,transcrib]'s notes3 ,9 ?is transcription1 pair$ und]scores d5ote italicis$ text4 ,ar*aic spell+s su* z #8s$em5t>y' & #8millep$es' h n be5 alt]$1 & ! foll[+ spell+ inconsi/5cies h also be5 left z 9 ! orig9al text3 omnivor\s_/omnivorus1 eleagnus_/elagnus1 silv]fi%_/silv]-fi%1 woodlice_/wood-lice1 bl[fly_/bl[-fly4 ,! foll[+ typographic errors h be5 correct$3 k9dom -- k+dom aphis lion -- aphis-lion ,jose -- ,jos ocurr+ -- occurr+ neces>y -- necess>y ,crytolmus -- ,cryptolmus ,crape -- ,grape pupuli -- populi ,,caw?ron ,,in/itute ,,monographs ,,g>d5 ,,pe/s 9 ,,new ,,zeal& ,a ,popul> ,manual = ,practical ,g>d5]s1 ,f>m]s & ,s*ools ,by ,,dr4 ,d4 ,,mill] ,ph4,d41 ,m4,sc41 ,f4,r4,s4,n4,z41 ,f4,r4,e4,s4 ,assi/ant ,director & ,*ief ,entomologi/1 ,caw?ron ,in/itute1 ,nelson ,,cont5ts4 ,page ,introduction #e ,*apt] i43 ,g5]al ,review ( ! ,animal ,k+dom #g ,*apt] ii43 ,soil ,organisms & ,soil ,f]tility #ab ,*apt] iii43 ,/ructure ( ,insects #ag ,*apt] iv43 ,life ,hi/ories ( ,insects #bb ,*apt] v43 ,suck+ ,insects #bi ,*apt] vi43 ,suck+ ,insects 7,conclud$7 #db ,*apt] vii43 ,leaf-fe$+ ,insects #ej ,*apt] viii43 ,bor+ & ,und]gr\nd ,insects #fa ,*apt] ix43 ,miscellane\s ,pe/s #fg ,*apt] x43 ,pr9ciples ( ,pe/ ,control #gd ,index #ha ,introduction ,?is "w deals ) ! insects & o!r animals hav+ a detrim5tal or b5eficial influ5ce ^u horticulture 9 ,new ,zeal&4 ,its purpose is to supply su* g5]al in=mation z w enable ! common animal inhabitants ( ! g>d5 to be id5tifi$ & controll$1 to act z a popul> guide = ! use ( practical g>d5]s & s*ools1 & at ! same "t s]ve z a s\rce f :i* ! exam9ation requirem5ts set out 9 ! syllabus ( ! ,new ,zeal& ,in/itute ( ,horticulture may be met4 ,z ?is "w is = ! b5efit ( ! g>d5+ public1 & an endeav\r to diffuse "s k ( c]ta9 natural problems1 ! language ( ! sci5ti/--:i*1 un=tunately1 t5ds to gu>d :at is kn[n ( ^! problems f ! g5]al read]--has be5 avoid$ z mu* z possible2 at times1 h[ev]1 ?is ideal _c be adh]$ to1 b 9 su* cases ! read] %\ld f9d no difficulty1 & %\ld be prep>$ to become famili>1 ) ! few t]ms us$4 ,to "k ! sci5tific names ( animals )\t be+ acqua9t$ ) ! animals !mselves is a habit to be avoid$1 & is j ab\t z in/ructive z memoris+ ! names ( p 9 a t[n or telephone directory4 ,b animals mu/ be nam$2 ?\gh _! popul> names are us$ 9 ! foll[+ pages & z su* names are v (t5 mislead+1 ! sci5tific names are giv5 9 brackets 9 ord] to avoid confusion4 ,9 su* a "w z ?is1 illu/rations are ( great value1 & ^! are giv5 :]ev] possible4 ,"o drawback to illu/rations is t ! relative proportions ( animals may be lo/2 = example1 a microscopic organism might require magnification by "s #d1jjj times its natural size & s become equal to t ( "s ( ! mo/ conspicu\s insects4 ,ev5 ) ! be/ illu/rations1 h[ev]1 x is ess5tial t ! read] becomes famili> ) ! animals !mselves4 ,?is %\ld pres5t no difficulty to ! read]1 s9ce he w f9d 9 8 g>d5 all ( ! animals ) :i* he is conc]n$--mo/ly insects & _! ne> relatives4 ,fur!r1 ( v great assi/ance to him1 he w f9d ! sev]al excell5t public museums ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry1 z well z ! speciali/s at su* rese>* in/itutions z ! ,caw?ron ,in/itute at ,nelson4 ,to keep a "w = ! g5]al read] 9 a readable =m1 ! desire ( ! au?or to cite ! s\rces f :i* he d]ives 8 in=mation mu/ be suppress$4 ,if ?is 7 n done1 ! text w\ld rapidly become litt]$ ) endless ref]5ces1 mu* to ! we>9ess & confusion ( ! read]4 ,!re=e1 x %\ld be rememb]$ t a "w ( ?is k9d is a compilation f ! publications ( _m sci5ti/s1 to :i* is add$ :at little orig9al in=mation ! writ] himself might possess4 ,opportunity mu/ be tak5 "h to express "o's appreciation ( ! assi/ance giv5 by ,mr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,davies & ,mr4 ,l4 ,j4 ,dumbleton 9 ! prep>ation ( ! photographs & draw+s1 respectively4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,g5]al ,review ( ! ,animal ,k+dom4 ,at ! outset x is advisable1 by review+ ! animal k+dom z a :ole1 to secure 9 p]spective ! relation%ips ( ! animals ) :i* ! horticulturi/ has to deal4 ,to mo/ p ! animal k+dom is compris$ *iefly ( ^? animals commonly met ) 9 ev]yday life or 9 g5]al read+--! game & dome/ic animals & ! fi%es1 all ( :i* are simil> 9 t !y possess a backbone or v]tebral column1 & are consequ5tly kn[n z ! v]tebrates4 ,popul>ly1 h[ev]1 !y are g5]ally class$ z ! 8l[]0 & 8high]0 animals2 !re is c]ta9ly "s accuracy 9 su* a haphaz>d classification1 s9ce1 ?\gh all ! v]tebrates are1 /rictly speak+1 ! 8high]0 animals1 "s are 8l[]0 7e4g41 fi%1 frog1 & bird7 ?an o!rs 7e4g41 kang>oo1 dog1 & man1 ! highe/ ( all74 ,b :5 x comes to ! true 8l[]0 animals1 t va/ assemblage ( less conspicu\s creatures1 ! jelly-fi% & corals1 worms ( all k9ds1 sea-ur*9s1 crayfi%1 wood-lice1 spid]s & insects1 %ell-fi% & snails1 all *>act]is$ by ! abs5ce ( a v]tebral column & kn[n z ! inv]tebrates1 !y are n collectively visualis$ 9 a g5]al s5se z are ! v]tebrates4 ,z a rule1 ^! inv]tebrates are kn[n individually z indep5d5t units1 except1 p]haps1 9 ! case ( worms1 insects1 spid]s1 wood-lice1 etc41 :i* are v (t5 collectively & haphaz>dly ref]r$ to z 8insects10 a t]m1 9 ?is s5se1 z ill-def9$ z x is unlimit$4 ,t ! av]age p]son %\ld be m conv]sant ) ! v]tebrates ?an ! inv]tebrates is1 to a great ext5t1 ! natural outcome ( association & tra9+2 a possible influ5ce is to be f\nd at ! outset ( "o's c>e] 9 ! _m illu/rat$ nurs]y books depict+ game & dome/ic animals1 b seldom1 if ev]1 any ( ! inv]tebrates2 & ?is impression t5ds to be fur!r fo/]$ 9 lat] life by visits to ! zoo1 :]e we meet 9 p]son mo/ ( ! nurs]y book animals1 & p]haps "s ( ! l[] =ms1 su* z insects2 b ! latt]1 9 mo/ cases1 are !re by *ance1 n design1 & aga9/ ! w ( ! au?orities4 ,9 rec5t ye>s1 h[ev]1 m public att5tion has be5 giv5 to ! l[] animals ow+ to ! detrim5tal influ5ce ( _m ^u agricultural developm5t z well z ^u public heal?4 ,t su* animals are capable ( rank+ z fundam5tal factors h9d]+ human progress1 may be realis$ :5 x is consid]$ t1 ( ! inv]tebrates1 insects alone comprise ne>ly f\r-fif?s ( ! :ole animal k+dom6 ,?is has be5 graphically illu/rat$ z foll[s by ,f4 ,e4 ,lutz1 ( ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory3--,ext5d ! arms & f+]s at "r angles to ! body1 & let ! di/ance f ! tip ( ! middle f+] ( "o h& to t ( ! o!r repres5t ! numb] ( diff]5t k9ds ( liv+ animals2 !n ! la/ jo9t ( ! middle f+] ( ! "r h& w be proportionate to ! numb] ( mammals 7kang>oos1 ho($ animals1 rabbits1 man1 etc471 ! second jo9t to ! reptiles & _! relations1 ! fir/ jo9t to ! birds1 & ! di/ance betwe5 ! knuckles & ! wri/ to ! fi%es4 8,9 o!r words1 y c hold ! s-call$ zoological g>d5s & _! aqu>ium annexes 9 "o h&40 ,f9ally1 ! di/ance betwe5 ! wri/ ( ! "r arm & ! tip ( ! middle f+] ( ! left w proportionately repres5t all ! kn[n species ( inv]tebrates1 & ( ?is section ( ! ext5d$ arms all except betwe5 a wri/ & an elb[ w be insects4 ,! zoologi/ classifies ! animals "u twelve ma9 divisions1 ( :i* elev5 conta9 ! inv]tebrates & "o ! v]tebrates2 ^! divisions are arrang$ 9 a s]ies1 ! fir/ conta9+ ! simple/ or l[] animals1 & ! la/ ! mo/ complex or highe/4 ,a glance at ?is classification w s]ve to give "s idea ( ! relative position 9 ! animal k+dom ( ! animals :i* w be dealt ) 9 ! foll[+ pages4 ,! v l[e/ =ms1 belong+ to ! fir/ division1 are micro-organisms kn[n z ! ,protozoa2 !y inhabit wat] & soil1 & live ^u _! own k9d or ^u m9ute plants1 includ+ bact]ia1 or are p>asitic ^u ! high] animals1 "s ( ^! p>asites caus+ su* diseases z mal>ia4 ,! ,protozoa are s+le units ( liv+ matt] 7protoplasm71 & may be ref]r$ to z ! "o-cell$ animals2 !y are mo/ly microscopic1 & lead an indep5d5t life1 or are associat$ 9 colonies1 b are capable1 z a rule1 ( c>ry+ on indep5d5tly all ! functions ( life1 ?\gh !re are no organs su* z ^? ( dige/ion1 respiration1 & circulation1 z we "k !m 9 ! high] animals4 ,x is among/ su* simple =ms t ! di/9ction betwe5 ! l[e/ animals & plants ceases to be cle>4 ,z w be discuss$ lat]1 !re is evid5ce t c]ta9 ,protozoa h an important influ5ce on soil f]tility4 ,! rema9+ elev5 divisions conta9 all o!r animals1 rang+ 9 size f m]e specks to ! mass ( ! elephant2 ! bodies ( ^! are built up ( a complex aggregate ( c\ntless cells ( protoplasm arrang$ 9 gr\ps to =m ! organs ( dige/ion1 circulation1 respiration1 reproduction1 etc41 ea* hav+ its def9ite function 9 ! animals' lives4 ,! foll[+ are "s typical or well-kn[n examples ( ea* ( ^! divisions1 ! te*nical names1 ) ! exception ( ! ,protozoa1 n be+ giv53-- ,! ,protozoa 7ref]5ce %\ld be made "h to ,fig4 #a7 are foll[$ by 7#b7 sponges2 7#c7 jelly-fi%1 sea-anemones1 corals2 7#d7 flat worms 7tape-worms1 etc472 7#e7 r\nd worms 7?read-worms1 eel-worms72 7#f7 sea-mats1 lamp-%ells2 7#g7 :eel-animalcules2 7#h7 />-fi%1 sea-ur*9s2 7#i7 segm5t$ worms 7e>?worms72 7#aj7 crayfi%1 woodlice1 c5tip$es1 millep$es1 spid]s1 mites1 insects2 7#aa7 %ell-fi%1 slugs1 snails2 7#ab7 fi%1 frogs1 liz>ds1 birds1 h$gehogs1 rabbits1 man4 ,s f> we h review$ ! animal k+dom f "o aspect only--t ( classification1 bas$ on ! resemblances & diff]5ces ( ! individuals4 ,x is n[ necess>y to look at ! subject f ! viewpo9t ( ! horticulturi/--t is1 ! relation%ips ( ! animals to _! surr\nd+s1 or environm5t1 & to ! welf>e ( man4 ,( ! two great life-gr\ps--animals & plants--! plants are ( fundam5tal importance2 )\t !m no animal c\ld exi/1 s9ce1 ( all liv+ ?+s1 x is ! gre5 plants alone t are able to conv]t ! inorganic *emical con/itu5ts 9 soil1 air & wat] into liv+ matt] or protoplasm2 & all animals1 ei!r directly or indirectly1 are dep5d5t ^u plants = _! food supply4 ,plants1 !re=e1 may be look$ ^u z ! prim>y produc]s ( life1 & animals z ! consum]s4 ,x is 9 ?is respect t ! horticulturi/ becomes int]e/$1 9 t c]ta9 ( ^! consum]s de/roy too _m ( ! plants gr[n by him = o!r purposes2 =tunately1 n all ( ! consum]s are de/ructive2 _m are ( v great use to ! horticulturi/ & mank9d 9 g5]al4 ,! la/ po9t is well illu/rat$ by ! foll[+ classification ( ! animal k+dom bas$ ^u ! "p x plays 9 human welf>e2 ?is is a modification ( ! s*eme adopt$ by ! ,briti% ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory3-- ,gr\p ,i4--,wild or dome/icat$ animals us$ by man z bea/s ( burd51 s\rce ( food1 or 9 ! manufacture ( v>i\s products--e4g41 sponges1 crayfi%1 bees1 silk-worms1 %ell-fi%1 & v>i\s v]tebrates1 z fi%1 birds & mammals4 ,gr\p ,,ii4--,animals detrim5tal to man's welf>e1 attack+ man himself2 animals & plants ( value to him1 or ! products d]iv$ !refrom--e4g41 ,protozoa1 p>asitic worms1 mites1 insects1 & su* v]tebrates z c]ta9 birds & mammals4 ,gr\p ,,iii4--,animals aid+ man's welf>e1 z scav5g]s1 or by poll9at+ fl[]s1 or by attack+ & *eck+ su* animals z are includ$ 9 ,gr\p ,,ii4--e4g41 ,protozoa1 p>asitic worms1 e>?worms1 p>asitic insects1 spid]s1 & su* v]tebrates z c]ta9 birds & mammals4 ,an analysis ( ! above classification %[s t animals bo? aid & h9d] ! progress ( man1 h5ce ! use ( ! t]ms 8b5eficial0 & 8de/ructive40 ,9 nature1 h[ev]1 ^! t]ms are n altoge!r applicable 9 ! same s5se1 s9ce ! balance ma9ta9$ betwe5 animals & plants "u natural conditions is an extremely fluctuat+ "o1 ?\gh suffici5t = natural purposes2 ) man1 h[ev]1 ! case is diff]5t4 ,9 ord] to compete 9 ! _w's m>kets1 & to supply ! gr[+ dem&s ( increas+ population1 a mu* high] & dep5dable /&>d ( productivity is requir$ ?an is f\nd 9 nature4 ,consequ5tly1 :il/ utilis+1 & increas+ ! effici5cy ( ! s-call$ natural enemies z auxili>ies 9 8 fight aga9/ de/ructive animals1 man has f\nd x necess>y to develop an effective sy/em ( artificial control1 involv+ *emicals1 resi/ant plants1 cultivation1 crop rotation1 etc41 = ! purpose ( ma9ta9+ a m /r+5t balance to meet 8 requirem5ts4 ,hi/orical ,review ( ,new ,zeal& ,conditions4 ,! animal population ( ,european ,new ,zeal& is v diff]5t f t ( pre-,european times1 a position br\ght ab\t naturally en\gh by ! *anges result+ f agricultural developm5t z practis$ 9 ! ,old ,_w1 & ! consequ5t creation ( an environm5t =eign to ! c\ntry4 ,?\gh ! (ficial date ( ! settlem5t ( ,new ,zeal& by ,europeans is #ahdj1 ! influ5ces1 inaugurat+ t upheaval ( ! natural conditions :i* 0 lat] to h su* a m>k$ effect on ! economic developm5t ( ! c\ntry1 _h comm5c$ _m ye>s e>li]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4--,"s common animals gr\p$ to repres5t ! twelve ma9 divisions ( ! animal k+dom4 ,:5 ! fir/ ,europeans set foot 9 ,new ,zeal&1 !y mu/ h be5 impress$ by _! unique surr\nd+s1 totally diff]5t f any?+ to be met ) 9 ! ,old ,_w4 ,!y f\nd ! c\ntry dom9at$ by a =e/ q unlike ! =e/s ( any o!r l&1 & inhabit$ by an animal population pres5t+ _m unusual features4 ,?is t]re/rial population 0 *>act]is$ by an abundance ( insects & spid]s1 & a paucity ( v]tebrates except+ ! birds2 ! v]tebrates consi/$ ( a species or two ( frogs1 a few species ( liz>ds1 "s #bjj species ( birds1 & two species ( bats1 ! la/ be+ ! only t]re/rial mammals4 ,9 fact1 ! insects1 spid]s & birds 7 ! dom9ant animals1 a feature common to o!r p>ts ( ! _w1 b ! scanty v]tebrate population1 o!r ?an birds1 0 a *>act]i/ic ( primeval ,new ,zeal&4 ,new ,zeal& be+ a c\ntry fitt$ = agriculture1 settlem5t by ,europeans naturally result$ 9 ext5sive & rapid *anges1 s9ce ! settl]s br\ght ) !m ! k1 implem5ts1 animals & plants ( ! civilis$ _w2 & to make way = settlem5t1 x 0 necess>y to remove ! =e/s & dra9 ! swamps1 & to replace !m ) cultivat$ crops & pa/ures4 ,^! activities h be5 s ?or\gh1 t1 )9 a p]iod ( "s #ij ye>s practically ! :ole ( ! orig9al ,nor? ,isl& =e/s1 & ! great] "p ( ^? ( ! ,s\? ,isl&1 h be5 cle>$4 ,an out/&+ feature ( ^! *anges is t _m ( ! pe/s associat$ ) ! agricultural animals & plants h be5 br\ght to ,new ,zeal& ) ! animals & plants !y infe/1 & ^! exotic pe/s comprise by f> ! great] proportion ( ! de/ructive animal population1 !re be+ b few native species =m+ ! balance4 ,= example1 #ga p] c5t4 ( ! de/ructive insects are exotic1 & #bi p] c5t4 native1 :ile all ! p>asitic worms ( economic importance1 all ! de/ructive birds 7e4g41 sp>r[s7 & mammals 7e4g41 de]1 wild pigs1 & goats7 are introduc$4 ,! exotic factors t h set up ?is new environm5t may be summ>is$ z foll[s3-- 7#a7 ,cle>+ ( ! native vegetation4 7#b7 ,introduc$ plants3 e4g41 grasses1 =age crops1 trees1 etc4 7#c7 ,introduc$ game animals3 e4g41 de]1 pigs1 rabbits1 birds1 etc4 7#d7 ,introduc$ de/ructive animals1 infe/+ animals & plants ( economic value3 e4g41 p>asitic worms1 insects1 etc4 7#e7 ,animals import$ to control pe/s1 b :i* h become de/ructive !mselves3 e4g41 weasels1 birds4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,soil ,organisms & ,soil ,f]tility4 ,9 ! fir/ *apt] ! plants 7 ref]r$ to z ! prim>y produc]s ( life1 & ! animals z ! consum]s2 ! =m] n only furni% n\ri%m5t = _! own gr[?1 b also = ! support ( ! animal _w z a :ole4 ,liv+ plants 79 ref]5ce to gre5 plants7 utilise ! sun's en]gy 9 ! manufacture ( _! complex food mat]ials f comp>atively simple *emical comp\nds4 ,^! latt] comp\nds are c>bon dioxide1 d]iv$ f ! air ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( leaves1 & a weak solution ( v>i\s *emical comp\nds 9 wat]1 d]iv$ by means ( ! roots f ! soil1 & c>ri$ up ?r\gh ! plant to ! leaves1 :]e ! elaboration into ! complex comp\nds to be utilis$ by ! plants z food takes place4 ,^! comp>atively simple comp\nds f :i* ! plants elaborate _! n\ri%m5t are ! raw food mat]ials1 & t !y mu/ always be available = plant gr[?1 is evid5t :5 "o consid]s ! va/ areas ( vegetation t cov]1 ) ! exception ( des]t regions1 ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,"u moi/ climatic conditions x has be5 calculat$ t "s #ejj tons ( c>bon dioxide & #a1jjj1jjj tons ( wat]1 hav+ ! raw food mat]ials 9 solution1 are us$ annually by "o squ>e mile ( d5se =e/4 ,= _! developm5t1 !re=e1 plants require3-- 7#a7 ,sunlight z ! s\rce ( en]gy = ! c>ry+ on ( _! life functions2 7#b7 ,air = ! supply ( c>bon dioxide1 oxyg51 &1 indirectly1 nitrog52 7#c7 ,an ample supply ( wat] requir$ = ! liv+ tissues & z a vehicle = ! transport f ! soil ( 7#d7 ,! raw food mat]ials1 9 ! =m ( v>i\s *emical comp\nds4 ,) ! exception ( ! c>bon dioxide d]iv$ f ! air1 all ! raw food mat]ials--wat]1 nitrates1 phosphates1 sulphates1 potassium1 calcium1 magnesium1 iron1 etc4--are pres5t 9 ! soil1 ?\gh only a "p ( !m is 9 a =m suitable = imbibition by plants4 ,9 ! =mation ( ^! food mat]ials1 :i* r5d] ! soil f]tile1 physical =ces & ! activities ( liv+ organisms play a lead+ "p4 ,our imm$iate conc]n is ) ! influ5ce ( ^! organisms ^u soil f]tility1 b x is advisable to give "s consid]ation to ! soil itself1 s9ce x is ! environm5t 9 :i* ! organisms live1 & ) :i* _! exi/5ce is intimately associat$2 9 ?is respect att5tion w be conf9$ to ! type ( soil usually cultivat$ by ! horticulturi/1 & to ! upp]mo/ lay]s--t is1 approximately1 )9 "o foot ( ! surface4 ,soil is ! product ( dis9tegrat$ & wea!r$ rocks ) :i* are mix$ ! residues ( organic matt]4 ,ap>t f ! p>ticles ( dis9tegrat$ rocks1 :i* =m ! matrix1 soil conta9s *emical comp\nds ( two k9ds3 ^? ( a purely m9]al nature d]iv$ f ! inorganic compon5ts ( ! orig9al rocks1 & ^? ( an organic orig9 d]iv$ ei!r f ! anci5t rema9s ( organisms1 :i*1 9 ! case ( s$em5t>y deposits1 became incorporat$ 9 ! rocks at ! "t ( _! orig91 or f ! rema9s ( pres5t-day plants & animals decompos$ by soil organisms4 ,9 addition1 !re is ! humus1 :i* has a fundam5tal physical influ5ce1 & = ! production ( :i* soil organisms are responsible4 ,illu/ration3 ,figure #b ,,! ,,?ree ,,ma9 ,,types ,,( ,,soil ,,protozoa4 ,magnifi$ #cjj-djj4 ,9 ! initial /ages ( soil =mation dur+ ! dis9tegration & decomposition ( rocks1 ! fir/ type ( soil to be =m$ is suitable = ! gr[? ( only c]ta9 plants2 x is ( a purely m9]al nature1 conta9+ raw food mat]ials d]iv$ ma9ly f ! rocks & n f organic matt]1 unless f su* organic residues z 7 incorporat$ 9 ! rocks dur+ _! =mation 9 anci5t times4 ,su* soil _c su/a9 ! high] types ( gre5 plants1 nor is x populat$ by soil organisms2 x furni%es suitable pabulum1 h[ev]1 = ! n\ri%m5t & gr[? ( ! m l[ly types ( vegetation1 :i* are able to conv]t to _! b5efit ! limit$ supply ( food mat]ials available4 ,! complex organic comp\nds t su* primitive plants elaborate f ^! food mat]ials ( purely m9]al orig91 & incorporate 9 _! tissues1 are1 aft] dea?1 return$ to ! soil1 :i* becomes correspond+ly enri*$1 & a fav\rable environm5t = ! e/abli%m5t ( organisms2 ! latt] r$uce ^! plant residues to humus1 & dur+ ?is process ( decomposition produce food mat]ials ( an organic orig9 suitable = ! nutrition ( ! sequ5tial plant cov]+4 ,s ! process proce$s until a soil is =m$ ( suffici5t ext5t & quality = ! support ( a m ext5sive & increas+ly complex vegetation2 ?us1 9 ! cycle ( life & decay1 /ores ( organic comp\nds are elaborat$ by plants & return$ to ! soil1 :i* !y enri*1 & :]e !y are decompos$ by organisms1 & s ma9ta9 ! supplies ( food mat]ials suitable = ! ma9t5ance ( vegetation4 ,^! ph5om5a ( plant e/abli%m5t & succession1 correlat$ ) soil =mation1 7 cle>ly demon/rat$ by ! re-e/abli%m5t ( vegetation aft] ! soil & plant life _h be5 de/roy$ by ! hi/oric eruption 9 #ahhc ( ,krakatoa1 a volcanic isl& 9 ! ,/raits ( ,sunda1 betwe5 ,java & ,sumatra4 ,! fir/ plants to be e/abli%$ on ! volcanic deposits 7 species ( t]re/rial alg1 :i* gradually spread & built up soil suitable = ! developm5t ( soil organisms & = ! gr[? ( se$s br\ght to ! isl& by birds & ocean curr5ts4 ,s rapid 7 ! *anges br\ght ab\t by ^! influ5ces1 t )9 a p]iod ( tw5ty ye>s aft] ! eruption ! b>r5 gr\nd 0 reclo!d by a d5se & v>i$ plant cov]+4 ,organisms t =m "p ( ! organic complex ( ! soil range f ! m conspicu\s species1 su* z slugs & snails1 insects1 spid]s1 wood lice1 millep$es1 e>?worms & eelworms1 to su* microscopic =ms z protozoa1 fungi1 alg & bact]ia1 ! la/ ?ree be+ memb]s ( ! plant k+dom4 ,^! organisms may be gr\p$ z foll[s3-- 7#a7 ,tempor>y inhabitants t ent] ! soil = %elt]1 or to fe$ z scav5g]s on decay+ organic matt]1 or bo?--e4g41 slugs1 snails1 wood lice1 c]ta9 insects & "s eelworms4 7#b7 ,p]man5t inhabitants t are dep5d5t on ! soil = _! developm5t & supplies ( food1 ei!r ?r\gh\t or dur+ mo/ ( _! lives--e4g41 c]ta9 insects & spid]s1 millep$es1 e>?worms1 eelworms1 protozoa1 fungi1 alg & bact]ia4 ,! organisms 9 ! fir/ gr\p play a comp>atively m9or "p 9 soil developm5t1 & influ5ce its f]tility to an almo/ negligible ext5t1 ! tempor>y scav5g]s1 p]haps1 be+ ( m importance s9ce !y aid 9 ! r$uction ( vegetable residues4 ,! =ms 9 ! second gr\p1 h[ev]1 are invaluable z soil-mak+ ag5ts & 9 ! production ( plant food mat]ials1 ! lea/ important among !m be+ ! insects1 spid]s & millep$es4 ,_m are m]ely scav5g]s1 b "s insects1 su* z grass-grubs & ! cat]pill>s ( c]ta9 mo?s1 & millep$es1 fe$ ^u liv+ plants & s add organic matt] to ! soil 9 _! excreta1 :i* also conta9s quantities ( soil swall[$ ) ! food1 ?is latt] me*anical action aid+ 9 ! pulv]is+ & op5+ up ( ! soil2 c]ta9 eelworms1 too1 t attack liv+ plants play a some:at simil> "p1 9 t !y are prim>y causative ag5ts 9 ! decay ( heal?y tissues4 ,o!r =ms ( insects1 toge!r ) spid]s & "s eelworms1 are pr$ace\s ^u _! fell[s1 ! rema9s ( ! latt] be+ add$ to ! soil residual complex4 ,ap>t f ! activities ( all ^! organisms1 h[ev]1 x is ! e>?worms1 protozoa1 fungi1 alg & bact]ia t h ! mo/ fundam5tal influ5ce ^u soil f]tility4 ,e>?worms may be correctly call$ ! great soil build]s2 !y burr[ ?r\gh x1 all[+ ! free passage ( air & wat]2 !y swall[ l>ge quantities1 :i* !y eject on ! surface 9 ! =m ( 8worm-ca/s10 ! soil mat]ials be+ well mix$ 9 ! process2 !y pull und]gr\nd leaves & o!r p>ts ( plants f ! surface & s increase ! supply ( organic matt] = ! action ( ! micro-organisms t br+ ab\t decomposition4 ,fur!r1 by deposit+ _! 