,transcriber's ,note3 ,italic text is denoted by underscores and small-capped text by equal signs4 ,,novum ,,organum ,,by ,,lord ,,bacon ,,edited ,,by ,,joseph ,,devey1 ,m4,a4 ,illustration3 ,publisher's logo ,,new ,,york ,p4 ,f4 ,,collier ,,son ,,mcmii #bb ,,science ,,novum ,,organum ,,or ,,true ,,suggestions ,,for ,,the ,,interpretation ,,of ,,nature ,,preface ,they who have presumed to dogmatize on nature1 as on some well investigated subject1 either from self-conceit or arrogance1 and in the professorial style1 have inflicted the greatest injury on philosophy and learning4 ,for they have tended to stifle and interrupt inquiry exactly in proportion as they have prevailed in bringing others to their opinion3 and their own activity has not counterbalanced the mischief they have occasioned by corrupting and destroying that of others4 ,they again who have entered upon a contrary course1 and asserted that nothing whatever can be known1 whether they have fallen into this opinion from their hatred of the ancient sophists1 or from the hesitation of their minds1 or from an exuberance of learning1 have certainly adduced reasons for it which are by no means contemptible4 ,they have not1 however1 derived their opinion from true sources1 and1 hurried on by their zeal and some affectation1 have certainly exceeded due moderation4 ,but the more ancient ,greeks 7whose writings have perished71 held a more prudent mean1 between the arrogance of dogmatism1 and the despair of scepticism2 and though too frequently intermingling complaints and indignation at the difficulty of inquiry1 and the obscurity of things1 and champing1 as it were1 the bit1 have still persisted in pressing their point1 and pursuing their intercourse with nature2 thinking1 as it seems1 that the better method was not to dispute upon the very point of the possibility of anything being known1 but to put it to the test of experience4 ,yet they themselves1 by only employing the power of the understanding1 have not adopted a fixed rule1 but have laid their whole stress upon intense meditation1 and a continual exercise and perpetual agitation of the mind4 ,our method1 though difficult in its operation1 is easily explained4 ,it consists in determining the degrees of certainty1 while we1 as it were1 restore the senses to their former rank1 but generally reject that operation of the mind which follows close upon the senses1 and open and establish a new and certain course for the mind from the first actual perceptions of the senses themselves4 ,this1 no doubt1 was the view taken by those who have assigned so much to logic2 showing clearly thereby that they sought some support for the mind1 and suspected its natural and spontaneous mode of action4 ,but this is now employed too late as a remedy1 when all is clearly lost1 and after the mind1 by the daily habit and intercourse of life1 has come prepossessed with corrupted doctrines1 and filled with the vainest idols4 ,the art of logic therefore being 7as we have mentioned71 too late a precaution1#a and in no way remedying the matter1 has tended more to confirm errors1 than to disclose truth4 ,our only remaining hope and salvation is to begin the whole labor of the mind again2 not leaving it to itself1 but directing it perpetually from the very first1 and attaining our end as it were by mechanical aid4 ,if men1 for instance1 had attempted mechanical labors with their hands alone1 and without the power and aid of instruments1 as they have not hesitated to carry on the labors of their understanding with the unaided efforts of their mind1 they would have been able to move and overcome but little1 though they had exerted their utmost and united powers4 ,and just to pause awhile on this comparison1 and look into it as a mirror2 let us ask1 if any obelisk of a remarkable size were perchance required to be moved1 for the purpose of gracing a triumph or any similar pageant1 and men were to attempt it with their bare hands1 would not any sober spectator avow it to be an act of the greatest madness8 ,and if they should increase the number of workmen1 and imagine that they could thus succeed1 would he not think so still more8 ,but if they chose to make a selection1 and to remove the weak1 and only employ the strong and vigorous1 thinking by this means1 at any rate1 to achieve their object1 would he not say that they were more fondly deranged8 ,nay1 if not content with this1 they were to determine on consulting the athletic art1 and were to give orders for all to appear with their hands1 arms1 and muscles regularly oiled and prepared1 would he not exclaim that they were taking pains to rave by method and design8 ,yet men are hurried on with the same senseless energy and useless combination in intellectual matters1 as long as they expect great results either from the number and agreement1 or the excellence and acuteness of their wits2 or even strengthen their minds with logic1 which may be considered as an athletic preparation1 but yet do not desist 7if we rightly consider the matter7 from applying their own understandings merely with all this zeal and effort4 ,while nothing is more clear1 than that in every great work executed by the hand of man without machines or implements1 it is impossible for the strength of individuals to be increased1 or for that of the multitude to combine4 ,having premised so much1 we lay down two points on which we would admonish mankind1 lest they should fail to see or to observe them4 ,the first of these is1 that it is our good fortune 7as we consider it71 for the sake of extinguishing and removing contradiction and irritation of mind1 to leave the honor and reverence due to the ancients untouched and undiminished1 so that we can perform our intended work1 and yet enjoy the benefit of our respectful moderation4 ,for if we should profess to offer something better than the ancients1 and yet should pursue the same course as they have done1 we could never1 by any artifice1 contrive to avoid the imputation of having engaged in a contest or rivalry as to our respective wits1 excellences1 or talents2 which1 though neither inadmissible nor new 7for why should we not blame and point out anything that is imperfectly discovered or laid down by them1 of our own right1 a right common to all871 yet however just and allowable1 would perhaps be scarcely an equal match1 on account of the disproportion of our strength4 ,but since our present plan leads up to open an entirely different course to the understanding1 and one unattempted and unknown to them1 the case is altered4 ,there is an end to party zeal1 and we only take upon ourselves the character of a guide1 which requires a moderate share of authority and good fortune1 rather than talents and excellence4 ,the first admonition relates to persons1 the next to things4 ,we make no attempt to disturb the system of philosophy that now prevails1 or any other which may or will exist1 either more correct or more complete4 ,for we deny not that the received system of philosophy1 and others of a similar nature1 encourage discussion1 embellish harangues1 are employed1 and are of service in the duties of the professor1 and the affairs of civil life4 ,nay1 we openly express and declare that the philosophy we offer will not be very useful in such respects4 ,it is not obvious1 nor to be understood in a cursory view1 nor does it flatter the mind in its preconceived notions1 nor will it descend to the level of the generality of mankind unless by its advantages and effects4 ,let there exist then 7and may it be of advantage to both71 two sources1 and two distributions of learning1 and in like manner two tribes1 and as it were kindred families of contemplators or philosophers1 without any hostility or alienation between them2 but rather allied and united by mutual assistance4 ,let there be in short one method of cultivating the sciences1 and another of discovering them4 ,and as for those who prefer and more readily receive the former1 on account of their haste or from motives arising from their ordinary life1 or because they are unable from weakness of mind to comprehend and embrace the other 7which must necessarily be the case with by far the greater number71 let us wish that they may prosper as they desire in their undertaking1 and attain what they pursue4 ,but if any individual desire1 and is anxious not merely to adhere to1 and make use of present discoveries1 but to penetrate still further1 and not to overcome his adversaries in disputes1 but nature by labor1 not in short to give elegant and specious opinions1 but to know to a certainty and demonstration1 let him1 as a true son of science 7if such be his wish71 join with us2 that when he has left the antechambers of nature trodden by the multitude1 an entrance may at last be discovered to her inner apartments4 ,and in order to be better understood1 and to render our meaning more familiar by assigning determinate names1 we have accustomed ourselves to call the one method the anticipation of the mind1 and the other the interpretation of nature4 ,we have still one request left4 ,we have at least reflected and taken pains in order to render our propositions not only true1 but of easy and familiar access to men's minds1 however wonderfully prepossessed and limited4 ,yet it is but just that we should obtain this favor from mankind 7especially in so great a restoration of learning and the sciences71 that whosoever may be desirous of forming any determination upon an opinion of this our work either from his own perceptions1 or the crowd of authorities1 or the forms of demonstrations1 he will not expect to be able to do so in a cursory manner1 and while attending to other matters2 but in order to have a thorough knowledge of the subject1 will himself by degrees attempt the course which we describe and maintain2 will be accustomed to the subtilty of things which is manifested by experience2 and will correct the depraved and deeply rooted habits of his mind by a seasonable1 and1 as it were1 just hesitation3 and then1 finally 7if he will71 use his judgment when he has begun to be master of himself4 ,,footnote #a ,because it was idle to draw a logical conclusion from false principles1 error being propagated as much by false premises1 which logic does not pretend to examine1 as by illegitimate inference4 ,hence1 as ,bacon says further on1 men being easily led to confound legitimate inference with truth1 were confirmed in their errors by the very subtilty of their genius4--,ed4 ,,aphorisms--,,book ,i ,,on ,,the ,,interpretation ,,of ,,nature ,,and ,,the ,,empire ,,of ,,man ,i4 ,man1 as the minister and interpreter of nature1 does and understands as much as his observations on the order of nature1 either with regard to things or the mind1 permit him1 and neither knows nor is capable of more4 ,,ii4 ,the unassisted hand and the understanding left to itself possess but little power4 ,effects are produced by the means of instruments and helps1 which the understanding requires no less than the hand2 and as instruments either promote or regulate the motion of the hand1 so those that are applied to the mind prompt or protect the understanding4 ,,iii4 ,knowledge and human power are synonymous1 since the ignorance of the cause frustrates the effect2 for nature is only subdued by submission1 and that which in contemplative philosophy corresponds with the cause in practical science becomes the rule4 ,,iv4 ,man while operating can only apply or withdraw natural bodies2 nature internally performs the rest4 ,v4 ,those who become practically versed in nature are1 the mechanic1 the mathematician1 the physician1 the alchemist1 and the magician1#b but all 7as matters now stand7 with faint efforts and meagre success4 ,,vi4 ,it would be madness and inconsistency to suppose that things which have never yet been performed can be performed without employing some hitherto untried means4 ,,vii4 ,the creations of the mind and hand appear very numerous1 if we judge by books and manufactures2 but all that variety consists of an excessive refinement1 and of deductions from a few well known matters--not of a number of axioms4#c ,,viii4 ,even the effects already discovered are due to chance and experiment rather than to the sciences2 for our present sciences are nothing more than peculiar arrangements of matters already discovered1 and not methods for discovery or plans for new operations4 ,,ix4 ,the sole cause and root of almost every defect in the sciences is this1 that while we falsely admire and extol the powers of the human mind1 we do not search for its real helps4 ,x4 ,the subtilty of nature is far beyond that of sense or of the understanding3 so that the specious meditations1 speculations1 and theories of mankind are but a kind of insanity1 only there is no one to stand by and observe it4 ,,xi4 ,as the present sciences are useless for the discovery of effects1 so the present system of logic#d is useless for the discovery of the sciences4 ,,xii4 ,the present system of logic rather assists in confirming and rendering inveterate the errors founded on vulgar notions than in searching after truth1 and is therefore more hurtful than useful4 ,,xiii4 ,the syllogism is not applied to the principles of the sciences1 and is of no avail in intermediate axioms1#e as being very unequal to the subtilty of nature4 ,it forces assent1 therefore1 and not things4 ,,xiv4 ,the syllogism consists of propositions2 propositions of words2 words are the signs of notions4 ,if1 therefore1 the notions 7which form the basis of the whole7 be confused and carelessly abstracted from things1 there is no solidity in the superstructure4 ,our only hope1 then1 is in genuine induction4 ,,xv4 ,we have no sound notions either in logic or physics2 substance1 quality1 action1 passion1 and existence are not clear notions2 much less weight1 levity1 density1 tenuity1 moisture1 dryness1 generation1 corruption1 attraction1 repulsion1 element1 matter1 form1 and the like4 ,they are all fantastical and ill-defined4 ,,xvi4 ,the notions of less abstract natures1 as man1 dog1 dove1 and the immediate perceptions of sense1 as heat1 cold1 white1 black1 do not deceive us materially1 yet even these are sometimes confused by the mutability of matter and the intermixture of things4 ,all the rest which men have hitherto employed are errors1 and improperly abstracted and deduced from things4 ,,xvii4 ,there is the same degree of licentiousness and error in forming axioms as in abstracting notions1 and that in the first principles1 which depend on common induction2 still more is this the case in axioms and inferior propositions derived from syllogisms4 ,,xviii4 ,the present discoveries in science are such as lie immediately beneath the surface of common notions4 ,it is necessary1 however1 to penetrate the more secret and remote parts of nature1 in order to abstract both notions and axioms from things by a more certain and guarded method4 ,,xix4 ,there are and can exist but two ways of investigating and discovering truth4 ,the one hurries on rapidly from the senses and particulars to the most general axioms1 and from them1 as principles and their supposed indisputable truth1 derives and discovers the intermediate axioms4 ,this is the way now in use4 ,the other constructs its axioms from the senses and particulars1 by ascending continually and gradually1 till it finally arrives at the most general axioms1 which is the true but unattempted way4 ,,xx4 ,the understanding when left to itself proceeds by the same way as that which it would have adopted under the guidance of logic1 namely1 the first2 for the mind is fond of starting off to generalities1 that it may avoid labor1 and after dwelling a little on a subject is fatigued by experiment4 ,but those evils are augmented by logic1 for the sake of the ostentation of dispute4 ,,xxi4 ,the understanding1 when left to itself in a man of a steady1 patient1 and reflecting disposition 7especially when unimpeded by received doctrines71 makes some attempt in the right way1 but with little effect1 since the understanding1 undirected and unassisted1 is unequal to and unfit for the task of vanquishing the obscurity of things4 ,,xxii4 ,each of these two ways begins from the senses and particulars1 and ends in the greatest generalities4 ,but they are immeasurably different2 for the one merely touches cursorily the limits of experiment and particulars1 while the other runs duly and regularly through them--the one from the very outset lays down some abstract and useless generalities1 the other gradually rises to those principles which are really the most common in nature4#f ,,xxiii4 ,there is no small difference between the idols of the human mind and the ideas of the ,divine mind--that is to say1 between certain idle dogmas and the real stamp and impression of created objects1 as they are found in nature4 ,,xxiv4 ,axioms determined upon in argument can never assist in the discovery of new effects2 for the subtilty of nature is vastly superior to that of argument4 ,but axioms properly and regularly abstracted from particulars easily point out and define new particulars1 and therefore impart activity to the sciences4 ,,xxv4 ,the axioms now in use are derived from a scanty handful1 as it were1 of experience1 and a few particulars of frequent occurrence1 whence they are of much the same dimensions or extent as their origin4 ,and if any neglected or unknown instance occurs1 the axiom is saved by some frivolous distinction1 when it would be more consistent with truth to amend it4 ,,xxvi4 ,we are wont1 for the sake of distinction1 to call that human reasoning which we apply to nature the anticipation of nature 7as being rash and premature71 and that which is properly deduced from things the interpretation of nature4 ,,xxvii4 ,anticipations are sufficiently powerful in producing unanimity1 for if men were all to become even uniformly mad1 they might agree tolerably well with each other4 ,,xxviii4 ,anticipations again1 will be assented to much more readily than interpretations1 because being deduced from a few instances1 and these principally of familiar occurrence1 they immediately hit the understanding and satisfy the imagination2 while1 on the contrary1 interpretations1 being deduced from various subjects1 and these widely dispersed1 cannot suddenly strike the understanding1 so that in common estimation they must appear difficult and discordant1 and almost like the mysteries of faith4 ,,xxix4 ,in sciences founded on opinions and dogmas1 it is right to make use of anticipations and logic if you wish to force assent rather than things4 ,,xxx4 ,if all the capacities of all ages should unite and combine and transmit their labors1 no great progress will be made in learning by anticipations1 because the radical errors1 and those which occur in the first process of the mind1 are not cured by the excellence of subsequent means and remedies4 ,,xxxi4 ,it is in vain to expect any great progress in the sciences by the superinducing or ingrafting new matters upon old4 ,an instauration must be made from the very foundations1 if we do not wish to revolve forever in a circle1 making only some slight and contemptible progress4 ,,xxxii4 ,the ancient authors and all others are left in undisputed possession of their honors2 for we enter into no comparison of capacity or talent1 but of method1 and assume the part of a guide rather than of a critic4 ,,xxxiii4 ,to speak plainly1 no correct judgment can be formed either of our method or its discoveries by those anticipations which are now in common use2 for it is not to be required of us to submit ourselves to the judgment of the very method we ourselves arraign4 ,,xxxiv4 ,nor is it an easy matter to deliver and explain our sentiments2 for those things which are in themselves new can yet be only understood from some analogy to what is old4 ,,xxxv4 ,alexander ,borgia#g said of the expedition of the ,french into ,italy that they came with chalk in their hands to mark up their lodgings1 and not with weapons to force their passage4 ,even so do we wish our philosophy to make its way quietly into those minds that are fit for it1 and of good capacity2 for we have no need of contention where we differ in first principles1 and in our very notions1 and even in our forms of demonstration4 ,,xxxvi4 ,we have but one simple method of delivering our sentiments1 namely1 we must bring men to particulars and their regular series and order1 and they must for a while renounce their notions1 and begin to form an acquaintance with things4 ,,xxxvii4 ,our method and that of the sceptics#h agree in some respects at first setting out1 but differ most widely1 and are completely opposed to each other in their conclusion2 for they roundly assert that nothing can be known2 we1 that but a small part of nature can be known1 by the present method2 their next step1 however1 is to destroy the authority of the senses and understanding1 while we invent and supply them with assistance4 ,,xxxviii4 ,the idols and false notions which have already preoccupied the human understanding1 and are deeply rooted in it1 not only so beset men's minds that they become difficult of access1 but even when access is obtained will again meet and trouble us in the instauration of the sciences1 unless mankind when forewarned guard themselves with all possible care against them4 ,,xxxix4 ,four species of idols beset the human mind1#i to which 7for distinction's sake7 we have assigned names1 calling the first ,idols of the ,tribe1 the second ,idols of the ,den1 the third ,idols of the ,market1 the fourth ,idols of the ,theatre4 ,,xl4 ,the formation of notions and axioms on the foundation of true induction is the only fitting remedy by which we can ward off and expel these idols4 ,it is1 however1 of great service to point them out2 for the doctrine of idols bears the same relation to the interpretation of nature as that of the confutation of sophisms does to common logic4#aj ,,xli4 ,the idols of the tribe are inherent in human nature and the very tribe or race of man2 for man's sense is falsely asserted to be the standard of things2 on the contrary1 all the perceptions both of the senses and the mind bear reference to man and not to the universe1 and the human mind resembles those uneven mirrors which impart their own properties to different objects1 from which rays are emitted and distort and disfigure them4#aa ,,xlii4 ,the idols of the den are those of each individual2 for everybody 7in addition to the errors common to the race of man7 has his own individual den or cavern1 which intercepts and corrupts the light of nature1 either from his own peculiar and singular disposition1 or from his education and intercourse with others1 or from his reading1 and the authority acquired by those whom he reverences and admires1 or from the different impressions produced on the mind1 as it happens to be preoccupied and predisposed1 or equable and tranquil1 and the like2 so that the spirit of man 7according to its several dispositions71 is variable1 confused1 and as it were actuated by chance2 and ,heraclitus said well that men search for knowledge in lesser worlds1 and not in the greater or common world4 ,,xliii4 ,there are also idols formed by the reciprocal intercourse and society of man with man1 which we call idols of the market1 from the commerce and association of men with each other2 for men converse by means of language1 but words are formed at the will of the generality1 and there arises from a bad and unapt formation of words a wonderful obstruction to the mind4 ,nor can the definitions and explanations with which learned men are wont to guard and protect themselves in some instances afford a complete remedy--words still manifestly force the understanding1 throw everything into confusion1 and lead mankind into vain and innumerable controversies and fallacies4 ,,xliv4 ,lastly1 there are idols which have crept into men's minds from the various dogmas of peculiar systems of philosophy1 and also from the perverted rules of demonstration1 and these we denominate idols of the theatre3 for we regard all the systems of philosophy hitherto received or imagined1 as so many plays brought out and performed1 creating fictitious and theatrical worlds4 ,nor do we speak only of the present systems1 or of the philosophy and sects of the ancients1 since numerous other plays of a similar nature can be still composed and made to agree with each other1 the causes of the most opposite errors being generally the same4 ,nor1 again1 do we allude merely to general systems1 but also to many elements and axioms of sciences which have become inveterate by tradition1 implicit credence1 and neglect4 ,we must1 however1 discuss each species of idols more fully and distinctly in order to guard the human understanding against them4 ,,xlv4 ,the human understanding1 from its peculiar nature1 easily supposes a greater degree of order and equality in things than it really finds2 and although many things in nature be sui generis and most irregular1 will yet invent parallels and conjugates and relatives1 where no such thing is4 ,hence the fiction1 that all celestial bodies move in perfect circles1 thus rejecting entirely spiral and serpentine lines 7except as explanatory terms74#ab ,hence also the element of fire is introduced with its peculiar orbit1#ac to keep square with those other three which are objects of our senses4 ,the relative rarity of the elements 7as they are called7 is arbitrarily made to vary in tenfold progression1 with many other dreams of the like nature4#ad ,nor is this folly confined to theories1 but it is to be met with even in simple notions4 ,,xlvi4 ,the human understanding1 when any proposition has been once laid down 7either from general admission and belief1 or from the pleasure it affords71 forces everything else to add fresh support and confirmation2 and although most cogent and abundant instances may exist to the contrary1 yet either does not observe or despises them1 or gets rid of and rejects them by some distinction1 with violent and injurious prejudice1 rather than sacrifice the authority of its first conclusions4 ,it was well answered by him#ae who was shown in a temple the votive tablets suspended by such as had escaped the peril of shipwreck1 and was pressed as to whether he would then recognize the power of the gods1 by an inquiry1 ,but where are the portraits of those who have perished in spite of their vows8 ,all superstition is much the same1 whether it be that of astrology1 dreams1 omens1 retributive judgment1 or the like1 in all of which the deluded believers observe events which are fulfilled1 but neglect and pass over their failure1 though it be much more common4 ,but this evil insinuates itself still more craftily in philosophy and the sciences1 in which a settled maxim vitiates and governs every other circumstance1 though the latter be much more worthy of confidence4 ,besides1 even in the absence of that eagerness and want of thought 7which we have mentioned71 it is the peculiar and perpetual error of the human understanding to be more moved and excited by affirmatives than negatives1 whereas it ought duly and regularly to be impartial2 nay1 in establishing any true axiom the negative instance is the most powerful4 ,,xlvii4 ,the human understanding is most excited by that which strikes and enters the mind at once and suddenly1 and by which the imagination is immediately filled and inflated4 ,it then begins almost imperceptibly to conceive and suppose that everything is similar to the few objects which have taken possession of the mind1 while it is very slow and unfit for the transition to the remote and heterogeneous instances by which axioms are tried as by fire1 unless the office be imposed upon it by severe regulations and a powerful authority4 ,,xlviii4 ,the human understanding is active and cannot halt or rest1 but even1 though without effect1 still presses forward4 ,thus we cannot conceive of any end or external boundary of the world1 and it seems necessarily to occur to us that there must be something beyond4 ,nor can we imagine how eternity has flowed on down to the present day1 since the usually received distinction of an infinity1 a parte ante and a parte post1#af cannot hold good2 for it would thence follow that one infinity is greater than another1 and also that infinity is wasting away and tending to an end4 ,there is the same difficulty in considering the infinite divisibility of lines1 arising from the weakness of our minds1 which weakness interferes to still greater disadvantage with the discovery of causes2 for although the greatest generalities in nature must be positive1 just as they are found1 and in fact not causable1 yet the human understanding1 incapable of resting1 seeks for something more intelligible4 ,thus1 however1 while aiming at further progress1 it falls back to what is actually less advanced1 namely1 final causes2 for they are clearly more allied to man's own nature1 than the system of the universe1 and from this source they have wonderfully corrupted philosophy4 ,but he would be an unskilful and shallow philosopher who should seek for causes in the greatest generalities1 and not be anxious to discover them in subordinate objects4 ,,xlix4 ,the human understanding resembles not a dry light1 but admits a tincture of the will#ag and passions1 which generate their own system accordingly2 for man always believes more readily that which he prefers4 ,he1 therefore1 rejects difficulties for want of patience in investigation2 sobriety1 because it limits his hope2 the depths of nature1 from superstition2 the light of experiment1 from arrogance and pride1 lest his mind should appear to be occupied with common and varying objects2 paradoxes1 from a fear of the opinion of the vulgar2 in short1 his feelings imbue and corrupt his understanding in innumerable and sometimes imperceptible ways4 ,l4 ,but by far the greatest impediment and aberration of the human understanding proceeds from the dulness1 incompetence1 and errors of the senses2 since whatever strikes the senses preponderates over everything1 however superior1 which does not immediately strike them4 ,hence contemplation mostly ceases with sight1 and a very scanty1 or perhaps no regard is paid to invisible objects4 ,the entire operation1 therefore1 of spirits inclosed in tangible bodies#ah is concealed1 and escapes us4 ,all that more delicate change of formation in the parts of coarser substances 7vulgarly called alteration1 but in fact a change of position in the smallest particles7 is equally unknown2 and yet1 unless the two matters we have mentioned be explored and brought to light1 no great effect can be produced in nature4 ,again1 the very nature of common air1 and all bodies of less density 7of which there are many7 is almost unknown2 for the senses are weak and erring1 nor can instruments be of great use in extending their sphere or acuteness--all the better interpretations of nature are worked out by instances1 and fit and apt experiments1 where the senses only judge of the experiment1 the experiment of nature and the thing itself4 ,,li4 ,the human understanding is1 by its own nature1 prone to abstraction1 and supposes that which is fluctuating to be fixed4 ,but it is better to dissect than abstract nature3 such was the method employed by the school of ,democritus1#ai which made greater progress in penetrating nature than the rest4 ,it is best to consider matter1 its conformation1 and the changes of that conformation1 its own action1#bj and the law of this action or motion2 for forms are a mere fiction of the human mind1 unless you will call the laws of action by that name4#ba ,,lii4 ,such are the idols of the tribe1 which arise either from the uniformity of the constitution of man's spirit1 or its prejudices1 or its limited faculties or restless agitation1 or from the interference of the passions1 or the incompetence of the senses1 or the mode of their impressions4 ,,liii4 ,the idols of the den derive their origin from the peculiar nature of each individual's mind and body1 and also from education1 habit1 and accident2 and although they be various and manifold1 yet we will treat of some that require the greatest caution1 and exert the greatest power in polluting the understanding4 ,,liv4 ,some men become attached to particular sciences and contemplations1 either from supposing themselves the authors and inventors of them1 or from having bestowed the greatest pains upon such subjects1 and thus become most habituated to them4#bb ,if men of this description apply themselves to philosophy and contemplations of a universal nature1 they wrest and corrupt them by their preconceived fancies1 of which ,aristotle affords us a single instance1 who made his natural philosophy completely subservient to his logic1 and thus rendered it little more than useless and disputatious4 ,the chemists1 again1 have formed a fanciful philosophy with the most confined views1 from a few experiments of the furnace4 ,gilbert1#bc too1 having employed himself most assiduously in the consideration of the magnet1 immediately established a system of philosophy to coincide with his favorite pursuit4 ,,lv4 ,the greatest and1 perhaps1 radical distinction between different men's dispositions for philosophy and the sciences is this1 that some are more vigorous and active in observing the differences of things1 others in observing their resemblances2 for a steady and acute disposition can fix its thoughts1 and dwell upon and adhere to a point1 through all the refinements of differences1 but those that are sublime and discursive recognize and compare even the most delicate and general resemblances2 each of them readily falls into excess1 by catching either at nice distinctions or shadows of resemblance4 ,,lvi4 ,some dispositions evince an unbounded admiration of antiquity1 others eagerly embrace novelty1 and but few can preserve the just medium1 so as neither to tear up what the ancients have correctly laid down1 nor to despise the just innovations of the moderns4 ,but this is very prejudicial to the sciences and philosophy1 and instead of a correct judgment we have but the factions of the ancients and moderns4 ,truth is not to be sought in the good fortune of any particular conjuncture of time1 which is uncertain1 but in the light of nature and experience1 which is eternal4 ,such factions1 therefore1 are to be abjured1 and the understanding must not allow them to hurry it on to assent4 ,,lvii4 ,the contemplation of nature and of bodies in their individual form distracts and weakens the understanding2 but the contemplation of nature and of bodies in their general composition and formation stupefies and relaxes it4 ,we have a good instance of this in the school of ,leucippus and ,democritus compared with others1 for they applied themselves so much to particulars as almost to neglect the general structure of things1 while the others were so astounded while gazing on the structure that they did not penetrate the simplicity of nature4 ,these two species of contemplation must1 therefore1 be interchanged1 and each employed in its turn1 in order to render the understanding at once penetrating and capacious1 and to avoid the inconveniences we have mentioned1 and the idols that result from them4 ,,lviii4 ,let such1 therefore1 be our precautions in contemplation1 that we may ward off and expel the idols of the den1 which mostly owe their birth either to some predominant pursuit1 or1 secondly1 to an excess in synthesis and analysis1 or1 thirdly1 to a party zeal in favor of certain ages1 or1 fourthly1 to the extent or narrowness of the subject4 ,in general1 he who contemplates nature should suspect whatever particularly takes and fixes his understanding1 and should use so much the more caution to preserve it equable and unprejudiced4 ,,lix4 ,the idols of the market are the most troublesome of all1 those namely which have entwined themselves round the understanding from the associations of words and names4 ,for men imagine that their reason governs words1 while1 in fact1 words react upon the understanding2 and this has rendered philosophy and the sciences sophistical and inactive4 ,words are generally formed in a popular sense1 and define things by those broad lines which are most obvious to the vulgar mind2 but when a more acute understanding or more diligent observation is anxious to vary those lines1 and to adapt them more accurately to nature1 words oppose it4 ,hence the great and solemn disputes of learned men often terminate in controversies about words and names1 in regard to which it would be better 7imitating the caution of mathematicians7 to proceed more advisedly in the first instance1 and to bring such disputes to a regular issue by definitions4 ,such definitions1 however1 cannot remedy the evil in natural and material objects1 because they consist themselves of words1 and these words produce others2#bd so that we must necessarily have recourse to particular instances1 and their regular series and arrangement1 as we shall mention when we come to the mode and scheme of determining notions and axioms4 ,,lx4 ,the idols imposed upon the understanding by words are of two kinds4 ,they are either the names of things which have no existence 7for as some objects are from inattention left without a name1 so names are formed by fanciful imaginations which are without an object71 or they are the names of actual objects1 but confused1 badly defined1 and hastily and irregularly abstracted from things4 ,fortune1 the primum mobile1 the planetary orbits1#be the element of fire1 and the like fictions1 which owe their birth to futile and false theories1 are instances of the first kind4 ,and this species of idols is removed with greater facility1 because it can be exterminated by the constant refutation or the desuetude of the theories themselves4 ,the others1 which are created by vicious and unskilful abstraction1 are intricate and deeply rooted4 ,take some word1 for instance1 as moist1 and let us examine how far the different significations of this word are consistent4 ,it will be found that the word moist is nothing but a confused sign of different actions admitted of no settled and defined uniformity4 ,for it means that which easily diffuses itself over another body2 that which is indeterminable and cannot be brought to a consistency2 that which yields easily in every direction2 that which is easily divided and dispersed2 that which is easily united and collected2 that which easily flows and is put in motion2 that which easily adheres to1 and wets another body2 that which is easily reduced to a liquid state though previously solid4 ,when1 therefore1 you come to predicate or impose this name1 in one sense flame is moist1 in another air is not moist1 in another fine powder is moist1 in another glass is moist2 so that it is quite clear that this notion is hastily abstracted from water only1 and common ordinary liquors1 without any due verification of it4 ,there are1 however1 different degrees of distortion and mistake in words4 ,one of the least faulty classes is that of the names of substances1 particularly of the less abstract and more defined species 7those then of chalk and mud are good1 of earth bad72 words signifying actions are more faulty1 as to generate1 to corrupt1 to change2 but the most faulty are those denoting qualities 7except the immediate objects of sense71 as heavy1 light1 rare1 dense4 ,yet in all of these there must be some notions a little better than others1 in proportion as a greater or less number of things come before the senses4 ,,lxi4 ,the idols of the theatre are not innate1 nor do they introduce themselves secretly into the understanding1 but they are manifestly instilled and cherished by the fictions of theories and depraved rules of demonstration4 ,to attempt1 however1 or undertake their confutation would not be consistent with our declarations4 ,for since we neither agree in our principles nor our demonstrations1 all argument is out of the question4 ,and it is fortunate that the ancients are left in possession of their honors4 ,we detract nothing from them1 seeing our whole doctrine relates only to the path to be pursued4 ,the lame 7as they say7 in the path outstrip the swift who wander from it1 and it is clear that the very skill and swiftness of him who runs not in the right direction must increase his aberration4 ,our method of discovering the sciences is such as to leave little to the acuteness and strength of wit1 and indeed rather to level wit and intellect4 ,for as in the drawing of a straight line1 or accurate circle by the hand1 much depends on its steadiness and practice1 but if a ruler or compass be employed there is little occasion for either2 so it is with our method4 ,although1 however1 we enter into no individual confutations1 yet a little must be said1 first1 of the sects and general divisions of these species of theories2 secondly1 something further to show that there are external signs of their weakness2 and1 lastly1 we must consider the causes of so great a misfortune1 and so long and general a unanimity in error1 that we may thus render the access to truth less difficult1 and that the human understanding may the more readily be purified1 and brought to dismiss its idols4 ,,lxii4 ,the idols of the theatre1 or of theories1 are numerous1 and may1 and perhaps will1 be still more so4 ,for unless men's minds had been now occupied for many ages in religious and theological considerations1 and civil governments 7especially monarchies71 had been averse to novelties of that nature even in theory 7so that men must apply to them with some risk and injury to their own fortunes1 and not only without reward1 but subject to contumely and envy71 there is no doubt that many other sects of philosophers and theorists would have been introduced1 like those which formerly flourished in such diversified abundance among the ,greeks4 ,for as many imaginary theories of the heavens can be deduced from the phenomena of the sky1 so it is even more easy to found many dogmas upon the phenomena of philosophy--and the plot of this our theatre resembles those of the poetical1 where the plots which are invented for the stage are more consistent1 elegant1 and pleasurable than those taken from real history4 ,in general1 men take for the groundwork of their philosophy either too much from a few topics1 or too little from many2 in either case their philosophy is founded on too narrow a basis of experiment and natural history1 and decides on too scanty grounds4 ,for the theoretic philosopher seizes various common circumstances by experiment1 without reducing them to certainty or examining and frequently considering them1 and relies for the rest upon meditation and the activity of his wit4 ,there are other philosophers who have diligently and accurately attended to a few experiments1 and have thence presumed to deduce and invent systems of philosophy1 forming everything to conformity with them4 ,a third set1 from their faith and religious veneration1 introduce theology and traditions2 the absurdity of some among them having proceeded so far as to seek and derive the sciences from spirits and genii4 ,there are1 therefore1 three sources of error and three species of false philosophy2 the sophistic1 empiric1 and superstitious4 ,,lxiii4 ,aristotle affords the most eminent instance of the first2 for he corrupted natural philosophy by logic--thus he formed the world of categories1 assigned to the human soul1 the noblest of substances1 a genus determined by words of secondary operation1 treated of density and rarity 7by which bodies occupy a greater or lesser space71 by the frigid distinctions of action and power1 asserted that there was a peculiar and proper motion in all bodies1 and that if they shared in any other motion1 it was owing to an external moving cause1 and imposed innumerable arbitrary distinctions upon the nature of things2 being everywhere more anxious as to definitions in teaching and the accuracy of the wording of his propositions1 than the internal truth of things4 ,and this is best shown by a comparison of his philosophy with the others of greatest repute among the ,greeks4 ,for the similar parts of ,anaxagoras1 the atoms of ,leucippus and ,democritus1 the heaven and earth of ,parmenides1 the discord and concord of ,empedocles1#bf the resolution of bodies into the common nature of fire1 and their condensation according to ,heraclitus1 exhibit some sprinkling of natural philosophy1 the nature of things1 and experiment2 while ,aristotle's physics are mere logical terms1 and he remodelled the same subject in his metaphysics under a more imposing title1 and more as a realist than a nominalist4 ,nor is much stress to be laid on his frequent recourse to experiment in his books on animals1 his problems1 and other treatises2 for he had already decided1 without having properly consulted experience as the basis of his decisions and axioms1 and after having so decided1 he drags experiment along as a captive constrained to accommodate herself to his decisions3 so that he is even more to be blamed than his modern followers 7of the scholastic school7 who have deserted her altogether4 ,,lxiv4 ,the empiric school produces dogmas of a more deformed and monstrous nature than the sophistic or theoretic school2 not being founded in the light of common notions 7which1 however poor and superstitious1 is yet in a manner universal1 and of a general tendency71 but in the confined obscurity of a few experiments4 ,hence this species of philosophy appears probable1 and almost certain to those who are daily practiced in such experiments1 and have thus corrupted their imagination1 but incredible and futile to others4 ,we have a strong instance of this in the alchemists and their dogmas2 it would be difficult to find another in this age1 unless perhaps in the philosophy of ,gilbert4#bg ,we could not1 however1 neglect to caution others against this school1 because we already foresee and augur1 that if men be hereafter induced by our exhortations to apply seriously to experiments 7bidding farewell to the sophistic doctrines71 there will then be imminent danger from empirics1 owing to the premature and forward haste of the understanding1 and its jumping or flying to generalities and the principles of things4 ,we ought1 therefore1 already to meet the evil4 ,,lxv4 ,the corruption of philosophy by the mixing of it up with superstition and theology1 is of a much wider extent1 and is most injurious to it both as a whole and in parts4 ,for the human understanding is no less exposed to the impressions of fancy1 than to those of vulgar notions4 ,the disputatious and sophistic school entraps the understanding1 while the fanciful1 bombastic1 and1 as it were1 poetical school1 rather flatters it4 ,there is a clear example of this among the ,greeks1 especially in ,pythagoras1 where1 however1 the superstition is coarse and overcharged1 but it is more dangerous and refined in ,plato and his school4 ,this evil is found also in some branches of other systems of philosophy1 where it introduces abstracted forms1 final and first causes1 omitting frequently the intermediate and the like4 ,against it we must use the greatest caution2 for the apotheosis of error is the greatest evil of all1 and when folly is worshipped1 it is1 as it were1 a plague spot upon the understanding4 ,yet some of the moderns have indulged this folly with such consummate inconsiderateness1 that they have endeavored to build a system of natural philosophy on the first chapter of ,genesis1 the book of ,job1 and other parts of ,scripture2 seeking thus the dead among the living4#bh ,and this folly is the more to be prevented and restrained1 because not only fantastical philosophy1 but heretical religion spring from the absurd mixture of matters divine and human4 ,it is therefore most wise soberly to render unto faith the things that are faith's4 ,,lxvi4 ,having spoken of the vicious authority of the systems founded either on vulgar notions1 or on a few experiments1 or on superstition1 we must now consider the faulty subjects for contemplation1 especially in natural philosophy4 ,the human understanding is perverted by observing the power of mechanical arts1 in which bodies are very materially changed by composition or separation1 and is induced to suppose that something similar takes place in the universal nature of things4 ,hence the fiction of elements1 and their co-operation in forming natural bodies4#bi ,again1 when man reflects upon the entire liberty of nature1 he meets with particular species of things1 as animals1 plants1 minerals1 and is thence easily led to imagine that there exist in nature certain primary forms which she strives to produce1 and that all variation from them arises from some impediment or error which she is exposed to in completing her work1 or from the collision or metamorphosis of different species4 ,the first hypothesis has produced the doctrine of elementary properties1 the second that of occult properties and specific powers2 and both lead to trifling courses of reflection1 in which the mind acquiesces1 and is thus diverted from more important subjects4 ,but physicians exercise a much more useful labor in the consideration of the secondary qualities of things1 and the operations of attraction1 repulsion1 attenuation1 inspissation1 dilatation1 astringency1 separation1 maturation1 and the like2 and would do still more if they would not corrupt these proper observations by the two systems ,i have alluded to1 of elementary qualities and specific powers1 by which they either reduce the secondary to first qualities1 and their subtile and immeasurable composition1 or at any rate neglect to advance by greater and more diligent observation to the third and fourth qualities1 thus terminating their contemplation prematurely4 ,nor are these powers 7or the like7 to be investigated only among the medicines for the human body1 but also in all changes of other natural bodies4 ,a greater evil arises from the contemplation and investigation rather of the stationary principles of things from which1 than of the active by which things themselves are created4 ,for the former only serve for discussion1 the latter for practice4 ,nor is any value to be set on those common differences of motion which are observed in the received system of natural philosophy1 as generation1 corruption1 augmentation1 diminution1 alteration1 and translation4 ,for this is their meaning3 if a body1 unchanged in other respects1 is moved from its place1 this is translation2 if the place and species be given1 but the quantity changed1 it is alteration2 but if1 from such a change1 the mass and quantity of the body do not continue the same1 this is the motion of augmentation and diminution2 if the change be continued so as to vary the species and substance1 and transfuse them to others1 this is generation and corruption4 ,all this is merely popular1 and by no means penetrates into nature2 and these are but the measures and bounds of motion1 and not different species of it2 they merely suggest how far1 and not how or whence4 ,for they exhibit neither the affections of bodies nor the process of their parts1 but merely establish a division of that motion1 which coarsely exhibits to the senses matter in its varied form4 ,even when they wish to point out something relative to the causes of motion1 and to establish a division of them1 they most absurdly introduce natural and violent motion1 which is also a popular notion1 since every violent motion is also in fact natural1 that is to say1 the external efficient puts nature in action in a different manner to that which she had previously employed4 ,but if1 neglecting these1 any one were1 for instance1 to observe that there is in bodies a tendency of adhesion1 so as not to suffer the unity of nature to be completely separated or broken1 and a vacuum#cj to be formed1 or that they have a tendency to return to their natural dimensions or tension1 so that1 if compressed or extended within or beyond it1 they immediately strive to recover themselves1 and resume their former volume and extent2 or that they have a tendency to congregate into masses with similar bodies--the dense1 for instance1 toward the circumference of the earth1 the thin and rare toward that of the heavens4 ,these and the like are true physical genera of motions1 but the others are clearly logical and scholastic1 as appears plainly from a comparison of the two4 ,another considerable evil is1 that men in their systems and contemplations bestow their labor upon the investigation and discussion of the principles of things and the extreme limits of nature1 although all utility and means of action consist in the intermediate objects4 ,hence men cease not to abstract nature till they arrive at potential and shapeless matter1#ca and still persist in their dissection1 till they arrive at atoms2 and yet were all this true1 it would be of little use to advance man's estate4 ,,lxvii4 ,the understanding must also be cautioned against the intemperance of systems1 so far as regards its giving or withholding its assent2 for such intemperance appears to fix and perpetuate idols1 so as to leave no means of removing them4 ,these excesses are of two kinds4 ,the first is seen in those who decide hastily1 and render the sciences positive and dictatorial4 ,the other in those who have introduced scepticism1 and vague unbounded inquiry4 ,the former subdues1 the latter enervates the understanding4 ,the ,aristotelian philosophy1 after destroying other systems 7as the ,ottomans#cb do their brethren7 by its disputatious confutations1 decided upon everything1 and ,aristotle himself then raises up questions at will1 in order to settle them2 so that everything should be certain and decided1 a method now in use among his successors4 ,the school of ,plato introduced scepticism1 first1 as it were in joke and irony1 from their dislike to ,protagoras1 ,hippias1#cc and others1 who were ashamed of appearing not to doubt upon any subject4 ,but the new academy dogmatized in their scepticism1 and held it as their tenet4 ,although this method be more honest than arbitrary decision 7for its followers allege that they by no means confound all inquiry1 like ,pyrrho and his disciples1 but hold doctrines which they can follow as probable1 though they cannot maintain them to be true71 yet when the human mind has once despaired of discovering truth1 everything begins to languish4 ,hence men turn aside into pleasant controversies and discussions1 and into a sort of wandering over subjects rather than sustain any rigorous investigation4 ,but as we observed at first1 we are not to deny the authority of the human senses and understanding1 although weak1 but rather to furnish them with assistance4 ,,lxviii4 ,we have now treated of each kind of idols1 and their qualities1 all of which must be abjured and renounced with firm and solemn resolution1 and the understanding must be completely freed and cleared of them1 so that the access to the kingdom of man1 which is founded on the sciences1 may resemble that to the kingdom of heaven1 where no admission is conceded except to children4 ,,lxix4 ,vicious demonstrations are the muniments and support of idols1 and those which we possess in logic1 merely subject and enslave the world to human thoughts1 and thoughts to words4 ,but demonstrations are in some manner themselves systems of philosophy and science2 for such as they are1 and accordingly as they are regularly or improperly established1 such will be the resulting systems of philosophy and contemplation4 ,but those which we employ in the whole process leading from the senses and things to axioms and conclusions1 are fallacious and incompetent4 ,this process is fourfold1 and the errors are in equal number4 ,in the first place the impressions of the senses are erroneous1 for they fail and deceive us4 ,we must supply defects by substitutions1 and fallacies by their correction4 ,secondly1 notions are improperly abstracted from the senses1 and indeterminate and confused when they ought to be the reverse4 ,thirdly1 the induction that is employed is improper1 for it determines the principles of sciences by simple enumeration1#cd without adopting exclusions and resolutions1 or just separations of nature4 ,lastly1 the usual method of discovery and proof1 by first establishing the most general propositions1 then applying and proving the intermediate axioms according to them1 is the parent of error and the calamity of every science4 ,but we will treat more fully of that which we now slightly touch upon1 when we come to lay down the true way of interpreting nature1 after having gone through the above expiatory process and purification of the mind4 ,,lxx4 ,but experience is by far the best demonstration1 provided it adhere to the experiment actually made1 for if that experiment be transferred to other subjects apparently similar1 unless with proper and methodical caution it becomes fallacious4 ,the present method of experiment is blind and stupid2 hence men wandering and roaming without any determined course1 and consulting mere chance1 are hurried about to various points1 and advance but little--at one time they are happy1 at another their attention is distracted1 and they always find that they want something further4 ,men generally make their experiments carelessly1 and as it were in sport1 making some little variation in a known experiment1 and then if they fail they become disgusted and give up the attempt2 nay1 if they set to work more seriously1 steadily1 and assiduously1 yet they waste all their time on probing some solitary matter1 as ,gilbert on the magnet1 and the alchemists on gold4 ,but such conduct shows their method to be no less unskilful than mean2 for nobody can successfully investigate the nature of any object by considering that object alone2 the inquiry must be more generally extended4 ,even when men build any science and theory upon experiment1 yet they almost always turn with premature and hasty zeal to practice1 not merely on account of the advantage and benefit to be derived from it1 but in order to seize upon some security in a new undertaking of their not employing the remainder of their labor unprofitably1 and by making themselves conspicuous1 to acquire a greater name for their pursuit4 ,hence1 like ,atalanta1 they leave the course to pick up the golden apple1 interrupting their speed1 and giving up the victory4 ,but in the true course of experiment1 and in extending it to new effects1 we should imitate the ,divine foresight and order2 for ,god on the first day only created light1 and assigned a whole day to that work without creating any material substance thereon4 ,in like manner we must first1 by every kind of experiment1 elicit the discovery of causes and true axioms1 and seek for experiments which may afford light rather than profit4 ,axioms1 when rightly investigated and established1 prepare us not for a limited but abundant practice1 and bring in their train whole troops of effects4 ,but we will treat hereafter of the ways of experience1 which are not less beset and interrupted than those of judgment2 having spoken at present of common experience only as a bad species of demonstration1 the order of our subject now requires some mention of those external signs of the weakness in practice of the received systems of philosophy and contemplation#ce which we referred to above1 and of the causes of a circumstance at first sight so wonderful and incredible4 ,for the knowledge of these external signs prepares the way for assent1 and the explanation of the causes removes the wonder2 and these two circumstances are of material use in extirpating more easily and gently the idols from the understanding4 ,,lxxi4 ,the sciences we possess have been principally derived from the ,greeks2 for the addition of the ,roman1 ,arabic1 or more modern writers1 are but few and of small importance1 and such as they are1 are founded on the basis of ,greek invention4 ,but the wisdom of the ,greeks was professional and disputatious1 and thus most adverse to the investigation of truth4 ,the name1 therefore1 of sophists1 which the contemptuous spirit of those who deemed themselves philosophers1 rejected and transferred to the rhetoricians--,gorgias1#cf ,protagoras1 ,hippias1 ,polus--might well suit the whole tribe1 such as ,plato1 ,aristotle1 ,zeno1 ,epicurus1 ,theophrastus1 and their successors--,chrysippus1 ,carneades1 and the rest4 ,there was only this difference between them--the former were mercenary vagabonds1 travelling about to different states1 making a show of their wisdom1 and requiring pay2 the latter more dignified and noble1 in possession of fixed habitations1 opening schools1 and teaching philosophy gratuitously4 ,both1 however 7though differing in other respects71 were professorial1 and reduced every subject to controversy1 establishing and defending certain sects and dogmas of philosophy1 so that their doctrines were nearly 7what ,dionysius not unaptly objected to ,plato7 the talk of idle old men to ignorant youths4 ,but the more ancient ,greeks1 as ,empedocles1 ,anaxagoras1 ,leucippus1 ,democritus1 ,parmenides1 ,heraclitus1 ,xenophanes1 ,philolaus1 and the rest#cg 7for ,i omit ,pythagoras as being superstitious71 did not 7that we are aware7 open schools1 but betook themselves to the investigation of truth with greater silence and with more severity and simplicity1 that is1 with less affectation and ostentation4 ,hence in our opinion they acted more advisedly1 however their works may have been eclipsed in course of time by those lighter productions which better correspond with and please the apprehensions and passions of the vulgar2 for time1 like a river1#ch bears down to us that which is light and inflated1 and sinks that which is heavy and solid4 ,nor were even these more ancient philosophers free from the national defect1 but inclined too much to the ambition and vanity of forming a sect1 and captivating public opinion1 and we must despair of any inquiry after truth when it condescends to such trifles4 ,nor must we omit the opinion1 or rather prophecy1 of an ,egyptian priest with regard to the ,greeks1 that they would forever remain children1 without any antiquity of knowledge or knowledge of antiquity2 for they certainly have this in common with children1 that they are prone to talking1 and incapable of generation1 their wisdom being loquacious and unproductive of effects4 ,hence the external signs derived from the origin and birthplace of our present philosophy are not favorable4 ,,lxxii4 ,nor are those much better which can be deduced from the character of the time and age1 than the former from that of the country and nation2 for in that age the knowledge both of time and of the world was confined and meagre1 which is one of the worst evils for those who rely entirely on experience--they had not a thousand years of history worthy of that name1 but mere fables and ancient traditions2 they were acquainted with but a small portion of the regions and countries of the world1 for they indiscriminately called all nations situated far toward the north ,scythians1 all those to the west ,celts2 they knew nothing of ,africa but the nearest part of ,ethiopia1 or of ,asia beyond the ,ganges1 and had not even heard any sure and clear tradition of the regions of the ,new ,world4 ,besides1 a vast number of climates and zones1 in which innumerable nations live and breathe1 were pronounced by them to be uninhabitable2 nay1 the travels of ,democritus1 ,plato1 and ,pythagoras1 which were not extensive1 but rather mere excursions from home1 were considered as something vast4 ,but in our times many parts of the ,new ,world1 and every extremity of the ,old1 are well known1 and the mass of experiments has been infinitely increased2 wherefore1 if external signs were to be taken from the time of the nativity or procreation 7as in astrology71 nothing extraordinary could be predicted of these early systems of philosophy4 ,,lxxiii4 ,of all signs there is none more certain or worthy than that of the fruits produced1 for the fruits and effects are the sureties and vouchers1 as it were1 for the truth of philosophy4 ,now1 from the systems of the ,greeks1 and their subordinate divisions in particular branches of the sciences during so long a period1 scarcely one single experiment can be culled that has a tendency to elevate or assist mankind1 and can be fairly set down to the speculations and doctrines of their philosophy4 ,celsus candidly and wisely confesses as much1 when he observes that experiments were first discovered in medicine1 and that men afterward built their philosophical systems upon them1 and searched for and assigned causes1 instead of the inverse method of discovering and deriving experiments from philosophy and the knowledge of causes2 it is not1 therefore1 wonderful that the ,egyptians 7who bestowed divinity and sacred honors on the authors of new inventions7 should have consecrated more images of brutes than of men1 for the brutes by their natural instinct made many discoveries1 while men derived but few from discussion and the conclusions of reason4 ,the industry of the alchemists has produced some effect1 by chance1 however1 and casualty1 or from varying their experiments 7as mechanics also do71 and not from any regular art or theory1 the theory they have imagined rather tending to disturb than to assist experiment4 ,those1 too1 who have occupied themselves with natural magic 7as they term it7 have made but few discoveries1 and those of small import1 and bordering on imposture2 for which reason1 in the same manner as we are cautioned by religion to show our faith by our works1 we may very properly apply the principle to philosophy1 and judge of it by its works1 accounting that to be futile which is unproductive1 and still more so if1 instead of grapes and olives1 it yield but the thistle and thorns of dispute and contention4 ,,lxxiv4 ,other signs may be selected from the increase and progress of particular systems of philosophy and the sciences2 for those which are founded on nature grow and increase1 while those which are founded on opinion change and increase not4 ,if1 therefore1 the theories we have mentioned were not like plants1 torn up by the roots1 but grew in the womb of nature1 and were nourished by her1 that which for the last two thousand years has taken place would never have happened1 namely1 that the sciences still continue in their beaten track1 and nearly stationary1 without having received any important increase1 nay1 having1 on the contrary1 rather bloomed under the hands of their first author1 and then faded away4 ,but we see that the case is reversed in the mechanical arts1 which are founded on nature and the light of experience1 for they 7as long as they are popular7 seem full of life1 and uninterruptedly thrive and grow1 being at first rude1 then convenient1 lastly polished1 and perpetually improved4 ,,lxxv4 ,there is yet another sign 7if such it may be termed1 being rather an evidence1 and one of the strongest nature71 namely1 the actual confession of those very authorities whom men now follow2 for even