,transcriber's note3 ,words in bold characters are enclosed within ,plus 77 signs4 ,,the ,,international ,,scientific ,,series4 ,,volume ,,xlviii4 ,,the ,,international ,,scientific ,,series4 ,,origin ,,of ,,cultivated ,,plants4 ,,by ,,alphonse ,,de ,,candolle1 ,,foreign ,,associate ,,of ,,the ,,academy ,,of ,,sciences ,,of ,,the ,,institute ,,of ,,france2 ,,foreign ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,societies ,,of ,,london1 ,,edinburgh1 ,,and ,,dublin2 ,,of ,,the ,,academies ,,of ,,st4 ,,petersburg1 ,,stockholm1 ,,berlin1 ,,munich1 ,,brussels1 ,,copenhagen1 ,,amsterdam1 ,,rome1 ,,turin1 ,,madrid1 ,,boston1 ,,etc4 ,,new ,,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company1 #aijh4 ,,author',s ,,preface4 ,,the knowledge of the origin of cultivated plants is interesting to agriculturists1 to botanists1 and even to historians and philosophers concerned with the dawnings of civilization4 ,i went into this question of origin in a chapter in my work on geographical botany2 but the book has become scarce1 and1 moreover1 since #ahee important facts have been discovered by travellers1 botanists1 and archologists4 ,instead of publishing a second edition1 ,i have drawn up an entirely new and more extended work1 which treats of the origin of almost double the number of species belonging to the tropics and the temperate zones4 ,it includes almost all plants which are cultivated1 either on a large scale for economic purposes1 or in orchards and kitchen gardens4 ,i have always aimed at discovering the condition and the habitat of each species before it was cultivated4 ,it was needful to this end to distinguish from among innumerable varieties that which should be regarded as the most ancient1 and to find out from what quarter of the globe it came4 ,the problem is more difficult than it appears at first sight4 ,in the last century and up to the middle of the present authors made little account of it1 and the most able have contributed to the propagation of erroneous ideas4 ,i believe that three out of four of ,linnus' indications of the original home of cultivated plants are incomplete or incorrect4 ,his statements have since been repeated1 and in spite of what modern writers have proved touching several species1 they are still repeated in periodicals and popular works4 ,it is time that mistakes1 which date in some cases from the ,greeks and ,romans1 should be corrected4 ,the actual condition of science allows of such correction1 provided we rely upon evidence of varied character1 of which some portion is quite recent1 and even unpublished2 and this evidence should be sifted as we sift evidence in historical research4 ,it is one of the rare cases in which a science founded on observation should make use of testimonial proof4 ,it will be seen that this method leads to satisfactory results1 since ,i have been able to determine the origin of almost all the species1 sometimes with absolute certainty1 and sometimes with a high degree of probability4 ,i have also endeavoured to establish the number of centuries or thousands of years during which each species has been in cultivation1 and how its culture spread in different directions at successive epochs4 ,a few plants cultivated for more than two thousand years1 and even some others1 are not now known in a spontaneous1 that is1 wild condition1 or at any rate this condition is not proved4 ,questions of this nature are subtle4 ,they1 like the distinction of species1 require much research in books and in herbaria4 ,i have even been obliged to appeal to the courtesy of travellers or botanists in all parts of the world to obtain recent information4 ,i shall mention these in each case with the expression of my grateful thanks4 ,in spite of these records1 and of all my researches1 there still remain several species which are unknown wild4 ,in the cases where these come from regions not completely explored by botanists1 or where they belong to genera as yet insufficiently studied1 there is hope that the wild plant may be one day discovered4 ,but this hope is fallacious in the case of well-known species and countries4 ,we are here led to form one of two hypotheses2 either these plants have since history began so changed in form in their wild as well as in their cultivated condition that they are no longer recognized as belonging to the same species1 or they are extinct species4 ,the lentil1 the chick-pea1 probably no longer exist in nature2 and other species1 as wheat1 maize1 the broad bean1 carthamine1 very rarely found wild1 appear to be in course of extinction4 ,the number of cultivated plants with which ,i am here concerned being two hundred and forty-nine1 the three1 four1 or five species1 extinct or nearly extinct1 is a large proportion1 representing a thousand species1 out of the whole number of phanerogams4 ,this destruction of forms must have taken place during the short period of a few hundred centuries1 on continents where they might have spread1 and under circumstances which are commonly considered unvarying4 ,this shows how the history of cultivated plants is allied to the most important problems of the general history of organized beings4 ,,geneva1 #ahhb4 ,,contents4 ,,part ,i4 ,,general ,,remarks4 ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,in ,,what ,,manner ,,and ,,at ,,what ,,epochs ,,cultivation ,,began ,,in ,,different ,,countries #a ,,ii4 ,,methods ,,for ,,discovering ,,or ,,proving ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,species #h ,,part ,,ii4 ,,on ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,species1 ,,considered ,,as ,,to ,,their ,,origin1 ,,their ,,early ,,cultivation1 ,,and ,,the ,,principal ,,facts ,,of ,,their ,,diffusion4 ,i4 ,,plants ,,cultivated ,,for ,,their ,,subterranean ,,parts1 ,,such ,,as ,,roots1 ,,tubercles1 ,,or ,,bulbs #bi ,,ii4 ,,plants ,,cultivated ,,for ,,their ,,stems ,,or ,,leaves #hc ,,iii4 ,,plants ,,cultivated ,,for ,,their ,,flowers1 ,,or ,,for ,,the ,,organs ,,which ,,envelop ,,them #afa ,,iv4 ,,plants ,,cultivated ,,for ,,their ,,fruits #afh ,v4 ,,plants ,,cultivated ,,for ,,their ,,seeds #cac ,,part ,,iii4 ,,summary ,,and ,,conclusion4 ,i4 ,,general ,,table ,,of ,,species1 ,,with ,,their ,,origin ,,and ,,the ,,epoch ,,of ,,their ,,earliest ,,cultivation #dcf ,,ii4 ,,general ,,observations ,,and ,,conclusions #ddg ,,index #dfc ,,origin ,,of ,,cultivated ,,plants4 ,,part ,i4 ,general ,remarks4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,in ,,what ,,manner ,,and ,,at ,,what ,,epochs ,,cultivation ,,began ,,in ,,different ,,countries4 ,,the traditions of ancient peoples1 embellished by poets1 have commonly attributed the first steps in agriculture and the introduction of useful plants1 to some divinity1 or at least to some great emperor or ,inca4 ,reflection shows that this is hardly probable1 and observation of the attempts at agriculture among the savage tribes of our own day proves that the facts are quite otherwise4 ,in the progress of civilization the beginnings are usually feeble1 obscure1 and limited4 ,there are reasons why this should be the case with the first attempts at agriculture or horticulture4 ,between the custom of gathering wild fruits1 grain1 and roots1 and that of the regular cultivation of the plants which produce them1 there are several steps4 ,a family may scatter seeds around its dwelling1 and provide itself the next year with the same product in the forest4 ,certain fruit trees may exist near a dwelling without our knowing whether they were planted1 or whether the hut was built beside them in order to profit by them4 ,war and the chase often interrupt attempts at cultivation4 ,rivalry and mistrust cause the imitation of one tribe by another to make but slow progress4 ,if some great personage command the cultivation of a plant1 and institute some ceremonial to show its utility1 it is probably because obscure and unknown men have previously spoken of it1 and that successful experiments have been already made4 ,a longer or shorter succession of local and short-lived experiments must have occurred before such a display1 which is calculated to impress an already numerous public4 ,it is easy to understand that there must have been determining causes to excite these attempts1 to renew them1 to make them successful4 ,the first cause is that such or such a plant1 offering some of those advantages which all men seek1 must be within reach4 ,the lowest savages know the plants of their country2 but the example of the ,australians and ,patagonians shows that if they do not consider them productive and easy to rear1 they do not entertain the idea of cultivating them4 ,other conditions are sufficiently evident3 a not too rigorous climate2 in hot countries1 the moderate duration of drought2 some degree of security and settlement2 lastly1 a pressing necessity1 due to insufficient resources in fishing1 hunting1 or in the production of indigenous and nutritious plants1 such as the chestnut1 the date-palm1 the banana1 or the breadfruit tree4 ,when men can live without work it is what they like best4 ,besides1 the element of hazard in hunting and fishing attracts primitive1 and sometimes civilized man1 more than the rude and regular labour of cultivation4 ,i return to the species which savages are disposed to cultivate4 ,they sometimes find them in their own country1 but often receive them from neighbouring peoples1 more favoured than themselves by natural conditions1 or already possessed of some sort of civilization4 ,when a people is not established on an island1 or in some place difficult of access1 they soon adopt certain plants1 discovered elsewhere1 of which the advantage is evident1 and are thereby diverted from the cultivation of the poorer species of their own country4 ,history shows us that wheat1 maize1 the sweet potato1 several species of the genus ,panicum1 tobacco1 and other plants1 especially annuals1 were widely diffused before the historical period4 ,these useful species opposed and arrested the timid attempts made here and there on less productive or less agreeable plants4 ,and we see in our own day1 in various countries1 barley replaced by wheat1 maize preferred to buckwheat and many kinds of millet1 while some vegetables and other cultivated plants fall into disrepute because other species1 sometimes brought from a distance1 are more profitable4 ,the difference in value1 however great1 which is found among plants already improved by culture1 is less than that which exists between cultivated plants and others completely wild4 ,selection1 that great factor which ,darwin has had the merit of introducing so happily into science1 plays an important part when once agriculture is established2 but in every epoch1 and especially in its earliest stage1 the choice of species is more important than the selection of varieties4 ,the various causes which favour or obstruct the beginnings of agriculture1 explain why certain regions have been for thousands of years peopled by husbandmen1 while others are still inhabited by nomadic tribes4 ,it is clear that1 owing to their well-known qualities and to the favourable conditions of climate1 it was at an early period found easy to cultivate rice and several leguminous plants in ,southern ,asia1 barley and wheat in ,mesopotamia and in ,egypt1 several species of ,panicum in ,africa1 maize1 the potato1 the sweet potato1 and manioc in ,america4 ,centres were thus formed whence the most useful species were diffused4 ,in the north of ,asia1 of ,europe1 and of ,america1 the climate is unfavourable1 and the indigenous plants are unproductive2 but as hunting and fishing offered their resources1 agriculture must have been introduced there late1 and it was possible to dispense with the good species of the south without great suffering4 ,it was different in ,australia1 ,patagonia1 and even in the south of ,africa4 ,the plants of the temperate region in our hemisphere could not reach these countries by reason of the distance1 and those of the intertropical zone were excluded by great drought or by the absence of a high temperature4 ,at the same time1 the indigenous species are very poor4 ,it is not merely the want of intelligence or of security which has prevented the inhabitants from cultivating them4 ,the nature of the indigenous flora has so much to do with it1 that the ,europeans1 established in these countries for a hundred years1 have only cultivated a single species1 the ,tetragonia1 an insignificant green vegetable4 ,i am aware that ,sir ,joseph ,hooker#a has enumerated more than a hundred ,australian species which may be used in some way2 but as a matter of fact they were not cultivated by the natives1 and1 in spite of the improved methods of the ,english colonists1 no one does cultivate them4 ,this clearly demonstrates the principle of which ,i spoke just now1 that the choice of species is more important than the selection of varieties1 and that there must be valuable qualities in a wild plant in order to lead to its cultivation4 ,in spite of the obscurity of the beginnings of cultivation in each region1 it is certain that they occurred at very different periods4 ,one of the most ancient examples of cultivated plants is in a drawing representing figs1 found in ,egypt in the pyramid of ,gizeh4 ,the epoch of the construction of this monument is uncertain4 ,authors have assigned a date varying between fifteen hundred and four thousand two hundred years before the ,christian era4 ,supposing it to be two thousand years1 its actual age would be four thousand years4 ,now1 the construction of the pyramids could only have been the work of a numerous1 organized people1 possessing a certain degree of civilization1 and consequently an established agriculture1 dating from some centuries back at least4 ,in ,china1 two thousand seven hundred years before ,christ1 the ,emperor ,chenming instituted the ceremony at which every year five species of useful plants are sown--rice1 sweet potato1 wheat1 and two kinds of millet4#b ,these plants must have been cultivated for some time in certain localities before they attracted the emperor's attention to such a degree4 ,agriculture appears1 then1 to be as ancient in ,china as in ,egypt4 ,the constant relations between ,egypt and ,mesopotamia lead us to suppose that an almost contemporaneous cultivation existed in the valleys of the ,euphrates and the ,nile4 ,and it may have been equally early in ,india and in the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,the history of the ,dravidian and ,malay peoples does not reach far back1 and is sufficiently obscure1 but there is no reason to believe that cultivation has not been known among them for a very long time1 particularly along the banks of the rivers4 ,the ancient ,egyptians and the ,phnicians propagated many plants in the region of the ,mediterranean1 and the ,aryan nations1 whose migrations towards ,europe began about #bejj1 or at latest #bjjj years ,b4,c41 carried with them several species already cultivated in ,western ,asia4 ,we shall see1 in studying the history of several species1 that some plants were probably cultivated in ,europe and in the north of ,africa prior to the ,aryan migration4 ,this is shown by names in languages more ancient than the ,aryan tongues2 for instance1 ,finn1 ,basque1 ,berber1 and the speech of the ,guanchos of the ,canary ,isles4 ,however1 the remains1 called kitchen-middens1 of ancient ,danish dwellings1 have hitherto furnished no proof of cultivation or any indication of the possession of metal4#c ,the ,scandinavians of that period lived principally by fishing and hunting1 and perhaps eked out their subsistence by indigenous plants1 such as the cabbage1 the nature of which does not admit any remnant of traces in the dung-heaps and rubbish1 and which1 moreover1 did not require cultivation4 ,the absence of metals does not in these northern countries argue a greater antiquity than the age of ,pericles1 or even the palmy days of the ,roman republic4 ,later1 when bronze was known in ,sweden--a region far removed from the then civilized countries--agriculture had at length been introduced4 ,among the remains of that epoch was found a carving of a cart drawn by two oxen and driven by a man4#d ,the ancient inhabitants of ,eastern ,switzerland1 at a time when they possessed instruments of polished stone and no metals1 cultivated several plants1 of which some were of ,asiatic origin4 ,heer#e has shown1 in his admirable work on the lake-dwellings1 that the inhabitants had intercourse with the countries south of the ,alps4 ,they may also have received plants cultivated by the ,iberians1 who occupied ,gaul before the ,kelts4 ,at the period when the lake-dwellers of ,switzerland and ,savoy possessed bronze1 their agriculture was more varied4 ,it seems that the lake-dwellers of ,italy1 when in possession of this metal1 cultivated fewer species than those of ,savoy1#f and this may be due either to a greater antiquity or to local circumstances4 ,the remains of the lake-dwellers of ,laybach and of the ,mondsee in ,austria prove likewise a completely primitive agriculture2 no cereals have been found at ,laybach1 and but a single grain of wheat at the ,mondsee4#g ,the backward condition of agriculture in this eastern part of ,europe is contrary to the hypothesis1 based on a few words used by ancient historians1 that the ,aryans sojourned first in the region of the ,danube1 and that ,thrace was civilized before ,greece4 ,in spite of this example1 agriculture appears in general to have been more ancient in the temperate parts of ,europe than we should be inclined to believe from the ,greeks1 who were disposed1 like certain modern writers1 to attribute the origin of all progress to their own nation4 ,in ,america1 agriculture is perhaps not quite so ancient as in ,asia and ,egypt1 if we are to judge from the civilization of ,mexico and ,peru1 which does not date even from the first centuries of the ,christian era4 ,however1 the widespread cultivation of certain plants1 such as maize1 tobacco1 and the sweet potato1 argues a considerable antiquity1 perhaps two thousand years or thereabouts4 ,history is at fault in this matter1 and we can only hope to be enlightened by the discoveries of archology and geology4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,methods ,,for ,,discovering ,,or ,,proving ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,species4 #a4 ,general reflections4 ,as most cultivated plants have been under culture from an early period1 and the manner of their introduction into cultivation is often little known1 different means are necessary in order to ascertain their origin4 ,for each species we need a research similar to those made by historians and archologists--a varied research1 in which sometimes one process is employed1 sometimes another2 and these are afterwards combined and estimated according to their relative value4 ,the naturalist is here no longer in his ordinary domain of observation and description2 he must support himself by historical proof1 which is never demanded in the laboratory2 and botanical facts are required1 not with respect to the physiology of plants--a favourite study of the present day--but with regard to the distinction of species and their geographical distribution4 ,i shall1 therefore1 have to make use of methods of which some are foreign to naturalists1 others to persons versed in historical learning4 ,i shall say a few words of each1 to explain how they should be employed and what is their value4 #b4 ,botany4 ,one of the most direct means of discovering the geographical origin of a cultivated species1 is to seek in what country it grows spontaneously1 and without the help of man4 ,the question appears at the first glance to be a simple one4 ,it seems1 indeed1 that by consulting floras1 works upon species in general1 or herbaria1 we ought to be able to solve it easily in each particular case4 ,unfortunately it is1 on the contrary1 a question which demands a special knowledge of botany1 especially of geographical botany1 and an estimate of botanists and of collectors1 founded on a long experience4 ,learned men1 occupied with history or with the interpretation of ancient authors1 are liable to grave mistakes when they content themselves with the first testimony they may happen to light upon in a botanical work4 ,on the other hand1 travellers who collect plants for a herbarium are not always sufficiently observant of the places and circumstances in which they find them4 ,they often neglect to note down what they have remarked on the subject4 ,we know1 however1 that a plant may have sprung from others cultivated in the neighbourhood2 that birds1 winds1 etc41 may have borne the seeds to great distances2 that they are sometimes brought in the ballast of vessels or mixed with their cargoes4 ,such cases present themselves with respect to common species1 much more so with respect to cultivated plants which abound near human dwellings4 ,a collector or traveller had need be a keen observer to judge if a plant has sprung from a wild stock belonging to the flora of the country1 or if it is of foreign origin4 ,when the plant is growing near dwellings1 on walls1 among rubbish-heaps1 by the wayside1 etc41 we should be cautious in forming an opinion4 ,it may also happen that a plant strays from cultivation1 even to a distance from suspicious localities1 and has nevertheless but a short duration1 because it cannot in the long run support the conditions of the climate or the struggle with the indigenous species4 ,this is what is called in botany an adventive species4 ,it appears and disappears1 a proof that it is not a native of the country4 ,every flora offers numerous examples of this kind4 ,when these are more abundant than usual1 the public is struck by the circumstance4 ,thus1 the troops hastily summoned from ,algeria into ,france in #ahgj1 disseminated by fodder and otherwise a number of ,african and southern species which excited wonder1 but of which no trace remained after two or three winters4 ,some collectors and authors of floras are very careful in noting these facts4 ,thanks to personal relations with some of them1 and to frequent references to their herbaria and botanical works1 ,i flatter myself ,i am acquainted with them4 ,i shall1 therefore1 willingly cite their testimony in doubtful cases4 ,for certain countries and certain species ,i have addressed myself directly to these eminent naturalists4 ,i have appealed to their memory1 to their notes1 to their herbaria1 and from the answers they have been so kind as to return1 ,i have been enabled to add unpublished documents to those found in works already made public4 ,my sincere thanks are due for information of this nature received from ,mr4 ,c4 ,b4 ,clarke on the plants of ,india1 from ,m4 ,boissier on those of the ,east1 from ,m4 ,sagot on the species of ,french ,guiana1 from ,m4 ,cosson on those of ,algeria1 from ,,mm4 ,decaisne and ,bretschneider on the plants of ,china1 from ,m4 ,pancic on the cereals of ,servia1 from ,messrs4 ,bentham and ,baker on the specimens of the herbarium at ,kew1 lastly from ,m4 ,edouard ,andr on the plants of ,america4 ,this zealous traveller was kind enough to lend me some most interesting specimens of species cultivated in ,south ,america1 which he found presenting every appearance of indigenous plants4 ,a more difficult question1 and one which cannot be solved at once1 is whether a plant growing wild1 with all the appearance of the indigenous species1 has existed in the country from a very early period1 or has been introduced at a more or less ancient date4 ,for there are naturalized species1 that is1 those that are introduced among the plants of the ancient flora1 and which1 although of foreign origin1 persist there in such a manner that observation alone cannot distinguish them1 so that historical records or botanical considerations1 whether simple or geographical1 are needed for their detection4 ,in a very general sense1 taking into consideration the lengthened periods with which science is concerned1 nearly all species1 especially in the regions lying outside the tropics1 have been once naturalized2 that is to say1 they have1 from geographical and physical circumstances1 passed from one region to another4 ,when1 in #ahee1 ,i put forward the idea that conditions anterior to our epoch determined the greater number of the facts of the actual distribution of plants--this was the sense of several of the articles1 and of the conclusion of my two volumes of geographical botany#h--;it was received with considerable surprise4 ,it is true that general considerations of palontology had just led ,dr4 ,unger1#i a ,german savant1 to adopt similar ideas1 and before him ,edward ,forbes had1 with regard to some species of the southern counties of the ,british ,isles1 suggested the hypothesis of an ancient connection with ,spain4#aj ,but the proof that it is impossible to explain the habitations of the whole number of present species by means of the conditions existing for some thousands of years1 made a greater impression1 because it belonged more especially to the department of botanists1 and did not relate to only a few plants of a single country4 ,the hypothesis suggested by ,forbes became an assured fact and capable of general application1 and is now a truism of science4 ,all that is written on geographical or zoological botany rests upon this basis1 which is no longer contested4 ,this principle1 in its application to each country and each species1 presents a number of difficulties2 for when a cause is once recognized1 it is not always easy to discover how it has affected each particular case4 ,luckily1 so far as cultivated plants are concerned1 the questions which occur do not make it necessary to go back to very ancient times1 nor to dates which cannot be defined by a given number of years or centuries4 ,no doubt the modern specific forms date from a period earlier than the great extension of glaciers in the northern hemisphere--a phenomenon of several thousand years' duration1 if we are to judge from the size of the deposits transported by the ice2 but cultivation began after this epoch1 and even in many instances within historic time4 ,we have little to do with previous events4 ,cultivated species may have changed their abode before cultivation1 or in the course of a longer time they may have changed their form2 this belongs to the general study of all organized life1 and we are concerned only with the examination of each species since its cultivation or in the time immediately before it4 ,this is a great simplification4 ,the question of age1 thus limited1 may be approached by means of historical or other records1 of which ,i shall presently speak1 and by the principles of geographical botany4 ,i shall briefly enumerate these1 in order to show in what manner they can aid in the discovery of the geographical origin of a given plant4 ,as a rule1 the abode of each species is constant1 or nearly constant4 ,it is1 however1 sometimes disconnected2 that is to say1 that the individuals of which it is composed are found in widely separated regions4 ,these cases1 which are extremely interesting in the study of the vegetable kingdom and of the surface of the globe1 are far from forming the majority4 ,therefore1 when a cultivated species is found wild1 frequently in ,europe1 more rarely in the ,united ,states1 it is probable that1 in spite of its indigenous appearance in ,america1 it has become naturalized after being accidentally transported thither4 ,the genera of the vegetable kingdom1 although usually composed of several species1 are often confined to a single region4 ,it follows1 that the more species included in a genus all belonging to the same quarter of the globe1 the more probable it is that one of the species1 apparently indigenous in another part of the world1 has been transported thither and has become naturalized there1 by escaping from cultivation4 ,this is especially the case with tropical genera1 because they are more often restricted either to the old or to the new world4 ,geographical botany teaches us what countries have genera and even species in common1 in spite of a certain distance1 and what1 on the contrary1 are very different1 in spite of similarity of climate or inconsiderable distance4 ,it also teaches us what species1 genera1 and families are scattered over a wide area1 and the more limited extent of others4 ,these data are of great assistance in determining the probable origin of a given species4 ,naturalized plants spread rapidly4 ,i have quoted examples elsewhere#aa of instances within the last two centuries1 and similar facts have been noted from year to year4 ,the rapidity of the recent invasion of ,anacharis ,alsinastrum into the rivers of ,europe is well known1 and that of many ,european plants in ,new ,zealand1 ,australia1 ,california1 etc41 mentioned in several floras or modern travels4 ,the great abundance of a species is no proof of its antiquity4 ,agave ,americana1 so common on the shores of the ,mediterranean1 although introduced from ,america1 and our cardoon1 which now covers a great part of the ,pampas of ,la ,plata1 are remarkable instances in point4 ,as a rule1 an invading species makes rapid way1 while extinction is1 on the contrary1 the result of the strife of several centuries against unfavourable circumstances4#ab ,the designation which should be adopted for allied species1 or1 to speak scientifically1 allied forms1 is a problem often presented in natural history1 and more often in the category of cultivated species than in others4 ,these plants are changed by cultivation4 ,man adopts new and convenient forms1 and propagates them by artificial means1 such as budding1 grafting1 the choice of seeds1 etc4 ,it is clear that1 in order to discover the origin of one of these species1 we must eliminate as far as possible the forms which appear to be artificial1 and concentrate our attention on the others4 ,a simple reflection may guide this choice1 namely1 that a cultivated species varies chiefly in those parts for which it is cultivated4 ,the others remain unmodified1 or present trifling alterations1 of which the cultivator takes no note1 because they are useless to him4 ,we may expect1 therefore1 to find the fruit of a wild fruit tree small and of a doubtfully agreeable flavour1 the grain of a cereal in its wild state small1 the tubercles of a wild potato small1 the leaves of indigenous tobacco narrow1 etc41 without1 however1 going so far as to imagine that the species developed rapidly under cultivation1 for man would not have begun to cultivate it if it had not from the beginning presented some useful or agreeable qualities4 ,when once a cultivated plant has been reduced to such a condition as permits of its being reasonably compared with analogous spontaneous forms1 we have still to decide what group of nearly similar plants it is proper to designate as constituting a species4 ,botanists alone are competent to pronounce an opinion on this question1 since they are accustomed to appreciate differences and resemblances1 and know the confusion of certain works in the matter of nomenclature4 ,this is not the place to discuss what may reasonably be termed a species4 ,i have stated in some of my articles the principles which seem to me the best4 ,as their application would often require a study which has not been made1 ,i have thought it well occasionally to treat quasi-specific forms as a group which appears to me to correspond to a species1 and ,i have sought the geographical origin of these forms as though they were really specific4 ,to sum up3 botany furnishes valuable means of guessing or proving the origin of cultivated plants and for avoiding mistakes4 ,we must1 however1 by no means forget that practical observation must be supplemented by research in the study4 ,after gaining information from the collector who sees the plants in a given spot or district1 and who draws up a flora or a catalogue of species1 it is indispensable to study the known or probable geographical distribution in books and in herbaria1 and to reflect upon the principles of geographical botany and on the questions of classification1 which cannot be done by travelling or collecting4 ,other researches1 of which ,i shall speak presently1 must be combined with those of botany if we would arrive at satisfactory conclusions4 #c4 ,archology and ,palontology4 ,the most direct proof which can be conceived of the ancient existence of a species in a given country is to see its recognizable fragments in old buildings or deposits1 of a more or less certain date4 ,the fruits1 seeds1 and different portions of plants taken from ancient ,egyptian tombs1 and the drawings which surround them in the pyramids1 have given rise to most important researches1 which ,i shall often have to mention4 ,nevertheless1 there is a possible source of error2 the fraudulent introduction of modern plants into the sarcophagi of the mummies4 ,this was easily discovered in the case of some grains of maize1 for instance1 a plant of ,american origin1 which were introduced by the ,arabs2 but species cultivated in ,egypt within the last two or three thousand years may have been added1 which would thus appear to have belonged to an earlier period4 ,the tumuli or mounds of ,north ,america1 and the monuments of the ancient ,mexicans and ,peruvians1 have furnished records about the plants cultivated in that part of the world4 ,here we are concerned with an epoch subsequent to the pyramids of ,egypt4 ,the deposits of the ,swiss lake-dwellings have been the subject of important treatises1 among which that of ,heer1 quoted just now1 holds the first place4 ,similar works have been published on the vegetable remains found in other lakes or peat mosses of ,switzerland1 ,savoy1 ,germany1 and ,italy4 ,i shall quote them with reference to several species4 ,dr4 ,gross has been kind enough to send me seeds and fruits taken from the lake-dwellings of ,neuchtel2 and my colleague1 ,professor ,heer1 has favoured me with several facts collected at ,zrich since the publication of his work4 ,i have already said that the rubbish-heaps of the ,scandinavian countries1 called kitchen-middens1 have furnished no trace of cultivated vegetables4 ,the tufa of the south of ,france contains leaves and other remains of plants1 which have been discovered by ,,mm4 ,martins1 ,planchon1 de ,saporta1 and other savants4 ,their date is not1 perhaps1 always earlier than that of the first lacustrine deposits1 and it is possible that it agrees with that of ancient ,egyptian monuments1 and of ancient ,chinese books4 ,lastly1 the mineralogic strata1 with which geologists are specially concerned1 tell us much about the succession of vegetable forms in different countries2 but here we are dealing with epochs far anterior to agriculture1 and it would be a strange and certainly a most valuable chance if a modern cultivated species were discovered in the ,european tertiary epoch4 ,no such discovery has hitherto been made with any certainty1 though uncultivated species have been recognized in strata prior to the glacial epoch of the northern hemisphere4 ,for the rest1 if we do not succeed in finding them1 the consequences will not be clear1 since it may be said1 either that such a plant came at a later date from a different region1 or that it had formerly another form which renders its recognition impossible in a fossil state4 #d4 ,history4 ,historical records are important in order to determine the date of certain cultures in each country4 ,they also give indications as to the geographical origin of plants when they have been propagated by the migrations of ancient peoples1 by travellers1 or by military expeditions4 ,the assertions of authors must not1 however1 be accepted without examination4 ,the greater number of ancient historians have confused the fact of the cultivation of a species in a country with that of its previous existence there in a wild state4 ,it has been commonly asserted1 even in our own day1 that a species cultivated in ,america or ,china is a native of ,america or ,china4 ,a no less common error is the belief that a species comes originally from a given country because it has come to us from thence1 and not direct from the place in which it is really indigenous4 ,thus the ,greeks and ,romans called the peach the ,persian apple1 because they had seen it cultivated in ,persia1 where it probably did not grow wild4 ,it was a native of ,china1 as ,i have elsewhere shown4 ,they called the pomegranate1 which had spread gradually from garden to garden from ,persia to ,mauritania1 the apple of ,carthage 7,malum ,punicum74 ,very ancient authors1 such as ,herodotus and ,berosius1 are yet more liable to error1 in spite of their desire to be accurate4 ,we shall see1 when we speak of maize1 that historical documents which are complete forgeries may deceive us about the origin of a species4 ,it is curious1 for it seems to be no one's interest to lie about such agricultural facts4 ,fortunately1 facts of botany and archology enable us to detect errors of this nature4 ,the principal difficulty1 which commonly occurs in the case of ancient historians1 is to find the exact translation of the names of plants1 which in their books always bear the common names4 ,i shall speak presently of the value of these names and how the science of language may be brought to bear on the questions with which we are occupied1 but ,i must first indicate those historical notions which are most useful in the study of cultivated plants4 ,agriculture came originally1 at least so far as the principal species are concerned1 from three great regions1 in which certain plants grew1 regions which had no communication with each other4 ,these are--,china1 the south-west of ,asia 7with ,egypt71 and intertropical ,america4 ,i do not mean to say that in ,europe1 in ,africa1 and elsewhere savage tribes may not have cultivated a few species locally1 at an early epoch1 as an addition to the resources of hunting and fishing2 but the great civilizations based upon agriculture began in the three regions ,i have indicated4 ,it is worthy of note that in the old world agricultural communities established themselves along the banks of the rivers1 whereas in ,america they dwelt on the high lands of ,mexico and ,peru4 ,this may perhaps have been due to the original situation of the plants suitable for cultivation1 for the banks of the ,mississippi1 of the ,amazon1 of the ,orinoco1 are not more unhealthy than those of the rivers of the old world4 ,a few words about each of the three regions4 ,china had already possessed for some thousands of years a flourishing agriculture and even horticulture1 when she entered for the first time into relations with ,western ,asia1 by the mission of ,chang-,kien1 during the reign of the ,emperor ,wu-ti1 in the second century before the ,christian era4 ,the records1 known as ,pent-sao1 written in our ,middle ,ages1 state that he brought back the bean1 the cucumber1 the lucern1 the saffron1 the sesame1 the walnut1 the pea1 spinach1 the water-melon1 and other western plants1#ac then unknown to the ,chinese4 ,chang-,kien1 it will be observed1 was no ordinary ambassador4 ,he considerably enlarged the geographical knowledge1 and improved the economic condition of his countrymen4 ,it is true that he was constrained to dwell ten years in the ,west1 and that he belonged to an already civilized people1 one of whose emperors had1 #bgjj ,b4,c41 consecrated with imposing ceremonies the cultivation of certain plants4 ,the ,mongolians were too barbarous1 and came from too cold a country1 to have been able to introduce many useful species into ,china2 but when we consider the origin of the peach and the apricot1 we shall see that these plants were brought into ,china from ,western ,asia1 probably by isolated travellers1 merchants or others1 who passed north of the ,himalayas4 ,a few species spread in the same way into ,china from the ,west before the embassy of ,chang-,kien4 ,regular communication between ,china and ,india only began in the time of ,chang-,kien1 and by the circuitous way of ,bactriana2#ad but gradual transmissions from place to place may have been effected through the ,malay ,peninsula and ,cochin-,china4 ,the writers of ,northern ,china may have been ignorant of them1 and especially since the southern provinces were only united to the empire in the second century before ,christ4#ae ,regular communications between ,china and ,japan only took place about the year #eg of our era1 when an ambassador was sent2 and the ,chinese had no real knowledge of their eastern neighbours until the third century1 when the ,chinese character was introduced into ,japan4#af ,the vast region which stretches from the ,ganges to ,armenia and the ,nile was not in ancient times so isolated as ,china4 ,its inhabitants exchanged cultivated plants with great facility1 and even transported them to a distance4 ,it is enough to remember that ancient migrations and conquests continually intermixed the ,turanian1 ,aryan1 and ,semitic peoples between the ,caspian ,sea1 ,mesopotamia1 and the ,nile4 ,great states were formed nearly at the same time on the banks of the ,euphrates and in ,egypt1 but they succeeded to tribes which had already cultivated certain plants4 ,agriculture is older in that region than ,babylon and the first ,egyptian dynasties1 which date from more than four thousand years ago4 ,the ,assyrian and ,egyptian empires afterwards fought for supremacy1 and in their struggles they transported whole nations1 which could not fail to spread cultivated species4 ,on the other hand1 the ,aryan tribes who dwelt originally to the north of ,mesopotamia1 in a land less favourable to agriculture1 spread westward and southward1 driving out or subjugating the ,turanian and ,dravidian nations4 ,their speech1 and those which are derived from it in ,europe and ,hindustan1 show that they knew and transported several useful species4#ag ,after these ancient events1 of which the dates are for the most part uncertain1 the voyages of the ,phnicians1 the wars between the ,greeks and ,persians1 ,alexander's expedition into ,india1 and finally the ,roman rule1 completed the spread of cultivation in the interior of ,western ,asia1 and even introduced it into ,europe and the north of ,africa1 wherever the climate permitted4 ,later1 at the time of the crusades1 very few useful plants yet remained to be brought from the ,east4 ,a few varieties of fruit trees which the ,romans did not possess1 and some ornamental plants1 were1 however1 then brought to ,europe4 ,the discovery of ,america in #adib was the last great event which caused the diffusion of cultivated plants into all countries4 ,the ,american species1 such as the potato1 maize1 the prickly pear1 tobacco1 etc41 were first imported into ,europe and ,asia4 ,then a number of species from the old world were introduced into ,america4 ,the voyage of ,magellan 7#aebj-aeba7 was the first direct communication between ,south ,america and ,asia4 ,in the same century the slave trade multiplied communications between ,africa and ,america4 ,lastly1 the discovery of the ,pacific ,islands in the eighteenth century1 and the growing facility of the means of communication1 combined with a general idea of improvement1 produced that more general dispersion of useful plants of which we are witnesses at the present day4 #e4 ,philology4 ,the common names of cultivated plants are usually well known1 and may afford indications touching the history of a species1 but there are examples in which they are absurd1 based upon errors1 or vague and doubtful1 and this involves a certain caution in their use4 ,i could quote a number of such names in all languages2 it is enough to mention1 in ,french1 bl de ,turquie1 maize1 a plant which is not a wheat1 and which comes from ,america2 in ,english1 ,jerusalem artichoke 7,helianthus tuberosus71 which does not come from ,jerusalem1 but from ,north ,america1 and is no artichoke4 ,a number of names given to foreign plants by ,europeans when they are settled in the colonies1 express false or insignificant analogies4 ,for instance1 the ,new ,zealand flax resembles the true flax as little as possible2 it is merely that a textile substance is obtained from its leaves4 ,the mahogany apple 7cashew7 of the ,french ,west ,india ,isles is not an apple1 nor even the fruit of a pomaceous tree1 and has nothing to do with mahogany4 ,sometimes the common names have changed1 in passing from one language to another1 in such a manner as to give a false or absurd meaning4 ,thus the tree of ,judea of the ,french 7,cercis ,siliquastrum7 has become the ,judas tree in ,english4 ,the fruit called by the ,mexicans ahuaca1 is become the avocat 7lawyer7 of the ,french colonists4 ,not unfrequently names of plants have been taken by the same people at successive epochs or in different provinces1 sometimes as generic1 sometimes as specific names4 ,the ,french word bl1 for instance1 may mean several species of the genus ,triticum1 and even of very different nutritious plants 7maize and wheat71 or a given species of wheat4 ,several common names have been transferred from one plant to another through error or ignorance4 ,thus the confusion made by early travellers between the sweet potato 7,convolvulus ,batatas7 and the potato 7,solanum tuberosum7 has caused the latter to be called potato in ,english and patatas in ,spanish4 ,if modern1 civilized peoples1 who have great facilities for comparing species1 learning their origin and verifying their names in books1 have made such mistakes1 it is probable that ancient nations have made many and more grave errors4 ,scholars display vast learning in explaining the philological origin of a name1 or its modifications in derived languages1 but they cannot discover popular errors or absurdities4 ,it is left for botanists to discover and point them out4 ,we may note1 in passing1 that the double or compound names are the most doubtful4 ,they may consist of two mistakes2 one in the root or principal name1 the other in the addition or accessory name1 destined almost always to indicate the geographical origin1 some visible quality1 or some comparison with other species4 ,the shorter a name is1 the better it merits consideration in questions of origin or antiquity2 for it is by the succession of years1 of the migrations of peoples1 and of the transport of plants1 that the addition of often erroneous epithets takes place4 ,similarly1 in symbolic writing1 like that of the ,chinese and the ,egyptians1 unique and simple signs indicate long-known species1 not imported from foreign countries1 while complicated signs are doubtful or indicate a foreign origin4 ,we must not forget1 however1 that the signs have often been rebuses1 based on chance resemblances in the words1 or on superstitious and fanciful ideas4 ,the identity of a common name for a given species in several languages may have two very different explanations4 ,it may be because a plant has been spread by a people which has been dispersed and scattered4 ,it may also result from the transmission of a plant from one people to another with the name it bore in its original home4 ,the first case is that of the hemp1 of which the name is similar1 at least as to the root1 in all the tongues derived from the primitive ,aryan stock4 ,the second is seen in the ,american name of tobacco1 the ,chinese of tea1 which have spread into a number of countries1 without any philological or ethnographic filiation4 ,this case has occurred oftener in modern than in ancient times1 because the rapidity of communications allows of the simultaneous introduction of a plant and of its name1 even where the distance is great4 ,the diversity of names for the same species may also spring from various causes4 ,as a rule1 it indicates an early existence in different countries1 but it may also arise from the mixture of races1 or from names of varieties which take the place of the original name4 ,thus in ,england we find1 according to the county1 a ,keltic1 ,saxon1 ,danish1 or ,latin name2 and flax bears in ,germany the names of flachs and lein1 words which are evidently of different origin4 ,when we desire to make use of the common names to gather from them certain probabilities regarding the origin of species1 it is necessary to consult dictionaries and the dissertations of philologists2 but we must take into account the chances of error in these learned men1 who1 since they are neither cultivators nor botanists1 may have made mistakes in the application of a name to a species4 ,the most considerable collection of common names is that of ,nemnich1 published in #agic4ah ,i have another in manuscript which is yet more complete1 drawn up in our library by an old pupil of mine1 ,moritzi1 by means of floras and of several books of travel written by botanists4 ,there are1 besides1 dictionaries of the names of the species in given countries or in some special language4 ,this kind of glossary does not often contain explanations of etymology2 but in spite of what ,hehn#ai may say1 a naturalist possessed of an ordinary general education can recognize the connection or the fundamental differences between certain names in different languages1 and need not confound modern with ancient languages4 ,it is not necessary to be initiated into the mysteries of suffixes or affixes1 of dentals and labials4 ,no doubt the researches of a philologist into etymologies are more profound and valuable1 but this is rarely necessary when our researches have to do with cultivated plants4 ,other sciences are more useful1 especially that of botany2 and philologists are more often deficient in these than naturalists are deficient in philology1 for the very evident reason that more place is given to languages than to natural history in general education4 ,it appears to me1 moreover1 that philologists1 notably those who are occupied with ,sanskrit1 are always too eager to find the etymology of every name4 ,they do not allow sufficiently for human stupidity1 which has in all time given rise to absurd words1 without any real basis1 and derived only from error or superstition4 ,the filiation of modern ,european tongues is known to every one4 ,that of ancient languages has1 for more than half a century1 been the object of important labours4 ,of these ,i cannot here give even a brief notice4 ,it is sufficient to recall that all modern ,european languages are derived from the speech of the ,western ,aryans1 who came from ,asia1 with the exception of ,basque 7derived from the ,iberian language71 ,finnish1 ,turkish1 and ,hungarian1 into which1 moreover1 words of ,aryan origin have been introduced4 ,on the other hand1 several modern languages of ,india1 ,ceylon1 and ,java1 are derived from the ,sanskrit of the ,eastern ,aryans1 who left ,central ,asia after the ,western ,aryans4 ,it is supposed1 with sufficient probability1 that the first ,western ,aryans came into ,europe #bejj ,b4,c41 and the ,eastern ,aryans into ,india a thousand years later4 ,basque 7or ,iberian71 the speech of the ,guanchos of the ,canary ,isles1 of which a few plant names are known1 and ,berber1 are probably connected with the ancient tongues of the north of ,africa4 ,botanists are in many cases forced to doubt the common names attributed to plants by travellers1 historians1 and philologists4 ,this is a consequence of their own doubts respecting the distinction of species and of the well-known difficulty of ascertaining the common name of a plant4 ,the uncertainty becomes yet greater in the case of species which are more easily confounded or less generally known1 or in the case of the languages of little-civilized nations4 ,there are1 so to speak1 degrees of languages in this respect1 and the names should be accepted more or less readily according to these degrees4 ,in the first rank1 for certainty1 are placed those languages which possess botanical works4 ,for instance1 it is possible to recognize a species by means of a ,greek description by ,dioscorides or ,theophrastus1 and by the less complete ,latin texts of ,cato1 ,columella1 or ,pliny4 ,chinese books also give descriptions4 ,dr4 ,bretschneider1 of the ,russian legation at ,pekin1 has written some excellent papers upon these books1 from which ,i shall often quote4#bj ,the second degree is that of languages possessing a literature composed only of theological and poetical works1 or of chronicles of kings and battles4 ,such works make mention here and there of plants1 with epithets or reflections on their mode of flowering1 their ripening1 their use1 etc41 which allow their names to be divined1 and to be referred to modern botanical nomenclature4 ,with the added help of a knowledge of the flora of the country1 and of the common names in the languages derived from the dead language1 it is possible to discover approximately the sense of some words4 ,this is the case with ,sanskrit1#ba ,hebrew1#bb and ,armenian4#bc ,lastly1 a third category of dead languages offers no certainty1 but merely presumptions or hypothetical and rare indications4 ,it comprehends those tongues in which there is no written work1 such as ,keltic1 with its dialects1 the ancient ,sclavonic1 ,pelasgic1 ,iberian1 the speech of the primitive ,aryans1 ,turanians1 etc4 ,it is possible to guess certain names or their approximate form in these dead languages by two methods1 both of which should be employed with caution4 ,the first and best is to consult the languages derived1 or which we believe to be derived1 directly from the ancient tongues1 as ,basque for the ,iberian language1 ,albanian for the ,pelasgic1 ,breton1 ,erse1 and ,gaelic for ,keltic4 ,the danger lies in the possibility of mistake in the filiation of the languages1 and especially in a mistaken belief in the antiquity of a plant-name which may have been introduced by another people4 ,thus the ,basque language contains many words which seem to have been taken from the ,latin at the time of the ,roman rule4 ,berber is full of ,arab words1 and ,persian of words of every origin1 which probably did not exist in ,zend4 ,the other method consists in reconstructing a dead language which had no literature1 by means of those which are derived from it2 for instance1 the speech of the ,western ,aryans1 by means of the words common to several ,european languages which have sprung from it4 ,fick's dictionary will hardly serve for the words of ancient ,aryan languages1 for he gives but few plant-names1 and his arrangement renders it unintelligible to those who have no knowledge of ,sanskrit4 ,adolphe ,pictet's work#bd is far more important to naturalists1 and a second edition1 augmented and improved1 has been published since the author's death4 ,plant-names and agricultural terms are explained and discussed in this work1 in a manner all the more satisfactory that an accurate knowledge of botany is combined with philology4 ,if the author attributes perhaps too much importance to doubtful etymologies1 he makes up for it by other knowledge1 and by his excellent method and lucidity4 ,the plant-names of the ,euskarian or ,basque language have been considered from the point of view of their probable etymology by the ,comte de ,charencey1 in ,les ,actes de la ,socit ,philologique 7vol4 i4 ,no4 #a1 #ahfi74 ,i shall have occasion to quote this work1 of which the difficulties were great1 in the absence of all literature and of all derived languages4 #f4 ,the necessity for combining the different methods4 ,the various methods of which ,i have spoken are of unequal value4 ,it is clear that when we have archological records about a given species1 like those of the ,egyptian monuments1 or of the ,swiss lake-dwellings1 these are facts of remarkable accuracy4 ,then come the data furnished by botany1 especially those on the spontaneous existence of a species in a given country4 ,these1 if examined with care1 may be very important4 ,the assertions contained in the works of historians or even of naturalists respecting an epoch at which science was only beginning1 have not the same value4 ,lastly1 the common names are only an accessory means1 especially in modern languages1 and a means which1 as we have seen1 is not entirely trustworthy4 ,so much may be said in a general way1 but in each particular case one method or the other may be more or less important4 ,each can only lead to probabilities1 since we are dealing with facts of ancient date which are beyond the reach of direct and actual observation4 ,fortunately1 if the same probability is attained in three or four different ways1 we approach very near to certainty4 ,the same rule holds good for researches into the history of plants as for researches into the history of nations4 ,a good author consults historians who have spoken of events1 the archives in which unpublished documents are found1 the inscriptions on ancient monuments1 the newspapers1 private letters1 finally memoirs and even tradition4 ,he gathers probabilities from every source1 and then compares these probabilities1 weighs and discusses them before deciding4 ,it is a labour of the mind which requires intelligence and judgment4 ,this labour differs widely from observation employed in natural history1 and from pure reason which is proper to the exact sciences4 ,nevertheless1 when1 by several methods1 we reach the same probability1 ,i repeat that the latter is very nearly a certainty4 ,we may even say that it is as much a certainty as historical science can pretend to attain4 ,i have the proof of this when ,i compare my present work with that which ,i composed by the same methods in #ahee4 ,for the species which ,i then studied1 ,i have now more authorities and better authenticated facts1 but my conclusions on the origin of each species have scarcely altered4 ,as they were already based on a combination of methods1 probabilities have usually become certainties1 and ,i have not been led to conclusions absolutely contrary to those previously formed4 ,archological1 philological1 and botanical data become more and more numerous4 ,by their means the history of cultivated plants is perfected1 while the assertions of ancient authors lose instead of gaining in importance4 ,from the discoveries of antiquaries and philologists1 moderns are better acquainted than the ,greeks with ,chaldea and ancient ,egypt4 ,they can prove mistakes in ,herodotus4 ,botanists on their side correct ,theophrastus1 ,dioscorides1 and ,pliny from their knowledge of the flora of ,greece and ,italy1 while the study of classical authors to which learned men have applied themselves for three centuries has already furnished all that it has to give4 ,i cannot help smiling when1 at the present day1 savants repeat well-known ,greek and ,latin phrases1 and draw from them what they call conclusions4 ,it is trying to extract juice from a lemon which has already been repeatedly squeezed4 ,we must say it frankly1 the works which repeat and commentate on the ancient authors of ,greece and ,rome without giving the first place to botanical and archological facts1 are no longer on a level with the science of the day4 ,nevertheless1 ,i could name several ,german works which have attained to the honour of a third edition4 ,it would have been better to reprint the earlier publications of ,fraas and ,lenz1 of ,targioni and ,heldreich1 which have always given more weight to the modern data of botany1 than to the vague descriptions of classic authors2 that is to say1 to facts than to words and phrases4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,on the ,study of ,species1 considered as to their ,origin1 their early ,cultivation1 and the ,principal ,facts of their ,diffusion4#be ,,chapter ,i4 ,,plants ,,cultivated ,,for ,,their ,,subterranean ,,parts1 ,,such ,,as ,,roots1 ,,tubercles1 ,,or ,,bulbs4#bf ,radish4--,raphanus sativus1 ,linnus4 ,the radish is cultivated for what is called the root1 which is1 properly speaking1 the lower part of the stem with the tap root4#bg ,every one knows how the size1 shape1 and colour of those organs which become fleshy vary according to the soil or the variety4 ,there is no doubt that the species is indigenous in the temperate regions of the old world2 but1 as it has been cultivated in gardens from the earliest historic times1 from ,china and ,japan to ,europe1 and as it sows itself frequently round cultivated plots1 it is difficult to fix upon its starting-point4 ,formerly ,raphanus sativus was confounded with kindred species of the ,mediterranean region1 to which certain ,greek names were attributed2 but ,gay1 the botanist1 who has done a good deal towards eliminating these analogous forms1#bh considered ,r4 sativus as a native of the ,east1 perhaps of ,china4 ,linnus also supposed this plant to be of ,chinese origin1 or at least that variety which is cultivated in ,china for the sake of extracting oil from the seeds4#bi ,several floras of the south of ,europe mention the species as subspontaneous or escaped from cultivation1 never as spontaneous4 ,ledebour had seen a specimen found near ,mount ,ararat1 had sown the seeds of it and verified the species4#cj ,however1 ,boissier1#ca in #ahfg1 in his ,eastern ,flora1 says that it is only subspontaneous in the cultivated parts of ,anatolia1 near ,mersivan 7according to ,wied71 in ,palestine 7on his own authority71 in ,armenia 7according to ,ledebour71 and probably elsewhere1 which agrees with the assertions found in ,european floras4#cb ,buhse names a locality1 the ,ssahend mountains1 to the south of the ,caucasus1 which appears to be far enough from cultivation4 ,the recent ,flora of ,british ,india#cc and the earlier ,flora of ,cochin-,china by ,loureiro1 mention the radish only as a cultivated species4 ,maximowicz saw it in a garden in the north-east of ,china4#cd ,thunberg speaks of it as a plant of general cultivation in ,japan1 and growing also by the side of the roads1#ce but the latter fact is not repeated by modern authors1 who are probably better informed4#cf ,herodotus 7,hist41 #a4 #b1 c4 #abe7 speaks of a radish which he calls surmaia1 used by the builders of the pyramid of ,cheops1 according to an inscription upon the monument4 ,unger#cg copied from ,lepsius' work two drawings from the temple of ,karnak1 of which the first1 at any rate1 appears to represent the radish4 ,from all this we gather1 first1 that the species spreads easily from cultivation in the west of ,asia and the south of ,europe1 while it does not appear with certainty in the flora of ,eastern ,asia2 and secondly1 that in the regions south of the ,caucasus it is found without any sign of culture1 so that we are led to suppose that the plant is wild there4 ,from these two reasons it appears to have come originally from ,western ,asia between ,palestine1 ,anatolia1 and the ,caucasus1 perhaps also from ,greece2 its cultivation spreading east and west from a very early period4 ,the common names support these hypotheses4 ,in ,europe they offer little interest when they refer to the quality of the root 7radis71 or to some comparison with the turnip 7ravanello in ,italian1 rabica in ,spanish1 etc471 but the ancient ,greeks coined the special name raphanos 7easily reared74 ,the ,italian word ramoraccio is derived from the ,greek armoracia1 which was used for ,r4 sativus or some allied species4 ,modern interpreters have erroneously referred this name to ,cochlearia ,armoracia or horse-radish1 which ,i shall come to presently4 ,semitic#ch languages have quite different names 7fugla in ,hebrew1 fuil1 fidgel1 figl1 etc41 in ,arab474 ,in ,india1 according to ,roxburgh1#ci the common name of a variety with an enormous root1 as large sometimes as a man's leg1 is moola or moolee1 in ,sanskrit mooluka4 ,lastly1 for ,cochin-,china1 ,china1 and ,japan1 authors give various names which differ very much one from the other4 ,from this diversity a cultivation which ranged from ,greece to ,japan must be very ancient1 but nothing can thence be concluded as to its original home as a spontaneous plant4 ,a totally different opinion exists on the latter point1 which we must also examine4 ,several botanists#dj suspect that ,raphanus sativus is simply a particular condition1 with enlarged root and non-articulated fruit1 of ,raphanus raphanistrum1 a very common plant in the temperate cultivated districts of ,europe and ,asia1 and which is also found in a wild state in sand and light soil near the sea--for instance1 at ,st4 ,sebastian1 in ,dalmatia1 and at ,trebizond4#da ,its usual haunts are in deserted fields2 and many common names which signify wild radish1 show the affinity of the two plants4 ,i should not insist upon this point if their supposed identity were a mere presumption1 but it rests upon experiments and observations which it is important to know4 ,in ,r4 raphanistrum the siliqua is articulated1 that is to say1 contracted at intervals1 and the seeds placed each in a division4 ,in ,r4 sativus the siliqua is continuous1 and forms a single cavity4 ,some botanists had made this difference the basis of two distinct genera1 ,raphanistrum and ,raphanus4 ,but three accurate observers1 ,webb1 ,gay1 and ,spach1 have noticed among plants of ,raphanus sativus1 raised from the same seed1 both unilocular and articulated pods1 some of them bilocular1 others plurilocular4 ,webb#db arrived at the same results when he afterwards repeated these experiments1 and he observed yet another fact of some importance3 the radish which sows itself by chance1 and is not cultivated1 produced the siliqu of ,raphanistrum4#dc ,another difference between the two plants is in the root1 fleshy in ,r4 sativus1 slender in ,r4 raphanistrum2 but this changes with cultivation1 as appears from the experiments of ,carrire1 the head gardener of the nurseries of the ,natural ,history ,museum in ,paris4#dd ,it occurred to him to sow the seeds of the slender-rooted ,raphanistrum in both stiff and light soil1 and in the fourth generation he obtained fleshy radishes1 of varied colour and form like those of our gardens4 ,he even gives the figures1 which are really curious and conclusive4 ,the pungent taste of the radish was not wanting4 ,to obtain these changes1 ,carrire sowed in ,september1 so as to make the plant almost biennial instead of annual4 ,the thickening of the root was the natural result1 since many biennial plants have fleshy roots4 ,the inverse experiment remains to be tried--to sow cultivated radishes in a poor soil4 ,probably the roots would become poorer and poorer1 while the siliqu would become more and more articulated4 ,from all the experiments ,i have mentioned1 ,raphanus sativus might well be a variety of ,r4 raphanistrum1 an unstable variety determined by the existence of several generations in a fertile soil4 ,we cannot suppose that ancient uncivilized peoples made essays like those of ,carrire1 but they may have noticed plants of ,raphanistrum grown in richly manured soil1 with more or less fleshy roots2 and this soon suggested the idea of cultivating them4 ,i have1 however1 one objection to make1 founded on geographical botany4 ,raphanus raphanistrum is a ,european plant which does not exist in ,asia4#de ,it cannot1 therefore1 be this species that has furnished the inhabitants of ,india1 ,china1 and ,japan with the radishes which they have cultivated for centuries4 ,on the other hand1 how could ,r4 raphanistrum1 which is supposed to have been modified in ,europe1 have been transmitted in ancient times across the whole of ,asia8 ,the transport of cultivated plants has commonly proceeded from ,asia into ,europe4 ,chang-,kien certainly brought vegetables from ,bactriana into ,china in the second century ,b4,c41 but the radish is not named among the number4 ,horse-radish--,cochlearia ,armoracia1 ,linnus4 ,this ,crucifer1 whose rather hard root has the taste of mustard1 was sometimes called in ,french cran1 or cranson de ,bretagne4 ,this was an error caused by the old botanical name ,armoracia1 which was taken for a corruption of ,armorica 7,brittany74 ,armoracia occurs in ,pliny1 and was applied to a crucifer of the ,pontine province1 which was perhaps ,raphanus sativus4 ,after ,i had formerly#df pointed out this confusion1 ,i expressed myself as follows on the mistaken origin of the species3--,cochlearia ,armoracia is not wild in ,brittany1 a fact now established by the researches of botanists in the west of ,france4 ,the ,abb ,delalande mentions it in his little work1 entitled ,hdic et ,houat1#dg in which he gives so interesting an account of the customs and productions of these two little islands of ,brittany4 ,he quotes the opinion of ,m4 le ,gall1 who1 in an unpublished flora of ,morbihan1 declares the plant foreign to ,brittany4 ,this proof1 however1 is less strong than others1 since the south coast of the peninsula of ,brittany is not yet sufficiently known to botanists1 and the ancient ,armorica extended over a portion of ,normandy where the wild horse-radish is now found4#dh ,this leads me to speak of the original home of the species4 ,english botanists mention it as wild in ,great ,britain1 but are doubtful about its origin4 ,watson#di considers it as introduced by cultivation4 ,the difficulty of extirpating it1 he says1 from places where it is cultivated1 is well known to gardeners4 ,it is therefore not surprising that this plant should take possession of waste ground1 and persist there so as to appear indigenous4 ,babington#ej mentions only one spot where the species appears to be really wild1 namely1 ,swansea4 ,we will try to solve the problem by further arguments4 ,cochlearia ,armoracia is a plant belonging to the temperate1 and especially to the eastern regions of ,europe4 ,it is diffused from ,finland to ,astrakhan1 and to the desert of ,cuman4#ea ,grisebach mentions also several localities in ,turkey in ,europe1 near ,enos1 for instance1 where it abounds on the sea-shore4#eb ,the further we advance towards the west of ,europe1 the less the authors of floras appear sure that the plant is indigenous1 and the localities assigned to it are more scattered and doubtful4 ,the species is rarer in ,norway than in ,sweden1#ec in the ,british ,isles than in ,holland1 where a foreign origin is not attributed to it4#ed ,the specific names confirm the impression of its origin in the east rather than in the west of ,europe2 thus the name chren#ee in ,russia recurs in all the ,sclavonic languages1 krenai in ,lithuanian1 chren in ,illyrian1#ef etc4 ,it has introduced itself into a few ,german dialects1 round ,vienna1#eg for instance1 where it persists1 in spite of the spread of the ,german tongue4 ,we owe to it also the ,french names cran or cranson4 ,the word used in ,germany1 ,meerretig1 and in ,holland1 meer-radys1 whence the ,italian ,swiss dialect has taken the name mridi1 or mrdi1 means sea-radish1 and is not primitive like the word chren4 ,it comes probably from the fact that the plant grows well near the sea1 a circumstance common to many of the ,crucifer1 and which should be the case with this species1 for it is wild in the east of ,russia where there is a good deal of salt soil4 ,the ,swedish name peppar-rot#eh suggests the idea that the species came into ,sweden later than the introduction of pepper by commerce into the north of ,europe4 ,however1 the name may have taken the place of an older one1 which has remained unknown to us4 ,the ,english name of horse-radish is not of such an original nature as to lead to a belief in the existence of the species in the country before the ,saxon conquest4 ,it means a very strong radish4 ,the ,welsh name rhuddygl maurth#ei is only the translation of the ,english word1 whence we may infer that the ,kelts of ,great ,britain had no special name1 and were not acquainted with the species4 ,in the west of ,france1 the name raifort1 which is the commonest1 merely means strong root4 ,formerly it bore in ,france the names of ,german1 or ,capuchin mustard1 which shows a foreign and recent origin4 ,on the contrary1 the word chren is in all the ,sclavonic languages1 a word which has penetrated into some ,german and ,french dialects under the forms of kreen1 cran1 and cranson1 and which is certainly of a primitive nature1 and shows the antiquity of the species in temperate ,eastern ,europe4 ,it is therefore most probable that cultivation has propagated and naturalized the plant westward from the east for about a thousand years4 ,turnips--,brassica species et varietates radice in crassata4 ,the innumerable varieties and sub-varieties of the turnip known as swedes1 ,kohl-rabi1 etc41 may be all attributed to one of the four species of ,linnus--,brassica napus1 ,br4 oleracea1 ,br4 rapa1 ,br4 campestris--of which the two last should1 according to modern authors1 be fused into one4 ,other varieties of the species are cultivated for the leaves 7cabbages71 for the inflorescence 7cauliflowers71 or for the oil which is extracted from the seed 7colza1 rape1 etc474 ,when the root or the lower part of the stem#fj is fleshy1 the seed is not abundant1 nor worth the trouble of extracting the oil2 when those organs are slender1 the production of the seed1 on the contrary1 becomes more important1 and decides the economic use of the plant4 ,in other words1 the store of nutritious matter is placed sometimes in the lower1 sometimes in the upper part of the plant1 although the organization of the flower and fruit is similar1 or nearly so4 ,touching the question of origin1 we need not occupy ourselves with the botanical limits of the species1 and with the classification of the races1 varieties1 and sub-varieties1#fa since all the ,brassic are of ,european and ,siberian origin1 and are still to be seen in these regions wild1 or half wild1 in some form or other4 ,plants so commonly cultivated and whose germination is so easy often spread round cultivated places2 hence some uncertainty regarding the really wild nature of the plants found in the open country4 ,nevertheless1 ,linnus mentions that ,brassica napus grows in the sand on the sea-coast in ,sweden 7,gothland71 ,holland1 and ,england1 which is confirmed1 as far as ,sweden is concerned1 by ,fries1#fb who1 with his usual attention to questions of this nature1 mentions ,br4 ,campestris1 ,l4 7type of the ,rapa with slender roots71 as really wild in the whole ,scandinavian peninsula1 in ,finland and ,denmark4 ,ledebour#fc indicates it in the whole of ,russia1 ,siberia1 and the ,caspian ,sea4 ,the floras of temperate and southern ,asia mention rapes and turnips as cultivated plants1 never as escaped from cultivation4#fd ,this is already an indication of foreign origin4 ,the evidence of philology is no less significant4 ,there is no ,sanskrit name for these plants1 but only modern ,hindu and ,bengalee names1 and those only for ,brassica rapa and ,b4 oleracea4#fe ,kmpfer#ff gives ,japanese names for the turnip--busei1 or more commonly aona--but there is nothing to show that these names are ancient4 ,bretschneider1 who has made a careful study of ,chinese authors1 mentions no ,brassica4 ,apparently they do not occur in any of the ancient works on botany and agriculture1 although several varieties are now cultivated in ,china4 ,it is just the reverse in ,europe4 ,the old languages have a number of names which seem to be original4 ,brassica rapa is called meipen or erfinen#fg in ,wales2 repa and rippa in several ,slav tongues1#fh which answers to the ,latin rapa1 and is allied to the neipa of the ,anglo-,saxons4 ,the ,brassica napus is in ,welsh bresych yr yd2 in ,erse braisscagh buigh1 according to ,threlkeld1#fi who sees in braisscagh the root of the ,latin ,brassica4 ,a ,polish name1 karpiele1 a ,lithuanian1 jellazoji1#gj are also given1 without speaking of a host of other names1 transferred sometimes in popular speech from one species to another4 ,i shall speak of the names of ,brassica oleracea when ,i come to vegetables4 ,the ,hebrews had no names for cabbages1 rapes1 and turnips1#ga but there are ,arab names3 selgam for the ,br4 napus1 and subjum or subjumi for ,br4 rapa2 words which recur in ,persian and even in ,bengali1 transferred perhaps from one species to another4 ,the cultivation of these plants has therefore been diffused in the south-west of ,asia since ,hebrew antiquity4 ,finally1 every method1 whether botanical1 historical1 or philological1 leads us to the following conclusions3-- ,firstly1 the ,brassic with fleshy roots were originally natives of temperate ,europe4 ,secondly1 their cultivation was diffused in ,europe before1 and in ,asia after1 the ,aryan invasion4 ,thirdly1 the primitive slender-rooted form of ,brassica napus1 called ,br4 campestris1 had probably from the beginning a more extended range1 from the ,scandinavian peninsula towards ,siberia and the ,caucasus4 ,its cultivation was perhaps introduced into ,china and ,japan1 through ,siberia1 at an epoch which appears not to be much earlier than ,greco-,roman civilization4 ,fourthly1 the cultivation of the various forms or species of ,brassica was diffused throughout the south-west of ,asia at an epoch later than that of the ancient ,hebrews4 ,skirret--,sium ,sisarum1 ,linnus4 ,this vivacious ,umbellifer1 furnished with several diverging roots in the form of a carrot1 is believed to come from ,eastern ,asia4 ,linnus indicates ,china1 doubtfully2 and ,loureiro1#gb ,china and ,cochin-,china1 where he says it is cultivated4 ,others have mentioned ,japan and the ,corea1 but in these countries there are species which it is easy to confound with the one in question1 particularly ,sium ,ninsi and ,panax ,ginseng4 ,maximowicz1#gc who has seen these plants in ,china and in ,japan1 and who has studied the herbariums of ,st4 ,petersburgh1 recognizes only the ,altaic region of ,siberia and the ,north of ,persia as the home of the wild ,sium ,sisarum4 ,i am very doubtful whether it is to be found in the ,himalayas or in ,china1 since modern works on the region of the river ,amoor and on ,british ,india make no mention of it4 ,it is doubtful whether the ancient ,greeks and ,romans knew this plant4 ,the names ,sisaron of ,dioscorides1 ,siser of ,columella and of ,pliny1#gd are attributed to it4 ,certainly the modern ,italian name sisaro or sisero seems to confirm this idea2 but how could these authors have failed to notice that several roots descend from the base of the stem1 whereas all the other umbels cultivated in ,europe have but a single tap-root8 ,it is just possible that the siser of ,columella1 a cultivated plant1 may have been the parsnip2 but what ,pliny says of the siser does not apply to it4 ,according to him it was a medicinal plant1 inter medica dicendum4#ge ,he says that ,tiberius caused a quantity to be brought every year from ,germany1 which proves1 he adds1 that it thrives in cold countries4 ,if the ,greeks had received the plant direct from ,persia1 ,theophrastus would probably have known it4 ,it came perhaps from ,siberia into ,russia1 and thence into ,germany1 in which case the anecdote about ,tiberius might well apply to the skirret4 ,i cannot find any ,russian name1 certainly1 but the ,germans have original names1 ,krizel or ,grizel1 ,grlein or ,gierlein1 which indicate an ancient cultivation1 more than the ordinary name ,zuckerwurzel1 or sugar-root4#gf ,the ,danish name has the same meaning--sokerot1 whence the ,english skirret4 ,the name sisaron is not known in modern ,greece2 nor was it known there even in the ,middle ,ages1 and the plant is not now cultivated in that country4#gg ,there are reasons for doubt as to the true sense of the words sisaron and siser4 ,some botanists of the sixteenth century thought that sisaron was perhaps the parsnip proper1 and ,sprengel#gh supports this idea4 ,the ,french names chervis and girole#gi would perhaps teach us something if we knew their origin4 ,littr derives chervis from the ,spanish chirivia1 but the latter is more likely derived from the ,french4 ,bauhin#hj mentions the low ,latin names servillum1 chervillum1 or servillam1 words which are not in ,ducange's dictionary4 ,this may well be the origin of chervis1 but whence came servillum or chervillum8 ,arracacha or ,arracacia--,arracacha esculenta1 de ,candolle4 ,an umbel generally cultivated in ,venezuela1 ,new ,granada1 and ,ecuador as a nutritious plant4 ,in the temperate regions of those countries it bears comparison with the potato1 and even yields1 we are assured1 a lighter and more agreeable fecula4 ,the lower part of the stem is swelled into a bulb1 on which1 when the plant thrives well1 tubercles1 or lateral bulbs1 form themselves1 and persist for several months1 which are more prized than the central bulb1 and serve for future planting4#ha ,the species is probably indigenous in the region where it is cultivated1 but ,i do not find in any author a positive assertion of the fact4 ,the existing descriptions are drawn from cultivated stocks4 ,grisebach indeed says that he has seen 7presumably in the herbarium at ,kew7 specimens gathered in ,new ,granada1 in ,peru1 and in ,trinidad1#hb but he does not say whether they were wild4 ,the other species of the same genus1 to the number of a dozen1 grow in the same districts of ,america1 which renders the above-mentioned origin more probable4 ,the introduction of the arracacha into ,europe has been attempted several times without success4 ,the damp climate of ,england accounts for the failure of ,sir ,william ,hooker's attempts2 but ours1 made at two different times1 under very different conditions1 have met with no better success4 ,the lateral bulbs did not form1 and the central bulb died in the house where it was placed for the winter4 ,the bulbs presented to different botanical gardens in ,france and ,italy and elsewhere shared the same fate4 ,it is clear that if the plant is in ,america really equal to the potato in productiveness and taste1 this will never be the case in ,europe4 ,its cultivation does not in ,america spread as far as ,chili and ,mexico1 like that of the potato and sweet potato1 which confirms the difficulty of propagation observed elsewhere4 ,madder--,rubia tinctorum1 ,linnus4 ,the madder is certainly wild in ,italy1 ,greece1 the ,crimea1 ,asia ,minor1 ,syria1 ,persia1 ,armenia1 and near ,lenkoran4#hc ,as we advance westward in the south of ,europe1 the wild1 indigenous nature of the plant becomes more and more doubtful4 ,there is uncertainty even in ,france4 ,in the north and east the plant appears to be 8naturalized in hedges and on walls10#hd or 8subspontaneous10 escaped from former cultivation4#he ,in ,provence and ,languedoc it is more spontaneous or wild1 but here also it may have spread from a somewhat extensive cultivation4 ,in the ,iberian peninsula it is mentioned as 8subspontaneous40#hf ,it is the same in the north of ,africa4#hg ,evidently the natural1 ancient1 and undoubted habitation is western temperate ,asia and the south-east of ,europe4 ,it does not appear that the plant has been found beyond the ,caspian ,sea in the land formerly occupied by the ,indo-,europeans1 but this region is still little known4 ,the species only exists in ,india as a cultivated plant1 and has no ,sanskrit name4#hh ,neither is there any known ,hebrew name1 while the ,greeks1 ,romans1 ,slavs1 ,germans1 and ,kelts had various names1 which a philologist could perhaps trace to one or two roots1 but which nevertheless indicate by their numerous modifications an ancient date4 ,probably the wild roots were gathered in the fields before the idea of cultivating the species was suggested4 ,pliny1 however1 says#hi that it was cultivated in ,italy in his time1 and it is possible that the custom was of older date in ,greece and ,asia ,minor4 ,the cultivation of madder is often mentioned in ,french records of the ,middle ,ages4#ij ,it was afterwards neglected or abandoned1 until ,althen reintroduced it into the neighbourhood of ,avignon in the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,it flourished formerly in ,alsace1 ,germany1 ,holland1 and especially in ,greece1 ,asia ,minor1 and ,syria1 whence the exportation was considerable2 but the discovery of dyes extracted from inorganic substances has suppressed this cultivation1 to the great detriment of the provinces which drew large profits from it4 ,jerusalem ,artichoke--,helianthus tuberosus1 ,linnus4 ,it was in the year #afaf that ,european botanists first mentioned this ,composite1 with a large root better adapted for the food of animals than of man4 ,columna#ia had seen it in the garden of ,cardinal ,farnese1 and called it ,aster peruanus tuberosus4 ,other authors of the same century gave it epithets showing that it was believed to come from ,brazil1 or from ,canada1 or from the ,indies1 that is to say1 ,america4 ,linnus#ib adopted1 on ,parkinson's authority1 the opinion of a ,canadian origin1 of which1 however1 he had no proof4 ,i pointed out formerly#ic that there are no species of the genus ,helianthus in ,brazil1 and that they are1 on the contrary1 numerous in ,north ,america4 ,schlechtendal1#id after having proved that the ,jerusalem artichoke can resist the severe winters of the centre of ,europe1 observes that this fact is in favour of the idea of a ,canadian origin1 and contrary to the belief of its coming from some southern region4 ,decaisne#ie has eliminated from the synonymy of ,h4 tuberosus several quotations which had occasioned the belief in a ,south ,american or ,mexican origin4 ,like the ,american botanists1 he recalls what ancient travellers had narrated of certain customs of the aborigines of the ,northern ,states and of ,canada4 ,thus ,champlain1 in #afjc1 had seen1 8in their hands1 roots which they cultivate1 and which taste like an artichoke40 ,lescarbot#if speaks of these roots with the artichoke flavour1 which multiply freely1 and which he had brought back to ,france1 where they began to be sold under the name of topinambaux4 ,the savages1 he says1 call them chiquebi4 ,decaisne also quotes two ,french horticulturists of the seventeenth century1 ,colin and ,sagard1 who evidently speak of the ,jerusalem artichoke1 and say it came from ,canada4 ,it is to be noted that the name ,canada had at that time a vague meaning1 and comprehended some parts of the modern ,united ,states4 ,gookin1 an ,american writer on the customs of the aborigines1 says that they put pieces of the ,jerusalem artichoke into their soups4#ig ,botanical analogies and the testimony of contemporaries agree1 as we have seen1 in considering this plant to be a native of the north-east of ,america4 ,dr4 ,asa ,gray1 seeing that it is not found wild1 had formerly supposed it to be a variety of ,h4 doronicoides of ,lamarck1 but he has since abandoned this idea 7,american ,journal of ,science1 #ahhc1 p4 #bbd74 ,an author gives it as wild in the ,state of ,indiana4#ih ,the ,french name topinambour comes apparently from some real or supposed ,indian name4 ,the ,english name ,jerusalem artichoke is a corruption of the ,italian girasole1 sunflower1 combined with an allusion to the artichoke flavour of the root4 ,salsify--,tragopogon porrifolium1 ,linnus4 ,the salsify was more cultivated a century or two ago than it is now4 ,it is a biennial composite1 found wild in ,greece1 ,dalmatia1 ,italy1 and even in ,algeria4#ii ,it frequently escapes from gardens in the west of ,europe1 and becomes half-naturalized4#ajj ,commentators#aja give the name ,tragopogon 7goat's beard7 of ,theophrastus sometimes to the modern species1 sometimes to ,tragopogon crocifolium1 which also grows in ,greece4 ,it is difficult to know if the ancients cultivated the salsify or gathered it wild in the country4 ,in the sixteenth century ,olivier de ,serres says it was a new culture in his country1 the south of ,france4 ,our word ,salsifis comes from the ,italian ,sassefrica1 that which rubs stones1 a senseless term4 ,scorzonera--,scorzonera hispanica1 ,linnus4 ,this plant is sometimes called the ,spanish salsify1 from its resemblance to ,tragopogon porrifolium2 but its root has a brown skin1 whence its botanical name1 and the popular name corce noire in some ,french provinces4 ,it is wild in ,europe1 from ,spain1 where it abounds1 the south of ,france1 and ,germany1 to the region of ,caucasus1 and perhaps even as far as ,siberia1 but it is wanting in ,sicily and ,greece4#ajb ,in several parts of ,germany the species is probably naturalized from cultivation4 ,it seems that this plant has only been cultivated within the last hundred or hundred and fifty years4 ,the botanists of the sixteenth century speak of it as a wild species introduced occasionally into botanical gardens4 ,olivier de ,serres does not mention it4 ,it was formerly supposed to be an antidote against the bite of adders1 and was sometimes called the viper's plant4 ,as to the etymology of the name ,scorzonera1 it is so evident1 that it is difficult to understand how early writers1 even ,tournefort1#ajc have declared the origin of the word to be escorso1 viper in ,spanish or ,catalan4 ,viper is in ,spanish more commonly vibora4 ,there exists in ,sicily a ,scorzonera deliciosa1 ,gussone1 whose very sugary root is used in the confection of bonbons and sherbets1 at ,palermo4#ajd ,how is it that its cultivation has not been tried8 ,it is true that ,i tasted at ,naples ,scorzonera ices1 and found them detestable1 but they were perhaps made of the common species 7,scorzonera hispanica74 ,potato--,solanum tuberosum1 ,linnus4 ,in #ahee ,i stated and discussed what was then known about the origin of the potato1 and about its introduction into ,europe4#aje ,i will now add the result of the researches of the last quarter of a century4 ,it will be seen that the data formerly acquired have become more certain1 and that several somewhat doubtful accessory questions have remained uncertain1 though the probabilities in favour of what formerly seemed the truth have grown stronger4 ,it is proved beyond a doubt that at the time of the discovery of ,america the cultivation of the potato was practised1 with every appearance of ancient usage1 in the temperate regions extending from ,chili to ,new ,granada1 at altitudes varying with the latitude4 ,this appears from the testimony of all the early travellers1 among whom ,i shall name ,acosta for ,peru1#ajf and ,pedro ,cieca1 quoted by de l',ecluse1#ajg for ,quito4 ,in the eastern temperate region of ,south ,america1 on the heights of ,guiana and ,brazil1 for instance1 the potato was not known to the aborigines1 or if they were acquainted with a similar plant1 it was ,solanum ,commersonii1 which has also a tuberous root1 and is found wild in ,montevideo and in the south of ,brazil4 ,the true potato is certainly now cultivated in the latter country1 but it is of such recent introduction that it has received the name of the ,english ,batata4#ajh ,according to ,humboldt it was unknown in ,mexico1#aji a fact confirmed by the silence of subsequent authors1 but to a certain degree contradicted by another historical fact4 ,it is said that ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 or rather ,thomas ,herriott1 his companion in several voyages1 brought back to ,ireland1 in #aehe or #aehf1 some tubers of the ,virginian potato4#aaj ,its name in its own country was openawk4 ,from ,herriott's description of the plant1 quoted by ,sir ,joseph ,banks1#aaa there is no doubt that it was the potato1 and not the batata1 which at that period was sometimes confounded with it4 ,besides1 ,gerard#aab tells us that he received from ,virginia the potato which he cultivated in his garden1 and of which he gives an illustration which agrees in all points with ,solanum tuberosum4 ,he was so proud of it that he is represented1 in his portrait at the beginning of the work1 holding in his hand a flowering branch of this plant4 ,the species could scarcely have been introduced into ,virginia or ,carolina in ,raleigh's time 7#aehe71 unless the ancient ,mexicans had possessed it1 and its cultivation had been diffused among the aborigines to the north of ,mexico4 ,dr4 ,roulin1 who has carefully studied the works on ,north ,america1 has assured me that he has found no signs of the potato in the ,united ,states before the arrival of the ,europeans4 ,dr4 ,asa ,gray also told me so1 adding that ,mr4 ,harris1 one of the men most intimately acquainted with the language and customs of ,north ,american tribes1 was of the same opinion4 ,i have read nothing to the contrary in recent publications1 and we must not forget that a plant so easy of cultivation would have spread itself even among nomadic tribes1 had they possessed it4 ,it seems to me most likely that some inhabitants of ,virginia--perhaps ,english colonists--received tubers from ,spanish or other travellers1 traders or adventurers1 during the ninety years which had elapsed since the discovery of ,america4 ,evidently1 dating from the conquest of ,peru and ,chili1 in #aece to #aehe1 many vessels could have carried tubers of the potato as provisions1 and ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 making war on the ,spaniards as a privateer1 may have pillaged some vessel which contained them4 ,this is the less improbable1 since the ,spaniards had introduced the plant into ,europe before #aehe4 ,sir ,joseph ,banks#aac and ,dunal#aad were right to insist upon the fact that the potato was first introduced by the ,spaniard1 since for a long time the credit was generally given to ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 who was the second introducer1 and even to other ,englishmen1 who had introduced1 not the potato but the batata 7sweet potato71 which is more or less confounded with it4#aae ,a celebrated botanist1 de l',ecluse1#aaf had nevertheless defined the facts in a remarkable manner4 ,it is he who published the first good description and illustration of the potato1 under the significant name of ,papas ,peruanorum4 ,from what he says1 the species has little changed under the culture of nearly three centuries1 for it yielded in the beginning as many as fifty tubers of unequal size1 from one to two inches long1 irregularly ovoid1 reddish1 ripening in ,november 7at ,vienna74 ,the flower was more or less pink externally1 and reddish within1 with five longitudinal stripes of green1 as is often seen now4 ,no doubt numerous varieties have been obtained1 but the original form has not been lost4 ,de l',ecluse compares the scent of the flower with that of the lime1 the only difference from our modern plant4 ,he sowed seeds which produced a white-flowered variety1 such as we sometimes see now4 ,the plants described by de l',ecluse were sent to him in #aehh1 by ,philippe de ,sivry1 ,seigneur of ,waldheim and ,governor of ,mons1 who had received them from some one in attendance on the papal legate in ,belgium4 ,de l',ecluse adds that the species had been introduced into ,italy from ,spain or ,america 7certum est vel ex ,hispania1 vel ex ,america habuisse71 and he wonders that1 although the plant had become so common in ,italy that it was eaten like a turnip and given to the pigs1 the learned men of the ,university of ,padua only became acquainted with it by means of the tuber which he sent them from ,germany4 ,targioni#aag has not been able to discover any proof that the potato was as widely cultivated in ,italy at the end of the sixteenth century as de l',ecluse asserts1 but he quotes ,father ,magazzini of ,vallombrosa1 whose posthumous work1 published in #afbc1 mentions the species as one previously brought1 without naming the date1 from ,spain or ,portugal by barefooted friars4 ,it was1 therefore1 towards the end of the sixteenth or at the beginning of the seventeenth century that the cultivation of the potato became known in ,tuscany4 ,independently of what de l',ecluse and the agriculturist of ,vallombrosa say of its introduction from the ,iberian peninsula1 it is not at all likely that the ,italians had any dealings with ,raleigh's companions4 ,no one can doubt that the potato is of ,american origin2 but in order to know from what part of that vast continent it was brought1 it is necessary to know if the plant is found wild there1 and in what localities4 ,to answer this question clearly1 we must first remove two causes of error3 the confusion of allied species of the genus ,solanum with the potato2 and the other1 the mistakes made by travellers as to the wild character of the plant4 ,the allied species are ,solanum ,commersonii of ,dunal1 of which ,i have already spoken2 ,s4 maglia of ,molina1 a ,chili species2 ,s4 immite of ,dunal1 a native of ,peru2 and ,s4 verrucosum#aah of ,schlechtendal1 which grows in ,mexico4 ,these three kinds of ,solanum have smaller tubers than ,s4 tuberosum1 and differ also in other characteristics indicated in special works on botany4 ,theoretically1 it may be believed that all these1 and other forms growing in ,america1 are derived from a single earlier species1 but in our geological epoch they present themselves with differences which seem to me to justify specific distinctions1 and no experiments have proved that by crossing one with another a product would be obtained of which the seed 7not the tubers7 would propagate the race4 ,leaving these more or less doubtful questions of species1 let us try to ascertain whether the common form of ,solanum tuberosum has been found wild1 and merely remark that the abundance of tuberous solanums growing in the temperate regions of ,america1 from ,chili or ,buenos ,ayres as far as ,mexico1 confirms the fact of an ,american origin4 ,if we knew nothing more1 this would be a strong presumption in favour of this country being the original home of the potato4 ,the second cause of error is very clearly explained by the botanist ,weddell1#aai who has carefully explored ,bolivia and the neighbouring countries4 8,when we reflect10 he says1 8that on the arid ,cordillera the ,indians often establish their little plots of cultivation on points which would appear almost inaccessible to the great majority of our ,european farmers1 we understand that when a traveller chances to visit one of these cultivated plots1 long since abandoned1 and finds there a plant of ,solanum tuberosum which has accidentally persisted1 he gathers it in the belief that it is really wild2 but of this there is no proof40 ,we come now to facts4 ,these abound concerning the wild character of the plant in ,chili4 ,in #ahbb1 ,alexander ,caldcleugh1#abj ,english consul1 sent to the ,london ,horticultural ,society some tubers of the potato which he had found in the ravines round ,valparaiso4 ,he says that these tubers are small1 sometimes red1 sometimes yellowish1 and rather bitter in taste4#aba 8,i believe10 he adds1 8that this plant exists over a great extent of the littoral1 for it is found in the south of ,chili1 where the aborigines call it maglia40 ,this is probably a confusion with ,s4 maglia of botanists2 but the tubers of ,valparaiso1 planted in ,london1 produced the true potato1 as we see from a glance at ,sabine's coloured figure in the ,transactions of the ,horticultural ,society4 ,the cultivation of this plant was continued for some time1 and ,lindley certified anew1 in #ahdg1 its identity with the common potato4#abb ,here is the account of the ,valparaiso plant1 given by a traveller to ,sir ,william ,hooker4#abc 8,i noticed the potato on the shore as far as fifteen leagues to the north of this town1 and to the south1 but ,i do not know how far it extends4 ,it grows on cliffs and hills near the sea1 and ,i do not remember to have seen it more than two or three leagues from the coast4 ,although it is found in mountainous places1 far from cultivation1 it does not exist in the immediate neighbourhood of the fields and gardens where it is planted1 excepting when a stream crosses these enclosures and carries the tubers into uncultivated places40 ,the potato described by these two travellers had white flowers1 as is seen in some cultivated ,european varieties1 and like the plant formerly reared by de l',ecluse4 ,we may assume that this is the natural colour of the species1 or at least one of the most common in its wild state4 ,darwin1 in his voyage in the ,beagle1 found the potato growing wild in great abundance on the sand of the sea-shore1 in the archipelago of ,southern ,chili1 and growing with a remarkable vigour1 which may be attributed to the damp climate4 ,the tallest plants attained to the height of four feet4 ,the tubers were small as a rule1 though one of them was two inches in diameter4 ,they were watery1 insipid1 but with no bad taste when cooked4 8,the plant is undoubtedly wild10 says the author1#abd 8and its specific identity has been confirmed first by ,henslow1 and afterwards by ,sir ,joseph ,hooker in his ,flora ,antarctica4#abe0 ,a specimen in the herbarium collected by ,claude ,gay1 considered by ,dunal to be ,solanum tuberosum1 bears this inscription3 8,from the centre of the ,cordilleras of ,talcagouay1 and of ,cauquenes1 in places visited only by botanists and geologists40 ,the same author1 ,gay1 in his ,flora ,chilena1#abf insists upon the abundance of the wild potato in ,chili1 even among the ,araucanians in the mountains of ,malvarco1 where1 he says1 the soldiers of ,pincheira used to go and seek it for food4 ,this evidence sufficiently proves its wild state in ,chili1 so that ,i may omit other less convincing testimony--for instance1 that of ,molina and ,meyen1 whose specimens from ,chili have not been examined4 ,the climate of the coast of ,chili is continued upon the heights as we follow the chain of the ,andes1 and the cultivation of the potato is of ancient date in the temperate regions of ,peru1 but the wild character of the species there is not so entirely proved as in the case of ,chili4#abg ,pavon declared he found it on the coast at ,chancay1 and near ,lima4 ,the heat of these districts seems very great for a species which requires a temperate or even a rather cold climate4 ,moreover1 the specimen in ,boissier's herbarium1 gathered by ,pavon1 belongs1 according to ,dunal1#abh to another species1 to which he has given the name of ,s4 immite4 ,i have seen the authentic specimen1 and have no doubt that it belongs to a species distinct from the ,s4 tuberosum4 ,sir ,w4 ,hooker#abi speaks of ,mc,lean's specimen1 gathered in the hills round ,lima1 without any information as to whether it was found wild4 ,the specimens 7more or less wild7 which ,matthews sent from ,peru to ,sir ,w4 ,hooker belong1 according to ,sir ,joseph1#acj to varieties which differ a little from the true potato4 ,mr4 ,hemsley1#aca who has seen them recently in the herbarium at ,kew1 believes them to be 8distinct forms1 not more distinct1 however1 than certain varieties of the species40 ,weddell1#acb whose caution in this matter we already know1 expresses himself as follows3--8,i have never found ,solanum tuberosum in ,peru under such circumstances as left no doubt that it was indigenous2 and ,i even declare that ,i do not attach more belief to the wild nature of other plants found scattered on the ,andes outside ,chili1 hitherto considered as indigenous40 ,on the other hand4 ,m4 ,ed4 ,andr#acc collected with great care1 in two elevated and wild districts of ,columbia1 and in another near ,lima1 specimens which he believed he might attribute to ,s4 tuberosum4 ,m4 ,andr has been kind enough to lend them to me4 ,i have compared them attentively with the types of ,dunal's species in my herbarium and in that of ,m4 ,boissier4 ,none of these ,solanace belong1 in my opinion1 to ,s4 tuberosum1 although that of ,la ,union1 near the river ,cauca1 comes nearer than the rest4 ,none--and this is yet more certain--answers to ,s4 immite of ,dunal4 ,they are nearer to ,s4 columbianum of the same author than to ,s4 tuberosum or ,s4 immite4 ,the specimen from ,mount ,quindio presents a singular characteristic--it has pointed ovoid berries4#acd ,in ,mexico the tuberous ,solanums attributed to ,s4 tuberosum1 or1 according to ,hemsley1#ace to allied forms1 do not appear to be identical with the cultivated plant4 ,they belong to ,s4 ,fendleri1 which ,dr4 ,asa ,gray considered at first as a separate species1 and afterwards#acf as a variety of ,s4 tuberosum or of ,s4 verrucosum4 ,we may sum up as follows3-- #a4 ,the potato is wild in ,chili1 in a form which is still seen in our cultivated plants4 #b4 ,it is very doubtful whether its natural home extends to ,peru and ,new ,granada4 #c4 ,its cultivation was diffused before the discovery of ,america from ,chili to ,new ,granada4 #d4 ,it was introduced1 probably in the latter half of the sixteenth century1 into that part of the ,united ,states now known as ,virginia and ,north ,carolina4 #e4 ,it was imported into ,europe between #aehj and #aehe1 first by the ,spaniards1 and afterwards by the ,english1 at the time of ,raleigh's voyages to ,virginia4#acg ,batata1 or ,sweet ,potato--,convolvulus batatas1 ,linnus2 ,batatas edulis1 ,choisy4 ,the roots of this plant1 swelled into tubers1 resemble potatoes1 whence it arose that sixteenth-century navigators applied the same name to these two very different species4 ,the sweet potato belongs to the ,convolvulus family1 the potato to the ,solanum family2 the fleshy parts of the former are roots1 those of the latter subterranean branches4#ach ,the sweet potato is sugary as well as farinaceous4 ,it is cultivated in all countries within or near the tropics1 and perhaps more in the new than in the old world4#aci ,its origin is1 according to a great number of authors1 doubtful4 ,humboldt1#adj ,meyen1#ada and ,boissier#adb hold to its ,american1 ,boyer1#adc ,choisy1#add etc41 to its ,asiatic origin4 ,the same diversity is observed in earlier works4 ,the question is the more difficult since the ,convolvulace is one of the most widely diffused families1 either from a very early epoch or in consequence of modern transportation4 ,there are powerful arguments in favour of an ,american origin4 ,the fifteen known species of the genus ,batatas are all found in ,america2 eleven in that continent alone1 four both in ,america and the old world1 with possibility or probability of transportation4 ,the cultivation of the common sweet potato is widely diffused in ,america4 ,it dates from a very early epoch4 ,marcgraff#ade mentions it in ,brazil under the name of jetica4 ,humboldt says that the name camote comes from a ,mexican word4 ,the word ,batatas 7whence comes by a mistaken transfer the word potato7 is given as ,american4 ,sloane and ,hughes#adf speak of the sweet potato as of a plant much cultivated1 and having several varieties in the ,west ,indies4 ,they do not appear to suspect that it had a foreign origin4 ,clusius1 who was one of the first to mention the sweet potato1 says he had eaten some in the south of ,spain1 where it was supposed to have come from the new world4#adg ,he quotes the names ,batatas1 camotes1 amotes1 ajes1#adh which were foreign to the languages of the old world4 ,the date of his book is #afja4 ,humboldt#adi says that1 according to ,gomara1 ,christopher ,columbus1 when he appeared for the first time before ,queen ,isabella1 offered her various productions from the new world1 sweet potatoes among others4 ,thus1 he adds1 the cultivation of this plant was already common in ,spain from the beginning of the sixteenth century4 ,oviedo1#aej writing in #aebf1 had seen the sweet potato freely cultivated by the natives of ,st4 ,domingo1 and had introduced it himself at ,avila1 in ,spain4 ,rumphius#aea says positively that1 according to the general opinion1 sweet potatoes were brought by the ,spanish ,americans to ,manilla and the ,moluccas1 whence the ,portuguese diffused it throughout the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,he quotes the popular names1 which are not ,malay1 and which indicate an introduction by the ,castillians4 ,lastly1 it is certain that the sweet potato was unknown to the ,greeks1 ,romans1 and ,arabs2 that it was not cultivated in ,egypt even eighty years ago1#aeb a fact which it would be hard to explain if we supposed its origin to be in the old world4 ,on the other hand1 there are arguments in favour of an ,asiatic origin4 ,the ,chinese ,encyclopdia of ,agriculture speaks of the sweet potato1 and mentions different varieties2#aec but ,bretschneider#aed has proved that the species is described for the first time in a book of the second or third century of our era4 ,according to ,thunberg1#aee the sweet potato was brought to ,japan by the ,portuguese4 ,lastly1 the plant cultivated at ,tahiti1 in the neighbouring islands1 and in ,new ,zealand1 under the names umara1 gumarra1 and gumalla1 described by ,forster#aef under the name of ,convolvulus chrysorhizus1 is1 according to ,sir ,joseph ,hooker1 the sweet potato4#aeg ,seemann#aeh remarks that these names resemble the ,quichuen name of the sweet potato in ,america1 which is1 he says1 cumar4 ,the cultivation of the sweet potato became general in ,hindustan in the eighteenth century4#aei ,several popular names are attributed to it1 and even1 according to ,piddington1#afj a ,sanskrit name1 ruktalu1 which has no analogy with any name known to me1 and is not in ,wilson's ,sanskrit ,dictionary4 ,according to a note given me by ,adolphe ,pictet1 ruktalu seems a ,bengalee name composed from the ,sanskrit alu 7,rukta plus lu1 the name of ,arum campanulatum74 ,this name in modern dialects designates the yam and the potato4 ,however1 ,wallich#afa gives several names omitted by ,piddington4 ,roxburgh#afb mentions no ,sanskrit name4 ,rheede#afc says the plant was cultivated in ,malabar1 and mentions common ,indian names4 ,the arguments in favour of an ,american origin seem to me much stronger4 ,if the sweet potato had been known in ,hindustan at the epoch of the ,sanskrit language it would have become diffused in the old world1 since its propagation is easy and its utility evident4 ,it seems1 on the contrary1 that this cultivation remained long unknown in the ,sunda ,isles1 ,egypt1 etc4 ,perhaps an attentive examination might lead us to share the opinion of ,meyer1#afd who distinguished the ,asiatic plant from the ,american species4 ,however1 this author has not been generally followed1 and ,i suspect that if there is a different ,asiatic species it is not1 as ,meyer believed1 the sweet potato described by ,rumphius1 which the latter says was brought from ,america1 but the ,indian plant of ,roxburgh4 ,sweet potatoes are grown in ,africa2 but either the cultivation is rare1 or the species are different4 ,robert ,brown#afe says that the traveller ,lockhardt had not seen the sweet potato of whose cultivation the ,portuguese missionaries make mention4 ,thonning#aff does not name it4 ,vogel brought back a species cultivated on the western coast1 which is certainly1 according to the authors of the ,flora ,nigritiana1 ,batatas paniculata of ,choisy4 ,it was1 therefore1 a plant cultivated for ornament or for medicinal purposes1 for its root is purgative4#afg ,it might be supposed that in certain countries in the old or new world ,ipoma tuberosa4 ,l41 had been confounded with the sweet potato2 but ,sloane#afh tells us that its enormous roots are not eatable4#afi ,ipoma mammosa1 ,choisy 7,convolvulus mammosus1 ,loureiro2 ,batata mammosa1 ,rumphius71 is a ,convolvulaceous plant with an edible root1 which may well be confounded with the sweet potato1 but whose botanical character is nevertheless distinct4 ,this species grows wild near ,amboyna 7,rumphius71 where it is also cultivated4 ,it is prized in ,cochin-,china4 ,as for the sweet potato 7,batatas edulis71 no botanist1 as far as ,i know1 has asserted that he found it wild himself1 either in ,india or ,america4#agj ,clusius#aga affirms upon hearsay that it grows wild in the new world and in the neighbouring islands4 ,in spite of the probability of an ,american origin1 there remains1 as we have seen1 much that is unknown or uncertain touching the original home and the transport of this species1 which is a valuable one in hot countries4 ,whether it was a native of the new or of the old world1 it is difficult to explain its transportation from ,america to ,china at the beginning of our era1 and to the ,south ,sea ,islands at an early epoch1 or from ,asia and from ,australia to ,america at a time sufficiently remote for its cultivation to have been early diffused from the ,southern ,states to ,brazil and ,chili4 ,we must assume a prehistoric communication between ,asia and ,america1 or adopt another hypothesis1 which is not inapplicable to the present case4 ,the order ,convolvulace is one of those rare families of dicotyledons in which certain species have a widely extended area1 extending even to distant continents4#agb ,a species which can at the present day endure the different climates of ,virginia and ,japan may well have existed further north before the epoch of the great extension of glaciers in our hemisphere1 and prehistoric men may have transported it southward when the climatic conditions altered4 ,according to this hypothesis1 cultivation alone preserved the species1 unless it is at last discovered in some spot in its ancient