdh  
,accordingly1 a rule of the ,general    
,prefect  of ,studies prescribes that he
 lay down not only an order of studies1 
repetitions1 disputations to be observed

 by members of the ,society1 by  our    
scholars1 and by external students at   
large1 under the direction of  their    
,professors2 but also that he distribute
 all their time1 to the  effect that    
they spend the hours of private study   
well4#cdi    ,i shall give three        
sketches of actual arrangements for the 
conduct of  the literary or secondary   
curriculum2 and one normal arrangement  
for  the two departments of superior    
education in ,philosophy and ,theology4 
,the three schedules for the secondary  
course are taken from the ,english      
speaking world4 ,that numbered 7,i71 if 
presented in full1 would read  very much
 like the usual arrangement of an       
,american college4 ,it is the  method   
more or less adopted by the ,jesuit     
colleges which centre around  the ,st4  
,louis ,university in the ,western      
,states4 ,the schedule numbered  7,,ii7 
represents the system of ,georgetown    
,college1 and of others in  the ,eastern
 ,states2 it looks like a close         

adaptation of the system as  presented  
in these pages4 ,number 7,,iii7 is the  
method of ,stonyhurst  ,college1        
,england2 and to it may be referred the 
,canadian system1 and  that of          
,hindustan4 ,the hours indicated in this
 schedule include the  set time for     
studies1 besides the hours of class4    
,the set study time1  in a boarding     
college1 may be taken to average four   
and a half hours a  day2 other hours may
 be added thereto1 from free study time1
 or hours  of superfluous recreation4   
,the ,stonyhurst arrangement is         
interesting1  as being that of a faculty
 two hundred and ninety-nine years old1 
without any intermission in its career4 
,its original home was ,st4  ,omer's1   
,france1 where ,father ,parsons founded 
the college in #aeib4 ,at  the          
suppression of the ,order in ,france1   
#agfb1 the college moved to  ,bruges in 
,belgium2 thence1 in #aggc1 to ,lige2   
whence1 under the stress  of the ,french
 ,revolution1 it took refuge in         

,england1 and opened its  courses at    
,stonyhurst1 ,lancashire1 in #agid4     
,the schedule for the philosophical     
triennium 7,superior ,instruction1  ,b7 
is taken from ,woodstock ,college and   
,st4 ,louis ,university2 that of  the   
theological course 7,superior           
,instruction1 ,c7 from ,woodstock4 ,in  
these schedules1 as well as in that not 
exhibited here for the seminary  course 
of ,literature 7,superior ,instruction1 
,a71 no material difference  would be   
found to exist between one house of     
studies and another in the  ,society4   
,,distribution ,,of ,,hours ,,per       
,,week4      ,,secondary                
,,instruction4--,literary4              
,i4                     ,,ii4    ,grades
             ,i4-,,iv4  ,v4-,,vi4       
,,vii4   ,i4-,,iv4  ,v4-,,vi4    ,,vii4 
,four    ,two     ,one     ,four    ,two
      ,one                       ,years4
  ,years4  ,year4   ,years4  ,years4    
,year4    ,age of ,student     #ac-af4  
#ag-ah4   #ai4    #ac-af4  #ag-ah4      

#ai4                                    
,,subjects4                             
,classics             #i4      #i4      
44    #ac-a_/b4  #ac-a_/b4   44         
,mathematics          #d4      #d4      
#d4     #e-a_/b4   #e-a_/b4   44        
,english and        #ab4      #i4       
#f4     #h4       #e4       44          
,accessories                            
,natural ,sciences    44       #c4      
44     44       #c4       #aj4          
,philosophy          44       44        
#aj4    44       44       #ab4          
,,iii4    ,grades                       
,i4-,,iv4   ,v4-,,vii4                  
,philosophical curriculum4              
,four     ,three                        
,years4    ,years4    ,age of ,student  
#aa-ae4    #af-ah4                44    
,,subjects4    ,classics                
#ah4        #ah4                 44     
,mathematics              #h-a_/b4      
#h-a_/b4             44    ,english     
#f4         #f4                 44      
,french                   #e4         44

                 44    ,history and     
,geography    #c4         44            
44    ,natural ,sciences         44     
#c-f4               44    ,philosophy   
44         44      ,two ,year ,course1  
as                                      
below 7b74      ,,superior              
,,instruction4--7,a7 ,literary4         
,,seminary ,,course4      ,literature   
,two ,years      ,for ,members of the   
,order4      ,,superior                 
,,instruction4--7,b7 ,philosophical4    
,,triennial ,,course4      ,years       
,i4               ,,ii4                 
,,iii4      ,,subjects ,,of ,,courses4  
,philosophy3      ,logic1               
#h  #e      ,ontology4                  
7,disputation74        ,cosmology1      
#d  #c      ,psychology4                
7,disputation74        ,psychology1     
#d  #c      ,natural ,theology4         
7,disputation74        ,moral           
,philosophy                             
#d  #c                                  
7,disputation74      ,mathematics3      

,algebra1 ,geometry1      ,trigonometry4
           #f4        ,analytical       
,geometry1      ,calculus4              
#c4        ,mechanics                   
#i 7,three ,months74      ,physics      
#i 7,seven ,months74      ,chemistry    
#c 7,ten ,months74      ,geology1       
,astronomy1    ,physiology4             
#b4      ,specialties          ,outside 
of this ,triennium4      ,,biennial     
,,course4      7a7 ,two ,year           
,curriculum1 included in the ,triennium4
    7b7 ,similar ,curriculum1 conducted 
separately in ,english4      ,,superior 
,,instruction4--7,c7 ,theological4      
,,sexennial ,,course4      ,years       
,i4      ,,ii4      ,,iii4     ,,iv4    
,v4       ,,vi4      ,,subjects ,,of    
,,courses4                              
_/-----------------      ,scholastic    
#h  #e    #h  #e    #h  #e    #h  #e    
,biennium of ,general      ,theology4   
7,disp474 7,disp474 7,disp474 7,disp47  
,repetition1                            
,philosophical and    ,moral ,theology1 

#e-a_/b    #e-a_/b    #a_/b      #a_/b  
,theological2                           
and ,special    ,ecclesiastical      #b 
#b         44       44     ,seminary    
,work4      ,history4           ,canon  
,law4           44       44        #b   
#b      ,sacred              44       44
        #d        #d      ,scripture4   
,hebrew4              #b        44      
44       44      ,syriac1 ,arabic1      
,chald4            44       #a          
#a        #a      ,specialties4         
,outside of this ,sexennium4            
,,superior ,,instruction4--7,d7 ,law4   
,conducted by a ,faculty not of the     
,order4      ,,superior                 
,,instruction4--7,e7 ,medicine4         
,conducted by a ,faculty not of the     
,order4          ,,chapter ,,xviii4     
,,conclusion4      ,it will not have    
escaped the attentive reader1 that      
almost all the  history1 pedagogic or   
otherwise1 which has been sketched in   
this essay1  falls within the lines of  
what has been called the                

,counter-,reformation2  and some portion
 of it belongs to what is styled1 in the
 present  century1 the                  
,counter-,revolution4 ,for this reason1 
if the facts recorded  seem at all new1 
he will discern the reason4 ,they have  
lain outside of  one of the beaten paths
 in history4    ,beyond the facts of    
evolution1 as they may have appeared in 
these  pages1 ,i do not pretend to have 
found a place for this system  in any   
plan of pedagogic development4 ,nor do  
,i lay claim to the  far-sightedness    
which may discern any posthumous        
development1 as the  legacy of this     
system to the world of education4       
,politically1 its  place has often been 
assigned to it summarily by main force4 
,but1  pedagogically1 too1 the day may  
come1 when gathered to the other        
remains which moulder in the past1 it   
can look down from a grade and  place of
 its own in evolution1 and look out1    
like others1 on a progeny  more favored 
than itself1 the fair mother of fairer  

children2 even as  the old university   
system of medival ,europe1 particularly 
that of the  great ,university of       
,paris1 can look down from its silent   
and solemn  place in history1 as the    
direct progenitor of the ,ratio         
,studiorum4  ,we1 too1 have been taught 
by others1 said ,possevino in #aeib4    
,indeed1  as is evident1 the last thing 
which the system ever seems to dream of1
  which never1 in fact1 crosses the path
 of its intellectual vision1 is  that it
 is playing the rle1 perchance1 of a    
pedagogic adventurer1  or courting      
notice by some new and striking         
departure4 ,no doubt1 in  its integrity1
 it is singularly the system of the     
,jesuits1 and1 in a  multitude of       
practical elements1 it embodies the     
elaborate experience  of one practical  
organization of men4 ,but1 none the     
less1 if we look  down for its          
foundations1 we pass through the        
,renaissance of ,letters1  and find the 
traditions of scholastic ,europe2 and   

further down still1  in the             
stratification of history1 we come to   
the principles of  education as defined 
by ,aristotle1 ,plato1 and ,socrates4   
,as to its ulterior evolution1 ,i may   
designate two forms which the  system   
has been invited to assume4 ,rather1 ,i 
may point to an epoch  in its history1  
at which general and universal education
 divided off  into two lines2 and1 by   
one or other way1 almost all the        
secondary and  superior education1 which
 prevails amongst us1 reaches our       
present  time4 ,the principles adopted  
on one side1 however extravagant they   
may  have been at their first adoption  
and in all the glow and fervor of a  new
 departure1 will certainly recommend    
themselves to some4 ,the other  was     
practically1 if it has not as yet been  
formally1 adopted by the  ,order as a   
continuation of its old method1 and as a
 revision in the  nineteenth century of 
what itself had laid down in the        
fifteenth4 ,i  will quote1 to explain   

one of the movements1 a writer1 ,m4     
,drevon1 whom  ,i cited once before1#cej
 chiefly because he is quite recent1 and
 also  because he is entirely out of    
sympathy with the system of the         
,jesuits4  ,for the other1 ,i will quote
 one of the latest ,generals of the     
,society  of ,jesus1 ,father ,john      
,roothaan4    ,when the ,jesuit         
colleges1 more than ninety in number1   
were abruptly  closed in ,france1 then1 
says the first writer1 the departure of 
the ,jesuits was the occasion of a noisy
 demonstration against the  instruction 
which had been imparted in the colleges4
 ,a multitude of  books#cea were at once
 seen pouring into the market1          
presenting plans  for a new system of   
education1 which should be more in      
keeping with  the progress of ,science  
and ,philosophy4 ,men of the gravest    
authority1  like the ,president ,roland1
 did not disdain to occupy themselves   
with  these matters1 and to enter into  
details3 ',the moment was come1'  cried 