they who decide on things so daringly1 yet at times1 when they reflect1 betake themselves to complaints about the subtilty of nature1 the obscurity of things1 and the weakness of man's wit4 ,if they would merely do this1 they might perhaps deter those who are of a timid disposition from further inquiry1 but would excite and stimulate those of a more active and confident turn to further advances4 ,they are not1 however1 satisfied with confessing so much of themselves1 but consider everything which has been either unknown or unattempted by themselves or their teachers1 as beyond the limits of possibility1 and thus1 with most consummate pride and envy1 convert the defects of their own discoveries into a calumny on nature and a source of despair to every one else4 ,hence arose the ,new ,academy1 which openly professed scepticism1#ci and consigned mankind to eternal darkness2 hence the notion that forms1 or the true differences of things 7which are in fact the laws of simple action71 are beyond man's reach1 and cannot possibly be discovered2 hence those notions in the active and operative branches1 that the heat of the sun and of fire are totally different1 so as to prevent men from supposing that they can elicit or form1 by means of fire1 anything similar to the operations of nature2 and again1 that composition only is the work of man and mixture of nature1 so as to prevent men from expecting the generation or transformation of natural bodies by art4 ,men will1 therefore1 easily allow themselves to be persuaded by this sign not to engage their fortunes and labor in speculations1 which are not only desperate1 but actually devoted to desperation4 ,,lxxvi4 ,nor should we omit the sign afforded by the great dissension formerly prevalent among philosophers1 and the variety of schools1 which sufficiently show that the way was not well prepared that leads from the senses to the understanding1 since the same groundwork of philosophy 7namely1 the nature of things71 was torn and divided into such widely differing and multifarious errors4 ,and although in these days the dissensions and differences of opinions with regard to first principles and entire systems are nearly extinct1#dj yet there remain innumerable questions and controversies with regard to particular branches of philosophy4 ,so that it is manifest that there is nothing sure or sound either in the systems themselves or in the methods of demonstration4#da ,,lxxvii4 ,with regard to the supposition that there is a general unanimity as to the philosophy of ,aristotle1 because the other systems of the ancients ceased and became obsolete on its promulgation1 and nothing better has been since discovered2 whence it appears that it is so well determined and founded1 as to have united the suffrages of both ages2 we will observe--#ast4 ,that the notion of other ancient systems having ceased after the publication of the works of ,aristotle is false1 for the works of the ancient philosophers subsisted long after that event1 even to the time of ,cicero1 and the subsequent ages4 ,but at a later period1 when human learning had1 as it were1 been wrecked in the inundation of barbarians into the ,roman empire1 then the systems of ,aristotle and ,plato were preserved in the waves of ages1 like planks of a lighter and less solid nature4 #b;d4 ,the notion of unanimity1 on a clear inspection1 is found to be fallacious4 ,for true unanimity is that which proceeds from a free judgment1 arriving at the same conclusion1 after an investigation of the fact4 ,now1 by far the greater number of those who have assented to the philosophy of ,aristotle1 have bound themselves down to it from prejudice and the authority of others1 so that it is rather obsequiousness and concurrence than unanimity4 ,but even if it were real and extensive unanimity1 so far from being esteemed a true and solid confirmation1 it should even lead to a violent presumption to the contrary4 ,for there is no worse augury in intellectual matters than that derived from unanimity1 with the exception of divinity and politics1 where suffrages are allowed to decide4 ,for nothing pleases the multitude1 unless it strike the imagination or bind down the understanding1 as we have observed above1 with the shackles of vulgar notions4 ,hence we may well transfer ,phocion's remark from morals to the intellect3 8,that men should immediately examine what error or fault they have committed1 when the multitude concurs with1 and applauds them40#db ,this then is one of the most unfavorable signs4 ,all the signs1 therefore1 of the truth and soundness of the received systems of philosophy and the sciences are unpropitious1 whether taken from their origin1 their fruits1 their progress1 the confessions of their authors1 or from unanimity4 ,,lxxviii4 ,we now come to the causes of errors1#dc and of such perseverance in them for ages4 ,these are sufficiently numerous and powerful to remove all wonder1 that what we now offer should have so long been concealed from1 and have escaped the notice of mankind1 and to render it more worthy of astonishment1 that it should even now have entered any one's mind1 or become the subject of his thoughts2 and that it should have done so1 we consider rather the gift of fortune than of any extraordinary talent1 and as the offspring of time rather than wit4 ,but1 in the first place1 the number of ages is reduced to very narrow limits1 on a proper consideration of the matter4 ,for out of twenty-five#dd centuries1 with which the memory and learning of man are conversant1 scarcely six can be set apart and selected as fertile in science and favorable to its progress4 ,for there are deserts and wastes in times as in countries1 and we can only reckon up three revolutions and epochs of philosophy4 #a4 ,the ,greek4 #b4 ,the ,roman4 #c4 ,our own1 that is the philosophy of the western nations of ,europe3 and scarcely two centuries can with justice be assigned to each4 ,the intermediate ages of the world were unfortunate both in the quantity and richness of the sciences produced4 ,nor need we mention the ,arabs1 or the scholastic philosophy1 which1 in those ages1 ground down the sciences by their numerous treatises1 more than they increased their weight4 ,the first cause1 then1 of such insignificant progress in the sciences1 is rightly referred to the small proportion of time which has been favorable thereto4 ,,lxxix4 ,a second cause offers itself1 which is certainly of the greatest importance2 namely1 that in those very ages in which men's wit and literature flourished considerably1 or even moderately1 but a small part of their industry was bestowed on natural philosophy1 the great mother of the sciences4 ,for every art and science torn from this root may1 perhaps1 be polished1 and put into a serviceable shape1 but can admit of little growth4 ,it is well known1 that after the ,christian religion had been acknowledged1 and arrived at maturity1 by far the best wits were busied upon theology1 where the highest rewards offered themselves1 and every species of assistance was abundantly supplied1 and the study of which was the principal occupation of the western ,european nations during the third epoch2 the rather because literature flourished about the very time when controversies concerning religion first began to bud forth4 #b4 ,in the preceding ages1 during the second epoch 7that of the ,romans71 philosophical meditation and labor was chiefly occupied and wasted in moral philosophy 7the theology of the heathens73 besides1 the greatest minds in these times applied themselves to civil affairs1 on account of the magnitude of the ,roman empire1 which required the labor of many4 #c4 ,the age during which natural philosophy appeared principally to flourish among the ,greeks1 was but a short period1 since in the more ancient times the seven sages 7with the exception of ,thales71 applied themselves to moral philosophy and politics1 and at a later period1 after ,socrates had brought down philosophy from heaven to earth1 moral philosophy became more prevalent1 and diverted men's attention from natural4 ,nay1 the very period during which physical inquiries flourished1 was corrupted and rendered useless by contradictions1 and the ambition of new opinions4 ,since1 therefore1 during these three epochs1 natural philosophy has been materially neglected or impeded1 it is not at all surprising that men should have made but little progress in it1 seeing they were attending to an entirely different matter4 ,,lxxx4 ,add to this that natural philosophy1 especially of late1 has seldom gained exclusive possession of an individual free from all other pursuits1 even among those who have applied themselves to it1 unless there may be an example or two of some monk studying in his cell1 or some nobleman in his villa4#de ,she has rather been made a passage and bridge to other pursuits4 ,thus has this great mother of the sciences been degraded most unworthily to the situation of a handmaid1 and made to wait upon medicine or mathematical operations1 and to wash the immature minds of youth1 and imbue them with a first dye1 that they may afterward be more ready to receive and retain another4 ,in the meantime1 let no one expect any great progress in the sciences 7especially their operative part71 unless natural philosophy be applied to particular sciences1 and particular sciences again referred back to natural philosophy4 ,for want of this1 astronomy1 optics1 music1 many mechanical arts1 medicine itself1 and 7what perhaps is more wonderful71 moral and political philosophy1 and the logical sciences have no depth1 but only glide over the surface and variety of things2 because these sciences1 when they have been once partitioned out and established1 are no longer nourished by natural philosophy1 which would have imparted fresh vigor and growth to them from the sources and genuine contemplation of motion1 rays1 sounds1 texture1 and conformation of bodies1 and the affections and capacity of the understanding4 ,but we can little wonder that the sciences grow not when separated from their roots4 ,,lxxxi4 ,there is another powerful and great cause of the little advancement of the sciences1 which is this2 it is impossible to advance properly in the course when the goal is not properly fixed4 ,but the real and legitimate goal of the sciences is the endowment of human life with new inventions and riches4 ,the great crowd of teachers know nothing of this1 but consist of dictatorial hirelings2 unless it so happen that some artisan of an acute genius1 and ambitious of fame1 gives up his time to a new discovery1 which is generally attended with a loss of property4 ,the majority1 so far from proposing to themselves the augmentation of the mass of arts and sciences1 make no other use of an inquiry into the mass already before them1 than is afforded by the conversion of it to some use in their lectures1 or to gain1 or to the acquirement of a name1 and the like4 ,but if one out of the multitude be found1 who courts science from real zeal1 and on his own account1 even he will be seen rather to follow contemplation1 and the variety of theories1 than a severe and strict investigation of truth4 ,again1 if there even be an unusually strict investigator of truth1 yet will he propose to himself1 as the test of truth1 the satisfaction of his mind and understanding1 as to the causes of things long since known1 and not such a test as to lead to some new earnest of effects1 and a new light in axioms4 ,if1 therefore1 no one have laid down the real end of science1 we cannot wonder that there should be error in points subordinate to that end4 ,,lxxxii4 ,but1 in like manner1 as the end and goal of science is ill defined1 so1 even were the case otherwise1 men have chosen an erroneous and impassable direction4 ,for it is sufficient to astonish any reflecting mind1 that nobody should have cared or wished to open and complete a way for the understanding1 setting off from the senses1 and regular1 well-conducted experiment2 but that everything has been abandoned either to the mists of tradition1 the whirl and confusion of argument1 or the waves and mazes of chance1 and desultory1 ill-combined experiment4 ,now1 let any one but consider soberly and diligently the nature of the path men have been accustomed to pursue in the investigation and discovery of any matter1 and he will doubtless first observe the rude and inartificial manner of discovery most familiar to mankind3 which is no other than this4 ,when any one prepares himself for discovery1 he first inquires and obtains a full account of all that has been said on the subject by others1 then adds his own reflections1 and stirs up and1 as it were1 invokes his own spirit1 after much mental labor1 to disclose its oracles4 ,all which is a method without foundation1 and merely turns on opinion4 ,another1 perhaps1 calls in logic to assist him in discovery1 which bears only a nominal relation to his purpose4 ,for the discoveries of logic are not discoveries of principles and leading axioms1 but only of what appears to accord with them4#df ,and when men become curious and importunate1 and give trouble1 interrupting her about her proofs1 and the discovery of principles or first axioms1 she puts them off with her usual answer1 referring them to faith1 and ordering them to swear allegiance to each art in its own department4 ,there remains but mere experience1 which1 when it offers itself1 is called chance2 when it is sought after1 experiment4#dg ,but this kind of experience is nothing but a loose fagot2 and mere groping in the dark1 as men at night try all means of discovering the right road1 while it would be better and more prudent either to wait for day1 or procure a light1 and then proceed4 ,on the contrary1 the real order of experience begins by setting up a light1 and then shows the road by it1 commencing with a regulated and digested1 not a misplaced and vague course of experiment1 and thence deducing axioms1 and from those axioms new experiments3 for not even the ,divine ,word proceeded to operate on the general mass of things without due order4 ,let men1 therefore1 cease to wonder if the whole course of science be not run1 when all have wandered from the path2 quitting it entirely1 and deserting experience1 or involving themselves in its mazes1 and wandering about1 while a regularly combined system would lead them in a sure track through its wilds to the open day of axioms4 ,,lxxxiii4 ,the evil1 however1 has been wonderfully increased by an opinion1 or inveterate conceit1 which is both vainglorious and prejudicial1 namely1 that the dignity of the human mind is lowered by long and frequent intercourse with experiments and particulars1 which are the objects of sense1 and confined to matter2 especially since such matters generally require labor in investigation1 are mean subjects for meditation1 harsh in discourse1 unproductive in practice1 infinite in number1 and delicate in their subtilty4 ,hence we have seen the true path not only deserted1 but intercepted and blocked up1 experience being rejected with disgust1 and not merely neglected or improperly applied4 ,,lxxxiv4 ,again1 the reverence for antiquity1#dh and the authority of men who have been esteemed great in philosophy1 and general unanimity1 have retarded men from advancing in science1 and almost enchanted them4 ,as to unanimity1 we have spoken of it above4 ,the opinion which men cherish of antiquity is altogether idle1 and scarcely accords with the term4 ,for the old age and increasing years of the world should in reality be considered as antiquity1 and this is rather the character of our own times than of the less advanced age of the world in those of the ancients2 for the latter1 with respect to ourselves1 are ancient and elder1 with respect to the world modern and younger4 ,and as we expect a greater knowledge of human affairs1 and more mature judgment from an old man than from a youth1 on account of his experience1 and the variety and number of things he has seen1 heard1 and meditated upon1 so we have reason to expect much greater things of our own age 7if it knew but its strength and would essay and exert it7 than from antiquity1 since the world has grown older1 and its stock has been increased and accumulated with an infinite number of experiments and observations4 ,we must also take into our consideration that many objects in nature fit to throw light upon philosophy have been exposed to our view1 and discovered by means of long voyages and travels1 in which our times have abounded4 ,it would1 indeed1 be dishonorable to mankind1 if the regions of the material globe1 the earth1 the sea1 and stars1 should be so prodigiously developed and illustrated in our age1 and yet the boundaries of the intellectual globe should be confined to the narrow discoveries of the ancients4 ,with regard to authority1 it is the greatest weakness to attribute infinite credit to particular authors1 and to refuse his own prerogative to time1 the author of all authors1 and1 therefore1 of all authority4 ,for truth is rightly named the daughter of time1 not of authority4 ,it is not wonderful1 therefore1 if the bonds of antiquity1 authority1 and unanimity1 have so enchained the power of man1 that he is unable 7as if bewitched7 to become familiar with things themselves4 ,,lxxxv4 ,nor is it only the admiration of antiquity1 authority1 and unanimity1 that has forced man's industry to rest satisfied with present discoveries1 but1 also1 the admiration of the effects already placed within his power4 ,for whoever passes in review the variety of subjects1 and the beautiful apparatus collected and introduced by the mechanical arts for the service of mankind1 will certainly be rather inclined to admire our wealth than to perceive our poverty3 not considering that the observations of man and operations of nature 7which are the souls and first movers of that variety7 are few1 and not of deep research2 the rest must be attributed merely to man's patience1 and the delicate and well-regulated motion of the hand or of instruments4 ,to take an instance1 the manufacture of clocks is delicate and accurate1 and appears to imitate the heavenly bodies in its wheels1 and the pulse of animals in its regular oscillation1 yet it only depends upon one or two axioms of nature4 ,again1 if one consider the refinement of the liberal arts1 or even that exhibited in the preparation of natural bodies in mechanical arts and the like1 as the discovery of the heavenly motions in astronomy1 of harmony in music1 of the letters of the alphabet#di 7still unadopted by the ,chinese7 in grammar2 or1 again1 in mechanical operations1 the productions of ,bacchus and ,ceres1 that is1 the preparation of wine and beer1 the making of bread1 or even the luxuries of the table1 distillation1 and the like2 if one reflect also1 and consider for how long a period of ages 7for all the above1 except distillation1 are ancient7 these things have been brought to their present state of perfection1 and 7as we instanced in clocks7 to how few observations and axioms of nature they may be referred1 and how easily1 and as it were1 by obvious chance or contemplation1 they might be discovered1 one would soon cease to admire and rather pity the human lot on account of its vast want and dearth of things and discoveries for so many ages4 ,yet even the discoveries we have mentioned were more ancient than philosophy and the intellectual arts2 so that 7to say the truth7 when contemplation and doctrinal science began1 the discovery of useful works ceased4 ,but if any one turn from the manufactories to libraries1 and be inclined to admire the immense variety of books offered to our view1 let him but examine and diligently inspect the matter and contents of these books1 and his astonishment will certainly change its object3 for when he finds no end of repetitions1 and how much men do and speak the same thing over again1 he will pass from admiration of this variety to astonishment at the poverty and scarcity of matter1 which has hitherto possessed and filled men's minds4 ,but if any one should condescend to consider such sciences as are deemed rather curious than sound1 and take a full view of the operations of the alchemists or magii1 he will perhaps hesitate whether he ought rather to laugh or to weep4 ,for the alchemist cherishes eternal hope1 and when his labors succeed not1 accuses his own mistakes1 deeming1 in his self-accusation1 that he has not properly understood the words of art or of his authors2 upon which he listens to tradition and vague whispers1 or imagines there is some slight unsteadiness in the minute details of his practice1 and then has recourse to an endless repetition of experiments3 and in the meantime1 when1 in his casual experiments1 he falls upon something in appearance new1 or of some degree of utility1 he consoles himself with such an earnest1 and ostentatiously publishes them1 keeping up his hope of the final result4 ,nor can it be denied that the alchemists have made several discoveries1 and presented mankind with useful inventions4 ,but we may well apply to them the fable of the old man1 who bequeathed to his sons some gold buried in his garden1 pretending not to know the exact spot1 whereupon they worked diligently in digging the vineyard1 and though they found no gold1 the vintage was rendered more abundant by their labor4 ,the followers of natural magic1 who explain everything by sympathy and antipathy1 have assigned false powers and marvellous operations to things by gratuitous and idle conjectures3 and if they have ever produced any effects1 they are rather wonderful and novel than of any real benefit or utility4 ,in superstitious magic 7if we say anything at all about it7 we must chiefly observe1 that there are only some peculiar and definite objects with which the curious and superstitious arts have1 in every nation and age1 and even under every religion1 been able to exercise and amuse themselves4 ,let us1 therefore1 pass them over4 ,in the meantime we cannot wonder that the false notion of plenty should have occasioned want4 ,,lxxxvi4 ,the admiration of mankind with regard to the arts and sciences1 which is of itself sufficiently simple and almost puerile1 has been increased by the craft and artifices of those who have treated the sciences1 and delivered them down to posterity4 ,for they propose and produce them to our view so fashioned1 and as it were masked1 as to make them pass for perfect and complete4 ,for if you consider their method and divisions1 they appear to embrace and comprise everything which can relate to the subject4 ,and although this frame be badly filled up and resemble an empty bladder1 yet it presents to the vulgar understanding the form and appearance of a perfect science4 ,the first and most ancient investigators of truth were wont1 on the contrary1 with more honesty and success1 to throw all the knowledge they wished to gather from contemplation1 and to lay up for use1 into aphorisms1 or short scattered sentences unconnected by any method1 and without pretending or professing to comprehend any entire art4 ,but according to the present system1 we cannot wonder that men seek nothing beyond that which is handed down to them as perfect1 and already extended to its full complement4 ,,lxxxvii4 ,the ancient theories have received additional support and credit from the absurdity and levity of those who have promoted the new1 especially in the active and practical part of natural philosophy4 ,for there have been many silly and fantastical fellows who1 from credulity or imposture1 have loaded mankind with promises1 announcing and boasting of the prolongation of life1 the retarding of old age1 the alleviation of pains1 the remedying of natural defects1 the deception of the senses1 the restraint and excitement of the passions1 the illumination and exaltation of the intellectual faculties1 the transmutation of substances1 the unlimited intensity and multiplication of motion1 the impressions and changes of the air1 the bringing into our power the management of celestial influences1 the divination of future events1 the representation of distant objects1 the revelation of hidden objects1 and the like4 ,one would not be very wrong in observing with regard to such pretenders1 that there is as much difference in philosophy1 between their absurdity and real science1 as there is in history between the exploits of ,csar or ,alexander1 and those of ,amadis de ,gaul and ,arthur of ,britain4 ,for those illustrious generals are found to have actually performed greater exploits than such fictitious heroes are even pretended to have accomplished1 by the means1 however1 of real action1 and not by any fabulous and portentous power4 ,yet it is not right to suffer our belief in true history to be diminished1 because it is sometimes injured and violated by fables4 ,in the meantime we cannot wonder that great prejudice has been excited against any new propositions 7especially when coupled with any mention of effects to be produced71 by the conduct of impostors who have made a similar attempt2 for their extreme absurdity1 and the disgust occasioned by it1 has even to this day overpowered every spirited attempt of the kind4 ,,lxxxviii4 ,want of energy1 and the littleness and futility of the tasks that human industry has undertaken1 have produced much greater injury to the sciences3 and yet 7to make it still worse7 that very want of energy manifests itself in conjunction with arrogance and disdain4 ,for1 in the first place1 one excuse1 now from its repetition become familiar1 is to be observed in every art1 namely1 that its promoters convert the weakness of the art itself into a calumny upon nature3 and whatever it in their hands fails to effect1 they pronounce to be physically impossible4 ,but how can the art ever be condemned while it acts as judge in its own cause8 ,even the present system of philosophy cherishes in its bosom certain positions or dogmas1 which 7it will be found on diligent inquiry7 are calculated to produce a full conviction that no difficult1 commanding1 and powerful operation upon nature ought to be anticipated through the means of art2 we instanced#ej above the alleged different quality of heat in the sun and fire1 and composition and mixture4 ,upon an accurate observation the whole tendency of such positions is wilfully to circumscribe man's power1 and to produce a despair of the means of invention and contrivance1 which would not only confound the promises of hope1 but cut the very springs and sinews of industry1 and throw aside even the chances of experience4 ,the only object of such philosophers is to acquire the reputation of perfection for their own art1 and they are anxious to obtain the most silly and abandoned renown1 by causing a belief that whatever has not yet been invented and understood can never be so hereafter4 ,but if any one attempt to give himself up to things1 and to discover something new2 yet he will only propose and destine for his object the investigation and discovery of some one invention1 and nothing more2 as the nature of the magnet1 the tides1 the heavenly system1 and the like1 which appear enveloped in some degree of mystery1 and have hitherto been treated with but little success4 ,now it is the greatest proof of want of skill1 to investigate the nature of any object in itself alone2 for that same nature1 which seems concealed and hidden in some instances1 is manifest and almost palpable in others1 and excites wonder in the former1 while it hardly attracts attention in the latter4#ea ,thus the nature of consistency is scarcely observed in wood or stone1 but passed over by the term solid without any further inquiry about the repulsion of separation or the solution of continuity4 ,but in water-bubbles the same circumstance appears matter of delicate and ingenious research1 for they form themselves into thin pellicles1 curiously shaped into hemispheres1 so as for an instant to avoid the solution of continuity4 ,in general those very things which are considered as secret are manifest and common in other objects1 but will never be clearly seen if the experiments and contemplation of man be directed to themselves only4 ,yet it commonly happens1 that if1 in the mechanical arts1 any one bring old discoveries to a finer polish1 or more elegant height of ornament1 or unite and compound them1 or apply them more readily to practice1 or exhibit them on a less heavy and voluminous scale1 and the like1 they will pass off as new4 ,we cannot1 therefore1 wonder that no magnificent discoveries1 worthy of mankind1 have been brought to light1 while men are satisfied and delighted with such scanty and puerile tasks1 nay1 even think that they have pursued or attained some great object in their accomplishment4 ,,lxxxix4 ,nor should we neglect to observe that natural philosophy has1 in every age1 met with a troublesome and difficult opponent3 ,i mean superstition1 and a blind and immoderate zeal for religion4 ,for we see that1 among the ,greeks1 those who first disclosed the natural causes of thunder and storms to the yet untrained ears of man were condemned as guilty of impiety toward the gods4#eb ,nor did some of the old fathers of ,christianity treat those much better who showed by the most positive proofs 7such as no one now disputes7 that the earth is spherical1 and thence asserted that there were antipodes4#ec ,even in the present state of things the condition of discussions on natural philosophy is rendered more difficult and dangerous by the summaries and methods of divines1 who1 after reducing divinity into such order as they could1 and brought it into a scientific form1 have proceeded to mingle an undue proportion of the contentious and thorny philosophy of ,aristotle with the substance of religion4#ed ,the fictions of those who have not feared to deduce and confirm the truth of the ,christian religion by the principles and authority of philosophers1 tend to the same end1 though in a different manner4#ee ,they celebrate the union of faith and the senses as though it were legitimate1 with great pomp and solemnity1 and gratify men's pleasing minds with a variety1 but in the meantime confound most improperly things divine and human4 ,moreover1 in these mixtures of divinity and philosophy the received doctrines of the latter are alone included1 and any novelty1 even though it be an improvement1 scarcely escapes banishment and extermination4 ,in short1 you may find all access to any species of philosophy1 however pure1 intercepted by the ignorance of divines4 ,some in their simplicity are apprehensive that a too deep inquiry into nature may penetrate beyond the proper bounds of decorum1 transferring and absurdly applying what is said of sacred mysteries in ,holy ,writ against those who pry into divine secrets1 to the mysteries of nature1 which are not forbidden by any prohibition4 ,others with more cunning imagine and consider1 that if secondary causes be unknown1 everything may more easily be referred to the ,divine hand and wand1 a matter1 as they think1 of the greatest consequence to religion1 but which can only really mean that ,god wishes to be gratified by means of falsehood4 ,others fear1 from past example1 lest motion and change in philosophy should terminate in an attack upon religion4 ,lastly1 there are others who appear anxious lest there should be something discovered in the investigation of nature to overthrow1 or at least shake1 religion1 particularly among the unlearned4 ,the last two apprehensions appear to resemble animal instinct1 as if men were diffident1 in the bottom of their minds and secret meditations1 of the strength of religion and the empire of faith over the senses1 and therefore feared that some danger awaited them from an inquiry into nature4 ,but any one who properly considers the subject will find natural philosophy to be1 after the ,word of ,god1 the surest remedy against superstition1 and the most approved support of faith4 ,she is1 therefore1 rightly bestowed upon religion as a most faithful attendant1 for the one exhibits the will and the other the power of ,god4 ,nor was he wrong who observed1 8,ye err1 not knowing the ,scriptures and the power of ,god10 thus uniting in one bond the revelation of his will and the contemplation of his power4 ,in the meanwhile1 it is not wonderful that the progress of natural philosophy has been restrained1 since religion1 which has so much influence on men's minds1 has been led and hurried to oppose her through the ignorance of some and the imprudent zeal of others4 ,,xc4 ,again1 in the habits and regulations of schools1 universities1 and the like assemblies1 destined for the abode of learned men and the improvement of learning1 everything is found to be opposed to the progress of the sciences2 for the lectures and exercises are so ordered1 that anything out of the common track can scarcely enter the thoughts and contemplations of the mind4 ,if1 however1 one or two have perhaps dared to use their liberty1 they can only impose the labor on themselves1 without deriving any advantage from the association of others2 and if they put up with this1 they will find their industry and spirit of no slight disadvantage to them in making their fortune2 for the pursuits of men in such situations are1 as it were1 chained down to the writings of particular authors1 and if any one dare to dissent from them he is immediately attacked as a turbulent and revolutionary spirit4 ,yet how great is the difference between civil matters and the arts1 for there is not the same danger from new activity and new light4 ,in civil matters even a change for the better is suspected on account of the commotion it occasions1 for civil government is supported by authority1 unanimity1 fame1 and public opinion1 and not by demonstration4 ,in the arts and sciences1 on the contrary1 every department should resound1 as in mines1 with new works and advances4 ,and this is the rational1 though not the actual view of the case1 for that administration and government of science we have spoken of is wont too rigorously to repress its growth4 ,,xci4 ,and even should the odium ,i have alluded to be avoided1 yet it is sufficient to repress the increase of science that such attempts and industry pass unrewarded2 for the cultivation of science and its reward belong not to the same individual4 ,the advancement of science is the work of a powerful genius1 the prize and reward belong to the vulgar or to princes1 who 7with a few exceptions7 are scarcely moderately well informed4 ,nay1 such progress is not only deprived of the rewards and beneficence of individuals1 but even of popular praise2 for it is above the reach of the generality1 and easily overwhelmed and extinguished by the winds of common opinions4 ,it is not wonderful1 therefore1 that little success has attended that which has been little honored4 ,,xcii4 ,but by far the greatest obstacle to the advancement of the sciences1 and the undertaking of any new attempt or department1 is to be found in men's despair and the idea of impossibility2 for men of a prudent and exact turn of thought are altogether diffident in matters of this nature1 considering the obscurity of nature1 the shortness of life1 the deception of the senses1 and weakness of the judgment4 ,they think1 therefore1 that in the revolutions of ages and of the world there are certain floods and ebbs of the sciences1 and that they grow and flourish at one time1 and wither and fall off at another1 that when they have attained a certain degree and condition they can proceed no further4 ,if1 therefore1 any one believe or promise greater things1 they impute it to an uncurbed and immature mind1 and imagine that such efforts begin pleasantly1 then become laborious1 and end in confusion4 ,and since such thoughts easily enter the minds of men of dignity and excellent judgment1 we must really take heed lest we should be captivated by our affection for an excellent and most beautiful object1 and relax or diminish the severity of our judgment2 and we must diligently examine what gleam of hope shines upon us1 and in what direction it manifests itself1 so that1 banishing her lighter dreams1 we may discuss and weigh whatever appears of more sound importance4 ,we must consult the prudence of ordinary life1 too1 which is diffident upon principle1 and in all human matters augurs the worst4 ,let us1 then1 speak of hope1 especially as we are not vain promisers1 nor are willing to enforce or insnare men's judgment1 but would rather lead them willingly forward4 ,and although we shall employ the most cogent means of enforcing hope when we bring them to particulars1 and especially those which are digested and arranged in our ,tables of ,invention 7the subject partly of the second1 but principally of the fourth part of the ,instauration71 which are1 indeed1 rather the very object of our hopes than hope itself2 yet to proceed more leniently we must treat of the preparation of men's minds1 of which the manifestation of hope forms no slight part2 for without it all that we have said tends rather to produce a gloom than to encourage activity or quicken the industry of experiment1 by causing them to have a worse and more contemptuous opinion of things as they are than they now entertain1 and to perceive and feel more thoroughly their unfortunate condition4 ,we must1 therefore1 disclose and prefix our reasons for not thinking the hope of success improbable1 as ,columbus1 before his wonderful voyage over the ,atlantic1 gave the reasons of his conviction that new lands and continents might be discovered besides those already known2 and these reasons1 though at first rejected1 were yet proved by subsequent experience1 and were the causes and beginnings of the greatest events4 ,,xciii4 ,let us begin from ,god1 and show that our pursuit from its exceeding goodness clearly proceeds from him1 the author of good and father of light4 ,now1 in all divine works the smallest beginnings lead assuredly to some result1 and the remark in spiritual matters that 8the kingdom of ,god cometh without observation10 is also found to be true in every great work of ,divine ,providence1 so that everything glides quietly on without confusion or noise1 and the matter is achieved before men either think or perceive that it is commenced4 ,nor should we neglect to mention the prophecy of ,daniel1 of the last days of the world1 8,many shall run to and fro1 and knowledge shall be increased10#ef thus plainly hinting and suggesting that fate 7which is ,providence7 would cause the complete circuit of the globe 7now accomplished1 or at least going forward by means of so many distant voyages71 and the increase of learning to happen at the same epoch4 ,,xciv4 ,we will next give a most potent reason for hope deduced from the errors of the past1 and the ways still unattempted2 for well was an ill-governed state thus reproved1 8,that which is worst with regard to the past should appear most consolatory for the future2 for if you had done all that your duty commanded1 and your affairs proceeded no better1 you could not even hope for their improvement2 but since their present unhappy situation is not owing to the force of circumstances1 but to your own errors1 you have reason to hope that by banishing or correcting the latter you can produce a great change for the better in the former40 ,so if men had1 during the many years that have elapsed1 adhered to the right way of discovering and cultivating the sciences without being able to advance1 it would be assuredly bold and presumptuous to imagine it possible to improve2 but if they have mistaken the way and wasted their labor on improper objects1 it follows that the difficulty does not arise from things themselves1 which are not in our power1 but from the human understanding1 its practice and application1 which is susceptible of remedy and correction4 ,our best plan1 therefore1 is to expose these errors2 for in proportion as they impeded the past1 so do they afford reason to hope for the future4 ,and although we have touched upon them above1 yet we think it right to give a brief1 bare1 and simple enumeration of them in this place4 ,,xcv4 ,those who have treated of the sciences have been either empirics or dogmatical4#eg ,the former like ants only heap up and use their store1 the latter like spiders spin out their own webs4 ,the bee1 a mean between both1 extracts matter from the flowers of the garden and the field1 but works and fashions it by its own efforts4 ,the true labor of philosophy resembles hers1 for it neither relies entirely or principally on the powers of the mind1 nor yet lays up in the memory the matter afforded by the experiments of natural history and mechanics in its raw state1 but changes and works it in the understanding4 ,we have good reason1 therefore1 to derive hope from a closer and purer alliance of these faculties 7the experimental and rational7 than has yet been attempted4 ,,xcvi4 ,natural philosophy is not yet to be found unadulterated1 but is impure and corrupted--by logic in the school of ,aristotle1 by natural theology in that of ,plato1#eh by mathematics in the second school of ,plato 7that of ,proclus and others7#ei which ought rather to terminate natural philosophy than to generate or create it4 ,we may1 therefore1 hope for better results from pure and unmixed natural philosophy4 ,,xcvii4 ,no one has yet been found possessed of sufficient firmness and severity to resolve upon and undertake the task of entirely abolishing common theories and notions1 and applying the mind afresh1 when thus cleared and levelled1 to particular researches2 hence our human reasoning is a mere farrago and crude mass made up of a great deal of credulity and accident1 and the puerile notions it originally contracted4 ,but if a man of mature age1 unprejudiced senses1 and clear mind1 would betake himself anew to experience and particulars1 we might hope much more from such a one2 in which respect we promise ourselves the fortune of ,alexander the ,great1 and let none accuse us of vanity till they have heard the tale1 which is intended to check vanity4 ,for schines spoke thus of ,alexander and his exploits3 8,we live not the life of mortals1 but are born at such a period that posterity will relate and declare our prodigies02 as if he considered the exploits of ,alexander to be miraculous4 ,but in succeeding ages#fj ,livy took a better view of the fact1 and has made some such observation as this upon ,alexander3 8,that he did no more than dare to despise insignificance40 ,so in our opinion posterity will judge of us1 that we have achieved no great matters1 but only set less account upon what is considered important2 for the meantime 7as we have before observed7 our only hope is in the regeneration of the sciences1 by regularly raising them on the foundation of experience and building them anew1 which ,i think none can venture to affirm to have been already done or even thought of4 ,,xcviii4 ,the foundations of experience 7our sole resource7 have hitherto failed completely or have been very weak2 nor has a store and collection of particular facts1 capable of informing the mind or in any way satisfactory1 been either sought after or amassed4 ,on the contrary1 learned1 but idle and indolent1 men have received some mere reports of experience1 traditions as it were of dreams1 as establishing or confirming their philosophy1 and have not hesitated to allow them the weight of legitimate evidence4 ,so that a system has been pursued in philosophy with regard to experience resembling that of a kingdom or state which would direct its councils and affairs according to the gossip of city and street politicians1 instead of the letters and reports of ambassadors and messengers worthy of credit4 ,nothing is rightly inquired into1 or verified1 noted1 weighed1 or measured1 in natural history2 indefinite and vague observation produces fallacious and uncertain information4 ,if this appear strange1 or our complaint somewhat too unjust 7because ,aristotle himself1 so distinguished a man and supported by the wealth of so great a king1 has completed an accurate history of animals1 to which others with greater diligence but less noise have made considerable additions1 and others again have composed copious histories and notices of plants1 metals1 and fossils71 it will arise from a want of sufficiently attending to and comprehending our present observations2 for a natural history compiled on its own account1 and one collected for the mind's information as a foundation for philosophy1 are two different things4 ,they differ in several respects1 but principally in this--the former contains only the varieties of natural species without the experiments of mechanical arts2 for as in ordinary life every person's disposition1 and the concealed feelings of the mind and passions are most drawn out when they are disturbed--so the secrets of nature betray themselves more readily when tormented by art than when left to their own course4 ,we must begin1 therefore1 to entertain hopes of natural philosophy then only1 when we have a better compilation of natural history1 its real basis and support4 ,,xcix4 ,again1 even in the abundance of mechanical experiments1 there is a very great scarcity of those which best inform and assist the understanding4 ,for the mechanic1 little solicitous about the investigation of truth1 neither directs his attention1 nor applies his hand to anything that is not of service to his business4 ,but our hope of further progress in the sciences will then only be well founded1 when numerous experiments shall be received and collected into natural history1 which1 though of no use in themselves1 assist materially in the discovery of causes and axioms2 which experiments we have termed enlightening1 to distinguish them from those which are profitable4 ,they possess this wonderful property and nature1 that they never deceive or fail you2 for being used only to discover the natural cause of some object1 whatever be the result1 they equally satisfy your aim by deciding the question4 ,c4 ,we must not only search for1 and procure a greater number of experiments1 but also introduce a completely different method1 order1 and progress of continuing and promoting experience4 ,for vague and arbitrary experience is 7as we have observed71 mere groping in the dark1 and rather astonishes than instructs4 ,but when experience shall proceed regularly and uninterruptedly by a determined rule1 we may entertain better hopes of the sciences4 ,,ci4 ,but after having collected and prepared an abundance and store of natural history1 and of the experience required for the operations of the understanding or philosophy1 still the understanding is as incapable of acting on such materials of itself1 with the aid of memory alone1 as any person would be of retaining and achieving1 by memory1 the computation of an almanac4 ,yet meditation has hitherto done more for discovery than writing1 and no experiments have been committed to paper4 ,we cannot1 however1 approve of any mode of discovery without writing1 and when that comes into more general use1 we may have further hopes4 ,,cii4 ,besides this1 there is such a multitude and host1 as it were1 of particular objects1 and lying so widely dispersed1 as to distract and confuse the understanding2 and we can1 therefore1 hope for no advantage from its skirmishing1 and quick movements and incursions1 unless we put its forces in due order and array1 by means of proper and well arranged1 and1 as it were1 living tables of discovery of these matters1 which are the subject of investigation1 and the mind then apply itself to the ready prepared and digested aid which such tables afford4 ,,ciii4 ,when we have thus properly and regularly placed before the eyes a collection of particulars1 we must not immediately proceed to the investigation and discovery of new particulars or effects1 or1 at least1 if we do so1 must not rest satisfied therewith4 ,for1 though we do not deny that by transferring the experiments from one art to another 7when all the experiments of each have been collected and arranged1 and have been acquired by the knowledge1 and subjected to the judgment of a single individual71 many new experiments may be discovered tending to benefit society and mankind1 by what we term literate experience2 yet comparatively insignificant results are to be expected thence1 while the more important are to be derived from the new light of axioms1 deduced by certain method and rule from the above particulars1 and pointing out and defining new particulars in their turn4 ,our road is not a long plain1 but rises and falls1 ascending to axioms1 and descending to effects4 ,,civ4 ,nor can we suffer the understanding to jump and fly from particulars to remote and most general axioms 7such as are termed the principles of arts and things71 and thus prove and make out their intermediate axioms according to the supposed unshaken truth of the former4 ,this1 however1 has always been done to the present time from the natural bent of the understanding1 educated too1 and accustomed to this very method1 by the syllogistic mode of demonstration4 ,but we can then only augur well for the sciences1 when the assent shall proceed by a true scale and successive steps1 without interruption or breach1 from particulars to the lesser axioms1 thence to the intermediate 7rising one above the other71 and lastly1 to the most general4 ,for the lowest axioms differ but little from bare experiment2#fa the highest and most general 7as they are esteemed at present71 are notional1 abstract1 and of no real weight4 ,the intermediate are true1 solid1 full of life1 and upon them depend the business and fortune of mankind2 beyond these are the really general1 but not abstract1 axioms1 which are truly limited by the intermediate4 ,we must not then add wings1 but rather lead and ballast to the understanding1 to prevent its jumping or flying1 which has not yet been done2 but whenever this takes place1 we may entertain greater hopes of the sciences4 ,,cv4 ,in forming axioms1 we must invent a different form of induction from that hitherto in use2 not only for the proof and discovery of principles 7as they are called71 but also of minor1 intermediate1 and1 in short1 every kind of axioms4 ,the induction which proceeds by simple enumeration is puerile1 leads to uncertain conclusions1 and is exposed to danger from one contradictory instance1 deciding generally from too small a number of facts1 and those only the most obvious4 ,but a really useful induction for the discovery and demonstration of the arts and sciences1 should separate nature by proper rejections and exclusions1 and then conclude for the affirmative1 after collecting a sufficient number of negatives4 ,now this has not been done1 nor even attempted1 except perhaps by ,plato1 who certainly uses this form of induction in some measure1 to sift definitions and ideas4 ,but much of what has never yet entered the thoughts of man must necessarily be employed1 in order to exhibit a good and legitimate mode of induction or demonstration1 so as even to render it essential for us to bestow more pains upon it than have hitherto been bestowed on syllogisms4 ,the assistance of induction is to serve us not only in the discovery of axioms1 but also in defining our notions4 ,much indeed is to be hoped from such an induction as has been described4 ,,cvi4 ,in forming our axioms from induction1 we must examine and try whether the axiom we derive be only fitted and calculated for the particular instances from which it is deduced1 or whether it be more extensive and general4 ,if it be the latter1 we must observe1 whether it confirm its own extent and generality by giving surety1 as it were1 in pointing out new particulars1 so that we may neither stop at actual discoveries1 nor with a careless grasp catch at shadows and abstract forms1 instead of substances of a determinate nature3 and as soon as we act thus1 well authorized hope may with reason be said to beam upon us4 ,,cvii4 ,here1 too1 we may again repeat what we have said above1 concerning the extending of natural philosophy and reducing particular sciences to that one1 so as to prevent any schism or dismembering of the sciences2 without which we cannot hope to advance4 ,,cviii4 ,such are the observations we would make in order to remove despair and excite hope1 by bidding farewell to the errors of past ages1 or by their correction4 ,let us examine whether there be other grounds for hope4 ,and1 first1 if many useful discoveries have occurred to mankind by chance or opportunity1 without investigation or attention on their part1 it must necessarily be acknowledged that much more may be brought to light by investigation and attention1 if it be regular and orderly1 not hasty and interrupted4 ,for although it may now and then happen that one falls by chance upon something that had before escaped considerable efforts and laborious inquiries1 yet undoubtedly the reverse is generally the case4 ,we may1 therefore1 hope for further1 better1 and more frequent results from man's reason1 industry1 method1 and application1 than from chance and mere animal instinct1 and the like1 which have hitherto been the sources of invention4 ,,cix4 ,we may also derive some reason for hope from the circumstance of several actual inventions being of such a nature1 that scarcely any one could have formed a conjecture about them previously to their discovery1 but would rather have ridiculed them as impossible4 ,for men are wont to guess about new subjects from those they are already acquainted with1 and the hasty and vitiated fancies they have thence formed3 than which there cannot be a more fallacious mode of reasoning1 because much of that which is derived from the sources of things does not flow in their usual channel4 ,if1 for instance1 before the discovery of cannon1 one had described its effects in the following manner3 ,there is a new invention by which walls and the greatest bulwarks can be shaken and overthrown from a considerable distance2 men would have begun to contrive various means of multiplying the force of projectiles and machines by means of weights and wheels1 and other modes of battering and projecting4 ,but it is improbable that any imagination or fancy would have hit upon a fiery blast1 expanding and developing itself so suddenly and violently1 because none would have seen an instance at all resembling it1 except perhaps in earthquakes or thunder1 which they would have immediately rejected as the great operations of nature1 not to be imitated by man4 ,so1 if before the discovery of silk thread1 any one had observed1 that a species of thread had been discovered1 fit for dresses and furniture1 far surpassing the thread of worsted or flax in fineness1 and at the same time in tenacity1 beauty1 and softness2 men would have begun to imagine something about ,chinese plants1 or the fine hair of some animals1 or the feathers or down of birds1 but certainly would never have had an idea of its being spun by a small worm1 in so copious a manner1 and renewed annually4 ,but if any one had ventured to suggest the silkworm1 he would have been laughed at as if dreaming of some new manufacture from spiders4 ,so again1 if before the discovery of the compass1 any one had said1 that an instrument had been invented1 by which the quarters and points of the heavens could be exactly taken and distinguished1 men would have entered into disquisitions on the refinement of astronomical instruments1 and the like1 from the excitement of their imaginations2 but the thought of anything being discovered1 which1 not being a celestial body1 but a mere mineral or metallic substance1 should yet in its motion agree with that of such bodies1 would have appeared absolutely incredible4 ,yet were these facts1 and the like 7unknown for so many ages7 not discovered at last either by philosophy or reasoning1 but by chance and opportunity2 and 7as we have observed71 they are of a nature most heterogeneous1 and remote from what was hitherto known1 so that no previous knowledge could lead to them4 ,we may1 therefore1 well hope#fb that many excellent and useful matters are yet treasured up in the bosom of nature1 bearing no relation or analogy to our actual discoveries1 but out of the common track of our imagination1 and still undiscovered1 and which will doubtless be brought to light in the course and lapse of years1 as the others have been before them2 but in the way we now point out1 they may rapidly and at once be both represented and anticipated4 ,,cx4 ,there are1 moreover1 some inventions which render it probable that men may pass and hurry over the most noble discoveries which lie immediately before them4 ,for however the discovery of gunpowder1 silk1 the compass1 sugar1 paper1 or the like1 may appear to depend on peculiar properties of things and nature1 printing at least involves no contrivance which is not clear and almost obvious4 ,but from want of observing that although the arrangement of the types of letters required more trouble than writing with the hand1 yet these types once arranged serve for innumerable impressions1 while manuscript only affords one copy2 and again1 from want of observing that ink might be thickened so as to stain without running 7which was necessary1 seeing the letters face upward1 and the impression is made from above71 this most beautiful invention 7which assists so materially the propagation of learning7 remained unknown for so many ages4 ,the human mind is often so awkward and ill-regulated in the career of invention that it is at first diffident1 and then despises itself4 ,for it appears at first incredible that any such discovery should be made1 and when it has been made1 it appears incredible that it should so long have escaped men's research4 ,all which affords good reason for the hope that a vast mass of inventions yet remains1 which may be deduced not only from the investigation of new modes of operation1 but also from transferring1 comparing1 and applying these already known1 by the method of what we have termed literate experience4 ,,cxi4 ,nor should we omit another ground of hope4 ,let men only consider 7if they will7 their infinite expenditure of talent1 time1 and fortune1 in matters and studies of far inferior importance and value2 a small portion of which applied to sound and solid learning would be sufficient to overcome every difficulty4 ,and we have thought right to add this observation1 because we candidly own that such a collection of natural and experimental history as we have traced in our own mind1 and as is really necessary1 is a great and as it were royal work1 requiring much labor and expense4 ,,cxii4 ,in the meantime let no one be alarmed at the multitude of particulars1 but rather inclined to hope on that very account4 ,for the particular phenomena of the arts and nature are in reality but as a handful1 when compared with the fictions of the imagination removed and separated from the evidence of facts4 ,the termination of our method is clear1 and ,i had almost said near at hand2 the other admits of no termination1 but only of infinite confusion4 ,for men have hitherto dwelt but little1 or rather only slightly touched upon experience1 while they have wasted much time on theories and the fictions of the imagination4 ,if we had but any one who could actually answer our interrogations of nature1 the invention of all causes and sciences would be the labor of but a few years4 ,,cxiii4 ,we think some ground of hope is afforded by our own example1 which is not mentioned for the sake of boasting1 but as a useful remark4 ,let those who distrust their own powers observe myself1 one who have among my contemporaries been the most engaged in public business1 who am not very strong in health 7which causes a great loss of time71 and am the first explorer of this course1 following the guidance of none1 nor even communicating my thoughts to a single individual2 yet having once firmly entered in the right way1 and submitting the powers of my mind to things1 ,i have somewhat advanced 7as ,i make bold to think7 the matter ,i now treat of4 ,then let others consider what may be hoped from men who enjoy abundant leisure1 from united labors1 and the succession of ages1 after these suggestions on our part1 especially in a course which is not confined1 like theories1 to individuals1 but admits of the best distribution and union of labor and effect1 particularly in collecting experiments4 ,for men will then only begin to know their own power1 when each performs a separate part1 instead of undertaking in crowds the same work4 ,,cxiv4 ,lastly1 though a much more faint and uncertain breeze of hope were to spring up from our new continent1 yet we consider it necessary to make the experiment1 if we would not show a dastard spirit4 ,for the risk attending want of success is not to be compared with that of neglecting the attempt2 the former is attended with the loss of a little human labor1 the latter with that of an immense benefit4 ,for these and other reasons it appears to us that there is abundant ground to hope1 and to induce not only those who are sanguine to make experiment1 but even those who are cautious and sober to give their assent4 ,,cxv4 ,such are the grounds for banishing despair1 hitherto one of the most powerful causes of the delay and restraint to which the sciences have been subjected2 in treating of which we have at the same time discussed the signs and causes of the errors1 idleness1 and ignorance that have prevailed2 seeing especially that the more refined causes1 which are not open to popular judgment and observation1 may be referred to our remarks on the idols of the human mind4 ,here1 too1 we should close the demolishing branch of our ,instauration1 which is comprised in three confutations3 #a1 the confutation of natural human reason left to itself2 #b1 the confutation of demonstration2 #c1 the confutation of theories1 or received systems of philosophy and doctrines4 ,our confutation has followed such a course as was open to it1 namely1 the exposing of the signs of error1 and the producing evidence of the causes of it3 for we could adopt no other1 differing as we do both in first principles and demonstrations from others4 ,it is time for us therefore to come to the art itself1 and the rule for the interpretation of nature3 there is1 however1 still something which must not be passed over4 ,for the intent of this first book of aphorisms being to prepare the mind for understanding1 as well as admitting1 what follows1 we must now1 after having cleansed1 polished1 and levelled its surface1 place it in a good position1 and as it were a benevolent aspect toward our propositions2 seeing that prejudice in new matters may be produced not only by the strength of preconceived notions1 but also by a false anticipation or expectation of the matter proposed4 ,we shall therefore endeavor to induce good and correct opinions of what we offer1 although this be only necessary for the moment1 and as it were laid out at interest1 until the matter itself be well understood4 ,,cxvi4 ,first1 then1 we must desire men not to suppose that we are ambitious of founding any philosophical sect1 like the ancient ,greeks1 or some moderns1 as ,telesius1 ,patricius1 and ,severinus4#fc ,for neither is this our intention1 nor do we think that peculiar abstract opinions on nature and the principles of things are of much importance to men's fortunes1 since it were easy to revive many ancient theories1 and to introduce many new ones2 as1 for instance1 many hypotheses with regard to the heavens can be formed1 differing in themselves1 and yet sufficiently according with the phenomena4 ,we bestow not our labor on such theoretical and1 at the same time1 useless topics4 ,on the contrary1 our determination is that of trying1 whether we can lay a firmer foundation1 and extend to a greater distance the boundaries of human power and dignity4 ,and although here and there1 upon some particular points1 we hold 7in our own opinion7 more true and certain1 and ,i might even say1 more advantageous tenets than those in general repute 7which we have collected in the fifth part of our ,instauration71 yet we offer no universal or complete theory4 ,the time does not yet appear to us to be arrived1 and we entertain no hope of our life being prolonged to the completion of the sixth part of the ,instauration 7which is destined for philosophy discovered by the interpretation of nature71 but are content if we proceed quietly and usefully in our intermediate pursuit1 scattering1 in the meantime1 the seeds of less adulterated truth for posterity1 and1 at least1 commence the great work4 ,,cxvii4 ,and1 as we pretend not to found a sect1 so do we neither offer nor promise particular effects2 which may occasion some to object to us1 that since we so often speak of effects1 and consider everything in its relation to that end1 we ought also to give some earnest of producing them4 ,our course and method1 however 7as we have often said1 and again repeat71 is such as not to deduce effects from effects1 nor experiments from experiments 7as the empirics do71 but in our capacity of legitimate interpreters of nature1 to deduce causes and axioms from effects and experiments2 and new effects and experiments from those causes and axioms4 ,and although any one of moderate intelligence and ability will observe the indications and sketches of many noble effects in our tables of inventions 7which form the fourth part of the ,instauration71 and also in the examples of particular instances cited in the second part1 as well as in our observations on history 7which is the subject of the third part72 yet we candidly confess that our present natural history1 whether compiled from books or our own inquiries1 is not sufficiently copious and well ascertained to satisfy1 or even assist1 a proper interpretation4 ,if1 therefore1 there be any one who is more disposed and prepared for mechanical art1 and ingenious in discovering effects1 than in the mere management of experiment1 we allow him to employ his industry in gathering many of the fruits of our history and tables in this way1 and applying them to effects1 receiving them as interest till he can obtain the principal4 ,for our own part1 having a greater object in view1 we condemn all hasty and premature rest in such pursuits as we would ,atalanta's apple 7to use a common allusion of ours72 for we are not childishly ambitious of golden fruit1 but use all our efforts to make the course of art outstrip nature1 and we hasten not to reap moss or the green blade1 but wait for a ripe harvest4 ,,cxviii4 ,there will be some1 without doubt1 who1 on a perusal of our history and tables of invention1 will meet with some uncertainty1 or perhaps fallacy1 in the experiments themselves1 and will thence perhaps imagine that our discoveries are built on false foundations and principles4 ,there is1 however1 really nothing in this1 since it must needs happen in beginnings4#fd ,for it is the same as if in writing or printing one or two letters were wrongly turned or misplaced1 which is no great inconvenience to the reader1 who can easily by his own eye