habitation--in ,mexico or ,columbia1 for instance4#agc ,beetroot--,beta vulgaris and ,b4 maritima1 ,linnus2 ,beta vulgaris1 ,moquin4 ,this plant is cultivated sometimes for its fleshy root 7red beet71 sometimes for its leaves1 which are used as a vegetable 7white beet71 but botanists are generally agreed in not dividing the species4 ,it is known from other examples that plants slender rooted by nature easily become fleshy rooted from the effects of soil or cultivation4 ,the slender-rooted variety grows wild in sandy soil1 and especially near the sea in the ,canary ,isles1 and all along the coasts of the ,mediterranean ,sea1 and as far as the ,caspian ,sea1 ,persia1 and ,babylon1#agd perhaps even as far as the west of ,india1 whence a specimen was brought by ,jaquemont1 although it is not certain that it was growing wild4 ,roxburgh's ,indian flora1 and ,aitchison's more recent flora of the ,punjab and of the ,sindh1 only mention the plant as a cultivated species4 ,it has no ,sanskrit name1#age whence it may be inferred that the ,aryans had not brought it from western temperate ,asia1 where it exists4 ,the nations of ,aryan race who had previously migrated into ,europe probably did not cultivate it1 for ,i find no name common to the ,indo-,european languages4 ,the ancient ,greeks1 who used the leaves and roots1 called the species teutlion2#agf the ,romans1 beta4 ,heldreich#agg gives also the ancient ,greek name sevkle1 or sfekelie which resembles the ,arab name selg1 silq1#agh among the ,nabatheans4 ,the ,arab name has passed into the ,portuguese selga4 ,no ,hebrew name is known4 ,everything shows that its cultivation does not date from more than three or four centuries before the ,christian era4 ,the red and white roots were known to the ancients1 but the number of varieties has greatly increased in modern times1 especially since the beetroot has been cultivated on a large scale for the food of cattle and for the production of sugar4 ,it is one of the plants most easily improved by selection1 as the experiments of ,vilmorin have proved4#agi ,manioc--,manihot utilissima1 ,pohl2 ,jatropha manihot1 ,linnus4 ,the manioc is a shrub belonging to the ,euphorbia family1 of which several roots swell in their first year2 they take the form of an irregular ellipse1 and contain a fecula 7tapioca7 with a more or less poisonous juice4 ,it is commonly cultivated in the equatorial or tropical regions1 especially in ,america from ,brazil to the ,west ,indies4 ,in ,africa the cultivation is less general1 and seems to be more recent4 ,in certain ,asiatic colonies it is decidedly of modern introduction4 ,it is propagated by budding4 ,botanists are divided in opinion whether the innumerable varieties of manioc should be regarded as forming one1 two1 or several different species4 ,pohl#ahj admitted several besides his ,manihot utilissima1 and ,dr4 ,mller1#aha in his monograph on the ,euphorbiace1 places the variety aipi in an allied species1 ,m4 palmata1 a plant cultivated with the others in ,brazil1 and of which the root is not poisonous4 ,this last character is not so distinct as might be believed from certain books and even from the assertions of the natives4 ,dr4 ,sagot1#ahb who has compared a dozen varieties of manioc cultivated at ,cayenne1 says expressly1 8,there are maniocs more poisonous than others1 but ,i doubt whether any are entirely free from noxious principles40 ,it is possible to account for these singular differences of properties in very similar plants by the example of the potato4 ,the ,manihot and ,solanum tuberosum both belong to suspected families 7,euphorbiace and ,solanace74 ,several of their species are poisonous in some of their organs2 but the fecula1 wherever it is found1 is never harmful1 and the same holds good of the cellular tissue1 freed from all deposit2 that is to say1 reduced to cellulose4 ,in the preparation of cassava1 or manioc flour1 great care is taken to scrape the outer skin of the root1 then to pound or crush the fleshy part so as to express the more or less poisonous juice1 and finally the paste is submitted to a baking which expels the volatile parts4#ahc ,tapioca is the pure fecula without the mixture of the tissues which still exist in the cassava4 ,in the potato the outer pellicle contracts noxious qualities when it is allowed to become green by exposure to the light1 and it is well known that unripe or diseased tubers1 containing too small a proportion of fecula with much sap1 are not good to eat1 and would cause positive harm to persons who consumed any quantity of them4 ,all potatoes1 and probably all maniocs1 contain something harmful1 which is observed even in the products of distillation1 and which varies with several causes2 but only matter foreign to the fecula should be mistrusted4 ,the doubts about the number of species into which the cultivated manihots should be divided are no source of difficulty regarding the question of geographic origin4 ,on the contrary1 we shall see that they are an important means of proving an ,american origin4 ,the ,abb ,raynal had formerly spread the erroneous opinion that the manioc was imported into ,america from ,africa4 ,robert ,brown#ahd denied this in #ahah1 but without giving reasons in support of his opinion2 and ,humboldt1#ahe ,moreau de ,jonnes1#ahf and ,saint ,hilaire#ahg insisted upon its ,american origin4 ,it can hardly be doubted for the following reasons3-- #a4 ,maniocs were cultivated by the natives of ,brazil1 ,guiana1 and the warm region of ,mexico before the arrival of the ,europeans1 as all early travellers testify4 ,in the ,west ,indies this cultivation was1 according to ,acosta1#ahh common enough in the sixteenth century to inspire the belief that it was also there of a certain antiquity4 #b4 ,it is less widely diffused in ,africa1 especially in regions at a distance from the west coast4 ,it is known that manioc was introduced into the ,isle of ,bourbon by the ,governour ,labourdonnais4#ahi ,in ,asiatic countries1 where a plant so easy to cultivate would probably have spread had it been long known on the ,african continent1 it is mentioned here and there as an object of curiosity of foreign origin4#aij #c4 ,the natives of ,america had several ancient names for the varieties of manioc1 especially in ,brazil1#aia which does not appear to have been the case in ,africa1 even on the coast of ,guinea4#aib #d4 ,the varieties cultivated in ,brazil1 in ,guiana1 and in the ,west ,indies are very numerous1 whence we may presume a very ancient cultivation4 ,this is not the case in ,africa4 #e4 ,the forty-two known species of the genus ,manihot1 without counting ,m4 utilissima1 are all wild in ,america2 most of them in ,brazil1 some in ,guiana1 ,peru1 and ,mexico2 not one in the old world4#aic ,it is very unlikely that a single species1 and that the cultivated one1 was a native both of the old and of the new world1 and all the more so since in the family ,euphorbiace the area of the woody species is usually restricted1 and since phanerogamous plants are very rarely common to ,africa and ,america4 ,the ,american origin of the manioc being thus established1 it may be asked how the species has been introduced into ,guinea and ,congo4 ,it was probably the result of the frequent communications established in the sixteenth century by ,portuguese merchants and slave-traders4 ,the ,manihot utilissima and the allied species or variety called aipi1 which is also cultivated1 have not been found in an undoubtedly wild state4 ,humboldt and ,bonpland1 indeed1 found upon the banks of the ,magdalena a plant of ,manihot utilissima which they called almost wild1#aid but ,dr4 ,sagot assures me that it has not been found in ,guiana1 and that botanists who have explored the hot region in ,brazil have not been more fortunate4 ,we gather as much from the expressions of ,pohl1 who has carefully studied these plants1 and who was acquainted with the collections of ,martius1 and had no doubt of their ,american origin4 ,if he had observed a wild variety identical with those which are cultivated1 he would not have suggested the hypothesis that the manioc is obtained from his ,manihot pusilla#aie of the province of ,goyaz1 a plant of small size1 and considered as a true species or as a variety of ,manihot palmata4#aif ,martius declared in #ahfg1 that is after having received a quantity of information of a later date than his journey1 that the plant was not known in a wild state4#aig ,an early traveller1 usually accurate1 ,piso1#aih speaks of a wild mandihoca1 of which the ,tapuyeris1 the natives of the coast to the north of ,rio ,janeiro1 ate the roots4 8,it is10 he says1 8very like the cultivated plant20 but the illustration he gives of it appears unsatisfactory to authors who have studied the maniocs4 ,pohl attributes it to his ,m4 aipi1 and ,dr4 ,mller passes it over in silence4 ,for my part1 ,i am disposed to believe what ,piso says1 and his figure does not seem to me entirely unsatisfactory4 ,it is better than that by ,vellozo1 of a wild manioc which is doubtfully attributed to ,m4 aipi4#aii ,if we do not accept the origin in eastern tropical ,brazil1 we must have recourse to two hypotheses3 either the cultivated maniocs are obtained from one of the wild species modified by cultivation1 or they are varieties which exist only by the agency of man after the disappearance of their fellows from modern wild vegetation4 ,garlic--,allium sativum1 ,linnus4 ,linnus1 in his ,species ,plantarum1 indicates ,sicily as the home of the common garlic2 but in his ,hortus ,cliffortianus1 where he is usually more accurate1 he does not give its origin4 ,the fact is that1 according to all the most recent and complete floras of ,sicily1 ,italy1 ,greece1 ,france1 ,spain1 and ,algeria1 garlic is not considered to be indigenous1 although specimens have been gathered here and there which had more or less the appearance of being so4 ,a plant so constantly cultivated and so easily propagated may spread from gardens and persist for a considerable time without being wild by nature4 ,i do not know on what authority ,kunth#bjj mentions that the species is found in ,egypt4 ,according to authors who are more accurate#bja in their accounts of the plants of that country1 it is only found there under cultivation4 ,boissier1 whose herbarium is so rich in ,eastern plants1 possesses no wild specimens of it4 ,the only country where garlic has been found in a wild state1 with the certainty of its really being so1 is the desert of the ,kirghis of ,sungari2 bulbs were brought thence and cultivated at ,dorpat1#bjb and specimens were afterwards seen by ,regel4#bjc ,the latter author also says that he saw a specimen which ,wallich had gathered as wild in ,british ,india2 but ,baker1#bjd who had access to the rich herbarium at ,kew1 does not speak of it in his review of the 8,alliums of ,india1 ,china1 and ,japan40 ,let us see whether historical and philological records confirm the fact of an origin in the south-west of ,siberia alone4 ,garlic has been long cultivated in ,china under the name of suan4 ,it is written in ,chinese by a single sign1 which usually indicates a long known and even a wild species4#bje ,the floras of ,japan#bjf do not mention it1 whence ,i gather that the species was not wild in ,eastern ,siberia and ,dahuria1 but that the ,mongols brought it into ,china4 ,according to ,herodotus1 the ancient ,egyptians made great use of it4 ,archologists have not found the proof of this in the monuments1 but this may be because the plant was considered unclean by the priests4#bjg ,there is a ,sanskrit name1 mahoushouda1#bjh become loshoun in ,bengali1 and to which appears to be related the ,hebrew name schoum or schumin1#bji which has produced the ,arab thoum or toum4 ,the ,basque name baratchouria is thought by de ,charencey#baj to be allied with ,aryan names4 ,in support of his hypothesis ,i may add that the ,berber name1 tiskert1 is quite different1 and that consequently the ,iberians seem to have received the plant and its name rather from the ,aryans than from their probable ancestors of ,northern ,africa4 ,the ,lettons call it kiplohks1 the ,esthonians krunslauk1 whence probably the ,german ,knoblauch4 ,the ancient ,greek name appears to have been scorodon1 in modern ,greek scordon4 ,the names given by the ,slavs of ,illyria are bili and cesan4 ,the ,bretons say quinen1#baa the ,welsh craf1 cenhinnen1 or garlleg1 whence the ,english garlic4 ,the ,latin allium has passed into the languages of ,latin origin4#bab ,this great diversity of names intimates a long acquaintance with the plant1 and even an ancient cultivation in ,western ,asia and in ,europe4 ,on the other hand1 if the species has existed only in the land of the ,kirghis1 where it is now found1 the ,aryans might have cultivated it and carried it into ,india and ,europe2 but this does not explain the existence of so many ,keltic1 ,slav1 ,greek1 and ,latin names which differ from the ,sanskrit4 ,to explain this diversity1 we must suppose that its original abode extended farther to the west than that known at the present day1 an extension anterior to the migrations of the ,aryans4 ,if the genus ,allium were once made1 as a whole1 the object of such a serious study as that of ,gay on some of its species1#bac perhaps it might be found that certain wild ,european forms1 included by authors under ,a4 arenarium1 ,l41 ,a4 arenarium1 ,sm41 or ,a4 scorodoprasum1 ,l41 are only varieties of ,a4 sativum4 ,in that case everything would agree to show that the earliest peoples of ,europe and ,western ,asia cultivated such form of the species just as they found it from ,tartary to ,spain1 giving it names more or less different4 ,,onion--,allium ,cepa1 ,linnus4 ,i will state first what was known in #ahee2bad ,i will then add the recent botanical observations which confirm the inferences from philological data4 ,the onion is one of the earliest of cultivated species4 ,its original country is1 according to ,kunth1 unknown4#bae ,let us see if it is possible to discover it4 ,the modern ,greeks call ,allium ,cepa1 which they cultivate in abundance1 krommunda4#baf ,this is a good reason for believing that the krommuon of ,theophrastus#bag is the same species1 as sixteenth-century writers already supposed4#bah ,pliny#bai translated the word by cpa4 ,the ancient ,greeks and ,romans knew several varieties1 which they distinguished by the names of countries3 ,cyprium1 ,cretense1 ,samothraciae1 etc4 ,one variety cultivated in ,egypt#bbj was held to be so excellent that it received divine honours1 to the great amusement of the ,romans4#bba ,modern ,egyptians designate ,a4 ,cepa by the name of basal#bbb or bussul1#bbc whence it is probable that the bezalim of the ,hebrews is the same species1 as commentators have said4#bbd ,there are several distinct names--palandu1 latarka1 sakandaka1#bbe and a number of modern ,indian names4 ,the species is commonly cultivated in ,india1 ,cochin-,china1 ,china1#bbf and even in ,japan4#bbg ,it was largely consumed by the ancient ,egyptians4 ,the drawings on their monuments often represent this species4#bbh ,thus its cultivation in ,southern ,asia and the eastern region of the ,mediterranean dates from a very early epoch4 ,moreover1 the ,chinese1 ,sanskrit1 ,hebrew1 ,greek1 and ,latin names have no apparent connection4 ,from this last fact we may deduce the hypothesis that its cultivation was begun after the separation of the ,indo-,european nations1 the species being found ready to hand in different countries at once4 ,this1 however1 is not the present state of things1 for we hardly find even vague indications of the wild state of ,a4 ,cepa4 ,i have not discovered it in ,european or ,caucasian floras2 but ,hasselquist#bbi says1 8,it grows in the plains near the sea in the environs of ,jericho40 ,dr4 ,wallich mentioned in his list of ,indian plants1 ,no4 #ejgb1 specimens which he saw in districts of ,bengal1 without mentioning whether they were cultivated4 ,this indication1 however insufficient1 together with the antiquity of the ,sanskrit and ,hebrew names1 and the communication which is known to have existed between the peoples of ,india and of ,egypt1 lead me to suppose that this plant occupied a vast area in ,western ,asia1 extending perhaps from ,palestine to ,india4 ,allied species1 sometimes mistaken for ,a4 ,cepa1 exist in ,siberia4#bcj ,the specimens collected by ,anglo-,indian botanists1 of which ,wallich gave the first idea1 are now better known4 ,stokes discovered ,allium ,cepa wild in ,beluchistan4 ,he says1 8wild on the ,chehil ,tun40 ,griffith brought it from ,afghanistan and ,thomson from ,lahore1 to say nothing of other collectors1 who are not explicit as to the wild or cultivated nature of their specimens4#bca ,boissier possesses a wild specimen found in the mountainous regions of the ,khorassan4 ,the umbels are smaller than in the cultivated plant1 but there is no other difference4 ,dr4 ,regel1 jun41 found it to the south of ,kuldscha1 in ,western ,siberia4#bcb ,thus my former conjectures are completely justified2 and it is not unlikely that its habitation extends even as far as ,palestine1 as ,hasselquist said4 ,the onion is designated in ,china by a single sign 7pronounced tsung71 which may suggest a long existence there as an indigenous plant4#bcc ,i very much doubt1 however1 that the area extends so far to the east4 ,humboldt#bcd says that the ,americans have always been acquainted with onions1 in ,mexican xonacatl4 8,cortes10 he says1 8speaking of the comestibles sold at the market of the ancient ,tenochtillan1 mentions onions1 leeks1 and garlic40 ,i cannot believe1 however1 that these names applied to the species cultivated in ,europe4 ,sloane1 in the seventeenth century1 had only seen one ,allium cultivated in ,jamaica 7,a4 ,cepa71 and that was in a garden with other ,european vegetables4#bce ,the word xonacatl is not in ,hernandez1 and ,acosta#bcf says distinctly that the onions and garlics of ,peru are of ,european origin4 ,the species of the genus ,allium are rare in ,america4 ,spring1 or ,welsh ,onion--,allium fistulosum1 ,linnus4 ,this species was for a long time mentioned in floras and works on horticulture as of unknown origin2 but ,russian botanists have found it wild in ,siberia towards the ,alta mountains1 on the ,lake ,baikal in the land of the ,kirghis4#bcg ,the ancients did not know the plant4#bch ,it must have come into ,europe through ,russia in the ,middle ,ages1 or a little later4 ,dodoens1#bci an author of the sixteenth century1 has given a figure of it1 hardly recognizable1 under the name of ,cepa oblonga4 ,shallot--,allium ascalonicum1 ,linnus4 ,it was believed1 according to ,pliny1#bdj that this plant took its name from ,ascalon1 in ,juda2 but ,dr4 ,fournier#bda thinks that the ,latin author mistook the meaning of the word ,askalnion of ,theophrastus4 ,however this may be1 the word has been retained in modern languages under the form of chalote in ,french1 chalote in ,spanish1 scalogno in ,italian1 ,aschaluch or ,eschlauch in ,german4 ,in #ahee ,i had spoken of the species as follows3#bdb-- 8,according to ,roxburgh1#bdc ,allium ascalonicum is much cultivated in ,india4 ,the ,sanskrit name pulandu is attributed to it1 a word nearly identical with palandu1 attributed to ,a4 ,cepa4#bdd ,evidently the distinction between the two species is not clear in ,indian or ,anglo-,indian works4 8,loureiro says he saw ,allium ascalonicum cultivated in ,cochin-,china1#bde but he does not mention ,china1 and ,thunberg does not indicate this species in ,japan4 ,its cultivation1 therefore1 is not universal in the east of ,asia4 ,this fact1 and the doubt about the ,sanskrit name1 lead me to think that it is not ancient in ,southern ,asia4 ,neither1 in spite of the name of the species1 am ,i convinced that it existed in ,western ,asia4 ,rauwolf1 ,forskal1 and ,delile do not mention it in ,siberia1 in ,arabia1 or in ,egypt4 ,linnus#bdf mentions ,hasselquist as having found the species in ,palestine4 ,unfortunately1 he gives no details about the locality1 nor about its wild condition4 ,in the ,travels of ,hasselquist#bdg ,i find a ,cepa montana mentioned as growing on ,mount ,tabor and on a neighbouring mountain1 but there is nothing to prove that it was this species4 ,in his article on the onions and garlics of the ,hebrews he mentions only ,allium ,cepa1 then ,a4 porrum and ,a4 sativum4 ,sibthorp did not find it in ,greece1#bdh and ,fraas#bdi does not mention it as now cultivated in that country4 ,according to ,koch1#bej it is naturalized among the vines near ,fiume4 ,however1 ,viviani#bea only speaks of it as a cultivated plant in ,dalmatia4 8,from all these facts ,i am led to believe that ,allium ascalonicum is not a species4 ,it is enough to render its primitive existence doubtful1 to remark3 7#a7 that ,theophrastus and ancient writers in general have spoken of it as a form of the ,allium ,cepa1 having the same importance as the varieties cultivated in ,greece1 ,thrace1 and elsewhere2 7#b7 that its existence in a wild state cannot be proved2 7#c7 that it is little cultivated1 or not all1 in the countries where it is supposed to have had its origin1 as in ,syria1 ,egypt1 and ,greece2 7#d7 that it is commonly without flowers1 whence the name of ,cepa sterilis given by ,bauhin1 and the number of its bulbs is an allied fact2 7#e7 when it does flower1 the organs of the flower are similar to those of ,a4 ,cepa1 or at least no difference has been hitherto discovered1 and according to ,koch#beb the only difference in the whole plant is that the stalk and leaves are less swelled1 although fistulous40 ,such was formerly my opinion4#bec ,the facts published since #ahee do not destroy my doubts1 but1 on the contrary1 justify them4 ,regel1 in #ahge1 in his monograph of the genus ,allium1 declares he has only seen the shallot as a cultivated species4 ,aucher ,eloy has distributed a plant from ,asia ,minor under the name of ,a4 ascalonicum1 but judging from my specimen this is certainly not the species4 ,boissier tells me that he has never seen ,a4 ascalonicum in the ,east1 and it is not in his herbarium4 ,the plant from the ,morea which bears this name in the flora of ,bory and ,chaubard is quite a different species1 which he has named ,a4 gomphrenoides4 ,baker1#bed in his review of the ,alliums of ,india1 ,china1 and ,japan1 mentions ,a4 ascalonicum in districts of ,bengal and of the ,punjab1 from specimens of ,griffith and ,aitchison2 but he adds1 8,they are probably cultivated plants40 ,he attributes to ,a4 ascalonicum ,allium sulvia1 ,ham41 of ,nepal1 a plant little known1 and whose wild character is uncertain4 ,the shallot produces many bulbs1 which may be propagated or preserved in the neighbourhood of cultivation1 and thus cause mistakes as to its origin4 ,finally1 in spite of the progress of botanical investigations in the ,east and in ,india1 this form of ,allium has not been found wild with certainty4 ,it appears to me1 therefore1 more probable than ever that it is a modification of ,a4 ,cepa1 dating from about the beginning of the ,christian era--a modification less considerable than many of those observed in other cultivated plants1 as1 for instance1 in the cabbage4 ,rocambole--,allium scorodoprasum1 ,linnus4 ,if we cast a glance at the descriptions and names of ,a4 scorodoprasum in works on botany since the time of ,linnus1 we shall see that the only point on which authors are agreed is the common name of rocambole4 ,as to the distinctive characters1 they sometimes approximate the plant to ,allium sativum1 sometimes regard it as altogether distinct4 ,with such different definitions1 it is difficult to know in what country the plant1 well known in its cultivated state as the rocambole1 is found wild4 ,according to ,cosson and ,germain1#bee it grows in the environs of ,paris4 ,according to ,grenier and ,godron1#bef the same form grows in the east of ,france4 ,burnat says he found the species undoubtedly wild in the ,alpes-,maritimes1 and he gave specimens of it to ,boissier4 ,willkomm and ,lange do not consider it to be wild in ,spain1#beg though one of the ,french names of the cultivated plant is ail or eschalote d',espagne4 ,many other ,european localities seem to me doubtful1 since the specific characters are so uncertain4 ,i mention1 however1 that1 according to ,ledebour1#beh the plant which he calls ,a4 scorodoprasum is very common in ,russia from ,finland to the ,crimea4 ,boissier received a specimen of it from ,dobrutscha1 sent by the botanist ,sintenis4 ,the natural habitat of the species borders1 therefore1 on that of ,allium sativum1 or else an attentive study of all these forms will show that a single species1 comprising several varieties1 extends over a great part of ,europe and the bordering countries of ,asia4 ,the cultivation of this species of onion does not appear to be of ancient date4 ,it is not mentioned by ,greek and ,roman authors1 nor in the list of plants recommended by ,charlemagne to the intendants of his gardens4#bei ,neither does ,olivier de ,serres speak of it4 ,we can only give a small number of original common names among ancient peoples4 ,the most distinctive are in the ,north4 ,skovlg in ,denmark1 keipe and rackenboll in ,sweden4#bfj ,rockenbolle1 whence comes the ,french name1 is ,german4 ,it has not the meaning given by ,littr4 ,its etymology is ,bolle1 onion1 growing among the rocks1 ,rocken4#bfa ,chives--,allium schnoprasum1 ,linnus4 ,this species occupies an extensive area in the northern hemisphere4 ,it is found all over ,europe1 from ,corsica and ,greece to the south of ,sweden1 in ,siberia as far as ,kamtschatka1 and also in ,north ,america1 but only near the ,lakes ,huron and ,superior and further north#bfb--;a remarkable circumstance1 considering its ,european habitat4 ,the variety found in the ,alps is the nearest to the cultivated form4#bfc ,the ancient ,greeks and ,romans must certainly have known the species1 since it is wild in ,italy and ,greece4 ,targioni believes it to be the ,scorodon schiston of ,theophrastus2 but we are dealing with words without descriptions1 and authors whose specialty is the interpretation of ,greek text like ,fraas and ,lenz1 are prudent enough to affirm nothing4 ,if the ancient names are doubtful1 the fact of the cultivation of the plant at this epoch is yet more so4 ,it is possible that the custom of gathering it in the fields existed4 ,colocasia--,arum esculentum1 ,linnus2 ,colocasia antiquorum1 ,schott4#bfd ,this species is cultivated in the damp districts of the tropics1 for the swelled lower portion of the stem1 which forms an edible rhizome similar to the subterraneous part of the iris4 ,the petioles and the young leaves are also utilized as a vegetable4 ,since the different forms of the species have been properly classed1 and since we have possessed more certain information about the floras of the south of ,asia1 we cannot doubt that this plant is wild in ,india1 as ,roxburgh#bfe formerly1 and ,wight#bff and others have more recently asserted2 likewise in ,ceylon1#bfg ,sumatra1#bfh and several islands of the ,malay ,archipelago4#bfi ,chinese books make no mention of it before a work of the year #ajj ,b4,c4#bgj ,the first ,european navigators saw it cultivated in ,japan and as far as the north of ,new ,zealand1#bga in consequence probably of an early introduction1 and without the certain co-existence of wild stocks4 ,when portions of the stem or of the tuber are thrown away by the side of streams1 they naturalize themselves easily4 ,this was perhaps the case in ,japan and the ,fiji ,islands1#bgb judging from the localities indicated4 ,the colocasia is cultivated here and there in the ,west ,indies1 and elsewhere in tropical ,america1 but much less than in ,asia or ,africa1 and without the least indication of an ,american origin4 ,in the countries where the species is wild there are common names1 sometimes very ancient1 totally different from each other1 which confirms their local origin4 ,thus the ,sanskrit name is kuchoo1 which persists in modern ,hindu languages--in ,bengali1 for instance4#bgc ,in ,ceylon the wild plant is styled gahala1 the cultivated plant kandalla4#bgd ,the ,malay names are kelady1#bge tallus1 tallas1 tales1 or taloes1#bgf from which perhaps comes the well-known name of the ,otahitans and ,new ,zealanders--tallo or tarro1#bgg dalo#bgh in the ,fiji ,islands4 ,the ,japanese have a totally distinct name1 imo1#bgi which shows an existence of long duration either indigenous or cultivated4 ,european botanists first knew the colocasia in ,egypt1 where it has perhaps not been very long cultivated4 ,the monuments of ancient ,egypt furnish no indication of it1 but ,pliny#bhj spoke of it as the ,arum gyptium4 ,prosper ,alpin saw it in the sixteenth century1 and speaks of it at length4#bha ,he says that its name in its country is culcas1 which ,delile#bhb writes qolkas1 and koulkas4 ,it is clear that this ,arab name of the ,egyptian arum has some analogy with the ,sanskrit kuchoo1 which is a confirmation of the hypothesis1 sufficiently probable1 of an introduction from ,india or ,ceylon4 ,de l',ecluse#bhc had seen the plant cultivated in ,portugal1 as introduced from ,africa1 under the name alcoleaz1 evidently of ,arab origin4 ,in some parts of the south of ,italy1 where the plant has become naturalized1 it is1 according to ,parlatore1 called aro di ,egitto4#bhd ,the name colocasia1 given by the ,greeks to a plant of which the root was used by the ,egyptians1 may evidently come from colcas1 but it has been transferred to a plant differing from the true colcas4 ,indeed1 ,dioscorides applies it to the ,egyptian bean1 or nelumbo1#bhe which has a large root1 or rather rhizome1 rather stringy and not good to eat4 ,the two plants are very different1 especially in the flower4 ,the one belongs to the ,arace1 the other to the ,nymphace2 the one belongs to the class of ,monocotyledons1 the other to that of the ,dicotyledons4 ,the nelumbo of ,indian origin has ceased to grow in ,egypt1 while the colocasia of modern botanists has persisted there4 ,if there is any confusion1 as seems probable in the ,greek authors1 it must be explained by the fact that the colcas rarely flowers1 at least in ,egypt4 ,from the point of view of botanical nomenclature1 it matters little that mistakes were formerly made about the plants to which the name colocasia should be applied4 ,fortunately1 modern scientific names are not based upon the doubtful definitions of the ancient ,greeks and ,romans1 and it is sufficient to say now1 if the etymology is insisted upon1 that colocasia comes from colcas in consequence of an error4 ,ap1 or ,large-rooted ,alocasia--,alocasia macrorrhiza1 ,schott2 ,arum macrorrhizum1 ,linnus4 ,this araceous plant1 which ,schott places now in the genus ,colocasia1 now in the ,alocasia1 and whose names are far more complicated than might be supposed from those indicated above1#bhf is less frequently cultivated than the common colocasia1 but in the same manner and nearly in the same countries4 ,its rhizomes attain the length of a man's arm4 ,they have a distinctly bitter taste1 which it is indispensable to remove by cooking4 ,the aborigines of ,otahiti call it ap1 and those of the ,friendly ,isles kappe4#bhg ,in ,ceylon1 the common name is habara1 according to ,thwaites4#bhh ,it has other names in the ,malay ,archipelago1 which argues an existence prior to that of the more recent peoples of these regions4 ,the plant appears to be wild1 especially in ,otahiti4#bhi ,it is also wild in ,ceylon1 according to ,thwaites1 who has studied botany for a long time in that island4 ,it is mentioned also in ,india#bij and in ,australia1#bia but its wild condition is not affirmed--a fact always difficult to establish in the case of a species cultivated on the banks of streams1 and which is propagated by bulbs4 ,moreover1 it is sometimes confounded with the ,colocasia indica of ,kunth1 which grows in the same manner1 and is found here and there in cultivated ground2 and this species grows wild1 or is naturalized in the ditches and streams of ,southern ,asia1 although its history is not yet well known4 ,konjak--,amorphophallus ,konjak1 ,koch2 ,amorphophallus ,rivieri1 du ,rieu1 var4 ,konjak1 ,engler4#bib ,the konjak is a tuberous plant of the family ,arace1 extensively cultivated by the ,japanese1 a culture of which ,vidal has given full details in the ,bulletin de la ,socit d',acclimatation of ,july1 #ahgg4 ,it is considered by ,engler as a variety of ,amorphophallus ,rivieri1 of ,cochin-,china1 of which horticultural periodicals have given several illustrations in the last few years4#bic ,it can be cultivated in the south of ,europe1 like the dahlia1 as a curiosity2 but to estimate the value of the bulbs as food1 they should be prepared with lime-water1 in ,japanese fashion1 so as to ascertain the amount of fecula which a given area will produce4 ,dr4 ,vidal gives no proof that the ,japanese plant is wild in that country4 ,he supposes it to be so from the meaning of the common name1 which is1 he says1 konniyakou or yamagonniyakou1 yama meaning 8mountain40 ,franchet and ,savatier#bid have only seen the plant in gardens4 ,the ,cochin-,china variety1 believed to belong to the same species1 grows in gardens1 and there is no proof of its being wild in the country4 ,yams--,dioscorea sativa1 ,d4 batatas1 ,d4 japonica and ,d4 alata4 ,the yams1 monocotyledonous plants1 belonging to the family ,dioscoride1 constitute the genus ,dioscorea1 of which botanists have described about two hundred species1 scattered over all tropical and sub-tropical countries4 ,they usually have rhizomes1 that is1 underground stems or branches of stems1 more or less fleshy1 which become larger when the annual1 exposed part of the plant is near its decay4#bie ,several species are cultivated in different countries for these farinaceous rhizomes1 which are cooked and eaten like potatoes4 ,the botanical distinction of the species has always presented difficulties1 because the male and female flowers are on different individuals1 and because the characters of the rhizomes and the lower part of the exposed stems cannot be studied in the herbarium4 ,the last complete work is that of ,kunth1#bif published in #ahej4 ,it requires revision on account of the number of specimens brought home by travellers in these last few years4 ,fortunately1 with regard to the origin of cultivated species1 certain historical and philological considerations will serve as a guide1 without the absolute necessity of knowing and estimating the botanical characters of each4 ,roxburgh enumerates several ,dioscore#big cultivated in ,india1 but he found none of them wild1 and neither he nor ,piddington#bih mentions ,sanskrit names4 ,this last point argues a recent cultivation1 or one of originally small extent1 in ,india1 arising either from indigenous species as yet undefined1 or from foreign species cultivated elsewhere4 ,the ,bengali and ,hindu generic name is alu1 preceded by a special name for each species or variety2 kam alu1 for instance1 is ,dioscorea alata4 ,the absence of distinct names in each province also argues a recent cultivation4 ,in ,ceylon1 ,thwaites#bii indicates six wild species1 and he adds that ,d4 sativa1 ,l41 ,d4 alata1 ,l41 and ,d4 purpurea1 ,roxb41 are cultivated in gardens1 but are not found wild4 ,the ,chinese yam1 ,dioscorea batatas of ,decaisne1#cjj extensively cultivated by the ,chinese under the name of ,sain-in1 and introduced by ,m4 de ,montigny into ,european gardens1 where it remains as a luxury1 has not hitherto been found wild in ,china4 ,other less-known species are also cultivated by the ,chinese1 especially the chou-yu1 tou-tchou1 chan-yu1 mentioned in their ancient works on agriculture1 and which has spherical rhizomes 7instead of the pyriform spindles of the ,d4 batatas74 ,the names mean1 according to ,stanislas ,julien1 mountain arum1 whence we may conclude the plant is really a native of the country4 ,dr4 ,bretschneider#cja gives three ,dioscore as cultivated in ,china 7,d4 batatas1 alata1 sativa71 adding1 8,the ,dioscorea is indigenous in ,china1 for it is mentioned in the oldest work on medicine1 that of the ,emperor ,schen-nung40 ,dioscorea japonica1 ,thunberg1 cultivated in ,japan1 has also been found in clearings in various localities1 but ,franchet and ,savatier#cjb say that it is not positively known to what degree it is wild or has strayed from cultivation4 ,another species1 more often cultivated in ,japan1 grows here and there in the country according to the same authors4 ,they assign it to ,dioscorea sativa of ,linnus2 but it is known that the famous ,swede had confounded several ,asiatic and ,american species under that name1 which must either be abandoned or restricted to one of the species of the ,indian ,archipelago4 ,if we choose the latter course1 the true ,d4 sativa would be the plant cultivated in ,ceylon with which ,linnus was acquainted1 and which ,thwaites calls the ,d4 sativa of ,linnus4 ,various authors admitted the identity of the ,ceylon plant with others cultivated on the ,malabar coast1 in ,sumatra1 ,java1 the ,philippine ,isles1 etc4 ,blume#cjc asserts that ,d4 sativa1 ,l41 to which he attributes pl4 #ea in ,rheede's ,hortus ,malabaricus1 vol4 viii41 grows in damp places in the mountains of ,java and of ,malabar4 ,in order to put faith in these assertions1 it would be necessary to have carefully studied the question of species from authentic specimens4 ,the yam1 which is most commonly cultivated in the ,pacific ,isles under the name ubi1 is the ,dioscorea alata of ,linnus4 ,the authors of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries speak of it as widely spread in ,tahiti1 in ,new ,guinea1 in the ,moluccas1 etc4#cjd ,it is divided into several varieties1 according to the shape of the rhizome4 ,no one pretends to have found this species in a wild state1 but the flora of the islands whence it probably came1 in particular that of ,celebes and of ,new ,guinea1 is as yet little known4 ,passing to ,america1 we find there also several species of this genus growing wild1 in ,brazil and ,guiana1 for instance1 but it seems more probable that the cultivated varieties were introduced4 ,authors indicate but few cultivated species or varieties 7,plumier one1 ,sloane two7 and few common names4 ,the most widely spread is yam1 igname1 or inhame1 which is of ,african origin1 according to ,hughes1 and so also is the plant cultivated in his time in ,barbados4#cje ,he says that the word yam means 8to eat10 in several negro dialects on the coast of ,guinea4 ,it is true that two travellers nearer to the date of the discovery of ,america1 whom ,humboldt quotes1#cjf heard the word igname pronounced on the ,american continent3 ,vespucci in #adig1 on the coast of ,paria2 ,cabral in #aejj1 in ,brazil4 ,according to the latter1 the name was given to a root of which bread was made1 which would better apply to the manioc1 and leads me to think there must be some mistake1 more especially since a passage from ,vespucci1 quoted elsewhere by ,humboldt1#cjg shows the confusion he made between the manioc and the yam4 ,d4 ,cliffortiana1 ,lam41 grows wild in ,peru#cjh and in ,brazil1#cji but it is not proved to be cultivated4 ,presl says verosimiliter colitur1 and the ,flora ,brasiliensis does not mention cultivation4 ,the species chiefly cultivated in ,french ,guiana1 according to ,sagot1#caj is ,dioscore triloba1 ,lam41 called ,indian yam1 which is also common in ,brazil and the ,west ,india ,islands4 ,the common name argues a native origin1 whereas another species1 ,d4 cayennensis1 ,kunth1 also cultivated in ,guiana1 but under the name of negro-country yam1 was most likely brought from ,africa1 an opinion the more probable that ,sir ,w4 ,hooker likens a yam cultivated in ,africa on the banks of the ,nun and the ,quorra1#caa to ,d4 cayennensis4 ,lastly1 the free yam of ,guiana is1 according to ,dr4 ,sagot1 ,d4 alata introduced from the ,malay ,archipelago and ,polynesia4 ,in ,africa there are fewer indigenous ,dioscore than in ,asia and ,america1 and the culture of yams is less widely spread4 ,on the west coast1 according to ,thonning1#cab only one or two species are cultivated2 ,lockhardt#cac only saw one in ,congo1 and that only in one locality4 ,bojer#cad mentions four cultivated species in ,mauritius1 which are1 he says1 of ,asiatic origin1 and one1 ,d4 bulbifera1 ,lam41 from ,india1 if the name be correct4 ,he asserts that it came from ,madagascar1 and has spread into the woods beyond the plantations4 ,in ,mauritius it bears the name ,cambare marron4 ,now1 cambare is something like the ,hindu name kam1 and marron 7marroon7 indicates a plant escaped from cultivation4 ,the ancient ,egyptians cultivated no yams1 which argues a cultivation less ancient in ,india than that of the colocasia4 ,forskal and ,delile mention no yams cultivated in ,egypt at the present day4 ,to sum up3 several ,dioscore wild in ,asia 7especially in the ,asiatic ,archipelago71 and others less numerous growing in ,america and in ,africa1 have been introduced into cultivation as alimentary plants1 probably more recently than many other species4 ,this last conjecture is based on the absence of a ,sanskrit name1 on the limited geographical range of cultivation1 and on the date1 which appears to be not very ancient1 of the inhabitants of the ,pacific ,isles4 ,arrowroot--,maranta arundinacea1 ,linnus4 ,a plant of the family of the ,scitamine1 allied to the genus ,canna1 of which the underground suckers#cae produce the excellent fecula called arrowroot4 ,it is cultivated in the ,west ,india ,islands and in several tropical countries of continental ,america4 ,it has also been introduced into the old world--on the coast of ,guinea1 for instance4#caf ,maranta arundinacea is certainly ,american4 ,according to ,sloane1#cag it was brought from ,dominica to ,barbados1 and thence to ,jamaica1 which leads us to suppose that it was not indigenous in the ,west ,indies4 ,krnicke1 the last author who studied the genus ,maranta1#cah saw several specimens which were gathered in ,guadaloupe1 in ,st4 ,thomas1 in ,mexico1 in ,central ,america1 in ,guiana1 and in ,brazil2 but he did not concern himself to discover whether they were taken from wild1 cultivated1 or naturalized plants4 ,collectors hardly ever indicate this2 and for the study of the ,american continent 7excepting the ,united ,states7 we are unprovided with local floras1 and especially with floras made by botanists residing in the country4 ,in published works ,i find the species mentioned as cultivated#cai or growing in plantations1#cbj or without any explanation4 ,a locality in ,brazil1 in the thinly peopled province of ,matto ,grosso1 mentioned by ,krnicke1 supposes an absence of cultivation4 ,seemann#cba mentions that the species is found in sunny spots near ,panama4 ,a species is also cultivated in the ,west ,indies1 ,maranta indica1 which1 ,tussac says1 was brought from the ,east ,indies4 ,krnicke believes that ,m4 ramosissima of ,wallich found at ,sillet1 in ,india1 is the same species1 and thinks it is a variety of ,m4 arundinacea4 ,out of thirty-six more or less known species of the genus ,maranta1 thirty at least are of ,american origin4 ,it is therefore unlikely that two or three others should be ,asiatic4 ,until ,sir ,joseph ,hooker's ,flora of ,british ,india is completed1 these questions on the species of the ,scitamine and their origin will be very obscure4 ,anglo-,indians obtain arrowroot from another plant of the same family1 ,curcuma angustifolia1 ,roxburgh1 which grows in the forests of the ,deccan and in ,malabar4#cbb ,i do not know whether it is cultivated4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,plants ,,cultivated ,,for ,,their ,,stems ,,or ,,leaves4 ,article ,i4--,vegetables4 ,common ,cabbage--,brassica oleracea1 ,linnus4 ,the cabbage in its wild state1 as it is represented in ,eng4 ,bot41 t4 #fcg1 the ,flora ,danica1 t4 #bjef1 and elsewhere1 is found on the rocks by the sea-shore3 7#a7 in the ,isle of ,laland1 in ,denmark1 the island of ,heligoland1 the south of ,england and ,ireland1 the ,channel ,isles1 and the islands off the coast of ,charente ,infrieure2#cbc 7#b7 on the north coast of the ,mediterranean1 near ,nice1 ,genoa1 and ,lucca4#cbd ,a traveller of the last century1 ,sibthorp1 said that he found it at ,mount ,athos1 but this has not been confirmed by any modern botanist1 and the species appears to be foreign in ,greece1 on the shores of the ,caspian1 as also in ,siberia1 where ,pallas formerly said he had seen it1 and in ,persia4#cbe ,not only the numerous travellers who have explored these countries have not found the cabbage1 but the winters of the east of ,europe and of ,siberia appear to be too severe for it4 ,its distribution into somewhat isolated places1 and in two different regions of ,europe1 suggests the suspicion either that plants apparently indigenous may in several cases be the result of self-sowing from cultivation1#cbf or that the species was formerly common1 and is tending to disappear4 ,its presence in the western islands of ,europe favours the latter hypothesis1 but its absence in the islands of the ,mediterranean is opposed to it4#cbg ,let us see whether historical and philological data add anything to the facts of geographical botany4 ,in the first place1 it is in ,europe that the countless varieties of cabbage have been formed1#cbh principally since the days of the ancient ,greeks4 ,theophrastus distinguished three1 ,pliny double that number1 ,tournefort twenty1 ,de ,candolle more than thirty4 ,these modifications did not come from the ,east--another sign of an ancient cultivation in ,europe and of a ,european origin4 ,the common names are also numerous in ,european languages1 and rare or modern in those of ,asia4 ,without repeating a number of names ,i have given elsewhere1#cbi ,i shall mention the five or six distinct and ancient roots from which the ,european names are derived4 ,kap or kab in several ,keltic and ,slav names4 ,the ,french name cabus comes from it4 ,its origin is clearly the same as that of caput1 because of the head-shaped form of the cabbage4 ,caul1 kohl1 in several ,latin 7caulis1 stem or cabbage71 ,german 7,chli in ,old ,german1 ,kohl in modern ,german1 kaal in ,danish71 and ,keltic languages 7kaol and kol in ,breton1 cal in ,irish74#ccj ,bresic1 bresych1 brassic1 of the ,keltic and ,latin 7brassica7 languages1 whence1 probably1 berza and verza of the ,spaniards and ,portuguese1 varza of the ,roumanians4#cca ,aza of the ,basques 7,iberians71 considered by de ,charencey#ccb as proper to the ,euskarian tongue1 but which differs little from the preceding4 ,krambai1 crambe1 of the ,greeks and ,latins4 ,the variety of names in ,keltic languages tends to show the existence of the species on the west coast of ,europe4 ,if the ,aryan ,kelts had brought the plant from ,asia1 they would probably not have invented names taken from three different sources4 ,it is easy to admit1 on the contrary1 that the ,aryan nations1 seeing the cabbage wild1 and perhaps already used in ,europe by the ,iberians or the ,ligurians1 either invented names or adopted those of the earlier inhabitants4 ,philologists have connected the krambai of the ,greeks with the ,persian name karamb1 karam1 kalam1 the ,kurdish kalam1 the ,armenian gaghamb2#ccc others with a root of the supposed mother-tongue of the ,aryans2 but they do not agree in matters of detail4 ,according to ,fick1#ccd karambha1 in the primitive ,indo-,germanic tongue1 signifies 8,gemsepflanze 7vegetable71 ,kohl 7cabbage71 karambha meaning stalk1 like caulis40 ,he adds that karambha1 in ,sanskrit1 is the name of two vegetables4 ,anglo-,indian writers do not mention this supposed ,sanskrit name1 but only a name from a modern ,hindu dialect1 kopee4#cce ,pictet1 on his side1 speaks of the ,sanskrit word kalamba1 8vegetable stalk1 applied to the cabbage40 ,i have considerable difficulty1 ,i must own1 in admitting these ,eastern etymologies for the ,greco-,latin word crambe4 ,the meaning of the ,sanskrit word 7if it exists7 is very doubtful1 and as to the ,persian word1 we ought to know if it is ancient4 ,i doubt it1 for if the cabbage had existed in ancient ,persia1 the ,hebrews would have known it4#ccf ,for all these reasons1 the species appears to me of ,european origin4 ,the date of its cultivation is probably very ancient1 earlier than the ,aryan invasions1 but no doubt the wild plant was gathered before it was cultivated4 ,garden-,cress--,lepidium sativum1 ,linnus4 ,this little ,crucifer1 now used as a salad1 was valued in ancient times for certain properties of the seeds4 ,some authors believe that it answers to a certain cardamon of ,dioscorides2 while others apply that name to ,erucaria aleppica4#ccg ,in the absence of sufficient description1 as the modern common name is cardamon1#cch the first of these two suppositions is probably correct4 ,the cultivation of the species must date from ancient times and be widely diffused1 for very different names exist3 reschad in ,arab1 turehtezuk#cci in ,persian1 diges#cdj in ,albanian1 a language derived from the ,pelasgic2 without mentioning names drawn from the similarity of taste with that of the water-cress 7,nasturtium officinale74 ,there are very distinct names in ,hindustani and ,bengali1 but none are known in ,sanskrit4#cda ,at the present day the plant is cultivated in ,europe1 in the north of ,africa1 in ,eastern ,asia1 ,india1 and elsewhere1 but its origin is somewhat obscure4 ,i possess several specimens gathered in ,india1 where ,sir ,joseph ,hooker#cdb does not consider the species indigenous4 ,kotschy brought it back from ,karrak1 or ,karek ,island1 in the ,persian ,gulf4 ,the label does not say that it was a cultivated plant4 ,boissier#cdc mentions it without comment1 and he afterwards speaks of specimens from ,ispahan and ,egypt gathered in cultivated ground4 ,olivier is quoted as having found the cress in ,persia1 but it is not said whether it was growing wild4#cdd ,it has been asserted that ,sibthorp found it in ,cyprus1 but reference to his work shows it was in the fields4#cde ,poech does not mention it in ,cyprus4#cdf ,unger and ,kotschy#cdg do not consider it to be wild in that island4 ,according to ,ledebour1#cdh ,koch found it round the convent on ,mount ,ararat2 ,pallas near ,sarepta2 ,falk on the banks of the ,oka1 a tributary of the ,volga2 lastly1 ,h4 ,martius mentions it in his flora of ,moscow2 but there is no proof that it was wild in these various localities4 ,lindemann1#cdi in #ahfj1 did not reckon the species among those of ,russia1 and he only indicates it as cultivated in the ,crimea4#cej ,according to ,nyman1#cea the botanist ,schur found it wild in ,transylvania1 while the ,austro-,hungarian floras either do not mention the species1 or give it as cultivated1 or growing in cultivated ground4 ,i am led to believe1 by this assemblage of more or less doubtful facts1 that the plant is of ,persian origin1 whence it may have spread1 after the ,sanskrit epoch1 into the gardens of ,india1 ,syria1 ,greece1 and ,egypt1 and even as far as ,abyssinia4#ceb ,purslane--,portulaca oleracea1 ,linnus4 ,purslane is one of the kitchen garden plants most widely diffused throughout the old world from the earliest times4 ,it has been transported into ,america1#cec where it spreads itself1 as in ,europe1 in gardens1 among rubbish1 by the wayside1 etc4 ,it is more or less used as a vegetable1 a medicinal plant1 and is excellent food for pigs4 ,a ,sanskrit name for it is known1 lonica or lounia1 which recurs in the modern languages of ,india4#ced ,the ,greek name andrachne and the ,latin portulaca are very different1 as also the group of names1 cholza in ,persian1 khursa or koursa in ,hindustani1 kourfa kara-or in ,arab and ,tartar1 which seem to be the origin of kurza noka in ,polish1 kurj-noha in ,bohemian1 ,kreusel in ,german1 without speaking of the ,russian name schrucha1 and some others of ,eastern ,asia4#cee ,one need not be a philologist to see certain derivations in these names showing that the ,asiatic peoples in their migrations transported with them their names for the plant1 but this does not prove that they transported the plant itself4 ,they may have found it in the countries to which they came4 ,on the other hand1 the existence of three or four different roots shows that ,european peoples anterior to the ,asiatic migrations had already names for the species1 which is consequently very ancient in ,europe as well as in ,asia4 ,it is very difficult to discover in the case of a plant so widely diffused1 and which propagates itself so easily by means of its enormous number of little seeds1 whether a specimen is cultivated1 naturalized by spreading from cultivation1 or really wild4 ,it does not appear to be so ancient in the east as in the west of the ,asiatic continent1 and authors never say that it is a wild plant4#cef ,in ,india the case is very different4 ,sir ,joseph ,hooker says#ceg that it grows in ,india to the height of five thousand feet in the ,himalayas4 ,he also mentions having found in the north-west of ,india the variety with upright stem1 which is cultivated together with the common species in ,europe4 ,i find nothing positive about the localities in ,persia1 but so many are mentioned1 and in countries so little cultivated1 on the shores of the ,caspian ,sea1 in the neighbourhood of the ,caucasus1 and even in the south of ,russia1#ceh that it is difficult not to admit that the plant is indigenous in that central region whence the ,asiatic peoples overran ,europe4 ,in ,greece the plant is wild as well as cultivated4#cei ,further to the west1 in ,italy1 etc41 we begin to find it indicated in floras1 but only growing in fields1 gardens1 rubbish-heaps1 and other suspicious localities4#cfj ,thus the evidence of philology and botany alike show that the species is indigenous in the whole of the region which extends from the western ,himalayas to the south of ,russia and ,greece4 ,new ,zealand ,spinach--,tetragonia expansa1 ,murray4 ,this plant was brought from ,new ,zealand at the time of ,cook's famous voyage1 and cultivated by ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 and hence its name4 ,it is a singular plant from a double point of view4 ,in the first place1 it is the only cultivated species which comes from ,new ,zealand2 and secondly1 it belongs to an order of usually fleshy plants1 the ,ficoide1 of which no other species is used4 ,horticulturists#cfa recommend it as an annual vegetable1 of which the taste resembles that of spinach1 but which bears drought better1 and is therefore a resource in seasons when spinach fails4 ,since ,cook's voyage it has been found wild chiefly on the sea coast1 not only in ,new ,zealand but also in ,tasmania1 in the south and west of ,australia1 in ,japan1 and in ,south ,america4#cfb ,it remains to be discovered whether in the latter places it is not naturalized1 for it is found in the neighbourhood of towns in ,japan and ,chili4#cfc ,garden ,celery--,apium graveolens1 ,linnus4 ,like many ,umbellifers which grow in damp places1 wild celery has a wide range4 ,it extends from ,sweden to ,algeria1 ,egypt1 ,abyssinia1 and in ,asia from the ,caucasus to ,beluchistan1 and the mountains of ,british ,india4#cfd ,it is spoken of in the ,odyssey under the name of selinon1 and in ,theophrastus2 but later1 ,dioscorides and ,pliny#cfe distinguish between the wild and cultivated celery4 ,in the latter the leaves are blanched1 which greatly diminishes their bitterness4 ,the long course of cultivation explains the numerous garden varieties4 ,the one which differs more widely from the wild plant is that of which the fleshy root is eaten cooked4 ,chervil--,scandix cerefolium1 ,linnus2 ,anthriscus cerefolium1 ,hoffmann4 ,not long ago the origin of this little ,umbellifer1 so common in our gardens1 was unknown4 ,like many annuals1 it sprang up on rubbish-heaps1 in hedges1 in waste places1 and it was doubted whether it should be considered wild4 ,in the west and south of ,europe it seems to have been introduced1 and more or less naturalized2 but in the south-east of ,russia and in western temperate ,asia it appears to be indigenous4 ,steven#cff tells us that it is found 8here and there in the woods of the ,crimea40 ,boissier#cfg received several specimens from the provinces to the south of the ,caucasus1 from ,turcomania and the mountains of the north of ,persia1 localities of which the species is probably a native4 ,it is wanting in the floras of ,india and the east of ,asia4 ,greek authors do not mention it4 ,the first mention of the plant by ancient writers occurs in ,columella and ,pliny1#cfh that is1 at the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,it was then cultivated4 ,pliny calls it cerefolium4 ,the species was probably introduced into the ,greco-,roman world after the time of ,theophrastus1 that is in the course of the three centuries which preceded our era4 ,parsley--,petroselinum sativum1 ,mnch4 ,this biennial ,umbellifer is wild in the south of ,europe1 from ,spain to ,turkey4 ,it has also been found at ,tlemcen in ,algeria1 and in ,lebanon4#cfi ,dioscorides and ,pliny speak of it under the names of ,petroselinon and ,petroselinum1#cgj but only as a wild medicinal plant4 ,nothing proves that it was cultivated in their time4 ,in the ,middle ,ages ,charlemagne counted it among the plants which he ordered to be cultivated in his gardens4#cga ,olivier de ,serres in the sixteenth century cultivated parsley4 ,english gardeners received it in #aedh4cgb ,although this cultivation is neither ancient nor important1 it has already developed two varieties1 which would be called species if they were found wild2 the parsley with crinkled leaves1 and that of which the fleshy root is edible4 ,smyrnium1 or ,alexanders--,smyrnium olus-atrum1 ,linnus4 ,of all the ,umbellifers used as vegetables1 this was one of the commonest in gardens for nearly fifteen centuries1 and it is now abandoned4 ,we can trace its beginning and end4 ,theophrastus spoke of it as a medicinal plant under the name of ,ipposelinon1 but three centuries later ,dioscorides#cgc says that either the root or the leaves might be eaten1 which implies cultivation4 ,the ,latins called it olus-atrum1 ,charlemagne olisatum1 and commanded it to be sown in his farms4#cgd ,the ,italians made great use of it under the name macerone4#cge ,at the end of the eighteenth century the tradition existed in ,england that this plant had been formerly cultivated2 later ,english and ,french horticulturists do not mention it4#cgf ,the ,smyrnium olus-atrum is wild throughout ,southern ,europe1 in ,algeria1 ,syria1 and ,asia ,minor4#cgg ,corn ,salad1 or ,lamb's ,lettuce--,valerianella olitoria1 ,linnus4 ,frequently cultivated as a salad1 this annual1 of the ,valerian family1 is found wild throughout temperate ,europe to about the sixtieth degree of latitude1 in ,southern ,europe1 in the ,canary ,isles1 ,madeira1 and the ,azores1 in the north of ,africa1 ,asia ,minor1 and the ,caucasus4#cgh ,it often grows in cultivated ground1 near villages1 etc41 which renders it somewhat difficult to know where it grew before cultivation4 ,it is mentioned1 however1 in ,sardinia and ,sicily1 in the meadows and mountain pastures4#cgi ,i suspect that it is indigenous only in these islands1 and that everywhere else it is introduced or naturalized4 ,the grounds for this opinion are the fact that no name which it seems possible to assign to this plant has been found in ,greek or ,latin authors4 ,we cannot even name any botanist of the ,middle ,ages or of the sixteenth century who has spoken of it4 ,neither is it mentioned among the vegetables used in ,france in the seventeenth century1 either by the ,jardinier ,franais of #afea1 or by ,laurenberg's work1 ,horticultura 7,frankfurt1 #afcb74 ,the cultivation and even the use of this salad appear to be modern1 a fact which has not been noticed4 ,cardoon--,cynara cardunculus1 ,linnus4 ,artichoke--,cynara scolymus1 ,linnus2 ,c4 cardunculus1 var4 sativa1 ,moris4 ,for a long time botanists have held the opinion that the artichoke is probably a form obtained by cultivation from the wild cardoon4#chj ,careful observations have lately proved this hypothesis4 ,moris1#cha for instance1 having cultivated1 in the garden at ,turin1 the wild ,sardinian plant side by side with the artichoke1 affirmed that true characteristic distinctions no longer existed4 ,willkomm and ,lange1#chb who have carefully observed the plant in ,spain1 both wild and cultivated1 share the same opinion4 ,moreover1 the artichoke has not been found out of gardens2 and since the ,mediterranean region1 the home of all the ,cynar1 has been thoroughly explored1 it may safely be asserted that it exists nowhere wild4 ,the cardoon1 in which we must also include ,c4 horrida of ,sibthorp1 is indigenous in ,madeira and in the ,canary ,isles1 in the mountains of ,marocco near ,mogador1 in the south and east of the ,iberian peninsula1 the south of ,france1 of ,italy1 of ,greece1 and in the islands of the ,mediterranean ,sea as far as ,cyprus4#chc ,munby#chd does not allow ,c4 cardunculus to be wild in ,algeria1 but he does admit ,cynara humilis of ,linnus1 which is considered by a few authors as a variety4 ,the cultivated cardoon varies a good deal with regard to the division of the leaves1 the number of spines1 and the size--diversities which indicate long cultivation4 ,the ,romans eat the receptacle which bears the flowers1 and the ,italians also eat it1 under the name of girello4 ,modern nations cultivate the cardoon for the fleshy part of the leaves1 a custom which is not yet introduced into ,greece4#che ,the artichoke offers fewer varieties1 which bears out the opinion that it is a form derived from the cardoon4 ,targioni1#chf in an excellent article upon this plant1 relates that the artichoke was brought from ,naples to ,florence in #adff1 and he proves that ancient writers1 even ,athenus1 were not acquainted with the artichoke1 but only with the wild and cultivated cardoons4 ,i must mention1 however1 as a sign of its antiquity in the north of ,africa1 that the ,berbers have two entirely distinct names for the two plants3 addad for the cardoon1 taga for the artichoke4#chg ,it is believed that the kactos1 kinara1 and scolimos of the ,greeks1 and the carduus of ,roman horticulturists1 were ,cynara cardunculus1#chh although the most detailed description1 that of ,theophrastus1 is sufficiently confused4 8,the plant10 he said1 8grows in ,sicily0--as it does to this day--8and10 he added1 8not in ,greece40 ,it is1 therefore1 possible that the plants observed in our day in that country may have been naturalized from cultivation4 ,according to ,athenus1#chi the ,egyptian king ,ptolemy ,energetes1 of the second century before ,christ1 had found in ,libya a great quantity of wild kinara1 by which his soldiers had profited4 ,although the indigenous species was to be found at such a little distance1 ,i am very doubtful whether the ancient ,egyptians cultivated the cardoon or the artichoke4 ,pickering and ,unger#cij believed they recognized it in some of the drawings on the monuments2 but the two figures which ,unger considers the most admissible seem to me extremely doubtful4 ,moreover1 no ,hebrew name is known1 and the ,jews would probably have spoken of this vegetable had they seen it in ,egypt4 ,the diffusion of the species in ,asia must have taken place somewhat late4 ,there is an ,arab name1 hirschuff or kerschouff1 and a ,persian name1 kunghir1#cia but no ,sanskrit name1 and the ,hindus have taken the ,persian word kunjir1#cib which shows that it was introduced at a late epoch4 ,chinese authors do not mention any ,cynara4#cic ,the cultivation of the artichoke was only introduced into ,england in #aedh4cid ,one of the most curious facts in the history of ,cynara cardanculus is its naturalization in the present century over a vast extent of the ,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres1 where its abundance is a hindrance to travellers4#cie ,it is becoming equally troublesome in ,chili4#cif ,it is not asserted that the artichoke has anywhere been naturalized in this manner1 and this is another sign of its artificial origin4 ,lettuce--,latuca ,scariola1 var4 sativa4 ,botanists are agreed in considering the cultivated lettuce as a modification of the wild species called ,latuca ,scariola4#cig ,the latter grows in temperate and southern ,europe1 in the ,canary ,isles1 ,madeira1#cih ,algeria1#cii ,abyssinia1#djj and in the temperate regions of ,eastern ,asia4 ,boissier speaks of specimens from ,arabia ,petrea to ,mesopotamia and the ,caucasus4#dja ,he mentions a variety with crinkled leaves1 similar therefore to some of our garden lettuces1 which the traveller ,hausknecht brought with him from the mountains of ,kurdistan4 ,i have a specimen from ,siberia1 found near the river ,irtysch1 and it is now known with certainty that the species grows in the north of ,india1 in ,kashmir1 and in ,nepal4#djb ,in all these countries it is often near cultivated ground or among rubbish1 but often also in rocky ground1 clearings1 or meadows1 as a really wild plant4 ,the cultivated lettuce often spreads from gardens1 and sows itself in the open country4 ,no one1 as far as ,i know1 has observed it in such a case for several generations1 or has tried to cultivate the wild ,l4 ,scariola1 to see whether the transition is easy from the one form to the other4 ,it is possible that the original habitat of the species has been enlarged by the diffusion of cultivated lettuces reverting to the wild form4 ,it is known that there has been a great increase in the number of cultivated varieties in the course of the last two thousand years4 ,theophrastus indicated three2#djc le ,bon ,jardinier of #ahhj gives forty varieties existing in ,france4 ,the ancient ,greeks and ,romans cultivated the lettuce1 especially as a salad4 ,in the ,east its cultivation possibly dates from an earlier epoch4 ,nevertheless it does not appear1 from the original common names both in ,asia and ,europe1 that this plant was generally or very anciently cultivated4 ,there is no ,sanskrit nor ,hebrew name known1 nor any in the reconstructed ,aryan tongue4 ,a ,greek name exists1 tridax2 ,latin1 latuca2 ,persian and ,hindu1 kahn2 and the analogous ,arabic form chuss or chass4 ,the ,latin form exists also1 slightly modified1 in the ,slav and ,germanic languages1#djd which may indicate either that the ,western ,aryans diffused the plant1 or that its cultivation spread with its name at a later date from the south to the north of ,europe4 ,dr4 ,bretschneider has confirmed my supposition#dje that the lettuce is not very ancient in ,china1 and that it was introduced there from the ,west4 ,he says that the first work in which it is mentioned dates from ,a4,d4 #fjj to ,a4,d4 #ijj4djf ,wild ,chicory--,cichorium ,intybus1 ,linnus4 ,the wild perennial chicory1 which is cultivated as a salad1 as a vegetable1 as fodder1 and for its roots1 which are used to mix with coffee1 grows throughout ,europe1 except in ,lapland1 in ,marocco1 and ,algeria1#djg from ,eastern ,europe to ,afghanistan and ,beluchistan1#djh in the ,punjab and ,kashmir1#dji and from ,russia to ,lake ,baikal in ,siberia4#daj ,the plant is certainly wild in most of these countries2 but as it often grows by the side of roads and fields1 it is probable that it has been transported by man from its original home4 ,this must be the case in ,india1 for there is no known ,sanskrit name4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans employed this species wild and cultivated1#daa but their notices of it are too brief to be clear4 ,according to ,heldreich1 the modern ,greeks apply the general name of lachana1 a vegetable or salad1 to seventeen different chicories1 of which he gives a list4#dab ,he says that the species commonly cultivated is ,cichorium divaricatum1 ,schousboe 7,c4 pumilum1 ,jacquin72 but it is an annual1 and the chicory of which ,theophrastus speaks was perennial4 ,endive--,cichorium ,endivia1 ,linnus4 ,the white chicories or endives of our gardens are distinguished from ,cichorium ,intybus1 in that they are annuals1 and less bitter to the taste4 ,moreover1 the hairs of the pappus which crowns the seed are four times longer1 and unequal instead of being equal4 ,as long as this plant was compared with ,c4 ,intybus1 it was difficult not to admit two species4 ,the origin of ,c4 ,endivia is uncertain4 ,when we received1 forty years ago1 specimens of an ,indian ,cichorium1 which ,hamilton named ,c4 cosmia1 they seemed to us so like the endive that we supposed the latter to have an ,indian origin1 as has been sometimes suggested2#dac but ,anglo-,indian botanists said1 and continue to assert1 that in ,india the plant only grows under cultivation4#dad ,the uncertainty persisted as to the geographical origin4 ,after this1 several botanists#dae conceived the idea of comparing the endive with an annual species1 wild in the region of the ,mediterranean1 ,cichorium pumilum1 ,jacquin 7,c4 divaricatum1 ,schousboe71 and the differences were found to be so slight that some have suspected1 and others have affirmed1 their specific identity4 ,for my part1 after having seen wild specimens from ,sicily1 and compared the good illustrations published by ,reichenbach 7,icones1 vol4 xix41 pls4 #aceg1 #aceh71 ,i am disposed to take the cultivated endives for varieties of the same species as ,c4 pumilum4 ,in this case the oldest name being ,c4 ,endivia1 it is the one which ought to be retained1 as has been done by ,schultz4 ,it resembles1 moreover1 a popular name common to several languages4 ,the wild plant exists in the whole region1 of which the ,mediterranean is the centre1 from ,madeira1#daf ,marocco1#dag and ,algeria1#dah as far as ,palestine1#dai the ,caucasus1 and ,turkestan4#dbj ,it is very common in the islands of the ,mediterranean and in ,greece4 ,towards the west1 in ,spain and ,madeira1 for instance1 it is probable that it has become naturalized from cultivation1 judging from the positions it occupies in the fields and by the wayside4 ,no positive proof is found in ancient authors of the use of this plant by the ,greeks and ,romans2#dba but it is probable that they made use of it and several other ,cichoria4 ,the common names tell us nothing1 since they may have been applied to two different species4 ,these names vary little1#dbb and suggest a cultivation of ,grco-,roman origin4 ,a ,hindu name1 kasni1 and a ,tamul one1 koschi1#dbc are mentioned1 but no ,sanskrit name1 and this indicates that the cultivation of this plant was of late origin in the east4 ,spinach--,spinacia oleracea1 ,linnus4 ,this vegetable was unknown to the ,greeks and ,romans4#dbd ,it was new to ,europe in the sixteenth century1#dbe and it has been a matter of dispute whether it should be called spanacha1 as coming from ,spain1 or spinacia1 from its prickly fruit4#dbf ,it was afterwards shown that the name comes from the ,arabic isfndsch1 esbanach1 or sepanach1 according to different authors4#dbg ,the ,persian name is ispany1 or ispanaj1#dbh and the ,hindu isfany1 or palak1 according to ,piddington1 and also pinnis1 according to the same and to ,roxburgh4 ,the absence of any ,sanskrit name shows a cultivation of no great antiquity in these regions4 ,loureiro saw the spinach cultivated at ,canton1 and ,maximowicz in ,mantschuria2#dbi but ,bretschneider tells us that the ,chinese name signifies herb of ,persia1 and that ,western vegetables were commonly introduced into ,china a century before the ,christian era4#dcj ,it is therefore probable that the cultivation of this plant began in ,persia from the time of the ,grco-,roman civilization1 or that it did not quickly spread either to the east or to the west of its ,persian origin4 ,no ,hebrew name is known1 so that the ,arabs must have received both plant and name from the ,persians4 ,nothing leads us to suppose that they carried this vegetable into ,spain4 ,ebn ,baithar1 who was living in #abce1 was of ,malaga2 but the ,arabic works he quotes do not say where the plant was cultivated1 except one of them1 which says that its cultivation was common at ,nineveh and ,babylon4 ,herrera's work on ,spanish agriculture does not mention the species1 although it is inserted in a supplement of recent date1 whence it is probable that the edition of #aeac did not speak of it2 so that the ,european cultivation must have come from the ,east about the fifteenth century4 ,some popular works repeat that spinach is a native of ,northern ,asia1 but there is nothing to confirm this supposition4 ,it evidently comes from the empire of the ancient ,medes and ,persians4 ,according to ,bosc1#dca the traveller1 ,olivier brought back some seeds of it1 found in the ,east in the open country4 ,this would be a positive proof1 if the produce of these seeds had been examined by a botanist in order to ascertain the species and the variety4 ,in the present state of our knowledge it must be owned that spinach has not yet been found in a wild state1 unless it be a cultivated modification of ,spinacia tetandra1 ,steven1 which is wild to the south of the ,caucasus1 in ,turkestan1 in ,persia1 and in ,afghanistan1 and which is used as a vegetable under the name of schamum4#dcb ,without entering here into a purely botanical discussion1 ,i may say that1 after reading the descriptions quoted by ,boissier1 and looking at ,wight's#dcc plate of ,spinacia tetandra1 ,roxb41 cultivated in ,india1 and the specimens of several herbaria1 ,i see no decided difference between this plant and the cultivated spinach with prickly fruit4 ,the term tetandra implies that one of the plants has five and the other four stamens1 but the number varies in our cultivated spinaches4#dcd ,if1 as seems probable1 the two plants are two varieties1 the one cultivated1 the other sometimes wild and sometimes cultivated1 the oldest name1 ,s4 oleracea1 ought to persist1 especially as the two plants are found in the cultivated grounds of their original country4 ,the ,dutch or great spinach1 of which the fruit has no spines1 is evidently a garden product4 ,tragus1 or ,bock was the first to mention it in the sixteenth century4#dce ,amaranth--,amarantus gangeticus1 ,linnus4 ,several annual amaranths are cultivated as a green vegetable in ,mauritius1 ,bourbon1 and the ,seychelles ,isles1 under the name of brde de ,malabar4#dcf ,this appears to be the principal species4 ,it is much cultivated in ,india4 ,anglo-,indian botanists mistook it for a time for ,amarantus oleraceus of ,linnus1 and ,wight gives an illustration of it under this name1#dcg but it is now acknowledged to be a different species1 and belongs to ,a4 gangeticus4 ,its numerous varieties1 differing in size1 colour1 etc41 are called in the ,telinga dialect tota kura1 with the occasional addition of an adjective for each4 ,there are other names in ,bengali and ,hindustani4 ,the young shoots sometimes take the place of asparagus at the table of the ,english4#dch ,a4 melancholicus1 often grown as an ornamental plant in ,european gardens1 is considered one of the forms of this species4 ,its original home is perhaps ,india1 but ,i cannot discover that the plant has ever been found there in a wild state2 at least1 this is not asserted by any author4 ,all the species of the genus ,amarantus spread themselves in cultivated ground1 on rubbish-heaps by the wayside1 and thus become half-naturalized in hot countries as well as in ,europe4 ,hence the extreme difficulty in distinguishing the species1 and above all in guessing or proving their origin4 ,the species most nearly akin to ,a4 gangeticus appear to be ,asiatic4 ,a4 gangeticus is said by trustworthy authorities to be wild in ,egypt and ,abyssinia2#dci but this is perhaps only the result of such naturalization as ,i spoke of just now4 ,the existence of numerous varieties and of different names in ,india1 render its ,indian origin most probable4 ,the ,japanese cultivate as vegetables ,a4 caudatus1 ,a4 mangostanus1 and ,a4 melancholicus 7or gangeticus7 of ,linnus1#ddj but there is no proof that any of them are indigenous4 ,in ,java ,a4 polystachyus1 ,blume1 is cultivated2 it is very common among rubbish1 by the wayside1 etc4#dda ,i shall speak presently of the species grown for the seed4 ,leek--,allium ampeloprasum1 var4 ,porrum4 ,according to the careful monograph by ,j4 ,gay1#ddb the leek1 as early writers#ddc suspected1 is only a cultivated variety of ,allium ampeloprasum of ,linnus1 so common in the ,east1 and in the ,mediterranean region1 especially in ,algeria1 which in ,central ,europe sometimes becomes naturalized in vineyards and round ancient cultivations4#ddd ,gay seems to have mistrusted the indications of the floras of the south of ,europe1 for1 contrary to his method with other species of which he gives the localities out of ,algeria1 he only quotes in the present case the ,algerian localities2 admitting1 however1 the identity of name in the authors for other countries4 ,the cultivated variety of ,porrum has not been found wild4 ,it is only mentioned in doubtful localities1 such as vineyards1 gardens1 etc4 ,ledebour#dde indicates for ,a4 ampeloprasum the borders of the ,crimea1 and the provinces to the south of the ,caucasus4 ,wallich brought a specimen from ,kamaon1 in ,india1#ddf but we cannot be sure that it was wild4 ,the works on ,cochin-,china 7,loureiro71 ,china 7,bretschneider71 and ,japan 7,franchet and ,savatier7 make no mention of it4 ,article ,,ii4--,fodder4 ,lucern--,medicago sativa1 ,linnus4 ,the lucern was known to the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,they called it in ,greek medicai1 in ,latin medica1 or herba medica1 because it had been brought from ,media at the time of the ,persian war1 about #dgj years before the ,christian era4#ddg ,the ,romans often cultivated it1 at any rate from the beginning of the first or second century4 ,cato does not speak of it1#ddh but it is mentioned by ,varro1 ,columella1 and ,virgil4 ,de ,gasparin#ddi notices that ,crescenz1 in #adgh1 does not mention it in ,italy1 and that in #agaa ,tull had not seen it beyond the ,alps4 ,targioni1 however1 who could not be mistaken on this head1 says that the cultivation of lucern was maintained in ,italy1 especially in ,tuscany1 from ancient times4#dej ,it is rare in modern ,greece4#dea ,french cultivators have often given to the lucern the name of sainfoin1 which belongs properly to ,onobrychis sativa2 and this transposition still exists1 for instance in the neighbourhood of ,geneva4 ,the name lucern has been supposed to come from the valley of ,luzerne1 in ,piedmont2 but there is another and more probable origin4 ,the ,spaniards had an old name1 eruye1 mentioned by ,j4 ,bauhin1#deb and the ,catalans call it userdas#dec whence perhaps the patois name in the south of ,france1 laouzerdo1 nearly akin to luzerne4 ,it was so commonly cultivated in ,spain that the ,italians have sometimes called it herba spagna4#ded ,the ,spaniards have1 besides the names already given1 mielga1 or melga1 which appears to come from ,medica1 but they principally used names derived from the ,arabic--alfafa1 alfasafat1 alfalfa4 ,in the thirteenth century1 the famous physician ,ebn ,baithar1 who wrote at ,malaga1 uses the ,arab word fisfisat1 which he derives from the ,persian isfist4#dee ,it will be seen that1 if we are to trust to the common names1 the origin of the plant would be either in ,spain1 ,piedmont1 or ,persia4 ,fortunately botanists can furnish direct and possible proofs of the original home of the species4 ,it has been found wild1 with every appearance of an indigenous plant1 in several provinces of ,anatolia1 to the south of the ,caucasus1 in several parts of ,persia1 in ,afghanistan1 in ,beluchistan1#def and in ,kashmir4#deg ,in the south of ,russia1 a locality mentioned by some authors1 it is perhaps the result of cultivation as well as in the south of ,europe4 ,the ,greeks may1 therefore1 have introduced the plant from ,asia ,minor as well as from ,india1 which extended from the north of ,persia4 ,this origin of the lucern1 which is well established1 makes me note as a singular fact that no ,sanskrit name is known4#deh ,clover and sainfoin have none either1 which leads us to suppose that the ,aryans had no artificial meadows4 ,sainfoin--,hedysarum ,onobrychis1 ,linnus2 ,onobrychis sativa1 ,lamarck4 ,this leguminous plant1 of which the usefulness in the dry and chalky soils of temperate regions is incontestable1 has not been long in cultivation4 ,the ,greeks did not grow it1 and their descendants have not introduced it into their agriculture to this day4#dei ,the plant called ,onobrychis by ,dioscorides and ,pliny1 is ,onobrychis ,caput-,galli of modern botanists1#dfj a species wild in ,greece and elsewhere1 which is not cultivated4 ,the sainfoin1 or lupinella of the ,italians1 was highly esteemed as fodder in the south of ,france in the time of ,olivier de ,serres1#dfa that is to say1 in the sixteenth century2 but in ,italy it was only in the eighteenth century that this cultivation spread1 particularly in ,tuscany4#dfb ,sainfoin is a herbaceous plant1 which grows wild in the temperate parts of ,europe1 to the south of the ,caucasus1 round the ,caspian ,sea1#dfc and even beyond ,lake ,baikal4#dfd ,in the south of ,europe it grows only on the hills4 ,gussone does not reckon it among the wild species of ,sicily1 nor ,moris among those of ,sardinia1 nor ,munby among those of ,algeria4 ,no ,sanskrit1 ,persian1 or ,arabic names are known4 ,everything tends to show that the cultivation of this plant originated in the south of ,france as late perhaps as the fifteenth century4 ,french ,honeysuckle1 or ,spanish ,sainfoin--,hedysarum coronarium1 ,linnus4 ,the cultivation of this leguminous plant1 akin to the sainfoin1 and of which a good illustration may be found in the ,flora des ,serres et des ,jardins1 vol4 xiii4 pl4 #achb1 has been diffused in modern times through ,italy1 ,sicily1 ,malta1 and the ,balearic ,isles4#dfe ,marquis ,grimaldi1 who first pointed it out to cultivators in #agff1 had seen it at ,seminara1 in ,lower ,calabria2 ,de ,gasparin#dff recommends it for ,algeria1 and it is probable that cultivators under similar conditions in ,australia1 at the ,cape1 in ,south ,america or ,mexico1 would do well to try it4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,orange1 in ,algeria1 the plant did not survive the cold of #f centigrade4 ,hedysarum coronarium grows in ,italy from ,genoa to ,sicily and ,sardinia1#dfg in the south of ,spain#dfh and in ,algeria1#dfi where it is rare4 ,it is1 therefore1 a species of limited geographical area4 ,purple ,clover--,trifolium pratense1 ,linnus4 ,clover was not cultivated in ancient times1 although the plant was doubtless known to nearly all the peoples of ,europe and of temperate ,western ,asia4 ,its use was first introduced into ,flanders in the sixteenth century1 perhaps even earlier1 and1 according to ,schwerz1 the ,protestants expelled by the ,spaniards carried it into ,germany1 where they established themselves under the protection of the ,elector ,palatine4 ,it was also from ,flanders that the ,english received it in #afcc1 through the influence of ,weston1 ,earl of ,portland1 then ,lord ,chancellor4#dgj ,trifolium pratense is wild throughout ,europe1 in ,algeria1#dga on the mountains of ,anatolia1 in ,armenia1 and in ,turkestan1#dgb in ,siberia towards the ,alta ,mountains1#dgc and in ,kashmir and ,garwhall4#dgd ,the species existed1 therefore1 in ,asia1 in the land of the ,aryan nations2 but no ,sanskrit name is known1 whence it may be inferred that it was not cultivated4 ,crimson or ,italian ,clover--,trifolium incarnatum1 ,linnus4 ,an annual plant grown for fodder1 whose cultivation1 says ,vilmorin1 long confined to a few of the southern departments1 becomes every day more common in ,france4#dge ,de ,candolle1 at the beginning of the present century1 had only seen it in the department of ,arige4#dgf ,it has existed for about sixty years in the neighbourhood of ,geneva4 ,targioni does not think that it is of ancient date in ,italy1#dgg and the trivial name trafoglio strengthens his opinion4 ,the ,catalan f1 fench1#dgh and1 in the patois of the south of ,france1#dgi farradje 7,roussillon71 farratage 7,languedoc71 feroutg 7,gascony71 whence the ,french name farouch1 have1 on the other hand1 an original character1 which indicates an ancient cultivation round the ,pyrenees4 ,the term which is sometimes used1 8clover of ,roussillon10 also shows this4 ,the wild plant exists in ,galicia1 in ,biscaya1 and ,catalonia1#dhj but not in the ,balearic ,isles2#dha it is found in ,sardinia#dhb and in the province of ,algiers4#dhc ,it appears in several localities in ,france1 ,italy1 and ,dalmatia1 in the valley of the ,danube and ,macedonia1 but in many cases it is not known whether it may not have strayed from neighbouring cultivation4 ,a singular locality in which it appears to be indigenous1 according to ,english authors1 is on the coast of ,cornwall1 near the ,lizard4 ,in this place1 according to ,bentham1 it is the pale yellow variety1 which is truly wild on the ,continent1 while the crimson variety is only naturalized in ,england from cultivation4#dhd ,i do not know to what degree this remark of ,bentham's as to the wild nature of the sole variety of a yellow colour 7var4 ,molinerii1 ,seringe7 is confirmed in all the countries where the species grows4 ,it is the only one indicated by ,moris in ,sardinia1 and in ,dalmatia by ,viviani1#dhe in the localities which appear natural 7in pascuis collinis1 in montanis1 in herbidis74 ,the authors of the ,bon ,jardinier#dhf affirm with ,bentham that ,trifolium ,molinerii is wild in the north of ,france1 that with crimson flowers being introduced from the south2 and while they admit the absence of a good specific distinction1 they note that in cultivation the variety ,molinerii is of slower growth1 often biennial instead of annual4 ,alexandrine or ,egyptian ,clover--,trifolium ,alexandrinum1 ,linnus4 ,this species is extensively cultivated in ,egypt as fodder4 ,its ,arab name is bersym or berzun4#dhg ,there is nothing to show that it has been long in use2 the name does not occur in ,hebrew and ,armenian botanical works4 ,the species is not wild in ,egypt1 but it is certainly wild in ,syria and ,asia ,minor4#dhh ,ervilia--,ervum ,ervilia1 ,linnus2 ,vicia ,ervilia1 ,willdenow4 ,bertoloni#dhi gives no less than ten common ,italian names--ervo1 lero1 zirlo1 etc4 ,this is an indication of an ancient and general culture4 ,heldreich#dij says that the modern ,greeks cultivate the plant in abundance as fodder4 ,they call it robai1 from the ancient ,greek orobos1 as ervos comes from the ,latin ervum4 ,the cultivation of the species is mentioned by ancient ,greek and ,latin authors4#dia ,the ,greeks made use of the seed2 for some has been discovered in the excavations on the site of ,troy4#dib ,there are a number of common names in ,spain1 some of them ,arabic1#dic but the species has not been so widely cultivated there for several centuries4#did ,in ,france it is so little grown that many modern works on agriculture do not mention it4 ,it is unknown in ,british ,india4#die ,general botanical works indicate ,ervum ,ervilia as growing in ,southern ,europe1 but if we take severally the best floras1 it will be seen that it is in such localities as fields1 vineyards1 or cultivated ground4 ,it is the same in ,western ,asia1 where ,boissier#dif speaks of specimens from ,syria1 ,persia1 and ,afghanistan4 ,sometimes1 in abridged catalogues1#dig the locality is not given1 but nowhere do ,i find it asserted that the plant has been seen wild in places far from cultivation4 ,the specimens in my own herbarium furnish no further proof on this head4 ,in all likelihood the species was formerly wild in ,greece1 ,italy1 and perhaps ,spain and ,algeria1 but the frequency of its cultivation in the very regions where it existed prevent us from now finding the wild stocks4 ,tare1 or ,common ,vetch--,vicia sativa1 ,linnus4 ,vicia sativa is an annual leguminous plant wild throughout ,europe1 except in ,lapland4 ,it is also common in ,algeria1#dih and to the south of the ,caucasus as far as the province of ,talysch4#dii ,roxburgh pronounces it to be wild in the north-west provinces and in ,bengal1 but ,sir ,joseph ,hooker admits this only as far as the variety called angustifolia#ejj is concerned4 ,no ,sanskrit name is known1 and in the modern languages of ,india only ,hindu names4#eja ,targioni believes it to be the ketsach of the ,hebrews4#ejb ,i have received specimens from the ,cape and from ,california4 ,the species is certainly not indigenous in the two last-named regions1 but has escaped from cultivation4 ,the ,romans sowed this plant both for the sake of the seed and as fodder as early as the time of ,cato4#ejc ,i have discovered no proof of a more ancient cultivation4 ,the name vik1 whence vicia1 dates from a very remote epoch in ,europe1 for it exists in ,albanian1#ejd which is believed to be the language of the ,pelasgians1 and among the ,slav1 ,swedish1 and ,germanic nations1 with slight modifications4 ,this does not prove that the species was cultivated4 ,it is distinct enough and useful enough to herbivorous animals to have received common names from the earliest times4 ,flat-podded ,pea--,lathyrus ,cicera1 ,linnus4 ,an annual leguminous plant1 esteemed as fodder1 but whose seed1 if used as food in any quantity1 becomes dangerous4#eje ,it is grown in ,italy under the name of mochi4#ejf ,some authors suspect that it is the cicera of ,columella and the ervilia of ,varro1#ejg but the common ,italian name is very different to these4 ,the species is not cultivated in ,greece4#ejh ,it is more or less grown in ,france and ,spain1 without anything to show that its use dates from ancient times4 ,however1 ,wittmack#eji attributes to it1 but doubtfully1 some seeds brought by ,virchow from the ,trojan excavations4 ,according to the floras1 it is evidently wild in dry places1 beyond the limits of cultivation in ,spain and ,italy4#eaj ,it is also wild in ,lower ,egypt1 according to ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson2#eaa but there is no trace of ancient cultivation in this country or among the ,hebrews4 ,towards the ,east its wild character becomes less certain4 ,boissier indicates the plant 8in cultivated ground from ,turkey in ,europe1 and ,egypt as far as the south of the ,caucasus and ,babylon40#eab ,it is not mentioned in ,india either as wild or cultivated1 and has no ,sanskrit name4#eac ,the species is probably a native of the region comprised between ,spain and ,greece1 perhaps also of ,algeria1#ead and diffused by a cultivation1 not of very ancient date1 over ,western ,asia4 ,chickling ,vetch--,lathyrus sativus1 ,linnus4 ,an annual leguminous plant1 cultivated in the ,south of ,europe1 from a very early age1 as fodder1 and also for the seeds4 ,the ,greeks called it lathyros#eae and the ,latins cicercula4#eaf ,it is also cultivated in the temperate regions of ,western ,asia1 and even in the north of ,india2#eag but it has no ,hebrew#eah nor ,sanskrit name1#eai which argues a not very ancient cultivation in these regions4 ,nearly all the floras of the south of ,europe and of ,algeria give the plant as cultivated and half-wild1 rarely and only in a few localities as truly wild4 ,it is easy to understand the difficulty of recognizing the wild character of a species often mixed with cereals1 and which persists and spreads itself after cultivation4 ,heldreich does not allow that it is indigenous in ,greece4#ebj ,this is a strong presumption that in the rest of ,europe and in ,algeria the plant has escaped from cultivation4 ,it is probable that this was not the case in ,western ,asia2 for authors cite sufficiently wild localities1 where agriculture plays a less considerable part than in ,europe4 ,ledebour1#eba for instance1 mentions specimens gathered in the desert1 near the ,caspian ,sea1 and in the province of ,lenkoran4 ,meyer#ebb confirms the assertion with respect to ,lenkoran4 ,baker1 in his flora of ,british ,india1 after indicating the species as scattered here and there in the northern provinces1 adds1 8often cultivated10 whence it may be inferred that he considers it as indigenous1 at least in the north4 ,boissier asserts nothing with regard to the localities in ,persia which he mentions in his ,oriental flora4#ebc ,to sum up1 ,i think it probable that the species was indigenous before cultivation in the region extending from the south of the ,caucasus1 or of the ,caspian ,sea1 to the north of ,india1 and that it spread towards ,europe in the track of ancient cultivation1 mixed perhaps with cereals4 ,ochrus--,pisum ochrus1 ,linnus2 ,lathyrus ochrus1 de ,candolle4 ,cultivated as an annual fodder in ,catalonia1 under the name of tapisots1#ebd and in ,greece1 particularly in the island of ,crete1 under that of ochros1#ebe mentioned by ,theophrastus1#ebf but without a word of description4 ,latin authors do not speak of it1 which argues a rare and local cultivation in ancient times4 ,the species is certainly wild in ,tuscany4#ebg ,it appears to be wild also in ,greece and ,sardinia1 where it is found in hedges1#ebh and in ,spain1 where it grows in uncultivated ground2#ebi but as for the south of ,france1 ,algeria1 and ,sicily1 authors are either silent as to the locality1 or mention only fields and cultivated ground4 ,the plant is unknown further east than ,syria1#ecj where probably it is not wild4 ,the fine plate published by ,sibthorp1 ,flora ,grca1 #ehi1 suggests that the species is worthy of more general cultivation4 ,trigonel1 or ,fenugreek--,trigonella fnum-grcum1 ,linnus4 ,the cultivation of this annual leguminous plant was common in ancient ,greece and ,italy1#eca either for spring forage1 or for the medicinal properties of its seeds4 ,abandoned almost everywhere in ,europe1 and notably in ,greece1#ecb it is maintained in the ,east and in ,india1#ecc where it is probably of very ancient date1 and throughout the ,nile ,valley4#ecd ,the species is wild in the ,punjab and in ,kashmir1#ece in the deserts of ,mesopotamia and of ,persia1#ecf and in ,asia ,minor1#ecg where1 however1 the localities cited do not appear sufficiently distinct from the cultivated ground4 ,it is also indicated#ech in several places in ,southern ,europe1 such as ,mount ,hymettus and other localities in ,greece1 the hills above ,bologna and ,genoa1 and a few waste places in ,spain2 but the further west we go the more we find mentioned such localities as fields1 cultivated ground1 etc42 and careful authors do not fail to note that the species has probably escaped from cultivation4#eci ,i do not hesitate to say that if a plant of this nature were indigenous in ,southern ,europe1 it would be far more common1 and would not be wanting to the insular floras1 such as those of ,sicily1 ,ischia1 and the ,balearic ,isles4#edj ,the antiquity of the species and of its use in ,india is confirmed by the existence of several different names in different dialects1 and above all of a ,sanskrit and modern ,hindu name1 methi4#eda ,there is a ,persian name1 schemlit1 and an ,arab name1 helbeh2#edb but none is known in ,hebrew4#edc ,one of the names of the plant in ancient ,greek1 tailis 1 may1 perhaps1 be considered by philologists as akin to the ,sanskrit name1#edd but of this ,i am no judge4 ,the species may have been introduced by the ,aryans1 and the primitive name have left no trace in northern languages1 since it can only live in the south of ,europe4 ,bird's ,foot--,ornithopus sativus1 ,brotero2 ,o4 isthmocarpus1 ,cosson4 ,the true bird's foot1 wild and cultivated in ,portugal1 was described for the first time in #ahjd by ,brotero1#ede and ,cosson has distinguished it more clearly from allied species4#edf ,some authors had confounded it with ,ornithopus roseus of ,dufour1 and agriculturists have sometimes given it the name of a very different species1 ,o4 perpusillus1 which by reason of its small size is unsuited for cultivation4 ,it is only necessary to see the pod of ,ornithopus sativus to make certain of the species1 for it is when ripe contracted at intervals and considerably bent4 ,if there are in the fields plants of a similar appearance1 but whose pods are straight and not contracted1 they are the result of a cross with ,o4 roseus1 or1 if the pod is curved but not contracted1 with ,o4 compressus4 ,from the appearance of these plants1 it seems that they might be grown in the same manner1 and would present1 ,i suppose1 the same advantages4 ,the bird's foot is only suited to a dry and sandy soil4 ,it is an annual which furnishes in ,portugal a very early spring fodder4 ,its cultivation has been successfully introduced into ,campine4#edg ,o4 sativus appears to be wild in several districts of ,portugal and the south of ,spain4 ,i have a specimen from ,tangier2 and ,cosson found it in ,algeria4 ,it is often found in abandoned fields1 and even elsewhere4 ,it is difficult to say whether the specimens are not from plants escaped from cultivation1 but localities are cited where this seems improbable2 for instance1 a pine wood near ,chiclana1 in the south of ,spain 7,willkomm74 ,spergula1 or ,corn ,spurry--,spergula arvensis1 ,linnus4 ,this annual1 belonging to the family of the ,caryophylace1 grows in sandy fields and similar places in ,europe1 in ,north ,africa and ,abyssinia1#edh in ,western ,asia as far as ,hindustan1#edi and even in ,java4#eej ,it is difficult to know over what extent of the old world it was originally indigenous4 ,in many localities we do not know if it is really wild or naturalized from cultivation4 ,sometimes a recent introduction may be suspected4 ,in ,india1 for instance1 numerous specimens have been gathered in the last few years2 but ,roxburgh1 who was so diligent a collector at the end of the last and the beginning of the present century1 does not mention the species4 ,no ,sanskrit or modern ,hindu name is known1#eea and it has not been found in the countries between ,india and ,turkey4 ,the common names may tell us something with regard to the origin of the species and to its cultivation4 ,no ,greek or ,latin name is known4 ,spergula1 in ,italian spergola1 seems to be a common name long in use in ,italy4 ,another ,italian name1 erba renaiola1 indicates only its growth in the sand 7rena74 ,the ,french 7spargoule71 ,spanish 7esparcillas71 ,portuguese 7espargata71 and ,german 7,spark71 have all the same root4 ,it seems that throughout the south of ,europe the species was taken from country to country by the ,romans1 before the division of the ,latin languages4 ,in the north the case is very different4 ,there is a ,russian name1 toritsa2#eeb several ,danish names1 humb or hum1 girr or kirr2#eec and ,swedish1 knutt1 fryle1 ngde1 skorff4#eed ,this great diversity shows that attention had long been drawn to this plant in this part of ,europe1 and argues an ancient cultivation4 ,it was cultivated in the neighbourhood of ,montbelliard in the sixteenth century1#eee and it is not stated that it was then of recent introduction4 ,probably it arose in the south of ,europe during the ,roman occupation1 and perhaps earlier in the north4 ,in any case1 its original home must have been ,europe4 ,agriculturists distinguish a taller variety of spergula1#eef but botanists are not agreed with them in finding in it sufficient characteristics of a distinct species1 and some do not even make it a variety4 ,guinea ,grass--,panicum maximum1 ,jacquin4#eeg ,this perennial grass has a great reputation in countries lying between the tropics as a nutritious fodder1 easy of cultivation4 ,with a little care a meadow of guinea grass will last for twenty years4#eeh ,its cultivation appears to have begun in the ,west ,indies4 ,p4 ,browne speaks of it in his work on ,jamaica1 published in the middle of the last century1 and it is subsequently mentioned by ,swartz4 ,the former mentions the name guinea grass1 without any remarks on the original home of the species4 ,the latter says1 8formerly brought from the coast of ,africa to the ,antilles40 ,he probably trusted to the indication given by the common name2 but we know how fallacious such indications of origin sometimes are4 ,witness the so-called ,turkey wheat1 which comes from ,america4 ,swartz1 who is an excellent botanist1 says that the plant grows in the dry cultivated pastures of the ,west ,indies1 where it is also wild1 which may imply that it has become naturalized in places where it was formerly cultivated4 ,i cannot find it anywhere asserted that it is really wild in the ,west ,indies4 ,it is otherwise in ,brazil4 ,from data collected by de ,martius and studied by ,nees1#eei data afterwards increased and more carefully studied by ,dll1#efj ,panicum maximum grows in the clearings of the forests of the ,amazon valley1 near ,santarem1 in the provinces of ,balria1 ,ceara1 ,rio de ,janeiro1 and ,saint ,paul4 ,although the plant is often cultivated in these countries1 the localities given1 by their number and nature1 prove that it is indigenous4 ,dll has also seen specimens from ,french ,guiana and ,new ,granada4 ,with respect to ,africa1 ,sir ,william ,hooker#efa mentioned specimens brought from ,sierra ,leone1 from ,aguapim1 from the banks of the ,quorra1 and from the ,island of ,st4 ,thomas1 in ,western ,africa4 ,nees#efb indicates the species in several districts of ,cape ,colony1 even in the bush and in mountainous country4 ,richard#efc mentions places in ,abyssinia1 which also seem to be beyond the limits of cultivation1 but he owns to being not very sure of the species4 ,anderson1 on the contrary1 positively asserts that ,panicum maximum was brought from the banks of the ,mozambique and of the ,zambesi rivers by the traveller ,peters4#efd ,the species is known to have been introduced into ,mauritius by the ,governour ,labourdonnais1#efe and to have become naturalized from cultivation as in ,rodriguez and the ,seychelles ,isles4 ,its introduction into ,asia must be recent1 for ,roxburgh and ,miquel do not mention the species4 ,in ,ceylon it is only cultivated4#eff ,on the whole1 it seems to me that the probabilities are in favour of an ,african origin1 as its name indicates1 and this is confirmed by the general1 but insufficiently grounded opinion of authors4#efg ,however1 as the plant spreads so rapidly1 it is strange that it has not reached ,egypt from the ,mozambique or ,abyssinia1 and that it was introduced so late into the islands to the east of ,africa4 ,if the co-existence of phanerogamous species in ,africa and ,america previous to cultivation were not extremely rare1 it might be inferred in this case2 but this is unlikely in the case of a cultivated plant of which the diffusion is evidently very easy4 ,article ,,iii4--,various ,uses of the ,stem and ,leaves4 ,tea--,thea sinensis1 ,linnus4 ,in the middle of the eighteenth century1 when the shrub which produces tea was still very little known1 ,linnus gave it the name of ,thea sinensis4 ,soon afterwards1 in the second edition of the ,species ,plantarum1 he judged it better to distinguish two species1 ,thea bohea and ,thea viridis1 which he believed to correspond to the commercial distinction between black and green teas4 ,it has since been proved that there is but one species1 comprehending several varieties1 from all of which either black or green tea may be obtained according to the process of manufacture4 ,this question was settled1 when another was raised1 as to whether ,thea really forms a genus by itself distinct from the genus ,camellia4 ,some authors make ,thea a section of the old genus ,camellia2 but from the characters indicated with great precision by ,seemann1#efh it seems to me that we are justified in retaining the genus ,thea1 together with the old nomenclature of the principal species4 ,a ,japanese legend1 related by ,kmpfer1#efi is often quoted4 ,a priest who came from ,india into ,china in ,a4,d4 #eai1 having succumbed to sleep when he had wished to watch and pray1 in a movement of anger cut off his two eyelids1 which were changed into a shrub1 the tea tree1 whose leaves are eminently calculated to prevent sleep4 ,unfortunately for those people who readily admit legends in whole or in part1 the ,chinese have never heard of this story1 although the event is said to have taken place in their country4 ,tea was known to them long before #eai1 and probably it was not brought from ,india4 ,this is what ,bretschneider tells us in his little work1 rich in botanical and philological facts4#egj ,the ,pent-sao1 he says1 mentions tea #bgjj ,b4,c41 the ,rye #cjj or #fjj ,b4,c42 and the commentator of the latter work1 in the fourth century of our era1 gave details about the plant and about the infusion of the leaves4 ,its use is1 therefore1 of very ancient date in ,china4 ,it is perhaps more recent in ,japan1 and if it has been long known in ,cochin-,china1 it is possible1 but not proved1 that it formerly spread thither from ,india2 authors cite no ,sanskrit name1 nor even any name in modern ,indian languages4 ,this fact will appear strange when contrasted with what we have to say on the natural habitat of the species4 ,the seeds of the tea-plant often sow themselves beyond the limits of cultivation1 thereby inspiring doubt among botanists as to the wild nature of plants encountered here and there4 ,thunberg believed the species to be wild in ,japan1 but ,franchet and ,savatier#ega absolutely deny this4 ,fortune1#egb who has so carefully examined the cultivation of tea in ,china1 does not speak of the wild plant4 ,fontanier#egc says that the tea-plant grows wild abundantly in ,mantschuria4 ,it is probable that it exists in the mountainous districts of ,south-eastern ,china1 where naturalists have not yet penetrated4 ,loureiro says that it is found both 8cultivated and uncultivated0 in ,cochin-,china4#egd ,what is more certain is1 that ,english travellers gathered specimens in ,upper ,assam#ege and in the province of ,cachar4#egf ,so that the tea-plant must be wild in the mountainous region which separates the plains of ,india from those of ,china1 but the use of the leaves was not formerly known in ,india4 ,the cultivation of tea1 now introduced into several colonies1 has produced admirable results in ,assam4 ,not only is the product of a superior quality to that of average ,chinese teas1 but the quantity obtained increases rapidly4 ,in #ahgj1 three million pounds of tea were produced in ,british ,india2 in #ahgh1 thirty-seven million pounds2 and in #ahhj1 a harvest of seventy million pounds was looked for4#egg ,tea will not bear frost1 and suffers from drought4 ,as ,i have elsewhere stated1#egh the conditions which favour it are the opposite to those which suit the vine4 ,on the other hand1 it has been observed that tea flourishes in ,azores1 where good wine is made2#egi but it is possible to cultivate in gardens1 or on a small scale1 many plants which will not be profitable on a large scale4 ,the vine grows in ,china1 yet the manufacture of wine is unimportant4 ,conversely1 no wine-growing country grows tea for exportation4 ,after ,china1 ,japan1 and ,assam1 it is in ,java1 ,ceylon1 and ,brazil that tea is most largely grown1 where1 certainly1 the vine is little cultivated1 or not at all2 while the wines of dry regions1 such as ,australia and the ,cape1 are already known in the market4 ,flax--,linum usitatissimum1 ,linnus4 ,the question as to the origin of flax1 or rather of the cultivated flax1 is one of those which give rise to most interesting researches4 ,in order to understand the difficulties which it presents1 we must first ascertain what nearly allied forms authors designate--sometimes as distinct species of the genus ,linum1 and sometimes as varieties of a single species4 ,the first important work on this subject was by ,planchon1 in #ahdh4ehj ,he clearly showed the differences between ,linum usitatissimum1 ,l4 humile1 and ,l4 angustifolium1 which were little known4 ,afterwards ,heer1#eha when making profound researches into ancient cultivation1 went again into the characters indicated1 and by adding the study of two intermediate forms1 as well as the comparison of a great number of specimens1 he arrived at the conclusion that there was a single species1 composed of several slightly different forms4 ,i give a translation of his ,latin summary of the characters1 only adding a name for each distinct form1 in accordance with the custom of botanical works4 ,linum usitatissimum4 #a4 ,annuum 7annual74 ,root annual2 stem single1 upright2 capsules #g to #h mm4 long2 seeds #d to #f mm41 terminating in a point4 ,vulgare 7common74 ,capsules #g mm41 not opening when ripe1 and displaying glabrous partitions4 ,german names1 ,schliesslein1 ,dreschlein4 4 ,humile 7low74 ,capsules #h mm41 opening suddenly when ripe2 the partitions hairy4 ,linum humile1 ,miller2 ,l4 crepitans1 ,bninghausen4 ,german names1 ,klanglein1 ,springlein4 #b4 ,hyemale 7winter74 ,root annual or biennial2 stems numerous1 spreading at the base1 and bent2 capsules #g mm41 terminating in a point4 ,linum hyemale romanum4 ,in ,german1 ,winterlein4 #c4 ,ambiguum 7doubtful74 ,root annual or perennial2 stems numerous1 leaves acuminate2 capsules #g mm41 with partitions nearly free from hairs2 seeds #d mm41 ending in a short point4 ,linum ambiguum1 ,jordan4 #d4 ,angustifolium 7narrow-leaved74 ,root annual or perennial2 stems numerous1 spreading at the base1 and bent2 capsules #f mm41 with hairy partitions2 seeds #c mm41 slightly hooked at the top4 ,linum angustifolium4 ,it may be seen how easily one form passes into another4 ,the quality of annual1 biennial1 or perennial1 which ,heer suspected to be uncertain1 is vague1 especially for the angustifolium2 for ,loret1 who has observed this flax in the neighbourhood of ,montpellier1 says1#ehb 8,in very hot countries it is nearly always an annual1 and this is the case in ,sicily according to ,gussone2 with us it is annual1 biennial1 or perennial1 according to the nature of the soil in which it grows2 and this may be ascertained by observing it on the shore1 notably at ,maguelone4 ,there it may be seen that along the borders of trodden paths it lasts longer than on the sand1 where the sun soon dries up the roots and the acidity of the soil prevents the plant from enduring more than a year40 ,when forms and physiological conditions pass from one into another1 and are distinguished by characters which vary according to circumstances1 we are led to consider the individuals as constituting a single species1 although these forms and conditions possess a certain degree of heredity1 and date perhaps from very early times4 ,we are1 however1 forced to consider them separately in our researches into their origin4 ,i shall first indicate in what country each variety has been discovered in a wild or half-wild state4 ,i shall then speak of cultivation1 and we shall see how far geographical and historical facts confirm the opinion of the unity of species4 ,the common annual flax has not yet been discovered1 with absolute certainty1 in a wild state4 ,i possess several specimens of it from ,india1 and ,planchon saw others in the herbarium at ,kew2 but ,anglo-,indian botanists do not admit that the plant is indigenous in ,british ,india4 ,the recent flora of ,sir ,joseph ,hooker speaks of it as a species cultivated principally for the oil extracted from the seeds2 and ,mr4 ,c4 ,b4 ,clarke1 formerly director of the botanical gardens in ,calcutta1 writes to me that the specimens must have been cultivated1 its cultivation being very common in winter in the north of ,india4 ,boissier#ehc mentions ,l4 humile1 with narrow leaves1 which ,kotschy gathered 8near ,schiraz in ,persia1 at the foot of the mountain called ,sabst ,buchom40 ,this is1 perhaps1 a spot far removed from cultivation2 but ,i cannot give satisfactory information on this head4 ,hohenacker found ,l4 usitatissimum 8half wild0 in the province of ,talysch1 to the south of the ,caucasus1 towards the ,caspian ,sea4#ehd ,steven is more positive with regard to ,southern ,russia4#ehe ,according to him1 it 8is found pretty often on the barren hills to the south of the ,crimea1 between ,jalta and ,nikita2 and ,nordmann found it on the eastern coast of the ,black ,sea40 ,advancing westward in ,southern ,russia1 or in the region of the ,mediterranean1 the species is but rarely mentioned1 and only as escaped from cultivation1 or half wild4 ,in spite of doubts and of the scanty data which we possess1 ,i think it very possible that the annual flax1 in one or other of these two forms1 may be wild in the district between the south of ,persia and the ,crimea1 at least in a few localities4 ,the winter flax is only known under cultivation in a few provinces of ,italy4#ehf ,the ,linum ambiguum of ,jordan grows on the coast of ,provence and of ,languedoc in dry places4#ehg ,lastly1 ,linum angustifolium1 which hardly differs from the preceding1 has