8ca/s0 on ! surface1 e>?worms soon cov] ! accumulations ( dead vegetable matt]1 z has be5 illu/rat$ by ,d>w9 9 8 classic "w on ^! animals4 ,)\t ! aid ( e>?worms--e4g41 9 s\r soils 9 :i* !y d n ab\nd--! plant residues accumulate on ! surface1 to =m a p>tially decompos$1 peaty mass1 :i* only a limit$ numb] ( plants c tol]ate4 ,! protozoa1 fungi1 alg & bact]ia are all microscopic organisms1 & are ! ag5ts responsible = ! decomposition ( ! organic residues 9 ! soil2 !y d n act z indep5d5t units1 ! processes ( "o gr\p be+ dep5d5t ^u & intimately relat$ ) ^? ( ! o!rs4 ,dur+ ! activities ( ^! organisms v>i\s organic & m9]al sub/ances are decompos$ or trans=m$ into mat]ials1 su* z humus & ! inorganic comp\nds ( nitrog51 phosphorus1 potassium1 etc41 necess>y or helpful = ! gr[? ( plants4 ,! protozoa 7see ,*apt] ,i47 are ! l[e/ & simple/ =ms ( animal life1 be+ m]e specks ( liv+ matt]4 ,?ree diff]5t gr\ps ( soil protozoa occur 7,fig4 #b74 ,"s1 l ! amba1 progress by /ream+ movem5ts1 extrud+ tempor>y ext5sions ( _! sub/ance 9 ! =m ( f+] or ?read-l processes2 ! bodies ( su* protozoa may be nak$1 or enclos$ 9 a %ell-l cov]+ secret$ by ! organism itself1 or protect$ by an accumulation ( p>ticles ( =eign matt]4 ,"s h a body ( m def9ite %ape & progress by means ( ! :ip-l action ( "o or two ?read-l processes1 or flagella1 aris+ f "o end ( ! body4 ,su* =ms are ! mo/ num]\s 9 ! soil4 ,o!rs1 also ( def9ite %ape1 control _! movem5ts by means ( %ort1 hair-l processes1 or cilia1 ei!r di/ribut$ ov] ! body or re/rict$ to def9ite regions4 ,! protozoa are widely di/ribut$1 be+ mo/ abundant 9 ! ri*] types ( soil1 especially dur+ ! spr+ & autumn4 ,a great am\nt ( rese>* has be5 und]tak5 at ,ro?am/$1 ,engl&1 & else:]e1 on ! "p play$ by protozoa 9 soil f]tility2 ! evid5ce ?us secur$ po9ts to ! probability t "s ( ^! organisms may be detrim5tal 9 t !y dev\r c]ta9 k9ds ( bact]ia responsible = ! production ( nitrates & o!r sub/ances ( nutritive value to plants4 ,! ext5t ( ?is may be realis$ f ! fact t 9 a def9ite weight ( soil 7ab\t #a-bh? ( an ounce7 ! micro-population 0 calculat$ to include n only ab\t #a1eej1jjj protozoa1 ( :i* #dcj1jjj 7 amb 7,fig4 #b71 b also "s #f1jjj1jjj1jjj bact]ia4 ,obs]vations %[$ t a s+le bact]ia-de/roy+ amba requir$ ab\t #djj organisms = its n\ri%m5t1 s t ! amb1 to say no?+ ( ! o!r protozoa1 pres5t 9 ! weight ( soil above-m5tion$1 w\ld be capable ( de/roy+ ab\t #agb1jjj1jjj ( ! bact]ial population4 ,s9ce ! p>tial /]ilisation ( soil by /eam results 9 an increase ( f]tility1 x is ?\ght1 on acc\nt ( ! /]ilisation de/roy+ ! protozoa1 be+ m susceptible1 & n ! bact]ia1 t protozoa inhibit ! activities ( ! bact]ia to su* an ext5t z to r$uce ! f]tility ( ! soil2 b ?is is a subject z yet op5 to argum5t4 ,ap>t f ! bact]ia-de/roy+ protozoa1 !re are o!r =ms t are ?\ght to h some?+ to d ) ! decomposition ( organic sub/ances4 ,! fungi1 alg & bact]ia are among/ ! l[e/ =ms ( plant life1 & hold some:at ! same position 9 ! plant k+dom z ! protozoa d among animals2 !y are1 especially ! fungi & bact]ia1 ( prim>y importance 9 ! ma9t5ance ( soil f]tility4 ,! role ( alg lies ma9ly 9 increas+ ! organic cont5t ( ! soil1 & !y are invaluable 9 develop+ fav\rable conditions = ! e/abli%m5t ( vegetation on purely m9]al soils4 ,! fungi & bact]ia are responsible = sett+ up ! intricate reactions involv$ 9 ! decomposition ( organic matt]1 ! bact]ia be+ conc]n$ 9 practically all ( ! *emical processes go+ on 9 ! soil4 ,bo? fungi & bact]ia are ( two k9ds3 ^? t br+ ab\t decomposition1 & ^? t live 9 a reciprocal relation%ip ) plants ^u ! roots ( ! latt]4 ,su* relation%ip1 :i* b5efits bo? organisms & plants1 is call$ symbiosis1 ! fungi be+ kn[n z mycorrhiza1 :ile ! bact]ia =m nodules on ! roots ( su* plants z ! legumes4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,/ructure ( ,insects4 ,al?\gh insects pres5t a great v>iety ( =ms1 !y nev]!less agree 9 g5]al features2 ?us by /udy+ ! /ructure ( "s g5]alis$ species1 :i* w give a broad idea ( ! ma9 *>act]i/ics1 "o is enabl$ to recognise diff]5t /ructural modifications assum$ by v>i\s species4 ,= ?is purpose a weta1 gras%opp]1 or cockroa* may be tak5 z a type4 ,j z 9 ! case ( ! crayfi%1 s ! body ( an insect is completely cov]$ & protect$ by a cont9u\s 8%ell10 v solid 9 "s insects1 m or less pliable 9 o!rs1 b ev5 9 ! mo/ delicate =ms t5d+ to become rigid & brittle aft] dea?4 ,?is %ell acts z a skeleton & z a v effective arm\r-plat+1 protect+ & support+ ! s(t body )94 ,unlike ! %ell ( ! crayfi%1 :i* is ma9ly calc>e\s1 t ( insects consi/s ( a horny sub/ance call$ *it91 secret$ by ! und]ly+ sk91 & con/itutes :at is kn[n z a cuticle4 ,x is due to ?is horny cuticle or %ell t ! =m & col\r ( mo/ insects are pres]v$ aft] dea?1 ?\gh ! enclos$ body tissues decay unless pres]v$ 9 "s suitable m$ium4 ,! cuticle1 ?\gh =m+ a complete cov]+1 does n enclose ! body 9 an inflexible %ell2 flexibility is all[$ by ! cuticle be+ =m$ ( a segm5t$ s]ies ( /rongly-*it9is$ sections alt]nat+ ) sk9-l1 feebly-*it9is$1 & v ela/ic sections2 ?is arrangem5t gives fre$om ( movem5t to ! enclos$ body1 z is readily se5 9 ! movem5ts ( a cat]pill>4 ,!re are ?ree di/9ctly sep>at$ divisions ( ! insect body--head1 ?orax1 & abdom5--ea* consi/+ ( a v>y+ numb] ( segm5ts 7,fig4 #c74 ,! head segm5ts are s closely fus$ z to be practically untraceable1 ! cuticle =m+ a rigid capsule2 ! ?orax1 to :i* ! head is atta*$1 c>ries ! w+s 7:5 pres5t7 & ! legs1 & consi/s ( ?ree segm5ts2 po/]ior to ! ?orax is ! abdom51 compris$ ( sev]al segm5ts1 :i* %[ ! typical segm5tation ( insects bett] ?an any o!r "p ( ! body4 ,! head capsule is m or less freely movable on ! ?orax1 & be>s c]ta9 s5sory organs1 toge!r ) ! m\? app5dages4 ,! s5sory organs are ! eyes & ! feel]s1 or ant5n4 ,on ea* side is a comp\nd eye ( v>y+ size1 accord+ to ! insect2 ea* eye consi/s ( a v>iable numb] 7f a comp>ative few to sev]al ?\s&7 ( microscopic1 hexagonal l5ses1 ea* ( :i* records a sep>ate image4 ,betwe5 ! comp\nd eyes1 on top ( ! head1 are ?ree simple eyes 9 "s insects1 b 9 o!rs "o or all ( ^! may be abs5t4 ,betwe5 ! comp\nd eyes on ! front aspect ( ! head is a pair ( feel]s1 or ant5n2 !y consi/ ( a v>iable numb] ( jo9ts1 are freely movable & highly s5sory1 ?read-l or hair-l1 %ort1 or long] ev5 ?an ! :ole body1 & may be b>e or clo!d to a v>y+ degree ) hair or bri/les4 ,on ! ant5n are ! organs ( t\*1 smell1 & sometimes he>+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,:5 ! head ( a weta1 gras%opp]1 or cockroa* is remov$ f ! body & boil$ = a few m9utes 9 a #aj p] c5t4 solution ( cau/ic pota%1 & !n wa%$ 9 wat] 9 ord] to remove ! muscles & o!r tissues1 a l>ge op5+ w be se5 on ! po/]ior surface :]e ! head 0 atta*$ to ! ?orax2 also1 if ! m\? app5dages are pull$ ap>t1 !y w be se5 to surr\nd ano!r op5+ on ! l[] aspect ( ! head capsule1 m>k+ ! position ( ! m\?4 ,! dige/ive canal passes f ! m\? ?r\gh ! po/]ior op5+ into ! ?orax4 ,! m\? app5dages are z foll[s 7,fig4 #c73--,susp5d$ f ! =e aspect ( ! m\? op5+ is a m or less conspicu\s movable flap1 :i* =ms ! upp] lip1 :ile f ! po/]ior aspect ( ! same op5+ is ano!r susp5d$ app5dage =m+ ! l[] lip2 ?is latt] app5dage is really a complicat$ "o1 & be>s a pair ( %ort1 jo9t$ app5dages--! palps--:i* are s5sory organs1 :ile on its inn] surface--i4e41 )9 ! m\?--is a swoll5 area or tongue1 an organ v greatly modifi$ 9 c]ta9 insects4 ,betwe5 ! upp] & l[] lips1 & susp5d$ f bo? sides ( ! m\? op5+1 is a pair ( true jaws imm$iately beh9d ! upp] lip1 foll[$ by a pair ( accessory jaws imm$iately be=e ! l[] lip2 ^! jaws d n move up & d[n1 b h a side-wise action1 clos+ & op5+ l scissor blades4 ,:ile ! true jaws are ea* ( "o piece1 ! accessory jaws consi/ ( sev]al p>ts1 & ea* be>s 9 addition a jo9t$ palp1 z 9 ! case ( ! l[] lip4 ,! upp] & l[] lips s]ve to hold ! food 9 ! m\?1 ! true jaws nibble or te> (f portions ( ! food & ma/icate x 7if ! t]m c be us$71 :ile ! accessory jaws1 aid$ by ! l[] lip1 manipulate ! food dur+ ! process ( fe$+4 ,! comp>atively simple arrangem5t ( m\? p>ts f\nd 9 ! weta1 gras%opp]1 & cockroa*1 z describ$ above1 is *>act]i/ic ( all insects t gnaw or *ew _! food--e4g41 e>wigs1 beetles & _! l>v or grubs1 ! cat]pill>s ( mo?s1 & s on4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a va/ numb] ( insects t has develop$ m or less complex v>iations ( ?is g5]alis$ patt]n1 accord+ to ! mann] ( fe$+4 ,! m\? p>ts ( ! work] honey-bee1 = example1 h ! jaws adapt$ = eat+ poll5 & m\ld+ wax = ! comb2 ! accessory jaws1 h[ev]1 are l5g!n$1 ?\gh _! palps are r$uc$ to m]e ve/iges 9 contra/ ) ! elongat$ palps ( ! l[] lip2 ! mo/ rem>kable modification is t ( ! greatly elongat$ tongue1 ) its spoon-l tip adapt$ = rea*+ nect> ( fl[]s hav+ deep-seat$ nect>ies4 ,= ! same purpose1 ! m\? p>ts are modifi$ 9 a mo? 7,fig4 #c7 to =m a long proboscis1 :i* lies curl$ up 9 a spiral b5ea? ! head :5 n 9 use2 9 ?is case ! proboscis is ! modifi$ accessory jaws1 ! rema9+ m\? p>ts1 ) ! exception ( ! well-develop$ palps ( ! l[] lip1 be+ greatly r$uc$4 ,9 a blood-suck+ insect1 su* z ! female mosquito1 all ! m\? p>ts are well develop$1 b are v delicate & greatly l5g!n$ & suit$ = pi]c+ ! sk94 ,! greate/ modification is f\nd 9 ! bl[-fly proboscis1 :i* is a s(t1 suck+ tube1 ) no outw>d resemblance to ! g5]alis$ plan1 except = ! palps ( ! accessory jaws4 ,! m\? p>ts ( insects 7e4g41 aphids7 :i* fe$ on ! nutri5t sap ( plants1 j 9 ! same way z mosquitoes d on blood1 are modifi$ = punctur+ ! tissues ( plants2 9 su* insects ! upp] lip is %ort1 & bo? pairs ( palps are atrophi$1 b ! jaws & accessory jaws are greatly l5g!n$ 9 ! =m ( bri/le-l /ylets1 :i* lie 9 a groove along ! equally l5g!n$ l[] lip 7,fig4 #c74 ,! mann] 9 :i* insects fe$ is ( great importance 9 controll+ !m ) insecticides1 & ! two types to be> 9 m9d are ^? t *ew _! food & ^? t suck ! sap ( plants1 rea*$ by punctur+ ! tissues4 ,z already /at$1 ! ?orax consi/s ( ! ?ree segm5ts imm$iately beh9d ! head1 & c>ries ! organs ( locomotion2 its ?ree segm5ts are di/9ct1 & may be ref]r$ to1 respectively1 z ! =e1 middle1 & h9d ?orax4 ,! cuticle ( ea* ?oracic segm5t consi/s ( a numb] ( *it9is$ plates connect$ by membran\s areas2 ^! plates are arrang$ 9 ?ree s]ies--! back or dorsal2 ! l[] or v5tral1 =m+ ! /]num2 & ! lat]al1 or side-pieces1 connect+ ! dorsal & v5tral ones4 ,at ! l[] surface ( ea* ?oracic segm5t is atta*$ a pair ( legs1 ! memb]s ( ea* pair be+ sep>at$ by ! /]num ( ! segm5t to :i* !y belong4 ,! pres5ce ( ?ree pairs ( legs is a "* by :i* insects c be di/+ui%$ f all o!r animals2 inde$1 on acc\nt ( ?is feature1 insects are sometimes call$ ! hexapods1 or six-legg$ animals4 ,ea* leg is cov]$ by a cont9uation ( ! body cuticle1 & is five-jo9t$2 ! fir/ two jo9ts at ! atta*m5t to ! body are small2 ! next two are long1 & =m ! great] "p ( ! limb2 :ile ! fif?1 or foot1 consi/s ( a v>y+ numb] ( small jo9ts1 ! t]m9al "o be>+ a pair ( claws4 ,9 ! typical w+$ insects !re are two pairs ( w+s3 "o pair atta*$ to ! middle ?orax1 & ! o!r to ! h9d ?orax2 ow+ to ! developm5t ( muscles controll+ flight1 ! middle & h9d ?orax ( w+$ insects are usually bett] develop$ ?an ! =e ?orax2 ?is is especially noticeable 9 ! ?orax ( two-w+$ flies 7daddy-long-legs & bl[-flies71 :]e ! h9d w+s are r$uc$ to ve/iges1 ! p[] ( flight be+ ?us conf9$ to ! middle ?orax1 :i* =ms by f> ! great] portion ( ! :ole ?orax4 ,ea* w+1 aris+ f ! junction ( ! dorsal & lat]al ?oracic plates1 is a bag-l ext5sion ( ! cuticle1 flatt5$ leaf-l1 s z to =m a d\ble flexible membrane4 ,! w+ membrane is support$ by sev]al ribs or ve9s1 :i* may be v num]\s 7gras%opp]7 or few 7aphid71 :ile ! =e edge1 :]e x cuts ! air 9 flight1 is bord]$ by a /\t] ve91 ensur+ rigidity4 ,! =e & h9d w+s ( "s insects "w indep5d5tly1 b 9 agreem5t ( movem5t1 :ile 9 o!rs ! =e & h9d w+s ( ea* side are c\pl$ along _! adjo9+ m>g9s1 giv+ great] rigidity dur+ flight4 ,! abdom5 ( insects consi/s ( a v>y+ numb] ( visible segm5ts2 ea* segm5t is cov]$ by an upp] & l[] *it9\s plate connect$ by membrane1 !re be+ no side plates z are f\nd 9 ! ?orax4 ,!re are no organs ( locomotion 7except 9 a v few cases71 ! only app5dages be+ ^? connect$ ) reproduction2 ! latt] are well develop$ 9 ! female weta1 :]e ! egg-lay+ app>atus1 or ovipositor1 projects blade-l f ! apex ( ! abdom54 ,9 v _m insects1 h[ev]1 ! ext]nal reproductive organs are n readily se5 )\t special /udy4 ,all insects1 f ! l>ge/ to ! mo/ m9ute1 conta9 int]nally a well-=m$ he>t & a dige/ive1 reproductive1 respiratory1 & n]v\s sy/em 7,fig4 #c71 :ile ! spaces surr\nd+ ^! organs are1 = ! mo/ "p1 pack$ ) a complex sy/em ( muscles4 ,! he>t is a delicate tube ly+ along ! middle ( ! back or dorsal surface ( ! body1 imm$iately "u ! sk91 & ext5ds almo/ f "o end ( ! insect to ! o!r2 9 an almo/ simil> position1 close to ! l[] or v5tral surface ( ! body1 ! n]v\s sy/em is situat$1 & consi/s ( a *a9 ( n]ve c5tres1 or ganglia1 connect$ by a d\ble n]ve cord1 ! mo/ ant]ior ( ^! ganglia be+ 9 ! head & =m+ ! bra91 ! foll[+ ?ree ly+ 9 ! ?orax1 "o to ea* segm5t1 :ile ! rema9d] are conf9$ to ! abdom51 "o ganglion to ea* segm5t1 z 9 ! ?orax4 ,9 _m insects ! numb] ( n]ve c5tres is r$uc$1 ow+ to ! fusion ( two or m4 ,! reproductive organs are locat$ 9 ! abdom54 ,! dige/ive sy/em consi/s ( a tube 7,fig4 #c71 ) its app5dages1 op5+ at ! m\? & at ! po/]ior end ( ! body2 ?is alim5t>y canal may be /raight & simple1 or convolut$ & complex1 accord+ to ! insect & ! nature ( its food4 ,respiration 9 insects is c>ri$ on by means ( a sy/em ( air tubes 7,fig4 #c71 :i* bran* & re-bran* to =m an intricate sy/em ( delicate tubul> airways1 c>ry+ ! atmosph]e to all tissues ( ! body2 ! ma9 air tubes op5 at ! surface by a s]ies ( brea?+ pores normally arrang$ along ea* side ( ! body1 except on ! head2 ^! pores are be/ se5 on a cat]pill> or on ! abdom5 ( adult insects4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,life ,hi/ories ( ,insects4 ,no d\bt ow+ to ! endless assortm5t ( sizes1 f m]e specks to giants ( a few in*es1 a widespread idea has aris51 p>ticul>ly 9 reg>d to su* insects z h a g5]al resemblance to "o ano!r1 t ! small] individuals are ! y\ng] /ages ( ! l>g]4 ,?\gh gradation 9 size may be a sign ( successive ages 9 c]ta9 insects1 ! pres5ce ( function+ w+s d5otes t gr[? has ceas$2 9 ! case ( w+less insects1 ! *>act]s ( maturity may be less conspicu\s4 ,al?\gh !re may be at times a fairly wide range 9 size among fully-gr[n individuals ( ! "o species1 su* v>iation is n due to age1 b to c]ta9 factors influ5c+ ! insect dur+ gr[?1 su* z ! abundance or sc>city ( food supply1 & fav\rable or unfav\rable climatic conditions4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! sex to :i* an individual belongs is (t5 responsible = diff]5ce 9 size1 males v frequ5tly be+ small] ?an females4 ,size1 !re=e1 is by no means a sign ( age1 & ! small] w+$ insects mu/ n be reg>d$ z ! "y ( ! l>g] ones1 no matt] h[ close is ! resemblance4 ,insects1 ) ! exception ( c]ta9 species giv+ bir? to liv+ "y1 are reproduc$ f eggs laid by ! females2 ) few exceptions1 ! latt] take no fur!r int]e/ 9 ! eggs beyond plac+ !m 9 surr\nd+s (f]+ ! mo/ fav\rable conditions = _! well-be+1 & a suffici5t food supply = ! =?com+ "y2 ea* egg is protect$ by a delicate %ell1 ?r\gh :i* ! "y insect makes its way on hat*+4 ,on em]g+ f ! egg1 ! "y insect comm5ces to fe$ & gr[ 9 size1 until v soon a /age is rea*$ :5 ! cuticle or %ell becomes too small = ! enclos$ insect2 a fluid !n collects betwe5 ! cuticle & ! und]ly+ sk91 & a new & m roomy cuticle is secret$ by ! latt]2 on ?is process be+ complet$1 ! old *it9\s cov]+ splits1 & ! insect )draws itself4 ,?is m\lt+ takes place sev]al times1 until ! body is fully gr[n1 :5 ! cuticle =m$ at ! la/ m\lt is reta9$ by ! n[ adult insect = ! re/ ( its life4 ,! diff]5t /ages ?r\gh :i* an insect passes f egg to adult con/itute its life hi/ory1 or life cycle1 & ! relation ( ! latt] to ! seasons1 its seasonal hi/ory4 ,accord+ to ! species1 a full twelve mon?s or ev5 m may be necess>y = ! complete life cycle1 or ! cycle may be repeat$ sev]al times )9 ! ye>2 :5 ! cycle occupies twelve mon?s1 ! insect is s+le-brood$2 b two1 ?ree1 or f\r-brood$1 etc41 :5 ! cycle is repeat$ two1 ?ree1 or f\r times1 respectively1 9 ! ye>4 ,climatic & food-supply conditions h a di/9ct influ5ce on ! numb] ( broods1 ! "o species 9 _m cases be+ s+le-brood$ 9 cold]1 & two or ?ree-brood$ 9 w>m] climates4 ,dur+ ! w9t]1 :5 ! temp]ature is l[ en\gh1 insects are m or less dormant 9 "s /age ( _! life cycle2 su* a /ate is ! p]iod ( hib]nation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,figure #d4 #a1 ,silv]fi%4 #b1 ,e>wig2 a1 "y l>va2 b-d1 lat] /ages2 e1 adult4 #c1 ,cicada2 f1 "y l>va2 g1 re/+ /age prior to em]g5ce ( adult2 h1 adult4 #d1 ,?rips2 i & j1 l>vae2 k1 fir/ /age pupa2 l1 second /age pupa2 m1 adult4 #e1 ,aphis-lion2 n1 l>va2 o1 pupa2 p1 adult4 #f1 ,mo?2 q1 egg2 r-t1 l>vae2 u1 pupa2 v1 adult4 #g1 ,h\se-fly2 w1 egg2 x-z1 l>vae2 aa1 pup>ium2 bb1 adult4 ,,note3 ,develop+ w+s %[n 9 black4 ,all insects d n foll[ ! same me?od ( developm5t f egg to adult1 & ! adaptations ( /ructure & habit are _m & v>i$ z well z simple & complex4 ,species hav+ a complex developm5t1 dur+ :i* !y pass ?r\gh /ages1 ea* diff]+ 9 =m f its pr$ecessor1 und]go :at is kn[n z a metamorphosis2 contra/$ ) su* insects are ^? develop+ 9 a simple mann] )\t pron\nc$ diff]5ces 9 ! =m ( successive /ages1 ! "y resembl+ ! adult 9 mo/ features except size & maturity--^! insects are )\t a metamorphosis4 ,int]m$iate betwe5 ^! two extremes are o!r insects ) a p>tial metamorphosis4 ,a consid]ation ( ! life cycle ( "s common insects w s]ve to illu/rate ! pr9ciples ( developm5t discuss$ above4 ,fir/ly1 w be tak5 examples ( complex developm5t or complete metamorphosis2 secondly1 examples ( simple developm5t or abs5ce ( metamorphosis1 foll[$ by a review ( species hav+ a p>tial metamorphosis1 ?us l9k+ ! fir/ two types4 ,a conv5i5t type ( insect und]go+ a complete metamorphosis is any common mo? 7,fig4 #d72 "o ( ! mo/ suitable1 mo/ easily obta9$ 9 all /ages & commone/ 9 any "p ( ! c\ntry f spr+ to autumn1 is ! magpie mo? 7,nyctem]a annulata7 & its cat]pill>1 ! 8woolly be>40 ,! mo?1 unlike mo/ ( its k9d1 is a day-fly+ species1 & is v conspicu\s ow+ to its black col\r reliev$ by :ite w+ spots1 & orange-yell[ b&s on ! abdom52 ! equally conspicu\s cat]pill>1 fe$+ on gr\ndsel1 ragwort & c9]>ia1 is black1 ) a v hairy body m>k$ ) n>r[ brick-r$ l9es4 ,! eggs are laid 9 clu/]s by ! female mo? on ! "u side ( ! leaves ( ! cat]pill>s' food-plant2 at fir/ ! eggs are ( a pale gre5 col\r1 b assume a d>k] yell[i% t9t )9 a few h\rs1 & f9ally a lead5 col\r "s "t lat]4 ,^! col\r *anges are due to ! develop+ embryo1 & j be=e ! "y insect 7! cat]pill> 9 ?is case7 hat*es1 its outl9e z x lies curl$ )9 ! egg is easily se5 ?r\gh ! transp>5t egg-%ell2 ne> ! top ( ! egg is a black spot m>k+ ! position ( ! cat]pill>'s head1 :ile ! num]\s delicate black l9es bel[ ! egg surface are ! black hairs ) :i* ! cat]pill> is clo!d4 ,accord+ to temp]ature & humidity1 ! incubation p]iod--t is1 ! p]iod betwe5 egg-lay+ & ! hat*+ ( ! "y cat]pill>--v>ies f eight days to ?ree weeks4 ,! process ( hat*+ occupies ab\t two h\rs1 ! "y insect us+ its jaws to eat an exit hole ?r\gh ! egg4 ,! cat]pill> /age--inde$1 ! fir/ /age ( all insects--is kn[n z ! l>va4 ,at fir/ ! l>va ( ! magpie mo?1 measur+ ab\t "o-sixte5? ( an in* long1 is pale yell[ 9 col\r1 except = ! black head & hairs clo?+ ! body2 v soon1 h[ev]1 ! body becomes *>act]i/ically black1 & develops ! r$di% l9es4 ,dur+ gr[? ! l>va fe$s cont9u\sly day & night1 und]go+ f five to t5 m\lts be=e becom+ fully gr[n4 ,dur+ a m\lt ! cuticle ( ! head is ca/ sep>ately f t ( ! body4 ,! body ( ! l>va is worm-l1 n only 9 g5]al =m1 b also 9 its segm5t$ appe>ance2 x is1 h[ev]1 a v diff]5t animal f a worm4 ,! l>va has a di/9ct head1 a pair ( eyes1 & %ort ant5n1 & a set ( m\? p>ts1 simil> to ^? ( ! weta or gras%opp]1 well adapt$ = dev\r+ foliage2 ! fir/ ?ree segm5ts beh9d ! head correspond to ! ?orax ( ! mo?1 & ea* be>s a pair ( %ort feet2 ! rema9+ segm5ts are ^? ( ! abdom51 & h no true feet1 b six pairs ( suck]-l app5dages call$ pro-legs4 ,! numb] ( pro-legs v>ies f f\r to six pairs1 accord+ to ! species ( mo?1 & are f\nd only on ! l>va4 ,! "t occupi$ by l>val developm5t ( ! magpie mo? v>ies f =ty to eighty days 9 summ] & autumn2 b if w9t] int]v5es1 caus+ ! l>v to hib]nate be=e complet+ _! developm5t1 ! l>val p]iod may be z long z two hundr$ & =ty-eight days2 normally ?is insect hib]nates 9 ! l>val /ate1 complet+ its developm5t dur+ ! foll[+ spr+4 ,?r\gh\t w9t] ! l>v hib]nate s+ly or 9 colonies "u loose b>k1 9 leaf axils1 or any suitable crevice4 ,! fully-gr[n l>va measures ab\t "o & a-half in*es long4 ,prior to ! f9al m\lt x ceases to fe$1 & w&]s 9 se>* ( a suitable place 9 :i* to und]go ! next trans=mation1 usually among /ones1 rubbi%1 or "u loose b>k1 etc4 ,!re x sp9s a :ite silk5 cocoon1 among ! /r&s ( :i* are entangl$ ! long black body hairs2 h]e9 ! l>va und]goes ! f9al m\lt1 ! ca/ cuticle be+ easily se5 at "o end inside ! cocoon4 ,! insect1 h[ev]1 has n[ assum$ a =m q diff]5t f t ( ! l>va2 ?is =m is ! *rysalis or pupa1 & z su* is incapable ( locomotion & fe$+4 ,! pupa measures ab\t ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in* long1 is yell[i% at fir/1 b soon becomes black ) yell[ m>k+s1 :ile ! =m ( ! future mo? 7head1 ant5n1 ?orax1 legs1 w+s & abdom57 c be trac$ on ! pupal cuticle4 ,aft] f ab\t two to five weeks1 ! pupa op5s by a cross-%ap$ slit on ! back j beh9d ! head1 & ! mo? draws itself out4 ,at fir/ ! mo? is comp>atively helpless aft] hav+ be5 conf9$ )9 ! limit$ space ( ! pupal cuticle2 soon1 h[ev]1 ! body h>d5s1 ! w+s smoo? out1 & ! insect is ready = flight4 ,metamorphosis is c>ri$ to a mu* high] /ate ( p]fection 9 ! case ( su* insects z bl[flies & h\seflies 7,fig4 #d74 ,! l>va1 or maggot1 is )\t any ext]nal sign ( head & legs1 ?\gh ^!1 toge!r ) ! w+s ( ! future fly1 develop f rudim5ts )9 ! body ( ! maggot4 ,at ! f9al m\lt ! l>val cuticle is n disc>d$1 z 9 ! case ( ! mo?1 b h>d5s to =m a case--! pup>ium--)9 :i* ! pupa lies4 ,! life-cycle ( ! magpie mo? is illu/rative ( ! pr9ciples ( metamorphosis *>act]is+ ! developm5t ( a great _m insects1 su* z all mo?s & butt]flies1 beetles1 flies1 bees & wasps1 etc42 b1 al?\gh ! g5]al *>act]s ( ! l>va1 pupa1 & adult mo? are common1 ) b slight v>iation1 to correspond+ /ages ( mo?s & butt]flies z a :ole1 ^! /ages 9 o!r insects1 ?\gh readily recognis$1 h _! own *>act]i/ics4 ,out/&+ features 9 a life-cycle involv+ metamorphosis are t gr[? takes place only 9 ! l>val /ate1 & t ! insect p>ades ?r\gh life 9 diff]5t guises--egg1 l>va1 pupa1 & adult--ea* ) its own peculi>ity ( habit & =m1 al?\gh ! adult & pupa resemble "o ano!r mu* m ?an d ! adult & l>va2 b no matt] h[ dissimil> ! l>va1 pupa1 & adult may outw>dly seem1 /ructures common to !m all may be trac$ ?r\gh\t4 ,make1 = example1 a comp>ative /udy ( ! l>va1 pupa1 & mo? ( ! magpie mo?2 ! head1 ?orax1 & abdom5 c be se5 9 ea* /age1 :ile c\nt]p>ts ( ! l>val ant5n1 eyes1 m\?