correct the error2 let men in the same way conclude1 that many experiments in natural history may be erroneously believed and admitted1 which are easily expunged and rejected afterward1 by the discovery of causes and axioms4 ,it is1 however1 true1 that if these errors in natural history and experiments become great1 frequent1 and continued1 they cannot be corrected and amended by any dexterity of wit or art4 ,if then1 even in our natural history1 well examined and compiled with such diligence1 strictness1 and 7,i might say7 reverential scruples1 there be now and then something false and erroneous in the details1 what must we say of the common natural history1 which is so negligent and careless when compared with ours8 or of systems of philosophy and the sciences1 based on such loose soil 7or rather quicksand78 ,let none then be alarmed by such observations4 ,,cxix4 ,again1 our history and experiments will contain much that is light and common1 mean and illiberal1 too refined and merely speculative1 and1 as it were1 of no use1 and this perhaps may divert and alienate the attention of mankind4 ,with regard to what is common2 let men reflect1 that they have hitherto been used to do nothing but refer and adapt the causes of things of rare occurrence to those of things which more frequently happen1 without any investigation of the causes of the latter1 taking them for granted and admitted4 ,hence1 they do not inquire into the causes of gravity1 the rotation of the heavenly bodies1 heat1 cold1 light1 hardness1 softness1 rarity1 density1 liquidity1 solidity1 animation1 inanimation1 similitude1 difference1 organic formation1 but taking them to be self-evident1 manifest1 and admitted1 they dispute and decide upon other matters of less frequent and familiar occurrence4 ,but we 7who know that no judgment can be formed of that which is rare or remarkable1 and much less anything new brought to light1 without a previous regular examination and discovery of the causes of that which is common1 and the causes again of those causes7 are necessarily compelled to admit the most common objects into our history4 ,besides1 we have observed that nothing has been so injurious to philosophy as this circumstance1 namely1 that familiar and frequent objects do not arrest and detain men's contemplation1 but are carelessly admitted1 and their causes never inquired after2 so that information on unknown subjects is not more often wanted than attention to those which are known4 ,,cxx4 ,with regard to the meanness1 or even the filthiness of particulars1 for which 7as ,pliny observes71 an apology is requisite1 such subjects are no less worthy of admission into natural history than the most magnificent and costly2 nor do they at all pollute natural history1 for the sun enters alike the palace and the privy1 and is not thereby polluted4 ,we neither dedicate nor raise a capitol or pyramid to the pride of man1 but rear a holy temple in his mind1 on the model of the universe1 which model therefore we imitate4 ,for that which is deserving of existence is deserving of knowledge1 the image of existence4 ,now the mean and splendid alike exist4 ,nay1 as the finest odors are sometimes produced from putrid matter 7such as musk and civet71 so does valuable light and information emanate from mean and sordid instances4 ,but we have already said too much1 for such fastidious feelings are childish and effeminate4 ,,cxxi4 ,the next point requires a more accurate consideration1 namely1 that many parts of our history will appear to the vulgar1 or even any mind accustomed to the present state of things1 fantastically and uselessly refined4 ,hence1 we have in regard to this matter said from the first1 and must again repeat1 that we look for experiments that shall afford light rather than profit1 imitating the divine creation1 which1 as we have often observed1 only produced light on the first day1 and assigned that whole day to its creation1 without adding any material work4 ,if any one1 then1 imagine such matters to be of no use1 he might equally suppose light to be of no use1 because it is neither solid nor material4 ,for1 in fact1 the knowledge of simple natures1 when sufficiently investigated and defined1 resembles light1 which1 though of no great use in itself1 affords access to the general mysteries of effects1 and with a peculiar power comprehends and draws with it whole bands and troops of effects1 and the sources of the most valuable axioms4 ,so also the elements of letters have of themselves separately no meaning1 and are of no use1 yet are they1 as it were1 the original matter in the composition and preparation of speech4 ,the seeds of substances1 whose effect is powerful1 are of no use except in their growth1 and the scattered rays of light itself avail not unless collected4 ,but if speculative subtilties give offence1 what must we say of the scholastic philosophers who indulged in them to such excess8 ,and those subtilties were wasted on words1 or1 at least1 common notions 7which is the same thing71 not on things or nature1 and alike unproductive of benefit in their origin and their consequences3 in no way resembling ours1 which are at present useless1 but in their consequences of infinite benefit4 ,let men be assured that all subtile disputes and discursive efforts of the mind are late and preposterous1 when they are introduced subsequently to the discovery of axioms1 and that their true1 or1 at any rate1 chief opportunity is1 when experiment is to be weighed and axioms to be derived from it4 ,they otherwise catch and grasp at nature1 but never seize or detain her3 and we may well apply to nature that which has been said of opportunity or fortune1 that she wears a lock in front1 but is bald behind4 ,in short1 we may reply decisively to those who despise any part of natural history as being vulgar1 mean1 or subtile1 and useless in its origin1 in the words of a poor woman to a haughty prince1#fe who had rejected her petition as unworthy1 and beneath the dignity of his majesty3 8,then cease to reign02 for it is quite certain that the empire of nature can neither be obtained nor administered by one who refuses to pay attention to such matters as being poor and too minute4 ,,cxxii4 ,again1 it may be objected to us as being singular and harsh1 that we should with one stroke and assault1 as it were1 banish all authorities and sciences1 and that too by our own efforts1 without requiring the assistance and support of any of the ancients4 ,now we are aware1 that had we been ready to act otherwise than sincerely1 it was not difficult to refer our present method to remote ages1 prior to those of the ,greeks 7since the sciences in all probability flourished more in their natural state1 though silently1 than when they were paraded with the fifes and trumpets of the ,greeks72 or even 7in parts1 at least7 to some of the ,greeks themselves1 and to derive authority and honor from thence2 as men of no family labor to raise and form nobility for themselves in some ancient line1 by the help of genealogies4 ,trusting1 however1 to the evidence of facts1 we reject every kind of fiction and imposture2 and think it of no more consequence to our subject1 whether future discoveries were known to the ancients1 and set or rose according to the vicissitudes of events and lapse of ages1 than it would be of importance to mankind to know whether the new world be the island of ,atlantis1#ff and known to the ancients1 or be now discovered for the first time4 ,with regard to the universal censure we have bestowed1 it is quite clear1 to any one who properly considers the matter1 that it is both more probable and more modest than any partial one could have been4 ,for if the errors had not been rooted in the primary notions1 some well conducted discoveries must have corrected others that were deficient4 ,but since the errors were fundamental1 and of such a nature1 that men may be said rather to have neglected or passed over things1 than to have formed a wrong or false judgment of them1 it is little to be wondered at1 that they did not obtain what they never aimed at1 nor arrive at a goal which they had not determined1 nor perform a course which they had neither entered upon nor adhered to4 ,with regard to our presumption1 we allow that if we were to assume a power of drawing a more perfect straight line or circle than any one else1 by superior steadiness of hand or acuteness of eye1 it would lead to a comparison of talent2 but if one merely assert that he can draw a more perfect line or circle with a ruler or compasses1 than another can by his unassisted hand or eye1 he surely cannot be said to boast of much4 ,now this applies not only to our first original attempt1 but also to those who shall hereafter apply themselves to the pursuit4 ,for our method of discovering the sciences merely levels men's wits1 and leaves but little to their superiority1 since it achieves everything by the most certain rules and demonstrations4 ,whence 7as we have often observed71 our attempt is to be attributed to fortune rather than talent1 and is the offspring of time rather than of wit4 ,for a certain sort of chance has no less effect upon our thoughts than on our acts and deeds4 ,,cxxiii4 ,we may1 therefore1 apply to ourselves the joke of him who said1 that water and wine drinkers could not think alike1#fg especially as it hits the matter so well4 ,for others1 both ancients and moderns1 have in the sciences drank a crude liquor like water1 either flowing of itself from the understanding1 or drawn up by logic as the wheel draws up the bucket4 ,but we drink and pledge others with a liquor made of many well-ripened grapes1 collected and plucked from particular branches1 squeezed in the press1 and at last clarified and fermented in a vessel4 ,it is not1 therefore1 wonderful that we should not agree with others4 ,,cxxiv4 ,another objection will without doubt be made1 namely1 that we have not ourselves established a correct1 or the best goal or aim of the sciences 7the very defect we blame in others74 ,for they will say that the contemplation of truth is more dignified and exalted than any utility or extent of effects2 but that our dwelling so long and anxiously on experience and matter1 and the fluctuating state of particulars1 fastens the mind to earth1 or rather casts it down into an abyss of confusion and disturbance1 and separates and removes it from a much more divine state1 the quiet and tranquillity of abstract wisdom4 ,we willingly assent to their reasoning1 and are most anxious to effect the very point they hint at and require4 ,for we are founding a real model of the world in the understanding1 such as it is found to be1 not such as man's reason has distorted4 ,now this cannot be done without dissecting and anatomizing the world most diligently2 but we declare it necessary to destroy completely the vain1 little and1 as it were1 apish imitations of the world1 which have been formed in various systems of philosophy by men's fancies4 ,let men learn 7as we have said above7 the difference that exists between the idols of the human mind and the ideas of the divine mind4 ,the former are mere arbitrary abstractions2 the latter the true marks of the ,creator on his creatures1 as they are imprinted on1 and defined in matter1 by true and exquisite touches4 ,truth1 therefore1 and utility1 are here perfectly identical1 and the effects are of more value as pledges of truth than from the benefit they confer on men4 ,,cxxv4 ,others may object that we are only doing that which has already been done1 and that the ancients followed the same course as ourselves4 ,they may imagine1 therefore1 that1 after all this stir and exertion1 we shall at last arrive at some of those systems that prevailed among the ancients3 for that they1 too1 when commencing their meditations1 laid up a great store of instances and particulars1 and digested them under topics and titles in their commonplace books1 and so worked out their systems and arts1 and then decided upon what they discovered1 and related now and then some examples to confirm and throw light upon their doctrine2 but thought it superfluous and troublesome to publish their notes1 minutes1 and commonplaces1 and therefore followed the example of builders who remove the scaffolding and ladders when the building is finished4 ,nor can we indeed believe the case to have been otherwise4 ,but to any one1 not entirely forgetful of our previous observations1 it will be easy to answer this objection or rather scruple2 for we allow that the ancients had a particular form of investigation and discovery1 and their writings show it4 ,but it was of such a nature1 that they immediately flew from a few instances and particulars 7after adding some common notions1 and a few generally received opinions most in vogue7 to the most general conclusions or the principles of the sciences1 and then by their intermediate propositions deduced their inferior conclusions1 and tried them by the test of the immovable and settled truth of the first1 and so constructed their art4 ,lastly1 if some new particulars and instances were brought forward1 which contradicted their dogmas1 they either with great subtilty reduced them to one system1 by distinctions or explanations of their own rules1 or got rid of them clumsily as exceptions1 laboring most pertinaciously in the meantime to accommodate the causes of such as were not contradictory to their own principles4 ,their natural history and their experience were both far from being what they ought to have been1 and their flying off to generalities ruined everything4 ,,cxxvi4 ,another objection will be made against us1 that we prohibit decisions and the laying down of certain principles1 till we arrive regularly at generalities by the intermediate steps1 and thus keep the judgment in suspense and lead to uncertainty4 ,but our object is not uncertainty but fitting certainty1 for we derogate not from the senses but assist them1 and despise not the understanding but direct it4 ,it is better to know what is necessary1 and not to imagine we are fully in possession of it1 than to imagine that we are fully in possession of it1 and yet in reality to know nothing which we ought4 ,,cxxvii4 ,again1 some may raise this question rather than objection1 whether we talk of perfecting natural philosophy alone according to our method1 or the other sciences also1 such as logic1 ethics1 politics4 ,we certainly intend to comprehend them all4 ,and as common logic1 which regulates matters by syllogisms1 is applied not only to natural1 but also to every other science1 so our inductive method likewise comprehends them all4#fh ,for we form a history and tables of invention for anger1 fear1 shame1 and the like1 and also for examples in civil life1 and the mental operations of memory1 composition1 division1 judgment1 and the rest1 as well as for heat and cold1 light1 vegetation1 and the like4 ,but since our method of interpretation1 after preparing and arranging a history1 does not content itself with examining the operations and disquisitions of the mind like common logic1 but also inspects the nature of things1 we so regulate the mind that it may be enabled to apply itself in every respect correctly to that nature4 ,on that account we deliver numerous and various precepts in our doctrine of interpretation1 so that they may apply in some measure to the method of discovering the quality and condition of the subject matter of investigation4 ,,cxxviii4 ,let none even doubt whether we are anxious to destroy and demolish the philosophy1 arts1 and sciences1 which are now in use4 ,on the contrary1 we readily cherish their practice1 cultivation1 and honor2 for we by no means interfere to prevent the prevalent system from encouraging discussion1 adorning discourses1 or being employed serviceably in the chair of the professor or the practice of common life1 and being taken1 in short1 by general consent as current coin4 ,nay1 we plainly declare1 that the system we offer will not be very suitable for such purposes1 not being easily adapted to vulgar apprehensions1 except by effects and works4 ,to show our sincerity in professing our regard and friendly disposition toward the received sciences1 we can refer to the evidence of our published writings 7especially our books on the ,advancement of ,learning74 ,we will not1 therefore1 endeavor to evince it any further by words2 but content ourselves with steadily and professedly premising1 that no great progress can be made by the present methods in the theory or contemplation of science1 and that they cannot be made to produce any very abundant effects4 ,,cxxix4 ,it remains for us to say a few words on the excellence of our proposed end4 ,if we had done so before1 we might have appeared merely to express our wishes1 but now that we have excited hope and removed prejudices1 it will perhaps have greater weight4 ,had we performed and completely accomplished the whole1 without frequently calling in others to assist in our labors1 we should then have refrained from saying any more1 lest we should be thought to extol our own deserts4 ,since1 however1 the industry of others must be quickened1 and their courage roused and inflamed1 it is right to recall some points to their memory4 ,first1 then1 the introduction of great inventions appears one of the most distinguished of human actions1 and the ancients so considered it2 for they assigned divine honors to the authors of inventions1 but only heroic honors to those who displayed civil merit 7such as the founders of cities and empire legislators1 the deliverers of their country from lasting misfortunes1 the quellers of tyrants1 and the like74 ,and if any one rightly compare them1 he will find the judgment of antiquity to be correct2 for the benefits derived from inventions may extend to mankind in general1 but civil benefits to particular spots alone2 the latter1 moreover1 last but for a time1 the former forever4 ,civil reformation seldom is carried on without violence and confusion1 while inventions are a blessing and a benefit without injuring or afflicting any4 ,inventions are also1 as it were1 new creations and imitations of divine works1 as was expressed by the poet3#fi 8,primum frugiferos ftus mortalibus gris ,dididerant quondam prstanti nomine ,athen ,et recreaverunt vitam legesque rogarunt40 ,and it is worthy of remark in ,solomon1 that while he flourished in the possession of his empire1 in wealth1 in the magnificence of his works1 in his court1 his household1 his fleet1 the splendor of his name1 and the most unbounded admiration of mankind1 he still placed his glory in none of these1 but declared#gj that it is the glory of ,god to conceal a thing1 but the glory of a king to search it out4 ,again1 let any one but consider the immense difference between men's lives in the most polished countries of ,europe1 and in any wild and barbarous region of the new ,indies1 he will think it so great1 that man may be said to be a god unto man1 not only on account of mutual aid and benefits1 but from their comparative states--the result of the arts1 and not of the soil or climate4 ,again1 we should notice the force1 effect1 and consequences of inventions1 which are nowhere more conspicuous than in those three which were unknown to the ancients2 namely1 printing1 gunpowder1 and the compass4 ,for these three have changed the appearance and state of the whole world3 first in literature1 then in warfare1 and lastly in navigation2 and innumerable changes have been thence derived1 so that no empire1 sect1 or star1 appears to have exercised a greater power and influence on human affairs than these mechanical discoveries4 ,it will1 perhaps1 be as well to distinguish three species and degrees of ambition4 ,first1 that of men who are anxious to enlarge their own power in their country1 which is a vulgar and degenerate kind2 next1 that of men who strive to enlarge the power and empire of their country over mankind1 which is more dignified but not less covetous2 but if one were to endeavor to renew and enlarge the power and empire of mankind in general over the universe1 such ambition 7if it may be so termed7 is both more sound and more noble than the other two4 ,now the empire of man over things is founded on the arts and sciences alone1 for nature is only to be commanded by obeying her4 ,besides this1 if the benefit of any particular invention has had such an effect as to induce men to consider him greater than a man1 who has thus obliged the whole race1 how much more exalted will that discovery be1 which leads to the easy discovery of everything else6 ,yet 7to speak the truth7 in the same manner as we are very thankful for light which enables us to enter on our way1 to practice arts1 to read1 to distinguish each other1 and yet sight is more excellent and beautiful than the various uses of light2 so is the contemplation of things as they are1 free from superstition or imposture1 error or confusion1 much more dignified in itself than all the advantage to be derived from discoveries4 ,lastly1 let none be alarmed at the objection of the arts and sciences becoming depraved to malevolent or luxurious purposes and the like1 for the same can be said of every worldly good2 talent1 courage1 strength1 beauty1 riches1 light itself1 and the rest4 ,only let mankind regain their rights over nature1 assigned to them by the gift of ,god1 and obtain that power1 whose exercise will be governed by right reason and true religion4 ,,cxxx4 ,but it is time for us to lay down the art of interpreting nature1 to which we attribute no absolute necessity 7as if nothing could be done without it7 nor perfection1 although we think that our precepts are most useful and correct4 ,for we are of opinion1 that if men had at their command a proper history of nature and experience1 and would apply themselves steadily to it1 and could bind themselves to two things3 #a1 to lay aside received opinions and notions2 #b1 to restrain themselves1 till the proper season1 from generalization1 they might1 by the proper and genuine exertion of their minds1 fall into our way of interpretation without the aid of any art4 ,for interpretation is the true and natural act of the mind1 when all obstacles are removed3 certainly1 however1 everything will be more ready and better fixed by our precepts4 ,yet do we not affirm that no addition can be made to them2 on the contrary1 considering the mind in its connection with things1 and not merely relatively to its own powers1 we ought to be persuaded that the art of invention can be made to grow with the inventions themselves4 ,,footnotes #b ,bacon uses the term in its ancient sense1 and means one who1 knowing the occult properties of bodies1 is able to startle the ignorant by drawing out of them wonderful and unforeseen changes4 ,see the #heth aphorism of this book1 and the #eth cap4 book iii4 of the ,de ,augmentis ,scientiarum1 where he speaks more clearly4--,ed4 #c ,by this term axiomata1 ,bacon here speaks of general principles1 or universal laws4 ,in the #aith aphorism he employs the term to express any proposition collected from facts by induction1 and thus fitted to become the starting-point of deductive reasoning4 ,in the last and more rigorous sense of the term1 ,bacon held they arose from experience4 ,see ,whewell's 8,philosophy of the ,inductive ,sciences10 vol4 i4 p4 #gd2 and ,mill's 8,logic10 vol4 i4 p4 #caa2 and the ,june 8,quarterly10 #ahda1 for the modern phase of the discussion4--,ed4 #d ,bacon here attributes to the ,aristotelian logic the erroneous consequences which sprung out of its abuse4 ,the demonstrative forms it exhibits1 whether verbally or mathematically expressed1 are necessary to the support1 verification1 and extension of induction1 and when the propositions they embrace are founded on an accurate and close observation of facts1 the conclusions to which they lead1 even in moral science1 may be regarded as certain as the facts wrested out of nature by direct experiment4 ,in physics such forms are absolutely required to generalize the results of experience1 and to connect intermediate axioms with laws still more general1 as is sufficiently attested by the fact1 that no science since ,bacon's day has ceased to be experimental by the mere method of induction1 and that all become exact only so far as they rise above experience1 and connect their isolated phenomena with general laws by the principles of deductive reasoning4 ,so far1 then1 are these forms from being useless1 that they are absolutely essential to the advancement of the sciences1 and in no case can be looked on as detrimental1 except when obtruded in the place of direct experiment1 or employed as a means of deducing conclusions about nature from imaginary hypotheses and abstract conceptions4 ,this had been unfortunately the practice of the ,greeks4 ,from the rapid development geometry received in their hands1 they imagined the same method would lead to results equally brilliant in natural science1 and snatching up some abstract principle1 which they carefully removed from the test of experiment1 imagined they could reason out from it all the laws and external appearances of the universe4 ,the scholastics were impelled along the same path1 not only by precedent1 but by profession4 ,theology was the only science which received from them a consistent development1 and the priori grounds on which it rested prevented them from employing any other method in the pursuit of natural phenomena4 ,thus1 forms of demonstration1 in themselves accurate1 and of momentous value in their proper sphere1 became confounded with fable1 and led men into the idea they were exploring truth when they were only accurately deducing error from error4 ,one principle ever so slightly deflected1 like a false quantity in an equation1 could be sufficient to infect the whole series of conclusions of which it was the base2 and though the philosopher might subsequently deduce a thousand consecutive inferences with the utmost accuracy or precision1 he would only succeed in drawing out very methodically nine hundred and ninety-nine errors4--,ed4 #e ,it would appear from this and the two preceding aphorisms1 that ,bacon fell into the error of denying the utility of the syllogism in the very part of inductive science where it is essentially required4 ,logic1 like mathematics1 is purely a formal process1 and must1 as the scaffolding to the building1 be employed to arrange facts in the structure of a science1 and not to form any portion of its groundwork1 or to supply the materials of which the system is to be composed4 ,the word syllogism1 like most other psychological terms1 has no fixed or original signification1 but is sometimes employed1 as it was by the ,greeks1 to denote general reasoning1 and at others to point out the formal method of deducing a particular inference from two or more general propositions4 ,bacon does not confine the term within the boundaries of express definition1 but leaves us to infer that he took it in the latter sense1 from his custom of associating the term with the wranglings of the schools4 ,the scholastics1 it is true1 abused the deductive syllogism1 by employing it in its naked1 skeleton-like form1 and confounding it with the whole breadth of logical theory2 but their errors are not to be visited on ,aristotle1 who never dreamed of playing with formal syllogisms1 and1 least of all1 mistook the descending for the ascending series of inference4 ,in our mind we are of accord with the ,stagyrite1 who propounds1 as far as we can interpret him1 two modes of investigating truth--the one by which we ascend from particular and singular facts to general laws and axioms1 and the other by which we descend from universal propositions to the individual cases which they virtually include4 ,logic1 therefore1 must equally vindicate the formal purity of the synthetic illation by which it ascends to the whole1 as the analytic process by which it descends to the parts4 ,the deductive and inductive syllogism are of equal significance in building up any body of truth1 and whoever restricts logic to either process1 mistakes one-half of its province for the whole2 and if he acts upon his error1 will paralyze his methods1 and strike the noblest part of science with sterility4--,ed4 #f ,the ,latin is1 ad ea qu revera sunt natur notiora4 ,this expression1 natur notiora1 natur notior1 is so frequently employed by ,bacon1 that we may conclude it to point to some distinguishing feature in the ,baconian physics4 ,it properly refers to the most evident principles and laws of nature1 and springs from that system which regards the material universe as endowed with intelligence1 and acting according to rules either fashioned or clearly understood by itself4--,ed4 #g ,this ,borgia was ,alexander ,,vi41 and the expedition alluded to that in which ,charles ,,viii4 overran the ,italian peninsula in five months4 ,bacon uses the same illustration in concluding his survey of natural philosophy1 in the second book of the 8,de ,augmentis40--,ed4 #h ,ratio eorum qui acatalepsiam tenuerunt4 ,bacon alludes to the members of the later academy1 who held the 1 or the impossibility of comprehending anything4 ,his translator1 however1 makes him refer to the sceptics1 who neither dogmatized about the known or the unknown1 but simply held1 that as all knowledge was relative1 1 man could never arrive at absolute truth1 and therefore could not with certainty affirm or deny anything4--,ed4 #i ,it is argued by ,hallam1 with some appearance of truth1 that idols is not the correct translation of 1 from which the original idola is manifestly derived2 but that ,bacon used it in the literal sense attached to it by the ,greeks1 as a species of illusion1 or false appearance1 and not as a species of divinity before which the mind bows down4 ,if ,hallam be right1 ,bacon is saved from the odium of an analogy which his foreign commentators are not far wrong in denouncing as barbarous2 but this service is rendered at the expense of the men who have attached an opposite meaning to the word1 among whom are ,brown1 ,playfair and ,dugald ,stewart4--,ed4 #aj ,we cannot see how these idols have less to do with sophistical paralogisms than with natural philosophy4 ,the process of scientific induction involves only the first elements of reasoning1 and presents such a clear and tangible surface1 as to allow no lurking-place for prejudice2 while questions of politics and morals1 to which the deductive method1 or common logic1 as ,bacon calls it1 is peculiarly applicable1 are ever liable to be swayed or perverted by the prejudices he enumerates4 ,after mathematics1 physical science is the least amenable to the illusions of feeling2 each portion having been already tested by experiment and observation1 is fitted into its place in the system1 with all the rigor of the geometrical method2 affection or prejudice cannot1 as in matters of taste1 history or religion1 select fragmentary pieces1 and form a system of their own4 ,the whole must be admitted1 or the structure of authoritative reason razed to the ground4 ,it is needless to say that the idols enumerated present only another interpretation of the substance of logical fallacies4--,ed4 #aa ,the propensity to this illusion may be viewed in the spirit of system1 or hasty generalization1 which is still one of the chief obstacles in the path of modern science4--,ed4 #ab ,though ,kepler had1 when ,bacon wrote this1 already demonstrated his three great laws concerning the elliptical path of the planets1 neither ,bacon nor ,descartes seems to have known or assented to his discoveries4 ,our author deemed the startling astronomical announcements of his time to be mere theoretic solutions of the phenomena of the heavens1 not so perfect as those advanced by antiquity1 but still deserving a praise for the ingenuity displayed in their contrivance4 ,bacon believed a hundred such systems might exist1 and though true in their explanation of phenomena1 yet might all more or less differ1 according to the preconceived notions which their framers brought to the survey of the heavens4 ,he even thought he might put in his claim to the notice of posterity for his astronomical ingenuity1 and1 as ,ptolemy had labored by means of epicycles and eccentrics1 and ,kepler with ellipses1 to explain the laws of planetary motion1 ,bacon thought the mystery would unfold itself quite as philosophically through spiral labyrinths and serpentine lines4 ,what the details of his system were1 we are left to conjecture1 and that from a very meagre but nave account of one of his inventions which he has left in his ,miscellany ,,mss4--,ed4 #ac ,hinc elementum ignis cum orbe suo introductum est4 ,bacon saw in fire the mere result of a certain combination of action1 and was consequently led to deny its elementary character4 ,the ancient physicists attributed an orbit to each of the four elements1 into which they resolved the universe1 and supposed their spheres to involve each other4 ,the orbit of the earth was in the centre1 that of fire at the circumference4 ,for ,bacon's inquisition into the nature of heat1 and its complete failure1 see the commencement of the second book of the ,novum ,organum4--,ed4 #ad ,robert ,fludd is the theorist alluded to1 who had supposed the gravity of the earth to be ten times heavier than water1 that of water ten times heavier than air1 and that of air ten times heavier than fire4--,ed4 #ae ,diagoras4 ,the same allusion occurs in the second part of the ,advancement of ,learning1 where ,bacon treats of the idols of the mind4 #af ,a scholastic term1 to signify the two eternities of past and future duration1 that stretch out on both sides of the narrow isthmus 7time7 occupied by man4 ,it must be remembered that ,bacon lived before the doctrine of limits gave rise to the higher calculus1 and therefore could have no conception of different denominations of infinities3 on the other hand he would have thought the man insane who should have talked to him about lines infinitely great1 inclosing angles infinitely little2 that a right line1 which is a right line so long as it is finite1 by changing infinitely little its direction1 becomes an infinite curve1 and that a curve may become infinitely less than another curve2 that there are infinite squares and infinite cubes1 and infinites of infinites1 all greater than one another1 and the last but one of which is nothing in comparison with the last4 ,yet half a century sufficed from ,bacon's time1 to make this nomenclature1 which would have appeared to him the excess of frenzy1 not only reasonable but necessary1 to grasp the higher demonstrations of physical science4--,ed4 #ag ,spinoza1 in his letter to ,oldenberg 7,op4 ,posth4 p4 #cih71 considers this aphorism based on a wrong conception of the origin of error1 and1 believing it to be fundamental1 was led to reject ,bacon's method altogether4 ,spinoza refused to acknowledge in man any such thing as a will1 and resolved all his volitions into particular acts1 which he considered to be as fatally determined by a chain of physical causes as any effects in nature4--,ed4 #ah ,operatio spirituum in corporibus tangibilibus4 ,bacon distinguished with the schools the gross and tangible parts of bodies1 from such as were volatile and intangible4 ,these1 in conformity with the scholastic language1 he terms spirits1 and frequently returns to their operations in the #b;d book4--,ed4 #ai ,democritus1 of ,abdera1 a disciple of ,leucippus1 born ,b4,c4 #dgj1 died #cfj2 all his works are destroyed4 ,he is said to be the author of the doctrine of atoms3 he denied the immortality of the soul1 and first taught that the milky way was occasioned by a confused light from a multitude of stars4 ,he may be considered as the parent of experimental philosophy1 in the prosecution of which he was so ardent as to declare that he would prefer the discovery of one of the causes of natural phenomena1 to the possession of the diadem of ,persia4 ,democritus imposed on the blind credulity of his contemporaries1 and1 like ,roger ,bacon1 astonished them by his inventions4--,ed4 #bj ,the ,latin is actus purus1 another scholastic expression to denote the action of the substance1 which composes the essence of the body apart from its accidental qualities4 ,for an exposition of the various kinds of motions he contemplates1 the reader may refer to the #dhth aphorism of the #b;d book4--,ed4 #ba ,the scholastics after ,aristotle distinguished in a subject three modes of beings3 viz41 the power or faculty1 the act1 and the habitude1 or in other words that which is able to exist1 what exists actually1 and what continues to exist4 ,bacon means that is necessary to fix our attention not on that which can or ought to be1 but on that which actually is2 not on the right1 but on the fact4--,ed4 #bb ,the inference to be drawn from this is to suspect that kind of evidence which is most consonant to our inclinations1 and not to admit any notion as real except we can base it firmly upon that kind of demonstration which is peculiar to the subject1 not to our impression4 ,sometimes the mode of proof may be consonant to our inclinations1 and to the subject at the same time1 as in the case of ,pythagoras1 when he applied his beloved numbers to the solution of astronomical phenomena2 or in that of ,descartes1 when he reasoned geometrically concerning the nature of the soul4 ,such examples cannot be censured with justice1 inasmuch as the methods pursued were adapted to the end of the inquiry4 ,the remark in the text can only apply to those philosophers who attempt to build up a moral or theological system by the instruments of induction alone1 or who rush1 with the geometrical axiom1 and the priori syllogism1 to the investigation of nature4 ,the means in such cases are totally inadequate to the object in view4--,ed4 #bc ,gilbert lived toward the close of the sixteenth century1 and was court physician to both ,elizabeth and ,james4 ,in his work alluded to in the text he continually asserts the advantages of the experimental over the priori method in physical inquiry1 and succeeded when his censor failed in giving a practical example of the utility of his precepts4 ,his 8,de ,magnete0 contains all the fundamental parts of the science1 and these so perfectly treated1 that we have nothing to add to them at the present day4 ,gilbert adopted the ,copernican system1 and even spoke of the contrary theory as utterly absurd1 grounding his argument on the vast velocities which such a supposition requires us to ascribe to the heavenly bodies4--,ed4 #bd ,the ,latin text adds 8without end02 but ,bacon is scarcely right in supposing that the descent from complex ideas and propositions to those of simple nature1 involve the analyst in a series of continuous and interminable definitions4 ,for in the gradual and analytical scale1 there is a bar beyond which we cannot go1 as there is a summit bounded by the limited variations of our conceptions4 ,logical definitions1 to fulfil their conditions1 or indeed to be of any avail1 must be given in simpler terms than the object which is sought to be defined2 now this1 in the case of primordial notions and objects of sense1 is impossible2 therefore we are obliged to rest satisfied with the mere names of our perceptions4--,ed4 #be ,the ancients supposed the planets to describe an exact circle round the south4 ,as observations increased and facts were disclosed1 which were irreconcilable with this supposition1 the earth was removed from the centre to some other point in the circle1 and the planets were supposed to revolve in a smaller circle 7epicycle7 round an imaginary point1 which in its turn described a circle of which the earth was the centre4 ,in proportion as observation elicited fresh facts1 contradictory to these representations1 other epicycles and eccentrics were added1 involving additional confusion4 ,though ,kepler had swept away all these complicated theories in the preceding century1 by the demonstration of his three laws1 which established the elliptical course of the planets1 ,bacon regarded him and ,copernicus in the same light as ,ptolemy and ,xenophanes4--,ed4 #bf ,empedocles1 of ,agrigentum1 flourished #ddd ,b4,c4 ,he was the disciple of ,telanges the ,pythagorean1 and warmly adopted the doctrine of transmigration4 ,he resolved the universe into the four ordinary elements1 the principles of whose composition were life and happiness1 or concord and amity1 but whose decomposition brought forth death and evil1 or discord and hatred4 ,heraclitus held matter to be indifferent to any peculiar form1 but as it became rarer or more dense1 it took the appearance of fire1 air1 earth and water4 ,fire1 however1 he believed to be the elementary principle out of which the others were evolved4 ,this was also the belief of ,lucretius4 ,see book i4 #ghc1 etc4 #bg ,it is thus the ,vulcanists and ,neptunians have framed their opposite theories in geology4 ,phrenology is a modern instance of hasty generalization4--,ed4 #bh ,in ,scripture everything which concerns the passing interests of the body is called dead2 the only living knowledge having regard to the eternal interest of the soul4--,ed4 #bi ,in mechanics and the general sciences1 causes compound their effects1 or in other words1 it is generally possible to deduce priori the consequence of introducing complex agencies into any experiment1 by allowing for the effect of each of the simple causes which enter into their composition4 ,in chemistry and physiology a contrary law holds2 the causes which they embody generally uniting to form distinct substances1 and to introduce unforeseen laws and combinations4 ,the deductive method here is consequently inapplicable1 and we are forced back upon experiment4 ,bacon in the text is hardly consistent with himself1 as he admits in the second book the doctrine1 to which modern discovery points1 of the reciprocal transmutation of the elements4 ,what seemed poetic fiction in the theories of ,pythagoras and ,seneca1 assumes the appearance of scientific fact in the hands of ,baron ,caynard4--,ed4 #cj ,galileo had recently adopted the notion that nature abhorred a vacuum for an axiomatic principle1 and it was not till ,torricelli1 his disciple1 had given practical proof of the utility of ,bacon's method1 by the discovery of the barometer 7#afdc7 that this error1 as also that expressed below1 and believed by ,bacon1 concerning the homopathic tendencies of bodies1 was destroyed4--,ed4 #ca ,donec ad materiam potentialem et informem ventum fuerit4 ,nearly all the ancient philosophers admitted the existence of a certain primitive and shapeless matter as the substratum of things which the creative power had reduced to fixed proportions1 and resolved into specific substances4 ,the expression potential matter refers to that substance forming the basis of the ,peripatetic system1 which virtually contained all the forms that it was in the power of the efficient cause to draw out of it4--,ed4 #cb ,an allusion to the humanity of the ,sultans1 who1 in their earlier histories are represented as signalizing their accession to the throne by the destruction of their family1 to remove the danger of rivalry and the terrors of civil war4--,ed4 #cc ,the text is 8in odium veterum sophistarum1 ,protagor1 ,hippi1 et reliquorum40 ,those were called sophists1 who1 ostentationis aut questus causa philosophabantur4 7,acad4 ,prior4 ii4 #gb47 ,they had corrupted and degraded philosophy before ,socrates4 ,protagoras of ,abdera 771 the most celebrated1 taught that man is the measure of all things1 by which he meant not only that all which can be known is known only as it related to our faculties1 but also that apart from our faculties nothing can be known4 ,the sceptics equally held that knowledge was probable only as it related to our faculties1 but they stopped there1 and did not1 like the sophist1 dogmatize about the unknown4 ,the works of ,protagoras were condemned for their impiety1 and publicly burned by the diles of ,athens1 who appear to have discharged the office of common hangmen to the literary blasphemers of their day4--,ed4 #cd ,bacon is hardly correct in implying that the enumerationem per simplicem was the only light in which the ancients looked upon induction1 as they appear to have regarded it as only one1 and that the least important1 of its species4 ,aristotle expressly considers induction in a perfect or dialectic sense1 and in an imperfect or rhetorical sense4 ,thus if a genus 7,g71 contains four species 7,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d71 the syllogism would lead us to infer1 that what is true of ,g1 is true of any one of the four4 ,but perfect induction would reason1 that what we can prove of ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 separately1 we may properly state as true of ,g1 the whole genus4 ,this is evidently a formal argument as demonstrative as the syllogism4 ,in necessary matters1 however1 legitimate induction may claim a wider province1 and infer of the whole genus what is only apparent in a part of the species4 ,such are those inductive inferences which concern the laws of nature1 the immutability of forms1 by which ,bacon strove to erect his new system of philosophy4 ,the ,stagyrite1 however1 looked upon enumerationem per simplicem1 without any regard to the nature of the matter1 or to the completeness of the species1 with as much reprehensive caution as ,bacon1 and guarded his readers against it as the source of innumerable errors4--,ed4 #ce ,see ,ax4 lxi4 toward the end4 ,this subject extends to ,ax4 lxxviii4 #cf ,gorgias of ,leontium went to ,athens in #dbd ,b4,c4 ,he and ,polus were disciples of ,empedocles1 whom we have already noticed 7,aphorism #fc71 where he sustained the three famous propositions1 that nothing exists1 that nothing can be known1 and that it is out of the power of man to transmit or communicate intelligence4 ,he is reckoned one of the earliest writers on the art of rhetoric1 and for that reason1 ,plato called his elegant dialogue on that subject after his name4 #cg ,chrysippus1 a stoic philosopher of ,soli in ,cilicia1 ,campestris1 born in #bhj1 died in the #adc;d ,olympiad1 #bjh ,b4,c4 ,he was equally distinguished for natural abilities and industry1 seldom suffering a day to elapse without writing #ejj lines4 ,he wrote several hundred volumes1 of which three hundred were on logical subjects2 but in all1 borrowed largely from others4 ,he was very fond of the sorites in argument1 which is hence called by ,persius the heap of ,chrysippus4 ,he was called the ,column of the ,portico1 a name given to the ,stoical ,school from ,zeno1 its founder1 who had given his lessons under the portico4 ,carneades1 born about #bae1 died in #acj4 ,he attached himself to ,chrysippus1 and sustained with clat the scepticism of the academy4 ,the ,athenians sent him with ,critolaus and ,diogenes as ambassador to ,rome1 where he attracted the attention of his new auditory by the subtilty of his reasoning1 and the fluency and vehemence of his language4 ,before ,galba and ,cato the ,censor1 he harangued with great variety of thought and copiousness of diction in praise of justice4 ,the next day1 to establish his doctrine of the uncertainty of human knowledge1 he undertook to refute all his arguments4 ,he maintained with the ,new ,academy1 that the senses1 the imagination1 and the understanding frequently deceive us1 and therefore cannot be infallible judges of truth1 but that from the impressions produced on the mind by means of the senses1 we infer appearances of truth or probabilities4 ,nevertheless1 with respect to the conduct of life1 ,carneades held that probable opinions are a sufficient guide4 ,xenophanes1 a ,greek philosopher1 of ,colophon1 born in #eef1 the founder of the ,eleatic school1 which owes its fame principally to ,parmenides4 ,wild in his opinions about astronomy1 he supposed that the stars were extinguished every morning1 and rekindled at night2 that eclipses were occasioned by the temporary extinction of the sun1 and that there were several suns for the convenience of the different climates of the earth4 ,yet this man held the chair of philosophy at ,athens for seventy years4 ,philolaus1 a ,pythagorean philosopher of ,crotona1 ,b4,c4 #cgd4 ,he first supported the diurnal motion of the earth round its axis1 and its annual motion round the sun4 ,cicero 7,acad4 iv4 #ci7 has ascribed this opinion to the ,syracusan philosopher ,nicetas1 and likewise to ,plato4 ,from this passage1 it is most probable that ,copernicus got the idea of the system he afterward established4 ,bacon1 in the ,advancement of ,human ,learning1 charges ,gilbert with restoring the doctrines of ,philolaus1 because he ventured to support the ,copernican theory4--,ed4 #ch ,bacon is equally conspicuous for the use and abuse of analogical illustrations4 ,the levity1 as ,stuart ,mill very properly observes1 by which substances float on a stream1 and the levity which is synonymous with worthlessness1 have nothing beside the name in common2 and to show how little value there is in the figure1 we need only change the word into buoyancy1 to turn the semblance of ,bacon's argument against himself4--,ed4 #ci ,we have before observed1 that the ,new ,academy did not profess skepticism1 but the 1 or incomprehensibility of the absolute essences of things4 ,even modern physicists are not wanting1 to assert with this school that the utmost knowledge we can obtain is relative1 and necessarily short of absolute certainty4 ,it is not without an appearance of truth that these philosophers maintain that our ideas and perceptions do not express the nature of the things which they represent1 but only the effects of the peculiar organs by which they are conveyed to the understanding1 so that were these organs changed1 we should have different conceptions of their nature4 ,that constitution of air which is dark to man is luminous to bats and owls4 #dj ,owing to the universal prevalence of ,aristotelism4 #da ,it must be remembered1 that when ,bacon wrote1 algebra was in its infancy1 and the doctrine of units and infinitesimals undiscovered4 #db ,because the vulgar make up the overwhelming majority in such decisions1 and generally allow their judgments to be swayed by passion or prejudice4 #dc ,see end of ,axiom lxi4 ,the subject extends to ,axiom xc4 #dd ,if we adopt the statement of ,herodotus1 who places the ,homeric era #djj years back from his time1 ,homer lived about #ijj years before ,christ4 ,on adding this number to the sixteen centuries of the ,christian era which had elapsed up to ,bacon's time1 we get the twenty-five centuries he mentions4 ,the ,homeric epoch is the furthest point in antiquity from which ,bacon could reckon with any degree of certainty4 ,hesiod1 if he were not contemporary1 immediately preceded him4 ,the epoch of ,greek philosophy may be included between ,thales and ,plato1 that is1 from the #ceth to the #hhth ,olympiad2 that of the ,roman1 between ,terence and ,pliny4 ,the modern revolution1 in which ,bacon is one of the central figures1 took its rise from the time of ,dante and ,petrarch1 who lived at the commencement of the fourteenth century2 and to which1 on account of the invention of printing1 and the universal spread of literature1 which has rendered a second destruction of learning impossible1 it is difficult to foresee any other end than the extinction of the race of man4--,ed4 #de ,the allusion is evidently to ,roger ,bacon and ,rn ,descartes4--,ed4 #df ,from the abuse of the scholastics1 who mistook the priori method1 the deductive syllogism1 for the entire province of logic4--,ed4 #dg ,see ,aphorism xcv4 #dh ,the incongruity to which ,bacon alludes appears to spring from confounding two things1 which are not only distinct1 but affect human knowledge in inverse proportion1 viz41 the experience which terminates with life1 with that experience which one century transmits to another4--,ed4 #di ,the ,chinese characters resemble1 in many respects1 the hieroglyphics of the ,egyptians1 being adapted to represent ideas1 not sounds4 #ej ,see ,axiom #ge4 #ea ,the methods by which ,newton carried the rule and compass to the boundaries of creation is a sufficient comment on the sagacity of the text4 ,the same cause which globulizes a bubble1 has rounded the earth1 and the same law which draws a stone to its surface1 keeps the moon in her orbit4 ,it was by calculating and ascertaining these principles upon substances entirely at his disposal that this great philosopher was enabled to give us a key to unlock the mysteries of the universe4--,ed4 #eb ,see the 8,clouds0 of ,aristophanes1 where ,socrates is represented as chasing ,jupiter out of the sky1 by resolving thunderstorms into arial concussions and whirlwinds4--,ed4 #ec ,robespierre was the latest victim of this bigotry4 ,in his younger days he attempted to introduce ,franklin's lightning conductor into ,france1 but was persecuted by those whose lives he sought to protect1 as one audaciously striving to avert the designs of ,providence4--,ed4 #ed ,we can hardly agree with the text4 ,the scholastics1 in building up a system of divinity1 certainly had recourse to the deductive syllogism1 because the inductive was totally inapplicable1 except as a verificatory process4 ,with regard to the technical form in which they marshalled their arguments1 which is what our author aims at in his censure1 they owed nothing at all to ,aristotle1 the conducting a dispute in naked syllogistic fashion having originated entirely with themselves4--,ed4 #ee ,bacon cannot be supposed to allude to those divines who have attempted to show that the progress of physical science is confirmatory of revelation1 but only to such as have built up a system of faith out of their own refinements on nature and revelation1 as ,patricius and ,emanuel ,swedenborg4--,ed4 #ef ,daniel xii4 #d4 #eg ,bacon1 in this ,aphorism1 appears to have entertained a fair idea of the use of the inductive and deductive methods in scientific inquiry1 though his want of geometrical knowledge must have hindered him from accurately determining the precise functions of each1 as it certainly led him in other parts of the ,organon 7,v4 ,aph4 #hb71 to undervalue the deductive1 and1 as he calls it1 the dogmatic method1 and to rely too much upon empiricism4--,ed4 #eh ,the reader may consult the note of the #bc;d ,aphorism for the fault which ,bacon censures1 and1 if he wish to pursue the subject further1 may read ,plato's ,timus1 where that philosopher explains his system in detail4 ,bacon1 however1 is hardly consistent in one part of his censure1 for he also talks about the spirit and appetites of inanimate substances1 and that so frequently1 as to preclude the supposition that he is employing metaphor4--,ed4 #ei ,proclus flourished about the beginning of the fifth century1 and was the successor of ,plotinus1 ,porphyry and ,iamblicus1 who1 in the two preceding centuries1 had revived the doctrines of ,plato1 and assailed the ,christian religion4 ,the allusion in the text must be assigned to ,iamblicus1 who1 in the fourth century1 had republished the ,pythagorean theology of numbers1 and endeavored to construct the world out of arithmetic1 thinking everything could be solved by the aid of proportions and geometry4 ,bacon must not be understood in the text to censure the use but the abuse of mathematics and physical investigations1 as in the 8,de ,augmentis0 7lib4 iv4 c4 #f71 he enumerates the multiplicity of demonstration scientific facts admit of1 from this source4--,ed4 #fj ,see ,livy1 lib4 ix4 c4 #ag1 where1 in a digression on the probable effect of a contest between ,rome and ,alexander the ,great1 he says3 8,non cum ,dario rem esse dixisset3 quem mulierum ac spadonum agmen trahentem inter purpuram atque aurum1 oneratum fortun apparatibus1 prdam veris quam hostem1 nihil aliud quam ausus vana contemnere1 incruentus devicit40 #fa ,the lowest axioms are such as spring from simple experience--such as in chemistry1 that animal substances yield no fixed salt by calcination2 in music1 that concords intermixed with discords make harmony1 etc4 ,intermediate axioms advance a step further1 being the result of reflection1 which1 applied to our experimental knowledge1 deduces laws from them1 such as in optics of the first degree of generality1 that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection2 and in mechanics1 ,kepler's three laws of motion1 while his general law1 that all bodies attract each other with forces proportional to their masses1 and inversely as the squares of their distances1 may be taken as one of the highest axioms4 ,yet so far is this principle from being only notional or abstract1 it has presented us with a key which fits into the intricate wards of the heavens1 and has laid bare to our gaze the principal mechanism of the universe4 ,but natural philosophy in ,bacon's day had not advanced beyond intermediate axioms1 and the term notional or abstract is applied to those general axioms then current1 not founded on the solid principles of inductive inquiry1 but based upon priori reasoning and airy metaphysics4--,ed4 #fb ,this hope has been abundantly realized in the discovery of gravity and the decomposition of light1 mainly by the inductive method4 ,to a better philosophy we may also attribute the discovery of electricity1 galvanism and their mutual connection with each other1 and magnetism1 the inventions of the air-pump1 steam-engine and the chronometer4 #fc ,as ,bacon very frequently cites these authors1 a slight notice of their labors may not be unacceptable to the reader4 ,bernardinus ,telesius1 born at ,cosenza1 in #aejh1 combated the ,aristotelian system in a work entitled 8,de ,rerum ,natura juxta propria principia10 i4e41 according to principles of his own4 ,the proem of the work announces his design was to show that 8the construction of the world1 the magnitude and nature of the bodies contained in it1 are not to be investigated by reasoning1 which was done by the ancients1 but are to be apprehended by the senses1 and collected from the things themselves40 ,he had1 however1 no sooner laid down this principle than he departed from it in practice1 and pursued the deductive method he so much condemned in his predecessors4 ,his first step was an assumption of principles as arbitrary as any of the empirical notions of antiquity2 at the outset of his book he very quietly takes it for granted that heat is the principle of motion1 cold of immobility1 matter being assumed as the corporeal substratum1 in which these incorporeal and active agents carry on their operations4 ,out of these abstract and ill-defined conceptions ,telesius builds up a system quite as complete1 symmetrical1 and imaginative as any of the structures of antiquity4 ,francis ,patricius1 born at ,cherso1 in ,dalmatia1 about #aebi1 was another physicist who rose up against ,aristotle1 and announced the dawn of a new philosophy4 ,in #aeic appeared his 8,nova de ,universis ,philosophia40 ,he lays down a string of axioms1 in which scholastic notions1 physical discoveries1 and theological dogmas1 are strangely commingled1 and erects upon them a system which represents all the grotesque features of theological empiricism4 ,severinus1 born in ,jutland1 in #aebi1 published an attack on ,aristotle's natural history1 but adopted fantasies which the ,stagyrite ridiculed in his own day4 ,he was a follower of ,paracelsus1 a ,swiss enthusiast of the fifteenth century1 who ignored the ancient doctrine of the four elements for salt1 sulphur and mercury1 and allied chemistry and medicine with mysticism4--,ed4 #fd ,bacon's apology is sound1 and completely answers those ,german and ,french critics1 who have refused him a niche in the philosophical pantheon4 ,one ,german commentator1 too modest to reveal his name1 accuses ,bacon of ignorance of the calculus1 though1 in his day1 ,wallis had not yet stumbled upon the laws of continuous fractions2 while ,count de ,maistre1 in a coarse attack upon his genius1 expresses his astonishment at finding ,bacon unacquainted with discoveries which were not heard of till a century after his death4--,ed4 #fe ,philip of ,macedon4 #ff ,see ,plato's ,timus4 #fg ,the saying of ,philocrates when he differed from ,demosthenes4--,ed4 #fh ,the old error of placing the deductive syllogism in antagonism to the inductive1 as if they were not both parts of one system or refused to cohere together4 ,so far from there being any radical opposition between them1 it would not be difficult to show that ,bacon's method was syllogistic in his sense of the term4 ,for the suppressed premise of every ,baconian enthymeme1 viz41 the acknowledged uniformity of the laws of nature as stated in the axiom1 whatever has once occurred will occur again1 must be assumed as the basis of every conclusion which he draws before we can admit its legitimacy4 ,the opposition1 therefore1 of ,bacon's method could not be directed against the old logic1 for it assumed and exemplified its principles1 but rather to the abusive application which the ancients made of this science1 on turning its powers to the development of abstract principles which they imagined to be pregnant with the solution of the latent mysteries of the universe4 ,bacon justly overthrew these ideal notions1 and accepted of no principle as a basis which was not guaranteed by actual experiment and observation2 and so far he laid the foundations of a sound philosophy by turning the inductive logic to its proper account in the interpretation of nature4 #fi ,this is the opening of the ,sixth ,book of ,lucretius4 ,bacon probably quoted from memory2 the lines are-- 8,prim frugiferos ftus mortalibus gris ,dididerunt quondam prclaro nomine ,athen ,et recreaverunt10 etc4 ,the teeming corn1 that feeble mortals crave1 ,first1 and long since1 renowned ,athens gave1 ,and cheered their life--then taught to frame their laws4 #gj ,prov4 xxv4 #b4 ,,aphorisms--,,book ,,ii ,,on ,,the ,,interpretation ,,of ,,nature1 ,,or ,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,man ,i4 ,to generate and superinduce a new nature or new natures1 upon a given body1 is the labor and aim of human power3 while to discover the form or true difference of a given nature1 or the nature#ga to which such nature is owing1 or source from which it emanates 7for these terms approach nearest to an explanation of our meaning71 is the labor and discovery of human knowledge2 and subordinate to these primary labors are two others of a secondary nature and inferior stamp4 ,under the first must be ranked the transformation of concrete bodies from one to another1 which is possible within certain limits2 under the second1 the discovery1 in every species of generation and motion1 of the latent and uninterrupted process from the manifest efficient and manifest subject matter up to the given form3 and a like discovery of the latent conformation of bodies which are at rest instead of being in motion4 ,,ii4 ,the unhappy state of man's actual knowledge is manifested even by the common assertions of the vulgar4 ,it is rightly laid down that true knowledge is that which is deduced from causes4 ,the division of four causes also is not amiss3 matter1 form1 the efficient1 and end or final cause4#gb ,of these1 however1 the latter is so far from being beneficial1 that it even corrupts the sciences1 except in the intercourse of man with man4 ,the discovery of form is considered desperate4 ,as for the efficient cause and matter 7according to the present system of inquiry and the received opinions concerning them1 by which they are placed remote from1 and without any latent process toward form71 they are but desultory and superficial1 and of scarcely any avail to real and active knowledge4 ,nor are we unmindful of our having pointed out and corrected above the error of the human mind1 in assigning the first qualities of essence to forms4#gc ,for although nothing exists in nature except individual bodies1#gd exhibiting clear individual effects according to particular laws1 yet in each branch of learning1 that very law1 its investigation1 discovery1 and development1 are the foundation both of theory and practice4 ,this law1 therefore1 and its parallel in each science1 is what we understand by the term form1#ge adopting that word because it has grown into common use1 and is of familiar occurrence4 ,,iii4 ,he who has learned the cause of a particular nature 7such as whiteness or heat71 in particular subjects only1 has acquired but an imperfect knowledge3 as he who can induce a certain effect upon particular substances only1 among those which are susceptible of it1 has acquired but an imperfect power4 ,but he who has only learned the efficient and material cause 7which causes are variable and mere vehicles conveying form to particular substances7 may perhaps arrive at some new discoveries in matters of a similar nature1 and prepared for the purpose1 but does not stir the limits of things which are much more deeply rooted2 while he who is acquainted with forms1 comprehends the unity of nature in substances apparently most distinct from each other4 ,he can disclose and bring forward1 therefore 7though it has never yet been done71 things which neither the vicissitudes of nature1 nor the industry of experiment1 nor chance itself1 would ever have brought about1 and which would forever have escaped man's thoughts2 from the discovery of forms1 therefore1 results genuine theory and free practice4 ,,iv4 ,although there is a most intimate connection1 and almost an identity between the ways of human power and human knowledge1 yet1 on account of the pernicious and inveterate habit of dwelling upon abstractions1 it is by far the safest method to commence and build up the sciences from those foundations which bear a relation to the practical division1 and to let them mark out and limit the theoretical4 ,we must consider1 therefore1 what precepts1 or what direction or guide1 a person would most desire1 in order to generate and superinduce any nature upon a given body3 and this not in abstruse1 but in the plainest language4 ,for instance1 if a person should wish to superinduce the yellow color of gold upon silver1 or an additional weight 7observing always the laws of matter7 or transparency on an opaque stone1 or tenacity in glass1 or vegetation on a substance which is not vegetable1 we must 7,i say7 consider what species of precept or guide this person would prefer4 ,and1 first1 he will doubtless be anxious to be shown some method that will neither fail in effect1 nor deceive him in the trial of it2 secondly1 he will be anxious that the prescribed method should not restrict him and tie him down to peculiar means1 and certain particular methods of acting2 for he will1 perhaps1 be at loss1 and without the power or opportunity of collecting and procuring such means4 ,now if there be other means and methods 7besides those prescribed7 of creating such a nature1 they will perhaps be of such a kind as are in his power1 yet by the confined limits of the precept he will be deprived of reaping any advantage from them2 thirdly1 he will be anxious to be shown something not so difficult as the required effect itself1 but