a well-defined and rather large area4 ,it grows wild1 especially on hills throughout the region of which the ,mediterranean forms the centre2 that is1 in the ,canaries and ,madeira1 in ,marocco1#ehh ,algeria1#ehi and as far as the ,cyrenaic2#eij from the south of ,europe1 as far as ,england1#eia the ,alps1 and the ,balkan ,mountains2 and lastly1 in ,asia from the south of the ,caucasus#eib to ,lebanon and ,palestine4#eic ,i do not find it mentioned in the ,crimea1 nor beyond the ,caspian ,sea4 ,let us now turn to the cultivation of flax1 destined in most instances to furnish a textile substance1 often also to yield oil1 and cultivated among certain peoples for the nutritious properties of the seed4 ,i first studied the question of its origin in #ahee1eid and with the following result3-- ,it was abundantly shown that the ancient ,egyptians and the ,hebrews made use of linen stuffs4 ,herodotus affirms this4 ,moreover1 the plant may be seen figured in the ancient ,egyptian drawings1 and the microscope indubitably shows that the bandages which bind the mummies are of linen4#eie ,the culture of flax is of ancient date in ,europe2 it was known to the ,kelts1 and in ,india according to history4 ,lastly1 the widely different common names indicate likewise an ancient cultivation or long use in different countries4 ,the ,keltic name lin1 and ,greco-,latin linon or linum1 has no analogy with the ,hebrew pischta1#eif nor with the ,sanskrit names ooma1 atasi1 utasi4#eig ,a few botanists mention the flax as 8nearly wild0 in the south-east of ,russia1 to the south of the ,caucasus and to the east of ,siberia1 but it was not known to be truly wild4 ,i then summed up the probabilities1 saying1 8,the varying etymology of the names1 the antiquity of cultivation in ,egypt1 in ,europe1 and in the north of ,india1 the circumstance that in the latter district flax is cultivated for the yield of oil alone1 lead me to believe that two or three species of different origin1 confounded by most authors under the name of ,linum usitatissimum1 were formerly cultivated in different countries1 without imitation or communication the one with the other4444 ,i am very doubtful whether the species cultivated by the ancient ,egyptians was the species indigenous in ,russia and in ,siberia40 ,my conjectures were confirmed ten years later by a very curious discovery made by ,oswald ,heer4 ,the lake-dwellers of ,eastern ,switzerland1 at a time when they only used stone implements1 and did not know the use of hemp1 cultivated and wove a flax which is not our common annual flax1 but the perennial flax called ,linum angustifolium1 which is wild south of the ,alps4 ,this is shown by the examination of the capsules1 seeds1 and especially of the lower part of a plant carefully extracted from the sediment at ,robenhausen4#eih ,the illustration published by ,heer shows distinctly a root surmounted by from two to four stems after the manner of perennial plants4 ,the stems had been cut1 whereas our common flax is plucked up by the roots1 another proof of the persistent nature of the plant4 ,with the remains of the ,robenhausen flax some grains of ,silene cretica were found1 a species which is also foreign to ,switzerland1 and abundant in ,italy in the fields of flax4#eii ,hence ,heer concluded that the ,swiss lake-dwellers imported the seeds of the ,italian flax4 ,this was apparently the case1 unless we suppose that the climate of ,switzerland at that time differed from that of our own epoch1 for the perennial flax would not at the present day survive the winters of ,eastern ,switzerland4#fjj ,heer's opinion is supported by the surprising fact that flax has not been found among the remains of the lake-dwellings of ,laybach and ,mondsee of the ,austrian ,states1 where bronze has been discovered4#fja ,the late epoch of the introduction of flax into this region excludes the hypothesis that the inhabitants of ,switzerland received it from ,eastern ,europe1 from which1 moreover1 they were separated by immense forests4 ,since the ingenious observations of the ,zrich savant1 a flax has been discovered which was employed by the prehistoric inhabitants of the peat-mosses of ,lagozza1 in ,lombardy2 and ,sordelli has shown that it was the same as that of ,robenhausen1 ,l4 angustifolium4#fjb ,this ancient people was ignorant of the use of hemp and of metals1 but they possessed the same cereals as the ,swiss lake-dwellers of the stone age1 and ate like them the acorns of ,quercus robur1 var4 sessiliflora4 ,there was1 therefore1 a civilization which had reached a certain development on both sides of the ,alps1 before metals1 even bronze1 were in common use1 and before hemp and the domestic fowl were known4#fjc ,it was probably before the arrival of the ,aryans in ,europe1 or soon after that event4#fjd ,the common names of the flax in ancient ,european languages may throw some light on this question4 ,the name lin1 llin1 linu1 linon1 linum1 lein1 lan1 exists in all the ,european languages of ,aryan origin of the centre and south of ,europe1 ,keltic1 ,slavonic1 ,greek1 or ,latin4 ,this name is1 however1 not common to the ,aryan languages of ,india2 consequently1 as ,pictet#fje justly says1 the cultivation must have been begun by the western ,aryans1 and before their arrival in ,europe4 ,another idea occurred to me which led me into further researches1 but they were unproductive4 ,i thought that1 since this flax was cultivated by the lake-dwellers of ,switzerland and ,italy before the arrival of the ,aryan peoples1 it was probably also grown by the ,iberians1 who then occupied ,spain and ,gaul2 and perhaps some special name for it has remained among the ,basques1 the supposed descendants of the ,iberians4 ,now1 according to several dictionaries of their language1#fjf liho1 lino1 or li1 according to the dialects1 signifies flax1 which agrees with the name diffused throughout ,southern ,europe4 ,the ,basques seem1 therefore1 to have received flax from peoples of ,aryan origin1 or perhaps they have lost the ancient name and substituted that of the ,kelts and ,romans4 ,the name flachs or flax of the ,teutonic languages comes from the ,old ,german flahs4 ,there are also special names in the north-west of ,europe--pellawa1 aiwina1 in ,finnish2#fjg hor1 hrr1 hor1 in ,danish2#fjh hor and tone in ancient ,gothic4#fji ,haar exists in the ,german of ,salzburg4#faj ,this word may be in the ordinary sense of the ,german for thread or hair1 as the name li may be connected with the same root as ligare1 to bind1 and as hr1 in the plural hrvar1 is connected by philologists#faa with harva1 the ,german root for ,flachs2 but it is1 nevertheless1 a fact that in ,scandinavian countries and in ,finland terms have been used which differ from those employed throughout the south of ,europe4 ,this variety shows the antiquity of the cultivation1 and agrees with the fact that the lake-dwellers of ,switzerland and ,italy cultivated a species of flax before the first invasion of the ,aryans4 ,it is possible1 ,i might even say probable1 that the latter imported the name li rather than the plant or its cultivation2 but as there is no wild flax in the north of ,europe1 an ancient people1 the ,finns1 of ,turanian origin1 introduced the flax into the north before the ,aryans4 ,in this case they must have cultivated the annual flax1 for the perennial variety will not bear the severity of the northern winters2 while we know how favourable the climate of ,riga is in summer to the cultivation of the annual flax4 ,its first introduction into ,gaul1 ,switzerland1 and ,italy may have been from the south1 by the ,iberians1 and in ,finland by the ,finns2 and the ,aryans may have afterwards diffused those names which were commonest among themselves--that of linum in the south1 and of flahs in the north4 ,perhaps the ,aryans and ,finns had brought the annual flax from ,asia1 which would soon have been substituted for the perennial variety1 which is less productive and less adapted to cold countries4 ,it is not known precisely at what epoch the cultivation of the annual flax in ,italy took the place of that of the perennial linum angustifolium1 but it must have been before the ,christian era2 for ,latin authors speak of a well-established cultivation1 and ,pliny says that the flax was sown in spring and rooted up in the summer4#fab ,metal implements were not then wanting1 and therefore the flax would have been cut if it had been perennial4 ,moreover1 the latter1 if sown in spring1 would not have ripened till autumn4 ,for the same reasons the flax cultivated by the ancient ,egyptians must have been an annual4 ,hitherto neither entire plants nor a great number of capsules have been found in the catacombs of a nature to furnish direct and incontestable proof4 ,unger#fac alone was able to examine a capsule taken from the bricks of a monument1 which ,leipsius attributes to the thirteenth or fourteenth century before ,christ1 and he found it more like those of ,l4 usitatissimum than of ,l4 angustifolium4 ,out of three seeds which ,braun#fad saw in the ,berlin ,museum1 mixed with those of other cultivated plants1 one appeared to him to belong to ,l4 angustifolium1 and the other to ,l4 humile2 but it must be owned that a single seed without plant or capsule is not sufficient proof4 ,ancient ,egyptian paintings show that flax was not reaped with a sickle like cereals1 but uprooted4#fae ,in ,egypt flax is cultivated in the winter1 for the summer drought would no more allow of a perennial variety1 than the cold of northern countries1 where it is sown in spring1 to be gathered in summer4 ,it may be added that the annual flax of the variety called humile is the only one now grown in ,abyssinia1 and also the only one that modern collectors have seen in ,egypt4#faf ,heer suggests that the ancient ,egyptians may have cultivated ,l4 angustifolium of the ,mediterranean region1 sowing it as an annual plant4#fag ,i am more inclined to believe that they had previously imported or received their flax from ,egypt1 already in the form of the species ,l4 humile4 ,their modes of cultivation1 and the figures on the monuments1 show that their knowledge of the plant dated from a remote antiquity4 ,now it is known that the ,egyptians of the first dynasties before ,cheops belonged to a proto-semitic race1 which came into ,egypt by the isthmus of ,suez4#fah ,flax has been found in a tomb of ancient ,chaldea prior to the existence of ,babylon1#fai and its use in this region is lost in the remotest antiquity4 ,thus the first ,egyptians of white race may have imported the cultivated flax1 or their immediate successors may have received it from ,asia before the epoch of the ,phnician colonies in ,greece1 and before direct communication was established between ,greece and ,egypt under the fourteenth dynasty4#fbj ,a very early introduction of the plant into ,egypt from ,asia does not prevent us from admitting that it was at different times taken from the ,east to the ,west at a later epoch than that of the first ,egyptian dynasties4 ,thus the western ,aryans and the ,phnicians may have introduced into ,europe a flax more advantageous than ,l4 angustifolium during the period from #bejj to #abjj years before our era4 ,the cultivation of the plant by the ,aryans must have extended further north than that by the ,phnicians4 ,in ,greece1 at the time of the ,trojan war1 fine linen stuffs were still imported from ,colchis2 that is to say1 from that region at the foot of the ,caucasus where the common annual flax has been found wild in modern times4 ,it does not appear that the ,greeks cultivated the plant at that epoch4#fba ,the ,aryans had perhaps already introduced its cultivation into the valley of the ,danube4 ,however1 ,i noticed just now that the lacustrine remains of ,mondsee and ,laybach show no trace of any flax4 ,in the last centuries before the ,christian era the ,romans procured very fine linen from ,spain1 although the names of the plant in that country do not tend to show that the ,phnicians introduced it4 ,there is not any ,oriental name existing in ,europe belonging either to antiquity or to the ,middle ,ages4 ,the ,arabic name kattan1 kettane1 or kittane1 of ,persian origin1#fbb has spread westward only among the ,kabyles of ,algeria4#fbc ,the sum of facts and probabilities appear to me to lead to the following statements1 which may be accepted until they are modified by further discoveries4 #a4 ,linum angustifolium1 usually perennial1 rarely biennial or annual1 which is found wild from the ,canary ,isles to ,palestine and the ,caucasus1 was cultivated in ,switzerland and the north of ,italy by peoples more ancient than the conquerors of ,aryan race4 ,its cultivation was replaced by that of the annual flax4 #b4 ,the annual flax 7,l4 usitatissimum71 cultivated for at least four thousand or five thousand years in ,mesopotamia1 ,assyria1 and ,egypt1 was and still is wild in the districts included between the ,persian ,gulf1 the ,caspian ,sea1 and the ,black ,sea4 #c4 ,this annual flax appears to have been introduced into the north of ,europe by the ,finns 7of ,turanian race71 afterwards into the rest of ,europe by the western ,aryans1 and perhaps here and there by the ,phnicians2 lastly into ,hindustan by the eastern ,aryans1 after their separation from the ,european ,aryans4 #d4 ,these two principal forms or conditions of flax exist in cultivation1 and have probably been wild in their modern areas for the last five thousand years at least4 ,it is not possible to guess at their previous condition4 ,their transitions and varieties are so numerous that they may be considered as one species comprising two or three hereditary varieties1 which are each again divided into sub-varieties4 ,jute--,corchorus capsularis and ,corchorus olitorius1 ,linnus4 ,the fibres of the jute1 imported in great quantities in the last few years1 especially into ,england1 are taken from the stem of these two species of ,corchorus1 annuals of the family of the ,tiliace4 ,the leaves are also used as a vegetable4 ,c4 capsularis has a nearly spherical fruit1 flattened at the top1 and surrounded by longitudinal ridges4 ,there is a good coloured illustration of it in the work of the younger ,jacquin1 ,eclog1 pl4 #aai4 ,c4 olitorius1 on the contrary1 has a long fruit1 like the pod of a ,crucifer4 ,it is figured in the ,botanical ,magazine1 fig4 #bhaj1 and in ,lamarck1 fig4 #dgh4 ,the species of the genus are distributed nearly equally in the warm regions of ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america2 consequently the origin of each cannot be guessed4 ,it must be sought in floras and herbaria1 with the help of historical and other data4 ,corchorus capsularis is commonly cultivated in the ,sunda ,islands1 in ,ceylon1 in the peninsula of ,hindustan1 in ,bengal1 in ,southern ,china1 in the ,philippine ,islands1#fbd generally in ,southern ,asia4 ,forster does not mention it in his work on the plants in use among the inhabitants of the ,pacific1 whence it may be inferred that at the time of ,cook's voyages1 a century ago1 its cultivation had not spread in that direction4 ,it may even be suspected from this fact that it does not date from a very remote epoch in the isles of the ,indian ,archipelago4 ,blume says that ,corchorus capsularis grows in the marshes of ,java near ,parang1#fbe and ,i have two specimens from ,java which are not given as cultivated4#fbf ,thwaites mentions it as 8very common0 in ,ceylon4#fbg ,on the continent of ,asia1 authors speak more of it as a plant cultivated in ,bengal and ,china4 ,wight1 who gives a good illustration of the plant1 does not mention its native place4 ,edgeworth1#fbh who has studied on the spot the flora of the district of ,banda1 says that it is found in 8the fields40 ,in the ,flora of ,british ,india1 ,masters1 who drew up the article on the ,tiliace from the herbarium at ,kew1 says 8in the hottest regions of ,india1 cultivated in most tropical countries40#fbi ,i have a specimen from ,bengal which is not given as cultivated4 ,loureiro says 8wild1 and cultivated in the province of ,canton in ,china10#fcj which probably means wild in ,cochin-,china1 and cultivated in ,canton4 ,in ,japan the plant grows in cultivated soil4#fca ,in conclusion1 ,i am not convinced that the species exists in a truly wild state north of ,calcutta1 although it may perhaps have spread from cultivation and have sown itself here and there4 ,c4 capsularis has been introduced into various parts of tropical ,africa and even of ,america1 but it is only cultivated on a large scale for the production of jute thread in ,southern ,asia1 and especially in ,bengal4 ,c4 olitorius is more used as a vegetable than for its fibres4 ,out of ,asia it is employed exclusively for the leaves4 ,it is one of the commonest of culinary plants among the modern ,egyptians and ,syrians1 who call it in ,arabic melokych1 but it is not likely that they had any knowledge of it in ancient times1 as we know of no ,hebrew name4#fcb ,the present inhabitants of ,crete cultivate it under the name of mouchlia1#fcc evidently derived from the ,arabic1 and the ancient ,greeks were not acquainted with it4 ,according to several authors#fcd this species of ,corchorus is wild in several provinces of ,british ,india4 ,thwaites says it is common in the hot districts of ,ceylon2 but in ,java1 ,blume only mentions it as growing among rubbish 7in ruderatis74 ,i cannot find it mentioned in ,cochin-,china or ,japan4 ,boissier saw specimens from ,mesopotamia1 ,afghanistan1 ,syria1 and ,anatolia1 but gives as a general indication1 8culta1 et in ruderatis subspontanea40 ,no ,sanskrit name for the two cultivated species of ,corchorus is known4#fce ,touching the indigenous character of the plant in ,africa1 ,masters1 in ,oliver's ,flora of ,tropical ,africa 7i4 p4 #bfb71 says1 8wild1 or cultivated as a vegetable throughout tropical ,africa40 ,he attributes to the same species two plants from ,guinea which ,g4 ,don had described as different1 and as to whose wild nature he probably knew nothing4 ,i have a specimen from ,kordofan gathered by ,kotschy1 ,no4 #de1 8on the borders of the fields of sorghum40 ,peters1 as far as ,i know1 is the only author who asserts that the plant is wild4 ,he found ,c4 olitorius 8in dry places1 and also in the meadows in the neighbourhood of ,sena and ,tette40 ,schweinfurth only gives it as a cultivated plant in the whole ,nile ,valley4#fcf ,this is also the case in the flora of ,senegambia by ,guillemin1 ,perrottet1 and ,richard4 ,to sum up1 ,c4 olitorius seems to be wild in the moderately warm regions of ,western ,india1 of ,kordofan1 and probably of some intermediate countries4 ,it must have spread from the coast of ,timor1 and as far as ,northern ,australia1 into ,africa and towards ,anatolia1 in the wake of a cultivation not perhaps of earlier date than the ,christian era1 even at its origin4 ,in spite of the assertions made in various works1 the cultivation of this plant is rarely indicated in ,america4 ,i note1 however1 on ,grisebach's authority1#fcg that it has become naturalized in ,jamaica from gardens1 as often happens in the case of cultivated annuals4 ,sumach4--,rhus coriaria4 ,this tree is cultivated in ,spain and ,italy#fch for the young shoots and leaves1 which are dried and made into a powder for tanning4 ,i recently saw a plantation in ,sicily1 of which the product was exported to ,america4 ,as oak-bark becomes more rare and substances for tanning are more in demand1 it is probable that this cultivation will spread2 all the more that it is suitable to sandy1 sterile regions4 ,in ,algeria1 ,australia1 at the ,cape1 and in the ,argentine ,republic1 it might be introduced with advantage4#fci ,ancient peoples used the slightly acid fruits as a seasoning1 and the custom has lingered here and there2 but ,i find no proof that they cultivated the species4 ,it grows wild in the ,canaries and in ,madeira1 in the ,mediterranean region and in the neighbourhood of the ,black ,sea1 preferring dry and stony ground4 ,in ,asia its area extends as far as the south of the ,caucasus1 the ,caspian ,sea1 and ,persia4#fdj ,the species is so common that it may have been in use before it was cultivated4 ,sumach is the ,persian and ,tartar name2#fda rous1 rhus1 the ancient name among the ,greeks and ,romans4#fdb ,a proof of the persistence of certain common names is found in the ,french 8,currier's roux or roure40 ,kht1 or ,arab ,tea--,catha edulis1 ,forskal2 ,celastrus edulis1 ,vahl4 ,this shrub1 belonging to the family of the ,celastrace1 is largely cultivated in ,abyssinia1 under the name of tchut or tchat1 and in ,arabia under that of cat or gat4 ,its leaves are chewed1 when green1 like those of the coca in ,america1 and they have the same exciting and strengthening properties4 ,those of uncultivated plants have a stronger taste1 and are even intoxicating4 ,botta saw that in ,yemen as much importance is attributed to the cultivation of the ,catha as to that of coffee1 and he mentions that a sheik1 who is obliged to receive many visits of ceremony1 bought as much as a hundred francs' worth of leaves a day4#fdc ,in ,abyssinia an infusion is also made from the leaves4#fdd ,in spite of the eagerness with which stimulants are sought1 this species has not spread into the adjoining countries1 such as ,beluchistan1 ,southern ,india1 etc41 where it might succeed4 ,the ,catha is wild in ,abyssinia1#fde but has not yet been found wild in ,arabia4 ,it is true that the interior of the country is nearly unknown to botanists4 ,it cannot be ascertained from ,botta's account whether the wild plants he mentions are wild and indigenous1 or escaped from cultivation and more or less naturalized4 ,perhaps the ,catha was introduced from ,abyssinia with the coffee plant1 which likewise has not been discovered wild in ,arabia4 ,mat--,ilex paraguariensis1 ,saint-,hilaire4 ,the inhabitants of ,brazil and of ,paraguay have employed from time immemorial the leaves of this shrub1 as the ,chinese have those of the tea plant4 ,they gather them especially in the damp forests of the interior1 between the degrees of #bj and #cj south latitude1 and commerce transports them dried to great distances throughout the greater part of ,south ,america4 ,these leaves contain1 with aroma and tannin1 a principle analogous to that of tea and coffee2 they are not1 however1 much liked in the countries where ,chinese tea is known4 ,the plantations of mat are not yet as important as the product of the wild shrub1 but they may increase as the population increases4 ,moreover1 the preparation is simpler than that of tea1 as the leaves are not rolled4 ,illustrations and descriptions of the species1 with a number of details about its use and properties1 may be found in the works of ,saint-,hilaire1 of ,sir ,william ,hooker1 and of ,martius4#fdf ,coca4--,erythroxylon ,coca1 ,lamarck4 ,the natives of ,peru and of the neighbouring provinces1 at least in the hot moist regions1 cultivate this shrub1 of which they chew the leaves1 as the natives of ,india chew the leaves of the betel4 ,it is a very ancient custom1 which has spread even into elevated regions1 where the species cannot live4 ,now that it is known how to extract the essential part of the coca1 and its virtues are recognized as a tonic1 which gives strength to endure fatigue without having the drawbacks of alcoholic liquors1 it is probable that an attempt will be made to extend its cultivation in ,america and elsewhere4 ,in ,guiana1 for instance1 the ,malay ,archipelago1 or the valleys of ,sikkim and ,assam1 or in ,hindustan1 since both moisture and heat are requisite4 ,frost is very injurious to the species4 ,the best sites are the slopes of hills where water cannot lie4 ,an attempt made in the neighbourhood of ,lima failed1 because of the infrequency of rain and perhaps because of insufficient heat4#fdg ,i shall not repeat here what may be found in several excellent treatises on the coca2#fdh ,i need only say that the original home of the species in ,america is not yet clearly ascertained4 ,gosse has shown that early authors1 such as ,joseph de ,jussieu1 ,lamarck1 and ,cavanilles1 had only seen cultivated specimens4 ,mathews gathered it in ,peru1 in the ravine 7quebrada7 of ,chinchao1#fdi which appears to be a place beyond the limits of cultivation4 ,some specimens from ,cuchero1 collected by ,poeppig1#fej are said to be wild2 but the traveller himself was not convinced of their wild nature4#fea ,d',orbigny thinks he saw the wild coca on a hill in the eastern part of ,bolivia4#feb ,lastly1 ,m4 ,andr has had the courtesy to send me the specimens of ,erythroxylon in his herbarium1 and ,i recognized the coca in several specimens from the valley of the river ,cauca in ,new ,granada1 with the note 8in abundance1 wild or half-wild40 ,triana1 however1 does not admit that the species is wild in his country1 ,new ,granada4#fec ,its extreme importance in ,peru at the time of the ,incas1 compared to the rarity of its use in ,new ,granada1 seems to show that it has escaped from cultivation in places where it occurs in the latter country1 and that the species is indigenous only in the east of ,peru and ,bolivia1 according to the indications of the travellers mentioned above4 ,dyer's ,indigo4--,indigofera tinctoria1 ,linnus4 ,the ,sanskrit name is nili4#fed ,the ,latin name1 indicum1 shows that the ,romans knew that the indigo was a substance brought from ,india4 ,as to the wild nature of the plant1 ,roxburgh says1 8,native place unknown1 for1 though it is now common in a wild state in most of the provinces of ,india1 it is seldom found far from the districts where it is now cultivated1 or has been cultivated formerly40 ,wight and ,royle1 who have published illustrations of the species1 tell us nothing on this head1 and more recent ,indian floras mention the plant as cultivated4#fee ,several other indigoes are wild in ,india4 ,this species has been found in the sands of ,senegal1#fef but it is not mentioned in other ,african localities1 and as it is often cultivated in ,senegal1 it seems probable that it is naturalized4 ,the existence of a ,sanskrit name renders its ,asiatic origin most probable4 ,silver ,indigo--,indigofera argentea4 ,this species is certainly wild in ,abyssinia1 ,nubia1 ,kordofan1 and ,senaar4#feg ,it is cultivated in ,egypt and ,arabia4 ,hence we might suppose that it was from this species that the ancient ,egyptians extracted a blue dye2#feh but perhaps they imported their indigo from ,india1 for its cultivation in ,egypt is probably not of earlier date than the ,middle ,ages4#fei ,a slightly different form1 which ,roxburgh gives as a separate species 7,indigofera crulea71 and which appears rather to be a variety1 is wild in the plains of the peninsula of ,hindustan and of ,beluchistan4 ,american ,indigoes4 ,there are probably one or two indigoes indigenous in ,america1 but ill defined1 and often intermixed in cultivation with the species of the old world1 and naturalized beyond the limits of cultivation4 ,this interchange makes the matter too uncertain for me to venture upon any researches into their original habitat4 ,some authors have thought that ,i4 ,anil1 ,linnus1 was one of these species4 ,linnus1 however1 says that his plant came from ,india 7,mantissa1 p4 #bgc74 ,the blue dye of the ancient ,mexicans was extracted from a plant which1 according to ,hernandez' account1#ffj differs widely from the indigoes4 ,henna--,lawsonia alba1 ,lamarck 7,lawsonia inermis and ,l4 spinosa of different authors74 ,the custom among ,eastern women of staining their nails red with the juice of henna-leaves dates from a remote antiquity1 as ancient ,egyptian paintings and mummies show4 ,it is difficult to know when and in what country this species was first cultivated to fulfil the requirements of a fashion as absurd as it is persistent1 but it may be from a very early epoch1 since the inhabitants of ,babylon1 ,nineveh1 and the towns of ,egypt had gardens4 ,it may be left to scholars to show whether the practice of staining the nails began in ,egypt under this or that dynasty1 before or after certain relations were established with ,eastern nations4 ,it is enough for our purpose to know that ,lawsonia1 a shrub belonging to the order of the ,lythrace1 is more or less wild in the warm regions of ,western ,asia and of ,africa to the north of the equator4 ,i have in my possession specimens from ,india1 ,java1 ,timor1 even from ,china#ffa and ,nubia1 which are not said to be taken from cultivated plants1 and others from ,guiana and the ,west ,indies1 which are doubtless furnished by the imported species4 ,stocks found it indigenous in ,beluchistan4#ffb ,roxburgh also considered it to be wild on the ,coromandel#ffc coast1 and ,thwaites#ffd mentions it in ,ceylon in a manner which seems to show that it is wild there4 ,clarke#ffe says1 8very common1 and cultivated in ,india1 perhaps wild in the eastern part40 ,it is possible that it spread into ,india from its original home1 as into ,amboyna#fff in the seventeenth century1 and perhaps more recently into the ,west ,indies1#ffg in the wake of cultivation2 for the plant is valued for the scent of its flowers1 as well as for the dye1 and is easily propagated by seed4 ,there is the same doubt as to whether it is indigenous in ,persia1 ,arabia1 and ,egypt 7an essentially cultivated country71 in ,nubia1 and even in ,guinea1 where specimens have been gathered4#ffh ,it is even possible that the area of this shrub extends from ,india to ,nubia4 ,such a wide geographical distribution is1 however1 always somewhat rare4 ,the common names may furnish some indication4 ,a ,sanskrit name1 sakachera1#ffi is attributed to the species1 but as it has left no trace in the different modern languages of ,india1 ,i am inclined to doubt its reality4 ,the ,persian name hanna is more widely diffused and retained than any other 7hina of the ,hindus1 henneh and alhenna of the ,arabs1 kinna of the modern ,greeks74 ,that of cypros1 used by the ,syrians of the time of ,dioscorides1#fgj has not found so much favour4 ,this fact supports the opinion that the species grew originally on the borders of ,persia1 and that its use as well as its cultivation spread from the ,east to the ,west1 from ,asia into ,africa4 ,tobacco--,nicotiana ,tabacum1 ,linnus2 and other species of ,nicotiana4 ,at the time of the discovery of ,america1 the custom of smoking1 of snuff-taking1 or of chewing tobacco was diffused over the greater part of this vast continent4 ,the accounts of the earliest travellers1 of which the famous anatomist ,tiedemann#fga has made a very complete collection1 show that the inhabitants of ,south ,america did not smoke1 but chewed tobacco or took snuff1 except in the district of ,la ,plata1 ,uruguay1 and ,paraguay1 where no form of tobacco was used4 ,in ,north ,america1 from the ,isthmus of ,panama and the ,west ,indies as far as ,canada and ,california1 the custom of smoking was universal1 and circumstances show that it was also very ancient4 ,pipes1 in great numbers and of wonderful workmanship1 have been discovered in the tombs of the ,aztecs in ,mexico#fgb and in the mounds of the ,united ,states2 some of them represent animals foreign to ,north ,america4#fgc ,as the tobacco plant is an annual which gives a great quantity of seeds1 it was easy to sow and to cultivate or naturalize them more or less in the neighbourhood of dwellings1 but it must be noted that different species of the genus ,nicotiana were employed in different parts of ,america1 which shows that they had not all the same origin4 ,nicotiana ,tabacum1 commonly cultivated1 was the most widely diffused1 and sometimes the only one in use in ,south ,america and the ,west ,indies4 ,the use of tobacco was introduced into ,la ,plata1 ,paraguay1#fgd and ,uruguay by the ,spaniards1 consequently we must look further to the north for the origin of the plant4 ,de ,martius does not think it was indigenous in ,brazil1#fge and he adds that the ancient ,brazilians smoked the leaves of a species belonging to their country known to botanists as ,nicotiana ,langsdorfii4 ,when ,i went into the question in #ahee1fgf ,i had not been able to discover any wild specimens of ,nicotiana ,tabacum except those sent by ,blanchet from the province of ,bahia1 numbered #cbbc1 a4 ,no author1 either before or since that time1 has been more fortunate1 and ,i see that ,messrs4 ,flckiger and ,hanbury1 in their excellent work on vegetable drugs1#fgg say positively1 8,the common tobacco is a native of the new world1 though not now known in a wild state40 ,i venture to gainsay this assertion1 although the wild nature of a plant may always be disputed in the case of a plant which spreads so easily from cultivation4 ,we find in herbaria a number of specimens gathered in ,peru without indication that they were cultivated or that they grew near plantations4 ,boissier's herbarium contains two specimens collected by ,pavon1 from different localities4#fgh ,pavon says in his flora that the species grows in the moist warm forests of the ,peruvian ,andes1 and that it is cultivated4 ,but--and this is more significant--,edouard ,andr gathered specimens in the republic of ,ecquador at ,saint ,nicholas1 on the western slope of the volcano of ,corazon in a virgin forest4 ,these he was kind enough to send me4 ,they are evidently the tall variety 7four to six feet7 of ,n4 ,tabacum1 with the upper leaves narrow and acuminate1 as they are represented in the plates of ,hayne and ,miller4#fgi ,the lower leaves are wanting4 ,the flower1 which gives the true characters of the species1 is certainly that of ,n4 ,tabacum1 and it is well known that the height of this plant and the breadth of the leaves vary in cultivation4#fhj ,it is very possible that its original country extended north as far as ,mexico1 as far south as ,bolivia1 and eastward to ,venezuela4 ,nicotiana rustica1 ,linnus1 a species with yellow flowers1 very different from ,tabacum1#fha and which yields a coarse kind of tobacco1 was more often cultivated by the ,mexicans and the native tribes north of ,mexico4 ,i have a specimen brought from ,california by ,douglas in #ahcg1 a time when colonists were still few2 but ,american authorities do not admit that the plant is wild1 and ,dr4 ,asa ,gray says that it sows itself in waste places4#fhb ,this was perhaps the case with the specimens in ,boissier's herbarium1 gathered in ,peru by ,pavon1 and which he does not mention in the ,peruvian flora4 ,the species grows in abundance about ,cordova in the ,argentine ,republic1#fhc but from what epoch is unknown4 ,from the ancient use of the plant and the home of the most analogous species1 the probabilities are in favour of a ,mexican1 ,texan1 or ,californian origin4 ,several botanists1 even ,americans1 have believed that the species came from the old world4 ,this is certainly a mistake1 although the plant has spread here and there even into our forests1 and sometimes in abundance1#fhd having escaped from cultivation4 ,authors of the sixteenth century spoke of it as a foreign plant introduced into gardens and sometimes spreading from them4#fhe ,it occurs in some herbaria under the names of ,n4 tartarica1 turcica1 or sibirica2 but these are garden-grown specimens1 and no botanist has found the species in ,asia1 or on the borders of ,asia1 with any appearance of wildness4 ,this leads me to refute a widespread and more persistent error1 in spite of what ,i proved in #ahee1 namely1 that of regarding some species ill described from cultivated specimens as natives of the old world1 of ,asia in particular4 ,the proofs of an ,american origin are so numerous and consistent that1 without entering much into detail1 ,i may sum them up as follows3-- ,a4 ,out of fifty species of the genus ,nicotiana found in a wild state1 two only are foreign to ,america2 namely1 ,n4 suavolens of ,new ,holland1 with which is joined ,n4 rotundifolia of the same country1 and that which ,ventinat had wrongly styled ,n4 undulata2 and ,n4 fragans1 ,hooker1 of the ,isle of ,pines1 near ,new ,caledonia1 which differs very little from the preceding4 ,b4 ,though the ,asiatic people are great lovers of tobacco1 and have from a very early epoch sought the smoke of certain narcotic plants1 none of them made use of tobacco before the discovery of ,america4 ,tiedemann has distinctly proved this fact by thorough researches into the writings of travellers in the ,middle ,ages4#fhf ,he even quotes for a later epoch1 not long after the discovery of ,america1 between #aedj and #afjc1 the fact that several travellers1 some of whom were botanists1 such as ,belon and ,rauwolf1 who travelled through the ,turkish and ,persian empires1 observing their customs with much attention1 have not once mentioned tobacco4 ,it was evidently introduced into ,turkey at the beginning of the seventeenth century1 and the ,persians soon received it from the ,turks4 ,the first ,european who mentions the smoking of tobacco in ,persia is ,thomas ,herbert1 in #afbf4 ,no later travellers have omitted to notice the use of the hookah as well established4 ,olearius describes this apparatus1 which he saw in #afcc4 ,the first mention of tobacco in ,india is in #afje1fhg and it is probable that it was of ,european introduction4 ,it was first introduced at ,arracan and ,pegu1 in #afai1 according to the traveller ,methold4#fhh ,there are doubts about ,java1 because ,rumphius1 a very accurate observer1 who wrote in the second half of the seventeenth century1 says#fhi that1 according to the tradition of some old people1 tobacco had been employed as a medicine before the arrival of the ,portuguese in #adif1 and that only the practice of smoking it had been communicated by the ,europeans4 ,rumphius adds1 it is true1 that the name tabaco or tambuco1 which is in use in all these places1 is of foreign origin4 ,sir ,stamford ,raffles1#fij in his numerous historical researches on ,java1 gives1 on the other hand1 the year #afja as the date of the introduction of tobacco into ,java4 ,the ,portuguese had certainly discovered the coasts of ,brazil between #aejj and #aejd1 but ,vasco di ,gama and his successors went to ,asia round the ,cape1 or through the ,red ,sea1 so that they could hardly have established frequent or direct communications between ,america and ,java4 ,nicot had seen the plant in ,portugal in #aefj1 so that the ,portuguese probably introduced it into ,asia in the latter half of the sixteenth century4 ,thunberg affirms#fia that the use of tobacco was introduced into ,japan by the ,portuguese1 and according to early travellers quoted by ,tiedemann1 this was at the beginning of the seventeenth century4 ,lastly1 the ,chinese have no original and ancient sign for tobacco2 their paintings on china in the ,dresden collection often present1 from the year #agjj and never before that date1 details relating to tobacco1#fib and ,chinese students are agreed that ,chinese works do not mention the plant before the end of the sixteenth century4#fic ,if it be remembered with what rapidity the use of tobacco has spread wherever it has been introduced1 these data about ,asia have an incontestable force4 ,c4 ,the common names of tobacco confirm its ,american origin4 ,if there had been any indigenous species in the old world there would be a great number of different names2 but1 on the contrary1 the ,chinese1 ,japanese1 ,javanese1 ,indian1 ,persian1 etc41 names are derived from the ,american names1 petum1 or tabak1 tabok1 tamboc1 slightly modified4 ,it is true that ,piddington gives ,sanskrit names1 dhumrapatra and tamrakouta1#fid but ,adolphe ,pictet informs me that the first of these names1 which is not in ,wilson's dictionary1 means only leaf for smoking1 and appears to be of modern composition2 while the second is probably no older1 and seems to be a modern modification of the ,american names4 ,the ,arabic word docchan simply means smoke4#fie ,lastly1 we must inquire into the two so-called ,asiatic ,nicotian4 ,the one1 called by ,lehmann ,nicotiana chinensis1 came from the ,russian botanist ,fischer1 who said it was ,chinese4 ,lehmann said he had seen it in a garden4 ,now1 it is well known how often an erroneous origin is attributed to plants grown by horticulturists1 and besides1 from the description1 it seems that it was simply ,n4 ,tabacum1 of which the seeds had perhaps come from ,china4#fif ,the second species is ,n4 persica1 ,lindley1 figured in the ,botanical ,register 7pl4 #aeib71 of which the seeds had been sent from ,ispahan to the ,horticultural ,society of ,london1 as those of the best tobacco cultivated in ,persia1 that of ,schiraz4 ,lindley did not observe that it corresponded exactly to ,n4 alata1 drawn three years before by ,link and ,otto#fig from a plant in the gardens at ,berlin4 ,the latter was grown from seed sent by ,sello from ,southern ,brazil4 ,it is certainly a ,brazilian species1 with a white elongated corolla1 allied to ,n4 suaveolens of ,new ,holland4 ,thus the tobacco cultivated sometimes in ,persia along with the common species1 is of ,american origin1 as ,i declared in my ,geographical ,botany of #ahee4 ,i do not understand how this species was introduced into ,persia4 ,it must have been from seed taken from a garden1 or brought by chance from ,america1 and it is not likely that its cultivation is common in ,persia1 for ,olivier and ,bruguire1 and other naturalists who have observed the tobacco plantations in that country1 make no mention of it4 ,from all these reasons ,i conclude that no species of tobacco is a native of ,asia4 ,they are all ,american1 except ,n4 suaveolens of ,new ,holland1 and ,n4 fragrans of the ,isle of ,pines to the south of ,new ,caledonia4 ,several ,nicotian1 besides ,n4 tabacum and ,n4 rustica1 have been cultivated here and there by savages1 or as a curiosity by ,europeans4 ,it is strange that so little notice is taken of these attempts1 by means of which very choice tobacco might be obtained4 ,the species with white flowers would yield probably a light and perfumed tobacco1 and as some smokers seek the strongest tobaccos and the most disagreeable to non-smokers1 ,i would recommend to their notice ,n4 angustifolia of ,chili1 which the natives call tabaco del diablo4#fih ,cinnamon--,cinnamonum zeylanicum1 ,breyn4 ,this little tree1 belonging to the laurel tribe1 of which the bark of the young branches forms the cinnamon of commerce1 grows in great quantities in the forests of ,ceylon4 ,certain varieties which grow wild on the continent of ,india were formerly considered to be so many distinct species1 but ,anglo-,indian botanists are agreed in connecting them with that of ,ceylon4#fii ,the bark of ,c4 zeylanicum1 and that of several uncultivated species of ,cinnamonum1 which produce the cassia1 or ,chinese cassia1 have been an important article of commerce from a very early period4 ,flckiger and ,hanbury#gjj have treated of this historical question with so much learning and thoroughness1 that we need only refer to their work1 entitled ,pharmacographia1 or ,history of the ,principal ,drugs of ,vegetable ,origin4 ,it is important from our point of view to note how modern the culture is of the cinnamon tree in comparison with the trade in its product4 ,it was only between #agfe and #aggj that a ,ceylon colonist1 named de ,koke1 aided by ,falck1 the governor of the island1 made some plantations which were wonderfully successful4 ,they have diminished in ,ceylon in the last few years1 but others have been established in the tropical regions of the old and new worlds4 ,the species becomes easily naturalized beyond the limits of cultivation1#gja as birds are fond of the fruit1 and drop the seeds in the forests4 ,china ,grass--,boehmeria nivea1 ,hooker and ,arnott4 ,the cultivation of this valuable ,urticacea has been introduced into the south of ,france and of the ,united ,states for about thirty years1 but commerce had previously acquainted us with the great value of its fibres1 more tenacious than hemp and in some cases flexible as silk4 ,interesting details on the manner of cultivating the plant and of extracting its fibres#gjb may be found in several books2 ,i shall confine myself here to defining as clearly as ,i can its geographical origin4 ,to attain this end we must not trust to the vague expressions of most authors1 nor to the labels attached to the specimens in herbaria1 since frequently no distinction has been made between cultivated1 naturalized1 or truly wild plants1 and the two varieties of ,boehmeria nivea 7,urtica nivea1 ,linnus71 and ,boehmeria tenacissima1 ,gaudichaud1 or ,b4 candicans1 ,hasskarl1 have been confounded together2 forms which appear to be varieties of the same species1 because transitions between them have been observed by botanists4 ,there is also a sub-variety1 with leaves green on both sides1 cultivated by ,americans and by ,m4 de ,malartic in the south of ,france4 ,the variety earliest known 7,urtica nivea1 ,l471 with leaves white on the under side1 is said to grow in ,china and some neighbouring countries4 ,linnus says it is found on walls in ,china1 which would imply a plant naturalized on rubbish-heaps from cultivation4 ,but ,loureiro#gjc says1 8habitat et abundanter colitur in ,cochin-,china et ,china10 and according to ,bentham1#gjd the collector ,champion found it in abundance in the ravines of the island of ,hongkong4 ,according to ,franchet and ,savatier1#gje it exists in ,japan in clearings and hedges 7in fruticetis umbrosis et sepibus74 ,blanco#gjf says it is common in the ,philippine ,isles4 ,i find no proof that it is wild in ,java1 ,sumatra1 and other islands of the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,rumphius#gjg knew it only as a cultivated plant4 ,roxburgh#gjh believed it to be a native of ,sumatra1 but ,miquel#gji does not confirm this belief4 ,the other varieties have nowhere been found wild1 which supports the theory that they are only the result of cultivation4 ,hemp--,cannabis sativa1 ,linnus4 ,hemp is mentioned1 in its two forms1 male and female1 in the most ancient ,chinese works1 particularly in the ,shu-,king1 written #ejj ,b4,c4#gaj ,it has ,sanskrit names1 bhanga and gangika4#gaa ,the root of these words1 ang or an1 recurs in all the ,indo-,european and modern ,semitic languages3 bang in ,hindu and ,persian1 ganga in ,bengali1#gab hanf in ,german1 hemp in ,english1 chanvre in ,french1 kanas in ,keltic and modern ,breton1#gac cannabis in ,greek and ,latin1 cannab in ,arabic4#gad ,according to ,herodotus 7born #dhd ,b4,c471 the ,scythians used hemp1 but in his time the ,greeks were scarcely acquainted with it4#gae ,hiero ,,ii41 ,king of ,syracuse1 bought the hemp used for the cordage of his vessels in ,gaul1 and ,lucilius is the earliest ,roman writer who speaks of the plant 7#ajj ,b4,c474 ,hebrew books do not mention hemp4#gaf ,it was not used in the fabrics which enveloped the mummies of ancient ,egypt4 ,even at the end of the eighteenth century it was only cultivated in ,egypt for the sake of an intoxicating liquid extracted from the plant4#gag ,the compilation of ,jewish laws known as the ,talmud1 made under the ,roman dominion1 speaks of its textile properties as of a little-known fact4#gah ,it seems probable that the ,scythians transported this plant from ,central ,asia and from ,russia when they migrated westward about #aejj ,b4,c41 a little before the ,trojan war4 ,it may also have been introduced by the earlier incursions of the ,aryans into ,thrace and ,western ,europe2 yet in that case it would have been earlier known in ,italy4 ,hemp has not been found in the lake-dwellings of ,switzerland#gai and ,northern ,italy4#gbj ,the observations on the habitat of ,cannabis sativa agree perfectly with the data furnished by history and philology4 ,i have treated specially of this subject in a monograph in ,prodromus1 #ahfi4gba ,the species has been found wild1 beyond a doubt1 to the south of the ,caspian ,sea1#gbb in ,siberia1 near the ,irtysch1 in the desert of the ,kirghiz1 beyond ,lake ,baikal1 in ,dahuria 7government of ,irkutsh74 ,authors mention it also throughout ,southern and ,central ,russia1 and to the south of the ,caucasus1#gbc but its wild nature is here less certain1 seeing that these are populous countries1 and that the seeds of the hemp are easily diffused from gardens4 ,the antiquity of the cultivation of hemp in ,china leads me to believe that its area extends further to the east1 although this has not yet been proved by botanists4#gbd ,boissier mentions the species as 8almost wild in ,persia40 ,i doubt whether it is indigenous there1 since in that case the ,greeks and ,hebrews would have known of it at an earlier period4 ,white ,mulberry--,morus alba1 ,linnus4 ,the mulberry tree1 which is most commonly used in ,europe for rearing silkworms1 is ,morus alba4 ,its very numerous varieties have been carefully described by ,seringe1#gbe and more recently by ,bureau4#gbf ,that most widely cultivated in ,india1 ,morus indica1 ,linnus 7,morus alba1 var4 ,indica1 ,bureau71 is wild in the ,punjab and in ,sikkim1 according to ,brandis1 inspector-general of forests in ,british ,india4#gbg ,two other varieties1 serrata and cuspidata1 are also said to be wild in different provinces of ,northern ,india4#gbh ,the ,abb ,david found a perfectly wild variety in ,mongolia1 described under the name of mongolica by ,bureau2 and ,dr4 ,bretschneider#gbi quotes a name yen1 from ancient ,chinese authors1 for the wild mulberry4 ,it is true he does not say whether this name applies to the white mulberry1 pe-sang1 of the ,chinese plantations4#gcj ,the antiquity of its culture in ,china1#gca and in ,japan1 and the number of different varieties grown there1 lead us to believe that its original area extended eastward as far as ,japan2 but the indigenous flora of ,southern ,china is little known1 and the most trustworthy authors do not affirm that the plant is indigenous in ,japan4 ,franchet and ,savatier#gcb say that it is 8cultivated from time immemorial1 and become wild here and there40 ,it is worthy of note also that the white mulberry appears to thrive especially in mountainous and temperate countries1 whence it may be argued that it was formerly introduced from the north of ,china into the plains of the south4 ,it is known that birds are fond of the fruit1 and bear the seeds to great distances and into uncultivated ground1 and this makes it difficult to discover its really original habitat4 ,this facility of naturalization doubtless explains the presence in successive epochs of the white mulberry in ,western ,asia and the south of ,europe4 ,this must have occurred especially after the monks brought the silkworm to ,constantinople under ,justinian in the sixth century1 and as the culture of silkworms was gradually propagated westwards4 ,however1 ,targioni has proved that only the black mulberry1 ,m4 nigra1 was known in ,sicily and ,italy when the manufacture of silk was introduced into ,sicily in #aadh1 and two centuries later into ,tuscany4#gcc ,according to the same author1 the introduction of the white mulberry into ,tuscany dates at the earliest from the year #acdj4 ,in like manner the manufacture of silk may have begun in ,china1 because the silkworm is natural to that country2 but it is very probable that the tree grew also in the north of ,india1 where so many travellers have found it wild4 ,in ,persia1 ,armenia1 and ,asia ,minor1 ,i am inclined to believe that it was naturalized at a very early epoch1 rather than to share ,grisebach's opinion that it is indigenous in the basin of the ,caspian ,sea4 ,boissier does not give it as wild in that region4#gcd ,buhse#gce found it in ,persia1 near ,erivan and ,bashnaruschin1 and he adds1 8naturalized in abundance in ,ghilan and ,masenderan40 ,ledebour1#gcf in his ,russian flora1 mentions numerous localities round the ,caucasus1 but he does not specify whether the species is wild or naturalized4 ,in the ,crimea1 ,greece1 and ,italy1 it exists only in a cultivated state4#gcg ,a variety1 tatarica1 often cultivated in the south of ,russia1 has become naturalized near the ,volga4#gch ,if the white mulberry did not originally exist in ,persia and in the neighbourhood of the ,caspian ,sea1 it must have penetrated there a long while ago4 ,i may quote in proof of this the name tut1 tutti1 tuta1 which is ,persian1 ,arabic1 ,turkish1 and ,tartar4 ,there is a ,sanskrit name1 tula1#gci which must be connected with the same root as the ,persian name2 but no ,hebrew name is known1 which is a confirmation of the theory of a successive extension towards the west of ,asia4 ,i refer those of my readers who may desire more detailed information about the introduction of the mulberry and of silkworms to the able works of ,targioni and ,ritter1 to which ,i have already referred4 ,recent discoveries made by various botanists have permitted me to add more precise data than those of ,ritter on the question of origin1 and if there are some apparent contradictions in our opinions on other points1 it is because the famous geographer has considered a number of varieties as so many different species1 whereas botanists1 after a careful examination1 have classed them together4 ,black ,mulberry--,morus nigra1 ,linnus4 ,this tree is more valued for its fruit than for its leaves1 and on that account ,i should have included it in the list of fruit trees2 but its history can hardly be separated from that of the white mulberry4 ,moreover1 its leaves are employed in many countries for the feeding of silkworms1 although the silk produced is of inferior quality4 ,the black mulberry is distinguished from the white by several characters independently of the black colour of the fruit1 which occurs also in a few varieties of the ,m4 alba4#gdj ,it has not a great number of varieties like the latter1 which argues a less ancient and a less general cultivation and a narrower primitive area4 ,greek and ,latin authors1 even the poets1 have mentioned ,morus nigra1 which they compare to ,ficus sycomorus1 and which they even confounded originally with this ,egyptian tree4 ,commentators for the last two centuries have quoted a number of passages which leave no doubt on this head1 but which are devoid of interest in themselves4#gda ,they furnish no proof touching the origin of the species1 which is presumably ,persian1 unless we are to take seriously the fable of ,pyramus and ,thisbe1 of which the scene was in ,babylonia1 according to ,ovid4 ,botanists have not yet furnished any certain proof that this species is indigenous in ,persia4 ,boissier1 who is the most learned in the floras of the ,east1 contents himself with quoting ,hohenacker as the discoverer of ,m4 nigra in the forests of ,lenkoran1 on the south coast of the ,caspian ,sea1 and he adds1 8probably wild in the north of ,persia near the ,caspian ,sea40#gdb ,ledebour1 in his ,russian flora1 had previously indicated1 on the authority of different travellers1 the ,crimea and the provinces south of the ,caucasus2#gdc but ,steven denies the existence of the species in the ,crimea except in a cultivated state4#gdd ,tchihatcheff and ,koch found the black mulberry in high wild districts of ,armenia4 ,it is very probable that in the region to the south of the ,caucasus and of the ,caspian ,sea ,morus nigra is wild and indigenous rather than naturalized4 ,what leads me to this belief is 7#a7 that it is not known1 even in a cultivated state1 in ,india1 ,china1 or ,japan2 7#b7 that it has no ,sanskrit name2 7#c7 that it was so early introduced into ,greece1 a country which had intercourse with ,armenia at an early period4#gde ,morus nigra spread so little to the south of ,persia1 that no certain ,hebrew name is known for it1 nor even a ,persian name distinct from that of ,morus alba4 ,it was widely cultivated in ,italy until the superiority of the white mulberry for the rearing of silkworms was recognized4 ,in ,greece the black mulberry is still the most cultivated4#gdf ,it has become naturalized here and there in these countries and in ,spain4#gdg ,american ,aloe--,agave ,americana1 ,linnus4 ,this ligneous plant1 of the order of ,amaryllidace1 has been cultivated from time immemorial in ,mexico under the names maguey or metl1 in order to extract from it1 at the moment when the flower stem is developed1 the wine known as pulque4 ,humboldt has given a full description of this culture1#gdh and he tells us elsewhere#gdi that the species grows in the whole of ,south ,america as far as five thousand feet of altitude4 ,it is mentioned#gej in ,jamaica1 ,antigua1 ,dominica1 and ,cuba1 but it must be observed that it multiplies easily by suckers1 and that it is often planted far from dwellings to form fences or to extract from it the fibre known as pite1 and this makes it difficult to ascertain its original habitat4 ,transported long since into the countries which border the ,mediterranean1 it occurs there with every appearance of an indigenous species1 although there is no doubt as to its origin4#gea ,probably1 to judge from the various uses made of it in ,mexico before the arrival of the ,europeans1 it came originally from thence4 ,sugar-,cane--,saccharum officinarum1 ,linnus4 ,the origin of the sugar-cane1 of its cultivation1 and of the manufacture of sugar1 are the subject of a very remarkable work by the geographer1 ,karl ,ritter4#geb ,i need not follow his purely agricultural and economical details2 but for that which interests us particularly1 the primitive habitat of the species1 he is the best guide1 and the facts observed during the last forty years for the most part support or confirm his opinions4 ,the sugar-cane is cultivated at the present day in all the warm regions of the globe1 but a number of historical facts testify that it was first grown in ,southern ,asia1 whence it spread into ,africa1 and later into ,america4 ,the question is1 therefore1 to discover in what districts of the continent1 or in which of the southern islands of ,asia1 the plant exists1 or existed at the time it was first employed4 ,ritter has followed the best methods of arriving at a solution4 ,he notes first that all the species known in a wild state1 and undoubtedly belonging to the genus ,saccharum1 grow in ,india1 except one in ,egypt4#gec ,five species have since been described1 growing in ,java1 ,new ,guinea1 ,timor1 and the ,philippine ,isles4#ged ,the probabilities are all in favour of an ,asiatic origin1 to judge from the data furnished by geographical botany4 ,unfortunately no botanist had discovered at the time when ,ritter wrote1 or has since discovered1 ,saccharum officinarum wild in ,india1 in the adjacent countries or in the archipelago to the south of ,asia4 ,all ,anglo-,indian authors1 ,roxburgh1 ,wallich1 ,royle1 etc41 and more recently ,aitchison1#gee only mention the plant as a cultivated one4 ,roxburgh1 who was so long a collector in ,india1 says expressly1 8where wild ,i do not know40 ,the family of the ,gramine has not yet appeared in ,sir ,joseph ,hooker's flora4 ,for the island of ,ceylon1 ,thwaites does not even mention the cultivated plant4#gef ,rumphius1 who has carefully described its cultivation in the ,dutch colonies1 says nothing about the home of the species4 ,miquel1 ,hasskarl1 and ,blanco mention no wild specimen in ,sumatra1 ,java1 or the ,philippine ,isles4 ,crawfurd tried to discover it1 but failed to do so4#geg ,at the time of ,cook's voyage ,forster found the sugar-cane only as a cultivated plant in the small islands of the ,pacific4#geh ,the natives of ,new ,caledonia cultivate a number of varieties of the sugar-cane1 and use it constantly1 sucking the syrup from the cane2 but ,vieillard#gei takes care to say1 8,from the fact that isolated plants of ,saccharum officinarum are often found in the middle of the bush and even on the mountains1 it would be wrong to conclude that the plant is indigenous2 for these specimens1 poor and weak1 only mark the site of old plantations1 or are sprung from fragments of cane left by the natives1 who seldom travel without a piece of cane in the hand40 ,in #ahfa1 ,bentham1 who had access to the rich herbarium of ,kew1 says1 in his ,flora of ,hongkong1 8,we have no authentic and certain proof of a locality where the common sugar-cane is wild40 ,i do not know1 however1 why ,ritter and every one else has neglected an assertion of ,loureiro1 in his ,flora of ,cochin-,china1#gfj 8,habitat1 et colitur abundantissime in omnibus provinciis regni ,cochin-,chinensis3 simul in aliquibus imperii sinensis1 sed minori copia40 ,the word habitat1 separated by a comma from the rest1 is a distinct assertion4 ,loureiro could not have been mistaken about the ,saccharum officinarum1 which he saw cultivated all about him1 and of which he enumerates the principal varieties4 ,he must have seen plants wild1 at least in appearance4 ,they may have spread from some neighbouring plantation1 but ,i know nothing which makes it unlikely that the plant should be indigenous in this warm moist district of the continent of ,asia4 ,forskal#gfa mentions the species as wild in the mountains of ,arabia1 under a name which he believes to be ,indian4 ,if it came from ,arabia1 it would have spread into ,egypt long ago1 and the ,hebrews would have known it4 ,roxburgh had received in the botanical gardens of ,calcutta in #agif1 and had introduced into the plantations in ,bengal1 a ,saccharum to which he gave the name of ,s4 sinense1 and of which he published an illustration in his great work ,plant ,coromandelian1 vol4 iii4 pl4 #bcb4 ,it is perhaps only a form of ,s4 officinarum1 and moreover1 as it is only known in a cultivated state1 it tells nothing about the primitive country either of this or of any other variety4 ,a few botanists have asserted that the sugar-cane flowers more often in ,asia than in ,america or ,africa1 and even that it produces seed#gfb on the banks of the ,ganges1 which they regard as a proof that it is indigenous4 ,macfadyen says so without giving any proof4 ,it was an assertion made to him in ,jamaica by some traveller2 but ,sir ,w4 ,hooker adds in a note1 8,dr4 ,roxburgh1 in spite of his long residence on the banks of the ,ganges1 has never seen the seeds of the sugar-cane40 ,it rarely flowers1 and still more rarely bears fruit1 as is commonly the case with plants propagated by buds or suckers1 and if any variety of sugar-cane were disposed to seed1 it would probably be less productive of sugar and would soon be abandoned4 ,rumphius1 a better observer than many modern botanists1 has given a good description of the cultivated cane in the ,dutch colonies1 and makes an interesting remark4#gfc 8,it never produces flowers or fruit unless it has remained several years in a stony place40 ,neither he1 nor any one else to my knowledge1 has described or drawn the seed4 ,the flower1 on the contrary1 has often been figured1 and ,i have a fine specimen from ,martinique4#gfd ,schacht is the only person who has given a good analysis of the flower1 including the pistil2 he had not seen the seed ripe4#gfe ,de ,tussac1#gff who gives a poor analysis1 speaks of the seed1 but he only saw it young in the ovary4 ,in default of precise information as to the native country of the species1 accessory means1 linguistic and historical1 of proving an ,asiatic origin1 are of some interest4 ,ritter gives them carefully2 ,i will content myself with an epitome4 ,the ,sanskrit name of the sugar-cane was ikshu1 ikshura1 or ikshava1 but the sugar was called sarkara1 or sakkara1 and all its names in our ,european languages of ,aryan origin1 beginning with the ancient ones--,greek1 for example--are clearly derived from this4 ,this is an indication of ,asiatic origin1 and that the produce of the cane was of ancient use in the southern regions of ,asia with which the ancient ,sanskrit-speaking nation may have had commercial dealings4 ,the two ,sanskrit words have remained in ,bengali under the forms ik and akh4#gfg ,but in other languages beyond the ,indus1 we find a singular variety of names1 at least when they are not akin to that of the ,aryans2 for instance3 panchadara in ,telinga1 kyam in ,burmese1 mia in the dialect of ,cochin-,china1 kan and tche1 or tsche1 in ,chinese2 and further south1 among the ,malays1 tubu or tabu for the plant1 and gula for the product4 ,this diversity proves the great antiquity of its cultivation in those regions of ,asia in which botanical indications point out the origin of the species4 ,the epoch of its introduction into different countries agrees with the idea that its origin was in ,india1 ,cochin-,china1 or the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,the ,chinese were not acquainted with the sugar-cane at a very remote period1 and they received it from the ,west4 ,ritter contradicts those authors who speak of a very ancient cultivation1 and ,i find most positive confirmation of his opinion in ,dr4 ,bretschneider's pamphlet1 drawn up at ,pekin with the aid of all the resources of ,chinese literature4#gfh 8,i have not been able to discover10 he says1 8any allusion to the sugar-cane in the most ancient ,chinese books 7the five classics740 ,it appears to have been mentioned for the first time by the authors of the second century before ,christ4 ,the first description of it appears in the ,nan-fang-tsao-mu-chuang1 in the fourth century3 8,the ch ch1 kan-ch 7kan1 sweet1 ch1 bamboo7 grows10 it says1 8in ,cochin-,china4 ,it is several inches in circumference1 and resembles the bamboo4 ,the stem1 broken into pieces1 is eatable and very sweet4 ,the sap which is drawn from it is dried in the sun4 ,after a few days it becomes sugar 7here a compound ,chinese character71 which melts in the mouth4444 ,in the year #bhf 7of our era7 the kingdom of ,funan 7in ,india1 beyond the ,ganges7 sent sugar as a tribute40 ,according to the ,pent-,sao1 an emperor who reigned from #fbg to #fej ,a4,d41 sent a man into the ,indian province of ,behar to learn how to manufacture sugar4 ,there is nothing said in these works of the plant growing wild in ,china2 on the contrary1 the origin in ,cochin-,china1 indicated by ,loureiro1 finds an unexpected confirmation4 ,it seems to me most probable that its primitive range extended from ,bengal to ,cochin-,china4 ,it may have included the ,sunda ,isles and the ,moluccas1 whose climate is very similar2 but there are quite as many reasons for believing that it was early introduced into these from ,cochin-,china or the ,malay peninsula4 ,the propagation of the sugar-cane from ,india westward is well known4 ,the ,greco-,roman world had a vague idea of the reed 7calamus7 which the ,indians delighted to chew1 and from which they obtained sugar4#gfi ,on the other hand1 the ,hebrew writings do not mention sugar2#ggj whence we may infer that the cultivation of the sugar-cane did not exist west of the ,indus at the time of the ,jewish captivity at ,babylon4 ,the ,arabs in the ,middle ,ages introduced it into ,egypt1 ,sicily1 and the south of ,spain1#gga where it flourished until the abundance of sugar in the colonies caused it to be abandoned4 ,don ,henriquez transported the sugar-cane from ,sicily to ,madeira1 whence it was taken to the ,canaries in #aejc4ggb ,hence it was introduced into ,brazil in the beginning of the sixteenth century4#ggc ,it was taken to ,st4 ,domingo about #aebj1 and shortly afterwards to ,mexico2#ggd to ,guadeloupe in #afdd1 to ,martinique about #afej1 to ,bourbon when the colony was founded4#gge ,the variety known as ,otahiti1 which is not1 however1 wild in that island1 and which is also called ,bourbon1 was introduced into the ,french and ,english colonies at the end of the last and the beginning of the present century4#ggf ,the processes of cultivation and preparation of the sugar are described in a number of works1 among which the following may be recommended3 de ,tussac1 ,flore des ,antilles1 #c vols41 ,paris2 vol4 i4 pp4 #aea-ahb2 and ,macfadyen1 in ,hooker's ,botanical ,miscellany1 #ahcj1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ajc-aaf4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,plants ,,cultivated ,,for ,,their ,,flowers1 ,,or ,,for ,,the ,,organs ,,which ,,envelop ,,them4 ,clove--,caryophyllus aromaticus1 ,linnus4 ,the clove used for domestic purposes is the calix and flower-bud of a plant belonging to the order of ,myrtace4 ,although the plant has been often described and very well drawn from cultivated specimens1 some doubt remains as to its nature when wild4 ,i spoke of it in my ,geographical ,botany in #ahee1 but it does not appear that the question has made any further progress since then1 which induces me to repeat here what ,i said then4 8,the clove must have come originally from the ,moluccas10 as ,rumphius asserts1#ggg for its cultivation was limited two centuries ago to a few little islands in this archipelago4 ,i cannot1 however1 find any proof that the true clove tree1 with peduncles and aromatic buds1 has been found in a wild state4 ,rumphius#ggh considers that a plant of which he gives a description1 and a drawing under the name ,caryophyllum sylvestre1 belongs to the same species1 and this plant is wild throughout the ,moluccas4 ,a native told him that the cultivated clove trees degenerate into this form1 and ,rumphius himself found a plant of ,c4 sylvestre in a deserted plantation of cultivated cloves4 ,nevertheless plate #c differs from plate #a of the cultivated clove in the shape of the leaves and of the teeth of the calix4 ,i do not speak of plate #b1 which appears to be an abnormal form of the cultivated clove4 ,rumphius says that ,c4 sylvestre has no aromatic properties2 now1 as a rule1 the aromatic properties are more developed in the wild plants of a species than in the cultivated plants4 ,sonnerat#ggi also publishes figures of the true clove and of a spurious clove found in a small island near the country of the ,papuans4 ,it is easy to see that his false clove differs completely by its blunt leaves from the true clove1 and also from the two species of ,rumphius4 ,i cannot make up my mind to class all these different plants1 wild and cultivated1 together1 as all authors have done4#ghj ,it is especially necessary to exclude plate #abj of ,sonnerat1 which is admitted in the ,botanical ,magazine4 ,an historical account of the cultivation of the clove1 and of its introduction into different countries1 will be found in the last-named work1 in the ,dictionnaire d',agriculture1 and in the dictionaries of natural history4 ,if it be true1 as ,roxburgh says1#gha that the ,sanskrit language had a name1 luvunga1 for the clove1 the trade in this spice must date from a very early epoch1 even supposing the name to be more modern than the true ,sanskrit4 ,but ,i doubt its genuine character1 for the ,romans would have known of a substance so easily transported1 and it does not appear that it was introduced into ,europe before the discovery of the ,moluccas by the ,portuguese4 ,hop--,humulus ,lupulus1 ,linnus4 ,the hop is wild in ,europe from ,england and ,sweden as far south as the mountains of the ,mediterranean basin1 and in ,asia as far as ,damascus1 as the south of the ,caspian ,sea1 and of ,eastern ,siberia1#ghb but it is not found in ,india1 the north of ,china1 or the basin of the river ,amur4#ghc ,in spite of the entirely wild appearance of the hop in ,europe in districts far from cultivation1 it has been sometimes asked if it is not of ,asiatic origin4#ghd ,i do not think this can be proved1 nor even that it is likely4 ,the fact that the ,greeks and ,latins have not spoken of the use of the hop in making beer is easily explained1 as they were almost entirely unacquainted with this drink4 ,if the ,greeks have not mentioned the plant1 it is simply perhaps because it is rare in their country4 ,from the ,italian name lupulo it seems likely that ,pliny speaks of it with other vegetables under the name lupus salictarius4#ghe ,that the custom of brewing with hops only became general in the ,middle ,ages proves nothing1 except that other plants were formerly employed1 as is still the case in some districts4 ,the ,kelts1 the ,germans1 other peoples of the north and even of the south who had the vine1 made beer#ghf either of barley or of other fermented grain1 adding in certain cases different vegetable substances--the bark of the oak or of the tamarisk1 for instance1 or the fruits of ,myrica gale4#ghg ,it is very possible that they did not soon discover the advantages of the hop1 and that even after these were recognized1 they employed wild hops before beginning to cultivate them4 ,the first mention of hop-gardens occurs in an act of donation made by ,pepin1 father of ,charlemagne1 in #gfh4ghh ,in the fourteenth century it was an important object of culture in ,germany1 but it began in ,england only under ,henry ,,viii4#ghi ,the common names of the hop only furnish negative indications as to its origin4 ,there is no ,sanskrit name1#gij and this agrees with the absence of the species in the region of the ,himalayas1 and shows that the early ,aryan peoples had not noticed and employed it4 ,i have quoted before#gia some of the ,european names1 showing their diversity1 although some few of them may be derived from a common stock4 ,hehn1 the philologist1 has treated of their etymology1 and shown how obscure it is1 but he has not mentioned the names totally distinct from humle1 hopf or hop1 and chmeli of the ,scandinavian1 ,gothic1 and ,slav races2 for example1 ,apini in ,lette1 ,apwynis in ,lithuanian1 tap in ,esthonian1 blust in ,illyrian1#gib which have evidently other roots4 ,this variety tends to confirm the theory that the species existed in ,europe before the arrival of the ,aryan nations4 ,several different peoples must have distinguished1 known1 and used this plant successively1 which confirms its extension in ,europe and in ,asia before it was used in brewing4 ,carthamine--,carthamus tinctorius1 ,linnus4 ,the composite annual which produces the dye called carthamine is one of the most ancient cultivated species4 ,its flowers are used for dyeing in red or yellow1 and the seeds yield oil4 ,the grave-cloths which wrap the ancient ,egyptian mummies are dyed with carthamine1#gic and quite recently fragments of the plant have been found in the tombs discovered at ,deir el ,bahari4#gid ,its cultivation must also be ancient in ,india1 since there are two ,sanskrit names for it1 cusumbha and kamalottara1 of which the first has several derivatives in the modern languages of the peninsula4#gie ,the ,chinese only received carthamine in the second century ,b4,c41 when ,chang-kien brought it back from ,bactriana4#gif ,the ,greeks and ,latins were probably not acquainted with it1 for it is very doubtful whether this is the plant which they knew as cnikos or cnicus4#gig ,at a later period the ,arabs contributed largely to diffuse the cultivation of carthamine1 which they named qorton1 kurtum1 whence carthamine1 or usfur1 or ihridh1 or morabu1#gih a diversity indicating an ancient existence in several countries of ,western ,asia or of ,africa4 ,the progress of chemistry threatens to do away with the cultivation of this plant as of many others1 but it still subsists in the south of ,europe1 in the ,east1 and throughout the valley of the ,nile4#gii ,no botanist has found the carthamine in a really wild state4 ,authors doubtfully assign to it an origin in ,india or ,africa1 in ,abyssinia in particular1 but they have never seen it except in a cultivated state1 or with every appearance of having escaped from cultivation4#hjj ,mr4 ,clarke1#hja formerly director of the ,botanical ,gardens in ,calcutta1 who has lately studied the ,composit of ,india1 includes the species only as a cultivated one4 ,the summary of our modern knowledge of the plants of the ,nile region1 including ,abyssinia1 by ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1#hjb only indicates it as a cultivated species1 nor does the list of the plants observed by ,rohlfs on his recent journey mention a wild carthamine4#hjc ,as the species has not been found wild either in ,india or in ,africa1 and as it has been cultivated for thousands of years in both countries1 the idea occurred to me of seeking its origin in the intermediate region2 a method which had been successful in other cases4 ,unfortunately1 the interior of ,arabia is almost unknown4 ,forskal1 who has visited the coasts of ,yemen has learnt nothing about the carthamine2 nor is it mentioned among the plants of ,botta and of ,bov4 ,but an ,arab1 ,abu ,anifa1 quoted by ,ebn ,baithar1 a thirteenth-century writer1 expressed himself as follows3#hjd--8,usfur1 this plant furnishes a substance used as a dye2 there are two kinds1 one cultivated and one wild1 which both grow in ,arabia1 of which the seeds are called elkurthum40 ,abu ,anifa was very likely right4 ,saffron--,crocus sativus1 ,linnus4 ,the saffron was cultivated in very early times in the west of ,asia4 ,the ,romans praised the saffron of ,cilicia1 which they preferred to that grown in ,italy4#hje ,asia ,minor1 ,persia1 and ,kashmir have been for a long time the countries which export the most4 ,india gets it from ,kashmir#hjf at the present day4 ,roxburgh and ,wallich do not mention it in their works4 ,the two ,sanskrit names mentioned by ,piddington#hjg probably applied to the substance saffron brought from the ,west1 for the name kasmirajamma appears to indicate its origin in ,kashmir4 ,the other name is kunkuma4 ,the ,hebrew word karkom is commonly translated saffron1 but it more probably applies to carthamine1 to judge from the name of the latter in ,arabic4#hjh ,besides1 the saffron is not cultivated in ,egypt or in ,arabia4 ,the ,greek name is krokos4#hji ,saffron1 which recurs in all modern ,european languages1 comes from the ,arabic sahafaran1#haj zafran4#haa ,the ,spaniards1 nearer to the ,arabs1 call it azafran4 ,the ,arabic name itself comes from assfar1 yellow4 ,trustworthy authors say that ,c4 sativus is wild in ,greece#hab and in the ,abruzzi mountains in ,italy4#hac ,maw1 who is preparing a monograph of the genus ,crocus1 based on a long series of observations in gardens and in herbaria1 connects with ,c4 sativus six forms which are found wild in mountainous districts from ,italy to ,kurdistan4 ,none of these1 he says1#had are identical with the cultivated variety2 but certain forms described under other names 7,c4 ,orisnii1 ,c4 ,cartwrightianus1 ,c4 ,thomasii71 hardly differ from it4 ,these are from ,italy and ,greece4 ,the cultivation of saffron1 of which the conditions are given in the ,cours d',agriculture by ,gasparin1 and in the ,bulletin de la ,socit d',acclimatation for #ahgj1 is becoming more and more rare in ,europe and ,asia4#hae ,it has sometimes had the effect of naturalizing the species for a few years at least in localities where it appears to be wild4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,plants ,,cultivated ,,for ,,their ,,fruits4#haf ,sweet ,sop1 ,sugar ,apple#hag--;,anona squamosa1 ,linnus4 7,in ,british ,india1 ,custard ,apple2 but this is the name of ,anona muricata in ,america47 ,the original home of this and other cultivated ,anonace has been the subject of doubts1 which make it an interesting problem4 ,i attempted to resolve them in #ahee4 ,the opinion at which ,i then arrived has been confirmed by the subsequent observations of travellers1 and as it is useful to show how far probabilities based upon sound methods lead to true assertions1 ,i will transcribe what ,i then said1#hah mentioning afterwards the more recent discoveries4 8,robert ,brown proved in #ahah that all the species of the genus ,anona1 excepting ,anona senegalensis1 belong to ,america1 and none to ,asia4 ,aug4 de ,saint-,hilaire says that1 according to ,vellozo1 ,a4 squamosa was introduced into ,brazil1 that it is known there under the name of pinha1 from its resemblance to a fir-cone1 and of ata1 evidently borrowed from the names attoa and atis1 which are those of the same plant in ,asia1 and which belong to ,eastern languages4 ,therefore1 adds de ,saint-,hilaire1#hai the ,portuguese transported ,a4 squamosa from their ,indian to their ,american possessions1 etc40 ,having made in #ahcb a review of the family of the ,anonace1#hbj ,i noticed how ,mr4 ,brown's botanical argument was ever growing stronger2 for in spite of the considerable increase in the number of described ,anonace1 no ,anona1 nor even any species of ,anonace with united ovaries1 had been found to be a native of ,asia4 ,i admitted#hba the probability that the species came from the ,west ,indies or from the neighbouring part of the ,american continent2 but ,i inadvertently attributed this opinion to ,mr4 ,brown1 who had merely indicated an ,american origin in general4#hbb ,facts of different kinds have since confirmed this view4 8,anona squamosa has been found wild in ,asia1 apparently as a naturalized plant2 in ,africa1 and especially in ,america1 with all the conditions of an indigenous plant4 ,in fact1 according to ,dr4 ,royle1#hbc the species has been naturalized in several parts of ,india2 but he only saw it apparently growing wild on the side of the mountain near the fort of ,adjeegurh in ,bundlecund1 among teak trees4 ,when so remarkable a tree1 in a country so thoroughly explored by botanists1 has only been discovered in a single locality beyond the limits of cultivation1 it is most probable that it is not indigenous in the country4 ,sir ,joseph ,hooker found it in the isle of ,st4 ,iago1 of the ,cape ,verde group1 forming woods on the hills which overlook the valley of ,st4 ,domingo4#hbd ,since ,a4 squamosa is only known as a cultivated plant on the neighbouring continent2#hbe as it is not even indicated in ,guinea by ,thonning1#hbf nor in ,congo1#hbg nor in ,senegambia1#hbh nor in ,abyssinia and ,egypt1 which proves a recent introduction into ,africa2 lastly1 as the ,cape ,verde ,isles have lost a great part of their primitive forests1 ,i believe that this is a case of naturalization from seed escaped from gardens4 ,authors are agreed in considering the species wild in ,jamaica4 ,formerly the assertions of ,sloane#hbi and ,brown#hcj might have been disregarded1 but they are confirmed by ,macfadyen4#hca ,martius found the species wild in the virgin forests of ,para4#hcb ,he even says1 #8,sylvescentem in nemoribus paraensibus inveni1' whence it may be inferred that these trees alone formed a forest4 ,splitgerber#hcc found it in the forests of ,surinam1 but he says1 #8,an spontanea8' ,the number of localities in this part of ,america is significant4 ,i need not remind my readers that no tree growing elsewhere than on the coast has been found truly indigenous at once in tropical ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america4#hcd ,the result of my researches renders such a fact almost impossible1 and if a tree were robust enough to extend over such an area1 it would be extremely common in all tropical countries4 8,moreover1 historical and philological facts tend also to confirm the theory of an ,american origin4 ,the details given by ,rumphius#hce show that ,anona squamosa was a plant newly cultivated in most of the islands of the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,forster does not mention the cultivation of any ,anonacea in the small islands of the ,pacific4#hcf ,rheede#hcg says that ,a4 squamosa is an exotic in ,malabar1 but was brought to ,india1 first by the ,chinese and the ,arabs1 afterwards by the ,portuguese4 ,it is certainly cultivated in ,china and in ,cochin-,china1#hch and in the ,philippine ,isles1#hci but we do not know from what epoch4 ,it is doubtful whether the ,arabs cultivate it4#hdj ,it was cultivated in ,india in ,roxburgh's day2#hda he had not seen the wild plant1 and only mentions one common name in a modern language1 the ,bengali ata1 which is already in ,rheede4 ,later the name gunda-gatra#hdb was believed to be ,sanskrit1 but ,dr4 ,royle#hdc having consulted ,wilson1 the famous author of the ,sanskrit dictionary1 touching the antiquity of this name1 he replied that it was taken from the ,sabda ,chanrika1 a comparatively modern compilation4 ,the names of ata1 ati1 are found in ,rheede and ,rumphius4#hdd ,this is doubtless the foundation of ,saint-,hilaire's argument2 but a nearly similar name is given to ,anona squamosa in ,mexico4 ,this name is ate1 ahate di ,panucho1 found in ,hernandez#hde with two similar and rather poor figures which may be attributed either to ,a4 squamosa1 as ,dunal#hdf thinks1 or to ,a4 cherimolia1 according to ,martius4#hdg ,oviedo uses the name anon4#hdh ,it is very possible that the name ata was introduced into ,brazil from ,mexico and the neighbouring countries4 ,it may also1 ,i confess1 have come from the ,portuguese colonies in the ,east ,indies4 ,martius says1 however1 that the species was imported from the ,west ,india ,islands4#hdi ,i do not know whether he had any proof of this1 or whether he speaks on the authority of ,oviedo's work1 which he quotes and which ,i cannot consult4 ,oviedo's article1 translated by ,marcgraf1#hej describes ,a4 squamosa without speaking of its origin4 8,the sum total of the facts is altogether in favour of an ,american origin4 ,the locality where the species usually appears wild is in the forests of ,para4 ,its cultivation is ancient in ,america1 since ,oviedo is one of the first authors 7#aece7 who has written about this country4 ,no doubt its cultivation is of ancient date in ,asia likewise1 and this renders the problem curious4 ,it is not proved1 however1 that it was anterior to the discovery of ,america1 and it seems to me that a tree of which the fruit is so agreeable would have been more widely diffused in the old world if it had always existed there4 ,moreover1 it would be difficult to explain its cultivation in ,america in the beginning of the sixteenth century1 on the hypothesis of an origin in the old world40 ,since ,i wrote the above1 ,i find the following facts published by different authors3-- #a4 ,the argument drawn from the fact that there is no ,asiatic species of the genus ,anona is stronger than ever4 ,a4 ,asiatica1 ,linnus1 was based upon errors 7see my note in the ,gogr4 ,bot41 p4 #hfb74 ,a4 obtusifolia 7,tussac1 ,fl4 des ,antilles1 i4 p4 #aia1 pl4 #bh71 cultivated formerly in ,st4 ,domingo as of ,asiatic origin1 is also perhaps founded upon a mistake4 ,i suspect that the drawing represents the flower of one species 7,a4 muricata7 and the fruit of another 7,a4 squamosa74 ,no ,anona has been discovered in ,asia1 but four or five are now known in ,africa instead of only one or two1#hea and a larger number than formerly in ,america4 #b4 ,the authors of recent ,asiatic floras do not hesitate to consider the ,anon1 particularly ,a4 squamosa1 which is here and there found apparently wild1 as naturalized in the neighbourhood of cultivated ground and of ,european settlements4#heb #c4 ,in the new ,african floras already quoted1 ,a4 squamosa and the others of which ,i shall speak presently are always mentioned as cultivated species4 #d4 ,mc,nab1 the horticulturist1 found ,a4 squamosa in the dry plains of ,jamaica1#hec which confirms the assertions of previous authors4 ,eggers says#hed that the species is common in the thickets of ,santa ,cruz and ,virgin ,islands4 ,i do not find that it has been discovered wild in ,cuba4 #e4 ,on the ,american continent it is given as cultivated4#hee ,however1 ,m4 ,andr sent me a specimen from a stony district in the ,magdalena valley1 which appears to belong to this species and to be wild4 ,the fruit is wanting1 which renders the matter doubtful4 ,from the note on the ticket1 it is a delicious fruit like that of ,a4 squamosa4 ,warming#hef mentions the species as cultivated at ,lagoa ,santa in ,brazil4 ,it appears1 therefore1 to be cultivated or naturalized from cultivation in ,para1 ,guiana1 and ,new ,granada4 ,in fine1 it can hardly be doubted1 in my opinion1 that its original country is ,america1 and in especial the ,west ,india ,islands4 ,sour ,sop--,anona muricata1 ,linnus4 ,this fruit-tree1#heg introduced into all the colonies in tropical countries is wild in the ,west ,indies2 at least1 its existence has been proved in the islands of ,cuba1 ,st4 ,domingo1 ,jamaica1 and several of the smaller islands4#heh ,it is sometimes naturalized on the continent of ,south ,america near dwellings4#hei ,andr brought specimens from the district of ,cauca in ,new ,granada1 but he does not say they were wild1 and ,i see that ,triana 7,prodr4 ,fl4 ,granat47 only mentions it as cultivated4 ,custard ,apple in the ,west ,indies1 ,bullock's ,heart in the ,east ,indies--,anona reticulata1 ,linnus4 ,this ,anona1 figured in ,descourtilz1 ,flore ,mdicale des ,antilles1 ii4 pl4 #hb1 and in the ,botanical ,magazine1 pl4 #biab1 is wild in ,cuba1 ,jamaica1 ,st4 ,vincent1 ,guadeloupe1 ,santa ,cruz1 and ,barbados1#hfj and also in the island of ,tobago in the ,bay of ,panama1#hfa and in the province of ,antioquia in ,new ,granada4#hfb ,if it is wild in the last-named localities as well as in the ,west ,indies1 its area probably extends into several states of ,central ,america and of ,new ,granada4 ,although the bullock's heart is not much esteemed as a fruit1 the species has been introduced into most tropical colonies4 ,rheede and ,rumphius found it in plantations in ,southern ,asia4 ,according to ,welwitsch1 it has naturalized itself from cultivation in ,angola1 in ,western ,africa1#hfc and this has also taken place in ,british ,india4#hfd ,chirimoya--,anona ,cherimolia1 ,lamarck4 ,the chirimoya is not so generally cultivated in the colonies as the preceding species1 although the fruit is excellent4 ,this is probably the reason that there is no illustration of the fruit better than that of ,feuille 7,obs41 iii4 pl4 #ag71 while the flower is well represented in pl4 #bjaa of the ,botanical ,magazine1 under the name of ,a4 tripetala4 ,in #ahee1 ,i wrote as follows1 touching the origin of the species3#hfe 8,the chirimoya is mentioned by ,lamarck and ,dunal as growing in ,peru2 but ,feuille1 who was the first to speak of it1#hff says that it is cultivated4 ,macfadyen#hfg says it abounds in the ,port ,royal ,mountains1 ,jamaica2 but he adds that it came originally from ,peru1 and must have been introduced long ago1 whence it appears that the species is cultivated in the higher plantations1 rather than wild4 ,sloane does not mention it4 ,humboldt and ,bonpland saw it cultivated in ,venezuela and ,new ,granada2 ,martius in ,brazil1#hfh where the seeds had been introduced from ,peru4 ,the species is cultivated in the ,cape ,verde ,islands1 and on the coast of ,guinea1#hfi but it does not appear to have been introduced into ,asia4 ,its ,american origin is evident4 ,i might even go further1 and assert that it is a native of ,peru1 rather than of ,new ,granada or ,mexico4 ,it will probably be found wild in one of these countries4 ,meyen has not brought it from ,peru40#hgj ,my doubts are now lessened1 thanks to a kind communication from ,m4 ,ed4 ,andr4 ,i may mention first1 that ,i have seen specimens from ,mexico gathered by ,botteri and ,bourgeau1 and that authors often speak of finding the species in this region1 in the ,west ,indies1 in ,central ,america1 and ,new ,granada4 ,it is true1 they do not say that it is wild4 ,on the contrary1 they remark that it is cultivated1 or that it has escaped from gardens and become naturalized4#hga ,grisebach asserts that it is wild from ,peru to ,mexico1 but he gives no proof4 ,andr gathered1 in a valley in the south-west of ,ecuador1 specimens which certainly belong to the species as far as it can be asserted without seeing the fruit4 ,he says nothing as to its wild nature1 but the care with which he points out in other cases plants cultivated or perhaps escaped from cultivation1 leads me to think that he regards these specimens as wild4 ,claude ,gay says that the species has been cultivated in ,chili from time immemorial4#hgb ,however1 ,molina1 who mentions several fruit-trees in the ancient plantations of the country1 does not speak of it4#hgc ,in conclusion1 ,i consider it most probable that the species is indigenous in ,ecuador1 and perhaps in the neighbouring part of ,peru4 ,oranges and ,lemons--,citrus1 ,linnus4 ,the different varieties of citrons1 lemons1 oranges1 shaddocks1 etc41 cultivated in gardens have been the subject of remarkable works by several horticulturists1 among which ,gallesio and ,risso#hgd hold the first rank4 ,the difficulty of observing and classifying so many varieties was very great4 ,fair results have been obtained1 but it must be owned that the method was wrong from the beginning1 since the plants from which the observations were taken were all cultivated1 that is to say1 more or less artificial1 and perhaps in some cases hybrids4 ,botanists are now more fortunate4 ,thanks to the discoveries of travellers in ,british ,india1 they are able to distinguish the wild and therefore the true and natural species4 ,according to ,sir ,joseph ,hooker1#hge who was himself a collector in ,india1 the work of ,brandis#hgf is the best on the ,citrus of this region1 and he follows it in his flora4 ,i shall do likewise in default of a monograph of the genus1 remarking also that the multitude of garden varieties which have been described and figured for centuries1 ought to be identified as far as possible with the wild species4#hgg ,the same species1 and perhaps others also1 probably grow wild in ,cochin-,china and in ,china2 but this has not been proved in the country itself1 nor by means of specimens examined by botanists4 ,perhaps the important works of ,pierre1 now in course of publication1 will give information on this head for ,cochin-,china4 ,with regard to ,china1 ,i will quote the following passage from ,dr4 ,bretschneider1#hgh which is interesting from the special knowledge of the writer3--8,oranges1 of which there are a great variety in ,china1 are counted by the ,chinese among their wild fruits4 ,it cannot be doubted that most of them are indigenous1 and have been cultivated from very early times4 ,the proof of this is that each species or variety bears a distinct name1 besides being in most cases represented by a particular character1 and is mentioned in the ,shu-king1 ,rh-ya1 and other ancient works40 ,men and birds disperse the seeds of ,aurantiace1 whence results the extension of its area1 and its naturalization in all the warm regions of the two worlds4 ,it was observed#hgi in ,america from the first century after the conquest1 and now groves of orange trees have sprung up even in the south of the ,united ,states4 ,shaddock--,citrus decumana1 ,willdenow4 ,i take this species first1 because its botanical character is more marked than that of the others4 ,it is a larger tree1 and this species alone has down on the young shoots and the under sides of the leaves4 ,the fruit is spherical1 or nearly spherical1 larger than an orange1 sometimes even as large as a man's head4 ,the juice is slightly acid1 the rind remarkably thick4 ,good illustrations of the fruit may be seen in ,duhamel1 ,trait des ,arbres1 edit4 #b1 vii4 pl4 #db1 and in ,tussac1 ,flore des ,antilles1 iii4 pls4 #ag1 #ah4 ,the number of varieties in the ,malay ,archipelago indicates an ancient cultivation4 ,its original country is not yet accurately known1 because the trees which appear indigenous may be the result of naturalization1 following frequent cultivation4 ,roxburgh says that the species was brought to ,calcutta from ,java1#hhj and ,rumphius#hha believed it to be a native of ,southern ,china4 ,neither he nor modern botanists saw it wild in the ,malay ,archipelago4#hhb ,in ,china the species has a simple name1 yu2 but its written character#hhc appears too complicated for a truly indigenous plant4 ,according to ,loureiro1 the tree is common in ,china and ,cochin-,china1 but this does not imply that it is wild4#hhd ,it is in the islands to the east of the ,malay ,archipelago that the clearest indications of a wild existence are found4 ,forster#hhe formerly said of this species1 8very common in the ,friendly ,isles40 ,seemann#hhf is yet more positive about the ,fiji ,isles4 8,extremely common10 he says1 8and covering the banks of the rivers40 ,it would be strange if a tree1 so much cultivated in the south of ,asia1 should have become naturalized to such a degree in certain islands of the ,pacific1 while it has scarcely been seen elsewhere4 ,it is probably indigenous to them1 and may perhaps yet be discovered wild in some islands nearer to ,java4 ,the ,french name1 pompelmouse1 is from the ,dutch pompelmoes4 ,shaddock was the name of a captain who first introduced the species into the ,west ,indies4#hhg ,citron1 ,lemon--,citrus medica1 ,linnus4 ,this tree1 like the common orange1 is glabrous in all its parts4 ,its fruit1 longer than it is wide1 is surmounted in most of its varieties by a sort of nipple4 ,the juice is more or less acid4 ,the young shoots and the petals are frequently tinted red4 ,the rind of the fruit is often rough1 and very thick in some sub-varieties4#hhh ,brandis and ,sir ,joseph ,hooker distinguish four cultivated varieties3-- #a4 ,citrus medica proper 7citron in ,english1 cedratier in ,french1 cedro in ,italian71 with large1 not spherical fruit1 whose highly aromatic rind is covered with lumps1 and of which the juice is neither abundant nor very acid4 ,according to ,brandis1 it was called vijapra in ,sanskrit4 #b4 ,citrus medica ,limonum 7citronnier in ,french1 lemon in ,english74 ,fruit of average size1 not spherical1 and abundant acid juice4 #c4 ,citrus medica acida 7,c4 acida1 ,roxburgh74 ,lime in ,english4 ,small flowers1 fruit small and variable in shape1 juice very acid4 ,according to ,brandis1 the ,sanskrit name was jambira4 #d4 ,citrus medica ,limetta 7,c4 ,limetta and ,c4 ,lumia of ,risso71 with flowers like those of the preceding variety1 but with spherical fruit and sweet1 non-aromatic juice4 ,in ,india it is called the sweet lime4 ,the botanist ,wight affirms that this last variety is wild in the ,nilgherry ,hills4 ,other forms1 which answer more or less exactly to the three other varieties1 have been found wild by several ,anglo-,indian botanists#hhi in the warm districts at the foot of the ,himalayas1 from ,garwal to ,sikkim1 in the south-east at ,chittagong and in ,burmah1 and in the south-west in the western ,ghauts and the ,satpura ,mountains4 ,from this it cannot be doubted that the species is indigenous in ,india1 and even under different forms of prehistoric antiquity4 ,i doubt whether its area includes ,china or the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,loureiro mentions ,citrus medica in ,cochin-,china only as a cultivated plant1 and ,bretschneider tells us that the lemon has ,chinese names which do not exist in the ancient writings1 and for which the written characters are complicated1 indications of a foreign species4 ,it may1 he says1 have been introduced4 ,in ,japan the species is only a cultivated one4#hij ,lastly1 several of ,rumphius' illustrations show varieties cultivated in the ,sunda ,islands1 but none of these are considered by the author as really wild and indigenous to the country4 ,to indicate the locality1 he sometimes used the expression 8in hortis sylvestribus10 which might be translated shrubberies4 ,speaking of his ,lemon sussu 7vol4 ii4 pl4 #be71 which is a ,citrus medica with ellipsoidal acid fruit1 he says it has been introduced into ,amboyna1 but that it is commoner in ,java1 8usually in forests40 ,this may be the result of an accidental naturalization from cultivation4 ,miquel1 in his modern flora of the ,dutch ,indies1#hia does not hesitate to say that ,citrus medica and ,c4 ,limonum are only cultivated in the archipelago4 ,the cultivation of more or less acid varieties spread into ,western ,asia at an early date1 at least into ,mesopotamia and ,media4 ,this can hardly be doubted1 for two varieties had ,sanskrit names2 and1 moreover1 the ,greeks knew the fruit through the ,medes1 whence the name ,citrus medica4 ,theophrastus#hib was the first to speak of it under the name of apple of ,media and of ,persia1 in a phrase often repeated and commented on in the last two centuries4#hic ,it evidently applies to ,citrus medica2 but while he explains how the seed is first sown in vases1 to be afterwards transplanted1 the author does not say whether this was the ,greek custom1 or whether he was describing the practice of the ,medes4 ,probably the citron was not then cultivated in ,greece1 for the ,romans did not grow it in their gardens at the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,dioscorides1#hid born in ,cilicia1 and who wrote in the first century1 speaks of it in almost the same terms as ,theophrastus4 ,it is supposed that the species was1 after many attempts1#hie cultivated in ,italy in the third or fourth century4 ,palladius1 in the fifth century1 speaks of it as well established4 ,the ignorance of the ,romans of the classic period touching foreign plants has caused them to confound1 under the name of lignum citreum1 the wood of ,citrus1 with that of ,cedrus1 of which fine tables were made1 and which was a cedar1 or a ,thuya1 of the totally different family of ,conifer4 ,the ,hebrews must have known the citron before the ,romans1 because of their frequent relations with ,persia1 ,media and the adjacent countries4 ,the custom of the modern ,jews of presenting themselves at the synagogue on the day of the ,feast of ,tabernacles1 with a citron in their hand1 gave rise to the belief that the word hadar in ,leviticus signified lemon or citron2 but ,risso has shown1 by comparing the ancient texts1 that it signifies a fine fruit1 or the fruit of a fine tree4 ,he even thinks that the ,hebrews did not know the citron or lemon at the beginning of our era1 because the ,septuagint ,version translates hadar by fruit of a fine tree4 ,nevertheless1 as the ,greeks had seen the citron in ,media and in ,persia in the time of ,theophrastus1 three centuries before ,christ1 it would be strange if the ,hebrews had not become acquainted with it at the time of the ,babylonish ,captivity4 ,besides1 the historian ,josephus says that in his time the ,jews bore ,persian apples1 malum persicum1 at their feasts1 one of the ,greek names for the citron4 ,the varieties with very acid fruit1 like ,limonum and acida1 did not perhaps attract attention so early as the citron1 however the strongly aromatic odour mentioned by ,dioscorides and ,theophrastus appears to indicate them4 ,the ,arabs extended the cultivation of the lemon in ,africa and ,europe4 ,according to ,gallesio1 they transported it1 in the tenth century of our era1 from the gardens of ,oman into ,palestine and ,egypt4 ,jacques de ,vitry1 in the thirteenth century1 well described the lemon which he had seen in ,palestine4 ,an author named ,falcando mentions in #abfj some very acid 8lumias0 which were cultivated near ,palermo1 and ,tuscany had them also towards the same period4#hif ,orange--,citrus ,aurantium1 ,linnus 7excl4 var4 72 ,citrus ,aurantium1 ,risso4 ,oranges are distinguished from shaddocks 7,c4 decumana7 by the complete absence of down on the young shoots and leaves1 by their smaller fruit1 always spherical1 and by a thinner rind4 ,they differ from lemons and citrons in their pure white flowers2 in the fruit1 which is never elongated1 and without a nipple on the summit2 in the rind1 smooth or nearly so1 and adhering but lightly to the pulp4 ,neither ,risso1 in his excellent monograph of ,citrus1 nor modern authors1 as ,brandis and ,sir ,joseph ,hooker1 have been able to discover any other character than the taste to distinguish the sweet orange from more or less bitter fruits4 ,this difference appeared to me of such slight importance from the botanical point of view1 when ,i studied the question of origin in #ahee1 that ,i was inclined1 with ,risso1 to consider these two sorts of orange as simple varieties4 ,modern ,anglo-,indian authors do the same4 ,they add a third variety1 which they call ,bergamia1 for the bergamot orange1 of which the flower is smaller1 and the fruit spherical or pyriform1 and smaller than the common orange1 aromatic and slightly acid4 ,this last form has not been found wild1 and appears to me to be rather a product of cultivation4 ,it is often asked whether the seeds of sweet oranges yield sweet oranges1 and of bitter1 bitter oranges4 ,it matters little from the point of view of the distinction into species or varieties1 for we know that both in the animal and vegetable kingdoms all characters are more or less hereditary1 that certain varieties are habitually so1 to such a degree that they should be called races1 and that the distinction into species must consequently be founded upon other considerations1 such as the absence of intermediate forms1 or the failure of crossed fertilization to produce fertile hybrids4 ,however1 the question is not devoid of interest in the present case1 and ,i must answer that experiments have given results which are at times contradictory4 ,gallesio1 an excellent observer1 expresses himself as follows3--8,i have during a long series of years sown pips of sweet oranges1 taken sometimes from the natural tree1 sometimes from oranges grafted on bitter orange trees or lemon trees4 ,the result has always been trees bearing sweet fruit2 and the same has been observed for more than sixty years by all the gardeners of ,finale4 ,there is no instance of a bitter orange tree from seed of sweet oranges1 nor of a sweet orange tree from the seed of bitter oranges4444 ,in #agji1 the orange trees of ,finale having been killed by frost1 the practice of raising sweet orange trees from seed was introduced1 and every one of these plants produced the sweet-juiced fruit40#hig ,macfadyen1#hih on the contrary1 in his ,flora of ,jamaica1 says1 8,it is a well-established fact1 familiar to every one who has been any length of time in this island1 that the seed of the sweet orange very frequently grows up into a tree bearing the bitter fruit1 numerous well-attested instances of which have come to my own knowledge4 ,i am not aware1 however1 that the seed of the bitter orange has ever grown up into the sweet-fruited variety4444 ,we may therefore conclude10 the author judiciously goes on to say1 8that the bitter orange was the original stock40 ,he asserts that in calcareous soil the sweet orange may be raised from seed1 but that in other soils it produces fruits more or less sour or bitter4 ,duchassaing says that in ,guadeloupe the seeds of sweet oranges often yield bitter fruit1#hii while1 according to ,dr4 ,ernst1 at ,caracas they sometimes yield sour but not bitter fruit4#ijj ,brandis relates that at ,khasia1 in ,india1 as far as he can verify the fact1 the extensive plantations of sweet oranges are from seed4 ,these differences show the variable degree of heredity1 and confirm the opinion that these two kinds of orange should be considered as two varieties1 not two species4 ,i am1 however1 obliged to take them in succession1 to explain their origin and the extent of their cultivation at different epochs4 ,bitter ,orange--,arancio forte in ,italian1 bigaradier in ,french1 pomeranze in ,german4 ,citrus vulgaris1 ,risso2 ,c4 aurantium 7var4 bigaradia71 ,brandis and ,hooker4 ,it was unknown to the ,greeks and ,romans1 as well as the sweet orange4 ,as they had had communication with ,india and ,ceylon1 ,gallesio supposed that these trees were not cultivated in their time in the west of ,india4 ,he had studied from this point of view1 ancient travellers and geographers1 such as ,diodorus ,siculus1 ,nearchus1 ,arianus1 and he finds no mention of the orange in them4 ,however1 there was a ,sanskrit name for the orange--nagarunga1 nagrunga4#ija ,it is from this that the word orange came1 for the ,hindus turned it into narungee 7pron4 naroudji71 according to ,royle1 nerunga according to ,piddington2 the ,arabs into narunj1 according to ,gallesio1 the ,italians into naranzi1 arangi1 and in the medival ,latin it was arancium1 arangium1 afterwards aurantium4#ijb ,but did the ,sanskrit name apply to the bitter or to the sweet orange8 ,the philologist ,adolphe ,pictet formerly gave me some curious information on this head4 ,he had sought in ,sanskrit works the descriptive names given to the orange or to the tree1 and had found seventeen1 which all allude to the colour1 the odour1 its acid nature 7danta catha1 harmful to the teeth71 the place of growth1 etc41 never to a sweet or agreeable taste4 ,this multitude of names similar to epithets show that the fruit had long been known1 but that its taste was very different to that of the sweet orange4 ,besides1 the ,arabs1 who carried the orange tree with them towards the ,west1 were first acquainted with the bitter orange1 and gave it the name narunj1#ijc and their physicians from the tenth century prescribed the bitter juice of this fruit4#ijd ,the exhaustive researches of ,gallesio show that after the fall of the ,empire the species advanced from the coast of the ,persian ,gulf1 and by the end of the ninth century had reached ,arabia1 through ,oman1 ,bassora1 ,irak1 and ,syria1 according to the ,arabian author ,massoudi4 ,the ,crusaders saw the bitter orange tree in ,palestine4 ,it was cultivated in ,sicily from the year #ajjb1 probably a result of the incursions of the ,arabs4 ,it was they who introduced it into ,spain1 and most likely also into the east of ,africa4 ,the ,portuguese found it on that coast when they doubled the ,cape in #adih4ije ,there is no ground for supposing that either the bitter or the sweet orange existed in ,africa before the ,middle ,ages1 for the myth of the garden of ,hesperides may refer to any species of the order ,aurantiace1 and its site is altogether arbitrary1 since the imagination of the ancients was wonderfully fertile4 ,the early ,anglo-,indian botanists1 such as ,roxburgh1 ,royle1 ,griffith1 ,wight1 had not come across the bitter orange wild2 but there is every probability that the eastern region of ,india was its original country4 ,wallich mentions ,silhet1#ijf but without asserting that the species was wild in this locality4 ,later1 ,sir ,joseph ,hooker#ijg saw the bitter orange certainly wild in several districts to the south of the ,himalayas1 from ,garwal and ,sikkim as far as ,khasia4 ,the fruit was spherical or slightly flattened1 two inches in diameter1 bright in colour1 and uneatable1 of mawkish and bitter taste 78if ,i remember right10 says the author74 ,citrus fusca1 ,loureiro1#ijh similar1 he says1 to pl4 #bc of ,rumphius1 and wild in ,cochin-,china and ,china1 may very likely be the bitter orange whose area extends to the east4 ,sweet ,orange--,italian1 ,arancio dolce2 ,german1 ,apfelsine4 ,citrus ,aurantium sinense1 ,gallesio4 ,royle#iji says that sweet oranges grow wild at ,silhet and in the ,nilgherry ,hills1 but his assertion is not accompanied with sufficient detail to give it importance4 ,according to the same author1 ,turner's expedition gathered 8delicious0 wild oranges at ,buxedwar1 a locality to the north-east of ,rungpoor1 in the province of ,bengal4 ,on the other hand1 ,brandis and ,sir ,joseph ,hooker do not mention the sweet orange as wild in ,british ,india2 they only give it as cultivated4 ,kurz does not mention it in his forest flora of ,british ,burmah4 ,further east1 in ,cochin-,china1 ,loureiro#iaj describes a ,c4 ,aurantium1 with bitter-sweet 7acido-dulcis7 pulp1 which appears to be the sweet orange1 and which is found both wild and cultivated in ,china and ,cochin-,china4 ,chinese authors consider orange trees in general as natives of their country1 but precise information about each species and variety is wanting on this head4 ,from the collected facts1 it seems that the sweet orange is a native of ,southern ,china and of ,cochin-,china1 with a doubtful and accidental extension of area by seed into ,india4 ,by seeking in what country it was first cultivated1 and how it was propagated1 some light may be thrown upon the origin1 and upon the distinction between the bitter and sweet orange4 ,so large a fruit1 and one so agreeable to the palate as the sweet orange1 can hardly have existed in any district1 without some attempts having been made to cultivate it4 ,it is easily raised from seed1 and nearly always produces the wished-for quality4 ,neither can ancient travellers and historians have neglected to notice the introduction of so remarkable a fruit tree4 ,on this historical point ,gallesio's study of ancient authors has produced extremely interesting results4 ,he first proves that the orange trees brought from ,india by the ,arabs into ,palestine1 ,egypt1 the south of ,europe1 and the east coast of ,africa1 were not the sweet-fruited tree4 ,up to the fifteenth century1 ,arab books and chronicles only mention bitter1 or sour oranges4 ,however1 when the ,portuguese arrived in the islands of ,southern ,asia1 they found the sweet orange1 and apparently it had not previously been unknown to them4 ,the ,florentine who accompanied ,vasco de ,gama1 and who published an account of the voyage1 says1 8,sonvi melarancie assai1 ma tutte dolci0 7there are