one of them1 'to set up furnaces1 to add
 bellows thereto1 and  initiate scholars
 into the doctrine of gases4'#ceb ,the  
reaction was  so much the more violent1 
as spirits had been the longer          
suppressed4  ,it went even beyond the   
just measure1 as happens almost always  
in such  circumstances2 so that1 says a 
contemporary writer1#cec children1      
properly instructed1 ought to have      
become1 at the age of fifteen1          
agriculturists sufficiently well        
qualified1 intelligent naturalists1     
prudent economists1 shrewd business men1
 enlightened politicians1  profound     
metaphysicians1 prodigious              
geometricians1 without prejudice  to    
writing and drawing1 to universal       
geography1 and ancient as well as       
modern history2 without prejudice to the
 ,french language1 ,english also  and   
,german and a little ,latin2 and again  
without prejudice to music and          
heraldry1 to dancing and fencing1 to    
horsemanship1 and1 above all1 to        

swimming4 ,but people had not long to   
wait before deploring such excess4  ,all
 this agitation proved unfortunately    
sterile2 and as ,i have just  said1 on  
the eve of the ,french ,revolution1     
secondary education had not  taken a    
step forward during fifty years4444     
,it came to a new birth in #ahjh1 and   
found itself very much where  it had    
been1 before this long sleep4 ,napoleon 
declared that the new  method of the    
,university was very like that of the   
ancient ,university  of ,paris2 only    
that the courses 'left something to     
desire with regard  to drawing1 modern  
languages1 geography1 history1 and      
especially  mathematical and physical   
sciences4' ,this was progress1 no doubt1
 and  it is well to grant it4 ,but      
,napoleon is mistaken1 when he pretends 
that  the new ,university is a child of 
the ancient one4 ,it is preminently  a  
child of the ,jesuits4 ,for1 as we have 
remarked1 the ,jesuits1 at the          
beginning1 took great care to make no   

innovations4 ,they accepted1 as  they   
found them1 the old methods1 introduced 
little by little their  own mode of     
procedure1 an alteration most calculated
 to assure their  influence and their   
success4 ,the grand old ,university     
which went down  to the second rank1 so 
to say1 in public education1 submitted  
to the  influence of its detested and   
triumphant rivals1 and1 in spite of     
itself1 it allowed itself to be         
permeated by their methods4 ,hence1 in  
#ahjh1 at the moment when ,napoleon     
dreams that he is restablishing the     
,university1 the ideal of public        
instruction was a mixture of the old    
university traditions and the empiric   
methods of the ,jesuits4#ced    ,it does
 not come within the scope of this      
writer to indicate how1 from  this      
historical point of divergence1 the     
modern practical method of  instruction 
came to be fully organized4 ,each system
 went its own way4 ,i  pass on to the   
other line1 or rather back to the       

,jesuit ,ratio2 and ,i  will merely     
point out what process of adjustment it 
then underwent4    ,in #ahcb1 ,father   
,roothaan1 ,general of the ,society1    
addressed an  encyclical letter to the  
,order4 ,to give an abstract of it1 he  
says3  ,in the very first assembly after
 the restoration of the ,society1 a     
petition had been received from the     
,provinces1 and daily experience  since 
then has shown it to be more and more   
necessary1 that the ,system  of ,studies
 should be accommodated to the          
exigencies of the times4  ,after a      
consultation1 involving much labor and  
accurate study1 a form  of revised      
,ratio has been drawn up1 which is now  
offered for use  and practice1 in order 
that after being amended again if       
necessary1  or else enlarged1 it may    
receive the sanction of a universal law4
 ,the  undertaking was approached with  
the greatest reverence for a ,system    
which had been approved by two centuries
 of successful operation1 and  which had

 been extolled1 not unfrequently1 by the
 very enemies of the  ,order4    ,of the
 novelties which had been introduced    
into the method of  educating youth1    
during the last fifty years or more1 was
 it forsooth  possible that all could be
 approved and adopted in our schools8   
,new  methods and new forms invented day
 after day1 a new arrangement  of matter
 and of time1 often self-contradictory  
and mutually  repugnant--how could all  
this be taken as a rule for our studies8
    ,in the higher schools or in the    
treatment of the graver studies1 it  is 
a subject of lamentation with prudent   
men that there is no solidity  but much 
show1--an ill-arranged mass of          
superfluous knowledge1 very  little     
exact reasoning--2 that the sciences1 if
 you except ,physics  and ,mathematics1 
have not made any true progress1 but are
 in general  confusion1 so that where   
the final results of truth are to be    
found  scarcely appears4 ,the study of  
,logic and severe ,dialectics is almost 

in  contempt1 whence errors come to be  
deeply rooted in the minds of men  who  
are not otherwise illiterate2 and these 
errors1 by some fatality or  other1 are 
made much of1 as if they were           
ascertained truths1 and they  are lauded
 to the skies1 because nothing is       
treated with strictness  and accuracy1  
no account is made of definitions and   
distinctness of  reasoning4 ,thus1      
tasting lightly of philosophical        
matters1 young men go  forth utterly    
defenceless against sophistry1 since    
they cannot even see  the difference    
between a sophism and an argument4      
,in the lower schools1 the object kept  
in view is to have boys learn as  many  
things as possible1 and learn them in   
the shortest time1 and with  the least  
exertion possible4 ,excellent6 ,but that
 variety of so many  things and so many 
courses1 all lightly sipped of by youth1
 enables  them to conceive a high       
opinion of how much they know1 and      
sometimes  swells the crowd of the      

half-instructed1 the most pernicious of 
all  classes to the ,sciences and the   
,state alike4 ,as to knowing anything   
truly and solidly1 there is none of it4 
,something of everything3  nothing in   
the end4#cee ,running through the       
courses of letters in no  time1 tender  
in age1 with minds as yet untrained1    
they take up the  gravest studies of    
,philosophy and the ,higher ,sciences2  
and1 possessing  themselves therein of  
scarcely any real fruit1 they are only  
captivated  by the enjoyment of greater 
liberty2 they run headlong into vice1   
and  are soon to become teachers        
themselves of a type1 which1 to put it  
as  gently as possible1 ,i will call    
immature4    ,as to the methods1 ever   
easier and easier1 which are being      
excogitated1 whatever convenience may be
 found in them1 there is this  grave    
inconvenience2 first1 that what is      
acquired without labor adheres  but     
lightly to the mind1 and what is        
summarily gathered in is summarily      

forgotten2 secondly1 and this1 though   
not adverted to by many1 is  a much more
 serious injury1 almost the principal   
fruit of a boy's  training is           
sacrificed1 which is1 accustoming       
himself from an early age  to serious   
application of mind1 and to that        
deliberate exertion which  is required  
for hard work4    ,in some points1      
however1 which do not concern the       
substance of  education1 the necessities
 of our times require us to modify the  
practice of our predecessors4 ,and to   
consult the requirements of such        
necessities1 far from being alien to our
 principles1 is altogether in  keeping  
with the ,institute4    ,in the superior
 courses1 how many questions are there  
which formerly  never entered into      
controversy1 which now are vehemently   
assaulted1  and must be established by  
solid arguments1 lest the very          
foundations  of truth be sapped6        
,therefore the questions which are alive
 call for  special discussion1 solution1

 refutation4    ,in ,physics and        
,mathematics we must not prove false to 
the traditions  of the ,society1 by     
neglecting these courses which have now 
mounted  to a rank of the highest honor4
 ,if many have abused these sciences  to
 the detriment of religion1 we should be
 so much the farther from  relinquishing
 them on that account4 ,rather1 on that 
account1 should  the members of the     
,order apply themselves with the more   
ardor to these  pursuits and snatch the 
weapons from the hands of the foe1 and  
with the  same arms1 which they abuse to
 attack the truth1 come forward in its  
defence4 ,for truth is always consistent
 with itself1 and in all the  sciences  
it stands erect1 ever one and the same2 
nor is it possible  that what is true in
 ,physics and ,mathematics should       
contradict truth of  a higher order4    
,finally1 in the method of conducting   
the lower studies1 some accessory       
branches should have time provided for  
them1 especially the vernacular  tongues

 and literatures4 ,but the study of     
,latin and ,greek letters must  always  
remain intact and be the chief object of
 attention4 ,as they  have always been  
the principal sources1 exhibiting the   
most perfect  models of literary beauty 
in precept and style1 so are they still4
 ,and1  if they were kept more before   
the eyes and mind1 we should not see    
issuing from the press1 day after day1  
so many productions of talented  men1   
with a diction and style no less novel  
and singular1 than are the  thoughts and
 opinions to which they give expression4
 ,the commonalty  regard them with      
admiring awe and stupor2 but men of     
knowledge and  correct taste look with  
commiseration and grief on these        
unmistakable  signs of an eloquence1 no 
less depraved than the morals of the    
times4    ,the adaptation of the ,ratio 
,studiorum1 therefore1 means that we    
consult the necessities of the age so   
far as not in the least to  sacrifice   
the solid and correct education of      

youth4#cef    ,this is the substance of 
a document not unworthy of the letters  
and  ordinances in behalf of education1 
issued by a long line of experienced    
and learned judges in the art of        
training youth4 ,the modifications made 
in the old ,ratio have been few2 and ,i 
have taken note of them in the          
preceding analysis4    ,so then the     
edifice of the past stands1 with the    
latest modifications  introduced into   
its faade by the spirit of the present4 
,as the  monumental structures which    
stud the soil of ,europe1 and are set   
amid  royal parks or rich fields of     
waving grain1 have been tributes of     
devotion from princes of the church or  
princes of the land1 and are  not only  
the memorials of kings or peoples1 but  
are especially the  architectural record
 of centuries2 so a system recognized in
 history  as great1 elevated in the     
order of highest human achievement1 that
 of  educating humanity1 and resting on 
the basis of oldest traditions and  the 

wisdom of the remotest past1 has not    
been the work of an ordinary            
individual1 nor of a day4 ,masters in   
their art1 and centuries in their       
duration1 have combined to build it up1 
a monument of the practice  and theory  
of generations4 ,with devoted zeal and  
prudence1 secular  communities1 and even
 pagans in times far gone by1 had       
brought the  stones1 and contributed    
tithes to the erection of the fabric4   
,but it is  only too well known that    
,ecclesiastics and ,religious men have  
been the  architects of the monument as 
it stands4 ,and they did not build      
better  than they knew2 for their       
structure is precisely one of knowledge1
  chiefly of divine knowledge1 raised   
into a consistent theory1 and  honored  
by the most practical use4 ,so the very 
first sentence in the  ,ratio           
,studiorum1 speaking of the abundant    
practical fruit to be  gathered from    
this manifold labor of the schools1     
mentions that fruit  as being the       

knowledge and love of the ,creator4     
,i may be permitted then to close this  
work by quoting their own poetry1  which
 is inscribed on a statue of ,christ4   
,the statue overlooks a park  in front  
of it1 and the fields hard by1 and the  
rich garden of studious  youth1 within  
the college walls alongside4 ,thus one  
inscription  reads3--      ,,tibi       
,,haec  ,,arva  ,,rident  ,,atque       
,,aggere    ,,complanato  ,,hae         
,,floribus  ,,nitent  ,,areolae  ,,et   
,,pubes  ,,undique  ,,accita            
,,virtutibus    ,,scientiis  ,,que      
,,adolescit4#ceg    ,and again the      
granite reads3--      ,,quas  ,,circum  
,,cernis  ,,christo    ,,urnae          
,,floribus  ,,halant  ,,ne  ,,carpe     
,,incesto  ,,pollice  ,,quisque         
,,fuas4#ceh          ,,bibliographical  
,,appendix1    ,,indicating ,,some ,,of 
,,the ,,sources ,,and ,,other ,,works1  
,,more ,,easy ,,of ,,access4            
,,pachtler1 ,g4 ,m41 ,s4 ,j43 ,ratio    
atque ,institutio ,studiorum1 #aehf2    