approaching more nearly to practice4 ,we will lay this down1 therefore1 as the genuine and perfect rule of practice1 that it should be certain1 free and preparatory1 or having relation to practice4 ,and this is the same thing as the discovery of a true form2 for the form of any nature is such1 that when it is assigned the particular nature infallibly follows4 ,it is1 therefore1 always present when that nature is present1 and universally attests such presence1 and is inherent in the whole of it4 ,the same form is of such a character1 that if it be removed the particular nature infallibly vanishes4 ,it is1 therefore1 absent1 whenever that nature is absent1 and perpetually testifies such absence1 and exists in no other nature4 ,lastly1 the true form is such1 that it deduces the particular nature from some source of essence existing in many subjects1 and more known 7as they term it7 to nature1 than the form itself4 ,such1 then1 is our determination and rule with regard to a genuine and perfect theoretical axiom1 that a nature be found convertible with a given nature1 and yet such as to limit the more known nature1 in the manner of a real genus4 ,but these two rules1 the practical and theoretical1 are in fact the same1 and that which is most useful in practice is most correct in theory4 ,v4 ,but the rule or axiom for the transformation of bodies is of two kinds4 ,the first regards the body as an aggregate or combination of simple natures4 ,thus1 in gold are united the following circumstances3 it is yellow1 heavy1 of a certain weight1 malleable and ductile to a certain extent2 it is not volatile1 loses part of its substance by fire1 melts in a particular manner1 is separated and dissolved by particular methods1 and so of the other natures observable in gold4 ,an axiom1 therefore1 of this kind deduces the subject from the forms of simple natures2 for he who has acquired the forms and methods of superinducing yellowness1 weight1 ductility1 stability1 deliquescence1 solution1 and the like1 and their degrees and modes1 will consider and contrive how to unite them in any body1 so as to transform#gf it into gold4 ,and this method of operating belongs to primary action2 for it is the same thing to produce one or many simple natures1 except that man is more confined and restricted in his operations1 if many be required1 on account of the difficulty of uniting many natures together4 ,it must1 however1 be observed1 that this method of operating 7which considers natures as simple though in a concrete body7 sets out from what is constant1 eternal1 and universal in nature1 and opens such broad paths to human power1 as the thoughts of man can in the present state of things scarcely comprehend or figure to itself4 ,the second kind of axiom 7which depends on the discovery of the latent process7 does not proceed by simple natures1 but by concrete bodies1 as they are found in nature and in its usual course4 ,for instance1 suppose the inquiry to be1 from what beginnings1 in what manner1 and by what process gold or any metal or stone is generated from the original menstruum1 or its elements1 up to the perfect mineral3 or1 in like manner1 by what process plants are generated1 from the first concretion of juices in the earth1 or from seeds1 up to the perfect plant1 with the whole successive motion1 and varied and uninterrupted efforts of nature2 and the same inquiry be made as to a regularly deduced system of the generation of animals from coition to birth1 and so on of other bodies4 ,nor is this species of inquiry confined to the mere generation of bodies1 but it is applicable to other changes and labors of nature4 ,for instance1 where an inquiry is made into the whole series and continued operation of the nutritive process1 from the first reception of the food to its complete assimilation to the recipient2#gg or into the voluntary motion of animals1 from the first impression of the imagination1 and the continuous effects of the spirits1 up to the bending and motion of the joints2 or into the free motion of the tongue and lips1 and other accessories which give utterance to articulate sounds4 ,for all these investigations relate to concrete or associated natures artificially brought together1 and take into consideration certain particular and special habits of nature1 and not those fundamental and general laws which constitute forms4 ,it must1 however1 be plainly owned1 that this method appears more prompt and easy1 and of greater promise than the primary one4 ,in like manner the operative branch1 which answers to this contemplative branch1 extends and advances its operation from that which is usually observed in nature1 to other subjects immediately connected with it1 or not very remote from such immediate connection4 ,but the higher and radical operations upon nature depend entirely on the primary axioms4 ,besides1 even where man has not the means of acting1 but only of acquiring knowledge1 as in astronomy 7for man cannot act upon1 change1 or transform the heavenly bodies71 the investigation of facts or truth1 as well as the knowledge of causes and coincidences1 must be referred to those primary and universal axioms that regard simple natures2 such as the nature of spontaneous rotation1 attraction1 or the magnetic force1 and many others which are more common than the heavenly bodies themselves4 ,for let no one hope to determine the question whether the earth or heaven revolve in the diurnal motion1 unless he have first comprehended the nature of spontaneous rotation4 ,,vi4 ,but the latent process of which we speak1 is far from being obvious to men's minds1 beset as they now are4 ,for we mean not the measures1 symptoms1 or degrees of any process which can be exhibited in the bodies themselves1 but simply a continued process1 which1 for the most part1 escapes the observation of the senses4 ,for instance1 in all generations and transformations of bodies1 we must inquire1 what is in the act of being lost and escaping1 what remains1 what is being added1 what is being diluted1 what is being contracted1 what is being united1 what is being separated1 what is continuous1 what is broken off1 what is urging forward1 what impedes1 what predominates1 what is subservient1 and many other circumstances4 ,nor are these inquiries again to be made in the mere generation and transformation of bodies only1 but in all other alterations and fluctuations we must in like manner inquire2 what precedes1 what succeeds1 what is quick1 what is slow1 what produces and what governs motion1 and the like4 ,all which matters are unknown and unattempted by the sciences1 in their present heavy and inactive state4 ,for1 since every natural act is brought about by the smallest efforts1#gh or at least such as are too small to strike our senses1 let no one hope that he will be able to direct or change nature unless he have properly comprehended and observed these efforts4 ,,vii4 ,in like manner1 the investigation and discovery of the latent conformation in bodies is no less new1 than the discovery of the latent process and form4 ,for we as yet are doubtless only admitted to the antechamber of nature1 and do not prepare an entrance into her presence-room4 ,but nobody can endue a given body with a new nature1 or transform it successfully and appropriately into a new body1 without possessing a complete knowledge of the body so to be changed or transformed4 ,for he will run into vain1 or1 at least1 into difficult and perverse methods1 ill adapted to the nature of the body upon which he operates4 ,a clear path1 therefore1 toward this object also must be thrown open1 and well supported4 ,labor is well and usefully bestowed upon the anatomy of organized bodies1 such as those of men and animals1 which appears to be a subtile matter1 and a useful examination of nature4 ,the species of anatomy1 however1 is that of first sight1 open to the senses1 and takes place only in organized bodies4 ,it is obvious1 and of ready access1 when compared with the real anatomy of latent conformation in bodies which are considered similar1 particularly in specific objects and their parts2 as those of iron1 stone1 and the similar parts of plants and animals1 as the root1 the leaf1 the flower1 the flesh1 the blood1 and bones1 etc4 ,yet human industry has not completely neglected this species of anatomy2 for we have an instance of it in the separation of similar bodies by distillation1 and other solutions1 which shows the dissimilarity of the compound by the union of the homogeneous parts4 ,these methods are useful1 and of importance to our inquiry1 although attended generally with fallacy3 for many natures are assigned and attributed to the separate bodies1 as if they had previously existed in the compound1 which1 in reality1 are recently bestowed and superinduced by fire and heat1 and the other modes of separation4 ,besides1 it is1 after all1 but a small part of the labor of discovering the real conformation in the compound1 which is so subtile and nice1 that it is rather confused and lost by the operation of the fire1 than discovered and brought to light4 ,a separation and solution of bodies1 therefore1 is to be effected1 not by fire indeed1 but rather by reasoning and true induction1 with the assistance of experiment1 and by a comparison with other bodies1 and a reduction to those simple natures and their forms which meet1 and are combined in the compound2 and we must assuredly pass from ,vulcan to ,minerva1 if we wish to bring to light the real texture and conformation of bodies1 upon which every occult and 7as it is sometimes called7 specific property and virtue of things depends1 and whence also every rule of powerful change and transformation is deduced4 ,for instance1 we must examine what spirit is in every body1#gi what tangible essence2 whether that spirit is copious and exuberant1 or meagre and scarce1 fine or coarse1 ariform or igniform1 active or sluggish1 weak or robust1 progressive or retrograde1 abrupt or continuous1 agreeing with external and surrounding objects1 or differing from them1 etc4 ,in like manner must we treat tangible essence 7which admits of as many distinctions as the spirit71 and its hairs1 fibres1 and varied texture4 ,again1 the situation of the spirit in the corporeal mass1 its pores1 passages1 veins1 and cells1 and the rudiments or first essays of the organic body1 are subject to the same examination4 ,in these1 however1 as in our former inquiries1 and therefore in the whole investigation of latent conformation1 the only genuine and clear light which completely dispels all darkness and subtile difficulties1 is admitted by means of the primary axioms4 ,,viii4 ,this method will not bring us to atoms1#hj which takes for granted the vacuum1 and immutability of matter 7neither of which hypotheses is correct71 but to the real particles such as we discover them to be4 ,nor is there any ground for alarm at this refinement as if it were inexplicable1 for1 on the contrary1 the more inquiry is directed to simple natures1 the more will everything be placed in a plain and perspicuous light1 since we transfer our attention from the complicated to the simple1 from the incommensurable to the commensurable1 from surds to rational quantities1 from the indefinite and vague to the definite and certain2 as when we arrive at the elements of letters1 and the simple tones of concords4 ,the investigation of nature is best conducted when mathematics are applied to physics4 ,again1 let none be alarmed at vast numbers and fractions1 for in calculation it is as easy to set down or to reflect upon a thousand as a unit1 or the thousandth part of an integer as an integer itself4 ,,ix4#ha ,from the two kinds of axioms above specified1 arise the two divisions of philosophy and the sciences1 and we will use the commonly adopted terms which approach the nearest to our meaning1 in our own sense4 ,let the investigation of forms1 which 7in reasoning at least1 and after their own laws71 are eternal and immutable1 constitute metaphysics1#hb and let the investigation of the efficient cause of matter1 latent process1 and latent conformation 7which all relate merely to the ordinary course of nature1 and not to her fundamental and eternal laws71 constitute physics4 ,parallel to these1 let there be two practical divisions2 to physics that of mechanics1 and to metaphysics that of magic1 in the purest sense of the term1 as applied to its ample means1 and its command over nature4 ,x4 ,the object of our philosophy being thus laid down1 we proceed to precepts1 in the most clear and regular order4 ,the signs for the interpretation of nature comprehend two divisions2 the first regards the eliciting or creating of axioms from experiment1 the second the deducing or deriving of new experiments from axioms4 ,the first admits of three subdivisions into ministrations4 #a4 ,to the senses4 #b4 ,to the memory4 #c4 ,to the mind or reason4 ,for we must first prepare as a foundation for the whole1 a complete and accurate natural and experimental history4 ,we must not imagine or invent1 but discover the acts and properties of nature4 ,but natural and experimental history is so varied and diffuse1 that it confounds and distracts the understanding unless it be fixed and exhibited in due order4 ,we must1 therefore1 form tables and co-ordinations of instances1 upon such a plan1 and in such order that the understanding may be enabled to act upon them4 ,even when this is done1 the understanding1 left to itself and to its own operation1 is incompetent and unfit to construct its axioms without direction and support4 ,our third ministration1 therefore1 must be true and legitimate induction1 the very key of interpretation4 ,we must begin1 however1 at the end1 and go back again to the others4 ,,xi4 ,the investigation of forms proceeds thus3 a nature being given1 we must first present to the understanding all the known instances which agree in the same nature1 although the subject matter be considerably diversified4 ,and this collection must be made as a mere history1 and without any premature reflection1 or too great degree of refinement4 ,for instance2 take the investigation of the form of heat4 ,instances agreeing in the ,form of ,heat #a4 ,the rays of the sun1 particularly in summer1 and at noon4 #b4 ,the same reflected and condensed1 as between mountains1 or along walls1 and particularly in burning mirrors4 #c4 ,ignited meteors4 #d4 ,burning lightning4 #e4 ,eruptions of flames from the cavities of mountains1 etc4 #f4 ,flame of every kind4 #g4 ,ignited solids4 #h4 ,natural warm baths4 #i4 ,warm or heated liquids4 #aj4 ,warm vapors and smoke2 and the air itself1 which admits a most powerful and violent heat if confined1 as in reverberating furnaces4 #aa4 ,damp hot weather1 arising from the constitution of the air1 without any reference to the time of the year4 #ab4 ,confined and subterraneous air in some caverns1 particularly in winter4 #ac4 ,all shaggy substances1 as wool1 the skins of animals1 and the plumage of birds1 contain some heat4 #ad4 ,all bodies1 both solid and liquid1 dense and rare 7as the air itself71 placed near fire for any time4 #ae4 ,sparks arising from the violent percussion of flint and steel4 #af4 ,all bodies rubbed violently1 as stone1 wood1 cloth1 etc41 so that rudders1 and axles of wheels1 sometimes catch fire1 and the ,west ,indians obtain fire by attrition4 #ag4 ,green and moist vegetable matter confined and rubbed together1 as roses1 peas in baskets2 so hay1 if it be damp when stacked1 often catches fire4 #ah4 ,quicklime sprinkled with water4 #ai4 ,iron1 when first dissolved by acids in a glass1 and without any application to fire2 the same of tin1 but not so intensely4 #bj4 ,animals1 particularly internally2 although the heat is not perceivable by the touch in insects1 on account of their small size4 #ba4 ,horse dung1 and the like excrement from other animals1 when fresh4 #bb4 ,strong oil of sulphur and of vitriol exhibit the operation of heat in burning linen4 #bc4 ,as does the oil of marjoram1 and like substances1 in burning the bony substance of the teeth4 #bd4 ,strong and well rectified spirits of wine exhibit the same effects2 so that white of eggs when thrown into it grows hard and white1 almost in the same manner as when boiled1 and bread becomes burned and brown as if toasted4 #be4 ,aromatic substances and warm plants1 as the dracunculus arum1 old nasturtium1 etc41 which1 though they be not warm to the touch 7whether whole or pulverized71 yet are discovered by the tongue and palate to be warm and almost burning when slightly masticated4 #bf4 ,strong vinegar and all acids1 on any part of the body not clothed with the epidermis1 as the eye1 tongue1 or any wounded part1 or where the skin is removed1 excite a pain differing but little from that produced by heat4 #bg4 ,even a severe and intense cold produces a sensation of burning4#hc 8,nec ,bore penetrabile frigus adurit40 #bh4 ,other instances4 ,we are wont to call this a table of existence and presence4 ,,xii4 ,we must next present to the understanding instances which do not admit of the given nature1 for form 7as we have observed7 ought no less to be absent where the given nature is absent1 than to be present where it is present4 ,if1 however1 we were to examine every instance1 our labor would be infinite4 ,negatives1 therefore1 must be classed under the affirmatives1 and the want of the given nature must be inquired into more particularly in objects which have a very close connection with those others in which it is present and manifest4 ,and this we are wont to term a table of deviation or of absence in proximity4 ,proximate ,instances wanting the ,nature of ,heat ,the rays of the moon1 stars1 and comets1 are not found to be warm to the touch1 nay1 the severest cold has been observed to take place at the full of the moon4 ,yet the larger fixed stars are supposed to increase and render more intense the heat of the sun1 as he approaches them1 when the sun is in the sign of the ,lion1 for instance1 and in the dog-days4#hd ,the rays of the sun in what is called the middle region of the air give no heat1 to account for which the commonly assigned reason is satisfactory2 namely1 that that region is neither sufficiently near to the body of the sun whence the rays emanate1 nor to the earth whence they are reflected4 ,and the fact is manifested by snow being perpetual on the tops of mountains1 unless extremely lofty4 ,but it is observed1 on the other hand1 by some1 that at the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 and also among the ,andes of ,peru1 the tops of the mountains are free from snow1 which only lies in the lower part as you ascend4 ,besides1 the air on the summit of these mountains is found to be by no means cold1 but only thin and sharp2 so much so1 that in the ,andes it pricks and hurts the eyes from its extreme sharpness1 and even excites the orifice of the stomach and produces vomiting4 ,the ancients also observed1 that the rarity of the air on the summit of ,olympus was such1 that those who ascended it were obliged to carry sponges moistened with vinegar and water1 and to apply them now and then to their nostrils1 as the air was not dense enough for their respiration2 on the summit of which mountain it is also related1 there reigned so great a serenity and calm1 free from rain1 snow1 or wind1 that the letters traced upon the ashes of the sacrifices on the altar of ,jupiter1 by the fingers of those who had offered them1 would remain undisturbed till the next year4 ,those even1 who at this day go to the top of the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 walk by night and not in the daytime1 and are advised and pressed by their guides1 as soon as the sun rises1 to make haste in their descent1 on account of the danger 7apparently arising from the rarity of the atmosphere71 lest their breathing should be relaxed and suffocated4#he ,the reflection of the solar rays in the polar regions is found to be weak and inefficient in producing heat1 so that the ,dutch1 who wintered in ,nova ,zembla1 and expected that their vessel would be freed about the beginning of ,july from the obstruction of the mass of ice which had blocked it up1 were disappointed and obliged to embark in their boat4 ,hence the direct rays of the sun appear to have but little power even on the plain1 and when reflected1 unless they are multiplied and condensed1 which takes place when the sun tends more to the perpendicular2 for1 then1 the incidence of the rays occurs at more acute angles1 so that the reflected rays are nearer to each other1 while1 on the contrary1 when the sun is in a very oblique position1 the angles of incidence are very obtuse1 and the reflected rays at a greater distance4 ,in the meantime it must be observed1 that there may be many operations of the solar rays1 relating1 too1 to the nature of heat1 which are not proportioned to our touch1 so that1 with regard to us1 they do not tend to produce warmth1 but1 with regard to some other bodies1 have their due effect in producing it4 ,let the following experiment be made4 ,take a lens the reverse of a burning-glass1 and place it between the hand and the solar rays1 and observe whether it diminish the heat of the sun as a burning-glass increases it4 ,for it is clear1 with regard to the visual rays1 that in proportion as the lens is made of unequal thickness in the middle and at its sides1 the images appear either more diffused or contracted4 ,it should be seen1 therefore1 if the same be true with regard to heat4 ,let the experiment be well tried1 whether the lunar rays can be received and collected by the strongest and best burning-glasses1 so as to produce even the least degree of heat4#hf ,but if that degree be1 perhaps1 so subtile and weak1 as not to be perceived or ascertained by the touch1 we must have recourse to those glasses which indicate the warm or cold state of the atmosphere1 and let the lunar rays fall through the burning-glass on the top of this thermometer1 and then notice if the water be depressed by the heat4#hg ,let the burning-glass be tried on warm objects which emit no luminous rays1 as heated but not ignited iron or stone1 or hot water1 or the like2 and observe whether the heat become increased and condensed1 as happens with the solar rays4 ,let it be tried on common flame4 ,the effect of comets 7if we can reckon them among meteors#hh7 in augmenting the heat of the season is not found to be constant or clear1 although droughts have generally been observed to follow them4 ,however1 luminous lines1 and pillars1 and openings1 and the like1 appear more often in winter than in summer1 and especially with the most intense cold but joined with drought4 ,lightning1 and coruscations1 and thunder1 however1 rarely happen in winter2 and generally at the time of the greatest heats4 ,the appearances we term falling stars are generally supposed to consist of some shining and inflamed viscous substance1 rather than of violently hot matter2 but let this be further investigated4 ,some coruscations emit light without burning1 but are never accompanied by thunder4 ,eructations and eruptions of flame are to be found in cold climates as well as in hot1 as in ,iceland and ,greenland2 just as the trees of cold countries are sometimes inflammable and more pitchy and resinous than in warm1 as the fir1 pine1 and the like4 ,but the position and nature of the soil1 where such eruptions are wont to happen1 is not yet sufficiently investigated to enable us to subjoin a negative instance to the affirmative4 ,all flame is constantly more or less warm1 and this instance is not altogether negative2 yet it is said that the ignis fatuus 7as it is called71 and which sometimes is driven against walls1 has but little heat2 perhaps it resembles that of spirits of wine1 which is mild and gentle4 ,that flame1 however1 appears yet milder1 which in some well authenticated and serious histories is said to have appeared round the head and hair of boys and virgins1 and instead of burning their hair1 merely to have played about it4 ,and it is most certain that a sort of flash1 without any evident heat1 has sometimes been seen about a horse when sweating at night1 or in damp weather4 ,it is also a well known fact1#hi and it was almost considered as a miracle1 that a few years since a girl's apron sparkled when a little shaken or rubbed1 which was1 perhaps1 occasioned by the alum or salts with which the apron was imbued1 and which1 after having been stuck together and incrusted rather strongly1 were broken by the friction4 ,it is well known that all sugar1 whether candied or plain1 if it be hard1 will sparkle when broken or scraped in the dark4 ,in like manner sea and salt water is sometimes found to shine at night when struck violently by the oar4 ,the foam of the sea when agitated by tempests also sparkles at night1 and the ,spaniards call this appearance the sea's lungs4 ,it has not been sufficiently ascertained what degree of heat attends the flame which the ancient sailors called ,castor and ,pollux1 and the moderns call ,st4 ,ermus' fire4 ,every ignited body that is red-hot is always warm1 although without flame1 nor is any negative instance subjoined to this affirmative4 ,rotten wood1 however1 approaches nearly to it1 for it shines at night1 and yet is not found to be warm2 and the putrefying scales of fish which shine in the same manner are not warm to the touch1 nor the body of the glowworm1 or of the fly called ,lucciola4#ij ,the situation and nature of the soil of natural warm baths has not been sufficiently investigated1 and therefore a negative instance is not subjoined4 ,to the instances of warm liquids we may subjoin the negative one of the peculiar nature of liquids in general2 for no tangible liquid is known that is at once warm in its nature and constantly continues warm2 but their heat is only superinduced as an adventitious nature for a limited time1 so that those which are extremely warm in their power and effect1 as spirits of wine1 chemical aromatic oils1 the oils of vitriol and sulphur1 and the like1 and which speedily burn1 are yet cold at first to the touch1 and the water of natural baths1 poured into any vessel and separated from its source1 cools down like water heated by the fire4 ,it is1 however1 true that oily substances are rather less cold to the touch than those that are aqueous1 oil for instance than water1 silk than linen2 but this belongs to the table of degrees of cold4 ,in like manner we may subjoin a negative instance to that of warm vapor1 derived from the nature of vapor itself1 as far as we are acquainted with it4 ,for exhalations from oily substances1 though easily inflammable1 are yet never warm unless recently exhaled from some warm substance4 ,the same may be said of the instance of air2 for we never perceive that air is warm unless confined or pressed1 or manifestly heated by the sun1 by fire1 or some other warm body4 ,a negative instance is exhibited in weather by its coldness with an east or north wind1 beyond what the season would lead us to expect1 just as the contrary takes place with the south or west winds4 ,an inclination to rain 7especially in winter7 attends warm weather1 and to frost cold weather4 ,a negative instance as to air confined in caverns may be observed in summer4 ,indeed1 we should make a more diligent inquiry into the nature of confined air4 ,for in the first place the qualities of air in its own nature with regard to heat and cold may reasonably be the subject of doubt2 for air evidently derives its heat from the effects of celestial bodies1 and possibly its cold from the exhalation of the earth1 and in the mid region of air 7as it is termed7 from cold vapors and snow1 so that no judgment can be formed of the nature of air by that which is out of doors and exposed1 but a more correct one might be derived from confined air4 ,it is necessary1 however1 that the air should be inclosed in a vessel of such materials as would not imbue it with heat or cold of themselves1 nor easily admit the influence of the external atmosphere4 ,the experiment should be made1 therefore1 with an earthen jar1 covered with folds of leather to protect it from the external air1 and the air should be kept three or four days in this vessel well closed4 ,on opening the jar1 the degree of heat may be ascertained either by the hand or a graduated glass tube4 ,there is a similar doubt as to whether the warmth of wool1 skins1 feathers1 and the like1 is derived from a slight inherent heat1 since they are animal excretions1 or from their being of a certain fat and oily nature that accords with heat1 or merely from the confinement and separation of air which we spoke of in the preceding paragraph2#ia for all air appears to possess a certain degree of warmth when separated from the external atmosphere4 ,let an experiment be made1 therefore1 with fibrous substances of linen1 and not of wool1 feathers1 or silk1 which are animal excretions4 ,for it is to be observed that all powders 7where air is manifestly inclosed7 are less cold than the substances when whole1 just as we imagine froth 7which contains air7 to be less cold than the liquid itself4 ,we have here no exactly negative instance1 for we are not acquainted with any body tangible or spirituous which does not admit of heat when exposed to the fire4 ,there is1 however1 this difference1 that some admit it more rapidly1 as air1 oil1 and water1 others more slowly1 as stone and metals4#ib ,this1 however1 belongs to the table of degrees4 ,no negative is here subjoined1 except the remark that sparks are not kindled by flint and steel1 or any other hard substance1 unless some small particles of the stone or metal are struck off1 and that the air never forms them by friction1 as is commonly supposed2 besides1 the sparks from the weight of the ignited substance have a tendency to descend rather than to rise1 and when extinguished become a sort of dark ash4 ,we are of opinion that here again there is no negative2 for we are not acquainted with any tangible body which does not become decidedly warm by friction1 so that the ancients feigned that the gods had no other means or power of creating heat than the friction of air1 by rapid and violent rotation4 ,on this point1 however1 further inquiry must be made1 whether bodies projected by machines 7as balls from cannon7 do not derive some degree of heat from meeting the air1 which renders them somewhat warm when they fall4 ,the air in motion rather cools than heats1 as in the winds1 the bellows1 or breath when the mouth is contracted4 ,the motion1 however1 in such instances is not sufficiently rapid to excite heat1 and is applied to a body of air1 and not to its component parts1 so that it is not surprising that heat should not be generated4 ,we must make a more diligent inquiry into this instance2 for herbs and green and moist vegetables appear to possess a latent heat1 so small1 however1 as not to be perceived by the touch in single specimens1 but when they are united and confined1 so that their spirit cannot exhale into the air1 and they rather warm each other1 their heat is at once manifested1 and even flame occasionally in suitable substances4 ,here1 too1 we must make a more diligent inquiry2 for quicklime1 when sprinkled with water1 appears to conceive heat1 either from its being collected into one point 7as we observed of herbs when confined71 or from the irritation and exasperation of the fiery spirit by water1 which occasions a conflict and struggle4 ,the true reason will more readily be shown if oil be used instead of water1 for oil will equally tend to collect the confined spirit1 but not to irritate4 ,the experiment may be made more general1 both by using the ashes and calcined products of different bodies and by pouring different liquids upon them4 ,a negative instance may be subjoined of other metals which are more soft and soluble2 for leaf gold dissolved by aqua regia1 or lead by aqua fortis1 are not warm to the touch while dissolving1 no more is quicksilver 7as far as ,i remember71 but silver excites a slight heat1 and so does copper1 and tin yet more plainly1 and most of all iron and steel1 which excite not only a powerful heat1 but a violent bubbling4 ,the heat1 therefore1 appears to be occasioned by the struggle which takes place when these strong dissolvents penetrate1 dig into1 and tear asunder the parts of those substances1 while the substances themselves resist4 ,when1 however1 the substances yield more easily1 scarcely any heat is excited4 ,there is no negative instance with regard to the heat of animals1 except in insects 7as has been observed71 owing to their small size2 for in fishes1 as compared with land animals1 a lower degree rather than a deprivation of heat is observable4 ,in plants and vegetables1 both as to their exudations and pith when freshly exposed1 there is no sensible degree of heat4 ,but in animals there is a great difference in the degree1 both in particular parts 7for the heat varies near the heart1 the brain1 and the extremities7 and in the circumstances in which they are placed1 such as violent exercise and fevers4 ,here1 again1 there is scarcely a negative instance4 ,i might add that the excrements of animals1 even when they are no longer fresh1 possess evidently some effective heat1 as is shown by their enriching the soil4 ,such liquids 7whether oily or watery7 as are intensely acrid exhibit the effects of heat1 by the separation and burning of bodies after some little action upon them1 yet they are not at first warm to the touch1 but they act according to their affinity and the pores of the substances to which they are applied2 for aqua regia dissolves gold but not silver--on the contrary1 aqua fortis dissolves silver but not gold2 neither of them dissolves glass1 and so of the rest4 ,let spirits of wine be tried on wood1 or butter1 wax1 or pitch1 to see if this will melt them at all by their heat2 for the twenty-fourth instance shows that they possess properties resembling those of heat in causing incrustation4 ,let an experiment also be made with a graduated glass or calendar1#ic concave at the top1 by pouring well-rectified spirits of wine into the cavity1 and covering it up in order that they may the better retain their heat1 then observe whether their heat make the water descend4 ,spices and acrid herbs are sensibly warm to the palate1 and still more so when taken internally2 one should see1 therefore1 on what other substances they exhibit the effects of heat4 ,now1 sailors tell us that when large quantities of spices are suddenly opened1 after having been shut up for some time1 there is some danger of fever and inflammation to those who stir them or take them out4 ,an experiment might1 therefore1 be made whether such spices and herbs1 when produced1 will1 like smoke1 dry fish and meat hung up over them4 ,there is an acrid effect and a degree of penetration in cold liquids1 such as vinegar and oil of vitriol1 as well as in warm1 such as oil of marjoram and the like2 they have1 therefore1 an equal effect in causing animated substances to smart1 and separating and consuming inanimate parts4 ,there is not any negative instance as to this1 nor does there exist any animal pain unaccompanied by the sensation of heat4 ,there are many effects common to cold and heat1 however different in their process2 for snowballs appear to burn boys' hands after a little time1 and cold no less than fire preserves bodies from putrefaction--besides both heat and cold contract bodies4 ,but it is better to refer these instances and the like to the investigation of cold4 ,,xiii4 ,in the third place we must exhibit to the understanding the instances in which that nature1 which is the object of our inquiries1 is present in a greater or less degree1 either by comparing its increase and decrease in the same object1 or its degree in different objects2 for since the form of a thing is its very essence1 and the thing only differs from its form as the apparent from the actual object1 or the exterior from the interior1 or that which is considered with relation to man from that which is considered with relation to the universe2 it necessarily follows that no nature can be considered a real form which does not uniformly diminish and increase with the given nature4 ,we are wont to call this our ,table of ,degrees1 or ,comparative ,instances4 ,table of the ,degrees or ,comparative ,instances of ,heat ,we will first speak of those bodies which exhibit no degree of heat sensible to the touch1 but appear rather to possess a potential heat1 or disposition and preparation for it4 ,we will then go on to others1 which are actually warm to the touch1 and observe the strength and degree of it4 #a4 ,there is no known solid or tangible body which is by its own nature originally warm2 for neither stone1 metal1 sulphur1 fossils1 wood1 water1 nor dead animal carcasses are found warm4 ,the warm springs in baths appear to be heated accidentally1 by flame1 subterraneous fire 7such as is thrown up by ,etna and many other mountains71 or by the contact of certain bodies1 as heat is exhibited in the dissolution of iron and tin4 ,the degree of heat1 therefore1 in inanimate objects is not sensible to our touch2 but they differ in their degrees of cold1 for wood and metal are not equally cold4#id ,this1 however1 belongs to the ,table of ,degrees of ,cold4 #b4 ,but with regard to potential heat and predisposition to flame1 we find many inanimate substances wonderfully adapted to it1 as sulphur1 naphtha1 and saltpetre4 #c4 ,bodies which have previously acquired heat1 as horse dung from the animal1 or lime1 and perhaps ashes and soot from fire1 retain some latent portion of it4 ,hence distillations and separations of substances are effected by burying them in horse dung1 and heat is excited in lime by sprinkling it with water 7as has been before observed74 #d4 ,in the vegetable world we know of no plant1 nor part of any plant 7as the exudations or pith7 that is warm to man's touch4 ,yet 7as we have before observed7 green weeds grow warm when confined1 and some vegetables are warm and others cold to our internal touch1 i4e41 the palate and stomach1 or even after a while to our external skin 7as is shown in plasters and ointments74 #e4 ,we know of nothing in the various parts of animals1 when dead or detached from the rest1 that is warm to the touch2 for horse dung itself does not retain its heat1 unless it be confined and buried4 ,all dung1 however1 appears to possess a potential heat1 as in manuring fields2 so also dead bodies are endued with this latent and potential heat to such a degree1 that in cemeteries where people are interred daily the earth acquires a secret heat1 which consumes any recently deposited body much sooner than pure earth2 and they tell you that the people of the ,east are acquainted with a fine soft cloth1 made of the down of birds1 which can melt butter wrapped gently up in it by its own warmth4 #f4 ,manures1 such as every kind of dung1 chalk1 sea-sand1 salt and the like1 have some disposition toward heat4 #g4 ,all putrefaction exhibits some slight degree of heat1 though not enough to be perceptible by the touch2 for neither the substances which by putrefaction are converted into animalcul1#ie as flesh and cheese1 nor rotten wood which shines in the dark1 are warm to the touch4 ,the heat1 however1 of putrid substances displays itself occasionally in a disgusting and strong scent4 #h4 ,the first degree of heat1 therefore1 in substances which are warm to the human touch appears to be that of animals1 and this admits of a great variety of degrees1 for the lowest 7as in insects7 is scarcely perceptible1 the highest scarcely equals that of the sun's rays in warm climates and weather1 and is not so acute as to be insufferable to the hand4 ,it is said1 however1 of ,constantius1 and some others of a very dry constitution and habit of body1 that when attacked with violent fevers1 they became so warm as to appear almost to burn the hand applied to them4 #i4 ,animals become more warm by motion and exercise1 wine and feasting1 venery1 burning fevers1 and grief4 #aj4 ,in the paroxysm of intermittent fevers the patients are at first seized with cold and shivering1 but soon afterward become more heated than at first--in burning and pestilential fevers they are hot from the beginning4 #aa4 ,let further inquiry be made into the comparative heat of different animals1 as fishes1 quadrupeds1 serpents1 birds1 and also of the different species1 as the lion1 the kite1 or man2 for1 according to the vulgar opinion1 fishes are the least warm internally1 and birds the most1 particularly doves1 hawks1 and ostriches4 #ab4 ,let further inquiry be made as to the comparative heat in different parts and limbs of the same animal2 for milk1 blood1 seed1 and eggs are moderately warm1 and less hot than the outward flesh of the animal when in motion or agitated4 ,the degree of heat of the brain1 stomach1 heart1 and the rest1 has not yet been equally well investigated4 #ac4 ,all animals are externally cold in winter and cold weather1 but are thought to be internally warmer4 #ad4 ,the heat of the heavenly bodies1 even in the warmest climates and seasons1 never reaches such a pitch as to light or burn the driest wood or straw1 or even tinder without the aid of burning-glasses4 ,it can1 however1 raise vapor from moist substances4 #ae4 ,astronomers tell us that some stars are hotter than others4 ,mars is considered the warmest after the ,sun1 then ,jupiter1 then ,venus4 ,the ,moon and1 above all1 ,saturn1 are considered to be cold4 ,among the fixed stars ,sirius is thought the warmest1 then ,cor ,leonis or ,regulus1 then the lesser ,dog-star4 #af4 ,the sun gives out more heat as it approaches toward the perpendicular or zenith1 which may be supposed to be the case with the other planets1 according to their degree of heat2 for instance1 that ,jupiter gives out more heat when situated beneath ,cancer or ,leo than when he is beneath ,capricorn and ,aquarius4 #ag4 ,it is to be supposed that the sun and other planets give more heat in perigee1 from their approximation to the earth1 than when in apogee4 ,but if in any country the sun should be both in its perigee and nearer to the perpendicular at the same time1 it must necessarily give out more heat than in a country where it is also in perigee1 but situated more obliquely2 so that the comparative altitude of the planets should be observed1 and their approach to or declination from the perpendicular in different countries4 #ah4 ,the sun and other planets are thought also to give out more heat in proportion as they are nearer to the larger fixed stars1 as when the sun is in ,leo he is nearer ,cor ,leonis1 ,cauda ,leonis1 ,spica ,virginis1 ,sirius1 and the lesser ,dog-star1 than when he is in ,cancer1 where1 however1 he approaches nearer to the perpendicular4 ,it is probable1 also1 that the quarters of the heavens produce a greater heat 7though not perceptibly71 in proportion as they are adorned with a greater number of stars1 particularly those of the first magnitude4 #ai4 ,on the whole1 the heat of the heavenly bodies is augmented in three ways3 #a4 ,the approach to the perpendicular2 #b4 ,proximity or their perigee2 #c4 ,the conjunction or union of stars4 #bj4 ,there is a very considerable difference between the degree of heat in animals1 and even in the rays of the heavenly bodies 7as they reach us71 and the heat of the most gentle flame1 and even of all ignited substances1 nay1 liquids1 or the air itself when unusually heated by fire4 ,for the flame of spirit of wine1 though diffused and uncollected1 is yet able to set straw1 linen1 or paper on fire1 which animal heat1 or that of the sun1 will never accomplish without a burning-glass4 #ba4 ,there are1 however1 many degrees of strength and weakness in flame and ignited bodies3 but no diligent inquiry has been made in this respect1 and we must1 therefore1 pass it hastily over4 ,of all flames1 that of spirits of wine appears to be the most gentle1 except perhaps the ignis fatuus1 or the flashes from the perspiration of animals4 ,after this we should be inclined to place the flame of light and porous vegetables1 such as straw1 reeds1 and dried leaves2 from which the flame of hair or feathers differs but little4 ,then1 perhaps1 comes the flame of wood1 particularly that which contains but little rosin or pitch2 that of small wood1 however 7such as is usually tied up in fagots71 is milder than that of the trunks or roots of trees4 ,this can be easily tried in iron furnaces1 where a fire of fagots or branches of trees is of little service4 ,next follows the flame of oil1 tallow1 wax1 and the like oily and fat substances1 which are not very violent4 ,but a most powerful heat is found in pitch and rosin1 and a still greater in sulphur1 camphor1 naphtha1 saltpetre1 and salts 7after they have discharged their crude matter71 and in their compounds2 as in gunpowder1 ,greek fire 7vulgarly called wild fire71 and its varieties1 which possess such a stubborn heat as scarcely to be extinguished by water4 #bb4 ,we consider that the flame which results from some imperfect metals is very strong and active2 but on all these points further inquiry should be made4 #bc4 ,the flame of vivid lightning appears to exceed all the above1 so as sometimes to have melted even wrought iron into drops1 which the other flames cannot accomplish4 #bd4 ,in ignited bodies there are different degrees of heat1 concerning which1 also1 a diligent inquiry has not been made4 ,we consider the faintest heat to be that of tinder1 touchwood1 and dry rope match1 such as is used for discharging cannon4 ,next follows that of ignited charcoal or cinders1 and even bricks1 and the like2 but the most violent is that of ignited metals1 as iron1 copper1 and the like4 ,further inquiry1 however1 must be made into this also4 #be4 ,some ignited bodies are found to be much warmer than some flames2 for instance1 red hot iron is much warmer1 and burns more than the flame of spirits of wine4 #bf4 ,some bodies even not ignited1 but only heated by the fire1 as boiling water1 and the air confined in reverberatories1 surpass in heat many flames and ignited substances4 #bg4 ,motion increases heat1#if as is shown in the bellows and the blowpipe2 for the harder metals are not dissolved or melted by steady quiet fire1 without the aid of the blowpipe4 #bh4 ,let an experiment be made with burning-glasses2 in which respect ,i have observed1 that if a glass be placed at the distance of ten inches1 for instance1 from the combustible object1 it does not kindle or burn it so readily1 as if the glass be placed at the distance of five inches 7for instance71 and be then gradually and slowly withdrawn to the distance of ten inches4 ,the cone and focus of the rays1 however1 are the same1 but the mere motion increases the effect of the heat4 #bi4 ,conflagrations1 which take place with a high wind1 are thought to make greater way against than with the wind1 because when the wind slackens1 the flame recoils more rapidly than it advances when the wind is favorable4 #cj4 ,flame does not burst out or arise unless it have some hollow space to move and exert itself in1 except in the exploding flame of gunpowder1 and the like1 where the compression and confinement of the flame increase its fury4 #ca4 ,the anvil becomes so hot by the hammer1 that if it were a thin plate it might probably grow red1 like ignited iron by repeated strokes4 ,let the experiment be tried4 #cb4 ,but in ignited bodies that are porous1 so as to leave room for the fire to move itself1 if its motion be prevented by strong compression1 the fire is immediately extinguished2 thus it is with tinder1 or the burning snuff of a candle or lamp1 or even hot charcoal or cinders2 for when they are squeezed by snuffers1 or the foot1 and the like1 the effect of the fire instantly ceases4 #cc4 ,the approach toward a hot body increases heat in proportion to the approximation2 a similar effect to that of light1 for the nearer any object is placed toward the light1 the more visible it becomes4 #cd4 ,the#ig union of different heats increases heat1 unless the substances be mixed2 for a large and small fire in the same spot tend mutually to increase each other's heat1 but lukewarm water poured into boiling water cools it4 #ce4 ,the continued neighborhood of a warm body increases heat4 ,for the heat1 which perpetually passes and emanates from it1 being mixed with that which preceded it1 multiplies the whole4 ,a fire1 for instance1 does not warm a room in half an hour as much as the same fire would in an hour4 ,this does not apply to light1 for a lamp or candle placed in a spot gives no more light by remaining there1 than it did at first4 #cf4 ,the irritation of surrounding cold increases heat1 as may be seen in fires during a sharp frost4 ,we think that this is owing not merely to the confinement and compression of the heat 7which forms a sort of union71 but also by the exasperation of it1 as when the air or a stick are violently compressed or bent1 they recoil1 not only to the point they first occupied1 but still further back4 ,let an accurate experiment1 therefore1 be made with a stick1 or something of the kind1 put into the flame1 in order to see whether it be not sooner burned at the sides than in the middle of it4#ih #cg4 ,there are many degrees in the susceptibility of heat4 ,and1 first1 it must be observed how much a low gentle heat changes and partially warms even the bodies least susceptible of it4 ,for even the heat of the hand imparts a little warmth to a ball of lead or other metal held a short time in it2 so easily is heat transmitted and excited1 without any apparent change in the body4 #ch4 ,of all bodies that we are acquainted with1 air admits and loses heat the most readily1 which is admirably seen in weather-glasses1 whose construction is as follows3 ,take a glass with a hollow belly1 and a thin and long neck2 turn it upside down1 and place it with its mouth downward into another glass vessel containing water2 the end of the tube touching the bottom of the vessel1 and the tube itself leaning a little on the edge1 so as to be fixed upright4 ,in order to do this more readily1 let a little wax be applied to the edge1 not1 however1 so as to block up the orifice1 lest1 by preventing the air from escaping1 the motion1 which we shall presently speak of1 and which is very gentle and delicate1 should be impeded4 ,before the first glass be inserted in the other1 its upper part 7the belly7 should be warmed at the fire4 ,then upon placing it as we have described1 the air 7which was dilated by the heat71 after a sufficient time has been allowed for it to lose the additional temperature1 will restore and contract itself to the same dimensions as that of the external or common atmosphere at the moment of immersion1 and the water will be attracted upward in the tube to a proportionate extent4 ,a long narrow slip of paper should be attached to the tube1 divided into as many degrees as you please4 ,you will then perceive1 as the weather grows warmer or colder1 that the air contracts itself into a narrower space in cold weather and dilates in the warm1 which will be exhibited by the rising of the water as the air contracts itself1 and its depression as the air dilates4 ,the sensibility of the air with regard to heat or cold is so delicate and exquisite1 that it far exceeds the human touch1 so that a ray of sunshine1 the heat of the breath1 and much more1 that of the hand placed on the top of the tube1 immediately causes an evident depression of the water4 ,we think1 however1 that the spirit of animals possesses a much more delicate susceptibility of heat and cold1 only that it is impeded and blunted by the grossness of their bodies4 #ci4 ,after air1 we consider those bodies to be most sensible of heat1 which have been recently changed and contracted by cold1 as snow and ice2 for they begin to be dissolved and melt with the first mild weather4 ,next1 perhaps1 follows quicksilver2 then greasy substances1 as oil1 butter1 and the like2 then wood2 then water2 lastly1 stones and metals1 which do not easily grow hot1 particularly toward their centre4#ii ,when heated1 however1 they retain their temperature for a very long time2 so that a brick or stone1 or hot iron1 plunged in a basin of cold water1 and kept there for a quarter of an hour or thereabout1 retains such a heat as not to admit of being touched4 #dj4 ,the less massive the body is1 the more readily it grows warm at the approach of a heated body1 which shows that heat with us is somewhat averse to a tangible mass4#ajj #da4 ,heat with regard to the human senses and touch is various and relative1 so that lukewarm water appears hot if the hand be cold1 and cold if the hand be hot4 ,,xiv4 ,any one may readily see how poor we are in history1 since in the above tables1 besides occasionally inserting traditions and report instead of approved history and authentic instances 7always1 however1 adding some note if their credit or authority be doubtful71 we are often forced to subjoin1 8,let the experiment be tried--,let further inquiry be made40 ,,xv4 ,we are wont to term the office and use of these three tables the presenting a review of instances to the understanding2 and when this has been done1 induction itself is to be brought into action4 ,for on an individual review of all the instances a nature is to be found1 such as always to be present and absent with the given nature1 to increase and decrease with it1 and1 as we have said1 to form a more common limit of the nature4 ,if the mind attempt this affirmatively from the first 7which it always will when left to itself71 there will spring up phantoms1 mere theories and ill-defined notions1 with axioms requiring daily correction4 ,these will1 doubtless1 be better or worse1 according to the power and strength of the understanding which creates them4 ,but it is only for ,god 7the bestower and creator of forms71 and perhaps for angels and intelligences1 at once to recognize forms affirmatively at the first glance of contemplation3 man1 at lest1 is unable to do so1 and is only allowed to proceed first by negatives1 and then to conclude with affirmatives1 after every species of exclusion4 ,,xvi4 ,we must1 therefore1 effect a complete solution and separation of nature2 not by fire1 but by the mind1 that divine fire4 ,the first work of legitimate induction1 in the discovery of forms1 is rejection1 or the exclusive instances of individual natures1 which are not found in some one instance where the given nature is present1 or are found in any one instance where it is absent1 or are found to increase in any one instance where the given nature decreases1 or the reverse4 ,after an exclusion correctly effected1 an affirmative form will remain as the residuum1 solid1 true1 and well defined1 while all volatile opinions go off in smoke4 ,this is readily said2 but we must arrive at it by a circuitous route4 ,we shall perhaps1 however1 omit nothing that can facilitate our progress4 ,,xvii4 ,the first and almost perpetual precaution and warning which we consider necessary is this2 that none should suppose from the great part assigned by us to forms1 that we mean such forms as the meditations and thoughts of men have hitherto been accustomed to4 ,in the first place1 we do not at present mean the concrete forms1 which 7as we have observed7 are in the common course of things compounded of simple natures1 as those of a lion1 an eagle1 a rose1 gold1 or the like4 ,the moment for discussing these will arrive when we come to treat of the latent process and latent conformation1 and the discovery of them as they exist in what are called substances1 or concrete natures4 ,nor again1 would we be thought to mean 7even when treating of simple natures7 any abstract forms or ideas1 either undefined or badly defined in matter4 ,for when we speak of forms1 we mean nothing else than those laws and regulations of simple action which arrange and constitute any simple nature1 such as heat1 light1 weight1 in every species of matter1 and in a susceptible subject4 ,the form of heat or form of light1 therefore1 means no more than the law of heat or the law of light4 ,nor do we ever abstract or withdraw ourselves from things1 and the operative branch of philosophy4 ,when1 therefore1 we say 7for instance7 in our investigation of the form of heat1 ,reject rarity1 or1 ,rarity is not of the form of heat1 it is the same as if we were to say1 ,man can superinduce heat on a dense body1 or the reverse1 ,man can abstract or ward off heat from a rare body4 ,but if our forms appear to any one to be somewhat abstracted1 from their mingling and uniting heterogeneous objects 7the heat1 for instance1 of the heavenly bodies appears to be very different from that of fire2 the fixed red of the rose and the like1 from that which is apparent in the rainbow1 or the radiation of opal or the diamond2#aja death by drowning1 from that by burning1 the sword1 apoplexy1 or consumption2 and yet they all agree in the common natures of heat1 redness1 and death71 let him be assured that his understanding is inthralled by habit1 by general appearances and hypotheses4 ,for it is most certain that1 however heterogeneous and distinct1 they agree in the form or law which regulates heat1 redness1 or death2 and that human power cannot be emancipated and freed from the common course of nature1 and expanded and exalted to new efficients and new modes of operation1 except by the revelation and invention of forms of this nature4 ,but after this#ajb union of nature1 which is the principal point1 we will afterward1 in its proper place1 treat of the divisions and ramifications of nature1 whether ordinary or internal and more real4 ,,xviii4 ,we must now offer an example of the exclusion or rejection of natures found by the tables of review1 not to be of the form of heat2 first premising that not only each table is sufficient for the rejection of any nature1 but even each single instance contained in them4 ,for it is clear from what has been said that every contradictory instance destroys a hypothesis as to the form4 ,still1 however1 for the sake of clearness1 and in order to show more plainly the use of the tables1 we redouble or repeat the exclusive4 ,an ,example of the ,exclusive ,table1 or of the ,rejection of ,natures from the ,form of ,heat #a4 ,on account of the sun's rays1 reject elementary 7or terrestrial7 nature4 #b4 ,on account of common fire1 and particularly subterranean fires 7which are the most remote and secluded from the rays of the heavenly bodies71 reject celestial nature4 #c4 ,on account of the heat acquired by every description of substances 7as minerals1 vegetables1 the external parts of animals1 water1 oil1 air1 etc47 by mere approximation to the fire or any warm body1 reject all variety and delicate texture of bodies4 #d4 ,on account of iron and ignited metals1 which warm other bodies1 and yet neither lose their weight nor substance1 reject the imparting or mixing of the substance of the heating body4 #e4 ,on account of boiling water and air1 and also those metals and other solid bodies which are heated1 but not to ignition1 or red heat1 reject flame or light4 #f4 ,on account of the rays of the moon and other heavenly bodies 7except the sun71 again reject flame or light4 #g4 ,on account of the comparison between red-hot iron and the flame of spirits of wine 7for the iron is more hot and less bright1 while the flame of spirits of wine is more bright and less hot71 again reject flame and light4 #h4 ,on account of gold and other ignited metals1 which are of the greatest specific density1 reject rarity4 #i4 ,on account of air1 which is generally found to be cold and yet continues rare1 reject rarity4 #aj4 ,on account of ignited iron1#ajc which does not swell in bulk1 but retains the same apparent dimension1 reject the absolute expansive motion of the whole4 #aa4 ,on account of the expansion of the air in thermometers and the like1 which is absolutely moved and expanded to the eye1 and yet acquires no manifest increase of heat1 again reject absolute or expansive motion of the whole4 #ab4 ,on account of the ready application of heat to all substances without any destruction or remarkable alteration of them1 reject destructive nature or the violent communication of any new nature4 #ac4 ,on account of the agreement and conformity of the effects produced by cold and heat1 reject both expansive and contracting motion as regards the whole4 #ad4 ,on account of the heat excited by friction1 reject principal nature1 by which we mean that which exists positively1 and is not caused by a preceding nature4 ,there are other natures to be rejected2 but we are merely offering examples1 and not perfect tables4 ,none of the above natures are of the form of heat2 and man is freed from them all in his operation upon heat4 ,,xix4 ,in the exclusive table are laid the foundations of true induction1 which is not1 however1 completed until the affirmative be attained4 ,nor is the exclusive table perfect1 nor can it be so at first4 ,for it is clearly a rejection of simple natures2 but if we have not as yet good and just notions of simple natures1 how can the exclusive table be made correct8 ,some of the above1 as the notion of elementary and celestial nature1 and rarity1 are vague and ill defined4 ,we1 therefore1 who are neither ignorant nor forgetful of the great work which we attempt1 in rendering the human understanding adequate to things and nature1 by no means rest satisfied with what we have hitherto enforced1 but push the matter further1 and contrive and prepare more powerful aid for the use of the understanding1 which we will next subjoin4 ,and1 indeed1 in the interpretation of nature the mind is to be so prepared and formed1 as to rest itself on proper degrees of certainty1 and yet to remember 7especially at first7 that what is present depends much upon what remains behind4 ,,xx4 ,since1 however1 truth emerges more readily from error than confusion1 we consider it useful to leave the understanding at liberty to exert itself and attempt the interpretation of nature in the affirmative1 after having constructed and weighed the three tables of preparation1 such as we have laid them down1 both from the instances there collected1 and others occurring elsewhere4 ,which attempt we are wont to call the liberty of the understanding1 or the commencement of interpretation1 or the first vintage4 ,the ,first ,vintage of the ,form of ,heat ,it must be observed that the form of anything is inherent 7as appears clearly from our premises7 in each individual instance in which the thing itself is inherent1 or it would not be a form4 ,no contradictory instance1 therefore1 can be alleged4 ,the form1 however1 is found to be much more conspicuous and evident in some instances than in others2 in those 7for example7 where its nature is less restrained and embarrassed1 and reduced to rule by other natures4 ,such instances we are wont to term coruscations1 or conspicuous instances4 ,we must proceed1 then1 to the first vintage of the form of heat4 ,from the instances taken collectively1 as well as singly1 the nature whose limit is heat appears to be motion4 ,this is chiefly exhibited in flame1 which is in constant motion1 and in warm or boiling liquids1 which are likewise in constant motion4 ,it is also shown in the excitement or increase of heat by motion1 as by bellows and draughts3 for which see ,inst4 #bi1 ,tab4 #c1 and by other species of motion1 as in ,inst4 #bh and #ca1 ,tab4 #c4 ,it is also shown by the extinction of fire and heat upon any strong pressure1 which restrains and puts a stop to motion2 for which see ,inst4 #cj and #cb1 ,tab4 #c4 ,it is further shown by this circumstance1 namely1 that every substance is destroyed1 or at least materially changed1 by strong and powerful fire and heat3 whence it is clear that tumult and confusion are occasioned by heat1 together with a violent motion in the internal parts of bodies2 and this gradually tends to their dissolution4 ,what we have said with regard to motion must be thus understood1 when taken as the genus of heat3 it must not be thought that heat generates motion1 or motion heat 7though in some respects this be true71 but that the very essence of heat1 or the substantial self#ajd of heat1 is motion and nothing else1 limited1 however1 by certain differences which we will presently add1 after giving some cautions for avoiding ambiguity4 ,sensible heat is relative1 and regards man1 not universe2 and is rightly held to be merely the effect of heat on animal spirit4 ,it is even variable in itself1 since the same body 7in different states of sensation7 excites the feeling of heat and of cold2 this is shown by ,inst4 #da1 ,tab4 #c4 ,nor should we confound the communication of heat or its transitive nature1 by which a body grows warm at the approach of a heated body1 with the form of heat2 for heat is one thing and heating another4 ,heat can be excited by friction without any previous heating body1 and1 therefore1 heating is excluded from the form of heat4 ,even when heat is excited by the approach of a hot body1 this depends not on the form of heat1 but on another more profound and common nature2 namely1 that of assimilation and multiplication1 about which a separate inquiry must be made4 ,the notion of fire is vulgar1 and of no assistance2 it is merely compounded of the conjunction of heat and light in any body1 as in ordinary flame and red-hot substances4 ,laying aside all ambiguity1 therefore1 we must lastly consider the true differences which limit motion and render it the form of heat4 ,i4 ,the first difference is1 that heat is an expansive motion1 by which the body strives to dilate itself1 and to occupy a greater space than before4 ,this difference is principally seen in flame1 where the smoke or thick vapor is clearly dilated and bursts into flame4 ,it is also shown in all boiling liquids1 which swell1 rise1 and boil up to the sight1 and the process of expansion is urged forward till they are converted into a much more extended and dilated body than the liquid itself1 such as steam1 smoke1 or air4 ,it is also shown in wood and combustibles where exudation sometimes takes place1 and evaporation always4 ,it is also shown in the melting of metals1 which1 being very compact1 do not easily swell and dilate1 but yet their spirit1 when dilated and desirous of further expansion1 forces and urges its thicker parts into dissolution1 and if the heat be pushed still further1 reduces a considerable part of them into a volatile state4 ,it is also shown in iron or stones1 which though not melted or dissolved1 are however softened4 ,the same circumstance takes place in sticks of wood1 which become flexible when a little heated in warm ashes4 ,it is most readily observed in air1 which instantly and manifestly expands with a small degree of heat1 as in ,inst4 #ch1 ,tab4 #c4 ,it is also shown in the contrary nature of cold2 for cold contracts and narrows every substance2#aje so that in intense frosts nails fall out of the wall and brass cracks1 and heated glass exposed suddenly to the cold cracks and breaks4 ,so the air1 by a slight degree