plenty of oranges1 but all sweet47 ,neither this writer nor subsequent travellers expressed surprise at the pleasant taste of the fruit4 ,hence ,gallesio infers that the ,portuguese were not the first to bring the sweet orange from ,india1 which they reached in #adih1 nor from ,china1 which they reached in #aeah4 ,besides1 a number of writers in the beginning of the sixteenth century speak of the sweet orange as a fruit already cultivated in ,spain and ,italy4 ,there are several testimonies for the years #aebc1 and #aebe4 ,gallesio goes no further than the idea that the sweet orange was introduced into ,europe towards the beginning of the fifteenth century2#iaa but ,targioni quotes from ,valeriani a statute of ,fermo1 of the fourteenth century1 referring to citrons1 sweet oranges1 etc42#iab and the information recently collected from early authors by ,goeze1#iac about the introduction into ,spain and ,portugal1 agrees with this date4 ,it therefore appears to me probable that the oranges imported later from ,china by the ,portuguese were only of better quality than those already known in ,europe1 and that the common expressions1 ,portugal and ,lisbon oranges1 are due to this circumstance4 ,if the sweet orange had been cultivated at a very early date in ,india1 it would have had a special name in ,sanskrit2 the ,greeks would have known it after ,alexander's expedition1 and the ,hebrews would have early received it through ,mesopotamia4 ,this fruit would certainly have been valued1 cultivated1 and propagated in the ,roman empire1 in preference to the lemon1 citron1 and bitter orange4 ,its existence in ,india must1 therefore1 be less ancient4 ,in the ,malay ,archipelago the sweet orange was believed to come from ,china4#iad ,it was but little diffused in the ,pacific ,isles at the time of ,cook's voyages4#iae ,we come back thus by all sorts of ways to the idea that the sweet variety of the orange came from ,china and ,cochin-,china1 and that it spread into ,india perhaps towards the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,it may have become naturalized from cultivation in many parts of ,india and in all tropical countries1 but we have seen that the seed does not always yield trees bearing sweet fruit4 ,this defect in heredity in certain cases is in support of the theory that the sweet orange was derived from the bitter1 at some remote epoch1 in ,china or ,cochin-,china1 and has since been carefully propagated on account of its horticultural value4 ,mandarin--,citrus nobilis1 ,loureiro4 ,this species1 characterized by its smaller fruit1 uneven on the surface1 spherical1 but flattened at the top1 and of a peculiar flavour1 is now prized in ,europe as it has been from the earliest times in ,china and ,cochin-,china4 ,the ,chinese call it kan4#iaf ,rumphius had seen it cultivated in all the ,sunda ,islands1#iag and says that it was introduced thither from ,china1 but it had not spread into ,india4 ,roxburgh and ,sir ,joseph ,hooker do not mention it1 but ,clarke informs me that its culture has been greatly extended in the district of ,khasia4 ,it was new to ,european gardens at the beginning of the present century1 when ,andrews published a good illustration of it in the ,botanist's ,repository 7pl4 #fjh74 ,according to ,loureiro1#iah this tree1 of average size1 grows in ,cochin-,china1 and also1 he adds1 in ,china1 although he had not seen it in ,canton4 ,this is not very precise information as to its wild character1 but no other origin can be supposed4 ,according to ,kurz1#iai the species is only cultivated in ,british ,burmah4 ,if this is confirmed1 its area would be restricted to ,cochin-,china and a few provinces in ,china4 ,mangosteen--,garcinia mangostana1 ,linnus4 ,there is a good illustration in the ,botanical ,magazine1 pl4 #dhdg1 of this tree1 belonging to the order ,guttifer1 of which the fruit is considered one of the best in existence4 ,it demands a very hot climate1 for ,roxburgh could not make it grow north of twenty-three and a half degrees of latitude in ,india1#ibj and1 transported to ,jamaica1 it bears but poor fruit4#iba ,it is cultivated in the ,sunda ,islands1 in the ,malay ,peninsula1 and in ,ceylon4 ,the species is certainly wild in the forests of the ,sunda ,islands#ibb and of the ,malay ,peninsula4#ibc ,among cultivated plants it is one of the most local1 both in its origin1 habitation1 and in cultivation4 ,it belongs1 it is true1 to one of those families in which the mean area of the species is most restricted4 ,mamey1 or ,mammee ,apple--,mammea ,americana1 ,jacquin4 ,this tree1 of the order ,guttifer1 requires1 like the mangosteen1 great heat4 ,although much cultivated in the ,west ,indies and in the hottest parts of ,venezuela1#ibd its culture has seldom been attempted1 or has met with but little success1 in ,asia and ,africa1 if we are to judge by the silence of most authors4 ,it is certainly indigenous in the forests of most of the ,west ,indies4#ibe ,jacquin mentions it also for the neighbouring continent1 but ,i do not find this confirmed by modern authors4 ,the best illustration is that in ,tussac's ,flore des ,antilles1 iii4 pl4 #g1 and this author gives a number of details respecting the use of the fruit4 ,ochro1 or ,gombo--,hibiscus esculentus1 ,linnus4 ,the young fruits of this annual1 of the order of ,malvace1 form one of the most delicate of tropical vegetables4 ,tussac's ,flore des ,antilles contains a fine plate of the species1 and gives all the details a gourmet could desire on the manner of preparing the caloulou1 so much esteemed by the creoles of the ,french colonies4 ,when ,i formerly#ibf tried to discover whence this plant1 cultivated in the old and new worlds1 came originally1 the absence of a ,sanskrit name1 and the fact that the first writers on the ,indian flora had not seen it wild1 led me to put aside the hypothesis of an ,asiatic origin4 ,however1 as the modern flora of ,british ,india#ibg mentions it as 8probably of native origin10 ,i was constrained to make further researches4 ,although ,southern ,asia has been thoroughly explored during the last thirty years1 no locality is mentioned where the ,gombo is wild or half wild4 ,there is no indication1 even1 of an ancient cultivation in ,asia4 ,the doubt1 therefore1 lies between ,africa and ,america4 ,the plant has been seen wild in the ,west ,indies by a good observer1#ibh but ,i can discover no similar assertion on the part of any other botanist1 either with respect to the islands or to the ,american continent4 ,the earliest writer on ,jamaica1 ,sloane1 had only seen the species in a state of cultivation4 ,marcgraf#ibi had observed it in ,brazilian plantations1 and as he mentions a name from the ,congo and ,angola country1 quillobo1 which the ,portuguese corrupted into quingombo1 the ,african origin is hereby indicated4 ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson#icj saw the plant wild in the ,nile ,valley in ,nubia1 ,kordofan1 ,senaar1 ,abyssinia1 and in the ,baar-el-,abiad1 where1 indeed1 it is cultivated4 ,other travellers are mentioned as having gathered specimens in ,africa1 but it is not specified whether these plants were cultivated or wild at a distance from habitations4 ,we should still be in doubt if ,flckiger and ,hanbury#ica had not made a bibliographical discovery which settles the question4 ,the ,arabs call the fruit bamyah1 or bmiat1 and ,abul-,abas-,elnabati1 who visited ,egypt long before the discovery of ,america1 in #abaf1 has distinctly described the gombo then cultivated by the ,egyptians4 ,in spite of its undoubtedly ,african origin1 it does not appear that the species was cultivated in ,lower ,egypt before the ,arab rule4 ,no proof has been found in ancient monuments1 although ,rosellini thought he recognized the plant in a drawing1 which differs widely from it according to ,unger4#icb ,the existence of one name in modern ,indian languages1 according to ,piddington1 confirms the idea of its propagation towards the ,east after the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,vine--,vitis vinifera1 ,linnus4 ,the vine grows wild in the temperate regions of ,western ,asia1 ,southern ,europe1 ,algeria1 and ,marocco4#icc ,it is especially in the ,pontus1 in ,armenia1 to the south of the ,caucasus and of the ,caspian ,sea1 that it grows with the luxuriant wildness of a tropical creeper1 clinging to tall trees and producing abundant fruit without pruning or cultivation4 ,its vigorous growth is mentioned in ancient ,bactriana1 ,cabul1 ,kashmir1 and even in ,badakkhan to the north of the ,hindu ,koosh4#icd ,of course1 it is a question whether the plants found there1 as elsewhere1 are not sprung from seeds carried from vineyards by birds4 ,i notice1 however1 that the most trustworthy botanists1 those who have most thoroughly explored the ,transcaucasian provinces of ,russia1 do not hesitate to say that the plant is wild and indigenous in this region4 ,it is as we advance towards ,india and ,arabia1 ,europe and the north of ,africa1 that we frequently find in floras the expression that the vine is 8subspontaneous10 perhaps wild1 or become wild 7verwildert is the expressive ,german term74 ,the dissemination by birds must have begun very early1 as soon as the fruit existed1 before cultivation1 before the migration of the most ancient ,asiatic peoples1 perhaps before the existence of man in ,europe or even in ,asia4 ,nevertheless1 the frequency of cultivation1 and the multitude of forms of the cultivated grape1 may have extended naturalization and introduced among wild vines varieties which originated in cultivation4 ,in fact1 natural agents1 such as birds1 winds1 and currents1 have always widened the area of species1 independently of man1 as far as the limits imposed in each age by geographical and physical conditions1 together with the hostile action of other plants and animals1 allow4 ,an absolutely primitive habitation is more or less mythical1 but habitations successively extended or restricted are in accordance with the nature of things4 ,they constitute areas more or less ancient and real1 provided that the species has maintained itself wild without the constant addition of fresh seed4 ,concerning the vine1 we have proofs of its great antiquity in ,europe as in ,asia4 ,seeds of the grape have been found in the lake-dwellings of ,castione1 near ,parma1 which date from the age of bronze1#ice in a prehistoric settlement of ,lake ,varese1#icf and in the lake-dwellings of ,wangen1 ,switzerland1 but in the latter instance at an uncertain depth4#icg ,and1 what is more1 vine-leaves have been found in the tufa round ,montpellier1 where they were probably deposited before the historical epoch1 and in the tufa of ,meyrargue in ,provence1 which is certainly prehistoric1#ich though later than the tertiary epoch of geologists4#ici ,a ,russian botanist1 ,kolenati1#idj has made some very interesting observations on the different varieties of the vine1 both wild and cultivated1 in the country which may be called the central1 and perhaps the most ancient home of the species1 the south of the ,caucasus4 ,i consider his opinion the more important that the author has based his classification of varieties with reference to the downy character and veining of the leaves1 points absolutely indifferent to cultivators1 and which consequently must far better represent the natural conditions of the plant4 ,he says that the wild vines1 of which he had seen an immense quantity between the ,black and ,caspian ,seas1 may be grouped into two sub-species which he describes1 and declares are recognizable at a distance1 and which are the point of departure of cultivated vines1 at least in ,armenia and the neighbourhood4 ,he recognized them near ,mount ,ararat1 at an altitude where the vine is not cultivated1 where1 indeed1 it could not be cultivated4 ,other characters--for instance1 the shape and colour of the grapes--vary in each of the sub-species4 ,we cannot enter here into the purely botanical details of ,kolenati's paper1 any more than into those of ,regel's more recent work on the genus ,vitis2#ida but it is well to note that a species cultivated from a very remote epoch1 and which has perhaps two thousand described varieties1 presents in the district where it is most ancient1 and probably presented before all cultivation1 at least two principal forms1 with others of minor importance4 ,if the wild vines of ,persia and ,kashmir1 of ,lebanon and ,greece1 were observed with the same care1 perhaps other sub-species of prehistoric antiquity might be found4 ,the idea of collecting the juice of the grape and of allowing it to ferment may have occurred to different peoples1 principally in ,western ,asia1 where the vine abounds and thrives4 ,adolphe ,pictet1#idb who has1 in common with numerous authors1 but in a more scientific manner1 considered the historical1 philological1 and even mythological questions relating to the vine among ancient peoples1 admits that both ,semitic and ,aryan nations knew the use of wine1 so that they may have introduced it into all the countries into which they migrated1 into ,india and ,egypt and ,europe4 ,this they were the better able to do1 since they found the vine wild in several of these regions4 ,the records of the cultivation of the grape and of the making of wine in ,egypt go back five or six thousand years4#idc ,in the ,west the propagation of its culture by the ,phnicians1 ,greeks1 and ,romans is pretty well known1 but to the east of ,asia it took place at a late period4 ,the ,chinese who now cultivate the vine in their northern provinces did not possess it earlier than the year #abb ,b4,c4#idd ,it is known that several wild vines exist in the north of ,china1 but ,i cannot agree with ,m4 ,regel in considering ,vitis ,amurensis1 ,ruprecht1 the one most analogous to our vine1 as identical in species4 ,the seeds drawn in the ,gartenflora1 #ahfa1 pl4 #cc1 differ too widely4 ,if the fruit of these vines of ,eastern ,asia had any value1 the ,chinese would certainly have turned them to account4 ,common ,jujube--,zizyphus vulgaris1 ,lamarck4 ,according to ,pliny1#ide the jujube tree was brought from ,syria to ,rome by the consul ,sextus ,papinius1 towards the end of the reign of ,augustus4 ,botanists1 however1 have observed that the species is common in rocky places in ,italy1#idf and that1 moreover1 it has not yet been found wild in ,syria1 although it is cultivated there1 as in the whole region extending from the ,mediterranean to ,china and ,japan4#idg ,the result of the search for the origin of the jujube tree as a wild plant bears out ,pliny's assertion1 in spite of the objections ,i have just mentioned4 ,according to plant collectors and authors of floras1 the species appears to be more wild and more anciently cultivated in the east than in the west of its present wide area4 ,thus1 in the north of ,china1 de ,bunge says it is 8very common and very troublesome 7on account of its thorns7 in mountainous places40 ,he had seen the thornless variety in gardens4 ,bretschneider#idh mentions the jujube as one of the fruits most prized by the ,chinese1 who give it the simple name tsao4 ,he also mentions the two varieties1 with and without thorns1 the former wild4#idi ,the species does not grow in the south of ,china and in ,india proper1 because of the heat and moisture of the climate4 ,it is found again wild in the ,punjab1 in ,persia1 and ,armenia4 ,brandis#iej gives seven different names for the jujube tree 7or for its varieties7 in modern ,indian languages1 but no ,sanskrit name is known4 ,the species was therefore probably introduced into ,india from ,china1 at no very distant epoch1 and it must have escaped from cultivation and have become wild in the dry provinces of the west4 ,the ,persian name is anob1 the ,arabic unab4 ,no ,hebrew name is known1 a further sign that the species is not very ancient in the west of ,asia4 ,the ancient ,greeks do not mention the common jujube1 but only another species1 ,zizyphus lotus4 ,at least1 such is the opinion of the critic and modern botanist1 ,lenz4#iea ,it must be confessed that the modern ,greek name pritzuphuia has no connection with the names formerly attributed in ,theophrastus and ,dioscorides to some ,zizyphus1 but is allied to the ,latin name zizyphus 7fruit zizyphum7 of ,pliny1 which does not occur in earlier authors1 and seems to be rather of an ,oriental than of a ,latin character4 ,heldreich#ieb does not admit that the jujube tree is wild in ,greece1 and others say 8naturalized1 half-wild10 which confirms the hypothesis of a recent introduction4 ,the same arguments apply to ,italy4 ,the species may have become naturalized there after the introduction into gardens mentioned by ,pliny4 ,in ,algeria the jujube is only cultivated or half-wild4#iec ,so also in ,spain4 ,it is not mentioned in ,marocco1 nor in the ,canary ,isles1 which argues no very ancient existence in the ,mediterranean basin4 ,it appears to me probable1 therefore1 that the species is a native of the north of ,china2 that it was introduced and became naturalized in the west of ,asia after the epoch of the ,sanskrit language1 perhaps two thousand five hundred or three thousand years ago2 that the ,greeks and ,romans became acquainted with it at the beginning of our era1 and that the latter carried it into ,barbary and ,spain1 where it became partially naturalized by the effect of cultivation4 ,lotus ,jujube--,zizyphus lotus1 ,desfontaines4 ,the fruit of this jujube is not worthy of attention except from an historical point of view4 ,it is said to have been the food of the lotus-eater1 a people of the ,lybian coast1 of whom ,herod and ,herodotos#ied have given a more or less accurate account4 ,the inhabitants of this country must have been very poor or very temperate1 for a berry the size of a small cherry1 tasteless1 or slightly sweet1 would not satisfy ordinary men4 ,there is no proof that the lotus-eaters cultivated this little tree or shrub4 ,they doubtless gathered the fruit in the open country1 for the species is common in the north of ,africa4 ,one edition of ,theophrastus#iee asserts1 however1 that there were some species of lotus without stones1 which would imply cultivation4 ,they were planted in gardens1 as is still done in modern ,egypt1#ief but it does not seem to have been a common custom even among the ancients4 ,for the rest1 widely different opinions have been held touching the lotus of the lotus-eaters1#ieg and it is needless to insist upon a point so obscure1 in which so much must be allowed for the imagination of a poet and for popular ignorance4 ,the jujube tree is now wild in dry places from ,egypt to ,marocco1 in the south of ,spain1 ,terracina1 and the neighbourhood of ,palermo4#ieh ,in isolated ,italian localities it has probably escaped from cultivation4 ,indian ,jujube#iei--,zizyphus jujube1 ,lamarck2 ber among the ,hindus and ,anglo-,indians1 masson in the ,mauritius4 ,this jujube is cultivated further south than the common kind1 but its area is equally extensive4 ,the fruit is sometimes like an unripe cherry1 sometimes like an olive1 as is shown in the plate published by ,bouton in ,hooker's ,journal of ,botany1 i4 pl4 #adj4 ,the great number of known varieties indicates an ancient cultivation4 ,it extends at the present day from ,southern ,china1 the ,malay ,archipelago1 and ,queensland1 through ,arabia and ,egypt as far as ,marocco1 and even to ,senegal1 ,guinea1 and ,angola4#ifj ,it grows also in ,mauritius1 but it does not appear to have been introduced into ,america as yet1 unless perhaps into ,brazil1 as it seems from a specimen in my herbarium4#ifa ,the fruit is preferable to the common jujube1 according to some writers4 ,it is not easy to know what was the habitation of the species before all cultivation1 because the stones sow themselves readily and the plant becomes naturalized outside gardens4#ifb ,if we are guided by its abundance in a wild state1 it would seem that ,burmah and ,british ,india are its original abode4 ,i have in my herbarium several specimens gathered by ,wallich in the kingdom of ,burmah1 and ,kurz has often seen it in the dry forests of that country1 near ,ava and ,prome4#ifc ,beddone admits the species to be wild in the forests of ,british ,india1 but ,brandis had only found it in the neighbourhood of native settlements4#ifd ,in the seventeenth century ,rheede#ife described this tree as wild on the ,malabar coast1 and botanists of the sixteenth century had received it from ,bengal4 ,in support of an ,indian origin1 ,i may mention the existence of three ,sanskrit names1 and of eleven other names in modern ,indian languages4#iff ,it had been recently introduced into the eastern islands of the ,amboyna group when ,rumphius was living there1#ifg and he says himself that it is an ,indian species4 ,it was perhaps originally in ,sumatra and in other islands near to the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,ancient ,chinese authors do not mention it2 at least ,bretschneider did not know of it4 ,its extension and naturalization to the east of the continent of ,india appear1 therefore1 to have been recent4 ,its introduction into ,arabia and ,egypt appears to be of yet later date4 ,not only no ancient name is known1 but ,forskal1 a hundred years ago1 and ,delile at the beginning of the present century1 had not seen the species1 of which ,schweinfurth has recently spoken as cultivated4 ,it must have spread to ,zanzibar from ,asia1 and by degrees across ,africa or in ,european vessels as far as the west coast4 ,this must have been quite recently1 as ,robert ,brown 7,bot4 of ,congo7 and ,thonning did not see the species in ,guinea4#ifh ,cashew--,anacardium occidentale1 ,linnus4 ,the most erroneous assertions about the origin of this species were formerly made1#ifi and in spite of what ,i said on the subject in #ahee1igj ,i find them occasionally reproduced4 ,the ,french name ,pommier d'acajou 7mahogany apple tree7 is as absurd as it is possible to be4 ,it is a tree belonging to the order of ,terebintace or ,anacardiace1 very different from the ,rosace and the ,meliace1 to which the apple and the mahogany belong4 ,the edible part is more like a pear than an apple1 and botanically speaking is not a fruit1 but the receptacle or support of the fruit1 which resembles a large bean4 ,the two names1 ,french and ,english1 are both derived from a name given to it by the natives of ,brazil1 acaju1 acajaiba1 quoted by early travellers4#iga ,the species is certainly wild in the forests of tropical ,america1 and indeed occupies a wide area in that region2 it is found1 for example1 in ,brazil1 ,guiana1 the ,isthmus of ,panama1 and the ,west ,indies4#igb ,dr4 ,ernst#igc believes it is only indigenous in the basin of the ,amazon ,river1 although he had seen it also in ,cuba1 ,panama1 ,ecuador1 and ,new ,granada4 ,his opinion is founded upon the absence of all mention of the plant in ,spanish authors of the time of the ,conquest--a negative proof1 which establishes a mere probability4 ,rheede and ,rumphius had also indicated this plant in the south of ,asia4 ,the former says it is common on the ,malabar coast4#igd ,the existence of the same tropical arborescent species in ,asia and ,america was so little probable1 that it was at first suspected that there was a difference of species1 or at least of variety2 but this was not confirmed4 ,different historical and philological proofs have convinced me that its origin is not ,asiatic4#ige ,moreover1 ,rumphius1 who is always accurate1 spoke of an ancient introduction by the ,portuguese into the ,malay ,archipelago from ,america4 ,the ,malay name he gives1 cadju1 is ,american2 that used at ,amboyna means ,portugal fruit1 that of ,macassar was taken from the resemblance of the fruit to that of the jambosa4 ,rumphius says that the species was not widely diffused in the islands4 ,garcia ab ,orto did not find it at ,goa in #aeej1 but ,acosta afterwards saw it at ,couchin1 and the ,portuguese propagated it in ,india and the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,according to ,blume and ,miquel1 the species is only cultivated in ,java4 ,rheede1 it is true1 says it is abundant 7provenit ubique7 on the coast of ,malabar1 but he only quotes one name which seems to be ,indian1 kapa mava2 all the others are derived from the ,american name4 ,piddington gives no ,sanskrit name4 ,lastly1 ,anglo-,indian colonists1 after some hesitation as to its origin1 now admit the importation of the species from ,america at an early period4 ,they add that it has become naturalized in the forests of ,british ,india4#igf ,it is yet more doubtful that the tree is indigenous in ,africa1 indeed it is easy to disprove the assertion4 ,loureiro#igg had seen the species on the east coast of this continent1 but he supposed it to have been of ,american origin4 ,thonning had not seen it in ,guinea1 nor ,brown in ,congo4#igh ,it is true that specimens from the last-named country and from the islands in the ,gulf of ,guinea were sent to the herbarium at ,kew1 but ,oliver says it is cultivated there4#igi ,a tree which occupies such a large area in ,america1 and which has become naturalized in several districts of ,india within the last two centuries1 would exist over a great extent of tropical ,africa if it were indigenous in that quarter of the globe4 ,mango--,mangifera indica1 ,linnus4 ,belonging to the same order as the ,cashew1 this tree nevertheless produces a true fruit1 something the colour of the apricot4#ihj ,it is impossible to doubt that it is a native of the south of ,asia or of the ,malay ,archipelago1 when we see the multitude of varieties cultivated in these countries1 the number of ancient common names1 in particular a ,sanskrit name1#iha its abundance in the gardens of ,bengal1 of the ,dekkan ,peninsula1 and of ,ceylon1 even in ,rheede's time4 ,its cultivation was less diffused in the direction of ,china1 for ,loureiro only mentions its existence in ,cochin-,china4 ,according to ,rumphius1#ihb it had been introduced into certain islands of the ,asiatic ,archipelago within the memory of living men4 ,forster does not mention it in his work on the fruits of the ,pacific ,islands at the time of ,cook's expedition4 ,the name common in the ,philippine ,isles1 manga1#ihc shows a foreign origin1 for it is the ,malay and ,spanish name4 ,the common name in ,ceylon is ambe1 akin to the ,sanskrit amra1 whence the ,persian and ,arab amb1#ihd the modern ,indian names1 and perhaps the ,malay1 mangka1 manga1 manpelaan1 indicated by ,rumphius4 ,there are1 however1 other names used in the ,sunda ,islands1 in the ,moluccas1 and in ,cochin-,china4 ,the variety of these names argues an ancient introduction into the ,east ,indian ,archipelago1 in spite of the opinion of ,rumphius4 ,the ,mangifera which this author had seen wild in ,java1 and ,mangifera sylvatiea which ,roxburgh had discovered at ,silhet1 are other species2 but the true mango is indicated by modern authors as wild in the forests of ,ceylon1 the regions at the base of the ,himalayas1 especially towards the east1 in ,arracan1 ,pegu1 and the ,andaman ,isles4#ihe ,miquel does not mention it as wild in any of the islands of the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,in spite of its growing in ,ceylon1 and the indications1 less positive certainly1 of ,sir ,joseph ,hooker in the ,flora of ,british ,india1 the species is probably rare or only naturalized in the ,indian ,peninsula4 ,the size of the stone is too great to allow of its being transported by birds1 but the frequency of its cultivation causes a dispersion by man's agency4 ,if the mango is only naturalized in the west of ,british ,india1 this must have occurred at a remote epoch1 as the existence of a ,sanskrit name shows4 ,on the other hand1 the peoples of ,western ,asia must have known it late1 since they did not transport the species into ,egypt or elsewhere towards the west4 ,it is cultivated at the present day in tropical ,africa1 and even in ,mauritius and the ,seychelles1 where it has become to some extent naturalized in the woods4#ihf ,in the new world it was first introduced into ,brazil1 for the seeds were brought thence to ,barbados in the middle of the last century4#ihg ,a ,french vessel was carrying some young trees from ,bourbon to ,saint ,domingo in #aghb1 when it was taken by the ,english1 who took them to ,jamaica1 where they succeeded wonderfully4 ,when the coffee plantations were abandoned1 at the time of the emancipation of the slaves1 the mango1 whose stones the negroes scattered everywhere1 formed forests in every part of the islands1 and these are now valued both for their shade and as a form of food4#ihh ,it was not cultivated in ,cayenne in the time of ,aublet1 at the end of the eighteenth century1 but now there are mangoes of the finest kind in this colony4 ,they are grafted1 and it is observed that their stones produce better fruit than that of the original stock4#ihi ,tahiti ,apple--,spondias dulcis1 ,forster4 ,this tree belongs to the family of the ,anacardiace1 and is indigenous in the ,society1 ,friendly1 and ,fiji ,islands4#iij ,the natives consumed quantities of the fruit at the time of ,cook's voyage4 ,it is like a large plum1 of the colour of an apple1 and contains a stone covered with long hooked bristles4#iia ,the flavour1 according to travellers1 is excellent4 ,it is not among the fruits most widely diffused in tropical colonies4 ,it is1 however1 cultivated in ,mauritius and ,bourbon1 under the primitive ,polynesian name evi or hevi1#iib and in the ,west ,indies4 ,it was introduced into ,jamaica in #aghb1 and thence into ,saint ,domingo4 ,its absence in many of the hot countries of ,asia and ,africa is probably owing to the fact that the species was discovered1 only a century ago1 in small islands which have no communications with other countries4 ,strawberry--,fragaria vesca1 ,linnus4 ,our common strawberry is one of the most widely diffused plants1 partly owing to the small size of its seeds1 which birds1 attracted by the fleshy part on which they are found1 carry to great distances4 ,it grows wild in ,europe1 from ,lapland and the ,shetland ,isles#iic to the mountain ranges in the south2 in ,madeira1 ,spain1 ,sicily1 and in ,greece4#iid ,it is also found in ,asia1 from ,armenia and the north of ,syria#iie to ,dahuria4 ,the strawberries of the ,himalayas and of ,japan1#iif which several authors have attributed to this species1 do not perhaps belong to it1#iig and this makes me doubt the assertion of a missionary#iih that it is found in ,china4 ,it is wild in ,iceland1#iii in the north-east of the ,united ,states1#ajjj round ,fort ,cumberland1 and on the north-west coast1#ajja perhaps even in the ,sierra-,nevada of ,california4#ajjb ,thus its area extends round the north pole1 except in ,eastern ,siberia and the basin of the river ,amur1 since the species is not mentioned by ,maximowicz in his ,primiti ,flor ,amurensis4 ,in ,america its area is extended along the highlands of ,mexico2 for ,fragaria mexicana1 cultivated in the ,jardin des ,plantes1 and examined by ,gay1 is ,f4 vesca4 ,it also grows round ,quito1 according to the same botanist1 who is an authority on this question4#ajjc ,the ,greeks and ,romans did not cultivate the strawberry4 ,its cultivation was probably introduced in the fifteenth or sixteenth century4 ,champier1 in the sixteenth century1 speaks of it as a novelty in the north of ,france1#ajjd but it already existed in the south1 and in ,england4#ajje ,transported into gardens in the colonies1 the strawberry has become naturalized in a few cool localities far from dwellings4 ,this is the case in ,jamaica1#ajjf in ,mauritius1#ajjg and in ,bourbon1 where some plants had been placed by ,commerson on the table-land known as the ,kaffirs' ,plain4 ,bory ,saint-,vincent relates that in #ahja he found districts quite red with strawberries1 and that it was impossible to cross them without staining the feet red with the juice1 mixed with volcanic dust4#ajjh ,it is probable that similar cases of naturalization may be seen in ,tasmania and ,new ,zealand4 ,the genus ,fragaria has been studied with more care than many others1 by ,duchesne 7fils71 the ,comte de ,lambertye1 ,jacques ,gay1 and especially by ,madame ,eliza ,vilmorin1 whose faculty of observation was worthy of the name she bore4 ,a summary of their works1 with excellent coloured plates1 is published in the ,jardin ,fruitier du ,musum by ,decaisne4 ,these authors have overcome great difficulties in distinguishing the varieties and hybrids which are multiplied in gardens from the true species1 and in defining these by well-marked characters4 ,some strawberries whose fruit is poor have been abandoned1 and the finest are the result of the crossing of the species of ,virginia and ,chili1 of which ,i am about to speak4 ,virginian ,strawberry--,fragaria virginiana1 ,ehrarht4 ,the scarlet strawberry of ,french gardens4 ,this species1 indigenous in ,canada and in the eastern ,states of ,america1 and of which one variety extends west as far as the ,rocky ,mountains1 perhaps even to ,oregon1#ajji was introduced into ,english gardens in #afbi4ajaj ,it was much cultivated in ,france in the last century1 but its hybrids with other species are now more esteemed4 ,chili ,strawberry--,fragaria ,chiloensis1 ,duchesne4 ,a species common in ,southern ,chili1 at ,conception1 ,valdivia1 and ,chiloe1#ajaa and often cultivated in that country4 ,it was brought to ,france by ,frezier in the year #agae4 ,cultivated in the ,museum of ,natural ,history in ,france1 it spread to ,england and elsewhere4 ,the large size of the berry and its excellent flavour have produced by different crossings1 especially with ,f4 virginiana1 the highly prized varieties ,ananas1 ,victoria1 ,trollope1 ,rubis1 etc4 ,bird-,cherry--,prunus avium1 ,linnus2 ,ssskirschbaum in ,german4 ,i use the word cherry because it is customary1 and has no inconvenience when speaking of cultivated species or varieties1 but the study of allied wild species confirms the opinion of ,linnus1 that the cherries do not form a separate genus from the plums4 ,all the varieties of the cultivated cherry belong to two species1 which are found wild3 #a4 ,prunus avium1 ,linnus1 tall1 with no suckers from the roots1 leaves downy on the under side1 the fruit sweet2 #b4 ,prunus cerasus1 ,linnus1 shorter1 with suckers from the roots1 leaves glabrous1 and fruit more or less sour or bitter4 ,the first of these species1 from which the white and black cherries are developed1 is wild in ,asia2 in the forest of ,ghilan 7north of ,persia71 in the ,russian provinces to the south of the ,caucasus and in ,armenia2#ajab in ,europe in the south of ,russia proper1 and generally from the south of ,sweden to the mountainous parts of ,greece1 ,italy1 and ,spain4#ajac ,it even exists in ,algeria4#ajad ,as we leave the district to the south of the ,caspian and ,black ,seas1 the bird-cherry becomes less common1 less natural1 and determined more perhaps by the birds which seek its fruit and carry the seeds from place to place4#ajae ,it cannot be doubted that it was thus naturalized1 from cultivation1 in the north of ,india1#ajaf in many of the plains of the south of ,europe1 in ,madeira1#ajag and here and there in the ,united ,states2#ajah but it is probable that in the greater part of ,europe this took place in prehistoric times1 seeing that the agency of birds was employed before the first migrations of nations1 perhaps before there were men in ,europe4 ,its area must have extended in this region as the glaciers diminished4 ,the common names in ancient languages have been the subject of a learned article by ,adolphe ,pictet1#ajai but nothing relative to the origin of the species can be deduced from them2 and besides1 the different species and varieties have often been confused in popular nomenclature4 ,it is far more important to know whether archology can tell us anything about the presence of the bird-cherry in ,europe in prehistoric times4 ,heer gives an illustration of the stones of ,prunus avium1 in his paper on the lake-dwellings of ,western ,switzerland4#ajbj ,from what he was kind enough to write to me1 ,april #ad1 #ahha1 these stones were found in the peat formed above the ancient deposits of the age of stone4 ,de ,mortillet#ajba found similar cherry-stones in the lake-dwellings of ,bourget belonging to an epoch not very remote1 more recent than the stone age4 ,dr4 ,gross sent me some from the locality1 also comparatively recent1 of ,corcelette on ,lake ,neuchtel1 and ,strobel and ,pigorini discovered some in the 8terra-mare0 of ,parma4#ajbb ,all these are settlements posterior to the stone age1 and perhaps belonging to historic time4 ,if no more ancient stones of this species are found in ,europe1 it will seem probable that naturalization took place after the ,aryan migrations4 ,sour ,cherry--,prunus cerasus1 ,linnus2 ,cerasus vulgaris1 ,miller2 ,baumweichsel1 ,sauerkirschen1 in ,german4 ,the ,montmorency and griotte cherries1 and several other kinds known to horticulturists1 are derived from this species4#ajbc ,hohenacker#ajbd saw ,prunus cerasus at ,lenkoran1 near the ,caspian ,sea1 and ,koch#ajbe in the forests of ,asia ,minor1 that is to say1 in the north-east of that country1 as that was the region in which he travelled4 ,ancient authors found it at ,elisabethpol and ,erivan1 according to ,ledebour4#ajbf ,grisebach#ajbg indicates it on ,mount ,olympus of ,bithynia1 and adds that it is nearly wild on the plains of ,macedonia4 ,the true and really ancient habitation seems to extend from the ,caspian ,sea to the environs of ,constantinople2 but in this very region ,prunus avium is more common4 ,indeed1 ,boissier and ,tchihatcheff do not appear to have seen ,p4 cerasus even in the ,pontus1 though they received or brought back several specimens of ,p4 avium4#ajbh ,in the north of ,india1 ,p4 cerasus exists only as a cultivated plant4#ajbi ,the ,chinese do not appear to have been acquainted with our two kinds of cherry4 ,hence it may be assumed that it was not very early introduced into ,india1 and the absence of a ,sanskrit name confirms this4 ,we have seen that1 according to ,grisebach1 ,p4 cerasus is nearly wild in ,macedonia4 ,it was said to be wild in the ,crimea1 but ,steven#ajcj only saw it cultivated2 and ,rehmann#ajca gives only the allied species1 ,p4 chamcerasus1 ,jacquin1 as wild in the south of ,russia4 ,i very much doubt its wild character in any locality north of the ,caucasus4 ,even in ,greece1 where ,fraas said he saw this tree wild1 ,heldreich only knows it as a cultivated species4#ajcb ,in ,dalmatia1#ajcc a particular variety or allied species1 ,p4 ,marasca1 is found really wild2 it is used in making ,maraschino wine4 ,p4 cerasus is wild in mountainous parts of ,italy#ajcd and in the centre of ,france1#ajce but farther to the west and north1 and in ,spain1 the species is only found cultivated1 and naturalized here and there as a bush4 ,p4 cerasus1 more than the bird-cherry1 evidently presents itself in ,europe1 as a foreign tree not completely naturalized4 ,none of the often-quoted passages#ajcf in ,theophrastus1 ,pliny1 and other ancient authors appear to apply to ,p4 cerasus4#ajcg ,the most important1 that of ,theophrastus1 belongs to ,prunus avium1 because of the height of the tree1 a character which distinguishes it from ,p4 cerasus4 ,kerasos being the name for the bird-cherry in ,theophrastus1 as now kerasaia among the modern ,greeks1 ,i notice a linguistic proof of the antiquity of ,p4 cerasus4 ,the ,albanians1 descendants of the ,pelasgians1 call the latter vyssine1 an ancient name which reappears in the ,german ,wechsel1 and the ,italian visciolo4#ajch ,as the ,albanians have also the name kerasie for ,p4 avium1 it is probable that their ancestors very clearly distinguished the two species by different names1 perhaps before the arrival of the ,hellenes in ,greece4 ,another indication of antiquity may be seen in ,virgil 7,geor4 ii4 #ag7-- 8,pullulat ab radice aliis densissima silva ,ut cerasis ulmisque0-- which applies to ,p4 cerasus1 not to ,p4 avium4 ,two paintings of the cherry tree were found at ,pompeii1 but it seems that it cannot be discovered to which of the two species they should be attributed4#ajci ,comes calls them ,prunus cerasus4 ,any archological discovery would be more convincing4 ,the stones of the two species present a difference in the furrow or groove1 which has not escaped the observation of ,heer and ,sordelli4 ,unfortunately1 only one stone of ,p4 cerasus has been found in the prehistoric settlements of ,italy and ,switzerland1 and what is more1 it is not quite certain from what stratum it was taken4 ,it appears that it was a non-archological stratum4#ajdj ,from all these data1 somewhat contradictory and sufficiently vague1 ,i am inclined to admit that ,prunus cerasus was known and already becoming naturalized at the beginning of ,greek civilization1 and a little later in ,italy before the epoch when ,lucullus brought a cherry tree from ,asia ,minor4 ,pages might be transcribed from authors1 even modern ones1 who attribute1 after ,pliny1 the introduction of the cherry into ,italy to this rich ,roman1 in the year #fe ,b4,c4 ,since this error is perpetuated by its incessant repetition in classical schools1 it must once more be said that cherry trees 7at least the bird-cherry7 existed in ,italy before ,lucullus1 and that the famous gourmet did not need to go far to seek the species with sour or bitter fruit4 ,i have no doubt that he pleased the ,romans with a good variety cultivated in the ,pontus1 and that cultivators hastened to propagate it by grafting1 but ,lucullus' share in the matter was confined to this4 ,from what is now known of ,kerasunt and the ancient names of the cherry tree1 ,i venture to maintain1 contrary to the received opinion1 that it was a variety of the bird-cherry of which the fleshy fruit is of a sweet flavour4 ,i am inclined to think so because ,kerasos in ,theophrastus is the name of ,prunus avium1 which is far the commoner of the two in ,asia ,minor4 ,the town of ,kerasunt took its name from the tree1 and it is probable that the abundance of ,prunus avium in the neighbouring woods had induced the inhabitants to seek the trees which yielded the best fruits in order to plant them in their gardens4 ,certainly1 if ,lucullus brought fine white-heart cherries to ,rome1 his countrymen who only knew the little wild cherry may well have said1 8,it is a fruit which we have not40 ,pliny affirms nothing more4 ,i must not conclude without suggesting a hypothesis about the two kinds of cherry4 ,they differ but little in character1 and1 what is very rare1 their two ancient habitations1 which are most clearly proved1 are similar 7from the ,caspian ,sea to ,western ,anatolia74 ,the two species have spread towards the ,west1 but unequally4 ,that which is commonest in its original home and the stronger of the two 7,p4 avium7 has extended further and at an earlier epoch1 and has become better naturalized ,p4 cerasus is1 therefore1 perhaps derived from the other in prehistoric times4 ,i come thus1 by a different road1 to an idea suggested by ,caruel2#ajda only1 instead of saying that it would perhaps be better to unite them now in one species1 ,i consider them actually distinct1 and content myself with supposing a descent1 which for the rest it would not be easy to prove4 ,cultivated ,plums4 ,pliny#ajdb speaks of the immense quantity of plums known in his time3 ingens turba prunorum4 ,horticulturists now number more than three hundred4 ,some botanists have tried to attribute these to distinct wild species1 but they have not always agreed1 and judging from the specific names especially they seem to have had very different ideas4 ,this diversity is on two heads2 first as to the descent of a given cultivated variety1 and secondly as to the distinction of the wild forms into species or varieties4 ,i do not pretend to classify the innumerable cultivated forms1 and ,i think that labour useless when dealing with the question of geographical origin1 for the differences lie principally in the shape1 size1 colour1 and taste of the fruit1 in characters1 that is to say1 which it has been the interest of horticulturists to cultivate when they occur1 and even to create as far as it was in their power to do so4 ,it is better to insist upon the distinction of the forms observed in a wild state1 especially upon those from which man derives no advantage1 and which have probably remained as they were before the existence of gardens4 ,it is probably only for about thirty years that botanists have given really comparative characters for the three species or varieties which exist in nature4#ajdc ,they may be summed up as follows3-- ,prunus domestica1 ,linnus4 ,tree or tall shrub1 without thorns2 young branches glabrous2 flowers appearing with the leaves1 their peduncles usually downy2 fruit pendulous1 ovoid and of a sweet flavour4 ,prunus insititia1 ,linnus4 ,tree or tall shrub1 without thorns2 young shoots covered with a velvet down2 flowers appearing with the leaves1 with peduncles covered with a fine down1 or glabrous2 fruit pendulous1 round or slightly elliptical1 of a sweet flavour4 ,prunus spinosa1 ,linnus4 ,a thorny shrub1 with branches spreading out at right angles2 young shoots downy2 flowers appearing before the leaves2 pedicles glabrous2 fruit upright1 round1 and very sour4 ,this third form1 so common in our hedges 7sloe or blackthorn71 is very different from the other two4 ,therefore1 unless we interpret by hypothesis what may have happened before all observation1 it seems to me impossible to consider the three forms as constituting one and the same species1 unless we can show transitions from one to the other in those organs which have not been modified by cultivation1 and hitherto this has not been done4 ,at most the fusion of the two first categories can be admitted4 ,the two forms with naturally sweet fruit occur in few countries4 ,these must have tempted cultivators more than ,prunus spinosa1 whose fruit is so sour4 ,it is1 therefore1 in these that we must seek to find the originals of cultivated plums4 ,for greater clearness ,i shall speak of them as two species4#ajdd ,common ,plum--,prunus domestica1 ,linnus2 ,zwetchen in ,german4 ,several botanists#ajde have found this variety wild throughout ,anatolia1 the region to the south of the ,caucasus and ,northern ,persia1 in the neighbourhood of ,mount ,elbruz1 for example4 ,i know of no proof for the localities of ,kashmir1 the country of the ,kirghis and of ,china1 which are mentioned in some floras4 ,the species is often doubtful1 and it is probably rather ,prunus insititia2 in other cases it is its true and ancient wild character which is uncertain1 for the stones have evidently been dispersed from cultivation4 ,its area does not appear to extend as far as ,lebanon1 although the plums cultivated at ,damascus 7damascenes1 or damsons7 have a reputation which dates from the days of ,pliny4 ,it is supposed that this was the species referred to by ,dioscorides#ajdf under the name of ,syrian coccumelea1 growing at ,damascus4 ,karl ,koch relates that the merchants trading on the borders of ,china told him that the species was common in the forests of the western part of the empire4 ,it is true that the ,chinese have cultivated different kinds of plums from time immemorial1 but we do not know them well enough to judge of them1 and we cannot be sure that they are indigenous4 ,as none of our kinds of plum has been found wild in ,japan or in the basin of the river ,amur1 it is very probable that the species seen in ,china are different to ours4 ,this appears also to be the result of ,bretschneider's statements4#ajdg ,it is very doubtful if ,prunus domestica is indigenous in ,europe4 ,in the south1 where it is given1 it grows chiefly in hedges1 near dwellings1 with all the appearance of a tree scarcely naturalized1 and maintained here and there by the constant bringing of stones from plantations4 ,authors who have seen the species in the ,east do not hesitate to say that it is 8subspontaneous40 ,fraas#ajdh affirms that it is not wild in ,greece1 and this is confirmed as far as ,attica is concerned by ,heldreich4#ajdi ,steven#ajej says the same for the ,crimea4 ,if this is the case near ,asia ,minor1 it must be the more readily admitted for the rest of ,europe4 ,in spite of the abundance of plums cultivated formerly by the ,romans1 no kind is found represented in the frescoes at ,pompeii4#ajea ,neither has ,prunus domestica been found among the remains of the lake-dwellings of ,italy1 ,switzerland1 and ,savoy1 where1 however1 stones of ,prunus insititia and spinosa have been discovered4 ,from these facts1 and the small number of words attributable to this species in ,greek authors1 it may be inferred that its half-wild or half-naturalized state dates in ,europe from two thousand years at most4 ,prunes and damsons are ranked with this species4 ,bullace--,prunus insititia1 ,linnus2#ajeb ,pflauenbaum and ,haferschlehen in ,german4 ,this kind of plum grows wild in the south of ,europe4#ajec ,it has also been found in ,cilicia1 ,armenia1 to the south of the ,caucasus1 and in the province of ,talysch near the ,caspian ,sea4#ajed ,it is especially in ,turkey in ,europe and to the south of the ,caucasus that it appears to be truly wild4 ,in ,italy and in ,spain it is perhaps less so1 although trustworthy authors who have seen the plant growing have no doubt about it4 ,in the localities named north of the ,alps1 even as far as ,denmark1 it is probably naturalized from cultivation4 ,the species is commonly found in hedges not far from dwellings1 and apparently not truly wild4 ,all this agrees with archological and historical data4 ,the ancient ,greeks distinguished the ,coccumelea of their country from those of ,syria1#ajee whence it is inferred that the former were ,prunus insititia4 ,this seems the more likely that the modern ,greeks call it coromeleia4#ajef ,the ,albanians say corombile1#ajeg which has led some people to suppose an ancient ,pelasgian origin4 ,for the rest1 we must not insist upon the common names of the plum which each nation may have given to one or another species1 perhaps also to some cultivated variety1 without any rule4 ,the names which have been much commented upon in learned works generally1 appear to me to apply to any plum or plum tree without having any very defined meaning4 ,no stones of ,p4 insititia have yet been found in the terra-mare of ,italy1 but ,heer has described and given illustrations of some which were found in the lake-dwellings of ,robenhausen4#ajeh ,the species does not seem to be now indigenous in this part of ,switzerland1 but we must not forget that1 as we saw in the history of flax1 the lake-dwellers of the canton of ,zrich1 in the age of stone1 had communications with ,italy4 ,these ancient ,swiss were not hard to please in the matter of food1 for they also gathered the berries of the blackthorn1 which are1 as we think1 uneatable4 ,it is probable that they ate them cooked4 ,apricot--,prunus armeniaca1 ,linnus2 ,armenica vulgaris1 ,lamarck4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans received the apricot about the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,unknown in the time of ,theophrastus1 ,dioscorides#ajei mentions it under the name of mailon armeniacon4 ,he says that the ,latins called it praikokion4 ,it is1 in fact1 one of the fruits mentioned briefly by ,pliny1#ajfj under the name of prcocium1 so called from the precocity of the species4#ajfa ,its ,armenian origin is indicated by the ,greek name1 but this name might mean only that the species was cultivated in ,armenia4 ,modern botanists have long had good reason to believe that the species is wild in that country4 ,pallas1 ,guldenstadt1 and ,hohenacker say they found it in the neighbourhood of the ,caucasus ,mountains1 on the north1 on the banks of the ,terek1 and to the south between the ,caspian and ,black ,seas4#ajfb ,boissier#ajfc admits all these localities1 but without saying anything about the wild character of the species4 ,he saw a specimen gathered by ,hohenacker1 near ,elisabethpol4 ,on the other hand1 ,tchihatcheff#ajfd who has crossed ,anatolia and ,armenia several times1 does not seem to have seen the wild apricot2 and what is still more significant1 ,karl ,koch1 who travelled through the region to the south of the ,caucasus1 in order to observe facts of this nature1 expresses himself as follows3#ajfe 8,native country unknown4 ,at least1 during my long sojourn in ,armenia1 ,i nowhere found the apricot wild1 and ,i have rarely seen it even cultivated40 ,a traveller1 ,w4 ,j4 ,hamilton1#ajff said he found it wild near ,orgou and ,outch ,hisar in ,anatolia3 but this assertion has not been verified by a botanist4 ,the supposed wild apricot of the ruins of ,baalbek1 described by ,eusbe de ,salle#ajfg is1 from what he says of the leaf and fruit1 totally different to the common apricot4 ,boissier1 and the different collectors who sent him plants from ,syria and ,lebanon1 do not appear to have seen the species4 ,spach#ajfh asserts that it is indigenous in ,persia1 but he gives no proof4 ,boissier and ,buhse#ajfi do not mention it in their list of the plants of ,transcaucasia and ,persia4 ,it is useless to seek its origin in ,africa4 ,the apricots which ,reynier#ajgj says he saw1 8almost wild10 in ,upper ,egypt must have sprung from stones grown in cultivated ground1 as is seen in ,algeria4#ajga ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1#ajgb in their catalogue of the plants of ,egypt and ,abyssinia1 only mention the species as cultivated4 ,besides1 if it had existed formerly in the north of ,africa it would have been early known to the ,hebrews and the ,romans4 ,now there is no ,hebrew name1 and ,pliny says its introduction at ,rome took place thirty years before he wrote4 ,carrying our researches eastward1 we find that ,anglo-,indian botanists#ajgc are agreed in considering that the apricot1 which is generally cultivated in the north of ,india and in ,thibet1 is not wild in those regions2 but they add that it has a tendency to become naturalized1 and that it is found upon the site of ruined villages4 ,messrs4 ,schlagintweit brought specimens from the north-west provinces of ,india1 and from ,thibet1 which ,westmael verified1#ajgd but he was kind enough to write to me that he cannot affirm that it was wild1 since the collector's label gives no information on that head4 ,roxburgh1#ajge who did not neglect the question of origin1 says1 speaking of the apricot1 8native of ,china as well as the west of ,asia40 ,i read in ,dr4 ,bretschneider's curious little work1#ajgf drawn up at ,pekin1 the following passage1 which seems to me to decide the question in favour of a ,chinese origin3--8,sing1 as is well known1 is the apricot 7,prunus armeniaca74 ,the character 7a ,chinese sign printed on p4 #aj7 does not exist as indicating a fruit1 either in the ,shu-king1 or in the ,shi-king1 ,cihouli1 etc41 but the ,shan-hai-king says that several sings grow upon the hills 7here a ,chinese character74 ,besides1 the name of the apricot is represented by a particular sign which may show that it is indigenous in ,china40 ,the ,shan-hai-king is attributed to the ,emperor ,y1 who lived in #bbje-baih ,b4,c4 ,decaisne1#ajgg who was the first to suspect the ,chinese origin of the apricot1 has recently received from ,dr4 ,bretschneider some specimens accompanied by the following note3--8,no4 #bd1 apricot wild in the mountains of ,pekin1 where it grows in abundance2 the fruit is small 7an inch and a quarter in diameter71 the skin red and yellow2 the flesh salmon colour1 sour1 but eatable4 ,no4 #be1 the stone of the apricot cultivated round ,pekin4 ,the fruit is twice as large as that of the wild tree40#ajgh ,decaisne adds1 in the letter he was good enough to write to me1 8,in shape and surface the stones are exactly like those of our small apricots2 they are smooth and not pitted40 ,the leaves he sent me are certainly those of the apricot4 ,the apricot is not mentioned in ,japan1 or in the basin of the river ,amoor4#ajgi ,perhaps the cold of the winter is too great4 ,if we recollect the absence of communication in ancient times between ,china and ,india1 and the assertions that the plant is indigenous in both countries1 we are at first tempted to believe that the ancient area extended from the north-west of ,india to ,china4 ,however1 if we wish to adopt this hypothesis1 we must also admit that the culture of the apricot spread very late towards the ,west4#ajhj ,for no ,sanskrit or ,hebrew name is known1 but only a ,hindu name1 zard alu1 and a ,persian name1 mischmisch1 which has passed into ,arabic4#ajha ,how is it to be supposed that so excellent a fruit1 and one which grows in abundance in ,western ,asia1 spread so slowly from the north-west of ,india towards the ,grco-,roman world8 ,the ,chinese knew it two or three thousand years before the ,christian era4 ,chang-kien went as far as ,bactriana1 a century before our era1 and he was the first to make the ,west known to his fellow-countrymen4#ajhb ,it was then1 perhaps1 that the apricot was introduced in ,western ,asia1 and that it was cultivated and became naturalized here and there in the north-west of ,india1 and at the foot of the ,caucasus1 by the scattering of the stones beyond the limits of the plantations4 ,almond--,amygdalus communis1 ,linnus2 ,pruni species1 ,baillon2 ,prunus ,amygdalus1 ,hooker4 ,the almond grows apparently wild or half wild in the warm1 dry regions of the ,mediterranean basin and of western temperate ,asia4 ,as the nuts from cultivated trees naturalize the species very easily1 we must have recourse to various indications to discern its ancient home4 ,we may first discard the notion of its origin in ,eastern ,asia4 ,japanese floras make no mention of the almond4 ,that which ,m4 de ,bonge saw cultivated in the north of ,china was the ,persica ,davidiana4#ajhc ,dr4 ,bretschneider1#ajhd in his classical work1 tells us that he has never seen the almond cultivated in ,china1 and that the compilation entitled ,pent-sao1 published in the tenth or eleventh century of our era1 describes it as a tree of the country of the ,mahometans1 which signifies the north-west of ,india1 or ,persia4 ,anglo-,indian botanists#ajhe say that the almond is cultivated in the cool parts of ,india1 but some add that it does not thrive1 and that many almonds are brought from ,persia4#ajhf ,no ,sanskrit name is known1 nor even any in the languages derived from ,sanskrit4 ,evidently the north-west of ,india is not the original home of the species4 ,on the other hand1 there are many localities in the region extending from ,mesopotamia and ,turkestan to ,algeria1 where excellent botanists have found the almond tree quite wild4 ,boissier#ajhg has seen specimens gathered in rocky ground in ,mesopotamia1 ,aderbijan1 ,turkestan1 ,kurdistan1 and in the forests of the ,anti-,lebanon4 ,karl ,koch#ajhh has not found it wild to the south of the ,caucasus1 nor ,tchihatcheff in ,asia ,minor4 ,cosson#ajhi found natural woods of almond trees near ,saida in ,algeria4 ,it is also regarded as wild on the coasts of ,sicily and of ,greece2#ajij but there1 and still more in the localities in which it occurs in ,italy1 ,spain1 and ,france1 it is probable1 and almost certain1 that it springs from the casual dispersal of the nuts from cultivation4 ,the antiquity of its existence in ,western ,asia is proved by ,hebrew names for the almond tree--schaked1 luz or lus 7which recurs in the ,arabic louz71 and schekedim for the nut4#ajia ,the ,persians have another name1 badam1 but ,i do not know how old this is4 ,theophrastus and ,dioscorides#ajib mention the almond by an entirely different name1 amugdalai1 translated by the ,latins into amygdalus4 ,it may be inferred from this that the ,greeks did not receive the species from the interior of ,asia1 but found it in their own country1 or at least in ,asia ,minor4 ,the almond tree is represented in several frescoes found at ,pompeii4#ajic ,pliny#ajid doubts whether the species was known in ,italy in ,cato's time1 because it was called the ,greek nut4 ,it is very possible that the almond was introduced into ,italy from the ,greek islands4 ,almonds have not been found in the terra-mare of the neighbourhood of ,parma1 even in the upper layers4 ,the late introduction of the species into ,italy1 and the absence of naturalization in ,sardinia and ,spain1#ajie incline me to doubt whether it is really indigenous in the north of ,africa and ,sicily4 ,in the latter countries it was more probably naturalized some centuries ago4 ,in confirmation of this hypothesis1 ,i note that the ,berber name of the almond1 talouzet1#ajif is evidently connected with the ,arabic louz1 that is to say with the language of the conquerors who came after the ,romans4 ,in ,western ,asia1 on the contrary1 and even in some parts of ,greece1 it may be regarded as indigenous from prehistoric time4 ,i do not say primitive1 for everything was preceded by something else4 ,i remark finally that the difference between bitter and sweet almonds was known to the ,greeks and even to the ,hebrews4 ,peach--,amygdalus persica1 ,linnus2 ,persica vulgaris1 ,miller2 ,prunus persica1 ,bentham and ,hooker4 ,i will quote the article in which ,i formerly#ajig attributed a ,chinese origin to the peach1 a contrary opinion to that which prevailed at the time1 and which people who are not on a par with modern science continue to reproduce4 ,i will afterwards give the facts discovered since #ahee4 8,the ,greeks and ,romans received the peach shortly after the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,the names persica1 malum persicum1 indicate whence they had it4 ,i need not dwell upon those well-known facts4#ajih ,several kinds of peach are now cultivated in the north of ,india1#ajii but1 what is remarkable1 no ,sanskrit name is known2#aajj whence we may infer that its existence and its cultivation are of no great antiquity in these regions4 ,roxburgh1 who is usually careful to give the modern ,indian names1 only mentions ,arab and ,chinese names4 ,piddington gives no ,indian name1 and ,royle only ,persian names4 ,the peach does not succeed1 or requires the greatest care to ensure success1 in the north-east of ,india4#aaja ,in ,china1 on the contrary1 its cultivation dates from the remotest antiquity4 ,a number of superstitious ideas and of legends about the properties of its different varieties exist in that country4#aajb ,these varieties are very numerous2#aajc and in particular the singular variety with compressed or flattened fruit1#aajd which appears to be further removed than any other from the natural state of the peach2 lastly1 a simple name1 to1 is given to the common peach4#aaje 8,from all these facts1 ,i am inclined to believe that the peach is of ,chinese rather than of western ,asiatic origin4 ,if it had existed in ,persia or ,armenia from all time1 the knowledge and cultivation of so pleasant a fruit would have spread earlier into ,asia ,minor and ,greece4 ,the expedition of ,alexander probably was the means of making it known to ,theophrastus 7#ccb ,b4,c471 who speaks of it as a ,persian fruit4 ,perhaps this vague idea of the ,greeks dates from the retreat of the ten thousand 7#dja ,b4,c472 but ,xenophon does not mention the peach4 ,nor do the ,hebrew writings speak of it4 ,the peach has no ,sanskrit name1 yet the peoples who spoke this language came into ,india from the north-west2 that is to say1 from the generally received home of the species4 ,on this hypothesis1 how are we to account for the fact that neither the ,greeks of the early times of ,greece1 nor the ,hebrews1 nor the ,sanskrit-speaking peoples1 who all radiated from the upper part of the ,euphrates valley or communicated with it1 did not cultivate the peach8 ,on the other hand1 it is very possible that the stones of a fruit tree cultivated in ,china from the remotest times1 should have been carried over the mountains from the centre of ,asia into ,kashmir1 ,bokhara1 and ,persia4 ,the ,chinese had very early discovered this route4 ,the importation would have taken place between the epoch of the ,sanskrit emigrations and the relations of the ,persians with the ,greeks4 ,the cultivation of the peach1 once established in ,persia1 would have easily spread on the one side towards the west2 on the other1 through ,cabul towards the north of ,india1 where it is not so very ancient4 8,in confirmation of the hypothesis of a ,chinese origin1 it may be added that the peach was introduced into ,cochin-,china from ,china1#aajf and that the ,japanese give the ,chinese name ,tao#aajg to the peach4 ,m4 ,stanislas ,julien was kind enough to read to me in ,french some passages of the ,japanese encyclopdia 7bk4 lxxxvi4 p4 #g71 in which the peach tree tao is said to be a tree of ,western countries1 which should be understood to mean the interior of ,china as compared to the eastern coast1 since the passage is taken from a ,chinese author4 ,the tao occurs in the writings of ,confucius in the fifth century before the ,christian era1 and even in the ,ritual in the tenth century before ,christ4 ,its wild nature is not specified in the encyclopdia of which ,i have just spoken2 but ,chinese authors pay little attention to this point40 ,after a few details about the common names of the peach in different languages1 ,i went on to say1 8,the absence of ,sanskrit and ,hebrew names remains the most important fact1 whence we may infer an introduction into ,western ,asia from a more distant land1 that is to say1 from ,china4 8,the peach has been found wild in different parts of ,asia2 but it is always a question whether it is indigenous there1 or whether it sprang from the dispersion of stones produced by cultivated trees4 ,the question is the more necessary since the stones germinate easily1 and several of the modifications of the peach are hereditary4#aajh ,apparently wild peach trees have often been found in the neighbourhood of the ,caucasus4 ,pallas#aaji saw several on the banks of the ,terek1 where the inhabitants give it a name which he calls ,persian1 scheptata4#aaaj ,its fruit is velvety1 sour1 not very fleshy1 and hardly larger than a walnut2 the tree small4 ,pallas suspects that this tree has degenerated from cultivated peaches4 ,he adds that it is found in the ,crimea1 to the south of the ,caucasus1 and in ,persia2 but ,marshall1 ,bieberstein1 ,meyer1 and ,hohenacker do not give the wild peach in the neighbourhood of the ,caucasus4 ,early travellers1 ,gmelin1 ,guldenstadt1 and ,georgi1 quoted by ,ledebour1 mentioned it4 ,c4 ,koch#aaaa is the only modern botanist who said he found the peach tree in abundance in the ,caucasian provinces4 ,ledebour1 however1 prudently adds1 ,is it wild8 ,the stones which ,brugnire and ,olivier brought from ,ispahan1 which were sown in ,paris and yielded a good velvety peach1 were not1 as ,bosc#aaab asserted1 taken from a peach tree wild in ,persia1 but from one growing in a garden at ,ispahan4#aaac ,i do not know of any proof of a peach tree found wild in ,persia1 and if travellers mention any it is always to be feared that these are only sown trees4 ,dr4 ,royle#aaad says that the peach grows wild in several places south of the ,himalayas1 notably near ,mussouri1 but we have seen that its culture is not ancient in these regions1 and neither ,roxburgh nor ,don's ,flora ,nepalensis mention the peach4 ,bunge#aaae only found cultivated trees in the north of ,china4 ,this country has hardly been explored1 and ,chinese legends seem sometimes to indicate wild peaches4 ,thus the ,chou-y-ki1 according to the author previously quoted1 says1 #8,whosoever eats of the peaches of ,mount ,kouoliou shall obtain eternal life4' ,for ,japan1 ,thunberg#aaaf says1 ,crescit ubique vulgaris1 prcipue juxta ,nagasaki4 ,in omni horto colitur ob elegantiam florum4 ,it seems from this passage that the species grows both in and out of gardens1 but perhaps in the first case he only alludes to peaches growing in the open air and without shelter4 8,i have said nothing hitherto of the distinction to be established between the different varieties or species of the peach1 since most of them are cultivated in all countries--at least the clearly defined kinds1 which may be considered as botanical species4 ,thus the great distinction between the downy and smooth-skinned fruits 7peaches proper and nectarines71 on which it is proposed to found two species 7,persica vulgaris1 ,mill1 and ,p4 levis1 ,d4 ,c471 exists in ,japan#aaag and in ,europe1 as in most of the intermediate countries4#aaah ,less importance is attached to distinctions founded on the adherence or non-adherence of the skin1 on the white1 yellow1 or red colour of the flesh1 and on the general form of the fruit4 ,the great division into peaches and nectarines presents most of these modifications in ,europe1 in ,western ,asia1 and probably in ,china4 ,it is certain that in the latter country the form of the fruit varies more than elsewhere2 for there are as in ,europe oval peaches1 and also the peaches of which ,i spoke just now1 which are quite flattened1 in which the top of the stone is not even covered with flesh4#aaai ,the colour also varies greatly4#aabj ,in ,europe the most distinct varieties1 nectarines and peaches1 freestones and clingstones1 existed three centuries ago1 for ,j4 ,bauhin enumerates them very clearly2#aaba and before him ,dalechamp1 in #aehg1 also gave the principal ones4#aabb ,at that time nectarines were called ,nucipersica1 because of their resemblance in shape1 size1 and colour to the walnut4 ,it is in the same sense that the ,italians call them pescanoce4 8,i have sought in vain for a proof that the nectarine existed in ,italy in the time of ancient ,rome4 ,pliny1#aabc who confounds in his compilation peaches1 plums1 the ,laurus ,persea1#aabd and perhaps other trees1 says nothing which can apply to such a fruit4 ,sometimes people have thought they recognized it in the tuberes of which he speaks4 ,it was a tree imported from ,syria in the time of ,augustus4 ,there were both red and white tuberes4 ,others 7tuberes8 or mala87 of the neighbourhood of ,verona were downy4 ,some graceful verses of ,petronus1 quoted by ,dalechamp1#aabe clearly prove that the tuberes of the ,romans in ,nero's time were a smooth-skinned fruit2 but this might be the jujube 7,zizyphus71 ,diospyros1 or some ,cratgus1 just as well as the smooth-skinned peach4 ,each author in the time of the ,renaissance had his opinion on this point1 or criticized that of the others4#aabf ,perhaps there were two or three species of tuberes1 as ,pliny says1 and one of them which was grafted on plum trees was the nectarine 787#aabg but ,i doubt whether this question can ever be cleared up4#aabh 8,even admitting that the ,nucipersica was only introduced into ,europe in the ,middle ,ages1 we cannot help remarking that in ,european gardens for centuries1 and in ,japan from time unknown1 there was an intermixture of all the principal kinds of peach4 ,it seems that its different qualities were produced everywhere from a primitive species1 which was probably the downy peach4 ,if the two kinds had existed from the beginning1 either they would have been in different countries1 and their cultivation would have been established separately1 or they would have been in the same country1 and in this case it is probable that one kind would have been anciently introduced into this country and the other into that40 ,i laid stress1 in #ahee1 on other considerations in support of the theory that the nectarine is derived from the common peach2 but ,darwin has given such a large number of cases in which a branch of nectarine has unexpectedly appeared upon a peach tree1 that it is useless to insist longer upon this point1 and ,i will only add that the nectarine has every appearance of an artificial tree4 ,not only is it not found wild1 but it never becomes naturalized1 and each tree lives for a shorter time than the common peach4 ,it is1 in fact1 a weakened form4 8,the facility10 ,i said1 8with which our peach trees are multiplied from seed in ,america1 and have produced fleshy fruits1 sometimes very fine ones1 without the resource of grafting1 inclines me to think that the species is in a natural state1 little changed by a long cultivation or by hybrid fertilization4 ,in ,virginia and the neighbouring states there are peaches grown on trees raised from seed and not grafted1 and their abundance is so great that brandy is made from them4#aabi ,on some trees the fruit is magnificent4#aacj ,at ,juan ,fernandez1 says ,bertero1#aaca the peach tree is so abundant that it is impossible to form an idea of the quantity of fruit which is gathered2 it is usually very good1 although the trees have reverted to a wild condition4 ,from these instances it would not be surprising if the wild peaches with indifferent fruit found in ,western ,asia were simply naturalized trees in a climate not wholly favourable1 and that the species was of ,chinese origin1 where its cultivation seems most ancient40 ,dr4 ,bretschneider1#aacb who at ,pekin has access to all the resources of ,chinese literature1 merely says1 after reading the above passages1 8,tao is the peach tree4 ,de ,candolle thinks that ,china is the native country of the peach4 ,he may be right40 ,the antiquity of the existence of the species and its wild nature in ,western ,asia have become more doubtful since #ahee4 ,anglo-,indian botanists speak of the peach solely as a cultivated tree1#aacc or as cultivated and becoming naturalized and apparently wild in the north-west of ,india4#aacd ,boissier#aace mentions specimens gathered in ,ghilan and to the south of the ,caucasus1 but he says nothing as to their wild nature2 and ,karl ,koch1#aacf after travelling through this district1 says1 speaking of the peach1 8,country unknown1 perhaps ,persia4 ,boissier saw trees growing in the gorges on ,mount ,hymettus1 near ,athens40 ,the peach spreads easily in the countries in which it is cultivated1 so that it is hard to say whether a given tree is of natural origin and anterior to cultivation1 or whether it is naturalized4 ,but it certainly was first cultivated in ,china2 it was spoken of there two thousand years before its introduction into the ,greco-,roman world1 a thousand years perhaps before its introduction into the lands of the ,sanskrit-speaking race4 ,the group of peaches 7genus or subgenus7 is composed of five forms1 which ,decaisne#aacg regards as species1 but which other botanists are inclined to call varieties4 ,the one is the common peach2 the second the nectarine1 which we know to be derived2 the third is the flattened peach 7,p4 platycarpa1 ,decaisne7 cultivated in ,china2 and the two last are indigenous in ,china 7,p4 simonii1 ,decaisne1 and ,p4 ,davidii1 ,carrire74 ,it is1 therefore1 essentially a ,chinese group4 ,it is difficult1 from all these facts1 not to admit the ,chinese origin of the common peach1 as ,i had formerly inferred from more scanty data4 ,its arrival in ,italy at the beginning of the ,christian era is now confirmed by the absence of peach stones in the terra-mare or lake-dwellings of ,parma and ,lombardy1 and by the representations of the peach tree in the paintings on the walls of the richer houses in ,pompeii4#aach ,i have yet to deal with an opinion formerly expressed by ,knight1 and supported by several horticulturists1 that the peach is a modification of the almond4 ,darwin#aaci collected facts in support of this idea1 not omitting to mention one which seems opposed to it4 ,they may be concisely put as follows3--7#a7 ,crossed fertilization1 which presented ,knight with somewhat doubtful results2 7#b7 intermediate forms1 as to the fleshiness of the fruit and the size of the nut or stone1 obtained by sowing peach stones1 or by chance in plantations1 forms of which the almond-peach is an example which has long been known4 ,decaisne#aadj pointed out differences between the almond and peach in the size and length of the leaves independently of the fruit4 ,he calls ,knight's theory a 8strange hypothesis40 ,geographical botany opposes his hypothesis1 for the almond tree has its origin in ,western ,asia2 it was not indigenous in the centre of the ,asiatic continent1 and its introduction into ,china as a cultivated species was not anterior to the ,christian era4 ,the ,chinese1 however1 had already possessed for thousands of years different varieties of the common peach besides the two wild forms ,i have just mentioned4 ,the almond and the peach1 starting from two such widely separated regions1 can hardly be considered as the same species4 ,the one was established in ,china1 the other in ,syria and in ,anatolia4 ,the peach1 after being transported from ,china into ,central ,asia1 and a little before the ,christian era into ,western ,asia1 cannot1 therefore1 have produced the almond1 since the latter existed already in ,syria4 ,and if the almond of ,western ,asia had produced the peach1 how could the latter have existed in ,china at a very remote period while it was not known to the ,greeks and ,latins8 ,pear--,pyrus communis1 ,linnus4 ,the pear grows wild over the whole of temperate ,europe and ,western ,asia1 particularly in ,anatolia1 to the south of the ,caucasus and in the north of ,persia1#aada perhaps even in ,kashmir1#aadb but this is very doubtful4 ,some authors hold that its area extends as far as ,china4 ,this opinion is due to the fact that they regard ,pyrus sinensis1 ,lindley1 as belonging to the same species4 ,an examination of the leaves alone1 of which the teeth are covered with a fine silky down1 convinced me of the specific difference of the two trees4#aadc ,our wild pear does not differ much from some of the cultivated varieties4 ,its fruit is sour1 spotted1 and narrowing towards the stalk1 or nearly spherical on the same tree4#aadd ,with many other cultivated species1 it is hard to distinguish the individuals of wild origin from those which the chance transport of seeds has produced at a distance from dwellings4 ,in the present case it is not difficult4 ,pear trees are often found in woods1 and they attain to a considerable height1 with all the conditions of fertility of an indigenous plant4#aade ,let us examine1 however1 whether in the wide area they occupy a less ancient existence may be suspected in some countries than in others4 ,no ,sanskrit name for the pear is known1 whence it may be concluded that its cultivation is of no long standing in the north-west of ,india1 and that the indication1 which is moreover very vague1 of wild trees in ,kashmir is of no importance4 ,neither are there any ,hebrew or ,aramaic names1#aadf but this is explained by the fact that the pear does not flourish in the hot countries in which these tongues were spoken4 ,homer1 ,theophrastus1 and ,dioscorides mention the pear tree under the names ochnai1 apios1 or achras4 ,the ,latins called it pyrus or pirus1#aadg and cultivated a great number of varieties1 at least in ,pliny's time4 ,the mural paintings at ,pompeii frequently represent the tree with its fruit4#aadh ,the lake-dwellers of ,switzerland and ,italy gathered wild apples in great quantities1 and among their stores pears are sometimes1 but rarely1 found4 ,heer has given an illustration of one which cannot be mistaken1 found at ,wangen or ,robenhausen4 ,it is a fruit narrowing towards the stalk1 #bh mm4 7about an inch and a half7 long by #ai mm4 7an inch7 wide1 cut longitudinally so as to show the small quantity of pulp as compared to the cartilaginous central part4#aadi ,none have been found in the lake-dwellings of ,bourget in ,savoy4 ,in those of ,lombardy1 ,professor ,raggazzoni#aaej found a pear cut lengthways1 #be mm4 by #af4 ,this was at ,bardello1 ,lago di ,varese4 ,the wild pears figured in ,duhamel1 ,trait des ,arbres1 edit4 #b1 are #cj to #cc by #cj to #cb mm42 and those of ,laristan1 figured in the ,jardin ,fruitier du ,musum under the name ,p4 balans1 which seem to me to be of the same species1 and undoubtedly wild1 are #bf to #bg mm4 by #bd to #be4 ,in modern wild pears the fleshy part is a little thicker1 but the ancient lake-dwellers dried their fruits after cutting them lengthways1 which must have caused them to shrink a little4 ,no knowledge of metals or of hemp is shown in the settlements where these were found2 but1 considering their distance from the more civilized centres of antiquity1 especially in the case of ,switzerland1 it is possible that these remains are not more ancient than the ,trojan war1 or than the foundation of ,rome4 ,i have mentioned three ,greek and one ,roman name1 but there are many others2 for instance1 pauta in ,armenian and ,georgian2 vatzkor in ,hungarian2 in ,slav languages gruscha 7,russian71 hrusska 7,bohemian71 kruska 7,illyrian74 ,names similar to the ,latin pyrus recur in the ,keltic languages2 peir in ,erse1 per in ,kymric and ,armorican4#aaea ,i leave philologists to conjecture the ,aryan origin of some of these names1 and of the ,german ,birn2 ,i merely note their number and diversity as an indication of the very ancient existence of the species from the ,caspian ,sea to the ,atlantic4 ,the ,aryans certainly did not carry pears nor pear pips with them in their wanderings westward2 but if they found in ,europe a fruit they knew1 they would have given it the name or names they were accustomed to use1 while other earlier names may have survived in some countries4 ,as an example of the latter case1 ,i may mention two ,basque names1 udarea and madaria1#aaeb which have no analogy with any known ,european or ,asiatic name4 ,the ,basques being probably the descendants of the conquered ,iberians who were driven back to the ,pyrenees by the ,kelts1 the antiquity of their language is very great1 and it is clear that their names for the species in question were not derived from ,keltic or ,latin4 ,the modern area of the pear extending from the north of ,persia to the western coast of temperate ,europe1 principally in mountainous regions1 may therefore be considered as prehistoric1 and anterior to all cultivation4 ,it must be added1 however1 that in the north of ,europe and in the ,british ,isles an extensive cultivation must have extended and multiplied naturalizations in comparatively modern times which can scarcely be now distinguished4 ,i cannot accept ,godron's hypothesis that the numerous cultivated varieties come from an unknown ,asiatic species4#aaec ,it seems that they may be ranked1 as ,decaisne says1 either with ,p4 communis or ,p4 nivalis of which ,i am about to speak1 taking into account the effect of accidental crossing1 of cultivation1 and of long-continued selection4 ,besides1 ,western ,asia has been explored so thoroughly that it is probable it contains no other species than those already described4 ,snow ,pear--,pyrus nivalis1 ,jacquin4 ,this variety of pear is cultivated in ,austria1 in the north of ,italy1 and in several departments of the east and centre of ,france4 ,it was named ,pyrus nivalis by ,jacquin#aaed from the ,german name ,schneebirne1 given to it because the ,austrian peasants eat the fruit when the snow is on the ground4 ,it is called in ,france ,poirier sauger1 because the under side of the leaves is covered with a white down which makes them like the sage 7,fr4 sauge74 ,decaisne#aaee considered all the varieties of ,p4 nivalis to be derived from ,p4 kotschyana1 ,boissier1#aaef which grows wild in ,asia ,minor4 ,the latter in this case should take the name of nivalis1 which is the older4 ,the snowy pears cultivated in ,france to make the drink called perry have become wild in the woods here and there4#aaeg ,they constitute the greater number of the so-called 8cider pears10 which are distinguished by the sour taste of the fruit independent of the character of the leaf4 ,the descriptions of the ,greeks and ,romans are too imperfect for us to be certain if they possessed this species4 ,it may be presumed that they did1 however1 since they made cider4#aaeh ,sandy ,pear1 ,chinese ,pear--,pyrus sinensis1 ,lindley4#aaei ,i have already mentioned this species1 which is nearly allied to the common pear4 ,it is wild in ,mongolia and ,mantchuria1#aafj and cultivated in ,china and ,japan4 ,its fruit1 large rather than good1 is used for preserving4 ,it has also been recently introduced into ,european gardens for experiments in crossing it with our species4 ,this will very likely take place naturally4 ,apple--,pyrus ,malus1 ,linnus4 ,the apple tree grows wild throughout ,europe 7excepting in the extreme north71 in ,anatolia1 the south of the ,caucasus1 and the ,persian province of ,ghilan4#aafa ,near ,trebizond1 the botanist ,bourgeau saw quite a small forest of them4#aafb ,in the mountains of the north-west of ,india it is 8apparently wild10 as ,sir ,joseph ,hooker writes in his ,flora of ,british ,india4 ,no author mentions it as growing in ,siberia1 in ,mongolia1 or in ,japan4#aafc ,there are two varieties wild in ,germany1 the one with glabrous leaves and ovaries1 the other with leaves downy on the under side1 and ,koch adds that this down varies considerably4#aafd ,in ,france accurate authors also give two wild varieties1 but with characters which do not tally exactly with those of the ,german flora4#aafe ,it would be easy to account for this difference if the wild trees in certain districts spring from cultivated varieties whose seeds have been accidentally dispersed4 ,the question is1 therefore1 to discover to what degree the species is probably ancient and indigenous in different countries1 and1 if it is not more ancient in one country than another1 how it was gradually extended by the accidental sowing of forms changed by the crossing of varieties and by cultivation4 ,the country in which the apple appears to be most indigenous is the region lying between ,trebizond and ,ghilan4 ,the variety which there grows wild has leaves downy on the under side1 short peduncles1 and sweet fruit1#aaff like ,malus communis of ,france1 described by ,boreau4 ,this indicates that its prehistoric area extended from the ,caspian ,sea nearly to ,europe4 ,piddington gives in his ,index a ,sanskrit name for the apple1 but ,adolphe ,pictet#aafg informs us that this name seba is ,hindustani1 and comes from the ,persian sb1 sf4 ,the absence of an earlier name in ,india argues that the now common cultivation of the apple in ,kashmir and ,thibet1 and especially that in the north-west and central provinces of ,india1 is not very ancient4 ,the tree was probably known only to the western ,aryans4 ,this people had in all probability a name of which the root was ab1 af1 av1 ob1 as this root recurs in several ,european names of ,aryan origin4 ,pictet gives aball1 ubhall1 in ,erse2 afal in ,kymric2 aval in ,armorican2 aphal in old ,high ,german2 appel in old ,english2 apli in ,scandinavian2 obolys in ,lithuanian2 iabluko in ancient ,slav2 iabloko in ,russian4 ,it would appear from this that the western ,aryans1 finding the apple wild or already naturalized in the north of ,europe1 kept the name under which they had known it4 ,the ,greeks had mailea or maila1 the ,latins malus1 malum1 words whose origin1 according to ,pictet1 is very uncertain4 ,the ,albanians1 descendants of the ,pelasgians1 have mol4#aafh ,theophrastus#aafi mentions wild and cultivated maila4 ,lastly1 the ,basques 7ancient ,iberians7 have an entirely different name1 sagara1 which implies an existence in ,europe prior to the ,aryan invasions4 ,the inhabitants of the terra-mare of ,parma1 and of the palafittes of the lakes of ,lombardy1 ,savoy1 and ,switzerland1 made great use of apples4 ,they always cut them lengthways1 and preserved them dried as a provision for the winter4 ,the specimens are often carbonized by fire1 but the internal structure of the fruit is only the more clearly to be distinguished4 ,heer1#aagj who has shown great penetration in observing these details1 distinguishes two varieties of the apple known to the inhabitants of the lake-dwellings before they possessed metals4 ,the smaller kind are #ae to #bd mm4 in their longitudinal diameter1 and about #c mm4 more across 7in their dried and carbonized state72 the larger1 #bi to #cb mm4 lengthways by #cf wide 7dried1 but not carbonized74 ,the latter corresponds to an apple of ,german-,swiss orchards1 now called campaner4 ,the ,english wild apple1 figured in ,english ,botany1 pl4 #agi1 is #ag mm4 long by #bb wide4 ,it is possible that the little apples of the lake-dwellings were wild2 however1 their abundance in the stores makes it doubtful4 ,dr4 ,gross sent me two apples from the more recent palafittes of ,lake ,neuchtel2 the one is #ag the other #bb mm4 in longitudinal diameter4 ,at ,lagozza1 in ,lombardy1 ,sordelli#aaga mentions two apples1 the one #ag mm4 by #ai1 the other #ai mm4 by #bg4 ,in a prehistoric deposit of ,lago ,varese1 at ,bardello1 ,ragazzoni found an apple in the stores a little larger than the others4 ,from all these facts1 ,i consider the apple to have existed in ,europe1 both wild and cultivated1 from prehistoric times4 ,the lack of communication with ,asia before the ,aryan invasion makes it probable that the tree was indigenous in ,europe as in ,anatolia1 the south of the ,caucasus1 and ,northern ,russia1 and that its cultivation began early everywhere4 ,quince--,cydonia vulgaris1 ,persoon4 ,the quince grows wild in the woods in the north of ,persia1 near the ,caspian ,sea1 in the region to the south of the ,caucasus1 and in ,anatolia4#aagb ,a few botanists have also found it apparently wild in the ,crimea1 and in the north of ,greece2#aagc but naturalization may be suspected even in the east of ,europe1 and the further we advance towards ,italy1 especially towards the south-west of ,europe and ,algeria1 the more it becomes probable that the species was naturalized at an early period round villages1 in hedges1 etc4 ,no ,sanskrit name is known for the quince1 whence it may be inferred that its area did not extend towards the centre of ,asia4 ,neither is there any ,hebrew name1 though the species is wild upon ,mount ,taurus4#aagd ,the ,persian name is haivah1#aage but ,i do not know whether it is as old as ,zend4 ,the same name1 aiva1 exists in ,russian for the cultivated quince1 while the name of the wild plant is armud1 from the ,armenian armuda4#aagf ,the ,greeks grafted upon a common variety1 strution1 a superior kind1 which came from ,cydon1 in ,crete1 whence 1 translated by the ,latin malum cotoneum1 by cydonia1 and all the ,european names1 such as codogno in ,italian1 coudougner1 and later coing in ,french1 quitte in ,german1 etc4 ,there are ,polish1 pigwa1 ,slav1 tunja1#aagg and ,albanian 7,pelasgian871 ftua1#aagh names which differ entirely from the others4 ,this variety of names points to an ancient knowledge of the species to the west of its original country1 and the ,albanian name may even indicate an existence prior to the ,hellenes4 ,its antiquity in ,greece may also be gathered from the superstition1 mentioned by ,pliny and ,plutarch1 that the fruit of the quince was a preservation from evil influences1 and from its entrance into the marriage rites prescribed by ,solon4 ,some authors go so far as to maintain that the apple disputed by ,hera1 ,aphrodite1 and ,athene was a quince4 ,those who are interested in such questions will find details in ,comes's paper on the plants represented in the frescoes at ,pompeii4#aagi ,the quince tree is figured twice in these1 which is not surprising1 as the tree was known in ,cato's time4#aahj ,it seems to me probable that it was naturalized in the east of ,europe before the epoch of the ,trojan war4 ,the quince is a fruit which has been little modified by cultivation2 it is as harsh and acid when fresh as in the time of the ancient ,greeks4 ,pomegranate--,punica granatum1 ,linnus4 ,the pomegranate grows wild in stony ground in ,persia1 ,kurdistan1 ,afghanistan1 and ,beluchistan4#aaha ,burnes saw groves of it in ,mazanderan1 to the south of the ,caspian ,sea4#aahb ,it appears equally wild to the south of the ,caucasus4#aahc ,westwards1 that is to say1 in ,asia ,minor1 in ,greece1 and in the ,mediterranean basin generally1 in the north of ,africa and in ,madeira1 the species appears rather to have become naturalized from cultivation1 and by the dispersal of the seeds by birds4 ,many floras of the south of ,europe speak of it as a 8subspontaneous0 or naturalized species4 ,desfontaines1 in his ,atlantic ,flora1 gives it as wild in ,algeria1 but subsequent authors think#aahd rather it is naturalized4#aahe ,i doubt its being wild in ,beluchistan1 where the traveller ,stocks found it1 for ,anglo-,indian botanists do not allow it to be indigenous east of the ,indus1 and ,i note the absence of the species in the collections from ,lebanon and ,syria which ,boissier is always careful to quote4 ,in ,china the pomegranate exists only as a cultivated plant4 ,it was introduced from ,samarkhand by ,chang-,kien1 a century and a half before the ,christian era4#aahf ,the naturalization in the ,mediterranean basin is so general that it may be termed an extension of the original area4 ,it probably dates from a very remote period1 for the cultivation of the species dates from a very early epoch in ,western ,asia4 ,let us see whether historical and philological data can give us any information on this head4 ,i note the existence of a ,sanskrit name1 darimba1 whence several modern ,indian names are derived4#aahg ,hence we may conclude that the species had long been known in the regions traversed by the ,aryans in their route towards ,india4 ,the pomegranate is mentioned several times in the ,old ,testament1 under the name of rimmon1#aahh whence the ,arabic rumman or rman4 ,it was one of the fruit trees of the promised land1 and the ,hebrews had learnt to appreciate it in ,egyptian gardens4 ,many localities in ,palestine took their name from this shrub1 but the ,scriptures only mention it as a cultivated species4 ,the flower and the fruit figured in the religious rites of the ,phnicians1 and the goddess ,aphrodite had herself planted it in the isle of ,cyprus1#aahi which implies that it was not indigenous there4 ,the ,greeks were acquainted with the species in the time of ,homer4 ,it is twice mentioned in the ,odyssey as a tree in the gardens of ,phacia and ,phrygia4 ,they called it roia or roa1 which philologists believe to be derived from the ,syrian and ,hebrew name1#aaij and also sidai1#aaia which seems to be ,pelasgic1 for the modern ,albanian name is sige4#aaib ,there is nothing to show that the species was wild in ,greece1 where ,fraas and ,heldreich affirm that it is now only naturalized4#aaic ,the pomegranate enters into the myths and religious ceremonies of the ancient ,romans4#aaid ,cato speaks of its properties as a vermifuge4 ,according to ,pliny1#aaie the best pomegranates came from ,carthage1 hence the name ,malum punicum2 but it should not be supposed1 as it has been assumed1 that the species came originally from ,northern ,africa4 ,very probably the ,phnicians had introduced it at ,carthage long before the ,romans had anything to do with this town1 and it was doubtless cultivated as in ,egypt4 ,if the pomegranate had formerly been wild in ,northern ,africa and the south of ,europe1 the ,latins would have had more original names for it than granatum 7from granum87 and ,malum punicum4 ,we should have perhaps found local names derived from ancient ,western tongues2 whereas the ,semitic name rimmon has prevailed in ,greek and in ,arabic1 and even occurs1 through ,arab influence1 among the ,berbers4#aaif ,it must be admitted that the ,african origin is one of the errors caused by the erroneous popular nomenclature of the ,romans4 ,leaves and flowers of a pomegranate1 described by ,saporta#aaig as a variety of the modern ,punica granatum1 have been discovered in the pliocene strata of the environs of ,meximieux4 ,the species1 therefore1 existed under this form1 before our epoch1 along with several species1 some extinct1 others still existing in the south of ,europe1 and others in the ,canaries1 but the continuity of existence down to our own day is not thereby proved4 ,to conclude1 botanical1 historical1 and philological data agree in showing that the modern species is a native of ,persia and some adjacent countries4 ,its cultivation began in prehistoric time1 and its early extension1 first towards the west and afterwards into ,china1 has caused its naturalization in cases which may give rise to errors as to its true origin1 for they are frequent1 ancient1 and enduring4 ,i arrived at these conclusions in #ahfi1aaih which has not prevented the repetition of the erroneous ,african origin in several works4 ,rose ,apple--,eugenia ,jambos1 ,linnus2 ,jambosa vulgaris1 de ,candolle4 ,this small tree belongs to the family of ,myrtace4 ,it is cultivated in tropical regions of the old and new worlds1 as much perhaps for the beauty of its foliage as for its fruit1 of which the rose-scented pulp is too scanty4 ,there is an excellent illustration and a good description of it in the ,botanical ,magazine1 pl4 #ccef4 ,the seed is poisonous4#aaii ,as the cultivation of this species is of ancient date in ,asia1 there was no doubt of its ,asiatic origin2 but the locality in which it grew wild was formerly unknown4 ,loureiro's assertion that it grew in ,cochin-,china and some parts of ,india required confirmation1 which has been afforded by some modern writers4#abjj ,the jambos is wild in ,sumatra1 and elsewhere in the islands of the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,kurz did not meet with it in the forests of ,british ,burmah1 but when ,rheede saw this tree in gardens in ,malabar he noticed that it was called ,malacca-schambu1 which shows that it came originally from the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,lastly1 ,brandis says it is wild in ,sikkim1 to the north of ,bengal4 ,its natural area probably extends from the islands of the ,malay ,archipelago to ,cochin-,china1 and even to the north-east of ,india1 where1 however1 it is probably naturalized from cultivation and by the agency of birds4 ,naturalization has also taken place elsewhere--at ,hongkong1 for instance1 in the ,seychelles1 ,mauritius1 and ,rodriguez1 and in several of the ,west ,india ,islands4#abja ,malay ,apple--,eugenia malaccensis1 ,linnus2 ,jambosa malaccensis1 de ,candolle4 ,a species allied to ,eugenia jambos1 but differing from it in the arrangement of its flowers1 and in its fruit1 of an obovoid instead of ovoid form2 that is to say1 the smaller end is attached to the stalk4 ,the fruit is more fleshy and is also rose-scented1 but it is much#abjb or little#abjc esteemed according to the country and varieties4 ,these are numerous1 differing in the red or pink colour of the flowers1 and in the size1 shape1 and colour of the fruit4 ,the numerous varieties show an ancient cultivation in the ,malay ,archipelago1 where the species is indigenous4 ,in confirmation1 it must be noted that ,forster found it established in the ,pacific ,islands1 from ,otahiti to the ,sandwich ,isles1 at the time of ,cook's voyages4#abjd ,the ,malay apple grows wild in the forests of the ,malay ,archipelago1 and in the peninsula of ,malacca4#abje ,tussac says that it was brought to ,jamaica from ,otahiti in #agic4 ,it has spread and become naturalized in several of the ,west ,india ,islands1 also in ,mauritius and the ,seychelles4#abjf ,guava--,psidium guayava1 ,raddi4 ,ancient authors1 ,linnus1 and some later botanists1 admitted two species of this fruit tree of the family of ,myrtace1 the one with elliptical or spherical fruit1 with red flesh1 ,psidium pomiferum2 the other with a pyriform fruit and white or pink flesh1 more agreeable to the taste4 ,such diversity is also observed in pears1 apples1 or peaches2 so it was decided to consider all the ,psidii as forming a single species4 ,raddi saw a proof that there was no essential difference1 for he observed pyriform and round fruits growing on the same tree in ,brazil4#abjg ,the majority of botanists1 especially those who have observed the guava in the colonies1 follow the opinion of ,raddi1#abjh to which ,i was inclined1 even in #ahee1 from reasons drawn from the geographical distribution4#abji ,lowe1#abaj in his ,flora of ,madeira1 maintains with some hesitation the distinction into two species1 and asserts that each can be raised from seed4 ,they are1 therefore1 races like those of our domestic animals1 and of many cultivated plants4 ,each of these races comprehends several varieties4#abaa ,the study of the origin of the guava presents in the highest degree the difficulty which exists in the case of many fruit trees of this nature3 their fleshy and somewhat aromatic fruits attract omnivorous animals which cast their seeds in places far from cultivation4 ,those of the guava germinate rapidly1 and fructify in the third or fourth year4 ,its area has thus spread1 and is still spreading by naturalization1 principally in those tropical countries which are neither very hot nor very damp4 ,in order to simplify the search after the origin of the species1 ,i may begin by eliminating the old world1 for it is sufficiently evident that the guava came from ,america4 ,out of sixty species of the genus ,psidium1 all those which have been carefully studied are ,american4 ,it is true that botanists from the sixteenth century have found plants of ,psidium guayava 7varieties pomiferum and pyriferum7 more or less wild in the ,malay ,archipelago and the south of ,asia1#abab but everything tends to show that these were the result of recent naturalization4 ,in each locality a foreign origin was admitted2 the only doubt was whether this origin was ,asiatic or ,american4 ,other considerations justify this idea4 ,the common names in ,malay are derived from the ,american word guiava4 ,ancient ,chinese authors do not mention the guava1 though ,loureiro said a century and a half ago that they were growing wild in ,cochin-,china4 ,forster does not mention them among the cultivated plants of the ,pacific ,isles at the time of ,cook's voyage1 which is significant when we consider how easy this plant is to cultivate and its ready dispersion4 ,in ,mauritius and the ,seychelles there is no doubt of their recent introduction and naturalization4#abac ,it is more difficult to discover from what part of ,america the guava originally came4 ,in the present century it is undoubtedly wild in the ,west ,indies1 in ,mexico1 in ,central ,america1 ,venezuela1 ,peru1 ,guiana1 and ,brazil4#abad ,but whether this is only since ,europeans extended its cultivation1 or whether it was previously diffused by the agency of the natives and of birds1 seems to be no more certain than when ,i spoke on the subject in #ahee4abae ,now1 however1 with a little more experience in questions of this nature1 and since the specific unity of the two varieties of guava is recognized1 ,i shall endeavour to show what seems most probable4 ,j4 ,acosta1#abaf one of the earliest authors on the natural history of the new world1 expresses himself as follows1 about the spherical variety of the guava3 8,there are mountains in ,san ,domingo and the other islands entirely covered with guavas1 and the natives say that there were no such trees in the islands before the arrival of the ,spaniards1 who brought them1 ,i know not whence40 ,the mainland seems1 therefore1 to have been the original home of the species4 ,acosta says that it grows in ,south ,america1 adding that the ,peruvian guavas have a white flesh superior to that of the red fruit4 ,this argues an ancient cultivation on the mainland4 ,hernandez#abag saw both varieties wild in ,mexico in the warm regions of the plains and mountains near ,quauhnaci4 ,he gives a description and a fair drawing of ,p4 pomiferum4 ,piso and ,marcgraf#abah also found the two guavas wild in the plains of ,brazil2 but they remark that it spreads readily4 ,marcgraf says that they were believed to be natives of ,peru or of ,north ,america1 by which he may mean the ,west ,indies or ,mexico4 ,evidently the species was wild in a great part of the continent at the time of the discovery of ,america4 ,if the area was at one time more restricted1 it must have been at a far more remote epoch4 ,different common names were given by the different native races4 ,in ,mexico it was xalxocotl2 in ,brazil the tree was called araca-iba1 the fruit araca guacu2 lastly1 the name guajavos1 or guajava1 is quoted by ,acosta and ,hernandez for the guavas of ,peru and ,san ,domingo without any precise indication of origin4 ,this diversity of names confirms the hypothesis of a very ancient and extended area4 ,from what ancient travellers say of an origin foreign to ,san ,domingo and ,brazil 7an assertion1 however1 which we may be permitted to doubt71 ,i suspect that the most ancient habitation extended from ,mexico to ,columbia and ,peru1 possibly including ,brazil before the discovery of ,america1 and the ,west ,indies after that event4 ,in its earliest state1 the species bore spherical1 highly coloured fruit1 harsh to the taste4 ,the other form is perhaps the result of cultivation4 ,gourd1#abai or ,calabash--,lagenaria vulgaris1 ,seringe2 ,cucurbita lagenaria1 ,linnus4 ,the fruit of this ,curcubitacea has taken different forms in cultivation1 but from a general observation of the other parts of the plant1 botanists have ranked them in one species which comprises several varieties4#abbj ,the most remarkable are the pilgrim's gourd1 in the form of a bottle1 the long-necked gourd1 the trumpet gourd1 and the calabash1 generally large and without a neck4 ,other less common varieties have a flattened1 very small fruit1 like the snuff-box gourd4 ,the species may always be recognized by its white flower1 and by the hardness of the outer rind of the fruit1 which allows of its use as a vessel for liquids1 or a reservoir of air suitable as a buoy for novices in swimming4 ,the flesh is sometimes sweet and eatable1 sometimes bitter and even purgative4 ,linnus#abba pronounced the species to be ,american4 ,de ,candolle#abbb thought it was probably of ,indian origin1 and this opinion has since been confirmed4 ,lagenaria vulgaris has been found wild on the coast of ,malabar and in the humid forests of ,deyra ,doon4#abbc ,roxburgh#abbd considered it to be wild in ,india1 although subsequent floras give it only as a cultivated species4 ,lastly1 ,rumphius#abbe mentions wild plants of it on the sea-shore in one of the ,moluccas4 ,authors generally note that the pulp is bitter in these wild plants1 but this is sometimes the case in cultivated forms4 ,the ,sanskrit language already distinguished the common gourd1 ulavou1 and another1 bitter1 kutou-toumbi1 to which ,pictet also attributes the name tiktaka or tiktika4#abbf ,seemann#abbg saw the species cultivated and naturalized in the ,fiji ,isles4 ,thozet gathered it on the coast of ,queensland1#abbh but it had perhaps spread from neighbouring cultivation4 ,the localities in continental ,india seem more certain and more numerous than those of the islands to the south of ,asia4 ,the species has also been found wild in ,abyssinia1 in the valley of ,hieha by ,dillon1 and in the bush and stony ground of another district by ,schimper4#abbi ,from these two regions of the old world it has been introduced into the gardens of all tropical countries and of those temperate ones where there is a sufficiently high temperature in summer4 ,it has occasionally become naturalized from cultivation1 as is seen in ,america4#abcj ,the earliest ,chinese work which mentioned the gourd is that of ,tchong-tchi-chou1 of the first century before ,christ1 quoted in a work of the fifth or sixth century according to ,bretschneider4#abca ,he is speaking here of cultivated plants4 ,the modern varieties of the gardens at ,pekin are the trumpet gourd1 which is eatable1 and the bottle gourd4 ,greek authors do not mention the plant1 but ,romans speak of it from the beginning of the empire4 ,it is clearly alluded to in the often-quoted lines#abcb of the tenth book of ,columella4 ,after describing the different forms of the fruit1 he says-- 8,dabit illa capacem1 ,narici picis1 aut ,acti mellis ,hymetti1 ,aut habilem lymphis hamulam1 ,bacchove lagenam1 ,tum pueros eadem fluviis innare docebit40 ,pliny#abcc speaks of a ,cucurbitacea1 of which vessels and flasks for wine were made1 which can only apply to this species4 ,it does not appear that the ,arabs were early acquainted with it1 for ,ibn ,alawm and ,ibn ,baithar say nothing of it4#abcd ,commentators of ,hebrew works attribute no name to this species with certainty1 and yet the climate of ,palestine is such as to popularize the use of gourds had they been known4 ,from this it seems to me doubtful that the ancient ,egyptians possessed this plant1 in spite of a single figure of leaves observed on a tomb which has been sometimes identified with it4#abce ,alexander ,braun1 ,ascherson1 and ,magnus1 in their learned paper on the ,egyptian remains of plants in the ,berlin ,museum1#abcf indicate several ,cucurbitace without mentioning this one4 ,the earliest modern travellers1 such as ,rauwolf1#abcg in #aegd1 saw it in the gardens of ,syria1 and the so-called pilgrim's gourd1 figured in #aeci by ,brunfels1 was probably known in the ,holy ,land from the ,middle ,ages4 ,all the botanists of the sixteenth century give illustrations of this species1 which was more generally cultivated in ,europe at that time than it is now4 ,the common name in these older writings is ,cameraria1 and three kinds of fruit are distinguished4 ,from the white colour of the flower1 which is always mentioned1 there can be no doubt of the species4 ,i also note an illustration1 certainly a very indifferent one1 in which the flower is wanting1 but with an exact representation of the fruit of the pilgrim's gourd1 which has the great interest of having appeared before the discovery of ,america4 ,it is pl4 #baf of ,herbarius ,patavi ,impressus1 in #dto1 #adhe--;a rare work4 ,in spite of the use of similar names by some authors1 ,i do not believe that the gourd existed in ,america before the arrival of the ,europeans4 ,the ,taquera of ,piso#abch and ,cucurbita lagenforma of ,marcgraf#abci are perhaps ,lagenaria vulgaris as monographs say1#abdj and the specimens from ,brazil which they mention should be certain1 but that does not prove that the species was in the country before the voyage of ,amerigo ,vespucci in #aejd4 ,from that time until the voyages of these two botanists in #afcg and #afch1 a much longer time elapsed than is needed to account for the introduction and diffusion of an annual species of a curious form1 easy of cultivation1 and of which the seeds long retain the faculty of germination4 ,it may have become naturalized from cultivation1 as has taken place elsewhere4 ,it is still more likely that ,cucurbita siceratia1 ,molina1 attributed sometimes to the species under consideration1 sometimes to ,cucurbita maxima1#abda may have been introduced into ,chili between #aech1 the date of the discovery of that country1 and #aghg1 the date of the ,italian edition of ,molina4 ,acosta#abdb also speaks of calabashes which the ,peruvians used as cups and vases1 but the ,spanish edition of his book appeared in #aeia1 more than a hundred years after the ,conquest4 ,among the first naturalists to mention the species after the discovery of ,america 7#adib7 is ,oviedo1#abdc who had visited the mainland1 and1 after dwelling at ,vera ,paz1 came back to ,europe in #aeae1 but returned to ,nicaragua in #aeci4abdd ,according to ,ramusio's compilation#abde he spoke of zueche1 freely cultivated in the ,west ,india ,islands and ,nicaragua at the time of the discovery of ,america1 and used as bottles4 ,the authors of the floras of ,jamaica in the seventeenth century say that the species was cultivated in that island4 ,p4 ,brown1#abdf however1 mentions a large cultivated gourd1 and a smaller one with a bitter and purgative pulp1 which was found wild4 ,lastly1 ,elliott#abdg writes as follows1 in #ahbd1 in a work on the ,southern ,states of ,america3 8,l4 vulgaris is rarely found in the woods1 and is certainly not indigenous4 ,it seems to have been brought by the early inhabitants of our country from a warmer climate4 ,the species has now become wild near dwellings1 especially in islands40 ,the expression1 8inhabitants of our country10 seems to refer rather to the colonists than to the natives4 ,between the discovery of ,virginia by ,cabot in #adig1 or the travels of ,raleigh in #aehd1 and the floras of modern botanists1 more than two centuries elapsed1 and the natives would have had time to extend the cultivation of the species if they had received it from ,europeans4 ,but the fact of its cultivation by ,indians at the time of the earliest dealings with them is doubtful4 ,torrey and ,gray#abdh mentioned it as certain in their flora published in #ahcj-dj1 and later the second