-p>ts & feet p]si/ 9 ! mo?1 ?\gh m or less pr(\ndly modifi$ dur+ pupal trans=mation4 ,al?\gh !re are no ext]nal signs ( w+s 9 ! l>va1 ^! app5dages are develop+1 nev]!less1 9 conceal$ 8pockets0 )9 ! l>val ?orax1 &1 at ! "t ( pupal =mation1 become extrud$ & lie en%ea!d ) ! legs & ant5n 9 ! pupal cuticle along ! sides ( ! pupal body4 ,ap>t f ^! *anges1 ! l>val m\? p>ts und]go a mo/ pr(\nd metamorphosis2 app>5tly1 ?\gh !re is no simil>ity betwe5 ! long 8tongue0 or proboscis ( ! mo? & ! jaws & accessory jaws ( ! cat]pill>1 ! proboscis1 adapt$ = sipp+ ! nect> ( fl[]s1 is no?+ b ! accessory jaws ( ! leaf-*ew+ l>va greatly elongat$2 ) ! exception ( ! palps ( ! accessory jaws1 ! o!r l>val m\? p>ts are ei!r abs5t 9 ! mo? or r$uc$ to ve/iges4 ,9 ! case ( insects t develop )\t a metamorphosis1 ! life-cycle is "o ( comp>ative simplicity4 ,an example ( su* an insect is ! s-call$ 8silv]fi%0 7,lepisma sac*>9a71 common 9 dwell+s1 especially 9 damp places1 d>k & du/y corn]s1 fl\r & sug> b9s1 :ile n uncommonly x causes "s consid]able damage by dev\r+ ! pa/e & glaze f wallpap]s & ! b9d+ & leaves ( books4 ,! silv]fi% 7,fig4 #d71 w+less ?r\gh\t life1 measures ab\t "o-qu>t] ( an in* long :5 full gr[n2 x is silv]-:ite 9 col\r1 due to a clo?+ ( gli/5+ scales t rub (f z a silky p[d] :5 ! insect is h&l$4 ,x glides rapidly ab\t1 especially aft] d>k1 & is "o ( ! mo/ primitive insects1 !re be+ m9ute leg-l processes atta*$ 9 pairs to ! "u side ( ! abdom52 ! normal ?oracic legs are well develop$4 ,! body is w$ge-%ap$1 tap]+ to ! po/]ior end1 f :i* ?ree tail-l app5dages project1 :ile ant]iorly a pair ( long1 delicate ant5n arises f ! head4 ,all /ages ( ! silv]fi%1 f ! m9ute1 fre%ly-hat*$ individuals to fully-gr[n ones1 may be f\nd 9 ! "o place1 ! small] ones be+ immature develop+ /ages4 ,9 ! case ( ano!r species alli$ to ! common silv]fi%1 ! female lays f six to t5 eggs at "o "t 9 %elt]$ crevices1 & ! "y hat* =ty-five to sixty days lat]1 :5 ! temp]ature ranges f #fe degrees to #fh degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,unlike ! mo? l>va1 t ( ! silv]fi% ?r\gh\t its gr[? resembles ! adult bo? 9 habit & =m1 ! only m>k$ diff]5ces be+ t ( size & ! abs5ce ( ! abdom9al leg-l app5dages4 ,dur+ gr[? sev]al m\lts take place1 & at ! f9al "o ! adult appe>s ) all its *>act]i/ics4 ,"s species take two ye>s to rea* maturity4 ,9 ?is type ( insect !re is1 !re=e1 no pupal or re/+ /age1 & ! l>val habits & food are ! same z ^? ( ! adult insect1 :ile !re is b little diff]5ce 9 /ructure ?r\gh\t all ! /ages4 ,!re are _m w+$ insects 7e4g41 cockroa*es1 crickets & e>wigs7 t %[ a slight advance t[>d a metamorphosis4 ,?\gh _! l>v diff] f ! adults pr9cipally 9 ! abs5ce ( w+s1 !re are /ages betwe5 ! y\ng] l>v & ! adults 9 :i* ! w+ rudim5ts appe>4 ,^! rudim5ts fir/ appe> aft] "o ( ! m\lts z small bud-l /ructures on ea* side ( ! ?orax 7e>wig1 ,fig4 #d71 becom+ l>g] aft] ea* succe$+ m\lt1 :5 ! develop+ w+s may be se5 enclos$ 9 a %ea? ( ! cuticle2 at ! f9al m\lt ! w+s1 no long] enclos$ 9 _! cov]+s1 /raight5 out & become functional4 ,a v pron\nc$ diff]5ce is "h not$ betwe5 ! w+ developm5t ( su* insects & t ( a mo?1 9 t ! w+ rudim5ts ( ! =m] develop ext]nally & ^? ( ! latt] int]nally4 ,a decid$ advance t[>d a metamorphosis is exhibit$ by insects kn[n z ?rips 7,fig4 #d74 ,?\gh readily ov]look$ on acc\nt ( _! m9ute size 7"o-tw5ty-f\r? ( an in* & less71 !y are nev]!less conspicu\s on gre5 foliage & :ite fl[]s ow+ to _! blacki% or yell[i% col\r4 ,?rips1 :5 magnifi$1 are easily recognis$ by _! peculi> w+s2 ea* is fea!r-l1 be+ =m$ ( a n>r[ rib-l membrane clo!d along ! m>g9s ) long & delicate /iff hairs4 ,?rips' eggs are laid ^u ! plant surface or )9 ! tissues1 accord+ to ! species1 & are v m9ute 7ab\t "o-tw5ty-?ird ( an in* long74 ,! l>v puncture ! plant tissues & fe$ ^u ! juices j z d ! p>5ts1 :i* !y resemble 9 g5]al =m1 except t !re are no w+s & ! ant5n are v %ort & ! eyes small4 ,!re are two or ?ree l>val m\lts1 aft] :i* ! insect is m l ! adult1 ?\gh /ill resembl+ ! l>va4 ,x n[ diff]s f ! latt]1 h[ev]1 9 ! ant5n be+ consid]ably %ort5$1 & 9 ! appe>ance ( a pair ( f+]-l processes on ea* side ( ! body atta*$ to ! ?orax & ly+ along ! sides ( ! abdom52 ^! processes are ! %ea?s enclos+ ! w+ rudim5ts ( ! future adult4 ,! insect aga9 m\lts1 *ang+ to a =m resembl+ ! prec$+ /age 9 _m respects1 b diff]+ 9 ! w+ %ea?s be+ mu* long]1 & 9 hav+ ! ant5n1 enclos$ 9 %ea?s ( cuticle1 turn$ back ov] ! head4 ,al?\gh dur+ ^! two /ages ! insect is capable ( mov+ ab\t1 x is nev]!less sluggi% & does n fe$2 f ?is second semi-quiesc5t /age ! adult em]ges4 ,9 ! ?rip's cycle1 !re=e1 al?\gh ! habits ( ! l>va & adult are simil>1 ! pres5ce ( ! two int]m$iate semi-quiesc5t /ages1 dur+ :i* fe$+ ceases1 %[s a decid$ advance t[>d a true metamorphosis & repres5ts a pupal /age4 ,9 ! case ( ^? insects n involv$ by a metamorphosis1 z discuss$ above1 ! /ructure & habit ( bo? adult & ! immature /ages diff] b little1 ! developm5t ( w+s be+ ! pr9cipal *ange1 except 9 ! case ( ! ?rips1 :]e !re is a def9ite t5d5cy t[>d a pupa4 ,h[ev]1 pass+ on to a consid]ation ( ! common cicada 7wrongly call$ a locu/71 a *ange 9 bo? /ructure & habit occurs dur+ ! life-cycle1 ! immature /ages be+ adapt$ to a subt]ranean life1 :ile ! w+$ adult frequ5ts ! foliage ( trees2 all /ages agree1 h[ev]1 9 punctur+ plant tissues ) _! proboscis & suck+ up ! nutri5t juices f ! roots by ! l>va & f ! /ems & leaves by ! adult4 ,! female cicada 7,fig4 #d7 lays its eggs 9 colonies b5ea? ! "y b>k ( trees & %rubs2 ! l>v1 on hat*+1 drop to ! gr\nd1 into :i* !y burr[2 ! ant5n & s(t body are comp>atively long1 :ile ! =e legs are greatly modifi$ = grasp+ plant roots & z digg+ tools4 ,aft] a numb] ( m\lts1 ! body %ort5s1 ! ant5n come to resemble ^? ( ! adult1 & ! rudim5ts ( ! w+s appe>4 ,gr[? & ! activities ( ! develop+ insect cont9ue until f9ally ! l>va con/ructs an e>!n und]gr\nd *amb]1 9 :i* x lies torpid until ready to und]go ! f9al m\lt2 9 ?is inactive /ate1 ?\gh /ill resembl+ ! lat] l>val /ages1 ! insect corresponds to ! pupa ( ! mo?4 ,= ! f9al m\lt ! pupa leaves ! gr\nd1 crawls up "s support 7a tree trunk or po/71 :]e ! w+$ adult em]ges1 leav+ ! empty pupal husk atta*$ to ! support4 ,besides ! *ange 9 habit & ! possession ( functional w+s1 ! adult cicada diff]s 9 _m /ructural features f ! immature /ages4 ,out/&+ diff]5ces are ! normal =e legs1 ! developm5t ( a 8voice-box0 9 ! male1 & an ovipositor 9 ! female4 ,an insect t %[s "s l9kage betwe5 ^? hav+ a true metamorphosis & ^? hav+ a p>tial metamorphosis is ! aphis-lion 7,micromus tasmani71 ?\gh und]go+ a true metamorphosis itself4 ,! l>v are pr$ace\s & fe$ ^u aphids 7,fig4 #d74 ,its l>va1 pupa1 & adult are di/9ct =ms1 z 9 ! mo?1 b ! l>va is n ( ! specialis$ cat]pill> or grub type1 r resembl+ 9 g5]al appe>ance ! silv]fi%1 or ! type ( "y l>va peculi> to su* insects z ! e>wig or ?rips be=e ! w+ rudim5ts develop4 ,fur!rmore1 ! pupa1 ?\gh "o 9 ! /rict s5se1 is capable ( great fre$om ( movem5t1 its head1 m\?-p>ts1 ant5n1 legs & w+s1 en%ea!d by ! cuticle1 be+ freely movable1 & n rigidly atta*$ to ! body4 ,a review ( ! e>ly l>val /ages ( ! e>wig1 ?rips & cicada1 prior to w+ developm5t1 & ( ! aphis-lion l>va1 %[s a con=mity to a g5]alis$ type exemplifi$ by ! primitive silv]fi%4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! mo? cat]pill> exhibits ano!r l>val type m highly specialis$1 ?\gh /ill reta9+ a modifi$ semblance to ! silv]fi% type1 :ile specialisation is c>ri$ to ! highe/ degree 9 ! bl[fly maggot1 :]e all outw>d sign ( ! primitive l>val type is lo/4 ,reg>d+ ! pup1 !re are ?ree types2 ! mo/ simple is ! free pupa1 l t ( ! aphis-lion1 & "s mo?s1 beetles1 etc41 :]e ! app5dages are freely movable4 ,! mo/ complex is ! pupa ( ! bl[fly1 enclos$ 9 its pup>ium1 :ile int]m$iate betwe5 ^! two extremes are _m mo? pup t h ! app5dages firmly atta*$ to ! body1 b nev]!less visible4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,suck+ ,insects4 ,! t]m 8suck+ insect0 is appli$ to all insects t h ! m\? p>ts modifi$ z delicate /ylets1 by means ( :i* ! plant tissues are punctur$ & ! nutri5t sap suck$ up4 ,n only may su* insects weak5 ! infe/$ plants1 b !y also cause ! de/ruction ( *lorophyll1 int]f]e ) ! normal function+ ( ! /omata1 & h a toxic effect ^u ! tissues2 fur!r1 _m s]i\s plant diseases are c>ri$ & spread by suck+ insects1 :il/ ! punctures made :5 fe$+ may all[ ! entry ( disease spores4 ,among sap-suck+ insects are scale insects1 mealy-bugs1 aphids1 leaf-hopp]s1 :ite-flies1 ?rips1 etc4 ,infe/ation by mo/ ( ^! insects 7especially 9 ! case ( scale insects1 mealy-bugs1 & aphids7 is v (t5 detect$ by ! /icky nature & black5$ appe>ance ( ! plants2 ?is is due to ! fact t ! insects excrete a sweet1 /icky sub/ance kn[n z 8honey-dew10 :i* collects on ! foliage & bran*es1 :il/ ^u x gr[s a black1 sooty m\ld4 ,scale ,insects & ,mealy-bugs4 ,scale insects & mealy-bugs1 collectively kn[n z coccids1 are ( v great economic importance on acc\nt1 n only ( _! widespread depr$ations ^u plants1 few be+ free f infe/ation1 b also ( ! comm]cial value ( "s species--e4g41 9 ! production ( lac1 co*9eal1 ,*9ese wax1 etc42 x is ) ! injuri\s =ms t ! ,new ,zeal& horticulturi/ is conc]n$4 ,! t]m 8scale insects0 is d]iv$ f ! appe>ance ( _m ( ! species t are protect$ by a scale-l cov]+1 :i* =ms a conspicu\s scaly incru/ation :5 a plant is heavily infe/$4 ,( ! sev]al k9ds ( insects injuri\s to vegetation1 ! coccids z a family are und\bt$ly ( major importance1 because !y infe/ n "o gr\p1 or alli$ gr\p1 ( plants1 z d s _m o!r injuri\s insects1 b an ext5sive range ( widely diff]5t plants4 ,"s coccids are mu* m injuri\s ?an o!rs1 ! ,san ,jos ,scale1 = example1 hav+ a v virul5t toxic influ5ce1 :ile ! ,gre$y ,scale may cause b little damage1 ev5 :5 ! plant is completely encru/$ by x2 fur!r1 "s plants may be m susceptible to injury ?an o!rs by ! same species ( coccid4 ,coccids1 z a :ole1 are highly specialis$ insects1 & among !mselves exhibit a great v>iety ( =ms4 ,?r\gh\t ! gr\p ! sexes diff] to a m>k$ degree4 ,! adult males1 :i* v>y b little 9 all ! coccids1 are usually m9ute1 &1 ) few exceptions1 two-w+$ 7,fig4 #e72 none has m\? p>ts1 ^! app5dages hav+ become atrophi$ dur+ metamorphosis1 :i* is complete1 :ile _m h "o or m hair-l tail app5dages4 ,on ! o!r h&1 females are nev] w+$2 "s are comp>atively l>ge2 all h well-develop$ m\? p>ts ?r\gh\t life1 & und]go incomplete metamorphosis1 :ile 9 _m =ms ! legs & ant5n are lo/ be=e maturity4 ,9 all cases coccids secrete a protective cov]+1 :i* assumes diff]5t =ms2 ?is fact1 toge!r ) ! *ief me?ods ( female developm5t1 is utilis$ = ! purpose ( ?is "w to arrange ! coccids "u ?ree ma9 types z foll[s3-- #a4 ,,less ,,specialis$ ,,=ms4--,examples are ! mealy-bugs & cottony-cu%ion scale1 :i* belong to ! m g5]alis$ or lea/ specialis$ repres5tatives4 ,! protective body cov]+ is 9 ! =m ( a p[d]y or mealy secretion2 ! legs & ant5n are reta9$ ?r\gh\t life1 & ! insect rema9s freely mobile4 ,a typical-=m life-cycle may be /udi$ 9 t ( ! cottony-cu%ion scale 7,figs4 #e & #f;a74 ,dur+ developm5t ! female insect passes ?r\gh ?ree l>val /ages2 ea* ( ^! /ages is1 on ! :ole1 simil>1 except = size & m9or /ructural *anges1 & ! :ite p[d]y secretion t cov]s ! r$di% body ( ! adult4 #b4 ,,int]m$iate ,,=ms4--,an example is ! olive scale 7,fig4 #e74 ,9 su* =ms !re is a t5d5cy to specialisation1 ow+ to m or less s$5t>y habits 9 lat] life1 & protection is af=d$ by a ?ick5+ & t\gh5+ ( ! cuticle on ! upp] surface ( ! body4 ,unlike ! cottony-cu%ion scale1 ! female olive scale passes ?r\gh two l>val /ages2 ! m9ute fir/ /age l>va is active & v flat2 x soon settles ^u a leaf & comm5ces to fe$1 :5 x becomes mu* flatt] & a little l>g]2 ! second /age diff]s f ! fir/ 9 size & 9 ! developm5t ( a dorsal longitud9al ridge1 :i* ev5tually =ms ! cross-b> ( ! two transv]se ridges t are *>act]i/ic ( ! ?ird or adult /age1 :5 ! insect swells & assumes ! %ape ( ! mature =m4 ,aft] settl+ 9 ! fir/ l>val /age1 ! insect becomes v sluggi%1 & does n move1 except to migrate1 z mo/ d1 f ! leaves to ! twigs1 !re to take up a p]man5t position4 ,! legs & ant5n are reta9$ ?r\gh\t life1 b 9 ! adult are functionless1 be+ fold$ aga9/ ! body2 9 "s species ( int]m$iate =ms ! app5dages become atrophi$ dur+ developm5t4 ,9 ! olive scale1 & relat$ =ms1 ! t\gh5$ cuticle n only s]ves z a protection to ! insect1 b also z a receptacle = ! eggs 7,fig4 #e72 z ^! are laid & increase 9 numb]s1 ! body ( ! p>5t dim9i%es & is cr[d$ aga9/ ! dome-%ap$ cuticle4 #c4 ,,specialis$ ,,=ms4--,! apple mussel-scale 7,figs4 #e & #g1 ,nos4 #b & #f7 is a repres5tative ( ?is gr\p1 ! memb]s ( :i* are m>k$ly specialis$1 ! legs & ant5n ( ! adult female becom+ completely atrophi$ dur+ developm5t1 & ! %ape ( ! body pr(\ndly alt]$2 protection is af=d$ by a scale-l cov]+ n atta*$ to ! body4 ,9 ! mussel-scale developm5t !re are two l>val /ages3 ! fir/1 l all coccids1 has ! legs & ant5n well develop$ & is active4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,,illu/rations ,,( ,,diff]5t ,,types ,,( ,,scale-,,insect ,,life-,,hi/ories4 ,on settl+ to fe$1 ?is fir/ l>va comm5ces to produce a cov]+ ( :ite ?reads t mat toge!r to =m ! fir/ scale2 ! second /age l>va pres5ts pr(\nd *anges 9 ! abs5ce ( legs & ant5n1 :ile ! body has become pe>-%ap$1 ! head1 ?orax & abdom5 seem+ z "o2 a second m waxy scale is n[ =m$4 ,aft] a second m\lt1 ! adult appe>s1 & resembles ! second /age l>va 9 =m2 ! adult con/ructs a ?ird scale1 v mu* l>g] ?an ! e>li] ones1 to :i* x rema9s atta*$ by its ant]ior end4 ,?\gh _m ( ! specialis$ coccids =m elongate scales1 z 9 ! case ( ! mussel-scale1 num]\s o!rs con/ruct circul> scales1 z does ! ,san ,jos 7,fig4 #e72 9 ! latt]1 ! second & ?ird scales are con/ruct$ r\nd ! fir/1 s t ! fir/ & second appe> z pimple-l /ructures 9 ! c5tre1 or slightly to "o side ( ! complet$ cov]+4 ,z ) ! olive scale1 ! cov]+ ( ! specialis$ =ms s]ves z a receptacle = ! eggs 7,fig4 #e74 ,"s ( ! m important coccids occurr+ 9 ,new ,zeal& w n[ be discuss$4 ,,cottony ,,cu%ion ,,scale7,ic]ya pur*asi74--,?is insect 7,fig4 #f;a7 is a native ( ,au/ralia1 b has n[ become e/abli%$ 9 _m o!r c\ntries1 includ+ ,new ,zeal&4 ,= a "t x 0 a s]i\s pe/ ( citrus1 until ! introduction & e/abli%m5t ( its natural enemy1 ! ladybird beetle 7,novius c>d9alis74 ,! adult female is m or less oval1 & cov]$ ) a yell[i% p[d]1 p>tly conceal+ ! r$di%-br[n gr\nd col\r & d>k spots along ! sides ( ! body2 ! legs are black4 ,a *>act]i/ic feature is ! :ite corrugat$ egg-sac atta*$ to ! end ( ! body 7,fig4 #e74 ,z ! eggs are laid1 ?is sac increases 9 size1 until x may measure fully #b-a_/b times ! l5g? ( ! p>5t1 :i* becomes tilt$ up4 ,! eggs are orange-yell[1 & z _m z #hjj may be produc$ by a s+le female4 ,! eggs hat* 9 ab\t a =tnight dur+ summ]1 & ! p]iod ( developm5t to ! adult ranges f ?ree to five mon?s4 ,! l>v mo/ frequ5tly congregate along ! mid-ribs ( leaves1 & z developm5t advances !y usually migrate to ! twigs & bran*es4 ,!re are two g5]ations ea* ye>4 ,a consid]able v>iety ( plants is attack$ by ?is insect1 *ief among :i* are citrus1 acacia1 gorse1 wattle1 & ,d\glas fir4 ,control is effect$ by ! ag5cy ( ! ladybird1 b epidemics sometimes occur ) :i* ! beetle _c imm$iately cope2 9 su* a case fumigation 9 ! glass-h\se1 or spray+ ) r$ oil 9 ! op51 %\ld be resort$ to4 ,,mealy ,,bugs4--,mealy bugs are *>act]is$ 9 ! female by ! nature ( ! waxy protective secretion :i* =ms a p[d]y meal-l cov]+ ov] ! body1 b is develop$ z a fr+e ( leg-l processes at ! side 7,fig4 #f;b72 ^! processes at ! po/]ior end ( ! insect may be prolong$ z long] or %ort] tail-l app5dages 9 "s species1 or !y may be no long] ?an ^? fr++ ! body m>g9s 9 o!rs4 ,imm$iately aft] ea* m\lt ! l>v are devoid ( mealy cov]+ & lat]al processes1 :i* are secret$ anew ea* "t ! cuticle is %$4 ,9 a mealy bug colony are num]\s small1 n>r[ cocoons1 9 ea* ( :i* a develop+ male insect lies4 ,mo/ mealy bugs produce eggs1 :i* are laid 9 a spaci\s1 cottony sac secret$ at ! po/]ior end ( ! female2 ! female insects1 egg sacs1 & male cocoons toge!r =m *>act]i/ic woolly masses on infe/$ plants4 ,! injury caus$ by mealy bugs may be consid]able1 n only ?r\gh ! dra9age ( plant sap1 b also ow+ to ! production ( honey-dew & its consequ5t sooty m\ld4 ,all p>ts ( plants are subject to mealy bug attack1 & ! insects are frequ5tly att5d$ by ants4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 7a7 ,cottony cu%ion scale4 7b7 ,mealy bug4 7c7 ,! black olive scale4 7d7 ,gum tree scale3 ,on "r1 females on twig2 upp] left1 male scales2 l[] left1 ! ladybird beetle2 c5tre1 scales de/roy$ by beetle4 7e7 ,hemisph]ical scale4 7f7 ,fruit lecanium scale4 ,photographs by ,w4 ,c4 ,davies1 ,caw?ron ,in/itute4 ,mealy bugs are controll$ to a great ext5t by natural enemies1 among :i* are ! ,tasmanian lace w+ 7,micromus tasmani7 & ! ,cryptolmus ladybird 7,cryptolmus montr\zi]i71 b ! influ5ce ( ^! is insuffici5t = comm]cial purposes4 ,attempts are n[ be+ made at ! ,caw?ron ,in/itute1 ,nelson1 to e/abli% o!r p>asites rec5tly import$ f ,cali=nia4 ,control "u glass is effective by means ( fumigation1 b 9 ! op5 is a m difficult matt]1 ?\gh r$ oil & lime-sulphur give "s satisfactory results1 toge!r ) ! practice ( remov+ r\gh b>k on trees :]e ! insects hib]nate4 ,9 ,new ,zeal& are sev]al species ( mealy bugs1 ( :i* ! foll[+ are ( int]e/ to ! horticulturi/3-- ,,long-,,tail$ ,,mealy ,,bug7,pseudococcus adonidum74--,?is species is readily recognis$ by ! long tail-l app5dages ( ! female4 ,x is widely di/ribut$ & commonly met ) "u glass1 :]e x infe/s almo/ any plant2 9 ! w>m] & moi/] di/ricts ( ! ,dom9ion x occurs out ( doors4 ,its li/ ( ho/ plants is a l5g?y "o1 & includes grape v9e1 passion v9e1 wi/>ia1 fig1 ole&]1 ,phormium1 c9]>ia1 begonia1 apple1 plum1 palms1 f]ns1 etc4 ,consid]able injury may be caus$ by ! insect :5 x occurs 9 d5se masses on ! "u side ( foliage & ^u "y1 succul5t gr[?4 ,no eggs are produc$ by ?is insect1 ! "y be+ born alive2 ! production ( "y la/s = a p]iod ( f two to ?ree weeks at ! rate ( ab\t twelve ea* day2 ! "t tak5 to rea* maturity v>ies consid]ably1 accord+ to climatic conditions1 ! range be+ f "o to ?ree mon?s4 ,!re are comp>atively few g5]ations ea* ye> out ( doors1 b "u glass !re may be sev]al4 ,,citrophilus ,,mealy ,,bug7,pseudococcus gahani74--,9 ,new ,zeal& ?is species is met ) on grape v9es & begonia 9 glass-h\ses1 :]e x becomes epidemic if left uncontroll$2 out ( doors x infe/s apple & potato1 & no d\bt o!r plants are attack$4 ,x is *>act]is$ by ! mealy cov]+ be+ co>se & di/ribut$ unev5ly ov] ! body1 :ile ! m>g9al fr+e is %ort1 ! processes be+ comp>atively ?ick1 p>ticul>ly ! tail-l ones1 :i* are mu* %ort] ?an ! body1 ?\gh conspicu\s4 ,egg-lay+ cov]s a p]iod ( ab\t two weeks1 f #cid to #fgi eggs be+ deposit$ by ea* female2 developm5t to ! adult is complet$ 9 ab\t six weeks1 ?\gh ?is w v>y accord+ to ! conditions4 ,9 ,cali=nia f\r g5]ations 9 ! ye> h be5 not$4 ,,apple ,,mealy ,,bugs7,pseudococcus m>itimus & ,p4 com/ocki74--,bo? ^! species occur ^u apple1 pe> & potato 9 ,new ,zeal&1 ! =m] species orig9at+ 9 ,am]ica1 & ! latt] 9 ,japan2 ! injury to ! ho/ itself is n sev]e1 b ! pres5ce ( ^! insects on ! fruit is responsible = apples & pe>s be+ reject$ = export4 ,bo? species are v simil> 9 appe>ance1 & are ( ! %ort-tail$ type2 !y diff] f ! citrophilus mealy bug 9 hav+ ! mealy cov]+ ev5ly di/ribut$ ov] ! body1 :ile ! m>g9al fr+e is delicate & ?read-l4 ,! eggs hat* 9 f "o to ?ree weeks1 & ! l>v migrate freely1 ! insects rea*+ maturity "o or two mon?s lat]1 accord+ to climatic conditions4 ,9 ! op5 ! w9t] is pass$ 9 ! egg /age1 b "u glass or 9 mild climates activity among ! diff]5t /ages occurs ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,ap>t f apple & pe>1 ^! insects h be5 record$ f _m plants3 ,bak]'s mealy bug 7m>itimus7 on lemon1 orange1 walnut1 will[1 eld]1 ivy1 iris2 & ,com/ock's mealy bug on citrus1 eld]1 euonymus1 gooseb]ry1 grape1 horse *e/nut1 hydrangea1 mulb]ry1 pea*1 p]simmon1 plum1 popl>1 wi/>ia4 ,,! ,,gum ,,scale7,eriococcus coriaceus74--,?is is "o ( ! mo/ spectacul>ly de/ructive scale insects n[ e/abli%$ 9 ! ,dom9ion4 ,x is a native ( ,au/ralia1 & its normal ho/s are ! sev]al species ( eucalyptus1 ?\gh x is sometimes f\nd on apricot & will[4 ,a *>act]i/ic feature ( infect$ eucalyptus is _! black5$ appe>ance1 due to sooty m\ld gr[+ on ! copi\s honey-dew secret$ by ! scale4 ,on an infe/$ twig or bran*1 ! insects may be s closely pack$ z to conceal ! b>k 7,fig4 #f1 d72 ea* female lies 9 a pe>-%ap$ sac ( felt$ secretion1 r$di%-br[n1 tawny1 or sometimes :ite 9 col\r1 measur+ ab\t ?ree-tw5ty-fif?s ( an in* long1 & hav+ a circul> ap]ture at "o end4 ,! enclos$ insect is some:at flatt5$1 oval1 & blood-r$ 9 col\r2 :5 cru%$1 x leaves a r$di% & /icky sme>4 ,! develop+ males are to be f\nd =m+ :ite pat*es ( innum]able individuals on ! tree trunks "u ! loose b>k 7,fig4 #f1 d74 ,! female is vivip>\s2 dur+ spr+1 mid-summ] & autumn imm5se numb]s ( "y are produc$1 :i* escape ?r\gh ! op5+ at "o end ( ! female sac1 & are c>ri$ long di/ances by ! w9d4 ,^! "y insects fir/ settle on ! eucalypt leaves1 :5ce !y migrate1 ! females to take up _! f9al position on ! twigs & small] bran*es1 & ! males to cont9ue _! developm5t on ! trunk ( ! tree4 ,! gum tree scale occurs ?r\gh\t ! di/ricts ea/ ( ! ,s\!rn ,alps & 9 ! vic9ity ( ,nelson1 9 ! ,s\? ,isl&1 & ov] ! s\!rn half ( ! ,nor? ,isl&2 x is1 h[ev]1 spread+ rapidly nor?w>d4 ,?is pe/ is held 9 control by means ( ! black-ladybird beetle 7,rhizobius v5tralis7--,fig4 #f1 d--:i* 0 import$ = ! purpose f ,au/ralia2 birds su* z ! tui1 wax-eye1 fantail1 blackbird & ?ru% congregate on infe/$ trees & eat ! insect4 ,,olive ,,scale7,saissetia ole74--,?is insect has a _w-wide di/ribution1 & is "o ( ! mo/ important pe/s ( citrus 9 ,new ,zeal&1 al?\gh x occurs on a wide range ( plants2 9 all cases x infe/s ! fruit1 b>k1 & ! "u side ( leaves4 ,! ho/ plants include citrus1 apple1 pe>1 apricot1 plum1 almond1 fig1 grape-v9e1 wi/>ia1 pepp] tree1 ole&]1 holly1 laurel1 palms1 camellia1 rose4 ,! injury caus$ by ! insect is n s mu* on acc\nt ( its weak5+ influ5ce ^u ! infe/$ plants z ( ! fact t x copi\sly secretes honey-dew1 s t black m\ld develops to a m>k$ degree1 necessitat+ ! wa%+ ( h]bace\s plants & fruit4 ,! adult female 7,fig4 #f1 c7 is hemisph]ical1 & measures ab\t "o-fif? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 a *>act]i/ic di/+ui%+ feature be+ ! ?ree ridges =m+ ! lett] ,h on its upp] surface 7,fig4 #e74 ,accord+ to age1 ! col\r v>ies f br[ni% or greyi% to jet black1 ! insect be+ conspicu\s aga9/ ! light] backgr\nd ( b>k or leaf2 ! small1 immature individuals are light br[n or yell[i%1 & almo/ flat4 ,9 ,new ,zeal& ! w9t] is pass$ 9 bo? egg & l>val /ages1 ?\gh a few adults may be f\nd at t "t2 on turn+ ov] :at appe>s to be an adult1 x w usually be f\nd t ! female has di$ & h] place tak5 by num]\s eggs 7,fig4 #e74 ,! av]age numb] ( eggs produc$ has be5 e/imat$ at f #a1ejj to #b1jjj p] female2 at fir/ ! eggs are :ite1 b prior to hat*+ !y turn a deep orange-r$4 ,developm5t is sl[1 ! adult /ate be+ rea*$ ab\t ?ree mon?s aft] "t ( hat*+2 egg lay+ comm5ces ab\t five weeks aft] maturity1 & cont9ues = a p]iod ( ab\t six weeks4 ,!re is only "o g5]ation ea* ye>1 & all /ages may be met ) on ! "o plant2 ! greate/ activity occurs dur+ ! summ] mon?s4 ,an important natural enemy ( ?is scale is ! /eel-blue ladybird beetle 7,orcus *alybu71 introduc$ f ,au/ralia4 ,,hemisph]ical ,,scale7,saissetia hemisph]ica74--,?is _w-wide species is commonly met ) 9 ,new ,zeal&1 &1 ?\gh n a s]i\s pe/1 has a wide range ( ho/ plants1 bo? 9 ! op5 & "u glass2 "s ( ! common] ho/s are citrus1 fig1 ole&]1 palms1 japonica1 camellia1 asp>agus1 & or*ids4 ,bo? leaves & /ems are infe/$ by ! insect1 :i* resembles ! olive scale 7,fig4 #f1 e72 f ! latt] x may be di/+ui%$ by its light br[n col\r & smoo? surface1 !re be+ no ridges2 ! longe/ diamet] ( ! adult female is "o-sev5? ( an in*4 ,betwe5 #ejj & #a1jjj eggs are laid by ea* female1 & ! life-cycle is complet$ 9 ab\t six mon?s2 ! "y insects settle along ! ma9 leaf-ve9s4 ,,turtle ,,scale7,coccus hesp]idum74--,?is widely-di/ribut$ insect1 ?\gh common 9 hot-h\ses & out ( doors 9 ! w>m] p>ts ( ! ,dom9ion1 is n especially injuri\s1 except = ! copi\s honey-dew secret$ & ! consequ5t sooty m\ld2 x occurs on holly1 ivy1 camellia1 citrus1 laurel1 myrtle1 ole&]1 & japonica4 ,! insect infe/s leaves & /ems1 & is especially abundant on succul5t gr[?4 ,! adult female is r r$di%-br[n 9 col\r1 dome-%ap$1 b ) ! m>g9s flatt5$ on ! ho/ plant2 on ea* side ! m>g9 is not*$ by a %all[ depression1 & !re is a deep] "o at "o end2 ov] ! surface is a reticulation ( ridges1 resembl+ ! patt]n on ! back ( a turtle2 fully-develop$ individuals measure f "o-six? to "o-eigh? in* 9 diamet]4 ,?is species is vivip>\s1 & developm5t to ! adult occupies ab\t n9e weeks2 !re may be ?ree or f\r g5]ations ea* ye>4 ,,fruit ,,lecanium ,,scale7,eulecanium corni74--,?is ,european insect is common ?r\gh\t ! ,dom9ion1 :]e occasionally x becomes epidemic & causes "s tempor>y damage2 ) x are associat$ honey-dew & sooty m\ld4 ,among ! plants infe/$ are apricot1 pea*1 nect>9e1 plum1 pe>1 grape-v9e1 wi/>ia1 raspb]ry1 mulb]ry1 blackb]ry1 gooseb]ry1 black currant1 f]ns4 ,leaves & b>k are infe/$1 & a n>r[ twig may be p>tly encircl$ by ! m>g9s ( ! scale4 ,! adult female 7,fig4 #f;f7 is oval & dome-%ap$1 "s individuals measur+ "o-six? ( an in* 9 l5g?2 ! surface is smoo?1 except t[>d ! m>g9s1 p>allel to :i* are "s wr9kles4 ,! g5]al col\r is d>k br[n1 b j prior to egg-lay+ !re are num]\s transv]se & longitud9al m>k+s ( a light] col\r ov] ! surface4 ,! w9t] is pass$ 9 ! egg /age or z p>tly-gr[n "y4 ,ano!r1 b l>g]1 species1 closely resembl+ ! prec$+1 & f\nd on grape-v9es1 wi/>ia1 eleagnus1 etc41 is ,eulecanium b]b]idis4 ,x is r$di%-br[n 9 col\r1 & measures up to "o-?ird ( an in* 9 l5g?4 ,,gold5 ,,oak ,,scale7,a/]olecanium v>iolosum74--,?is insect is v common ^u ,engli% oak trees 9 p>ts ( ,new ,zeal&4 ,9 _m cases s badly are ! trees infe/$1 t !y become sickly 9 appe>ance1 & at times ! great] "p1 or ev5 ! :ole1 ( ! tree is kill$ ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( ! pe/4 ,! individual scale 7,fig4 #g1 #a7 is m or less circul>1 & ab\t "o-sixte5? ( an in* 9 diamet]2 x is ( a gre5i%-yell[ col\r1 ) a n>r[ pal] circumf]5ce1 ?\gh "s1 ) ! exception ( ! rim1 are p>tly or :olly br[ni%4 ,ea* scale =ms & lies 9 a depression ( ! b>k4 ,! insect is vivip>\s4 ,a m9ute p>asite1 ,habrolepis dalmanni 7note ! exit holes made by ! p>asite dur+ em]g5ce f "s ( ! scales %[n 9 ! photograph7 has rec5tly be5 e/abli%$ z a means ( control & is prov+ effective4 ,,camellia ,,scale7,pulv9>ia camelicola74--,?is ,european scale sometimes heavily infe/s camellias & euonymus 9 ,new ,zeal&1 b is n a v s]i\s pe/1 ?\gh m s 9 glass-h\ses ?an out ( doors4 ,aft] ! female has produc$ h] eggs1 %e drops (f ! plant1 s t1 ?\gh ! latt] %[s evid5ce ( injury1 !re may be no sign ( ! insect4 ,! adult female is oval & ab\t "o-?ird ( an in* at its longe/ l5g?2 9 %ape x resembles a r flatt5$ turtle scale1 b :5 lay+ eggs ! body %rivels & num]\s transv]se wr9kles develop1 al?\gh ! m>g9s ( ! scale rema9 smoo?4 ,!re is at lea/ "o g5]ation ea* ye>1 & 9 w>m] p>ts probably a second1 :i* may rea* maturity be=e w9t] or n till ! foll[+ spr+4 ,! eggs are laid 9 an elongate1 :ite1 cottony sac secret$ at "o end ( ! female2 ?is sac is sometimes z mu* z f\r to five times ! l5g? ( ! insect4 ,! eggs cont9ue to hat* ov] a p]iod ( f f\r to six weeks1 & ! l>v rapidly spread2 ! latt] settle along ! leaf mid-rib1 m>g91 or l[] surface4 ,,apple ,,mussel ,,scale7,lepidosaphes ulmi74--,! apple mussel scale is n[ e/abli%$ ?r\gh\t ! temp]ate regions ( ! _w4 ,x is commonly met ) on apple1 b has a long li/ ( ho/ plants1 among :i* are pe>1 haw?orn1 will[1 popl>1 gooseb]ry1 & currant4 ,! insect 7,fig4 #g1 ,nos4 #b & #f7 =ms incru/ations on b>k & fruit1 & is commonly met ) at ! /alk end ( ! apple2 ! individual scale is *ocolate-br[n 9 col\r1 is %ap$ l ! %ell ( ! salt wat] mussel--h5ce ! "n 8mussel scale0--& :5 full gr[n measures "o-eigh? ( an in* long4 ,a s+le female is capable ( lay+ up to #gjj eggs1 9 :i* /age ! w9t] is pass$4 ,! eggs hat* 9 ! spr+1 & ! "y insects sw>m ov] ! ho/ plant 9 se>* ( a suitable place to settle4 ,a cont9u\s w>m spell ( wea!r 9 ! spr+ w all[ all ! eggs to hat* almo/ at "o "t1 b alt]nat+ cold spells w ret>d developm5t1 s t em]g5ces take place ov] a long] p]iod4 ,aft] em]g+ f ! egg until maturity1 :5 egg-lay+ aga9 takes place1 a p]iod ( ?ree mon?s elapses2 ! insect is a sl[ bre$]1 & produces only "o brood a ye> 9 cold] climates1 b is two-brood$ 9 w>m di/ricts1 su* z ,auckl&4 ,a small hym5opt]\s p>asite 7,aphel9us mytilaspidis71 less ?an "o-tw5ty-fif? ( an in* long1 attacks ?is scale1 b does n s]ve z an effici5t control2 individual scales t h be5 kill$ by ! p>asite %[ a small hole ?r\gh :i* ! adult p>asite has em]g$4 ,! mo/ effective control is secur$ by treat+ infe/$ trees ) r$ oil or lime-sulphur dur+ w9t]4 ,,cabbage ,,tree ,,scales7,leucaspis cordyl9idis & ,leucaspis /ricta74--,cabbage trees & also ,new ,zeal& flax (t5 h ! leaves encru/$ by ! :ite masses ( ^! two native scales4 ,! adult female ( "o species 7,l4 cordyl9idis7 measures "o-eigh? ( an in* long1 is v n>r[ & /raight z a rule1 & :ite 9 col\r1 except = ! yell[ ant]ior end 7,fig4 #g1 #d74 ,! o!r species 7,l4 /ricta7 resembles ! =m]1 except t ! adult is "o-elev5? ( an in* long1 & has ! ant]ior half blacki%4 ,9 ! case ( ornam5tal cabbage trees & flax1 control c be effect$ by remov+ all dead & scale-infe/$ leaves1 ?us all[+ access to sunlight4 ,,san ,,jos ,,scale7,aspidiotus p]niciosus74--,( all scale insects ( major importance1 ! ,san ,jos 7,fig4 #g1 #e7 is out/&+1 9 t x is "o ( ! insects mo/ de/ructive to decidu\s trees & %rubs1 a consid]able numb] ( :i* are liable to attack4 ,x is ( ,*9ese orig91 & fir/ came into prom95ce :5 x became e/abli%$ at ,san ,jos1 9 ,cali=nia1 h5ce its "n4 ,ow+ to its small size1 x is easily ov]look$1 except :5 epidemic1 & is readily transport$ ^u plants f "o c\ntry to ano!r4 ,! li/ ( plants attack$ is a long "o1 b ! foll[+ may be m5tion$3--,acacia1 haw?orn1 qu9ce1 privet1 popl>1 almond1 apricot1 *]ry1 plum1 pea*1 pe>1 apple1 gooseb]ry1 currant1 roses1 will[1 a%1 elm4 ,! female ,san ,jos scale is circul> 9 outl9e1 hav+ a diamet] ( ab\t "o-tw5ty-fif? ( an in*2 9 pr(ile x has ! =m ( a flat cone ) a crat]-l depression at ! apex1 9 ! c5tre ( :i* lies a m9ute pimple-l prom95ce2 ! immature scales are small] & :iti% 9 col\r1 :ile ! male scale is elongate-oval 9 outl9e1 ) ! crat]-l depression t[>d "o end4 ,! individual scales are greyi% & are readily ov]look$1 b :5 well e/abli%$ ^u a tree !y =m an incru/ation giv+ a *>act]i/ic dull silv]-grey appe>ance to ! tree2 b>k1 fruit & leaves are infe/$4 ,a *>act]i/ic feature ( ,san ,jos scale infection is ! discol\ration ( ! plant tissues imm$iately surr\nd+ ea* insect1 :i* turn a di/9ct r$ or purple1 giv+ at once an indication t ?is scale is pres5t4 ,! w9t] is pass$ by ! insect 9 almo/ a mature /ate2 on ! adv5t ( spr+1 developm5t to maturity cont9ues1 :51 aft] mat+1 ! females give bir? to liv+ "y ov] a p]iod ( sev]al weeks4 ,! "y rea* maturity & comm5ce to reproduce five to six weeks f bir?1 !re be+ sev]al g5]ations 9 ! c\rse ( a season4 ,! av]age numb] ( "y produc$ by ea* female has be5 f\nd to be ab\t #djj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4 7#a7 ,gold5 ,oak ,scale2 7#b7 ,apple ,mussel ,scale2 7#c7 ,black ,scale2 7#d7 ,cabbage ,tree ,scale2 7#e7 ,san ,jos ,scale2 7#f7 ,apple ,mussel ,scale2 7#g7 ,ole&] ,scale2 7#h7 & 7#i7 ,rose ,scale4 ,photographs by ,w4 ,c4 ,davies1 ,caw?ron ,in/itute4 ,natural enemies 9 ,new ,zeal& are two species ( hym5opt]\s p>asites1 ,aphel9us fuscip5nis & ,a4 mytilaspidis1 ! latt] also attack+ ! apple mussel scale4 ,ladybird beetles also fe$ ^u ! insect4 ,control requires close att5tion1 & c be effect$ by ! application ( lime-sulphur 9 ! dormant season1 :5 x is ess5tial to apply a /rong wa% to kill (f z _m scales z possible be=e reproduction comm5ces 9 ! spr+4 ,at bud movem5t fur!r applications are necess>y to de/roy ! "y insects4 ,,r$ ,,orange ,,scale7,*rysomphalus aurantii74--,! r$ orange scale is di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! _w1 & is especially abundant 9 tropical & sub-tropical regions1 ! mo/ s\!rn limit be+ ,new ,zeal&4 ,z a major pe/ x is peculi> to citrus1 b infe/s to a m9or ext5t o!r plants--e4g41 plum1 apple1 pe>1 qu9ce1 grape1 fig1 euonymus & rose4 ,s f> x has be5 f\nd only on citrus 9 ,new ,zeal&1 x be+ well e/abli%$ 9 ! ,auckl& prov9ce1 & also 9 ! ,s\? ,isl& on ,banks ,p59sula4 ,x is v (t5 f\nd on import$ oranges & lemons4 ,?is scale is a circul> "o1 ) a c5tral pimple-l prom95ce1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,san ,jos1 b is flatt]1 ab\t half z l>ge aga91 & is ( a *>act]i/ic r$di% col\r4 ,! damage done to citrus trees by ?is insect is ( a s]i\s nature1 z ! entire tree or "p ( x may be kill$ 9 sev]e infe/ations4 ,a *>act]i/ic feature ( ?is species is t no honey-dew is secret$1 & h5ce !re is a total abs5ce ( sooty m\ld on infe/$ trees4 ,l ! ,san ,jos scale1 ! r$ scale is vivip>\s1 & ov]-w9t]s z p>tially mature adults1 complet+ developm5t 9 e>ly spr+1 :5 ! "y insects make _! appe>ance4 ,an av]age ( ab\t #ee "y is produc$ by ea* female1 & developm5t to maturity takes f two or two & a-half mon?s2 ab\t "o mon? lat] "y are produc$1 & _! production cont9ues ov] a p]iod ( "o or two mon?s2 climatic conditions1 h[ev]1 h a direct influ5ce on developm5t4 ,an important natural enemy is ! /eel blue ladybird 7,orcus *alybu71 import$ f ,au/ralia2 b ! mo/ effici5t control is cyanide fumigation1 or spray+ ) r$ oil or lime-sulphur4 ,,! ,,black ,,scale7,*rysomphalus rossi74--,foliage ( palms1 ole&] & citrus is (t5 infe/$ by ?is r$di%-black to black circul> scale 7,fig4 #g1 #c72 x is almo/ flat1 ) a c5tral :iti% spot1 & measures up to "o-t5? ( an in* 9 diamet]2 :5 _m individuals are cr[d$ toge!r1 _! outl9e becomes irregul>4 ,?is species is n especially injuri\s1 ?\gh common4 ,,ole&] ,,scale7,aspidiotus h$]74--,?is cosmopolitan insect occurs on or*ids1 ole&]1 ivy1 camellia1 palms1 citrus1 coprosma1 & k>aka1 infe/+ /ems1 leaves & fruit4 ,9 ! case ( citrus1 ?is insect delays col\r+ ( ! fruit1 :i* becomes blot*$ ) yell[ or gre54 ,! insect may be s num]\s1 t x completely cov]s ! :ole plant1 giv+ to ! latt] a :ite appe>ance2 ?is is due to ! prepond]ance ( :ite male scales1 ! female be+ slightly yell[1 ) a purpli% t9t4 ,! female scale is almo/ circul> 7,fig4 #g1 #g71 hav+ a diamet] ( f "o-tw5ty-fif? ( an in* to two-tw5ty-fif?s ( an in*1 & is r flat2 ! male is m oval & ( ! same size1 & 9 bo? cases !re is a c5tral orange-yell[ spot4 ,! eggs are comp>atively l>ge1 & hat* soon aft] be+ deposit$4 ,! insect rea*es maturity 9 f f\r to six weeks4 ,,gre$y ,,scale7,aspidiotus rapax74--,?is ,european insect is n[ widespread1 & 9 ,new ,zeal& is common on apple1 pe>1 qu9ce1 & wattle2 x has a wide range ( ho/s4 ,! adult female scale is convex & ( a g5]al grey col\r1 ?\gh sometimes yell[i%4 ,! w9t] is pass$ 9 all /ages ( developm5t4 ,,rose ,,scale7,aulacaspis ros74--,?is is a v common insect1 =m+ :ite incru/ations on ! b>k ( roses1 bri>1 raspb]ry1 loganb]ry1 blackb]ry1 & sometimes pe>4 ,! adult female 7,fig4 #g1 #h71 :i* is f "o-twelf? ( an in* to "o-eigh? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 is r ?9 & flat1 circul> or oval 9 outl9e1 b irregul> :5 cr[d$2 ! g5]al col\r is :ite or slightly yell[i%4 ,! male 7,fig4 #g1 #i7 diff]s1 9 be+ elongat$ & n>r[4 ,?is insect c )/& sev]e w9t]s1 & is to be controll$ by ! use ( r$ oil4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,suck+ ,insects--7,conclud$74 ,plant ,lice1 or ,aphides4 ,! small1 s(t-bodi$ plant-lice1 or aphides1 usually f\nd =m+ d5se colonies on all sorts ( plants1 are pe/s well kn[n to e g>d5]2 !y attack plants by ins]t+ into ! tissues _! delicate pi]c+ m\?-p>ts1 & dra9 ! nutri5t sap 7,fig4 #h1 #a;g74 ,all p>ts ( a plant may be infe/$1 & ! insects1 ow+ to _! ability to reproduce abundantly & rapidly1 may de/roy ! plant1 or at lea/ injure x by /unt+ its gr[?1 curl+ ! leaves1 or de=m+ ! fl[]s & fruit4 ,9 _m cases aphides copi\sly secrete honey-dew1 ^u :i* sooty m\ld gr[s1 r5d]+ ! plant unsightly2 on ?is honey-dew ants fe$1 & are frequ5tly se5 associat$ ) aphides4 ,ap>t f _! direct injuri\s effects1 aphides are ( out/&+ importance1 9 t !y transmit "s ( ! mo/ s]i\s plant diseases4 ,( all ! species occurr+ 9 ,new ,zeal&1 only "o species is suppos$ to be a native4 ,mo/ aphides live expos$ ^u ! ho/ plant 7e4g41 ,rose ,aphis71 b "s 7e4g41 ,woolly ,aphis7 secrete a protective cov]+1 :ile o!rs cause a mal=mation ( ! plant tissues :i* =m a p>tial protection z a semi-gall 7e4g41 ,elm-leaf ,aphis71 or a complete protection z a true gall 7e4g41 ,leaf-petiole ,gall-aphis ( ,popl>74 ,aphides pres5t c]ta9 v>iations 9 /ructure1 &1 g5]ally speak+1 ! "o species pres5ts f\r or five types 7,fig4 #h1 #a73 ! asexual 7p>!nog5etic7 w+less & w+$ females t give bir? to liv+ "y 7vivip>\s7 9 ! abs5ce ( males1 & ! sexual =ms1 bo? males & females1 ! latt] produc+ eggs 7ovip>\s74 ,! be/ "* by :i* ! ,new ,zeal& aphides are to be recognis$ is to be f\nd 9 ! pair ( long] or %ort] horn-l processes1 or 8cornicles10 project+ f ! upp] surface ( ! abdom52 9 "s species1 h[ev]1 ! 8cornicles0 are r$uc$ & inconspicu\s 7e4g41 ,woolly ,aphis71 or altoge!r abs5t 7e4g41 ,grape ,phyllox]a74 ,! 8cornicles0 are frequ5tly call$ 8honey-tubes10 s9ce = _m ye>s x 0 ?\ght t !y secret$ ! honey-dew2 x has be5 %[n1 h[ev]1 t ! honey-dew is secret$ f ! rectum1 & t ! function ( ! 8cornicles0 is to secrete a waxy protective sub/ance1 :i* may take ! =m ( a p[d] or woolly ?reads4 ,! w+s1 :5 pres5t1 are membran\s1 ! front pair be+ mu* l>g] ?an ! h9d ones1 & :5 n 9 use usually close ro(-l ov] ! body4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4 7#a7 ,life ,hi/ory ( an ,aphis3 ,a1 egg2 ,b1 ,c1 & ,f1 w+less females2 ,d1 w+$ female2 ,e1 male2 ,g1 section ( head & plant tissue to %[ me?od ( attack4 7#b7 ,life ,hi/ory ( a ,leaf-,hopp]3 ,h1 eggs "u b>k ( twig2 ,i1 fir/ /age hopp]2 ,j1 lat] /age hopp] ) develop+ w+s2 ,k1 adult f above2 ,l1 adult f side4 7#c7 ,life ,hi/ory ( a ,:ite ,fly3 ,m1 egg2 ,n1 fir/ /age l>va2 ,o1 pupal /age "u scale cov]+2 ,p1 adult4 7#d7 ,an adult ,?rips4 ,9 _! life-hi/ories & habits aphides pres5t _m v>iations1 sometimes ( consid]able complexity1 b fundam5tally ! processes are z foll[s3--,eggs are laid on ! ho/ plant dur+ ! autumn1 & give rise to w+less females 9 ! spr+2 ^! females 7be+ asexual or p>!nog5etic1 s9ce !y reproduce )\t be+ f]tilis$7 are vivip>\s1 produc+ liv+ =ms simil> to !mselves4 ,"s ( ^! =ms rema9 w+less1 :ile o!rs may develop w+s1 ^u :i* a wid] disp]sal ( ! species dep5ds1 b 9 bo? cases su* females are asexual & vivip>\s4 ,sev]al su* g5]ations may develop until ! autumn1 :5 males & females appe>1 ! latt] be+ ovip>\s1 produc+ ! ov]-w9t]+ eggs :5 f]tilis$ by ! males4 ,v (t51 h[ev]1 ! life-cycle is consid]ably complicat$ by ! w+$ =ms fly+ to o!r ho/ plants & e/abli%+ !re colonies diff]+ 9 _m respects f ! p>5t /ock2 f ^! second>y ho/s !re is a return migration to ! orig9al species ( plant4 ,aga91 ! migrations may be re/rict$ to diff]5t p>ts ( ! same plant1 f ! leaves or bran*es to ! roots1 = example4 ,mo/ aphides are readily controll$ by means ( insecticides1 su* z nicot9e-sulphate1 or k]os5e-emulsion4 ,!y are also v (t5 held 9 *eck by natural enemies1 su* z aphis-lions1 hov]-flies1 ladybirds1 & num]\s =ms ( hym5opt]a4 ,! foll[+ species are "s ( ! common] aphides met ) 9 ,new ,zeal&3-- ,,black ,,pea*--,,aphis7,aphis p]sic-nig]74--,f e>ly spr+1 ev5 be=e ! foliage develops1 ?is aphis may be f\nd heavily infe/+ ! "y1 succul5t %oots ( pea*2 x also occurs on *]ry1 plum & nect>9e4 ,! adult insects are black & ! immature /ages pale r$di%-br[n1 dull br[n1 or lemon-yell[4 ,dur+ ! w9t] ! insect lies und]gr\nd ab\t ! roots ( ! ho/ plant1 & !nce migrates to ! "y gr[? 9 spr+4 ,at fir/ only w+less =ms are se51 b z ! season advances ! w+$ migratory aphides develop2 at t "t ! foliage is s sev]ely attack$ t x becomes crumpl$ & functionless 7,fig4 #i1 #a71 :ile ! develop+ fruit is di/ort$ & r5d]$ useless4 ,! heat ( ! late summ] de/roys ! aphides /ill on ! foliage1 b suffici5t numb]s desc5d und]gr\nd = protection1 :]e !y live ov] w9t]4 ,,gre5 ,,pea*--,,aphis7,rhophalosiphum p]sic74--,?is aphid occurs on a wide range ( plants1 includ+ ! pea*1 &1 z a rule1 is mo/ abundant dur+ summ] & autumn2 z ! "n implies1 ! g5]al col\r is gre51 ?\gh "s individuals are r$di% or br[ni%-yell[2 ! w+less =ms h black-tipp$ 8cornicles10 & on ! abdom5 ( ! w+$ insects are d>k m>k+s4 ,,black ,,*]ry--,,aphis ,,or ,,fly7,myzus c]asi74--,?is aphid has n[ a _w-wide di/ribution4 ,9 ,new ,zeal& x has be5 f\nd on *]ry & plum1 ?\gh 9 o!r c\ntries its ho/s include pea*es1 r$ & black currants1 & crucif]\s plants1 su* z common mu/>d1 %eph]d's purse1 etc4 ,?is species exudes copi\s honey-dew1 ^u :i* sooty m\ld develops1 ?us r5d]+ fruit unfit = use4 ,! pr9cipal injury1 h[ev]1 is due to ! de/ruction ( %oots & leaves1 ! latt] frequ5tly curl+ up :5 ! insect clu/]s 9 d5se colonies ^u ! infe/$ plant4 ,! complete life-cycle has n be5 foll[$ "u ,new ,zeal& conditions1 b ! %9y black eggs occur on ! b>k & buds ( *]ry trees dur+ ! w9t]4 ,9 spr+ ! eggs hat*1 & ! insects1 rapidly reproduc+1 attack ! "y %oots & leaves4 ,obs]v]s 9 o!r c\ntries h not$ t !re is a summ] migration ( w+$ females to crucif]\s plants1 :]e colonies are e/abli%$1 & :5ce !re is a return migration dur+ ! autumn to ! orig9al ho/4 ,! w+less females are black1 ) "p ( ! legs yell[1 :ile ! "y individuals are pale 9 col\r2 ! w+$ females h a gre5 abdom51 f :i* arise ! black 8honey-tubes40 ,s9ce all ! ov]-w9t]+ eggs h hat*$ by ! "t ! buds op51 ! insect c be !n controll$ by applications ( nicot9e-sulphate4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4 7#a7 ,pea* leaves attack$ by ,black ,pea* aphis4 7#b7 ,colony ( ,cabbage aphis on leaf4 7#c7 ,/em ( insignis p9e attack$ by ,*]mes4 7#d7 ,grape ,phyllox]a & galls on v9e roots4 7#e7 ,grape ,phyllox]a galls on v9e leaf4 7#f7 ,woolly aphis on apple twig4 7#g7 ,galls ( ,popl> aphis4 7,figs4 #a1 #b & #f by ,w4 ,c4 ,davies2 ,fig4 #d4 aft] ,u4,s4 ,dept4 ,agric42 ,fig4 #e4 aft] ,n4,z4 ,dept4 ,agric47 ,,cabbage ,,aphis7,brevicoryne brassic74--,! cabbage aphis1 or cabbage gre5 fly1 is widely di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! _w1 & has become a s]i\s pe/ 9 ,new ,zeal&1 caus+ consid]able damage to crucif]\s crops2 x infe/s rape1 turnip1 cabbage1 ,brussels spr\ts1 caulifl[]1 z well z relat$ we$s1 su* z wild mu/>d1 %eph]d's purse & wat]cress4 ,mo/ damage is done dur+ dry seasons1 :5 ! plants succumb m readily to attack2 if ! insects are num]\s1 !y cause ! leaves to curl1 & give a greyi% appe>ance to infe/$ plants1 :i* may become flaccid & /icky f ! copi\s honey-dew ( ! insect4 ,! w+less =ms are blui% 9 col\r & coat$ ) a greyi% p[d]1 b ! w+$ females h ! head & ?orax black & ! abdom5 gre5i% 7,fig4 #i1 #b74 ,9 ,new ,zeal& all /ages may be f\nd ?r\gh\t ! ye> on w9t] crucif]s or on we$s1 ?