of cold1 contracts itself1 as in ,inst4 #ch1 ,tab4 #c4 ,more will be said of this in the inquiry into cold4 ,nor is it to be wondered at if cold and heat exhibit many common effects 7for which see ,inst4 #cb1 ,tab4 #b71 since two differences1 of which we shall presently speak1 belong to each nature3 although in the present difference the effects be diametrically opposed to each other4 ,for heat occasions an expansive and dilating motion1 but cold a contracting and condensing motion4 ,,ii4 ,the second difference is a modification of the preceding1 namely1 that heat is an expansive motion1 tending toward the exterior1 but at the same time bearing the body upward4 ,for there is no doubt that there be many compound motions1 as an arrow or dart1 for instance1 has both a rotatory and progressive motion4 ,in the same way the motion of heat is both expansive and tending upward4 ,this difference is shown by putting the tongs or poker into the fire4 ,if placed perpendicularly with the hand above1 they soon burn it1 but much less speedily if the hand hold them sloping or from below4 ,it is also conspicuous in distillations per descensum1 which men are wont to employ with delicate flowers1 whose scent easily evaporates4 ,their industry has devised placing the fire above instead of below1 that it may scorch less2 for not only flame but all heat has an upward tendency4 ,let an experiment be made on the contrary nature of cold1 whether its contraction be downward1 as the expansion of heat is upward4 ,take1 therefore1 two iron rods or two glass tubes1 alike in other respects1 and warm them a little1 and place a sponge1 dipped in cold water1 or some snow1 below the one and above the other4 ,we are of opinion that the extremities will grow cold in that rod first where it is placed beneath1 as the contrary takes place with regard to heat4 ,,iii4 ,the third difference is this2 that heat is not a uniform expansive motion of the whole1 but of the small particles of the body2 and this motion being at the same time restrained1 repulsed1 and reflected1 becomes alternating1 perpetually hurrying1 striving1 struggling1 and irritated by the repercussion1 which is the source of the violence of flame and heat4 ,but this difference is chiefly shown in flame and boiling liquids1 which always hurry1 swell1 and subside again in detached parts4 ,it is also shown in bodies of such hard texture as not to swell or dilate in bulk1 such as red-hot iron1 in which the heat is most violent4 ,it is also shown by the fires burning most briskly in the coldest weather4 ,it is also shown by this1 that when the air is dilated in the thermometer uniformly and equably1 without any impediment or repulsion1 the heat is not perceptible4 ,in confined draughts also1 although they break out very violently1 no remarkable heat is perceived1 because the motion affects the whole1 without any alternating motion in the particles2 for which reason try whether flame do not burn more at the sides than in its centre4 ,it is also shown in this1 that all burning proceeds by the minute pores of bodies--undermining1 penetrating1 piercing1 and pricking them as if with an infinite number of needle-points4 ,hence all strong acids 7if adapted to the body on which they act7 exhibit the effects of fire1 from their corroding and pungent nature4 ,the difference of which we now speak is common also to the nature of cold1 in which the contracting motion is restrained by the resistance of expansion1 as in heat the expansive motion is restrained by the resistance of contraction4 ,whether1 therefore1 the particles of matter penetrate inward or outward1 the reasoning is the same1 though the power be very different1 because we have nothing on earth which is intensely cold4 ,,iv4 ,the fourth difference is a modification of the preceding1 namely1 that this stimulating or penetrating motion should be rapid and never sluggish1 and should take place not in the very minutest particles1 but rather in those of some tolerable dimensions4 ,it is shown by comparing the effects of fire with those of time4 ,time dries1 consumes1 undermines1 and reduces to ashes as well as fire1 and perhaps to a much finer degree2 but as its motion is very slow1 and attacks very minute particles1 no heat is perceived4 ,it is also shown in a comparison of the dissolution of iron and gold2 for gold is dissolved without the excitement of any heat1 but iron with a vehement excitement of it1 although most in the same time1 because in the former the penetration of the separating acid is mild1 and gently insinuates itself1 and the particles of gold yield easily1 but the penetration of iron is violent1 and attended with some struggle1 and its particles are more obstinate4 ,it is partially shown1 also1 in some gangrenes and mortifications of flesh1 which do not excite great heat or pain1 from the gentle nature of the putrefaction4 ,let this suffice for a first vintage1 or the commencement of the interpretation of the form of heat by the liberty of the understanding4 ,from this first vintage the form or true definition of heat 7considered relatively to the universe and not to the sense7 is briefly thus--,heat is an expansive motion restrained1 and striving to exert itself in the smaller particles4#ajf ,the expansion is modified by its tendency to rise1 though expanding toward the exterior2 and the effort is modified by its not being sluggish1 but active and somewhat violent4 ,with regard to the operative definition1 the matter is the same4 ,if you are able to excite a dilating or expansive motion in any natural body1 and so to repress that motion and force it on itself as not to allow the expansion to proceed equally1 but only to be partially exerted and partially repressed1 you will beyond all doubt produce heat1 without any consideration as to whether the body be of earth 7or elementary1 as they term it71 or imbued with celestial influence1 luminous or opaque1 rare or dense1 locally expanded or contained within the bounds of its first dimensions1 verging to dissolution or remaining fixed1 animal1 vegetable1 or mineral1 water1 or oil1 or air1 or any other substance whatever susceptible of such motion4 ,sensible heat is the same1 but considered relatively to the senses4 ,let us now proceed to further helps4 ,,xxi4 ,after our tables of first review1 our rejection or exclusive table1 and the first vintage derived from them1 we must advance to the remaining helps of the understanding with regard to the interpretation of nature1 and a true and perfect induction1 in offering which we will take the examples of cold and heat where tables are necessary1 but where fewer instances are required we will go through a variety of others1 so as neither to confound investigation nor to narrow our doctrine4 ,in the first place1 therefore1 we will treat of prerogative instances2#ajg #b4 ,of the supports of induction2 #c4 ,of the correction of induction2 #d4 ,of varying the investigation according to the nature of the subject2 #e4 ,of the prerogative natures with respect to investigation1 or of what should be the first or last objects of our research2 #f4 ,of the limits of investigation1 or a synopsis of all natures that exist in the universe2 #g4 ,of the application to practical purposes1 or of what relates to man2 #h4 ,of the preparations for investigation2 #i4 ,and lastly1 of the ascending and descending scale of axioms4#ajh ,,xxii4 ,among the prerogative instances we will first mention solitary instances4 ,solitary instances are those which exhibit the required nature in subjects that have nothing in common with any other subject than the nature in question1 or which do not exhibit the required nature in subjects resembling others in every respect except that of the nature in question2 for these instances manifestly remove prolixity1 and accelerate and confirm exclusion1 so that a few of them are of as much avail as many4 ,for instance1 let the inquiry be the nature of color4 ,prisms1 crystalline gems1 which yield colors not only internally but on the wall1 dews1 etc41 are solitary instances2 for they have nothing in common with the fixed colors in flowers and colored gems1 metals1 woods1 etc41 except the color itself4 ,hence we easily deduce that color is nothing but a modification of the image of the incident and absorbed light1 occasioned in the former case by the different degrees of incidence1 in the latter by the various textures and forms of bodies4#aji ,these are solitary instances as regards similitude4 ,again1 in the same inquiry the distinct veins of white and black in marble1 and the variegated colors of flowers of the same species1 are solitary instances2 for the black and white of marble1 and the spots of white and purple in the flowers of the stock1 agree in every respect but that of color4 ,thence we easily deduce that color has not much to do with the intrinsic natures of any body1 but depends only on the coarser and as it were mechanical arrangement of the parts4 ,these are solitary instances as regards difference4 ,we call them both solitary or wild1 to borrow a word from the astronomers4 ,,xxiii4 ,in the second rank of prerogative instances we will consider migrating instances4 ,in these the required nature passes toward generation1 having no previous existence1 or toward corruption1 having first existed4 ,in each of these divisions1 therefore1 the instances are always twofold1 or rather it is one instance1 first in motion or on its passage1 and then brought to the opposite conclusion4 ,these instances not only hasten and confirm exclusion1 but also reduce affirmation1 or the form itself1 to a narrow compass2 for the form must be something conferred by this migration1 or1 on the contrary1 removed and destroyed by it2 and although all exclusion advances affirmation1 yet this takes place more directly in the same than in different subjects2 but if the form 7as it is quite clear from what has been advanced7 exhibit itself in one subject1 it leads to all4 ,the more simple the migration is1 the more valuable is the instance4 ,these migrating instances are1 moreover1 very useful in practice1 for since they manifest the form1 coupled with that which causes or destroys it1 they point out the right practice in some subjects1 and thence there is an easy transition to those with which they are most allied4 ,there is1 however1 a degree of danger which demands caution1 namely1 lest they should refer the form too much to its efficient cause1 and imbue1 or at least tinge1 the understanding with a false notion of the form from the appearance of such cause1 which is never more than a vehicle or conveyance of the form4 ,this may easily be remedied by a proper application of exclusion4 ,let us then give an example of a migrating instance4 ,let whiteness be the required nature4 ,an instance which passes toward generation is glass in its entire and in its powdered state1 or water in its natural state1 and when agitated to froth2 for glass when entire1 and water in its natural state1 are transparent and not white1 but powdered glass and the froth of water are white and not transparent4 ,we must inquire1 therefore1 what has happened to the glass or water in the course of this migration2 for it is manifest that the form of whiteness is conveyed and introduced by the bruising of the glass and the agitation of the water2 but nothing is found to have been introduced but a diminishing of the parts of the glass and water and the insertion of air4 ,yet this is no slight progress toward discovering the form of whiteness1 namely1 that two bodies1 in themselves more or less transparent 7as air and water1 or air and glass71 when brought into contact in minute portions1 exhibit whiteness from the unequal refraction of the rays of light4 ,but here we must also give an example of the danger and caution of which we spoke2 for instance1 it will readily occur to an understanding perverted by efficients1 that air is always necessary for producing the form of whiteness1 or that whiteness is only generated by transparent bodies1 which suppositions are both false1 and proved to be so by many exclusions2 nay1 it will rather appear 7without any particular regard to air or the like71 that all bodies which are even in such of their parts as affect the sight exhibit transparency1 those which are uneven and of simple texture whiteness1 those which are uneven and of compound but regular texture all the other colors except black1 but those which are uneven and of a compound irregular and confused texture exhibit blackness4 ,an example has been given1 therefore1 of an instance migrating toward generation in the required nature of whiteness4 ,an instance migrating toward corruption in the same nature is that of dissolving froth or snow1 for they lose their whiteness and assume the transparency of water in its pure state without air4 ,nor should we by any means omit to state1 that under migrating instances we must comprehend not only those which pass toward generation and destruction1 but also those which pass toward increase or decrease1 for they1 too1 assist in the discovery of the form1 as is clear from our definition of a form and the ,table of ,degrees4 ,hence paper1 which is white when dry1 is less white when moistened 7from the exclusion of air and admission of water71 and tends more to transparency4 ,the reason is the same as in the above instances4#aaj ,,xxiv4 ,in the third rank of prerogative instances we will class conspicuous instances1 of which we spoke in our first vintage of the form of heat1 and which we are also wont to call coruscations1 or free and predominant instances4 ,they are such as show the required nature in its bare substantial shape1 and at its height or greatest degree of power1 emancipated and free from all impediments1 or at least overcoming1 suppressing1 and restraining them by the strength of its qualities2 for since every body is susceptible of many united forms of natures in the concrete1 the consequence is that they mutually deaden1 depress1 break1 and confine each other1 and the individual forms are obscured4 ,but there are some subjects in which the required nature exists in its full vigor rather than in others1 either from the absence of any impediment1 or the predominance of its quality4 ,such instances are eminently conspicuous4 ,but even in these care must be taken1 and the hastiness of the understanding checked1 for whatever makes a show of the form1 and forces it forward1 is to be suspected1 and recourse must be had to severe and diligent exclusion4 ,for example1 let heat be the required nature4 ,the thermometer is a conspicuous instance of the expansive motion1 which 7as has been observed7 constitutes the chief part of the form of heat2 for although flame clearly exhibits expansion1 yet from its being extinguished every moment1 it does not exhibit the progress of expansion4 ,boiling water again1 from its rapid conversion into vapor1 does not so well exhibit the expansion of water in its own shape1 while red-hot iron and the like are so far from showing this progress1 that1 on the contrary1 the expansion itself is scarcely evident to the senses1 on account of its spirit being repressed and weakened by the compact and coarse particles which subdue and restrain it4 ,but the thermometer strikingly exhibits the expansion of the air as being evident and progressive1 durable and not transitory4#aaa ,take another example4 ,let the required nature be weight4 ,quicksilver is a conspicuous instance of weight2 for it is far heavier than any other substance except gold1 which is not much heavier1 and it is a better instance than gold for the purpose of indicating the form of weight2 for gold is solid and consistent1 which qualities must be referred to density1 but quicksilver is liquid and teeming with spirit1 yet much heavier than the diamond and other substances considered to be most solid2 whence it is shown that the form of gravity or weight predominates only in the quantity of matter1 and not in the close fitting of it4#aab ,,xxv4 ,in the fourth rank of prerogative instances we will class clandestine instances1 which we are also wont to call twilight instances2 they are as it were opposed to the conspicuous instances1 for they show the required nature in its lowest state of efficacy1 and as it were its cradle and first rudiments1 making an effort and a sort of first attempt1 but concealed and subdued by a contrary nature4 ,such instances are1 however1 of great importance in discovering forms1 for as the conspicuous tend easily to differences1 so do the clandestine best lead to genera1 that is1 to those common natures of which the required natures are only the limits4 ,as an example1 let consistency1 or that which confines itself1 be the required nature1 the opposite of which is a liquid or flowing state4 ,the clandestine instances are such as exhibit some weak and low degree of consistency in fluids1 as a water bubble1 which is a sort of consistent and bounded pellicle formed out of the substance of the water4 ,so eaves' droppings1 if there be enough water to follow them1 draw themselves out into a thin thread1 not to break the continuity of the water1 but if there be not enough to follow1 the water forms itself into a round drop1 which is the best form to prevent a breach of continuity2 and at the moment the thread ceases1 and the water begins to fall in drops1 the thread of water recoils upward to avoid such a breach4 ,nay1 in metals1 which when melted are liquid but more tenacious1 the melted drops often recoil and are suspended4 ,there is something similar in the instance of the child's looking-glass1 which little boys will sometimes form of spittle between rushes1 and where the same pellicle of water is observable2 and still more in that other amusement of children1 when they take some water rendered a little more tenacious by soap1 and inflate it with a pipe1 forming the water into a sort of castle of bubbles1 which assumes such consistency1 by the interposition of the air1 as to admit of being thrown some little distance without bursting4 ,the best example is that of froth and snow1 which assume such consistency as almost to admit of being cut1 although composed of air and water1 both liquids4 ,all these circumstances clearly show that the terms liquid and consistent are merely vulgar notions adapted to the sense1 and that in reality all bodies have a tendency to avoid a breach of continuity1 faint and weak in bodies composed of homogeneous parts 7as is the case with liquids71 but more vivid and powerful in those composed of heterogeneous parts1 because the approach of heterogeneous matter binds bodies together1 while the insinuation of homogeneous matter loosens and relaxes them4 ,again1 to take another example1 let the required nature be attraction or the cohesion of bodies4 ,the most remarkable conspicuous instance with regard to its form is the magnet4 ,the contrary nature to attraction is non-attraction1 though in a similar substance4 ,thus iron does not attract iron1 lead lead1 wood wood1 nor water water4 ,but the clandestine instance is that of the magnet armed with iron1 or rather that of iron in the magnet so armed4 ,for its nature is such that the magnet when armed does not attract iron more powerfully at any given distance than when unarmed2 but if the iron be brought in contact with the armed magnet1 the latter will sustain a much greater weight than the simple magnet1 from the resemblance of substance in the two portions of iron1 a quality altogether clandestine and hidden in the iron until the magnet was introduced4 ,it is manifest1 therefore1 that the form of cohesion is something which is vivid and robust in the magnet1 and hidden and weak in the iron4 ,it is to be observed1 also1 that small wooden arrows without an iron point1 when discharged from large mortars1 penetrate further into wooden substances 7such as the ribs of ships or the like71 than the same arrows pointed with iron1#aac owing to the similarity of substance1 though this quality was previously latent in the wood4 ,again1 although in the mass air does not appear to attract air1 nor water water1 yet when one bubble is brought near another1 they are both more readily dissolved1 from the tendency to contact of the water with the water1 and the air with the air4#aad ,these clandestine instances 7which are1 as has been observed1 of the most important service7 are principally to be observed in small portions of bodies1 for the larger masses observe more universal and general forms1 as will be mentioned in its proper place4#aae ,,xxvi4 ,in the fifth rank of prerogative instances we will class constitutive instances1 which we are wont also to call collective instances4 ,they constitute a species or lesser form1 as it were1 of the required nature4 ,for since the real forms 7which are always convertible with the given nature7 lie at some depth1 and are not easily discovered1 the necessity of the case and the infirmity of the human understanding require that the particular forms1 which collect certain groups of instances 7but by no means all7 into some common notion1 should not be neglected1 but most diligently observed4 ,for whatever unites nature1 even imperfectly1 opens the way to the discovery of the form4 ,the instances1 therefore1 which are serviceable in this respect are of no mean power1 but endowed with some degree of prerogative4 ,here1 nevertheless1 great care must be taken that1 after the discovery of several of these particular forms1 and the establishing of certain partitions or divisions of the required nature derived from them1 the human understanding do not at once rest satisfied1 without preparing for the investigation of the great or leading form1 and taking it for granted that nature is compound and divided from its very root1 despise and reject any further union as a point of superfluous refinement1 and tending to mere abstraction4 ,for instance1 let the required nature be memory1 or that which excites and assists memory4 ,the constitutive instances are order or distribution1 which manifestly assists memory3 topics or commonplaces in artificial memory1 which may be either places in their literal sense1 as a gate1 a corner1 a window1 and the like1 or familiar persons and marks1 or anything else 7provided it be arranged in a determinate order71 as animals1 plants1 and words1 letters1 characters1 historical persons1 and the like1 of which1 however1 some are more convenient than others4 ,all these commonplaces materially assist memory1 and raise it far above its natural strength4 ,verse1 too1 is recollected and learned more easily than prose4 ,from this group of three instances--order1 the commonplaces of artificial memory1 and verses--is constituted one species of aid for the memory1#aaf which may be well termed a separation from infinity4 ,for when a man strives to recollect or recall anything to memory1 without a preconceived notion or perception of the object of his search1 he inquires about1 and labors1 and turns from point to point1 as if involved in infinity4 ,but if he have any preconceived notion1 this infinity is separated off1 and the range of his memory is brought within closer limits4 ,in the three instances given above1 the preconceived notion is clear and determined4 ,in the first1 it must be something that agrees with order2 in the second1 an image which has some relation or agreement with the fixed commonplaces2 in the third1 words which fall into a verse3 and thus infinity is divided off4 ,other instances will offer another species1 namely1 that whatever brings the intellect into contact with something that strikes the sense 7the principal point of artificial memory71 assists the memory4 ,others again offer another species1 namely1 whatever excites an impression by any powerful passion1 as fear1 shame1 wonder1 delight1 assists the memory4 ,other instances will afford another species3 thus those impressions remain most fixed in the memory which are taken from the mind when clear and least occupied by preceding or succeeding notions1 such as the things we learn in childhood1 or imagine before sleep1 and the first time of any circumstance happening4 ,other instances afford the following species3 namely1 that a multitude of circumstances or handles assist the memory1 such as writing in paragraphs1 reading aloud1 or recitation4 ,lastly1 other instances afford still another species3 thus the things we anticipate1 and which rouse our attention1 are more easily remembered than transient events2 as if you read any work twenty times over1 you will not learn it by heart so readily as if you were to read it but ten times1 trying each time to repeat it1 and when your memory fails you looking into the book4 ,there are1 therefore1 six lesser forms1 as it were1 of things which assist the memory3 namely--#a1 the separation of infinity2 #b1 the connection of the mind with the senses2 #c1 the impression in strong passion2 #d1 the impression on the mind when pure2 #e1 the multitude of handles2 #f1 anticipation4 ,again1 for example's sake1 let the required nature be taste or the power of tasting4 ,the following instances are constitutive3 #a4 ,those who do not smell1 but are deprived by nature of that sense1 do not perceive or distinguish rancid or putrid food by their taste1 nor garlic from roses1 and the like4 #b4 ,again1 those whose nostrils are obstructed by accident 7such as a cold7 do not distinguish any putrid or rancid matter from anything sprinkled with rose-water4 #c4 ,if those who suffer from a cold blow their noses violently at the very moment in which they have anything fetid or perfumed in their mouth1 or on their palate1 they instantly have a clear perception of the fetor or perfume4 ,these instances afford and constitute this species or division of taste1 namely1 that it is in part nothing else than an internal smelling1 passing and descending through the upper passages of the nostrils to the mouth and palate4 ,but1 on the other hand1 those whose power of smelling is deficient or obstructed1 perceive what is salt1 sweet1 pungent1 acid1 rough1 and bitter1 and the like1 as well as any one else3 so that the taste is clearly something compounded of the internal smelling1 and an exquisite species of touch which we will not here discuss4 ,again1 as another example1 let the required nature be the communication of quality1 without intermixture of substance4 ,the instance of light will afford or constitute one species of communication1 heat and the magnet another4 ,for the communication of light is momentary and immediately arrested upon the removal of the original light4 ,but heat1 and the magnetic force1 when once transmitted to or excited in another body1 remain fixed for a considerable time after the removal of the source4 ,in fine1 the prerogative of constitutive instances is considerable1 for they materially assist the definitions 7especially in detail7 and the divisions or partitions of natures1 concerning which ,plato has well said1 8,he who can properly define and divide is to be considered a god40#aag ,,xxvii4 ,in the sixth rank of prerogative instances we will place similar or proportionate instances1 which we are also wont to call physical parallels1 or resemblances4 ,they are such as exhibit the resemblances and connection of things1 not in minor forms 7as the constitutive do71 but at once in the concrete4 ,they are1 therefore1 as it were1 the first and lowest steps toward the union of nature2 nor do they immediately establish any axiom1 but merely indicate and observe a certain relation of bodies to each other4 ,but although they be not of much assistance in discovering forms1 yet they are of great advantage in disclosing the frame of parts of the universe1 upon whose members they practice a species of anatomy1 and thence occasionally lead us gently on to sublime and noble axioms1 especially such as relate to the construction of the world1 rather than to simple natures and forms4 ,as an example1 take the following similar instances3 a mirror and the eye2 the formation of the ear1 and places which return an echo4 ,from such similarity1 besides observing the resemblance 7which is useful for many purposes71 it is easy to collect and form this axiom4 ,that the organs of the senses1 and bodies which produce reflections to the senses1 are of a similar nature4 ,again1 the understanding once informed of this1 rises easily to a higher and nobler axiom2 namely1 that the only distinction between sensitive and inanimate bodies1 in those points in which they agree and sympathize1 is this3 in the former1 animal spirit is added to the arrangement of the body1 in the latter it is wanting4 ,so that there might be as many senses in animals as there are points of agreement with inanimate bodies1 if the animated body were perforated1 so as to allow the spirit to have access to the limb properly disposed for action1 as a fit organ4 ,and1 on the other hand1 there are1 without doubt1 as many motions in an inanimate as there are senses in the animated body1 though the animal spirit be absent4 ,there must1 however1 be many more motions in inanimate bodies than senses in the animated1 from the small number of organs of sense4 ,a very plain example of this is afforded by pains4 ,for1 as animals are liable to many kinds and various descriptions of pains 7such as those of burning1 of intense cold1 of pricking1 squeezing1 stretching1 and the like71 so is it most certain1 that the same circumstances1 as far as motion is concerned1 happen to inanimate bodies1 such as wood or stone when burned1 frozen1 pricked1 cut1 bent1 bruised1 and the like2 although there be no sensation1 owing to the absence of animal spirit4 ,again1 wonderful as it may appear1 the roots and branches of trees are similar instances4 ,for every vegetable swells and throws out its constituent parts toward the circumference1 both upward and downward4 ,and there is no difference between the roots and branches1 except that the root is buried in the earth1 and the branches are exposed to the air and sun4 ,for if one take a young and vigorous shoot1 and bend it down to a small portion of loose earth1 although it be not fixed to the ground1 yet will it immediately produce a root1 and not a branch4 ,and1 vice vers1 if earth be placed above1 and so forced down with a stone or any hard substance1 as to confine the plant and prevent its branching upward1 it will throw out branches into the air downward4 ,the gums of trees1 and most rock gems1 are similar instances2 for both of them are exudations and filtered juices1 derived in the former instance from trees1 in the latter from stones2 the brightness and clearness of both arising from a delicate and accurate filtering4 ,for nearly the same reason1 the hair of animals is less beautiful and vivid in its color than the plumage of most birds1 because the juices are less delicately filtered through the skin than through the quills4 ,the scrotum of males and matrix of females are also similar instances2 so that the noble formation which constitutes the difference of the sexes appears to differ only as to the one being internal and the other external2 a greater degree of heat causing the genitals to protrude in the male1 while the heat of the female being too weak to effect this1 they are retained internally4 ,the fins of fishes and the feet of quadrupeds1 or the feet and wings of birds1 are similar instances2 to which ,aristotle adds the four folds in the motion of serpents2#aah so that in the formation of the universe1 the motion of animals appears to be chiefly effected by four joints or bendings4 ,the teeth of land animals1 and the beaks of birds1 are similar instances1 whence it is clear1 that in all perfect animals there is a determination of some hard substance toward the mouth4 ,again1 the resemblance and conformity of man to an inverted plant is not absurd4 ,for the head is the root of the nerves and animal faculties1 and the seminal parts are the lowest1 not including the extremities of the legs and arms4 ,but in the plant1 the root 7which resembles the head7 is regularly placed in the lowest1 and the seeds in the highest part4#aai ,lastly1 we must particularly recommend and suggest1 that man's present industry in the investigation and compilation of natural history be entirely changed1 and directed to the reverse of the present system4 ,for it has hitherto been active and curious in noting the variety of things1 and explaining the accurate differences of animals1 vegetables1 and minerals1 most of which are the mere sport of nature1 rather than of any real utility as concerns the sciences4 ,pursuits of this nature are certainly agreeable1 and sometimes of practical advantage1 but contribute little or nothing to the thorough investigation of nature4 ,our labor must therefore be directed toward inquiring into and observing resemblances and analogies1 both in the whole and its parts1 for they unite nature1 and lay the foundation of the sciences4 ,here1 however1 a severe and rigorous caution must be observed1 that we only consider as similar and proportionate instances1 those which 7as we first observed7 point out physical resemblances2 that is1 real and substantial resemblances1 deeply founded in nature1 and not casual and superficial1 much less superstitious or curious2 such as those which are constantly put forward by the writers on natural magic 7the most idle of men1 and who are scarcely fit to be named in connection with such serious matters as we now treat of71 who1 with much vanity and folly1 describe1 and sometimes too1 invent1 unmeaning resemblances and sympathies4 ,but leaving such to themselves1 similar instances are not to be neglected1 in the greater portions of the world's conformation2 such as ,africa and the ,peruvian continent1 which reaches to the ,straits of ,magellan2 both of which possess a similar isthmus and similar capes1 a circumstance not to be attributed to mere accident4 ,again1 the ,new and ,old ,world are both of them broad and expanded toward the north1 and narrow and pointed toward the south4 ,again1 we have very remarkable similar instances in the intense cold1 toward the middle regions 7as it is termed7 of the air1 and the violent fires which are often found to burst from subterraneous spots1 the similarity consisting in both being ends and extremes2 the extreme of the nature of cold1 for instance1 is toward the boundary of heaven1 and that of the nature of heat toward the centre of the earth1 by a similar species of opposition or rejection of the contrary nature4 ,lastly1 in the axioms of the sciences1 there is a similarity of instances worthy of observation4 ,thus the rhetorical trope which is called surprise1 is similar to that of music termed the declining of a cadence4 ,again--the mathematical postulate1 that things which are equal to the same are equal to one another1 is similar to the form of the syllogism in logic1 which unites things agreeing in the middle term4#abj ,lastly1 a certain degree of sagacity in collecting and searching for physical points of similarity1 is very useful in many respects4#aba ,,xxviii4 ,in the seventh rank of prerogative instances1 we will place singular instances1 which we are also wont to call irregular or heteroclite 7to borrow a term from the grammarians74 ,they are such as exhibit bodies in the concrete1 of an apparently extravagant and separate nature1 agreeing but little with other things of the same species4 ,for1 while the similar instances resemble each other1 those we now speak of are only like themselves4 ,their use is much the same with that of clandestine instances3 they bring out and unite nature1 and discover genera or common natures1 which must afterward be limited by real differences4 ,nor should we desist from inquiry1 until the properties and qualities of those things1 which may be deemed miracles1 as it were1 of nature1 be reduced to1 and comprehended in1 some form or certain law2 so that all irregularity or singularity may be found to depend on some common form2 and the miracle only consists in accurate differences1 degree1 and rare coincidence1 not in the species itself4 ,man's meditation proceeds no further at present1 than just to consider things of this kind as the secrets and vast efforts of nature1 without an assignable cause1 and1 as it were1 exceptions to general rules4 ,as examples of singular instances1 we have the sun and moon among the heavenly bodies2 the magnet among minerals2 quicksilver among metals2 the elephant among quadrupeds2 the venereal sensation among the different kinds of touch2 the scent of sporting dogs among those of smell4 ,the letter ,s1 too1 is considered by the grammarians as sui generis1 from its easily uniting with double or triple consonants1 which no other letter will4 ,these instances are of great value1 because they excite and keep alive inquiry1 and correct an understanding depraved by habit and the common course of things4 ,,xxix4 ,in the eighth rank of prerogative instances1 we will place deviating instances1 such as the errors of nature1 or strange and monstrous objects1 in which nature deviates and turns from her ordinary course4 ,for the errors of nature differ from singular instances1 inasmuch as the latter are the miracles of species1 the former of individuals4 ,their use is much the same1 for they rectify the understanding in opposition to habit1 and reveal common forms4 ,for with regard to these1 also1 we must not desist from inquiry1 till we discern the cause of the deviation4 ,the cause does not1 however1 in such cases rise to a regular form1 but only to the latent process toward such a form4 ,for he who is acquainted with the paths of nature1 will more readily observe her deviations2 and1 vice vers1 he who has learned her deviations will be able more accurately to describe her paths4 ,they differ again from singular instances1 by being much more apt for practice and the operative branch4 ,for it would be very difficult to generate new species1 but less so to vary known species1 and thus produce many rare and unusual results4#abb ,the passage from the miracles of nature to those of art is easy2 for if nature be once seized in her variations1 and the cause be manifest1 it will be easy to lead her by art to such deviation as she was at first led to by chance2 and not only to that but others1 since deviations on the one side lead and open the way to others in every direction4 ,of this we do not require any examples1 since they are so abundant4 ,for a compilation1 or particular natural history1 must be made of all monsters and prodigious births of nature2 of everything1 in short1 which is new1 rare and unusual in nature4 ,this should be done with a rigorous selection1 so as to be worthy of credit4 ,those are most to be suspected which depend upon superstition1 as the prodigies of ,livy1 and those perhaps1 but little less1 which are found in the works of writers on natural magic1 or even alchemy1 and the like2 for such men1 as it were1 are the very suitors and lovers of fables2 but our instances should be derived from some grave and credible history1 and faithful narration4 ,,xxx4 ,in the ninth rank of prerogative instances1 we will place bordering instances1 which we are also wont to term participants4 ,they are such as exhibit those species of bodies which appear to be composed of two species1 or to be the rudiments between the one and the other4 ,they may well be classed with the singular or heteroclite instances2 for in the whole system of things1 they are rare and extraordinary4 ,yet from their dignity1 they must be treated of and classed separately1 for they point out admirably the order and constitution of things1 and suggest the causes of the number and quality of the more common species in the universe1 leading the understanding from that which is1 to that which is possible4 ,we have examples of them in moss1 which is something between putrescence and a plant2#abc in some comets1 which hold a place between stars and ignited meteors2 in flying fishes1 between fishes and birds2 and in bats1 between birds and quadrupeds4#abd ,again1 ,simia quam similis turpissima bestia nobis4 ,we have also biformed ftus1 mingled species and the like4 ,,xxxi4 ,in the tenth rank of prerogative instances1 we will place the instances of power1 or the fasces 7to borrow a term from the insignia of empire71 which we are also wont to call the wit or hands of man4 ,these are such works as are most noble and perfect1 and1 as it were1 the masterpieces in every art4 ,for since our principal object is to make nature subservient to the state and wants of man1 it becomes us well to note and enumerate the works1 which have long since been in the power of man1 especially those which are most polished and perfect3 because the passage from these to new and hitherto undiscovered works1 is more easy and feasible4 ,for if any one1 after an attentive contemplation of such works as are extant1 be willing to push forward in his design with alacrity and vigor1 he will undoubtedly either advance them1 or turn them to something within their immediate reach1 or even apply and transfer them to some more noble purpose4 ,nor is this all3 for as the understanding is elevated and raised by rare and unusual works of nature1 to investigate and discover the forms which include them also1 so is the same effect frequently produced by the excellent and wonderful works of art2 and even to a greater degree1 because the mode of effecting and constructing the miracles of art is generally plain1 while that of effecting the miracles of nature is more obscure4 ,great care1 however1 must be taken1 that they do not depress the understanding1 and fix it1 as it were1 to earth4 ,for there is some danger1 lest the understanding should be astonished and chained down1 and as it were bewitched1 by such works of art1 as appear to be the very summit and pinnacle of human industry1 so as not to become familiar with them1 but rather to suppose that nothing of the kind can be accomplished1 unless the same means be employed1 with perhaps a little more diligence1 and more accurate preparation4 ,now1 on the contrary1 it may be stated as a fact1 that the ways and means hitherto discovered and observed1 of effecting any matter or work1 are for the most part of little value1 and that all really efficient power depends1 and is really to be deduced from the sources of forms1 none of which have yet been discovered4 ,thus 7as we have before observed71 had any one meditated on ballistic machines1 and battering rams1 as they were used by the ancients1 whatever application he might have exerted1 and though he might have consumed a whole life in the pursuit1 yet would he never have hit upon the invention of flaming engines1 acting by means of gunpowder2 nor would any person1 who had made woollen manufactories and cotton the subject of his observation and reflection1 have ever discovered thereby the nature of the silkworm or of silk4 ,hence all the most noble discoveries have 7if you observe7 come to light1 not by any gradual improvement and extension of the arts1 but merely by chance2 while nothing imitates or anticipates chance 7which is wont to act at intervals of ages7 but the invention of forms4 ,there is no necessity for adducing any particular examples of these instances1 since they are abundant4 ,the plan to be pursued is this3 all the mechanical1 and even the liberal arts 7as far as they are practical71 should be visited and thoroughly examined1 and thence there should be formed a compilation or particular history of the great masterpieces1 or most finished works in each1 as well as of the mode of carrying them into effect4 ,nor do we confine the diligence to be used in such a compilation to the leading works and secrets only of every art1 and such as excite wonder2 for wonder is engendered by rarity1 since that which is rare1 although it be compounded of ordinary natures1 always begets wonder4 ,on the contrary1 that which is really wonderful1 from some specific difference distinguishing it from other species1 is carelessly observed1 if it be but familiar4 ,yet the singular instances of art should be observed no less than those of nature1 which we have before spoken of3 and as in the latter we have classed the sun1 the moon1 the magnet1 and the like1 all of them most familiar to us1 but yet in their nature singular1 so should we proceed with the singular instances of art4 ,for example3 paper1 a very common substance1 is a singular instance of art2 for if you consider the subject attentively1 you will find that artificial substances are either woven by straight and transverse lines1 as silk1 woollen1 or linen cloth1 and the like2 or coagulated from concrete juices1 such as brick1 earthenware1 glass1 enamel1 porcelain and the like1 which admit of a polish if they be compact1 but if not1 become hard without being polished2 all which latter substances are brittle1 and not adherent or tenacious4 ,on the contrary1 paper is a tenacious substance1 which can be cut and torn1 so as to resemble and almost rival the skin of any animal1 or the leaf of vegetables1 and the like works of nature2 being neither brittle like glass1 nor woven like cloth1 but having fibres and not distinct threads1 just as natural substances1 so that scarcely anything similar can be found among artificial substances1 and it is absolutely singular4 ,and in artificial works we should certainly prefer those which approach the nearest to an imitation of nature1 or1 on the other hand1 powerfully govern and change her course4 ,again1 in these instances which we term the wit and hands of man1 charms and conjuring should not be altogether despised1 for although mere amusements1 and of little use1 yet they may afford considerable information4 ,lastly1 superstition and magic 7in its common acceptation7 are not to be entirely omitted2 for although they be overwhelmed by a mass of lies and fables1 yet some investigation should be made1 to see if there be really any latent natural operation in them2 as in fascination1 and the fortifying of the imagination1 the sympathy of distant objects1 the transmission of impressions from spirit to spirit no less than from body to body1 and the like4 ,,xxxii4 ,from the foregoing remarks1 it is clear that the last five species of instances 7the similar1 singular1 deviating and bordering instances1 and those of power7 should not be reserved for the investigation of any given nature1 as the preceding and many of the succeeding instances must1 but a collection of them should be made at once1 in the style of a particular history1 so that they may arrange the matter which enters the understanding1 and correct its depraved habit1 for it is necessarily imbued1 corrupted1 perverted and distorted by daily and habitual impressions4 ,they are to be used1 therefore1 as a preparative1 for the purpose of rectifying and purifying the understanding2 for whatever withdraws it from habit1 levels and planes down its surface for the reception of the dry and pure light of true notions4 ,these instances1 moreover1 level and prepare the way for the operative branch1 as we will mention in its proper place when speaking of the practical deductions4 ,,xxxiii4 ,in the eleventh rank of prerogative instances we will place accompanying and hostile instances4 ,these are such as exhibit any body or concrete1 where the required nature is constantly found1 as an inseparable companion1 or1 on the contrary1 where the required nature is constantly avoided1 and excluded from attendance1 as an enemy4 ,from these instances may be formed certain and universal propositions1 either affirmative or negative2 the subject of which will be the concrete body1 and the predicate the required nature4 ,for particular propositions are by no means fixed1 when the required nature is found to fluctuate and change in the concrete1 either approaching and acquired1 or receding and laid aside4 ,hence particular propositions have no great prerogative1 except in the case of migration1 of which we have spoken above4 ,yet such particular propositions are of great use1 when compared with the universal1 as will be mentioned in its proper place4 ,nor do we require absolute affirmation or negation1 even in universal propositions1 for if the exceptions be singular or rare1 it is sufficient for our purpose4 ,the use of accompanying instances is to narrow the affirmative of form2 for as it is narrowed by the migrating instances1 where the form must necessarily be something communicated or destroyed by the act of migration1 so it is narrowed by accompanying instances1 where the form must necessarily be something which enters into the concretion of the body1 or1 on the contrary1 is repugnant to it2 and one who is well acquainted with the constitution or formation of the body1 will not be far from bringing to light the form of the required nature4 ,for example3 let the required nature be heat4 ,flame is an accompanying instance2 for in water1 air1 stone1 metal1 and many other substances1 heat is variable1 and can approach or retire2 but all flame is hot1 so that heat always accompanies the concretion of flame4 ,we have no hostile instance of heat2 for the senses are unacquainted with the interior of the earth1 and there is no concretion of any known body which is not susceptible of heat4 ,again1 let solidity be the required nature4 ,air is a hostile instance2 for metals may be liquid or solid1 so may glass2 even water may become solid by congelation1 but air cannot become solid or lose its fluidity4 ,with regard to these instances of fixed propositions1 there are two points to be observed1 which are of importance4 ,first1 that if there be no universal affirmative or negative1 it be carefully noted as not existing4 ,thus1 in heat1 we have observed that there exists no universal negative1 in such substances1 at least1 as have come to our knowledge4 ,again1 if the required nature be eternity or incorruptibility1 we have no universal affirmative within our sphere1 for these qualities cannot be predicated of any bodies below the heavens1 or above the interior of the earth4 ,secondly1 to our general propositions as to any concrete1 whether affirmative or negative1 we should subjoin the concretes which appear to approach nearest to the non-existing substances2 such as the most gentle or least-burning flames in heat1 or gold in incorruptibility1 since it approaches nearest to it4 ,for they all serve to show the limit of existence and non-existence1 and circumscribe forms1 so that they cannot wander beyond the conditions of matter4 ,,xxxiv4 ,in the twelfth rank of prerogative instances1 we will class those subjunctive instances1 of which we spoke in the last aphorism1 and which we are also wont to call instances of extremity or limits2 for they are not only serviceable when subjoined to fixed propositions1 but also of themselves and from their own nature4 ,they indicate with sufficient precision the real divisions of nature1 and measures of things1 and the 8how far0 nature effects or allows of anything1 and her passage thence to something else4 ,such are gold in weight1 iron in hardness1 the whale in the size of animals1 the dog in smell1 the flame of gunpowder in rapid expansion1 and others of a like nature4 ,nor are we to pass over the extremes in defect1 as well as in abundance1 as spirits of wine in weight1 the touchstone in softness1 the worms upon the skin in the size of animals1 and the like4 ,,xxxv4 ,in the thirteenth rank of prerogative instances we will place those of alliance or union4 ,they are such as mingle and unite natures held to be heterogeneous1 and observed and marked as such in received classifications4 ,these instances show that the operation and effect1 which is considered peculiar to some one of such heterogeneous natures1 may also be attributed to another nature styled heterogeneous1 so as to prove that the difference of the natures is not real nor essential1 but a mere modification of a common nature4 ,they are very serviceable1 therefore1 in elevating and carrying on the mind1 from differences to genera1 and in removing those phantoms and images of things1 which meet it in disguise in concrete substances4 ,for example3 let the required nature be heat4 ,the classification of heat into three kinds1 that of the celestial bodies1 that of animals1 and that of fire1 appears to be settled and admitted2 and these kinds of heat1 especially one of them compared with the other two1 are supposed to be different1 and clearly heterogeneous in their essence and species1 or specific nature1 since the heat of the heavenly bodies and of animals generates and cherishes1 while that of fire corrupts and destroys4 ,we have an instance of alliance1 then1 in a very common experiment1 that of a vine branch admitted into a building where there is a constant fire1 by which the grapes ripen a whole month sooner than in the air2 so that fruit upon the tree can be ripened by fire1 although this appear the peculiar effect of the sun4 ,from this beginning1 therefore1 the understanding rejects all essential difference1 and easily ascends to the investigation of the real differences between the heat of the sun and that of fire1 by which their operation is rendered dissimilar1 although they partake of a common nature4 ,these differences will be found to be four in number4 #a4 ,the heat of the sun is much milder and gentler in degree than that of fire4 #b4 ,it is much more moist in quality1 especially as it is transmitted to us through the air4 #c4 ,which is the chief point1 it is very unequal1 advancing and increased at one time1 retiring and diminished at another1 which mainly contributes to the generation of bodies4 ,for ,aristotle rightly asserted1 that the principal cause of generation and corruption on the surface of the earth was the oblique path of the sun in the zodiac1 whence its heat becomes very unequal1 partly from the alternation of night and day1 partly from the succession of summer and winter4 ,yet must he immediately corrupt and pervert his discovery1 by dictating to nature according to his habit1 and dogmatically assigning the cause of generation to the approach of the sun1 and that of corruption to its retreat2 while1 in fact1 each circumstance indifferently and not respectively contributes both to generation and corruption2 for unequal heat tends to generate and corrupt1 as equable heat does to preserve4 #d4 ,the fourth difference between the heat of the sun and fire is of great consequence2 namely1 that the sun1 gradually1 and for a length of time1 insinuates its effects1 while those of fire 7urged by the impatience of man7 are brought to a termination in a shorter space of time4 ,but if any one were to pay attention to the tempering of fire1 and reducing it to a more moderate and gentle degree 7which may be done in various ways71 and then were to sprinkle and mix a degree of humidity with it2 and1 above all1 were to imitate the sun in its inequality2 and1 lastly1 were patiently to suffer some delay 7not such1 however1 as is proportioned to the effects of the sun1 but more than men usually admit of in those of fire71 he would soon banish the notion of any difference1 and would attempt1 or equal1 or perhaps sometimes surpass the effect of the sun1 by the heat of fire4 ,a like instance of alliance is that of reviving butterflies1 benumbed and nearly dead from cold1 by the gentle warmth of fire2 so that fire is no less able to revive animals than to ripen vegetables4 ,we may also mention the celebrated invention of ,fracastorius1 of applying a pan considerably heated to the head in desperate cases of apoplexy1 which clearly expands the animal spirits1 when compressed and almost extinguished by the humors and obstructions of the brain1 and excites them to action1 as the fire would operate on water or air1 and in the result produces life4 ,eggs are sometimes hatched by the heat of fire1 an exact imitation of animal heat2 and there are many instances of the like nature1 so that no one can doubt that the heat of fire1 in many cases1 can be modified till it resemble that of the heavenly bodies and of animals4 ,again1 let the required natures be motion and rest4 ,there appears to be a settled classification1 grounded on the deepest philosophy1 that natural bodies either revolve1 move in a straight line1 or stand still and rest4 ,for there is either motion without limit1 or continuance within a certain limit1 or a translation toward a certain limit4 ,the eternal motion of revolution appears peculiar to the heavenly bodies1 rest to this our globe1 and the other bodies 7heavy and light1 as they are termed1 that is to say1 placed out of their natural position7 are borne in a straight line to masses or aggregates which resemble them1 the light toward the heaven1 the heavy toward the earth2 and all this is very fine language4 ,but we have an instance of alliance in low comets1 which revolve1 though far below the heavens2 and the fiction of ,aristotle1 of the comet being fixed to1 or necessarily following some star1 has been long since exploded2 not only because it is improbable in itself1 but from the evident fact of the discursive and irregular motion of comets through various parts of the heavens4#abe ,another instance of alliance is that of the motion of air1 which appears to revolve from east to west within the tropics1 where the circles of revolution are the greatest4 ,the flow and ebb of the sea would perhaps be another instance1 if the water were once found to have a motion of revolution1 though slow and hardly perceptible1 from east to west1 subject1 however1 to a reaction twice a day4 ,if this be so1 it is clear that the motion of revolution is not confined to the celestial bodies1 but is shared1 also1 by air and water4 ,again--the supposed peculiar disposition of light bodies to rise is rather shaken2 and here we may find an instance of alliance in a water bubble4 ,for if air be placed under water1 it rises rapidly toward the surface by that striking motion 7as ,democritus terms it7 with which the descending water strikes the air and raises it1 not by any struggle or effort of the air itself2 and when it has reached the surface of the water1 it is prevented from ascending any further1 by the slight resistance it meets with in the water1 which does not allow an immediate separation of its parts1 so that the tendency of the air to rise must be very slight4 ,again1 let the required nature be weight4 ,it is certainly a received classification1 that dense and solid bodies are borne toward the centre of the earth1 and rare and light bodies to the circumference of the heavens1 as their appropriate places4 ,as far as relates to places 7though these things have much weight in the schools71 the notion of there being any determinate place is absurd and puerile4 ,philosophers trifle1 therefore1 when they tell you1 that if the earth were perforated1 heavy bodies would stop on their arrival at the centre4 ,this centre would indeed be an efficacious nothing1 or mathematical point1 could it affect bodies or be sought by them1 for a body is not acted upon except by a body4#abf ,in fact1 this tendency to ascend and descend is either in the conformation of the moving body1 or in its harmony and sympathy with another body4 ,but if any dense and solid body be found1 which does not1 however1 tend toward the earth1 the classification is at an end4 ,now1 if we allow of ,gilbert's opinion1 that the magnetic power of the earth1 in attracting heavy bodies1 is not extended beyond the limit of its peculiar virtue 7which operates always at a fixed distance and no further71#abg and this be proved by some instance1 such an instance will be one of alliance in our present subject4 ,the nearest approach to it is that of waterspouts1 frequently seen by persons navigating the ,atlantic toward either of the ,indies4 ,for the force and mass of the water suddenly effused by waterspouts1 appears to be so considerable1 that the water must have been collected previously1 and have remained fixed where it was formed1 until it was afterward forced down by some violent cause1 rather than made to fall by the natural motion of gravity3 so that it may be conjectured that a dense and compact mass1 at a great distance from the earth1 may be suspended as the earth itself is1 and would not fall1 unless forced down4 ,we do not1 however1 affirm this as certain4 ,in the meanwhile1 both in this respect and many others1 it will readily be seen how deficient we are in natural history1 since we are forced to have recourse to suppositions for examples1 instead of ascertained instances4 ,again1 let the required nature be the discursive power of the mind4 ,the classification of human reason and animal instinct appears to be perfectly correct4 ,yet there are some instances of the actions of brutes which seem to show that they1 too1 can syllogize4 ,thus it is related1 that a crow1 which had nearly perished from thirst in a great drought1 saw some water in the hollow trunk of a tree1 but as it was too narrow for him to get into it1 he continued to throw in pebbles1 which made the water rise till he could drink2 and it afterward became a proverb4 ,again1 let the required nature be vision4 ,the classification appears real and certain1 which considers light as that which is originally visible1 and confers the power of seeing2 and color1 as being secondarily visible1 and not capable of being seen without light1 so as to appear a mere image or modification of light4 ,yet there are instances of alliance in each respect2 as in snow when in great quantities1 and in the flame of sulphur2 the one being a color originally and in itself light1 the other a light verging toward color4#abh ,,xxxvi4 ,in the fourteenth rank of prerogative instances1 we will place the instances of the cross1 borrowing our metaphor from the crosses erected where two roads meet1 to point out the different directions4 ,we are wont also to call them decisive and judicial instances1 and in some cases instances of the oracle and of command4 ,their nature is as follows3 ,when in investigating any nature the understanding is1 as it were1 balanced1 and uncertain to which of two or more natures the cause of the required nature should be assigned1 on account of the frequent and usual concurrence of several natures1 the instances of the cross show that the union of one nature with the required nature is firm and indissoluble1 while that of the other is unsteady and separable2 by which means the question is decided1 and the first is received as the cause1 while the other is dismissed and rejected4 ,such instances1 therefore1 afford great light1 and are of great weight1 so that the course of interpretation sometimes terminates1 and is completed in them4 ,sometimes1 however1 they are found among the instances already observed1 but they are generally new1 being expressly and purposely sought for and applied1 and brought to light only by attentive and active diligence4 ,for example3 let the required nature be the flow and ebb of the sea1 which is repeated twice a day1 at intervals of six hours between each advance and retreat1 with some little difference1 agreeing with the motion of the moon4 ,we have here the following crossways3 ,this motion must be occasioned either by the advancing and the retiring of the sea1 like water shaken in a basin1 which leaves one side while it washes the other2 or by the rising of the sea from the bottom1 and its again subsiding1 like boiling water4 ,but a doubt arises1 to which of these causes we should assign the flow and ebb4 ,if the first assertion be admitted1 it follows1 that when there is a flood on one side1 there must at the same time be an ebb on another1 and the question therefore is reduced to this4 ,now ,acosta1 and some others1 after a diligent inquiry1 have observed that the flood tide takes place on the coast of ,florida1 and the opposite coasts of ,spain and ,africa1 at the same time1 as does also the ebb2 and that there is not1 on the contrary1 a flood tide at ,florida when there is an ebb on the coasts of ,spain and ,africa4 ,yet if one consider the subject attentively1 this does not prove the necessity of a rising motion1 nor refute the notion of a progressive motion4 ,for the motion may be progressive1 and yet inundate the opposite shores of a channel at the same time2 as if the waters be forced and driven together from some other quarter1 for instance1 which takes place in rivers1 for they flow and ebb toward each bank at the same time1 yet their motion is clearly progressive1 being that of the waters from the sea entering their mouths4 ,so it may happen1 that the waters coming in a vast body from the eastern ,indian ,ocean are driven together1 and forced into the channel of the ,atlantic1 and therefore inundate both coasts at once4 ,we must inquire1 therefore1 if there be any other channel by which the waters can at the same time sink and ebb2 and the ,southern ,ocean at once suggests itself1 which is not less than the ,atlantic1 but rather broader and more extensive than is requisite for this effect4 ,we at length arrive1 then1 at an instance of the cross1 which is this4 ,if it be positively discovered1 that when the flood sets in toward the opposite coasts of ,florida and ,spain in the ,atlantic1 there is at the same time a flood tide on the coasts of ,peru and the back part of ,china1 in the ,southern ,ocean1 then assuredly1 from this decisive instance1 we must reject the assertion1 that the flood and ebb of the sea1 about which we inquire1 takes place by progressive motion2 for no other sea or place is left where there can be an ebb4 ,but this may most easily be learned1 by inquiring of the inhabitants of ,panama and ,lima 7where the two oceans are separated by a narrow isthmus71 whether the flood and ebb takes place on the opposite sides of the isthmus at the same time1 or the reverse4 ,this decision or rejection appears certain1 if it be granted that the earth is fixed2 but if the earth revolves1 it may perhaps happen1 that from the unequal revolution 7as regards velocity7 of the earth and the waters of the sea1 there may be a violent forcing of the waters into a mass1 forming the flood1 and a subsequent relaxation of them 7when they can no longer bear the accumulation71 forming the ebb4 ,a separate inquiry must be made into this4 ,even with this hypothesis1 however1 it remains equally true1 that there must be an ebb somewhere1 at the same time that there is a flood in another quarter4 ,again1 let the required nature be the latter of the two motions we have supposed2 namely1 that of a rising and subsiding motion1 if it should happen that upon diligent examination the progressive motion be rejected4 ,we have1 then1 three ways before us1 with regard to this nature4 ,the motion1 by which the waters raise themselves1 and again fall back1 in the floods and ebbs1 without the addition of any other water rolled toward them1 must take place in one of the three following ways3 ,either the supply of water emanates from the interior of the earth1 and returns back again2 or there is really no greater quantity of water1 but the same water 7without any augmentation of its quantity7 is extended or rarefied1 so as to occupy a greater