of these able botanists1#abdi in an article on the ,cucurbitace known to the natives1 does not mention the calabash1 or ,lagenaria4 ,i remark the same omission in another special article on the same subject1 published more recently4#abej ,in the learned articles by ,messrs4 ,asa ,gray and ,trumbull on the present volume 7,american ,journal of ,science1 #ahhc1 p4 #cgj71 they give reasons for supposing the species known and indigenous in ,america previous to the arrival of the ,europeans4 ,early travellers are quoted more in detail than ,i had done4 ,from their testimony it appears that the inhabitants of ,peru1 ,brazil1 and of ,paria possessed gourds1 in ,spanish calabazas1 but ,i do not see that this proves that this was the species called by botanists ,cucurbita lagmaria4 ,the only character independent of the exceedingly variable form of the fruit is the white colour of the flowers1 and this character is not mentioned4--,,author',s ,,note1 #ahhd4 ,gourd--,cucurbita maxima1 ,duchesne4 ,in enumerating the species of the genus ,cucurbita1 ,i should explain that their distinction1 formerly exceedingly difficult1 has been established by ,m4 ,naudin#abea in a very scientific manner1 by means of an assiduous cultivation of varieties and of experiments upon their crossed fertilization4 ,those groups of forms which cannot fertilize each other1 or of which the product is not fertile and stable1 are regarded by him as species1 and the forms which can be crossed and yield a fertile and varied product1 as races1 breeds1 or varieties4 ,later experiments#abeb showed him that the establishment of species on this basis is not without exceptions1 but in the genus ,cucurbita physiological facts agree with exterior differences4 ,m4 ,naudin has established the true distinctive characters of ,c4 maxima and ,c4 ,pepo4 ,the leaves of the first have rounded lobes1 the peduncles are smooth and the lobes of the corolla are curved outwards2 the second has leaves with pointed lobes1 the peduncles marked with ridges and furrows1 the corolla narrowed towards the base and with lobes nearly always upright4 ,the principal varieties of ,cucurbita maxima are the great yellow gourd1 which sometimes attains to an enormous size1#abec the ,spanish gourd1 the turban gourd1 etc4 ,since common names and those in ancient authors do not agree with botanical definitions1 we must mistrust the assertions formerly put forth on the origin and early cultivation of such and such a gourd at a given epoch in a given country4 ,for this reason1 when ,i considered the subject in #ahee1 the home of these plants seemed to me either unknown or very doubtful4 ,at the present day it is more easy to investigate the question4 ,according to ,sir ,joseph ,hooker1#abed ,cucurbita maxima was found by ,barter on the banks of the ,niger in ,guinea1 apparently indigenous1 and by ,welwitsch in ,angola without any assertion of its wild character4 ,in works on ,abyssinia1 ,egypt1 or other ,african countries in which the species is commonly cultivated1 ,i find no indication that it is found wild4 ,the ,abyssinians used the word dubba1 which is applied in ,arabic to gourds in general4 ,the plant was long supposed to be of ,indian origin1 because of such names as ,indian gourd1 given by sixteenth-century botanists1 and in particular the ,pepo maximus indicus1 figured by ,lobel1#abee which answers to the modern species2 but this is a very insufficient proof1 since popular indications of origin are very often erroneous4 ,the fact is that though pumpkins are cultivated in ,southern ,asia1 as in other parts of the tropics1 the plant has not been found wild4#abef ,no similar species is indicated by ancient ,chinese authors1 and the modern names of gourds and pumpkins now grown in ,china are of foreign and southern origin4#abeg ,it is impossible to know to what species the ,sanskrit name kurkarou belonged1 although ,roxburgh attributes it to ,cucurbita ,pepo2 and there is no less uncertainty with respect to the gourds1 pumpkins1 and melons cultivated by the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,it is not certain if the species was known to the ancient ,egyptians1 but perhaps it was cultivated in that country and in the ,grco-,roman world4 ,the ,pepones1 of which ,charlemagne commanded the cultivation in his farms1#abeh were perhaps some kind of pumpkin or marrow1 but no figure or description of these plants which may be clearly recognized exists earlier than the sixteenth century4 ,this tends to show its ,american origin4 ,its existence in ,africa in a wild state is certainly an argument to the contrary1 for the species of the family of ,cucurbitace are very local2 but there are arguments in favour of ,america1 and ,i must examine them with the more care since ,i have been reproached in the ,united ,states for not having given them sufficient weight4 ,in the first place1 out of the ten known species of the genus ,cucurbita1 six are certainly wild in ,america 7,mexico and ,california72 but these are perennial species1 while the cultivated pumpkins are annuals4 ,the plant called jurumu by the ,brazilians1 figured by ,piso and ,marcgraf#abei is attributed by modern writers to ,cucurbita maxima4 ,the drawing and the short account by the two authors agree pretty well with this theory1 but it seems to have been a cultivated plant4 ,it may have been brought from ,europe or from ,africa by ,europeans1 between the discovery of ,brazil in #aejd1 and the travels of the above-named authors in #afcg and #afch4 ,no one has found the species wild in ,north or ,south ,america4 ,i cannot find in works on ,brazil1 ,guiana1 or the ,west ,indies any sign of an ancient cultivation or of wild growth1 either from names1 or from traditions or more or less distinct belief4 ,in the ,united ,states those men of science who best know the languages and customs of the natives1 ,dr4 ,harris for instance1 and more recently ,trumbull1#abfj maintain that the ,cucurbitace called squash by the ,anglo-,americans1 and macock1 or cashaw1 cushaw1 by early travellers in ,virginia1 are pumpkins4 ,trumbull says that squash is an ,indian word4 ,i have no reason to doubt the assertion1 but neither the ablest linguists1 nor the travellers of the seventeenth century1 who saw the natives provided with fruits which they called gourds and pumpkins1 have been able to prove that they were such and such species recognized as distinct by modern botanists4 ,all that we learn from this is that the natives a century after the discovery of ,virginia1 and twenty to forty years after its colonization by ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 made use of some fruits of the ,cucurbitace4 ,the common names are still so confused in the ,united ,states1 that ,dr4 ,asa ,gray1 in #ahfh1 gives pumpkin and squash as answering to different species of ,cucurbita1#abfa while ,darlington#abfb attributes the name pumpkin to the common ,cucurbita ,pepo1 and that of squash to the varieties of the latter which correspond to the forms of ,melopepo of early botanists4 ,they attribute no distinct common name to ,cucurbita maxima4 ,finally1 without placing implicit faith in the indigenous character of the plant on the banks of the ,niger1 based upon the assertion of a single traveller1 ,i still believe that the species is a native of the old world1 and introduced into ,america by ,europeans4 ,the testimony of early travellers touching the existence of ,cucurbita maxima in ,america before the arrival of ,europeans has been collected and supplemented by ,messrs4 ,asa ,gray and ,trumbull 7,american ,journal of ,science1 #ahhc1 p4 #cgb74 ,they confirm the fact already known1 that the natives cultivated species of ,cucurbita under ,american names1 of which some remain in the modern idiom of the ,united ,states4 ,none of these early travellers has noted the botanical characters by which ,naudin established the distinction between ,c4 maxima and ,c4 ,pepo1 and consequently it is still doubtful to which species they referred4 ,for various reasons ,i had already admitted that ,c4 ,pepo was of ,american origin1 but ,i retain my doubts about ,c4 maxima4 ,after a more attentive perusal of ,tragus and ,matthiolo than ,i had bestowed upon them1 ,asa ,gray and ,trumbull notice that they call ,indian whatever came from ,america4 ,but if these two botanists did not confound the ,east and ,west ,indies1 several others1 and the public in general1 did make this confusion1 which occasioned errors touching the origin of species which botanists were liable to repeat4 ,a further indication in favour of the ,american origin of ,c4 maxima is communicated by ,m4 ,wittmack1 who informs me that seeds1 certified by ,m4 ,naudin to belong to this species1 have been found in the tombs of ,ancon4 ,this would be conclusive if the date of the latest burials at ,ancon were certain4 ,see on this head the article on ,phaseolus vulgaris4--,,author',s ,,note1 #ahhd4 ,pumpkin--,cucurbita ,pepo and ,c4 ,melopepo1 ,linnus4 ,modern authors include under the head of ,cucurbita ,pepo most of the varieties which ,linnus designated by this name1 and also those which he called ,c4 ,melopepo4 ,these varieties are very different as to the shape of the fruit1 which shows a very ancient cultivation4 ,there is the ,patagonian pumpkin1 with enormous cylindrical fruit2 the sugared pumpkin1 called ,brazilian2 the vegetable marrow1 with smaller long-shaped fruit2 the ,barberine1 with knobby fruit2 the ,elector's hat1 with a curiously shaped conical fruit1 etc4 ,no value should be attached to the local names in this designation of varieties1 for we have often seen that they express as many errors as varieties4 ,the botanical names attributed to the species by ,naudin and ,cogniaux are numerous1 on account of the bad habit which existed not long ago of describing as species purely garden varieties1 without taking into account the wonderful effects of cultivation and selection upon the organ for the sake of which the plant is cultivated4 ,most of these varieties exist in the gardens of the warm and temperate regions of both hemispheres4 ,the origin of the species is considered to be doubtful4 ,i hesitated in #aheeabfc between ,southern ,asia and the ,mediterranean basin4 ,naudin and ,cogniaux#abfd admit ,southern ,asia as probable1 and the botanists of the ,united ,states on their side have given reasons for their belief in an ,american origin4 ,the question requires careful investigation4 ,i shall first seek for those forms now attributed to the species which have been found growing anywhere in a wild state4 ,the variety ,cucurbita ovifera1 ,linnus1 was formerly gathered by ,lerche1 near ,astrakhan1 but no modern botanist has confirmed this fact1 and it is probable it was a cultivated plant4 ,moreover1 ,linnus does not assert it was wild4 ,i have consulted all the ,asiatic and ,african floras without finding the slightest mention of a wild variety4 ,from ,arabia1 or even from the coast of ,guinea to ,japan1 the species1 or the varieties attributed to it1 are always said to be cultivated4 ,in ,india1 ,roxburgh remarked this1 and certainly ,clarke1 in his recent flora of ,british ,india1 has good reasons for indicating no locality for it outside cultivation4 ,it is otherwise in ,america4 ,a variety1 ,c4 texana1#abfe very near to the variety ovata1 according to ,asa ,gray1 and which is now unhesitatingly attributed to ,c4 ,pepo1 was found by ,lindheimer 8on the edges of thickets1 in damp woods1 on the banks of the upper ,guadaloupe1 apparently an indigenous plant40 ,asa ,gray adds1 however1 that it is perhaps the result of naturalization4 ,however1 as several species of the genus ,cucurbita grow wild in ,mexico and in the south-west of the ,united ,states1 we are naturally led to consider the collector's opinion sound4 ,it does not appear that other botanists found this plant in ,mexico1 or in the ,united ,states4 ,it is not mentioned in ,hemsley's ,biologia ,centrali-,americana1 nor in ,asa ,gray's recent flora of ,california4 ,some synonyms or specimens from ,south ,america1 attributed to ,c4 ,pepo1 appear to me very doubtful4 ,it is impossible to say what ,molina#abff meant by the names ,c4 ,siceratia and ,c4 mammeata1 which appear1 moreover1 to have been cultivated plants4 ,two species briefly described in the account of the journey of ,spix and ,martius 7ii4 p4 #ecf71 and also attributed to ,c4 ,pepo1#abfg are mentioned among cultivated plants on the banks of the ,rio ,francisco4 ,lastly1 the specimen of ,spruce1 #bgaf1 from the river ,uaupes1 a tributary of the ,rio ,negro1 which ,cogniaux#abfh does not mention having seen1 and which he first attributed to the ,c4 ,pepo1 and afterwards to the ,c4 moschata1 was perhaps cultivated or naturalized from cultivation1 or by transport1 in spite of the paucity of inhabitants in this country4 ,botanical indications are1 therefore1 in favour of a ,mexican or ,texan origin4 ,it remains to be seen if historical records are in agreement with or contrary to this idea4 ,it is impossible to discover whether a given ,sanskrit1 ,greek1 or ,latin name for the pumpkin belongs to one species rather than to another4 ,the form of the fruit is often the same1 and the distinctive characters are never mentioned by authors4 ,there is no figure of the pumpkin in the ,herbarius ,patavi ,impressus of #adhe1 before the discovery of ,america1 but sixteenth-century authors have published plates which may be attributed to it4 ,there are three forms of ,pepones figured on page #djf of ,dodoens1 edition #aeeg4 ,a fourth1 ,pepo rotundus major1 added in the edition of #afaf1 appears to me to be ,c4 maxima4 ,in the drawing of ,pepo oblongus of ,lobel1 ,icones1 #fda1 the character of the peduncle is clearly defined4 ,the names given to these plants imply a foreign origin2 but the authors could make no assertions on this head1 all the more that the name of 8the ,indies0 applied both to ,southern ,asia and ,america4 ,thus historical data do not gainsay the opinion of an ,american origin1 but neither do they adduce anything in support of it4 ,if the belief that it grows wild in ,america is confirmed1 it may be confidently asserted that the pumpkins cultivated by the ,romans and in the ,middle ,ages were ,cucurbita maxima1 and those of the natives of ,north ,america1 seen by different travellers in the seventeenth century1 were ,cucurbita ,pepo4 ,musk1 or ,melon ,pumpkin--,cucurbita moschata1 ,duchesne4 ,the ,bon ,jardinier quotes as the principal varieties of this species pumpkin muscade de ,provence1 pleine de ,naples1 and de ,barbarie4 ,it is needless to say that these names show nothing as to origin4 ,the species is easily recognized by its fine soft down1 the pentagonal peduncle which supports the fruit broadening at the summit2 the fruit is more or less covered with a glaucous efflorescence1 and the flesh is somewhat musk-scented4 ,the lobes of the calyx are often terminated by a leafy border4#abfi ,cultivated in all tropical countries1 it is less successful than other pumpkins in temperate regions4 ,cogniaux#abgj suspects that it comes from the south of ,asia1 but he gives no proof of this4 ,i have searched through the floras of the old and new worlds1 and ,i have nowhere been able to discover the mention of the species in a truly wild state4 ,the indications which approach most nearly to it are3 7#a7 ,in ,asia1 in the island of ,bangka1 a specimen verified by ,cogniaux1 and which ,miquel#abga says is not cultivated2 7#b7 in ,africa1 in ,angola1 specimens which ,welwitsch says are quite wild1 but 8probably due to an introduction20 7#c7 in ,america1 five specimens from ,brazil1 ,guiana1 or ,nicaragua1 mentioned by ,cogniaux1 without knowing whether they were cultivated1 naturalized1 or indigenous4 ,these indications are very slight4 ,rumphius1 ,blume1 ,clarke 7,flora of ,british ,india7 in ,asia1 ,schweinfurth 7,oliver's ,flora of ,trop4 ,africa7 in ,africa1 only know it as a cultivated plant4 ,its cultivation is recent in ,china1#abgb and ,american floras rarely mention the species4 ,no ,sanskrit name is known1 and the ,indian1 ,malay1 and ,chinese names are neither very numerous nor very original1 although the cultivation of the plant seems to be more diffused in ,southern ,asia than in other parts of the tropics4 ,it was already grown in the seventeenth century according to the ,hortus ,malabaricus1 in which there is a good plate 7vol4 viii4 pl4 #b74 ,it does not appear that this species was known in the sixteenth century1 for ,dalechamp's illustration 7,hist41 i4 p4 #faf7 which ,seringe attributed to it has not its true characters1 and ,i can find no other figure which resembles it4 ,fig-leaved ,pumpkin--,cucurbita ficifolia1 ,bouch2 ,cucurbita melanosperma1 ,braun4 ,about thirty years ago this pumpkin with black or brown seeds was introduced into gardens4 ,it differs from other cultivated species in being perennial4 ,it is sometimes called the ,siamese melon4 ,the ,bon ,jardinier says that it comes from ,china4 ,dr4 ,bretschneider does not mention it in his letter of #ahha1 in which he enumerates the pumpkins grown by the ,chinese4 ,hitherto no botanist has found it wild4 ,i very much doubt its ,asiatic origin as all the known perennial species of ,cucurbita are from ,mexico or ,california4 ,melon--,cucumis ,melo1 ,linnus4 ,the aspect of the question as to the origin of the melon has completely changed since the experiments of ,naudin4 ,the paper which he published in #ahei1 in the ,annales des ,sciences ,naturelles1 #dth series1 vol4 ii41 on the genus ,cucumis1 is as remarkable as that on the genus ,cucurbita4 ,he gives an account of the observations and experiments of several years on the variability of forms and the crossed fecundation of a multitude of species1 breeds1 or varieties coming from all parts of the world4 ,i have already spoken 7p4 #bej7 of the physiological principle on which he believes it possible to distinguish those groups of forms which he terms species1 although certain exceptions have occurred which render the criterion of fertilization less absolute4 ,in spite of these exceptional cases1 it is evident that if nearly allied forms can be easily crossed and produce fertile individuals1 as we see1 for example1 in the human species1 they must be considered as constituting a single species4 ,in this sense ,cucumis ,melo1 according to the experiments and observations made by ,naudin upon about two thousand living plants1 constitutes a species which comprehends an extraordinary number of varieties and even of breeds2 that is to say1 forms which are preserved by heredity4 ,these varieties or races can be fertilized by each other1 and yield varied and variable products4 ,they are classed by the author into ten groups1 which he calls canteloups1 melons brods1 sucrins1 melons d'hiver1 serpents1 forme de concombre1 ,chito1 ,dudaim1 rouges de ,perse1 and sauvages1 each containing varieties or nearly allied races4 ,these have been named in twenty-five or thirty different ways by botanists1 who1 without noticing transitions of form1 the faculty of crossing or of change under cultivation1 have distinguished as species all the varieties which occur in a given time or place4 ,hence it results that several forms found wild1 and which have been described as species1 must be the types and sources of the cultivated forms2 and ,naudin makes the very just observation that these wild forms1 which differ more or less the one from the other1 may have produced different cultivated varieties4 ,this is the more probable that they sometimes inhabit countries remote from each other as ,southern ,asia and tropical ,africa1 so that differences in climate and isolation may have created and consolidated varieties4 ,the following are the forms which ,naudin enumerates as wild3 #a4 ,those of ,india1 which are named by ,wildenow ,cucumis pubescens1 and by ,roxburgh ,c4 turbinatus or ,c4 maderas-patanus4 ,the whole of ,british ,india and ,beluchistan is their natural area4 ,its natural wildness is evident even to non-botanical travellers4#abgc ,the fruit varies from the size of a plum to that of a lemon4 ,it is either striped or barred1 or all one colour1 scented or odourless4 ,the flesh is sweet1 insipid1 or slightly acid1 differences which it has in common with the cultivated ,cantelopes4 ,according to ,roxburgh the ,indians gather and have a taste for the fruits of ,c4 turbinatus and of ,c4 maderas-patanus1 though they do not cultivate it4 ,referring to the most recent flora of ,british ,india1 in which ,clarke has described the ,cucurbitace 7ii4 p4 #fai71 it seems that this author does not agree with ,m4 ,naudin about the ,indian wild forms1 although both have examined the numerous specimens in the herbarium at ,kew4 ,the difference of opinion1 more apparent than real1 arises from the fact that the ,english author attributes to a nearly and certainly wild allied species1 ,c4 trigonus1 ,roxburgh1 the varieties which ,naudin classes under ,c4 ,melo4 ,cogniaux1#abgd who afterwards saw the same specimens1 attributes only ,c4 turbinatus to trigonus4 ,the specific difference between ,c4 ,melo and ,c4 trigonus is unfortunately obscure1 from the characters given by these three authors4 ,the principal difference is that ,c4 ,melo is an annual1 the other perennial1 but this duration does not appear to be very constant4 ,mr4 ,clarke says himself that ,c4 ,melo is perhaps derived by cultivation from ,c4 trigonus2 that is to say1 according to him1 from the forms which ,naudin attributes to ,c4 ,melo4 ,the experiments made during three consecutive years by ,naudin#abge upon the products of ,cucumis trigonus1 fertilized by ,c4 ,melo1 seem in favour of the opinion which admits a specific diversity2 for if fertilization took place the products were of different forms1 and often reverted to one or other of the original parents4 #b4 ,the ,african forms4 ,naudin had no specimens in sufficiently good condition1 or of which the wild state was sufficiently certain to assert positively the habitation of the species in ,africa4 ,he admits it with hesitation4 ,he includes in the species cultivated forms1 or other wild ones1 of which he had not seen the fruit4 ,sir ,joseph ,hooker#abgf subsequently obtained specimens which prove more4 ,i am not speaking of those from the ,nile ,valley1#abgg which are probably cultivated1 but of plants gathered by ,barter in ,guinea in the sands on the banks of the ,niger4 ,thonning#abgh had previously found1 in sandy soil in ,guinea1 a ,cucumis to which he had given the name arenarius2 and ,cogniaux1#abgi after having seen a specimen brought home by this traveller1 had classed it with ,c4 ,melo1 as ,sir ,j4 ,hooker thought4 ,the negroes eat the fruit of the plant found by ,barter4 ,the smell is that of a fresh green melon4 ,in ,thonning's plant the fruit is ovoid1 the size of a plum4 ,thus in ,africa as in ,india the species bears small fruit in a wild state1 as we might expect4 ,the ,dudaim among cultivated varieties is allied to it4 ,the majority of the species of the genus ,cucumis are found in ,africa2 a small minority in ,asia or in ,america4 ,other species of ,cucurbitace are divided between ,asia and ,america1 although as a rule1 in this family1 the areas of species are continuous and restricted4 ,cucumis ,melo was once perhaps1 like ,citrullus ,colocynthis of the same family1 wild from the west coast of ,africa as far as ,india without any break4 ,i formerly hesitated to admit that the melon was indigenous in the north of the ,caucasus1 as it is asserted by ancient authors--an assertion which has not been confirmed by subsequent botanists4 ,hohenacker1 who was said to have found the species near ,elisabethpolis1 makes no mention of it in his paper upon the province of ,talysch4 ,m4 ,boissier does not include ,cucumis ,melo in his ,oriental flora4 ,he merely says that it is easily naturalized on rubbish-heaps and waste ground4 ,the same thing has been observed elsewhere1 for instance in the sands of ,ussuri1 in ,eastern ,asia4 ,this would be a reason for mistrusting the locality of the sands of the ,niger1 if the small size of the fruit in this case did not recall the wild forms of ,india4 ,the culture of the melon1 or of different varieties of the melon1 may have begun separately in ,india and ,africa4 ,its introduction into ,china appears to date only from the eighth century of our era1 judging from the epoch of the first work which mentions it4#abhj ,as the relations of the ,chinese with ,bactriana1 and the north-west of ,india by the embassy of ,chang-kien1 date from the second century1 it is possible that the culture of the species was not then widely diffused in ,asia4 ,the small size of the wild fruit offered little inducement4 ,no ,sanskrit name is known1 but there is a ,tamul name1 probably less ancient1 molam1#abha which is like the ,latin ,melo4 ,it is not proved that the ancient ,egyptians cultivated the melon4 ,the fruit figured by ,lepsius#abhb is not recognizable4 ,if the cultivation had been customary and ancient in that country1 the ,greeks and ,romans would have early known it4 ,now1 it is doubtful whether the ,sikua of ,hippocrates and ,theophrastus1 or the ,pepon of ,dioscorides1 or the ,melopepo of ,pliny1 was the melon4 ,the passages referring to it are brief and insignificant2 ,galen#abhc is less obscure1 when he says that the inside of the ,melopepones is eaten1 but not of the ,pepones4 ,there has been much discussion about those names1#abhd but we want facts more than words4 ,the best proof which ,i have been able to discover of the existence of the melon among the ,romans is a very accurate representation of a fruit in the beautiful mosaic of fruits in the ,vatican4 ,moreover1 ,dr4 ,comes certifies that the half of a melon is represented in a painting at ,herculaneum4#abhe ,the species was probably introduced into the ,grco-,roman world at the time of the ,empire1 in the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,it was probably of indifferent quality1 to judge from the silence or the faint praise of writers in a country where gourmets were not wanting4 ,since the ,renaissance1 an improved cultivation and relations with the ,east have introduced better varieties into our gardens4 ,we know1 however1 that they often degenerate either from cold or bad conditions of soil1 or by crossing with inferior varieties of the species4 ,water-,melon--,citrullus vulgaris1 ,schrader2 ,cucurbita ,citrullus1 ,linnus4 ,the origin of the water-melon was long mistaken or unknown4 ,according to ,linnus1 it was a native of ,southern ,italy4#abhf ,this assertion was taken from ,matthiole1 without observing that this author says it was a cultivated species4 ,seringe1#abhg in #ahbh1 supposed it came from ,india and ,africa1 but he gives no proof4 ,i believed it came from ,southern ,asia1 because of its very general cultivation in this region4 ,it was not known in a wild state4 ,at length it was found indigenous in tropical ,africa1 on both sides of the equator1 which settles the question4#abhh ,livingstone#abhi saw districts literally covered with it1 and the savages and several kinds of wild animals eagerly devoured the wild fruit4 ,they are sometimes1 but not always1 bitter1 and this cannot be detected from the appearance of the fruit4 ,the negroes strike it with an axe1 and taste the juice to see whether it is good or bad4 ,this diversity in the wild plant1 growing in the same climate and in the same soil1 is calculated to show the small value of such a character in cultivated ,cucurbitace4 ,for the rest1 the frequent bitterness of the water-melon is not at all extraordinary1 as the most nearly allied species is ,citrullus ,colocynthis4 ,naudin obtained fertile hybrids from crossing the bitter water-melon1 wild at the ,cape1 with a cultivated species which confirms the specific unity suggested by the outward appearance4 ,the species has not been found wild in ,asia4 ,the ancient ,egyptians cultivated the water-melon1 which is represented in their paintings4#abij ,this is one reason for believing that the ,israelites knew the species1 and called it abbatitchim1 as is said2 but besides the ,arabic name1 battich1 batteca1 evidently derived from the ,hebrew1 is the modern name for the water-melon4 ,the ,french name1 pastque1 comes through the ,arabic from the ,hebrew4 ,a proof of the antiquity of the plant in the north of ,africa is found in the ,berber name1 tadelat1#abia which differs too widely from the ,arabic name not to have existed before the ,conquest4 ,the ,spanish names zandria1 cindria1 and the ,sardinian sindria1#abib which ,i cannot connect with any others1 show also an ancient culture in the eastern part of the ,mediterranean basin4 ,its cultivation early spread into ,asia1 for there is a ,sanskrit name1 chayapula1#abic but the ,chinese only received the plant in the tenth century of the ,christian era4 ,they call it si-kua1 that is melon of the ,west4#abid ,as the water-melon is an annual1 it ripens out of the tropics wherever the summer is sufficiently hot4 ,the modern ,greeks cultivate it largely1 and call it carpousia or carpousea1#abie but this name does not occur in ancient authors1 nor even in the ,greek of the decadence and of the ,middle ,ages4#abif ,it is the same as the karpus of the ,turks of ,constantinople1#abig which we find again in the ,russian arbus1#abih and in ,bengali and ,hindustani as tarbuj1 turbouz4#abii ,another ,constantinople name1 mentioned by ,forskal1 chimonico1 recurs in ,albanian chimico4#acjj ,the absence of an ancient ,greek name which can with certainty be attributed to this species1 seems to show that it was introduced into the ,grco-,roman world about the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,the poem ,copa1 attributed to ,virgil and ,pliny1 perhaps mentions it 7lib4 #ai1 cap4 #e71 as ,naudin thinks1 but it is doubtful4 ,europeans have introduced the water-melon into ,america1 where it is now cultivated from ,chili to the ,united ,states4 ,the jac of the ,brazilians1 of which ,piso and ,marcgraf have a drawing1 is evidently introduced1 for the first-named author says it is cultivated and partly naturalized4#acja ,cucumber--,cucumis sativus1 ,linnus4 ,in spite of the very evident difference between the melon and cucumber1 which both belong to the genus ,cucumis1 cultivators suppose that the species may be crossed1 and that the quality of the melon is thus sometimes spoilt4 ,naudin#acjb ascertained by experiments that this fertilization is not possible1 and has also shown that the distinction of the two species is well founded4 ,the original country of ,cucumis sativus was unknown to ,linnus and ,lamarck4 ,in #ahje1 ,wildenow#acjc asserted it was indigenous in ,tartary and ,india1 but without furnishing any proof4 ,later botanists have not confirmed the assertion4 ,when ,i went into the question in #ahee1 the species had not been anywhere found wild4 ,for various reasons deduced from its ancient culture in ,asia and in ,europe1 and especially from the existence of a ,sanskrit name1 soukasa1#acjd ,i said1 8,its original habitat is probably the north-west of ,india1 for instance ,cabul1 or some adjacent country4 ,everything seems to show that it will one day be discovered in these regions which are as yet but little known40 ,this conjecture has been realized if we admit1 with the best-informed modern authors1 that ,cucumis ,hardwickii1 ,royle1 possesses the characteristics of ,cucumis sativus4 ,a coloured illustration of this cucumber found at the foot of the ,himalayas may be seen in ,royle's ,illustrations of ,himalayan ,plants1 p4 #bbj1 pl4 #dg4 ,the stems1 leaves1 and flowers are exactly those of ,c4 sativus4 ,the fruit1 smooth and elliptical1 has a bitter taste2 but there are similar forms of the cultivated cucumber1 and we know that in other species of the same family1 the water-melon1 for instance1 the pulp is sweet or bitter4 ,sir ,joseph ,hooker1 after describing the remarkable variety which he calls the ,sikkim cucumber1#acje adds that the variety ,hardwickii1 wild from ,kumaon to ,sikkim1 and of which he has gathered specimens1 does not differ more from the cultivated plant than certain varieties of the latter differ from others2 and ,cogniaux1 after seeing the plants in the herbarium at ,kew1 adopts this opinion4#acjf ,the cucumber1 cultivated in ,india for at least three thousand years1 was only introduced into ,china in the second century before ,christ1 when the ambassador ,chang-kien returned from ,bactriana4#acjg ,the species spread more rapidly towards the ,west4 ,the ancient ,greeks cultivated the cucumber under the name of sikuos1#acjh which remains as si-kua in the modern language4 ,the modern ,greeks have also the name aggouria1 from an ancient ,aryan root which is sometimes applied to the water-melon1 and which recurs for the cucumber in the ,bohemian agurka1 the ,german ,gurke1 etc4 ,the ,albanians 7,pelasgians87 have quite a different name1 kratsavets1#acji which we recognize in the ,slav ,krastavak4 ,the ,latins called the cucumber cucumis4 ,these different names show the antiquity of the species in ,europe4 ,there is even an ,esthonian name1 uggurits1 ukkurits1 urits4#acaj ,it does not seem to be ,finnish1 but to belong to the same ,aryan root as aggouria4 ,if the cucumber came into ,europe before the ,aryans1 there would perhaps be some name peculiar to the ,basque language1 or seeds would have been found in the lake-dwellings of ,switzerland and ,savoy2 but this is not the case4 ,the peoples in the neighbourhood of the ,caucasus have names quite different to the ,greek2 in ,tartar kiar1 in ,kalmuck chaja1 in ,armenian karan4#acaa ,the name chiar exists also in ,arabic for a variety of the cucumber4#acab ,this is1 therefore1 a ,turanian name anterior to the ,sanskrit1 whereby its culture in ,western ,asia would be more than three thousand years old4 ,it is often said that the cucumber is the kischschuim1 one of the fruits of ,egypt regretted by the ,israelites in the desert4#acac ,however1 ,i do not find any ,arabic name among the three given by ,forskal which can be connected with this1 and hitherto no trace has been found of the presence of the cucumber in ancient ,egypt4 ,west ,indian ,gherkin--,cucumis ,anguria1 ,linnus4 ,this small species of cucumber is designated in the ,bon ,jardinier under the name of the cucumber ,arada4 ,the fruit1 of the size of an egg1 is very prickly4 ,it is eaten cooked or pickled4 ,as the plant is very productive1 it is largely cultivated in the ,american colonies4 ,descourtilz and ,sir ,joseph ,hooker have published good coloured illustrations of it1 and ,m4 ,cogniaux a plate with a detailed analysis of the flower4#acad ,several botanists affirm that it is wild in the ,west ,indies4 ,p4 ,browne1#acae in the last century1 spoke of the plant as the 8little wild cucumber0 7in ,jamaica74 ,descourtilz said1 8,the cucumber grows wild everywhere1 and principally in the dry savannahs and near rivers1 whose banks afford a rich vegetation40 ,the inhabitants call it the 8maroon cucumber40 ,grisebach#acaf saw specimens in several other ,west ,india ,isles1 and appears to admit their wild character4 ,m4 ,e4 ,andr found the species growing in the sand of the sea-shore at ,porto-,cabello1 and ,burchell in a similar locality in ,brazil1 and ,riedel near ,rio di ,janeiro4#acag ,in the case of a number of other specimens gathered in the east of ,america from ,brazil to ,florida1 it is unknown whether they were wild or cultivated4 ,a wild ,brazilian plant1 badly drawn by ,piso1#acah is mentioned as belonging to the species1 but ,i am very doubtful of this4 ,botanists from ,tournefort down to our own day have considered the ,anguria to be of ,american origin1 a native of ,jamaica in particular4 ,m4 ,naudin#acai was the first to point out that all the other species of ,cucumis are of the old world1 and principally ,african4 ,he wondered whether this one had not been introduced into ,america by the negroes1 like many other plants which have become naturalized4 ,however1 unable to find any similar ,african plant1 he adopted the general opinion4 ,sir ,joseph ,hooker1 on the contrary1 is inclined to believe that ,c4 ,anguria is a cultivated and modified form of some ,african species nearly allied to ,c4 prophetarum and ,c4 ,figarei1 although these are perennial4 ,in favour of this hypothesis1 ,i may add3 7#a7 ,the name maroon cucumber1 given in the ,french ,west ,india ,islands1 indicates a plant which has become wild1 for this is the meaning of the word maroon as applied to the negroes2 7#b7 its extended area in ,america from ,brazil to the ,west ,indies1 always along the coast where the slave trade was most brisk1 seems to be a proof of foreign origin4 ,if the species grew in ,america previous to its discovery1 it would1 with such an extensive habitat1 have been also found upon the west coast of ,america1 and inland1 which is not the case4 ,the question can only be solved by a more complete knowledge of the ,african species of ,cucumis1 and by experiments upon fertilization1 if any have the patience and ability necessary to do for the genus ,cucumis what ,naudin has done for the genus ,cucurbita4 ,lastly1 ,i would point out the absurdity of a common name for the ,anguria in the ,united ,states--,jerusalem ,cucumber4#acbj ,after this1 is it possible to take popular names as a guide in our search for origins8 ,white ,gourd-melon1 or ,benincasa--,benincasa hispida1 ,thunberg2 ,benincasa cerifera1 ,savi4 ,this species1 which is the only one of the genus ,benincasa1 is so like the pumpkins that early botanists took it for one1#acba in spite of the waxy efflorescence on the surface of the fruit4 ,it is very generally cultivated in tropical countries4 ,it was1 perhaps1 a mistake to abandon its cultivation in ,europe after having tried it1 for ,naudin and the ,bon ,jardinier both recommend it4 ,it is the cumbalam of ,rheede1 the camolenga of ,rumphius1 who had seen it cultivated in ,malabar and the ,sunda ,islands1 and give illustrations of it4 ,from several works1 even recent ones1#acbb it might be supposed that it had never been found in a wild state1 but if we notice the different names under which it has been described we shall find that this is not the case4 ,thus ,cucurbita hispida1 ,thunberg1 and ,lagenaria dasystemon1 ,miquel1 from authentic specimens seen by ,cogniaux1#acbc are synonyms of the species1 and these plants are wild in ,japan4#acbd ,cucurbita littoralis1 ,hasskarl1#acbe found among shrubs on the sea-shore in ,java1 and ,gymnopetalum septemlobum1 ,miquel1 also in ,java1 are the ,benincasa according to ,cogniaux4 ,as are also ,cucurbita vacua1 ,mueller1#acbf and ,cucurbita pruriens1 ,forster1 of which he has seen authentic specimens found at ,rockingham1 in ,australia1 and in the ,society ,islands4 ,nadeaud#acbg does not mention the latter4 ,temporary naturalization may be suspected in the ,pacific ,isles and in ,queensland1 but the localities of ,java and ,japan seem quite certain4 ,i am the more inclined to believe in the latter1 that the cultivation of the ,benincasa in ,china dates from the remotest antiquity4#acbh ,towel ,gourd--,momordica cylindrica1 ,linnus2 ,luffa cylindrica1 ,rmer4 ,naudin#acbi says1 8,luffa cylindrica1 which in some of our colonies has retained the ,indian name ptole1 is probably a native of ,southern ,asia1 and perhaps also of ,africa1 ,australia1 and ,polynesia4 ,it is cultivated by the peoples of most hot countries1 and it appears to be naturalized in many places where it doubtless did not exist originally40 ,cogniaux#accj is more positive4 8,an indigenous species10 he says1 8in all the tropical regions of the old world2 often cultivated and half wild in ,america between the tropics40 ,in consulting the works quoted in these two monographs1 and herbaria1 its character as a wild plant will be found sometimes conclusively certified4 ,with regard to ,asia1#acca ,rheede saw it in sandy places1 in woods and other localities in ,malabar2 ,roxburgh says it is wild in ,hindustan2 ,kurz1 in the forests of ,burmah2 ,thwaites1 in ,ceylon4 ,i have specimens from ,ceylon and ,khasia4 ,there is no ,sanskrit name known1 and ,dr4 ,bretschneider1 in his work ,on the ,study and ,value of ,chinese ,botanical ,works1 and in his letters mentions no luffa either wild or cultivated in ,china4 ,i suppose1 therefore1 that its cultivation is not ancient even in ,india4 ,the species is wild in ,australia1 on the banks of rivers in ,queensland1#accb and hence it is probable it will be found wild in the ,asiatic ,archipelago1 where ,rumphius1 ,miquel1 etc41 only mention it as a cultivated plant4 ,herbaria contain a great number of specimens from tropical ,africa1 from ,mozambique to the coast of ,guinea1 and even as far as ,angola1 but collectors do not appear to have indicated whether they were cultivated or wild plants4 ,in the ,delessert herbarium1 ,heudelot indicates it as growing in fertile ground in the environs of ,galam4 ,sir ,joseph ,hooker#accc quotes this without affirming anything4 ,schweinfurth and ,ascheron1#accd who are always careful in this matter1 say the species is only a cultivated one in the ,nile ,valley4 ,this is curious1 because the plant was seen in the seventeenth century in ,egyptian gardens under the ,arabian name of luff1#acce whence the genus was called ,luffa1 and the species ,luffa gyptica4 ,the ancient ,egyptian monuments show no trace of it4 ,the absence of a ,hebrew name is another reason for believing that its cultivation was introduced into ,egypt in the ,middle ,ages4 ,it is now grown in the ,delta1 not only for the fruit but also for the export of the seed1 from which a preparation is made for softening the skin4 ,the species is cultivated in ,brazil1 ,guiana1 ,mexico1 etc41 but ,i find no indication that it is indigenous in ,america4 ,it appears to have been here and there naturalized1 in ,nicaragua for instance1 from a specimen of ,levy's4 ,in brief1 the ,asiatic origin is certain1 the ,african very doubtful1 that of ,america imaginary1 or rather the effect of naturalization4 ,angular ,luffa--,luffa acutangula1 ,roxburgh4 ,the origin of this species1 cultivated like the preceding one in all tropical countries1 is not very clear1 according to ,naudin and ,cogniaux4#accf ,the first gives ,senegal1 the second ,asia1 and1 doubtfully1 ,africa4 ,it is hardly necessary to say that ,linnus#accg was mistaken in indicating ,tartary and ,china4 ,clarke1 in ,sir ,joseph ,hooker's flora1 says without hesitation that it is indigenous in ,british ,india4 ,rheede#acch formerly saw the plant in sandy soil in ,malabar4 ,its natural area seems to be limited1 for ,thwaites in ,ceylon1 ,kurz in ,british ,burmah1 and ,loureiro in ,china and ,cochin-,china1#acci only give the species as cultivated1 or growing on rubbish-heaps near gardens4 ,rumphius#acdj calls it a ,bengal plant4 ,no luffa has been long cultivated in ,china1 according to a letter of ,dr4 ,bretschneider4 ,no ,sanskrit name is known4 ,all these are indications of a comparatively recent culture in ,asia4 ,a variety with bitter fruit is common in ,british ,india#acda in a wild state1 since there is no inducement to cultivate it4 ,it exists also in the ,sunda ,islands4 ,it is ,luffa amara1 ,roxburgh1 and ,l4 sylvestris1 ,miquel4 ,l4 subangulata1 ,miquel1 is another variety which grows in ,java1 which ,m4 ,cogniaux also unites with the others from authentic specimens which he saw4 ,m4 ,naudin does not say what traveller gives the plant as wild in ,senegambia2 but he says the negroes call it papengaye1 and as this is the name of the ,mauritius planters1#acdb it is probable that the plant is cultivated in ,senegal1 and perhaps naturalized near dwellings4 ,sir ,joseph ,hooker1 in the ,flora of ,tropical ,africa1 gives the species1 but without proof that it is wild in ,africa1 and ,cogniaux is still more brief4 ,schweinfurth and ,ascheron#acdc do not mention it either as wild or cultivated in ,egypt1 ,nubia1 and ,abyssinia4 ,there is no trace of its ancient cultivation in ,egypt4 ,the species has often been sent from the ,west ,indies1 ,new ,granada1 ,brazil1 and other parts of ,america1 but there is no indication that it has been long in these places1 nor even that it occurs at a distance from gardens in a really wild state4 ,the conditions or probabilities of origin1 and of date of culture1 are1 it will be seen1 identical for the two cultivated species of luffa4 ,in support of the hypothesis that the latter is not of ,african origin1 ,i may say that the four other species of the genus are ,asiatic or ,american2 and as a sign that the cultivation of the luffa is not very ancient1 ,i will add that the form of the fruit varies much less than in the other cultivated cucurbitacea4 ,snake ,gourd--,trichosanthes anguina1 ,linnus4 ,an annual creeping ,cucurbitacea1 remarkable for its fringed corolla4 ,it is called petole in ,mauritius1 from a ,java name4 ,the fruit1 which is something like a long fleshy pod of some leguminous plants1 is eaten cooked like a cucumber in tropical ,asia4 ,as the botanists of the seventeenth century received the plant from ,china1 they imagined that the plant was indigenous there1 but it was probably cultivated4 ,dr4 ,bretschneider#acdd tells us that the ,chinese name1 mankua1 means 8cucumber of the southern barbarians40 ,its home must be ,india1 or the ,indian ,archipelago4 ,no author1 however1 asserts that it has been found in a distinctly wild state4 ,thus ,clarke1 in ,hooker's ,flora of ,british ,india1 ii4 p4 #faj1 says only1 8,india1 cultivated40 ,naudin1#acde before him1 said1 8,inhabits the ,east ,indies1 where it is much cultivated for its fruits4 ,it is rarely found wild40 ,rumphius#acdf is not more positive for ,amboyna4 ,loureiro and ,kurz in ,cochin-,china and ,burmah1 ,blume and ,miquel in the islands to the south of ,asia1 have only seen the plant cultivated4 ,the thirty-nine other species of the genus are all of the old world1 found between ,china or ,japan1 the west of ,india and ,australia4 ,they belong especially to ,india and the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,i consider the ,indian origin as the most probable one4 ,the species has been introduced into ,mauritius1 where it sows itself round cultivated places4 ,elsewhere it is little diffused4 ,no ,sanskrit name is known4 ,chayote1 or ,choco--,sechium edule ,swartz4 ,this plant1 of the order ,cucurbitace1 is cultivated in tropical ,america for its fruits1 shaped like a pear1 and tasting like a cucumber4 ,they contain only one seed1 so that the flesh is abundant4 ,the species alone constitutes the genus ,sechium4 ,there are specimens in every herbarium1 but generally collectors do not indicate whether they are naturalized1 or really wild1 and apparently indigenous in the country4 ,without speaking of works in which this plant is said to come from the ,east ,indies1 which is entirely a mistake1 several of the best give ,jamaica#acdg as the original home4 ,however1 ,p4 ,browne1#acdh in the middle of the last century1 said positively that it was cultivated there1 and ,sloane does not mention it4 ,jacquin#acdi says that it 8inhabits ,cuba1 and is cultivated there10 and ,richard copies this phrase in the flora of ,r4 de ,la ,sagra without adding any proof4 ,naudin says1#acej 8a ,mexican plant10 but he does not give his reasons for asserting this4 ,cogniaux1#acea in his recent monograph1 mentions a great number of specimens gathered from ,brazil to the ,west ,indies without saying if he had seen any one of these given as wild4 ,seemann#aceb saw the plant cultivated at ,panama1 and he adds a remark1 important if correct1 namely1 that the name chayote1 common in the isthmus1 is the corruption of an ,aztec word1 chayotl4 ,this is an indication of an ancient existence in ,mexico1 but ,i do not find the word in ,hernandez1 the classic author on the ,mexican plants anterior to the ,spanish conquest4 ,the chayote was not cultivated in ,cayenne ten years ago4#acec ,nothing indicates an ancient cultivation in ,brazil4 ,the species is not mentioned by early writers1 such as ,piso and ,marcgraf1 and the name chuchu1 given as ,brazilian1#aced seems to me to come from chocho1 the ,jamaica name1 which is perhaps a corruption of the ,mexican word4 ,the plant is probably a native of the south of ,mexico and of ,central ,america1 and was transported into the ,west ,india ,islands and to ,brazil in the eighteenth century4 ,the species was afterwards introduced into ,mauritius and ,algeria1 where it is very successful4#acee ,indian ,fig1 or ,prickly ,pear--,opuntia ficus indica1 ,miller4 ,this fleshy plant of the ,cactus family1 which produces the fruit known in the south of ,europe as the ,indian fig1 has no connection with the fig tree1 nor has the fruit with the fig4 ,its origin is not ,indian but ,american4 ,everything is erroneous and absurd in this common name4 ,however1 since ,linnus took his botanical name from it1 ,cactus ficus indica1 afterwards connected with the genus ,opuntia1 it was necessary to retain the specific name to avoid changes which are a source of confusion1 and to recall the popular denomination4 ,the prickly forms1 and those more or less free from spines1 have been considered by some authors as distinct species1 but an attentive examination leads us to regard them as one4#acef ,the species existed both wild and cultivated in ,mexico before the arrival of the ,spaniards4 ,hernandez#aceg describes nine varieties of it1 which shows the antiquity of its cultivation4 ,the cochineal insect appears to feed on one of these1 almost without thorns1 more than on the others1 and it has been transported with the plant to the ,canary ,isles and elsewhere4 ,it is not known how far its habitat extended in ,america before man transported pieces of the plant1 shaped like a racket1 and the fruits1 which are two easy ways of propagating it4 ,perhaps the wild plants in ,jamaica1 and the other ,west ,india ,islands mentioned by ,sloane1#aceh in #agbe1 were the result of its introduction by the ,spaniards4 ,certainly the species has become naturalized in this direction as far as the climate permits2 for instance1 as far as ,southern ,florida4#acei ,it was one of the first plants which the ,spaniards introduced to the old world1 both in ,europe and ,asia4 ,its singular appearance was the more striking that no other species belonging to the family had before been seen4#acfj ,all sixteenth-century botanists mention it1 and the plant became naturalized in the south of ,europe and in ,africa as its cultivation was introduced4 ,it was in ,spain that the prickly pear was first known under the ,american name tuna1 and it was probably the ,moors who took it into ,barbary when they were expelled from the peninsula4 ,they called it fig of the ,christians4#acfa ,the custom of using the plant for fences1 and the nourishing property of the fruits1 which contain a large proportion of sugar1 have determined its extension round the ,mediterranean1 and in general in all countries near the tropics4 ,the cultivation of the cochineal1 which was unfavourable to the production of the fruit1#acfb is dying out since the manufacture of colouring matters by chemical processes4 ,gooseberry--,ribes grossularia and ,r4 ,vacrispa1 ,linnus4 ,the fruit of the cultivated varieties is generally smooth1 or provided with a few stiff hairs1 while that of the wild varieties has soft and shorter hairs2 but intermediate forms exist1 and it has been shown by experiment that by sowing the seeds of the cultivated fruit1 plants with either smooth or hairy fruit are obtained4#acfc ,there is1 therefore1 but one species1 which has produced under cultivation one principal variety and several sub-varieties as to the size1 colour1 or taste of the fruit4 ,the gooseberry grows wild throughout temperate ,europe1 from ,southern ,sweden to the mountainous regions of ,central ,spain1 of ,italy1 and of ,greece4#acfd ,it is also mentioned in ,northern ,africa1 but the last published catalogue of ,algerian plants#acfe indicates it only in the mountains of ,aures1 and ,ball has found a variety in the ,atlas of ,marocco4#acff ,it grows in the ,caucasus1#acfg and under more or less different forms in the western ,himalayas4#acfh ,the ,greeks and ,romans do not mention the species1 which is rare in the ,south1 and which is hardly worth planting where grapes will ripen4 ,it is especially in ,germany1 ,holland1 and ,england that it has been cultivated from the sixteenth century1#acfi principally as a seasoning1 whence the ,english name1 and the ,french groseille maquereaux 7mackerel currant74 ,a wine is also made from it4 ,the frequency of its cultivation in the ,british ,isles and in other places where it is found wild1 which are often near gardens1 has suggested to some ,english botanists the idea of an accidental naturalization4 ,this is likely enough in ,ireland2#acgj but as it is an essentially ,european species1 ,i do not see why it should not have existed in ,england1 where the wild plant is more common1 since the establishment of most of the species of the ,british flora2 that is to say1 since the end of the glacial period1 before the separation of the island from the continent4 ,phillips quotes an old ,english name1 feaberry or feabes1 which supports the theory of an ancient existence1 and two ,welsh names1#acga of which ,i cannot1 however1 certify the originality4 ,red ,currant--,ribes rubrum1 ,linnus4 ,the common red currant is wild throughout ,northern and ,temperate ,europe1 and in ,siberia#acgb as far as ,kamtschatka1 and in ,america1 from ,canada and ,vermont to the mouth of the river ,mackenzie4#acgc ,like the preceding species1 it was unknown to the ,greeks and ,romans1 and its cultivation was only introduced in the ,middle ,ages4 ,the cultivated plant hardly differs from the wild one4 ,that the plant was foreign to the south of ,europe is shown by the name of groseillier d'outremer 7currant from beyond the sea71 given in ,france#acgd in the sixteenth century4 ,in ,geneva the currant is still commonly called raisin de mare1 and in the canton of ,soleure meertrbli4 ,i do not know why the species was supposed1 three centuries ago1 to have come from beyond seas4 ,perhaps this should be understood to mean that it was brought by the ,danes and the ,northmen1 and that these peoples from beyond the northern seas introduced its cultivation4 ,i doubt it1 however1 for the ,ribes rubrum is wild in almost the whole of ,great ,britain#acge and in ,normandy2#acgf the ,english1 who were in constant communication with the ,danes1 did not cultivate it as late as #aeeg1 from a list of the fruits of that epoch drawn up by ,th4 ,tusser1 and published by ,phillips2#acgg and even in the time of ,gerard1 in #aeig1acgh its cultivation was rare1 and the plant had no particular name4#acgi ,lastly1 there are ,french and ,breton names which indicate a cultivation anterior to the ,normans in the west of ,france4 ,the old names in ,france are given in the dictionary by ,mnage4 ,according to him1 red currants are called at ,rouen gardes1 at ,caen grades1 in ,lower ,normandy gradilles1 and in ,anjou castilles4 ,mnage derives all these names from rubius1 rubicus1 etc41 by a series of imaginary transformations1 from the word ruber1 red4 ,legonidec#achj tells us that red currants are also called ,kastilez 7l4 liquid7 in ,brittany1 and he derives this name from ,castille1 as if a fruit scarcely known in ,spain and abundant in the north could come from ,spain4 ,these words1 found both in ,brittany and beyond its limits1 appear to me to be of ,celtic origin2 and ,i may mention1 in support of this theory1 that in ,legonidec's dictionary gardis means rough1 harsh1 pungent1 sour1 etc41 which gives a hint as to the etymology4 ,the generic name ,ribes has caused other errors4 ,it was thought the plant might be one which was so called by the ,arabs2 but the word comes rather from a name for the currant very common in the north1 ribs in ,danish1#acha risp and resp in ,swedish4#achb ,the ,slav names are quite different and in considerable number4 ,black ,currant--,cassis2 ,ribes nigrum1 ,linnus4 ,the black currant grows wild in the north of ,europe1 from ,scotland and ,lapland as far as the north of ,france and ,italy2 in ,bosnia1#achc ,armenia1#achd throughout ,siberia1 in the basin of the river ,amur1 and in the western ,himalayas2#ache it often becomes naturalized1 as for instance1 in the centre of ,france4#achf ,this shrub was unknown in ,greece and ,italy1 for it is proper to colder countries4 ,from the variety of the names in all the languages1 even in those anterior to the ,aryans1 of the north of ,europe1 it is clear that this fruit was very early sought after1 and its cultivation was probably begun before the ,middle ,ages4 ,j4 ,bauhin#achg says it was planted in gardens in ,france and ,italy1 but most sixteenth-century authors do not mention it4 ,in the ,histoire de la ,vie ,prive des ,franais1 by ,le ,grand d',aussy1 published in #ahgb1 vol4 i4 p4 #bcb1 the following curious passage occurs3 8,the black currant has been cultivated hardly forty years1 and it owes its reputation to a pamphlet entitled ,culture du ,cassis1 in which the author attributed to this shrub all the virtues it is possible to imagine40 ,further on 7vol4 iii4 p4 #hj71 the author mentions the frequent use1 since the publication of the pamphlet in question1 of a liqueur made from the black currant4 ,bosc1 who is always accurate in his articles in the ,dictionnaire d',agriculture1 mentions this fashion under the head ,currant1 but he is careful to add1 8,it has been very long in cultivation for its fruit1 which has a peculiar odour agreeable to some1 disagreeable to others1 and which is held to be stomachic and diuretic40 ,it is also used in the manufacture of the liqueurs known as ratafia de ,cassis4#achh ,olive--,olea ,europea1 ,linnus4 ,the wild olive1 called in botanical books the variety sylvestris or oleaster1 is distinguished from the cultivated olive tree by a smaller fruit1 of which the flesh is not so abundant4 ,the best fruits are obtained by selecting the seeds1 buds1 or grafts from good varieties4 ,the oleaster now exists over a wide area east and west of ,syria1 from the ,punjab and ,beluchistan#achi as far as ,portugal and even ,madeira1 the ,canaries and even ,marocco1#acij and from the ,atlas northwards as far as the south of ,france1 the ancient ,macedonia1 the ,crimea1 and the ,caucasus4#acia ,if we compare the accounts of travellers and of the authors of floras1 it will be seen that towards the limits of this area there is often a doubt as to the wild and indigenous 7that is to say ancient in the country7 nature of the species4 ,sometimes it offers itself as a shrub which fruits little or not at all2 and sometimes1 as in the ,crimea1 the plants are rare as though they had escaped1 as an exception1 the destructive effects of winters too severe to allow of a definite establishment4 ,as regards ,algeria and the south of ,france1 these doubts have been the subject of a discussion among competent men in the ,botanical ,society4#acib ,they repose upon the uncontestable fact that birds often transport the seed of the olive into uncultivated and sterile places1 where the wild form1 the oleaster1 is produced and naturalized4 ,the question is not clearly stated when we ask if such and such olive trees of a given locality are really wild4 ,in a woody species which lives so long and shoots again from the same stock when cut off by accident1 it is impossible to know the origin of the individuals observed4 ,they may have been sown by man or birds at a very early epoch1 for olive trees of more than a thousand years old are known4 ,the effect of such sowing is a naturalization1 which is equivalent to an extension of area4 ,the point in question is1 therefore1 to discover what was the home of the species in very early prehistoric times1 and how this area has grown larger by different modes of transport4 ,it is not by the study of living olive trees that this question can be answered4 ,we must seek in what countries the cultivation began1 and how it was propagated4 ,the more ancient it is in any region1 the more probable it is that the species has existed wild there from the time of those geological events which took place before the coming of prehistoric man4 ,the earliest ,hebrew books mention the olive sait1 or zeit1#acic both wild and cultivated4 ,it was one of the trees promised in the land of ,canaan4 ,it is first mentioned in ,genesis1 where it is said that the dove sent out by ,noah should bring back a branch of olive4 ,if we take into account this tradition1 which is accompanied by miraculous details1 it may be added that the discoveries of modern erudition show that the ,mount ,ararat of the ,bible must be to the east of the mountain in ,armenia which now bears that name1 and which was anciently called ,masis4 ,from a study of the text of the ,book of ,genesis1 ,franois ,lenormand#acid places the mountain in question in the ,hindu ,kush1 and even near the sources of the ,indus4 ,this theory supposes it near to the land of the ,aryans1 yet the olive has no ,sanskrit name1 not even in that ,sanskrit from which the ,indian languages#acie are derived4 ,if the olive had then1 as now1 existed in the ,punjab1 the eastern ,aryans in their migrations towards the south would probably have given it a name1 and if it had existed in the ,mazanderan1 to the south of the ,caspian ,sea1 as at the present day1 the western ,aryans would perhaps have known it4 ,to these negative indications1 it can only be objected that the wild olive attracts no considerable attention1 and that the idea of extracting oil from it perhaps arose late in this part of ,asia4 ,herodotus#acif tells us that ,babylonia grew no olive trees1 and that its inhabitants made use of oil of sesame4 ,it is certain that a country so subject to inundation was not at all favourable to the olive4 ,the cold excludes the higher plateaux and the mountains of the north of ,persia4 ,i do not know if there is a name in ,zend1 but the ,semitic word sait must date from a remote antiquity1 for it is found in modern ,persian1 seitun1#acig and in ,arabic1 zeitun1 sjetun4#acih ,it even exists in ,turkish and among the ,tartars of the ,crimea1 seitun1#acii which may signify that it is of ,turanian origin1 or from the remote epoch when the ,turanian and ,semitic peoples intermixed4 ,the ancient ,egyptians cultivated the olive tree1 which they called tat4#adjj ,several botanists have ascertained the presence of branches or leaves of the olive in the sarcophagi4#adja ,nothing is more certain1 though ,hehn#adjb has recently asserted the contrary1 without giving any proof in support of his opinion4 ,it would be interesting to know to what dynasty belong the most ancient mummy-cases in which olive branches have been found4 ,the ,egyptian name1 quite different to the ,semitic1 shows an existence more ancient than the earliest dynasties4 ,i shall mention presently another fact in support of this great antiquity4 ,theophrastus says#adjc that the olive was much grown1 and the harvest of oil considerable in ,cyrenaica1 but he does not say that the species was wild there1 and the quantity of oil mentioned seems to point to a cultivated variety4 ,the low-lying1 very hot country between ,egypt and the ,atlas is little favourable to a naturalization of the olive outside the plantations4 ,kralik1 a very accurate botanist1 did not anywhere see on his journey to ,tunis and into ,egypt the olive growing wild1#adjd although it is cultivated in the oases4 ,in ,egypt it is only cultivated1 according to ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1#adje in their resum of the ,flora of the ,nile ,valley4 ,its prehistoric area probably extended from ,syria towards ,greece1 for the wild olive is very common along the southern coast of ,asia ,minor1 where it forms regular woods4#adjf ,it is doubtless here and in the archipelago that the ,greeks early knew the tree4 ,if they had not known it on their own territory1 had received it from the ,semites1 they would not have given it a special name1 elaia1 whence the ,latin olea4 ,the ,iliad and the ,odyssey mention the hardness of the olive wood and the practice of anointing the body with olive oil4 ,the latter was in constant use for food and lighting4 ,mythology attributed to ,minerva the planting of the olive in ,attica1 which probably signifies the introduction of cultivated varieties and suitable processes for extracting the oil4 ,aristus introduced or perfected the manner of pressing the fruit4 ,the same mythical personage carried1 it was said1 the olive tree from the north of ,greece into ,sicily and ,sardinia4 ,it seems that this may have been early done by the ,phnicians1 but in support of the idea that the species1 or a perfected variety of it1 was introduced by the ,greeks1 ,i may mention that the ,semitic name seit has left no trace in the islands of the ,mediterranean4 ,we find the ,grco-,latin name here as in ,italy1#adjg while upon the neighbouring coast of ,africa1 and in ,spain1 the names are ,egyptian or ,arabic1 as ,i shall explain directly4 ,the ,romans knew the olive later than the ,greeks4 ,according to ,pliny1#adjh it was only at the time of ,tarquin the ,ancient1 #fbg ,b4,c41 but the species probably existed already in ,great ,greece1 as in ,greece and ,sicily4 ,besides1 ,pliny was speaking of the cultivated olive4 ,a remarkable fact1 and one which has not been noted or discussed by philologists1 is that the ,berber name for the olive1 both tree and fruit1 has the root taz or tas1 similar to the tat of the ancient ,egyptians4 ,the ,kabyles of the district of ,algiers1 according to the ,french-,berber dictionary1 published by the ,french ,government1 calls the wild olive tazebboujt1 tesettha1 ou' zebbouj1 and the grafted olive tazemmourt1 tasettha1 ou' zemmour4 ,the ,touaregs1 another ,berber nation1 call it tamahinet4#adji ,these are strong indications of the antiquity of the olive in ,africa4 ,the ,arabs having conquered this country and driven back the ,berbers into the mountains and the desert1 having likewise subjected ,spain excepting the ,basque country1 the names derived from the ,semitic zeit have prevailed even in ,spanish4 ,the ,arabs of ,algiers say zenboudje for the wild1 zitoun for the cultivated olive1#adaj zit for olive oil4 ,the ,andalusians call the wild olive azebuche1 and the cultivated aceytuno4#adaa ,in other provinces we find the name of ,latin origin1 olivio1 side by side with the ,arabic words4#adab ,the oil is in ,spanish aceyte1 which is almost the ,hebrew name2 but the holy oils are called oleos santos1 because they belong to ,rome4 ,the ,basques use the ,latin name for the olive tree4 ,early voyagers to the ,canaries1 ,bontier for instance1 in #adjc1 mention the olive tree in these islands1 where modern botanists regard it as indigenous4#adac ,it may have been introduced by the ,phnicians1 if it did not previously exist there4 ,we do not know if the ,guanchos had names for the olive and its oil4 ,webb and ,berthelot do not give any in their learned chapter on the language of the aborigines1#adad so the question is open to conjecture4 ,it seems to me that the oil would have played an important part among the ,guanchos if they had possessed the olive1 and that some traces of it would have remained in the actual speech of the people4 ,from this point of view the naturalization in the ,canaries is perhaps not more ancient than the ,phnician voyages4 ,no leaf of the olive has hitherto been found in the tufa of the south of ,france1 of ,tuscany1 and ,sicily1 where the laurel1 the myrtle1 and other shrubs now existing have been discovered4 ,this is an indication1 until the contrary is proved1 of a subsequent naturalization4 ,the olive thrives in dry climates like that of ,syria and ,assyria4 ,it succeeds at the ,cape1 in parts of ,america1 in ,australia1 and doubtless it will become wild in these places when it has been more generally planted4 ,its slow growth1 the necessity of grafting or of choosing the shoots of good varieties1 and especially the concurrence of other oil-producing species1 have hitherto impeded its extension2 but a tree which produces in an ungrateful soil should not be indefinitely neglected4 ,even in the old world1 where it has existed for so many thousands of years1 its productiveness might be doubled by taking the trouble to graft on wild trees1 as the ,french have done in ,algeria4 ,star ,apple--,chrysophyllum ,canito1 ,linnus4 ,the star apple belongs to the family of the ,sapotace4 ,it yields a fruit valued in tropical ,america1 though ,europeans do not care much for it4 ,i do not find that any pains have been taken to introduce it into the colonies of ,asia or ,africa4 ,tussac gives a good illustration of it in his ,flore des ,antilles1 vol4 ii4 pl4 #i4 ,seemann#adae saw the star apple wild in several places in the ,isthmus of ,panama4 ,de ,tussac1 a ,san ,domingo colonist1 considered it wild in the forests of the ,west ,india ,islands1 and ,grisebach#adaf says it is both wild and cultivated in ,jamaica1 ,san ,domingo1 ,antigua1 and ,trinidad4 ,sloane considered it had escaped from cultivation in ,jamaica1 and ,jacquin says vaguely1 8,inhabits ,martinique and ,san ,domingo40#adag ,camito1 or ,abi--,lucuma ,canito1 ,alph4 de ,candolle4 ,this ,peruvian ,camito must not be confounded with the ,chrysophyllum ,canito of the ,west ,indies4 ,both belong to the family ,sapotace1 but the flowers and seeds are different4 ,there is a figure of this one in ,ruiz and ,pavon1 ,flora ,peruviana1 vol4 iii4 pl4 #bdj4 ,it has been transported from ,peru1 where it is cultivated1 to ,ega on the ,amazon ,river1 and to ,para1 where it is commonly called abi or abiu4#adah ,ruiz and ,pavon say it is wild in the warm regions of ,peru1 and at the foot of the ,andes4 ,marmalade ,plum1 or ,mammee ,sapota--,lucuma mammosa1 ,grtner4 ,this fruit tree1 of the order ,sapotace and a native of tropical ,america1 has been the subject of several mistakes in works on botany4#adai ,there exists no satisfactory and complete illustration of it as yet1 because colonists and travellers think it is too well known to send selected specimens of it1 such as may be described in herbaria4 ,this neglect is common enough in the case of cultivated plants4 ,the mammee is cultivated in the ,west ,indies and in some warm regions of ,america4 ,sagot tells us it is grown in ,venezuela1 but not in ,cayenne4#adbj ,i do not find that it has been transported into ,africa and ,asia1 the ,philippines#adba excepted4 ,this is probably due to the insipid taste of the fruit4 ,humboldt and ,bonpland found it wild in the forests on the banks of the ,orinoco4#adbb ,all authors mention it in the ,west ,indies1 but as cultivated or without asserting that it is wild4 ,in ,brazil it is only a garden species4 ,sapodilla--,sapota achras1 ,miller4 ,the sapodilla is the most esteemed of the order ,sapotace1 and one of the best of tropical fruits4 8,an over-ripe sapodilla10 says ,descourtilz1 in his ,flore des ,antilles1 8is melting1 and has the sweet perfumes of honey1 jasmin1 and lily of the valley40 ,there is a very good illustration in the ,botanical ,magazine1 pls4 #caaa and #caab1 and in ,tussac1 ,flore des ,antilles1 i4 pl4 #e4 ,it has been introduced into gardens in ,mauritius1 the ,malay ,archipelago1 and ,india1 from the time of ,rheede and ,rumphius1 but no one disputes its ,american origin4 ,several botanists have seen it wild in the forests of the ,isthmus of ,panama1 of ,campeachy1#adbc of ,venezuela1#adbd and perhaps of ,trinidad4#adbe ,in ,jamaica1 in the time of ,sloane1 it existed only in gardens4#adbf ,it is very doubtful that it is wild in the other ,west ,india ,islands1 although perhaps the seeds1 scattered here and there1 may have naturalized it to a certain degree4 ,tussac says that the young plants are not easy to rear in the plantations4 ,aubergine--,solanum melongena1 ,linnus2 ,solanum esculentum1 ,dunal4 ,the aubergine has a ,sanskrit name1 vartta1 and several names1 which ,piddington in his ,index considers as both ,sanskrit and ,bengali1 such as bong1 bartakon1 mahoti1 hingoli4 ,wallich1 in his edition of ,roxburgh's ,indian ,flora1 gives vartta1 varttakou1 varttaka bunguna1 whence the ,hindustani bungan4 ,hence it cannot be doubted that the species has been known in ,india from a very remote epoch4 ,rumphius had seen it in gardens in the ,sunda ,islands1 and ,loureiro in those of ,cochin-,china4 ,thunberg does not mention it in ,japan1 though several varieties are now cultivated in that country4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans did not know the species1 and no botanist mentions it in ,europe before the beginning of the seventeenth century1#adbg but its cultivation must have spread towards ,africa before the ,middle ,ages4 ,the ,arab physician1 ,ebn ,baithar1#adbh who wrote in the thirteenth century1 speaks of it1 and he quotes ,rhasis1 who lived in the ninth century4 ,rauwolf#adbi had seen the plant in the gardens of ,aleppo at the end of the sixteenth century4 ,it was called melanzana and bedengiam4 ,this ,arabic name1 which ,forskal writes badinjan1 is the same as the ,hindustani badanjan1 which ,piddington gives4 ,a sign of antiquity in ,northern ,africa is the existence of a name1 tabendjalts1 among the ,berbers or ,kabyles of the province of ,algiers1#adcj which differs considerably from the ,arab word4 ,modern travellers have found the aubergine cultivated in the whole of the ,nile ,valley and on the coast of ,guinea4#adca ,it has been transported into ,america4 ,the cultivated form of ,solanum melongena has not hitherto been found wild1 but most botanists are agreed in regarding ,solanum insanum1 ,roxburgh1 and ,s4 incanum1 ,linnus1 as belonging to the same species4 ,other synonyms are sometimes added1 the result of a study made by ,nees von ,esenbeck from numerous specimens4#adcb ,s4 insanum appears to have been lately found wild in the ,madras presidency and at ,tong-dong in ,burmah4 ,the publication of the article on the ,solanace in the ,flora of ,british ,india1 will probably give more precise information on this head4 ,red ,pepper--,capsicum4 ,in the best botanical works the genus ,capsicum is encumbered with a number of cultivated forms1 which have never been found wild1 and which differ especially in their duration 7which is often variable71 or in the form of the fruit1 a character which is of little value in plants cultivated for that special organ4 ,i shall speak of the two species most often cultivated1 but ,i cannot refrain from stating my opinion that no capsicum is indigenous to the old world4 ,i believe them to be all of ,american origin1 though ,i cannot absolutely prove it4 ,these are my reasons4 ,fruits so conspicuous1 so easily grown in gardens1 and so agreeable to the palate of the inhabitants of hot countries1 would have been very quickly diffused throughout the old world1 if they had existed in the south of ,asia1 as it has sometimes been supposed4 ,they would have had names in several ancient languages4 ,yet neither ,romans1 ,greeks1 nor even ,hebrews were acquainted with them4 ,they are not mentioned in ancient ,chinese books4#adcc ,the islanders of the ,pacific did not cultivate them at the time of ,cook's voyages1#adcd in spite of their proximity to the ,sunda ,isles1 where ,rumphius mentions their very general use4 ,the ,arabian physician1 ,ebn ,baithar1 who collected in the thirteenth century all that ,eastern nations knew about medicinal plants1 says nothing about it4 ,roxburgh knew no ,sanskrit name for the capsicums4 ,later1 ,piddington mentions a name for ,c4 frutescens1 bran-maricha1#adce which he says is ,sanskrit2 but this name1 which may be compared to that of black pepper 7muricha1 murichung71 is probably not really ancient1 for it has left no trace in the ,indian languages which are derived from ,sanskrit4#adcf ,the wild nature and ancient existence of the capsicum is always uncertain1 owing to its very general cultivation2 but it seems to me to be more often doubtful in ,asia than in ,south ,america4 ,the ,indian specimens described by the most trustworthy authors nearly all come from the herbaria of the ,east ,india ,company1 in which we never know whether a plant appeared really wild1 if it was found far from dwellings1 in forests1 etc4 ,for the localities in the ,malay ,archipelago authors often give rubbish-heaps1 hedges1 etc4 ,we pass to a more particular examination of the two cultivated species4 ,annual ,capsicum--,capsicum annuum1 ,linnus4 ,this species has a number of different names in ,european languages1#adcg which all indicate a foreign origin and the resemblance of the taste to that of pepper4 ,in ,french it is often called poivre de ,guine 7,guinea pepper71 but also poivre du ,brzil1 d',inde 7,indian1 ,brazilian pepper71 etc41 denominations to which no importance can be attributed4 ,its cultivation was introduced into ,europe in the sixteenth century4 ,it was one of the peppers that ,piso and ,marcgraf#adch saw grown in ,brazil under the name quija or quiya4 ,they say nothing as to its origin4 ,the species appears to have been early cultivated in the ,west ,indies1 where it has several ,carib names4#adci ,botanists who have most thoroughly studied the genus ,capsicum#addj do not appear to have found in herbaria a single specimen which can be considered wild4 ,i have not been more fortunate4 ,the original home is probably ,brazil4 ,c4 grossum1 ,willdenow1 seems to be a variety of the same species4 ,it is cultivated in ,india under the name kafree murich1 and kafree chilly1 but ,roxburgh did not consider it to be of ,indian origin4#adda ,shrubby ,capsicum--,capsicum frutescens1 ,willdenow4 ,this species1 taller and with a more woody stock than ,c4 annuum1 is generally cultivated in the warm regions of both hemispheres4 ,the great part of our so-called ,cayenne pepper is made from it1 but this name is given also to the product of other peppers4 ,roxburgh1 the author who is most attentive to the origin of ,indian plants1 does not consider it to be wild in ,india4 ,blume says it is naturalized in the ,malay ,archipelago in hedges4#addb ,in ,america1 on the contrary1 where its culture is ancient1 it has been several times found wild in forests1 apparently indigenous4 ,de ,martius brought it from the banks of the ,amazon1 ,pppig from the province of ,maynas in ,peru1 and ,blanchet from the province of ,bahia4#addc ,so that its area extends from ,bahia to ,eastern ,peru1 which explains its diffusion over ,south ,america generally4 ,tomato--,lycopersicum esculentum1 ,miller4 ,the tomato1 or love apple1 belongs to a genus of the ,solane1 of which all the species are ,american4#addd ,it has no name in the ancient languages of ,asia1 nor even in modern ,indian languages4#adde ,it was not cultivated in ,japan in the time of ,thunberg1 that is to say a century ago1 and the silence of ancient writers on ,china on this head shows that it is of recent introduction there4 ,rumphius#addf had seen it in gardens in the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,the ,malays called it tomatte1 but this is an ,american name1 for ,c4 ,bauhin calls the species tumatle ,americanorum4 ,nothing leads us to suppose it was known in ,europe before the discovery of ,america4 ,the first names given to it by botanists in the sixteenth century indicate that they received the plant from ,peru4#addg ,it was cultivated on the continent of ,america before it was grown in the ,west ,india ,islands1 for ,sloane does not mention it in ,jamaica1 and ,hughes#addh says it was brought to ,barbados from ,portugal hardly more than a century ago4 ,humboldt considered that the cultivation of the tomato was of ancient date in ,mexico4#addi ,i notice1 however1 that the earliest work on the plants of this country 7,hernandez1 ,historia7 makes no mention of it4 ,neither do the early writers on ,brazil1 ,piso and ,marcgraf1 speak of it1 although the species is now cultivated throughout tropical ,america4 ,thus by the process of exhaustion we return to the idea of a ,peruvian origin1 at least for its cultivation4 ,de ,martius#adej found the plant wild in the neighbourhood of ,rio de ,janeiro and ,para1 but it had perhaps escaped from gardens4 ,i do not know of any botanist who has found it really wild in the state in which it is familiar to us1 with the fruit more or less large1 lumpy1 and with swelled sides2 but this is not the case with the variety with small spherical fruit1 called ,l4 cerasiforme in some botanical works1 and considered in others 7and rightly so1 ,i think#adea7 as belonging to the same species4 ,this variety is wild on the sea-shore of ,peru1#adeb at ,tarapoto1 in ,eastern ,peru1#adec and on the frontiers of ,mexico and of the ,united ,states towards ,california4#aded ,it is sometimes naturalized in clearings near gardens4#adee ,it is probably in this manner that its area has extended north and south from ,peru4 ,avocado1 or ,alligator ,pear--,persea gratissima1 ,grtner4 ,the avocado pear is one of the most highly prized of tropical fruits4 ,it belongs to the order ,laurine4 ,it is like a pear containing one large stone1 as is well shown in ,tussac's illustrations1 ,flore des ,antilles1 iii4 pl4 #c1 and in the ,botanical ,magazine1 pl4 #dehj4 ,the common names are absurd4 ,the origin of that of alligator is unknown2 avocado is a corruption of the ,mexican ahuaca1 or aguacate4 ,the botanical name ,persea has nothing to do with the persea of the ,greeks1 which was a ,cordia4 ,clusius1#adef writing in #afja1 says that the avocado pear is an ,american fruit tree introduced into a garden in ,spain2 but as it is widely spread in the colonies of the old world1 and has here and there become almost wild1#adeg it is possible to make mistakes as to its origin4 ,this tree did not exist in the gardens of ,british ,india at the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,it had been introduced into the ,sunda ,isles#adeh in the middle of the eighteenth century1 and in #agej into ,mauritius and ,bourbon4#adei ,in ,america its actual area in a wild state is of uncommon extent4 ,the species has been found in forests1 on the banks of rivers1 and on the sea-shore from ,mexico and the ,west ,indies as far as the ,amazon4#adfj ,it has not always occupied this vast region4 ,p4 ,browne says distinctly that the avocado pear was introduced from the ,continent into ,jamaica1 and ,jacquin held the same opinion as regards the ,west ,india ,islands generally4#adfa ,piso and ,marcgraf do not mention it for ,brazil1 and ,martius gives no ,brazilian name4 ,at the time of the discovery of ,america1 the species was certainly wild and cultivated in ,mexico1 according to ,hernandez4 ,acosta#adfb says it was cultivated in ,peru under the name of palto1 which was that of a people of the eastern part of ,peru1 among whom it was abundant4#adfc ,i find no proof that it was wild upon the ,peruvian littoral4 ,papaw--,carica ,papaya1 ,linnus2 ,papaya vulgaris1 de ,candolle4 ,the papaw is a large herbaceous plant rather than a tree4 ,it has a sort of juicy trunk terminated by a tuft of leaves1 and the fruit1 which is like a melon1 hangs down under the leaves4#adfd ,it is now grown in all tropical countries1 even as far as thirty to thirty-two degrees of latitude4 ,it is easily naturalized outside plantations4 ,this is one reason why it has been said1 and people still say that it is a native of ,asia or of ,africa1 whereas ,robert ,brown and ,i proved in #ahdh and #ahee its ,american origin4#adfe ,i repeat the arguments against its supposed origin in the eastern hemisphere4 ,the species has no ,sanskrit name4 ,in modern ,indian languages it bears names derived from the ,american word papaya1 itself a corruption of the ,carib ababai4#adff ,rumphius#adfg says that the inhabitants of the ,malay ,archipelago considered it as an exotic plant introduced by the ,portuguese1 and gave it names expressing its likeness to other species or its foreign extraction4 ,sloane1#adfh in the beginning of the eighteenth century1 quotes several of his contemporaries1 who mention that it was taken from the ,west ,indies into ,asia and ,africa4 ,forster had not seen it in the plantations of the ,pacific ,isles at the time of ,cook's voyages4 ,loureiro1#adfi in the middle of the eighteenth century1 had seen it in cultivation in ,china1 ,cochin-,china1 and ,zanzibar4 ,so useful and so striking a plant would have been spread throughout the old world for thousands of years if it had existed there4 ,everything leads to the belief that it was introduced on the coasts of ,africa and ,asia after the discovery of ,america4 ,all the species of the family are ,american4 ,this one seems to have been cultivated from ,brazil to the ,west ,indies1 and in ,mexico before the arrival of the ,europeans1 since the earliest writers on the productions of the new world mention it4#adgj ,marcgraf had often seen the male plant 7always commoner than the female7 in the forests of ,brazil1 while the female plants were in gardens4 ,clusius1 who was the first to give an illustration of the plant1 says#adga that his drawing was made in #afjg1 in the bay of ,todos ,santos 7province of ,bahia74 ,i know of no modern author who has confirmed the habitation in ,brazil4 ,martius does not mention the species in his dictionary of the names of fruits in the language of the ,tupis4#adgb ,it is not given as wild in ,guiana and ,columbia4 ,p4 ,browne#adgc asserts1 on the other hand1 that it is wild in ,jamaica1 and before his time ,ximenes and ,hernandez said the same for ,st4 ,domingo and ,mexico4 ,oviedo#adgd seems to have seen the papaw in ,central ,america1 and he gives the common name olocoton for ,nicaragua4 ,yet ,correa de ,mello and ,spruce1 in their important article on the ,papayace1 after having botanized extensively in the ,amazon region1 in ,peru and elsewhere1 consider the papaw as a native of the ,west ,indies1 and do not think it is anywhere wild upon the ,continent4 ,i have seen#adge specimens from the mouth of the river ,manatee in ,florida1 from ,puebla in ,mexico1 and from ,columbia1 but the labels had no remark as to their wild character4 ,the indications1 it will be noticed1 are numerous for the shores of the ,gulf of ,mexico and for the ,west ,indies4 ,the habitation in ,brazil which lies apart is very doubtful4 ,fig--,ficus carica1 ,linnus4 ,the history of the fig presents a close analogy with that of the olive in point of origin and geographical limits4 ,its area as a wild species may have been extended by the dispersal of the seeds as cultivation spread4 ,this seems probable1 as the seeds pass intact through the digestive organs of men and animals4 ,however1 countries may be cited where the fig has been cultivated for a century at least1 and where no such naturalization has taken place4 ,i am not speaking of ,europe north of the ,alps1 where the tree demands particular care and the fruit ripens with difficulty1 even the first crop1 but of ,india for instance1 the ,southern ,states of ,america1 ,mauritius1 and ,chili1 where1 to judge from the silence of compilers of floras1 the instances of quasi-wildness are rare4 ,in our own day the fig tree grows wild1 or nearly wild1 over a vast region of which ,syria is about the centre2 that is to say1 from the east of ,persia1 or even from ,afghanistan1 across the whole of the ,mediterranean region as far as the ,canaries4#adgf ,from north to south this zone varies in width from the #beth to the #djth or #dbnd parallel1 according to local circumstances4 ,as a rule1 the fig stops like the olive at the foot of the ,caucasus and the mountains of ,europe which limit the ,mediterranean basin1 but it grows nearly wild on the south-west coast of ,france1 where the winter is very mild4#adgg ,we turn to historical and philological records to see whether the area was more limited in antiquity4 ,the ancient ,egyptians called the fig teb1#adgh and the earliest ,hebrew books speak of the fig1 whether wild or cultivated1 under the name teenah1#adgi which leaves its trace in the ,arabic tin4#adhj ,the ,persian name is quite different1 unjir2 but ,i do not know if it dates from the ,zend4 ,piddington's ,index has a ,sanskrit name1 udumvara1 which ,roxburgh1 who is very careful in such matters1 does not give1 and which has left no trace in modern ,indian languages1 to judge from four names quoted by authors4 ,the antiquity of its existence east of ,persia appears to me doubtful1 until the ,sanskrit name is verified4 ,the ,chinese received the fig tree from ,persia1 but only in the eighth century of our era4#adha ,herodotus#adhb says the ,persians did not lack figs1 and ,reynier1 who has made careful researches into the customs of this ancient people1 does not mention the fig tree4 ,this only proves that the species was not utilized and cultivated1 but it perhaps existed in a wild state4 ,the ,greeks called the wild fig erineos1 and the ,latins caprificus4 ,homer mentions a fig tree in the ,iliad which grew near ,troy4#adhc ,hehn asserts#adhd that the cultivated fig cannot have been developed from the wild fig1 but all botanists hold a contrary opinion2#adhe and1 without speaking of floral details on which they rely1 ,i may say that ,gussone obtained from the same seeds plants of the form caprificus1 and other varieties4#adhf ,the remark made by several scholars as to the absence of all mention of the cultivated fig sukai in the ,iliad1 does not therefore prove the absence of the fig tree in ,greece at the time of the ,trojan war4 ,homer mentions the sweet fig in the ,odyssey1 and that but vaguely4 ,hesiod1 says ,hehn1 does not mention it1 and ,archilochus 7#gjj ,b4,c47 is the first to mention distinctly its cultivation by the ,greeks of ,paros4 ,according to this1 the species grew wild in ,greece1 at least in the ,archipelago1 before the introduction of cultivated varieties of ,asiatic origin4 ,theophrastus and ,dioscorides mention wild and cultivated figs4#adhg ,romulus and ,remus1 according to tradition1 were nursed at the foot of a fig tree called ruminalis1 from rumen1 breast or udder4#adhh ,the ,latin name1 ficus1 which ,hehn derives1 by an effort of erudition1 from the ,greek sukai1#adhi also argues an ancient existence in ,italy1 and ,pliny's opinion is positive on this head4 ,the good cultivated varieties were of later introduction4 ,they came from ,greece1 ,syria1 and ,asia ,minor4 ,in the time of ,tiberius1 as now1 the best figs came from the ,east4 ,we learnt at school how ,cato exhibited to the assembled senators ,carthaginian figs1 still fresh1 as a proof of the proximity of the hated country4 ,the ,phnicians must have transported good varieties to the coast of ,africa and their other colonies on the ,mediterranean1 even as far as the ,canaries1 where1 however1 the wild fig may have already existed4 ,for the ,canaries we have a proof in the ,guanchos words1 arahormaze and achormaze1 green figs1 taharemenen and tehahunemen1 dried figs4 ,webb and ,berthelot1#adij who quote these names1 and who admit the common origin of the ,guanchos and ,berbers1 would have noted with pleasure the existence among the ,touaregs1 a ,berber people1 of the word tahart1 fig tree1#adia and in the ,french-,berber dictionary1 published since their time1 the names tabeksist1 green fig1 and tagrourt1 fig tree4 ,these old names1 of more ancient and local origin than ,arabic1 bear witness to a very ancient habitation in the north of ,africa as far as the ,canaries4 ,the result of our inquiry shows1 then1 that the prehistoric area of the fig tree covered the middle and southern part of the ,mediterranean basin from ,syria to the ,canaries4 ,we may doubt the antiquity of the fig in the south of ,france1 but a curious fact deserves mention4 ,planchon found in the quaternary tufa of ,montpellier1 and de ,saporta#adib in those of ,aygalades near ,marseilles1 and in the quaternary strata of ,la ,celle near ,paris1 leaves and even fruit of the wild ,ficus carica1 with teeth of ,elephas primigenius1 and leaves of plants of which some no longer exist1 and others1 like ,laurus canariensis1 have survived in the ,canaries4 ,so that the fig tree perhaps existed in its modern form in this remote epoch4 ,it is possible that it perished in the south of ,france1 as it certainly did at ,paris1 and reappeared later in a wild state in the southern region4 ,perhaps the fig trees which ,webb and ,berthelot had seen as old plants in the wildest part of the ,canaries were descended from those which existed in the fourth epoch4 ,bread-,fruit--,artocarpus incisa1 ,linnus4 ,the bread-fruit tree was cultivated in all the islands of the ,asiatic ,archipelago1 and of the great oceans near the equator1 from ,sumatra to the ,marquesas ,isles1 when first ,europeans began to visit them4 ,its fruit is constituted1 like the pine-apple1 of an assemblage of bracts and fruits welded into a fleshy mass1 more or less spherical2 and as in the pine-apple1 the seeds come to nothing in the most productive cultivated varieties4#adic ,sonnerat#adid carried the bread-fruit tree to ,mauritius1 where the ,intendant ,poivre took care to spread it4 ,captain ,bligh was commissioned to introduce it into the ,english ,west ,indian ,isles4 ,the mutiny of his crew prevented his succeeding the first time1 but a second attempt proved more fortunate4 ,in ,january1 #agic1 he landed #aec plants at ,st4 ,vincent1 whence the species has been diffused into several parts of tropical ,america4#adie ,rumphius#adif saw the species wild in several of the ,sunda ,isles4 ,modern authors1 less careful1 or acquainted only with cultivated species1 say nothing on this head4 ,seemann#adig says for the ,fiji ,isles1 8cultivated1 and to all appearance wild in some places40 ,on the continent of ,asia it is not even cultivated1 as the climate is not hot enough4 ,the bread-fruit is evidently a native of ,java1 ,amboyna1 and the neighbouring islands2 but the antiquity of its cultivation in the whole of the archipelago1 proved by the number of varieties1 and the facility of propagating it by buds and suckers1 prevent us from knowing its history accurately4 ,in the islands to the extreme east1 like ,otahiti1 certain fables and traditions point to an introduction which is not very ancient1 and the absence of seeds confirms this4#adih ,jack-,fruit--,artocarpus integrifolia1 ,linnus4 ,the jack-fruit1 larger than the bread-fruit1 for it sometimes weighs as much as eighty pounds1 hangs from the branches of a tree thirty to fifty feet high4#adii ,the common name is derived from the ,indian names jaca1 or tsjaka4 ,the species has long been cultivated in southern ,asia1 from the ,punjab to ,china1 from the ,himalayas to the ,moluccas4 ,it has not spread into the small islands more to the east1 such as ,otahiti1 which leads us to suppose it has not been so long in the archipelago as upon the continent4 ,in the north-west of ,india1 also1 its cultivation does not perhaps date from a very remote epoch1 for the existence of a ,sanskrit name is not absolutely certain4 ,roxburgh mentions one1 punusa1 but ,piddington does not admit it into his ,index4 ,the ,persians and the ,arabs do not seem to have known the species4 ,its enormous fruit must1 however1 have struck them if the species had been cultivated near their frontiers4 ,dr4 ,bretschneider does not speak of any ,artocarpus in his work on the plants known to the ancient ,chinese1 whence it may be inferred that towards ,china1 as in other directions1 the jack-fruit was not diffused at a very early epoch4 ,the first statement as to its existence in a wild state is given by ,rheede in ambiguous terms3 8,this tree grows everywhere in ,malabar and throughout ,india40 ,he perhaps confounded the planted tree with the wild one4 ,after him1 however1 ,wight found the species several times in the ,indian ,peninsula1 notably in the ,western ,ghauts1 with every appearance of a wild and indigenous tree4 ,it has been extensively planted in ,ceylon2 but ,thwaites1 the best authority for the flora of this island1 does not recognize it as wild4 ,neither is it wild in the archipelago to the south of ,india1 according to the general opinion4 ,lastly1 ,brandis found it growing in the forests of the district of ,attaran1 in ,burmah1 but1 he adds1 always in the neighbourhood of abandoned settlements4 ,kurz did not find it wild in ,british ,burmah4#aejj ,the species is1 therefore1 a native of the region lying at the foot of the western mountains of the ,indian ,peninsula1 and its cultivation in the neighbourhood is probably not earlier than the ,christian era4 ,it was introduced into ,jamaica by ,admiral ,rodney in #aghb1 and thence into ,san ,domingo4#aeja ,it has also been introduced into ,brazil1 ,mauritius1 the ,seychelles1 and ,rodriguez ,island4#aejb ,date-,palm--,phnix dactylifera1 ,linnus4 ,the date-palm has existed from prehistoric times in the warm dry zone1 which extends from ,senegal to the basin of the ,indus1 principally between parallels #ae and #cj4 ,it is seen here and there further to the north1 by reason of exceptional circumstances and of the aim which is proposed in its cultivation4 ,for beyond the limit within which the fruit ripens every year1 there is a zone in which they ripen ill or seldom1 and a further region within which the tree can live1 but without fruiting or even flowering4 ,these limits have been traced by de ,martius1 ,carl ,ritter1 and myself4#aejc ,it is needless to reproduce them here1 the aim of the present work being to study questions of origin4 ,as regards the date-palm1 we can hardly rely on the more or less proved existence of really wild indigenous individuals4 ,dates are easily transported2 the stones germinate when sown in damp soil near the source of a river1 and even in the fissures of rocks4 ,the inhabitants of oases have planted or sown date-palms in favourable localities where the species perhaps existed before man1 and when the traveller comes across isolated trees1 at a distance from dwellings1 he cannot know that they did not spring from stones thrown away by caravans4 ,botanists admit a variety1 sylvestris1 that is to say wild1 with small and sour fruit2 but it is perhaps the result of recent naturalization in an unfavourable soil4 ,historical and philological data are of more value here1 though doubtless from the antiquity of cultivation they can only establish probabilities4 ,from ,egyptian and ,assyrian remains1 as well as from tradition and the most ancient writings1 we find that the date-palm grew in abundance in the region lying between the ,euphrates and the ,nile4 ,egyptian monuments contain fruits and drawings of the tree4#aejd ,herodotus1 in a more recent age 7fifth century before ,christ71 mentions the wood of the date-palms of ,babylonia1 and still later ,strabo used similar expressions about those of ,arabia1 whence it seems that the species was commoner than it is now1 and more in the condition of a natural forest tree4 ,on the other hand1 ,carl ,ritter makes the ingenious observation that the earliest ,hebrew books do not speak of the date-palm as producing a fruit valued as a food for man4 ,david1 about one thousand years before ,christ1 and about seven centuries after ,moses1 does not mention the date palm in his list of trees to be planted in his gardens4 ,it is true that except at ,jericho dates seldom ripen in ,palestine4 ,later1 ,herodotus says of the ,babylonian date-palms that only the greater part produced good fruit which was used for food4 ,this seems to indicate the beginning of a cultivation perfected by the selection of varieties and of the transport of male flowers into the middle of the branches of female trees1 but it perhaps signifies also that ,herodotus was ignorant of the existence of the male plant4 ,to the west of ,egypt the date-palm had probably existed for centuries or for thousands of years when ,herodotus mentioned them4 ,he speaks of ,libya4 ,there is no historical record with respect to the oases in the ,sahara1 but ,pliny#aeje mentions the date-palm in the ,canaries4 ,the names of the species bear witness to its great antiquity both in ,asia and in ,africa1 seeing they are numerous and very different4 ,the ,hebrews called the date-palm tamar1 and the ancient ,egyptians beq4#aejf ,the complete difference between these words1 both very ancient1 shows that these peoples found the species indigenous and perhaps already named in ,western ,asia and in ,egypt4 ,the number of ,persian1 ,arabic1 and ,berber names is incredible4#aejg ,some are derived from the ,hebrew word1 others from unknown sources4 ,they often apply to different states of the fruit1 or to different cultivated varieties1 which again shows ancient cultivation in different countries4 ,webb and ,berthelot have not discovered a name for the date-palm in the language of the ,guanchos1 and this is much to be regretted4 ,the ,greek name1 phnix1 refers simply to ,phnicia and the ,phnicians1 possessors of the date-palm4#aejh ,the names dactylus and date are derivations of dachel in a ,hebrew dialect4#aeji ,no ,sanskrit name is known1 whence it may be inferred that the plantations of the date-palm in ,western ,india are not very ancient4 ,the ,indian climate does not suit the species4#aeaj ,the ,hindustani name khurma is borrowed from the ,persian4 ,further to the ,east the date-palm remained long unknown4 ,the ,chinese received it from ,persia1 in the third century of our era1 and its cultivation was resumed at different times1 but they have now abandoned it4#aeaa ,as a rule1 beyond the arid region which lies between the ,euphrates and the south of the ,atlas and the ,canaries1 the date-palm has not succeeded in similar latitudes1 or at least it has not become an important culture4 ,it might be grown with success in ,australia and at the ,cape1 but the ,europeans who have colonized these regions are not satisfied1 like the ,arabs1 with figs and dates for their staple food4 ,i think1 in fine1 that in times anterior to the earliest ,egyptian dynasties the date-palm already existed1 wild or sown here and there by wandering tribes1 in a narrow zone extending from the ,euphrates to the ,canaries1 and that its cultivation began later as far as the north-west of ,india on the one hand and the ,cape de ,verde ,islands#aeab on the other1 so that the natural area has remained very nearly the same for about five thousand years4 ,what it was previously1 palontological discoveries may one day reveal4 ,banana--,musa sapientum and ,m4 paradisiaca1 ,linnus2 ,m4 sapientum1 ,brown4 ,the banana or bananas were generally considered to be natives of ,southern ,asia1 and to have been carried into ,america by ,europeans1 till ,humboldt threw doubts upon their purely ,asiatic origin4 ,in his work on ,new ,spain#aeac he quoted early authors who assert that the banana was cultivated in ,america before the conquest4 ,he admits1 on ,oviedo's authority1#aead its introduction by ,father ,thomas of ,berlangas from the ,canaries into ,san ,domingo in #aeaf1 whence it was introduced into other islands and the mainland4#aeae ,he recognizes the absence of any mention of the banana in the accounts of ,columbus1 ,alonzo ,negro1 ,pinzon1 ,vespuzzi1 and ,cortez4 ,the silence of ,hernandez1 who lived half a century after ,oviedo1 astonishes him and appears to him a remarkable carelessness2 8for10 he says1#aeaf 8it is a constant tradition in ,mexico and on the whole of the mainland that the platano arton1 and the dominico were cultivated long before the ,spanish conquest40 ,the author who has most carefully noted the different epochs at which ,american agriculture has been enriched by foreign products1 the ,peruvian ,garcilasso de la ,vega1#aeag says distinctly that at the time of the ,incas1 maize1 quinoa1 the potato1 and1 in the warm and temperate regions1 bananas formed the staple food of the natives4 ,he describes the ,musa of the valleys in the ,andes2 he even distinguishes the rarer species1 with a small fruit and a sweet aromatic flavour1 the dominico1 from the common banana or arton4 ,father ,acosta#aeah asserts also1 although less positively1 that the ,musa was cultivated by the ,americans before the arrival of the ,spaniards4 ,lastly1 ,humboldt adds from his own observation1 8,on the banks of the ,orinoco1 of the ,cassiquaire or of the ,beni1 between the mountains of ,esmeralda and the banks of the river ,carony1 in the midst of the thickest forests1 almost everywhere that ,indian tribes are found who have had no relations with ,european settlements1 we meet with plantations of ,manioc and bananas40 ,humboldt suggests the hypothesis that several species or constant varieties of the ,banana have been confounded1 some of which are indigenous to the new world4 ,desvaux studied the specific question1 and in a really remarkable work1 published in #ahad1aeai he gives it as his opinion that all the bananas cultivated for their fruits are of the same species4 ,in this species he distinguishes forty-four varieties1 which he arranges in two groups2 the large-fruited bananas 7seven to fifteen inches long71 and the small-fruited bananas 7one to six inches71 commonly called fig bananas4 ,r4 ,brown1 in #ahah1 in his work on the ,plants of the ,congo1 p4 #ea1 maintains also that no structural difference in the bananas cultivated in ,asia and those in ,america prevents us from considering them as belonging to the same species4 ,he adopts the name ,musa sapientum1 which appears to me preferable to that of ,m4 paradisiaca adopted by ,desvaux1 because the varieties with small fertile fruit appear to be nearer the condition of the wild ,mus found in ,asia4 ,brown remarks on the question of origin that all the other species of the genus ,musa belong to the old world2 that no one pretends to have found in ,america1 in a wild state1 varieties with fertile fruit1 as has happened in ,asia2 lastly1 that ,piso and ,marcgraf considered that the banana was introduced into ,brazil from ,congo4 ,in spite of the force of these three arguments1 ,humboldt1 in his second edition of his essay upon ,new ,spain 7ii4 p4 #cig71 does not entirely renounce his opinion4 ,he says that the traveller ,caldcleugh#aebj found among the ,puris the tradition that a small species of banana was cultivated on the borders of the ,prato long before they had any communications with the ,portuguese4 ,he adds that words which are not borrowed ones are found in ,american languages to distinguish the fruit of the ,musa2 for instance1 paruru in ,tamanac1 etc41 arata in ,maypur4 ,i have also read in ,stevenson's travels#aeba that beds of the leaves of the two bananas commonly cultivated in ,america have been found in the huacas or ,peruvian tombs anterior to the conquest2 but as this traveller also says that he saw beans#aebb in these huacas1 a plant which undoubtedly belongs to the old world1 his assertions are not very trustworthy4 ,boussingault#aebc thought that the platano arton at least was of ,american origin1 but he gives no proof4 ,meyen1 who had also been in ,america1 adds no argument to those which were already known2#aebd nor does the geographer ,ritter1#aebe who simply reproduces the facts about ,america1 given by ,humboldt4 ,on the other hand1 the botanists who have more recently visited ,america have no hesitation as to the ,asiatic origin4 ,i may name ,seemann for the ,isthmus of ,panama1 ,ernst for ,venezuela1 and ,sagot for ,guiana4#aebf ,the two first insist upon the absence of names for the banana in the languages of ,peru and ,mexico4 ,piso knew no ,brazilian name4 ,martius#aebg has since indicated1 in the ,tupi language of ,brazil1 the names pacoba or bacoba4 ,this same word bacove is used1 according to ,sagot1 by the ,french in ,guiana4 ,it is perhaps derived from the name bala1 or palan1 of ,malabar1 from an introduction by the ,portuguese1 subsequent to ,piso's voyage4 ,the antiquity and wild character of the banana in ,asia are incontestable facts4 ,there are several ,sanskrit names4#aebh ,the ,greeks1 ,latins1 and ,arabs have mentioned it as a remarkable ,indian fruit tree4 ,pliny#aebi speaks of it distinctly4 ,he says that the ,greeks of the expedition of ,alexander saw it in ,india1 and he quotes the name pala which still persists in ,malabar4 ,sages reposed beneath its shade and ate of its fruit4 ,hence the botanical name ,musa sapientum4 ,musa is from the ,arabic mouz or mauwz1 which we find as early as the thirteenth century in ,ebn ,baithar4 ,the specific name paradisiaca comes from the ridiculous hypothesis which made the banana figure in the story of ,eve and of ,paradise4 ,it is a curious fact that the ,hebrews and the ancient ,egyptians#aecj did not know this ,indian plant4 ,it is a sign that it did not exist in ,india from a very remote epoch1 but was first a native of the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,there is an immense number of varieties of the banana in the south of ,asia1 both on the islands and on the continent2 the cultivation of these varieties dates in ,india1 in ,china1 and in the archipelago1 from an epoch impossible to realize2 it even spread formerly into the islands of the ,pacific#aeca and to the west coast of ,africa2#aecb lastly1 the varieties bore distinct names in the most separate ,asiatic languages1 such as ,chinese1 ,sanskrit1 and ,malay4 ,all this indicates great antiquity of culture1 consequently a primitive existence in ,asia1 and a diffusion contemporary with or even anterior to that of the human races4 ,the banana is said to have been found wild in several places4 ,this is the more worthy of attention since the cultivated varieties seldom produce seed1 and are multiplied by division1 so that the species can hardly have become naturalized from cultivation by sowing itself4 ,roxburgh had seen it in the forests of ,chittagong1#aecc in the form of ,musa sapientum4 ,rumphius#aecd describes a wild variety with small fruits in the ,philippine ,isles4 ,loureiro#aeceaecf probably speaks of the same form by the name ,m4 seminifera agrestis1 which he contrasts with ,m4 seminifera domestica1 which is wild in ,cochin-,china4 ,blanco also mentions a wild banana in the ,philippines1#aecg but his description is vague4 ,finlayson#aech found the banana wild in abundance in the little island of ,pulo ,ubi at the southern extremity of ,siam4 ,thwaites#aeci saw the variety ,m4 sapientum in the rocky forests of the centre of ,ceylon1 and does not hesitate to pronounce it the original stock of the cultivated bananas4 ,sir ,joseph ,hooker and ,thomson#aedj found it wild at ,khasia4 ,the facts are quite different in ,america4 ,the wild banana has been seen nowhere except in ,barbados1#aeda but here it is a tree of which the fruit does not ripen1 and which is1 consequently1 in all probability the result of cultivated varieties of which the seed is not abundant4 ,sloane's wild plantain#aedb appears to be a plant very different to the musa4 ,the varieties which are supposed to be possibly indigenous in ,america are only two1 and as a rule far fewer varieties are grown than in ,asia4 ,the culture of the banana may be said to be recent in the greater part of ,america1 for it dates from but little more than three centuries4 ,piso#aedc says positively that it was imported into ,brazil1 and has no ,brazilian name4 ,he does not say whence it came4 ,we have seen that1 according to ,oviedo1 the species was brought to ,san ,domingo from the ,canaries4 ,this fact and the silence of ,hernandez1 generally so accurate about the useful plants1 wild or cultivated1 in ,mexico1 convince me that at the time of the discovery of ,america the banana did not exist in the whole of the eastern part of the continent4 ,did it exist1 then1 in the western part on the shores of the ,pacific8 ,this seems very unlikely when we reflect that communication was easy between the two coasts towards the isthmus of ,panama1 and that before the arrival of the ,europeans the natives had been active in diffusing throughout ,america useful plants like the manioc1 maize1 and the potato4 ,the banana1 which they have prized so highly for three centuries1 which is so easily multiplied by suckers1 and whose appearance must strike the least observant1 would not have been forgotten in a few villages in the depths of the forest or upon the littoral4 ,i admit that the opinion of ,garcilasso1 descendant of the ,incas1 an author who lived from #aecj to #aefh1 has a certain importance when he says that the natives knew the banana before the conquest4 ,however1 the expressions of another writer1 extremely worthy of attention1 ,joseph ,acosta1 who had been in ,peru1 and whom ,humboldt quotes in support of ,garcilasso1 incline me to adopt the contrary opinion4#aedd ,he says1#aede 8,the reason the ,spaniards called it plane 7for the natives had no such name7 was that1 as in the case of their trees1 they found some resemblance between them40 ,he goes on to show how different was