,ratio      ,studiorum1 #aeii1 #ahcb2   
and other pedagogical                   
documents3--,comprised      in          
,,monumenta ,,germani ,p,,dagogica1     
vols4 ii1 v1 ix 7to be followed      by 
others72 ,berlin1 ,a4 ,hofmann  ,co41   
#ahhg4      ,,jouvancy1 ,,jos41 ,s4 ,j43
 ,ratio ,discendi et ,docendi pro       
,magistris      ,scholarum ,inferiorum1 
#a vol4 #abmo2 ,avignon1 ,fr4 ,seguin1  
#ahbe4      ,,sacchini1 ,,franc41 ,s4   
,j43 ,parnesis ad ,magistros ,scholarum 
,inferiorum      ,soc4 ,jes42           
,protrepticon ad ,magistros ,scholarum  
,inferiorum ,soc4      ,jes4----        
,,judde1 ,,claude1 ,s4 ,j43 ,instruction
 pour les ,jeunes      ,professeurs qui 
enseignent les ,humanits3--,comprised in
 ,,manuel ,,des      ,,jeunes           
,,professeurs1 #a vol4 #ahmo2 ,paris1   
,poussielgue-,rusand1 #ahdb4            
99       99       99       99       99  
,,cr,,tineau-,,joly1 ,,monsieur ,m4 ,j43
 ,histoire ,religieuse1 ,politique et   
,littraire de la ,compagnie de ,jsus1 #f

 vols4 #abmo2 #c;d edit42 ,paris1       
,v4 ,poussielgue-,rusand1 #ahea4        
,,maynard1 ,,monsieur ,l',,abb3 ,the    
,studies and ,teaching of the ,society  
of      ,jesus1 #a vol4 #hvo2           
,baltimore1 ,john ,murphy  ,co41 #ahee4 
,,the ,,jesuits3 ,their ,foundation and 
,history1 by ,b4 ,n41 #b vols4 #hvo2    
,benziger ,bros41 ,new ,york1 #ahgi4    
,,genelli1 ,,christopher1 ,s4 ,j43 ,life
 of ,st4 ,ignatius of ,loyola1 #a vol4  
#hvo2 ,benziger ,bros41 ,new ,york4     
,,de ,,rochemonteix1 ,,camille1 ,s4 ,j43
 ,un ,collge de ,jsuites aux ,,xviie4   
et ,,xviiie4 sicles1 ,le ,collge ,henri 
,,iv4 de la ,flche1 #d vols4 in         
#hvo2 ,le ,mans1 ,leguicheux1 #ahhi4    
,,daniel1 ,,charles1 ,s4 ,j43 ,les      
,jsuites ,instituteurs de la ,jeunesse  
,franaise1 au ,,xviie4 et au ,,xviiie4  
sicle1 #a vol4 #abmo2 ,paris1           
,victor ,palm1 #ahhj4           99      
99       99       99       99      ,,de 
,,backer1 ,,augustin1 ,s4 ,j43          
,bibliothque des crivains de la         

,compagnie de ,jsus1 ou ,notices        
,bibliographiques #ao de ,tous      les 
,ouvrages ,publis par les ,membres c41  
#bo des ,apologies1      des            
,controverses ,religieuses1 des         
,critiques ,littraires et               
,scientifiques ,suscites  leur sujet2 #c
 large folios 7see above1      page     
#acd72 ,lige1 chez l',auteur1 ,a4 ,de   
,backer2 ,paris1 chez      l',auteur1   
,c4 ,sommervogel1 #ahfi4 ,only #bjj     
copies were struck off2      it is      
embodied and amplified in the following1
 now in process of      publication3--  
,,sommervogel1 ,,carlos1 ,s4 ,j43       
,bibliothque de la ,compagnie de        
,jsus3--,premire partie1 ,bibliographie2
 seconde partie1 ,histoire4             
,bibliographie1 tom4 i1 ,abad-,boujart1 
in #dto1  double colonne1      #aibh    
col42 ,bruxelles1 ,oscar ,schepens1 #af1
 rue ,treurenberg2 ,paris1              
,alphonse ,picard1 #hb1 rue ,bonaparte1 
#ahij4      ,,wetzer ,,und ,,welte',s   
,,kirchenlexicon3 #b;d edit41 by        

,cardinal      ,hergenroether and ,dr4  
,f4 ,kaulen2 vol4 vi1 ,jesuiten1 col4   
#acgd-adbd2 ,freiburg1 ,benjamin        
,herder1 #ahhi4      ,typography by ,j4 
,s4 ,cushing  ,co41 ,boston1 ,u4,s4,a4  
,presswork by ,berwick  ,smith1 ,boston1
 ,u4,s4,a4          ,,index4            
,abram1 ,father ,nicholas1 #bde         
,academies of the ,jesuits1 #gf         
,alber1 ,father ,ferdinand1 #bdb        
,allen1 ,cardinal1 #eg      ,alvarez1   
,grammar of1 #afg      ,anderledy1      
,father ,anthony1 #abh      ,aquaviva1  
,father ,claudius1 #eb1 #ei1 #gj1 #hb2  
the fifth ,general of the ,order1 #abf2 
creates a commission to draw up a method
 of studies1 #add2      provisional     
rules of1 #adh      ,aquinas1 ,st4      
,thomas1 #aa1 #de2      the standard in 
theology1 #adh      ,argento1 ,father   
,john1 #ga1 #gf      ,aristotle1 use of1
 #aff      ,astronomical observations of
 the ,jesuits1 #agb      ,augustine1 #i 
,azor1 ,john1 #add        ,bacon1 ,lord1
 #df1 #ic2      his debt to ,possevino1 

#id      ,bader1 ,father ,george1 #ajd1 
#ajg      ,bayonne1 the ,college of1 #if
      ,beckx1 ,father1 #abh             
,bellarmine1 literary productiveness of1
 #ace      ,belles-lettres1 #hb2        
the ,jesuits preminent in the study of1 
#ahi      ,berchmans1 ,john1 #aac       
,blair's ,rhetoric1 #acb1 #beb          
,boarding colleges1 #ajj                
,bobadilla1 ,nicholas1 #cc1 #dc         
,bonald1 ,viscount de1 #g               
,bonaventure1 ,st41 #aa      ,borgia1   
,francis1 #bd2      succeeds ,laynez1   
#ff1 #aaj2      founds the ,roman       
college1 #aaa2      the third ,general  
of the ,order1 #abd      ,borromeo1 ,st4
 ,charles1 #gc      ,bossuet1 #ff       
,bourdaloue1 #ajf1 #afe                 
,broeckaert1 ,father1 #afg      ,brouet1
 ,pasquier1 #cc      ,buffer1 ,father1  
,practical ,history of1 #afh      ,buys1
 ,father1 #gc1 #add        ,calasanzio1 
,father ,joseph1 his ,pious ,school1    
#bfj      ,calcutta1 ,jesuit school at1 
#bfh      ,campano1 ,father1 #ff        

,campian1 ,edmund1 #eg1 #bab            
,canisius1 ,father ,peter1 #ij2      the
 ,catechism of1 #acd1 #bdb              
,caraffa1 ,general ,vincent1 #ha1 #abh  
,catharine ,,ii41 #abi      ,centurione1
 ,father ,aloysius1 #abh      ,cerda1   
,de la1 ,father1 #bde      ,chalotais1  
,la1 #dd      ,christian schools1 #c    
,cicero used as a text-book1 #aff       
,class hours1 #aif      ,classical      
literature in the scheme of ,jesuit     
education1 #bej      ,clavius1 ,father  
,christopher1 #agj      ,clement of     
,alexandria1 #dc      ,clement ,,xiv4   
dissolves the ,order1 #abi      ,coduri1
 ,john1 #cc1 #ec      ,coimbra1         
university at1 #aji      ,colleges1     
,jesuit1 number of1 #gj et seq42        
rise of1 in ,spain1 #aaj                
,confessional1 the1 in educational      
institutions1 #ajb      ,coton1 ,father1
 #ff      ,cretineau-,joly1 ,m41 #ci    
,d',alembert1 #d      ,daniel1 ,father  
,charles1 #df1 #ic      ,daniel1 ,g41   
#afi      ,de ,backers1 #fg1 #fi2       

his dictionary of ,jesuit authors1 #acd 
,descartes1 #ib      ,dictation1 how    
practised in the ,jesuit seminaries1    
#bag et seq42      objections to1 by    
,possevino1 #bbc      ,disputation1 the 
place of1 in the ,jesuit system1 #aih1  
#bji et seq42      syllogistic or       
discursive1 #bab2      numerous         
attendance upon required1 #bac2         
superintendence of1 #bae      ,divinity1
 courses in1 #aia et seq4               
,doctrine1 uniformity of1 among the     
,jesuits1 #adb      ,domench1 ,father   
,jerome1 #aaj      ,drevon1 ,m41 #bhg   
,dupanloup1 #ii        ,educational     
system of the ,jesuits1 the tributes of 
,ranke and          ,d',alembert to1 #d2
      the ,revolution the sequel of the 
overthrow of1 #f2      explanation of   
its rise1 #ad2      kinship between it  
and the ,paris university1 #cb2         
defined1 #dc2      development of1 #eb2 
as formulated in the ,constitution1 #ef 
et seq42      ,laynez's rule concerning 
the system of colleges1 #ei2      no    

tuition fees1 #ff1 #aag2      system and
 method of1 #fg2      number of         
colleges1 #gj2      number of students1 
#ga et seq42      ramifications of1 #gd 
et seq42      scope and method of1 #hb  
et seq42      classification of1 #hg2   
grades in1 #hi2      subordinate        
elements in1 #hi et seq42      moral    
scope of1 #ih et seq42      vacations1  
#ajd2      ascendency of the masters1   
#ajg2      law and medicine in1 #aaf2   
the study of mathematics in1 #abg2      
the development of geography1 history1  
and physics1 #abg2      the ,ratio      
,studiorum1 #adc et seq42      the      
practice and order of studies1 #aeb2    
result of1 the formation of professors1 
#aef2      the literary curriculum1     
#aeh2      proficiency in               
belles-lettres1 #aei2      the study of 
history1 #afh2      of geography1 #afi2 
of mathematics1 #agj2      manner of    
instruction1 #agf2      philosophy      
studied after the literary courses1     
#agh2      masters advance with their   

scholars1 #ahj2      the rectors1 #ahf2 
the study of divinity1 #aia et seq42    
courses in divinity1 #aig2              
thoroughness of1 #bje2      the use of  
disputation1 #bjh et seq42      the     
place of dictation in1 #bag et seq42    
co-ordination of the courses in1 #bbg2  
the prelection1 #bcc2      study of the 
classical literatures1 #bej et seq42    
school management1 #bee et seq42        
the lowest grade1 #bfj2      system of  
examinations1 #bfb et seq42             
academic degrees1 #bfe2      literary   
curriculum1 #bgj2      philosophical    
curriculum1 #bgd2      theological      
curriculum1 #bgh2      distribution of  
time1 #bgi2      origin and evolution of
 the system1 #bhf      ,expurgating     
authors1 #ajc        ,fribourg1 ,jesuit 
university suppressed at1 #acj          
,frederick the ,great1 letter of1 to    
,voltaire1 #gi1 #abi        ,generals of
 the ,order1 #abd et seq4               
,geography1 method of teaching1 #afi    
,germany1 ,loyola1 the founder of the   