\gh reproduction is ret>d$ dur+ ! w9t]2 9 ! spr+ ! w+$ females fly to "y crops4 ,9 v cold climates eggs are laid 9 ! autumn1 & ^! survive ! w9t]4 ,! cabbage aphis is attack$ by a numb] ( p>asites1 & usually ! br[ni% empty %ells ( a l>ge numb] t h be5 de/roy$ by a small p>asite are to be f\nd at any "t2 o!r important enemies are ! hov]-flies1 ! elev5-spott$ ladybird beetle1 & ! ,tasmanian aphis-lion4 ,! insect c be controll$ by spray+ ) nicot9e-sulphate to :i* soap has be5 add$4 ,,p9e ,,tree ,,*]mes7,*]mes p9i74--,?is is a widely-di/ribut$ species1 occurr+ ^u bo? ,au/rian & insignis p9e 9 ,new ,zeal&4 ,! insect lives 9 colonies ^u ! cones1 twigs & bran*es1 z well z ar\nd ! bases ( ! ne$les2 ea* aphis exudes a woolly cov]+1 :i* =ms conspicu\s :ite masses :5 ! trees are heavily infe/$ 7,fig4 #i1 #c74 ,"y trees seem to be ! m subject to infe/ation1 f :i* !y may recov] z !y gr[1 b "s damage is caus$ by ! insect by a weak5+ ( ! trees1 especially :]e gr[n 9 unsuitable localities4 ,x is frequ5tly notic$ t individual trees 9 a plantation are heavily infe/$1 :ile adjac5t trees ( ! same species are n4 ,! w+less =m ( ! insect1 cov]$ by its mat ( :ite ?reads1 is br[ni% 9 col\r & ornam5t$ ) num]\s d>k spots2 !re are no 8honey-tubes0 on ! abdom54 ,! life-cycle ( ?is insect becomes complicat$1 :5 x develops on two types ( conif]s2 9 ! latt] case ! prim>y ho/ is a species ( spruce ^u :i* ! insect =ms galls1 & ! second>y ho/ may be l>*1 ,d\glas fir or p9e1 ^u :i* gall =mation is unusual4 ,s f> z is kn[n1 only ! p9e-infe/+ =m ( ! aphis occurs 9 ,new ,zeal&4 ,,grape ,,phyllox]a7,phyllox]a va/atrix74--,?is de/ructive aphis1 sometimes call$ ! grape l\se1 is a native ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 :]e x normally infe/s grape v9es4 ,x 0 accid5tally introduc$ into ! grape-gr[+ di/ricts ( ,france1 :]e x became v de/ructive4 ,x lat] made its appe>ance 9 ,new ,zeal&4 ,! insect infe/s bo? ! leaves & roots ( grape v9es1 ! root-fe$+ /ages be+ ! mo/ de/ructive1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* v9es are n[ gr[n on resi/ant root /ocks4 ,! leaf-infe/+ /ages ( ! insect cause pocket-l galls to =m1 :i* op5 on ! upp] surface ( ! leaf by a n>r[ ap]ture conceal$ "u a tuft ( delicate hairs 7,fig4 #i1 #e74 ,9 ea* gall ! aphid matures & deposits sev]al hundr$s ( eggs1 f :i* w+less females hat*2 ^! w&] to o!r leaves1 & ea* insect =ms a new gall = itself4 ,sev]al g5]ations develop ?us1 b lat] _m ( ! (fspr+ migrate und]gr\nd & jo9 ! root-infe/+ colonies4 ,! irritation set up by ! latt] causes yell[ flabby nodules to develop on ! roots 7,fig4 #i1 #d74 ,^! nodules1 or galls1 lat] decay4 ,! root-fe$+ aphides are w+less1 & reproduce by means ( eggs = sev]al g5]ations4 ,al?\gh !y may g on develop+ ?us = _m ye>s1 x usually happ5s t1 t[>d autumn1 "s ( ! insects trans=m to w+$ females1 :i* fly to o!r v9es or are c>ri$ !nce by ! w9d4 ,!re ea* female fe$s on ! l[] leaf surface1 & deposits two k9ds ( eggs1 "s l>g] & "s small]2 f ! l>g] develop w+less females1 & f ! small] w+less males1 :i* are unable to fe$4 ,aft] f]tilisation1 ea* ( ^! females deposits a s+le egg ^u ! old] b>k ( ! v9e2 su* eggs d n hat* until ! spr+1 :5 !y give rise to ! w+less females t />t ! galls on ! leaves4 ,control dep5ds on ! use ( phyllox]a-resi/ant /ocks1 s9ce x is f ! root colonies ( ! aphis t ! foliage is re-infe/$ 9 ! spr+4 ,an important feature is to prev5t ! scion f s5d+ d[n roots :]e ! union ( ! scion & root /ock is close to ! soil2 if su* scion roots =m1 !y %\ld be cut away & ! soil remov$ f ! union4 ,,rose ,,aphis7,macrosiphum ros74--,! rose aphis is p]haps "o ( ! be/-kn[n insects ( ! g>d51 ma9ly ow+ to its preval5ce ^u ! "y gr[? ( all k9ds ( roses2 x sometimes occurs on apple1 tomato & rhodod5drons4 ,9 a colony "s ( ! insects are p9k1 & o!rs bright gre51 ?\gh 9 ! w+$ =ms ! head1 ant5n1 ?orax1 a r[ ( spots on ea* side ( ! abdom51 & ! 8honey-tubes0 are black2 9 bo? w+$ & w+less =ms ! eyes are r$4 ,9 ! case ( sev]e infe/ations1 plant gr[? is ret>d$ & ! leaves & fl[]s become di/ort$4 ,control c be effect$ by applications ( nicot9e-sulphate1 k]os5e1 or soap solution4 ,,apple ,,woolly ,,aphis7,eriosoma lanig]um74--,al?\gh frequ5tly call$ 8,am]ican ,blight10 ! apple woolly aphis is probably a native ( ,europe4 ,x occurs ?r\gh\t ,new ,zeal&1 & 0 a v s]i\s pe/ until controll$ by ! ,aphel9us p>asite4 ,! pres5ce ( ?is insect is made app>5t by ! *>act]i/ic :ite woolly pat*es 7,fig4 #i1 #f7 :i* appe> ^u ! apple trees1 due to ! woolly mat]ial secret$ by ! aphid4 ,ano!r feature is t ! "p ( ! tree attack$1 ev5 aft] ! insects h disappe>$1 is disfigur$ by gn>l$ swell+s1 due to abnormal ?ick5+ ( ! inn] b>k4 ,?is species also infe/s apple tree roots1 :i* become simil>ly mal=m$4 ,h[ev]1 root infe/ation has be5 ov]come by us+ root /ocks1 su* z ,nor!rn ,spy1 t are immune4 ,! individuals compris+ a colony ( woolly aphis are v>i\sly col\r$1 yell[1 gre5 & r$ pr$om9at+2 a consid]able am\nt ( honey-dew is secret$4 ,?is species has be5 f\nd to migrate to ! foliage ( ! elm & m\nta9 a%1 b 9 ,new ,zeal& ! elm-infe/+ =m has n be5 f\nd to occur4 ,! insect becomes active 9 spr+1 & rapidly increases until ! autumn4 ,"u fav\rable climatic conditions1 w+$ females develop & produce males & females1 ! latt] lay+ eggs4 ,! woolly aphis is prey$ ^u by ! n9e-spott$ ladybird1 b1 z ?is beetle is itself ! victim ( ano!r insect1 its utility is greatly m9imis$4 ,! mo/ important *eck to ! aphis is ! ,aphel9us p>asite 7,aphel9us mali71 ! influ5ce ( :i* has be5 spectacul> "u ,new ,zeal& conditions4 ,,plum ,,aphis7,rhophalosiphum nymph74--,?is insect is sometimes v common dur+ spr+ ^u ! %oots & leaves ( plum 9 ,new ,zeal&2 9 o!r c\ntries x has be5 f\nd to migrate to & infe/ ! fl[]s & leaves ( wat] lilies4 ,! insects assume v>i\s %ades ( gre51 ! w+$ females hav+ ! head1 ?orax1 & legs blacki%2 ! 8honey-tubes0 v>y 9 col\r1 & may be r$di%1 blacki% or yell[i%4 ,,popl> ,,gall ,,aphis7,pemphigus pupuli-transv]sus74--,^u ! leaf /ems ( popl> trees 9 _m p>ts ( ,new ,zeal& sac-l gr[?s 7,fig4 #i1 #g71 measur+ any?+ f half an in* to "o in* 9 l5g?1 may be f\nd4 ,^! are ! galls =m$ by ! ,nor? ,am]ican popl> gall aphis4 ,9 ea* gall are colonies ( ! aphis surr\nd$ by a mass ( floccul5t secretion4 ,! walls ( ! gall are ?ick & t\gh1 ) ! out] surface wr9kl$1 :ile at ! end1 t[>d "o side1 is a slit-l1 or sometimes circul>1 op5+ surr\nd$ by a ?ick5$ rim1 pres5t+ mu* ! same appe>ance z ! m\? ( a sack ga!r$ toge!r & ti$4 ,= ! mo/ "p1 ^! insects are w+less females only1 b dur+ ! summ]1 & p>ticul>ly t[>d ! end ( autumn1 w+$ females develop & migrate to crucif]\s plants1 su* z cabbage1 rape1 mu/>d & turnips1 or we$s alli$ to ^! cultivat$ =ms1 ^u ! roots ( :i* !y e/abli% colonies surr\nd$ by a woolly secretion4 ,9 spr+ a return migration to ! popl> takes place1 & galls are aga9 e/abli%$4 ,leaf-hopp]s4 ,leaf-hopp]s =m a gr\p ( small1 n>r[-bodi$1 sap-suck+ insects2 z ! "n implies1 !y infe/ ! foliage ( a v>iety ( plants1 & :5 di/urb$ h ! habit ( sudd5ly leap+ or hopp+ to safety2 ! species pres5t 9 ,new ,zeal& are usually ( a gre5i% or yell[i% col\r4 ,! adult insect is w+$ 7,fig4 #h1 ,k1 ,l71 & ! female lays h] eggs 9 ! plant tissues 7,h72 f ^! eggs ! "y w+less hopp]s 7,i7 hat* & attack ! plant2 z !y gr[1 w+s develop 7,j71 b until !n ! insect dep5ds = locomotion ^u its hopp+ p[]s4 ,! mo/ out/&+ species 9 ,new ,zeal& is ! apple leaf-hopp] 7,typhlocyba au/ralis74 ,?is insect causes consid]able damage to apple trees unless controll$1 :i* c be effect$ by spray+ ) nicot9e-sulphate aga9/ ! "y insects 9 ! spr+4 ,:ite-flies4 ,:ite-flies1 or mealy-w+s1 are m9ute sap-suck+ insects1 hav+ ! body & w+s cov]$ ) mealy wax4 ,! female 7,fig4 #h1 ,p7 lays h] eggs1 frequ5tly 9 circul> bat*es1 ^u foliage1 & ! "y insects 7,n7 are active1 b settle d[n & comm5ce fe$+ soon aft] hat*+4 ,lat] ! insects *ange to ano!r =m 7,o71 )\t legs & ant5n1 & s resemble scale insects to a c]ta9 ext5t2 f ! latt]1 h[ev]1 !y may be di/+ui%$ by ! waxy cov]+1 be>+ sp9e-l processes1 & by be+ surr\nd$ by a di/9ct m>g9al area4 ,an important species 9 ,new ,zeal& is ! gre5h\se :ite-fly 7,trialeurodes vapor>iorum71 aga9/ :i* fumigation ) calcium cyanide is ! be/ z a *eck4 ,?rips4 ,! foliage ( _m plants is sometimes infe/$ by v m9ute black insects1 kn[n z ?rips4 ,a species commonly met ) is t f\nd ^u ripe pea*es4 ,?rips are readily id5tifi$ by ! /ructure ( ! w+s 7,fig4 #h1 #d71 :i* are b n>r[ /rips fr+$ ) long1 rigid hairs4 ,^! insects1 by punctur+ ! plant tissues & suck+ up ! nutri5t sap1 v (t5 are responsible = infect+ heal?y plants ) disease1 su* z mosaic4 ,accord+ to ! species ( ?rips1 ! female lays h] eggs ei!r 9 ! plant tissues or ^u ! surface4 ,! "y insects are w+less1 b attack ! plant 9 ! same mann] z does ! adult2 z developm5t proce$s1 ! insect trans=ms to a pupa1 f :i* ! adult ultimately em]ges4 ,a *>act]i/ic symptom ( ?rips infe/ation is a silv]+ ( ! foliage1 :ile ! leaves are fur!r r5d]$ unsightly by ! m9ute specks ( h>d5$ excreta eject$ by ! insects4 ,_m ?rips pass _! :ole developm5t ^u ! ho/ plants1 :ile o!rs pass "p ( _! lives und]gr\nd4 ,"o ( ! commone/ species met ) "u glass & out ( doors is ! gre5h\se ?rips 7,helio?rips hmorrhoidalis74 ,?rips are readily controll$ by means ( nicot9e-sulphate4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,leaf-,fe$+ ,insects4 ,leaf-fe$+ insects h _! m\?-p>ts develop$ = ! bit+ (f & ma/ication ( _! food2 su* insects are1 9 g5]al1 e>wigs1 crickets & gras%opp]s1 ! cat]pill>s ( mo?s & butt]flies1 beetles & _! grubs1 & ! grubs ( saw-flies4 ,su* insects v>y1 n only 9 _! p]iod ( activity1 "s fe$+ at night1 o!rs dur+ ! day1 b also 9 ! mann] "u :i* !y set ab\t x4 ,_m fe$ expos$ ^u ! surface ( ! plant1 :ile o!rs require protection1 su* z is af=d$ by ! webb+ toge!r ( leaves4 ,"s fe$ ^u ! leaf epid]mis only2 "s eat holes 9 ! leaf-surface1 or gnaw irregul> not*es f ! leaf-edge2 :ile ! gross] fe$]s completely dev\r ! :ole4 ,e>wigs4 ,9 _m p>ts ( ,new ,zeal& ! ,european e>wig 7,=ficula auricul>ia7 causes consid]able damage 9 g>d5s1 :ile 9 ,c5tral ,otago x sometimes ru9s ! /one fruits4 ,dur+ ! w9t] ?is insect lies und]gr\nd1 :]e ! female w be f\nd ) h] clu/] ( eggs4 ,9 ! spr+ ^! eggs hat*1 & ! small :iti% "y e>wigs 7,fig4 #d1 #b7 em]ge f ! gr\nd to fe$ l>gely ^u ! poll5 & pi/ils ( fl[]s4 ,at t "t ! insects & ! injury !y d are n v noticeable1 b z ! e>wigs gr[ 9 size !y become conspicu\s & ext5d _! depr$ations to ! foliage ( plants & to fruit4 ,e>wigs are nocturnal 9 _! habits1 & dur+ ! day take %elt] among fall5 leaves1 "u /ones1 sack+1 or bo>ds1 etc41 ly+ on ! gr\nd1 & may ev5 burr[ into ! soil itself4 ,9 ! control ( ! e>wig1 a great deal c be done by :at may be call$ clean g>d5+--t is1 ! removal ( all places likely to %elt] ! insect above gr\nd dur+ ! day4 ,ano!r important means is sy/ematic trapp+1 "o ( ! simple/ me?ods be+ to place crumpl$ newspap]s on ! gr\nd at nightfall1 9 :i* _m ( ! insects w seek %elt]1 ! pap]s be+ collect$ & burn$ next day4 ,b ! be/ me?od is ! use ( ! foll[+ poison bait3--,) #ablb4 ( bran mix #f qu>ts ( wat]1 to :i* has be5 add$ #eoz4 ( glyc]9e & #foz4 ( sodium fluoride2 to ?is ma% add #dlb4 ( treacle1 tak+ c>e to ?or\ghly mix ! :ole4 ,?is bait is spread at nightfall 9 places frequ5t$ by e>wigs1 & %\ld be repeat$ regul>ly1 especially aft] wet wea!r4 ,x is obvi\s1 if satisfactory results are to be secur$1 t !re %\ld be a co-op]ative campaign organis$ among ! resid5ts ( an e>wig-infect$ di/rict4 ,crickets & ,gras%opp]s4 ,=tunately1 nei!r crickets nor gras%opp]s 7,fig4 #aj1 #a & #b7 are a s]i\s m5ace to ! ,new ,zeal& horticulturi/1 ?\gh at times1 especially 9 ! w>m] p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 crickets may d "s ext5sive damage4 ,! control ( ^! pe/s is a difficult matt]1 s9ce !y are mobile insects1 & bre$ 9 places outside ! b\nd>ies ( ! horticulturi/'s activities4 ,"s b5efits c be secur$1 h[ev]1 by ?or\gh cultivation1 :i* breaks up ! egg-masses :i* are plac$ 9 ! gr\nd4 ,9 ! case ( s]i\s outbreaks1 ! use ( a poison$ bait w\ld h to be resort$ to1 & ! foll[+ is recomm5d$ f ! sev]al recipes 9 use3--,) #belb4 ( bran mix #c or #d gallons ( wat] 9 ord] to make a ?9 ma%2 to ?is1 add #b qu>ts ( molasses & #alb4 ( ,p>is gre51 ?or\ghly mix+ ! :ole4 ,if crickets alone are to be dealt )1 !n use a little m ( ! ,p>is gre54 ,?is ma% is spread on ! gr\nd invad$ by ! insects4 ,cat]pill>s4 ,( ! leaf-fe$+ insects1 ! cat]pill>s ( mo?s are ! mo/ commonly met )1 !re be+ a consid]able numb] ( de/ructive species4 ,cat]pill>s 7,fig4 #aj1 #c7 c be readily di/+ui%$ by _! /ructure f ! grubs ( o!r insects4 ,!y resemble %ort e>?worms 9 %ape1 & 9 hav+ ! body divid$ into sev]al segm5ts1 ( :i* !re are usually ?irte52 b "h ! resemblance to worms /ops4 ,!re is a di/9ct head--! fir/ segm5t--provid$ ) jaws1 & on ! "u side ( ea* ( ! next ?ree segm5ts1 or ?orax1 is a pair ( %ort feet4 ,! rema9+ segm5ts comprise ! abdom51 & possess suck]-l feet1 v>y+ 9 numb] accord+ to ! k9d ( cat]pill>2 9 "s =ms !re may be z _m z five pairs ( su* feet1 9 "s ?ree pairs1 & 9 o!rs two1 b 9 all ! pair on ! t]m9al segm5t p]si/s4 ,_m cat]pill>s are m or less hairy1 & o!rs comp>atively nude4 ,! foll[+ are among/ ! mo/ injuri\s k9ds3-- ,,leaf ,,roll]s4--,x is a common sight to see small gre5i% cat]pill>s %elt]+ betwe5 two or m leaves ( plants t h be5 ti$ toge!r by ! silk5 ?reads spun by ! cat]pill>s2 protect$ ?us1 ! insects fe$ m or less 9 security4 ,^! cat]pill>s belong to sev]al species ( ! tortricid mo?s1 :i* are !mselves comp>atively small & drab 9 col\r4 ,( ^! species1 ! mo/ abundant "o1 compris+ ov] #hd p] c5t4 ( ! leaf-roll] population1 is ! ,au/ralian apple-leaf roll] 7,tortrix po/vittana72 ! cat]pill>s ( ?is insect by no means conf9e _! attacks to ! apple1 b fe$ equally well ^u pe>1 orange1 grape1 rose1 insignis p9e1 oak1 pel>goniums1 etc4 ,ap>t f attack+ ! foliage1 ! cat]pill>s frequ5tly tie a leaf to ! surface ( apple & /one fruits1 & fe$ ^u ! sk9 ( ! latt]1 caus+ a blemi%4 ,! apple-leaf roll] passes ! w9t] 9 ! cat]pill> /age betwe5 two leaves4 ,9 ! spr+ ^! cat]pill>s trans=m to pup1 :i* give rise to mo?s f ! end ( ,augu/ to ab\t ! end ( ,octob]2 !re are at lea/ two broods ( cat]pill>s dur+ ! ye>1 b ! limits ( ^! broods are n cle>ly def9$4 ,! cat]pill>s are attack$ by sev]al species ( p>asites4 ,leaf-roll]s are easily controll$ by ! ars5ical sprays us$ aga9/ codl9 mo?1 b ^! sprays mu/ be cont9u$ into ! late summ] aft] _! ne$ aga9/ codl9 mo? is pa/4 ,,diamond-,,back$ ,,mo?7,plutella maculip5nis74--,! cat]pill>s ( ?is mo? 7,fig4 #aj1 #d7 are commonly f\nd attack+ ! leaves ( cabbages1 rape & o!r crucif]\s crops & we$s4 ,^! cat]pill>s are small & gre5i%1 &1 if di/urb$1 sudd5ly drop susp5d$ by a silk5 ?read atta*$ to ! plant4 ,! damage !y d is v (t5 ext5sive1 consid]able areas ( ! foliage be+ dev\r$4 ,:5 fully develop$1 ea* cat]pill> sp9s a silk5 cocoon on ! "u side ( ! leaf1 & !re trans=ms to ! pup1 f :i* a mo? ev5tually em]ges4 ,! insect is small1 n>r[1 & has a light-col\r$1 diamond-%ap$ m>k+ along ! back4 ,! mo? is nocturnal1 & %elt]s among/ ! d5s] foliage dur+ ! day2 x em]ges at night1 & lays its eggs ^u ! leaves4 ,! life-cycle f eggs to adult occupies "s #cf days1 m or less1 accord+ to ! season1 & !re may be six or sev5 g5]ations dur+ ! ye>4 ,9 control1 an important po9t to note is t ! diamond-back$ mo? bre$s ^u crucif]\s we$s--wat]cress1 %eph]d's purse1 & h$ge-mu/>d--z well z on ! old plants ( a crop left 9 ! gr\nd2 x is f su* places t infe/ation ( future crops arises1 & ! cle>+ up ( su* bre$+ places %\ld be giv5 close att5tion4 ,"u g>d5 conditions1 control c be secur$ by spray+ ! plants ) ars5ate ( lead 7to :i* a spread] mu/ be add$ 9 ! case ( cabbage71 :i* %\ld be done especially :5 ! plants are "y4 ,,k[hai ,,mo?7,mecyna maorialis74--,! cat]pill> ( ?is native mo? sometimes becomes epidemic1 :5 x does consid]able damage to k[hai1 broom1 lup9s1 & sometimes clov]4 ,! cat]pill>1 :i* measures ab\t an in* :5 mature1 is ( a gre5i% col\r1 hav+ r[s ( black tub]cles ) :ite c5tres along ! sides1 & a d\ble r[ ( :ite spots along ! back2 f ! black tub]cles black bri/le-l hairs arise4 ,! cat]pill> sp9s a silk5 cocoon1 9 :i* x pupates4 ,! mo? is comp>atively small1 ! =e w+s be+ yell[i%-br[n ) d>k] m>k+s1 & ! h9d w+s orange-yell[ ) a blacki% bord]4 ,!re are at lea/ two broods ( cat]pill>s annually3 ! fir/ 9 ! spr+1 & ! second dur+ autumn4 ,ars5ate ( lead w give effective control on g>d5 legumes4 ,,cut-,,worms4--,?is t]m is appli$ to ! cat]pill>s ( a numb] ( night-fly+ noctuid mo?s2 ^! cat]pill>s are smoo?-bodi$ & r worm-l1 9 "s cases measur+ f "o & a-half to two in*es 9 l5g? :5 full gr[n4 ,!y fe$ at night1 & _! me?od ( attack is *>act]i/ic 9 t !y nip (f "y plants close to ! gr\nd 7,fig4 #aj1 #e71 s t ! latt] fall ov]1 :5 !y are dev\r$ by ! cat]pill>s2 ?is habit has giv5 rise to ! "n 8cut-worms40 ,dur+ ! day ! cut-worms are to be f\nd curl$ up 9 ! gr\nd close to ! plants !y h be5 attack+4 ,! mo?s ( ^! cat]pill>s are r /\t-bodi$1 & measure ab\t ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in* long4 ,"o ( ! commone/ species is ! cosmopolitan greasy-cut-worm 7,agrotis ypsilon74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 7#a7 ,cricket4 7#b7 ,gras%opp]4 7#c7 ,cat]pill>4 7#d7 ,diamond-back$ ,mo?--a1 adult mo?2 b1 egg2 c1 l>va2 d1 pupa4 7#e7 ,cut-worm ly+ by damag$ plant4 7#f7 ,tomato-worm ,cat]pill>--a1 adult2 b1 l>va4 7#g7 ,cabbage ,:ite ,butt]fly--a1 adult2 b1 egg2 c1 l>va2 d1 pupa4 7#h7 ,l>va case ( ,bag-mo?4 ,?\gh cut-worms are active ?r\gh\t ! gr[+ p]iod ( plants1 mo/ damage is done to "y & t5d] plants at ! "t ( e/abli%m5t1 & ?is is p>ticul>ly noticeable 9 ! spr+4 ,:5 plants are gr[n isolat$ 9 r[s1 & ! area is n too l>ge1 complete protection f cut-worms c be secur$ by enclos+ ea* plant 9 a t9 coll> pu%$ into ! gr\nd & project+ a few in*es f ! surface2 ^! coll>s are remov$ :5 ! plant is well e/abli%$4 ,9 localities :]e cut-worms are v tr\blesome x is advisable to r$uce _! numb]s by means ( a poison bait made z foll[s3--#ejlb4 ( bran & #alb4 ( ,p>is gre5 are ?or\ghly mix$ 9 a dry /ate2 :5 ?is is done1 & j be=e be+ us$1 ! bran is moi/5$ ) wat]1 sweet5$ ) molasses1 until ! bait rea*es a crumbly1 b n saturat$1 condition4 ,?is bait may be broadca/ ov] ! infect$ area or laid ar\nd ea* plant z a b>ri]4 ,?is bait mu/ be appli$ e few days until ! plants h rea*$ a /age :5 !y are able to )/& cut-worm attack4 ,a great deal c be done to *eck cut-worms by remov+ d5se gr[?s ( we$s & r\gh h]bage gr[+ 9 unus$ p>ts ( ! g>d52 9 su* places ! insects bre$1 & are a s\rce ( infe/ation4 ,ano!r po9t to consid] is t ?or\gh cultivation w de/roy _m pup t are ly+ und]gr\nd1 & :i* w\ld o!rwise give rise to ano!r g5]ation ( mo?s4 8,,army-,,worms40--,^! cat]pill>s are simil> 9 _! appe>ance & g5]al habits to ! cut-worms1 b diff] 9 _! me?od ( attack4 ,:5 pres5t 9 numb]s1 !y move ?r\gh a crop--especially c]eals--eat+ z !y g1 & leav+ no?+ b deva/ation 9 _! wake1 mu* z does an invad+ army on ! m>*4 ,!y are n ( s mu* int]e/ to ! horticulturi/ z to ! f>m]4 ,,tomato-,,worm7,helio?is armig]a74--,?is cat]pill> 7,fig4 #aj1 #f7 is "o ( ! mo/ conspicu\s cat]pill>s met ) 9 ! g>d54 ,its habit ( bor+ into & eat+ ! cont5ts ( tomatoes gives x ! "n ( 8tomato-worm40 ,x is a cosmopolitan insect1 & is especially de/ructive to fl[] buds & fruit1 a wide range ( plants be+ attack$4 ,! cat]pill>s v>y 9 col\r1 "s be+ gre5i% & o!rs br[ni%1 ) r$di%1 yell[i% or :ite m>k+s4 ,! mo?1 :i* belongs to ! noctuid gr\p1 is on ! w+ bo? day & night1 mo/ly dur+ ! e>li] "p ( ! ye>2 x is a /\tly-built insect1 measur+ some:at ov] half-an-in* long2 its col\r is a br[ni%-orange1 ) oblique d>k] b&s on ! w+s4 ,z ! insect passes ! w9t] & spr+ z a pupa 9 ! gr\nd1 ?or\gh cultivation w help to de/roy a consid]able numb]4 ,! use ( ars5ate ( lead sprays1 h[ev]1 is ! mo/ effective control = ! cat]pill>s4 ,,hawk ,,or ,,sph9x ,,mo?7,sph9x convolvuli74--,?is conspicu\s insect & its cat]pill>s are mo/ abundant 9 ! ,auckl& prov9ce1 ?\gh f\nd z f> s\? z ,*ri/*ur*4 ,! cat]pill>s fe$ on convolvulus1 b d consid]able damage to ! foliage ( ! kum>a & sometimes tobacco4 ,! cat]pill> is ! l>ge/ met ) 9 ! g>d52 x is /\t 9 =m1 & measures up to #c-a_/b in*es :5 fully gr[n4 ,x is to be recognis$ at once on acc\nt ( ! d>k r$1 horn-l process aris+ f ! end ( ! body4 ,! cat]pill> may be ( two col\rs--! "o gre51 ) diagonal yell[ b>s on ! sides2 ! o!r1 br[ni%-yell[1 ) d>k l9es on ! back & sides4 ,f ab\t ,febru>y to ,novemb] ! insect lies 9 ! gr\nd z a pupa4 ,! latt] c be recognis$ by a curv$ process aris+ f ! head & ly+ along ! body4 ,! mo? flies rapidly dur+ ! la/ & e>li] mon?s ( ! ye>2 x is a l>ge1 conspicu\s insect1 ab\t #a-a_/b in*es long1 ) greyi%-br[n mottl$ w+s1 :ile ! abdom5 is conspicu\sly b>r$ ) :ite1 r$ & br[n4 ,ars5ate ( lead aga9/ ! "y cat]pill>s dur+ ,novemb] to ,febru>y w\ld act z an effici5t control4 ,,cabbage ,,:ite ,,butt]fly7,pi]is rap74--,?is butt]fly 7,fig4 #aj1 #g7 is a rec5t importation1 hav+ be5 fir/ not$ at ,napi] 9 #aicj4 ,s9ce !n x has spread ) m>vell\s rapidity ?r\gh\t ! ,nor? ,isl&1 & has appe>$ 9 ! ,s\? ,isl&1 9 ! vic9ity ( ,tim>u4 ,! cat]pill>s ( ?is insect are p>ticul>ly sev]e 9 _! attacks ^u ! foliage ( cabbages & caulifl[]s1 ?\gh !y also fe$ ^u _m o!r relat$ plants1 su* z lettuce & radi%1 besides crucif]\s we$s4 ,! cat]pill>s ( ! :ite butt]fly are n to be confus$ ) ^? ( ! diamond-back$ mo?1 already describ$4 ,! full-gr[n :ite butt]fly cat]pill> is a conspicu\s insect1 & measures up to an in* & a-qu>t] 9 l5g?2 x is easily di/+ui%$ by its leaf-gre5 col\r & velvet-l appe>ance1 :ile d[n ! c5tre ( ! back is a n>r[ orange /ripe1 & on ea* side a br[ni% l9e =m$ ( little spots4 ,! *rysalis measures ab\t ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in* long1 hav+ a po9t$ process f ! head1 & a keel-l ridge on its back1 :ile ! col\r v>ies accord+ to ! surr\nd+s ) :i* ! *rysalis bl5ds2 x is n protect$ by a cocoon ( silk1 & may be f\nd ^u ! food plant or any o!r support ne> by4 ,! butt]fly itself is a v conspicu\s insect1 measur+ ab\t two in*es across ! exp&$ w+s4 ,! female is ( a yell[i%-:ite col\r1 ) d>k] to blacki% m>k+s at ! =e-angles ( ! front w+s1 :ile !re are two simil> spots on ! surface ( ! same w+s1 & "o on ! h9d pair4 ,! male is :iti%1 ) a dull greyi%-gre5 or blui% hue1 m>k$ mu* z ! female1 except t !re is only a s+le spot on ! surface ( ea* w+4 ,! eggs 7,fig4 #aj1 #g;b7 are bottle-%ap$1 & /& erect ^u ! leaf surface1 :]e !y are laid s+ly1 & n 9 bat*es2 !y are visible to ! nak$ eye4 ,! eggs hat* )9 a week aft] be+ laid4 ,!re are sev]al g5]ations ea* ye>4 ,! cabbage butt]fly c be controll$ by ! use ( lead ars5ate4 ,x has be5 f\nd effective :5 plant+ out to fir/ dip ! se$l+s 9 lead ars5ate at ! rate ( #alb4 9 #ej gallons ( wat]1 to :i* #alb4 ( laundry soap is add$ z a spread]4 ,dur+ ! gr[? ( ! crop ! same /r5g? ( ars5ate & soap c be appli$ z a spray4 ,,magpie ,,mo?7,nyctem]a annulata74--,"o ( ! commone/ & mo/ conspicu\s day-fly+ insects ( ! g>d5 & field is ! magpie mo?4 ,x is black 9 col\r1 reliev$ by an orange-b&$ abdom5 & :iti% spots on ! w+s1 two on ea* ( ! front w+s & "o on ea* h9d "o4 ,its black1 hairy cat]pill>s1 commonly call$ 8woolly be>s10 h n>r[ brick-r$ l9es along ! body1 & v (t5 d "s consid]able damage to c9]>ias2 !y also attack we$s1 su* z ragwort & gr\ndsel4 ,! small globul> eggs are laid 9 clu/]s on ! leaves ( ! food plant4 ,at fir/ !y are pale gre51 lat] becom+ d>k yell[1 & j be=e ! "y cat]pill>s em]ge f !m !y *ange to a lead5 col\r4 ,:5 fully f$1 ! cat]pill> seeks a %elt]$ place 7b5ea? /ones1 "u1 b>k1 etc471 & !re sp9s a loose cocoon1 9 :i* x trans=ms to ! *rysalis2 ! latt] becomes blacki% or br[ni% 9 col\r1 ) yell[ m>k+s4 ,!re are sev]al g5]ations dur+ ! ye>4 ,c9]>ias c be protect$ by spray+ ) lead ars5ate1 or1 bett]1 by remov+ ! cat]pill>s by h& & de/roy+ !m4 ,,cabbage ,,tree ,,mo?7,v5usia v]riculata74--,! foliage ( ! cabbage tree is frequ5tly hol$ on ! surface & not*$ along ! edges--?is is ! "w ( ! cabbage tree mo? cat]pill>s4 ,! hi/ory ( ! insect is z foll[s3--,! nocturnal mo? measures ab\t an in* & a-half across ! exp&$ w+s1 :i* are *>act]i/ically col\r$ by alt]nat+ *ocolate-br[n & yell[i%-:ite l9es runn+ f w+-tip to w+-tip across ! body1 s t ! insect m]ges into ! g5]al patt]n & col\r ( a dead leaf1 ^u :i* x usually re/s4 ,! eggs are gre51 & at fir/ bl5d ) ! gre5 leaf1 on :i* !y are (t5 laid 9 bat*es2 :5 on dead leaves !y become conspicu\s4 ,lat] ! eggs *ange col\r to br[n1 & f9ally r$4 ,! cat]pill>s congregate 9 ! unop5$ foliage1 & _! injury becomes app>5t z ! leaves op54 ,! l>v trans=m to *rysalids 9 silk5 cocoons1 loosely spun 9 any suitable crevice ^u ! trees4 ,if x 0 necess>y & practicable to protect ornam5tal cabbage trees f ! attacks ( ?is insect1 x c\ld be done by remov+ dead leaves f ! cr[n & spray+ ) ars5ate ( lead to :i* laundry soap _h be5 add$4 ,,bag ,,mo?7ceticus omnivorus74--,?is is an insect t nev] fails to attract att5tion on acc\nt ( its cig>-%ap$ bags 7,fig4 #aj1 #h71 con/ruct$ by ! l>v1 & are to be f\nd atta*$ to a v>iety ( plants1 ^u ! foliage ( :i* ! l>v fe$1 ?