space and dimension1 and again contracts itself2 or there is neither an additional supply nor any extension1 but the same waters 7with regard to quantity1 density1 or rarity7 raise themselves and fall from sympathy1 by some magnetic power attracting and calling them up1 as it were1 from above4 ,let us then 7passing over the first two motions7 reduce the investigation to the last1 and inquire if there be any such elevation of the water by sympathy or a magnetic force2 and it is evident1 in the first place1 that the whole mass of water being placed in the trench or cavity of the sea1 cannot be raised at once1 because there would not be enough to cover the bottom1 so that if there be any tendency of this kind in the water to raise itself1 yet it would be interrupted and checked by the cohesion of things1 or 7as the common expression is7 that there may be no vacuum4 ,the water1 therefore1 must rise on one side1 and for that reason be diminished and ebb on another4 ,but it will again necessarily follow that the magnetic power not being able to operate on the whole1 operates most intensely on the centre1 so as to raise the waters there1 which1 when thus raised successively1 desert and abandon the sides4#abi ,we at length arrive1 then1 at an instance of the cross1 which is this3 if it be found that during the ebb the surface of the waters at sea is more curved and round1 from the waters rising in the middle1 and sinking at the sides or coast1 and if1 during a flood1 it be more even and level1 from the waters returning to their former position1 then assuredly1 by this decisive instance1 the raising of them by a magnetic force can be admitted2 if otherwise1 it must be entirely rejected4 ,it is not difficult to make the experiment 7by sounding in straits71 whether the sea be deeper toward the middle in ebbs1 than in floods4 ,but it must be observed1 if this be the case1 that 7contrary to common opinion7 the waters rise in ebbs1 and only return to their former position in floods1 so as to bathe and inundate the coast4 ,again1 let the required nature be the spontaneous motion of revolution1 and particularly1 whether the diurnal motion1 by which the sun and stars appear to us to rise and set1 be a real motion of revolution in the heavenly bodies1 or only apparent in them1 and real in the earth4 ,there may be an instance of the cross of the following nature4 ,if there be discovered any motion in the ocean from east to west1 though very languid and weak1 and if the same motion be discovered rather more swift in the air 7particularly within the tropics1 where it is more perceptible from the circles being greater74 ,if it be discovered also in the low comets1 and be already quick and powerful in them2 if it be found also in the planets1 but so tempered and regulated as to be slower in those nearest the earth1 and quicker in those at the greatest distance1 being quickest of all in the heavens1 then the diurnal motion should certainly be considered as real in the heavens1 and that of the earth must be rejected2 for it will be evident that the motion from east to west is part of the system of the world and universal2 since it is most rapid in the height of the heavens1 and gradually grows weaker1 till it stops and is extinguished in rest at the earth4 ,again1 let the required nature be that other motion of revolution1 so celebrated among astronomers1 which is contrary to the diurnal1 namely1 from west to east--and which the ancient astronomers assign to the planets1 and even to the starry sphere1 but ,copernicus and his followers to the earth also--and let it be examined whether any such motion be found in nature1 or it be rather a fiction and hypothesis for abridging and facilitating calculation1 and for promoting that fine notion of effecting the heavenly motions by perfect circles2 for there is nothing which proves such a motion in heavenly objects to be true and real1 either in a planet's not returning in its diurnal motion to the same point of the starry sphere1 or in the pole of the zodiac being different from that of the world1 which two circumstances have occasioned this notion4 ,for the first phenomenon is well accounted for by the spheres overtaking or falling behind each other1 and the second by spiral lines2 so that the inaccuracy of the return and declination to the tropics may be rather modifications of the one diurnal motion than contrary motions1 or about different poles4 ,and it is most certain1 if we consider ourselves for a moment as part of the vulgar 7setting aside the fictions of astronomers and the school1 who are wont undeservedly to attack the senses in many respects1 and to affect obscurity71 that the apparent motion is such as we have said1 a model of which we have sometimes caused to be represented by wires in a sort of a machine4 ,we may take the following instances of the cross upon this subject4 ,if it be found in any history worthy of credit1 that there has existed any comet1 high or low1 which has not revolved in manifest harmony 7however irregularly7 with the diurnal motion1 then we may decide so far as to allow such a motion to be possible in nature4 ,but if nothing of the sort be found1 it must be suspected1 and recourse must be had to other instances of the cross4 ,again1 let the required nature be weight or gravity4 ,heavy and ponderous bodies must1 either of their own nature1 tend toward the centre of the earth by their peculiar formation1 or must be attracted and hurried by the corporeal mass of the earth itself1 as being an assemblage of similar bodies1 and be drawn to it by sympathy4 ,but if the latter be the cause1 it follows that the nearer bodies approach to the earth1 the more powerfully and rapidly they must be borne toward it1 and the further they are distant1 the more faintly and slowly 7as is the case in magnetic attractions71 and that this must happen within a given distance2 so that if they be separated at such a distance from the earth that the power of the earth cannot act upon them1 they will remain suspended like the earth1 and not fall at all4#acj ,the following instance of the cross may be adopted4 ,take a clock moved by leaden weights1#aca and another by a spring1 and let them be set well together1 so that one be neither quicker nor slower than the other2 then let the clock moved by weights be placed on the top of a very high church1 and the other be kept below1 and let it be well observed1 if the former move slower than it did1 from the diminished power of the weights4 ,let the same experiment be made at the bottom of mines worked to a considerable depth1 in order to see whether the clock move more quickly from the increased power of the weights4 ,but if this power be found to diminish at a height1 and to increase in subterraneous places1 the attraction of the corporeal mass of the earth may be taken as the cause of weight4 ,again1 let the required nature be the polarity of the steel needle when touched with the magnet4 ,we have these two ways with regard to this nature--,either the touch of the magnet must communicate polarity to the steel toward the north and south1 or else it may only excite and prepare it1 while the actual motion is occasioned by the presence of the earth1 which ,gilbert considers to be the case1 and endeavors to prove with so much labor4 ,the particulars he has inquired into with such ingenious zeal amount to this--#a4 ,an iron bolt placed for a long time toward the north and south acquires polarity from this habit1 without the touch of the magnet1 as if the earth itself operating but weakly from its distance 7for the surface or outer crust of the earth does not1 in his opinion1 possess the magnetic power71 yet1 by long continued motion1 could supply the place of the magnet1 excite the iron1 and convert and change it when excited4 #b4 ,iron1 at a red or white heat1 when quenched in a direction parallel to the north and south1 also acquires polarity without the touch of the magnet1 as if the parts of iron being put in motion by ignition1 and afterward recovering themselves1 were1 at the moment of being quenched1 more susceptible and sensitive of the power emanating from the earth1 than at other times1 and therefore as it were excited4 ,but these points1 though well observed1 do not completely prove his assertion4 ,an instance of the cross on this point might be as follows3 ,let a small magnetic globe be taken1 and its poles marked1 and placed toward the east and west1 not toward the north and south1 and let it continue thus4 ,then let an untouched needle be placed over it1 and suffered to remain so for six or seven days4 ,now1 the needle 7for this is not disputed71 while it remains over the magnet1 will leave the poles of the world and turn to those of the magnet1 and therefore1 as long as it remains in the above position1 will turn to the east and west4 ,but if the needle1 when removed from the magnet and placed upon a pivot1 be found immediately to turn to the north and south1 or even by degrees to return thither1 then the presence of the earth must be considered as the cause1 but if it remains turned as at first1 toward the east and west1 or lose its polarity1 then that cause must be suspected1 and further inquiry made4 ,again1 let the required nature be the corporeal substance of the moon1 whether it be rare1 fiery1 and arial 7as most of the ancient philosophers have thought71 or solid and dense 7as ,gilbert and many of the moderns1 with some of the ancients1 hold74#acb ,the reasons for this latter opinion are grounded chiefly upon this1 that the moon reflects the sun's rays1 and that light does not appear capable of being reflected except by solids4 ,the instances of the cross will therefore 7if any7 be such as to exhibit reflection by a rare body1 such as flame1 if it be but sufficiently dense4 ,now1 certainly1 one of the reasons of twilight is the reflection#acc of the rays of the sun by the upper part of the atmosphere4 ,we see the sun's rays also reflected on fine evenings by streaks of moist clouds1 with a splendor not less1 but perhaps more bright and glorious than that reflected from the body of the moon1 and yet it is not clear that those clouds have formed into a dense body of water4 ,we see1 also1 that the dark air behind the windows at night reflects the light of a candle in the same manner as a dense body would do4#acd ,the experiment should also be made of causing the sun's rays to fall through a hole upon some dark and bluish flame4 ,the unconfined rays of the sun1 when falling on faint flames1 do certainly appear to deaden them1 and render them more like white smoke than flames4 ,these are the only instances which occur at present of the nature of those of the cross1 and better perhaps can be found4 ,but it must always be observed that reflection is not to be expected from flame1 unless it be of some depth1 for otherwise it becomes nearly transparent4 ,this at least may be considered certain1 that light is always either received and transmitted or reflected by an even surface4 ,again1 let the required nature be the motion of projectiles 7such as darts1 arrows1 and balls7 through the air4 ,the school1 in its usual manner1 treats this very carelessly1 considering it enough to distinguish it by the name of violent motion1 from that which they term natural1 and as far as regards the first percussion or impulse1 satisfies itself by its axiom1 that two bodies cannot exist in one place1 or there would be a penetration of dimensions4 ,with regard to this nature we have these two crossways--,the motion must arise either from the air carrying the projected body1 and collecting behind it1 like a stream behind boats1 or the wind behind straws2 or from the parts of the body itself not supporting the impression1 but pushing themselves forward in succession to ease it4 ,fracastorius1 and nearly all those who have entered into any refined inquiry upon the subject1 adopt the first4 ,nor can it be doubted that the air has some effect1 yet the other motion is without doubt real1 as is clear from a vast number of experiments4 ,among others we may take this instance of the cross1 namely1 that a thin plate or wire of iron rather stiff1 or even a reed or pen split in two1 when drawn up and bent between the finger and thumb1 will leap forward2 for it is clear that this cannot be attributed to the air's being collected behind the body1 because the source of motion is in the centre of the plate or pen1 and not in its extremities4 ,again1 let the required nature be the rapid and powerful motion of the explosion of gunpowder1 by which such vast masses are upheaved1 and such weights discharged as we observe in large mines and mortars1 there are two crossways before us with regard to this nature4 ,this motion is excited either by the mere effort of the body expanding itself when inflamed1 or by the assisting effort of the crude spirit1 which escapes rapidly from fire1 and bursts violently from the surrounding flame as from a prison4 ,the school1 however1 and common opinion only consider the first effort2 for men think that they are great philosophers when they assert that flame1 from the form of the element1 is endowed with a kind of necessity of occupying a greater space than the same body had occupied when in the form of powder1 and that thence proceeds the motion in question4 ,in the meantime they do not observe1 that although this may be true1 on the supposition of flame being generated1 yet the generation may be impeded by a weight of sufficient force to compress and suffocate it1 so that no such necessity exists as they assert4 ,they are right1 indeed1 in imagining that the expansion and the consequent emission or removal of the opposing body1 is necessary if flame be once generated1 but such a necessity is avoided if the solid opposing mass suppress the flame before it be generated2 and we in fact see that flame1 especially at the moment of its generation1 is mild and gentle1 and requires a hollow space where it can play and try its force4 ,the great violence of the effect1 therefore1 cannot be attributed to this cause2 but the truth is1 that the generation of these exploding flames and fiery blasts arises from the conflict of two bodies of a decidedly opposite nature--the one very inflammable1 as is the sulphur1 the other having an antipathy to flame1 namely1 the crude spirit of the nitre2 so that an extraordinary conflict takes place while the sulphur is becoming inflamed as far as it can 7for the third body1 the willow charcoal1 merely incorporates and conveniently unites the two others71 and the spirit of nitre is escaping1 as far also as it can1 and at the same time expanding itself 7for air1 and all crude substances1 and water are expanded by heat71 fanning thus1 in every direction1 the flame of the sulphur by its escape and violence1 just as if by invisible bellows4 ,two kinds of instances of the cross might here be used--the one of very inflammable substances1 such as sulphur and camphor1 naphtha and the like1 and their compounds1 which take fire more readily and easily than gunpowder if left to themselves 7and this shows that the effort to catch fire does not of itself produce such a prodigious effect72 the other of substances which avoid and repel flame1 such as all salts2 for we see that when they are cast into the fire1 the aqueous spirit escapes with a crackling noise before flame is produced1 which also happens in a less degree in stiff leaves1 from the escape of the aqueous part before the oily part has caught fire4 ,this is more particularly observed in quicksilver1 which is not improperly called mineral water1 and which1 without any inflammation1 nearly equals the force of gunpowder by simple explosion and expansion1 and is said1 when mixed with gunpowder1 to increase its force4 ,again1 let the required nature be the transitory nature of flame and its momentaneous extinction2 for to us the nature of flame does not appear to be fixed or settled1 but to be generated from moment to moment1 and to be every instant extinguished2 it being clear that those flames which continue and last1 do not owe their continuance to the same mass of flame1 but to a continued succession of new flame regularly generated1 and that the same identical flame does not continue4 ,this is easily shown by removing the food or source of the flame1 when it at once goes out4 ,we have the two following crossways with regard to this nature3 ,this momentary nature either arises from the cessation of the cause which first produced it1 as in light1 sounds1 and violent motions1 as they are termed1 or flame may be capable1 by its own nature1 of duration1 but is subjected to some violence from the contrary natures which surround it1 and is destroyed4 ,we may therefore adopt the following instance of the cross4 ,we see to what a height the flames rise in great conflagrations2 for as the base of the flame becomes more extensive1 its vertex is more lofty4 ,it appears1 then1 that the commencement of the extinction takes place at the sides1 where the flame is compressed by the air1 and is ill at ease2 but the centre of the flame1 which is untouched by the air and surrounded by flame1 continues the same1 and is not extinguished until compressed by degrees by the air attacking it from the sides4 ,all flame1 therefore1 is pyramidal1 having its base near the source1 and its vertex pointed from its being resisted by the air1 and not supplied from the source4 ,on the contrary1 the smoke1 which is narrow at the base1 expands in its ascent1 and resembles an inverted pyramid1 because the air admits the smoke1 but compresses the flame2 for let no one dream that the lighted flame is air1 since they are clearly heterogeneous4 ,the instance of the cross will be more accurate1 if the experiment can be made by flames of different colors4 ,take1 therefore1 a small metal sconce1 and place a lighted taper in it1 then put it in a basin1 and pour a small quantity of spirits of wine round the sconce1 so as not to reach its edge1 and light the spirit4 ,now the flame of the spirit will be blue1 and that of the taper yellow2 observe1 therefore1 whether the latter 7which can easily be distinguished from the former by its color1 for flames do not mix immediately1 as liquids do7 continue pyramidal1 or tend more to a globular figure1 since there is nothing to destroy or compress it4 ,if the latter result be observed1 it must be considered as settled1 that flame continues positively the same1 while inclosed within another flame1 and not exposed to the resisting force of the air4 ,let this suffice for the instances of the cross4 ,we have dwelt the longer upon them in order gradually to teach and accustom mankind to judge of nature by these instances1 and enlightening experiments1 and not by probable reasons4#ace ,,xxxvii4 ,we will treat of the instances of divorce as the fifteenth of our prerogative instances4 ,they indicate the separation of natures of the most common occurrence4 ,they differ1 however1 from those subjoined to the accompanying instances2 for the instances of divorce point out the separation of a particular nature from some concrete substance with which it is usually found in conjunction1 while the hostile instances point out the total separation of one nature from another4 ,they differ1 also1 from the instances of the cross1 because they decide nothing1 but only inform us that the one nature is capable of being separated from the other4 ,they are of use in exposing false forms1 and dissipating hasty theories derived from obvious facts2 so that they add ballast and weight1 as it were1 to the understanding4 ,for instance1 let the acquired natures be those four which ,telesius terms associates1 and of the same family1 namely1 heat1 light1 rarity1 and mobility1 or promptitude to motion2 yet many instances of divorce can be discovered between them4 ,air is rare and easily moved1 but neither hot nor light2 the moon is light but not hot2 boiling water is warm but not light2 the motion of the needle in the compass is swift and active1 and yet its substance is cold1 dense1 and opaque2 and there are many similar examples4 ,again1 let the required natures be corporeal nature and natural action4 ,the latter appears incapable of subsisting without some body1 yet may we1 perhaps1 even here find an instance of divorce1 as in the magnetic motion1 which draws the iron to the magnet1 and heavy bodies to the globe of the earth2 to which we may add other actions which operate at a distance4 ,for such action takes place in time1 by distinct moments1 not in an instant2 and in space1 by regular degrees and distances4 ,there is1 therefore1 some one moment of time and some interval of space1 in which the power or action is suspended between the two bodies creating the motion4 ,our consideration1 then1 is reduced to this1 whether the bodies which are the extremes of motion prepare or alter the intermediate bodies1 so that the power advances from one extreme to the other by succession and actual contact1 and in the meantime exists in some intermediate body2 or whether there exists in reality nothing but the bodies1 the power1 and the space8 ,in the case of the rays of light1 sounds1 and heat1 and some other objects which operate at a distance1 it is indeed probable that the intermediate bodies are prepared and altered1 the more so because a qualified medium is required for their operation4 ,but the magnetic or attractive power admits of an indifferent medium1 and it is not impeded in any4 ,but if that power or action is independent of the intermediate body1 it follows that it is a natural power or action existing in a certain time and space without any body1 since it exists neither in the extreme nor in the intermediate bodies4 ,hence the magnetic action may be taken as an instance of divorce of corporeal nature and natural action2 to which we may add1 as a corollary and an advantage not to be neglected1 that it may be taken as a proof of essence and substance being separate and incorporeal1 even by those who philosophize according to the senses4 ,for if natural power and action emanating from a body can exist at any time and place entirely without any body1 it is nearly a proof that it can also emanate originally from an incorporeal substance2 for a corporeal nature appears to be no less necessary for supporting and conveying1 than for exciting or generating natural action4 ,,xxxviii4 ,next follow five classes of instances which we are wont to call by the general term of instances of the lamp1 or of immediate information4 ,they are such as assist the senses2 for since every interpretation of nature sets out from the senses1 and leads1 by a regular fixed and well-established road1 from the perceptions of the senses to those of the understanding 7which are true notions and axioms71 it necessarily follows1 that in proportion as the representatives or ministerings of the senses are more abundant and accurate1 everything else must be more easy and successful4 ,the first of these five sets of instances of the lamp1 strengthen1 enlarge1 and correct the immediate operations of the senses2 the second reduce to the sphere of the senses such matters as are beyond it2 the third indicate the continued process or series of such things and motions1 as for the most part are only observed in their termination1 or in periods2 the fourth supply the absolute wants of the senses2 the fifth excite their attention and observation1 and at the same time limit the subtilty of things4 ,we will now proceed to speak of them singly4 ,,xxxix4 ,in the sixteenth rank1 then1 of prerogative instances1 we will place the instances of the door or gate1 by which name we designate such as assist the immediate action of the senses4 ,it is obvious1 that sight holds the first rank among the senses1 with regard to information1 for which reason we must seek principally helps for that sense4 ,these helps appear to be threefold1 either to enable it to perceive objects not naturally seen1 or to see them from a greater distance1 or to see them more accurately and distinctly4 ,we have an example of the first 7not to speak of spectacles and the like1 which only correct and remove the infirmity of a deficient sight1 and therefore give no further information7 in the lately invented microscopes1 which exhibit the latent and invisible minuti of substances1 and their hidden formation and motion1 by wonderfully increasing their apparent magnitude4 ,by their assistance we behold with astonishment the accurate form and outline of a flea1 moss1 and animalcul1 as well as their previously invisible color and motion4 ,it is said1 also1 that an apparently straight line1 drawn with a pen or pencil1 is discovered by such a microscope to be very uneven and curved1 because neither the motion of the hand1 when assisted by a ruler1 nor the impression of ink or color1 are really regular1 although the irregularities are so minute as not to be perceptible without the assistance of the microscope4 ,men have 7as is usual in new and wonderful discoveries7 added a superstitious remark1 that the microscope sheds a lustre on the works of nature1 and dishonor on those of art1 which only means that the tissue of nature is much more delicate than that of art4 ,for the microscope is only of use for minute objects1 and ,democritus1 perhaps1 if he had seen it1 would have exulted in the thought of a means being discovered for seeing his atom1 which he affirmed to be entirely invisible4 ,but the inadequacy of these microscopes1 for the observation of any but the most minute bodies1 and even of those if parts of a larger body1 destroys their utility2 for if the invention could be extended to greater bodies1 or the minute parts of greater bodies1 so that a piece of cloth would appear like a net1 and the latent minuti and irregularities of gems1 liquids1 urine1 blood1 wounds1 and many other things could be rendered visible1 the greatest advantage would1 without doubt1 be derived4 ,we have an instance of the second kind in the telescope1 discovered by the wonderful exertions of ,galileo2 by the assistance of which a nearer intercourse may be opened 7as by boats or vessels7 between ourselves and the heavenly objects4 ,for by its aid we are assured that the ,milky ,way is but a knot or constellation of small stars1 clearly defined and separate1 which the ancients only conjectured to be the case2 whence it appears to be capable of demonstration1 that the spaces of the planetary orbits 7as they are termed7 are not quite destitute of other stars1 but that the heaven begins to glitter with stars before we arrive at the starry sphere1 although they may be too small to be visible without the telescope4 ,by the telescope1 also1 we can behold the revolutions of smaller stars round ,jupiter1 whence it may be conjectured that there are several centres of motion among the stars4 ,by its assistance1 also1 the irregularity of light and shade on the moon's surface is more clearly observed and determined1 so as to allow of a sort of selenography4#acf ,by the telescope we see the spots in the sun1 and other similar phenomena2 all of which are most noble discoveries1 as far as credit can be safely given to demonstrations of this nature1 which are on this account very suspicious1 namely1 that experiment stops at these few1 and nothing further has yet been discovered by the same method1 among objects equally worthy of consideration4 ,we have instances of the third kind in measuring-rods1 astrolabes1 and the like1 which do not enlarge1 but correct and guide the sight4 ,if there be other instances which assist the other senses in their immediate and individual action1 yet if they add nothing further to their information they are not apposite to our present purpose1 and we have therefore said nothing of them4 ,,xl4 ,in the seventeenth rank of prerogative instances we will place citing instances 7to borrow a term from the tribunals71 because they cite those things to appear1 which have not yet appeared4 ,we are wont also to call them invoking instances1 and their property is that of reducing to the sphere of the senses objects which do not immediately fall within it4 ,objects escape the senses either from their distance1 or the intervention of other bodies1 or because they are not calculated to make an impression upon the senses1 or because they are not in sufficient quantity to strike the senses1 or because there is not sufficient time for their acting upon the senses1 or because the impression is too violent1 or because the senses are previously filled and possessed by the object1 so as to leave no room for any new motion4 ,these remarks apply principally to sight1 and next to touch1 which two senses act extensively in giving information1 and that too upon general objects1 while the remaining three inform us only1 as it were1 by their immediate action1 and as to specific objects4 ,there can be no reduction to the sphere of the senses in the first case1 unless in the place of the object1 which cannot be perceived on account of the distance1 there be added or substituted some other object1 which can excite and strike the sense from a greater distance1 as in the communication of intelligence by fires1 bells1 and the like4 ,in the second case we effect this reduction by rendering those things which are concealed by the interposition of other bodies1 and which cannot easily be laid open1 evident to the senses by means of that which lies at the surface1 or proceeds from the interior2 thus the state of the body is judged of by the pulse1 urine1 etc4 ,the third and fourth cases apply to many subjects1 and the reduction to the sphere of the senses must be obtained from every quarter in the investigation of things4 ,there are many examples4 ,it is obvious that air1 and spirit1 and the like1 whose whole substance is extremely rare and delicate1 can neither be seen nor touched--a reduction1 therefore1 to the senses becomes necessary in every investigation relating to such bodies4 ,let the required nature1 therefore1 be the action and motion of the spirit inclosed in tangible bodies2 for every tangible body with which we are acquainted contains an invisible and intangible spirit1 over which it is drawn1 and which it seems to clothe4 ,this spirit being emitted from a tangible substance1 leaves the body contracted and dry2 when retained1 it softens and melts it2 when neither wholly emitted nor retained1 it models it1 endows it with limbs1 assimilates1 manifests1 organizes it1 and the like4 ,all these points are reduced to the sphere of the senses by manifest effects4 ,for in every tangible and inanimate body the inclosed spirit at first increases1 and as it were feeds on the tangible parts which are most open and prepared for it2 and when it has digested and modified them1 and turned them into spirit1 it escapes with them4 ,this formation and increase of spirit is rendered sensible by the diminution of weight2 for in every desiccation something is lost in quantity1 not only of the spirit previously existing in the body1 but of the body itself1 which was previously tangible1 and has been recently changed1 for the spirit itself has no weight4 ,the departure or emission of spirit is rendered sensible in the rust of metals1 and other putrefactions of a like nature1 which stop before they arrive at the rudiments of life1 which belong to the third species of process4#acg ,in compact bodies the spirit does not find pores and passages for its escape1 and is therefore obliged to force out1 and drive before it1 the tangible parts also1 which consequently protrude1 whence arises rust and the like4 ,the contraction of the tangible parts1 occasioned by the emission of part of the spirit 7whence arises desiccation71 is rendered sensible by the increased hardness of the substance1 and still more by the fissures1 contractions1 shrivelling1 and folds of the bodies thus produced4 ,for the parts of wood split and contract1 skins become shrivelled1 and not only that1 but1 if the spirit be emitted suddenly by the heat of the fire1 become so hastily contracted as to twist and roll themselves up4 ,on the contrary1 when the spirit is retained1 and yet expanded and excited by heat or the like 7which happens in solid and tenacious bodies71 then the bodies are softened1 as in hot iron2 or flow1 as in metals2 or melt1 as in gums1 wax1 and the like4 ,the contrary effects of heat1 therefore 7hardening some substances and melting others71 are easily reconciled1#ach because the spirit is emitted in the former1 and agitated and retained in the latter2 the latter action is that of heat and the spirit1 the former that of the tangible parts themselves1 after the spirit's emission4 ,but when the spirit is neither entirely retained nor emitted1 but only strives and exercises itself1 within its limits1 and meets with tangible parts1 which obey and readily follow it wherever it leads them1 then follows the formation of an organic body1 and of limbs1 and the other vital actions of vegetables and animals4 ,these are rendered sensible chiefly by diligent observation of the first beginnings1 and rudiments or effects of life in animalcul sprung from putrefaction1 as in the eggs of ants1 worms1 mosses1 frogs after rain1 etc4 ,both a mild heat and a pliant substance1 however1 are necessary for the production of life1 in order that the spirit may neither hastily escape1 nor be restrained by the obstinacy of the parts1 so as not to be able to bend and model them like wax4 ,again1 the difference of spirit which is important and of effect in many points 7as unconnected spirit1 branching spirit1 branching and cellular spirit1 the first of which is that of all inanimate substances1 the second of vegetables1 and the third of animals71 is placed1 as it were1 before the eyes by many reducing instances4 ,again1 it is clear that the more refined tissue and conformation of things 7though forming the whole body of visible or tangible objects7 are neither visible nor tangible4 ,our information1 therefore1 must here also be derived from reduction to the sphere of the senses4 ,but the most radical and primary difference of formation depends on the abundance or scarcity of matter within the same space or dimensions4 ,for the other formations which regard the dissimilarity of the parts contained in the same body1 and their collocation and position1 are secondary in comparison with the former4 ,let the required nature then be the expansion or coherence of matter in different bodies1 or the quantity of matter relative to the dimensions of each4 ,for there is nothing in nature more true than the twofold proposition--that nothing proceeds from nothing and that nothing is reduced to nothing1 but that the quantum1 or sum total of matter1 is constant1 and is neither increased nor diminished4 ,nor is it less true1 that out of this given quantity of matter1 there is a greater or less quantity1 contained within the same space or dimensions according to the difference of bodies2 as1 for instance1 water contains more than air4 ,so that if any one were to assert that a given content of water can be changed into an equal content of air1 it is the same as if he were to assert that something can be reduced into nothing4 ,on the contrary1 if any one were to assert that a given content of air can be changed into an equal content of water1 it is the same as if he were to assert that something can proceed from nothing4 ,from this abundance or scarcity of matter are properly derived the notions of density and rarity1 which are taken in various and promiscuous senses4 ,this third assertion may be considered as being also sufficiently certain2 namely1 that the greater or less quantity of matter in this or that body1 may1 by comparison1 be reduced to calculation1 and exact1 or nearly exact1 proportion4 ,thus1 if one should say that there is such an accumulation of matter in a given quantity of gold1 that it would require twenty-one times the quantity in dimension of spirits of wine1 to make up the same quantity of matter1 it would not be far from the truth4 ,the accumulation of matter1 however1 and its relative quantity1 are rendered sensible by weight2 for weight is proportionate to the quantity of matter1 as regards the parts of a tangible substance1 but spirit and its quantity of matter are not to be computed by weight1 which spirit rather diminishes than augments4 ,we have made a tolerably accurate table of weight1 in which we have selected the weights and size of all the metals1 the principal minerals1 stones1 liquids1 oils1 and many other natural and artificial bodies3 a very useful proceeding both as regards theory and practice1 and which is capable of revealing many unexpected results4 ,nor is this of little consequence1 that it serves to demonstrate that the whole range of the variety of tangible bodies with which we are acquainted 7we mean tolerably close1 and not spongy1 hollow bodies1 which are for a considerable part filled with air71 does not exceed the ratio of one to twenty-one4 ,so limited is nature1 or at least that part of it to which we are most habituated4 ,we have also thought it deserving our industry1 to try if we could arrive at the ratio of intangible or pneumatic bodies to tangible bodies1 which we attempted by the following contrivance4 ,we took a vial capable of containing about an ounce1 using a small vessel in order to effect the subsequent evaporation with less heat4 ,we filled this vial1 almost to the neck1 with spirits of wine1 selecting it as the tangible body which1 by our table1 was the rarest1 and contained a less quantity of matter in a given space than all other tangible bodies which are compact and not hollow4 ,then we noted exactly the weight of the liquid and vial4 ,we next took a bladder1 containing about two pints1 and squeezed all the air out of it1 as completely as possible1 and until the sides of the bladder met4 ,we first1 however1 rubbed the bladder gently with oil1 so as to make it air-tight1 by closing its pores with the oil4 ,we tied the bladder tightly round the mouth of the vial1 which we had inserted in it1 and with a piece of waxed thread to make it fit better and more tightly1 and then placed the vial on some hot coals in a brazier4 ,the vapor or steam of the spirit1 dilated and become ariform by the heat1 gradually swelled out the bladder1 and stretched it in every direction like a sail4 ,as soon as that was accomplished1 we removed the vial from the fire and placed it on a carpet1 that it might not be cracked by the cold2 we also pricked the bladder immediately1 that the steam might not return to a liquid state by the cessation of heat1 and confound the proportions4 ,we then removed the bladder1 and again took the weight of the spirit which remained2 and so calculated the quantity which had been converted into vapor1 or an ariform shape1 and then examined how much space had been occupied by the body in its form of spirits of wine in the vial1 and how much1 on the other hand1 had been occupied by it in its ariform shape in the bladder1 and subtracted the results2 from which it was clear that the body1 thus converted and changed1 acquired an expansion of one hundred times beyond its former bulk4 ,again1 let the required nature be heat or cold1 of such a degree as not to be sensible from its weakness4 ,they are rendered sensible by the thermometer1 as we described it above2#aci for the cold and heat are not actually perceived by the touch1 but heat expands and cold contracts the air4 ,nor1 again1 is that expansion or contraction of the air in itself visible1 but the air when expanded depresses the water1 and when contracted raises it1 which is the first reduction to sight4 ,again1 let the required nature be the mixture of bodies2 namely1 how much aqueous1 oleaginous or spirituous1 ashy or salt parts they contain2 or1 as a particular example1 how much butter1 cheese1 and whey there is in milk1 and the like4 ,these things are rendered sensible by artificial and skilful separations in tangible substances2 and the nature of the spirit in them1 though not immediately perceptible1 is nevertheless discovered by the various motions and efforts of bodies4 ,and1 indeed1 in this branch men have labored hard in distillations and artificial separations1 but with little more success than in their other experiments now in use2 their methods being mere guesses and blind attempts1 and more industrious than intelligent2 and what is worst of all1 without any imitation or rivalry of nature1 but rather by violent heats and too energetic agents1 to the destruction of any delicate conformation1 in which principally consist the hidden virtues and sympathies4 ,nor do men in these separations ever attend to or observe what we have before pointed out2 namely1 that in attacking bodies by fire1 or other methods1 many qualities are superinduced by the fire itself1 and the other bodies used to effect the separation1 which were not originally in the compound4 ,hence arise most extraordinary fallacies2 for the mass of vapor which is emitted from water by fire1 for instance1 did not exist as vapor or air in the water1 but is chiefly created by the expansion of the water by the heat of the fire4 ,so1 in general1 all delicate experiments on natural or artificial bodies1 by which the genuine are distinguished from the adulterated1 and the better from the more common1 should be referred to this division2 for they bring that which is not the object of the senses within their sphere4 ,they are therefore to be everywhere diligently sought after4 ,with regard to the fifth cause of objects escaping our senses1 it is clear that the action of the sense takes place by motion1 and this motion is time4 ,if1 therefore1 the motion of any body be either so slow or so swift as not to be proportioned to the necessary momentum which operates on the senses1 the object is not perceived at all2 as in the motion of the hour hand1 and that1 again1 of a musket-ball4 ,the motion which is imperceptible by the senses from its slowness1 is readily and usually rendered sensible by the accumulation of motion2 that which is imperceptible from its velocity1 has not as yet been well measured2 it is necessary1 however1 that this should be done in some cases1 with a view to a proper investigation of nature4 ,the sixth case1 where the sense is impeded by the power of the object1 admits of a reduction to the sensible sphere1 either by removing the object to a greater distance1 or by deadening its effects by the interposition of a medium1 which may weaken and not destroy the object2 or by the admission of its reflection where the direct impression is too strong1 as that of the sun in a basin of water4 ,the seventh case1 where the senses are so overcharged with the object as to leave no further room1 scarcely occurs except in the smell or taste1 and is not of much consequence as regards our present subject4 ,let what we have said1 therefore1 suffice with regard to the reduction to the sensible sphere of objects not naturally within its compass4 ,sometimes1 however1 this reduction is not extended to the senses of man1 but to those of some other animal1 whose senses1 in some points1 exceed those of man2 as 7with regard to some scents7 to that of the dog1 and with regard to light existing imperceptibly in the air1 when not illuminated from any extraneous source1 to the sense of the cat1 the owl1 and other animals which see by night4 ,for ,telesius has well observed1 that there appears to be an original portion of light even in the air itself1#adj although but slight and meagre1 and of no use for the most part to the eyes of men1 and those of the generality of animals2 because those animals to whose senses this light is proportioned can see by night1 which does not1 in all probability1 proceed from their seeing either without light or by any internal light4 ,here1 too1 we would observe1 that we at present discuss only the wants of the senses1 and their remedies2 for their deceptions must be referred to the inquiries appropriated to the senses1 and sensible objects2 except that important deception1 which makes them define objects in their relation to man1 and not in their relation to the universe1 and which is only corrected by universal reasoning and philosophy4#ada ,,xli4 ,in the eighteenth rank of prerogative instances we will class the instances of the road1 which we are also wont to call itinerant and jointed instances4 ,they are such as indicate the gradually continued motions of nature4 ,this species of instances escapes rather our observation than our senses2 for men are wonderfully indolent upon this subject1 consulting nature in a desultory manner1 and at periodic intervals1 when bodies have been regularly finished and completed1 and not during her work4 ,but if any one were desirous of examining and contemplating the talents and industry of an artificer1 he would not merely wish to see the rude materials of his art1 and then his work when finished1 but rather to be present while he is at labor1 and proceeding with his work4 ,something of the same kind should be done with regard to nature4 ,for instance1 if any one investigate the vegetation of plants1 he should observe from the first sowing of any seed 7which can easily be done1 by pulling up every day seeds which have been two1 three1 or four days in the ground1 and examining them diligently71 how and when the seed begins to swell and break1 and be filled1 as it were1 with spirit2 then how it begins to burst the bark and push out fibres1 raising itself a little at the same time1 unless the ground be very stiff2 then how it pushes out these fibres1 some downward for roots1 others upward for the stem1 sometimes also creeping laterally1 if it find the earth open and more yielding on one side1 and the like4 ,the same should be done in observing the hatching of eggs1 where we may easily see the process of animation and organization1 and what parts are formed of the yolk1 and what of the white of the egg1 and the like4 ,the same may be said of the inquiry into the formation of animals from putrefaction2 for it would not be so humane to inquire into perfect and terrestrial animals1 by cutting the ftus from the womb2 but opportunities may perhaps be offered of abortions1 animals killed in hunting1 and the like4 ,nature1 therefore1 must1 as it were1 be watched1 as being more easily observed by night than by day3 for contemplations of this kind may be considered as carried on by night1 from the minuteness and perpetual burning of our watch-light4 ,the same must be attempted with inanimate objects1 which we have ourselves done by inquiring into the opening of liquids by fire4 ,for the mode in which water expands is different from that observed in wine1 vinegar1 or verjuice1 and very different1 again1 from that observed in milk and oil1 and the like2 and this was easily seen by boiling them with slow heat1 in a glass vessel1 through which the whole may be clearly perceived4 ,but we merely mention this1 intending to treat of it more at large and more closely when we come to the discovery of the latent process2 for it should always be remembered that we do not here treat of things themselves1 but merely propose examples4#adb ,,xlii4 ,in the nineteenth rank of prerogative instances we will class supplementary or substitutive instances1 which we are also wont to call instances of refuge4 ,they are such as supply information1 where the senses are entirely deficient1 and we therefore have recourse to them when appropriate instances cannot be obtained4 ,this substitution is twofold1 either by approximation or by analogy4 ,for instance1 there is no known medium which entirely prevents the effect of the magnet in attracting iron--neither gold1 nor silver1 nor stone1 nor glass1 wood1 water1 oil1 cloth1 or fibrous bodies1 air1 flame1 or the like4 ,yet by accurate experiment1 a medium may perhaps be found which would deaden its effect1 more than another comparatively and in degree2 as1 for instance1 the magnet would not perhaps attract iron through the same thickness of gold as of air1 or the same quantity of ignited as of cold silver1 and so on2 for we have not ourselves made the experiment1 but it will suffice as an example4 ,again1 there is no known body which is not susceptible of heat1 when brought near the fire2 yet air becomes warm much sooner than stone4 ,these are examples of substitution by approximation4 ,substitution by analogy is useful1 but less sure1 and therefore to be adopted with some judgment4 ,it serves to reduce that which is not the object of the senses to their sphere1 not by the perceptible operations of the imperceptible body1 but by the consideration of some similar perceptible body4 ,for instance1 let the subject for inquiry be the mixture of spirits1 which are invisible bodies4 ,there appears to be some relation between bodies and their sources or support4 ,now1 the source of flame seems to be oil and fat2 that of air1 water1 and watery substances2 for flame increases over the exhalation of oil1 and air over that of water4 ,one must therefore consider the mixture of oil and water1 which is manifest to the senses1 since that of air and flame in general escapes the senses4 ,but oil and water mix very imperfectly by composition or stirring1 while they are exactly and nicely mixed in herbs1 blood1 and the parts of animals4 ,something similar1 therefore1 may take place in the mixture of flame and air in spirituous substances1 not bearing mixture very well by simple collision1 while they appear1 however1 to be well mixed in the spirits of plants and animals4 ,again1 if the inquiry do not relate to perfect mixtures of spirits1 but merely to their composition1 as whether they easily incorporate with each other1 or there be rather 7as an example7 certain winds and exhalations1 or other spiritual bodies1 which do not mix with common air1 but only adhere to and float in it in globules and drops1 and are rather broken and pounded by the air1 than received into1 and incorporated with it2 this cannot be perceived in common air1 and other ariform substances1 on account of the rarity of the bodies1 but an image1 as it were1 of this process may be conceived in such liquids as quicksilver1 oil1 water1 and even air1 when broken and dissipated it ascends in small portions through water1 and also in the thicker kinds of smoke2 lastly1 in dust1 raised and remaining in the air1 in all of which there is no incorporation3 and the above representation in this respect is not a bad one1 if it be first diligently investigated1 whether there can be such a difference of nature between spirituous substances1 as between liquids1 for then these images might conveniently be substituted by analogy4 ,and although we have observed of these supplementary instances1 that information is to be derived from them1 when appropriate instances are wanting1 by way of refuge1 yet we would have it understood1 that they are also of great use1 when the appropriate instances are at hand1 in order to confirm the information afforded by them2 of which we will speak more at length1 when our subject leads us1 in due course1 to the support of induction4 ,,xliii4 ,in the twentieth rank of prerogative instances we will place lancing instances1 which we are also wont 7but for a different reason7 to call twitching instances4 ,we adopt the latter name1 because they twitch the understanding1 and the former because they pierce nature1 whence we style them occasionally the instances of ,democritus4#adc ,they are such as warn the understanding of the admirable and exquisite subtilty of nature1 so that it becomes roused and awakened to attention1 observation1 and proper inquiry2 as1 for instance1 that a little drop of ink should be drawn out into so many letters2 that silver merely gilt on its surface should be stretched to such a length of gilt wire2 that a little worm1 such as you may find on the skin1 should possess both a spirit and a varied conformation of its parts2 that a little saffron should imbue a whole tub of water with its color2 that a little musk or aroma should imbue a much greater extent of air with its perfume2 that a cloud of smoke should be raised by a little incense2 that such accurate differences of sounds as articulate words should be conveyed in all directions through the air1 and even penetrate the pores of wood and water 7though they become much weakened71 that they should be1 moreover1 reflected1 and that with such distinctness and velocity2 that light and color should for such an extent and so rapidly pass through solid bodies1 such as glass and water1 with so great and so exquisite a variety of images1 and should be refracted and reflected2 that the magnet should attract through every description of body1 even the most compact2 but 7what is still more wonderful7 that in all these cases the action of one should not impede that of another in a common medium1 such as air2 and that there should be borne through the air1 at the same time1 so many images of visible objects1 so many impulses of articulation1 so many different perfumes1 as of the violet1 rose1 etc41 besides cold and heat1 and magnetic attractions2 all of them1 ,i say1 at once1 without any impediment from each other1 as if each had its paths and peculiar passage set apart for it1 without infringing against or meeting each other4 ,to these lancing instances1 however1 we are wont1 not without some advantage1 to add those which we call the limits of such instances4 ,thus1 in the cases we have pointed out1 one action does not disturb or impede another of a different nature1 yet those of a similar nature subdue and extinguish each other2 as the light of the sun does that of the candle1 the sound of a cannon that of the voice1 a strong perfume a more delicate one1 a powerful heat a more gentle one1 a plate of iron between the magnet and other iron the effect of the magnet4 ,but the proper place for mentioning these will be also among the supports of induction4 ,,xliv4 ,we have now spoken of the instances which assist the senses1 and which are principally of service as regards information2 for information begins from the senses4 ,but our whole labor terminates in practice1 and as the former is the beginning1 so is the latter the end of our subject4 ,the following instances1 therefore1 will be those which are chiefly useful in practice4 ,they are comprehended in two classes1 and are seven in number4 ,we call them all by the general name of practical instances4 ,now there are two defects in practice1 and as many divisions of important instances4 ,practice is either deceptive or too laborious4 ,it is generally deceptive 7especially after a diligent examination of natures71 on account of the power and actions of bodies being ill defined and determined4 ,now the powers and actions of bodies are defined and determined either by space or by time1 or by the quantity at a given period1 or by the predominance of energy2 and if these four circumstances be not well and diligently considered1 the sciences may indeed be beautiful in theory1 but are of no effect in practice4 ,we call the four instances referred to this class1 mathematical instances and instances of measure4 ,practice is laborious either from the multitude of instruments1 or the bulk of matter and substances requisite for any given work4 ,those instances1 therefore1 are valuable1 which either direct practice to that which is of most consequence to mankind1 or lessen the number of instruments or of matter to be worked upon4 ,we assign to the three instances relating to this class1 the common name of propitious or benevolent instances4 ,we will now separately discuss these seven instances1 and conclude with them that part of our work which relates to the prerogative or illustrious instances4 ,,xlv4 ,in the twenty-first rank of prerogative instances we will place the instances of the rod or rule1 which we are also wont to call the instances of completion or non ultr4 ,for the powers and motions of bodies do not act and take effect through indefinite and accidental1 but through limited and certain spaces2 and it is of great importance to practice that these should be understood and noted in every nature which is investigated1 not only to prevent deception1 but to render practice more extensive and efficient4 ,for it is sometimes possible to extend these powers1 and bring the distance1 as it were1 nearer1 as in the example of telescopes4 ,many powers act and take effect only by actual touch1 as in the percussion of bodies1 where the one does not remove the other1 unless the impelling touch the impelled body4 ,external applications in medicine1 as ointment and plasters1 do not exercise their efficacy except when in contact with the body4 ,lastly1 the objects of touch and taste only strike those senses when in contact with their organs4 ,other powers act at a distance1 though it be very small1 of which but few have as yet been noted1 although there be more than men suspect2 this happens 7to take everyday instances7 when amber or jet attracts straws1 bubbles dissolve bubbles1 some purgative medicines draw humors from above1 and the like4 ,the magnetic power by which iron and the magnet1 or two magnets1 are attracted together1 acts within a definite and narrow sphere1 but if there be any magnetic power emanating from the earth a little below its surface1 and affecting the needle in its polarity1 it must act at a great distance4 ,again1 if there be any magnetic force which acts by sympathy between the globe of the earth and heavy bodies1 or between that of the moon and the waters of the sea 7as seems most probable from the particular floods and ebbs which occur twice in the month71 or between the starry sphere and the planets1 by which they are summoned and raised to their apogees1 these must all operate at very great distances4#add ,again1 some conflagrations and the kindling of flames take place at very considerable distances with particular substances1 as they report of the naphtha of ,babylon4 ,heat1 too1 insinuates itself at wide distances1 as does also cold1 so that the masses of ice which are broken off and float upon the ,northern ,ocean1 and are borne through the ,atlantic to the coast of ,canada1 become perceptible by the inhabitants1 and strike them with cold from a distance4 ,perfumes also 7though here there appears to be always some corporeal emission7 act at remarkable distances1 as is experienced by persons sailing by the coast of ,florida1 or parts of ,spain1 where there are whole woods of lemons1 oranges1 and other odoriferous plants1 or rosemary and marjoram bushes1 and the like4 ,lastly1 the rays of light and the impressions of sound act at extensive distances4 ,yet all these powers1 whether acting at a small or great distance1 certainly act within definite distances1 which are well ascertained by nature1 so that there is a limit depending either on the mass or quantity of the bodies1 the vigor or faintness of the powers1 or the favorable or impeding nature of the medium1 all of which should be taken into account and observed4 ,we must also note the boundaries of violent motions1 such as missiles1 projectiles1 wheels and the like1 since they are also manifestly confined to certain limits4 ,some motions and virtues are to be found of a directly contrary nature to these1 which act in contact but not at a distance2 namely1 such as operate at a distance and not in contact1 and again act with less force at a less distance1 and the reverse4 ,sight1 for instance1 is not easily effective in contact1 but requires a medium and distance2 although ,i remember having heard from a person deserving of credit1 that in being cured of a cataract 7which was done by putting a small silver needle within the first coat of the eye1 to remove the thin pellicle of the cataract1 and force it into a corner of the eye71 he had distinctly seen the needle moving across the pupil4 ,still1 though this may be true1 it is clear that large bodies cannot be seen well or distinctly1 unless at the vertex of a cone1 where the rays from the object meet at some distance from the eye4 ,in old persons the eye sees better if the object be moved a little further1 and not nearer4 ,again1 it is certain that in projectiles the impact is not so violent at too short a distance as a little afterward4#ade ,such are the observations to be made on the measure of motions as regards distance4 ,there is another measure of motion in space which must not be passed over1 not relating to progressive but spherical motion--that is1 the expansion of bodies into a greater1 or their contraction into a lesser sphere4 ,for in our measure of this motion we must inquire what degree of compression or extension bodies easily and readily admit of1 according to their nature1 and at what point they begin to resist it1 so as at last to bear it no further--as when an inflated bladder is compressed1 it allows a certain compression of the air1 but if this be increased1 the air does not suffer it1 and the bladder is burst4 ,we have proved this by a more delicate experiment4 ,we took a metal bell1 of a light and thin sort1 such as is used for salt-cellars1 and immersed it in a basin of water1 so as to carry the air contained in its interior down with it to the bottom of the basin4 ,we had first1 however1 placed a small globe at the bottom of the basin1 over which we placed the bell4 ,the result was1 that if the globe were small compared with the interior of the bell1 the air would contract itself1 and be compressed without being forced out1 but if it were too large for the air readily to yield to it1 the latter became impatient of the pressure1 raised the bell partly up1 and ascended in bubbles4 ,to prove1 also1 the extension 7as well as the compression7 which air admits of1 we adopted the following method3--,we took a glass egg1 with a small hole at one end2 we drew out the air by violent suction at this hole1 and then closed the hole with the finger1 immersed the egg in water1 and then removed the finger4 ,the air being constrained by the effort made in suction1 and dilated beyond its natural state1 and therefore striving to recover and contract itself 7so that if the egg had not been immersed in water1 it would have drawn in the air with a hissing sound71 now drew in a sufficient quantity of water to allow the air to recover its former dimensions4#adf ,it is well ascertained that rare bodies 7such as air7 admit of considerable contraction1 as has been before observed2 but tangible bodies 7such as water7 admit of it much less readily1 and to a less extent4 ,we investigated the latter point by the following experiment3 ,we had a leaden globe made1 capable of containing about two pints1 wine measure1 and of tolerable thickness1 so as to support considerable pressure4 ,we poured water into it through an aperture1 which we afterward closed with melted lead1 as soon as the globe was filled with water1 so that the whole became perfectly solid4 ,we next flattened the two opposite sides with a heavy hammer1 which necessarily caused the water to occupy a less space1 since the sphere is the solid of greatest content2 and when hammering failed from the resistance of the water1 we made use of a mill or press1 till at last the water1 refusing to submit to a greater pressure1 exuded like a fine dew through the solid lead4 ,we then computed the extent to which the original space had been reduced1 and concluded that water admitted such a degree of compression when constrained by great violence4 ,the more solid1 dry or compact bodies1 such as stones1 wood and metals1 admit of much less1 and indeed scarcely any perceptible compression or expansion1 but escape by breaking1 slipping forward1 or other efforts2 as appears in bending wood1 or steel for watch-springs1 in projectiles1 hammering and many other motions1 all of which1 together with their degrees1 are to be observed and examined in the investigation of nature1 either to a certainty1 or by estimation1 or comparison1 as opportunity permits4 ,,xlvi4 ,in the twenty-second rank of prerogative instances we will place the instances of the course1 which we are also wont to call water instances1 borrowing our expression from the water hour-glasses employed by the ancients instead of those with sand4 ,they are such as measure nature by the moments of time1 as the last instances do by the degrees of space4 ,for all motion or natural action takes place in time1 more or less rapidly1 but still in determined moments well ascertained by nature4 ,even those actions which appear to take effect suddenly1 and in the twinkling of an eye 7as we express it71 are found to admit of greater or less rapidity4 ,in the first place1 then1 we see that the return of the heavenly bodies to the same place takes place in regular times1 as does the flood and ebb of the sea4 ,the descent of heavy bodies toward the earth1 and the ascent of light bodies toward the heavenly sphere1 take place in definite times1#adg according to the nature of the body1 and of the medium through which it moves4 ,the sailing of ships1 the motions of animals1 the transmission of projectiles1 all take place in times the sums of which can be computed4 ,with regard to heat1 we see that boys in winter bathe their hands in the flame without being burned2 and conjurers1 by quick and regular movements1 overturn vessels filled with wine or water1 and replace them without spilling the liquid1 with several similar instances4 ,the compression1 expansion and eruption of several bodies1 take place more or less rapidly1 according to the nature of the body and its motion1 but still in definite moments4 ,in the explosion of several cannon at once 7which are sometimes heard at the distance of thirty miles71 the sound of those nearest to the spot is heard before that of the most distant4 ,even in sight 7whose action is most rapid71 it is clear that a definite time is necessary for its exertion1 which is proved by certain objects being invisible from the velocity of their motion1 such as a musket-ball2 for the flight of the ball is too swift to allow an impression of its figure to be conveyed to the sight4 ,this last instance1 and others of a like nature1 have sometimes excited in us a most marvellous doubt1 no less than whether the image of the sky and stars is perceived as at the actual moment of its existence1 or rather a little after1 and whether there is not 7with regard to the visible appearance of the heavenly bodies7 a true and apparent time1 as well as a true and apparent place1 which is observed by astronomers in parallaxes4 ,it appeared so incredible to us1 that the images or radiations of heavenly bodies could suddenly be conveyed through such immense spaces to the sight1 and it seemed that they ought rather to be transmitted in a definite time4#adh ,that doubt1 however 7as far as regards any great difference between the true and apparent time71 was subsequently completely set at rest1 when we considered the infinite loss and diminution of size as regards the real and apparent magnitude of a star1 occasioned by its distance1 and at the same time observed at how great a distance 7at least sixty miles7 bodies which are merely white can be suddenly seen by us4 ,for there is no doubt1 that