,jesuit order in1 #aad      ,german     
college in ,rome1 #aag      ,goa1       
seminary at1 #gd1 #aji      ,gonzaga1   
,aloysius1 #aac      ,gonzales1 ,gaspar1
 #add      ,grammar1 #agi2              
prelection in the grade of1 #bcg2       
method of teaching the classical        
languages in1 #bch2      the daily      
lesson in1 #bda      ,gregory ,,xiii41  
papal seminaries founded by1 #gc        
,grotius1 #gi      ,guisani1 ,anthony1  
#add        ,huebner1 ,baron von1 #g    
,humanity1 the course in1 #hc et seq41  
#aeh1 #ahh2      the prelection in the  
grade of1 #bcg        ,ingolstadt1      
university at1 #aae        ,janssen1    
#aah      ,jesus1 ,society of1 birthday 
of1 #cc1 #cd2      receives its bull of 
confirmation1 #ea2      constitution of1
 #ed et seq42      not admitted to      
,germany at the present day1 #abc       
,jouvancy1 #bi1 #abg2      his ,ratio   
,discendi et ,docendi1 #afb1 #bdb       
,kessel1 ,father1 #fj      ,kleutgen1   
,father1 ,ars ,docendi of1 #afg         

,knox1 ,john1 #add      ,kostka1        
,stanislaus1 #aac        ,latin         
composition1 elegant command of1 by the 
,jesuits1 #ahh      ,laval1 university  
of1 #bfi      ,law and medicine studied 
in the ,jesuit universities1 #aaf       
,laynez1 ,james1 #bh1 #cc1 #ed2         
elected successor to ,loyola1 #ee1 #ei1 
#abd      ,le ,jay1 ,claude1 #cc        
,lefvre1 ,peter1 #cc1 #aaj et seq4      
,lenormant1 ,charles1 #ajj              
,literary productiveness of the         
,jesuits1 #acd      ,literary curriculum
 of the ,jesuits at present1 #bgj et    
seq4      ,loyola1 ,st4 ,ignatius of1   
#h2      begins his education1 #ae2     
story of his life1 #ai et seq42         
becomes a master of arts1 #cc2      his 
self-discipline1 #cf2      at ,rome1    
#dj1 #ec2      promulgates the          
constitution of his ,order1 #ee2        
death of1 #ee1 #aai2      his           
educational system1 #ef2      his care  
for ,germany1 #aad2      founds a       
,german college in ,rome1 #aag2      his

 educational policy successful1 #aah    
,maistre1 ,count de1 #f      ,maldonado1
 a double-headed disputant1 #bab        
,moriana1 #aab1 #afh      ,mathematics  
in the ,jesuit system of education1 #agj
 et seq4      ,mercurian1 ,father       
,everard1 the fourth ,general of the    
,order1 #abf      ,montague1 college of1
 ,loyola at1 #ca      ,montmorency1     
,father1 #fe      ,monumenta ,germani   
,pdagogica1 the1 #ge      ,moral        
education1 the1 prescribed by ,loyola1  
#ajb        ,nadal1 ,jerome1 #abj       
,netherlands1 ,jesuit schools in1 #e    
,nickel1 ,father ,goswin1 #abh          
,olave1 ,martin1 #abj      ,oliva1      
,general ,paul1 #gc1 #abh               
,pachtler1 ,father1 #fc1 #gf      ,papal
 ,seminaries founded by ,gregory        
,,xiii41 #gc      ,parma1 ,duke of1 #fi 
,paris ,university1 the1 #ac2           
,loyola at1 #be      ,parsons1 ,robert1 
#eg      ,pascual1 ,john ,sacrista1 #ba 
,pedagogics in the ,ratio ,studiorum1   
#adg      ,peltier1 ,father ,john1 #aaa 

,perry1 #fg      ,petau1 ,father ,denis1
 #afg      ,philosophy1 course of1 what 
it includes1 #agc      ,philosophical   
,curriculum1 the1 at the present time1  
#bge et seq4      ,piccolomini1 ,father 
,francis1 #abh1 #bca      ,polanco1     
,john1 #aae1 #abj      ,pore1 ,pre1     
,voltaire's preceptor1 #acb1 #bde       
,playfer1 ,dr41 #id      ,plato1 #ih    
,possevino1 ,father ,anthony1 ,bacon's  
forerunner1 #id1 #ajc1 #ajg             
,prlectio1 the typical form of ,jesuit  
instruction1 #bcb et seq4               
,professors formed by the ,jesuit       
system1 #aef et seq42      literary     
productions expected from1 #ahh2      in
 the ,jesuit ,seminaries1 cordination   
between1 #bcj      ,provincial ,letters 
of ,pascal1 #aje        ,quintilian1 use
 of1 #aff        ,ranke1 ,von ,leopold1 
#d1 #aad1 #aah      ,rapin1 ,pre1 #acb2 
works of1 #bdf      ,ratio ,studiorum1  
the1 #h1 #cb1 #eb1 #ef1 #hf1 #hi1 #adc2 
formation of1 by ,aquaviva1 #add et     
seq41 #aea1 #aeb2      final form of1   

#aed1 #ahc1 #bcj1 #bce      ,rectors of 
colleges1 duties of1 #ahf               
,repetition1 in the scheme of ,jesuit   
education1 #aih2      in the ,grammar   
,grade1 #bdj      ,revolution1 the      
,french1 #f      ,rhetoric1 instruction 
in1 #hi1 #agh et seq42      double      
prelection in1 #bcd      ,ribadeneira1  
#bi1 #ed1 #hg1 #hi1 #ajb      ,riccioli1
 ,father1 #afi      ,robertson1 #gi     
,rochemonteix1 ,father1 #hj1 #hh        
,rodriguez1 ,simon1 #cc      ,roman     
,college1 the1 #ajc2      founded by    
,lefvre1 #aaa2      other colleges      
following its course1 #aab              
,roothaan1 ,father1 #bhi                
,rossignol1 #ace      ,rue1 ,father de  
la1 author of the ,delphin ,virgil1 #bdf
        ,sacchini1 #ed1 #agg            
,saint-,yves1 college of1 #hj           
,salmeron1 ,alphonsus1 #cc      ,secchi1
 ,father1 #fg      ,schall1 ,adam1 #afi 
,scheiner1 ,father1 #afi                
,scholastics1 ,jesuit1 expected to      
teach1 #agf      ,schools1 the          

cathedral1 #i2      of study1 of the    
,jesuits1 #abg      ,school management1 
#bee et seq4      ,sirmond1 ,james1 #afg
      ,sodalities1 the1 #ajc1 #beh      
,sommervogel1 #fg1 #acd      ,southwell1
 ,father ,nathaniel1 #acc      ,sorbon1 
,robert of1 #bjh1 #baa      ,spiritual  
,exercises1 the1 #bg      ,stonyhurst1  
#bfh      ,strada1 ,damian1 #afh        
,strada1 ,father ,francis1 #aia         
,strassmeyer1 #fg      ,studies1        
,practice and ,order of1 in ,jesuit     
seminaries1 #aeb      ,suarez1 ,francis1
 #aab1 #bjc        ,text-books of the   
,jesuits1 #aca      ,theological        
instruction1 method of1 #bjb et seq4    
,theological curriculum at the present  
time1 #bgh et seq4      ,theology1      
scholastic1 ,jesuit authors in1 #bjc    
,tiraboschi1 #afe      ,toffia1         
,vittoria1 #aab      ,tucci1 ,stephen1  
#add      ,tyre1 ,james1 #add           
,university system1 rise of the1 #aj    
,urban ,,viii41 #db        ,vacations in
 the ,jesuit system1 #ajd               

,verbiest1 ,ferdinand1 #afi             
,vernacular1 the study of1 #afd1 #bdb   
,vienna and ,ingolstadt1 the ,jesuits   
first centres in ,germany1 #aae         
,villanova1 ,francis1 #bd1 #aaj         
,visconti1 ,ignatius1 #c1 #abh          
,vitelleschi1 ,mutius1 #gj1 #ajh2       
the sixth general of the order1 #abf1   
#aca      ,voltaire1 tribute of1 to the 
morality of the ,jesuits1 #aje1 #acb2   
and ,pre ,pore1 #bdd        ,xavier1    
,francis1 #cc1 #cg1 #fi1 #aji           
,zaccaria1 literary productiveness of1  
#acd      ,ziegler1 ,father1 #agj       
,,footnotes3      #a ,christian ,schools
 and ,scholars1 by ,a4 ,t4 ,drane2      
#ahha2 last chapter4    #b ,on the      
,furthering of ,humane ,studies2        
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1  vol4   
ix1 p4 #abi4    #c ,history of the      
,papacy1 vol4 i1 book v1  #c2 ,jesuit   
,schools in  ,germany4    #d ,sur la    
destruction des ,jsuites1 par un auteur 
dsintress1 p4 #ai4    #e ,imago ,primi  
,sculi1 lib4 vi1 ,societas              