\gh !y are n s]i\s pe/s4 ,ea* cat]pill> sp9s its own t\gh silk5 bag1 :i* x nev] leaves1 & to ! outside ( :i* x frequ5tly atta*es fragm5ts ( leaves & twigs4 ,?\gh ! male is a normal mo?1 & flies ab\t 7x is practically black1 & d5sely hair$1 ) transluc5t smoky-black w+s hav+ an expanse ( ab\t an in* & a-qu>t]71 ! female develops 9 an abnormal mann]1 & assumes a grub-l =m1 nev] leav+ ! bag wov5 by its cat]pill>4 ,if x %\ld be f\nd necess>y1 z sometimes happ5s1 ! only satisfactory way ( controll+ ! bag-mo? is to remove by h& & de/roy4 ,beetles4 ,unlike ! cat]pill>s ( mo?s1 !re are v few beetles 9 ,new ,zeal& t are important leaf-fe$]s4 ,?\gh few 9 numb]s1 h[ev]1 ! out/&+ ones are v de/ructive4 ,! beetles !mselves1 z well z _! l>v1 accord+ to ! species1 may attack foliage1 b 9 o!r cases x is only ! beetles t fe$ on foliage :ile _! l>v live und]gr\nd on roots4 ,! foll[+ species are out/&+3-- ,,cock*af]s4--,^! are ! adults ( ! grass grubs1 & !re are sev]al species1 all native to ,new ,zeal&4 ,! commone/ & mo/ de/ructive "o 7,fig4 #aa1 #a;a7 is ! s-call$ br[n beetle 7,odontria zeal&ica71 misnam$ ! 8turnip fly10 :i* is on ! w+ = ab\t six weeks ea* ye>1 dur+ ,novemb] & e>ly ,decemb] z a rule4 ,x sw>ms at dusk1 creat+ a l\d1 dron+ s\nd1 & is responsible = widespread damage by defoliat+ g>d5 plants & field crops1 z well z trees4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 7#a7 a1 ,br[n-*af] beetle2 b1 ant5na ( beetle1 %[+ f+]-l processes2 c1 l>va or grass grub4 7#b7 ,bronze beetle4 7#c7 a1 ,gum-tree weevil2 b1 egg capsule2 c1 l>va4 7#d7 ,eucalyptus tortoise beetle4 7#e7 a1 ,pe> saw-fly2 b1 l>va f ! side2 c1 l>va f above4 7#f7 ,pe> midge4 ,?is beetle is easily id5tifi$4 ,x is r plump-bodi$1 br[ni%1 smoo?1 & measures ab\t ?ree-eigh?s ( an in* long4 ,l all beetles1 ! front w+s are h>d1 & =m a cov] ov] ! body :5 clos$2 ^! h>d5$ w+s1 or elytra1 d n rea* q to ! end ( ! abdom51 ! tip ( :i* rema9s uncov]$4 ,ano!r def9ite "* is f\nd 9 ! ant5n1 :i* t]m9ate 9 f+]-l processes 7,fig4 #aa1 #a;b74 ,!re are sev]al species ( cock*af]s1 to :i* all ^! *>act]i/ics1 except ! col\r1 might be ref]r$1 b none is s abundant z ! species "u review4 ,!re is "o1 h[ev]1 t is on ! w+ ab\t ! same "t z1 or a little e>li] ?an1 ! br[n beetle4 ,?is species is some:at l>g]1 ab\t half an in* long2 x is sp>sely clo!d ) hair1 & ! elytra are m>k$ by broad br[n /ripes1 alt]nat$ ) v n>r[ d>k] ones4 ,! br[n beetle lays its sph]ical eggs 9 ! gr\nd1 pref]ably among/ ! roots ( grass1 /rawb]ries1 etc4 ,! grubs 7,fig4 #aa1 #a;c7 are well kn[n z grass grubs2 !y are :iti% 9 col\r1 ! swoll5 t]m9al segm5t ( ! abdom5 be+ v (t5 d>k]4 ,^! grubs are sometimes call$ 8curl-grubs10 f _! habit ( ly+ d\bl$-up :5 at re/ or fe$+ 9 ! gr\nd4 ,t[>ds ,septemb] ea* ye> ! grubs ( ! br[n beetle pupate prior to ! beetles em]g+ 9 ,novemb]4 ,^! grubs w be ref]r$ to lat] "u ! *apt] deal+ ) subt]ranean insects4 ,9 g>d5s & nurs]ies1 ! depr$ations ( ! beetles may be less5$ by spray+ ) lead ars5ate1 or by ! use ( sulphur smudges4 ,! use ( smudges 0 develop$ v effectively z foll[s by ,mr4 ,d4 ,j4 ,bu*anan1 =e/ rang] at ! ,tapanui ,/ate ,=e/ nurs]ies4 ,sulphur is spread on /rips ( scrim1 :i* are !n roll$ up & plac$ 9 conta9]s1 su* z old pa9t pots4 ,! latt] are set ab\t ! nurs]y1 & fir$ at ev5+1 :5 !y w burn ?r\gh\t ! night1 ! fumes act+ z a det]r5t to ! beetles4 ,:5 only a few plants are to be protect$1 su* z bu% roses1 ! beetles c be w>d$ (f by all[+ a hose to play ov] ! plants ?r\gh\t ! night4 ,ano!r common cock*af] :i* is on ! w+ mo/ ( ! summ] & autumn is ! gre5 manuka beetle 7,pyronota fe/iva74 ,?is insect is capable ( caus+ consid]able damage z a defoliator4 ,x is active bo? day & night4 ,! g5]al col\r is bright gre51 ) a d>k /ripe d[n ! middle ( ! back1 ?\gh "s specim5s are br[n or copp]y2 ! legs are orange-yell[1 & ! l5g? ( ! insect is a little ov] a qu>t] ( an in*4 ,,bronze ,,beetle7,eucolaspis brunneus74--,?is insect 7,fig4 #aa1 #b7 is v (t5 confus$ ) ! br[n beetle1 f :i*1 h[ev]1 x is easily di/+ui%$4 ,x is active dur+ ! day1 & attacks ! foliage & fruit ( a great v>iety ( plants1 eat+ holes f leaves1 s t ! latt] appe> z if !y _h be5 subject$ to a *>ge ( %ot1 or dev\r+ ! epid]mis f fruits & b]ries4 ,?is beetle is active dur+ ,novemb] to ,janu>y2 x measures ab\t "o-sixte5? ( an in* long1 is oval 9 outl9e1 & v>ies 9 col\r f yell[i%1 ) d>k] m>k+s1 to gre5i% or bronzy-black2 ! ant5n are comp>atively long1 & d n t]m9ate 9 any unusual mann]1 z d ^? ( ! cock*af]s4 ,a *>act]i/ic habit ( ! bronze beetle is to leap (f ! plant if di/urb$2 ?is habit has be5 responsible = ! gr\p to :i* ?is insect belongs be+ call$ 8flea beetles40 ,! bronze beetle lays its eggs 9 ! gr\nd1 :]e ! l>v fe$1 ?\gh !y are n injuri\s 9 t /age4 ,! beetles are to be controll$ by ! use ( lead ars5ate4 ,,gum ,,tree ,,weevil7,gonipt]us scutellatus74--,bo? ! adults & l>v ( ?is ,au/ralian weevil attack eucalyptus foliage1 p>ticul>ly bluegum1 9 mo/ p>ts ( ,new ,zeal&1 ! adult weevils eat+ f ! leaf m>g91 z well z dev\r+ t5d] %oots1 :ile ! l>v cut elongat$ holes f ! leaf surface4 ,! weevil 7,fig4 #aa1 #c;a71 :i* is ( a tawny to br[ni%-black col\r1 & clo!d ) yell[i%-:ite & gold5 hairs1 measures f a qu>t] to "o-?ird ( an in* 9 l5g?2 x possesses a %ort sn\t on ! head4 ,! eggs are yell[i%1 & are pack$ 9 a h>d1 black capsule 7,fig4 #aa1 #c;b71 atta*$ ma9ly to ! surface ( "y leaves4 ,! l>v 7,fig4 #aa1 #c;c7 are legless1 l ^? ( all weevils1 & yell[i% at fir/1 :5 !y are /udd$ ) small black dots1 & h a d>k /ripe along ea* side4 ,frequ5tly ^! "y l>v are se5 ) a tail-l ?read ( blacki% excrem5t project+ f ! po/]ior end4 ,! plump1 fully-develop$ grub is yell[i%-gre51 ) a wr9kl$ sk91 & is slug-l 9 g5]al appe>ance4 ,pupation takes place 9 ! gr\nd4 ,?is insect ov]-w9t]s 9 ! adult /age1 & l>ge numb]s ( ! weevils are v (t5 to be f\nd b5ea? loose b>k on ! tree trunks dur+ ! w9t]4 ,control dep5ds ^u ! use ( an egg p>asite :i* has be5 e/abli%$ 9 c]ta9 localities ( ! ,dom9ion4 ,9 ! case ( small ornam5tal trees1 spray+ ) lead ars5ate to :i* laundry soap has be5 add$ %\ld be effective4 ,,eucalyptus ,,tortoise ,,beetle7,p>opsis dilatata74--,?is is ano!r ,au/ralian insect re/rict$ s f> to ! ,ea/ ,coa/ di/ricts ( ! ,s\? ,isl&1 :]e x attacks eucalyptus foliage 9 company ) ! weevil4 ,! beetle 7,fig4 #aa1 #d7 is tortoise-%ap$1 v>ies 9 col\r f r$di%-yell[ to r$di%-br[n1 ) d>k] m>k+s on ! back1 :i* is pitt$ by m9ute depressions1 & has a l5g? ( f "o-?ird to half an in*4 ,l ! weevil1 ?is beetle passes ! w9t] b5ea? loose b>k4 ,! eggs are conspicu\s & cig>-%ap$1 be+ laid 9 clu/]s1 ly+ m or less on _! sides1 ^u ! foliage4 ,! l>va is r plump1 & po9t$ po/]iorly2 x possesses legs1 :ile at ! tip ( ! body is a suck]-l false foot4 ,! g5]al col\r is yell[i%1 v>y+ to a rosy-p9k1 !re be+ a d>k] /ripe d[n ! back1 :ile along ea* side is a simil> "o above a r[ ( black dots4 ,,pe> ,,& ,,*]ry ,,slug1 ,,or ,,saw-,,fly7,caliroa limac9a74--,! slug-l l>v ( ?is insect are v abundant ^u haw?orn foliage1 & if n controll$ d consid]able damage to *]ry1 plum1 pe>1 & pea*4 ,^! l>v 7,fig4 #aa1 #e;b7 are v (t5 call$ lee*es1 & dev\r ! epid]mis1 expos+ ! skeleton ( ! infe/$ leaves2 !y are slimy1 ( a d>k gre51 ?\gh orange-col\r$ imm$iately aft] a m\lt1 & ! head end is mu* enl>g$1 giv+ a clubb$ %ape to ! body1 along ! "u side ( :i* are sev]al false legs4 ,pupation takes place 9 ! gr\nd4 ,! adult 7,fig4 #aa1 #e;a7 measures ab\t a qu>t] ( an in* long1 is r ?ickly set1 black 9 col\r1 & possesses f\r transp>5t w+s4 ,! female deposits h] eggs 9 ! tissue ( ! foliage by means ( a saw-l ovipositor--h5ce ! "n 8saw-fly0--:i* is ?ru/ ?r\gh ! l[] epid]mis ( ! leaf1 :5 a pocket is =m$ to receive ! egg2 ea* egg pocket =ms a little pimple on ! upp] surface4 ,?is insect is v easily controll$ by spray+ foliage infe/$ by ! l>v ) lead ars5ate4 ,ano!r saw-fly closely relat$ to ! =ego+ species is ! will[ saw-fly 7,pontania proxima74 ,?is species has only rec5tly appe>$ 9 ,new ,zeal&1 & its l>v live 9 galls1 or swell+s1 on ! foliage ( will[s4 ,,pe> ,,midge7,p]risia pyri74--,a s]i\s pe/ ( pe> trees1 :i* = "s ye>s ret>d$ ! culture ( pe>s1 especially 9 ! ,auckl& di/rict1 is ! pe> midge4 ,?is is a m9ute1 delicate1 two-w+$ fly 7,fig4 #aa1 #f71 measur+ ab\t "o-tw5ty-fif? ( an in* long2 x has a blacki% head & ?orax1 & an orange-r$ to br[ni% abdom54 ,! female alights ^u "y leaves j bur/ f ! bud2 &1 :ile !y are yet curl$1 lays h] eggs betwe5 ! folds4 ,! l>v1 on hat*+1 live protect$ 9 ! curl$ leaves1 :i* !y attack1 & :i* nev] unfold4 ,! result is t ! infe/$ leaves ev5tually turn black & brittle1 & cease to function4 ,! fully-develop$ l>v drop to ! gr\nd1 :i* !y ent]1 & !re pupate4 ,! midges become abundant 9 e>ly spr+1 :5 ! fir/ "y pe> foliage develops1 & !y keep on produc+ g5]ation aft] g5]ation until ! autumn4 ,! w9t] is pass$ 9 ! l>val /age und]gr\nd b5ea? ! trees4 ,a p>asite has be5 e/abli%$ aga9/ ! pe/1 & is do+ good "w4 ,! insect c be r$uc$ to a l>ge ext5t by ?or\gh w9t] cultivation1 especially b5ea? ! trees4 ,! insect's l>v1 be+ protect$ )9 ! curl$-up leaves1 are n rea*$ by ord9>y sprays1 b ,dr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,makgill1 ( ,h5d]son1 secur$ "s excell5t results on "y trees by ! use ( nicot9e4 ,,ole>ia ,,gall ,,midge7,cecidomyia ole>i74--,9 _m p>ts ( ,new ,zeal& :]e ,ole>ia =/]i is gr[n z a h$ge1 x is v (t5 disfigur$ by ! =mation ( mal=mations1 or galls4 ,^! are caus$ by a native midge kn[n z ! ole>ia gall midge4 ,! midge itself resembles ! pe> midge 9 /ructure1 b is l>g]1 measur+ f "o-t5? to "o-eigh? ( an in* long2 x is conspicu\s on acc\nt ( its black ?orax & blood-r$ abdom54 ,9 e>ly spr+ ! midges appe> & lay _! conspicu\s masses ( bright r$ eggs ^u ! buds ( ! develop+ %oots4 ,! l>v1 on hat*+1 set up an irritation 9 ! rapidly-develop+ tissues1 caus+ ! latt] to swell & become mal=m$ into bun*es ( rosette-l galls4 ,if ! latt] are cut op51 a numb] ( ! yell[i% l>v w be f\nd1 ea* 9 its own comp>tm5t )9 ! fle%y gall4 ,!re is only "o brood ( adults ea* ye>4 ,control c be effect$ to a great ext5t by cutt+ back & burn+ ! badly-infe/$ p>ts dur+ w9t]1 & by prun+ ! "y gr[? c>ry+ ! eggs 9 ! spr+4 ,spray+ ) nicot9e :5 ! midges are active %\ld also help to protect ! plants4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,bor+ & ,und]gr\nd ,insects4 ,,codl9 ,,mo?7,cydia pomonella74--,! codl9 mo? cat]pill> burr[s 9 develop+ apples & pe>s1 & su* 8wormy0 fruit is kn[n to ev]ybody4 ,! mo? itself is seldom se51 s9ce x lies conceal$ until aft] nightfall1 :5 x becomes active & lays its eggs4 ,! insect 7,fig4 #ab;a7 measures ab\t ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in* long1 & is inconspicu\sly1 ?\gh beautifully1 col\r$2 ! =e w+s1 :i* cov] ! body :5 clos$1 are light grey1 cross$ by f9e b&s ( a d>k] hue1 giv+ ! appe>ance ( wat]$-silk1 :ile at ! extremity ( ea* w+ is a l>ge bronze spot2 ! h9d w+s1 se5 only :5 exp&$1 are ( a light br[n col\r4 ,! m9ute flat eggs are laid on ! foliage ( leaves1 on ! fruit1 or ev5 on "y b>k2 !y appe> at fir/ z gli/5+ :ite specks1 b1 z developm5t advances1 a r$ r+ develops1 & f9ally a black spot j prior to ! cat]pill>s hat*+4 ,9 "s places ! fir/ l>v develop+ 9 ! spr+ ent] ! fruit by way ( ! calyx1 b "u ,new ,zeal& conditions x is m usual = entry to be made by bor+ ?r\gh ! sk9 ( ! apple4 ,hav+ complet$ _! developm5t 9 ! fruit1 ! cat]pill>s bore _! way out & sp9 _! cocoons b5ea? ! loose b>k ( ! tree trunks2 9 ^! cocoons pupation takes place1 & f !m ! next g5]ation ( mo?s develops4 ,al?\gh 9 ,new ,zeal& !re is usually only "o g5]ation produc$ ea* ye>1 ?ree or ev5 f\r develop 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,! w9t] is pass$ by ! l>v 9 _! cocoons1 & pupation takes place j prior to ! p]iod :5 ! mo?s em]ge 9 ! spr+4 ,z ! mo?s cont9ue to em]ge & lay _! eggs = a p]iod ext5d+ f ,novemb] to ,febru>y1 x is ess5tial t regul> applications ( ars5ate ( lead be made dur+ t "t 9 ord] to protect ! fruit f ! l>v hat*+ f ! eggs laid by ! mo?s4 ,9 localities :]e ! spr+ l>v ent] ! calyx ( ! fruit1 x is ess5tial to apply ! fir/ spray j aft] ! petals fall1 s t ! poison may lodge 9 ! calyx be=e x closes4 ,! removal ( r\gh b>k f ! trunks ( bo? apple & pe> trees is a help 9 controll+ ! insect4 ,ano!r me?od sometimes us$ is to b& ! tree trunks ) /rips ( scrim2 "u ^! b&s ! l>v collect1 & ! =m] c be lat] remov$ & de/roy$ ) _! t5ants4 ,,currant ,,cle>-,,w+ ,,bor]7,sesia tipuli=mis74--,?is de/ructive mo? has be5 c>ri$ to & e/abli%$ 9 ,new ,zeal&1 z well z _m o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,9 currant g>d5s its l>v cause ! dea? ( canes by eat+ out ! pi?4 ,! mo? 7,fig4 #ab;b7 is a v conspicu\s & beautiful insect2 ! w+s1 :i* exp& to ab\t ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in*1 are transp>5t & bord]$ ) gold5-purple1 a b> ( ! same col\r cross+ ! surface ( ! =e w+s2 ! body 7ab\t half an in* long7 is metallic-purple1 ! ?orax hav+ a yell[ /ripe on ea* side1 :ile ! abdom51 b>r$ ) gold5 b&s1 t]m9ates 9 a fan-%ap$ tuft ( purpli% hairs4 ,! mo?s are active ea* ye> 9 ! spr+1 :5 !y lay _! br[ni%1 globul> eggs s+ly on ! b>k ( ! currant canes4 ,! resultant l>v bore into ! /em & de/roy ! pi?1 pass+ ! w9t] 9 ! damag$ canes4 ,9 ! foll[+ spr+ ! l>v become active once m & approa* ! surface1 :]e pupation takes place %ortly be=e ! mo?s em]ge4 ,!re is only "o g5]ation ea* ye>1 & control lies 9 ! removal & burn+ ( infe/$ canes 9 late w9t]4 ,,tomato ,,/em ,,bor]7,gnorimos*ema plsiosema74--,tomato gr[]s are frequ5tly fac$ ) ! problem ( ! de/ruction ( tomato plants caus$ by ! attacks ( ! l>v ( ! tomato /em bor] mo?4 ,?is insect caus$ consid]able damage = ! fir/ "t 9 ,auckl& "s f\rte5 ye>s ago1 ?\gh x 0 kn[n 9 o!r p>ts ( ! c\ntry z well4 ,! mo? itself 7,fig4 #ab;c7 is a small "o1 measur+ ab\t a qu>t] ( an in* ) ! w+s clos$4 ,9 ?is position ! insect is w$ge-%ap$ & conspicu\s4 ,aga9/ ! g5]al greyi%-br[n col\r is a d>k br[ni% area on ea* side4 ,! eggs are laid on ! tomato leaves1 9 :i* ! "y cat]pill>s tunnel z !y "w t[>d ! leaf petioles1 d[n :i* !y burr[ into ! ma9 /ems4 ,9 ! damag$ /ems1 pupation takes place4 ,"u fav\rable conditions1 ?is insect may pass ?r\gh at lea/ ?ree g5]ations dur+ ! season4 ,control dep5ds ^u sanitation & ! use ( ars5ate ( lead sprays4 ,all infe/$ /ems1 toge!r ) plants aft] ! crop has be5 remov$1 %\ld be burn$2 z ! insect is kn[n to attack potato plants & tub]s1 c>e %\ld be tak5 to de/roy all potato tops aft] h>ve/+4 ,frequ5t applications ( ars5ate ( lead are ess5tial to protect ! tomato plants1 especially dur+ ! e>li] "p ( ! season4 ,:5 on ?is subject1 m5tion %\ld be made ( ! potato-tub] mo? 7,ph?orima op]culella71 :i* is some:at simil> to ! tomato-/em bor]1 bo? 9 appe>ance & habits4 ,! l>va ( ?is insect is be/ kn[n f its habit ( bor+ ?r\gh potato-tub]s2 ^! burr[s become fill$ by a fungus aft] ! l>v h vacat$ !m4 ,! adult potato-tub] mo? is a night-fly]1 & lays its eggs ^u ! leaves ( ! plants2 ! l>v burr[ d[n ! /ems1 & may ev5 rea* ! tub] bel[ gr\nd4 ,:5 se$ is n prop]ly buri$1 ! mo? w also lay its eggs 9 ! 8eyes10 & s directly infe/ ! tub]2 ?is dang] applies also to potatoes 9 /ore or 9 bags4 ,9 ! control ( ! potato-tub] mo?1 ! foll[+ po9ts %\ld be not$3--,select only s\nd se$ & cov] well :5 plant$4 ,on h>ve/+ ! crop1 d n leave ! bagg$ potatoes /&+ 9 ! field ov]night1 z !y are expos$ to infe/ation2 nei!r cov] ! op5 bags ) ! potato-tops1 z is commonly done1 s9ce ?is w attract ! mo?s4 ,de/roy all tops imm$iately aft] h>ve/+4 ,du/+ potatoes 9 /ore ) slak$ lime w t5d to act z a protection aga9/ ! mo?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,figure #ab4 ,a--#a1 ,codl9 mo?2 #b1 codl9 l>va 9 apple4 ,b--#a1 ,currant cle>-w+ mo?2 #b1 cle>-w+ mo? l>va 9 /em4 ,c--#a1 ,tomato /em-bor] mo?2 #b1 l>va ( mo?2 #c1 damag$ tomato /em4 ,d--#a1 ,a long-horn beetle2 #b1 l>va ( long-horn beetle4 ,e--#a1 ,a leaf-m9+ fly2 #b1 leaf attack$ by leaf-m9]4 ,f--#a1 ,subt]ranean grass-cat]pill> mo?2 #b1 subt]ranean grass-cat]pill>4 ,g--#a1 ,a click beetle2 #b1 a wire-worm4 ,h--#a1 ,l>g] n>cissus fly2 #b1 small] n>cissus fly4 ,k--#a1 ,a subt]ranean spr+-tail2 #b1 a leaf-eat+ spr+-tail4 ,,r\nd-,,head$ ,,bor]s4--,apple1 almond1 & citrus trees1 toge!r ) gooseb]ry & su* ornam5tal & %elt] trees z popl>s1 tree-luc]ne1 & goat-will[1 are sometimes damag$ by r\nd-head$ bor]s1 :i* tunnel 9 ! /ems & bran*es4 ,^! bor]s 7,fig4 #ab;d7 are :ite 9 col\r1 n>r[-bodi$1 & cyl9drical1 ! segm5ts be+ usually well def9$1 & belong to a gr\p ( beetles kn[n z long-horn$ beetles1 a gr\p ( insects to :i* ! common hu-hu beetle belongs4 ,^! beetles are n>r[-bodi$1 & _! ant5n are comp>atively long & conspicu\s4 ,to control ^! pe/s1 ! only ?+ to d is to cut out & burn ! badly-infe/$ p>ts4 ,:]e a bor] is locat$ 7& ?is c be frequ5tly done by ! pres5ce ( ! p[d]$ wood eject$ f ! burr[s71 ! culprit may be kill$ by inject+ into ! tunnel "s c>bon bisulphide & plugg+ up ! op5+s ) "s clay or o!r simil> sub/ance4 ,,leaf-,,m9+ ,,flies4--,v (t5 ! leaves ( c9]>ia & *rysan!mum are disfigur$ by ! tortu\s tunnell+s ( ! maggots ( m9ute flies 7,fig4 #ab;e74 ,! adult insects are two-w+$1 & 9 /ructure resemble 9 _m respects m9iature h\seflies4 ,! eggs are laid 9 ! leaf tissues1 9 :i* ! :ole developm5t ( ! maggots & pup takes place4 ,! :ite maggots are small1 legless & headless4 ,spray+ ) black-leaf #dj w\ld act z a det]r5t to ! flies1 :ile infe/$ leaves %\ld be remov$ & de/roy$ be=e infe/ation becomes g5]al4 ,,grass ,,grub7,odontria zeal&ica74--,z expla9$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 ! grass grub is ! l>va ( a native cock*af] beetle 7,fig4 #aa1 #a74 ,?is grub1 by fe$+ ^u roots1 causes ext5sive damage to pa/ures & lawns1 z well z to _m g>d5 plants1 includ+ /rawb]ries4 ,9 ! case ( pa/ure & lawns1 ! pres5ce ( ev5 a consid]able numb] ( grass grubs is n detrim5tal unless !y occur conc5trat$ 9 def9ite areas1 :5 ! damage is pron\nc$4 ,) g>d5 plants1 h[ev]1 :i* are isolat$ :5 comp>$ ) ! d5se root masses ( grasses1 ! attacks ( "o or two grubs ^u ! roots ( a s+le plant may cause s]i\s injury4 ,grass grub damage to grasses is n m]ely due to attack ^u ! roots4 ,:ile fe$+1 ! grubs swall[ soil ) ! roots1 r5d]+ ! =m] spongy1 & s di/urb ! normal circulation ( moi/ure ab\t ! grass roots4 ,9 ! case ( infe/$ lawns1 x is advantage\s to roll infe/$ areas 9 ord] to pack ! soil pulv]is$ by ! grubs1 & re-e/abli% normal circulation ( soil moi/ure4 ,ano!r important feature 9 grub control is to /imulate root developm5t by means ( f]tilis]s4 ,a rec5tly-develop$ me?od ( 8grub-pro(+0 lawns is to broadca/ ov] e ?\s& squ>e feet ( turf to be treat$ "o bu%el ( scre5$ s& or clean soil1 9 :i* #elb4 ( lead ars5ate p[d] h be5 intimately mix$4 ,?is is said to rema9 effective = a p]iod ( ?ree ye>s2 b su* f]tilis]s z nitrate ( soda1 sup]phosphate1 sulphate ( pota%1 & potassium *loride %\ld n be us$ on 8grub-pro($0 turf1 z !y react ) ! lead ars5ate1 & r$uce its effectiv5ess1 ?\gh rott$ manure or ammonia sulphate may be us$4 ,! control ( grass grubs damag+ ! roots ( /rawb]ry & o!r plants is a difficult matt]1 ?\gh "s b5efit is to be d]iv$ by mak+ holes ab\t f\r in*es deep ) a /ick 9 ! soil ne> to ! infe/$ plants & p\r+ 9 a little c>bon bisulphide2 ! holes %\ld be clos$ imm$iately4 ,to protect /rawb]ry b$s1 if !y are n too ext5sive1 ! mo/ satisfactory me?od is to cov] ! plants ) scrim1 /ret*$ on frames1 at dusk dur+ ,novemb] & e>ly ,decemb]1 :5 ! beetles are fly+2 ?is w prev5t ! insects f infe/+ ! gr\nd ) _! eggs4 ,! use ( sulphur smudges1 already ref]r$ to1 is ( great importance 9 ?is respect4 ,,subt]ranean ,,grass ,,cat]pill>s4--,^! cat]pill>s are ! l>v ( native mo?s 7,fig4 #ab1 f#a7 belong+ to ! g5us ,por9a1 & :5 !y become epidemic !y cause mu* m ext5sive damage to pa/ure & lawns ?an d ! grass grubs4 ,:5 full gr[n1 ! greyi%-black cat]pill>s 7,fig4 #ab1 f#b7 rea* a l5g? ( ab\t ?ree in*es2 !y are s(t-bodi$ & r flaccid1 & live 9 und]gr\nd burr[s ( v>y+ dep?4 ,aft] d>k1 ^! cat]pill>s come to ! surface & dev\r ! grass1 eat+ x close to ! gr\nd1 mu* soil be+ swall[$ by ! l>v dur+ ! fe$+4 ,?is soil is evacuat$1 & resembles e>?worm ca/+s1 b is mix$ ) silk spun by ! cat]pill>s2 ! em]g5ce holes ( ! cat]pill>s1 ab\t ! diamet] ( a lead p5cil1 are conspicu\s on ! surface d5ud$ ( its cov]+ ( grass4 ,pupation takes place und]gr\nd1 & :5 ! mo?s em]ge ! pup fir/ move to & project beyond ! surface ( ! gr\nd2 ^! pup are l>ge & easily recognis$ by ! w+-cases1 :i* are v %ort comp>$ ) ! l5g? ( ! body4 ,! mo?s are on ! w+ dur+ spr+ & summ]1 ! re/ ( ! ye> be+ sp5t 9 ! l>val /age4 ,! mo?s are night-fly]s1 & are among/ ! l>ge/ species 9 ,new ,zeal&1 _! w+s hav+ an expanse ( f "o to ov] two in*es2 !y are heavy-bodi$ insects1 & v>y consid]ably 9 col\r4 ,"o ( ! commone/1 species is br[ni%-yell[1 or sometimes a smoky-grey1 ) a :ite /reak bord]$ ) black on ! =e w+s2 ! h9d w+s may be p9ki%4 ,! mo/ satisfactory me?od ( controll+ ! insect is to roll infe/$ lawns aft] d>k1 9 ord] to cru% ! cat]pill>s :il/ fe$+ on ! surface4 ,flood+ an infe/$ lawn ) wat] w br+ mo/ ( ! cat]pill>s to ! surface1 :5 !y c be collect$ & de/roy$4 ,spray+ grass 9 spr+ & e>ly summ] ) ars5ate ( lead w t5d to poison ! immature cat]pill>s4 ,!re are at lea/ ?ree species ( insect p>asites t attack ^! l>v1 & !re is also a fungus :i* invades & de/roys ! :ole body1 tak+ ! %ape ( ! insect2 su* fungus-infe/$ cat]pill>s are commonly call$ 8vegetable cat]pill>s40 ,,wireworms4--,! roots ( g>d5 plants & g]m9at+ se$s are (t5 damag$ by h>d1 wiry beetle grubs1 r$di%-br[n or :iti% 9 col\r1 call$ 8wireworms10 s nam$ f _! resemblance to %ort pieces ( wire2 !y h ?ree pairs ( legs beh9d ! head & a suck]-l app5dage on ! la/ body-segm5t 7,fig4 #ab1 g#b74 ,^! grubs trans=m to n>r[-bodi$1 br[ni% or blacki% beetles1 kn[n z 8click-beetles0 7,fig4 #ab1 g#a7 f _! habit1 :5 ov]turn$1 ( right+ !mselves by a spr++ action1 dur+ :i* a di/9ct & %>p click+ s\nd is made2 ! spr+ app>atus consi/s ( a sp9e1 ! tip ( :i* fits into a not* on ! "u side ( ! ?orax4 ,practically no?