the light of the heavenly bodies not only far surpasses the vivid appearance of white1 but even the light of any flame 7with which we are acquainted7 in the vigor of its radiation4 ,the immense velocity of the bodies themselves1 which is perceived in their diurnal motion1 and has so astonished thinking men1 that they have been more ready to believe in the motion of the earth1 renders the motion of radiation from them 7marvellous as it is in its rapidity7 more worthy of belief4 ,that which has weighed most with us1 however1 is1 that if there were any considerable interval of time between the reality and the appearance1 the images would often be interrupted and confused by clouds formed in the meantime1 and similar disturbances of the medium4 ,let this suffice with regard to the simple measures of time4 ,it is not merely the absolute1 but still more the relative measure of motions and actions which must be inquired into1 for this latter is of great use and application4 ,we perceive that the flame of firearms is seen sooner than the sound is heard1 although the ball must have struck the air before the flame1 which was behind it1 could escape3 the reason of which is1 that light moves with greater velocity than sound4 ,we perceive1 also1 that visible images are received by the sight with greater rapidity than they are dismissed1 and for this reason1 a violin string touched with the finger appears double or triple1 because the new image is received before the former one is dismissed4 ,hence1 also1 rings when spinning appear globular1 and a lighted torch1 borne rapidly along at night1 appears to have a tail4 ,upon the principle of the inequality of motion1 also1 ,galileo attempted an explanation of the flood and ebb of the sea1 supposing the earth to move rapidly1 and the water slowly1 by which means the water1 after accumulating1 would at intervals fall back1 as is shown in a vessel of water made to move rapidly4 ,he has1 however1 imagined this on data which cannot be granted 7namely1 the earth's motion71 and besides1 does not satisfactorily account for the tide taking place every six hours4 ,an example of our present point 7the relative measure of motion71 and1 at the same time1 of its remarkable use of which we have spoken1 is conspicuous in mines filled with gunpowder1 where immense weights of earth1 buildings1 and the like1 are overthrown and prostrated by a small quantity of powder2 the reason of which is decidedly this1 that the motion of the expansion of the gunpowder is much more rapid than that of gravity1#adi which would resist it1 so that the former has terminated before the latter has commenced4 ,hence1 also1 in missiles1 a strong blow will not carry them so far as a sharp and rapid one4 ,nor could a small portion of animal spirit in animals1 especially in such vast bodies as those of the whale and elephant1 have ever bent or directed such a mass of body1 were it not owing to the velocity of the former1 and the slowness of the latter in resisting its motion4 ,in short1 this point is one of the principal foundations of the magic experiments 7of which we shall presently speak71 where a small mass of matter overcomes and regulates a much larger1 if there but be an anticipation of motion1 by the velocity of one before the other is prepared to act4 ,finally1 the point of the first and last should be observed in all natural actions4 ,thus1 in an infusion of rhubarb the purgative property is first extracted1 and then the astringent2 we have experienced something of the same kind in steeping violets in vinegar1 which first extracts the sweet and delicate odor of the flower1 and then the more earthy part1 which disturbs the perfume2 so that if the violets be steeped a whole day1 a much fainter perfume is extracted than if they were steeped for a quarter of an hour only1 and then taken out2 and since the odoriferous spirit in the violet is not abundant1 let other and fresh violets be steeped in the vinegar every quarter of an hour1 as many as six times1 when the infusion becomes so strengthened1 that although the violets have not altogether remained there for more than one hour and a half1 there remains a most pleasing perfume1 not inferior to the flower itself1 for a whole year4 ,it must be observed1 however1 that the perfume does not acquire its full strength till about a month after the infusion4 ,in the distillation of aromatic plants macerated in spirits of wine1 it is well known that an aqueous and useless phlegm rises first1 then water containing more of the spirit1 and1 lastly1 water containing more of the aroma2 and many observations of the like kind1 well worthy of notice1 are to be made in distillations4 ,but let these suffice as examples4#aej ,,xlvii4 ,in the twenty-third rank of prerogative instances we will place instances of quantity1 which we are also wont to call the doses of nature 7borrowing a word from medicine74 ,they are such as measure the powers by the quantity of bodies1 and point out the effect of the quantity in the degree of power4 ,and in the first place1 some powers only subsist in the universal quantity1 or such as bears a relation to the confirmation and fabric of the universe4 ,thus the earth is fixed1 its parts fall4 ,the waters in the sea flow and ebb1 but not in the rivers1 except by the admission of the sea4 ,then1 again1 almost all particular powers act according to the greater or less quantity of the body4 ,large masses of water are not easily rendered foul1 small are4 ,new wine and beer become ripe and drinkable in small skins much more readily than in large casks4 ,if a herb be placed in a considerable quantity of liquid1 infusion takes place rather than impregnation2 if in less1 the reverse4 ,a bath1 therefore1 and a light sprinkling1 produce different effects on the human body4 ,light dew1 again1 never falls1 but is dissipated and incorporated with the air2 thus we see that in breathing on gems1 the slight quantity of moisture1 like a small cloud in the air1 is immediately dissolved4 ,again1 a piece of the same magnet does not attract so much iron as the whole magnet did4 ,there are some powers where the smallness of the quantity is of more avail2 as in boring1 a sharp point pierces more readily than a blunt one2 the diamond1 when pointed1 makes an impression on glass1 and the like4 ,here1 too1 we must not rest contented with a vague result1 but inquire into the exact proportion of quantity requisite for a particular exertion of power2 for one would be apt to suppose that the power bears an exact proportion to the quantity2 that if a leaden bullet of one ounce1 for instance1 would fall in a given time1 one of two ounces ought to fall twice as rapidly1 which is most erroneous4 ,nor does the same ratio prevail in every kind of power1 their difference being considerable4 ,the measure1 therefore1 must be determined by experiment1 and not by probability or conjecture4 ,lastly1 we must in all our investigations of nature observe what quantity1 or dose1 of the body is requisite for a given effect1 and must at the same time be guarded against estimating it at too much or too little4 ,,xlviii4 ,in the twenty-fourth rank of prerogative instances we will place wrestling instances1 which we are also wont to call instances of predominance4 ,they are such as point out the predominance and submission of powers compared with each other1 and which of them is the more energetic and superior1 or more weak and inferior4 ,for the motions and effects of bodies are compounded1 decomposed1 and combined1 no less than the bodies themselves4 ,we will exhibit1 therefore1 the principal kinds of motions or active powers1 in order that their comparative strength1 and thence a demonstration and definition of the instances in question1 may be rendered more clear4 ,let the first motion be that of the resistance of matter1 which exists in every particle1 and completely prevents its annihilation2 so that no conflagration1 weight1 pressure1 violence1 or length of time can reduce even the smallest portion of matter to nothing1 or prevent it from being something1 and occupying some space1 and delivering itself 7whatever straits it be put to71 by changing its form or place1 or1 if that be impossible1 remaining as it is2 nor can it ever happen that it should either be nothing or nowhere4 ,this motion is designated by the schools 7which generally name and define everything by its effects and inconveniences rather than by its inherent cause7 by the axiom1 that two bodies cannot exist in the same place1 or they call it a motion to prevent the penetration of dimensions4 ,it is useless to give examples of this motion1 since it exists in every body4 ,let the second motion be that which we term the motion of connection1 by which bodies do not allow themselves to be separated at any point from the contact of another body1 delighting1 as it were1 in the mutual connection and contact4 ,this is called by the schools a motion to prevent a vacuum4 ,it takes place when water is drawn up by suction or a syringe1 the flesh by cupping1 or when the water remains without escaping from perforated jars1 unless the mouth be opened to admit the air1 and innumerable instances of a like nature4 ,let the third be that which we term the motion of liberty1 by which bodies strive to deliver themselves from any unnatural pressure or tension1 and to restore themselves to the dimensions suited to their mass2 and of which1 also1 there are innumerable examples4 ,thus1 we have examples of their escaping from pressure1 in the water in swimming1 in the air in flying1 in the water again in rowing1 and in the air in the undulation of the winds1 and in springs of watches4 ,an exact instance of the motion of compressed air is seen in children's popguns1 which they make by scooping out elder-branches or some such matter1 and forcing in a piece of some pulpy root or the like1 at each end2 then they force the root or other pellet with a ramrod to the opposite end1 from which the lower pellet is emitted and projected with a report1 and that before it is touched by the other piece of root or pellet1 or by the ramrod4 ,we have examples of their escape from tension1 in the motion of the air that remains in glass eggs after suction1 in strings1 leather1 and cloth1 which recoil after tension1 unless it be long continued4 ,the schools define this by the term of motion from the form of the element2 injudiciously enough1 since this motion is to be found not only in air1 water1 or fire1 but in every species of solid1 as wood1 iron1 lead1 cloth1 parchment1 etc41 each of which has its own proper size1 and is with difficulty stretched to any other4 ,since1 however1 this motion of liberty is the most obvious of all1 and to be seen in an infinite number of cases1 it will be as well to distinguish it correctly and clearly2 for some most carelessly confound this with the two others of resistance and connection2 namely1 the freedom from pressure with the former1 and that from tension with the latter1 as if bodies when compressed yielded or expanded to prevent a penetration of dimensions1 and when stretched rebounded and contracted themselves to prevent a vacuum4 ,but if the air1 when compressed1 could be brought to the density of water1 or wood to that of stone1 there would be no need of any penetration of dimensions1 and yet the compression would be much greater than they actually admit of4 ,so if water could be expanded till it became as rare as air1 or stone as rare as wood1 there would be no need of a vacuum1 and yet the expansion would be much greater than they actually admit of4 ,we do not1 therefore1 arrive at a penetration of dimensions or a vacuum before the extremes of condensation and rarefaction1 while the motion we speak of stops and exerts itself much within them1 and is nothing more than a desire of bodies to preserve their specific density 7or1 if it be preferred1 their form71 and not to desert them suddenly1 but only to change by degrees1 and of their own accord4 ,it is1 however1 much more necessary to intimate to mankind 7because many other points depend upon this71 that the violent motion which we call mechanical1 and ,democritus 7who1 in explaining his primary motions1 is to be ranked even below the middling class of philosophers7 termed the motion of a blow1 is nothing else than this motion of liberty1 namely1 a tendency to relaxation from compression4 ,for in all simple impulsion or flight through the air1 the body is not displaced or moved in space1 until its parts are placed in an unnatural state1 and compressed by the impelling force4 ,when that takes place1 the different parts urging the other in succession1 the whole is moved1 and that with a rotatory as well as progressive motion1 in order that the parts may1 by this means also1 set themselves at liberty1 or more readily submit4 ,let this suffice for the motion in question4 ,let the fourth be that which we term the motion of matter1 and which is opposed to the last2 for in the motion of liberty1 bodies abhor1 reject1 and avoid1 a new size or volume1 or any new expansion or contraction 7for these different terms have the same meaning71 and strive1 with all their power1 to rebound and resume their former density2 on the contrary1 in the motion of matter1 they are anxious to acquire a new volume or dimension1 and attempt it willingly and rapidly1 and occasionally by a most vigorous effort1 as in the example of gunpowder4 ,the most powerful1 or at least most frequent1 though not the only instruments of this motion1 are heat and cold4 ,for instance1 the air1 if expanded by tension 7as by suction in the glass egg71 struggles anxiously to restore itself2 but if heat be applied1 it strives1 on the contrary1 to dilate itself1 and longs for a larger volume1 regularly passing and migrating into it1 as into a new form 7as it is termed72 nor after a certain degree of expansion is it anxious to return1 unless it be invited to do so by the application of cold1 which is not indeed a return1 but a fresh change4 ,so also water1 when confined by compression1 resists1 and wishes to become as it was before1 namely1 more expanded2 but if there happen an intense and continued cold1 it changes itself readily1 and of its own accord1 into the condensed state of ice2 and if the cold be long continued1 without any intervening warmth 7as in grottoes and deep caves71 it is changed into crystal or similar matter1 and never resumes its form4 ,let the fifth be that which we term the motion of continuity4 ,we do not understand by this simple and primary continuity with any other body 7for that is the motion of connection71 but the continuity of a particular body in itself2 for it is most certain that all bodies abhor a solution of continuity1 some more and some less1 but all partially4 ,in hard bodies 7such as steel and glass7 the resistance to an interruption of continuity is most powerful and efficacious1 while although in liquids it appears to be faint and languid1 yet it is not altogether null1 but exists in the lowest degree1 and shows itself in many experiments1 such as bubbles1 the round form of drops1 the thin threads which drip from roofs1 the cohesion of glutinous substances1 and the like4 ,it is most conspicuous1 however1 if an attempt be made to push this separation to still smaller particles4 ,thus1 in mortars1 the pestle produces no effect after a certain degree of contusion1 water does not penetrate small fissures1 and the air itself1 notwithstanding its subtilty1 does not penetrate the pores of solid vessels at once1 but only by long-continued insinuation4 ,let the sixth be that which we term the motion of acquisition1 or the motion of need4#aea ,it is that by which bodies placed among others of a heterogeneous and1 as it were1 hostile nature1 if they meet with the means or opportunity of avoiding them1 and uniting themselves with others of a more analogous nature1 even when these latter are not closely allied to them1 immediately seize and1 as it were1 select them1 and appear to consider it as something acquired 7whence we derive the name71 and to have need of these latter bodies4 ,for instance1 gold1 or any other metal in leaf1 does not like the neighborhood of air2 if1 therefore1 they meet with any tangible and thick substance 7such as the finger1 paper1 or the like71 they immediately adhere to it1 and are not easily torn from it4 ,paper1 too1 and cloth1 and the like1 do not agree with the air1 which is inherent and mixed in their pores4 ,they readily1 therefore1 imbibe water or other liquids1 and get rid of the air4 ,sugar1 or a sponge1 dipped in water or wine1 and though part of it be out of the water or wine1 and at some height above it1 will yet gradually absorb them4#aeb ,hence an excellent rule is derived for the opening and dissolution of bodies2 for 7not to mention corrosive and strong waters1 which force their way7 if a body can be found which is more adapted1 suited1 and friendly to a given solid1 than that with which it is by some necessity united1 the given solid immediately opens and dissolves itself to receive the former1 and excludes or removes the latter4#aec ,nor is the effect or power of this motion confined to contact1 for the electric energy 7of which ,gilbert and others after him have told so many fables7 is only the energy excited in a body by gentle friction1 and which does not endure the air1 but prefers some tangible substance if there be any at hand4 ,let the seventh be that which we term the motion of greater congregation1 by which bodies are borne toward masses of a similar nature1 for instance1 heavy bodies toward the earth1 light to the sphere of heaven4 ,the schools termed this natural motion1 by a superficial consideration of it1 because produced by no external visible agent1 which made them consider it innate in the substances2 or perhaps because it does not cease1 which is little to be wondered at1 since heaven and earth are always present1 while the causes and sources of many other motions are sometimes absent and sometimes present4 ,they therefore called this perpetual and proper1 because it is never interrupted1 but instantly takes place when the others are interrupted1 and they called the others adscititious4 ,the former1 however1 is in reality weak and slow1 since it yields1 and is inferior to the others as long as they act1 unless the mass of the body be great2 and although this motion have so filled men's minds1 as almost to have obscured all others1 yet they know but little about it1 and commit many errors in its estimate4 ,let the eighth be that which we term the motion of lesser congregation1 by which the homogeneous parts in any body separate themselves from the heterogeneous and unite together1 and whole bodies of a similar substance coalesce and tend toward each other1 and are sometimes congregated1 attracted1 and meet1 from some distance2 thus in milk the cream rises after a certain time1 and in wine the dregs and tartar sink2 which effects are not to be attributed to gravity and levity only1 so as to account for the rising of some parts and the sinking of others1 but much more to the desire of the homogeneous bodies to meet and unite4 ,this motion differs from that of need in two points3 #ast1 because the latter is the stimulus of a malignant and contrary nature1 while in this of which we treat 7if there be no impediment or restraint71 the parts are united by their affinity1 although there be no foreign nature to create a struggle2 #b;dly1 because the union is closer and more select4 ,for in the other motion1 bodies which have no great affinity unite1 if they can but avoid the hostile body1 while in this1 substances which are connected by a decided kindred resemblance come together and are molded into one4 ,it is a motion existing in all compound bodies1 and would be readily seen in each1 if it were not confined and checked by the other affections and necessities of bodies which disturb the union4 ,this motion is usually confined in the three following manners3 by the torpor of the bodies2 by the power of the predominating body2 by external motion4 ,with regard to the first1 it is certain that there is more or less sluggishness in tangible bodies1 and an abhorrence of locomotion2 so that unless excited they prefer remaining contented with their actual state1 to placing themselves in a better position4 ,there are three means of breaking through this sluggishness--heat2 the active power of a similar body2 vivid and powerful motion4 ,with regard to the first1 heat is1 on this account1 defined as that which separates heterogeneous1 and draws together homogeneous substances2 a definition of the ,peripatetics which is justly ridiculed by ,gilbert1 who says it is as if one were to define man to be that which sows wheat and plants vineyards2 being only a definition deduced from effects1 and those but partial4 ,but it is still more to be blamed1 because those effects1 such as they are1 are not a peculiar property of heat1 but a mere accident 7for cold1 as we shall afterward show1 does the same71 arising from the desire of the homogeneous parts to unite2 the heat then assists them in breaking through that sluggishness which before restrained their desire4 ,with regard to the assistance derived from the power of a similar body1 it is most conspicuous in the magnet when armed with steel1 for it excites in the steel a power of adhering to steel1 as a homogeneous substance1 the power of the magnet breaking through the sluggishness of the steel4 ,with regard to the assistance of motion1 it is seen in wooden arrows or points1 which penetrate more deeply into wood than if they were tipped with iron1 from the similarity of the substance1 the swiftness of the motion breaking through the sluggishness of the wood2 of which two last experiments we have spoken above in the aphorism on clandestine instances4#aed ,the confinement of the motion of lesser congregation1 which arises from the power of the predominant body1 is shown in the decomposition of blood and urine by cold4 ,for as long as these substances are filled with the active spirit1 which regulates and restrains each of their component parts1 as the predominant ruler of the whole1 the several different parts do not collect themselves separately on account of the check2 but as soon as that spirit has evaporated1 or has been choked by the cold1 then the decomposed parts unite1 according to their natural desire4 ,hence it happens1 that all bodies which contain a sharp spirit 7as salts and the like71 last without decomposition1 owing to the permanent and durable power of the predominating and imperious spirit4 ,the confinement of the motion of lesser congregation1 which arises from external motion1 is very evident in that agitation of bodies which preserves them from putrefaction4 ,for all putrefaction depends on the congregation of the homogeneous parts1 whence1 by degrees1 there ensues a corruption of the first form 7as it is called71 and the generation of another4 ,for the decomposition of the original form1 which is itself the union of the homogeneous parts1 precedes the putrefaction1 which prepares the way for the generation of another4 ,this decomposition1 if not interrupted1 is simple2 but if there be various obstacles1 putrefactions ensue1 which are the rudiments of a new generation4 ,but if 7to come to our present point7 a frequent agitation be excited by external motion1 the motion toward union 7which is delicate and gentle1 and requires to be free from all external influence7 is disturbed1 and ceases2 which we perceive to be the case in innumerable instances4 ,thus1 the daily agitation or flowing of water prevents putrefaction2 winds prevent the air from being pestilent2 corn turned about and shaken in granaries continues clean3 in short1 everything which is externally agitated will with difficulty rot internally4 ,we must not omit that union of the parts of bodies which is the principal cause of induration and desiccation4 ,when the spirit or moisture1 which has evaporated into spirit1 has escaped from a porous body 7such as wood1 bone1 parchment1 and the like71 the thicker parts are drawn together1 and united with a greater effort1 and induration or desiccation is the consequence2 and this we attribute not so much to the motion of connection 7in order to prevent a vacuum71 as to this motion of friendship and union4 ,union from a distance is rare1 and yet is to be met with in more instances than are generally observed4 ,we perceive it when one bubble dissolves another1 when medicines attract humors from a similarity of substance1 when one string moves another in unison with it on different instruments1 and the like4 ,we are of opinion that this motion is very prevalent also in animal spirits1 but are quite ignorant of the fact4 ,it is1 however1 conspicuous in the magnet1 and magnetized iron4 ,while speaking of the motions of the magnet1 we must plainly distinguish them1 for there are four distinct powers or effects of the magnet which should not be confounded1 although the wonder and astonishment of mankind has classed them together4 #a4 ,the attraction of the magnet to the magnet1 or of iron to the magnet1 or of magnetized iron to iron4 #b4 ,its polarity toward the north and south1 and its variation4 #c4 ,its penetration through gold1 glass1 stone1 and all other substances4 #d4 ,the communication of power from the mineral to iron1 and from iron to iron1 without any communication of the substances4 ,here1 however1 we only speak of the first4 ,there is also a singular motion of attraction between quicksilver and gold1 so that the gold attracts quicksilver even when made use of in ointment2 and those who work surrounded by the vapors of quicksilver1 are wont to hold a piece of gold in their mouths1 to collect the exhalations1 which would otherwise attack their heads and bones1 and this piece soon grows white4#aee ,let this suffice for the motion of lesser congregation4 ,let the ninth be the magnetic motion1 which1 although of the nature of that last mentioned1 yet1 when operating at great distances1 and on great masses1 deserves a separate inquiry1 especially if it neither begin in contact1 as most motions of congregation do1 nor end by bringing the substances into contact1 as all do1 but only raise them1 and make them swell without any further effect4 ,for if the moon raise the waters1 or cause moist substances to swell1 or if the starry sphere attract the planets toward their apogees1 or the sun confine the planets ,mercury and ,venus to within a certain distance of his mass2#aef these motions do not appear capable of being classed under either of those of congregation1 but to be1 as it were1 intermediately and imperfectly congregative1 and thus to form a distinct species4 ,let the tenth motion be that of avoidance1 or that which is opposed to the motion of lesser congregation1 by which bodies1 with a kind of antipathy1 avoid and disperse1 and separate themselves from1 or refuse to unite themselves with others of a hostile nature4 ,for although this may sometimes appear to be an accidental motion1 necessarily attendant upon that of the lesser congregation1 because the homogeneous parts cannot unite1 unless the heterogeneous be first removed and excluded1 yet it is still to be classed separately1#aeg and considered as a distinct species1 because1 in many cases1 the desire of avoidance appears to be more marked than that of union4 ,it is very conspicuous in the excrements of animals1 nor less1 perhaps1 in objects odious to particular senses1 especially the smell and taste2 for a fetid smell is rejected by the nose1 so as to produce a sympathetic motion of expulsion at the mouth of the stomach2 a bitter and rough taste is rejected by the palate or throat1 so as to produce a sympathetic concussion and shivering of the head4 ,this motion is visible also in other cases4 ,thus it is observed in some kinds of antiperistasis1 as in the middle region of the air1 the cold of which appears to be occasioned by the rejection of cold from the regions of the heavenly bodies2 and also in the heat and combustion observed in subterranean spots1 which appear to be owing to the rejection of heat from the centre of the earth4 ,for heat and cold1 when in small quantities1 mutually destroy each other1 while in larger quantities1 like armies equally matched1 they remove and eject each other in open conflict4 ,it is said1 also that cinnamon and other perfumes retain their odor longer when placed near privies and foul places1 because they will not unite and mix with stinks4 ,it is well known that quicksilver1 which would otherwise reunite into a complete mass1 is prevented from so doing by man's spittle1 pork lard1 turpentine and the like1 from the little affinity of its parts with those substances1 so that when surrounded by them it draws itself back1 and its avoidance of these intervening obstacles is greater than its desire of reuniting itself to its homogeneous parts2 which is what they term the mortification of quicksilver4 ,again1 the difference in weight of oil and water is not the only reason for their refusing to mix1 but it is also owing to the little affinity of the two2 for spirits of wine1 which are lighter than oil1 mix very well with water4 ,a very remarkable instance of the motion in question is seen in nitre1 and crude bodies of a like nature1 which abhor flame1 as may be observed in gunpowder1 quicksilver and gold4 ,the avoidance of one pole of the magnet by iron is not 7as ,gilbert has well observed71 strictly speaking1 an avoidance1 but a conformity1 or attraction to a more convenient situation4 ,let the eleventh motion be that of assimilation1 or self-multiplication1 or simple generation1 by which latter term we do not mean the simple generation of integral bodies1 such as plants or animals1 but of homogeneous bodies4 ,by this motion homogeneous bodies convert those which are allied to them1 or at least well disposed and prepared1 into their own substance and nature4 ,thus flame multiplies itself over vapors and oily substances and generates fresh flame2 the air over water and watery substances multiplies itself and generates fresh air2 the vegetable and animal spirit1 over the thin particles of a watery or oleaginous spirit contained in its food1 multiplies itself and generates fresh spirit2 the solid parts of plants and animals1 as the leaf1 flower1 the flesh1 bone and the like1 each of them assimilate some part of the juices contained in their food1 and generate a successive and daily substance4 ,for let none rave with ,paracelsus1 who 7blinded by his distillations7 would have it1 that nutrition takes place by mere separation1 and that the eye1 nose1 brain and liver lie concealed in bread and meat1 the root1 leaf and flower1 in the juice of the earth2 asserting that just as the artist brings out a leaf1 flower1 eye1 nose1 hand1 foot and the like1 from a rude mass of stone or wood by the separation and rejection of what is superfluous2 so the great artist within us brings out our several limbs and parts by separation and rejection4 ,but to leave such trifling1 it is most certain that all the parts of vegetables and animals1 as well the homogeneous as organic1 first of all attract those juices contained in their food1 which are nearly common1 or at least not very different1 and then assimilate and convert them into their own nature4 ,nor does this assimilation1 or simple generation1 take place in animated bodies only1 but the inanimate also participate in the same property 7as we have observed of flame and air71 and that languid spirit1 which is contained in every tangible animated substance1 is perpetually working upon the coarser parts1 and converting them into spirit1 which afterward is exhaled1 whence ensues a diminution of weight1 and a desiccation of which we have spoken elsewhere4#aeh ,nor should we1 in speaking of assimilation1 neglect to mention the accretion which is usually distinguished from aliment1 and which is observed when mud grows into a mass between stones1 and is converted into a stony substance1 and the scaly substance round the teeth is converted into one no less hard than the teeth themselves2 for we are of opinion that there exists in all bodies a desire of assimilation1 as well as of uniting with homogeneous masses4 ,each of these powers1 however1 is confined1 although in different manners1 and should be diligently investigated1 because they are connected with the revival of old age4 ,lastly1 it is worthy of observation1 that in the nine preceding motions1 bodies appear to aim at the mere preservation of their nature1 while in this they attempt its propagation4 ,let the twelfth motion be that of excitement1 which appears to be a species of the last1 and is sometimes mentioned by us under that name4 ,it is1 like that1 a diffusive1 communicative1 transitive and multiplying motion2 and they agree remarkably in their effect1 although they differ in their mode of action1 and in their subject matter4 ,the former proceeds imperiously and with authority2 it orders and compels the assimilated to be converted and changed into the assimilating body4 ,the latter proceeds by art1 insinuation and stealth1 inviting and disposing the excited toward the nature of the exciting body4 ,the former both multiplies and transforms bodies and substances2 thus a greater quantity of flame1 air1 spirit and flesh is formed2 but in the latter1 the powers only are multiplied and changed1 and heat1 the magnetic power1 and putrefaction1 in the above instances1 are increased4 ,heat does not diffuse itself when heating other bodies by any communication of the original heat1 but only by exciting the parts of the heated body to that motion which is the form of heat1 and of which we spoke in the first vintage of the nature of heat4 ,heat1 therefore1 is excited much less rapidly and readily in stone or metal than in air1 on account of the inaptitude and sluggishness of those bodies in acquiring that motion1 so that it is probable1 that there may be some substances1 toward the centre of the earth1 quite incapable of being heated1 on account of their density1 which may deprive them of the spirit by which the motion of excitement is usually commenced4 ,thus also the magnet creates in the iron a new disposition of its parts1 and a conformable motion1 without losing any of its virtue4 ,so the leaven of bread1 yeast1 rennet and some poisons1 excite and invite successive and continued motion in dough1 beer1 cheese or the human body2 not so much from the power of the exciting1 as the predisposition and yielding of the excited body4 ,let the thirteenth motion be that of impression1 which is also a species of motion of assimilation1 and the most subtile of diffusive motions4 ,we have thought it right1 however1 to consider it as a distinct species1 on account of its remarkable difference from the last two2 for the simple motion of assimilation transforms the bodies themselves1 so that if you remove the first agent1 you diminish not the effect of those which succeed2 thus1 neither the first lighting of flame1 nor the first conversion into air1 are of any importance to the flame or air next generated4 ,so1 also1 the motion of excitement still continues for a considerable time after the removal of the first agent1 as in a heated body on the removal of the original heat1 in the excited iron on the removal of the magnet1 and in the dough on the removal of the leaven4 ,but the motion of impression1 although diffusive and transitive1 appears1 nevertheless1 to depend on the first agent1 so that upon the removal of the latter the former immediately fails and perishes2 for which reason also it takes effect in a moment1 or at least a very short space of time4 ,we are wont to call the two former motions the motions of the generation of ,jupiter1 because when born they continue to exist2 and the latter1 the motion of the generation of ,saturn1 because it is immediately devoured and absorbed4 ,it may be seen in three instances3 #a1 in the rays of light2 #b1 in the percussions of sounds2 #c1 in magnetic attractions as regards communication4 ,for1 on the removal of light1 colors and all its other images disappear1 as on the cessation of the first percussion and the vibration of the body1 sound soon fails1 and although sounds are agitated by the wind1 like waves1 yet it is to be observed1 that the same sound does not last during the whole time of the reverberation4 ,thus1 when a bell is struck1 the sound appears to be continued for a considerable time1 and one might easily be led into the mistake of supposing it to float and remain in the air during the whole time1 which is most erroneous4#aei ,for the reverberation is not one identical sound1 but the repetition of sounds1 which is made manifest by stopping and confining the sonorous body2 thus1 if a bell be stopped and held tightly1 so as to be immovable1 the sound fails1 and there is no further reverberation1 and if a musical string be touched after the first vibration1 either with the finger 7as in the harp71 or a quill 7as in the harpsichord71 the sound immediately ceases4 ,if the magnet be removed the iron falls4 ,the moon1 however1 cannot be removed from the sea1 nor the earth from a heavy falling body1 and we can1 therefore1 make no experiment upon them2 but the case is the same4 ,let the fourteenth motion be that configuration or position1 by which bodies appear to desire a peculiar situation1 collocation1 and configuration with others1 rather than union or separation4 ,this is a very abstruse notion1 and has not been well investigated2 and1 in some instances1 appears to occur almost without any cause1 although we be mistaken in supposing this to be really the case4 ,for if it be asked1 why the heavens revolve from east to west1 rather than from west to east1 or why they turn on poles situate near the ,bears1 rather than round ,orion or any other part of the heaven1 such a question appears to be unreasonable1 since these phenomena should be received as determinate and the objects of our experience4 ,there are1 indeed1 some ultimate and self-existing phenomena in nature1 but those which we have just mentioned are not to be referred to that class3 for we attribute them to a certain harmony and consent of the universe1 which has not yet been properly observed4 ,but if the motion of the earth from west to east be allowed1 the same question may be put1 for it must also revolve round certain poles1 and why should they be placed where they are1 rather than elsewhere8 ,the polarity and variation of the needle come under our present head4 ,there is also observed in both natural and artificial bodies1 especially solids rather than fluids1 a particular collocation and position of parts1 resembling hairs or fibres1 which should be diligently investigated1 since1 without a discovery of them1 bodies cannot be conveniently controlled or wrought upon4 ,the eddies observable in liquids by which1 when compressed1 they successively raise different parts of their mass before they can escape1 so as to equalize the pressure1 is more correctly assigned to the motion of liberty4 ,let the fifteenth motion be that of transmission or of passage1 by which the powers of bodies are more or less impeded or advanced by the medium1 according to the nature of the bodies and their effective powers1 and also according to that of the medium4 ,for one medium is adapted to light1 another to sound1 another to heat and cold1 another to magnetic action1 and so on with regard to the other actions4 ,let the sixteenth be that which we term the royal or political motion1 by which the predominant and governing parts of any body check1 subdue1 reduce1 and regulate the others1 and force them to unite1 separate1 stand still1 move1 or assume a certain position1 not from any inclination of their own1 but according to a certain order1 and as best suits the convenience of the governing part1 so that there is a sort of dominion and civil government exercised by the ruling part over its subjects4 ,the motion is very conspicuous in the spirits of animals1 where1 as long as it is in force1 it tempers all the motions of the other parts4 ,it is found in a less degree in other bodies1 as we have observed in blood and urine1 which are not decomposed until the spirit1 which mixed and retained their parts1 has been emitted or extinguished4 ,nor is this motion peculiar to spirits only1 although in most bodies the spirit predominates1 owing to its rapid motion and penetration2 for the grosser parts predominate in denser bodies1 which are not filled with a quick and active spirit 7such as exists in quicksilver or vitriol71 so that unless this check or yoke be thrown off by some contrivance1 there is no hope of any transformation of such bodies4 ,and let not any one suppose that we have forgotten our subject1 because we speak of predominance in this classification of motions1 which is made entirely with the view of assisting the investigation of wrestling instances1 or instances of predominance4 ,for we do not now treat of the general predominance of motions or powers1 but of that of parts in whole bodies1 which constitutes the particular species here considered4 ,let the seventeenth motion be the spontaneous motion of revolution1 by which bodies having a tendency to move1 and placed in a favorable situation1 enjoy their peculiar nature1 pursuing themselves and nothing else1 and seeking1 as it were1 to embrace themselves4 ,for bodies seem either to move without any limit1 or to tend toward a limit1 arrived at which they either revolve according to their peculiar nature1 or rest4 ,those which are favorably situated1 and have a tendency to motion1 move in a circle with an eternal and unlimited motion2 those which are favorably situated and abhor motion1 rest4 ,those which are not favorably situated move in a straight line 7as their shortest path71 in order to unite with others of a congenial nature4 ,this motion of revolution admits of nine differences3 #a1 with regard to the centre about which the bodies move2 #b1 the poles round which they move2 #c1 the circumference or orbit relatively to its distance from the centre2 #d1 the velocity1 or greater or less speed with which they revolve2 #e1 the direction of the motion as from east to west1 or the reverse2 #f1 the deviation from a perfect circle1 by spiral lines at a greater or less distance from the centre2 #g1 the deviation from the circle1 by spiral lines at a greater or less distance from the poles2 #h1 the greater or less distance of these spirals from each other2 #i1 and lastly1 the variation of the poles if they be movable2 which1 however1 only affects revolution when circular4 ,the motion in question is1 according to common and long-received opinion1 considered to be that of the heavenly bodies4 ,there exists1 however1 with regard to this1 a considerable dispute between some of the ancients as well as moderns1 who have attributed a motion of revolution to the earth4 ,a much more reasonable controversy1 perhaps1 exists 7if it be not a matter beyond dispute71 whether the motion in question 7on the hypothesis of the earth's being fixed7 is confined to the heavens1 or rather descends and is communicated to the air and water4 ,the rotation of missiles1 as in darts1 musket-balls1 and the like1 we refer entirely to the motion of liberty4 ,let the eighteenth motion be that of trepidation1#afj to which 7in the sense assigned to it by astronomers7 we do not give much credit2 but in our serious and general search after the tendencies of natural bodies1 this motion occurs1 and appears worthy of forming a distinct species4 ,it is the motion of an 7as it were7 eternal captivity2 when bodies1 for instance1 being placed not altogether according to their nature1 and yet not exactly ill1 constantly tremble1 and are restless1 not contented with their position1 and yet not daring to advance4 ,such is the motion of the heart and pulse of animals1 and it must necessarily occur in all bodies which are situated in a mean state1 between conveniences and inconveniences2 so that being removed from their proper position1 they strive to escape1 are repulsed1 and again continue to make the attempt4 ,let the nineteenth and last motion be one which can scarcely be termed a motion1 and yet is one2 and which we may call the motion of repose1 or of abhorrence of motion4 ,it is by this motion that the earth stands by its own weight1 while its extremes move toward the middle1 not to an imaginary centre1 but in order to unite4 ,it is owing to the same tendency1 that all bodies of considerable density abhor motion1 and their only tendency is not to move1 which nature they preserve1 although excited and urged in a variety of ways to motion4 ,but if they be compelled to move1 yet do they always appear anxious to recover their former state1 and to cease from motion1 in which respect they certainly appear active1 and attempt it with sufficient swiftness and rapidity1 as if fatigued1 and impatient of delay4 ,we can only have a partial representation of this tendency1 because with us every tangible substance is not only not condensed to the utmost1 but even some spirit is added1 owing to the action and concocting influence of the heavenly bodies4 ,we have now1 therefore1 exhibited the species1 or simple elements of the motions1 tendencies1 and active powers1 which are most universal in nature2 and no small portion of natural science has been thus sketched out4 ,we do not1 however1 deny that other instances can perhaps be added1 and our divisions changed according to some more natural order of things1 and also reduced to a less number2 in which respect we do not allude to any abstract classification1 as if one were to say1 that bodies desire the preservation1 exaltation1 propagation1 or fruition of their nature2 or1 that motion tends to the preservation and benefit either of the universe 7as in the case of those of resistance and connection71 or of extensive wholes1 as in the case of those of the greater congregation1 revolution1 and abhorrence of motion1 or of particular forms1 as in the case of the others4 ,for although such remarks be just1 yet1 unless they terminate in matter and construction1 according to true definitions1 they are speculative1 and of little use4 ,in the meantime1 our classification will suffice1 and be of much use in the consideration of the predominance of powers1 and examining the wrestling instances which constitute our present subject4 ,for of the motions here laid down1 some are quite invincible1 some more powerful than others1 which they confine1 check1 and modify2 others extend to a greater distance1 others are more immediate and swift1 others strengthen1 increase1 and accelerate the rest4 ,the motion of resistance is most adamantine and invincible4 ,we are yet in doubt whether such be the nature of that of connection2 for we cannot with certainty determine whether there be a vacuum1 either extensive or intermixed with matter4 ,of one thing1 however1 we are satisfied1 that the reason assigned by ,leucippus and ,democritus for the introduction of a vacuum 7namely1 that the same bodies could not otherwise comprehend1 and fill greater and less spaces7 is false4 ,for there is clearly a folding of matter1 by which it wraps and unwraps itself in space within certain limits1 without the intervention of a vacuum4 ,nor is there two thousand times more of vacuum in air than in gold1 as there should be on this hypothesis2 a fact demonstrated by the very powerful energies of fluids 7which would otherwise float like fine dust in vacuo71 and many other proofs4 ,the other motions direct1 and are directed by each other1 according to their strength1 quantity1 excitement1 emission1 or the assistance or impediments they meet with4 ,for instance2 some armed magnets hold and support iron of sixty times their own weight2 so far does the motion of lesser congregation predominate over that of the greater2 but if the weight be increased1 it yields4 ,a lever of a certain strength will raise a given weight1 and so far the motion of liberty predominates over that of the greater congregation1 but if the weight be greater1 the former motion yields4 ,a piece of leather stretched to a certain point does not break1 and so far the motion of continuity predominates over that of tension1 but if the tension be greater1 the leather breaks1 and the motion of continuity yields4 ,a certain quantity of water flows through a chink1 and so far the motion of greater congregation predominates over that of continuity1 but if the chink be smaller it yields4 ,if a musket be charged with ball and powdered sulphur alone1 and fire be applied1 the ball is not discharged1 in which case the motion of greater congregation overcomes that of matter2 but when gunpowder is used1 the motion of matter in the sulphur predominates1 being assisted by that motion1 and the motion of avoidance in the nitre2 and so of the rest4 ,for wrestling instances 7which show the predominance of powers1 and in what manner and proportion they predominate and yield7 must be searched for with active and industrious diligence4 ,the methods and nature of this yielding must also be diligently examined1 as for instance1 whether the motions completely cease1 or exert themselves1 but are constrained4 ,for in the bodies with which we are acquainted1 there is no real but an apparent rest1 either in the whole or in parts4 ,this apparent rest is occasioned either by equilibrium1 or the absolute predominance of motions4 ,by equilibrium1 as in the scales of the balance1 which rest if the weights be equal4 ,by predominance1 as in perforated jars1 in which the water rests1 and is prevented from falling by the predominance of the motion of connection4 ,it is1 however1 to be observed 7as we have said before71 how far the yielding motions exert themselves4 ,for if a man be held stretched out on the ground against his will1 with arms and legs bound down1 or otherwise confined1 and yet strive with all his power to get up1 the struggle is not the less1 although ineffectual4 ,the real state of the case 7namely1 whether the yielding motion be1 as it were1 annihilated by the predominance1 or there be rather a continued1 although an invisible effort7 will1 perhaps1 appear in the concurrence of motions1 although it escape our notice in their conflict4 ,for instance3 let an experiment be made with muskets2 whether a musket-ball1 at its utmost range in a straight line1 or 7as it is commonly called7 point-blank1 strike with less force when projected upward1 where the motion of the blow is simple1 than when projected downward1 where the motion of gravity concurs with the blow4 ,the rules of such instances of predominance as occur should be collected3 such as the following2 the more general the desired advantage is1 the stronger will be the motion2 the motion of connection1 for instance1 which relates to the intercourse of the parts of the universe1 is more powerful than that of gravity1 which relates to the intercourse of dense bodies only4 ,again1 the desire of a private good does not in general prevail against that of a public one1 except where the quantities are small4 ,would that such were the case in civil matters6 ,,xlix4 ,in the twenty-fifth rank of prerogative instances we will place suggesting instances2 such as suggest1 or point out1 that which is advantageous to mankind2 for bare power and knowledge in themselves exalt rather than enrich human nature4 ,we must1 therefore1 select from the general store such things as are most useful to mankind4 ,we shall have a better opportunity of discussing these when we treat of the application to practice2 besides1 in the work of interpretation1 we leave room1 on every subject1 for the human or optative chart2 for it is a part of science to make judicious inquiries and wishes4 ,l4 ,in the twenty-sixth rank of prerogative instances we will place the generally useful instances4 ,they are such as relate to various points1 and frequently occur1 sparing by that means considerable labor and new trials4 ,the proper place for treating of instruments and contrivances1 will be that in which we speak of the application to practice1 and the methods of experiment4 ,all that has hitherto been ascertained1 and made use of1 will be described in the particular history of each art4 ,at present1 we will subjoin a few general examples of the instances in question4 ,man acts1 then1 upon natural bodies 7besides merely bringing them together or removing them7 by seven principal methods3 #a1 by the exclusion of all that impedes and disturbs2 #b1 by compression1 extension1 agitation1 and the like2 #c1 by heat and cold2 #d1 by detention in a suitable place2 #e1 by checking or directing motion2 #f1 by peculiar harmonies2 #g1 by a seasonable and proper alternation1 series1 and succession of all these1 or1 at least1 of some of them4 #a4 ,with regard to the first--common air1 which is always at hand1 and forces its admission1 as also the rays of the heavenly bodies1 create much disturbance4 ,whatever1 therefore1 tends to exclude them may well be considered as generally useful4 ,the substance and thickness of vessels in which bodies are placed when prepared for operations may be referred to this head4 ,so also may the accurate methods of closing vessels by consolidation1 or the lutum sapienti1 as the chemists call it4 ,the exclusion of air by means of liquids at the extremity is also very useful1 as when they pour oil on wine1 or the juices of herbs1 which by spreading itself upon the top like a cover1 preserves them uninjured from the air4 ,powders1 also1 are serviceable1 for although they contain air mixed up in them1 yet they ward off the power of the mass of circumambient air1 which is seen in the preservation of grapes and other fruits in sand or flour4 ,wax1 honey1 pitch1 and other resinous bodies1 are well used in order to make the exclusion more perfect1 and to remove the air and celestial influence4 ,we have sometimes made an experiment by placing a vessel or other bodies in quicksilver1 the most dense of all substances capable of being poured round others4 ,grottoes and subterraneous caves are of great use in keeping off the effects of the sun1 and the predatory action of air1 and in the north of ,germany are used for granaries4 ,the depositing of bodies at the bottom of water may be also mentioned here2 and ,i remember having heard of some bottles of wine being let down into a deep well in order to cool them1 but left there by chance1 carelessness1 and forgetfulness for several years1 and then taken out2 by which means the wine not only escaped becoming flat or dead1 but was much more excellent in flavor1 arising 7as it appears7 from a more complete mixture of its parts4 ,but if the case require that bodies should be sunk to the bottom of water1 as in rivers or the sea1 and yet should not touch the water1 nor be inclosed in sealed vessels1 but surrounded only by air1 it would be right to use that vessel which has been sometimes employed under water above ships that have sunk1 in order to enable the divers to remain below and breathe occasionally by turns4 ,it was of the following nature3 ,a hollow tub of metal was formed1 and sunk so as to have its bottom parallel with the surface of the water2 it thus carried down with it to the bottom of the sea all the air contained in the tub4 ,it stood upon three feet 7like a tripod71 being of rather less height than a man1 so that1 when the diver was in want of breath1 he could put his head into the hollow of the tub1 breathe1 and then continue his work4 ,we hear that some sort of boat or vessel has now been invented1 capable of carrying men some distance under water4 ,any bodies1 however1 can easily be suspended under some such vessel as we have mentioned1 which has occasioned our remarks upon the experiment4 ,another advantage of the careful and hermetical closing of bodies is this--not only the admission of external air is prevented 7of which we have treated71 but the spirit of bodies also is prevented from making its escape1 which is an internal operation4 ,for any one operating on natural bodies must be certain as to their quantity1 and that nothing has evaporated or escaped1 since profound alterations take place in bodies1 when art prevents the loss or escape of any portion1 while nature prevents their annihilation4 ,with regard to this circumstance1 a false idea has prevailed 7which if true would make us despair of preserving quantity without diminution71 namely1 that the spirit of bodies1 and air when rarefied by a great degree of heat1 cannot be so kept in by being inclosed in any vessel as not to escape by the small pores4 ,men are led into this idea by the common experiments of a cup inverted over water1 with a candle or piece of lighted paper in it1 by which the water is drawn up1 and of those cups which1 when heated1 draw up the flesh4 ,for they think that in each experiment the rarefied air escapes1 and that its quantity is therefore diminished1 by which means the water or flesh rises by the motion of connection4 ,this is1 however1 most incorrect4 ,for the air is not diminished in quantity1 but contracted in dimensions1#afa nor does this motion of the rising of the water begin till the flame is extinguished1 or the air cooled1 so that physicians place cold sponges1 moistened with water1 on the cups1 in order to increase their attraction4 ,there is1 therefore1 no reason why men should fear much from the ready escape of air3 for although it be true that the most solid bodies have their pores1 yet neither air1 nor spirit1 readily suffers itself to be rarefied to such an extreme degree2 just as water will not escape by a small chink4 #b4 ,with regard to the second of the seven above-mentioned methods1 we must especially observe1 that compression and similar violence have a most powerful effect either in producing locomotion1 and other motions of the same nature1 as may be observed in engines and projectiles1 or in destroying the organic body1 and those qualities1 which consist entirely in motion 7for all life1 and every description of flame and ignition are destroyed by compression1 which also injures and deranges every machine72 or in destroying those qualities which consist in position and a coarse difference of parts1 as in colors2 for the color of a flower when whole1 differs from that it presents when bruised1 and the same may be observed of whole and powdered amber2 or in tastes1 for the taste of a pear before it is ripe1 and of the same pear when bruised and softened1 is different1 since it becomes perceptibly more sweet4 ,but such violence is of little avail in the more noble transformations and changes of homogeneous bodies1 for they do not1 by such means1 acquire any constantly and permanently new state1 but one that is transitory1 and always struggling to return to its former habit and freedom4 ,it would not1 however1 be useless to make some more diligent experiments with regard to this2 whether1 for instance1 the condensation of a perfectly homogeneous body 7such as air1 water1 oil1 and the like7 or their rarefaction1 when effected by violence1 can become permanent1 fixed1 and1 as it were1 so changed1 as to become a nature4 ,this might at first be tried by simple perseverance1 and then by means of helps and harmonies4 ,it might readily have been attempted 7if we had but thought of it71 when we condensed water 7as was mentioned above71 by hammering and compression1 until it burst out4 ,for we ought to have left the flattened globe untouched for some days1 and then to have drawn off the water1 in order to try whether it would have immediately occupied the same dimensions as it did before the condensation4 ,if it had not done so1 either immediately1 or soon afterward1 the condensation would have appeared to have been rendered constant2 if not1 it would have appeared that a restitution took place1 and that the condensation had been transitory4 ,something of the same kind might have been tried with the glass eggs2 the egg should have been sealed up suddenly and firmly1 after a complete exhaustion of the air1 and should have been allowed to remain so for some days1 and it might then have been tried whether1 on opening the aperture1 the air would be drawn in with a hissing noise1 or whether as much water would be drawn into it when immersed1 as would have been drawn into it at first1 if it had not continued sealed4 ,for it is probable 7or1 at least1 worth making the experiment7 that this might have happened1 or might happen1 because perseverance has a similar effect upon bodies which are a little less homogeneous4 ,a stick bent together for some time does not rebound1 which is not owing to any loss of quantity in the wood during the time1 for the same would occur 7after a larger time7 in a plate of steel1 which does not evaporate4 ,if the experiment of simple perseverance should fail1 the matter should not be given up1 but other means should be employed4 ,for it would be no small advantage1 if bodies could be endued with fixed and constant natures by violence4 ,air could then be converted into water by condensation1 with other similar effects2 for man is more the master of violent motions than of any other means4 #c4 ,the third of our seven methods is referred to that great practical engine of nature1 as well as of art1 cold and heat4 ,here1 man's power limps1 as it were1 with one leg4 ,for we possess the heat of fire1 which is infinitely more powerful and intense than that of the sun 7as it reaches us71 and that of animals4 ,but we want cold1#afb except such as we can obtain in winter1 in caverns1 or by surrounding objects with snow and ice1 which1 perhaps1 may be compared in degree with the noontide heat of the sun in tropical countries1 increased by the reflection of mountains and walls4 ,for this degree of heat and cold can be borne for a short period only by animals1 yet it is nothing compared with the heat of a burning furnace1 or the corresponding degree of cold4#afc ,everything with us has a tendency to become rarefied1 dry and wasted1 and nothing to become condensed or soft1 except by mixtures1 and1 as it were1 spurious methods4 ,instances of cold1 therefore1 should be searched for most diligently1 such as may be found by exposing bodies upon buildings in a hard frost1 in subterraneous caverns1 by surrounding bodies with snow and ice in deep places excavated for that purpose1 by letting bodies down into wells1 by burying bodies in quicksilver and metals1 by immersing them in streams which petrify wood1 by burying them in the earth 7which the ,chinese are reported to do with their china1 masses of which1 made for that purpose1 are said to remain in the ground for forty or fifty years1 and to be transmitted to their heirs as a sort of artificial mine7 and the like4 ,the condensations which take place in nature1 by means of cold1 should also be investigated1 that by learning their causes1 they may be introduced into the arts2 such as are observed in the exudation of marble and stones1 in the dew upon the panes of glass in a room toward morning after a frosty night1 in the formation and the gathering of vapors under the earth into water1 whence spring fountains and the like4 ,besides the substances which are cold to the touch1 there are others which have also the effect of cold1 and condense2 they appear1 however1 to act only upon the bodies of animals1 and scarcely any further4 ,of these we have many instances1 in medicines and plasters4 ,some condense the flesh and tangible parts1 such as astringent and inspissating medicines1 others the spirits1 such as soporifics4 ,there are two modes of condensing the spirits1 by soporifics or provocatives to sleep2 the one by calming the motion1 the other by expelling the spirit4 ,the violet1 dried roses1 lettuces1 and other benign or mild remedies1 by their friendly and gently cooling vapors1 invite the spirits to unite1 and restrain their violent and perturbed motion4 ,rose-water1 for instance1 applied to the nostrils in fainting fits1 causes the resolved and relaxed spirits to recover themselves1 and1 as it were1 cherishes them4 ,but opiates1 and the like1 banish the spirits by their malignant and hostile quality4 ,if they be applied1 therefore1 externally1 the spirits immediately quit the part and no longer readily flow into it2 but if they be taken internally1 their vapor1 mounting to the head1 expels1 in all directions1 the spirits contained in the ventricles of the brain1 and since these spirits retreat1 but cannot escape1 they consequently meet and are condensed1 and are sometimes completely extinguished and suffocated2 although the same opiates1 when taken in moderation1 by a secondary accident 7the condensation which succeeds their union71 strengthen the spirits1 render them more robust1 and check their useless and inflammatory motion1 by which means they contribute not a little to the cure of diseases1 and the prolongation of life4 ,the preparations of bodies1 also1 for the reception of cold should not be omitted1 such as that water a little warmed is more easily frozen than that which is quite cold1 and the like4 ,moreover1 since nature supplies cold so sparingly1 we must act like the apothecaries1 who1 when they cannot obtain any simple ingredient1 take a succedaneum1 or quid pro quo1 as they term it1 such as aloes for xylobalsamum1 cassia for cinnamon4 ,in the same manner we should look diligently about us1 to ascertain whether there may be any substitutes for cold1 that is to say1 in what other manner condensation can be effected1 which is the peculiar operation of cold4 ,such condensations appear hitherto to be of four kinds only4 #a4 ,by simple compression1 which is of little avail toward permanent condensation1 on account of the elasticity of substances1 but may still1 however1 be of some assistance4 #b4 ,by the contraction of the coarser1 after the escape or departure of the finer parts of a given body2 as is exemplified in induration by fire1 and the repeated heating and extinguishing of metals1 and the like4 #c4 ,by the cohesion of the most solid homogeneous parts of a given body1 which were previously separated1 and mixed with others less solid1 as in the return of sublimated mercury to its simple state1 in which it occupies much less space than it did in powder1 and the same may be observed of the cleansing of all metals from their dross4 #d4 ,by harmony1 or the application of substances which condense by some latent power4 ,these harmonies are as yet but rarely observed1 at which we cannot be surprised1 since there is little to hope for from their investigation1 unless the discovery of forms and confirmation be attained4 ,with regard to animal bodies1 it is not to be questioned that there are many internal and external medicines which condense by harmony1 as we have before observed1 but this action is rare in inanimate bodies4 ,written accounts1 as well as report1 have certainly spoken of a tree in one of the ,tercera or ,canary ,islands 7for ,i do not exactly recollect which7 that drips perpetually1 so as to supply the inhabitants1 in some degree1 with water2 and ,paracelsus says that the herb called ros solis is filled with dew at noon1 while the sun gives