,flandro-,belgica1 cap4 iii1   #a1 p4   
#ggb4    #f ,crtineau-,joly1 ,histoire  
de la ,compagnie de ,jsus1 tom4 iv1 ch4 
#c1  p4 #baj2 #cme edit4 #ahea4    #g   
,histoire de l',universit de ,paris1 par
 ,charles ,jourdain1 liv4 i1  ch4 #a2   
quoted with other testimonies1 in the   
learned work1 ,un ,collge  de ,jsuites  
aux xvii and xviii sicles1 ,le ,collge  
,henri iv de la  ,flche1 par le ,p4     
,camille de ,rochemonteix1 #ahhi2 tom4  
i1 ch4 #a1 p4 #c4    #h ,exercitia      
,spiritualia4    #i ,ranke1 ,history of 
the ,papacy1 vol4 i1 book ii1  #g4      
#aj ,genelli1 ,life of ,st4 ,ignatius   
,loyola1 p4 #cea4    #aa ,imago ,primi  
,sculi1 lib4 iv1 cap4 ix1 pp4 #eba-b2   
,de ,calumniis4    #ab ,jouvancy1       
,epitome ,hist4 ,s4 ,j41 p4 #afh1 ad    
annum #aeea4    #ac ,advancement of     
,learning1 book i2 ,philadelphia edit4  
#ahda1 vol4 i1  p4 #afg4    #ad ,month  
of ,july1 tom4 vii2 auct4 ,j4 ,p41      
xviii1 pp4 #ddc-d4    #ae ,genelli1     
,life of ,st4 ,ignatius ,loyola1 part i1

 ch4 #h4    #af ,bollandists1 as above1 
nn4 #cac-d2 ibid41 ,suarez1 ,nigronius1 
and  others4    #ag ,genelli1 ,life of  
,st4 ,ignatius ,loyola1 part ii1 ch4    
#ac4    #ah ,bulla canoniz4 ,s4 ,ign4 de
 ,loyola1  #bb4    #ai ,bollandists1 nn4
 #cac-d2 #cag4    #bj ,bollandists1     
,july1 tom4 vii1 auct4 ,j4 ,p41  xxvii1 
xxviii4    #ba ,nigronius2 ,bollandists1
 n4 #cag4    #bb ,apocalypse1 ch4 xviii1
 #ac4    #bc ,advancement of ,learning1 
book i1 p4 #agf2 ,phila4 edit4    #bd   
,pre ,charles ,daniel ,s4 ,j41 ,des     
tudes ,classiques dans la ,socit        
,chrtienne1 ch4 #h1 ,la ,concile de     
,trente2 #ahec4    #be ,bollandists1    
auct4 ,j4 ,p41 nn4 #bic-g4    #bf       
,bollandists1 n4 #bib4    #bg           
,gagliardi4    #bh ,hist4 ,s4 ,j41 #b;da
 pars1 ,lainius2 ad annum #aefd1 n4     
#bbj1 p4 #cdj4    #bi ,chiefly from ,p4 
,enrico ,vasco1 ,s4 ,j41 ,il ,ratio     
,studiorum ,addattato  ecc1 vol4 i1 cap4
 vii1 n4 #cc1 a private memoir1 #ahea4  
#cj ,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 ii1 

p4 #ga2 ,ratio ,studiorum1 etc41  by ,g4
 ,m4 ,pachtler1 ,s4 ,j42 ,berlin1 #ahhg4
    #ca ,ibid4 ,pachtler1 p4 #ccd seq4  
#cb ,ibid4 ,pachtler1 p4 #ccg seq4      
#cc ,genelli1 part ii1 ch4 #h4    #cd   
,jouvancy1 ,epitome ,hist4 ,s4 ,j41     
,anno ,christi1 #aedg4    #ce ,vasco1   
vol4 i1 cap4 vii1 n4 #cc seq4    #cf    
,orlandini1 ,bollandists1 n4 #hdc4      
#cg ,bollandists1 n4 #hci4    #ch       
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ii1
 p4 #gb4    #ci ,constitutiones ,s4 ,j41
 pars iv1 declarationes in prooemium4   
#dj ,sacchini1 pars iii1 lib4 i1 nn4    
#cf-db4    #da ,sacchini1 pars iii1     
,borgia2 lib4 i1 nn4 #cf seq4    #db    
,sacchini1 pars v1 ,claudius ,aquaviva1 
tom4 prior2 lib4 iv1 n4 #ha4    #dc     
,recherches sur la ,compagnie de ,jsus  
en ,france au temps du ,pre  ,coton1 par
 le ,p4 ,prat1 tom4 ii1 p4 #bif4    #dd 
,constitutiones ,s4 ,j41 pars iv1 cap4  
vii1 n4 #c4    #de ,bibliothque des     
crivains de la ,compagnie de ,jsus1     
,preface1 #ahfi4    #df ,crtineau-,joly2

 ,histoire ,religieuse1 ,politique et   
,littraire de la  ,compagnie de ,jsus1  
tom4 ii1 ch4 iv1 p4 #agf2 troisime dit4 
#ahea4    #dg ,de ,institutione         
,juventutis2 ,monumenta ,germani        
,pdagogica1 vol4  ix1 p4 #fa4    #dh    
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ii2
 ,pachtler1 p4 xx4    #di ,they are     
catalogued by ,rochemonteix1 ,collge    
,henri ,,iv1 tom4 ii1  ch4 i1 p4 #eg1   
note4    #ej ,monumenta ,germani        
,pdagogica1 vol4 ix2 ,pachtler1 p4 #aib1
 n4 #c4    #ea ,monumenta ,germani      
,pdagogica1 vol4 ix1 pp4 #aaj-b4    #eb 
,arch4 ,rheni ,sup41 quoted by          
,pachtler2 ,monumenta ,germani          
,pdagogica1 vol4 ix1 p4 #aaj2 see also  
the letter of the ,general ,john  ,paul 
,oliva1 ibid4 p4 #ajf4    #ec ,monumenta
 ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ii2          
,pachtler1 p4 xx4    #ed ,vol4 ix1 pp4  
#cbb-chi4    #ee ,maynard2 ,the ,studies
 and ,teaching of the ,society of       
,jesus1 at the  ,time of its            
,suppression1 #agej-aggc2 ,baltimore    

edit4 #ahhe1 ch4 #b2 ,the  ,jesuits in  
,germany1 pp4 #aab-c4    #ef #aggg1 #ah 
novembre1 ,o,euvres de ,voltaire1 vol4  
xcv1 p4 #bjg2 edit4  #ahcb4    #eg      
,lettre  ,voltaire1 #g juillet1 #aggj2  
,o,euvres de ,voltaire1 tom4 xii1  p4   
#die2 edit4 #ahag4    #eh ,monumenta    
,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ii1 pp4       
#ceh-i4    #ei ,le ,collge ,henri ,,iv1 
tom4 ii1 ch4 #a1 p4 #bj4    #fj ,fernand
 ,butel1 ,docteur en ,droit1 etc42      
,l'ducation des ,jsuites  autrefois et  
aujourd'hui1 ,un ,collge ,breton1 ch4   
#a1 p4 #ea2 p4 #ai2 p4  #bh2 ,paris1    
,firmin-,didot1 #ahij4    #fa ,monumenta
 ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ix1 p4 #fe4  
#fb ,constitutiones1 pars iv1 c4 #g1 n4 
#a4    #fc ,formul acceptandorum        
,collegiorum1 etc41 summarium2          
,monumenta  ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4   
ii1 ,pachtler1 p4 #cch4    #fd ,ibid4   
#fe ,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4
 ii1 ,pachtler1 p4 #gf1 #e4 ,their      
curriculum was enlarged in #ahbi2 ibid41
 p4 #aaj1 #f4    #ff ,ratio ,studiorum  

#aeii2 ,reg4 ,prov4 #ba1  #d4 ,pachtler1
 ,monumenta  ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4  
ii1 p4 #beh4    #fg ,constitutiones1    
ibid4    #fh ,constitutiones1 pars iv1  
c4 #ab4    #fi ,constitutiones1 pars iv1
 c4 #e1 n4 #a4    #gj ,constitutiones1  
pars iv1 c4 #i1 n4 #c4    #ga ,ibid41 c4
 #e1 n4 #a1 ,c4    #gb ,ch4 xi4 below4  
#gc ,constitutiones1 pars iv1 c4 #f1 n4 
#b4    #gd ,monumenta ,germani          
,pdagogica1 vol4 ii1 p4 #caa4    #ge    
,ibid41 p4 #caj1 note4    #gf           
,ribadeneira1 ,bollandists1 ,july1 tom4 
vii1 nn4 #cce seq4    #gg ,le ,collge   
,henri ,,iv41 tom4 iii1 pp4 #e-g4    #gh
 ,compare the ordinance of ,father      
,oliver ,manare1 #aehc1 n4 #aad2        
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ii4
 p4 #bfi4    #gi ,constitutiones1 pars  
iv1 c4 #ac1 n4 #d4    #hj ,bollandists1 
ibid41 #cgf-g4    #ha ,monumenta        
,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ii1 ,pachtler1
 p4 #afi4    #hb ,l'ducation des        
,jsuites autrefois1 etc41 par ,dr4 ,f4  
,butel1 ch4 #a1  pp4 #bb-h4 ,this author

 sketches agreeably the means touched   
upon in the  text1 and his references   
are useful4    #hc ,monumenta ,germani  
,pdagogica1 vol4 ii1 ,pachtler1 p4 #bfa4
 ,addita  qudam ,exercitiis ,litterariis
 ,humanistarum1 #aehj2 prior to the     
completed ,ratio ,studiorum4    #hd     
,ibid41 p4 #bfb4    #he ,lettre xc4     
#hf ,compare ,chateaubriand's ,genius of
 ,christianity1 part iv1 book vi1       
,recapitulation2 translation by ,dr4    
,chas4 ,i4 ,white2 ,baltimore1 #ahhd1 p4
  #fcg seq4    #hg ,paris1 ,victor      
,palm1 #ahhj4    #hh ,works2            
,philadelphia edit4 #ahei1 vol4 i1 p4   
#bdd4    #hi ,bibliotheca ,selecta in   
qua agitur de ,ratione ,studiorum1 in   
,historia1 in ,disciplinis1 in ,salute  
,omnium procuranda4 ,de ,backer in  his 
,bibliothque des crivains de la         
,compagnie de ,jsus gives the list  of  
republications1 either in whole or in   
part4 ,sommervogel's new work1  royal   
quarto1 ,bibliothque de la ,compagnie de
 ,jsus1 #ahij1 has reached  thus far    

only to the letter ,b2 hence ,possevino 
is not yet entered4    #ij ,ibid41 p4   
#ahg4    #ia ,ibid41 p4 #acf4    #ib    
,ch4 #aj1 of book #a1 ,ratio            
,collegiorum et ,scholarum1 etc41 end of
  chapter2 ,roman edit4    #ic ,histoire
 d'un ,collge ,municipal aux ,,xvie1    
,,xviie1 et  ,,xviiie sicles 444        
,bayonne avant #aghi4 ,thse presente  la
  ,facult des ,lettres de ,toulouse1 par
 ,j4 ,m4 ,drevon1 censeur des tudes  au 
,lyce d',agen1 #ahij4 ,about #ejj pages4
    #id ,pp4 #afj-bcd4    #ie ,p4 #dbi4 
#if ,dante1 ,parad4 viii4    #ig ,de ,la
 ,haute ducation ,intellectuelle1 liv4  
iv1 ch #d4 ,compare  ,vasco1 vol4 i1 n4 
#bd4    #ih ,essais sur l',instruction  
,publique1 par ,charles ,lenormant1     
membre  de l',institut2 quoted by       
,rochemonteix1 ,le ,collge ,henri ,,iv1 
tom4  ii1 ch4 #a1 p4 #di1 in his very   
instructive discussion on the ,jesuit   
internat1 or pensionnat4    #ii         
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ii1
 ,pachtler1 p4 #gh4    #ajj ,const41    

part iv1 ch4 #c1 decl4 ,b4    #aja      
,turpissimis signis4    #ajb            
,bibliotheca ,selecta1 lib4 i1 ch4 #dd2 
,quasnam tetenderit insidias  humani    
generis hostis1 etc4    #ajc            
,ribadeneira1 ,bollandists1 nn4 #cgc    
seq4    #ajd ,bibliotheca ,selecta1 lib4
 i1 ch4 #dj4    #aje ,ratio ,studiorum  
of #aeii and #ahcb1 ,reg4 ,prov4 #cg4   
,the higher  courses are allowed a      
midsummer vacation of between one and   
two months2  in the lower or literary   
course1 ,rhetoric is allowed one month1 
the  others classes less4 ,besides      
certain feast-days during the year1     
every  week must have one day free1     
which1 in the higher courses1 is the    
whole  day1 but1 in the lower1 is only  
the latter part of it4    #ajf #afjb2   
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ii1
 ,pachtler1 p4 #dfg4    #ajg ,monumenta 
,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ii1 ,pachtler1
 p4 #daa4    #ajh ,bollandists1 n4 #cgd4
    #aji ,lettre #g fvrier1 #agdf2      
,o,euvres1 tom4 viii1 p4 #aabh2 edit4   