+ is kn[n z yet 9 reg>d to ! biology ( ! ,new ,zeal& click-beetles4 ,!y are extremely difficult to control1 & ! l>val /age cov]s a p]iod ( two or m ye>s4 ,,n>cissus ,,flies4--,!re are two species ( n>cissus flies--! l>g] 7,m]odon eque/ris7 & ! small] 7,eum]us /rigatus7 bo? occur 9 ,new ,zeal&4 ,! l>v ( ^! flies attack bulbs ( v>i\s k9ds1 ! ho/s ( ! l>g] fly be+ n>cissus1 hyac9?1 tulip1 am>yllis1 habran?us1 vallota1 galtonia1 scylla1 & leucojum2 & ( ! small] fly1 n>cissus1 hyac9?1 onion & %allot4 ,^! flies are two-w+$ insects1 ! h9d w+s be+ want+ z su*1 & belong to a gr\p call$ ! syrphid1 or hov] flies4 ,! l>g] n>cissus fly 7,fig4 #ab1 h#a7 resembles some:at a humble-bee 7:i*1 h[ev]1 has f\r w+s72 its /\t & v hairy body measures ab\t half an in* long4 ,!re is consid]able v>iation 9 col\r1 ?\gh black or br[n pr$om9ates1 ) greyi% or yell[i% hairs1 & b&s ( ! same col\r2 ! b&s1 h[ev]1 are abs5t 9 "s individuals4 ,dur+ spr+ ! insects fly ab\t 9 ! sun1 & lay _! eggs at ! leaf bases ( ! ho/ plants1 or on ! expos$ neck ( bulbs1 or 9 ! soil close by4 ,! l>v1 :i* are legless1 yell[i% grubs1 ent] ! bulb1 & may completely de/roy x4 ,infe/$ bulbs may be detect$ by an unnatural s(tness ne> ! neck :5 press$ betwe5 ! f+]s4 ,! small] n>cissus fly 7,fig4 #ab1 h#b7 is ab\t half ! l5g? ( ! l>g]1 ( a %9y black col\r1 ) metallic reflections1 & is n clo!d ) hair4 ,! eggs are laid 9 ! gr\nd1 or at times ^u ! plant itself4 ,sev]al l>v ( ?is fly may be f\nd 9 ! "o bulb2 ! l>v resemble ^? ( ! l>g] fly1 b are small]1 & h ?ree small processes at ! end ( ! body4 ,! small] n>cissus fly usually attacks ! bulbs already damag$ by "s o!r ag5t1 ?\gh x has be5 kn[n to infect s\nd bulbs4 ,control ( bo? ^! flies dep5ds ^u ! de/ruction ( infe/$ bulbs4 ,rec5t rese>*es h %[n t ! flies !mselves c be poison$ 9 l>ge numb]s by a spray made ( #doz4 ( sodium ars5ate1 #alb4 ( crude glyc]9e1 #blb4 ( :ite sug>1 & f\r gallons ( wat]2 ?is spray is appli$ dur+ bright & w>m wea!r4 ,,spr+tails4--,^! are v m9ute1 s(t-bodi$ insects1 :i* are v active1 & h a habit ( spr++ ) ! agility ( fleas4 ,!re are sev]al species1 b two are ( int]e/ to ! horticulturi/4 ,"o ( ^! 7,fig4 #ab1 k#a7 is :ite 9 col\r1 n>r[-bodi$1 & lives und]gr\nd1 especially 9 damp places1 :]e x damages g]m9at+ se$s1 or ! roots ( se$l+s2 ev5 old] h]bace\s g>d5 plants are attack$4 ,z a control1 x is important to dra9 ! soil 9 damp locations & to dig 9 calcium cyanide ab\t two weeks be=e plant+ or s[+4 ,! second species is blacki% & m or less sph]ical 7,fig4 #ab1 k#b72 at times x does consid]able damage 9 ! spr+ to ! se$-leaves ( "y plants z soon z !y appe> above gr\nd4 ,spray+ small areas--e4g41 ( cucumb]s1 turnips1 etc4--) black-leaf #dj w\ld help to protect ! plants2 z ! eggs are laid 9 ! gr\nd1 & z ^! develop be/ "u moi/ conditions1 ?or\gh cultivation prior to s[+ ! crop is an important controll+ factor4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,miscellane\s ,pe/s4 ,9 ?is *apt] w be gr\p$ = conv5i5ce mites1 woodlice1 millep$es1 slugs1 snails1 & eelworms4 ,mites4 ,mites1 toge!r ) spid]s & ticks1 belong to a gr\p ( animals di/9ct f ! insects1 f :i*1 !y diff] 9 _m respects2 = example1 !y possess f\r1 & n ?ree1 pairs ( legs 9 ! adult /ate1 no head sep>at$ f ! body z a movable1 di/9ct region1 :ile 9 _m cases1 especially 9 mites & ticks1 ! abdom5 & ?orax are cont9u\s2 9 no case are w+s develop$4 ,mites are ( small size1 "s be+ microscopic1 :ile o!rs are j disc]nable by ! unaid$ eye4 ,all species h ! m\?-p>ts develop$ = ! purpose ( fe$+ ^u liquid food--e4g41 blood 79 ! case ( ^? species t attack animals71 decay+ vegetable matt]1 or ! saps ( plants4 ,x is ! la/--t is1 ^? p>asitic ^u plants--) :i* we are "h conc]n$4 ,! life-hi/ory ( mites pres5ts "s v>iability1 &1 ?\gh !re are fundam5tally f\r /ages ( developm5t1 additional /ages h be5 develop$ by "s species :i* t5d to complicate ! cycle4 ,! pr9cipal /ages 9 developm5t are z foll[s 7,fig4 #ac1 #a-e73--;,9 practically all cases eggs are deposit$1 b few species be+ vivip>\s4 ,! l>va1 on hat*+1 possesses b six legs1 & resembles an insect 9 ?is respect2 ! l>va !n becomes quiesc5t1 & aft] m\lt+ ! eight-legg$ nymph appe>s4 ,:ile 9 ! nymphal /ate ! mite may und]go "o or m m\lts1 giv+ rise to additional nymphal =ms1 t may complicate ! life-hi/ory4 ,f ! f9al m\lt ( ! nymph ! adult mite em]ges4 ,p]haps ! be/-kn[n mite 9 ,new ,zeal& is ! ,european r$ mite ( apple trees 7,p>atetrany*us pilosus71 ?\gh x attacks a wide range ( plants ap>t f decidu\s fruit trees1 :i* x fav\rs2 x has be5 f\nd on grape v9e1 raspb]ry1 rose1 haw?orn1 citrus1 etc4 ,?is mite 7,fig4 #ac1 #f7 occurs 9 ,europe1 ,russia1 ,briti% ,isles1 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ,au/ralia1 & ,new ,zeal&1 & x causes consid]able injury to foliage1 :i* assumes a br[n appe>ance1 ow+ to ! tissues dry+ up :]e !y h be5 punctur$ by ! m\?-p>ts ( ! mite4 ,9 ! case ( heavily-infe/$ trees1 ! r$ eggs ( ?is mite =m conspicu\s pat*es on ! b>k dur+ w9t]2 ^! w9t] eggs are laid f ,janu>y onw>d till leaf-fall1 & f !m ! "y mites hat* 9 ! spr+1 :5 ! foliage is aga9 attack$4 ,! r$ mite develops rapidly1 & rea*es ! adult /age 9 ab\t two weeks2 sev]al g5]ations are ?us produc$ f spr+ to autumn1 :5 ! eggs are laid ^u ! foliage4 ,! eggs 7,fig4 #ac1 #g7 are v small1 globul>1 & ribb$ on ! surface2 f ! c5tre ( ea* projects a hair-l /alk1 some:at b5t at ! tip4 ,! col\r is bright r$1 *ang+ to a deep orange4 ,! r$ mite lives freely ^u ! foliage1 & does n produce a web1 z d relat$ species2 ! adult female is bright r$ to d>k br[ni%-r$1 r globul> 9 %ape1 ) comp>atively /\t legs & num]\s sp9e-l hairs on ! back4 ,al?\gh ! eggs ( ! ,european r$ mite are expos$ on b>k & readily accessible to sprays dur+ ! w9t]1 no effective w9t] wa% = _! control is yet kn[n2 ! mo/ satisfactory me?od = *eck+ ! pe/ is to spray ! active /ages ( ! mite ) summ] oil4 ,ano!r species ( mite1 hav+ mu* ! same habits & ho/ plants z ! ,european r$ mite1 is ! br[n mite 7,bryobia prtiosa74 ,! eggs ( ?is species are ( a deep r$1 ) a yell[i% t+e 9 _m cases1 b diff] f ^? ( ! ,european r$ mite 9 ! abs5ce ( ! pol>-/alk & ribb$ surface4 ,! br[n mites 7,fig4 #ac1 #h7 are ( a dull r$ or gre5i% col\r1 lack ! sp9e-l hairs on ! back1 are decid$ly flatt5$1 & h ! front pair ( legs abnormally long4 ,! common r$ spid] 7,tetrany*us tel>ius7 is a species ( mite frequ5tly met ) on a wide range ( plants too num]\s to m5tion "h2 9 ,new ,zeal& x frequ5tly injures violet1 hop1 currant1 will[1 & _m we$s4 ,?is mite is to be f\nd 9 all /ages practically all ! ye> r\nd2 dur+ ! spr+ x is mo/ly f\nd on we$s & su* cultivat$ plants z /rawb]ry & violet4 ,x is a web-sp9n+ species1 & ! m9ute yell[i%-r$ eggs are to be f\nd scatt]$ among a f9e web atta*$ to ! l[] surface ( leaves z a rule4 ,! adult mite 7,fig4 #ac1 #i7 is v active2 x is some:at l>g] ?an ! two =ego+ species1 & ( a yell[i%-gre5 col\r1 ) a pair ( conspicu\s d>k spots on ! back4 ,?\gh ?is mite c be held 9 *eck by ! application ( lime-sulphur sprays1 advantage %\ld be tak5 ( ?or\gh cultivation dur+ ! dormant season1 s9ce ! mite hib]nates on we$s & among dead leaves & 9 ! soil4 ,a mite v (t5 met ) by bulb gr[]s is ! bulb-mite 7,rhizoglyphus hyac9?i71 n[ f\nd 9 mo/ p>ts ( ! _w4 ,al?\gh ?is mite may possibly be able to attack practically all tub]s or bulbs1 x is commonly f\nd infe/+ n>cissus1 hyac9?1 tulip1 crocus1 & ,ea/] lily2 x is especially abundant 9 bulbs ) loose scales1 & has be5 f\nd to be capable ( attack+ heal?y tissue4 ,! life-hi/ory ( ?is species is complicat$ at times by ! developm5t ( additional /ages2 "o ( ^!--! hypopus--is ( p>ticul> int]e/1 z x %[s m activity ?an ! o!rs1 & atta*es itself to ! bodies ( insects1 & is s transport$4 ,! mite develops f egg to adult )9 a p]iod ( n9e days "u fav\rable conditions1 or z long z six weeks at o!r times4 ,all /ages ( ! bulb-mite occur at ! same "t 9 infe/$ bulbs1 :i* become s(t & rott54 ,! adult mites 7,fig4 #ac1 #aj7 are smoo?1 yell[i%-:ite1 t+$ ) p9k1 & h legs & m\?-p>ts r$di%4 ,symptoms ( _! pres5ce are to be f\nd 9 /unt$ gr[? & yell[+ leaves1 failure ( fl[] developm5t1 r$di% spots on bulb scales1 or a s(t5+ ( ! bulbs4 ,all s]i\sly-infe/$ bulbs %\ld be de/roy$1 & ! gr\nd :]e !y 7 gr[n treat$ ) calcium cyanide4 ,= ! treatm5t ( bulbs1 !y %\ld be imm]s$ = t5 m9utes 9 a two p] c5t4 solution ( =mal9 heat$ to #abb deg4 ,fahr41 or simply 9 wat] at a temp]ature ( #aca deg4 ,fahr4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 7#a7 ,five /ages 9 mite developm5t3 7#a7 ,egg1 7#b7 l>va1 7#c7 nymph1 7#d7 old] nymph1 7#e7 adult mite4 7#f7 ,european r$ mite & 7#g7 egg ( same4 7#h7 ,br[n mite4 7#i7 ,common r$ spid]4 7#aj7 ,bulb mite4 7#aa7 ,pe>-leaf bli/] mite4 7#ab7 ,common woodl\se4 7#ac7 ,g>d5 millep$e4 7#ad7 ,g>d5 slug4 7#ae7 ,g>d5 snail4 7#af7 ,bulb eelworm4 7#ag7 & 7#ah7 ,immature & mature beet eelworm4 7#ai7 & 7#bj7 ,immature & mature root knot eelworm4 ,ano!r gr\p ( mites ( importance to ! horticulturi/ is t ( ! bli/] mites2 !y are s m9ute--measur+ ab\t a hundr$-&-fiftie? ( an in* long--z to be invisible to ! unaid$ eye4 ,?\gh s m9ute1 h[ev]1 _! damage to foliage is *>act]i/ic & conspicu\s1 s t _! pres5ce is easily detect$4 ,! mo/ important bli/] mite 9 ,new ,zeal& is ! pe>-leaf bli/] mite 7,eriophyes pyri72 x diff]s f ! o!r mites describ$ above 9 hav+ a long & cyl9drical body1 ) only two pairs ( legs cr[d$ at ! head end1 ! elongate abdom5 hav+ ! appe>ance ( be+ compos$ ( innum]able segm5ts 7,fig4 #ac1 #aa74 ,?is mite lives 9 colonies 9 bli/]s =m$ on ! leaf1 & sometimes on ! leaf petioles4 ,9 ! spr+ ! yell[i%-gre5 bli/]s w give ! upp] surface ( an infe/$ leaf a spott$ appe>ance1 & z ! season advances ^! bli/]s become r$di% & f9ally br[n2 9 ! case ( sev]e infe/ation1 ! bli/]s become s cr[d$ z to m]ge into masses4 ,dur+ ! w9t] ! mites lie 9 ! %elt] ( ! bud scales2 z soon z ! foliage beg9s to develop 9 ! spr+ ! ov]-w9t]+ mites attack ! leaves1 ea* mite =m+ a bli/]1 9 :i* x produces a colony ( "y4 ,! (fspr+ !n migrate f ! p>5t bli/] & =m bli/]s = !mselves1 & ?is goes on until autumn1 :5 ! la/ g5]ation ( mites migrates = ! w9t] to ! %elt] ( ! bud scales4 ,ow+ to ! mites be+ protect$ )9 ! leaf bli/]s1 summ] sprays are n effective z a means ( control1 :i* c be effect$1 h[ev]1 by spray+ ) lime-sulphur 9 ! autumn1 :5 ! mites are tak+ up _! w9t] qu>t]s1 & aga9 at bud movem5t 9 ! spr+4 ,woodlice4 ,woodlice are s well kn[n1 t b little description is necess>y "h4 ,h[ev]1 ! foll[+ features are ( int]e/4 ,!y belong to ! gr\p ( animals kn[n z ! ,cru/acea1 :i* also includes ! crabs2 ^! animals brea! by means ( gills1 & are usually aquatic1 b "s =ms1 su* z ! woodlice1 h become adapt$ to a life on l&4 ,9 outl9e 7,fig4 #ac1 #ab7 ! woodlice are m or less oval1 ) ! upp] surfaces some:at ar*$1 & ! l[] flat2 ! body is divid$ into sev]al segm5ts1 :i* may enable ! animals to curl up 9 ! =m ( a pill4 ,!re is a di/9ct head1 be>+ a pair ( ant5n & ! m\?-p>ts1 foll[$ by sev5 l>ge ?oracic segm5ts1 to ea* ( :i* a pair ( legs is atta*$2 f9ally1 ! rema9+ six segm5ts are m or less cr[d$ toge!r1 & con/itute ! abdom54 ,s9ce woodlice are t]re/rial gill-brea?+ animals1 moi/ure is ess5tial = !m1 & x is 9 moi/ places t !y ab\nd4 ,!y dep5d ^u a mix$ diet1 be+ c>nivor\s1 z well z h]bivor\s2 ?\gh normally scav5g]s1 _! attacks ^u se$l+s & t5d] p>ts ( plants br+ !m into ! ranks ( important g>d5 pe/s4 ,woodlice hib]nate "u any conv5i5t %elt]2 9 ! spr+1 eggs are produc$ & c>ri$ by ! female on ! "u side ( ! body until ! "y woodlice hat*4 ,dur+ gr[? ! cuticle or %ell is p]iodically ca/1 & a fre%ly-m\lt$ woodl\se is :ite 9 col\r4 ,! be/ me?od ( control is g>d5 sanitation1 all rubbi% likely to h>b\r ! woodlice be+ remov$4 ,s9ce !y are nocturnal1 ! woodlice c be trapp$ by means ( moss laid on ! gr\nd2 ! moss 9 :i* ! woodlice h tak5 %elt] is collect$ dur+ ! day & burn$1 or imm]s$ 9 hot wat] to kill ! animals1 :5 x c be us$ aga94 ,"s good results h be5 secur$ by means ( slic$ potatoes dipp$ 9 ars5ate ( lead or ,p>is gre52 ! potatoes are plac$ )9 rea* ( ! woodlice1 :i* are attract$ to & fe$ ^u ! poison$ bait4 ,horse manure %\ld n be us$ 9 se$ b$s likely to be infe/$ by woodlice4 ,millep$es4 ,millep$es are %ort1 worm-l animals1 ) a fr+e ( num]\s %ort legs on ea* side 7,fig4 #ac1 #ac71 & h a *>act]i/ic habit ( curl+ up :5 di/urb$4 ,?\gh scav5g]s = ! mo/ "p1 fe$+ ^u decay+ vegetation & on small organisms1 !y may d consid]able damage to spr\t+ se$s1 se$l+s1 & to t5d] plants2 !y are p>ticul>ly abundant 9 damp & w>m soil1 :]e !re is an abundance ( rott+ vegetable matt]4 ,hav+ a ke5 s5se ( smell1 millep$es are readily attract$ to poison$ bait 9 ! =m ( slic$ potato spread ) ,p>is gre53 ano!r me?od is to place a piece ( fre%ly-cut potato "u an inv]t$ fl[] pot1 to :i* ! millep$es w be attract$1 :5 !y c be collect$ & de/roy$4 ,a satisfactory control measure is to treat infe/$ soil ) black-leaf #dj1 us+ "o "p 9 "o ?\s& p>ts ( wat]4 ,slugs & ,snails4 ,plants are v (t5 greatly damag$ by ! depr$ations ( slugs & snails2 frequ5tly "y plants are dev\r$ z soon z !y appe> above gr\nd4 ,^! animals attack ! plants aft] nightfall1 & dur+ ! day seek cov]4 ,?\gh slugs w %elt] 9 ! soil1 !y1 toge!r ) snails1 w %elt] 9 any conv5i5t place1 su* z "u old bo>ds1 sack+1 bricks & /ones ^u ! gr\nd1 or "u l>ge leaves or among/ rank h]bage--inde$1 9 almo/ any place t af=ds cov] & moi/ure4 ,slugs & snails are especially active dur+ wet wea!r1 & at su* times1 ow+ to ! ov]ca/ conditions1 !y w cont9ue _! depr$ations 9 ! daytime4 ,?\gh slugs are active ?r\gh\t ! ye>1 & ev5 dur+ w9t] :5 ! temp]ature is fav\rable1 snails pass ! w9t]1 z well z hot1 dry spells 9 summ]1 9 a dormant /ate1 (t5 be+ f\nd toge!r 9 %elt]$ positions :]e ! conditions are dry4 ,bo? slugs & snails copi\sly secrete a slimy sub/ance1 t af=ds !m protection aga9/ *emicals us$ = purposes ( control4 ,9 ! case ( ! slug 7,fig4 #ac1 #ad71 ! %ell is small & inconspicu\s1 b ! l>ge spiral %ell ( ! snail 7,fig4 #ac1 #ae7 af=ds ! animal adequate protection1 into :i* x )draws itself 9 times ( dang]4 ,bo? slugs & snails reproduce by means ( eggs2 ^! are :ite1 sph]ical & opaque1 & are deposit$ 9 ! soil or "u decay+ vegetation4 ,"o ( ! be/ means ( control is to du/ ! plants ) p[d]$ tobacco4 ,ano!r me?od is to treat infe/$ plants ) soot or lime1 b ?is mu/ be done at night1 & ! mat]ial us$ mu/ come into actual contact ) ! pe/s4 ,an effective poison bait1 b "o t requires to be c>efully h&l$1 ow+ to its poison\s nature1 is a ma% made ( #flb4 ( bran mix$ ) #alb4 ( ars5ate ( lead & an equal weight ( treacle2 ?is is made into a /iff pa/e1 wat] be+ add$ if necess>y4 ,lumps ( ?is ma% are plac$ ab\t ! plants to be protect$4 ,z a b>ri] to prev5t ! inroads ( slugs & snails1 plants may be surr\nd$ by a belt ( calcium cyanide2 ?is w\ld h to be replac$ ea* night1 & ! utmo/ c>e tak5 9 h&l+1 s9ce ! sub/ance & ! gas evolv$ f x are highly poison\s2 out ( doors1 h[ev]1 ! gas1 be+ dilut$ ) air1 w\ld n be v injuri\s z long z "o did n /& ov] ! treat$ gr\nd long] ?an 0 necess>y = lay+ ! cyanide4 ,ap>t f ! above me?ods1 ! key to ! control ( slugs & snails is 8clean f>m+0--t is1 ! removal ( all places1 su* z rubbi% & rank vegetation1 :]e ! animals w f9d %elt]2 ! compo/ heap is a fav\rite bre$+ place1 & ?is %\ld be turn$ ov] at int]vals & dress$ ) lime4 ,eelworms4 ,eelworms are m9ute1 unsegm5t$ worms1 relat$ to ! p>asitic ?read-worms ( animals1 & are abundant 9 soil & wat]2 x is usually ! surface lay]s ( ! ri*] soils t are inhabit$ by !m4 ,( ! long li/ ( species1 only a few are de/ructive to vegetation1 b ^! con/itute "o ( ! greate/ problems ( ! horticulturi/4 ,x is ?\ght t ! injury caus$ to plants by eelworms is toxic r ?an me*anical1 & "s plants app>5tly are capable ( produc+ anti-tox9s1 :i* neutralise ! tox9s ( ! eelworms2 su* plants possess an immunity4 ,!re are ?ree important species 9 ,new ,zeal&4 ,! s-call$ bulb-eelworm 7,anguillul9a dipsaci7 attacks m ?an two hundr$ k9ds ( plants1 b is ( especial int]e/ to ! horticulturi/ on acc\nt ( its attacks ^u hyac9?s1 daffodil1 n>cissus1 & gladiolus1 caus+ de=mity & rott+ ( ! tissues 7,fig4 #ac1 #af74 ,x has be5 f\nd t ?is eelworm develops f egg to adult )9 a p]iod ( betwe5 ?ree & f\r weeks2 ! eggs are capable ( ly+ dormant 9 ! soil = z long z sev5 ye>s4 ,infe/$ bulbs & corms %\ld be treat$ by imm]sion = ?ree h\rs 9 wat] heat$ to #aaj deg4 ,fahr4 ,potatoes are (t5 damag$ by ! beet eelworm 7,het]od]a s*a*tii71 :i* causes :at is kn[n z 8potato sickness10 :5 ! gr[? is ret>d$1 & wilt+ takes place2 ! root-sy/em %[s an abnormal developm5t ( second>y or 8hung]-roots40 ,! eggs are reta9$ 9 ! body ( ! female1 :i* =ms a protective sack or cy/ 7,fig4 #ac1 #ag & #ah71 & 9 ?is /ate ! eggs pass ! w9t] 9 ! gr\nd1 :]e !y are kn[n to rema9 dormant = a p]iod ( t5 ye>s2 "u fav\rable conditions 9 ! spr+1 ! l>v em]ge f ! eggs & attack ! rootlets ( suitable ho/ plants1 ent]+ !m at ! extreme tip4 ,satisfactory me?ods ( control h n yet be5 develop$ "u field conditions1 b a f\r-ye> crop rotation foll[+ potatoes is sugge/$2 se$ potatoes f infe/$ gr\nd %\ld n be us$4 ,! roots ( tomatoes are (t5 f\nd to be a mass ( galls1 due to attack by ! root-knot eelworm 7,het]od]a radicicola71 :i* also infe/s tobacco roots z well z o!r plants 7,fig4 #ac1 #ai & #bj74 ,all /ages ( ?is species are to be f\nd 9 ! root galls2 ! female lays h] eggs 9 a gelat9\s egg sack1 :i* rema9s atta*$ to ! p>5t4 ,! l>v1 on hat*+1 ei!r rema9 )9 ! p>5t gall or leave x & ent] ! soil1 :]e !y seek out & attack ! roots ( ano!r plant4 ,9 tomato g>d5s /eam /]ilisation ( ! soil is ! mo/ effective means ( control4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,pr9ciples ( ,pe/ ,control4 ,9 deal+ ) ! control ( plant pe/s1 ! objective is to prev5t attacks1 or1 :5 ! attacks h e/abli%$1 to *eck !m z mu* z possible4 ,9 ! latt] case ! t]m 8ext]m9ate0 is 9 too frequ5t use2 x is n usually practicable to ext]m9ate a pe/1 & ! be/ t c be done is to *eck or control x4 ,9 ! control ( animal pe/s1 x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t ! pe/s are usually associat$ ) o!r factors inimical to plant life1 su* z un?rifty plants1 due to injury or malnutrition1 & fung\s & bact]ial diseases1 any "o ( :i* might be ei!r ! prim>y or second>y cause ( plant injury4 ,?\gh at times "o me?od may s]ve z a means ( control1 g5]ally x is a comb9ation ( me?ods t gives ! mo/ satisfactory results1 r5d]+ ! conditions fav\rable = ! plant & unfav\rable = ! pe/s & diseases4 ,! pr9ciples und]ly+ control are3-- 7a7 ,g>d5 managem5t4 7b7 ,use ( *emicals4 7c7 ,influ5ce ( natural enemies4 7a7 ,g>d5 ,managem5t4 ,all p>ts ( plants1 bo? above & bel[ gr\nd1 are subject to infe/ation by pe/s & diseases4 ,"u g>d5 conditions1 cultivation is int5sive1 & plants are gr[n ye> aft] ye> on ! same gr\nd 9 surr\nd+s mu* m %elt]$ & cr[d$ ?an 9 ! op5 field4 ,s\nd g>d5 managem5t is !re=e an important control factor1 & ! foll[+ features are fundam5tal3-- ,,condition ,,( ,,soil4--,! vig\r ( plants is dep5d5t on ! soil1 :i* !re=e mu/ be kept 9 ! "r /ate2 x mu/ be well till$1 & mu/ conta9 ! requisite n\ri%m5t & moi/ure available = plant use1 & z f> z possible be free ( an abnormal population ( root fe$+ pe/s1 su* z eelworms & ! l>v ( _m insects4 ,prop] cultivation is !re=e ! important factor 9 br++ ! soil into ! /ate mo/ fav\rable to plant life1 z all inimical factors1 includ+ pe/s1 are r$uc$4 ,:]ev] practicable1 z 9 glass-h\ses1 soil-inhabit+ pe/s & diseases c be completely controll$ by /eam /]ilisation4 ,,importation ,,( ,,pe/s4--,"o ( ! readie/ me?ods ( infe/+ a g>d5 is ! importation ( pe/s on plants1 & e c>e %\ld be tak5 to secure only pe/-free /ock4 ,9 ?is respect1 also1 mu/ be m5tion$ ! use ( /able & b>ny>d manure1 9 :i* pe/s su* z insect l>v1 woodlice & eelworms are introduc$2 artificial f]tilis]s are !re=e saf]4 ,,ov]cr[d+4--,! t5d5cy to ov]cr[d1 especially 9 h\sehold g>d5s1 is to be avoid$2 a fav\rite habit is to plant some?+ 9 e available space4 ,"u su* conditions pe/s & diseases w ab\nd1 & be=e attempt+ to spread ov] a l>ge area1 & s less5 ! effect ( _! depr$ations1 !y conc5trate 9 mass =mation )9 ! conf9es ( ! g>d5 z long z ! food supply la/s2 fur!r1 plants t5d to be less vigor\s & m susceptible to infe/ation "u cr[d$ ?an "u m op5 conditions4 ,,injury ,,to ,,plants4--,c>e %\ld be tak5 n to injure plants ) g>d5 tools dur+ cultivation1 & a clean cut %\ld always be ! object 9 prun+4 ,me*anical injury op5s ! way = infe/ation by diseases & "s insects4 ,,g>d5 ,,sanitation4--,clean g>d5+ is an extremely important control factor4 ,9 mo/ g>d5s !re are rank gr[?s ( grass & we$s 9 out-(-!