the plane 7,platanus7 of the ancients4 ,he describes the banana very well1 and adds that the tree is very common in the ,indies 7i4e4 ,america71 8although they 7the ,indians7 say that its origin is ,ethiopia4444 ,there is a small white species of plantain 7banana71 very delicate1 which is called in ,espagnolle#aedf dominico4 ,there are others coarser and larger1 and of a red colour4 ,there are none in ,peru1 but they are imported thither from the ,indies1#aedg as into ,mexico from ,cuernavaca and the other valleys4 ,on the continent and in some of the islands there are great plantations of them which form dense thickets40 ,surely it is not thus that the author would express himself were he writing of a fruit tree of ,american origin4 ,he would quote ,american names and customs2 above all1 he would not say that the natives regarded it as a plant of foreign origin4 ,its diffusion in the warm regions of ,mexico may well have taken place between the epoch of the conquest and the time when ,acosta wrote1 since ,hernandez1 whose conscientious researches go back to the earliest times of the ,spanish dominion in ,mexico 7though published later in ,rome71 says not a word of the banana4#aedh ,prescott the historian saw ancient books and manuscripts which assert that the inhabitants of ,tumbez brought bananas to ,pizarro when he disembarked upon the ,peruvian coast1 and he believes that its leaves were found in the huacas1 but he does not give his proofs4#aedi ,as regards the argument of the modern native plantations in regions of ,america1 remote from ,european settlements1 ,i find it hard to believe that tribes have remained absolutely isolated1 and have not received so useful a tree from colonized districts4 ,briefly1 then1 it appears to me most probable that the species was early introduced by the ,spanish and ,portuguese into ,san ,domingo and ,brazil1 and ,i confess that this implies that ,garcilasso was in error with regard to ,peruvian traditions4 ,if1 however1 later research should prove that the banana existed in some parts of ,america before the advent of the ,europeans1 ,i should be inclined to attribute it to a chance introduction1 not very ancient1 the effect of some unknown communication with the islands of the ,pacific1 or with the coast of ,guinea1 rather than to believe in the primitive and simultaneous existence of the species in both hemispheres4 ,the whole of geographical botany renders the latter hypothesis improbable1 ,i might almost say impossible1 to admit1 especially in a genus which is not divided between the two worlds4 ,in conclusion1 ,i would call attention to the remarkable way in which the distribution of varieties favours the opinion of a single species--an opinion adopted1 purely from the botanical point of view1 by ,roxburgh1 ,desvaux1 and ,r4 ,brown4 ,if there were two or three species1 one would probably be represented by the varieties suspected to be of ,american origin1 the other would belong1 for instance1 to the ,malay ,archipelago or to ,china1 and the third to ,india4 ,on the contrary all the varieties are geographically intermixed1 and the two which are most widely diffused in ,america differ sensibly the one from the other1 and each is confounded with or approaches very nearly to ,asiatic varieties4 ,pine-,apple--,ananassa sativa1 ,lindley2 ,bromelia ,ananas1 ,linnus4 ,in spite of the doubts of a few writers1 the pine-apple must be an ,american plant1 early introduced by ,europeans into ,asia and ,africa4 ,nana was the ,brazilian name1#aeej which the ,portuguese turned into ananas4 ,the ,spanish called it pinas1 because the shape resembles the fruit of a species of pine4#aeea ,all early writers on ,america mention it4#aeeb ,hernandez says that the pine-apple grows in the warm regions of ,haiti and ,mexico4 ,he mentions a ,mexican name1 matzatli4 ,a pine-apple was brought to ,charles ,v41 who mistrusted it1 and would not taste it4 ,the works of the ,greeks1 ,romans1 and ,arabs make no allusion to this species1 which was evidently introduced into the old world after the discovery of ,america4 ,rheede#aeec in the seventeenth century was persuaded of this2 but ,rumphius#aeed disputed it later1 because he said the pine-apple was cultivated in his time in every part of ,india1 and was found wild in ,celebes and elsewhere4 ,he notices1 however1 the absence of an ,asiatic name4 ,that given by ,rheede for ,malabar is evidently taken from a comparison with the jack-fruit1 and is in no sense original4 ,it is doubtless a mistake on the part of ,piddington to attribute a ,sanskrit name to the pine-apple1 as the name anarush seems to be a corruption of ananas4 ,roxburgh knew of none1 and ,wilson's dictionary does not mention the word anarush4 ,royle#aeee says that the pine-apple was introduced into ,bengal in #aeid4 ,kircher#aeef says that the ,chinese cultivated it in the seventeenth century1 but it was believed to have been brought to them from ,peru4 ,clusius#aeeg in #aeii had seen leaves of the pine-apple brought from the coast of ,guinea4 ,this may be explained by an introduction there subsequent to the discovery of ,america4 ,robert ,brown speaks of the pine-apple among the plants cultivated in ,congo2 but he considers the species to be an ,american one4 ,although the cultivated pine-apple bears few seeds or none at all1 it occasionally becomes naturalized in hot countries4 ,examples are quoted in ,mauritius1 the ,seychelles1 and ,rodriguez ,island1#aeeh in ,india1#aeei in the ,malay ,archipelago1 and in some parts of ,america1 where it was probably not indigenous--the ,west ,indies1 for instance4 ,it has been found wild in the warm regions of ,mexico 7if we may trust the phrase used by ,hernandez71 in the province of ,veraguas#aefj near ,panama1 in the upper ,orinoco valley1#aefa in ,guiana#aefb and the province of ,bahia4#aefc ,,chapter ,v4 ,,plants ,,cultivated ,,for ,,their ,,seeds4 ,article ,i4--,seeds used for ,food4 ,cacao--,theobroma ,cacao1 ,linnus4 ,the genus ,theobroma1 of the order ,byttneriace1 allied to the ,malvace1 consists of fifteen to eighteen species1 all belonging to tropical ,america1 principally in the hotter parts of ,brazil1 ,guiana1 and ,central ,america4 ,the common cacao1 ,theobroma ,cacao1 is a small tree wild in the forests of the ,amazon and ,orinoco basins#aefd and of their tributaries up to four hundred feet of altitude4 ,it is also said to grow wild in ,trinidad1 which lies near the mouth of the ,orinoco4#aefe ,i find no proof that it is indigenous in ,guiana1 although it seems probable4 ,many early writers indicate that it was both wild and cultivated at the time of the discovery of ,america from ,panama to ,guatemala and ,campeachy2 but from the numerous quotations collected by ,sloane1#aeff it is to be feared that its wild character was not sufficiently verified4 ,modern botanists are not very explicit on this head1 and in general they only mention the cacao as cultivated in these regions and in the ,west ,india ,islands4 ,g4 ,bernoulli1#aefg who had resided in ,guatemala1 only says1 8wild and cultivated throughout tropical ,america20 and ,hemsley1#aefh in his review of the plants of ,mexico and ,central ,america1 made in #ahgi from the rich materials of the ,kew herbarium1 gives no locality where the species is indigenous4 ,it was perhaps introduced into ,central ,america and into the warm regions of ,mexico by the ,indians before the discovery of ,america4 ,cultivation may have naturalized it here and there1 as is said to be the case in ,jamaica4#aefi ,in support of this hypothesis1 it must be observed that ,triana#aegj indicates the cacao as only cultivated in the warm regions of ,new ,granada1 a country situated between ,panama and the ,orinoco valley4 ,however this may be1 the species was grown in ,central ,america and ,yucatan at the time of the discovery of ,america4 ,the seeds were sent into the highlands of ,mexico1 and were even used as money1 so highly were they valued4 ,the custom of drinking chocolate was general4 ,the name of this excellent drink is ,mexican4 ,the ,spaniards carried the cacao from ,acapulco to the ,philippine ,isles in #afgd and #afhj1aega where it succeeded wonderfully4 ,it is also cultivated in the ,sunda ,isles4 ,i imagine it would succeed on the ,guinea and ,zanzibar coasts1 but it is of no use to attempt to grow it in countries which are not very hot and very damp4 ,another species1 ,theobroma bicolor1 ,humboldt and ,bonpland1 is found growing with the common cacao in ,american plantations4 ,it is not so much prized4 ,on the other hand1 it does not require so high a temperature1 and can live at an altitude of nearly three thousand feet in the valley of the ,magdalena4 ,it abounds in a wild state in ,new ,granada4#aegb ,bernoulli asserts that it is only cultivated in ,guatemala1 though the inhabitants call it mountain cacao4 ,litchi--,nephelium ,litchi1 ,cambessides4 ,the seed of this species and of the two following is covered with a fleshy excrescence1 very sweet and scented1 which is eaten with tea4 ,like most of the ,sapindace1 the nepheliums are trees4 ,this one has been cultivated in the south of ,china1 ,india1 and the ,malay ,archipelago from a date of which we cannot be certain4 ,chinese authors living at ,pekin only knew the ,litchi late in the third century of our era4#aegc ,its introduction into ,bengal took place at the end of the eighteenth century4#aegd ,every one admits that the species is a native of the south of ,china1 and1 ,blume#aege adds1 of ,cochin-,china and the ,philippine ,isles1 but it does not seem that any botanist has found it in a truly wild state4 ,this is probably because the southern part of ,china towards ,siam has been little visited4 ,in ,cochin-,china and in ,burmah and at ,chittagong the ,litchi is only cultivated4#aegf ,longan--,nephelium longana1 ,cambessides4 ,this second species1 very often cultivated in ,southern ,asia1 like the ,litchi1 is wild in ,british ,india1 from ,ceylon and ,concan as far as the mountains to the east of ,bengal1 and in ,pegu4#aegg ,the ,chinese introduced it into the ,malay ,archipelago some centuries ago4 ,rambutan--,nephelium lappaceum1 ,linnus4 ,it is said to be wild in the ,indian ,archipelago1 where it must have been long cultivated1 to judge from the number of its varieties4 ,a ,malay name1 given by ,blume1 signifies wild tree4 ,loureiro says it is wild in ,cochin-,china and ,java4 ,yet ,i find no confirmation for ,cochin-,china in modern works1 nor even for the islands4 ,the new flora of ,british ,india#aegh indicates it at ,singapore and ,malacca without affirming that it is indigenous1 on which head the labels in herbaria commonly tell us nothing4 ,certainly the species is not wild on the continent of ,asia1 in spite of the vague expressions of ,blume and ,miquel1#aegi but it is more probably a native of the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,in spite of the reputation of the nepheliums1 of which the fruit can be exported1 it does not appear that these trees have been introduced into the tropical colonies of ,africa and ,america except into a few gardens as curiosities4 ,pistachio ,nut--,pistacia vera1 ,linnus4 ,the pistachio1 a shrub belonging to the order ,anacardiace1 grows naturally in ,syria4 ,boissier#aehj found it to the north of ,damascus in ,anti-,lebanon1 and he saw specimens of it brought from ,mesopotamia1 but he could not be sure that they were found wild4 ,there is the same doubt about branches gathered in ,arabia1 which have been mentioned by some writers4 ,pliny and ,galen#aeha knew that the species was a ,syrian one4 ,the former tells us that the plant was introduced into ,italy by ,vitellius at the end of the reign of ,tiberius1 and thence into ,spain by ,flavius ,pompeius4 ,there is no reason to believe that the cultivation of the pistachio was ancient even in its primitive country1 but it is practised in our own day in the ,east1 as well as in ,sicily and ,tunis4 ,in the south of ,france and ,spain it is of little importance4 ,broad ,bean--,faba vulgaris1 ,mnch2 ,vicia faba1 ,linnus4 ,linnus1 in his best descriptive work1 ,hortus cliffortianus1 admits that the origin of this species is obscure1 like that of most plants of ancient cultivation4 ,later1 in his ,species1 which is more often quoted1 he says1 without giving any proof1 that the bean 8inhabits ,egypt40 ,lerche1 a ,russian traveller at the end of the last century1 found it wild in the ,mungan desert of the ,mazanderan1 to the south of the ,caspian ,sea4#aehb ,travellers who have collected in this region have sometimes come across it1#aehc but they do not mention it in their writings1#aehd excepting ,ledebour1#aehe and the quotation on which he relies is not correct4 ,bosc#aehf says that ,olivier found the bean wild in ,persia2 ,i do not find this confirmed in ,olivier's ,voyage1 and as a rule ,bosc seems to have been too ready to believe that ,olivier found a good many of our cultivated plants in the interior of ,persia4 ,he says it of buckwheat and of oats1 which ,olivier does not mention4 ,the only indication besides that of ,lerche which ,i find in floras is a very different locality4 ,munby mentions the bean as wild in ,algeria1 at ,oran4 ,he adds that it is rare4 ,no other author1 to my knowledge1 has spoken of it in northern ,africa4 ,cosson1 who knows the flora of ,algeria better than any one1 assures me he has not seen or received any specimen of the wild bean from the north of ,africa4 ,i have ascertained that there is no specimen in ,munby's#aehg herbarium1 now at ,kew4 ,as the ,arabs grow the bean on a large scale1 it may perhaps be met with accidentally outside cultivated plots4 ,it must not be forgotten1 however1 that ,pliny 7lib4 xviii4 c4 #ab7 speaks of a wild bean in ,mauritania1 but he adds that it is hard and cannot be cooked1 which throws doubt upon the species4 ,botanists who have written upon ,egypt and ,cyrenaica1 especially the more recent1#aehh give the bean as cultivated4 ,this plant alone constitutes the genus ,faba4 ,we cannot1 therefore1 call in the aid of any botanical analogy to discover its origin4 ,we must have recourse to the history of its cultivation and to the names of the species to find out the country in which it was originally indigenous4 ,we must first eliminate an error which came from a wrong interpretation of ,chinese works4 ,stanislas ,julien believed that the bean was one of the five plants which the ,emperor ,chin-nong commanded1 #dfjj years ago1 to be sown every year with great solemnity4#aehi ,now1 according to ,dr4 ,bretschneider1#aeij who is surrounded at ,pekin with every possible resource for arriving at the truth1 the seed similar to a bean which the emperors sow in the enjoined ceremony is that of ,dolichos soja1 and the bean was only introduced into ,china from ,western ,asia a century before the ,christian era1 at the time of ,chang-kien's embassy4 ,thus falls an assertion which it is hard to reconcile with other facts1 for instance with the absence of an ancient cultivation of the bean in ,india1 and of a ,sanskrit name1 or even of any modern ,indian name4 ,the ancient ,greeks were acquainted with the bean1 which they called kuamos1 and sometimes kuamos ellenikos1 to distinguish it from that of ,egypt1 which was the seed of a totally different aquatic species1 ,nelumbium4 ,the ,iliad#aeia already mentions the bean as a cultivated plant1 and ,virchow found some beans in the excavations at ,troy4#aeib ,the ,latins called it faba4 ,we find nothing in the works of ,theophrastus1 ,dioscorides1 ,pliny1 etc41 which leads us to believe the plant indigenous in ,greece or ,italy4 ,it was early known1 because it was an ancient ,roman rite to put beans in the sacrifices to the goddess ,carna1 whence the name ,fabari ,calend4#aeic ,the ,fabii perhaps took their name from faba1 and the twelfth chapter of the eighteenth book of ,pliny shows1 without the possibility of a doubt1 the antiquity and importance of the bean in ,italy4 ,the word faba recurs in several of the ,aryan languages of ,europe1 but with modifications which philologists alone can recognize4 ,we must not forget1 however1 ,adolphe ,pictet's very just remark1#aeid that in the cases of the seeds of cereals and leguminous plants the names of one species are often transferred to another1 or that certain names were sometimes specific and sometimes generic4 ,several seeds of like form were called kuamos by the ,greeks2 several different kinds of haricot bean 7,phaseolus1 ,dolichos7 bear the same name in ,sanskrit1 and faba in ancient ,slav1 bobu in ancient ,prussian1 babo in ,armorican1 fav1 etc41 may very well have been used for peas1 haricot beans1 etc4 ,in our own day the phrase coffee-bean is used in the trade4 ,it has been rightly supposed that when ,pliny speaks of fabari islands1 where beans were found in abundance1 he alludes to a species of wild pea called botanically ,pisum maritimum4 ,the ancient inhabitants of ,switzerland and of ,italy in the age of bronze cultivated a small-fruited variety of ,faba vulgaris4#aeie ,heer calls it ,celtica nana1 because it is only six to nine millimetres long1 whereas our modern field bean is ten to twelve millimetres4 ,he has compared the specimens from ,montelier on ,lake ,morat1 and ,st4 ,peter's ,islands on ,lake ,bienne1 with others of the same epoch from ,parma4 ,mortellet found1 in the contemporary lake-dwellings on the ,lake ,bourget1 the same small bean1 which is1 he says1 very like a variety cultivated in ,spain at the present day4#aeif ,the bean was cultivated by the ancient ,egyptians4#aeig ,it is true that hitherto no beans have been found in the sarcophagi1 or drawings of the plant seen on the monuments4 ,the reason is said to be that the plant was reckoned unclean4#aeih ,herodotus#aeii says1 8,the ,egyptians never sow the bean in their land1 and if it grows they do not eat it either cooked or raw4 ,the priests cannot even endure the sight of it2 they imagine that this vegetable is unclean40 ,the bean existed then in ,egypt1 and probably in cultivated places1 for the soil which would suit it was as a rule under cultivation4 ,perhaps the poor population and that of certain districts did not share the prejudices of the priests2 we know that the superstitions varied with the nomes4 ,plutarch and ,diodorus ,siculus mention the cultivation of the bean in ,egypt1 but they wrote five hundred years later than ,herodotus4 ,the word pol occurs twice in the ,old ,testament2#afjj it has been translated bean because of the traditions preserved by the ,talmud1 and of the ,arabic name foul1 fol1 or ful1 which is that of the bean4 ,the first of the two verses shows that the ,hebrews were acquainted with the bean one thousand years before ,christ4 ,lastly1 ,i shall mention a sign of the ancient existence of the bean in the north of ,africa4 ,this is the ,berber name ibiou1 in the plural iabouen1 used by the ,kabyles of the province of ,algiers4#afja ,it has no resemblance to the ,semitic name1 and dates perhaps from a remote antiquity4 ,the ,berbers formerly inhabited ,mauritania1 where ,pliny asserts that the species was wild4 ,it is not known whether the ,guanchos 7the ,berber people of the ,canaries7 knew the bean4 ,i doubt whether the ,iberians had it1 for their supposed descendants1 the ,basques1 use the name baba1#afjb answering to the ,roman faba4 ,we judge from these facts that the bean was cultivated in ,europe in prehistoric terms4 ,it was introduced into ,europe probably by the western ,aryans at the time of their earliest migrations 7,pelasgians1 ,kelts1 ,slavs74 ,it was taken to ,china later1 a century before the ,christian era1 and still later into ,japan1 and quite recently into ,india4 ,its wild habitat was probably twofold some thousands of years ago1 one of the centres being to the south of the ,caspian1 the other in the north of ,africa4 ,this kind of area1 which ,i have called disjunctive1 and to which ,i formerly paid a good deal of attention1#afjc is rare in dicotyledons1 but there are examples in those very countries of which ,i have just spoken4#afjd ,it is probable that the area of the bean has long been in process of diminution and of extinction4 ,the nature of the plant is in favour of this hypothesis1 for its seed has no means of dispersing itself1 and rodents or other animals can easily make prey of it4 ,its area in ,western ,asia was probably less limited at one time1 and that in ,africa in ,pliny's day was more or less extensive4 ,the struggle for existence which was going against this plant1 as against maize1 would have gradually isolated it and caused it to disappear1 if man had not saved it by cultivation4 ,the plant which most nearly resembles the bean is ,vicia narbonensis4 ,authors who do not admit the genus ,faba1 of which the characters are not very distinct from those of ,vicia1 place these two species in the same section4 ,now1 ,vicia narbonensis is wild in the ,mediterranean basin and in the ,east as far as the ,caucasus1 in the north of ,persia1 and in ,mesopotamia4#afje ,its area is continuous1 but this renders the hypothesis ,i mentioned above probable by analogy4 ,lentil--,ervum lens1 ,linnus2 ,lens esculenta1 ,mnch4 ,the plants which most nearly resemble the lentil are classed by authors now in the genus ,ervum1 now in a distinct genus ,lens1 and sometimes in the genus ,cicer2 but the species of these ill-defined groups all belong to the ,mediterranean basin or to ,western ,asia4 ,this throws some light on the origin of the cultivated plant4 ,unfortunately1 the lentil is no longer to be found in a wild state1 at least with certainty4 ,the floras of the south of ,europe1 of ,northern ,africa1 of the ,east1 and of ,india always mention it as cultivated1 or as growing in fields after or with other cultivated species4 ,a botanist#afjf saw it in the provinces to the south of the ,caucasus1 8cultivated and nearly wild here and there round villages40 ,another#afjg indicates it vaguely in the south of ,russia1 but more recent floras fail to confirm this4 ,the history and names of this plant may give clearer indications of its origin4 ,it has been cultivated in the ,east1 in the ,mediterranean basin and even in ,switzerland1 from prehistoric time4 ,according to ,herodotos1 ,theophrastus1 etc41 the ancient ,egyptians used it largely4 ,if their monuments give no proof of this1 it was probably because the lentil was1 like the bean1 considered common and coarse4 ,the ,old ,testament mentions it three times1 by the name adaschum or adaschim1 which must certainly mean lentil1 for the ,arabic name is ads1#afjh or adas4#afji ,the red colour of ,esau's famous mess of pottage has not been understood by most authors4 ,reynier1#afaj who had lived in ,egypt1 confirms the explanation given formerly by ,josephus2 the lentils were red because they were hulled4 ,it is still the practice in ,egypt1 says ,reynier1 to remove the husk or outer skin from the lentil1 and in this case they are a pale red4 ,the ,berbers have the ,semitic name ads for the lentil4#afaa ,the ,greeks cultivated the species--fakos or fakai4 ,aristophanes mentions it as an article of food of the poor4#afab ,the ,latins called it lens1 a name whose origin is unknown1 which is evidently allied to the ancient ,slav lesha1 ,illyrian lechja1 ,lithuanian lenszic4#afac ,the difference between the ,greek and ,latin names shows that the species perhaps existed in ,greece and ,italy before it was cultivated4 ,another proof of ancient existence in ,europe is the discovery of lentils in the lake-dwellings of ,st4 ,peter's ,island1 ,lake of ,bienne1#afad which are of the age of bronze4 ,the species may have been introduced from ,italy4 ,according to ,theophrastus1#afae the inhabitants of ,bactriana 7the modern ,bokkara7 did not know the fakos of the ,greeks4 ,adolphe ,pictet quotes a ,persian name1 mangu or margu1 but he does not say whether it is an ancient name1 existing1 for instance1 in the ,zend ,avesta4 ,he admits several ,sanskrit names for the lentil1 masura1 renuka1 mangalya1 etc41 while ,anglo-,indian botanists1 ,roxburgh and ,piddington1 knew none4#afaf ,as these authors mention an analogous name in ,hindustani and ,bengali1 mussour1 we may suppose that masura signifies lentil1 while mangu in ,persian recalls the other name mangalya4 ,as ,roxburgh and ,piddington give no name in other ,indian languages1 it may be supposed that the lentil was not known in this country before the invasion of the ,sanskrit-speaking race4 ,ancient ,chinese works do not mention the species2 at least1 ,dr4 ,bretschneider says nothing of them in his work published in #ahgj1 nor in the more detailed letters which he has since written to me4 ,the lentil appears to have existed in western temperate ,asia1 in ,greece1 and in ,italy1 where its cultivation was first undertaken in very early prehistoric time1 when it was introduced into ,egypt4 ,its cultivation appears to have been extended at a less remote epoch1 but still hardly in historic time1 both east and west1 that is into ,europe and ,india4 ,chick-,pea--,cicer arietinum1 ,linnus4 ,fifteen species of the genus ,cicer are known1 all of ,western ,asia or ,greece1 except one1 which is ,abyssinian4 ,it seems1 therefore1 most probable that the cultivated species comes from the tract of land lying between ,greece and the ,himalayas1 vaguely termed the ,east4 ,the species has not been found undoubtedly wild4 ,all the floras of the south of ,europe1 of ,egypt1 and of ,western ,asia as far as the ,caucasus and ,india1 give it as a cultivated species1 or growing in fields and cultivated grounds4 ,it has sometimes#afag been indicated in the ,crimea1 and to the north1 and especially to the south of the ,caucasus1 as nearly wild2 but well-informed modern authors do not think so4#afah ,this quasi-wildness can only point to its origin in ,armenia and the neighbouring countries4 ,the cultivation and the names of the species may perhaps throw some light on the question4 ,the ,greeks cultivated this species of pea as early as ,homer's time1 under the name of erebinthos1#afai and also of krios1#afbj from the resemblance of the pea to the head of a ram4 ,the ,latins called it cicer1 which is the origin of all the modern names in the south of ,europe4 ,the name exists also among the ,albanians1 descendants of the ,pelasgians1 under the form kikere4#afba ,the existence of such widely different names shows that the plant was very early known1 and perhaps indigenous1 in the south-east of ,europe4 ,the chick-pea has not been found in the lake-dwellings of ,switzerland1 ,savoy1 and ,italy4 ,in the first-named locality its absence is not singular2 the climate is not hot enough4 ,a common name among the peoples of the south of the ,caucasus and of the ,caspian ,sea is1 in ,georgian1 nachuda2 in ,turkish and ,armenian1 nachius1 nachunt2 in ,persian1 nochot4#afbb ,philologists can tell if this is a very ancient name1 and if it has any connection with the ,sanskrit chennuka4 ,the chick-pea is so frequently cultivated in ,egypt from the earliest times of the ,christian era1#afbc that it is supposed to have been also known to the ancient ,egyptians4 ,there is no proof to be found in the drawings or stores of grain in their monuments1 but it may be supposed that this pea1 like the bean and the lentil1 was considered common or unclean4 ,reynier#afbd thought that the ketsech1 mentioned by ,isaiah in the ,old ,testament1 was perhaps the chick-pea2 but this name is generally attributed1 though without certainty1 to ,nigella sativa or ,vicia sativa4#afbe ,as the ,arabs have a totally different name for the chick-pea1 omnos1 homos1 which recurs in the ,kabyl language as hammez1#afbf it is not likely that the ketsech of the ,jews was the same plant4 ,these details lead me to suspect that the species was unknown to the ancient ,egyptians and to the ,hebrews4 ,it was perhaps introduced among them from ,greece or ,italy towards the beginning of our era4 ,it is of more ancient introduction into ,india1 for there is a ,sanskrit name1 and several others1 analogous or different1 in modern ,indian languages4#afbg ,bretschneider does not mention the species in ,china4 ,i do not know of any proof of antiquity of culture in ,spain1 yet the ,castilian name garbanzo1 used also by the ,basques under the form garbantzua1 and by the ,french as garvance1 being neither ,latin nor ,arabic1 may date from an epoch anterior to the ,roman conquest4 ,botanical1 historical1 and philological data agree in indicating a habitation anterior to cultivation in the countries to the south of the ,caucasus and to the north of ,persia4 ,the western ,aryans 7,pelasgians1 ,hellenes7 perhaps introduced the plant into ,southern ,europe1 where1 however1 there is some probability that it was also indigenous4 ,the western ,aryans carried it into ,india4 ,its area perhaps extended from ,persia to ,greece1 and the species now exists only in cultivated ground1 where we do not know whether it springs from a stock originally wild or from cultivated plants4 ,lupin--,lupinus albus1 ,linnus4 ,the ancient ,greeks and ,romans cultivated this leguminous plant to bury it as a green manure1 and also for the sake of the seeds1 which are a good fodder for cattle1 and which are also used by man4 ,the expressions of ,theophrastus1 ,dioscorides1 ,cato1 ,varro1 ,pliny1 etc41 quoted by modern writers1 refer to the culture or to the medical properties of the seeds1 and do not show whether the species was the white lupin1 ,l4 albus1 or the blue-flowered lupin1 ,l4 hirsutus1 which grows wild in the south of ,europe4 ,fraas says#afbh that the latter is grown in the ,morea at the present day2 but ,heldreich says#afbi that ,l4 albus grows in ,attica4 ,as this is the species which has been long cultivated in ,italy1 it is probable that it is the lupin of the ancients4 ,it was much grown in the eighteenth century1 especially in ,italy1#afcj and de l',ecluse settles the question of the species1 as he calls it ,lupinus sativus albo flore4#afca ,the antiquity of its cultivation in ,spain is shown by the existence of four different common names1 according to the province2 but the plant is only found cultivated or nearly wild in fields and sandy places4#afcb ,the species is indicated by ,bertoloni in ,italy1 on the hills of ,sarzana4 ,yet ,caruel does not believe it to be wild here1 any more than in other parts of the peninsula4#afcc ,gussone#afcd is very positive for ,sicily--8on barren and sandy hills1 and in meadows 7in herbidis70 ,lastly1 ,grisebach#afce found it in ,turkey in ,europe1 near ,rusko1 and d',urville#afcf saw it in abundance1 in a wood near ,constantinople4 ,castagne confirms this in a manuscript catalogue in my possession4 ,boissier does not mention any locality in the ,east2 the species does not exist in ,india1 but ,russian botanists have found it to the south of the ,caucasus1 though we do not know with certainty if it was really wild4#afcg ,other localities will perhaps be found between ,sicily1 ,macedonia1 and the ,caucasus4 ,egyptian ,lupin--,lupinus termis1 ,forskal4 ,this species of lupin1 so nearly allied to ,l4 albus that it has sometimes been proposed to unite them1#afch is largely cultivated in ,egypt and even in ,crete4 ,the most obvious difference is that the upper part of the flowers of ,l4 termis is blue4 ,the stem is taller than that of ,l4 albus4 ,the seeds are used like those of the common lupin1 after they have been steeped to get rid of their bitterness4 ,l4 termis is wild in sandy soil and mountainous districts1 in ,sicily1 ,sardinia1 and ,corsica2#afci in ,syria and ,egypt1 according to ,boissier2#afdj but ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson#afda say that it is only cultivated in ,egypt4 ,hartmann saw it wild in ,upper ,egypt4#afdb ,unger#afdc mentions it among the cultivated specimens of the ancient ,egyptians1 but he gives neither specimen nor drawing4 ,wilkinson#afdd says only that it has been found in the tombs4 ,no lupin is grown in ,india1 nor is there any ,sanskrit name2 its seeds are sold in bazaars under the name tourmus 7,royle1 ,ill41 p4 #aid74 ,the ,arabic name1 termis or termus1 is also that of the ,greek lupin1 termos4 ,it may be inferred that the ,greeks had it from the ,egyptians4 ,as the species was known to the ancient ,egyptians1 it seems strange that it has no ,hebrew name2#afde but it may have been introduced into ,egypt after the departure of the ,israelites4 ,field-,pea--,pisum arvense1 ,linnus4 ,this pea is grown on a large scale for the seed1 and also sometimes for fodder4 ,although its appearance and botanical characters allow of its being easily distinguished from the garden-pea1 ,greek and ,roman authors confounded them1 or are not explicit about them4 ,their writings do not prove that it was cultivated in their time4 ,it has not been found in the lake-dwellings of ,switzerland1 ,france1 and ,italy4 ,bobbio has a legend 7,a4,d4 #icj71 in which it is said that the ,italian peasants called a certain seed herbilia1 whence it has been supposed to be the modern rubiglia or the ,pisum sativum of botanists4#afdf ,the species is cultivated in the ,east1 and as far as the north of ,india4#afdg ,it is of recent cultivation in the latter country1 for there is no ,sanskrit name1 and ,piddington gives only one name in one of the modern languages4 ,whatever may be the date of the introduction of its culture1 the species is undoubtedly wild in ,italy1 not only in hedges and near cultivated ground1 but also in forests and wild mountainous districts4#afdh ,i find no positive indication in the floras that it grows in like manner in ,spain1 ,algeria1 ,greece1 and the ,east4 ,the plant is said to be indigenous in the south of ,russia1 but sometimes its wild character is doubtful1 and sometimes the species itself is not certain1 from a confusion with ,pisum sativum and ,p4 elatius4 ,of all ,anglo-,indian botanists1 only ,royle admits it to be indigenous in the north of ,india4 ,garden-,pea--,pisum sativum1 ,linnus4 ,the pea of our kitchen gardens is more delicate than the field-pea1 and suffers from frost and drought4 ,its natural area1 previous to cultivation1 was probably more to the south and more restricted4 ,it has not hitherto been found wild1 either in ,europe or in the west of ,asia1 whence it is supposed to have come4 ,bieberstein's indication of the species in the ,crimea is not correct1 according to ,steven1 who was a resident in the country4#afdi ,perhaps botanists have overlooked its habitation2 perhaps the plant has disappeared from its original dwelling2 perhaps also it is a mere modification1 effected by culture1 of ,pisum arvense4 ,alefeld held the latter opinion1#afej but he has published too little on the subject for us to be able to conclude anything from it4 ,he only says that1 having cultivated a great number of varieties both of the field and garden pea1 he concludes that they belong to the same species4 ,darwin#afea learnt through a third person that ,andrew ,knight had crossed the field-pea with a garden variety known as the ,prussian pea1 and that the product was fertile4 ,this would certainly be a proof of specific unity1 but further observation and experiment is required4 ,in the mean time1 in the search for geographic origin1 etc41 ,i am obliged to consider the two forms separately4 ,botanists who distinguish many species in the genus ,pisum1 admit eight1 all ,european or ,asiatic4 ,pisum sativum was cultivated by the ,greeks in the time of ,theophrastus4#afeb ,they called it pisos1 or pison4 ,the ,albanians1 descendants of the ,pelasgians1 call it pizelle4#afec ,the ,latins had pisum4#afed ,this uniformity of nomenclature seems to show that the ,aryans knew the plant when they arrived in ,greece and ,italy1 and perhaps brought it with them4 ,other ,aryan languages have several names for the generic sense of pea2 but it is evident1 from ,adolphe ,pictet's learned discussion on the subject1#afee that none of these names can be applied to ,pisum sativum in particular4 ,even when one of the modern languages1 ,slav or ,breton1 limits the sense to the garden-pea1 it is very probable that formerly the word signified field-pea1 lentil1 or any other leguminous plant4 ,the garden-pea#afef has been found among the remains in the lake-dwellings of the age of bronze1 in ,switzerland and ,savoy4 ,the seed is spherical1 wherein it differs from ,pisum arvense4 ,it is smaller than our modern pea4 ,heer says he found it also among relics of the stone age1 at ,moosseedorf2 but he is less positive1 and only gives figures of the less ancient pea of ,st4 ,peter's ,island4 ,if the species dates from the stone age in ,switzerland1 it would be anterior to the immigration of the ,aryans4 ,there is no indication of the culture of ,pisum sativum in ancient ,egypt or in ,india4 ,on the other hand1 it has long been cultivated in the north of ,india1 if it had1 as ,piddington says1 a ,sanskrit name1 harenso1 and if it has several names very different to this in modern ,indian languages4#afeg ,it has been introduced into ,china from ,western ,asia4 ,the ,pent-sao1 drawn up at the end of the sixteenth century1 calls it the ,mahometan pea4#afeh ,in conclusion3 the species seems to have existed in ,western ,asia1 perhaps from the south of the ,caucasus to ,persia1 before it was cultivated4 ,the ,aryans introduced it into ,europe1 but it perhaps existed in ,northern ,india before the arrival of the eastern ,aryans4 ,it no longer exists in a wild state1 and when it occurs in fields1 half-wild1 it is not said to have a modified form so as to approach some other species4 ,soy--,dolichos soja1 ,linnus2 ,glycine soja1 ,bentham4 ,this leguminous annual has been cultivated in ,china and ,japan from remote antiquity4 ,this might be gathered from the many uses of the soy bean and from the immense number of varieties4 ,but it is also supposed to be one of the farinaceous substances called shu in ,chinese writings of ,confucius' time1 though the modern name of the plant is ta-tou4#afei ,the bean is nourishing1 and contains a large proportion of oil1 and preparations similar to butter1 oil1 and cheese are extracted from it and used in ,chinese and ,japanese cooking4#affj ,soy is also grown in the ,malay ,archipelago1 but at the end of the eighteenth century it was still rare in ,amboyna1#affa and ,forster did not see it in the ,pacific ,isles at the time of ,cook's voyages4 ,it is of modern introduction in ,india1 for ,roxburgh had only seen the plant in the botanical gardens at ,calcutta1 where it was brought from the ,moluccas4#affb ,there are no common ,indian names4#affc ,besides1 if its cultivation had been ancient in ,india1 it would have spread westward into ,syria and ,egypt1 which is not the case4 ,kmpfer#affd formerly published an excellent illustration of the soy bean1 and it had existed for a century in ,european botanical gardens1 when more extensive information about ,china and ,japan excited about ten years ago a lively desire to introduce it into our countries4 ,in ,austria1 ,hungary1 and ,france especially1 attempts have been made on a large scale1 of which the results have been summed up in works worthy of consultation4#affe ,it is to be hoped these efforts may be successful2 but we must not digress from the aim of our researches1 the probable origin of the species4 ,linnus says1 in his ,species1 8habitat in ,india10 and refers to ,kmpfer1 who speaks of the plant in ,japan1 and to his own flora of ,ceylon1 where he gives the plant as cultivated4 ,thwaites's modern flora of ,ceylon makes no mention of it4 ,we must evidently go further east to find the origin both of the species and of its cultivation4 ,loureiro says that it grows in ,cochin-,china and that it is often cultivated in ,china4#afff ,i find no proof that it is wild in the latter country1 but it may perhaps be discovered1 as its culture is so ancient4 ,russian botanists#affg have only found it cultivated in the north of ,china and in the basin of the river ,amur4 ,it is certainly wild in ,japan4#affh ,junghuhn#affi found it in ,java on ,mount ,gunung-,gamping1 and a plant sent also from ,java by ,zollinger is supposed to belong to this species1 but it is not certain that the specimen was wild4#afgj ,a ,malay name1 kadelee1#afga a quite different to the ,japanese and ,chinese common names1 is in favour of its indigenous character in ,java4 ,known facts and historical and philological probabilities tend to show that the species was wild from ,cochin-,china to the south of ,japan and to ,java when the ancient inhabitants of this region began to cultivate it at a very remote period1 to use it for food in various ways1 and to obtain from it varieties of which the number is remarkable1 especially in ,japan4 ,pigeon-,pea--,cajanus indicus1 ,sprengel2 ,cytisus ,cajan1 ,linnus4 ,this leguminous plant1 often grown in tropical countries1 is a shrub1 but it fruits in the first year1 and in some countries it is grown as an annual4 ,its seed is an important article of the food of the negroes and natives1 but the ,european colonists do not care for it unless cooked green like our garden-pea4 ,the plant is easily naturalized in poor soil round cultivated plots1 even in the ,west ,india ,islands1 where it is not indigenous4#afgb ,in ,mauritius it is called ambrevade2 in the ,english colonies1 doll1 pigeon-pea2 and in the ,french ,antilles1 pois d',angola1 pois de ,congo1 pois pigeon4 ,it is remarkable that1 though the species is diffused in three continents1 the varieties are not numerous4 ,two are cited1 based only upon the yellow or reddish colour of the flower1 which were formerly regarded as distinct species2 but a more attentive examination has resulted in their being classed as one1 in accordance with ,linnus' opinion4#afgc ,the small number of variations obtained even in the organ for which the species is cultivated is a sign of no very ancient culture4 ,its habitation previous to culture is uncertain4 ,the best botanists have sometimes supposed it to be a native of ,india1 sometimes of tropical ,africa4 ,bentham1 who has made a careful study of the leguminous plants1 believed in #ahfa in the ,african origin2 in #ahfe he inclined rather to ,asia4#afgd ,the problem is1 therefore1 an interesting one4 ,there is no question of an ,american origin4 ,the cajan was introduced into the ,west ,indies from the coast of ,africa by the slave trade1 as the common names quoted above show1#afge and the unanimous opinion of authors or ,american floras4 ,it has also been taken to ,brazil1 ,guiana1 and into all the warm parts of the ,american continent4 ,the facility with which the species is naturalized would alone prevent attaching great importance to the statements of collectors1 who have found it more or less wild in ,asia or in ,africa2 and besides1 these assertions are not precise1 but are usually doubtful4 ,most writers on the flora of continental ,india have only seen the plant cultivated1#afgf and none1 to my knowledge1 affirms that it exists wild4 ,for the island of ,ceylon ,thwaites says1#afgg 8,it is said not to be really wild1 and the country names seem to confirm this40 ,sir ,joseph ,hooker1 in his ,flora of ,british ,india1 says1 8,wild 787 and cultivated to the height of six thousand feet in the ,himalayas40 ,loureiro#afgh gives it as cultivated and non-cultivated in ,china and ,cochin-,china4 ,chinese authors do not appear to have spoken of it1 for the species is not named by ,bretschneider in his work ,on the ,study1 etc4 ,in the ,sunda ,isles it is mentioned as cultivated1 and that rarely1 at ,amboyna at the end of the eighteenth century1 according to ,rumphius4#afgi ,forster had not seen it in the ,pacific ,isles at the time of ,cook's voyages1 but ,seemann says that it has been recently introduced by missionaries into the ,fiji ,isles4#afhj ,all this argues no very ancient extension of cultivation to the east and south of the continent of ,asia4 ,besides the quotation from ,loureiro1 ,i find the species indicated on the mountain of ,magelang1 ,java2#afha but1 supposing this to be a true and ancient wild growth in both cases1 it would be very extraordinary not to find the species in many other ,asiatic localities4 ,the abundance of ,indian and ,malay names#afhb shows a somewhat ancient cultivation4 ,piddington even gives a ,sanskrit name1 arhuku1 which was not known to ,roxburgh1 but he gives no proof in support of his assertion4 ,the name may have been merely supposed from the ,hindu and ,bengali names urur and orol4 ,no ,semitic name is known4 ,in ,africa the cajan is often found from ,zanzibar to the coast of ,guinea4#afhc ,authors say it is cultivated1 or else make no statement on this head1 which would seem to show that the specimens are sometimes wild4 ,in ,egypt this cultivation is quite modern1 of the nineteenth century4#afhd ,briefly1 then1 ,i doubt that the species is really wild in ,asia1 and that it has been grown there for more than three thousand years4 ,if more ancient peoples had known it1 it would have come to the knowledge of the ,arabs and ,egyptians before our time4 ,in tropical ,africa1 on the contrary1 it is possible that it has existed wild or cultivated for a very long time1 and that it was introduced into ,asia by ancient travellers trading between ,zanzibar and ,india or ,ceylon4 ,the genus ,cajanus has only one species1 so that no analogy of geographical distribution leads us to believe it to be rather of ,asiatic than ,african origin1 or vice vers4 ,carob ,tree#afhe--;,ceratonia siliqua1 ,linnus4 ,the seeds and pods of the carob are highly prized in the hotter parts of the ,mediterranean basin1 as food for animals and even for man4 ,de ,gasparin#afhf has given interesting details about the raising1 uses1 and habitation of the species as a cultivated tree4 ,he notes that it does not pass the northern limit beyond which the orange cannot be grown without shelter4 ,this fine evergreen tree does not thrive either in very hot countries1 especially where there is much humidity4 ,it likes the neighbourhood of the sea and rocky places4 ,its original country1 according to ,gasparin1 is 8probably the centre of ,africa4 ,denham and ,clapperton found it in ,burnou40 ,this proof seems to me insufficient1 for in all the ,nile ,valley and in ,abyssinia the carob is not wild nor even cultivated4#afhg ,r4 ,brown does not mention it in his account of ,denham and ,clapperton's journey4 ,travellers have seen it in the forests of ,cyrenaica between the highlands and the littoral2 but the able botanists who have drawn up the catalogue of the plants of this country are careful to say1#afhh 8perhaps indigenous40 ,most botanists merely mention the species in the centre and south of the ,mediterranean basin1 from ,spain and ,marocco to ,syria and ,anatolia1 without inquiring closely whether it is indigenous or cultivated1 and without entering upon the question of its true country previous to cultivation4 ,usually they indicate the carob tree1 as 8cultivated and subspontaneous1 or nearly wild40 ,however1 it is stated to be wild in ,greece by ,heldreich1 in ,sicily by ,gussone and ,bianca1 in ,algeria by ,munby2#afhi and these authors have each lived long enough in the country for which each is quoted to form an enlightened opinion4 ,bianca remarks1 however1 that the carob tree is not always healthy and productive in those restricted localities where it exists in ,sicily1 in the small adjacent islands1 and on the coast of ,italy4 ,he puts forward the opinion1 moreover1 based upon the similarity of the ,italian name carrubo with the ,arabic word1 that the species was anciently introduced into the south of ,europe1 the species being of ,syrian or north ,african origin4 ,he maintains as probable the theory of ,hfer and ,bonn1#afij that the lotus of the lotophagi was the carob tree1 of which the flower is sweet and the fruit has a taste of honey1 which agrees with the expressions of ,homer4 ,the lotus-eaters dwelt in ,cyrenaica1 so that the carob must have been abundant in their country4 ,if we admit this hypothesis we must suppose that ,pliny and ,herodotus did not know ,homer's plant1 for the one describes the lotus as bearing a fruit like a mastic berry 7,pistacia lentiscus71 the other as a deciduous tree4#afia ,an hypothesis regarding a doubtful plant formerly mentioned by a poet can hardly serve as the basis of an argument upon facts of natural history4 ,after all1 ,homer's lotus plant perhaps existed only in the fabled garden of ,hesperides4 ,i return to more serious arguments1 on which ,bianca has said a few words4 ,the carob has two names in ancient languages--the one ,greek1 keraunia or kerateia2#afib the other ,arabic1 chirnub or charb4 ,the first alludes to the form of the pod1 which is like a slightly curved horn2 the other means merely pod1 for we find in ,ebn ,baithar's#afic work that four other leguminous plants bear the same name1 with a qualifying epithet4 ,the ,latins had no special name2 they used the ,greek word1 or the expression siliqua1 siliqua grca 7,greek pod74#afid ,this dearth of names is the sign of a once restricted area1 and of a culture which probably does not date from prehistoric time4 ,the ,greek name is still retained in ,greece4 ,the ,arab name persists among the ,kabyles1 who call the fruit kharroub1 the tree takharrout1#afie and the ,spaniards algarrobo4 ,curiously enough1 the ,italians also took the ,arab name currabo1 carubio1 whence the ,french caroubier4 ,it seems that it must have been introduced after the ,roman epoch by the ,arabs of the ,middle ,ages1 when there was another name for it4 ,these details are all in favour of ,bianca's theory of a more southern origin than ,sicily4 ,pliny says the species belonged to ,syria1 ,ionia1 ,cnidos1 and ,rhodes1 but he does not say whether it was wild or cultivated in these places4 ,pliny also says that the carob tree did not exist in ,egypt4 ,yet it has been recognized in monuments belonging to a much earlier epoch than that of ,pliny1 and ,egyptologists even attribute two ,egyptian names to it1 kontrates or jiri4#afif ,lepsius gives a drawing of a pod which appears to him to be certainly a carob1 and the botanist ,kotschy made certain by microscopic investigation that a stick taken from a sarcophagus was made from the wood of the carob tree4#afig ,there is no known ,hebrew name for the species1 which is not mentioned in the ,old ,testament4 ,the ,new ,testament speaks of it by the ,greek name in the parable of the prodigal son4 ,it is a tradition of the ,christians in the ,east that ,st4 ,john ,baptist fed upon the fruit of the carob in the desert1 and hence came the names given to it in the ,middle ,ages--bread of ,st4 ,john1 and ,johannis brodbaum4 ,evidently this tree became important at the beginning of the ,christian era1 and it spread1 especially through the agency of the ,arabs1 towards the ,west4 ,if it had previously existed in ,algeria1 among the ,berbers1 and in ,spain1 older names would have persisted1 and the species would probably have been introduced into the ,canaries by the ,phnicians4 ,the information gained on the subject may be summed up as follows3-- ,the carob grew wild in the ,levant1 probably on the southern coast of ,anatolia and in ,syria1 perhaps also in ,cyrenaica4 ,its cultivation began within historic time4 ,the ,greeks diffused it in ,greece and ,italy2 but it was afterwards more highly esteemed by the ,arabs1 who propagated it as far as ,marocco and ,spain4 ,in all these countries the tree has become naturalized here and there in a less productive form1 which it is needful to graft to obtain good fruit4 ,the carob has not been found in the tufa and quaternary deposits of ,southern ,europe4 ,it is the only one of its kind in the genus ,ceratonia1 which is somewhat exceptional among the ,leguminos1 especially in ,europe4 ,nothing shows that it existed in the ancient tertiary or quaternary flora of the south-west of ,europe4 ,common ,haricot ,kidney ,bean--,phaseolus vulgaris1 ,savi4 ,when1 in #ahee1 ,i wished to investigate the origin of the genera ,phaseolus and ,dolichos1#afih the distinction of species was so little defined1 and the floras of tropical countries so rare1 that ,i was obliged to leave several questions on one side4 ,now1 thanks to the works of ,bentham and ,georg von ,martens1#afii completing the previous labours of ,savi1#agjj the ,legumin of hot countries are better known2 lastly1 the seeds discovered quite recently in the ,peruvian tombs of ,ancon1 examined by ,wittmack1 have completely modified the question of origin4 ,i will speak first of the common haricot bean1 afterwards of some other species1 without1 however1 enumerating all those which are cultivated1 for several of these are still ill defined4 ,botanists held for a long time that the common haricot was of ,indian origin4 ,no one had found it wild1 nor has it yet been found1 but it was supposed to be of ,indian origin1 although the species was also cultivated in ,africa and ,america1 in temperate and hot regions1 at least in those where the heat and humidity are not excessive4 ,i called attention to the fact that there is no ,sanskrit name1 and that sixteenth-century gardeners often called the species ,turkish bean4 ,convinced1 moreover1 that the ,greeks cultivated this plant under the names fasiolos and dolichos1 ,i suggested that it came originally from ,western ,asia1 and not from ,india4 ,georg von ,martens adopted this hypothesis4 ,however1 the meaning of the words dolichos of ,theophrastus1 fasiolos of ,dioscorides1 faseolus and phaseolus of the ,romans1#agja is far from being sufficiently defined to allow them to be attributed with certainty to ,phaseolus vulgaris4 ,several cultivated ,leguminos are supported by the trellises mentioned by authors1 and have pods and seeds of a similar kind4 ,the best argument for translating these names by ,phaseolus vulgaris is that the modern ,greeks and ,italians have names derived from fasiolus for the common haricot4 ,in modern ,greek it is fasoulia1 ,albanian 7,pelasgic87 fasul1 in ,italian fagiolo4 ,it is possible1 however1 that the name has been transferred from a species of pea or vetch1 or from a haricot formerly cultivated1 to our modern haricot4 ,it is rather bold to determine a species of ,phaseolus from one or two epithets in an ancient author1 when we see how difficult is the distinction of species to modern botanists with the plants under their eyes4 ,nevertheless1 the dolichos of ,theophrastus has been definitely referred to the scarlet runner1 and the fasiolos to the dwarf haricot of our gardens1 which are the two principal modern varieties of the common haricot1 with an immense number of sub-varieties in the form of the pods and seed4 ,i can only say it may be so4 ,if the common haricot was formerly known in ,greece1 it was not one of the earliest introductions1 for the faseolos did not exist at ,rome in ,cato's time1 and it is only at the beginning of the empire that ,latin authors speak of it4 ,virchow brought from the excavations at ,troy the seeds of several legumin1 which ,wittmack#agjb has ascertained to belong to the following species3 broad bean 7,faba vulgaris71 garden-pea 7,pisum sativum71 ervilla 7,ervum ervilia71 and perhaps the flat-podded vetchling 7,lathyrus ,cicera71 but no haricot4 ,nor has the species been found in the lake-dwellings of ,switzerland1 ,savoy1 ,austria1 and ,italy4 ,there are no proofs or signs of its existence in ancient ,egypt4 ,no ,hebrew name is known answering to the ,phaseolus or ,dolichos of botanists4 ,a less ancient name1 for it is ,arabic1 loubia1 exists in ,egypt for ,dolichos lubia1 and in ,hindustani as loba for ,phaseolus vulgaris4#agjc ,as regards the latter species1 ,piddington only gives two names in modern languages1 and those both ,hindustani1 loba and bakla4 ,this1 together with the absence of a ,sanskrit name1 points to a recent introduction into ,southern ,asia4 ,chinese authors do not mention ,p4 vulgaris1#agjd which is a further indication of a recent introduction into ,india1 and also into ,bactriana1 whence the ,chinese have imported plants from the second century of our era4 ,all these circumstances incline me to doubt whether the species was known in ,asia before the ,christian era4 ,the argument based upon the modern ,greek and ,italian names for the haricot1 derived from fasiolos1 needs some support4 ,it may be said in its favour that it was used in the ,middle ,ages1 probably for the common haricot4 ,in the list of vegetables which ,charlemagne commanded to be sown in his farms1 we find fasiolum1#agje without explanation4 ,albertus ,magnus describes under the name faseolus a leguminous plant which appears to be our dwarf haricot4#agjf ,i notice1 on the other hand1 that writers in the fifteenth century1 such as ,pierre ,crescenzio#agjg and ,macer ,floridus1#agjh mention no faseolus or similar name4 ,on the other hand1 after the discovery of ,america1 from the sixteenth century all authors publish descriptions and drawings of ,phaseolus vulgaris1 with a number of varieties4 ,it is doubtful that its cultivation is ancient in tropical ,africa4 ,it is indicated there less often than that of other species of the ,dolichos and ,phaseolus genera4 ,it had not occurred to any one to seek the origin of the haricot in ,america till1 quite recently1 some remarkable discoveries of fruits and seeds were made in ,peruvian tombs at ,ancon1 near ,lima4 ,rochebrune#agji published a list of the species of different families from the collection made by ,cossac and ,savatier4 ,among the number are three kinds of haricot1 none of which1 says the author1 is ,phaseolus vulgaris2 but ,wittmack1#agaj who studied the legumin brought from these same tombs by ,reiss and ,stubel1 says he made out several varieties of the common haricot among other seeds belonging to ,phaseolus lunatus1 ,linnus4 ,he had identified them with the varieties of ,p4 vulgaris called by botanists ,oblongus purpureus 7,martens71 ,ellipticus prcox 7,alefeld71 and ,ellipticus atrofuscus 7,alefeld71 which belong to the category of dwarf or branchless haricots4 ,it is not certain that the tombs in question are all anterior to the advent of the ,spaniards4 ,the work of ,reiss and ,stubel1 now in the press1 will perhaps give some information on this head2 but ,wittmack admits1 on their authority1 that some of the tombs are not ancient4 ,i notice a fact1 however1 which has passed without observation4 ,the fifty species of ,rochebrune are all ,american4 ,there is not one which can be suspected to be of ,european origin4 ,evidently these plants and seeds were either deposited before the conquest1 or1 in certain tombs which perhaps belong to a subsequent epoch1 the inhabitants took care not to put species of foreign origin4 ,this was natural enough according to their ideas1 for the custom of depositing plants in the tombs was not a result of the ,catholic religion1 but was an inheritance from the customs and opinions of the natives4 ,the presence of the common haricot among exclusively ,american plants seems to me important1 whatever the date of the tombs4 ,it may be objected that the seeds are insufficient ground for determining the species of a phaseolus1 and that several species of this genus which are not yet well known were cultivated in ,south ,america before the arrival of the ,spaniards4 ,molina#agaa speaks of thirteen or fourteen species 7or varieties87 cultivated formerly in ,chili alone4 ,wittmack insists upon the general and ancient use of the haricot in several parts of ,south ,america4 ,this proves at least that several species were indigenous and cultivated4 ,he quotes the testimony of ,joseph ,acosta1 one of the first writers after the conquest1 who says that 8the ,peruvians cultivated vegetables which they called frisoles and palares1 and which they used as the ,spaniards use garbanzos 7chick-pea71 beans and lentils4 ,i have not found10 he adds1 8that these or other ,european vegetables were found here before the coming of the ,europeans40 ,frisole1 fajol1 fasoler1 are ,spanish names for the common haricot1 corruptions of the ,latin faselus1 fasolus1 faseolus4 ,paller is ,american4 ,i may take this opportunity of explaining the origin of the ,french name haricot4 ,i sought for it formerly in vain2#agab but ,i noticed that ,tournefort#agac 7,instit41 p4 #dae7 was the first to use it4 ,i called attention also to the existence of the word arachos 7,greek3 arachos7 in ,theophrastus1 probably for a kind of vetch1 and of the ,sanskrit word harenso for the common pea4 ,i rejected as improbable the notion that the name of a vegetable could come from the dish called haricot or laricot of mutton1 as suggested by an ,english author1 and criticized ,bescherelle1 who derived the word from ,keltic1 while the ,breton words are totally different1 and signify small bean 7fa-munno7 or kind of pea 7pis-ram74 ,lettr1 in his dictionary1 also seeks the etymology of the word4 ,without any acquaintance with my article1 he inclines to the theory that haricot1 the plant1 comes from the ragout1 seeing that the latter is older in the language1 and that a certain resemblance may be traced between the haricot bean and the morsels of meat in the ragout1 or else that this bean was suitable to the making of the dish4 ,it is certain that this vegetable was called in ,french fasole or fazole1 from the ,latin name1 until nearly the end of the seventeenth century2 but chance has led me to discover the real origin of the word haricot4 ,an ,italian name1 araco1 found in ,durante and ,matthioli1 in ,latin ,aracus niger1#agad was given to a leguminous plant which modern botanists attribute to ,lathyrus ochrus4 ,it is not surprising that an ,italian seventeenth-century name should be transported by ,french cultivators of the following century to another leguminous plant1 and that ara should have been ari4 ,it is the sort of mistake which is common now4 ,besides1 aracos or arachos has been attributed by commentators to several ,leguminos of the genera ,lathyrus1 ,vicia1 etc4 ,durante gives the ,greek arachos as the synonym for his araco1 whereby we see the etymology4 ,pre ,feuille#agae wrote in ,french aricot2 before him ,tournefort spelt it haricot1 in the belief1 perhaps1 that the ,greek word was written with an aspirate1 which is not the case2 at least in the best authors4 ,i may sum up as follows3--7#a7 ,phaseolus vulgaris has not been long cultivated in ,india1 the south-west of ,asia1 and ,egypt2 7#b7 it is not certain that it was known in ,europe before the discovery of ,america2 7#c7 at this epoch the number of varieties suddenly increased in ,european gardens1 and all authors commenced to mention them2 7#d7 the majority of the species of the genus exist in ,south ,america2 7#e7 seeds apparently belonging to the species have been discovered in ,peruvian tombs of an uncertain date1 intermixed with many species1 all ,american4 ,i do not examine whether ,phaseolus vulgaris existed in both hemispheres previous to cultivation1 because examples of this nature are exceedingly rare among non-aquatic phanerogamous plants of tropical countries4 ,perhaps there is not one in a thousand1 and even then human agency may be suspected4#agaf ,to open this question in the case of ,ph4 vulgaris1 it should at least be found wild in both old and new worlds1 which has not happened4 ,if it had occupied so vast an area1 we should see signs of it in individuals really wild in widely separate regions on the same continent1 as is the case with the following species1 ,ph4 lunatas4 ,scimetar-podded ,kidney ,bean1 or ,sugar ,bean4--,phaseolus lunatus1 ,linnus2 ,phaseo lunatus macrocarpus2 ,bentham1 ,ph4 inamnus1 ,linnus4 ,this haricot1 as well as that called ,lima1 is so widely diffused in tropical countries1 that it has been described under different names4#agag ,all these forms can be classed in two groups1 of which ,linnus made different species4 ,the commonest in our gardens is that which has been called since the beginning of the century the ,lima haricot4 ,it may be distinguished by its height1 by the size of its pods and beans4 ,it lasts several years in countries which are favourable to it4 ,linnus believed that his ,ph4 lunatus came from ,bengal and the other from ,africa1 but he gives no proof4 ,for a century his assertions were repeated4 ,now1 ,bentham1#agah who is careful about origins1 believes the species and its variety to be certainly ,american2 he only doubts about its presence as a wild plant both in ,africa and ,asia4 ,i see no indication whatever of ancient existence in ,asia4 ,the plant has never been found wild1 and it has no name in the modern languages of ,india or in ,sanskrit4#agai ,it is not mentioned in ,chinese works4 ,anglo-,indians call it ,french bean1#agbj like the common haricot1 which shows how modern is its cultivation4 ,it is cultivated in nearly all tropical ,africa4 ,however1 ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson#agba do not mention it for ,abyssinia1 ,nubia1 or ,egypt4 ,oliver#agbb quotes a number of specimens found in ,guinea and the interior of ,africa1 without saying whether they were wild or cultivated4 ,if we suppose the species of ,african origin or of very early introduction1 it would have spread to ,egypt and thence to ,india4 ,the facts are quite different for ,south ,america4 ,bentham mentions wild specimens from the ,amazon basin and ,central ,brazil4 ,they belong especially to the large variety 7macrocarpus71 which abounds also in the ,peruvian tombs of ,ancon1 according to ,wittmack4#agbc ,it is evidently a ,brazilian species1 diffused by cultivation1 and perhaps long since naturalized here and there in tropical ,america4 ,i am inclined to believe it was introduced into ,guinea by the slave trade1 and that it spread thence into the interior and the coast of ,mozambique4 ,moth1 or ,aconite-leaved ,kidney ,bean--,phaseolus aconitifolius1 ,willdenow4 ,an annual species grown in ,india as fodder1 and of which the seeds are eatable1 though but little valued4 ,the ,hindustani name is mout1 among the ,sikhs moth4 ,it is somewhat like ,ph4 trilobus1 which is cultivated for the seed4 ,ph4 aconitifolius is wild in ,british ,india from ,ceylon to the ,himalayas4#agbd ,the absence of a ,sanskrit name1 and of different names in modern ,indian languages1 points to a recent cultivation4 ,three-lobed ,kidney ,bean--,phaseolus trilobus1 ,willdenow4 ,one of the most commonly cultivated species in ,india2#agbe at least in the last few years1 for ,roxburgh1#agbf at the end of the eighteenth century1 had only seen it wild4 ,all authors agree in considering it as wild from the foot of the ,himalayas to ,ceylon4 ,it also exists in ,nubia1 ,abyssinia1 and ,zambesi2#agbg it is not said whether wild or cultivated4 ,piddington gives a ,sanskrit name1 and several names in modern ,indian languages1 which shows that the species has been cultivated1 or at least known for three thousand years4 ,green ,gram1 or ,mng--,phaseolus mungo1 ,linnus4 ,a species commonly cultivated in ,india and in the ,nile ,valley4 ,the considerable number of varieties1 and the existence of three different names in the modern languages of ,india1 point to a cultivation of one or two thousand years1 but there is no ,sanskrit name4#agbh ,in ,africa it is probably recent4 ,anglo-,indian botanists agree that it is wild in ,india4 ,lablab1 or ,wall--,dolichos ,lablab1 ,linnus4 ,this species is much cultivated in ,india and tropical ,africa4 ,roxburgh counts as many as seven varieties with ,indian names4 ,piddington quotes in his ,index a ,sanskrit name1 schimbi1 which recurs in modern languages4 ,its culture dates perhaps from three thousand years4 ,yet the species was not anciently diffused in ,china1 or in ,western ,asia and ,egypt2 at least1 ,i can find no trace of it4 ,the little extension of these edible ,leguminos beyond ,india in ancient times is a singular fact4 ,it is possible that their cultivation is not of ancient date4 ,the lablab is undoubtedly wild in ,india1 and also1 it is said1 in ,java4#agbi ,it has become naturalized from cultivation in the ,seychelles4#agcj ,the indications of authors are not positive enough to say whether it is wild in ,africa4#agca ,lubia--,dolichos ,lubia1 ,forskal4 ,this species1 cultivated in ,europe under the name of lubia1 loubya1 louby1 according to ,forskal and ,delile1#agcb is little known to botanists4 ,according to the latter author it exists also in ,syria1 ,persia1 and ,india2 but ,i do not find this in any way confirmed in modern works on these two countries4 ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson#agcc admit it as a distinct species1 cultivated in the ,nile ,valley4 ,hitherto no one has found it wild4 ,no ,dolichos or ,phaseolus is known in the monuments of ancient ,egypt4 ,we shall see from the evidence of the common names that these plants were probably introduced into ,egyptian agriculture after the time of the ,pharaohs4 ,the name lubia is used by the ,berbers1 unchanged1 and by the ,spaniards as alubia for the common haricot1 ,phaseolus vulgaris4 ,although ,phaseolus and ,dolichos are very similar1 this is an example of the little value of common names as a proof of species4 ,loba is1 as we have seen1 one of the ,hindustani names for ,phaseolus vulgaris1#agcd and lobia that of ,dolichos sinensis in the same language4#agce ,orientalists should tell us whether lubia is an old word in ,semitic languages4 ,i do not find a similar name in ,hebrew1 and it is possible that the ,armenians or the ,arabs took lubia from the ,greek lobos 771 which means any projection1 like the lobe of the ear1 a fruit of the nature of a pod1 and more particularly1 according to ,galen1 ,ph4 vulgaris4 ,lobion 77 in ,dioscorides is the fruit of ,ph4 vulgaris1 at least in the opinion of commentators4#agcf ,it remains as loubion in modern ,greek1 with the same meaning4#agcg ,bambarra ,ground ,nut--,glycine subterranea1 ,linnus1 junr42 ,voandzeia subterranea1 ,petit ,thouars4 ,the earliest travellers in ,madagascar remarked this leguminous annual1 cultivated by the natives for the pod or seed1 dressed like peas1 ,french beans1 etc4 ,it resembles the earth1 particularly in that the flower-stem curves downwards1 and plunges the young fruit or pod into the earth4 ,its cultivation is common in the gardens of tropical ,africa1 and it is found1 but less frequently1 in those of ,southern ,asia4#agch ,it seems that it is not much grown in ,america1#agci except in ,brazil1 where it is called mandubi di ,angola4#agdj ,early writers on ,asia do not mention it2 its origin must1 therefore1 be sought in ,africa4 ,loureiro#agda had seen it on the eastern coast of this continent1 and ,petit ,thouars in ,madagascar1 but they do not say that it was wild4 ,the authors of the flora of ,senegambia#agdb described it as 8cultivated and probably wild0 in ,galam4 ,lastly1 ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson#agdc found it wild on the banks of the ,nile from ,khartoum to ,gondokoro4 ,in spite of the possibility of naturalization from cultivation1 it is extremely probable that the plant is wild in tropical ,africa4 ,buckwheat--,polygonum fagopyrum1 ,linnus2 ,fagopyrum esculentum1 ,mnch4 ,the history of this species has been completely cleared up in the last few years4 ,it grows wild in ,mantschuria1 on the banks of the river ,amur1#agdd in ,dahuria1 and near ,lake ,baikal4#agde ,it is also indicated in ,china and in the mountains of the north of ,india1#agdf but ,i do not find that in these regions its wild character is certain4 ,roxburgh has only seen it in a cultivated state in the north of ,india1 and ,bretschneider#agdg thinks it doubtful that it is indigenous in ,china4 ,its cultivation is not ancient1 for the first ,chinese author who mentions it lived in the tenth or eleventh century of the ,christian era4 ,buckwheat is cultivated in the ,himalayas under the names ogal or ogla and kouton4#agdh ,as there is no ,sanskrit name for this species nor for the two following1 ,i doubt the antiquity of their cultivation in the mountains of ,central ,asia4 ,it was certainly unknown to the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,the name fagopyrum is an invention of modern botanists from the similarity in the shape of the seed to a beech-nut1 whence also the ,german buchweitzen#agdi 7corrupted in ,english into buckwheat7 and the ,italian faggina4 ,the names of this plant in ,european languages of ,aryan origin have not a common root4 ,thus the western ,aryans did not know the species any more than the ,sanskrit-speaking ,orientals1 a further sign of the nonexistence of the plant in the mountains of ,central ,asia4 ,even at the present day it is probably unknown in the north of ,persia and in ,turkey1 since floras do not mention it4#agej ,bosc states1 in the ,dictionnaire d',agriculture1 that ,olivier had seen it wild in ,persia1 but ,i do not find this in this naturalist's published account of his travels4 ,the species came into ,europe in the ,middle ,ages1 through ,tartary and ,russia4 ,the first mention of its cultivation in ,germany occurs in a ,mecklenburg register of #adcf4agea ,in the sixteenth century it spread towards the centre of ,europe1 and in poor soil1 as in ,brittany1 it became important4 ,reynier1 who1 as a rule1 is very accurate1 imagined that the ,french name sarrasin was ,keltic2#ageb but ,m4 le ,gall wrote to me formerly that the ,breton names simply mean black wheat or black corn1 ed-du and gwinis-du4 ,there is no original name in ,keltic languages1 which seems natural now that we know the origin of the species4#agec ,when the plant was introduced into ,belgium and into ,france1 and even when it became known in ,italy1 that is to say in the sixteenth century1 the name bl sarrasin 7,saracen wheat7 or sarrasin was commonly adopted4 ,common names are often so absurd1 and so unthinkingly bestowed1 that we cannot tell in this particular case whether the name refers to the colour of the grain which was that attributed to the ,saracens1 or to the supposed introduction from the country of the ,arabs or ,moors4 ,it was not then known that the species did not exist in the countries south of the ,mediterranean1 nor even in ,syria and ,persia4 ,it is also possible that the idea of a southern origin was taken from the name sarrasin1 which was given from the colour4 ,this origin was admitted until the end of the last and even in the present century4#aged ,reynier was1 fifty years ago1 the first to oppose it4 ,buckwheat sometimes escapes from cultivation and becomes quasi-wild4 ,the nearer we approach its original country the more often this occurs1 whence it results that it is hard to define the limit of the wild plant on the confines of ,europe and ,asia1 in the ,himalayas1 and in ,china4 ,in ,japan these semi-naturalizations are not rare4#agee ,tartary ,buckwheat--,polygonum tataricum1 ,linnus2 ,fagopyrum tataricum1 ,grtner4 ,less sensitive to cold than the common buckwheat1 but yielding a poorer kind of seed1 this species is sometimes cultivated in ,europe and ,asia--in the ,himalayas1#agef for instance2 but its culture is recent4 ,authors of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries do not mention it1 and ,linnus was one of the first to speak of it as of ,tartar origin4 ,roxburgh and ,hamilton had not seen it in ,northern ,india in the beginning of this century1 and ,i find no indication of it in ,china and ,japan4 ,it is undoubtedly wild in ,tartary and ,siberia1 as far as ,dauria2#ageg but ,russian botanists have not found it further east1 in the basin of the river ,amur4#ageh ,as this plant came from ,tartary into ,eastern ,europe later than the common buckwheat1 it is the latter which bears in several ,slav languages the names tatrika1 tatarka1 or tattar1 which would better suit the ,tartary buckwheat4 ,it seems that the ,aryan peoples must have known the species1 and yet no name is mentioned in the ancient ,indo-,european languages4 ,no trace of it has hitherto been found in the lake-dwellings of ,switzerland or of ,savoy4 ,notch-seeded ,buckwheat--,polygonum emarginatum1 ,roth2 ,fagopyrum emarginatum1 ,meissner4 ,this third species of buckwheat is grown in the highlands of the north-east of ,india1 under the name phaphra or phaphar1#agei and in ,china4#agfj ,i find no positive proof that it has been found wild4 ,roth only says that it 8inhabits ,china10 and that the grain is used for food4 ,don1#agfa who was the first of ,anglo-,indian botanists to mention it1 says that it is hardly considered wild4 ,it is not mentioned in floras of the ,amur valley1 nor of ,japan4 ,judging from the countries where it is cultivated1 it is probably wild in the ,eastern ,himalayas and the north-west of ,china4 ,the genus ,fagopyrum has eight species1 all of temperate ,asia4 ,quinoa--,chenopodium quinoa1 ,willdenow4 ,the quinoa was a staple food of the natives of ,new ,granada1 ,peru1 and ,chili1 in the high and temperate parts at the time of the conquest4 ,its cultivation has persisted in these countries from custom1 and on account of the abundance of the product4 ,from all time the distinction has existed between the quinoa with coloured leaves1 and the quinoa with green leaves and white seed4#agfb ,the latter was regarded by ,moquin#agfc as a variety of a little known species1 believed to be ,asiatic2 but ,i believe that ,i showed conclusively that the two ,american quinoas are two varieties1 probably very ancient1 of a single species4#agfd ,the less coloured1 which is also the most farinaceous1 is probably derived from the other4 ,the white quinoa yields a grain which is much esteemed at ,lima1 according to information furnished by the ,botanical ,magazine1 where a good drawing may be seen 7pl4 #cfda74 ,the leaves may be dressed in the same manner as spinach4#agfe ,no botanist has mentioned the quinoa as wild or semi-wild4 ,the most recent and complete work on one of the countries where the species is cultivated1 the ,flora of ,chili1 by ,cl4 ,gay1 speaks of it only as a cultivated plant4 ,pre ,feuille and ,humboldt said the same for ,peru and ,new ,granada4 ,it is perhaps due to the insignificance of the plant and its aspect of a garden weed that collectors have neglected to bring back wild specimens4 ,kiery--,amarantus frumentaceus1 ,roxburgh4 ,this annual is cultivated in the ,indian peninsula for its small farinaceous grain1 which is in some localities the principal food of the natives4#agff ,fields of this species1 of a red or golden colour1 produce a beautiful effect4#agfg ,from ,roxburgh's account1 ,dr4 ,buchanan 8discovered it on the hills of ,mysore and ,coimbatore10 which seems to indicate a wild condition4 ,amarantus speciosus1 cultivated in gardens and figured on pl4 #bbbg of the ,botanical ,magazine1 appears to be the same species4 ,hamilton found it in ,nepal4#agfh ,a variety or allied species1 ,amarantus anardana1 ,wallich1#agfi is grown on the slopes of the ,himalayas1 but has been hitherto ill defined by botanists4 ,other species are used as vegetables 7see p4 #ajj1 ,amarantus gangeticus74 ,chestnut--,castanea vulgaris1 ,lamarck4 ,the chestnut1 belonging to the order ,cupulifer1 has an extended but disjunctive natural area4 ,it forms forests and woods in mountainous parts of the temperate zone from the ,caspian ,sea to ,portugal4 ,it has also been found in the mountains of ,edough in ,algeria1 and more recently towards the frontier of ,tunis 7,letourneux74 ,if we take into account the varieties japonica and americana1 it exists also in ,japan and in the temperate region of ,north ,america4#aggj ,it has been sown or planted in several parts of the south and west of ,europe1 and it is now difficult to know if it is wild or cultivated4 ,however1 cultivation consists chiefly in the operation of grafting good varieties on the trees which yield indifferent fruit4 ,for this purpose the variety which produces but one large kernel is preferred to those which bear two or three1 separated by a membrane1 which is the natural state of the species4 ,the ,romans in ,pliny's time#agga already distinguished eight varieties1 but we cannot discover from the text of this author whether they possessed the variety with a single kernel 7,fr4 marron74 ,the best chestnuts came from ,sardis in ,asia ,minor1 and from the neighbourhood of ,naples4 ,olivier de ,serres1#aggb in the sixteenth century1 praises the chestnuts ,sardonne and ,tuscane1 which produced the single-kernelled fruit called the ,lyons marron4#aggc ,he considered that these varieties came from ,italy1 and ,targioni#aggd tells us that the name marrone or marone was employed in that country in the ,middle ,ages 7#aagj74 ,wheat and ,kindred ,species4--,the innumerable varieties of wheat1 properly so called1 of which the ripened grain detaches itself naturally from the husk1 have been classed into four groups by ,vilmorin1#agge which form distinct species1 or modifications of the common wheat according to different authors4 ,i am obliged to distinguish them in order to study their history1 but this1 as will be seen1 supports the opinion of a single species4#aggf #a4 ,common ,wheat--,triticum vulgare1 ,villars2 ,triticum hybernum and ,t4 stivum1 ,linnus4 ,according to the experiments of the ,abb ,rozier1 and later of ,tessier1 the distinction between autumn and spring wheats has no importance4 8,all wheats10 says the latter1#aggg 8are either spring or autumn sown1 according to the country4 ,they all pass with time from the one state to the other1 as ,i have ascertained4 ,they only need to be gradually accustomed to the change1 by sowing the autumn wheat a little later1 spring wheat a little earlier1 year by year40 ,the fact is that among the immense number of varieties there are some which feel the cold of the winter more than others1 and it has become the custom to sow them in the spring4#aggh ,we need take no note of this distinction in studying the question of origin1 especially as the greater number of the varieties thus obtained date from a remote period4 ,the cultivation of wheat is prehistoric in the old world4 ,very ancient ,egyptian monuments1 older than the invasion of the shepherds1 and the ,hebrew ,scriptures show this cultivation already established1 and when the ,egyptians or ,greeks speak of its origin1 they attribute it to mythical personages1 ,isis1 ,ceres1 ,triptolemus4#aggi ,the earliest lake-dwellings of ,western ,switzerland cultivated a small-grained wheat1 which ,heer#aghj has carefully described and figured under the name ,triticum vulgare antiquorum4 ,from various facts1 taken collectively1 we gather that the first lake-dwellers of ,robenhausen were at least contemporary with the ,trojan war1 and perhaps earlier4 ,the cultivation of their wheat persisted in ,switzerland until the ,roman conquest1 as we see from specimens found at ,buchs4 ,regazzoni also found it in the rubbish-heaps of the lake-dwellers of ,varese1 and ,sordelli in those of ,lagozza in ,lombardy4#agha ,unger found the same form in a brick of the pyramid of ,dashur1 ,egypt1 to which he assigns a date1 #ccei ,b4,c4 7,unger1 ,bot4 ,streifzge1 vii42 ,ein ,ziegel1 etc41 p4 #i71 ,another variety 7,triticum vulgare compactum muticum1 ,heer7 was less common in ,switzerland in the earliest stone age1 but it has been more often found among the less ancient lake-dwellers of ,western ,switzerland and of ,italy4#aghb ,a third intermediate variety has been discovered at ,aggtelek in ,hungary1 cultivated in the stone age4#aghc ,none of these is identical with the wheat now cultivated1 as more profitable varieties have taken their place4 ,the ,chinese1 who grew wheat #bgjj ,b4,c41 considered it a gift direct from heaven4#aghd ,in the annual ceremony of sowing five kinds of seed1 instituted by the ,emperor ,shen-nung or ,chin-nong1 wheat is one species1 the others being rice1 sorghum1 ,setaria italica1 and soy4 ,the existence of different names for wheat in the most ancient languages confirms the belief in a great antiquity of cultivation4 ,the ,chinese name is mai1 the ,sanskrit sumana and gdhma1 the ,hebrew chittah1 ,egyptian br1 ,guancho yrichen1 without mentioning several names in languages derived from the primitive ,sanskrit1 nor a ,basque name1 ogaia or okhaya1 which dates perhaps from the ,iberians1#aghe and several ,finn1 ,tartar1 and ,turkish names1 etc41#aghf which are probably ,turanian4 ,this great diversity might be explained by a wide natural area in the case of a very common wild plant1 but this is far from being the case of wheat4 ,on the contrary1 it is difficult to prove its existence in a wild state in a few places in ,western ,asia1 as we shall see4 ,if it had been widely diffused before cultivation1 descendants would have remained here and there in remote countries4 ,the manifold names of ancient languages must1 therefore1 be attributed to the extreme antiquity of its culture in the temperate parts of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa--an antiquity greater than that of the most ancient languages4 ,we have two methods of discovering the home of the species previous to cultivation in the immense zone stretching from ,china to the ,canaries3 first1 the opinion of ancient authors2 second1 the existence1 more or less proved1 of wheat in a wild state in a given country4 ,according to the earliest of all historians1 ,berosus1 a ,chaldean priest1 fragments of whose writings have been preserved by ,herodotus1 wild wheat 7,frumentum agreste#aghg7 might be seen growing in ,mesopotamia4 ,the texts of the ,bible alluding to the abundance of wheat in ,canaan prove no more than that the plant was cultivated there1 and that it was very productive4 ,strabo1#aghh born #ej ,b4,c41 says that1 according to ,aristobulus1 a grain very similar to wheat grew wild upon the banks of the ,indus on the #beth parallel of latitude4 ,he also says#aghi that in ,hircania 7the modern ,mazanderan7 the grains of wheat which fell from the ear sowed themselves4 ,this may be observed to some degree at the present day in all countries1 and the author says nothing upon the important question whether this accidental sowing reproduced itself in the same place from generation to generation4 ,according to the ,odyssey1#agij wheat grew in ,sicily without the help of man4 ,but it is impossible to attach great importance to the words of a poet1 and of a poet whose very existence is contested4 ,diodorus ,siculus at the beginning of the ,christian era says the same thing1 and deserves greater confidence1 since he is a ,sicilian4 ,yet he may easily have been mistaken as to the wild character1 as wheat was then generally cultivated in ,sicily4 ,another passage in ,diodorus#agia mentions the tradition that ,osiris found wheat and barley growing promiscuously with other plants at ,nisa1 and ,dureau de la ,malle has proved that this town was in ,palestine4 ,among all this evidence1 that of ,berosus and that of ,strabo for ,mesopotamia and ,western ,india alone appear to me of any value4 ,the five species of seed of the ceremony instituted by ,chin-nong are considered by ,chinese scholars to be natives of their country1#agib and ,bretschneider adds that communication between ,china and ,western ,asia dates only from the embassy of ,chang-kien in the second century before ,christ4 ,a more positive assertion is needed1 however1 before we can believe wheat to be indigenous in ,china2 for a plant cultivated in western ,asia two or three thousand years before the epoch of ,chin-nong1 and of which the seeds are so easily transported1 may have been introduced into the north of ,china by isolated and unknown travellers1 as the stones of peaches and apricots were probably carried from ,china into ,persia in prehistoric time4 ,botanists have ascertained that wheat is not wild in ,sicily at the present day4#agic ,it sometimes escapes from cultivation1 but it does not persist indefinitely4#agid ,the plant which the inhabitants call wild wheat1 ,frumentu sarvaggiu1 which covers uncultivated ground1 is gilops ovata1 according to ,inzenga4#agie ,a zealous collector1 ,balansa1 believed that he had found wheat growing on ,mount ,sipylus1 in ,asia ,minor1 under circumstances in which it was impossible not to believe it wild2#agif but the plant he brought back is a spelt1 ,triticum monococcum1 according to a very careful botanist1 to whom it was submitted for examination4#agig ,olivier1#agih before him1 when he was on the right bank of the ,euphrates1 to the north-west of ,anah1 a country unfit for cultivation1 8found in a kind of ravine1 wheat1 barley1 and spelt1 which10 he adds1 8we have already seen several times in ,mesopotamia40 ,linnus says1#agii that ,heintzelmann found wheat in the country of the ,baschkirs1 but no one has confirmed this statement1 and no modern botanist has seen the species really wild in the neighbourhood of the ,caucasus or the north of ,persia4 ,bunge1#ahjj whose attention was drawn to this point1 declares that he has seen no indication which leads him to believe that cereals are indigenous in that country4 ,it does not even appear that wheat has a tendency in these regions to spring up accidentally outside cultivated ground4 ,i have not discovered any mention of it as a wild plant in the north of ,india1 in ,china1 or ,mongolia4 ,it is remarkable that wheat has been twice asserted to be indigenous in ,mesopotamia1 at an interval of twenty three centuries1 once by ,berosus1 and once by ,olivier in our own day4 ,the ,euphrates valley lying nearly in the middle of the belt of cultivation which formerly extended from ,china to the ,canaries1 it is infinitely probable that it was the principal habitation of the species in very early prehistoric times4 ,the area may have extended towards ,syria1 as the climate is very similar1 but to the east and west of ,western ,asia wheat has probably never existed but as a cultivated plant2 anterior1 it is true1 to all known civilization4 #b4 ,turgid1 and ,egyptian ,wheat--,triticum turgidum and ,t4 compositum1 ,linnus4 ,among the numerous common names of the varieties which come under this head1 we find that of ,egyptian wheat4 ,it appears that it is now much cultivated in that country and in the whole of the ,nile valley4 ,a4 ,p4 de ,candolle says#ahja that he recognized this wheat amongst seeds taken from the sarcophagi of ancient mummies1 but he had not seen the ears4 ,unger#ahjb thinks it was cultivated by the ancient ,egyptians1 yet he gives no proof founded on drawings or specimens4 ,the fact that no ,hebrew or ,armenian name#ahjc can be attributed to the species seems to me important4 ,it proves at least that the remarkable forms with branching ears1 commonly called wheat of miracle1 wheat of abundance1 did not exist in antiquity1 for they would not have escaped the knowledge of the ,israelites4 ,no ,sanskrit name is known1 nor even any modern ,indian names1 and ,i cannot discover any ,persian name4 ,the ,arab names which ,delile#ahjd attributes to the species belong perhaps to other varieties of wheat4 ,there is no ,berber name4#ahje ,from all this it results1 ,i think1 that the plants united under the name of ,triticum turgidum1 and especially the varieties with branching ears1 are not ancient in the north of ,africa or in the west of ,asia4 ,oswald ,heer1#ahjf in his curious paper upon the plants of the lake-dwellers of the stone age in ,switzerland1 attributes to ,t4 turgidum two non-branched ears1 the one bearded1 the other almost without beard1 of which he gives drawings4 ,later1 in an exploration of the lake-dwellings of ,robenhausen1 ,messicommer did not find it1 although there was abundant store of grain4#ahjg ,strbel and ,pigorini said they found wheat with grano grosso duro 7,t4 turgidum71 in the lake-dwellings of ,parmesan4#ahjh ,for the rest1 ,heer#ahji considers this to be a variety or race of the common wheat1 and ,sordelli inclines to the same opinion4 ,fraas thinks that the krithanias of ,theophrastus was ,t4 turgidum1 but this is absolutely uncertain4 ,according to ,heldreich1#ahaj the great wheat is of modern introduction into ,greece4 ,pliny#ahaa spoke briefly of a wheat with branching ears1 yielding one hundred grains1 which was most likely our miraculous wheat4 ,thus history and philology alike lead us to consider the varieties of ,triticum turgidum as modifications of the common wheat obtained by cultivation4 ,the form with branching ears is not perhaps earlier than ,pliny's time4 ,these deductions would be overthrown by the discovery of the ,t4 turgidum in a wild state1 which has not hitherto been made with certainty4 ,in spite of ,c4 ,koch1#ahab no one admits that it grows1 outside cultivation1 at ,constantinople and in ,asia ,minor4 ,boissier's herbarium1 so rich in ,eastern plants1 has no specimen of it4 ,it is given as wild in ,egypt by ,schweinfurth1 and ,ascherson1 but this is the result of a misprint4#ahac #c4 ,hard ,wheat--,triticum durum1 ,desfontaines4 ,long cultivated in ,barbary1 in the south of ,switzerland and elsewhere1 it has never been found wild4 ,in the different provinces of ,spain it has no less than fifteen names1#ahad and none are derived from the ,arab name quemah used in ,algeria#ahae and ,egypt4#ahaf ,the absence of names in several other countries1 especially of original names1 is very striking4 ,this is a further indication of a derivation from the common wheat obtained in ,spain and the north of ,africa at an unknown epoch1 perhaps within the ,christian era4 #d4 ,polish ,wheat--,triticum polonicum1 ,linnus4 ,this other hard wheat1 with yet longer grain1 cultivated chiefly in the east of ,europe1 has not been found wild4 ,it has an original name in ,german1 ,gner1 ,gommer1 ,gmmer1#ahag and in other languages names which are connected only with persons or with countries whence the seed was obtained4 ,it cannot be doubted that it is a form obtained by cultivation1 probably in the east of ,europe1 at an unknown1 perhaps recent epoch4 ,conclusion as to the ,specific ,unity of the ,principal ,races of ,wheat4 ,we have just shown that the history and the vernacular names of the great races of wheat are in favour of a derivation contemporary with man1 probably not very ancient1 from the common kind of wheat1 perhaps from the small-grained wheat formerly cultivated by the ,egyptians1 and by the lake-dwellers of ,switzerland and ,italy4 ,alefeld#ahah arrived at the specific unity of ,t4 vulgare1 ,t4 turgidum1 and ,t4 durum1 by means of an attentive observation of the three cultivated together1 under the same conditions4 ,the experiments of ,henri ,vilmorin#ahai on the artificial fertilization of these wheats lead to the same result4 ,although the author has not yet seen the product of several generations1 he has ascertained that the most distinct principal forms can be crossed with ease and produce fertile hybrids4 ,if fertilization be taken as a measure of the intimate degree of affinity which leads to the grouping of individuals into the same species1 we cannot hesitate in the case in question1 especially with the support of the historical considerations which ,i have given4 ,on the supposed ,mummy ,wheat4 ,before concluding this article1 ,i think it pertinent to say that no grain taken from an ancient ,egyptian sarcophagus and sown by horticulturists has ever been known to germinate4 ,it is not that the thing is impossible1 for grains are all the better preserved that they are protected from the air and from variations of temperature or humidity1 and certainly these conditions are fulfilled by ,egyptian monuments2 but1 as a matter of fact1 the attempts at raising wheat from these ancient seeds have not been successful4 ,the experiment which has been most talked of is that of the ,count of ,sternberg1 at ,prague4#ahbj ,he had received the grains from a trustworthy traveller1 who assured him they were taken from a sarcophagus4 ,two of these seeds germinated1 it is said1 but ,i have ascertained that in ,germany well-informed persons believe there is some imposture1 either on the part of the ,arabs1 who sometimes slip modern seeds into the tombs 7even maize1 an ,american plant71 or on that of the employs of the ,count of ,sternberg4 ,the grain known in commerce as mummy wheat has never had any proof of antiquity of origin4 ,spelt and ,allied ,varieties or ,species4#ahba ,louis ,vilmorin1#ahbb in imitation of ,seringe's excellent work on cereals1#ahbc has grouped together those wheats whose seeds when ripe are closely contained in their envelope or husk1 necessitating a special operation to free them from it1 a character rather agricultural than botanical4 ,he then enumerates the forms of these wheats under three names1 which correspond to as many species of most botanists4 #a4 ,spelt--,triticum spelta1 ,linnus4 ,spelt is now hardly cultivated out of south ,germany and ,german-,switzerland4 ,this was not the case formerly4 ,the descriptions of cereals by ,greek authors are so brief and insignificant that there is always room for hesitation as to the sense of the words they use4 ,yet1 judging from the customs of which they speak1 scholars think#ahbd that the ,greeks first called spelt olyra1 afterwards zeia1 names which we find in ,herodotus and ,homer4 ,dioscorides#ahbe distinguishes two sorts of zeia1 which apparently answer to ,triticum spelta and ,t4 monococcum4 ,it is believed that spelt was the semen 7corn1 par excellence7 and the far of ,pliny1 which he said was used as food by the ,latins for #cfj years before they knew how to make bread4#ahbf ,as spelt has not been found among the lake-dwellers of ,switzerland and ,italy1 and as the former cultivated the allied varieties called ,t4 dicoccum and ,t4 monococcum1#ahbg it is possible that the far of the ,latins was rather one of these4 ,the existence of the true spelt in ancient ,egypt and the neighbouring countries seems to me yet more doubtful4 ,the olyra of the ,egyptians1 of which ,herodotus speaks1 was not the olyra of the ,greeks2 some authors have supposed it to be rice1 oryza4#ahbh ,as to spelt1 it is a plant which is not grown in such hot countries4 ,modern travellers from ,rauwolf onwards have not seen it in ,egyptian cultivation1#ahbi nor has it been found in the ancient monuments4 ,this is what led me to suppose#ahcj that the ,hebrew word kussemeth1 which occurs three times in the ,bible1#ahca ought not to be attributed to spelt1 as it is by ,hebrew scholars4#ahcb ,i imagined it was perhaps the allied form1 ,t4 monococcum1 but neither is this grown in ,egypt4 ,spelt has no name in ,sanskrit1 nor in any modern ,indian languages1 nor in ,persian1#ahcc and therefore1 of course1 none in ,chinese4 ,european names1 on the contrary1 are numerous1 and bear witness to an ancient cultivation1 especially in the east of ,europe4 ,spelta in ,saxon1 whence the ,english name1 and the ,french1 peautre2 ,dinkel in modern ,german1 orkiss in ,polish1 pobla in ,russian1#ahcd are names which seem to come from very different roots4 ,in the south of ,europe the names are rarer4 ,there is a ,spanish one1 however1 of ,asturia1 escandia1#ahce but ,i know of none in ,basque4 ,history1 and especially philology1 point to an origin in eastern temperate ,europe and the neighbouring countries of ,asia4 ,we have to discover whether the plant has been found wild4 ,olivier1#ahcf in a passage already quoted1 says that he several times found it in ,mesopotamia1 in particular upon the right bank of the ,euphrates1 north of ,anah1 in places unfit for cultivation4 ,another botanist1 ,andr ,michaux1 saw it in #aghc1 near ,hamadan1 a town in the temperate region of ,persia4 ,dureau de la ,malle says that he sent some grains of it to ,bosc1 who sowed them at ,paris and obtained the common spelt2 but this seems to me doubtful1 for ,lamarck1 in #aghf1ahcg and ,bosc himself1 in the ,dictionnaire d',agriculture1 article peautre 7spelt71 published in #ahji1 says not a word of this4 ,the herbariums of the ,paris ,museum contain no specimens of the cereals mentioned by ,olivier4 ,there is1 as we have seen1 much uncertainty as to the origin of the species as a wild plant4 ,this leads me to attribute more importance to the hypothesis that spelt is derived by cultivation from the common wheat1 or from an intermediate form at some not very early prehistoric time4 ,the experiments of ,h4 ,vilmorin#ahch support this theory1 for cross fertilizations of the spelt by the downy white wheat1 and vice vers1 yield 8hybrids whose fertility is complete1 with a mixture of the characters of both parents1 those of the spelt preponderating40 #b4 ,starch ,wheat--,triticum dicoccum1 ,schrank2 ,triticum amyleum1 ,seringe4 ,this form 7,emmer1 or ,aemer in ,german71 cultivated for starch chiefly in ,switzerland1 resists a hard winter4 ,it contains two grains in each little ear1 like the true spelt4 ,heer#ahci attributes to a variety of ,t4 dicoccum an ear found in a bad state of preservation in the lake-dwellings of ,wangen1 ,switzerland4 ,messicommer has since found some at ,robenhausen4 ,it has never been found wild2 and the rarity of common names is remarkable4 ,these two circumstances1 and the slight value of the botanical characters which serve to distinguish it from ,tr4 spelta1 lead to the conclusion that it is an ancient cultivated variety of the latter4 #c4 ,one-grained ,wheat--,triticum monococcum1 ,linnus4 ,the one-grained wheat1 or little spelt1 ,einkorn in ,german1 is distinguished from the two preceding by a single seed in the little ear1 and by other characters which lead the majority of botanists to consider it as a really distinct species4 ,the experiments of ,h4 ,vilmorin confirm this opinion so far1 for he has not yet succeeded in crossing ,t4 monococcum with other spelts or wheats4 ,this may be due1 as he says himself1 to some detail in the manner of operating4 ,he intends to renew his attempts1 and may perhaps succeed4 ,in the ,bulletin de la ,socit ,botanique de ,france1 #ahhc1 p4 #fb1 ,mr4 ,vilmorin says that he has not met with better success in the third and fourth years in his attempts at crossing ,t4 monococcum with other species4 ,he intends to make the experiment with ,t4 boticum1 ,boissier1 wild in ,servia1 of which ,i sent him some seeds gathered by ,pancic4 ,as this species is supposed to be the original stock of ,t4 monococcum1 the experiment is an interesting one4--,,author',s ,,note1 #ahhd4 ,in the mean time let us see whether this form of spelt has been long in cultivation1 and if it has anywhere been found growing wild4 ,the one-grained wheat thrives in the poorest and most stony soil4 ,it is not very productive1 but yields excellent meal4 ,it is sown especially in mountainous districts1 in ,spain1 ,france1 and the east of ,europe1 but ,i do not find it mentioned in ,barbary1 ,egypt1 the ,east1 or in ,india or ,china4 ,from some expressions it has been believed to be the tiphai of ,theophrastus4#ahdj ,it is easier to invoke ,dioscorides1#ahda for he distinguishes two kinds of zeia1 one with two seeds1 another with only one4 ,the latter would be the one-grained wheat4 ,nothing proves that it was commonly cultivated by the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,their modern descendants do not sow it4#ahdb ,there are no ,sanskrit1 ,persian1 or ,arabic names4 ,i suggested formerly that the ,hebrew word kussemeth might apply to this species1 but this hypothesis now seems to me difficult to maintain4 ,marschall ,bieberstein#ahdc mentions ,triticum monococcum1 or a variety of it1 growing wild in the ,crimea and the eastern ,caucasus1 but no botanist has confirmed this assertion4 ,steven1#ahdd who lived in the ,crimea1 declares that he never saw the species except cultivated by the ,tartars4 ,on the other hand1 the plant which ,balansa gathered in a wild state near ,mount ,sipylus1 in ,anatolia1 is ,t4 monococcum1 according to ,j4 ,gay1#ahde who takes with this form ,triticum boticum1 ,boissier1 which grows wild in the plains of ,botia#ahdf and in ,servia4#ahdg ,admitting these facts1 ,t4 monococcum is a native of ,servia1 ,greece1 and ,asia ,minor1 and as the attempts to cross it with other spelts or wheats have not been successful1 it is rightly termed a species in the ,linnan sense4 ,the separation of wheat with free grains from spelt must have taken place before all history1 perhaps before the beginning of agriculture4 ,wheat must have appeared first in ,asia1 and then spelt1 probably in ,eastern ,europe and ,anatolia4 ,lastly1 among spelts ,t4 monococcum seems to be the most ancient form1 from which the others have gradually developed in several thousand years of cultivation and selection4 ,two-rowed ,barley--,hordeum distichon1 ,linnus4 ,barley is among the most ancient of cultivated plants4 ,as all its forms resemble each other in nature and uses1 we must not expect to find in ancient authors and in common names that precision which would enable us to recognize the species admitted by botanists4 ,in many cases the name barley has been taken in a vague or generic sense4 ,this is a difficulty which we must take into account4 ,for instance1 the expression of the ,old ,testament1 of ,berosus1 of ,moses of ,chorene1 ,pausanias1 ,marco ,polo1 and more recently of ,olivier1 indicating 8wild and cultivated barley0 in a given country1 prove nothing1 because we do not know to which species they refer4 ,there is the same obscurity in ,china4 ,dr4 ,bretschneider says#ahdh that1 according to a work published in the year ,a4,d4 #ajj1 the ,chinese cultivated barley1 but he does not specify the kind4 ,at the extreme west of the old world the ,guanchos also cultivated a barley1 of which we know the name but not the species4 ,the common variety of the two-rowed barley1 in which the husk remains attached to the ripened grain1 has been found wild in ,western ,asia1 in ,arabia ,petrea1#ahdi near ,mount ,sinai1#ahej in the ruins of ,persepolis1#ahea near the ,caspian ,sea1#aheb between ,lenkoran and ,baku1 in the desert of ,chirvan and ,awhasia1 to the south of the ,caucasus1#ahec and in ,turcomania4#ahed ,no author mentions it in ,greece1 ,egypt1 or to the east of ,persia4 ,willdenow#ahee indicates it at ,samara1 in the south-east of ,russia2 but more recent authors do not confirm this4 ,its modern area is1 therefore1 from the ,red ,sea to the ,caucasus and the ,caspian ,sea4 ,hence this barley should be one of the forms cultivated by ,semitic and ,turanian peoples4 ,yet it has not been found in ,egyptian monuments4 ,it seems that the ,aryans must have known it1 but ,i find no proof in vernacular names or in history4 ,theophrastus#ahef speaks of the two-rowed barley4 ,the lake-dwellers of ,eastern ,switzerland cultivated it before they possessed metals1#aheg but the six-rowed barley was more common among them4 ,the variety in which the grain is bare at maturity 7,h4 distichon nudum1 ,linnus71 which in ,france has all sorts of absurd names1 orge caf1 orge du ,prou 7coffee barley1 ,peruvian barley71 has never been found wild4 ,the fan-shaped barley 7,hordeum ,zeocriton1 ,linnus7 seems to me to be a cultivated form of the two-rowed barley4 ,it is not known in a wild state1 nor has it been found in ,egyptian monuments1 nor the lake-dwellings of ,switzerland1 ,savoy1 and ,italy4 ,common ,barley--,hordeum vulgare1 ,linnus4 ,the common barley with four rows of grain is mentioned by ,theophrastus1#aheh but it seems to have been less cultivated in antiquity than that with two rows1 and considerably less than that with six rows4 ,it has not been found in ,egyptian monuments1 nor in the lake-dwellings of ,switzerland1 ,savoy1 and ,italy4 ,willdenow#ahei says that it grows in ,sicily and in the south-east of ,russia1 at ,samara1 but the modern floras of these two countries do not confirm this4 ,we do not know what species of barley it was that ,olivier saw growing wild in ,mesopotamia2 consequently the common barley has not yet been found certainly wild4 ,the multitude of common names which are attributed to it prove nothing as to its origin1 for in most cases it is impossible to know if they are names of barley in general1 or of a particular kind of barley cultivated in a given country4 ,six-rowed ,barley--,hordeum hexastichon1 ,linnus4 ,this was the species most commonly cultivated in antiquity4 ,not only is it mentioned by ,greek authors1 but it has also been found in the earliest ,egyptian monuments1#ahfj and in the remains of the lake-dwellings of ,switzerland 7age of stone71 of ,italy1 and of ,savoy 7age of bronze74#ahfa ,heer has even distinguished two varieties of the species formerly cultivated in ,switzerland4 ,one of them answers to the six-rowed barley represented on the medals of ,metapontis1 a town in the south of ,italy1 six centuries before ,christ4 ,according to ,roxburgh1#ahfb it was the only kind of barley grown in ,india at the end of the last century4 ,he attributes to it the ,sanskrit name yuva1 which has become juba in ,bengali4 ,adolphe ,pictet#ahfc has carefully studied the names in ,sanskrit and other ,indo-,european languages which answer to the generic name barley1 but he has not been able to go into the details of each species4 ,the six-rowed barley has not been seen in the conditions of a wild plant1 of which the species has been determined by a botanist4 ,i have not found it in ,boissier's herbarium1 which is so rich in ,eastern plants4 ,it is possible that the wild barleys mentioned by ancient authors and by ,olivier were ,hordeum hexastichon1 but there is no proof of this4 ,on ,barleys in general4 ,we have seen that the only form which is now found wild is the simplest1 the least productive1 ,hordeum distichon1 which was1 like ,h4 hexastichon1 cultivated in prehistoric time4 ,perhaps ,h4 vulgare has not been so long in cultivation as the two others4 ,two hypotheses may be drawn from these facts3 #a4 ,that the barleys with four and six rows were1 in prehistoric agriculture anterior to that of the ancient ,egyptians who built the monuments1 derived from ,h4 distichon4 #b4 ,the barleys with six and four ranks were species formerly wild1 extinct since the historical epoch4 ,it would be strange in this case that no trace of them has remained in the floras of the vast region comprised between ,india1 the ,black ,sea1 and ,abyssinia1 where we are nearly sure of their cultivation1 at least of that of the six-ranked barley4 ,rye--,secale cereale1 ,linnus4 ,rye has not been very long in cultivation1 unless1 perhaps1 in ,russia and ,thrace4 ,it has not been found in ,egyptian monuments1 and has no name in ,semitic languages1 even in the modern ones1 nor in ,sanskrit and the modern ,indian languages derived from ,sanskrit4 ,these facts agree with the circumstance that rye thrives better in northern than in southern countries1 where it is not usually cultivated in modern times4 ,dr4 ,bretschneider#ahfd thinks it is unknown to ,chinese agriculture4 ,he doubts the contrary assertion of a modern writer1 and remarks that the name of a cereal mentioned in the memoirs of the ,emperor ,kanghi1 which may be supposed to be this species1 signifies ,russian wheat4 ,now rye1 he says1 is much cultivated in ,siberia4 ,there is no mention of it in ,japanese floras4 ,the ancient ,greeks did not know it4 ,the first author who mentions it in the ,roman empire is ,pliny1#ahfe who speaks of the secale cultivated at ,turin at the foot of the ,alps1 under the name of ,asia4 ,galen1#ahff born in ,a4,d4 #aca1 had seen it cultivated in ,thrace and ,macedonia under the name briza4 ,its cultivation does not seem ancient1 at least in ,italy1 for no trace of rye has been found in the remains of the lake-dwellings of the north of that country1 or of ,switzerland and ,savoy1 even of the age of bronze4 ,jetteles found remains of rye near ,olmutz1 together with instruments of bronze1 and ,heer1#ahfg who saw the specimens1 mentions others of the ,roman epoch in ,switzerland4 ,failing archological proofs1 ,european languages show an early knowledge of rye in ,german1 ,keltic1 and ,slavonic countries4 ,the principal names1 according to ,adolphe ,pictet1#ahfh belong to the peoples of the north of ,europe3 ,anglo-,saxon1 ryge1 rig2 ,scandinavian1 rgr2 ,old ,high ,german1 roggo2 ,ancient ,slav1 ruji1 roji2 ,polish1 rez2 ,illyrian1 raz1 etc4 ,the origin of this name must date1 he says1 from an epoch previous to the separation of the ,teutons from the ,lithuano-,slavs4 ,the word secale of the ,latins recurs in a similar form among the ,bretons1 segal1 and the ,basques1 cekela1 zekhalea2 but it is not known whether the ,latins borrowed it from the ,gauls and ,iberians1 or whether1 conversely1 the latter took the name from the ,romans4 ,this second hypothesis appears to be the more probable of the two1 since the ,cisalpine ,gauls of ,pliny's time had quite a different name4 ,i also find mentioned a ,tartar name1 aresch1#ahfi and an ,ossete name1 syl1 sil1#ahgj which points to an ancient cultivation to the east of ,europe4 ,thus historical and philological data show that the species probably had its origin in the countries north of the ,danube1 and that its cultivation