#ahag4    #aaj ,crtineau-,joly1         
,histoire de la ,compagnie de ,jsus1    
tom4 iv1 ch4  #c1 p4 #bji2 edit4 #ahea4 
,this chapter and the following one1 ch4
 #d1 in  ,crtineau-,joly1 pp4 #aeh-big1 
contain the most varied information on  
our  subject1 regarding professors1     
writers1 scholars1 etc4    #aaa         
,epistola de ,institutione ,juventutis1 
et ,studiis ,litterarum  ,promovendis1  
#afci2 ,mon4 ,germ4 ,pd41 vol4 ix1      
,pachtler1 p4 #fb4    #aab ,paradise    
,lost1 book iv4    #aac ,notice sur le  
,pensionnat1 etc4  ,fribourg en ,suisse1
 #ahci1 pp4 #ef  seq4    #aad #aehe2    
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ii1
 ,pachtler1 p4 #daa4    #aae ,monumenta 
,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ix1 ,pachtler1
 p4 #ei4    #aaf ,manare1 ,commentarius4
    #aag ,crtineau-,joly1 tom4 i1 ch4   
#c1 p4 #aej4    #aah ,compare           
,cretineau-,joly1 tom4 i1 ch4 #f2 tom4  
iv1 chs4 #c1 #d4    #aai ,the more      
heavily the strain of war bore upon     
,germany1 the more  assiduously were the

 succors sent in2 no part of the field  
was more  under ,loyola's eye4    #abj  
,history of the ,papacy1 vol4 i1 book v1
  #c2 ,the ,first ,jesuit  ,schools in  
,germany2 ,foster's translation1 p4     
#dag4    #aba ,compare ,monumenta       
,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ix1 ,pachtler1
 ,nr4 #gb2  ,nr4 #ia2 ,nr4 #ib1 etc4    
#abb ,this very instructive             
correspondence may be seen sketched in  
,genelli's ,life of ,st4 ,ignatius of   
,loyola1 part ii1 ch4 #h1 pp4 #cdb  seq4
 #ahhi4    #abc ,ch4 #f1 above1 p4 #hd4 
#abd ,const41 pars iv1 c4 #g1 decl4 ,e4 
#abe ,compare ,mon4 ,germ4 ,pd41 vol4   
ii1 ,pachtler1 ,nr4 #ch1 the            
theological faculty of the ,university  
of ,wrzburg1 p4 #cjc1 n4 #g2 ,mon4      
,germ4 ,pd41 vol4 ix1 ,pachtler1 ,nr4   
#fg1 p4 #afb1 and ,nr4 #fh1 p4 #agh1 the
  theological and philosophical         
faculties of the ,university of ,trier1 
etc4    #abf ,compare ,monumenta        
,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ii1 ,pachtler1
 p4 #ch1  note about ,perugia4    #abg  

,ibid41 p4 #ea1 note about ,valencia4   
#abh ,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1    
vol4 ii1 p4 #cfi1 ,letter to ,father    
,kessel4    #abi ,compare ,monumenta    
,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ii1 ,pachtler1
  ,papstliche ,privilegien1 pp4 #a-h4   
#acj ,bollandists1 ,j4 ,p41 n4 #fab4    
#aca ,the pedagogic legislation1 from   
this date onwards1 is to be found  in   
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ii1
 ,pachtler1 pp4 #gj-abe4    #acb        
,pachtler1 ibid41 p #ge4    #acc        
,pachtler1 ibid41 pp4 #abf-acb4    #acd 
,european ,civilization1 ch4 #df4       
#ace ,national ,education1 part ii1 vol4
 ii1 p4 #fei2 p4 #gd2 ,new ,york1       
#ahgb4    #acf ,monumenta ,germani      
,pdagogica1 vol4 ix1 ,pachtler1 p4 #eg4 
#acg ,blair's ,lectures on ,rhetoric and
 ,belles ,lettres1 ,lecture #bf4    #ach
 ,lecture #ce4    #aci ,eulogy          
pronounced by the ,cardinal ,maury on   
his predecessor in  the ,institute of   
,france1 the ,jesuit ,de ,radonvilliers1
 #ahjg4--,orateurs  ,sacrs1 ,migne1 tom4

 lxvii1 column #aafa4    #adj ,a        
classification of eminent students may  
be found in  ,crtineau-,joly1 tom4 iv1  
ch4 #c1 p4 #bjg4    #ada ,bibliothque de
 la ,compagnie de ,jsus1 nouvelle       
dition1 par  ,carlos ,sommervogel ,s4   
,j41 ,strasbourgeois1 tom4 i1 from ,abad
 to ,boujart2  large quarto edition1    
#ahij4    #adb ,doctrina ,christiana1   
etc42 ,traductions2 ,sommervogel1 sub   
voce1  ,bellarmine1 columns #aahg-abjd4 
#adc ,in the matter of general philology
 alone compare the monograph1  ,die     
,sprachkunde und die ,missionen1 von    
,joseph ,dahlmann ,s4 ,j41 #ae          
,january1 #ahia1 fiftieth supplement to 
the ,stimmen aus ,maria-,laach1 #aba    
pages4    #add ,monumenta ,germani      
,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 ,pachtler1 p4 #bi4  
#ade ,ibid41 vol4 v1 p4 #i seq4    #adf 
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 
p4 #ab seq4    #adg ,monumenta ,germani 
,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 p4 #bf seq4    #adh 
,disputatio acris oriebatur4    #adi    
,ibid41 ,nr4 #h1 p4 #fe4    #aej ,vol4  

v1 pp4 #fg-bag4    #aea ,monumenta      
,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 p4 #ae seq4
    #aeb ,as an instance of the minute  
criticism brought to bear upon it  in   
,germany1 consult ,monumenta ,germani   
,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 p4 #bah  seq4       
,similar animadversions are to be       
understood as coming from other         
quarters4    #aec ,supercheries         
littraires dvoiles iii1 #ddf1 f2        
,sommervogel1  ,dictionnaire des        
,ouvrages ,anonymes et ,pseudonymes1    
etc41 ,s4 ,j41 sub  voce1 ,ratio4       
#aed ,quoted by ,ch4 ,daniel1 ,s4 ,j41  
,les ,jsuites ,instituteurs de la       
,jeunesse1 etc41 last ch4 p4 #big4      
#aee ,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1    
vol4 v1 ,nr4 #aa1 p4 #bbg4    #aef      
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 
p4 #beb1 ,ratio ,studiorum of  #aeii1   
,reg4 ,prov4 #ai1  #aa4    #aeg ,compare
 ,lord ,bacon1 ,the ,advancement of     
,learning1 book ii1 p4 #ahf1  #ast      
column2 ,philadelphia edit4 #ahdf4      
#aeh ,chapter vi1 above1 p4 #hc4    #aei

 ,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 v1
 p4 #abi1 ,ratio ,studiorum of  #aehf1  
c4 ,stud4 ,philos4    #afj ,monumenta   
,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 p4 #dia1 n4
 #cb4    #afa ,monumenta ,germani       
,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 p4 #aed1 n4 #f1     
,humanitatis  ,doctores quos et quales1 
etc4    #afb ,vitelleschi1 #afci1       
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ix1
 p4 #fj1  n4 #d4    #afc ,ratio ,stud41 
,reg4 ,prov4 #ai2 ,monumenta ,germani   
,pdagogica1 vol4  v1 p4 #bdb4    #afd   
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ii1
 pp4 #hd1 #ic4    #afe ,ibid41 vol4 ii1 
p4 #aja4    #aff ,rt4 ,st4 #aeii1 ,reg4 
,prof1 ,rhet4 #f2 ,monumenta ,germani   
,pdagogica1  vol4 v1 p4 #djd4    #afg   
,sommervogel fills twenty-four columns  
with a partial enumeration  of the      
editions of ,alvarez2 ,bibliothque de la
 ,compagnie de ,jsus1  #ahij1 sub voce1 
,alvarez4    #afh ,compare ,monumenta   
,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ii1 p4 #bfi1  
n4 #aad2  ,manare's ,ordinance for      
,germany4    #afi ,rationarium          

,temporum1 ,paris1 #afcb4    #agj       
,daniel1 ,les ,jsuites ,instituteurs1   
etc41 ch4 #aj1 p4 #baf4    #aga         
,geographi et ,hydrographi ,reformat    
,libri xii1 ,bologna1 #affa1 in  folio4 
#agb ,see the pleasant sketch in        
,daniel's ,les ,jsuites ,instituteurs1  
etc41 chs4 #b-e2 also ,maynard's ,the   
,jesuits1 their ,studies and ,teaching1 
ch4 #d1 ,scientific ,condition of the   
,jesuits1 etc4    #agc ,rome1 #aehc1    
#hvo1 pp4 #bai4    #agd ,monumenta      
,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 p4 #ada1   
,de ,mathematicis4    #age ,reg4 ,prov4 
n4 #bj4    #agf ,first edition in #afig4
    #agg ,de l'glise ,gallicane1 liv4 i1
 ch4 #h1 p4 #df2 edit4 #ahba4    #agh   
,the medal is in the ,coleman ,museum of
 the ,georgetown ,university1  where ,de
 ,vico1 with ,sestini1 was astronomer   
for some time4    #agi ,for an          
historical sketch of ,bavarian ,jesuits1
 under the aspect of  scientific        
eminence1 see ,monumenta ,germani       
,pdagogica1 vol4 ix1 pp4  #dde-f1 where 