-way places1 along b\nd>ies1 & bord]+ cultivat$ plots4 ,su* gr[?s1 especially :5 ! we$s are relat$ to ! g>d5 plants1 are always fav\rite bre$+ places = _m pe/s t move on to cultivat$ plants imm$iately !y appe> above gr\nd4 ,if ^! gr[?s are cut & burn$ 9 ! w9t]1 & ! gr\nd ?or\ghly dug1 _m a spr+ infe/ation w be suppress$ by ! control ( hib]nat+ pe/s2 x is ! control ( spr+ infe/ations t w save a great deal ( tr\ble ?r\gh\t ! summ] & autumn4 ,! compo/ heap1 :]e g>d5 refuse is dump$ until suffici5tly rott$1 may be a s\rce ( infe/ation2 n only does x attract & bre$ _m de/ructive und]gr\nd pe/s1 b x may be infe/$ ) ! spores ( diseases h>b\r$ by ! plant refuse ( :i* x is compos$2 x is ?us a ready means ( re9fe/+ ! soil4 ,diseas$ & pe/-infe/$ refuse %\ld be burn$ )\t delay1 & only heal?y refuse us$ = ! compo/ heap if n dug into ! gr\nd1 :]e x w rot4 ,,crop ,,rotation4--,gr[+ ! "o type ( crop on ! same piece ( gr\nd = sev]al seasons enc\rages ! developm5t ( pe/s & diseases2 b by a rotation ( diff]5t k9ds ( plants ! cont9uity ( ! conditions fav\rable = ! pe/s & diseases is brok51 & ! latt] d n h ! *ance ( becom+ ?or\ghly e/abli%$4 ,,diseases ,,spread ,,by ,,pe/s4--,x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t ! few] ! animal pe/s1 ! less *ance !re is = diseases to spread4 ,x is n[ well kn[n t _m pe/s1 ?\gh n necess>ily epidemic !mselves1 are c>ri]s f plant to plant ( c]ta9 de/ructive fung\s1 bact]ial & virus diseases4 ,,co-,,op]ation4--,9 a locality ( _m g>d5s a co-op]ative _s is ess5tial1 s9ce a s+le neglect$ g>d5 9 an o!rwise well-manag$ locality w be responsible = disc\nt+ ! lab\rs ( ! neighb\rs4 7b7 ,use ( ,*emicals4 ,*emicals are ess5tial 9 ! control ( pe/s & diseases1 & are appli$ ei!r 9 ! =m ( sprays or du/s4 ,! =m] me?od is ! m usual 9 ?is c\ntry1 b :]e ! wat] supply is poor du/s t5d to take ! place ( sprays4 ,*emicals us$ = horticultural purposes are ( two di/9ct k9ds--^? = ! control ( animal pe/s & ^? = ! control ( diseases4 ,! comm]cial horticulturi/1 h[ev]1 f9ds x necess>y to apply bo? 9 ! "o spray or du/ = ! dual purpose ( controll+ bo? pe/s & diseases4 ,z ! pres5t "w is conc]n$ ) ! pe/s1 & n diseases1 only ^? types ( *emicals = ! control ( ! =m] w be ref]r$ to4 ,sprays & du/s are ( ?ree k9ds1 & act ^u pe/s accord+ly3 !y are ei!r /oma* poisons1 or act ext]nally on ! animal by actual contact & corrosion1 or cause dea? by fumigation4 ,! k9d us$ is gov]n$ by ! fe$+ habits ( ! pe/2 if ! latt] is possess$ ( jaws 7woodlice1 cat]pill>s1 beetles1 etc471 & fe$s by *ew+ ! plant tissues1 !n a /oma* poison is appli$ & is swall[$ ) ! food2 if ! food is ! nutri5t sap ( plants1 & s c\ld n be poison$1 a spray act+ by contact is us$1 z aga9/ su* animals z aphids 7gre5 fly71 scale insects1 etc41 9 :i* ! m\?-p>ts are n adapt$ = *ew+1 b = punctur+ plant tissues to fe$ on ! sap1 mu* ! same z a mosquito punctures "o's sk9 & sucks ! blood4 ,fumigants c be us$ aga9/ bo? ! *ew+ & suck+ pe/s1 ! fumes pass+ into ! brea?+ sy/em4 ,,/oma* ,,poisons4--,! *ief ( ^! are ars5ate ( lead & ,p>is gre51 ?\gh ! latt] has practically gone out ( use4 ,ars5ate ( lead is sold z a pa/e & z a p[d]1 & is mix$ ) wat] to =m a spray1 #clb4 ( pa/e1 or #a-a_/blb4 ( p[d]1 to #ajj gallons ( wat] be+ ! proportions us$4 ,= g>d5 purposes1 small] quantities mu/ be kept to ?is /r5g?4 ,,contacts4--,! *emicals us$ 9 contact control are r$ oil1 k]os5e & lime-sulphur1 b all are also fumigants1 lime-sulphur be+ also a /oma* poison to a limit$ ext5t1 ?\gh be/ kn[n z a fungicide4 ,comm]cial r$ oils c be pur*as$ ready = mix+ ) wat] )\t ! necessity ( emulsification1 & ! /r5g? at :i* ea* br& %\ld be us$ is giv5 by ! manufactur]s4 ,?\gh r$ oils h mo/ly replac$ k]os5e emulsion1 _m horticulturi/s /ill pref] ! latt]4 ,x is prep>$ by dissolv+ #hoz4 ( soap 9 "o gallon ( hot wat]1 & !n add+ two gallons ( k]os5e1 /irr+ briskly until emulsification is complete4 ,?is is ! /ock emulsion1 & mu/ be dilut$ be=e use1 ! /r5g?s be+ "o "p to six ( wat] = use 9 ! w9t]1 & "o "p to fifte5 ( wat] = use 9 ! gr[+ season4 ,comm]cial br&s ( conc5trat$ lime-sulphur are on ! m>ket1 & ! manufactur]s' directions = _! dilution %\ld be foll[$4 ,,fumigants4--,! *ief fumigants are black-leaf #dj1 c>bon-bisulphide & calcium cyanide4 ,black-leaf #dj1 9 :i* nicot9e sulphate is ! effective pr9ciple1 is ! mo/ useful fumigant on ! m>ket1 & acts z a mo/ effective control = sap-suck+1 & ev5 "s *ew+ pe/s4 ,! /r5g? at :i* ?is fumigant is us$ is "o "p 9 #hjj p>ts ( wat]1 & is appli$ z a spray4 ,c>bon-bisulphide is a liquid1 ! gas evolv$ f x be+ an effective fumigant4 ,x is n us$ z a spray unless emulsifi$1 its *ief use 9 horticulture be+ = ! fumigation ( ! soil1 glass-h\ses1 /or$ se$s & vegetables1 & import$ plants4 ,x is v inflammable & extremely volatile1 especially "u high] temp]atures1 ! heavy gas be+ highly explosive :5 mix$ ) air4 ,! am\nt ( c>bon-bisulphide to be us$ v>ies1 accord+ to circum/ances4 ,= soil fumigation a special type ( 8gun0 is on ! m>ket = inject+ ! bisulphide into ! soil1 b = ord9>y g>d5 purposes x is suffici5t to make holes 9 ! gr\nd ) a /ick1 p\r 9 ! fumigant1 & close up ! holes4 ,:5 holes are made ab\t #ah 94 ap>t1 half an ounce ( bisulphide to a hole is suffici5t1 ! dep? ( ! hole v>y+ accord+ to ! dep? ( ! pe/ to be controll$4 ,= ! fumigation ( se$s1 bulbs1 potatoes1 etc41 an airtight *amb] is necess>y4 ,?is is also ( value 9 ! control ( pe/s ( pott$ plants4 ,! dim5sions ( a *amb] w v>y accord+ to ! dem&s made ^u x4 ,c>bon-bisulphide gas be+ heavy1 ! conta9]s 7%all[ di%es7 %\ld be plac$ on a %elf ne> ! top ( ! *amb] dur+ fumigation4 ,! proportion ( fumigant to ! air space v>ies accord+ to ! plants & insects to be fumigat$4 ,= lawn-infe/+ insects1 c>bon-bisulphide c also be us$ 9 an emulsion z a spray prep>$ z foll[s3--,fifty grams ( p[d]$ res9 are gradually add$ to #ace cc4 ( a #g p] c5t4 solution ( sodium hydroxide1 previ\sly w>m$2 #dej cc4 ( hot wat] is n[ add$1 & ! :ole agitat$ until ! res9 is completely dissolv$1 :5 #ej cc4 ( oleic acid is also add$4 ,to prep>e ! emulsion1 ?ree p>ts ( ?is soap solution are ?or\ghly agitat$ ) sev5 p>ts ( c>bon-bisulphide until emulsification is complete1 :i* c be gaug$ by ! creamy-:ite col\r & viscosity4 ,= use dilute 9 ! proportions ( #ah p9ts ( ! emulsion ) #ej gallons ( wat]1 apply+ by means ( a wat]+-c or spray-pump at ! rate ( "o gallon to e squ>e foot ( lawn4 ,calcium cyanide1 on be+ expos$ to ! atmosph]e1 gives (f hydrocyanic acid gas1 ! evolution ( ! gas be+ gov]n$ by temp]ature & humidity4 ,calcium cyanide has replac$ ! old me?od ( g5]at+ ! gas by ! action ( sulphuric acid on potassium cyanide1 & is sold 9 ! =m ( du/s or granules4 ,9 ! use ( ?is mat]ial v great c>e is necess>y1 s9ce ! gas is highly poison\s1 & also scor*+ ( ! foliage ( plants results if atmosph]ic conditions are n consid]$ c>efully4 ,) ord9>y c>e1 h[ev]1 calcium cyanide c be safely h&l$4 ,x is extremely effective aga9/ all k9ds ( pe/s1 & c be us$ to fumigate soil1 glass-h\ses1 or z a du/ on plants 9 ! op54 7c7 ,influ5ce ( ,natural ,enemies4 ,z /at$ 9 ! fir/ *apt]1 plants are to be look$ ^u z ! prim>y produc]s ( life 7s9ce all animals are directly or indirectly dep5d5t ^u !m71 & ! animals z ! consum]s4 ,_m ( ! latt] are de/ructive to crops gr[n by man1 & become pe/s1 b o!rs1 =tunately1 exi/ ^u ^! pe/s1 & are class$ z b5eficial animals2 x is ! purpose ( ?is section to deal ) ! m important ( ^! f a horticultural viewpo9t4 ,9 ,new ,zeal& su* b5eficial animals are insects1 birds1 & ! h$gehog4 ,insects4 ,!re is a wide range ( insects t live at ! exp5se ( _! fell[s1 & )\t ^! plant production w\ld be impossible1 ei!r by ,nature or by man4 ,^! s-call$ b5eficial insects or p>asites are ! greate/ factor 9 ma9ta9+ )9 reasonable b\nds ! insects t de/roy vegetation2 !y are ( mu* great] value 9 ?is respect ?an birds4 ,9 rec5t times ! utilis+ ( b5eficial insects z a means ( pe/ control has develop$ z "o ( ! mo/ important bran*es ( entomological rese>*4 ,f a g5]al viewpo9t1 ! b5eficial insects are to be f\nd ma9ly among ! gr\ps1 includ+ wasps1 beetles1 flies 7two-w+$ insects7 & lace-w+s4 ,! foll[+ are "s examples3-- ,common examples ( p>asitic insects are ! i*neumon wasps 7,fig4 #ad;a71 *alcid wasps 7,fig4 #ad;b71 & ensign wasps1 ! fir/ be+ ! mo/ conspicu\s1 ! o!rs less s ow+ to ! m9ute size ( _m ( !m4 ,a *>act]i/ic feature ( ^! =ms is ! /alk-l atta*m5t ( ! abdom5 to ! ?orax & ! /+-l ovipositor ( ! female1 :i* may be ( %ort or mod]ate l5g?1 sometimes project+ z a tail-l app5dage beyond ! end ( ! abdom54 ,p>asites deposit _! eggs ei!r ^u or )9 ! body ( _! victims or ho/s1 :i* are ev5tually de/roy$ by ! l>v hat*+ f ! p>asites' eggs4 ,de/ructive cat]pill>s & _! pup1 & also aphides1 are attack$ by ^! wasp-l p>asites1 :i* 9 _m cases re/rict _! depr$ations to "o or a limit$ numb] ( ho/ species1 :ile o!rs are m g5]al 9 _! selection4 ,ano!r gr\p1 ! pr$ace\s wasps1 %\ld be m5tion$ "h4 ,^! insects 9 ! adult /ate are hunt]s1 & capture & p>alyse by /++ su* insects z cat]pill>s & flies1 z well z spid]s1 :i* are /or$ 9 ne/s or cells = ! n\ri%m5t ( ! pr$ators' (fspr+4 ,important natural enemies ( aphides & "y cat]pill>s are ! hov]-flies1 :i* c be easily recognis$ by _! mann] ( flight4 ,!y are two-w+$ insects 7,fig4 #ad;c71 & :5 on ! w+ hang motionless1 z if susp5d$ by "s unse5 means1 to sudd5ly d>t (f ) m>vell\s rapidity1 until !y hang motionless z be=e4 ,^! flies lay _! eggs ^u ! foliage ( plants infe/$ by aphids or cat]pill>s1 & f ^! eggs legless & headless l>v em]ge 7,fig4 #ad;d71 & comm5ce to se>* = & fe$ ^u _! victims4 ,ano!r important gr\p ( two-w+$ flies is ! ta*9ids4 ,!y are r robu/1 usually v bri/ly 7,fig4 #ad;e72 !y v>y 9 size f t ( a l>ge blue-bottle to comp>atively m9ute =ms4 ,! ta*9ids lay _! eggs ei!r ^u _! ho/s or on ! food plants ( ! latt]1 :]e !y c be swall[$2 "s ta*9ids give bir? to liv+ l>v1 :i* crawl ab\t 9 se>* ( _! victims4 ,among ! b5eficial beetles are ! well-kn[n ladybirds 7,fig4 #ad;f72 !y are mo/ly oval 9 outl9e1 dome-%ap$ above & flat bel[1 :ile _m ( !m are spott$ by yell[1 r$1 or :ite 9 a *>act]i/ic mann]1 ?\gh o!rs are ( "o uni=m col\r4 ,! eggs are laid on plants infe/$ by ! aphides & scale insects ^u :i* ! beetles & _! l>v 7,fig4 #ad;g7 fe$4 ,!re are o!r k9ds ( beetles ( importance z pr$ators1 su* z ! common tig]-beetle1 b !y are n especially selective 9 _! types ( victims4 ,a v valuable gr\p ( insects includes ! lace-w+s or aphis-lions4 ,! adult insects 7,fig4 #ad;h7 c>ry ! seem+ly ov]-l>ge lace-ve9$ w+s ro(-l ov] ! small body2 ! l>v are alligator-l 7,fig4 #ad;i71 & possess a pair ( calip]-%ap$ jaws1 by means ( :i* !y capture _! prey4 ,! eggs are laid directly on plants or are atta*$ at ! end ( long /alks4 ,birds4 ,x is g5]ally recognis$ t birds are a v important aid 9 keep+ de/ructive insects 9 *eck1 ?\gh x is well-kn[n t a great deal ( damage c be done by ^! animals4 ,)\t a sy/ematic /udy ( ! /oma* cont5ts ( birds1 x is n possible to decide :5 a species is b5eficial or injuri\s1 & 9 ,new ,zeal& no su* /udy has be5 made2 practically all ! in=mation we h is bas$ on field obs]vations1 :i* are1 un=tunately1 influ5c$ l>gely by ! outlook ( ! obs]v]1 & are ?us mislead+4 ,?\gh "s species subsi/ = ! mo/ "p on insects1 mo/ l&-birds h a mix$ diet ( vegetable & animal food1 b !y specialise on an insect diet :5 re>+ _! "y & :5 m\lt+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,figure #ad4 7a7 ,an i*neumon 7natural size #a-a_/d 972 7b7 a *alcid 7natural size #a-be 972 7c7 a hov]fly 7natural size #a_/h 972 7d7 hov]fly l>va 7natural size #a_/d 972 7e7 a ta*9id fly 7natural size #a_/d 972 7f7 a ladybird beetle 7natural size #a_/e 972 7g7 ladybird l>va 7natural size #a_/d 972 7h7 lacew+ 7natural size #a_/d 972 7i7 lacew+ l>va 7natural size #a_/e 974 ,bas$ on ! nature ( _! diet1 birds fall into ?ree pr9cipal gr\ps3 7#a7 ^? fe$+ almo/ solely ^u se$s & fruits2 7#b7 insectivor\s birds fe$+ on insects & o!r animals2 & 7#c7 ! omnivor\s species fe$+ bo? on insects & vegetable matt]4 ,! se$-fe$+ birds are a pot5tial m5ace to ! agriculturi/1 ?\gh 9 ,new ,zeal& ! native species are fundam5tal to ! well-be+ ( ! native =e/s2 ! insectivor\s birds are obvi\sly b5eficial1 ?\gh !y dev\r bo? de/ructive & useful insects2 :ile ! omnivor\s birds may be ei!r useful or h>mful1 accord+ to ! circum/ances4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$ t1 no matt] :at ! food ( ! adult bird may be1 mo/ species give _! "y a diet ( insects or o!r animal matt]4 ,:5 x is realis$ t ! weight ( ne/l+ birds increases f "o-fif? to "o-half ea* day1 requir+ at times m ?an half ! weight ( ! ne/l+ 9 food1 "o c bett] visualise ! enorm\s quantities ( insects daily de/roy$ = ?is purpose4 ,consid] ! common h\se sp>r[1 :i* is usually condemn$3 an analysis ( ! ne/l+ diet has %[n t x consi/$ ( #dj p] c5t4 gra9 & #fj p] c5t4 insects & relat$ =ms1 :ile t ( ! adult compris$ #ge p] c5t4 gra9 & #be p] c5t4 insects1 etc4 ,to summ>ise ! situation1 x may be said t1 on ! :ole1 enorm\s numb]s ( insects are de/roy$ by birds ea* ye>1 &1 unless all[$ to become abnormally abundant1 ! b5efit d]iv$ f birds outweighs ! damage !y may cause4 ,h$gehog4 ,! h$gehog 0 fir/ introduc$ by ! ,cant]bury ,acclimatisation ,society 9 #ahgj1 & lat] by o!r societies & private individuals4 ,! animal is n[ v abundant 9 _m p>ts ( ! ,dom9ion4 ,?\gh condemn$ & de/roy$ by "s p1 :o consid] x a m5ace to eggs1 *ick5s & ev5 vegetables1 ! h$gehog is really a v useful animal1 9 t1 be+ a night pr[l] itself1 x de/roys num]\s nocturnal pe/s1 su* z slugs & snails1 e>wigs1 grass cat]pill>s & cut-worms4 ,! h$gehog1 on ! approa* ( w9t]1 con/ructs a ne/ 9 "s suitable place1 :]e x becomes torpid & hib]nates4 ,on ! adv5t ( spr+1 x becomes active once m1 & dur+ summ] produces a litt] ( f\r "y2 a second litt] is sometimes produc$ 9 ! autumn4 ,,index4 ,page ,acacia1 #cb1 #ch ,agrotis ypsilon1 #eb ,alg1 #ad1 #ae ,almond1 #ce1 #ch1 #fd ,am>yllis1 #ff ,am]ican blight1 #dg ,amb1 #ae ,anguillul9a dipsaci1 #gb ,animal ,k+dom1 ,divisions (1 #h ,aphel9us fuscip5nis1 #dj ,aphel9us mali1 #dg ,aphel9us mytilaspidis1 #ch1 #dj ,aphides1 #db ,aphis-lion1 #bh1 #gh ,aphis p]sic-nig]1 #dd ,apple1 #cd1 #ce1 #cg1 #ch1 #dj1 #da1 #dg1 #dh1 #fa1 #fd1 #fg ,apple leaf-hopp]1 #dh ,apple leaf-roll]1 #ea ,apple mealy-bug1 #cd ,apple mussel-scale1 #cj1 #cg ,apple r$-mite1 #eg ,apricot1 #ce1 #cf1 #ch ,army-worms1 #ed ,ars5ate ( lead1 #gf ,asexual1 #db ,a%1 #ch ,asp>agus1 #cf ,aspidiotus h$]1 #dj ,aspidiotus p]niciosus1 #ch ,a/]olecanium v>iolosum1 #cg ,au/rian p9e1 #df ,bact]ia1 #ad1 #ae ,bag-mo?1 #ef ,bak]'s mealy-bug1 #ce ,beet eelworm1 #gb ,beetles1 #ef ,begonia1 #cd ,b5eficial insects1 #gg1 #gh ,birds1 #gi ,blackb]ry1 #cf1 #da ,blackbird1 #ce ,black *]ry-aphis1 #dd ,black-currant1 #cf1 #dd ,black-leaf #dj1 #gf ,black pea*-aphis1 #dd ,black scale1 #dj ,bli/]-mites1 #gj ,blue-gum1 #ei ,bor]s1 r\nd-head$1 #fd ,brea?+ sy/ems ( insects1 #ba ,brevicoryne brassic1 #de ,bri>1 #da ,bronze beetle1 #eh ,broods ( insects1 #bb ,broom1 #eb ,br[n-beetle1 #eh ,br[n-mite1 #fh ,brussels spr\ts1 #de ,bryobia prtiosa1 #fh ,bulb-eelworm1 #gb ,bulb-mite1 #fh ,bulb or ,n>cissus flies1 #ff ,cabbage1 #de1 #dh1 #ee ,cabbage aphis1 #de ,cabbage gre5-fly1 #de ,cabbage-tree1 #ef ,cabbage-tree mo?1 #ef ,cabbage-tree scales1 #ch ,cabbage :ite butt]fly1 #ee ,calcium cyanide1 #gf ,caliora limac9a1 #ei ,camellia1 #ce1 #cf1 #cg1 #dj ,camellia scale1 #cg ,c>bon-bisulphide1 #gf ,cat]pill>s1 #ea ,cat]pill>s 9 lawns1 #fe ,caulifl[]1 #de1 #ee ,cecidomyia ole>i1 #fj ,c]eals1 #ed ,*alcid wasps1 #gh ,*emicals1 #ge ,*]mes p9i1 #df ,*]ry1 #ch1 #dd1 #ei ,*]ry-aphis1 black1 #dd ,*]ry slug1 #ei ,*it91 #ag ,*rysalis1 #be ,*rysan!mum1 #fd ,*rysomphalus aurantii1 #dj ,*rysomphalus rossi1 #dj ,cicada1 #bh ,c9]>ia1 #bd1 #cd1 #ef1 #fd ,citrophilus mealy-bug1 #cd ,citrus1 #cb1 #ce1 #cf1 #dj1 #fd1 #fg ,click-beetles1 #fe ,clov]1 #eb ,coccids1 #bi ,coccus hesp]idum1 #cf ,cock*af]s1 #eg ,cockroa*1 #ag1 #bg ,cocoon1 #be ,codl9 mo?1 #fa ,com/ock's mealy-bug1 #ce ,contact sprays & du/s1 #gf ,convolvulus1 #ed ,coprosma1 #dj ,cornicles1 #db ,cottony-cu%ion scale1 #cj1 #cb ,crayfi%1 #ag ,crickets1 #bg1 #ea ,crocus1 #fh ,crop rotation1 #ge ,crucif]\s crops1 #de ,cryptolmus ladybird1 #cd ,cryptolmus montr\zi]i1 #cd ,curl-grubs1 #eh ,currant1 #cg1 #ch1 #fa1 #fh ,currant cle>-w+ bor]1 #fa ,cuticle1 #ag ,cut-worms1 #eb ,cydia pomonella1 #fa ,daffodil1 #gb ,developm5t ( insects1 #bb ,diamond-back$ mo?1 #eb ,dige/ive sy/em ( insects1 #ba ,d\glas fir1 #cb1 #df ,du/s1 #ge ,e>?worms1 #ae ,e>wig1 #bg1 #ej ,ea/] lily1 #fh ,eelworms1 #h1 #gb ,eggs ( insects1 #bb ,eld]1 #ce ,eleagnus1 #cg ,elm1 #ch1 #dg ,elm-leaf aphis1 #db1 #dg ,elytra1 #eh ,ensign wasps1 #gh ,eriococcus coriaceus1 #ce ,eriophyes pyri1 #gj ,eriosoma lanig]um1 #dg ,eucalypts1 #ce1 #ei ,eucalyptus tortoise beetle1 #ei ,eucolaspis brunneus1 #eh ,eulecanium b]b]idis1 #cg ,eulecanium corni1 #cf ,eum]us /rigatus1 #ff ,euonymus1 #ce1 #cg1 #dj ,european e>wig1 #ej ,european r$-mite1 #fg ,fantail1 #ce ,f]ns1 #cd1 #cf ,fig1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf1 #dj ,flax1 ,new ,zeal&1 #ch ,flea-beetles1 #eh ,=ficula auricul>ia1 #ej ,fruit lecanium scale1 #cf ,fumigants1 #gf ,fungi1 #ad1 #ae ,galls1 #db ,galtonia1 #ff ,gladiolus1 #gb ,gnorimos*ema plsiosema1 #fb ,goat-will[1 #fd ,gold5 oak-scale1 #cg ,gonipt]us scutellatus1 #ei ,gooseb]ry1 #ce1 #cf1 #cg1 #ch1 #fd ,gorse1 #cb ,grape l\se1 #df ,grape phyllox]a1 #df ,grape-v9e1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf1 #cg1 #dj1 #df1 #ea1 #fg ,grass cat]pill>s1 #fe ,grasses1 #fd1 #fe ,grass-grubs1 #eg1 #fd ,gras%opp]1 #ag1 #ea ,greasy cut-worms1 #eb ,gre5-fly ( cabbage1 #de ,gre5-h\se ?rips1 #di ,gre5-h\se :ite-fly1 #dh ,gre5 manuka beetle1 #eh ,gre5 pea*-aphis1 #dd ,gr\ndsel1 #bd1 #ef ,grub-pro(+ lawns1 #fd ,gum-tree scale1 #ce ,gum-tree weevil1 #ei ,habran?us1 #ff ,habrolepis dalmanni1 #cg ,hawk mo?1 #ed ,haw?orn1 #cg1 #ch1 #ei1 #fg ,h$gehog1 #hj ,helio?rips hmorrhoidalis1 #bc ,hemisph]ical scale1 #cf ,het]od]a radicola1 #gc ,het]od]a s*a*tii1 #gb ,hib]nation1 #bc ,holly1 #ce1 #cf ,honey-bee1 #ai ,honey-dew1 #bi1 #db ,honey-tubes1 #db ,hop1 #fh ,horse *e/nut1 #ce ,hov]-flies1 #ff1 #gh ,hyac9?1 #ff1 #fh1 #gb ,hydrangea1 #ce ,hydrocyanic-acid gas1 #gg ,hypopus1 #fh ,ic]ya pur*asi1 #cb ,i*neumon wasps1 #gh ,importation ( pe/s1 #gd ,insects1 proportion (1 #g ,insignis p9e1 #df1 #ea ,inv]tebrates1 #g ,iris1 #ce ,ivy1 #ce1 #cf1 #dj ,japonica1 #cf ,k>aka1 #dj ,k]os5e1 #gf ,k[hai1 #eb ,k[hai mo?1 #eb ,kum>a1 #ed ,lace-w+1 #cd1 #gh ,ladybird beetles1 #gh ,l>*1 #df ,l>g] n>cissus fly1 #ff ,l>va1 #bd ,laurel1 #ce1 #cf ,lawns1 #fd1 #fe ,lead ars5ate1 #gf ,leaf-hopp]s1 #dh ,leaf-m9+ flies1 #fd ,leaf-roll]s1 #ea ,lee*1 #ei ,lemon1 #ce1 #dj ,lepidosaphes ulmi1 #cg ,lepisma sac*>9a1 #bf ,lettuce1 #ee ,leucaspis cordyl9idis1 #ch ,leucaspis /ricta1 #ch ,leucojum1 #ff ,life-cycle ( insects1 #bb ,lime-sulphur1 #gf ,loganb]ry1 #da ,long-horn$ beetles1 #fd ,long-tail$ mealy-bug1 #cd ,lup9s1 #eb ,macrosiphum ros1 #dg ,magpie-mo?1 #bd1 #ee ,managem5t ( g>d51 #gd ,manure1 #gd ,mealy-bugs1 #bi1 #cj1 #cb1 #cd ,mealy-w+s1 #dc ,mecyna maorialis1 #eb ,m]odon eque/ris1 #ff ,metamorphosis1 #bd ,micromus tasmani1 #bh1 #cd ,millep$es1 #ga ,mites1 #fg ,m\lt+1 #bb ,m\? app5dages ( insects1 #ai ,mulb]ry1 #ce1 #cf ,mussel scale ( apple1 #cj1 #cg ,mu/>d1 #dd1 #de1 #dh1 #eb ,myrtle1 #cf ,myzus c]asi1 #dd ,n>cissus1 #ff1 #fh1 #gb ,n>cissus flies1 #ff ,natural enemies1 #gg ,nect>9e1 #cf1 #dd ,n]v\s sy/ems ( insects1 #ba ,nicot9e-sulphate1 #gf ,nor!rn ,spy1 #dg ,novius c>d9alis1 #cb ,nyctem]a annulata1 #bd1 #ee ,oak1 #cg1 #ea ,oak-scale1 #cg ,odontria zeal&ica1 #eg1 #fd ,oeceticus omnivorus1 #ef ,ole&]1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf1 #dj ,ole&]-scale1 #dj ,ole>ia =/]i1 #fj ,ole>ia gall-midge1 #fj ,olive-scale1 #cj1 #ce ,onion1 #ff ,orange1 #ce1 #dj1 #ea ,orange-scale1 #dj ,or*ids1 #cf1 #dj ,orcus *alybu1 #cf1 #dj ,ovip>\s1 #db ,ovipositor1 #ba ,palms1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf1 #dj ,p>atetrany*us pilosus1 #fg ,p>is gre51 #gf ,p>opsis dilatata1 #ei ,p>!nog5etic1 #db ,passion v9e1 #cd ,pa/ures1 #fd1 #fe ,pea*1 #ce1 #cf1 #ch1 #dd1 #dh1 #ei ,pea*-aphis1 black1 #dd ,pea*-aphis1 gre51 #dd ,pe>1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf1 #cg1 #ch1 #dj1 #da1 #ej1 #ei1 #fj1 #fa1 #gj ,pe> & *]ry saw-fly1 #ei ,pe> & *]ry slug1 #ei ,pe>-leaf bli/] mite1 #gj ,pe>-midge1 #fj ,pel>gonium1 #ea ,pemphigus populi-transv]sus1 #dh ,pepp]-tree1 #ce ,p]risia pyri1 #fj ,p]simmon1 #ce ,phormium1 #cd ,ph?orima op]culella1 #fb ,phyllox]a va/atrix1 #df ,pi]is rap1 #ee ,p9e-tree *]mes1 #df ,plant food1 #ab ,plant-lice1 #db ,plum1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf1 #ch1 #dj1 #dd1 #dh1 #ei ,plum-aphis1 #dh ,plutella maculip5nis1 #eb ,pontania proxima1 #fj ,popl>1 #ce1 #cg1 #ch1 #dh1 #fd ,popl> ,gall-aphis1 #db1 #dh ,por9a1 #fe ,potato1 #cd1 #fb1 #gb ,potato sickness1 #gb ,potato tub]-mo?1 #fb ,pr$ace\s wasps1 #gh ,privet1 #ch ,protozoa1 #h1 #ae ,pulv9>ia camelicola1 #cg ,pupa1 #be ,pup>ium1 #be ,pyronota fe/iva1 #eh ,qu9ce1 #ch1 #dj1 #da ,radi%1 #ee ,ragwort1 #bd1 #ef ,rape1 #de1 #dh ,raspb]ry1 #cf1 #da1 #fg ,r$ currant1 #dd ,r$ oil1 #gf ,r$ orange-scale1 #dj ,r$ spid]1 #fh ,rhizoglyphus hyac9?i1 #fh ,rhodod5dron1 #dg ,rhophalosiphum nymph1 #dh ,rhophalosiphum p]sic1 #dd ,root-knot eelworm ( tomato1 #gc ,rose1 #ce1 #ch1 #dj1 #da1 #dg1 #ea1 #eh1 #fg ,rose-aphis1 #db1 #dg ,rotation ( crops1 #ge ,r\nd-head$ bor]s1 #fd ,saissetia hemisph]ica1 #cf ,saissetia ole1 #ce ,san ,jos scale1 #cb1 #ch ,scale insects1 #bi ,scylla1 #ff ,seasonal hi/ory ( insects1 #bb ,se$s1 damage to1 #fe1 #ff1 #ga ,sesia tipuli=mis1 #fa ,%allot1 #ff ,%eph]d's purse1 #dd1 #eb ,silv]-fi%1 #bf ,slugs1 #h1 #ga ,small] n>cissus fly1 #ff ,snails1 #h1 #ga ,soil fumigation1 #gf ,sph9x convolvuli1 #ed ,sph9x mo?1 #ed ,spid]s1 #h1 #fg ,sprays1 #ge ,spr+tails1 #ff ,spruce1 #df ,/eam /]ilisation1 #gd ,/eel-blue ladybird1 #cf1 #dj ,/oma* poisons1 #gf ,/rawb]ry1 #fd1 #fh ,subt]ranean grass cat]pill>s1 #fe ,sulphur smudge1 #eh1 #fe ,syrphids1 #ff ,ta*9ids1 #gh ,tetrany*us tel>ius1 #fh ,?rips1 #bg1 #dh ,?ru%1 #ce ,tobacco1 #ed1 #gc ,tomato1 #dg1 #ed1 #fb1 #gc ,tomato root-knot eelworm1 #gc ,tomato /em-bor]1 #fb ,tortoise beetle1 #ei ,tortrix po/vittana1 #ea ,tree-luc]ne1 #fd ,trialeurodes vapor>iorum1 #dh ,tui1 #ce ,tulip1 #ff1 #fh ,turnip1 #de1 #dh ,turnip-fly1 #eg ,turtle-scale1 #cf ,typhlocyba au/ralis1 #dh ,vallota1 #ff ,vegetable cat]pill>s1 #fe ,v5usia v]riculata1 #ef ,v]tebrates1 #g ,violet1 #fh ,vivip>\s1 #db ,walnut1 #ce ,wat]cress1 #df1 #eb ,wat] lilies1 #dh ,wattle1 #cb1 #da ,wax-eye1 #ce ,weta1 #ag ,:ite butt]fly1 #ee ,:ite-flies1 #dh ,will[1 #ce1 #cg1 #ch1 #fj1 #fh ,will[ saw-fly1 #fj ,w+s ( insects1 #bj ,wireworms1 #fe ,wi/>ia1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf ,woodlice1 #h1 #gj ,woolly-aphis1 #db1 #dg ,woolly-be>1 #bd1 #ef