is hardly earlier than the ,christian era in the ,roman empire1 but perhaps more ancient in ,russia and ,tartary4 ,the indication of wild rye given by several authors should scarcely ever be accepted1 for it has often happened that ,secale cereale has been confounded with perennial species1 or with others of which the ear is easily broken1 which modern botanists have rightly distinguished4#ahga ,many mistakes which thus arose have been cleared up by an examination of original specimens4 ,others may be suspected4 ,thus ,i do not know what to think of the assertions of ,l4 ,ross1 who said he had found rye growing wild in several parts of ,anatolia1#ahgb and of the ,russian traveller ,ssaewerzoff1 who said he saw it in ,turkestan4#ahgc ,the latter fact is probable enough1 but it is not said that any botanist verified the species4 ,kunth#ahgd had previously mentioned it in 8the desert between the ,black ,sea and the ,caspian10 but he does not say on what authority of traveller or of specimens4 ,boissier's herbarium has shown me no wild ,secale cereale1 but it has persuaded me that another species of rye might easily be mistaken for this one1 and that assertions require to be carefully verified4 ,failing satisfactory proofs of wild plants1 ,i formerly urged1 in my ,gographie ,botanique ,raisonne1 an argument of some value4 ,secale cereale sows itself from cultivation1 and becomes almost wild in parts of the ,austrian empire1#ahge which is seldom seen elsewhere4#ahgf ,thus in the east of ,europe1 where history points to an ancient cultivation1 rye finds at the present day the most favourable conditions for living without the aid of man4 ,it can hardly be doubted1 from these facts1 that its original area was in the region comprised between the ,austrian ,alps and the north of the ,caspian ,sea4 ,this seems the more probable that the five or six known species of the genus ,secale inhabit western temperate ,asia or the south-east of ,europe4 ,admitting this origin1 the ,aryan natives would not have known the species1 as philology already shows us2 but in their migrations westward they must have met with it under different names1 which they transported here and there4 ,common ,oats and ,eastern ,oats--,avena sativa1 ,linnus2 ,avena orientalis1 ,schreber4 ,the ancient ,egyptians and the ,hebrews did not cultivate oats1 but they are now grown in ,egypt4#ahgg ,there is no ,sanskrit name1 nor any in modern ,indian languages4 ,they are only now and then planted by the ,english in ,india for their horses4#ahgh ,the earliest mention of oats in ,china is in an historical work on the period #fah to #ijg ,a4,d42 it refers to the variety known to botanists as ,avena sativa nuda4#ahgi ,the ancient ,greeks knew the genus very well2 they called it bromos1#ahhj as the ,latins called it avena2 but these names were commonly applied to species which are not cultivated1 and which are weeds mixed with cereals4 ,there is no proof that they cultivated the common oats4 ,pliny's remark#ahha that the ,germans lived on oatmeal1 implies that the species was not cultivated by the ,romans4 ,the cultivation of oats was1 therefore1 practised anciently to the north of ,italy and of ,greece4 ,it was diffused later and partially in the south of the ,roman empire4 ,it is possible that it was more ancient in ,asia ,minor1 for ,galen#ahhb says that oats were abundant in ,mysia1 above ,pergamus2 that they were given to horses1 and that men used them for food in years of scarcity4 ,a colony of ,gauls had formerly penetrated into ,asia ,minor4 ,oats have been found among the remains of the ,swiss lake-dwellings of the age of bronze1#ahhc and in ,germany1 near ,wittenburg1 in several tombs of the first centuries of the ,christian era1 or a little earlier4#ahhd ,hitherto none have been found in the lake-dwellings of the north of ,italy1 which confirms the belief that oats were not cultivated in ,italy in the time of the ,roman republic4 ,the vernacular names also prove an ancient existence north and west of the ,alps1 and on the borders of ,europe towards ,tartary and the ,caucasus4 ,the most widely diffused of these names is indicated by the ,latin avena1 ,ancient ,slav ovisu1 ovesu1 ovsa1 ,russian ovesu1 ,lithuanian awiza1 ,lettonian ausas1 ,ostias abis4#ahhe ,the ,english word oats comes1 according to ,a4 ,pictet1 from the ,anglo-,saxon ata or ate4 ,the ,basque name1 olba or oloa1#ahhf argues a very ancient ,iberian cultivation4 ,the ,keltic names are quite different3#ahhg ,irish coirce1 cuirce1 corca1 ,armorican kerch4 ,tartar sulu1 ,georgian kari1 ,hungarian zab1 ,croat zob1 ,esthonian kaer1 and others are mentioned by ,nemnich#ahhh as applying to the generic name oats1 but it is not likely that names so varied do not belong to a cultivated species4 ,it is strange that there should be an independent ,berber name zekkoum1#ahhi as there is nothing to show that the species was anciently cultivated in ,africa4 ,all these facts show how erroneous is the opinion which reigned in the last century1#ahij that oats were brought originally from the island of ,juan ,fernandez1 a belief which came apparently from an assertion of the navigator ,anson4#ahia ,it is evidently not in the ,austral hemisphere that we must seek for the home of the species1 but in those countries of the northern hemisphere where it was anciently cultivated4 ,oats sow themselves on rubbish-heaps1 by the wayside1 and near cultivated ground more easily than other cereals1 and sometimes persist in such a way as to appear wild4 ,this has been observed in widely separate places1 as ,algeria and ,japan1 ,paris and the north of ,china4#ahib ,instances of this nature render us sceptical as to the wild nature of the oats which ,bov said he found in the desert of ,sinai4 ,it has also been said#ahic that the traveller ,olivier saw oats wild in ,persia1 but he does not mention the fact in his work4 ,besides1 several annual species nearly resembling oats may deceive the traveller4 ,i cannot discover either in books or herbaria the existence of really wild oats either in ,europe or ,asia1 and ,bentham has assured me that there are no such specimens in the herbarium at ,kew2 but certainly the half-wild or naturalized condition is more frequent in the ,austrian states from ,dalmatia to ,transylvania#ahid than elsewhere4 ,this is an indication of origin which may be added to the historical and philological arguments in favour of eastern temperate ,europe4 ,avena strigosa1 ,schreber1 appears to be a variety of the common oats1 judging from the experiments in cultivation mentioned by ,bentham1 who adds1 it is true1 that these need confirmation4#ahie ,there is a good drawing of the variety in ,host1 ,icones ,graminum ,austriacorum1 ii4 pl4 #ef1 which may be compared with ,a4 sativa1 pl4 #ei4 ,for the rest1 ,avena strigosa has not been found wild4 ,it exists in ,europe in deserted fields1 which confirms the hypothesis that it is a form derived by cultivation4 ,avena orientalis1 ,schreber1 of which the spikelets lean all to one side1 has also been grown in ,europe from the end of the eighteenth century4 ,it is not known in a wild state4 ,often mixed with common oats1 it is not to be distinguished from them at a glance4 ,the names it bears in ,germany1 ,turkish or ,hungarian oats1 points to a modern introduction from the ,east4 ,host gives a good drawing of it 7,gram4 ,austr41 i4 pl4 #dd74 ,as all the varieties of oats are cultivated1 and none have been discovered in a truly wild state1 it is very probable that they are all derived from a single prehistoric form1 a native of eastern temperate ,europe and of ,tartary4 ,common ,millet--,panicum miliaceum1 ,linnus4 ,the cultivation of this plant is prehistoric in the south of ,europe1 in ,egypt1 and in ,asia4 ,the ,greeks knew it by the name kegchros1 and the ,latins by that of milium4#ahif ,the ,swiss lake-dwellers of the age of stone made great use of millet1#ahig and it has also been found in the remains of the lake-dwellings of ,varese in ,italy4#ahih ,as we do not elsewhere find specimens of these early times1 it is impossible to know what was the panicum or the sorghum mentioned by ,latin authors which was used as food by the inhabitants of ,gaul1 ,panonia1 and other countries4 ,unger#ahii counts ,p4 miliaceum among the species of ancient ,egypt1 but it does not appear that he had positive proof of this1 for he has mentioned no monument1 drawing1 or seed found in the tombs4 ,nor is there any material proof of ancient cultivation in ,mesopotamia1 ,india1 and ,china4 ,for the last-named country it is a question whether the shu1 one of the five cereals sown by the emperors in the great yearly ceremony1 is ,panicum miliaceum1 an allied species1 or sorghum2 but it appears that the sense of the word shu has changed1 and that formerly it was perhaps sorghum which was sown4#aijj ,anglo-,indian botanists#aija attribute two ,sanskrit names to the modern species1 n and vreehib-heda1 although the modern ,hindu and ,bengali name cheena and the ,telinga name worga are quite different4 ,if the ,sanskrit names are genuine1 they indicate an ancient cultivation in ,india4 ,no ,hebrew nor ,berber name is known1#aijb but there are ,arab names1 dokhn1 used in ,egypt1 and kosjjb in ,arabia4#aijc ,there are various ,european names4 ,besides the ,greek and ,latin words1 there is an ancient ,slav name1 proso1#aijd retained in ,russia and ,poland1 an old ,german word hirsi1 and a ,lithuanian name sora4#aije ,the absence of ,keltic names is remarkable4 ,it appears that the species was cultivated especially in ,eastern ,europe1 and spread westward towards the end of the ,gallic dominion4 ,with regard to its wild existence1 ,linnus says#aijf that it inhabits ,india1 and most authors repeat this2 but ,anglo-,indian botanists#aijg always give it as cultivated4 ,it is not found in ,japanese floras4 ,in the north of ,china de ,bunge only saw it cultivated1#aijh and ,maximowicz near the ,ussuri1 on the borders of fields and in places near ,chinese dwellings4#aiji ,ledebour says#aiaj it is nearly wild in ,altaic ,siberia and ,central ,russia1 and wild south of the ,caucasus and in the country of ,talysch4 ,he quotes ,hohenacker for the last-named locality1 who1 however1 says only 8nearly wild40#aiaa ,in the ,crimea1 where it furnishes bread for the ,tartars1 it is found here and there nearly wild1#aiab which is also the case in the south of ,france1 in ,italy1 and in ,austria4#aiac ,it is not wild in ,greece1#aiad and no one has found it in ,persia or in ,syria4 ,forskal and ,delile indicated it in ,egypt1 but ,ascherson does not admit this2#aiae and ,forskal gives it in ,arabia4#aiaf ,the species may have become naturalized in these regions1 as the result of frequent cultivation from the time of the ancient ,egyptians4 ,however1 its wild nature is so doubtful elsewhere1 that its ,egypto-,arabian origin is very probable4 ,italian ,millet--,panicum ,italicum1 ,linnus2 ,setaria ,italica1 ,beauvois4 ,the cultivation of this species was very common in the temperate parts of the old world in prehistoric times4 ,its seeds served as food for man1 though now they are chiefly given to birds4 ,in ,china it is one of the five plants which the emperor sows each year in a public ceremony1 according to the command issued by ,chin-nong #bgjj ,b4,c4#aiag ,the common name is siao mi 7little seed71 the more ancient name being ku2 but the latter seems to be applied also to a very different species4#aiah ,pickering says he recognized it in two ancient ,egyptian drawings1 and that it is now cultivated in ,egypt#aiai under the name dokhn2 but that is the name of ,panicum miliaceum4 ,it is1 therefore1 very doubtful that the ancient ,egyptians cultivated it4 ,it has been found among the remains of the ,swiss lake-dwellings of the stone epoch1 and therefore fortiori among the lake-dwellers of the subsequent epoch in ,savoy4#aibj ,the ancient ,greeks and ,latins did not mention it1 or at least it has not been possible to certify it from what they say of several panicums and millets4 ,in our own day the species is rarely cultivated in the south of ,europe1 not at all in ,greece1#aiba for instance1 and ,i do not find it indicated in ,egypt1 but it is common in ,southern ,asia4#aibb ,the ,sanskrit names kung and priyung1 of which the first is retained in ,bengali1#aibc are attributed to this species4 ,piddington mentions several other names in ,indian languages in his ,index4 ,ainslie#aibd gives a ,persian name1 arzun1 and an ,arabic name2 but the latter is commonly attributed to ,panicum miliaceum4 ,there is no ,hebrew name1 and the plant is not mentioned in botanical works upon ,egypt and ,arabia4 ,the ,european names have no historical value4 ,they are not original1 and commonly refer to the transmission of the species or to its cultivation in a given country4 ,the specific name1 italicum1 is an absurd example1 the plant being rarely cultivated and never wild in ,italy4 ,rumphius says it is wild in the ,sunda ,isles1 but not very positively4#aibe ,linnus probably started from this basis to exaggerate and even promulgate an error1 saying1 8inhabits the ,indies40#aibf ,it certainly does not come from the ,west ,indies2 and further1 ,roxburgh asserts that he never saw it wild in ,india4 ,the ,gramin have not yet appeared in ,sir ,joseph ,hookers flora2 but ,aitchison#aibg gives the species as only cultivated in the north-west of ,india4 ,the ,australian plant which ,robert ,brown said belonged to this species belongs to another4#aibh ,p4 italicum appears to be wild in ,japan1 at least in the form called germanica by different authors1#aibi and the ,chinese consider the five cereals of the annual ceremony to be natives of their country4 ,yet ,bunge1 in the north of ,china1 and ,maximowicz in the basin of the river ,amur1 only saw the species cultivated on a large scale1 in the form of the germanica variety4#aicj ,in ,persia1#aica the ,caucasus ,mountains1 and ,europe1 ,i only find in floras the plant indicated as cultivated1 or escaped sometimes from cultivation on rubbish-heaps1 waysides1 waste ground1 etc4#aicb ,the sum of the historical1 philological1 and botanical data make me think that the species existed before all cultivation1 thousands of years ago in ,china1 ,japan1 and in the ,indian ,archipelago4 ,its cultivation must have early spread towards the ,west1 since we know of ,sanskrit names1 but it does not seem to have been known in ,syria1 ,arabia1 and ,greece1 and it is probably through ,russia and ,austria that it early arrived among the lake-dwellers of the stone age in ,switzerland4 ,common ,sorghum--,holcus sorghum1 ,linnus2 ,andropogon sorghum1 ,brotero2 ,sorghum vulgare1 ,persoon4 ,botanists are not agreed as to the distinction of several of the species of sorghum1 and even as to the genera into which this group of the ,gramin should be divided4 ,a good monograph on the sorghums is needed1 as in the case of the panicums4 ,in the mean time ,i will give some information on the principal species1 because of their immense importance as food for man1 rearing of poultry1 and as fodder for cattle4 ,we may take as a typical species the sorghum cultivated in ,europe1 as it is figured by ,host in his ,gramin ,austriac 7iv4 pi4 #b74 ,it is one of the plants most commonly cultivated by the modern ,egyptians1 under the name of dourra1 and also in equatorial ,africa1 ,india1 and ,china4#aicc ,it is so productive in hot countries that it is a staple food of immense populations in the old world4 ,linnus and all authors1 even our contemporaries1 say that it is of ,indian origin2 but in the first edition of ,roxburgh's flora1 published in #ahbj1 this botanist1 who should have been consulted1 asserts that he had only seen it cultivated4 ,he makes the same remark for the allied forms 7bicolor1 saccharatus1 etc471 which are often regarded as mere varieties4 ,aitchison also had only seen the sorghum cultivated4 ,the absence of a ,sanskrit name also renders the ,indian origin very doubtful4 ,bretschneider1 on the other hand1 says the sorghum is indigenous in ,china1 although he says that ancient ,chinese authors have not spoken of it4 ,it is true that he quotes a name1 common at ,pekin1 kao-liang 7tall millet71 which also applies to ,holcus saccharatus1 and to which it is better suited4 ,the sorghum has not been found among the remains of the lake-dwellings of ,switzerland and ,italy4 ,the ,greeks never spoke of it4 ,pliny's phrase#aicd about a milium introduced into ,italy from ,india in his time has been supposed to refer to the sorghum2 but it was a taller plant1 perhaps ,holcus saccharatus4 ,the sorghum has not been found in a natural state in the tombs of ancient ,egypt4 ,dr4 ,hannerd thought he recognized it in some crushed seeds brought by ,rosellini from ,thebes2#aice but ,mr4 ,birch1 the keeper of ,egyptian antiquities in the ,british ,museum1 has more recently declared that the species has not been found in the ancient tombs4#aicf ,pickering says he recognized its leaves mixed with those of the papyrus4 ,he says he also saw paintings of it2 and ,leipsius has copies of drawings which he1 as well as ,unger and ,wilkinson1 takes to be the dourra of modern cultivation4#aicg ,the height and the form of the ear are undoubtedly those of the sorghum4 ,it is possible that this species is the dochan1 once mentioned in the ,old ,testament#aich as a cereal from which bread was made2 yet the modern ,arabic word dokhn refers to the sweet sorghum4 ,common names tell us nothing1 either from their lack of meaning1 or because in many cases the same name has been applied to the different kinds of panicum and sorghum4 ,i can find none which is certain in the ancient languages of ,india or ,western ,asia1 which argues an introduction of but few centuries before the ,christian era4 ,no botanist mentions the dourra as wild in ,egypt or in ,arabia4 ,an analogous form is wild in equatorial ,africa1 but ,r4 ,brown has not been able to identify it1#aici and the flora of tropical ,africa in course of publication at ,kew has not yet reached the order ,gramin4 ,there remains1 therefore1 the single assertion of ,dr4 ,bretschneider1 that the tall sorghum is indigenous in ,china4 ,if it is really the species in question1 it spread westward very late4 ,but it was known to the ancient ,egyptians1 and how could they have received it from ,china while it remained unknown to the intermediate peoples8 ,it is easier to understand that it is indigenous in tropical ,africa1 and was introduced into ,egypt in prehistoric time1 afterwards into ,india1 and finally into ,china1 where its cultivation does not seem to be very ancient1 for the first work which mentions it belongs to the fourth century of our era4 ,in support of the theory of ,african origin1 ,i may quote the observation of ,schmidt1#aidj that the species abounds in the island of ,san ,antonio1 in the ,cape ,verde group1 in rocky places4 ,he believes it to be 8completely naturalized10 which perhaps conceals a true origin4 ,sweet ,sorghum--,holcus saccharatus1 ,linnus2 ,andropogon saccharatus1 ,roxburgh2 ,sorghum saccharatum1 ,persoon4 ,this species1 taller than the common sorghum and with a loose panicle1#aida is cultivated in tropical countries for the seed--which1 however1 is not so good as that of the common sorghum--and in less hot countries as fodder1 or even for the sugar which the stem contains in considerable quantities4 ,the ,chinese extract a spirit from it1 but not sugar4 ,the opinion of botanists and of the public in general is that it comes from ,india2 but ,roxburgh says that it is only cultivated in that country4 ,it is the same in the ,sunda ,isles1 where the battari is certainly this species4 ,it is the kao-liang1 or great millet of the ,chinese4 ,it is not said to be indigenous in ,china1 nor is it mentioned by ,chinese authors who lived before the ,christian era4#aidb ,from these facts1 and the absence of any ,sanskrit name1 the ,asiatic origin seems to me a delusion4 ,the plant is now cultivated in ,egypt less than the common sorghum1 and in ,arabia under the name dokhna or dokhn4#aidc ,no botanist has seen it wild in these countries4 ,there is no proof that the ancient ,egyptians cultivated it4 ,herodotus#aidd spoke of a 8tree-millet0 in the plains of ,assyria4 ,it might be the species in question1 but it is not possible to prove it4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans were not acquainted with it1 not at least before the ,roman empire1 but it is possible that this was the millet1 seven feet high1 which ,pliny mentions#aide as having been introduced from ,india in his lifetime4 ,we must probably seek its origin in tropical ,africa1 where the species is generally cultivated4 ,sir ,william ,hooker#aidf mentions specimens from the banks of the river ,nun1 which were perhaps wild4 ,the approaching publication of the ,gramin in the flora of tropical ,africa will probably throw some light on this question4 ,the spread of its cultivation from the interior of ,africa to ,egypt after the ,pharaohs1 to ,arabia1 the ,indian ,archipelago1 and1 after the epoch of ,sanskrit1 to ,india1 lastly to ,china1 towards the beginning of our era1 tallies with historical data1 and is not difficult to admit4 ,the inverse hypothesis of a transmission from east to west presents a number of objections4 ,several varieties of sorghum are cultivated in ,asia and in ,africa2 for instance1 cernuus with drooping panicles1 mentioned by ,roxburgh1 and which ,prosper ,alpin had seen in ,egypt2 bicolor1 which in height resembles the saccharatus2 and niger and rubens1 which also seem to be varieties of cultivation4 ,none of these has been found wild1 and it is probable that a monograph would connect them with one or other of the above-mentioned species4 ,coracan--,eleusine coracana1 ,grtner4 ,this annual grass1 which resembles the millets1 is cultivated especially in ,india and the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,it is also grown in ,egypt#aidg and in ,abyssinia2#aidh but the silence of many botanists1 who have mentioned the plants of the interior and west of ,africa1 shows that its cultivation is not widely spread on that continent4 ,in ,japan#aidi it sometimes escapes from cultivation4 ,the seeds will ripen in the south of ,europe1 but the plant is valueless there except as fodder4#aiej ,no author mentions having found it in a wild state in ,asia or in ,africa4 ,roxburgh1#aiea who is attentive to such matters1 after speaking of its cultivation1 adds1 8,i never saw it wild40 ,he distinguishes under the name ,eleusine stricta a form even more commonly cultivated in ,india1 which appears to be simply a variety of ,e4 coracana1 and which also he has not found uncultivated4 ,we shall discover its country by other means4 ,in the first place1 the species of the genus ,eleusine are more numerous in the south of ,asia than in other tropical regions4 ,besides the cultivated plant1 ,royle#aieb mentions other species1 of which the poorer natives of ,india gather the seeds in the plains4 ,according to ,piddington's ,index1 there is a ,sanskrit name1 rajika1 and several other names in the modern languages of ,india4 ,that of coracana comes from an old name used in ,ceylon1 kourakhan4#aiec ,in the ,malay ,archipelago the names appear less numerous and less original4 ,in ,egypt the cultivation of this species is perhaps not very ancient4 ,the monuments of antiquity bear no trace of it4 ,grco-,roman authors who knew the country did not speak of it1 nor later ,prosper ,alpin1 ,forskal1 and ,delile4 ,we must refer to a modern work1 that of ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1 to find mention of the species1 and ,i cannot even discover an ,arab name4#aied ,thus botany1 history1 and philology point to an ,indian origin4 ,the flora of ,british ,india1 in which the ,gramin have not yet appeared1 will perhaps tell us the plant has been found wild in recent explorations4 ,a nearly allied species is grown in ,abyssinia1 ,eleusine ,tocussa1 ,fresenius1#aiee a plant very little known1 which is perhaps a native of ,africa4 ,rice--,oryza sativa1 ,linnus4 ,in the ceremony instituted by the ,chinese ,emperor ,chin-nong1 #bhjj years ,b4,c41 rice plays the principal part4 ,the reigning emperor must himself sow it1 whereas the four other species are or may be sown by the princes of his family4#aief ,the five species are considered by the ,chinese as indigenous1 and it must be admitted that this is probably the case with rice1 which is in general use1 and has been so for a long time2 in a country intersected by canals and rivers1 and hence peculiarly favourable to aquatic plants4 ,botanists have not sufficiently studied ,chinese plants for us to know whether rice is often found outside cultivated ground2 but ,loureiro#aieg had seen it in marshes in ,cochin-,china4 ,rumphius and modern writers upon the ,malay ,archipelago give it only as a cultivated plant4 ,the multitude of names and varieties points to a very ancient cultivation4 ,in ,british ,india it dates at least from the ,aryan invasion1 for rice has ,sanskrit names1 vrihi1 arunya#aieh whence come1 probably1 several names in modern ,indian languages1 and oruza or oruzon of the ancient ,greeks1 rouz or arous of the ,arabs4 ,theophrastus#aiei mentioned rice as cultivated in ,india4 ,the ,greeks became acquainted with it through ,alexander's expedition4 8,according to ,aristobulus10 says ,strabo1#aifj 8rice grows in ,bactriana1 ,babylonia1 ,susida20 and he adds1 8we may also add in ,lower ,syria40 ,further on he notes that the ,indians use it for food1 and extract a spirit from it4 ,these assertions1 doubtful perhaps for ,bactriana1 show that this cultivation was firmly established1 at least1 from the time of ,alexander 7#djj ,b4,c471 in the ,euphrates valley1 and from the beginning of our era in the hot and irrigated districts of ,syria4 ,the ,old ,testament does not mention rice1 but a careful and judicious writer1 ,reynier1#aifa has remarked several passages in the ,talmud which relate to its cultivation4 ,these facts lead us to suppose that the ,indians employed rice after the ,chinese1 and that it spread still later towards the ,euphrates--earlier1 however1 than the ,aryan invasion into ,india4 ,a thousand years elapsed between the existence of this cultivation in ,babylonia and its transportation into ,syria1 whence its introduction into ,egypt after an interval of probably two or three centuries4 ,there is no trace of rice among the grains or paintings of ancient ,egypt4#aifb ,strabo1 who had visited this country as well as ,syria1 does not say that rice was cultivated in ,egypt in his time1 but that the ,garamantes#aifc grew it1 and this people is believed to have inhabited an oasis to the south of ,carthage4 ,it is possible that they received it from ,syria4 ,at all events1 ,egypt could not long fail to possess a crop so well suited to its peculiar conditions of irrigation4 ,the ,arabs introduced the species into ,spain1 as we see from the ,spanish name arroz4 ,rice was first cultivated in ,italy in #adfh1 near ,pisa4#aifd ,it is of recent introduction into ,louisiana4 ,when ,i said that the cultivation of rice in ,india was probably more recent than in ,china1 ,i did not mean that the plant was not wild there4 ,it belongs to a family of which the species cover wide areas1 and1 besides1 aquatic plants have commonly more extensive habitations than others4 ,rice existed1 perhaps1 before all cultivation in ,southern ,asia from ,china to ,bengal1 as is shown by the variety of names in the monosyllabic languages of the races between ,india and ,china4#aife ,it has been found outside cultivation in several ,indian localities1 according to ,roxburgh4#aiff ,he says that wild rice1 called newaree by the ,telingas1 grows in abundance on the shores of lakes in the country of the ,circars4 ,its grain is prized by rich ,hindus1 but it is not planted because it is not very productive4 ,roxburgh has no doubt that this is the original plant4 ,thomson#aifg found wild rice at ,moradabad1 in the province of ,delhi4 ,historical reasons support the idea that these specimens are indigenous4 ,otherwise they might be supposed to be the result of the habitual cultivation of the species1 all the more that there are examples of the facility with which rice sows itself and becomes naturalized in warm1 damp climates4#aifh ,in any case historical evidence and botanical probability tend to the belief that rice existed in ,india before cultivation4#aifi ,maize--,zea mays1 ,linnus4 8,maize is of ,american origin1 and has only been introduced into the old world since the discovery of the new4 ,i consider these two assertions as positive1 in spite of the contrary opinion of some authors1 and the doubts of the celebrated agriculturist ,bonafous1 to whom we are indebted for the most complete treatise upon maize40#aigj ,i used these words in #ahee1 after having already contested the opinion of ,bonafous at the time of the publication of his work4#aiga ,the proofs of an ,american origin have been since reinforced4 ,yet attempts have been made to prove the contrary1 and as the ,french name1 bl de ,turquie1 gives currency to an error1 it is as well to resume the discussion with new data4 ,no one denies that maize was unknown in ,europe at the time of the ,roman empire1 but it has been said that it was brought from the ,east in the ,middle ,ages4 ,the principal argument is based upon a charter of the thirteenth century1 published by ,molinari1#aigb according to which two crusaders1 companions in arms of ,boniface ,,iii41 ,marquis of ,monferrat1 gave in #abjd to the town of ,incisa a piece of the true cross 444 and a purse containing a kind of seed of a golden colour and partly white1 unknown in the country and brought from ,anatolia1 where it was called meliga4 etc4 ,the historian of the crusades1 ,michaux1 and later ,daru and ,sismondi1 said a great deal about this charter2 but the botanist ,delile1 as well as ,targionitozzetti and ,bonafous himself1 thought that the seed in question might belong to some sorghum and not to maize4 ,these old discussions have been rendered absurd by the ,comte de ,riant's discovery#aigc that the charter of ,incisa is the fabrication of a modern impostor4 ,i quote this instance to show how scholars who are not naturalists may make mistakes in the interpretation of the names of plants1 and also how dangerous it is to rely upon an isolated proof in historical questions4 ,the names bl de ,turquie1 ,turkish wheat 7,indian corn71 given to maize in almost all modern ,european languages no more prove an ,eastern origin than the charter of ,incisa4 ,these names are as erroneous as that of coq d',inde1 in ,english turkey1 given to an ,american bird4 ,maize is called in ,lorraine and in the ,vosges ,roman corn2 in ,tuscany1 ,sicilian corn2 in ,sicily1 ,indian corn2 in the ,pyrenees1 ,spanish corn2 in ,provence1 ,barbary or ,guinea corn4 ,the ,turks call it ,egyptian corn1 and the ,egyptians1 ,syrian dourra4 ,this last case proves at least that it is neither ,egyptian nor ,syrian4 ,the widespread name of ,turkish wheat dates from the sixteenth century4 ,it sprang from an error as to the origin of the plant1 which was fostered perhaps by the tufts which terminate the ears of maize1 which were compared to the beard of the ,turks1 or by the vigour of the plant1 which may have given rise to an expression similar to the ,french fort comme un turc4 ,the first botanist who uses the name1 ,turkish wheat1 is ,ruellius1 in #aecf4aigd ,bock or ,tragus1#aige in #aeeb1 after giving a drawing of the species which he calls ,frumentum turcicum1 ,welschkorn1 in ,germany1 having learnt by merchants that it came from ,india1 conceived the unfortunate idea that it was a certain typha of ,bactriana1 to which ancient authors alluded in vague terms4 ,dodoens in #aehc1 ,camerarius in #aehh1 and ,matthiole#aigf rectified these errors1 and positively asserted the ,american origin4 ,they adopted the name mays1 which they knew to be ,american4 ,we have seen 7p4 #cfc7 that the zea of the ,greeks was a spelt4 ,certainly the ancients did not know maize4 ,the first travellers#aigg who described the productions of the new world were surprised at it1 a clear proof that they had not known it in ,europe4 ,hernandez1#aigh who left ,europe in #aega1 according to some authorities1 in #aeic according to others1#aigi did not know that from the year #aejj maize had been sent to ,seville for cultivation4 ,this fact1 attested by ,fe1 who has seen the municipal records1#aihj clearly shows the ,american origin1 which caused ,hernandez to think the name of ,turkish wheat a very bad one4 ,it may perhaps be urged that maize1 new to ,europe in the sixteenth century1 existed in some parts of ,asia or ,africa before the discovery of ,america4 ,let us see what truth there may be in this4 ,the famous orientalist ,d',herbelot#aiha had accumulated several errors pointed out by ,bonafous and by me1 on the subject of a passage in the ,persian historian ,mirkoud of the fifteenth century1 about a cereal which ,rous1 son of ,japhet1 sowed upon the shores of the ,caspian ,sea1 and which he takes to be the ,indian corn of our day4 ,it is hardly worth considering these assertions of a scholar to whom it had never occurred to consult the works of the botanists of his own day1 or earlier4 ,what is more important is the total silence on the subject of maize of the travellers who visited ,asia and ,africa before the discovery of ,america2 also the absence of ,hebrew and ,sanskrit names for this plant2 and lastly1 that ,egyptian monuments present no specimen or drawing of it4#aihb ,rifaud1 it is true1 found an ear of maize in a sarcophagus at ,thebes1 but it is believed to have been the trick of an ,arab impostor4 ,if maize had existed in ancient ,egypt1 it would be seen in all monuments1 and would have been connected with religious ideas like all other remarkable plants4 ,a species so easy of cultivation would have spread into all neighbouring countries4 ,its cultivation would not have been abandoned2 and we find1 on the contrary1 that ,prosper ,alpin1 visiting ,egypt in #aeib1 does not speak of it1 and that ,forskal1#aihc at the end of the eighteenth century1 mentioned maize as still but little grown in ,egypt1 where it had no name distinct from the sorghums4 ,ebn ,baithar1 an ,arab physician of the thirteenth century1 who had travelled through the countries lying between ,spain and ,persia1 indicates no plant which can be supposed to be maize4 ,j4 ,crawfurd1#aihd having seen maize generally cultivated in the ,malay ,archipelago under a name jarung1 which appears to be indigenous1 believed that the species was a native of these islands4 ,but then how is it ,rumphius makes no mention of it4 ,the silence of this author points to an introduction later than the seventeenth century4 ,maize was so little diffused on the continent of ,india in the last century1 that ,roxburgh#aihe wrote in his flora1 which was published long after it was drawn up1 8,cultivated in different parts of ,india in gardens1 and only as an ornament1 but nowhere on the continent of ,india as an object of cultivation on a large scale40 ,we have seen that there is no ,sanskrit name4 ,maize is frequently cultivated in ,china in modern times1 and particularly round ,pekin for several generations1#aihf although most travellers of the last century make no mention of it4 ,dr4 ,bretschneider1 in his work published in #ahgj1 does not hesitate to say that maize is not indigenous in ,china2 but some words in his letter of #ahha make me think that he now attributes some importance to an ancient ,chinese author1 of whom ,bonafous and afterwards ,hance and ,mayers have said a great deal4 ,this is a work by ,li-chi-tchin1 entitled ,phen-thsao-kang-mou1 or ,pn-tsao-kung-mu1 a species of treatise on natural history1 which ,bretschneider#aihg says was written at the end of the sixteenth century4 ,bonafous says it was concluded in #aegh1 and the edition which he had seen in the ,huzard library was of #afcg4 ,it contains a drawing of maize with the ,chinese character4 ,this plate is copied in ,bonafous' work1 at the beginning of the chapter on the original country of the maize4 ,it is clear that it represents the plant4 ,dr4 ,hance#aihh appears to have based his arguments upon the researches of ,mayers1 who says that early ,chinese authors assert that maize was imported from ,sifan 7,lower ,mongolia1 to the west of ,china7 long before the end of the fifteenth century1 at an unknown date4 ,the article contains a copy of the drawing in the ,pn-tsao-kung-mu1 to which he assigns the date #aeig4 ,the importation through ,mongolia is improbable to such a degree that it is hardly worth speaking of it1 and as for the principal assertion of the ,chinese author1 the dates are uncertain and late4 ,the work was finished in #aegh according to ,bonafous1 in #aeig according to ,mayers4 ,if this be true1 and especially if the second of these dates is the true one1 it may be admitted that maize was brought to ,china after the discovery of ,america4 ,the ,portuguese came to ,java in #adif1aihi that is to say four years after the discovery of ,america1 and to ,china in #aeaf4aiij ,magellan's voyage from ,south ,america to the ,philippine ,islands took place in #aebj4 ,during the fifty-eight or seventy-seven years between #aeaf and the dates assigned to the ,chinese work1 seeds of maize may have been taken to ,china by navigators from ,america or from ,europe4 ,dr4 ,bretschneider wrote to me recently that the ,chinese did not know the new world earlier than the ,europeans1 and that the lands to the east of their country1 to which there are some allusions in their ancient writings1 are the islands of ,japan4 ,he had already quoted the opinion of a ,chinese savant1 that the introduction of maize in the neighbourhood of ,pekin dates from the last years of the ,ming dynasty1 which ended in #afdd4 ,this date agrees with the other facts4 ,the introduction into ,japan was probably of later date1 since ,kmpfer makes no mention of the species4#aiia ,from all these facts1 we conclude that maize is not a native of the old world4 ,it became rapidly diffused in it after the discovery of ,america1 and this very rapidity completes the proof that1 had it existed anywhere in ,asia or ,africa1 it would have played an important part in agriculture for thousands of years4 ,we shall see that the facts are quite contrary to these in ,america4 ,at the time of the discovery of the new continent1 maize was one of the staples of its agriculture1 from the ,la ,plata valley to the ,united ,states4 ,it had names in all the languages4#aiib ,the natives planted it round their temporary dwellings where they did not form a fixed population4 ,the burial-mounds of the natives of ,north ,america who preceded those of our day1 the tombs of the ,incas1 the catacombs of ,peru1 contain ears or grains of maize1 just as the monuments of ancient ,egypt contain grains of barley and wheat and millet-seed4 ,in ,mexico1 a goddess who bore a name derived from that of maize 7,cinteutl1 from ,cintli7 answered to the ,ceres of the ,greeks1 for the first-fruits of the maize harvest were offered to her1 as the first-fruits of our cereals to the ,greek goddess4 ,at ,cusco the virgins of the sun offered sacrifices of bread made from ,indian corn4 ,nothing is better calculated to show the antiquity and generality of the cultivation of a plant than this intimate connection with the religious rites of the ancient inhabitants4 ,we must not1 however1 attribute to these indications the same importance in ,america as in the old world4 ,the civilization of the ,peruvians under the ,incas1 and that of the ,toltecs and ,aztecs in ,mexico1 has not the extraordinary antiquity of the civilizations of ,china1 ,chaldea1 and ,egypt4 ,it dates at earliest from the beginning of the ,christian era2 but the cultivation of maize is more ancient than the monuments1 to judge from the numerous varieties of the species found in them1 and their dispersal into remote regions4 ,a yet more remarkable proof of antiquity has been discovered by ,darwin4 ,he found ears of ,indian corn1 and eighteen species of shells of our epoch1 buried in the soil of the shore in ,peru1 now at least eighty-five feet above the level of the sea4#aiic ,this maize was perhaps not cultivated1 but in this case it would be yet more interesting1 as an indication of the origin of the species4 ,although ,america has been explored by a great number of botanists1 none have found maize in the conditions of a wild plant4 ,auguste de ,saint-,hilaire#aiid thought he recognized the wild type in a singular variety1 of which each grain is enclosed within its sheath or bract4 ,it is known at ,buenos-,ayres under the name pinsigallo4 ,it is ,zea ,mays tunicata of ,saint-,hilaire1 of which ,bonafous gives an illustration1 pl4 #e1 bis1 under the name ,zea cryptosperma4 ,lindley#aiie also gives a description and a drawing from seeds brought1 it is said1 from the ,rocky ,mountains1 but this is not confirmed by recent ,californian floras4 ,a young ,guarany1 born in ,paraguay on its frontiers1 had recognized this maize1 and told ,saint-,hilaire that it grew in the damp forests of his country4 ,this is very insufficient proof that it is indigenous4 ,no traveller to my knowledge has seen this plant wild in ,paraguay or ,brazil4 ,but it is an interesting fact that it has been cultivated in ,europe1 and that it often passes into the ordinary state of maize4 ,lindley observed it when it had been only two or three years in cultivation1 and ,professor ,radic obtained from one sowing #bbe ears of the form tunicata1 and #aje of the common form with naked grains4#aiif ,evidently this form1 which might be believed a true species1 but whose country is1 however1 doubtful1 is hardly even a race4 ,it is one of the innumerable varieties1 more or less hereditary1 of which botanists who are considered authorities make only a single species1 because of their want of stability and the transitions which they frequently present4 ,on the condition of ,zea ,mays1 and its habitation in ,america before it was cultivated1 we have nothing but conjectural knowledge4 ,i will state what ,i take to be the sum of this1 because it leads to certain probable indications4 ,i remark first that maize is a plant singularly unprovided with means of dispersion and protection4 ,the grains are hard to detach from the ear1 which is itself enveloped4 ,they have no tuft or wing to catch the wind1 and when the ear is not gathered by man the grains fall still fixed in the receptacle1 and then rodents and other animals must destroy them in quantities1 and all the more that they are not sufficiently hard to pass intact through the digestive organs4 ,probably so unprotected a species was becoming more and more rare in some limited region1 and was on the point of becoming extinct1 when a wandering tribe of savages1 having perceived its nutritious qualities1 saved it from destruction by cultivating it4 ,i am the more disposed to believe that its natural area was small that the species is unique2 that is to say1 that it constitutes what is called a single-typed genus4 ,the genera which contain few species1 and especially the monotypes1 have as a rule more restricted areas than others4 ,palontology will perhaps one day show whether there ever existed in ,america several species of ,zea1 or similar ,gramin1 of which maize is the last survivor4 ,now1 the genus ,zea is not only a monotype1 but stands almost alone in its family4 ,a single genus1 ,euchlna of ,schrader1 may be compared with it1 of which there is one species in ,mexico and another in ,guatemala2 but it is a quite distinct genus1 and there are no intermediate forms between it and ,zea4 ,wittmack has made some curious researches in order to discover which variety of maize probably represents the form belonging to the epoch anterior to cultivation4 ,for this purpose he has compared ears and grains taken from the mounds of ,north ,america with those from ,peru4 ,if these monuments offered only one form of maize1 the result would be important1 but several different varieties have been found in the mounds and in ,peru4 ,this is not very surprising2 these monuments are not very ancient4 ,the cemetery of ,ancon in ,peru1 whence ,wittmack obtained his best specimens1 is nearly contemporary with the discovery of ,america4#aiig ,now1 at that epoch the number of varieties was already considerable1 which proves a much more ancient cultivation4 ,experiments in sowing varieties of maize in uncultivated ground several years in succession would perhaps show a reversion to some common form which might then be considered as the original stock1 but nothing of this kind has been attempted4 ,the varieties have only been observed to lack stability in spite of their great diversity4 ,as to the habitation of the unknown primitive form1 the following considerations may enable us to guess it4 ,settled populations can only have been formed where nutritious species existed naturally in soil easy of cultivation4 ,the potato1 the sweet potato1 and maize doubtless fulfilled these conditions in ,america1 and as the great populations of this part of the world existed first in the high grounds of ,chili and ,mexico1 it is there probably that wild maize existed4 ,we must not look for it in the low-lying regions such as ,paraguay and the banks of the ,amazon1 or the hot districts of ,guiana1 ,panama1 and ,mexico1 since their inhabitants were formerly less numerous4 ,besides1 forests are unfavourable to annuals1 and maize does not thrive in the warm damp climates where manioc is grown4#aiih ,on the other hand1 its transmission from one tribe to another is easier to comprehend if we suppose the point of departure in the centre1 than if we place it at one of the limits of the area over which the species was cultivated at the time of the ,incas and the ,toltecs1 or rather of the ,mayas1 ,nahuas1 and ,chibehas1 who preceded these4 ,the migrations of peoples have not always followed a fixed course from north to south1 or from south to north4 ,they have taken different directions according to the epoch and the country4#aiii ,the ancient ,peruvians scarcely knew the ,mexicans1 and vice vers1 as the total difference of their beliefs and customs shows4 ,as they both early cultivated maize1 we must suppose an intermediate point of departure4 ,new ,granada seems to me to fulfil these conditions4 ,the nation called ,chibcha which occupied the table-land of ,bogota at the time of the ,spanish conquest1 and considered itself aboriginal1 was an agricultural people4 ,it enjoyed a certain degree of civilization1 as the monuments recently investigated show4 ,perhaps this tribe first possessed and cultivated maize4 ,it marched with ,peru1 then but little civilized1 on the one hand1 and with the ,mayas on the other1 who occupied ,central ,america and ,yucatan4 ,these were often at war with the ,nahuas1 predecessors of the ,toltecs and the ,aztecs in ,mexico4 ,there is a tradition that ,nahualt1 chief of the ,nahuas1 taught the cultivation of maize4#bjjj ,i dare not hope that maize will be found wild1 although its habitation before it was cultivated was probably so small that botanists have perhaps not yet come across it4 ,the species is so distinct from all others1 and so striking1 that natives or unscientific colonists would have noticed and spoken of it4 ,the certainty as to its origin will probably come rather from archological discoveries4 ,if a great number of monuments in all parts of ,america are studied1 if the hieroglyphical inscriptions of some of these are deciphered1 and if dates of migrations and economical events are discovered1 our hypothesis will be justified1 modified1 or rejected4 ,article ,,ii4--,seeds used for ,different ,purposes4 ,poppy--,papaver somniferum1 ,linnus4 ,the poppy is usually cultivated for the oil contained in the seed1 and sometimes1 especially in ,asia1 for the sap1 extracted by making incisions in the capsules1 and from which opium is obtained4 ,the variety which has been cultivated for centuries escapes readily from cultivation1 or becomes almost naturalized in certain localities of the south of ,europe4#bjja ,it cannot be said to exist in a really wild state1 but botanists are agreed in regarding it as a modification of the poppy called ,papaver setigerum1 which is wild on the shores of the ,mediterranean1 notably in ,spain1 ,algeria1 ,corsica1 ,sicily1 ,greece1 and the island of ,cyprus4 ,it has not been met with in ,eastern ,asia1#bjjb consequently this is really the original of the cultivated form4 ,its cultivation must have begun in ,europe or in the north of ,africa4 ,in support of this theory we find that the ,swiss lake-dwellers of the stone age cultivated a poppy which is nearer to ,p4 setigerum than to ,p4 somniferum4 ,heer#bjjc has not been able to find any of the leaves1 but the capsule is surmounted by eight stigmas1 as in ,p4 setigerum1 and not by ten or twelve1 as in the cultivated poppy4 ,this latter form1 unknown in nature1 seems therefore to have been developed within historic times4 ,p4 setigerum is still cultivated in the north of ,france1 together with ,p4 somniferum1 for the sake of its oil4#bjjd ,the ancient ,greeks were well acquainted with the cultivated poppy4 ,homer1 ,theophrastus1 and ,dioscorides mention it4 ,they were aware of the somniferous properties of the sap1 and ,dioscorides#bjje mentions the variety with white seeds4 ,the ,romans cultivated the poppy before the republic1 as we see by the anecdote of ,tarquin and the poppy-heads4 ,they mixed its seeds with their flour in making bread4 ,the ,egyptians of ,pliny's time#bjjf used the juice of the poppy as a medicament1 but we have no proof that this plant was cultivated in ,egypt in more ancient times4#bjjg ,in the ,middle ,ages#bjjh and in our own day it is one of the principal objects of cultivation in that country1 especially for the manufacture of opium4 ,hebrew writings do not mention the species4 ,on the other hand1 there are one or two ,sanskrit names4 ,piddington gives chosa1 and ,adolphe ,pictet khaskhasa1 which recurs1 he says1 in the ,persian chashchsh1 the ,armenian chashchsh1#bjji and in ,arabic4 ,another ,persian name is kouknar4#bjaj ,these names1 and others ,i could quote1 very different from the maikn 77 of the ,greeks1 are an indication of an ancient cultivation in ,europe and ,western ,asia4 ,if the species was first cultivated in prehistoric time in ,greece1 as appears probable1 it may have spread eastward before the ,aryan invasion of ,india1 but it is strange that there should be no proof of its extension into ,palestine and ,egypt before the ,roman epoch4 ,it is also possible that in ,europe the variety called ,papaver setigerum1 employed by the ,swiss lake-dwellers1 was first cultivated1 and that the variety now grown came from ,asia ,minor1 where the species has been cultivated for at least three thousand years4 ,this theory is supported by the existence of the ,greek name maikn1 in ,dorian makon1 in several ,slav languages1 and in those of the peoples to the south of the ,caucasus1 under the form mack4#bjaa ,the cultivation of the poppy in ,india has been recently extended1 because of the importation of opium into ,china2 but the ,chinese will soon cease to vex the ,english by buying this poison of them1 for they are beginning eagerly to produce it themselves4 ,the poppy is now grown over more than half of their territory4#bjab ,the species is never wild in the east of ,asia1 and even as regards ,china its cultivation is recent4#bjac ,the name opium given to the drug extracted from the juice of the capsule is derived from the ,greek4 ,dioscorides wrote opos 774 ,the ,arabs converted it into afiun1#bjad and spread it eastwards even to ,china4 ,flckiger and ,hanbury#bjae give a detailed and interesting account of the extraction1 trade1 and use of opium in all countries1 particularly in ,china4 ,yet ,i imagine my readers may like to read the following extracts from ,dr4 ,bretschneider's letters1 dated from ,pekin1 ,aug4 #bc1 #ahha1 ,jan4 #bh1 and ,june #ah1 #ahhb4 ,they give the most certain information which can be derived from accurately translated ,chinese works4 8,the author of the ,pent-sao-kang-mou1 who wrote in #aeeb and #aegh1 gives some details concerning the a-fou-yong 7that is afioun1 opiun71 a foreign drug produced by a species of ying-sou with red flowers in the country of ,tien-fang 7,arabia71 and recently used as a medicament in ,china4 ,in the time of the preceding dynasty there had been much talk of the a-fou-yong4 ,the ,chinese author gives some details relative to the extraction of opium in his native country1 but he does not say that it is also produced in ,china1 nor does he allude to the practice of smoking it4 ,in the ,descriptive ,dictionary of the ,indian ,islands1 by ,crawfurd1 p4 #cab1 ,i find the following passage3 #8,the earliest account we have of the use of opium1 not only from the ,archipelago1 but also from ,india and ,china1 is by the faithful1 intelligent ,barbosa4#bjaf ,he rates it among the articles brought by the ,moorish and ,gentile merchants of ,western ,india1 to exchange for the cargoes of ,chinese junks4'0 8,it is difficult to fix the exact date at which the ,chinese began to smoke opium and to cultivate the poppy which produces it4 ,as ,i have said1 there is much confusion on this head1 and not only ,european authors1 but also the modern ,chinese1 apply the name ying-sou to ,p4 somniferum as well as to ,p4 rhas4 ,p4 somniferum is now extensively cultivated in all the provinces of the ,chinese empire1 and also in ,mantchuria and ,mongolia4 ,williamson 7,journeys in ,north ,china1 ,mantchuria1 ,mongolia1 #ahfh1 ii4 p4 #ee7 saw it cultivated everywhere in ,mantchuria4 ,he was told that the cultivation of the poppy was twice as profitable as that of cereals4 ,potanin1 a ,russian traveller1 who visited ,northern ,mongolia in #ahgf1 saw immense plantations of the poppy in the valley of ,kiran 7between lat4 #dg and #dh71 ,this alarms the ,chinese government1 and still more the ,english1 who dread the competition of native opium40 8,you are probably aware that opium is eaten1 not smoked1 in ,india and ,persia4 ,the practice of smoking this drug appears to be a ,chinese invention1 and modern4 ,nothing proves that the ,chinese smoked opium before the middle of the last century4 ,the ,jesuit missionaries to ,china in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries do not mention it2 ,father d',incarville alone says in #agej that the sale of opium is forbidden because it was used by suicides4 ,two edicts forbidding the smoking of opium date from before #agcj1 and another in #agif speaks of the progress made by the vice in question4 ,don ,sinibaldo di ,mas1 who in #aheh published a very good book on ,china1 where he had lived many years as ,spanish ambassador1 says that the ,chinese took the practice from the people of ,assam1 where the custom had long existed40 ,so bad a habit1 like the use of tobacco or absinth1 is sure to spread4 ,it is becoming gradually introduced into the countries which have frequent relations with ,china4 ,it is to be hoped that it will not attack so large a proportion of the peoples of other countries as in ,amoy1 where the proportion of opium-smokers are as fifteen to twenty of the adult population4#bjag ,arnotto1 or ,anatto--,bisca orellana1 ,linnus4 ,the dye1 called rocou in ,french1 arnotto in ,english1 is extracted from the pulp which encases the seed4 ,the inhabitants of the ,west ,india ,islands1 of the ,isthmus of ,darien1 and of ,brazil1 used it at the time of the discovery of ,america to stain their bodies red1 and the ,mexicans in painting4#bjah ,the arnotto1 a small tree of the order ,bixace1 grows wild in the ,west ,indies1#bjai and over a great part of the continent of ,america between the tropics4 ,herbaria and floras abound in indications of locality1 but do not generally specify whether the species is cultivated1 wild1 or naturalized4 ,i note1 however1 that it is said to be indigenous by ,seemann on the north-west coast of ,mexico and ,panama1 by ,triana in ,new ,granada1 by ,meyer in ,dutch ,guiana1 and by ,piso and ,claussen in ,brazil4#bjbj ,with such a vast area1 it is not surprising that the species has many names in ,american languages2 that of the ,brazilians1 urucu1 is the origin of rocou4 ,it was not very necessary to plant this tree in order to obtain its product2 nevertheless ,piso relates that the ,brazilians1 in the sixteenth century1 were not content with the wild plant1 and in ,jamaica1 in the seventeenth century1 the plantations of ,bixa were common4 ,it was one of the first species transported from ,america to the south of ,asia and to ,africa4 ,it has become so entirely naturalized1 that ,roxburgh#bjba believed it to be indigenous in ,india4 ,cotton--,gossypium herbaceum1 ,linnus4 ,when1 in #ahee1 ,i sought the origin of the cultivated cottons1#bjbb there was still great uncertainty as to the distinction of the species4 ,since then two excellent works have appeared in ,italy1 upon which we can rely2 one by ,parlatore1#bjbc formerly director of the botanical gardens at ,florence1 the other by ,todaro1#bjbd of ,palermo4 ,these two works are illustrated with magnificent coloured plates4 ,nothing better can be desired for the cultivated cottons4 ,on the other hand1 our knowledge of the true species1 ,i mean of those which exist naturally in a wild state1 has not increased as much as it might4 ,however1 the definition of species seems fairly accurate in the works of ,dr4 ,masters1#bjbe whom ,i shall therefore follow4 ,this author agrees with ,parlatore in admitting seven well-known species and two doubtful1 while ,todaro counts fifty-four1 of which only two are doubtful1 reckoning as species forms with some distinguishing character1 but which originated and are preserved by cultivation4 ,the common names of the cottons give no assistance2 they are even calculated to lead us completely astray as to the origin of the species4 ,a cotton called ,siamese comes from ,america2 another is called ,brazilian or ,ava cotton1 according to the fancy or the error of cultivators4 ,we will first consider ,gossypium herbaceum1 an ancient species in ,asiatic plantations1 and now the commonest in ,europe and in the ,united ,states4 ,in the hot countries whence it came1 its stem lasts several years1 but out of the tropics it becomes annual from the effect of the winter's cold4 ,the flower is generally yellow1 with a red centre2 the cotton yellow or white1 according to the variety4 ,parlatore examined in herbaria several wild specimens1 and cultivated others derived from wild plants of the ,indian ,peninsula4 ,he also admits it to be indigenous in ,burmah and in the ,indian ,archipelago1 from the specimens of collectors1 who have not perhaps been sufficiently careful to verify its wild character4 ,masters regards as undoubtedly wild in ,sindh a form which he calls ,gossypium ,stocksii1 which he says is probably the wild condition of ,gossypium herbaceum1 and of other cottons cultivated in ,india for a long time4 ,todaro1 who is not given to uniting many forms in a single species1 nevertheless admits the identity of this variety with the common ,g4 herbaceum4 ,the yellow colour of the cotton is then the natural condition of the species4 ,the seed has not the short down which exists between the longer hairs in the cultivated ,g4 herbaceum4 ,cultivation has probably extended the area of the species beyond the limits of the primitive habitation4 ,this is1 ,i imagine1 the case in the ,sunda ,islands and the ,malay ,peninsula1 where certain individuals appear more or less wild4 ,kurz1#bjbf in his ,burmese flora1 mentions ,g4 herbaceum1 with yellow or white cotton1 as cultivated and also as wild in desert places and waste ground4 ,the herbaceous cotton is called kapase in ,bengali1 kapas in ,hindustani1 which shows that the ,sanskrit word karpassi undoubtedly refers to this species4#bjbg ,it was early cultivated in ,bactriana1 where the ,greeks had noticed it at the time of the expedition of ,alexander4 ,theophrastus speaks of it#bjbh in such a manner as to leave no doubt4 ,the tree-cotton of the ,isle of ,tylos1 in the ,persian ,gulf1 of which he makes mention further on1#bjbi was probably also ,g4 herbaceum2 for ,tylos is not far from ,india1 and in such a hot climate the herbaceous cotton becomes a shrub4 ,the introduction of a cotton plant into ,china took place only in the ninth or tenth century of our era1 which shows that probably the area of ,g4 herbaceum was originally limited to the south and east of ,india4 ,the knowledge and perhaps the cultivation of the ,asiatic cotton was propagated in the ,grco-,roman world after the expedition of ,alexander1 but before the first centuries of the ,christian era4#bjcj ,if the byssos of the ,greeks was the cotton plant1 as most scholars think1 it was cultivated at ,elis1 according to ,pausanias and ,pliny2#bjca but ,curtius and ,c4 ,ritter#bjcb consider the word byssos as a general term for threads1 and that it was probably applied in this case to fine linen4 ,it is evident that the cotton was never1 or very rarely1 cultivated by the ancients4 ,it is so useful that it would have become common if it had been introduced into a single locality--in ,greece1 for instance4 ,it was afterwards propagated on the shores of the ,mediterranean by the ,arabs1 as we see from the name qutn or kutn1#bjcc which has passed into the modern languages of the south of ,europe as cotone1 coton1 algodon4 ,eben el ,awan1 of ,seville1 who lived in the twelfth century1 describes its cultivation as it was practised in his time in ,sicily1 ,spain1 and the ,east4#bjcd ,gossypium herbaceum is the species most cultivated in the ,united ,states4#bjce ,it was probably introduced there from ,europe4 ,it was a new cultivation a hundred years ago1 for a bale of ,north ,american cotton was confiscated at ,liverpool in #aggd1 on the plea that the cotton-plant did not grow there4#bjcf ,the silky cotton 7sea island7 is another species1 ,american1 of which ,i shall presently speak4 ,tree-,cotton--,gossypium arboreum1 ,linnus4 ,this species is taller and of longer duration than the herbaceous cotton2 the lobes of the leaf are narrower1 the bracts less divided or entire4 ,the flower is usually pink1 with a red centre4 ,the cotton is always white4 ,according to ,anglo-,indian botanists1 this is not1 as it was supposed1 an ,indian species1 and is even rarely cultivated in ,india4 ,it is a native of tropical ,africa4 ,it has been seen wild in ,upper ,guinea1 in ,abyssinia1 ,sennaar1 and ,upper ,egypt4#bjcg ,so great a number of collectors have brought it from these countries1 that there is no room for doubt2 but cultivation has so diffused and mixed this species with others that it has been described under several names in works on ,southern ,asia4 ,parlatore attributed to ,g4 arboreum some ,asiatic specimens of ,g4 herbaceum1 and a plant but little known which ,forskal found in ,arabia4 ,he suspected from this that the ancients had known ,g4 arboreum as well as ,g4 herbaceum4 ,now that the two species are better distinguished1 and that the origin of both is known1 this does not seem probable4 ,they knew the herbaceous cotton through ,india and ,persia1 while the tree-cotton can only have come to them through ,egypt4 ,parlatore himself has given a most interesting proof of this4 ,until his work appeared in #ahff1 it was not certain to what species belonged some seeds of the cotton plant which ,rosellini found in a vase among the monuments of ancient ,thebes4#bjch ,these seeds are in the ,florence museum4 ,parlatore examined them carefully1 and declares them to belong to ,gossypium arboreum4#bjci ,rosellini is certain he was not imposed upon1 as he was the first to open both the tomb and the vase4 ,no archologist has since seen or read signs of the cotton plant in the ancient times of ,egyptian civilization4 ,how is it that a plant so striking1 remarkable for its flowers and seed1 was not described nor preserved habitually in the tombs if it were cultivated8 ,how is it that ,herodotus1 ,dioscorides1 and ,theophrastus made no mention of it when writing of ,egypt8 ,the cloths in which all the mummies are wrapt1 and which were formerly supposed to be cotton1 are always linen according to ,thompson and many other observers who are familiar with the use of the microscope4 ,hence ,i conclude that if the seeds found by ,rosellini were really ancient they were a rarity1 an exception to the common custom1 perhaps the product of a tree cultivated in a garden1 or perhaps they came from ,upper ,egypt1 a country where we know the tree-cotton to be wild4 ,pliny#bjdj does not say that cotton was cultivated in ,lower ,egypt2 but here is a translation of his very remarkable passage1 which is often quoted4 8,the upper part of ,egypt1 towards ,arabia1 produces a shrub which some call gossipion and others xylon1 whence the name xylina given to the threads obtained from it4 ,it is low-growing1 and bears a fruit like that of the bearded nut1 and from the interior of this is taken a wool for weaving4 ,none is comparable to this in softness and whiteness40 ,pliny adds1 8,the cloth made from it is used by preference for the dress of the ,egyptian priests40 ,perhaps the cotton destined to this purpose was sent from ,upper ,egypt1 or perhaps the author1 who had not seen the fabrication1 and did not possess a microscope1 was mistaken in the nature of the sacerdotal raiment1 as were our contemporaries who handled the grave-cloths of hundreds of mummies before suspecting that they were not cotton4 ,among the ,jews1 the priestly robes were commanded to be of linen1 and it is not likely that their custom was different to that of the ,egyptians4 ,pollux1#bjda born in ,egypt a century later than ,pliny1 expresses himself clearly about the cotton plant1 of which the thread was used by his countrymen2 but he does not say whence the shrub came1 and we cannot tell whether it was ,gossypium arboreum or ,g4 herbaceum4 ,it does not even appear whether the plant was cultivated in ,lower ,egypt1 or if the cotton came from the more southern region4 ,in spite of these doubts1 it may be suspected that a cotton plant1 probably that of ,upper ,egypt1 had recently been introduced into the ,delta4 ,the species which ,prosper ,alpin had seen cultivated in ,egypt in the sixteenth century was the tree-cotton4 ,the ,arabs1 and afterwards ,europeans1 preferred and transported into different countries the herbaceous cotton rather than the tree-cotton1 which yields a poorer product and requires more heat4 ,regarding the two cottons of the old world1 ,i have made as little use as possible of arguments based upon ,greek names1 such as 1 1 1 etc41 or ,sanskrit names1 and their derivatives1 as carbasa1 carpas1 or ,hebrew names1 schesch1 buz1 which are doubtfully attributed to the cotton tree4 ,this has been a fruitful subject of discussion1#bjdb but the clearer distinction of species and the discovery of their origin greatly diminishes the importance of these questions--to naturalists1 at least1 who prefer facts to words4 ,moreover1 ,reynier1 and after him ,c4 ,ritter1 arrived in their researches at a conclusion which we must not forget3 that these same names were often applied by ancient peoples to different plants and tissues--to linen and cotton1 for example4 ,in this case as in others1 modern botany explains ancient words where words and the commentaries of philologists may mislead4 ,barbados ,cotton--,gossypium barbadense1 ,linnus4 ,at the time of the discovery of ,america1 the ,spaniards found the cultivation and use of cotton established from the ,west ,india ,islands to ,peru1 and from ,mexico to ,brazil4 ,the fact is proved by all the historians of the epoch4 ,but it is still very difficult to tell what were the species of these ,american cottons and in what countries they were indigenous4 ,the botanical distinction of the ,american species or varieties is in the last degree confused4 ,authors1 even those who have seen large collections of growing cotton plants1 are not agreed as to the characters4 ,they are also embarrassed by the difficulty of deciding which of the specific names of ,linnus should be retained1 for the original definitions are insufficient4 ,the introduction of ,american seed into ,african and ,asiatic plantations has given rise to further complications1 as botanists in ,java1 ,calcutta1 ,bourbon1 etc41 have often described ,american forms as species under different names4 ,todaro admits ten ,american species2 ,parlatore reduced them to three1 which answer1 he says1 to ,gossypium hirsutum1 ,g4 barbadense1 and ,g4 religiosum of ,linnus2 lastly1 ,dr4 ,masters unites all the ,american forms into a single species which he calls ,g4 barbadense1 giving as the chief character that the seed bears only long hairs1 whereas the species of the old world have a short down underneath the longer hairs4#bjdc ,the flower is yellow1 with a red centre4 ,the cotton is white or yellow4 ,parlatore strove to include fifty or sixty of the cultivated forms under one or other of the three heads he admits1 from the study of plants in gardens or herbaria4 ,dr4 ,masters mentions but few synonyms1 and it is possible that certain forms with which he is not acquainted do not come under the definition of his single species4 ,where there is such confusion it would be the best course for botanists to seek with care the ,gossypia1 which are wild in ,america1 to constitute the one or more species solely upon these1 leaving to the cultivated species their strange and often absurd and misleading names4 ,i state this opinion because with regard to no other genus of cultivated plants have ,i felt so strongly that natural history should be based upon natural facts1 and not upon the artificial products of cultivation4 ,if we start from this point of view1 which has the merit of being a truly scientific method1 we find unfortunately that our knowledge of the cottons indigenous in ,america is still in a very elementary state4 ,at most we can name only one or two collectors who have found ,gossypia really identical with or very similar to certain cultivated forms4 ,we can seldom trust early botanists and travellers on this head4 ,the cotton plant grows sometimes in the neighbourhood of plantations1 and becomes more or less naturalized1 as the down on the seeds facilitates accidental transport4 ,the usual expression of early writers--such a cotton plant grows in such a country--often means a cultivated plant4 ,linnus himself in the eighteenth century often says of a cultivated species1 8habitat10 and he even says it sometimes without good ground4#bjdd ,hernandez1 one of the most accurate among sixteenth-century authors1 is quoted as having described and figured a wild ,gossypium in ,mexico1 but the text suggests some doubts as to the wild condition of this plant1#bjde which ,parlatore believes to be ,g4 hirsutum1 ,linnus4 ,hemsley1#bjdf in his catalogue of ,mexican plants1 merely says of a ,gossypium which he calls barbadense1 8wild and cultivated40 ,he gives no proof of the former condition4 ,macfadyen#bjdg mentions three forms wild and cultivated in ,jamaica4 ,he attributes specific names to them1 and adds that they possibly all may be included in ,linnus' ,g4 hirsutum4 ,grisebach#bjdh admits that one species1 ,g4 barbadense1 is wild in the ,west ,indies4 ,as to the specific distinctions1 he declares himself unable to establish them with certainty4 ,with regard to ,new ,grenada1 ,triana#bjdi describes a ,gossypium which he calls ,g4 barbadense1 ,linnus1 and which he says is 8cultivated and half wild along the ,rio ,seco1 in the province of ,bogota1 and in the valley of the ,cauca near ,cali20 and he adds a variety1 hirsutum1 growing 7he does not say whether spontaneously or no7 along the ,rio ,seco4 ,i cannot discover any similar assertion for ,peru1 ,guiana1 and ,brazil2#bjej but the flora of ,chili1 published by ,cl4 ,gay1#bjea mentions a ,gossypium1 8almost wild in the province of ,copiapo10 which the writer attributes to the variety ,g4 peruvianum1 ,cavanilles4 ,now1 this author does not say the plant is wild1 and ,parlatore classes it with ,g4 religiosum1 ,linnus4 ,an important variety of cultivation is that of the cotton with long silky down1 called by ,anglo-,americans sea island1 or long staple cotton1 which ,parlatore ranks with ,g4 barbadense1 ,linnus4 ,it is considered to be of ,american origin1 but no one has seen it wild4 ,in conclusion1 if historical records are positive in all that concerns the use of cotton in ,america from a time far earlier than the arrival of ,europeans1 the natural wild habitation of the plant or plants which yield this product is yet but little known4 ,we become aware on this occasion of the absence of floras of tropical ,america1 similar to those of the ,dutch and ,english colonies of ,asia and ,africa4 ,mandubi1 ,pea-nut1 ,monkey-nut--,arachis hypoga1 ,linnus4 ,nothing is more curious than the manner in which this leguminous plant matures its fruits4 ,it is cultivated in all hot countries1 either for the seed1 or for the oil contained in the cotyledons4#bjeb ,bentham has given1 in his ,flora of ,brazil1 in folio1 vol4 xv4 pl4 #bc1 complete details of the plant1 in which may be seen how the flower-stalk bends downwards and plunges the pod into the earth to ripen4 ,the origin of the species was disputed for a century1 even by those botanists who employ the best means to discover it4 ,it is worth while to show how the truth was arrived at1 as it may serve as a guide in similar cases4 ,i will quote1 therefore1 what ,i wrote in #ahee1bjec giving in conclusion new proofs which allow no possibility of further doubt4 8,linnus#bjed said of the ,arachis1 #8it inhabits ,surinam ,brazil1 and ,peru4' ,as usual with him1 he does not specify whether the species was wild or cultivated in these countries4 ,in #ahah1 ,r4 ,brown#bjee writes3 #8,it was probably introduced from ,china into the continent of ,india1 ,ceylon1 and into the ,malay ,archipelago1 where1 in spite of its now general cultivation1 it is thought not to be indigenous1 particularly from the names given to it4 ,i consider it not improbable that it was brought from ,africa into different parts of equatorial ,america1 although1 however1 it is mentioned in some of the earliest writings on this continent1 particularly on ,peru and ,brazil4 ,according to ,sprengel1 it is mentioned by ,theophrastus as cultivated in ,egypt1 but it is not at all evident that the ,arachis is the plant to which ,theophrastus alludes in the quoted passage4 ,if it had been formerly cultivated in ,egypt it would probably still exist in that country1 whereas it does not occur in ,forskal's catalogue nor in ,delile's more extended flora4 ,there is nothing very unlikely1' continues ,brown1 #8in the hypothesis that the ,arachis is indigenous both in ,africa and ,america2 but if it is considered as existing originally in one of these continents only1 it is more probable that it was brought from ,china through ,india to ,africa1 than that it took the contrary direction4' ,my father in #ahbe1 in the ,prodromus 7ii4 p4 #dgd71 returned to ,linnus' opinion1 and admitted without hesitation the ,american origin4 8,let us reconsider the question0 7,i said in #ahee7 8with the aid of the discoveries of modern science4 8,arachis hypoga was the only species of this singular genus known4 ,six other species1 all ,brazilian1 have since been discovered4#bjef ,thus1 applying the rule of probability of which ,brown first made great use1 we incline priori to the idea of an ,american origin4 ,we must remember that ,maregraf#bjeg and ,piso#bjeh describe and figure the plant as used in ,brazil1 under the name mandubi1 which seems to be indigenous4 ,they quote ,monardes1 a writer of the end of the sixteenth century1 as having indicated it in ,peru under a different name1 anchic4 ,joseph ,acosta#bjei merely mentions an ,american name1 mani1 and speaks of it with other species which are not of foreign origin in ,america4 ,the ,arachis was not ancient in ,guiana1 in the ,west ,indies1 and in ,mexico4 ,aublet#bjfj mentions it as a cultivated plant1 not in ,guiana1 but in the ,isle of ,france4 ,hernandez does not speak of it4 ,sloane#bjfa had seen it only in a garden1 grown from seeds brought from ,guinea4 ,he says that the slave-dealers feed the negroes with it on their passage from ,africa1 which indicates a then very general cultivation in ,africa4 ,pison1 in his second edition 7#afch1 p4 #bef71 not in that of #afdh1 gives a figure of a similar fruit imported from ,africa into ,brazil under the name mandobi1 very near to the name of the ,arachis1 mandubi4 ,from the three leaflets of the plant it would seem to be the ,voandzeia1 so often cultivated2 but the fruit seems to me to be longer than in this genus1 and it has two or three seeds instead of one or two4 ,however this may be1 the distinction drawn by ,piso between these two subterranean seeds1 the one ,brazilian1 the other ,african1 tends to show that the ,arachis is ,brazilian4 8,the antiquity and the generality of its cultivation in ,africa is1 however1 an argument of some force1 which compensates to a certain degree its antiquity in ,brazil1 and the presence of six other ,arachis in the same country4 ,i would admit its great value if the ,arachis had been known to the ancient ,egyptians and to the ,arabs2 but the silence of ,greek1 ,latin1 and ,arab authors1 and the absence of the species in ,egypt in ,forskal's time1 lead me to think that its cultivation in ,guinea1 ,senegal1#bjfb and the east coast of ,africa#bjfc is not of very ancient date4 ,neither has it the marks of a great antiquity in ,asia4 ,no ,sanskrit name for it is known1#bjfd but only a ,hindustani one4 ,rumphius#bjfe says that it was imported from ,japan into several islands of the ,indian ,archipelago4 ,it would in that case have borne only foreign names1 like the ,chinese name1 for instance1 which signifies only #8earth-bean4' ,at the end of the last century it was generally cultivated in ,china and ,cochin-,china4 ,yet1 in spite of ,rumphius's theory of an introduction into the islands from ,china or ,japan1 ,i see that ,thunberg does not speak of it in his ,japanese ,flora4 ,now1 ,japan has had dealings with ,china for sixteen centuries1 and cultivated plants1 natives of one of the two countries1 were commonly early introduced into the other4 ,it is not mentioned by ,forster among the plants employed in the small islands of the ,pacific4 ,all these facts point to an ,american1 ,i might even say a ,brazilian1 origin4 ,none of the authors ,i have consulted mentions having seen the plant wild1 either in the old or the new world4 ,those who indicate it in ,africa or ,asia are careful to say the plant is cultivated4 ,marcgraf does not say so1 writing of ,brazil1 but ,piso says the species is planted40 ,seeds of ,arachis have been found in the ,peruvian tombs at ,ancon1#bjff which shows some antiquity of existence in ,america1 and supports the opinion ,i expressed in #ahee4 ,dr4 ,bretschneider's study of ,chinese works#bjfg oversets ,brown's hypothesis4 ,the ,arachis is not mentioned in the ancient works of this country1 nor even in the ,pent-sao1 published in the sixteenth century4 ,he adds that he believes the plant was only introduced in the last century4 ,all the recent floras of ,asia and ,africa mention the species as a cultivated one1 and most authors believe it to be of ,american origin4 ,bentham1 after satisfying himself that it had not been found wild in ,america or elsewhere1 adds that it is perhaps a form derived from one of the six other species wild in ,brazil1 but he does not say which4 ,this is probable enough1 for a plant provided with an efficacious and very peculiar manner of germinating does not seem of a nature to become extinct4 ,it would have been found wild in ,brazil in the same condition as the cultivated plant1 if the latter were not a product of cultivation4 ,works on ,guiana and other parts of ,america mention the species as a cultivated one2 ,grisebach#bjfh says1 moreover1 that in several of the ,west ,india islands it becomes naturalized from cultivation4 ,a genus of which all the well-known species are thus placed in a single region of ,america can scarcely have a species common to both hemispheres2 it would be too great an exception to the law of geographical botany4 ,but then how did the species 7or cultivated variety7 pass from the ,american continent to the old world8 ,this is hard to guess1 but ,i am inclined to believe that the first slave-ships carried it from ,brazil to ,guinea1 and the ,portuguese from ,brazil into the islands to the south of ,asia1 in the end of the fifteenth century4 ,coffee--,coffea arabica1 ,linnus4 ,this shrub1 belonging to the family of the ,rubiace1 is wild in ,abyssinia1#bjfi in the ,soudan1#bjgj and on the coasts of ,guinea and ,mozambique4#bjga ,perhaps in these latter localities1 so far removed from the centre1 it may be naturalized from cultivation4 ,no one has yet found it in ,arabia1 but this may be explained by the difficulty of penetrating into the interior of the country4 ,if it is discovered there it will be hard to prove it wild1 for the seeds1 which soon lose their faculty of germinating1 often spring up round the plantations and naturalize the species4 ,this has occurred in ,brazil and the ,west ,india ,islands1#bjgb where it is certain that the coffee plant was never indigenous4 ,the use of coffee seems to be very ancient in ,abyssinia4 ,shehabeddin ,ben1 author of an ,arab manuscript of the fifteenth century 7,no4 #idd of the ,paris ,library71 quoted in ,john ,ellis's excellent work1#bjgc says that coffee had been used in ,abyssinia from time immemorial4 ,its use1 even as a drug1 had not spread into the neighbouring countries1 for the crusaders did not know it1 and the celebrated physician ,ebn ,baithar1 born at ,malaga1 who had travelled over the north of ,africa and ,syria at the beginning of the thirteenth century of the ,christian era1 does not mention coffee4#bjgd ,in #aeif ,bellus sent to de l',ecluse some seeds from which the ,egyptians extracted the drink cav4#bjge ,nearly at the same time ,prosper ,alpin became acquainted with coffee in ,egypt itself4 ,he speaks of the plant as the 8arbor bon1 cum fructu suo buna40 ,the name bon recurs also in early authors under the forms bunnu1 buncho1 bunca4#bjgf ,the names cahue1 cahua1 chaub1#bjgg cav1#bjgh refer rather in ,egypt and ,syria to the prepared drink1 whence the ,french word caf4 ,the name bunnu1 or something similar1 is certainly the primitive name of the plant which the ,abyssinians still call boun4#bjgi ,if the use of coffee is more ancient in ,abyssinia than elsewhere1 that is no proof that its cultivation is very ancient4 ,it is very possible that for centuries the berries were sought in the forests1 where they were doubtless very common4 ,according to the ,arabian author quoted above1 it was a mufti of ,aden1 nearly his contemporary1 who1 having seen coffee drunk in ,persia1 introduced the practice at ,aden1 whence it spread to ,mocha1 into ,egypt1 etc4 ,he says that the coffee plant grew in ,arabia4#bjhj ,other fables or traditions exist1 according to which it was always an ,arabian priest or a monk who invented the drink1#bjha but they all leave us in uncertainty as to the date of the first cultivation of the plant4 ,however this may be1 the use of coffee having been spread first in the east1 afterwards in the west1 in spite of a number of prohibitions and absurd conflicts1#bjhb its production became important to the colonies4 ,boerhave tells us that the ,burgermeister of ,amsterdam1 ,nicholas ,witsen1 director of the ,east ,india ,company1 urged the ,governor of ,batavia1 ,van ,hoorn1 to import coffee berries from ,arabia to ,batavia4 ,this was done1 and in #afij ,van ,hoorn sent some living plants to ,witsen4 ,these were placed in the ,botanical ,gardens of ,amsterdam1 founded by ,witsen1 where they bore fruit4 ,in #agad1 the magistrates of the town sent a flourishing plant covered with fruit to ,louis ,,xiv41 who placed it in his garden at ,marly4 ,coffee was also grown in the hothouses of the king's garden in ,paris4 ,one of the professors of this establishment1 ,antoine de ,jussieu1 had already published in #agac1 in the ,mmoires de l',acadmie des ,sciences1 an interesting description of the plant from one which ,pancras1 director of the ,botanical ,garden at ,amsterdam1 had sent to him4 ,the first coffee plants grown in ,america were introduced into ,surinam by the ,dutch in #agah4 ,the ,governor of ,cayenne1 de la ,motte-,aigron1 having been at ,surinam1 obtained some plants in secret and multiplied them in #agbe4bjhc ,the coffee plant was introduced into ,martinique by de ,clieu1#bjhd a naval officer1 in #agbj1 according to ,deleuze2#bjhe in #agbc1 according to the ,notices ,statistiques sur les ,colonies ,franaises4#bjhf ,thence it was introduced into the other ,french islands1 into ,guadaloupe1 for instance1 in #agcj4bjhg ,sir ,nicholas ,lawes first grew it in ,jamaica4#bjhh ,from #agah the ,french ,east ,india ,company had sent plants of ,mocha coffee to ,bourbon2#bjhi others say#bjij that it was even in #agag that a certain ,dufougerais-,grenier had coffee plants brought from ,mocha into this island4 ,it is known how the cultivation of this shrub has been extended in ,java1 ,ceylon1 the ,west ,indies1 and ,brazil4 ,nothing prevents it from spreading in nearly all tropical countries1 especially as the coffee plant thrives on sloping ground and in poor soils where other crops cannot flourish4 ,it corresponds in tropical agriculture to the vine in ,europe and tea in ,china4 ,further details may be found in the volume published by ,h4 ,welter#bjia on the economical and commercial history of coffee4 ,the author adds an interesting chapter on the various fair or very bad substitutes used for a commodity which it is impossible to overrate in its natural condition4 ,liberian ,coffee--,coffea liberica1 ,hiern4#bjib ,plants of this species have for some years been sent from the ,botanical ,gardens at ,kew into the ,english colonies4 ,it grows wild in ,liberia1 ,angola1 ,golungo ,alto1#bjic and probably in several other parts of western tropical ,africa4 ,it is of stronger growth than the common coffee1 and the berries1 which are larger1 yield an excellent product4 ,the official reports of ,kew ,gardens by the learned director1 ,sir ,joseph ,hooker1 show the progress of this introduction1 which is very favourably received1 especially in ,dominica4 ,madia--,madia sativa1 ,molina4 ,the inhabitants of ,chili before the discovery of ,america cultivated this annual species of the ,composite family1 for the sake of the oil contained in the seed4 ,since the olive has been extensively planted1 the madia is despised by the ,chilians1 who only complain of the plant as a weed which chokes their gardens4#bjid ,the ,europeans began to cultivate it with indifferent success1 owing to its bad smell4 ,the madia is indigenous in ,chili and also in ,california4#bjie ,there are other examples of this disjunction of habitation between the two countries4#bjif ,nutmeg--,myristica fragrans1 ,houttuyn4 ,the nutmeg1 a little tree of the order ,myristice1 is wild in the ,moluccas1 principally in the ,banda ,islands4#bjig ,it has long been cultivated there1 to judge from the considerable number of its varieties4 ,europeans have received the nutmeg by the ,asiatic trade since the ,middle ,ages1 but the ,dutch long possessed the monopoly of its cultivation4 ,when the ,english owned the ,moluccas at the end of the last century1 they carried live nutmeg trees to ,bencoolen and into ,prince ,edward's ,islands4#bjih ,it afterwards spread to ,bourbon1 ,mauritius1 ,madagascar1 and into some of the colonies of tropical ,america1 but with indifferent success from a commercial point of view4 ,sesame--,sesamum indicum1 de ,candolle2 ,s4 indicum and ,s4 orientale1 ,linnus4 ,sesame has long been cultivated in the hot regions of the old world for the sake of the oil extracted from the seeds4 ,the order ,pedaline to which this annual belongs is composed of several genera distributed through the tropical parts of ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america4 ,each genus has only a small number of species4 ,sesamum1 in the widest sense of the name1#bjii has ten1 all ,african except perhaps the cultivated species whose origin we are about to seek4 ,the latter forms alone the true genus ,sesamum1 which is a section in ,bentham and ,hooker's work4 ,botanical analogy points to an ,african origin1 but the area of a considerable number of plants is known to extend from the south of ,asia into ,africa4 ,sesame has two races1 the one with black1 the other with white seed1 and several varieties differing in the shape of the leaf4 ,the difference in the colour of the seeds is very ancient1 as in the case of the poppy4 ,the seeds of sesame often sow themselves outside plantations1 and more or less naturalize the species4 ,this has been observed in regions very remote one from the other2 for instance1 in ,india1 the ,sunda ,isles1 ,egypt1 and even in the ,west ,india ,islands1 where its cultivation is certainly of modern introduction4#bajj ,this is perhaps the reason that no author asserts he has found it in a wild state except ,blume1#baja a trustworthy observer1 who mentions a variety with redder flowers than usual growing in the mountains of ,java4 ,this is doubtless an indication of origin1 but we need others to establish a proof4 ,i shall seek them in the history of its cultivation4 ,the country where this began should be the ancient habitation of the species1 or have had dealings with this ancient habitation4 ,that its cultivation dates in ,asia from a very early epoch is clear from the diversity of names4 ,sesame is called in ,sanskrit tila1#bajb in ,malay widjin1 in ,chinese moa 7,rumphius7 or chi-ma 7,bretschneider71 in ,japanese koba4#bajc ,the name sesam is common to ,greek1 ,latin1 and ,arabic1 with trifling variations of letter4 ,hence it might be inferred that its area was very extended1 and that the cultivation of the plant was begun independently in several different countries4 ,but we must not attribute too much importance to such an argument4 ,chinese works seem to show that sesame was not introduced into ,china before the ,christian era4 ,the first certain mention of it occurs in a book of the fifth or sixth century1 entitled ,tsi-min-yao-chou4#bajd ,before this there is confusion between the name of this plant and that of flax1 of which the seed also yields an oil1 and which is not very ancient in ,china4#baje ,theophrastus and ,dioscorides say that the ,egyptians cultivated a plant called sesame for the oil contained in its seed1 and ,pliny adds that it came from ,india4#bajf ,he also speaks of a sesame wild in ,egypt from which oil was extracted1 but this was probably the castor-oil plant4#bajg ,it is not proved that the ancient ,egyptians before the time of ,theophrastus cultivated sesame4 ,no drawing or seeds have been found in the monuments4 ,a drawing from the tomb of ,rameses ,,iii4 show the custom of mixing small seeds with flour in making pastry1 and in modern times this is done with sesame seeds1 but others are also used1 and it is not possible to recognize in the drawing those of the sesame in particular4#bajh ,if the ,egyptians had known the species at the time of the ,exodus1 eleven hundred years before ,theophrastus1 there would probably have been some mention of it in the ,hebrew books1 because of the various uses of the seed and especially of the oil4 ,yet commentators have found no trace of it in the ,old ,testament4 ,the name semsem or simsim is clearly ,semitic1 but only of the more recent epoch of the ,talmud1#baji and of the agricultural treatise of ,alawwam1#baaj compiled after the ,christian era began4 ,it was perhaps a ,semitic people who introduced the plant and the name semsem 7whence the sesam of the ,greeks7 into ,egypt after the epoch of the great monuments and of the ,exodus4 ,they may have received it with the name from ,babylonia1 where ,herodotus says#baaa that sesame was cultivated4 ,an ancient cultivation in the ,euphrates valley agrees with the existence of a ,sanskrit name1 tila1 the tilu of the ,brahmans 7,rheede1 ,malabar1 i41 ix41 pp #aje-ajg71 a word of which there are traces in several modern languages of ,india1 particularly in ,ceylon4#baab ,thus we are carried back to ,india in accordance with the origin of which ,pliny speaks1 but it is possible that ,india itself may have received the species from the ,sunda ,isles before the arrival of the ,aryan conquerors4 ,rumphius gives three names for the sesame in these islands1 very different one from the other1 and from the ,sanskrit word1 which supports the theory of a more ancient existence in the archipelago than on the continent4 ,in conclusion1 from the fact that the sesame is wild in ,java1 and from historical and philological arguments1 the plant seems to have had its origin in the ,sunda ,isles1 ,it was introduced into ,india and the ,euphrates valley two or three thousand years ago1 and into ,egypt at a less remote epoch1 from #ajjj to #ejj ,b4,c4 ,it was transported from the ,guinea coast to ,brazil by the ,portuguese1#baac but it is unknown how long it has been cultivated in the rest of ,africa4 ,castor-oil ,plant--,ricinus communis1 ,linnus4 ,the most modern works and those in highest repute consider the south of ,asia to be the original home of this ,euphorbiacea2 sometimes they indicate certain varieties in ,africa or ,america without distinguishing the wild from the cultivated plant4 ,i have reason to believe that the true origin is to be found in tropical ,africa1 in accordance with the opinion of ,ball4#baad ,the difficulties with which the question is attended arise from the antiquity of cultivation in different countries1 from the facility with which the plant sows itself and becomes naturalized on rubbish-heaps and in waste ground1 lastly from the diversity of its forms1 which have often been described as species4 ,this latter point need not detain us1 for ,dr4 ,j4 ,mller's careful monograph#baae proves the existence of sixteen varieties1 scarcely hereditary1 which pass one into the other by many transitions1 and constitute1 therefore1 but one species4 ,the number of varieties is the sign of a very ancient cultivation4 ,they differ more or less as to capsules1 seeds1 inflorescence1 etc4 ,moreover1 they are small trees in hot countries1 but they do not endure frost1 and become annuals north of the ,alps and in similar regions4 ,they are in such cases planted in gardens for ornament1 while in the tropics1 and even in ,italy1 they are grown for the sake of the oil contained in the seed4 ,this oil1 which is more or less purgative1 is used for lamps in ,bengal and elsewhere4 ,in no country has the species been found wild with such certainty as in ,abyssinia1 ,sennaar1 and the ,kordofan4 ,the expressions of authors and collectors are distinct on this head4 ,the castor-oil plant is common in rocky places in the valley of ,chir1 near ,goumalo1 says ,quartin ,dillon2 it is wild in those parts of ,upper ,sennaar which are flooded during the rains1 says ,hartmann4#baaf ,i have a specimen from ,kotschy1 ,no4 #bdc1 gathered on the northern slope of ,mount ,kohn1 in the ,kordofan4 ,the indications of travellers in ,mozambique and on the coast of ,guinea are not so clear1 but it is possible that the natural area of the species covers a great part of tropical ,africa4 ,as it is a useful species1 and one very conspicuous and easily propagated1 the negroes must have early diffused it4 ,however1 as we draw near the ,mediterranean1 it is no longer said to be indigenous4 ,in ,egypt1 ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson#baag say the species is only cultivated and naturalized4 ,probably in ,algeria1 ,sardinia1 and ,morocco1 and even in the ,canaries1 where it is principally found in the sand on the sea-shore1 it has been naturalized for centuries4 ,i believe this to be the case with specimens brought from ,djedda1 in ,arabia1 by ,schimper1 which were gathered near a cistern4 ,yet ,forskal#baah gathered the caster-oil plant in the mountains of ,arabia ,felix1 which may signify a wild station4 ,boissier#baai indicates it in ,beluchistan and the south of ,persia1 but as 8subspontaneous10 as in ,syria1 ,anatolia1 and ,greece4 ,rheede#babj speaks of the plant as cultivated in ,malabar and growing in the sand1 but modern ,anglo-,indian authors do not allow that it is wild4 ,some make no mention of the species4 ,a few speak of the facility with which the species becomes naturalized from cultivation4 ,loureiro had seen it in ,cochin-,china and in ,china 8cultivated and uncultivated10 which perhaps means escaped from cultivation4 ,lastly1 for the ,sunda ,islands1 ,rumphius#baba is as usual one of the most interesting authorities4 ,the castor-oil plant1 he says1 grows especially in ,java1 where it forms immense fields and produces a great quantity of oil4 ,at ,amboyna1 it is planted here and there1 near dwellings and in fields1 rather for medicinal purposes4 ,the wild species grows in deserted gardens 7in desertis hortis72 it is doubtless sprung from the cultivated plant 7sine dubio degeneratio domestica74 ,in ,japan the castor-oil plant grows among shrubs and on the slopes of ,mount ,wuntzen1 but ,franchet and ,savatier add1#babb 8probably introduced40 ,lastly1 ,dr4 ,bretschneider mentions the species in his work of #ahgj1 p4 #bj2 but what he says here1 and in a letter of #ahha1 does not argue an ancient cultivation in ,china4 ,the species is cultivated in tropical ,america4 ,it becomes easily naturalized in clearings1 on rubbish-heaps1 etc42 but no botanist has found it in the conditions of a really indigenous plant4 ,its introduction must have taken place soon after the discovery of ,america1 for a common name1 lamourou1 exists in the ,west ,india ,islands2 and ,piso gives another in ,brazil1 nhambuguacu1 figuero inferno in ,portuguese4 ,i have received the largest number of specimens from ,bahia2 none are accompanied by the assertion that it is really indigenous4 ,in ,egypt and ,western ,asia the culture of the species dates from so remote an epoch that it has given rise to mistakes as to its origin4 ,the ancient ,egyptians practised it extensively1 according to ,herodotus1 ,pliny1 ,diodorus1 etc4 ,there can be no mistake as to the species1 as its seeds have been found in the tombs4#babc ,the ,egyptian name was kiki4 ,theophrastus and ,dioscorides mention it1 and it is retained in modern ,greek1#babd while the ,arabs have a totally different name1 kerua1 kerroa1 charua4#babe ,roxburgh and ,piddington quote a ,sanskrit name1 eranda1 erunda1 which has left descendants in the modern languages of ,india4 ,botanists do not say from what epoch of ,sanskrit this name dates2 as the species belongs to hot climates1 the ,aryans cannot have known it before their arrival in ,india1 that is at a less ancient epoch than the ,egyptian monuments4 ,the extreme rapidity of the growth of the castor-oil plant has suggested different names in ,asiatic language1 and that of ,wunderbaum in ,german4 ,the same circumstance1 and the analogy with the ,egyptian name kiki1 have caused it to be supposed that the kikajon of the ,old ,testament1#babf the growth1 it is said1 of a single night1 was this plant4 ,i pass a number of common names more or less absurd1 as palma ,christi1 girasole1 in some parts of ,italy1 etc41 but it is worth while to note the origin of the name castor oil1 as a proof of the ,english habit of accepting names without examination1 and sometimes of distorting them4 ,it appears that in the last century this plant was largely cultivated in ,jamaica1 where it was once called agno casto by the ,portuguese and the ,spaniards1 being confounded with ,vitex agnus castus1 a totally different plant4 ,from casto the ,english planters and ,london traders made castor4#babg ,walnut--,juglans regia1 ,linnus4 ,some years ago the walnut tree was known to be wild in ,armenia1 in the district to the south of the ,caucasus and of the ,caspian ,sea1 in the mountains of the north and north-east of ,india1 and in ,burmah4#babh ,c4 ,koch#babi denied that it was indigenous in ,armenia and to the south of the ,caucasus1 but this has been proved by several travellers4 ,it has since been discovered wild in ,japan1#bacj which renders it probable that the species exists also in the north of ,china1 as ,loureiro and ,bunge said1#baca but without particularizing its wild character4 ,heldreich#bacb has recently placed it beyond a doubt that the walnut is abundant in a wild state in the mountains of ,greece1 which agrees with passages in ,theophrastus#bacc which had been overlooked4 ,lastly1 ,heuffel saw it1 also wild1 in the mountains of ,banat4#bacd ,its modern natural area extends1 then1 from eastern temperate ,europe to ,japan4 ,it once existed in ,europe further to the west1 for leaves of the walnut have been found in the quaternary tufa in ,provence4#bace ,many species of ,juglans existed in our hemisphere in the tertiary and quaternary epochs2 there are now ten1 at most1 distributed throughout ,north ,america and temperate ,asia4 ,the use of the walnut and the planting of the tree may have begun in several of the countries where the species was found1 and cultivation extended gradually and slightly its artificial area4 ,the walnut is not one of those trees which sows itself and is easily naturalized4 ,the nature of its fruit is perhaps against this2 and1 moreover1 it needs a climate where the frosts are not severe and the heat moderate4 ,it scarcely passes the northern limit of the vine1 and does not extend nearly so far south4 ,the ,greeks1 accustomed to olive oil1 neglected the walnut until they received from ,persia a better variety1 called karuon basilikon1#bacf or ,persikon4#bacg ,the ,romans cultivated the walnut from the time of their kings2 they considered it of ,persian origin4#bach ,they had an old custom of throwing nuts in the celebration of weddings4 ,archology confirms these details4 ,the only nuts which have hitherto been found under the lake-dwellings of ,switzerland1 ,savoy1 or ,italy are confined to a single locality near ,parma1 called ,fontinellato1 in a stratum of the iron age4#baci ,now1 this metal1 very rare at the time of the ,trojan war1 cannot have come into general use among the agricultural population of ,italy until the fifth or sixth century before ,christ1 an epoch at which even bronze was perhaps still unknown to the north of the ,alps4 ,in the station at ,lagozza1 walnuts have been found in a much higher stratum1 and not ancient4#badj ,evidently the walnuts of ,italy1 ,switzerland1 and ,france are not descended from the fossil plants of the quaternary tufa of which ,i spoke just now4 ,it is impossible to say at what period the walnut was first planted in ,india4 ,it must have been early1 for there is a ,sanskrit name1 akschda1 akhoda1 or akhta4 ,chinese authors say that the walnut was introduced among them from ,thibet1 under the ,han dynasty1 by ,chang-kien1 about the year #adj-aej ,b4,c4#bada ,this was perhaps a perfected variety4 ,moreover1 it seems probable1 from the actual records of botanists1 that the wild walnut is rare in the north of ,china1 and is perhaps wanting in the east4 ,the date of its cultivation in ,japan is unknown4 ,the walnut tree and walnuts had an infinite number of names among ancient peoples1 which have exercised the science and imagination of philologists1#badb but the origin of the species is so clear that we need not stay to consider them4 ,areca--,areca ,catechu1 ,linnus4 ,the areca palm is much cultivated in the countries where it is a custom to chew betel1 that is to say throughout ,southern ,asia4 ,the nut1 or rather the almond which forms the principal part of the seed contained in the fruit1 is valued for its aromatic taste2 chopped1 mixed with lime1 and enveloped in a leaf of the pepper-betel1 it forms an agreeable stimulant1 which produces a flow of saliva and blackens the teeth to the satisfaction of the natives4 ,the author of the principal work on the order ,palmace1 de ,martius1#badc says of the origin of this species1 8,its country is uncertain 7non constat72 probably the ,sunda ,isles40 ,we may find it possible to affirm something positive by referring to more modern authors4 ,on the continent of ,india1 in ,ceylon and ,cochin-,china1 the species is always indicated as cultivated4#badd ,so in the ,sunda ,isles1 the ,moluccas1 etc41 to the south of ,asia4 ,blume1#bade in his work entitled ,rumphia1 says that the 8habitat0 of the species is the ,malay ,peninsula1 ,siam1 and the neighbouring islands4 ,yet he does not appear to have seen the indigenous plants of which he speaks4 ,dr4 ,bretschneider#badf believes that the species is a native of the ,malay ,archipelago1 principally of ,sumatra1 for he says those islands and the ,philippines are the only places where it is found wild4 ,the first of these facts is not confirmed by ,miquel1 nor the second by ,blanco1#badg who lived in the ,philippines4 ,blume's opinion appears the most probable1 but we must still say with ,martius1 8,the country is not proved40 ,the existence of a number of ,malay names1 pinang1 jambe1 etc41 and of a ,sanskrit name1 gouvaka1 as well as very numerous varieties1 show the antiquity of cultivation4 ,the ,chinese received it1 #aaa ,b4,c41 from the south1 with the ,malay name1 pin-lang4 ,the ,telinga name1 arek1 is the origin of the botanical name ,areca4 ,elis--,elis guineensis1 ,jacquin4 ,travellers who visited the coast of ,guinea in the first half of the sixteenth century#badh already noticed this palm1 from which the negroes extracted oil by pressing the fleshy part of the fruit4 ,the tree is indigenous on all that coast4#badi ,it is also planted1 and the exportation of palm-oil is the object of an extensive trade4 ,as it is also found wild in ,brazil and perhaps in ,guiana1#baej a doubt arose as to the true origin4 ,it seems the more likely to be ,american that the only other species which with this one constitutes the genus ,elis belongs to ,new ,granada4#baea ,robert ,brown1 however1 and the authors who have studied the family of palms1 are unanimous in their belief that ,elis guineensis was introduced into ,america by the negroes and slave-traders in the traffic between the ,guinea coast and the coast of ,america4 ,many facts confirm this opinion4 ,the first botanists who visited ,brazil1 ,piso and ,marcgraf and others1 do not mention the ,elis4 ,it is only found on the littoral1 from ,rio di ,janeiro to the mouth of the ,amazon1 never in the interior4 ,it is often cultivated1 or has the appearance of a species escaped from the plantations4 ,sloane1#baeb who explored ,jamaica in the seventeenth century1 relates that this tree was introduced in his time into a plantation which he names1 from the coast of ,guinea4 ,it has since become naturalized in some of the ,west ,india ,islands4#baec ,cocoa-nut ,palm--,cocos nucifera1 ,linnus4 ,the cocoa-nut palm is perhaps1 of all tropical trees1 the one which yields the greatest variety of products4 ,its wood and fibres are utilized in various ways4 ,the sap extracted from the inner part of the inflorescence yields a much-prized alcoholic drink4 ,the shell of the nut forms a vessel1 the milk of the half-ripe fruit is a pleasant drink1 and the nut itself contains a great deal of oil4 ,it is not surprising that so valuable a tree has been a good deal planted and transported4 ,besides1 its dispersion is aided by natural causes4 ,the woody shell and fibrous envelope of the nut enable it to float in salt water without injury to the germ4 ,hence the possibility of its transportation to great distances by currents and its naturalization on coasts where the temperature is favourable4 ,unfortunately1 this tree requires a warm1 damp climate1 such as exists only in the tropics1 or in exceptional localities just without them4 ,nor does it thrive at a distance from the sea4 ,the cocoa-nut abounds on the littoral of the warm regions of ,asia1 of the islands to the south of this continent1 and in analogous regions of ,africa and ,america2 but it may be asserted that it dates in ,brazil1 the ,west ,indies1 and the west coast of ,africa from an introduction which took place about three centuries ago4 ,piso and ,marcgraf#baed seem to admit that the species is foreign to ,brazil without saying so positively4 ,de ,martius1#baee who has published a very important work on the ,palmace1 and has travelled through the provinces of ,bahia1 ,pernambuco1 and others1 where the cocoa-nut abounds1 does not say that it is wild4 ,it was introduced into ,guiana by missionaries4#baef ,sloane#baeg says it is an exotic in the ,west ,indies4 ,an old author of the sixteenth century1 ,martyr1 whom he quotes1 speaks of its introduction4 ,this probably took place a few years after the discovery of ,america1 for ,joseph ,acosta#baeh saw the cocoa-nut palm at ,porto ,rico in the sixteenth century4 ,de ,martius says that the ,portuguese introduced it on the coast of ,guinea4 ,many travellers do not even mention it in this region1 where it is apparently of no great importance4 ,more common in ,madagascar and on the east coast1 it is not1 however1 named in several works on the plants of ,zanzibar1 the ,seychelles1 ,mauritius1 etc41 perhaps because it is considered as cultivated in these parts4 ,evidently the species is not of ,african origin1 nor of the eastern part of tropical ,america4 ,eliminating these countries1 there remain western tropical ,america1 the islands of the ,pacific1 the ,indian ,archipelago1 and the south of ,asia1 where the tree abounds with every appearance of being more or less wild and long established4 ,the navigators ,dampier and ,vancouver#baei found it at the beginning of the seventeenth century1 forming woods in the islands near ,panama1 not on the mainland1 and in the isle of ,cocos1 situated at three hundred miles from the continent in the ,pacific4 ,at that time these islands were uninhabited4 ,later the cocoa-nut palm was found on the western coast from ,mexico to ,peru1 but usually authors do not say that it was wild1 excepting ,seemann1#bafj however1 who saw this palm both wild and cultivated on the ,isthmus of ,panama4 ,according to ,hernandez1#bafa in the sixteenth century the ,mexicans called it coyolli1 a word which does not seem to be native4 ,oviedo1#bafb writing in #aebf1 in the first years of the conquest of ,mexico1 says that the cocoa-nut palm was abundant on the coast of the ,pacific in the province of the ,cacique ,chiman1 and he clearly describes the species4 ,this does not prove the tree to be wild4 ,in southern ,asia1 especially in the islands1 the cocoa-nut is both wild and cultivated4 ,the smaller the islands1 and the lower and the more subject to the influence of the sea air1 the more the cocoa-nut predominates and attracts the attention of travellers4 ,some take their name from the tree1 among others two islands close to the ,andamans and one near ,sumatra4 ,the cocoa-nut occurring with every appearance of an ancient wild condition at once in ,asia and western ,america1 the question of origin is obscure4 ,excellent authors have solved it differently4 ,de ,martius believes it to have been transported by currents from the islands situated to the west of ,central ,america1 into those of the ,asiatic ,archipelago4 ,i formerly inclined to the same hypothesis1#bafc since admitted without question by ,grisebach2#bafd but the botanists of the seventeenth century often regarded the species as ,asiatic1 and ,seemann1#bafe after a careful examination1 says he cannot come to a decision4 ,i will give the reasons for and against each hypothesis4 ,in favour of an ,american origin1 it may be said-- #a4 ,the eleven other species of the genus ,cocos are ,american1 and all those which de ,martius knew well are ,brazilian4#baff ,drude1#bafg who has studied the ,palmace1 has written a paper to show that each genus of this family is proper to the ancient or to the new world1 excepting the genus ,elis1 and even here he suspects a transport of the ,e4 guineensis from ,america into ,africa1 which is not at all probable4 7,see above1 p4 #dbi47 ,the force of this argument is somewhat diminished by the circumstance that ,cocos nucifera is a tree which grows on the littoral and in damp places1 while the other species live under different conditions1 frequently far from the sea and from rivers4 ,maritime plants1 and those which grow in marshes or damp places1 have commonly a more vast habitation than others of the same genus4 #b4 ,the trade winds of the ,pacific1 to the south and