,father ,pachtler gives the ,prospectus 
of a new scientific  and literary       
review1 to be issued in ,bavaria1 #aggb4
 ,the ,suppression  forestalled it4     
#ahj ,histoire des ,mathematiques1 t4   
iv1 p4 #cdg2 quoted by  ,crtineau-,joly1
 t4 iv1 c4 #d1 p4 #bhc1 who contains a  
large amount of  literature upon this   
subject4 ,according to late researches1 
made by ,,mm4  ,c4 ,andr and ,g4 ,rayet1
 astronomers of the observatory of      
,paris1 the  number of observatories    
established in the whole world1 towards 
the  close of the last century1 was     
#acj4 ,of this number1 #cb were founded 
by ,jesuits1 or were under their        
direction4--,victor ,van ,tricht1 ,la   
,bibliothque des crivains de la         
,compagnie de ,jsus1 etc41 appendice    
#a;er1 p4 #bba2 #ahgf4    #aha          
,constitutiones1 pars iv1 c4 #ac1 n4 #d4
    #ahb ,bollandists1 ,j4 ,p41 n4 #hga4
    #ahc ,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1
 vol4 v1 p4 #aea seq4    #ahd ,ratio    
,st41 ,reg4 ,prov4 #bh2 ,monumenta      

,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 v1  p4 #bfj4  
#ahe ,ibid41 vol4 ix1 p4 #ei4    #ahf   
,ibid41 vol4 v1 ,rt4 ,st4 #aehf1        
,humanitatis ,magistri1 n4 #e1 p4 #aec4 
#ahg ,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1    
vol4 ii1 p4 #dae4    #ahh ,ibid41 vol4  
v1 n44 #c1 p4 #aeb4    #ahi ,ibid41 vol4
 v1 n4 #d1 p4 #aeb4    #aij ,ibid41 vol4
 v1 p4 #bfj2 ,reg4 ,prov4 #bd1 #be4     
#aia ,ibid41 vol4 ix1 p4 #fj2 letter of 
the year #afci4    #aib ,ibid41 vol4 v1 
p4 #aed4    #aic ,ibid1 vol4 ix1 p4     
#acj1 n4 #b4    #aid ,ibid41 n4 #f4     
#aie ,ibid41 vol4 v1 p4 #ceb4    #aif   
,ibid41 vol4 v1 p4 #adi4    #aig ,ibid41
 p4 #aec4    #aih ,rt4 ,st41 ,reg4      
,rect4 #c2 ,monumenta ,germani          
,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 p4  #bfh4    #aii   
,ibid41 n4 #ah1 p4 #bgb4    #bjj ,reg4  
,prov4 #cc2 ,monumenta ,germani         
,pdagogica1 p4 #bfb4    #bja ,ibid41    
vol4 ix1 p4 #aca4    #bjb ,jouvancy1    
,ratio ,discendi2 c4 ,ordo ,studendi4   
#bjc ,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1    
vol4 v1 p4 #add4    #bjd ,ibid4    #bje 

,ibid41 vol4 ii1 p4 #abf2 ,reg4 ,prov4  
n4 #ej4    #bjf ,rt4 ,st4 #aehf2        
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 
p4 #aej4    #bjg ,formula ,acceptandorum
 ,collegiorum1 b2 ,monumenta ,germani   
,pdagogica1 vol4 ii1 p4 #cci4    #bjh   
,hist4 ,s4 ,j41 ,sacchini1 pars ii1     
,lainius1 lib4 viii1 n4 #bai1 ad  annum 
#aefd4    #bji ,rt4 ,st4 #aehf1 ibid4   
#baj ,rt4 ,st4 #aeii1 ,reg4 ,prov4 #bg2 
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4  v1
 p4 #bfj4    #baa ,chapter xi1 above1 p4
 #aee4    #bab ,statuten der philos4    
,fak4 ,ingolstadt1 #afdi2 ,de           
,auditoribus2  ,monumenta ,germani      
,pdagogica1 vol4 ix1 p4 #bhd4    #bac   
,qui non in ,academia1 sed privatim in  
aliquo ,auditorio aut  ,monasterio      
audierunt philosophiam4    #bad ,nisi   
probent se omnes materias publice       
audivisse in aliqua  ,academia probata3 
,wrzburger ,promotionsgebrauche1 #affb2 
,monumenta  ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4   
ix1 p4 #chg4    #bae ,rhetius ,s4 ,j4 fr
 ,reform der theol4 ,fak4 zu ,kln1      

,november1 #aegj2  ,monumenta ,germani  
,pdagogica1 vol4 ii1 p4 #bag4    #baf   
,rt4 ,st41 ,reg4 ,prov4 #bh2 ,monumenta 
,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 p4  #bfj4  
#bag ,ibid41 vol4 v1 p4 #acc1 n4 #aj1   
,studium ,philos4    #bah ,biblioth4    
,selecta2 de ,cultura ,ingeniorum1 cap4 
#bg4    #bai ,prvidere4    #bbj         
,prlegere4    #bba ,monumenta ,germani  
,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 p4 #dej1 n4 #d4     
#bbb ,ibid41 p4 #dfj1 n4 #i4    #bbc    
,rt4 ,st4 #aehf1 ,studium ,philos4 n4   
#ab2 ,monumenta ,germani  ,pdagogica1   
vol4 v1 p4 #acd4 ,compare also the      
,german ,province1 where1 in  #aehf1    
four hours are reduced to three1 ibid41 
vol4 ii1 p4 #bhc4    #bbd ,monumenta    
,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ii1 p4 #aed4  
#bbe ,ibid41 vol4 v1 p4 #ajh1 ,de       
,privato ,studio ,scholasticorum2 ibid4 
p4  #acc1 n4 #aa1 ,studium ,philos4     
#bbf ,ut concionabundi4    #bbg ,rt4    
,st41 ,reg4 comm4 ,prof4 sup4 fac41 n4  
#aa2 ,monumenta ,germani  ,pdagogica1   
vol4 v1 p4 #bij4    #bbh ,rt4 ,st4      

#aeii1 ,reg4 ,prof4 ,phil4 n4 #af2      
#ahcb1 n4 #i1 ,monumenta  ,germani      
,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 pp4 #cdj1 #ccb4     
#bbi ,rt4 ,st4 #aehf1 ,repetitiones1 n4 
#c2 ,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1     
vol4 v1 p4 #ii4    #bcj ,chapter vii1   
above1 ,the ,moral ,scope1 p4 #aja4     
#bca ,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1    
vol4 v1 p4 #bfh2 ,reg4 ,rect4 n4 #f4    
#bcb ,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 p4 
#def2 ,institutio pro biennio1 n4  #ad4 
#bcc ,prclara aliqua materia4    #bcd   
,ibid41 p4 #ded4    #bce ,reg4 comm4    
,prof4 sup4 fac41 n4 #i2 ,monumenta     
,germani ,pdagogica1  p4 #bhh4    #bcf  
,constitutiones1 pars iv1 c4 #f1 ,h4    
#bcg ,rt4 ,st4 #aehf1 ,repetitiones1    
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4  v1
 p4 #ii4    #bch ,constitutiones1 pars  
iv1 c4 #ad1 ,b4    #bci ,monumenta      
,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ii1 p4 #bde4  
#bdj ,ibid41 vol4 v1 p4 #fh4    #bda    
,consult the five volumes of            
,nomenclator ,litterarius ,recentioris  
,theologi ,catholic1 by ,h4 ,hurter1 ,s4

 ,j41 #ahga-ahhf4    #bdb ,rt4 ,st41    
,reg4 comm4 ,prof4 sup4 fac41 n4 #ab2   
,monumenta ,germani  ,pdagogica1 vol4 v1
 p4 #bij2 compare also ,monumenta       
,germani ,pdagogica1  vol4 ix1 ,ordnung 
,einer ,selbst4 ,univ4 der ,ges4 ,j4    
#afeh1 pars ii1 c4 #d1  p4 #cee2 ,de    
,repetitonibus et ,disputationibus      
,scholasticorum ,s4 ,j4    #bdc ,ibid41 
n4 #ad4    #bdd ,ibid41 n4 #bj4    #bde 
,ibid41 n4 #ac4    #bdf ,monumenta      
,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ii1 p4 #ie2   
,congr4 gen4 #aa4    #bdg ,reg4 ,prof4  
,s4 ,script41 n4 #ai1 #bj2 also         
,statuten der philos4 ,fak4             
,ingolstadt1 #afdi1 ,monumenta ,germani 
,pdagogica1 vol4 ix1 p4 #bia4    #bdh   
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ix1
 pp4 #cei-cha4    #bdi ,rt4 ,st4 #aehf1 
,disputationes2 ,monumenta ,germani     
,pdagogica1 vol4  v1 p4 #ajc4    #bej   
,ibid4    #bea ,ibid41 vol4 v1          
,commentariolus1 p4 #de seq4    #beb    
,nihil perfecte scitur1 nisi dente      
disputationis feriatur2 see the  ,life  

and ,labors of ,st4 ,thomas of ,aquin1  
by ,bede ,vaughan1 #ahga1 vol4 i1  ch4  
#af1 p4 #chh4 ,the two chapters on      
,paris1 in this learned work1 are       
replete with information pertinent to   
our subject4    #bec ,monumenta ,germani
 ,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 p4 #ga1 n4 #e2 ,de 
,scripturis4    #bed ,reg4 ,prov41 n4   
#e2 ,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4
 v1 p4 #bcd4    #bee ,commentariolus1   
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 
p4 #ec4    #bef ,cum non raro1 qu       
splendescere videntur in cubiculo1      
sordeant in  ,scholasticis              
concertationibus4    #beg ,monumenta    
,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 v1            
,disputationes1 n4 #h1 p4  #ajb4    #beh
 ,ibid4    #bei ,ibid41 p4 #adg1        
,separandane sint ,seminaria1 etc4      
#bfj ,reg4 comm4 ,prof4 sup4 fac41 n4   
#af2 ,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1    
vol4 v1 p4 #bib4    #bfa ,monumenta     
,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 p4 #bib2   
,rt4 ,st4 #aeii1 ,reg4  comm4 ,prof4    
sup4 fac41 n4 #ah2 ,rt4 ,st4 #aehf1     

,disputationes1 ibid41 p4  #ajf4    #bfb
 ,ibid41 p4 #ajb1 n4 #g1 p4 #bgf1 n4 #f4
    #bfc ,rt4 ,st41 ,reg4 ,prof4 ,stud41
 nn4 #ab1 #ba2 ,monumenta ,germani      
,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 pp4 #bgh1 #bhb4     
#bfd ,ibid41 ,reg4 ,prov41 n4 #ai1 p4   
#bdd4    #bfe ,chapter xi1 above1 p4    
#aeg4    #bff ,de ,ratione et ,modo     
,prlegendi2 ,monumenta ,germani         
,pdagogica1  vol4 v1 p4 #hb4    #bfg ,ad
 literam legibilem4    #bfh ,ad         
prlegendum egregie4    #bfi ,rt4 ,st4   
#aehf1 ,de ,ratione ac ,modo ,prlegendi2
 ,monumenta ,germani  ,pdagogica1 vol4  
v1 pp4 #ha-e4    #bgj ,monumenta        
,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 ,reg4 comm4
 ,prof4 sup4  fac41 nn4 #i1 #aj1 p4     
#bhh4    #bga ,why1 if the paper drops1 
the wisdom too must be off6    #bgb     
,possevinus1 ,biblioth4 ,selecta1 lib4  
i1 de cultura ingeniorum1 cc4  #be-f1   
edit4 ,venet4 #afjc1 pp4 #ba-b4 ,he     
refers to the publication of the        
,conimbricenses1 a consolidated work of 
the faculty of ,coimbra1 just as  the   