out its greatest heat1 and all other herbs around it are dry4 ,we treat both these accounts as fables2 they would1 however1 if true1 be of the most important service1 and most worthy of examination4 ,as to the honey-dew1 resembling manna1 which is found in ,may on the leaves of the oak1 we are of opinion that it is not condensed by any harmony or peculiarity of the oak leaf1 but that while it falls equally upon other leaves it is retained and continues on those of the oak1 because their texture is closer1 and not so porous as that of most of the other leaves4#afd ,with regard to heat1 man possesses abundant means and power2 but his observation and inquiry are defective in some respects1 and those of the greatest importance1 notwithstanding the boasting of quacks4 ,for the effects of intense heat are examined and observed1 while those of a more gentle degree of heat1 being of the most frequent occurrence in the paths of nature1 are1 on that very account1 least known4 ,we see1 therefore1 the furnaces1 which are most esteemed1 employed in increasing the spirits of bodies to a great extent1 as in the strong acids1 and some chemical oils2 while the tangible parts are hardened1 and1 when the volatile part has escaped1 become sometimes fixed2 the homogeneous parts are separated1 and the heterogeneous incorporated and agglomerated in a coarse lump2 and 7what is chiefly worthy of remark7 the junction of compound bodies1 and the more delicate conformations are destroyed and confounded4 ,but the operation of a less violent heat should be tried and investigated1 by which more delicate mixtures and regular conformations may be produced and elicited1 according to the example of nature1 and in imitation of the effect of the sun1 which we have alluded to in the aphorism on the instances of alliance4 ,for the works of nature are carried on in much smaller portions1 and in more delicate and varied positions than those of fire1 as we now employ it4 ,but man will then appear to have really augmented his power1 when the works of nature can be imitated in species1 perfected in power1 and varied in quantity2 to which should be added the acceleration in point of time4 ,rust1 for instance1 is the result of a long process1 but crocus martis is obtained immediately2 and the same may be observed of natural verdigris and ceruse4 ,crystal is formed slowly1 while glass is blown immediately3 stones increase slowly1 while bricks are baked immediately1 etc4 ,in the meantime 7with regard to our present subject7 every different species of heat should1 with its peculiar effects1 be diligently collected and inquired into2 that of the heavenly bodies1 whether their rays be direct1 reflected1 or refracted1 or condensed by a burning-glass2 that of lightning1 flame1 and ignited charcoal2 that of fire of different materials1 either open or confined1 straitened or overflowing1 qualified by the different forms of the furnaces1 excited by the bellows1 or quiescent1 removed to a greater or less distance1 or passing through different media2 moist heats1 such as the balneum ,mari1 and the dunghill2 the external and internal heat of animals2 dry heats1 such as the heat of ashes1 lime1 warm sand2 in short1 the nature of every kind of heat1 and its degrees4 ,we should1 however1 particularly attend to the investigation and discovery of the effects and operations of heat1 when made to approach and retire by degrees1 regularly1 periodically1 and by proper intervals of space and time4 ,for this systematical inequality is in truth the daughter of heaven and mother of generation1 nor can any great result be expected from a vehement1 precipitate1 or desultory heat4 ,for this is not only most evident in vegetables1 but in the wombs of animals also there arises a great inequality of heat1 from the motion1 sleep1 food1 and passions of the female4 ,the same inequality prevails in those subterraneous beds where metals and fossils are perpetually forming1 which renders yet more remarkable the ignorance of some of the reformed alchemists1 who imagined they could attain their object by the equable heat of lamps1 or the like1 burning uniformly4 ,let this suffice concerning the operation and effects of heat2 nor is it time for us to investigate them thoroughly before the forms and conformations of bodies have been further examined and brought to light4 ,when we have determined upon our models1 we may seek1 apply1 and arrange our instruments4 #d4 ,the fourth mode of action is by continuance1 the very steward and almoner1 as it were1 of nature4 ,we apply the term continuance to the abandonment of a body to itself for an observable time1 guarded and protected in the meanwhile from all external force4 ,for the internal motion then commences to betray and exert itself when the external and adventitious is removed4 ,the effects of time1 however1 are far more delicate than those of fire4 ,wine1 for instance1 cannot be clarified by fire as it is by continuance4 ,nor are the ashes produced by combustion so fine as the particles dissolved or wasted by the lapse of ages4 ,the incorporations and mixtures1 which are hurried by fire1 are very inferior to those obtained by continuance2 and the various conformations assumed by bodies left to themselves1 such as mouldiness1 etc41 are put a stop to by fire or a strong heat4 ,it is not1 in the meantime1 unimportant to remark that there is a certain degree of violence in the motion of bodies entirely confined2 for the confinement impedes the proper motion of the body4 ,continuance in an open vessel1 therefore1 is useful for separations1 and in one hermetically sealed for mixtures1 that in a vessel partly closed1 but admitting the air1 for putrefaction4 ,but instances of the operation and effect of continuance must be collected diligently from every quarter4 #e4 ,the direction of motion 7which is the fifth method of action7 is of no small use4 ,we adopt this term1 when speaking of a body which1 meeting with another1 either arrests1 repels1 allows1 or directs its original motion4 ,this is the case principally in the figure and position of vessels4 ,an upright cone1 for instance1 promotes the condensation of vapor in alembics1 but when reversed1 as in inverted vessels1 it assists the refining of sugar4 ,sometimes a curved form1 or one alternately contracted and dilated1 is required4 ,strainers may be ranged under this head1 where the opposed body opens a way for one portion of another substance and impedes the rest4 ,nor is this process or any other direction of motion carried on externally only1 but sometimes by one body within another4 ,thus1 pebbles are thrown into water to collect the muddy particles1 and syrups are refined by the white of an egg1 which glues the grosser particles together so as to facilitate their removal4 ,telesius1 indeed1 rashly and ignorantly enough attributes the formation of animals to this cause1 by means of the channels and folds of the womb4 ,he ought to have observed a similar formation of the young in eggs which have no wrinkles or inequalities4 ,one may observe a real result of this direction of motion in casting and modelling4 #f4 ,the effects produced by harmony and aversion 7which is the sixth method7 are frequently buried in obscurity2 for these occult and specific properties 7as they are termed71 the sympathies and antipathies1 are for the most part but a corruption of philosophy4 ,nor can we form any great expectation of the discovery of the harmony which exists between natural objects1 before that of their forms and simple conformations1 for it is nothing more than the symmetry between these forms and conformations4 ,the greater and more universal species of harmony are not1 however1 so wholly obscure1 and with them1 therefore1 we must commence4 ,the first and principal distinction between them is this2 that some bodies differ considerably in the abundance and rarity of their substance1 but correspond in their conformation2 others1 on the contrary1 correspond in the former and differ in the latter4 ,thus the chemists have well observed1 that in their trial of first principles sulphur and mercury1 as it were1 pervade the universe2 their reasoning about salt1 however1 is absurd1 and merely introduced to comprise earthy dry fixed bodies4 ,in the other two1 indeed1 one of the most universal species of natural harmony manifests itself4 ,thus there is a correspondence between sulphur1 oil1 greasy exhalations1 flame1 and1 perhaps1 the substance of the stars4 ,on the other hand1 there is a like correspondence between mercury1 water1 aqueous vapor1 air1 and1 perhaps1 pure inter-sidereal ether4 ,yet do these two quaternions1 or great natural tribes 7each within its own limits71 differ immensely in quantity and density of substance1 while they generally agree in conformation1 as is manifest in many instances4 ,on the other hand1 the metals agree in such quantity and density 7especially when compared with vegetables1 etc471 but differ in many respects in conformation4 ,animals and vegetables1 in like manner1 vary in their almost infinite modes of conformation1 but range within very limited degrees of quantity and density of substance4 ,the next most general correspondence is that between individual bodies and those which supply them by way of menstruum or support4 ,inquiry1 therefore1 must be made as to the climate1 soil1 and depth at which each metal is generated1 and the same of gems1 whether produced in rocks or mines1 also as to the soil in which particular trees1 shrubs1 and herbs1 mostly grow and1 as it were1 delight2 and as to the best species of manure1 whether dung1 chalk1 sea sand1 or ashes1 etc41 and their different propriety and advantage according to the variety of soils4 ,so also the grafting and setting of trees and plants 7as regards the readiness of grafting one particular species on another7 depends very much upon harmony1 and it would be amusing to try an experiment ,i have lately heard of1 in grafting forest trees 7garden trees alone having hitherto been adopted71 by which means the leaves and fruit are enlarged1 and the trees produce more shade4 ,the specific food of animals again should be observed1 as well as that which cannot be used4 ,thus the carnivorous cannot be fed on herbs1 for which reason the order of feuilletans1 the experiment having been made1 has nearly vanished2 human nature being incapable of supporting their regimen1 although the human will has more power over the bodily frame than that of other animals4 ,the different kinds of putrefaction from which animals are generated should be noted4 ,the harmony of principal bodies with those subordinate to them 7such indeed may be deemed those we have alluded to above7 are sufficiently manifest1 to which may be added those that exist between different bodies and their objects1 and1 since these latter are more apparent1 they may throw great light when well observed and diligently examined upon those which are more latent4 ,the more internal harmony and aversion1 or friendship and enmity 7for superstition and folly have rendered the terms of sympathy and antipathy almost disgusting71 have been either falsely assigned1 or mixed with fable1 or most rarely discovered from neglect4 ,for if one were to allege that there is an enmity between the vine and the cabbage1 because they will not come up well when sown together1 there is a sufficient reason for it in the succulent and absorbent nature of each plant1 so that the one defrauds the other4 ,again1 if one were to say that there is a harmony and friendship between the corn and the corn-flower1 or the wild poppy1 because the latter seldom grow anywhere but in cultivated soils1 he ought rather to say1 there is an enmity between them1 for the poppy and the corn-flower are produced and created by those juices which the corn has left and rejected1 so that the sowing of the corn prepares the ground for their production4 ,and there are a vast number of similar false assertions4 ,as for fables1 they must be totally exterminated4 ,there remains1 then1 but a scanty supply of such species of harmony as has borne the test of experiment1 such as that between the magnet and iron1 gold and quicksilver1 and the like4 ,in chemical experiments on metals1 however1 there are some others worthy of notice1 but the greatest abundance 7where the whole are so few in numbers7 is discovered in certain medicines1 which1 from their occult and specific qualities 7as they are termed71 affect particular limbs1 humors1 diseases1 or constitutions4 ,nor should we omit the harmony between the motion and phenomena of the moon1 and their effects on lower bodies1 which may be brought together by an accurate and honest selection from the experiments of agriculture1 navigation1 and medicine1 or of other sciences4 ,by as much as these general instances1 however1 of more latent harmony1 are rare1 with so much the more diligence are they to be inquired after1 through tradition1 and faithful and honest reports1 but without rashness and credulity1 with an anxious and1 as it were1 hesitating degree of reliance4 ,there remains one species of harmony which1 though simple in its mode of action1 is yet most valuable in its use1 and must by no means be omitted1 but rather diligently investigated4 ,it is the ready or difficult coition or union of bodies in composition1 or simple juxtaposition4 ,for some bodies readily and willingly mix1 and are incorporated1 others tardily and perversely2 thus powders mix best with water1 chalk and ashes with oils1 and the like4 ,nor are these instances of readiness and aversion to mixture to be alone collected1 but others1 also1 of the collocation1 distribution1 and digestion of the parts when mingled1 and the predominance after the mixture is complete4 #g4 ,lastly1 there remains the seventh1 and last of the seven1 modes of action2 namely1 that by the alternation and interchange of the other six2 but of this1 it will not be the right time to offer any examples1 until some deeper investigation shall have taken place of each of the others4 ,the series1 or chain of this alternation1 in its mode of application to separate effects1 is no less powerful in its operation than difficult to be traced4 ,but men are possessed with the most extreme impatience1 both of such inquiries1 and their practical application1 although it be the clew of the labyrinth in all greater works4 ,thus far of the generally useful instances4 ,,li4 ,the twenty-seventh and last place we will assign to the magical instances1 a term which we apply to those where the matter or efficient agent is scanty or small1 in comparison with the grandeur of the work or effect produced2 so that even when common they appear miraculous1 some at first sight1 others even upon more attentive observation4 ,nature1 however1 of herself1 supplies these but sparingly4 ,what she will do when her whole store is thrown open1 and after the discovery of forms1 processes1 and conformation1 will appear hereafter4 ,as far as we can yet conjecture1 these magic effects are produced in three ways1 either by self-multiplication1 as in fire1 and the poisons termed specific1 and the motions transferred and multiplied from wheel to wheel2 or by the excitement1 or1 as it were1 invitation of another substance1 as in the magnet1 which excites innumerable needles without losing or diminishing its power2 and again in leaven1 and the like2 or by the excess of rapidity of one species of motion over another1 as has been observed in the case of gunpowder1 cannon1 and mines4 ,the two former require an investigation of harmonies1 the latter of a measure of motion4 ,whether there be any mode of changing bodies per minima 7as it is termed71 and transferring the delicate conformations of matter1 which is of importance in all transformations of bodies1 so as to enable art to effect1 in a short time1 that which nature works out by divers expedients1 is a point of which we have as yet no indication4 ,but1 as we aspire to the extremest and highest results in that which is solid and true1 so do we ever detest1 and1 as far as in us lies1 expel all that is empty and vain4 ,,lii4 ,let this suffice as to the respective dignity of prerogatives of instances4 ,but it must be noted1 that in this our organ1 we treat of logic1 and not of philosophy4 ,seeing1 however1 that our logic instructs and informs the understanding1 in order that it may not1 with the small hooks1 as it were1 of the mind1 catch at1 and grasp mere abstractions1 but rather actually penetrate nature1 and discover the properties and effects of bodies1 and the determinate laws of their substance 7so that this science of ours springs from the nature of things1 as well as from that of the mind72 it is not to be wondered at1 if it have been continually interspersed and illustrated with natural observations and experiments1 as instances of our method4 ,the prerogative instances are1 as appears from what has preceded1 twenty-seven in number1 and are termed1 solitary instances1 migrating instances1 conspicuous instances1 clandestine instances1 constitutive instances1 similar instances1 singular instances1 deviating instances1 bordering instances1 instances of power1 accompanying and hostile instances1 subjunctive instances1 instances of alliance1 instances of the cross1 instances of divorce1 instances of the gate1 citing instances1 instances of the road1 supplementary instances1 lancing instances1 instances of the rod1 instances of the course1 doses of nature1 wrestling instances1 suggesting instances1 generally useful instances1 and magical instances4 ,the advantage1 by which these instances excel the more ordinary1 regards specifically either theory or practice1 or both4 ,with regard to theory1 they assist either the senses or the understanding2 the senses1 as in the five instances of the lamp2 the understanding1 either by expediting the exclusive mode of arriving at the form1 as in solitary instances1 or by confining1 and more immediately indicating the affirmative1 as in the migrating1 conspicuous1 accompanying1 and subjunctive instances2 or by elevating the understanding1 and leading it to general and common natures1 and that either immediately1 as in the clandestine and singular instances1 and those of alliance2 or very nearly so1 as in the constitutive2 or still less so1 as in the similar instances2 or by correcting the understanding of its habits1 as in the deviating instances2 or by leading to the grand form or fabric of the universe1 as in the bordering instances2 or by guarding it from false forms and causes1 as in those of the cross and of divorce4 ,with regard to practice1 they either point it out1 or measure1 or elevate it4 ,they point it out1 either by showing where we must commence in order not to repeat the labors of others1 as in the instances of power2 or by inducing us to aspire to that which may be possible1 as in the suggesting instances2 the four mathematical instances measure it4 ,the generally useful and the magical elevate it4 ,again1 out of these twenty-seven instances1 some must be collected immediately1 without waiting for a particular investigation of properties4 ,such are the similar1 singular1 deviating1 and bordering instances1 those of power1 and of the gate1 and suggesting1 generally useful1 and magical instances2 for these either assist and cure the understanding and senses1 or furnish our general practice4 ,the remainder are to be collected when we finish our synoptical tables for the work of the interpreter1 upon any particular nature2 for these instances1 honored and gifted with such prerogatives1 are like the soul amid the vulgar crowd of instances1 and 7as we from the first observed7 a few of them are worth a multitude of the others4 ,when1 therefore1 we are forming our tables they must be searched out with the greatest zeal1 and placed in the table4 ,and1 since mention must be made of them in what follows1 a treatise upon their nature has necessarily been prefixed4 ,we must next1 however1 proceed to the supports and corrections of induction1 and thence to concretes1 the latent process1 and latent conformations1 and the other matters1 which we have enumerated in their order in the twenty-first aphorism1 in order that1 like good and faithful guardians1 we may yield up their fortune to mankind upon the emancipation and majority of their understanding2 from which must necessarily follow an improvement of their estate1 and an increase of their power over nature4 ,for man1 by the fall1 lost at once his state of innocence1 and his empire over creation1 both of which can be partially recovered even in this life1 the first by religion and faith1 the second by the arts and sciences4 ,for creation did not become entirely and utterly rebellious by the curse1 but in consequence of the ,divine decree1 8in the sweat of thy brow shalt thou eat bread10 she is compelled by our labors 7not assuredly by our disputes or magical ceremonies71 at length1 to afford mankind in some degree his bread1 that is to say1 to supply man's daily wants4 ,,end ,,of 8,,novum ,,organum0 ,,footnotes #ga 1 or of ,aristotle4--,see lib4 iii4 ,metap4 #gb ,these divisions are from ,aristotle's ,metaphysics1 where they are termed1 #a4 4 #b4 4 #c4 4 #d4 -- 4 #gc ,see ,aphorism li4 and second paragraph of ,aphorism lxv4 in the first book4 #gd ,bacon means1 that although there exist in nature only individualities1 yet a certain number of these may have common properties1 and be controlled by the same laws4 ,now1 these homogeneous qualities which distinguish them from other individuals1 lead us to class them under one expression1 and sometimes under a single term4 ,yet these classes are only pure conceptions in ,bacon's opinion1 and cannot be taken for distinct substances4 ,he evidently here aims a blow at the ,realists1 who concluded that the essence which united individualities in a class was the only real and immutable existence in nature1 inasmuch as it entered into their ideas of individual substances as a distinct and essential property1 and continued in the mind as the mold1 type or pattern of the class1 while its individual forms were undergoing perpetual renovation and decay4--,ed4 #ge ,bacon's definition is obscure4 ,all the idea we have of a law of nature consists in invariable sequence between certain classes of phenomena2 but this cannot be the complete sense attached by ,bacon to the term form1 as he employs it in the fourth aphorism as convertible with the nature of any object2 and again1 in the first aphorism1 as the natura naturans1 or general law or condition in any substance or quality--natura naturata--which is whatever its form is1 or that particular combination of forces which impresses a certain nature upon matter subject to its influence4 ,thus1 in the ,newtonian sense1 the form of whiteness would be that combination of the seven primitive rays of light which give rise to that color4 ,in combination with this word1 and affording a still further insight into its meaning1 we have the phrases1 latens processus ad formam1 et latens schematismus corporum4 ,now1 the latens schematismus signifies the internal texture1 structure1 or configuration of bodies1 or the result of the respective situation of all the parts of a body2 while the latens processus ad formam points out the gradation of movements which takes place among the molecula of bodies when they either conserve or change their figure4 ,hence we may consider the form of any quality in body as something convertible with that quality1 i4e41 when it exists the quality is present1 and vice vers4 ,in this sense1 the form of a thing differs only from its efficient cause in being permanent1 whereas we apply cause to that which exists in order of time4 ,the latens processus and latens schematismus are subordinate to form1 as concrete exemplifications of its essence4 ,the former is the secret and invisible process by which change is effected1 and involves the principle since called the law of continuity4 ,thus1 the succession of events between the application of the match to the expulsion of the bullet is an instance of latent progress which we can now trace with some degree of accuracy4 ,it also more directly refers to the operation by which one form or condition of being is induced upon another4 ,for example1 when the surface of iron becomes rusty1 or when water is converted into steam1 some change has taken place1 or latent process from one form to another4 ,mechanics afford many exemplifications of the first latent process we have denoted1 and chemistry of the second4 ,the latens schematismus is that visible structure of bodies on which so many of their properties depend4 ,when we inquire into the constitution of crystals1 and into the internal structure of plants1 we are examining into their latent schematism4--,ed4 #gf ,by the recent discoveries in electric magnetism1 copper wires1 or1 indeed1 wires of any metal1 may be transformed into magnets2 the magnetic law1 or form1 having been to that extent discovered4 #gg ,haller has pursued this investigation in his 8,physiology10 and has left his successors little else to do than repeat his discoveries4--,ed4 #gh ,bacon here first seems pregnant with the important development of the higher calculus1 which1 in the hands of ,newton and ,descartes1 was to effect as great a revolution in philosophy as his method4--,ed4 #gi ,by spirit1 ,bacon here plainly implies material fluid too fine to be grasped by the unassisted sense1 which rather operates than reasons4 ,we sometimes adopt the same mode of expression1 as in the words spirits of nitre1 spirits of wine4 ,some such agency has been assumed by nearly all the modern physicists1 a few of whom1 along with ,bacon1 would leave us to gather from their expressions1 that they believe such bodies endowed with the sentient powers of perception4 ,as another specimen of his sentiment on this subject1 we may refer to a paragraph on the decomposition of compounds1 in his essay on death1 beginning--8,the spirit which exists in all living bodies1 keeps all the parts in due subjection2 when it escapes1 the body decomposes1 or the similar parts unite40--,ed4 #hj ,the theory of the ,epicureans and others4 ,the atoms are supposed to be invisible1 unalterable particles1 endued with all the properties of the given body1 and forming that body by their union4 ,they must be separated1 of course1 which either takes a vacuum for granted1 or introduces a tertium quid into the composition of the body4 #ha ,compare the three following aphorisms with the last three chapters of the third book of the 8,de ,augmentis ,scientiarum40 #hb ,bacon gives this unfortunate term its proper signification2 1 in composition1 with the ,greeks signifying change or mutation4 ,most of our readers1 no doubt1 are aware that the obtrusion of this word into technical philosophy was purely capricious1 and is of no older date than the publication of ,aristotle's works by ,andronicus of ,rhodes1 one of the learned men into whose hands the manuscripts of that philosopher fell1 after they were brought by ,sylla from ,athens to ,rome4 ,to fourteen books in these ,,mss4 with no distinguishing title1 ,andronicus is said to have prefixed the words 1 to denote the place which they ought to hold either in the order of ,aristotle's arrangement1 or in that of study4 ,these books treat first of those subjects which are common to matter and mind2 secondly1 of things separate from matter1 i4e4 of ,god1 and of the subordinate spirits1 which were supposed by the ,peripatetics to watch over particular portions of the universe4 ,the followers of ,aristotle accepted the whimsical title of ,andronicus1 and in their usual manner allowed a word to unite things into one science which were plainly heterogeneous4 ,their error was adopted by the ,peripatetics of the ,christian ,church4 ,the schoolmen added to the notion of ontology1 the science of the mind1 or pneumatology1 and as that genus of being has since become extinct with the schools1 metaphysics thus in modern parlance comes to be synonymous with psychology4 ,it were to be wished that ,bacon's definition of the term had been accepted1 and mental science delivered from one of the greatest monstrosities in its nomenclature1 yet ,bacon whimsically enough in his ,de ,augmentis includes mathematics in metaphysics4--,ed4 #hc 8,ne tenues pluvi1 rapidive potentia solis ,acrior1 aut ,bore penetrabile frigus adurat40 --,virg4 ,georg4 i4 #ib1 #ic4 #hd ,this notion1 which he repeats again1 and particularizes in the #ahth aph4 of this book1 is borrowed from the ancients1 and we need not say is as wise as their other astronomical conjectures4 ,the sun also approaches stars quite as large in other quarters of the zodiac1 when it looks down upon the earth through the murky clouds of winter4 ,when that luminary is in ,leo1 the heat of the earth is certainly greater than at any other period1 but this arises from the accumulation of heat after the solstice1 for the same reason that the maximum heat of the day is at two o'clock instead of noon4--,ed4 #he ,bouguer1 employed by ,louis ,,xiv4 in philosophical researches1 ascended the ,andes to discover the globular form of the earth1 and published an account of his passage1 which verifies the statement of ,bacon4 #hf ,montanari asserts in his book against the astrologers that he had satisfied himself by numerous and oft-repeated experiments1 that the lunar rays gathered to a focus produced a sensible degree of heat4 ,muschenbrck1 however1 adopts the opposite opinion1 and asserts that himself1 ,de la ,hire1 ,villet1 and ,tschirnhausen had tried with that view the strongest burning-glasses in vain4 7,opera de ,igne47 ,de la ,lande makes a similar confession in his ,astronomy 7vol4 ii4 vii4 #adac74 ,bouguer1 whom we have just quoted1 demonstrated that the light of the moon was #cjj1jjj degrees less than that of the sun2 it would consequently be necessary to invent a glass with an absorbing power #cjj1jjj degrees greater than those ordinarily in use1 to try the experiment ,bacon speaks of4--,ed4 #hg ,in this thermometer1 mercury was not dilated by heat or contracted by cold1 as the one now in use1 but a mass of air employed instead1 which filled the cavity of the bulb4 ,this being placed in an inverted position to ours1 that is to say1 with the bulb uppermost1 pressed down the liquor when the air became dilated by heat1 as ours press it upward2 and when the heat diminished1 the liquor rose to occupy the place vacated by the air1 as the one now in use descends4 ,it consequently was liable to be affected by a change in the temperature1 as by the weight of air1 and could afford only a rude standard of accuracy in scientific investigations4 ,this thermometer was not ,bacon's own contrivance1 as is commonly supposed1 but that of ,drebbel4--,ed4 #hh ,la ,lande is indignant that the ,chaldeans should have more correct notions of the nature of comets than the modern physicists1 and charges ,bacon with entertaining the idea that they were the mere effects of vapor and heat4 ,this passage1 with two others more positive1 in the 8,de ,aug40 7cap4 xl47 and the 8,descript4 ,globi ,intellect40 7cap4 vi47 certainly afford ground for the assertion2 but if ,bacon erred1 he erred with ,galileo1 and with the foremost spirits of the times4 ,it is true that ,pythagoras and ,seneca had asserted their belief in the solidity of these bodies1 but the wide dominion which ,aristotle subsequently exercised1 threw their opinions into the shade1 and made the opposite doctrine everywhere paramount4--,ed4 #hi ,was it a silk apron which exhibited electric sparks8 ,silk was then scarce4 #ij ,the ,italian fire-fly4 #ia ,this last is found to be the real reason1 air not being a good conductor1 and therefore not allowing the escape of heat4 ,the confined air is disengaged when these substances are placed under an exhausted receiver4 #ib ,this is erroneous4 ,air1 in fact1 is one of the worst1 and metals are the best conductors of heat4 #ic ,see ,no4 #bh in the table of the degrees of heat4 #id ,bacon here mistakes sensation confined to ourselves for an internal property of distinct substances4 ,metals are denser than wood1 and our bodies consequently coming into contact with more particles of matter when we touch them1 lose a greater quantity of heat than in the case of lighter substances4--,ed4 #ie ,this was the ancient opinion1 but the moderns incline to the belief that these insects are produced by generation or fecundity from seeds deposited by their tribes in bodies on the verge of putrefaction4--,ed4 #if ,the correct measure of the activity of flame may be obtained by multiplying its natural force into the square of its velocity4 ,on this account the flame of vivid lightning mentioned in ,no4 #bc contains so much vigor1 its velocity being greater than that arising from other heat4--,ed4 #ig ,the fires supply fresh heat1 the water has only a certain quantity of heat1 which being diffused over a fresh supply of cooler water1 must be on the whole lowered4 #ih ,if condensation were the cause of the greater heat1 ,bacon concludes the centre of the flame would be the hotter part1 and vice vers4 ,the fact is1 neither of the causes assigned by ,bacon is the true one2 for the fire burns more quickly only because the draught of air is more rapid1 the cold dense air pressing rapidly into the heated room and toward the chimney4--,ed4 #ii ,bacon appears to have confounded combustibility and fusibility with susceptibility of heat2 for though the metals will certainly neither dissolve as soon as ice or butter1 nor be consumed as soon as wood1 that only shows that different degrees of heat are required to produce similar effects on different bodies2 but metals much more readily acquire and transmit the same degree of heat than any of the above substances4 ,the rapid transmission renders them generally cold to the touch4 ,the convenience of fixing wooden handles to vessels containing hot water illustrates these observations4 #ajj ,another singular error1 the truth being1 that solid bodies are the best conductors2 but of course where heat is diffused over a large mass1 it is less in each part1 than if that part alone absorbed the whole quantum of heat4--,ed4 #aja ,this general law or form has been well illustrated by ,newton's discovery of the decomposition of colors4 #ajb ,i4e41 the common link or form which connects the various kinds of natures1 such as the different hot or red natures enumerated above4--,see ,aphorism iii4 part #b4 #ajc ,this is erroneous--all metals expand considerably when heated4 #ajd 8,quid ipsum10 the of ,aristotle4 #aje ,to show the error of the text1 we need only mention the case of water1 which1 when confined in corked vases1 and exposed to the action of a freezing atmosphere1 is sure to swell out and break those vessels which are not sufficiently large to contain its expanded volume4 ,megalotti narrates a hundred other instances of a similar character4--,ed4 #ajf ,bacon's inquisition into the nature of heat1 as an example of the mode of interpreting nature1 cannot be looked upon otherwise than as a complete failure4 ,though the exact nature of this phenomenon is still an obscure and controverted matter1 the science of thermotics now consists of many important truths1 and to none of these truths is there so much as an approximation in ,bacon's process4 ,the steps by which this science really advanced were the discovery of a measure of a heat or temperature1 the establishment of the laws of conduction and radiation1 of the laws of specific heat1 latent heat1 and the like4 ,such advances have led to ,ampre's hypothesis1 that heat consists in the vibrations of an imponderable fluid2 and to ,laplace's theory1 that temperature consists in the internal radiation of a similar medium4 ,these hypotheses cannot yet be said to be even probable1 but at least they are so modified as to include some of the preceding laws which are firmly established1 whereas ,bacon's 8form10 or true definition of heat1 as stated in the text1 includes no laws of phenomena1 explains no process1 and is indeed itself an example of illicit generalization4 ,in all the details of his example of heat he is unfortunate4 ,he includes in his collection of instances1 the hot tastes of aromatic plants1 the caustic effects of acids1 and many other facts which cannot be ascribed to heat without a studious laxity in the use of the word4--,ed4 #ajg ,by this term ,bacon understands general phenomena1 taken in order from the great mass of indiscriminative facts1 which1 as they lie in nature1 are apt to generate confusion by their number1 indistinctness and complication4 ,such classes of phenomena1 as being peculiarly suggestive of causation1 he quaintly classes under the title of prerogative inquiries1 either seduced by the fanciful analogy1 which such instances bore to the prerogativa centuria in the ,roman ,comitia1 or justly considering them as ,herschel supposes to hold a kind of prerogative dignity from being peculiarly suggestive of causation4 ,two high authorities in physical science 7v4 ,herschel1 ,nat4 ,phil41 art4 #aib2 ,whewell's ,philosophy of the ,inductive ,sciences1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bdc7 pronounce these instances of little service in the task of induction1 being for the most part classed not according to the ideas which they involve1 or to any obvious circumstance in the facts of which they consist1 but according to the extent and manner of their influence upon the inquiry in which they are employed4 ,thus we have solitary instances1 migrating instances1 ostensive instances1 clandestine instances1 so termed according to the degree in which they exhibit1 or seem to exhibit1 the property1 whose nature we would examine4 ,we have guide-post instances1 crucial instances1 instances of the parted road1 of the doorway1 of the lamp1 according to the guidance they supply to our advance4 ,whewell remarks that such a classification is much of the same nature as if1 having to teach the art of building1 we were to describe tools with reference to the amount and place of the work which they must do1 instead of pointing out their construction and use2 as if we were to inform the pupil that we must have tools for lifting a stone up1 tools for moving it sidewise1 tools for laying it square1 and tools for cementing it firmly4 ,the means are thus lost in the end1 and we reap the fruits of unmethodical arrangement in the confusion of cross division4 ,in addition1 all the instances are leavened with the error of confounding the laws with the causes of phenomena1 and we are urged to adopt the fundamental error of seeking therein the universal agents1 or general causes of phenomena1 without ascending the gradual steps of intermediate laws4--,ed4 #ajh ,of these nine general heads no more than the first is prosecuted by the author4 #aji ,this very nearly approaches to ,sir ,i4 ,newton's discovery of the decomposition of light by the prism4 #aaj ,the mineral kingdom1 as displaying the same nature in all its gradations1 from the shells so perfect in structure in limestone to the finer marbles in which their nature gradually disappears1 is the great theatre for instances of migration4--,ed4 #aaa ,bacon was not aware of the fact since brought to light by ,rmer1 that down to fourteen fathoms from the earth's mean level the thermometer remains fixed at the tenth degree1 but that as the thermometer descends below that depth the heat increases in a ratio proportionate to the descent1 which happens with little variation in all climates4 ,buffon considers this a proof of a central fire in our planet4--,ed4 #aab ,all the diversities of bodies depend upon two principles1 i4e41 the quantity and the position of the elements that enter into their composition4 ,the primary difference is not that which depends on the greatest or least quantity of material elements1 but that which depends on their position4 ,it was the quick perception of this truth that made ,leibnitz say that to complete mathematics it was necessary to join to the analysis of quantity the analysis of position4--,ed4 #aac ,query8 #aad ,the real cause of this phenomenon is the attraction of the surface-water in the vessel by the sides of the bubbles4 ,when the bubbles approach1 the sides nearest each other both tend to raise the small space of water between them1 and consequently less water is raised by each of these nearer sides than by the exterior part of the bubble1 and the greater weight of the water raised on the exterior parts pushes the bubbles together4 ,in the same manner a bubble near the side of a vessel is pushed toward it2 the vessel and bubble both drawing the water that is between them4 ,the latter phenomenon cannot be explained on ,bacon's hypothesis4 #aae ,modern discoveries appear to bear out the sagacity of ,bacon's remark1 and the experiments of ,baron ,cagnard may be regarded as a first step toward its full demonstration4 ,after the new facts elicited by that philosopher1 there can be little doubt that the solid1 liquid and ariform state of bodies are merely stages in a progress of gradual transition from one extreme to the other1 and that however strongly marked the distinctions between them may appear1 they will ultimately turn out to be separated by no sudden or violent line of demarcation1 but slide into each other by imperceptible gradations4 ,bacon's suggestion1 however1 is as old as ,pythagoras1 and perhaps simultaneous with the first dawn of philosophic reason4 ,the doctrine of the reciprocal transmutation of the elements underlies all the physical systems of the ancients1 and was adopted by the ,epicureans as well as the ,stoics4 ,ovid opens his last book of the ,metamorphoses with the poetry of the subject1 where he expressly points to the hint of ,bacon3-- ----8,tenuatus in auras ,araque humor abit1 etc41 etc4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,inde retro redeunt1 idemque retexitur ordo40--xv4 #bdf-bdi4 and ,seneca1 in the third book of his ,natural ,philosophy1 quest4 iv41 states the opinion in more precise language than either the ancient bard or the modern philosopher4--,ed4 #aaf ,the author's own system of ,memoria ,technica may be found in the ,de ,augmentis1 chap4 xv4 ,we may add that1 notwithstanding ,bacon's assertion that he intended his method to apply to religion1 politics1 and morals1 this is the only lengthy illustration he has adduced of any subject out of the domain of physical science4--,ed4 #aag ,the collective instances here meant are no other than general facts or laws of some degree of generality1 and are themselves the result of induction4 ,for example1 the system of ,jupiter1 or ,saturn with its satellites1 is a collective instance1 and materially assisted in securing the admission of the ,copernican system4 ,we have here in miniature1 and displayed at one view1 a system analogous to that of the planets about the sun1 of which1 from the circumstance of our being involved in it1 and unfavorably situated for seeing it otherwise than in detail1 we are incapacitated from forming a general idea1 but by slow and progressive efforts of reason4 ,but there is a species of collective instance which ,bacon does not seem to have contemplated1 in which particular phenomena are presented in such numbers at once1 as to make the induction of their law a matter of ocular inspection4 ,for example1 the parabolic form assumed by a jet of water spouted out of a hole is a collective instance of the velocities and directions of the motions of all the particles which compose it seen together1 and which thus leads us without trouble to recognize the law of the motion of a projectile4 ,again1 the beautiful figures exhibited by sand strewed on regular plates of glass or metal set in vibration1 are collective instances of an infinite number of points which remain at rest while the remainder of the plate vibrates1 and in consequence afford us an insight into the law which regulates their arrangement and sequence throughout the whole surface4 ,the richly colored lemniscates seen around the optic axis of crystals exposed to polarized light afford a striking instance of the same kind1 pointing at once to the general mathematical expression of the law which regulates their production4 ,such collective instances as these lead us to a general law by an induction which offers itself spontaneously1 and thus furnish advanced posts in philosophical exploration4 ,the laws of ,kepler1 which ,bacon ignored on account of his want of mathematical taste1 may be cited as a collective instance4 ,the first is1 that the planets move in elliptical orbits1 having the sun for their common focus4 ,the second1 that about this focus the radius vector of each planet describes equal areas in equal times4 ,the third1 that the squares of the periodic times of the planets are as the cubes of their mean distance from the sun4 ,this collective instance 8opened the way0 to the discovery of the ,newtonian law of gravitation4--,ed4 #aah ,is not this very hasty generalization8 ,do serpents move with four folds only8 ,observe also the motion of centipedes and other insects4 #aai ,shaw states another point of difference between the objects cited in the text--animals having their roots within1 while plants have theirs without2 for their lacteals nearly correspond with the fibres of the roots in plants2 so that animals seem nourished within themselves as plants are without4--,ed4 #abj ,bacon falls into an error here in regarding the syllogism as something distinct from the reasoning faculty1 and only one of its forms4 ,it is not generally true that the syllogism is only a form of reasoning by which we unite ideas which accord with the middle term4 ,this agreement is not even essential to accurate syllogisms2 when the relation of the two things compared to the third is one of equality or similitude1 it of course follows that the two things compared may be pronounced equal1 or like to each other4 ,but if the relation between these terms exist in a different form1 then it is not true that the two extremes stand in the same relation to each other as to the middle term4 ,for instance1 if ,a is double of ,b1 and ,b double of ,c1 then ,a is quadruple of ,c4 ,but then the relation of ,a to ,c is different from that of ,a to ,b and of ,b to ,c4--,ed4 #aba ,comparative anatomy is full of analogies of this kind4 ,those between natural and artificial productions are well worthy of attention1 and sometimes lead to important discoveries4 ,by observing an analogy of this kind between the plan used in hydraulic engines for preventing the counter-current of a fluid1 and a similar contrivance in the blood vessels1 ,harvey was led to the discovery of the circulation of the blood4--,ed4 #abb ,this is well illustrated in plants1 for the gardener can produce endless varieties of any known species1 but can never produce a new species itself4 #abc ,the discoveries of ,tournefort have placed moss in the class of plants4 ,the fish alluded to below are to be found only in the tropics4--,ed4 #abd ,there is1 however1 no real approximation to birds in either the flying fish or bat1 any more than a man approximates to a fish because he can swim4 ,the wings of the flying fish and bat are mere expansions of skin1 bearing no resemblance whatever to those of birds4--,ed4 #abe ,seneca was a sounder astronomer than ,bacon4 ,he ridiculed the idea of the motion of any heavenly bodies being irregular1 and predicted that the day would come1 when the laws which guided the revolution of these bodies would be proved to be identical with those which controlled the motions of the planets4 ,the anticipation1 was realized by ,newton4--,ed4 #abf ,but see ,bacon's own corollary at the end of the ,instances of ,divorce1 ,aphorism xxxvii4 ,if ,bacon's remark be accepted1 the censure will fall upon ,newton and the system so generally received at the present day4 ,it is1 however1 unjust1 as the centre of which ,newton so often speaks is not a point with an active inherent force1 but only the result of all the particular and reciprocal attractions of the different parts of the planet acting upon one spot4 ,it is evident1 that if all these forces were united in this centre1 that the sum would be equal to all their partial effects4--,ed4 #abg ,since ,newton's discovery of the law of gravitation1 we find that the attractive force of the earth must extend to an infinite distance4 ,bacon himself alludes to the operation of this attractive force at great distances in the ,instances of the ,rod1 ,aphorism xlv4 #abh ,snow reflects light1 but is not a source of light4 #abi ,bacon's sagacity here foreshadows ,newton's theory of the tides4 #acj ,the error in the text arose from ,bacon's impression that the earth was immovable4 ,it is evident1 since gravitation acts at an infinite distance1 that no such point could be found2 and even supposing the impossible point of equilibrium discovered1 the body could not maintain its position an instant1 but would be hurried1 at the first movement of the heavenly bodies1 in the direction of the dominant gravitating power4--,ed4 #aca ,fly clocks are referred to in the text1 not pendulum clocks1 which were not known in ,england till #affb4 ,the former1 though clumsy and rude in their construction1 still embodied sound mechanical principles4 ,the comparison of the effect of a spring with that of a weight in producing certain motions in certain times on altitudes and in mines1 has recently been tried by ,professors ,airy and ,whewell in ,dalcoath mine1 by means of a pendulum1 which is only a weight moved by gravity1 and a chronometer balance moved and regulated by a spring4 ,in his thirty-seventh ,aphorism1 ,bacon also speaks of gravity as an incorporeal power1 acting at a distance1 and requiring time for its transmission2 a consideration which occurred at a later period to ,laplace in one of his most delicate investigations4 ,crucial instances1 as ,herschel remarks1 afford the readiest and securest means of eliminating extraneous causes1 and deciding between the claims of rival hypotheses2 especially when these1 running parallel to each other1 in the explanation of great classes of phenomena1 at length come to be placed at issue upon a single fact4 ,a curious example is given by ,m4 ,fresnel1 as decisive in his mind of the question between the two great theories on the nature of light1 which1 since the time of ,newton and ,huyghens1 have divided philosophers4 ,when two very clean glasses are laid one on the other1 if they be not perfectly flat1 but one or both1 in an almost imperceptible degree1 convex or prominent1 beautiful and vivid colors will be seen between them2 and if these be viewed through a red glass1 their appearance will be that of alternate dark and bright stripes4 ,these stripes are formed between the two surfaces in apparent contact1 and being applicable on both theories1 are appealed to by their respective supporters as strong confirmatory facts2 but there is a difference in one circumstance1 according as one or other theory is employed to explain them4 ,in the case of the ,huyghenian theory1 the intervals between the bright stripes ought to appear absolutely black1 when a prism is used for the upper glass1 in the other half bright4 ,this curious case of difference was tried1 as soon as the opposing consequences of the two theories were noted by ,m4 ,fresnel1 and the result is stated by him to be decisive in favor of that theory which makes light to consist in the vibrations of an elastic medium4--,ed4 #acb ,bacon plainly1 from this passage1 was inclined to believe that the moon1 like the comets1 was nothing more than illuminated vapor4 ,the ,newtonian law1 however1 has not only established its solidity1 but its density and weight4 ,a sufficient proof of the former is afforded by the attraction of the sea1 and the moon's motion round the earth4--,ed4 #acc ,rather the refraction2 the sky or air1 however1 reflects the blue rays of light4 #acd ,the polished surface of the glass causes the reflection in this case1 and not the air2 and a hat or other black surface put behind the window in the daytime will enable the glass to reflect distinctly for the same reason1 namely1 that the reflected rays are not mixed and confused with those transmitted from the other side of the window4 #ace ,these instances1 which ,bacon seems to consider as a great discovery1 are nothing more than disjunctive propositions combined with dilemmas4 ,in proposing to explain an effect1 we commence with the enumeration of the different causes which seem connected with its production2 then with the aid of one or more dilemmas1 we eliminate each of the phenomena accidental to its composition1 and conclude with attributing the effect to the residue4 ,for instance1 a certain phenomenon 7a7 is produced either by phenomenon 7,b7 or phenomenon 7,c72 but ,c cannot be the cause of a1 for it is found in ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 neither of which are connected with a4 ,then the true cause of phenomenon 7a7 must be phenomenon 7,b74 ,this species of reasoning is liable to several paralogisms1 against which ,bacon has not guarded his readers1 from the very fact that he stumbled into them unwittingly himself4 ,the two principal ones are false exclusions and defective enumerations4 ,bacon1 in his survey of the causes which are able to concur in producing the phenomena of the tides1 takes no account of the periodic melting of the ,polar ice1 or the expansion of water by the solar heat2 nor does he fare better in his exclusions4 ,for the attraction of the planets and the progression and retrograde motion communicated by the earth's diurnal revolution1 can plainly affect the sea together1 and have a simultaneous influence on its surface4 ,bacon is hardly just or consistent in his censure of ,ramus2 the end of whose dichotomy was only to render reasoning by dilemma1 and crucial instances1 more certain in their results1 by reducing the divisions which composed their parts to two sets of contradictory propositions4 ,the affirmative or negative of one would then necessarily have led to the acceptance or rejection of the other4--,ed4 #acf ,pre ,shenier first pointed out the spots on the sun's disk1 and by the marks which they afforded him1 computed its revolution to be performed in twenty-five days and some hours4--,ed4 #acg ,rust is now well known to be a chemical combination of oxygen with the metal1 and the metal when rusty acquires additional weight4 ,his theory as to the generation of animals1 is deduced from the erroneous notion of the possibility of spontaneous generation 7as it was termed74 ,see the next paragraph but one4 #ach 8,limus ut hic durescit1 et hc ut cera liquescit ,uno eodemque igni40--,virg4 ,ecl4 viii4 #aci ,see ,table of ,degrees1 ,no4 #ch4 #adj ,riccati1 and all modern physicists1 discover some portion of light in every body1 which seems to confirm the passage in ,genesis that assigns to this substance priority in creation4--,ed4 #ada ,as instances of this kind1 which the progress of science since the time of ,bacon affords1 we may cite the air-pump and the barometer1 for manifesting the weight and elasticity of air3 the measurement of the velocity of light1 by means of the occultation of ,jupiter's satellites and the aberration of the fixed stars3 the experiments in electricity and galvanism1 and in the greater part of pneumatic chemistry4 ,in all these cases scientific facts are elicited1 which sense could never have revealed to us4--,ed4 #adb ,the itinerant instances1 as well as frontier instances1 are cases in which we are enabled to trace the general law of continuity which seems to pervade all nature1 and which has been aptly embodied in the sentence1 8natura non agit per saltum40 ,the pursuit of this law into phenomena where its application is not at first sight obvious1 has opened a mine of physical discovery1 and led us to perceive an intimate connection between facts which at first seemed hostile to each other4 ,for example1 the transparency of gold-leaf1 which permits a bluish-green light to pass through it1 is a frontier instance between transparent and opaque bodies1 by exhibiting a body of the glass generally regarded the most opaque in nature1 as still possessed of some slight degree of transparency4 ,it thus proves that the quality of opacity is not a contrary or antagonistic quality to that of transparency1 but only its extreme lowest degree4 #adc ,alluding to his theory of atoms4 #add ,observe the approximation to ,newton's theory4 ,the same notion repeated still more clearly in the ninth motion4 ,newton believed that the planets might so conspire as to derange the earth's annual revolution1 and to elongate the line of the apsides and ellipsis that the earth describes in its annual revolution round the sun4 ,in the supposition that all the planets meet on the same straight line1 ,venus and ,mercury on one side of the sun1 and the earth1 moon1 ,mars1 ,jupiter and ,saturn on the side diametrically opposite2 then ,saturn would attract ,jupiter1 ,jupiter ,mars1 ,mars the moon1 which must in its turn attract the earth in proportion to the force with which it was drawn out of its orbit4 ,the result of this combined action on our planet would elongate its ecliptic orbit1 and so far draw it from the source of heat1 as to produce an intensity of cold destructive to animal life4 ,but this movement would immediately cease with the planetary concurrence which produced it1 and the earth1 like a compressed spring1 bound almost as near to the sun as she had been drawn from it1 the reaction of the heat on its surface being about as intense as the cold caused by the first removal was severe4 ,the earth1 until it gained its regular track1 would thus alternately vibrate between each side of its orbit1 with successive changes in its atmosphere1 proportional to the square of the variation of its distance from the sun4 ,in no place is ,bacon's genius more conspicuous than in these repeated guesses at truth4 ,he would have been a strong ,copernican1 had not ,gilbert defended the system4--,ed4 #ade ,this is not true except when the projectile acquires greater velocity at every successive instant of its course1 which is never the case except with falling bodies4 ,bacon appears to have been led into the opinion from observing that gunshots pierce many objects at a distance from which they rebound when brought within a certain proximity of contact4 ,this apparent inconsistency1 however1 arises from the resistance of the parts of the object1 which velocity combined with force is necessary to overcome4--,ed4 #adf ,this passage shows that the pressure of the external atmosphere1 which forces the water into the egg1 was not in ,bacon's time understood4--,ed4 #adg ,we have already alluded1 in a note prefixed to the same aphorism of the first book1 to ,newton's error of the absolute lightness of bodies4 ,in speaking again of the volatile or spiritual substances 7,aph4 xl4 b4 ii47 which he supposed with the ,platonists and some of the schoolmen to enter into the composition of every body1 he ascribes to them a power of lessening the weight of the material coating in which he supposes them inclosed4 ,it would appear from these passages and the text that ,bacon had no idea of the relative density of bodies1 and the capability which some have to diminish the specific gravity of the heavier substances by the dilation of their parts2 or if he had1 the reveries in which ,aristotle indulged in treating of the soul1 about the appetency of bodies to fly to kindred substances--flame and spirit to the sky1 and solid opaque substances to the earth1 must have vitiated his mind4--,ed4 #adh ,rmer1 a ,danish astronomer1 was the first to demonstrate1 by connecting the irregularities of the eclipses of ,jupiter's satellites with their distances from the earth1 the necessity of time for the propagation of light4 ,the idea occurred to ,dominic ,cassini as well as ,bacon1 but both allowed the discovery to slip out of their hands4--,ed4 #adi ,the author in the text confounds inertness1 which is a simple indifference of bodies to action1 with gravity1 which is a force acting always in proportion to their density4 ,he falls into the same error further on4--,ed4 #aej ,the experiments of the last two classes of instances are considered only in relation to practice1 and ,bacon does not so much as mention their infinitely greater importance in the theoretical part of induction4 ,the important law of gravitation in physical astronomy could never have been demonstrated but by such observations and experiments as assigned accurate geometrical measures to the quantities compared4 ,it was necessary to determine with precision the demi-diameter of the earth1 the velocity of falling bodies at its surface1 the distance of the moon1 and the speed with which she describes her orbit1 before the relation could be discovered between the force which draws a stone to the ground and that which retains the moon in her sphere4 ,in many cases the result of a number of particular facts1 or the collective instances rising out of them1 can only be discovered by geometry1 which so far becomes necessary to complete the work of induction4 ,for instance1 in the case of optics1 when light passes from one transparent medium to another1 it is refracted1 and the angle which the ray of incidence makes with the superficies which bounds the two media determines that which the refracted ray makes with the same superficies4 ,now1 all experiment can do for us in this case is1 to determine for any particular angle of incidence the corresponding angle of refraction4 ,but with respect to the general rule which in every possible case deduces one of these angles from the other1 or expresses the constant and invariable relation which subsists between them1 experiment gives no direct information4 ,geometry must1 consequently1 be called in1 which1 when a constant though unknown relation subsists between two angles1 or two variable qualities of any kind1 and when an indefinite number of values of those quantities are assigned1 furnishes infallible means of discovering that unknown relation either accurately or by approximation4 ,in this way it has been found1 when the two media remain the same1 the cosines of the above-mentioned angles have a constant ratio to each other4 ,hence1 when the relations of the simple elements of phenomena are discovered to afford a general rule which will apply to any concrete case1 the deductive method must be applied1 and the elementary principles made through its agency to account for the laws of their more complex combinations4 ,the reflection and refraction of light by the rain falling from a cloud opposite to the sun was thought1 even before ,newton's day1 to contain the form of the rainbow4 ,this philosopher transformed a probable conjecture into a certain fact when he deduced from the known laws of reflection and refraction the breadth of the colored arch1 the diameter of the circle of which it is a part1 and the relation of the latter to the place of the spectator and the sun4 ,doubt was at once silenced when there came out of his calculus a combination of the same laws of the simple elements of optics answering to the phenomena in nature4--,ed4 #aea ,as far as this motion results from attraction and repulsion1 it is only a simple consequence of the last two4--,ed4 #aeb ,these two cases are now resolved into the property of the capillary tubes and present only another feature of the law of attraction4--,ed4 #aec ,this is one of the most useful practical methods in chemistry at the present day4 #aed ,see ,aphorism xxv4 #aee ,query8 #aef ,observe this approximation to ,newton's theory4 #aeg ,those differences which are generated by the masses and respective distances of bodies are only differences of quantity1 and not specific2 consequently those three classes are only one4--,ed4 #aeh ,see the citing instances1 ,aphorism xl4 #aei ,aristotle's doctrine1 that sound takes place when bodies strike the air1 which the modern science of acoustics has completely established1 was rejected by ,bacon in a treatise upon the same subject3 8,the collision or thrusting of air10 he says1 8which they will have to be the cause of sound1 neither denotes the form nor the latent process of sound1 but is a term of ignorance and of superficial contemplation40 ,to get out of the difficulty1 he betook himself to his theory of spirits1 a species of phenomena which he constantly introduces to give himself the air of explaining things he could not understand1 or would not admit upon the hypothesis of his opponents4--,ed4 #afj ,the motion of trepidation1 as ,bacon calls it1 was attributed by the ancient astronomers to the eight spheres1 relative to the precession of the equinoxes4 ,galileo was the first to observe this kind of lunar motion4--,ed4 #afa ,part of the air is expanded and escapes1 and part is consumed by the flame4 ,when condensed1 therefore1 by the cold application1 it cannot offer sufficient resistance to the external atmosphere to prevent the liquid or flesh from being forced into the glass4 #afb ,heat can now be abstracted by a very simple process1 till the degree of cold be of almost any required intensity4--,ed4 #afc ,it is impossible to compare a degree of heat with a degree of cold1 without the assumption of some arbitrary test1 to which the degrees are to be referred4 ,in the next sentence ,bacon appears to have taken the power of animal life to support heat or cold as the test1 and then the comparison can only be between the degree of heat or of cold that will produce death4 ,the zero must be arbitrary which divides equally a certain degree of heat from a certain degree of cold4--,ed4 #afd ,it may often be observed on the leaves of the lime and other trees4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,punctuation errors were corrected4 ,inconsistent hyphenation was retained4 8,de la ,lande0 and 8,la ,lande0 both appear in text and were retained4 8,shenier01 editor's spelling of 8,scheiner01 was retained4 ,on p4 #cg1 a paragraph break was inserted before ,there is a clear example 4444 ,on p4 #dd1 8the0 was changed from 8,the0 7the usual method74 ,on p4 #he1 8that0 was changed from 8,that0 7that a species74 ,on p4 #hf1 8that0 was changed from 8,that0 7that an instrument74 ,on p4 #aah1 8ariform0 was changed from 8aeriform0 7ariform or igniform74 ,on p4 #agh1 8borrow0 was changed from 8brorrow0 7to borrow a term from the grammarians74 ,on p4 #bjd1 8sufficiently0 was changed from 8sufficietly0 7but sufficiently dense74 ,on p4 #bai1 8quantity0 was changed from 8quanity0 7quantity of gold74 ,in footnote #e1 8psychological0 was changed from 8pyschological0 7most other psychological74 ,in footnote #bc1 8that0 was changed from 8tha0 7that we have nothing74 ,in footnote #cc1 #gb was changed from 8#bb0 7,acad4 ,prior4 ii4 #gb474 ,in footnote #fj1 8ix40 was changed from 8x40 7,livy1 lib4 ix474 ,in footnote #ga1 80 was changed from 804 ,in footnote #hf1 8necessary0 was changed from 8necesary0 7necessary to invent74 ,in footnote #hg1 8liquor0 was changed from 8liqour0 7the liquor rose74 ,in footnote #afa1 8the0 was changed from 8th0 7by the flame74