,wirceburgenses1 later on1 and at       
present1 under ,father ,cornely1  the   
writers of the ,cursus ,scriptur ,sacr  
are publishing their works as  a        
corporate whole4    #bgc ,rt4 ,st4      
#aeii1 ,reg4 ,prov41 n4 #d2 ,monumenta  
,germani ,pdagogica1  vol4 v1 p4 #bcd4  
#bgd ,constitutiones1 pars iv1 c4 #ac1  
n4 #c2 ,monumenta ,germani  ,pdagogica1 
vol4 ii1 p4 #ee4    #bge ,reg4 comm4    
,prof4 sup4 fac41 n4 #bj2 ,monumenta    
,germani ,pdagogica1  vol4 v1 p4 #bib4  
#bgf ,constitutiones1 ibid41 ,c4    #bgg
 ,ibid4    #bgh ,vitelleschi1 #afci2    
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ix1
 p4 #ei4    #bgi ,chapter xi1 above1 p4 
#afb4    #bhj ,monumenta ,germani       
,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 ,commentariolus1 p4 
#dc4    #bha ,ibid4    #bhb ,ibid41 p4  
#da4    #bhc ,ordinatio pro ,stud4      
,sup41 #afea2 ,monumenta ,germani       
,pdagogica1  vol4 ix1 p4 #hh4    #bhd   
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 
,utrum ,quinquennium1 etc41  p4 #gf4    
#bhe ,ibid4    #bhf ,modus ,prlegendi1  

n4 #aj2 ,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 
vol4 v1  p4 #hd4    #bhg ,rt4 ,st4      
#aeii1 ,reg4 comm4 ,prof4 sup4 fac41 nn4
 #g1 #h2 ,monumenta  ,germani           
,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 p4 #bhh4    #bhh    
,rt4 ,st41 ,reg4 ,prof4 ,rhet41 n4 #h2  
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1  vol4 v1
 p4 #djf4    #bhi ,ibid41 n4 #a4    #bij
 ,ibid41 nn4 #f1 #g4    #bia ,reg4      
,prof4 ,hum41 n4 #e2 ibid41 p4 #dbj4    
#bib ,rt4 ,st4 #ahef1 ,classis ,hum42   
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4  v1
 p4 #aie4    #bic ,ibid41 ,class4       
,rhet41 n4 #f1 p4 #aih4    #bid ,ibid41 
,exercitationes lat4 et grc41 n4 #b2    
,monumenta ,germani  ,pdagogica1 vol4 v1
 p4 #aff4    #bie ,maxime rudi ,minerva4
    #bif ,rt4 ,st41 ,reg4 ,prf4 stud4   
inf41 n4 #h1  #d2 ,monumenta ,germani   
,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 p4 #ced4    #big    
,ibid41 ,reg4 comm4 ,prof4 cl4 inf41 n4 
#bd2 ibid41 p4 #chh4    #bih            
,exercitationes lat4 et grc41 ,monumenta
 ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4  v1 p4 #afg4 
#bii ,rt4 ,st41 ,special rules of the   

respective classes1 ,monumenta  ,germani
 ,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 pp4 #cih-ddh4      
,rules of the ,academies1  ibid41 pp4   
#dfj-dhj4    #cjj ,monumenta ,germani   
,pdagogica1 vol4 ii1 p4 #aff1           
,schulregeln um  #aefj-fa4    #cja      
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ix1
 p4 #ade4    #cjb ,jouvancy1 ,ratio     
,docendi2 c4 ,de interpretatione        
vernacula1 etc4    #cjc ,modus explicand
 prlectionis4    #cjd ,eruditio ex omni 
doctrina1 ,reg4 ,prof4 ,rhet41 n4 #a1 ex
 omni  eruditione1 ibid41 n4 #h4    #cje
 ,lettre #g fvrier1 #agdf1 ,o,euvres1 t4
 viii1 p4 #aabg2 edit4 #ahag4    #cjf   
,de ,backer1 ,bibliothque des crivains  
de la ,compagnie1 sub  voce1 ,cerda4    
#cjg ,sommervogel1 ,bibliothque de la   
,compagnie1 sub voce1 ,abram4    #cjh   
,sommervogel1 ibid4    #cji ,de ,backer1
 sub voce1 ,rapin4    #caj ,rt4 ,st4    
#aehf1 c4 #h1 ,de ,libris2 ,monumenta   
,germani ,pdagogica1  vol4 v1 p4 #agh4  
#caa ,reg4 ,prf4 ,stud41 n4 #bi2        
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 p4 #bhd4

    #cab ,ibid41 p4 #agi4    #cac ,ch4  
xi1 above1 p4 #afd seq4    #cad         
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 
p4 #ahj4    #cae ,rt4 ,st4 #aehf1       
,class4 ,rhet41 pp4 #aig-h4    #caf     
,blair's ,lectures on ,rhetoric and     
,belles-,lettres2 lecture ,,xii1 at  the
 end4    #cag ,ibid41 lecture ,,xix1 ,on
 ,forming ,style1 at the end4    #cah   
,rt4 ,st4 #aehf2 ,monumenta ,germani    
,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 pp4 #afj-d4    #cai 
,reg4 ,prf4 stud4 inf41 n4 #ca2         
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4  v1
 p4 #cfd4    #cbj ,monumenta ,germani   
,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 p4 #dia4    #cba    
,ratio ,docendi1 c4 ii1 ,de discipulorum
 eruditione1 art4 #c4    #cbb ,monumenta
 ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 ,exercit4 
lat4 et grc41 n4  #h1 p4 #agj4    #cbc  
,sicut porcelli inter se commixti4      
#cbd ,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1    
vol4 v1 p4 #dic4    #cbe ,reg4          
,externorum ,auditorum ,soc41 ,monumenta
 ,germani ,pdagogica1  vol4 v1 p4 #deh4 
#cbf ,rt4 ,st41 ,reg4 ,prf4 stud4 inf41 

#aa2 ,monumenta ,germani  ,pdagogica1   
vol4 v1 p4 #ceh4    #cbg ,rt4 ,st4      
#aehf1 ,ratio promovendi1 etc41         
,monumenta ,germani  ,pdagogica1 vol4 v1
 p4 #agg4    #cbh ,reg4 ,prf4 stud4     
inf41 n4 #h1  #ab4    #cbi ,rt4 ,st41   
,reg4 ,prf4 stud4 inf41 n4 #ac2         
,monumenta ,germani  ,pdagogica1 vol4 v1
 p4 #cfj4    #ccj ,constitutiones1 pars 
iv1 c4 #ae1 n4 #b2 ,monumenta ,germani  
,pdagogica1 vol4 ii1 p4 #fj4    #cca    
,ibid41 n4 #c4    #ccb ,rt4 ,st4 #aehf1 
,de ,gradibus1 etc41 ,monumenta ,germani
 ,pdagogica1  vol4 v1 p4 #aaj4    #ccc  
,vol4 ix1 pp4 #cei-chg4    #ccd ,rt4    
,st41 ,reg4 ,prov41 #ag1  #b4    #cce   
,rt4 ,st4 #ahcb1 ,reg4 ,prf4 stud4 inf41
 n4 #h1  #aa4    #ccf ,ibid41 nn4 #ab1  
#b2 #bh1  #b4    #ccg ,ibid4    #cch    
,alumni sive convictores4    #cci       
,externi4    #cdj ,reg4 ,rect41 n4 #ab4 
#cda ,reg4 ,prov41 n4 #ba1  #d4    #cdb 
,excitetur ingenium2 excolatur ingenium4
    #cdc ,de ,mathematicis2 ,monumenta  
,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 v1 p4 #ada4   

#cdd ,crtineau-,joly1 ,histoire de la   
,compagnie1 tom4 iv1 ch4 #c1 p4 #bjb4   
#cde ,compare the ordinance for the     
upper ,german ,province1 #agfc1 n4 #g2  
,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ix1
 p4 #dda4    #cdf ,rt4 ,st4 #ahcb1 ,pro 
,physica1 nn4 #cd-e4    #cdg ,monumenta 
,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4 ii1 p4 #bde4  
#cdh ,rt4 ,st41 ,reg4 ,prov41 n4 #ci4   
#cdi ,reg4 ,prf4 ,stud41 n4 #bg4    #cej
 ,chapter vi1 above1 p4 #if4    #cea ,by
 ,m4 ,d',alembert1 ,m4 ,l',abb de       
,condillac1 and others4    #ceb ,l',abb 
,proyart1 ,de ,l'ducation ,publique4    
#cec ,id41 ibid4    #ced ,histoire d'un 
,collge ,municipal1 etc41 ,bayonne2 par 
,j4 ,m4 ,drevon1  #ahhi2 last chapter1  
,rforme et conclusion1 pp4 #ddc seq4    
#cee ,ex omnibus aliquid3 in toto nihil4
    #cef ,epistola ,p4 ,roothaan1 #ahcb1
 ,monumenta ,germani ,pdagogica1 vol4   
v1 p4 #bbh seq4    #ceg ,for ,thee these
 meadows smile1 and1 on the hill-top    
smoothed away1  these beds bedeck       
themselves with flowers1 and the youth  

from every  clime unfolds1 in virtue and
 in science1 the hopes of ,christian    
manhood4    #ceh ,the urns thou see'st  
around breathe the fragrance of their   
flowers to ,christ4 ,pluck them not1    
with hand unhallowed1 whosoe'er thou    
be4              ,transcribers' ,notes3 
,punctuation1 hyphenation1 and spelling 
were made consistent when a  predominant
 preference was found in this book2     
otherwise they were not  changed4       
,simple typographical errors were       
corrected2 occasional unbalanced        
quotation marks retained4    ,ambiguous 
hyphens at the ends of lines were       
retained4    ,index not checked for     
proper alphabetization or correct page  
references4    ,the abbreviation ,s4 ,j4
 has been regularized here to always    
include a  space1 as that seems to be   
how it mostly was printed4    ,page     
#aag3 et eximium facinus was printed    
that way4    ,page #aga3 mathematicans  
was printed that way4    ,footnote #ahj 
7referenced on page #agb73              

,mathematiques was printed that  way4   
,page #bjd3 ,repetitonibus was printed  
that way4    ,page #bje3 ,footnote      
anchor #bdh 7originally #c7 was missing 
from several  editions of this book and 
has been added at a likely position by  
the  ,transcriber4