yet more to the north of the equator1 drive floating bodies from ,america to ,asia1 a direction contrary to that of the general currents4#bafh ,it is known1 moreover1 from the unexpected arrival of bottles containing papers on different coasts1 that chance has much to do with these transports4 ,the arguments in favour of an ,asiatic1 or contrary to an ,american origin1 are the following3-- #a4 ,a current between the third and fifth parallels1 north latitude1 flows from the islands of the ,indian ,archipelago to ,panama4#bafi ,to the north and south of this are currents which take the opposite direction1 but they start from regions too cold for the cocoa-nut1 and do not touch ,central ,america1 where it is supposed to have been long indigenous4 #b4 ,the inhabitants of the islands of ,asia were far bolder navigators than the ,american ,indians4 ,it is very possible that canoes from the ,asiatic ,islands1 containing a provision of cocoa-nuts1 were thrown by tempests or false manuvres on to the islands or the west coast of ,america4 ,the converse is highly improbable4 #c4 ,the area for three centuries has been much vaster in ,asia than in ,america1 and the difference was yet more considerable before that epoch1 for we know that the cocoa-nut has not long existed in the east of tropical ,america4 #d4 ,the inhabitants of the islands of ,asia possess an immense number of varieties of this tree1 which points to a very ancient cultivation4 ,blume1 in his ,rumphia1 enumerates eighteen varieties in ,java and the adjacent islands1 and thirty-nine in the ,philippines4 ,nothing similar has been observed in ,america4 #e4 ,the uses of the cocoa-nut are more varied and more habitual in ,asia4 ,the natives of ,america hardly utilize it except for the contents of the nut1 from which they do not extract the oil4 #f4 ,the common names1 very numerous and original in ,asia1 as we shall presently see1 are rare1 and often of ,european origin in ,america4 #g4 ,it is not probable that the ancient ,mexicans and inhabitants of ,central ,america would have neglected to spread the cocoa-nut in several directions1 had it existed among them from a very remote epoch4 ,the trifling breadth of the ,isthmus of ,panama would have facilitated the transport from one coast to the other1 and the species would soon have been established in the ,west ,indies1 at ,guiana1 etc41 as it has become naturalized in ,jamaica1 ,antigua1#bagj and elsewhere1 since the discovery of ,america4 #h4 ,if the cocoa-nut in ,america dated from a geological epoch more ancient than the pleiocene or even eocene deposits in ,europe1 it would probably have been found on both coasts1 and the islands to the east and west equally4 #i4 ,we cannot find any ancient date of the existence of the cocoa-nut in ,america1 but its presence in ,asia three or four thousand years ago is proved by several ,sanskrit names4 ,piddington in his index only quotes one1 narikela4 ,it is the most certain1 since it recurs in modern ,indian languages4 ,scholars count ten of these1 which1 according to their meaning1 seem to apply to the species or its fruit4#baga ,narikela has passed with modifications into ,arabic and ,persian4#bagb ,it is even found at ,otahiti in the form ari or haari1#bagc together with a ,malay name4 #aj4 ,the ,malays have a name widely diffused in the archipelago--kalpa4 klpa1 klpo4 ,at ,sumatra and ,nicobar we find the name njor1 nicor2 in the ,philippines1 niog2 at ,bali1 niuh1 njo2 at ,tahiti1 niuh2 and in other islands1 nu1 nidju1 ni2 even at ,madagascar1 wua-niu4#bagd ,the ,chinese have ye1 or ye-tsu 7the tree is ye74 ,with the principal ,sanskrit name this constitutes four different roots1 which show an ancient existence in ,asia4 ,however1 the uniformity of nomenclature in the archipelago as far as ,tahiti and ,madagascar indicates a transport by human agency since the existence of known languages4 ,the ,chinese name means head of the king of ,yu1 referring to an absurd legend of which ,dr4 ,bretschneider speaks4#bage ,this savant tells us that the first mention of the cocoa-nut occurs in a poem of the second century before ,christ1 but the most unmistakable descriptions are in works later than the ninth century of our era4 ,it is true that the ancient writers scarcely knew the south of ,china1 the only part of the empire where the cocoa-nut palm can live4 ,in spite of the ,sanskrit names1 the existence of the cocoa-nut in ,ceylon1 where it is well established on the coast1 dates from an almost historical epoch4 ,near ,point de ,galle1 ,seemann tells us may be seen carved upon a rock the figure of a native prince1 ,kotah ,raya1 to whom is attributed the discovery of the uses of the cocoa-nut1 unknown before him2 and the earliest chronicle of ,ceylon1 the ,marawansa1 does not mention this tree1 although it carefully reports the fruits imported by different princes4 ,it is also noteworthy that the ancient ,greeks and ,egyptians only knew the cocoa-nut at a late epoch as an ,indian curiosity4 ,apollonius of ,tyana saw this palm in ,hindustan1 at the beginning of the ,christian era4#bagf ,from these facts the most ancient habitation in ,asia would be in the archipelago1 rather than on the continent or in ,ceylon2 and in ,america in the islands west of ,panama4 ,what are we to think of this varied and contradictory evidence8 ,i formerly thought that the arguments in favour of ,western ,america were the strongest4 ,now1 with more information and greater experience in similar questions1 ,i incline to the idea of an origin in the ,indian ,archipelago4 ,the extension towards ,china1 ,ceylon1 and ,india dates from not more than three thousand or four thousand years ago1 but the transport by sea to the coasts of ,america and ,africa took place perhaps in a more remote epoch1 although posterior to those epochs when the geographical and physical conditions were different to those of our day4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,summary and ,conclusion4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,general ,,table ,,of ,,species1 ,,with ,,their ,,origin ,,and ,,the ,,epoch ,,of ,,their ,,earliest ,,cultivation4 ,the following table includes a few species of which a detailed account has not been given1 because their origin is well known1 and they are of little importance4 ,explanation of the signs used in the table3 7#a7 annual1 7#b7 biennial1 ,z perennial1 '#e small shrub1 _/#e shrub1 #e small tree1 ,f#e tree4 ,the letters indicate the certain or probable date of earliest cultivation4 ,for the species of the old world3 ,a1 a species cultivated for more than four thousand years 7according to ancient historians1 the monuments of ancient ,egypt1 ,chinese works1 and botanical and philological indications72 ,b1 cultivated for more than two thousand years 7indicated in ,theophrastus1 found among lacustrine remains1 or presenting various signs1 such as possessing ,hebrew or ,sanskrit names72 ,c1 cultivated for less than two thousand years 7mentioned by ,dioscorides and not by ,theophrastus1 seen in the frescoes at ,pompeii1 introduced at a known date1 etc474 ,for ,american species3 ,d1 cultivation very ancient in ,america 7from its wide area and number of varieties72 ,e1 species cultivated before the discovery of ,america1 without showing signs of a great antiquity of culture2 ,f1 species only cultivated since the discovery of ,america4 ,,general ,,table ,,of ,,species4 ,,species ,,native ,,to ,,the ,,old ,,world4 ,,cultivated ,,for ,,the ,,subterranean ,,parts4 ,name and duration4 ,date4 ,origin4 ,radish--,raphanus sativus 7#a74 ,b4 ,temperate ,asia4#bagg ,horse-,radish--,cochlearia ,armoracia1 ,c4 ,eastern temperate ,europe1 ,z4 ,turnip--,brassica ,rapa 7#b74 ,a4 ,europe1 western ,siberia 7874 ,rape--,brassica ,napus 7#b74 ,a4 ,europe1 western ,siberia 7874 ,carrot--,daucus ,carota 7#b74 ,b4 ,europe1 western temperate ,asia 7874 ,parsnip--,pastinaca sativa 7#b74 ,c4 ,central and southern ,europe4 ,tuberous ,chervil--,chrophyllum ,c4 ,central ,europe1 ,caucasus4 bulbosum 7#b74 ,skirret--,sium ,sisarum1 ,z4 ,c4 ,altaic ,siberia1 northern ,persia4 ,madder--,rubia tinctorum1 ,z ,b4 ,western temperate ,asia1 south-east of ,europe4 ,salsify--,tragopogon porrifolium 7#b74 ,c4787 ,south-east of ,europe1 ,algeria4 ,scorzonera--,scorzonera hispanica4 ,c4 ,south-west of ,europe1 south of the ,caucasus4 ,rampion--,campanula ,rapunculus 7#b74 ,c4 ,temperate and southern ,europe4 ,vegetable4 ,b4 ,canaries1 ,mediterranean basin1 western temperate ,beet--,beta vulg4 7#b71 ,z4 ,asia4 ,root4 ,b4 ,a result of cultivation4 ,garlic--,allium sativum1 ,z4 ,b4 ,desert of the ,kirghis1 in western temperate ,asia4 ,onion--,allium ,cepa 7#b74 ,a4 ,persia1 ,afghanistan1 ,beluchistan1 ,palestine 7874 ,welsh ,onion--,allium fistulosum1 ,z4 ,c4 ,siberia 7from the land of the ,kirghis to ,baikal74 ,shallot--,allium ascalonicum1 ,z4 ,c4 ,modification of ,a4 cepa 7871 unknown wild4 ,rocambole--,allium ,scorodopra sum ,z4 ,c4 ,temperate ,europe4 ,chives--,allium ,schnoprasum1 ,z4 ,c4 787 ,temperate and northern ,europe1 ,siberia1 ,khamschatka1 ,north ,america 7,lake ,huron74 ,taro--,colocasia antiquorum1 ,b4 ,india1 ,malay ,archipelago1 ,z4 ,polynesia4 ,ap--,alocasia macrorrhiza1 ,z4 787 ,ceylon1 ,malay ,archipelago1 ,polynesia ,konjak--,amorphophallus ,konjak1 ,z4 787 ,japan 7874 ,dioscorea sativa1 ,z4 ,b4 787,southern ,asia especially ,malabar 7871 ,ceylon 7871 ,java 7874 ,ya--,dioscorea ,batatas1 ,z4 ,b4 787 ,china 7874 ,dioscorea japonica1 ,z4 787 ,japan 7874 ,dioscorea alata1 ,z4 787 ,east of the ,asiatic ,archipelago4 ,,cultivated ,,for ,,the ,,stems ,,or ,,leaves4 #a4 ,vegetables4 ,name and duration4 ,date4 ,origin4 ,cabbage--,brassica oleracea 7#a71 ,a4 ,europe4 7#b71 #e4 ,chinese ,cabbage--,brassica chinensis 787 ,china 7871 ,japan 7874 7#b74 ,water-,cress--,nasturtium officinale1 787 ,europe1 northern ,asia4 ,z4 ,garden-,cress--,lepidium sativum 7#a74 ,b4 ,persia 7874 ,sea ,kale--,crambe maritima1 ,z4 ,c4 ,western temperate ,europe4 ,purslane--,portulaca oleracea 7#a74 ,a4 ,from the western ,himalayas to southern ,russia and ,greece4 ,new ,zealand ,spinach--,tetragonia ,c4 ,new ,zealand and ,new ,holland4 expansa 7#a74 ,garden ,celery--,apium graveolens ,b4 ,temperate and southern 7#b74 ,europe1 northern ,africa1 western ,asia4 ,chervil--,anthriscus cerefolium 7#a74 ,c4 ,south-east of ,russia1 western temperate ,asia4 ,parsley--,petroselinum sativum 7#b74 ,c4 ,southern ,europe1 ,algeria1 ,lebanon4 ,alexanders--,smyrnium ,olus-atrum ,c4 ,southern ,europe1 ,algeria 7#b74 western temperate ,asia4 ,corn ,salad--,valerianella olitoria ,c4 ,sardinia1 ,sicily4 7#a74 ,artichoke--,cynara ,cardoon4 ,c4 ,southern ,europe1 northern ,cardunculus7#b71 ,z4 ,artichoke4 ,africa1 ,canaries1 ,madeira4 ,c4 ,derived from the cardoon4 ,lettuce--,latuca ,scariola 7#a71 7#b74 ,b4 ,southern ,europe1 northern ,africa1 western ,asia4 ,wild ,chicory--,cichorium ,intybus1 ,z4 ,c4 ,europe1 northern ,africa1 western temperate ,asia4 ,endive--,cichorium ,endivia 7#a74 ,c4 ,mediterranean basin1 ,caucasus1 ,turkestan4 ,spinach--,spinacia oleracea 7#a74 ,c4 ,persia 7874 ,orach--,atriplex hortensis 7#a74 ,c4 ,northern ,europe and ,siberia ,amaranth--,amarantus gangeticus 7#a74 787 ,tropical ,africa1 ,india 7874 ,sorrel--,rumex acetosa1 ,z4 7#a74 787 ,europe1 northern ,asia1 mountains of ,india4 ,patience ,dock--,rumex patientia1 ,z4 787 ,turkey in ,europe1 ,persia4 ,asparagus--,asparagus officinalis1 ,b4 ,europe1 western temperate ,z4 ,asia4 ,leek--,allium ampeloprasum1 ,z4 ,b4 ,mediterranean basin4 #b4 ,fodder4 ,name and duration4 ,date4 ,origin4 ,lucern--,medicago sativa1 ,z4 ,b4 ,western temperate ,asia4 ,sainfoin--,onobrychis sativa1 ,z4 ,c4 ,temperate ,europe1 south of the ,caucasus4 ,french ,honeysuckle--,hedysarum ,c4 ,centre and west of the coronarium1 ,z4 ,mediterranean basin4 ,purple ,clover--,trifolium pratense1 ,c4 ,europe1 ,algeria1 western ,z4 temperate ,asia4 ,alsike ,clover--,trifolium hybridum ,c4 ,temperate ,europe4 7#a74 ,italian ,clover--,trifolium incarnatum ,c4 ,southern ,europe4 7#a74 ,egyptian ,clover--,trifolium alexandri- ,c4 ,syria1 ,anatolia4 num 7#a74 ,ervilla--,ervum ,ervilia 7#a74 ,b4 ,mediterranean basin4 ,vetch--,vicia sativa 7#a74 ,b4 ,europe1 ,algeria1 south of the ,caucasus4 ,flat-podded ,pea--,lathyrus ,cicera 7#a74 ,b4 ,from ,spain and ,algeria to ,greece4 ,chickling ,vetch--,lathyrus sativus ,b4 ,south of the ,caucasus4 7#a74 ,ochrus--,lathyrus ochrus 7#a74 ,b4 ,italy1 ,spain4 ,fenugreek--,trigonella fnum- ,b4 ,north-east of ,india and grcum 7#a74 western temperate ,asia4 ,bird's-,foot--,ornithopus sativus 7#a74 ,b4 787,portugal1 south of ,spain1 ,algeria4 ,nonsuch--,medicago lupulina 7#a71 7#b74 ,c4 ,europe1 north of ,africa 7871 temperate ,asia4 ,corn ,spurry--,spergula arvensis 7#a74 ,b4 787,europe4 ,guinea ,grass--,panicum maximum1 ,z4 ,c4 787,tropical ,africa4 #c4 ,various ,uses4 ,name and duration4 ,date4 ,origin4 ,tea--,thea sinensis1 _/#e4 ,a4 ,assam1 ,china1 ,mantschuria4 ,flax anciently cultivated--,linum ,a4 ,mediterranean basin4 angustifolium1 ,z 7#b71 7#a74 ,flax now cultivated--,linum usitatis- ,a4 787,western ,asia 7871 derived simum 7#a74 from the preceding 7874 ,jute--,corchorus capsularis 7#a74 ,c4 787,java1 ,ceylon4 ,jute--,corchorus olitorius 7#a74 ,c4 787,north-west of ,india1 ,ceylon4 ,sumach--,rhus coriaria1 #e4 ,c4 ,mediterranean basin1 western temperate ,asia4 ,kht--,celastrus edulis1 _/#e 787 ,abyssinia1 ,arabia 7874 ,indigo--,indigofera tinctoria1 _/#e ,b4 ,india 7874 ,silver ,indigo--,indigofera argentea1 787 ,abyssinia1 ,nubia1 ,kordofan1 _/#e4 ,senaar1 ,india 7874 ,henna--,lawsonia alba1 _/#e ,a4 ,western tropical ,asia1 ,nubia 7874 ,blue ,gum--,eucalyptus globulus1 ,f#e4 ,c4 ,new ,holland4 ,cinnamon--,cinnamonum zeylanicum1 #e4 ,c4 ,ceylon1 ,india1 ,china ,grass--,bhmeria nivea1 ,z1 787 ,china1 ,japan4 _/#e4 ,hemp--,cannabis sativa 7#a74 ,a4 ,dahuria1 ,siberia4 ,white ,mulberry--,morus alba1 #e4 ,a4 787,india1 ,mongolia4 ,black ,mulberry--,morus nigra1 #e4 ,b4 787,armenia1 northern ,persia4 ,sugar-,cane--,saccharum officinaram1 ,b4 ,cochin-,china 7871 south-west ,z4 of ,china4 ,,cultivated ,,for ,,the ,,flowers ,,or ,,their ,,envelopes4 ,name and duration4 ,date4 ,origin4 ,clove--,carophyllus aromaticus1 #e4 787 ,moluccas4 ,hop--,humulus lupulus1 ,z4 ,c4 ,europe1 western temperate ,asia1 ,siberia4 ,carthamine--,carthamus tinctorius 7#a74 ,a4 ,arabia 7874 ,saffron--,crocus sativus1 ,z4 ,a4 ,southern ,italy1 ,greece1 ,asia ,minor4 ,,cultivated ,,for ,,the ,,fruits4 ,name and duration4 ,date4 ,origin4 ,shaddock--,citrus decumana1 ,f#e4 ,b4 ,pacific ,islands1 to the east of ,java4 ,citron1 ,lemon--,citrus medica1 #e4 ,b4 ,india4 ,bitter ,orange--,citrus ,aurantium ,big- ,b4 ,east of ,india4 aradia1 #e4 ,sweet ,orange--,citrus ,aurantium sinen- ,c4 ,china and ,cochin-,china4 se1 #e4 ,mandarin--,citrus nobilis1 #e4 787 ,china and ,cochin-,china4 ,mangosteen--,garcinia mangostana1 #e4 787 ,sunda ,islands1 ,malay ,peninsula4 ,ochro--,hibiscus esculentus 7#a74 ,c4 ,tropical ,africa4 ,vine--,vitis vinifera1 _/#e ,a4 ,western temperate ,asia1 ,mediterranean basin4 ,common ,jujube--,zizyphus vulgaris1 #e ,b4 ,china4 ,lotus ,jujube--,zizyphus lotus1 #e 787 ,egypt to ,marocco4 ,indian ,jujube--,zizyphus ,jujuba1 #e4 ,a4 787,burmah1 ,india4 ,mango--,mangifera indica1 #e4 ,a4 787,india4 ,tahiti ,apple--,spondias dulcis1 #e4 787 ,society1 ,friendly1 and ,fiji ,isles4 ,raspberry--,rubus idus1 _/#e4 ,c4 ,temperate ,europe and ,asia4 ,strawberry--,fragaria vesca1 ,z4 ,c4 ,temperate ,europe and western ,asia1 east of ,north ,america4 ,bird-,cherry--,prunus avium1 ,f#e4 ,b4 ,western temperate ,asia1 temperate ,europe4 ,common ,cherry--,prunus cerasus1 #e4 ,b4 ,from the ,caspian to western ,anatolia4 ,plum--,prunus domestica1 #e4 ,b4 ,anatolia1 south of the ,caucasus1 north of ,persia4 ,plum--,prunus insititia1 _/#e 787 ,southern ,europe1 ,armenia1 south of the ,caucasus1 ,talysch4 ,apricot--,prunus ,armeniaca1 #e ,a4 ,china4 ,almond--,amygdalus communis1 #e4 ,a4 ,mediterranean basin1 western temperate ,asia4 ,peach--,amygdalus ,persica1 #e4 ,a4 ,china4 ,common ,pear--,pyrus communis1 ,f#e4 ,a4 ,temperate ,europe and ,asia4 ,chinese ,pear--,pyrus sinensis1 #e4 787 ,mongolia1 ,mantschuria4 ,apple--,pyrus ,malus1 #e4 ,a4 ,europe1 ,anatolia1 south of the ,caucasus4 ,quince--,cydonia vulgaris1 #e4 ,a4 ,north of ,persia1 south of the ,caucasus1 ,anatolia4 ,loquat--,eriobotrya japonica1 #e4 787 ,japan4 ,pomegranate--,punica granatum1 ,f#e4 ,a4 ,persia1 ,afghanistan1 ,beluchistan4 ,rose ,apple--,jambosa vulgaris1 #e4 ,b4 ,malay ,archipelago1 ,cochin-,china1 ,burmah1 north-east of ,india4 ,malay ,apple--,jambosa malaccensis1 ,b4 ,malay ,archipelago1 ,malacca4 #e4 ,bottle ,gourd--,cucurbita lagenaria ,c4 ,india1 ,moluccas1 ,abyssinia4 7#a74 ,spanish ,gourd--,c4 maxima 7#a74 ,c4 787,guinea4 ,melon--,cucumis ,melo 7#a74 ,c4 ,india1 ,beluchistan1 ,guinea4 ,water-,melon--,citrullus vulgaris 7#a74 ,a4 ,tropical ,africa4 ,cucumber--,cucumis sativus 7#a74 ,a4 ,india4 ,west ,indian ,gherkin--,cucumis ,anguria ,c4 787,tropical ,africa 7874 7#a74 ,white ,gourd-,melon--,benincasa hispida 787 ,japan1 ,java4 7#a74 ,towel ,gourd--,luffa cylindrica 7#a74 ,c4 ,india4 ,angular ,luffa--,luffa acutangula 7#a74 ,c4 ,india1 ,malay ,archipelago4 ,snake ,gourd--,trichosanthes anguina ,c4 ,india 7874 7#a74 ,gooseberry--,ribes grossularia1 '#e4 ,c4 ,temperate ,europe1 north of ,africa1 ,caucasus1 western ,himalayas4 ,red ,currant--,ribes rubrum1 '#e ,c4 ,northern and temperate ,europe1 ,siberia1 ,caucasus1 ,himalayas1 north-east of the ,united ,states4 ,black ,currant--,ribes nigrum1 '#e4 ,c4 ,northern and central ,europe1 ,armenia1 ,siberia1 ,mantschuria1 western ,himalayas4 ,kaki--,diospyros ,kaki1 #e4 787 ,japan1 northern ,china4 ,date ,plum--,diospyros lotos1 #e4 787 ,china1 ,india1 ,afghanistan1 ,persia1 ,armenia1 ,anatolia4 ,olive--,olea europea1 #e4 ,a4 ,syria1 southern ,anatolia and neighbouring islands4 ,aubergine--,solanum melongena 7#a74 ,a4 ,india4 ,fig--,ficus ,carica1 #e4 ,a4 ,centre and south of the ,mediterranean basin1 from ,syria to the ,canaries4 ,bread-,fruit--,artocarpus incisa1 ,f#e4 787 ,sunda ,isles4 ,jack-,fruit--,artocarpus integrifolia1 ,b4 787,india4 ,f#e4 ,date-,palm--,phnix dactylifera1 ,a4 ,western ,asia and ,africa1 ,f#e4 from the ,euphrates to the ,canaries4 ,banana--,musa sapientum1 #e4 ,a4 ,southern ,asia4 ,oil ,palm--,elis guineensis1 ,f#e4 787 ,guinea4 ,,cultivated ,,for ,,the ,,seeds4 #a4 ,nutritive4 ,name and duration4 ,date4 ,origin4 ,litchi--,nephelium ,litchi1 #e4 787 ,southern ,china1 ,cochin-,china4 ,longan--,nephelium longana1 #e4 787 ,india1 ,pegu4 ,rambutan--,nephelium lappaceum1 #e 787 ,india1 ,pegu4 ,pistachio--,pistacia vera1 _/#e ,c4 ,syria4 ,bean--,faba vulgaris 7#a74 ,a4 ,south of the ,caspian 7874 ,lentil--,ervum lens 7#a74 ,a4 ,western temperate ,asia1 ,greece1 ,italy4 ,chick-,pea--,cicer arietinum 7#a74 ,a4 ,south of the ,caucasus and of the ,caspian4 ,lupin--,lupinus albus 7#a74 ,b4 ,sicily1 ,macedonia1 south of the ,caucasus4 ,egyptian ,lupin--,lupinus termis 7#a74 ,a4 ,from ,corsica to ,syria4 ,field-,pea--,pisum arvense 7#a74 ,c4 787,italy4 ,garden-,pea--,pisum sativum 7#a74 ,b4 ,from the south of the ,caucasus to ,persia 787 northern ,india 7874 ,soy--,dolichos soja 7#a74 ,a4 ,cochin-,china1 ,japan1 ,java4 ,pigeon-,pea--,cajanus indicus1 _/#e4 ,c4 ,equatorial ,africa4 ,carob--,ceratonia siliqua1 ,f#e4 ,a4 787,southern coast of ,anatolia1 ,syria1 ,cyrenaica 7874 ,moth--,phaseolus aconitifolius 7#a74 ,c4 ,india4 ,three-lobed ,kidney ,bean--,phaseolus ,b4 ,india1 tropical ,africa4 trilobus1 ,z 7#a74 ,green ,gram--,phaseolus ,mungo 7#a74 ,b4 787,india4 ,wall--,phaseolus ,lablab1 ,z 7#a74 ,b4 ,india4 ,lubia--,phaseolus ,lubia 7#a74 ,c4 ,western ,asia 7874 ,bambarra ,ground ,nut--,voandzeia 787 ,intertropical ,africa1 subterranea 7#a74 ,buckwheat--,fagopyrum esculentum 7#a74 ,c4 ,mantschuria1 central ,siberia4 ,tartary ,buckwheat--,fagopyrum ,c4 ,tartary1 ,siberia to ,dahuria4 tartaricum 7#a74 ,notch-seeded ,buckwheat--,fagopyrum 787 ,western ,china1 eastern emarginatum 7#a74 ,himalayas4 ,kiery--,amarantus frumentaceus 7#a74 787 ,india4 ,chestnut--,castanea vulgaris1 ,f#e 787 ,from ,portugal to the ,caspian ,sea1 eastern ,algeria4 ,varieties3 ,japan1 ,north ,america4 ,wheat--,triticum vulgare and ,a4 ,region of the ,euphrates4 varieties 7871 7#a74 ,spelt--,triticum spelta 7#a74 ,a4 ,derived from the preceding 7874 ,one-grained ,wheat--,triticum 787 ,servia1 ,greece1 ,anatolia monococcum 7#a74 7if the identity with the ,triticum boticum be admitted74 ,two-rowed ,barley--,hordeum distichon ,a4 ,western temperate ,asia4 7#a74 ,common ,barley--,hordeum vulgare 7#a74 787 ,derived from the preceding 7874 ,six-rowed ,barley--,hordeum ,a4 ,derived from the preceding hexastichon 7#a74 7874 ,rye--,secale cereale 7#a74 ,b4 ,eastern temperate ,europe 7874 ,common ,oats--,avena sativa 7#a74 ,b4 ,eastern temperate ,europe 7874 ,eastern ,oats--,avena orientalis 7#a74 ,c4 787,western ,asia 7874 ,common ,millet--,panicum miliaceum 7#a74 ,a4 ,egypt1 ,arabia4 ,italian ,millet--,panicum italicum 7#a74 ,a4 ,china1 ,japan1 ,indian ,archipelago 7874 ,sorghum--,holcus sorghum 7#a74 ,a4 ,tropical ,africa 7874 ,sweet ,sorghum--,holcus 787 ,tropical ,africa 7874 saccharatus 7#a74 ,coracan--,eleusine coracana 7#a74 ,b4 ,india4 ,rice--,oryza sativa 7#a74 ,a4 ,india1 southern ,china 7874 #b4 ,various ,uses4 ,name and duration4 ,date4 ,origin4 ,poppy--,papaver somniferum 7#a74 ,b4 ,derived from ,p4 setiferum of the ,mediterranean basin4 ,white ,mustard--,sinapis alba 7#a74 ,b4 ,temperate and southern ,black ,mustard--,sinapis nigra 7#a74 ,b4 ,europe1 north of ,africa1 western temperate ,asia4 ,gold of ,pleasure--,camelina sativa ,b4 787,temperate ,europe1 ,caucasus1 7#a74 ,siberia4 ,herbaceous ,cotton--,gossypium ,b4 ,india4 herbaceum1 '#e 7#a74 ,tree ,cotton--,gossypium arboreum1 ,b4 787,upper ,egypt4 _/#e4 ,arabian ,coffee--,coffea arabica1 #e4 ,c4 ,tropical ,africa1 ,mozambique1 ,abyssinia1 ,guinea4 ,liberian ,coffee--,coffea liberica1 ,c4 ,guinea ,angola4 ,f#e4 ,sesame--,sesamum indicum 7#a74 ,a4 ,sunda ,isles4 ,nutmeg--,myristica fragrans1 #e4 ,b4 ,moluccas4 ,castor-,oil ,plant--,ricinus communis1 ,a4 ,abyssinia1 ,sennaar1 ,kordofan4 _/#e4 ,walnut--,juglans regia1 ,f#e4 787 ,eastern temperate ,europe1 temperate ,asia4 ,black ,pepper--,piper nigrum1 _/#e4 ,b4 ,india4 ,long ,pepper--,piper longum1 '#e4 ,b4 ,india4 ,medicinal ,pepper--,piper officinalis1 ,b4 ,malay ,archipelago4 '#e4 ,betel ,pepper--,piper ,betle1 _/#e4 ,b4 ,malay ,archipelago4 ,areca ,nut--,areca ,catechu1 #e4 ,b4 ,malay ,archipelago4 ,cocoa ,nut--,cocos nucifera1 ,f#e4 787 ,malay ,archipelago 7871 ,polynesia 7874 ,,species ,,of ,,american ,,origin4 ,,cultivated ,,for ,,the ,,underground ,,parts4 ,name and duration4 ,date4 ,origin4 ,arracacha--,arracacha esculenta1 ,e4 ,new ,granada 7874 ,z 7#a74 ,jerusalem ,artichoke--,helianthus ,e4 787,north ,america 7,indiana74 tuberosus1 ,z4 ,potato--,solanum tuberosum1 ,z4 ,e4 ,chili1 ,peru 7874 ,sweet ,potato--,convolvulus batatas1 ,d4 ,tropical ,america 7where 874 ,z4 ,manioc--,manihot utilissima1 _/#e4 ,e4 ,east of tropical ,brazil4 ,arrowroot--,maranta arundinacea1 ,z4 787 ,tropical 7continental87 ,america4 ,,cultivated ,,for ,,the ,,stems ,,or ,,leaves4 ,name and duration4 ,date4 ,origin4 ,mat--,ilex paraguariensis1 #e4 ,d4 ,paraguay and western ,brazil4 ,coca--,erythroxylon ,coca1 #e4 ,d4 ,east of ,peru and ,bolivia4 ,quinine--,cinchona ,calisaya1 #e4 ,f4 ,bolivia1 southern ,peru4 ,crown ,bark--,cinchona officinalis1 ,f4 ,ecuador 7province of ,loxa74 #e4 ,red ,cinchona ,bark--,cinchona ,f4 ,ecuador 7province of succirubra1 #e4 ,cuenca74 ,nicotiana ,tabacum 7#a74 ,d4 ,ecuador and neighbouring ,tobacco-- countries4 ,nicotiana rustica 7#a74 ,e4 ,mexico7871 ,texas7871 ,california7874 ,american ,aloe--,agave americana1 #e4 ,e4 ,mexico4 ,,cultivated ,,for ,,the ,,fruits4 ,name and duration4 ,date4 ,origin4 ,sweet ,sop--,anona squamosa1 #e4 787 ,west ,india ,isles4 ,sour ,sop--,anona muricata1 #e4 787 ,west ,india ,isles4 ,custard ,apple--,anona reticulata1 #e4 787 ,west ,india ,isles1 ,new ,granada4 ,chirimoya--,anona ,cherimolia1 #e4 ,e4 ,ecuador1 ,peru 7874 ,mammee ,apple--,mammea americana1 ,f#e4 787 ,west ,india ,isles4 ,cashew ,nut--,anacardium occidentale1 787 ,tropical ,america4 ,f#e4 ,virginian ,strawberry--,fragaria ,f4 ,temperate ,north ,america4 virginiana1 ,z4 ,chili ,strawberry--,fragaria ,f4 ,chili4 chiloensis1 ,z4 ,guava--,psidium guayava1 #e4 ,e4 ,continental tropical ,america4 ,pumpkin and ,squash--,cucurbita ,e4 ,temperate ,north ,america4 ,pepo and ,melopepo 7#a74 ,prickly ,pear--,opuntia ficus indica1 ,e4 ,mexico4 #e4 ,chocho--,sechium edule 7#a74 ,e4 ,mexico 7871 ,central ,america4 ,star-,apple--,chrysophyllum ,canito1 ,e4 ,west ,india ,isles1 ,panama4 #e4 ,camito--,lucuma ,camito1 #e4 ,e4 ,peru4 ,marmalade ,plum--,lucuma mammosa1 #e4 ,e4 ,valley of the ,orinoco4 ,sapodilla--,sapota achras1 #e4 ,e4 ,campeachy1 ,isthmus of ,panama1 ,venezuela4 ,persimmon--,diospyros virginiana1 #e4 ,f4 ,eastern ,states of ,america4 ,annual ,capsicum--,capsicum annuum ,e4 ,brazil 7874 7#a74 ,shrubby ,capsicum--,capsicum ,e4 ,from the east of ,peru to frutescens1 _/#e4 ,bahia4 ,tomato--,lycopersicum esculentum ,e4 ,peru4 7#a74 ,avocado ,pear--,persea gratissima1 ,e4 ,mexico4 ,f#e4 ,papaw--,papaya vulgaris1 #e4 ,e4 ,west ,indies1 ,central ,america4 ,pine-,apple--,ananassa sativa1 ,z4 ,e4 ,mexico1 ,central ,america1 ,panama1 ,new ,granada1 ,guiana 7871 ,bahia 7874 ,,cultivated ,,for ,,the ,,seeds4 #a4 ,nutritious4 ,name and duration4 ,date4 ,origin4 ,cacao--,theobroma ,cacao1 #e4 ,d4 ,amazon and ,orinoco ,valley1 ,panama 7871 ,yucatan 7874 ,sugar ,bean--,phaseolus lunatus1 ,z4 ,e4 ,brazil4 ,quinoa--,chenopodium quinoa 7#a74 ,e4 ,new ,granada1 ,peru 7871 ,chili 7874 ,maize--,zea mays 7#a74 ,d4 ,new ,granada 7874 #b4 ,various ,uses4 ,name and duration4 ,date4 ,origin4 ,arnotto--,bixa orellana4 ,d4 ,tropical ,america4 ,barbados ,cotton--,gossypium 787 ,new ,granada 7871 ,mexico 7871 barbadense1 ,f#e4 ,west ,indies4 ,earth ,nuts--,arachis hypoga 7#a74 ,e4 ,brazil 7874 ,madia--,madia sativa 7#a74 ,e4 ,chili1 ,california4 ,,cryptogam ,,cultivated ,,for ,,the ,,whole ,,plant4 ,name and duration4 ,date4 ,origin4 ,mushroom--,agaricus campestris1 ,z ,c4 ,northern hemisphere4 ,,species ,,of ,,unknown ,,or ,,entirely ,,uncertain ,,origin4 ,common ,haricot--,phaseolus vulgaris 7#a74 ,musk ,gourd--,cucurbita moschata 7#a74 ,fig-leaved ,gourd--,cucurbita ficifolia1 ,z4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,general ,,observations ,,and ,,conclusions4 ,article ,i4--,regions where ,cultivated ,plants originated4 ,in the beginning of the nineteenth century1 the origin of most of our cultivated species was unknown4 ,linnus made no efforts to discover it1 and subsequent authors merely copied the vague or erroneous expressions by which he indicated their habitations4 ,alexander von ,humboldt expressed the true state of the science in #ahjg1 when he said1 8,the origin1 the first home of the plants most useful to man1 and which have accompanied him from the remotest epochs1 is a secret as impenetrable as the dwelling of all our domestic animals4444 ,we do not know what region produced spontaneously wheat1 barley1 oats1 and rye4 ,the plants which constitute the natural riches of all the inhabitants of the tropics1 the banana1 the papaw1 the manioc1 and maize1 have never been found in a wild state4 ,the potato presents the same phenomenon40#bagh ,at the present day1 if a few cultivated species have not yet been seen in a wild state1 this is not the case with the immense majority4 ,we know at least1 most frequently1 from what country they first came4 ,this was already the result of my work of #ahee1 which modern more extensive research has confirmed in almost all points4 ,this research has been applied to #bdg species1#bagi cultivated on a large scale by agriculturists1 or in kitchen gardens and orchards4 ,i might have added a few rarely cultivated or but little known1 or of which the cultivation has been abandoned2 but the statistical results would be essentially the same4 ,out of the #bdg species which ,i have studied1 the old world has furnished #aii1 ,america #de1 and three are still uncertain4 ,no species was common to the tropical and austral regions of the two hemispheres before cultivation4 ,allium schnoprasum1 the hop 7,humulus lupulus71 the strawberry 7,fragaria visca71 the currant 7,ribes rubrum71 the chestnut 7,castanea vulgaris71 and the mushroom 7,agaricus campestris71 were common to the northern regions of the old and new worlds4 ,i have reckoned them among the species of the old world1 since their principal habitation is there1 and there they were first cultivated4 ,a great number of species originated at once in ,europe and ,western ,asia1 in ,europe and ,siberia1 in the ,mediterranean basin and ,western ,asia1 in ,india and the ,asiatic archipelago1 in the ,west ,indies and ,mexico1 in these two regions and ,columbia1 in ,peru and ,brazil1 or in ,peru and ,columbia1 etc41 etc4 ,they may be counted in the table4 ,this is a proof of the impossibility of subdividing the continents and of classing the islands in well-defined natural regions4 ,whatever be the method of division1 there will always be species common to two1 three1 four1 or more regions1 and others confined to a small portion of a single country4 ,the same facts may be observed in the case of uncultivated species4 ,a noteworthy fact is the absence in some countries of indigenous cultivated plants4 ,for instance1 we have none from the ,arctic or ,antarctic regions1 where1 it is true1 the floras consist of but few species4 ,the ,united ,states1 in spite of their vast territory1 which will soon support hundreds of millions of inhabitants1 only yields1 as nutritious plants worth cultivating1 the ,jerusalem artichoke and the gourds4 ,zizana aquatica1 which the natives gathered wild1 is a grass too inferior to our cereals and to rice to make it worth the trouble of planting it4 ,they had a few bulbs and edible berries1 but they have not tried to cultivate them1 having early received the maize1 which was worth far more4 ,patagonia and the ,cape have not furnished a single species4 ,australia and ,new ,zealand have furnished one tree1 ,eucalyptus globulus1 and a vegetable1 not very nutritious1 the ,tetragonia4 ,their floras were entirely wanting in gramin similar to the cereals1 in leguminous plants with edible seeds1 in ,crucifer with fleshy roots4#bahj ,in the moist tropical region of ,australia1 rice and ,alocasia macrorhiza have been found wild1 or perhaps naturalized1 but the greater part of the country suffers too much from drought to allow these species to become widely diffused4 ,in general1 the austral regions had very few annuals1 and among their restricted number none offered evident advantages4 ,now annual species are the easiest to cultivate4 ,they have played a great part in the ancient agriculture of other countries4 ,in short1 the original distribution of cultivated species was very unequal4 ,it had no proportion with the needs of man or the extent of territory4 ,article ,,ii4--,number and ,nature of ,cultivated ,species at ,different ,epochs4 ,the species marked ,a in the table on pp4 #dcg-ddf must be regarded as of very ancient cultivation4 ,they are forty-four in number4 ,some of the species marked ,b are probably as ancient1 though it is impossible to prove it4 ,the five ,american species marked ,d are probably cultivated as early as those in the category ,c1 or the most ancient in the category ,b4 ,as might be supposed1 the species ,a are especially plants provided with roots1 seeds1 and fruits proper for the food of man4 ,afterwards come a few species having fruits agreeable to the taste1 or textile1 tinctorial1 oil-producing plants1 or yielding stimulating drinks by infusion or fermentation4 ,there are among these only two green vegetables1 and no fodder4 ,the orders which predominate are the ,crucifer1 ,leguminos1 and ,graminace4 ,the number of annuals is twenty-two out of the forty-four1 or fifty per cent4 ,out of five ,american species marked ,d1 two are annuals4 ,in the category ,a1 there are two biennials1 and ,d has none4 ,among all the ,phanerogams the annuals are not more than fifty per cent41 and the biennials one or at most two per cent4 ,it is clear that at the beginning of civilization plants which yield an immediate return are most prized4 ,they offer1 moreover1 this advantage1 that their cultivation is easily diffused or increased1 either because of the abundance of seed1 or the same species may be grown in summer in the north1 and in winter or all the year round in the tropics4 ,herbaceous perennial plants are rare in categories ,a and ,d4 ,they are only from two to four per cent41 unless we include ,brassica oleracea1 and the variety of flax which is usually perennial 7,l4 angustifolium71 cultivated by the ,swiss lake-dwellers4 ,in nature herbaceous perennials constitute about forty per cent4 of the ,phanerogams4#baha ,a and ,d include twenty ligneous species out of forty-nine1 that is about forty-one per cent4 ,they are in the proportion of forty-three per cent4 of the ,phanerogams4 ,thus the earliest husbandmen employed chiefly annuals or biennials1 rather fewer woody species1 and far fewer herbaceous perennials4 ,these differences are due to the relative facility of cultivation1 and the proportion of the evidently useful species in each division4 ,the species of the old world marked ,b have been in cultivation for more than two thousand years1 but perhaps some of them belong to category ,a4 ,the ,american species marked ,e were cultivated before the discoveries of ,columbus1 perhaps for more than two thousand years4 ,many other species marked 787 in the table date probably from an ancient epoch1 but as they chiefly exist in countries without a literature and without archological records we do not know their history4 ,it is useless to insist upon such doubtful categories2 on the other hand1 the plants which we know to have been first cultivated in the old world less than two thousand years ago1 and in ,america since its discovery1 may be compared with plants of ancient cultivation4 ,these species of modern cultivation number sixty-one in the old world1 marked ,c1 and six in ,america1 marked ,f2 sixty-seven in all4 ,classed according to their duration1 they number thirty-seven per cent4 annuals1 seven to eight per cent4 biennials1 thirty-three per cent4 herbaceous perennials1 and twenty-two to twenty-three per cent4 woody species4 ,the proportion of annuals or biennials is also here larger than in the whole number of plants1 but it is not so large as among species of very ancient cultivation4 ,the proportions of perennials and woody species are less than in the whole vegetable kingdom1 but they are higher than among the species ,a1 of very ancient cultivation4 ,the plants cultivated for less than two thousand years are chiefly artificial fodders1 which the ancients scarcely knew2 then bulbs1 vegetables1 medicinal plants 7,cinchonas72 plants with edible fruits1 or nutritious seeds 7buckwheats7 or aromatic seeds 7coffee74 ,men have not discovered and cultivated within the last two thousand years a single species which can rival maize1 rice1 the sweet potato1 the potato1 the bread-fruit1 the date1 cereals1 millets1 sorghums1 the banana1 soy4 ,these date from three1 four1 or five thousand years1 perhaps even in some cases six thousand years4 ,the species first cultivated during the ,grco-,roman civilization and later nearly all answer to more varied or more refined needs4 ,a great dispersion of the ancient species from one country to another took place1 and at the same time a selection of the best varieties developed in each species4 ,the introductions within the last two thousand years took place in a very irregular and intermittent manner4 ,i cannot quote a single species cultivated for the first time after that date by the ,chinese1 the great cultivators of ancient times4 ,the peoples of ,southern and ,western ,asia innovated in a certain degree by cultivating the buckwheats1 several cucurbitace1 a few alliums1 etc4 ,in ,europe1 the ,romans and several peoples in the ,middle ,ages introduced the cultivation of a few vegetables and fruits1 and that of several fodders4 ,in ,africa a few species were then first cultivated separately4 ,after the voyages of ,vasco di ,gama and of ,columbus a rapid diffusion took place of the species already cultivated in either hemisphere4 ,these transports continued during three centuries without any introduction of new species into cultivation4 ,in the two or three hundred years which preceded the discovery of ,america1 and the two hundred which followed1 the number of cultivated species remained almost stationary4 ,the ,american strawberries1 ,diospyros virginiana1 sea-kale1 and ,tetragonia expansa introduced in the eighteenth century1 have but little importance4 ,we must come to the middle of the present century to find new cultures of any value from the utilitarian point of view1 such as ,eucalyptus globulus of ,australia and the ,cinchonas of ,south ,america4 ,the mode of introduction of the latter species shows the great change which has taken place in the means of transport4 ,previously the cultivation of a plant began in the country where it existed1 whereas the ,australian ,eucalyptus was first planted and sown in ,algeria1 and the ,cinchonas of ,america in the south of ,asia4 ,up to our own day botanical or private gardens had only diffused species already cultivated somewhere2 now they introduce absolutely new cultures4 ,the royal garden at ,kew is distinguished in this respect1 and other botanical gardens and acclimatization societies in ,england and elsewhere are making similar attempts4 ,it is probable that tropical countries will greatly profit by this in the course of a century4 ,others will also find their advantage from the growing facility in the transport of commodities4 ,when a species has been once cultivated1 it is rarely1 perhaps never completely1 abandoned4 ,it continues to be here and there cultivated in backward countries1 or those whose climate is especially favourable4 ,i have passed over some of these species which are nearly abandoned1 such as dyer's woad 7,isatis tinctoria71 mallow 7,malva sylvestris71 a vegetable used by the ,romans1 and certain medicinal plants formerly much used1 such as fennel1 cummin1 etc41 but it is certain that they are still grown in some places4 ,the competition of species causes the cultivation of some to diminish1 of others to increase2 besides1 vegetable dyes and medicinal plants are rivalled by the discoveries of chemists4 ,woad1 madder1 indigo1 mint1 and several simples must give way before the invasion of chemical products4 ,it is possible that men may succeed in making oil1 sugar1 and flour1 as honey1 butter1 and jellies are already made1 without employing organic substances4 ,nothing1 for instance1 would more completely change agricultural conditions than the manufacture of flour from its known inorganic elements4 ,in the actual state of science1 there are still products which will be more and more required of the vegetable kingdom2 these are textile substances1 tan1 indiarubber1 gutta-percha1 and certain spices4 ,as the forests where these are found are gradually destroyed1 and these substances are at the same time more in demand1 there will be the greater inducement to cultivate certain species4 ,these usually belong to tropical countries4 ,it is in these regions also1 particularly in ,south ,america1 that fruit trees will be more cultivated--those of the order ,anonace for instance1 of which the natives and botanists already recognize the value4 ,probably the number of plants suitable for fodder1 and of forest trees which can live in hot dry countries1 will be increased4 ,the additions will not be numerous in temperate climates1 nor especially in cold regions4 ,from these data and reflections it is probable that at the end of the nineteenth century men will cultivate on a large scale and for use about three hundred species4 ,this is a small proportion of the one hundred and twenty or one hundred and forty thousand in the vegetable kingdom2 but in the animal world the proportion of creatures subject to the will of man is far smaller4 ,there are not perhaps more than two hundred species of domestic animals--that is1 reared for our use1--and the animal kingdom reckons millions of species4 ,in the great class of molluscs the oyster alone is cultivated1 and in that of the ,articulata1 which counts ten times more species than the vegetable kingdom1 we can only name the bee and two or three silk-producing insects4 ,doubtless the number of species of animals and vegetables which may be reared or cultivated for pleasure or curiosity is very large3 witness menageries and zoological and botanical gardens1 but ,i am only speaking here of useful plants and animals1 in general and customary employment4 ,article ,,iii4--,cultivated ,plants known or not known in a ,wild ,state4 ,science has succeeded in discovering the geographical origin of nearly all cultivated species2 but there is less progress in the knowledge of species in a natural state--that is wild1 far from cultivation and dwellings4 ,there are species which have not been discovered in this condition1 and others whose specific identity and truly wild condition are doubtful4 ,in the following enumeration ,i have classed the species according to the degree of certainty as to the wild character1 and the nature of the doubts where such exist4#bahb #a4 ,spontaneous species1 that is wild1 seen by several botanists far from dwellings and cultivation1 with every appearance of indigenous plants1 and under a form identical with one of the cultivated varieties4 ,these are the species which are not enumerated below2 they are #afi in number4 ,among these #afi species1 #ca belong to the categories ,a and ,d1 of very ancient cultivation1 #ef have been in cultivation less than two thousand years1 ,c1 and the others are of modern or unknown date4 #b4 ,seen and gathered in the same conditions1 but by a single botanist in a single locality4 ,three species4 ,cucurbita maxima1 ,faba vulgaris1 ,nicotiana ,tabacum4 #c4 ,seen and mentioned but not gathered in the same conditions by one or two authors and botanists1 more or less ancient1 who may have been mistaken4 ,two species4 ,carthamus tinctorius1 ,triticum vulgare4 #d4 ,gathered wild by botanists in several localities under a form slightly different to those which are cultivated1 but which most authors have no hesitation in classing with the species4 ,four species4 ,olea europa1 ,oryza sativa1 ,solanum tuberosum1 ,vitis vinifera4 #e4 ,wild1 gathered by botanists in several localities under forms considered by some botanists as constituting different species1 while others treat them as varieties4 ,fifteen species4 ,allium ampeloprasum porrum1 ,cichorium ,endivia1 var41 ,crocus sativus1 var41 99,cucumis melo1 ,cucurbita ,pepo1 ,helianthus tuberosus1 ,latuca scariola sativa1 ,linum usitatissimum annuum1 ,lycopersicum esculentium1 ,papaver somniferum1 ,pyrus nivalis var41 99,ribes grossularia1 ,solanum ,melongena1 99,spinacia oleracea var41 ,triticum monococcum4 #f4 ,subspontaneous1 that is half-wild1 similar to one or other of the cultivated forms1 but possibly plants escaped from cultivation1 judging from the locality4 ,twenty-four species4 ,agava americana1 ,amarantus gangeticus1 ,amygdalus persica1 ,areca catechu1 99,avena orientalis1 ,avena sativa1 99,cajanus indicus1 ,cicer arietinum1 ,citrus decumana1 ,cucurbita moschata1 ,dioscorea japonica1 ,ervum ,ervilia1 ,ervum lens1 ,fagopyrum emarginatum1 ,gossypium barbadense1 ,holcus saccharatus1 ,holcus sorghum1 ,indigofera tinctoria1 ,lepidum sativum1 ,maranta arundinacea1 ,nicotiana rustica1 ,panicum miliaceum1 ,raphanus sativus1 ,spergula arvensis4 #g4 ,subspontaneous like the preceding1 but different enough from the cultivated varieties to lead the majority of authors to regard them as distinct species4 ,three species4 99,allium ascalonicum 7variety of ,a4 cepa871 ,allium scorodoprasum 7variety of ,a4 sativum871 ,secale cereale 7variety of one of the perennial species of ,secale874 #h4 ,not discovered in a wild state nor even half-wild1 derived perhaps from cultivated species at the beginning of agriculture1 but too different not to be commonly regarded as distinct species4 ,three species4 ,hordeum hexastichon 7derived from ,h4 distichon871 ,hordeum vulgare 7derived from ,h4 distichon871 ,triticum spelta 7derived from ,t4 vulgare87 #i4 ,not discovered in a wild state nor even half-wild1 but originating in countries which are not completely explored1 and belonging perhaps to little-known wild species of these countries4 ,six species4 ,arachis hypogea1 ,carophyllus aromaticus1 ,convolvulus batatas1 99,dolichos lubia1 ,manihot utilissima1 ,phaseolus vulgaris4 #aj4 ,not found in a wild state1 nor even half-wild1 but originating in countries which are not sufficiently explored1 or in similar countries which cannot be defined1 more different than the latter from known wild species4 ,eighteen species4 ,amorphophallus konjak1 ,arracacha esculenta1 ,brassica chinensis1 ,capsicum annuum1 ,chenopodium quinoa1#bahc ,citrus nobilis1 ,cucurbita ficifolia1 ,dioscorea alata1 ,dioscorea ,batatas1 ,dioscorea sativa1 ,eleusine coracana1 ,lucuma mammosa1 ,nephelium ,litchi1 99,pisum sativum1 ,saccharum officinarum1 ,sechium edule1 99,tricosanthes anguina1 ,zea mays4 ,total #bdg species4 ,these figures show that there are #aic species known to be wild1 #bg doubtful1 as half-wild1 and #bg not found wild4 ,i believe that these last will be found some time or other1 if not under one of the cultivated forms1 at least in an allied form called species or variety according to the author4 ,to attain this result tropical countries will have to be more thoroughly explored1 collectors must be more attentive to localities1 and more floras must be published of countries now little known1 and good monographs of certain genera based upon the characters which vary least in cultivation4 ,a few species having their origin in countries fairly well explored1 and which it is impossible to confound with others because each is unique in its genus1 have not been found wild1 or only once1 which leads us to suppose that they are extinct in nature1 or rapidly becoming so4 ,i allude to maize and the bean 7see pp4 #chg and #caf74 ,i mention also in ,article ,,iv4 other plants which appear to be becoming extinct in the last few thousand years4 ,these last belong to genera which contain many species1 which renders the hypothesis less probable2#bahd but1 on the other hand1 they are rarely seen at a distance from cultivated ground1 and they hardly ever become naturalized1 that is wild1 which shows a certain feebleness or a tendency to become the prey of animals and parasites4 ,the #fg species cultivated for less than two thousand years 7,c1 ,f7 are all found wild1 except the species marked with an asterisk1 which have not been found or which are subject to doubts4 ,this is a proportion of eighty-three per cent4 ,what is more remarkable is that the great majority of species cultivated for more than four thousand years 7,a71 or in ,america for three thousand or four thousand years 7,d71 still exist wild in a form identical with some one of the cultivated varieties4 ,their number is thirty-one out of forty-nine1 or sixty-three per cent4 ,in categories #i and #aj there are only two of these species of very ancient cultivation1 or four per cent41 and these are two species which probably exist no longer as wild plants4 ,i believed1 priori1 that a great number of the species cultivated for more than four thousand years would have altered from their original condition to such a degree that they could no longer be recognized among wild plants4 ,it appears1 on the contrary1 that the forms anterior to cultivation have commonly remained side by side with those which cultivators employed and propagated from century to century4 ,this may be explained in two ways3 #a4 ,the period of four thousand years is short compared to the duration of most of the specific forms in phanerogamous plants4 #b4 ,the cultivated species receive1 outside of cultivated ground1 continual reinforcements from the seeds which man1 birds1 and different natural agents disperse and transport in a thousand ways4 ,naturalizations produced in this manner often confound the wild plants with the cultivated ones1 and the more easily that they fertilize each other since they belong to the same species4 ,this fact is clearly demonstrated in the case of a plant of the old world cultivated in ,america1 in gardens1 and which1 later1 becomes naturalized on a large scale in the open country or the woods1 like the cardoon at ,buenos ,ayres1 and the oranges in several ,american countries4 ,cultivation widens areas1 and supplements the deficits which the natural reproduction of the species may present4 ,there are1 however1 a few exceptions1 which are worth mentioning in a separate article4 ,article ,,iv4--,cultivated ,plants which are ,extinct1 or becoming ,extinct in a ,wild ,state4 ,these species to which ,i allude present three remarkable characters3-- #a4 ,they have not been found wild1 or only once or twice1 and often doubtfully1 although the regions whence they come have been visited by several botanists4 #b4 ,they have not the faculty of sowing themselves1 and propagating indefinitely outside cultivated ground4 ,in other terms1 in such cases they do not pass out of the condition of adventitious plants4 #c4 ,it cannot be supposed that they are derived within historic times from certain allied species4 ,these three characters are found united in the following species3--,bean 7,faba vulgaris71 chick-pea 7,cicer arietinum71 ervilla 7,ervum ,ervilia71 lentil 7,ervum lens71 tobacco 7,nicotiana tabacum71 wheat 7,triticum vulgare71 maize 7,zea mays74 ,the sweet potato 7,convolvulus batatas7 should be added if the kindred species were better known to be distinct1 and the carthamine 7,carthamus tinctorius7 if the interior of ,arabia had been explored1 and we had not found a mention of the plant in an ,arabian author4 ,all these species1 and probably others of little-known countries or genera1 appear to be extinct or on their way to become so4 ,supposing they ceased to be cultivated1 they would disappear1 whereas the majority of cultivated plants have become somewhere naturalized1 and would persist in a wild state4 ,the seven species mentioned just now1 excepting tobacco1 have seeds full of fecula1 which are the food of birds1 rodents1 and different insects1 and have not the power of passing entire through their alimentary canal4 ,this is probably the sole or principal cause of their inferiority in the struggle for existence4 ,thus my researches into cultivated plants show that certain species are extinct or becoming extinct since the historical epoch1 and that not in small islands but on vast continents without any great modifications of climate4 ,this is an important result for the history of all organic beings in all epochs4 ,article ,v4--,concluding ,remarks4 #a4 ,cultivated plants do not belong to any particular category1 for they belong to fifty-one different families4 ,they are1 however1 all phanerogamous except the mushroom 7,agaricus campestris74 #b4 ,the characters which have most varied in cultivation are1 beginning with the most variable3 a4 ,the size1 form1 and colour of the fleshy parts1 whatever organ they belong to 7root1 bulb1 tubercle1 fruit1 or seed71 and the abundance of fecula1 sugar1 and other substances which are contained in these parts2 b4 ,the number of seeds1 which is often in inverse ratio to the development of the fleshy parts of the plant2 c4 ,the form1 size1 or pubescence of the floral organs which persist round the fruits or seeds2 d4 ,the rapidity of the phenomena of vegetation--whence often results the quality of ligneous or herbaceous plants1 and of perennial1 biennial1 or annual4 ,the stems1 leaves1 and flowers vary little in plants cultivated for those organs4 ,the last formations of each yearly or biennial growth vary most2 in other terms1 the results of vegetation vary more than the organs which cause vegetation4 #c4 ,i have not observed the slightest indication of an adaptation to cold4 ,when the cultivation of a species advances towards the north 7maize1 flax1 tobacco1 etc471 it is explained by the production of early varieties1 which can ripen before the cold season1 or by the custom of cultivating in the north1 in summer1 the species which in the south are sown in winter4 ,the study of the northern limits of wild species had formerly led me to the same conclusion1 for they have not changed within historic times although the seeds are carried frequently and continually to the north of each limit4 ,periods of more than four or five thousand years1 or changements of form and duration1 are needed apparently to produce a modification in a plant which will allow it to support a greater degree of cold4 #d4 ,the classification of varieties made by agriculturists and gardeners are generally based on those characters which vary most 7form1 size1 colour1 taste of the fleshy parts1 beard in the ears of corn1 etc474 ,botanists are mistaken when they follow this example2 they should consult those more fixed characters of the organs for the sake of which the species are not cultivated4 #e4 ,a non-cultivated species being a group of more or less similar forms1 among which subordinate groups may often be distinguished 7races1 varieties1 sub-varieties71 it may have happened that two or more of these slightly differing forms may have been introduced into cultivation4 ,this must have been the case especially when the habitation of a species is extensive1 and yet more when it is disjunctive4 ,the first case is probably that of the cabbage 7,brassica71 of flax1 bird-cherry 7,prunus avium71 the common pear1 etc4 ,the second is probably that of the gourd1 the melon1 and trefoil haricot1 which existed previous to cultivation both in ,india and ,africa4 #f4 ,no distinctive character is known between a naturalized plant which arose several generations back from a cultivated plant1 and a wild plant sprung from plants which have always been wild4 ,in any case1 in the transition from cultivated plant to wild plant1 the particular features which are propagated by grafting are not preserved by seedlings4 ,for instance1 the olive tree which has become wild is the oleaster1 the pear bears smaller fruits1 the ,spanish chestnut yields a common fruit4 ,for the rest1 the forms naturalized from cultivated species have not yet been sufficiently observed from generation to generation4 ,m4 ,sagot has done this for the vine4 ,it would be interesting to compare in the same manner with their cultivated forms ,citrus1 ,persica1 and the cardoon1 naturalized in ,america1 far from their original home1 as also the ,agave and the prickly pear1 wild in ,america1 with their naturalized varieties in the old world4 ,we should know exactly what persists after a temporary state of cultivation4 #g4 ,a species may have had1 previous to cultivation1 a restricted habitation1 and subsequently occupy an immense area as a cultivated and sometimes a naturalized plant4 #h4 ,in the history of cultivated plants1 ,i have noticed no trace of communication between the peoples of the old and new worlds before the discovery of ,america by ,columbus4 ,the ,scandinavians1 who had pushed their excursions as far as the north of the ,united ,states1 and the ,basques of the ,middle ,ages1 who followed whales perhaps as far as ,america1 do not seem to have transported a single cultivated species4 ,neither has the ,gulf ,stream produced any effect4 ,between ,america and ,asia two transports of useful plants perhaps took place1 the one by man 7the ,batata1 or sweet potato7 the other by the agency of man or of the sea 7the cocoa-nut palm74 ,,footnotes3 #a ,hooker1 ,flora ,tasmani1 i4 p4 cx4 #b ,bretschneider1 ,on the ,study and ,value of ,chinese ,botanical ,works1 p4 #g4 #c ,de ,naidaillac1 ,les ,premiers ,hommes et les ,temps ,prhistoriques1 i4 pp4 #bff1 #bfh4 ,the absence of traces of agriculture among these remains is1 moreover1 corroborated by ,heer and ,cartailhac1 both well versed in the discoveries of archology4 #d ,m4 ,montelius1 from ,cartailhac1 ,revue1 #ahge1 p4 #bcg4 #e ,heer1 ,die ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1 in #dto1 ,zrich1 #ahfe4 ,see the article on 8,flax40 #f ,perrin1 tude ,prhistorique de la ,savoie1 in #dto1 #ahgj2 ,castelfranco1 ,notizie intorno alla ,stazione lacustre di ,lagozza2 and ,sordelli1 ,sulle piante della torbiera della ,lagozza1 in the ,actes de la ,soc4 ,ital4 des ,scien4 ,nat41 #ahhj4 #g ,much1 ,mittheil d4 ,anthropol4 ,ges4 in ,wien1 vol4 vi42 ,sacken1 ,sitzber4 ,akad4 ,wien41 vol4 vi4 ,letter of ,heer on these works and analysis of them in ,naidaillac1 i4 p4 #bdg4 #h ,alph4 de ,candolle1 ,gographie ,botanique ,raisonne1 chap4 x4 p4 #ajee2 chap4 xi41 xix41 xxvii4 #i ,unger1 ,versuch einer ,geschichte der ,pflanzenwelt1 #aheb4 #aj ,forbes1 ,on the ,connection between the ,distribution of the ,existing ,fauna and ,flora of the ,british ,isles1 with the ,geological ,changes which have affected their ,area1 in #hvo1 ,memoirs of the ,geological ,survey1 vol4 i4 #ahdf4 #aa ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gographie ,botanique ,raisonne1 chap4 vii4 and x4 #ab ,ibid41 chap4 viii4 p4 #hjd4 #ac ,bretscheider1 ,on the ,study and ,value1 etc41 p4 #ae4 #ad ,ibid4 #ae ,ibid41 p4 #bc4 #af ,atsuma-gusa4 ,recueil pour servir la connaissance de l'extrme ,orient1 ,turretini1 vol4 vi41 pp4 #bjj1 #bic4 #ag ,there are in the ,french language two excellent works1 which give the sum of modern knowledge with regard to the ,east and ,egypt4 ,the one is the ,manuel de l',histoire ,ancienne de l',orient1 by ,franois ,lenormand1 #c vols4 in #abmo1 ,paris1 #ahfi2 the other1 ,l',histoire ,ancienne des ,peuples de l',orient1 by ,maspero1 #a vol4 in #hvo1 ,paris1 #ahgh4 #ah ,nemnich1 ,allgemeines polyglotten-,lexicon der ,naturgeschichte1 #b vols4 in #dto4 #ai ,hehn1 ,kulturpflanzen und ,hausthiere in ihren ,uebergang aus ,asien1 in #hvo1 #crd edit4 #ahgg4 #bj ,bretschneider1 ,on the ,study and ,value of ,chinese ,botanical ,works1 with ,notes on the ,history of ,plants and ,geographical ,botany from ,chinese ,sources1 in #hvo1 #ea pp41 with illustrations1 ,foochoo1 without date1 but the preface bears the date ,dec4 #ahgj4 ,notes on ,some ,botanical ,questions1 in #hvo1 #ad pp41 #ahhj4 #ba ,wilson's dictionary contains names of plants1 but botanists have more confidence in the names indicated by ,roxburgh in his ,flora ,indica 7edit4 of #ahcb1 #c vols4 in #hvo71 and in ,piddington's ,english ,index to the ,plants of ,india1 ,calcutta1 #ahcb4 ,scholars find a greater number of words in the texts1 but they do not give sufficient proof of the sense of these words4 ,as a rule1 we have not in ,sanskrit what we have in ,hebrew1 ,greek1 and ,chinese--a quotation of phrases concerning each word translated into a modern language4 #bb ,the best work on the plant-names in the ,old ,testament is that of ,rosenmller1 ,handbuch der biblischen ,alterkunde1 in #hvo1 vol4 iv41 ,leipzig1 #ahcj4 ,a good short work1 in ,french1 is ,la ,botanique de la ,bible1 by ,fred4 ,hamilton1 in #hvo1 ,nice1 #ahga4 #bc ,reynier1 a ,swiss botanist1 who had been in ,egypt1 has given the sense of many plant-names in the ,talmud4 ,see his volumes entitled conomie ,publique et ,rurale des ,arabes et des ,juifs1 in #hvo1 #ahbj2 and conomie ,publique et ,rurale des gyptiens et des ,carthaginois1 in #hvo1 ,lausanne1 #ahbc4 ,the more recent works of ,duschak and ,lw are not based upon a knowledge of ,eastern plants1 and are unintelligible to botanists because of names in ,syriac and ,hebrew characters4 #bd ,adolphe ,pictet1 ,les ,origines des ,peuples ,indo-,europens1 #c vols1 in #hvo1 ,paris1 #ahgh4 #be ,a certain number of species whose origin is well known1 such as the carrot1 sorrel1 etc41 are mentioned only in the summary at the beginning of the last part1 with an indication of the principal facts concerning them4 #bf ,some species are cultivated sometimes for their roots and sometimes for their leaves or seeds4 ,in other chapters will be found species cultivated sometimes for their leaves 7as fodder7 or for their seeds1 etc4 ,i have classed them according to their commonest use4 ,the alphabetical index refers to the place assigned to each species4 #bg ,see the young state of the plant when the part of the stem below the cotyledons is not yet swelled4 ,turpin gives a drawing of it in the ,annales des ,sciences ,naturelles1 series #a1 vol xxi4 pl4 #e4 #bh ,in ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,raisonne1 p4 #hbf4 #bi ,linnus1 ,spec4 ,plant1 p4 #ice4 #cj ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 i4 p4 #bbe4 #ca ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient1 i4 p4 #djj4 #cb ,buhse1 ,aufzhlung ,transcaucasien1 p4 #cj4 #cc ,hooker1 ,flora of ,british ,india1 i4 p4 #aff4 #cd ,maximowicz1 ,primiti ,flor ,amurensis1 p4 #dg4 #ce ,thunberg1 ,fl4 ,jap41 p4 #bfc4 #cf ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enum4 ,plant ,jap41 i4 p4 #ci4 #cg ,unger1 ,pflanzen des ,alten gyptens1 p4 #ea1 figs4 #bd and #bi4 #ch ,in my manuscript dictionary of common names1 drawn from the floras of thirty years ago4 #ci ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 iii4 p4 #abf4 #dj ,webb1 ,phytogr4 ,canar41 p4 #hc2 ,iter4 ,hisp41 p4 #ga2 ,bentham1 ,fl4 ,hong ,kong1 p4 #ag2 ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #aff4 #da ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,prod4 ,fl4 ,hisp41 iii4 p4 #gdh2 ,viviani1 ,flor4 ,dalmat41 iii4 p4 #ajd2 ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 i4 p4 #dja4 #db ,webb1 ,phytographia ,canariensis1 i4 p4 #hc4 #dc ,webb1 ,iter4 ,hispaniense1 #ahch1 p4 #gb4 #dd ,carrire1 ,origine des ,plantes ,domestiques dmontre par la ,culture du ,radis ,sauvage1 in #hvo1 #bd pp41 #ahfi4 #de ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross42 ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient4 ,works on the flora of the valley of the ,amur4 #df ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gographie ,botanique ,raisonne1 p4 #fed4 #dg ,delalande1 ,hdic et ,houat1 #hvo pamphlet1 ,nantes1 #ahej1 p4 #aji4 #dh ,hardouin1 ,renou1 and ,leclerc1 ,catalogue du ,calvados1 p4 #he2 ,de ,brebisson1 ,fl4 de ,normandie1 p4 #be4 #di ,watson1 ,cybele1 i4 p4 #aei4 #ej ,babington1 ,manual of ,brit4 ,bot41 #bnd edit41 p4 #bh4 #ea ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 i4 p4 #aei4 #eb ,grisebach1 ,spicilegium ,fl4 ,rumel41 i4 p4 #bfe4 #ec ,fries1 ,summa1 p4 #cj4 #ed ,miquel1 ,disquisitio pl4 regn4 ,batav4 #ee ,moritzi1 ,dict4 ,ind4 des ,noms ,vulgaires4 #ef ,moritzi1 ibid42 ,viviani1 ,fl4 ,dalmat41 iii4 p4 #cbb4 #eg ,neilreich1 ,fl4 ,wien1 p4 #ejb4 #eh ,linnus1 ,fl4 ,suecica1 ,no4 #edj4 #ei ,h4 ,davies1 ,welsh ,botanology1 p4 #fc4 #fj ,in turnips and swedes the swelled part is1 as in the radish1 the lower part of the stem1 below the cotyledons1 with a more or less persistent part of the root4 7,see ,turpin4 ,ann4 ,sc4 ,natur41 ser4 #a1 vol4 xxi47 ,in the ,kohl-rabi 7,brassica oleracea caulo-rapa7 it is the stem4 #fa ,this classification has been the subject of a paper by ,augustin ,pyramus de ,candolle1 ,transactions of the ,horticultural ,society1 vol4 v4 #fb ,fries1 ,summa ,veget4 ,scand41 i4 p4 #bi4 #fc ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 i4 p4 #baf4 #fd ,boissier1 ,flora ,orientalis2 ,sir ,j4 ,hooker1 ,flora of ,british ,india2 ,thunberg1 ,flora ,japonica2 ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enumeratio ,plantarum ,japonicarum4 #fe ,piddington1 ,index4 #ff ,kmpfer1 ,amn41 p4 #hbb4 #fg ,davies1 ,welsh ,botanology1 p4 #fe4 #fh ,moritzi1 ,dict4 ,,ms41 compiled from published floras4 #fi ,threlkeld1 ,synopsis ,stirpium ,hibernicarum1 #a vol4 in #hvo1 #agbg4 #gj ,moritzi1 ,dict4 ,,ms4 #ga ,rosenmller1 ,biblische ,naturgeschichte1 vol4 i41 gives none4 #gb ,linnus1 ,species1 p4 #cfa2 ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochinchinensis1 p4 #bbe4 #gc ,maximowicz1 ,diagnoses ,plantarum ,japonic et ,manshuri1 in ,mlanges ,biologiques du ,bulletin de l',acad41 ,st4 ,petersburg1 decad #ac1 p4 #ah4 #gd ,dioscorides1 ,mat4 ,med41 #a4 #b1 c4 #aci2 ,columella1 #a4 #aa1 c4 #c1 #ah1 #ce2 ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alten1 p4 #efj4 #ge ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,plant41 #a4 #ai1 c4 #e4 #gf ,nemnich1 ,polygl4 ,lexicon1 ii4 p4 #acac4 #gg ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alten1 p4 #efj2 ,heldreich1 ,nutzpflanzen ,griechenlands2 ,langkavel1 ,bot4 der ,spteren ,griechen4 #gh ,sprengel1 ,dioscoridis1 etc41 ii4 p4 #dfb4 #gi ,olivier de ,serres1 ,thtre de l',agriculture1 p4 #dga4 #hj ,bauhin1 ,hist4 ,pl41 iii4 p4 #aed4 #ha ,the best information about the cultivation of this plant was given by ,bancroft to ,sir ,w4 ,hooker1 and may be found in the ,botanical ,magazine1 pl4 #cjib4 ,a4 ,p4 de ,candolle published1 in ,la #e;e ,notice sur les ,plantes ,rares des ,jardin ,bot4 de ,genve1 an illustration showing the principal bulb4 #hb ,grisebach1 ,flora of ,british ,west-,india ,islands4 #hc ,bertoloni1 ,flora ,italica1 ii4 p4 #adf2 ,decaisne1 ,recherches sur la ,garance1 p4 #fh2 ,boissier1 ,flora ,orientalis1 iii4 p4 #ag2 ,ledebour1 ,flora ,rossica1 ii4 p4 #dje4 #hd ,cosson and ,germain1 ,flore des ,environs de ,paris1 ii4 p4 #cfe4 #he ,kirschleger1 ,flore d',alsace1 i4 p4 #cei4 #hf ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,prodromus ,flor ,hispanic1 ii4 p4 #cjg4 #hg ,ball1 ,spicilegium ,flor ,maroccan1 p4 #dhc2 ,munby1 ,catal4 ,plant4 ,alger41 edit4 #b1 p4 #ag4 #hh ,piddington1 ,index4 #hi ,plinius1 lib4 #ai1 cap4 #c4 #ij ,de ,gasparin1 ,trait d',agriculture1 iv4 p4 #bec4 #ia ,columna1 ,ecphrasis1 ii4 p4 #aa4 #ib ,linnus1 ,hortus ,cliffortianus1 p4 #dbj4 #ic ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,raisonne1 p4 #hbd4 #id ,schlechtendal1 ,bot4 ,zeit4 #aheh1 p4 #aac4 #ie ,decaisne1 ,recherches sur l',origine de quelques-unes de nos ,plantes ,alimentaires1 in ,flore des ,serres et ,jardins1 vol4 #bc1 #ahha1 p4 #aab4 #if ,lescarbot1 ,histoire de la ,nouvelle ,france1 edit4 #c1 #afah1 t4 vi4 p4 #ica4 #ig ,pickering1 ,chron4 ,arrang41 pp4 #gdi1 #igb4 #ih ,catalogue of ,indiana ,plants1 #ahha1 p4 #ae4 #ii ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 iii4 p4 #gde2 ,viviani1 ,fl4 ,dalmat41 ii4 p4 #ajh2 ,bertoloni1 ,fl4 ,ital41 viii4 p4 #cdh2 ,gussone1 ,synopsis ,fl4 ,sicul1 ii4 p4 #chd2 ,munby1 ,catal4 ,alger41 edit4 #b1 p4 #bb4 #ajj ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,raisonne1 p4 #fga4 #aja ,fraas1 ,synopsis ,fl4 ,class41 p4 #aif2 ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alten1 p4 #dhe4 #ajb ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,prodromus ,flor ,hispanic1 ii4 p4 #bbc2 ,de ,candolle1 ,flore ,franaise1 iv4 p4 #ei2 ,koch1 ,synopsis ,fl4 ,germ41 edit4 #b1 p4 #dhh2 ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 ii4 p4 #gid2 ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orientalis1 iii4 p4 #gfg2 ,bertoloni1 ,fl4 ,ital41 viii4 p4 #cfe4 #ajc ,tournefort1 lments de ,botanique1 p4 #cgi4 #ajd ,gussone1 ,synopsis ,flor ,sicul4 #aje ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,raisonne1 pp4 #haj1 #haf4 #ajf ,acosta1 p4 #afc1 verso4 #ajg ,de l',ecluse 7or ,clusius71 ,rariarum ,plantarum ,histori1 #afja1 lib4 #d1 p4 lxxix41 with illustration4 #ajh ,de ,martius1 ,flora ,brasil41 vol4 x4 p4 #ab4 #aji ,von ,humboldt1 ,nouvelle ,espagne1 edit4 #b1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dea2 ,essai sur la ,gographie des ,plantes1 p4 #bi4 #aaj ,at that epoch ,virginia was not distinguished from ,carolina4 #aaa ,banks1 ,trans4 ,hort4 ,soc41 #ahje1 vol4 i4 p4 #h4 #aab ,gerard1 ,herbal1 #aeig1 p4 #gha1 with illustration4 #aac ,banks1 ,trans4 ,hort4 ,soc41 #ahje1 vol4 i4 p4 #h4 #aad ,dunal1 ,hist4 ,nat4 des ,solanum1 in #dto4 #aae ,the plant imported by ,sir ,john ,hawkins and ,sir ,francis ,drake was clearly the sweet potato1 ,sir ,j4 ,banks says2 whence it results that the questions discussed by ,humboldt touching the localities visited by these travellers do not apply to the potato4 #aaf ,de l',ecluse1 ,rariarum ,plantarum ,histori1 #afja1 lib4 #d4 p4 lxxviii4 #aag ,targioni-,tozzetti1 ,lezzioni1 ii4 p4 #aj2 ,cenni ,storici sull' ,introduzione di ,varie ,piante nell' ,agricoltura di ,toscana1 #a vol4 in #hvo1 ,florence1 #ahec1 p4 #cg4 #aah ,solanum verrucosum1 whose introduction into the neighbourhood of ,gex1 near ,geneva1 ,i mentioned in #ahee1 has since been abandoned because its tubers are too small1 and because it does not1 as it was hoped1 withstand the potato-fungus4 #aai ,chloris ,andina1 in #dto4 p4 #ajc4 #abj ,sabine1 ,trans4 ,hort4 ,soc41 vol4 v4 p4 #bdi4 #aba ,no importance should be attached to this flavour1 nor to the watery quality of some of the tubers1 since in hot countries1 even in the south of ,europe1 the potato is often poor4 ,the tubers1 which are subterranean ramifications of the stem1 are turned green by exposure to the light1 and are rendered bitter4 #abb ,journal ,hort4 ,soc41 vol4 iii4 p4 #ff4 #abc ,hooker1 ,botanical ,miscellanies1 #ahca4 vol4 ii4 p4 #bjc4 #abd ,journal of the ,voyage1 etc41 edit4 #aheb1 p4 #bhe4 #abe ,vol4 i4 part #b1 p4 #cbi4 #abf ,vol4 v4 p4 #gd4 #abg ,ruiz and ,pavon1 ,flora ,peruviana1 ii4 p4 #ch4 #abh ,dunal1 ,prodromus1 xiii41 sect4 i4 p4 #bb4 #abi ,hooker1 ,bot4 ,miscell41 ii4 #acj ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,antarctica4 #aca ,journal ,hort4 ,soc41 new series1 vol4 v4 #acb ,weddell1 ,chloris ,andina1 p4 #ajc4 #acc ,andr1 in ,illustration ,horticole1 #ahgg1 p4 #aad4 #acd ,the form of the berries in ,s4 columbianum and ,s4 immite is not yet known4 #ace ,hemsley1 ,journal ,hort4 ,soc41 new series1 vol4 v4 #acf ,asa ,gray1 ,synoptical ,flora of ,north ,america1 ii4 p4 #bbg4 #acg ,see1 for the successive introduction into the different parts of ,europe1 ,clos1 ,quelques ,documents sur l',histoire de la ,pomme de ,terre1 in #hvo1 #ahgd1 in ,journal d',agric4 ,pratiq4 du ,midi de la ,france4 #ach ,turpin gives figures which clearly show these facts4 ,mm4 du ,musum1 vol4 xix4 plates #a1 #b1 #e4 #aci ,dr4 ,sagot gives interesting details on the method of cultivation1 the product1 etc41 in the ,journal ,soc4 d',hortic4 de ,france1 second series1 vol4 v4 pp4 #dej-deh4 #adj ,humboldt1 ,nouvelle ,espagne1 edit4 #b1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dgj4 #ada ,meyen1 ,grundrisse ,pflanz4 ,geogr41 p4 #cgc4 #adb ,boissier1 ,voyage ,botanique en ,espagne4 #adc ,boyer1 ,hort4 ,maurit41 p4 #bbe4 #add ,choisy1 in ,prodromus1 p4 #cch4 #ade ,marcgraff1 ,bres41 p4 #af1 with illustration4 #adf ,sloane1 ,hist4 ,jam41 i4 p4 #aej2 ,hughes1 ,barb41 p4 #bbh4 #adg ,clusius1 ,hist41 ii4 p4 #gg4 #adh ,ajes was a name for the yam 7,humboldt1 ,nouvelle ,espagne74 #adi ,humboldt1 ibid4 #aej ,oviedo1 ,ramusio's translation1 vol4 iii4 pt4 #c4 #aea ,rumphius1 ,amboin41 v4 p4 #cfh4 #aeb ,forskal1 p4 #ed2 ,delile1 ,ill4 #aec ,d',hervey ,saint-,denys1 ,rech4 sur l',agric4 des ,chin41 #ahej1 p4 #aji4 #aed ,study and ,value of ,chinese ,botanical ,works1 p4 #ac4 #aee ,thunberg1 ,flora ,japon41 p4 #hd4 #aef ,forster1 ,plant ,escul41 p4 #ef4 #aeg ,hooker1 ,handbook of ,new ,zealand ,flora1 p4 #aid4 #aeh ,seemann1 ,journal of ,bot41 #ahff1 p4 #cbh4 #aei ,roxburgh1 edit4 ,wall41 ii4 p4 #fi4 #afj ,piddington1 ,index4 #afa ,wallich1 ,flora ,ind4 #afb ,roxburgh1 edit4 #ahcb1 vol4 i4 p4 #dhc4 #afc ,rheede1 ,mal41 vii4 p4 #ie4 #afd ,meyer1 ,primiti ,fl4 ,esseq41 p4 #ajc4 #afe ,r4 ,brown1 ,bot4 ,congo1 p4 #ee4 #aff ,schumacher and ,thonning1 ,besk4 ,guin4 #afg ,wallich1 in ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #fc4 #afh ,sloane1 ,jam41 i4 p4 #aeb4 #afi ,several ,convolvulace have large roots1 or more properly root-stocks1 but in this case it is the base of the stem with a part of the root which is swelled1 and this root-stock is always purgative1 as in the ,jalap and ,turbith1 while in the sweet potato it is the lateral roots1 a different organ1 which swell4 #agj ,no4 #gja of ,schomburgh1 coll4 #a1 is wild in ,guiana4 ,according to ,choisy1 it is a variety of the ,batatas edulis2 according to ,bentham 7,hook1 ,jour4 ,bot41 v4 p4 #ceb71 of the ,batatas paniculata4 ,my specimen1 which is rather imperfect1 seems to me to be different from both4 #aga ,clusius1 ,hist41 ii4 p4 #gg4 #agb ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,raisonn1 pp4 #ajda-ajdc1 and pp4 #eaf-eah4 #agc ,dr4 ,bretschneider1 after having read the above1 wrote to me from ,pekin that the cultivated sweet potato is of origin foreign to ,china1 according to ,chinese authors4 ,the handbook of agriculture of ,nung-chang-tsuan-shu1 whose author died in #afcc1 asserts this fact4 ,he speaks of a sweet potato wild in ,china1 called chu1 the cultivated species being kan-chu4 ,the ,min-shu1 published in the sixteenth century1 says that the introduction took place between #aegc and #afbj4 ,the ,american origin thus receives a further proof4 #agd ,moquin-,tandon1 in ,prodromus1 vol4 xiii4 pt4 #b1 p4 #ee2 ,boissier1 ,flora ,orientalis1 iv4 p4 #hih2 ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,rossica1 iii4 p4 #fib4 #age ,roxburgh1 ,flora ,indica1 ii4 p4 #ei2 ,piddington1 ,index4 #agf ,theophrastus and ,dioscorides1 quoted by ,lenz1 ,botanik der ,griechen und ,rmer1 p4 #ddf2 ,fraas1 ,synopsis ,fl4 ,class41 p4 #bcc4 #agg ,heldreich1 ,die ,nutzpflanzen ,griechenlands1 p4 #bb4 #agh ,alawm1 ,agriculture nabathenne1 from ,e4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte der ,botanik1 iii4 p4 #ge4 #agi ,notice sur l',amlioration des ,plantes par le ,semis1 p4 #ae4 #ahj ,pohl1 ,plantarum ,brasili ,icones et ,descriptiones1 in fol41 vol4 i4 #aha ,j4 ,mller1 in ,prodromus1 xv41 sect4 #b1 pp4 #ajfb-ajfd4 #ahb ,sagot1 ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,bot4 de ,france1 ,dec4 #h1 #ahga4 #ahc ,i give the essentials of the preparation2 the details vary according to the country4 ,see on this head3 ,aublet1 ,guyane1 ii4 p4 #fg2 ,decourtilz1 ,flora des ,antilles1 iii4 p4 #aac2 ,sagot1 etc4 #ahd ,r4 ,brown1 ,botany of the ,congo1 p4 #ej4 #ahe ,humboldt1 ,nouvelle ,espagne1 edit4 #b1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cih4 #ahf ,hist4 de l',acad4 des ,sciences1 #ahbd4 #ahg ,guillemin1 ,archives de ,botanique1 i4 p4 #bci4 #ahh ,acosta1 ,hist4 ,nat4 des ,indes1 ,french trans41 #aeih1 p4 #afc4 #ahi ,thomas1 ,statistique de ,bourbon1 ii4 p4 #ah4 #aij ,the catalogue of the botanical gardens of ,buitenzorg1 #ahff1 p4 #bbb1 says expressly that the ,manihot utilissima comes from ,bourbon and ,america4 #aia ,aypi1 mandioca1 manihot1 manioch1 yuca1 etc41 in ,pohl1 ,icones and ,desc41 i4 pp4 #cj1 #cc4 ,martius1 ,beitrge z4 ,ethnographie1 etc41 ,braziliens1 ii4 p4 #abb1 gives a number of names4 #aib ,thonning 7in ,schumacher1 ,besk4 ,guin471 who is accustomed to quote the common names1 gives none for the manioc4 #aic ,j4 ,mller1 in ,prodromus1 xv41 sect4 #a1 p4 #ajeg4 #aid ,kunth1 in ,humboldt and ,b41 ,nova ,genera1 ii4 p4 #ajh4 #aie ,pohl1 ,icones et ,descr41 i4 p4 #cf1 pl4 #bf4 #aif ,mller1 in ,prodromus4 #aig ,de ,martius1 ,beitrge zur ,ethnographie1 etc41 i4 pp4 #ai1 #acf4 #aih ,piso1 ,historia ,naturalis ,brazili1 in folio1 #afeh1 p4 #ee1 cum icone4 #aii ,jatropia ,sylvestris ,vell4 ,fl4 ,flum41 #af1 t4 #hc4 ,see ,mller1 in ,d4 ,c4 ,prodromus1 xv4 p4 #ajfc4 #bjj ,kunth1 ,enum41 iv4 p4 #cha4 #bja ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1 ,aufzhlung1 p4 #bid4 #bjb ,ledebour1 ,flora ,altaica1 ii4 p4 #d2 ,flora ,rossica1 iv4 p4 #afb4 #bjc ,regel1 ,allior4 ,monogr41 p4 #dd4 #bjd ,baker1 in ,journal of ,bot41 #ahgd1 p4 #bie4 #bje ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc41 pp4 #ae1 #d1 and #g4 #bjf ,thunberg1 ,fl4 ,jap42 ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enumeratio1 #ahgf1 vol4 ii4 #bjg ,unger1 ,pflanzen des ,alten gyptens1 p4 #db4 #bjh ,piddington1 ,index4 #bji ,hiller1 ,hierophyton2 ,rosenmller1 ,bibl4 ,alterthum1 vol4 iv4 #baj ,de ,charencey1 ,actes de la ,soc4 ,phil41 #ast ,march1 #ahfi4 #baa ,davies1 ,welsh ,botanology4 #bab ,all these common names are found in my dictionary compiled by ,moritzi from floras4 ,i could have quoted a larger number1 and mentioned the probable etymologies1 as given by philologists--,hehn1 for instance1 in his ,kulturpflanzen aus ,asien1 p4 #aga and following2 but this is not necessary to show its origin and early cultivation in several different countries4 #bac ,annales des ,sc4 ,nat41 #crd series1 vol4 viii4 #bad ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,raisonne1 ii4 p4 #hbh4 #bae ,kunth1 ,enumer41 iv4 p4 #cid4 #baf ,fraas1 ,syn4 ,fl4 ,class41 p4 #bia4 #bag ,theophrastus1 ,hist41 l4 #g1 c4 #d4 #bah ,j4 ,bauhin1 ,hist41 ii4 p4 #edh4 #bai ,pliny1 ,hist41 l4 #ai1 c4 #f4 #bbj ,ibid4 #bba ,juvenalis1 ,sat4 #ae4 #bbb ,forskal1 p4 #fe4 #bbc ,ainslie's ,mat4 ,med4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #bfi4 #bbd ,hiller1 ,hieroph41 ii4 p4 #cf2 ,rosenmller1 ,handbk4 ,bibl4 ,alterk42 iv4 p4 #if4 #bbe ,piddington1 ,index2 ,ainslie's ,mat4 ,med4 ,ind4 #bbf ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 ii42 ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochin41 p4 #bdi4 #bbg ,thunberg1 ,fl4 ,jap41 p4 #acb4 #bbh ,unger1 ,pflanzen d4 ,alt4 gypt41 p4 #db1 figs4 #bb1 #bc1 #bd4 #bbi ,hasselquist1 ,voy4 and ,trav41 p4 #bgi4 #bcj ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,rossica1 iv4 p4 #afi4 #bca ,aitchison1 ,a ,catalogue of the ,plants of the ,punjab and the ,sindh1 in #hvo1 #ahfi1 p4 #ai2 ,baker1 in ,journal of ,bot41 #ahgd1 p4 #bie4 #bcb ,ill4 ,hortic41 #ahgg1 p4 #afg4 #bcc ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc41 pp4 #dg and #g4 #bcd ,nouvelle ,espagne1 #bnd edit41 ii4 p4 #dgf4 #bce ,sloane1 ,jam41 i4 p4 #ge4 #bcf ,acosta4 ,hist4 ,nat4 des ,indes1 ,french trans41 p4 #afe4 #bcg ,ledebour1 ,flora ,rossica1 iv4 p4 #afi4 #bch ,lenz1 ,botanik4 der ,alten ,griechen und ,rmer1 p4 #bie4 #bci ,dodoens1 ,pemptades1 p4 #fhg4 #bdj ,pliny1 ,hist41 l4 #ai1 c4 #f4 #bda ,he will treat of this in a publication entitled ,cibaria1 which will shortly appear4 #bdb ,gog4 ,bot4 ,raisonne1 p4 #hbi4 #bdc ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind42 edit4 #ahcb1 vol4 ii4 p4 #adb4 #bdd ,piddington1 ,index4 #bde ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochin41 p4 #bea4 #bdf ,linnus1 ,species1 p4 #dbi4 #bdg ,hasselquist1 ,voy4 and ,trav41 #agff1 pp4 #bha1 #bhb4 #bdh ,sibthorp1 ,prodr4 #bdi ,fraas1 ,syn4 ,fl4 ,class41 p4 #bia4 #bej ,koch1 ,syn4 ,fl4 ,germ41 #bnd edit41 p4 #hcc4 #bea ,viviani1 ,fl4 ,dalmat41 p4 #ach4 #beb ,koch1 ,syn4 ,fl4 ,germ4 #bec ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,raisonne1 p4 #hbi4 #bed ,baker1 in ,journ4 of ,bot41 #ahgd1 p4 #bie4 #bee ,cosson and ,germain1 ,flore1 ii4 p4 #eec4 #bef ,grenier and ,godron1 ,flore de ,france1 iii4 p4 #aig4 #beg ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,hisp41 i4 p4 #hhe4 #beh ,ledebour1 ,flora ,rossica1 iv4 p4 #afc4 #bei ,le ,grand d',aussy1 ,histoire de la ,vie des ,franais1 vol4 i4 p4 #abb4 #bfj ,nemnich1 ,polyglott4 ,lexicon1 p4 #ahg4 #bfa ,ibid4 #bfb ,asa ,gray1 ,botany of the ,northern ,states1 edit4 #e1 p4 #ecd4 #bfc ,de ,candolle1 ,flore ,franaise1 iv4 p4 #bbg4 #bfd ,arum ,egyptium1 ,columma1 ,ecphrasis1 ii4 p4 #a1 tab4 #a2 ,rumphius1 ,amboin1 vol4 v4 tab4 #aji4 ,arum colocasia and ,a4 esculentum1 ,linnus2 ,colocasia antiquorum1 ,schott1 ,melet41 i4 #ah2 ,engler1 in ,d4 ,c4 ,monog4 ,phaner41 ii4 p4 #dia4 #bfe ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 iii4 p4 #die4 #bff ,wight1 ,icones1 t4 #ghf4 #bfg ,thwaites1 ,enum4 ,plant4 ,zeylan41 p4 #cce4 #bfh ,miquel1 ,sumatra1 p4 #beh4 #bfi ,rumphius1 ,amboin1 vol4 v4 p4 #cah4 #bgj ,bretschneider1 ,on the ,study and ,value1 etc41 p4 #ab4 #bga ,forster1 ,de ,plantis ,escul41 p4 #eh4 #bgb ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enum41 p4 #h2 ,seemann1 ,flora ,vitiensis1 p4 #bhd4 #bgc ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind4 #bgd ,thwaites1 ,enum4 ,plant4 ,zeylan4 #bge ,rumphius1 ,amboin4 #bgf ,miquel1 ,sumatra1 p4 #beh2 ,hasskarl1 ,cat4 ,horti4 ,bogor4 ,alter41 p4 #ee4 #bgg ,forster1 ,de ,plantis ,escul41 p4 #eh4 #bgh ,seemann1 ,flora ,vitiensis4 #bgi ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enum4 #bhj ,pliny1 ,hist41 l4 #ai1 c4 #e4 #bha ,alpinus1 ,hist4 gypt4 ,naturalis1 edit4 #b1 vol4 i4 p4 #aff2 ii4 p4 #aib4 #bhb ,delile1 ,fl4 gypt4 ,ill41 p4 #bh2 ,de la ,colocase des ,anciens1 in #hvo1 #ahdf4 #bhc ,clusius1 ,historia1 ii4 p4 #ge4 #bhd ,parlatore1 ,fl4 ,ital41 ii4 p4 #bee4 #bhe ,prosper ,alpinus1 ,hist4 gypt4 ,naturalis2 ,columna2 ,delile1 ,ann4 du ,mus41 i4 p4 #cge2 ,de la ,colocase des ,anciens2 ,reynier1 conomie des gyptiens1 p4 #cba4 #bhf ,see ,engler1 in ,d4 ,c4 ,monographi ,phanerogarum1 ii4 p4 #ejb4 #bhg ,forster1 ,de ,plantis ,esculentis ,insularum ,oceani ,australis1 p4 #eh4 #bhh ,thwaites1 ,enum4 ,pl4 ,zeyl41 p4 #ccf4 #bhi ,nadeaud1 ,enum4 des ,plantes ,indignes1 p4 #dj4 #bij ,engler1 in ,d4 ,c4 ,monog4 ,phaner4 #bia ,bentham1 ,flora ,austr41 viii4 p4 #aee4 #bib ,engler1 in ,d4 ,c4 ,monogr4 ,phaner41 vol4 ii4 p4 #cac4 #bic ,gardener's ,chronicle1 #ahgc1 p4 #faj2 ,flore des ,serres et ,jardins1 t4 #aieh1 #aiei2 ,hooker1 ,bot4 ,mag41 t4 #faie4 #bid ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enum4 ,pl4 ,japoni1 ii4 p4 #g4 #bie ,m4 ,sagot1 ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,bot4 de ,france1 #ahga1 p4 #cjf1 has well described the growth and cultivation of yams1 as he has studied them in ,cayenne4 #bif ,kunth1 ,enumeratio1 vol4 v4 #big ,these are ,d4 globosa1 alata1 rubella1 fasciculata1 purpurea1 of which two or three appear to be merely varieties4 #bih ,piddington1 ,index4 #bii ,thwaites1 ,enum4 ,plant4 ,zeyl41 p4 #cbf4 #cjj ,decaisne1 ,histoire et ,culture de l',igname de ,chine1 in the ,revue ,horticole1 #ast ,july and ,dec4 #ahec2 ,flore des ,serres et ,jardins1 x4 pl4 #iga4 #cja ,on the ,study and ,value1 etc41 p4 #ab4 #cjb ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enum4 ,plant4 ,japoni1 ii4 p4 #dg4 #cjc ,blume1 ,enum4 ,plant4 ,jav1 p4 #bb4 #cjd ,forster1 ,plant4 ,esculent41 p4 #ef2 ,rumphius1 ,amboin1 vol4 v41 pl4 #abj1 #aba1 etc4 #cje ,hughes1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,barb41 #agej1 p4 #bbf4 #cjf ,humboldt1 ,nouvelle ,espagne1 #bnd edit41 vol4 ii4 p4 #dfh4 #cjg ,ibid41 p4 #djc4 #cjh ,hnke1 in ,presl1 ,rel41 p4 #acc4 #cji ,martius1 ,fl4 ,bras41 v4 p4 #dc4 #caj ,sagot1 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,bot4 ,france1 #ahga1 p4 #cje4 #caa ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,nigrit1 p4 #ec4 #cab ,schumacher and ,thonning1 ,besk4 ,guin1 p4 #ddg4 #cac ,brown1 ,congo1 p4 #di4 #cad ,bojer1 ,hortus ,mauritianus4 #cae ,see ,tussac's description1 ,flore des ,antilles1 i4 p4 #ahc4 #caf ,hooker1 ,niger ,flora1 p4 #eca4 #cag ,sloane1 ,jamaica1 #agjg1 vol4 i4 p4 #bed4 #cah ,in ,bull4 ,soc4 des ,natur4 de ,moscou1 #ahbb1 vol4 i4 p4 #cd4 #cai ,aublet1 ,guyane1 i4 p4 #c4 #cbj ,meyer1 ,flora ,essequibo1 p4 #aa4 #cba ,seemann1 ,bot4 of ,herald41 p4 #bac4 #cbb ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #ca2 ,porter1 ,the ,tropical ,agriculturalist p4 #bda2 ,ainslie1 ,materia ,medica1 i4 p4 #ai4 #cbc ,fries1 ,summa1 p4 #bi2 ,nylander1 ,conspectus1 p4 #df2 ,bentham1 ,handb4 ,brit4 ,fl41 edit4 #d1 p4 #dj2 ,mackay1 ,fl4 ,hibern41 p4 #bh2 ,brebisson1 ,fl4 de ,normandie1 edit4 #b1 p4 #ah2 ,babbington1 ,primiti ,fl4 ,sarnic1 p4 #h2 ,clavaud1 ,flore de la ,gironde1 i4 p4 #fh4 #cbd ,bertoloni1 ,fl4 ,ital41 vii4 p4 #adf2 ,nylander1 ,conspectus4 #cbe ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross42 ,griesbach1 ,spiciligium ,fl4 ,rumel42 ,boissier1 ,flora ,orientalis1 etc4 #cbf ,watson1 who is careful on these points1 doubts whether the cabbage is indigenous in ,england 7,compendium of the ,cybele1 p4 #ajc71 but most authors of ,british floras admit it to be so4 #cbg ,br4 balearica and ,br4 cretica are perennial1 almost woody1 not biennial2 and botanists are agreed in separating them from ,br4 oleracea4 #cbh ,aug4 ,pyr4 de ,candolle has published a paper on the divisions and subdivisions of ,br4 oleracea 7,transactions of the ,hort4 ,soc41 vol4 v41 translated into ,german and in ,french in the ,bibl4 ,univ4 ,agric41 vol4 viii471 which is often quoted4 #cbi ,alph4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,raisonne1 p4 #hci4 #ccj ,ad4 ,pictet1 ,les ,origines ,indo-,europennes1 edit4 #b1 vol4 i4 p4 #chj4 #cca ,brandza1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,romane1 p4 #abb4 #ccb ,de ,charencey1 ,recherches sur les ,noms ,basques1 in ,actes de la ,socit ,philologique1 #ast ,march1 #ahfi4 #ccc ,ad4 ,pictet1 ,les ,origines ,indo-,europennes1 edit4 #b1 vol4 i4 p4 #chj4 #ccd ,fick1 ,vrterb4 d4 ,indo-,germ4 ,sprachen1 p4 #c-d4 #cce ,piddington1 ,index2 ,ainslie1 ,mat4 ,med4 ,ind4 #ccf ,rosenmller1 ,bibl4 ,alterth41 mentions no name4 #ccg ,see ,fraas1 ,syn4 ,fl4 ,class41 pp4 #abj1abd2 ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alten1 p4 #fag4 #cch ,sibthorp1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,grc41 ii4 p4 #f2 ,heldreich1 ,nutzpfl4 ,griechenl41 p4 #dg4 #cci ,ainslie1 ,mat4 ,med4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #ie4 #cdj ,heldreich1 ,nutz4 ,gr4 #cda ,piddington1 ,index2 ,ainslie1 ,mat4 ,med4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #ie4 #cdb ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #afj4 #cdc ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient1 vol4 i4 #cdd ,de ,candolle1 ,syst41 ii4 p4 #ecc4 #cde ,sibthorp and ,smith1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,grc1 ii4 p4 #f4 #cdf ,poech1 ,enum4 ,pl4 ,cypri1 #ahdb4 #cdg ,unger and ,kotschy1 ,inseln ,cypern41 p4 #cca4 #cdh ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 i4 p4 #bjc4 #cdi ,lindemann1 ,index ,plant4 in ,ross41 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,nat4 ,mosc4 #ahfj1 vol4 xxxiii4 #cej ,lindemann1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,cherson1 p4 #ba4 #cea ,nyman1 ,conspectus ,fl4 ,europ41 #ahgh1 p4 #fe4 #ceb ,schweinfurth1 ,beitr4 ,fl4 th41 p4 #bgj4 #cec ,in the ,united ,states purslane was believed to be of foreign origin 7,asa ,gray1 ,fl4 of ,northern ,states1 ed4 #e2 ,bot4 of ,california1 i4 p4 #gi71 but in a recent publication1 ,asa ,gray and ,trumbull give reasons for believing that it is indigenous in ,america as in the old world4 ,columbus had noticed it at ,san ,salvador and at ,cuba2 ,oviedo mentions it in ,st4 ,domingo and ,de ,lery in ,brazil4 ,this is not the testimony of botanists1 but ,nuttall and others found it wild in the upper valley of the ,missouri1 in ,colorado1 and ,texas1 where1 however1 from the date1 it might have been introduced4--,,author',s ,,note1 #ahhd4 #ced ,piddington1 ,index to ,indian ,plants4 #cee ,nemnich1 ,polyglot4 ,lex4 ,naturgesch41 ii4 p4 #ajdg4 #cef ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochin41 i4 p4 #cei2 ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enum4 ,pl4 ,japon41 i4 p4 #ec2 ,bentham1 ,fl4 ,hongkong1 p4 #abg4 #ceg ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #bdj4 #ceh ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 ii4 p4 #ade2 ,lindemann1 in ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,chers41 p4 #gd1 says1 8,in desertis et arenosis inter ,cherson et ,berislaw1 circa ,odessam40 #cei ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alten1 p4 #fcb2 ,heldreich1 ,fl4 ,attisch4 ,ebene41 p4 #dhc4 #cfj ,bertoloni1 ,fl4 ,it41 vol4 v42 ,gussone1 ,fl4 ,sic41 vol4 i42 ,moris1 ,fl4 ,sard41 vol4 ii42 ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,hisp41 vol4 iii4 #cfa ,botanical ,magazine1 t4 #bcfb2 ,bon ,jardinier1 #ahhj1 p4 #efg4 #cfb ,sir ,j4 ,hooker1 ,handbook of ,new ,zealand ,flora1 p4 #hd2 ,bentham1 ,flora ,australiensis1 iii4 p4 #cbg2 ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enum4 ,plant4 ,japoni1 i4 p4 #agg4 #cfc ,cl4 ,gay1 ,flora ,chilena1 ii4 p4 #dfh4 #cfd ,fries1 ,summa ,veget4 ,scand42 ,munby1 ,catal4 ,alger41 p4 #aa2 ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 vol4 ii4 p4 #hef2 ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1 ,aufzhlung1 p4 #bgb2 ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #fgi4 #cfe ,dioscorides1 ,mat4 ,med41 l4 #c1 c4 #fg1 #fh2 ,pliny1 ,hist41 l4 #ai1 c4 #g1 #h2 ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alten ,griechen und ,rmer1 p4 #eeg4 #cff ,steven1 ,verzeichniss ,taurischen ,halbinseln1 p4 #ahc4 #cfg ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #iac4 #cfh ,lenz1 ,bot4 d4 ,alt4 ,gr4 und ,r41 p4 #egb4 #cfi ,munby1 ,catal4 ,alger41 edit4 #b1 p4 #bb2 ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #heg4 #cgj ,dioscorides1 ,mat4 ,med41 l4 #c1 c4 #gj2 ,pliny1 ,hist41 l4 #bj1 ch4 #ab4 #cga ,the list of these plants may be found in ,meyer1 ,gesch4 der ,bot41 iii4 p4 #dja4 #cgb ,phillips1 ,companion to the ,kitchen ,garden1 ii4 p4 #ce4 #cgc ,theophrastus1 ,hist41 l4 #a1 #i2 l4 #b1 #b2 l4 #g1 #f2 ,dioscorides1 ,mat4 ,med41 l4 #c1 c4 #ga4 #cgd ,e4 ,meyer1 ,gesch4 der ,bot41 iii4 p4 #dja4 #cge ,targioni1 ,cenni ,storici1 p4 #eh4 #cgf ,english ,botany1 t4 #bcj2 ,phillips1 ,companion to the ,kitchen ,garden2 ,le ,bon ,jardinier4 #cgg ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #ibg4 #cgh ,krok1 ,monographie des ,valerianella1 ,stockholm1 #ahfd1 p4 #hh2 ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 iii4 p4 #ajd4 #cgi ,bertoloni1 ,fl4 ,ital41 i4 p4 #ahe2 ,moris1 ,fl4 ,sard41 ii4 p4 #cad2 ,gussone1 ,synopsis ,fl4 ,sicul1 edit4 #b1 vol4 i4 p4 #cj4 #chj ,dodoens1 ,hist4 ,plant41 p4 #gbd2 ,linnus1 ,species1 p4 #aaei2 ,de ,candolle1 ,prodr41 vi4 p4 #fbj4 #cha ,moris1 ,flora ,sardoa1 ii4 p4 #fa4 #chb ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,hisp41 ii4 p4 #ahj4 #chc ,webb1 ,phyt4 ,canar41 iii4 sect4 #b1 p4 #chd2 ,ball1 ,spicilegium ,fl4 ,maroc41 p4 #ebd2 ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,pr4 ,fl4 ,hisp42 ,bertoloni1 ,fl4 ,ital41 ix4 p4 #hf2 ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 iii4 p4 #ceg2 ,unger and ,kotschy1 ,inseln ,cypern41 p4 #bdf4 #chd ,munby1 ,catal41 edit4 #b4 #che ,heldreich1 ,nutzpflanzen ,griechenlands1 p4 #bg4 #chf ,targioni1 ,cenni ,storici1 p4 #eb4 #chg ,dictionnaire ,franais-,berbre1 published by the ,government1 #a vol4 in #hvo4 #chh ,theophrastus1 ,hist41 l4 #f1 c4 #d2 ,pliny1 ,hist41 l4 #ai1 c4 #h2 ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alten ,griechen and ,rmer1 p4 #dhj4 #chi ,athenus1 ,deipn41 ii4 #hd4 #cij ,pickering1 ,chron4 ,arrangement1 p4 #ga2 ,unger1 ,pflanzen der ,alten gyptens1 p4 #df1 figs4 #bg and #bh4 #cia ,ainslie1 ,mat4 ,med4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #bb4 #cib ,piddington1 ,index4 #cic ,bretschneider1 ,study1 etc41 and ,letters of #ahha4 #cid ,phillips1 ,companion to the ,kitchen ,garden1 p4 #bb4 #cie ,aug4 de ,saint ,hilary1 ,plantes ,remarkables du ,brsil1 ,introd41 p4 #eh2 ,darwin1 ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 ii4 p4 #cd4 #cif ,cl4 ,gay1 ,flora ,chilena1 iv4 p4 #cag4 #cig ,the author who has gone into this question most carefully is ,bischoff1 in his ,beitrge zur ,flora ,deutschlands und der ,schweitz1 p4 #ahd4 ,see also ,moris1 ,flora ,sardoa1 ii4 p4 #ecj4 #cih ,webb1 ,phytogr4 ,canariensis1 iii4 p4 #dbb2 ,lowe1 ,flora of ,madeira1 p4 #edd4 #cii ,munby1 ,catal41 edit4 #b1 p4 #bb1 under the name of ,l4 sylvestris4 #djj ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1 ,aufzhlung1 p4 #bhe4 #dja ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 iii4 p4 #hji4 #djb ,clarke1 ,compos4 ,indic1 p4 #bfc4 #djc ,theophrastus1 l4 #g1 c4 #d4 #djd ,nemnich1 ,polygl4 ,lexicon4 #dje ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,raisonne1 p4 #hdc4 #djf ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value of ,chinese ,botanical ,works1 p4 #ag4 #djg ,ball1 ,spicilegium ,fl4 ,marocc41 p4 #ecd2 ,munby1 ,catal41 edit4 #b1 p4 #ba4 #djh ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 iii4 p4 #gae4 #dji ,clarke1 ,compos4 ,ind41 p4 #bej4 #daj ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 ii4 p4 #ggd4 #daa ,dioscorides1 ii4 c4 #afj2 ,pliny1 xix4 c4 #h2 ,palladius1 xi4 c4 #aa4 ,see other authors quoted by ,lenz1 ,bot4 d4 ,alten1 p4 #dhc4 #dab ,heldreich1 ,die ,nutzpflanzen ,griechenlands1 pp4 #bh1 #gf4 #dac ,aug4 ,pyr4 de ,candolle1 ,prodr41 vii4 p4 #hd2 ,alph4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot41 p4 #hde4 #dad ,clarke1 ,compos4 ,ind41 p4 #bej4 #dae ,de ,viviani1 ,flora ,dalmat41 ii4 p4 #ig2 ,schultz in ,webb1 ,phyt4 ,canar41 sect4 ii4 p4 #cia2 ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 iii4 p4 #gaf4 #daf ,lowe1 ,flora of ,madeira1 p4 #eba4 #dag ,ball1 ,spicilegium1 p4 #ecd4 #dah ,munby1 ,catal41 edit4 #b1 p4 #ba4 #dai ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 iii4 p4 #gaf4 #dbj ,bunge1 ,beitrge zur ,flora ,russlands und ,central ,asiens1 p4 #aig4 #dba ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alten1 p4 #dhc2 ,heldreich1 ,die ,nutzpflanzen ,griechenlands1 p4 #gd4 #dbb ,nemnich1 ,polygl4 ,lex41 at the word ,cichorium ,endivia4 #dbc ,royle1 ,ill4 ,himal41 p4 #bdg2 ,piddington1 ,index4 #dbd ,j4 ,bauhin1 ,hist41 ii4 p4 #ifd2 ,fraas1 ,syn4 ,fl4 ,class42 ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alten4 #dbe ,brassavola1 p4 #agf4 #dbf ,mathioli1 ed ,valgr41 p4 #cdc4 #dbg ,ebn ,baithar1 ueberitz von ,sondtheimer1 i4 p4 #cd2 ,forskal1 ,egypt1 p4 #gg2 ,delile1 ,ill4 gypt41 p4 #bi4 #dbh ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 ed4 #ahcb1 v4 iii4 p4 #gga1 applied to ,spinacia tetandra1 which seems to be the same species4 #dbi ,maximowicz1 ,primiti ,fl4 ,amur41 p4 #bbb4 #dcj ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value of ,chin4 ,bot4 ,works1 pp4 #ae1 #ag4 #dca ,dict4 d',agric41 v4 p4 #ijf4 #dcb ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 vi4 p4 #bcd4 #dcc ,wight1 ,icones1 t4 #hah4 #dcd ,nees1 ,gen4 ,plant4 ,fl4 ,germ41 #a4 #g1 pl4 #ae4 #dce ,bauhin1 ,hist41 ii4 p4 #ife4 #dcf ,a4 gangeticus1 ,a4 tristis1 and ,a4 hybridis of ,linnus1 according to ,baker1 ,flora of ,mauritius1 p4 #bff4 #dcg ,wight1 ,icones1 p4 #gae4 #dch ,roxburgh1 ,flora ,indica1 edit4 #b1 vol4 iii4 p4 #fjf4 #dci ,boissier1 ,flora ,orientalis1 iv4 p4 #iij2 ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1 ,aufzhlung1 etc41 p4 #bhi4 #ddj ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enum4 ,plant4 ,japoni1 i4 p4 #cij4 #dda ,hasskarl1 ,plant4 ,javan4 ,rariores1 p4 #dca4 #ddb ,gay1 ,ann4 des ,sc4 ,nat41 #crd series1 vol4 viii4 #ddc ,linnus1 ,species ,pl42 ,de ,candolle1 ,fl4 ,fran41 iii4 p4 #bai4 #ddd ,koch1 ,synopsis ,fl4 ,germ42 ,babington1 ,man4 of ,brit4 ,bot42 ,english ,bot41 etc4 #dde ,ledebour1 ,flora ,ross41 iv4 p4 #afc4 #ddf ,baker1 ,journal of ,bot41 #ahgd1 p4 #bie4 #ddg ,strabo1 xii4 p4 #efj2 ,pliny1 bk4 xviii4 c4 #af4 #ddh ,hehn1 ,culturpflanzen1 etc41 p4 #cee4 #ddi ,gasparin1 ,cours d',agric41 iv4 p4 #dbd4 #dej ,targioni-,tozzetti1 ,cenni ,storici1 p4 #cd4 #dea ,fraas1 ,synopsis ,fl4 ,class41 p4 #fc2 ,heldreich1 ,die ,nutzpflanzen ,griechenlands1 p4 #gj4 #deb ,bauhin1 ,hist4 ,plant41 ii4 p4 #cha4 #dec ,colmeiro1 ,catal4 #ded ,tozzetti1 ,dizion4 ,bot4 #dee ,ebn ,baithar1 ,heil und ,nahrungsmittel1 translated from ,arabic by ,sontheimer1 vol4 ii4 p4 #beg4 #def ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #id4 #deg ,royle1 ,ill4 ,himal41 p4 #aig4 #deh ,piddington1 ,index4 #dei ,heldreich1 ,nutzpflanzen ,griechenlands1 p4 #gb4 #dfj ,fraas1 ,synopsis ,fl4 ,class41 p4 #eh2 ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alten ,gr4 und ,rm41 p4 #gca4 #dfa ,o4 de ,serres1 ,thtre de l',agric41 p4 #bdb4 #dfb ,targioni-,tozzetti1 ,cenni ,storici1 p4 #cd4 #dfc ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 i4 p4 #gjh2 ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,or41 p4 #ecb4 #dfd ,turczaninow1 ,flora ,baical4 ,dahur41 i4 p4 #cdj4 #dfe ,targioni-,tozzetti1 ,cenni ,storici1 p4 #ce2 ,mars and ,virgineix1 ,catal4 des ,balares1 p4 #ajj4 #dff ,de ,gasparin1 ,cours d',agric41 iv4 p4 #dgb4 #dfg ,bertoloni1 ,flora ,ital41 viii4 p4 #f4 #dfh ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,hisp41 iii4 p4 #bfb4 #dfi ,munby1 ,catal41 edit4 #b1 p4 #ab4 #dgj ,de ,gasparin1 ,cours d',agric41 iv4 p4 #dde1 according to ,schwerz and ,a4 ,young4 #dga ,munby1 ,catal41 edit4 #b1 p4 #aa4 #dgb ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 i4 p4 #aae4 #dgc ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 i4 p4 #edh4 #dgd ,baker1 in ,hooker's ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #hf4 #dge ,bon ,jardinier1 #ahhj1 pt4 i4 p4 #fah4 #dgf ,de ,candolle1 ,fl4 ,fran41 iv4 p4 #ebh4 #dgg ,targioni1 ,cenni ,storici1 p4 #ce4 #dgh ,costa1 ,intro4 ,fl4 di ,catal41 p4 #fj4 #dgi ,moritzi1 ,dict4 ,,ms41 compiled from floras published before the middle of the present century4 #dhj ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,hisp41 iii4 p4 #cff4 #dha ,mars and ,virgineix1 ,catal41 #ahhj4 #dhb ,moris1 ,fl4 ,sard41 i4 p4 #dfg4 #dhc ,munby1 ,catal41 edit4 #b4 #dhd ,bentham1 ,handbook ,brit4 ,fl41 edit4 #d1 p4 #aag4 #dhe ,moris1 ,fl4 ,sard41 i4 p4 #dfg2 ,viviani1 ,fl4 ,dalmat41 iii4 p4 #bij4 #dhf ,bon ,jardinier1 #ahhj1 p4 #fai4 #dhg ,forskal1 ,fl4 ,egypt41 p4 #ga2 ,delile1 ,plant4 ,cult4 en ,egypt41 p4 #aj2 ,wilkinson1 ,manners and ,customs of ,ancient ,egyptians1 ii4 p4 #cih4 #dhh ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #abg4 #dhi ,bertoloni1 ,fl4 ,it41 vii4 p4 #ejj4 #dij ,nutzpflanzen ,griechenlands1 p4 #ga4 #dia ,see ,lenz1 ,bot4 d4 ,alten1 p4 #gbg2 ,fraas1 ,fl4 ,class41 p4 #ed4 #dib ,wittmack1 ,sitzungsber ,bot4 ,vereins ,brandenburg1 ,dec4 #ai1 #ahgi4 #dic ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,hisp41 iii4 p4 #cjh4 #did ,baker1 in ,hooker's ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind4 #die ,herrera1 ,agricultura1 edit4 #ahai1 iv4 p4 #gb4 #dif ,baker1 in ,hooker's ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind4 #dig ,for instance1 ,munby1 ,catal4 ,plant ,algeri1 edit4 #b1 p4 #ab4 #dih ,munby1 ,catal41 edit4 #b4 #dii ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 i4 p4 #fff2 ,hohenacker1 ,enum4 ,plant4 ,talysch1 p4 #aac2 ,c4 ,a4 ,meyer1 ,verzeichniss1 p4 #adg4 #ejj ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 edit4 #ahcb1 iii4 p4 #cbc2 ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #agh4 #eja ,piddington's ,index gives four4 #ejb ,targioni1 ,cenni ,storici1 p4 #cj4 #ejc ,cato1 ,be re ,rustica1 edit4 #aece1 p4 #cd2 ,pliny1 bk4 xviii4 c4 #ae4 #ejd ,heldreich1 ,nutzpflanzen ,griechenlands1 p4 #ga4 ,in the earlier language than the ,indo-,europeans1 vik bears another meaning1 that of 8hamlet0 7,fick1 ,vrterb4 ,indo-,germ41 p4 #ahi74 #eje ,vilmorin1 ,bon ,jardinier1 #ahhj1 p4 #fjc4 #ejf ,targioni1 ,cenni ,storici1 p4 #ca2 ,bertoloni1 ,fl4 ,ital41 vii4 pp4 #ddd1 #ddg4 #ejg ,lenz1 ,botanik4 d4 ,alten1 p4 #gcj4 #ejh ,fraas1 ,fl4 ,class42 ,heldreich1 ,nutzflanzen ,griechenlands4 #eji ,wittmack1 ,sitz4 ,ber4 ,bot4 ,vereins ,brandenburg1 ,dec4 #ai1 #ahgi4 #eaj ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,hisp41 iii4 p4 #cac2 ,bertoloni1 ,fl4 ,ital4 #eaa ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1 ,aufzhlung1 etc41 p4 #beg4 #eab ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #fje4 #eac ,j4 ,baker1 in ,hooker's ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,ind4 #ead ,munby1 ,catal4 #eae ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant41 viii41 c4 #b1 #aj4 #eaf ,columella1 ,de rei rustica1 ii4 c4 #aj2 ,pliny1 xviii4 c4 #ac1 #cb4 #eag ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind42 ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #agh4 #eah ,rosenmller1 ,handb4 ,bibl4 ,alterth41 vol4 i4 #eai ,piddington1 ,index4 #ebj ,heldreich1 ,pflanz4 d4 ,attisch4 ,ebene1 p4 #dgf2 ,nutzpf4 ,gr41 p4 #gb4 #eba ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 i4 p4 #fha4 #ebb ,c4 ,a4 ,meyer1 ,verzeichniss1 p4 #adh4 #ebc ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #fjf4 #ebd ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,hisp41 iii4 p4 #cab4 #ebe ,lenz1 ,bot4 d4 ,alten1 p4 #gcj2 ,heldreich1 ,nutzpfl4 ,gr41 p4 #gb4 #ebf ,lenz4 #ebg ,caruel1 ,fl4 ,tosc41 p4 #aic2 ,gussone1 ,syn4 ,fl4 ,sic41 edit4 #b4 #ebh ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #fjb2 ,moris1 ,fl4 ,sard41 i4 p4 #ehb4 #ebi ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,hisp4 #ecj ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient4 #eca ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant41 viii4 c4 #h2 ,columella1 ,de rei rustica1 ii4 c4 #aj2 ,pliny1 ,hist41 xviii4 c4 #af4 #ecb ,fraas1 ,syn4 ,fl4 ,class41 p4 #fc2 ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alten1 p4 #gai4 #ecc ,baker1 in ,hooker's ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #eg4 #ecd ,schweinfurth1 ,beitr4 z4 ,fl4 thiop41 p4 #beh4 #ece ,baker1 in ,hooker's ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind4 #ecf ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #gj4 #ecg ,boissier1 ibid4 #ech ,sibthorp1 ,fl4 ,grca1 t4 #gff2 ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alten1 ,bertoloni1 ,fl4 ,ital41 viii4 p4 #bej2 ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,hisp41 iii4 p4 #cij4 #eci ,caruel1 ,fl4 ,tosc41 p4 #bef2 ,willkomm and ,lange4 #edj ,the plants which spread from one country to another introduce themselves into islands with more difficulty1 as will be seen from the remarks ,i formerly published4 7,gogr4 ,bot4 ,raisonne1 p4 #gjf74 #eda ,piddington1 ,index4 #edb ,ainslie1 ,mat4 ,med4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #acj4 #edc ,rosenmller1 ,bibl4 ,alterth4 #edd ,as usual1 ,fick's dictionary of ,indo-,european languages does not mention the name of this plant1 which the ,english say is ,sanskrit4 #ede ,brotero1 ,flora ,lusitanica1 ii4 p4 #afj4 #edf ,cosson1 ,notes sur ,quelques ,plantes ,nouvelles ou ,critiques du ,midi de l',espagne1 p4 #cf4 #edg ,bon ,jardinier1 #ahhj1 p4 #eab4 #edh ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 i4 p4 #gca4 #edi ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #bdc1 and several specimens from the ,nilgherries and ,ceylon in my herbarium4 #eej ,zollinger1 ,no4 #beef in my herbarium4 #eea ,piddington1 ,index4 #eeb ,sobolewski1 ,fl4 ,petrop41 p4 #aji4 #eec ,rafn1 ,danmarks ,flora1 ii4 p4 #gii4 #eed ,wahlenberg1 quoted by ,moritzi1 ,dict4 ,,ms42 ,svensk ,botanik1 t4 #cjh4 #eee ,bauhin1 ,hist4 ,plant41 iii4 p4 #gbb4 #eef ,spergula ,maxima1 ,bninghausen1 an illustration published in ,reichenbach's ,plant ,crit41 vi4 p4 #eac4 #eeg ,panicum maximum1 ,jacq41 ,coll4 #a1 p4 #ga 7#aghf72 ,jacq41 ,icones #a1 t4 #ac2 ,swartz1 ,fl4 ,indi ,occ41 vii4 p4 #agj2 ,p4 polygamum1 ,swartz1 ,prodr41 p4 #bd 7#aghh72 ,p4 jumentorum1 ,persoon ,ench41 i4 p4 #hc 7#ahje72 ,p4 altissimum of some gardens and modern authors4 ,according to the rule1 the oldest name should be adopted4 #eeh ,in ,dominica according to ,imray1 in the ,kew ,report for #ahgi1 p4 #af4 #eei ,nees1 in ,martius1 ,fl4 ,brasil41 in #hvo1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aff4 #efj ,dll1 in ,fl4 ,brasil41 in fol41 vol4 ii4 part #b4 #efa ,sir ,w4 ,hooker1 ,niger ,fl41 p4 #efj4 #efb ,nees1 ,flor ,afric ,austr4 ,gramine1 p4 #cf4 #efc ,a4 ,richard1 ,abyssinie1 ii4 p4 #cgc4 #efd ,peters1 ,reise ,botanik1 p4 #edf4 #efe ,bojer1 ,hortus ,maurit41 p4 #efe4 #eff ,baker1 ,fl4 of ,mauritius and ,seychelles1 p4 #dcf4 #efg ,thwaites1 ,enum4 ,pl4 ,zeylani4 #efh ,seemann1 ,tr4 of the ,linnan ,society1 xxii4 p4 #ccg1 pl4 #fa4 #efi ,kmpfer1 ,amn4 ,japon4 #egj ,bretschneider1 ,on the ,study and ,value of ,chin4 ,bot4 ,works1 pp4 #ac and #de4 #ega ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enum4 ,pl4 ,jap41 i4 p4 #fa4 #egb ,fortune1 ,three ,years' ,wandering in ,china1 #a vol4 in #hvo #egc ,fontanier1 ,bulletin ,soc4 d',acclim41 #ahgj1 p4 #hh4 #egd ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochin41 p4 #dad4 #ege ,griffith1 ,reports2 ,wallich1 quoted by ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,india1 i4 p4 #bic4 #egf ,anderson1 quoted by ,hooker4 #egg ,the ,colonies and ,india1 ,gardener's ,chronicle1 #ahhj1 i4 p4 #fei4 #egh ,speech at the ,bot4 ,cong4 of ,london in #ahff4 #egi ,flora1 #ahfh1 p4 #fd4 #ehj ,planchon1 in ,hooker1 ,journal of ,botany1 vol4 vii4 p4 #afe4 #eha ,heer1 ,die ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1 in #dto1 ,zrich1 #ahfe1 p4 #ce2 ,ueber den ,flachs und die ,flachskultur1 in #dto1 ,zrich1 #ahgb4 #ehb ,loret1 ,observations ,critiques sur ,plusieurs ,plantes ,montpelliraines1 in the ,revue des ,sc4 ,nat41 #ahge4 #ehc ,boissier1 ,flora ,orient41 i4 p4 #hea4 ,it is ,l4 usitatissimum of ,kotschy1 ,no4 #afd4 #ehd ,boissier1 ibid42 ,hohenh41 ,enum4 ,talysch41 p4 #afh4 #ehe ,steven1 ,verzeichniss der auf der taurischen ,halbinseln wildwachsenden ,pflanzen1 ,moscow1 #aheg1 p4 #ia4 #ehf ,heer1 ,ueb4 d4 ,flachs1 pp4 #ag and #bb4 #ehg ,jordan1 quoted by ,walpers1 ,annal41 vol4 ii41 and by ,heer1 p4 #bb4 #ehh ,ball1 ,spicilegium ,fl4 ,marocc41 p4 #chj4 #ehi ,munby1 ,catal41 edit4 #b1 p4 #g4 #eij ,rohlf1 according to ,cosson1 ,bulle4 ,soc4 ,bot4 de ,fr41 #ahge1 p4 #df4 #eia ,planchon1 in ,hooker's ,journal of ,botany1 vol4 #g2 ,bentham1 ,handbk4 of ,brit4 ,flora1 edit4 #d1 p4 #hi4 #eib ,planchon1 ibid4 #eic ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,or41 i4 p4 #hfa4 #eid ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,rais41 p4 #hcc4 #eie ,thomson1 ,annals of ,philosophy1 ,june1 #ahcd2 ,dutrochet1 ,larrey1 and ,costaz1 ,comptes rendus de l',acad4 des4 ,sc41 ,paris1 #ahcg1 sem4 i4 p4 #gci2 ,unger1 ,bot4 ,streifzge1 iv4 p4 #fb4 #eif ,other ,hebrew words are interpreted 8flax10 but this is the most certain4 ,see ,hamilton1 ,la ,botanique de la ,bible1 ,nice1 #ahga1 p4 #eh4 #eig ,piddington1 ,index ,ind4 ,plants2 ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 edit4 #ahcb1 ii4 p4 #aaj4 ,the name matusi indicated by ,piddington belongs to other plants1 according to ,ad4 ,pictet1 ,origines ,indo-,euro41 edit4 #b1 vol4 i4 p4 #cif4 #eih ,heer1 ,die ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1 #hvo pamphlet1 ,zrich1 #ahfe1 p4 #ce2 ,ueber den ,flachs und die ,flachskultur in ,alterthum1 pamphlet in #hvo1 ,zrich1 #ahgb4 #eii ,bertoloni1 ,fl4 ,ital41 iv4 p4 #fab4 #fjj ,we have seen that flax is found towards the north-west of ,europe1 but not immediately north of the ,alps4 ,perhaps the climate of ,switzerland was formerly more equable than it is now1 with more snow to shelter perennial plants4 #fja ,mittheil4 ,anthropol4 ,gesellschaft1 ,wien1 vol4 vi4 pp4 #abb1 #afa2 ,abhandl41 ,wien ,akad41 #hd1 p4 #dhh4 #fjb ,sordelli1 ,sulle piante della torbiera e della stazione preistorica della ,lagozza1 pp4 #cg1 #ea1 printed at the conclusion of ,castelfranco's ,notizie alla stazione lacustre della ,lagozza1 in #hvo1 ,atti della ,soc4 ,ital4 ,sc4 ,nat41 #ahhj4 #fjc ,the fowl was introduced into ,greece from ,asia in the sixth century before ,christ1 according to ,heer1 ,ueb4 d4 ,flachs1 p4 #be4 #fjd ,these discoveries in the peat-mosses of ,lagozza and elsewhere in ,italy show how far ,hehn was mistaken in supposing that 7,kulturpfl41 edit4 #c1 #ahgg1 p4 #ebd7 the ,swiss lake-dwellers were near the time of ,csar4 ,the men of the same civilization as they to the south of the ,alps were evidently more ancient than the ,roman republic1 perhaps than the ,ligurians4 #fje ,ad4 ,pictet1 ,origines ,indo-,europ41 edit4 #b1 vol4 i4 p4 #cif4 #fjf ,van ,eys1 ,dict4 ,basque-,franais1 #ahgf2 ,gze1 ,elments de ,grammaire ,basque suivis d'un vocabulaire1 ,bayonne1 #ahgc2 ,salaberry1 ,mots ,basques ,navarrais1 ,bayonne1 #ahef2 l',ecluse1 ,vocab4 ,fran4-,basque1 #ahbf4 #fjg ,nemnich1 ,poly4 ,lex4 d4 ,naturgesch41 ii4 p4 #dbj2 ,rafn1 ,danmark ,flora1 ii4 p4 #cij4 #fjh ,nemnich1 ibid4 #fji ,ibid4 #faj ,ibid4 #faa ,fick1 ,vergl4 ,wrterbuch4 ,ind4 ,germ41 #bnd edit41 i4 p4 #gbb4 ,he also derives the name ,lina from the ,latin linum2 but this name is of earlier date1 being common to several ,european ,aryan languages4 #fab ,pliny1 bk4 xix4 c4 #a3 ,vere satum state vellitur4 #fac ,unger1 ,botanische ,streifzge1 #ahff1 ,no4 #g1 p4 #ae4 #fad ,a4 ,braun1 ,die ,pflanzenreste des gyptischen ,museums in ,berlin1 in #hvo1 #ahgg1 p4 #d4 #fae ,rosellini1 pls4 #ce and #cf1 quoted by ,unger1 ,bot4 ,streifzge1 ,no4 #d1 p4 #fb4 #faf ,w4 ,schimper1 ,ascherson1 ,boissier1 ,schweinfurth1 quoted by ,braun4 #fag ,heer1 ,ueb4 d4 ,flachs1 p4 #bf4 #fah ,maspero1 ,histoire ,ancienne des ,peuples de l',orient41 edit4 #c1 ,paris1 #ahgh1 p4 #ac4 #fai ,journal of the ,royal ,asiat4 ,soc41 vol4 xv4 p4 #bga1 quoted by ,heer1 ,ueb4 den ,fl4 #fbj ,maspero1 p4 #bac4 #fba ,the ,greek texts are quoted in ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alt4 ,gr4 und ,rm41 p4 #fgb2 and in ,hehn1 ,culturpfl4 und ,hausthiere1 edit4 #c1 p4 #add4 #fbb ,ad4 ,pictet1 ,origines ,indo-,europ4 #fbc ,dictionnaire ,fran4-,berbre1 #a vol4 in #hvo1 #ahdd4 #fbd ,rumphius1 ,amboin1 vol4 v4 p4 #bab2 ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #eha2 ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochinchine1 vi4 p4 #djh4 #fbe ,blume1 ,bijdragen1 i4 p4 #aaj4 #fbf ,zollinger1 ,nos4 #afih and #bgfa4 #fbg ,thwaites1 ,enum4 ,pl4 ,zeylan41 p4 #ca4 #fbh ,edgeworth1 ,linnan ,soc4 ,journ41 ix4 #fbi ,masters1 in ,hooker's ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #cig4 #fcj ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochin41 i4 p4 #djh4 #fca ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enum41 i4 p4 #ff4 #fcb ,rosenmller1 ,bibl4 ,naturgesch4 #fcc ,von ,heldreich1 ,die ,nutzpfl4 ,griechenl41 p4 #ec4 #fcd ,masters1 in ,hooker's ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #cig2 ,aitchison1 ,catal4 ,punjab1 p4 #bc2 ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #eha4 #fce ,piddington1 ,index4 #fcf ,schweinfurth1 ,beitr4 z4 ,fl4 thiop41 p4 #bfd4 #fcg ,grisebach1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,west ,ind41 p4 #ig4 #fch ,bosc1 ,dict4 d',agric41 at the word 8,sumac40 #fci ,the conditions and methods of the culture of the sumach are the subject of an important paper by ,inzenga1 translated in the ,bull4 ,soc4 d',acclim41 ,feb4 #ahgg4 ,in the ,trans4 ,bot4 ,soc4 of ,edinburgh1 ix4 p4 #cda1 may be seen an extract from an earlier paper by the author on the same subject4 #fdj ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 i4 p4 #eji2 ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #d4 #fda ,nemnich1 ,polygl4 ,lexicon1 ii4 p4 #aaef2 ,ainslie1 ,mat4 ,med4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #dad4 #fdb ,fraas1 ,syn4 ,fl4 ,class41 p4 #he4 #fdc ,forskal1 ,flora gypto-,arabica1 p4 #fe2 ,richard1 ,tentamen ,fl4 ,abyss41 i4 p4 #acd1 pl4 #cj2 ,botta1 ,archives du ,musum1 ii4 p4 #gc4 #fdd ,hochstetter1 ,flora1 #ahda1 p4 #ffc4 #fde ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1 ,aufzhlung1 p4 #bfc2 ,oliver1 ,fl4 ,trop4 ,afr41 i4 p4 #cfd4 #fdf ,aug4 de ,saint-,hilaire1 ,mm4 du ,musum1 ix4 p4 #cea2 ,ann4 ,sc4 ,nat41 #crd series1 xiv4 p4 #eb2 ,hooker1 ,london ,journal of ,botany1 i4 p4 #cd2 ,martius1 ,flora ,brasiliensis1 vol4 ii4 part #a1 p4 #aai4 #fdg ,martinet1 ,bull4 ,soc4 d',acclim41 #ahgd1 p4 #ddi4 #fdh ,particularly in ,gosse's ,monographie de l',erythroxylon ,coca1 in #hvo1 #ahfa4 #fdi ,hooker1 ,comp4 to the ,bot4 ,mag41 ii4 p4 #be4 #fej ,peyritsch1 in the ,flora ,brasil41 fasc4 #ha1 p4 #aef4 #fea ,hooker1 ,comp4 to the ,bot4 ,mag4 #feb ,gosse1 ,monogr41 p4 #ab4 #fec ,triana and ,planchon1 ,ann4 ,sciences ,nat41 #dth series1 vol4 #ah1 p4 #cch4 #fed ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 iii4 p4 #cgi4 #fee ,wight1 ,icones1 t4 #cfe2 ,royle1 ,ill4 ,himal41 t4 #aie2 ,baker1 in ,flora of ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #ih2 ,brandis1 ,forest ,flora1 p4 #acf4 #fef ,guillemin1 ,perrottet1 and ,richard1 ,flor ,seneg4 ,tentamen1 p4 #agh4 #feg ,richard1 ,tentamen ,fl4 ,abyss41 i4 p4 #ahd2 ,oliver1 ,fl4 of ,trop4 ,afr41 ii4 p4 #ig2 ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1 ,aufzhlung1 p4 #bef4 #feh ,unger1 ,pflanzen d4 ,alt4 gyptens1 p4 #ff2 ,pickering1 ,chronol4 ,arrang41 p4 #ddc4 #fei ,reynier1 conomie des ,juifs1 p4 #dci2 des gyptiens1 p4 #ced4 #ffj ,hernandez1 ,thes41 p4 #ajh4 #ffa ,fortune1 ,no4 #cb4 #ffb ,aitchison1 ,catal4 of ,pl4 of ,punjab and ,sindh1 p4 #fj2 ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #gdd4 #ffc ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #beh4 #ffd ,thwaites1 ,enum4 ,pl4 ,zeyl41 p4 #abb4 #ffe ,clarke1 in ,hooker's ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #bgc4 #fff ,rumphius1 ,amb41 iv4 p4 #db4 #ffg ,grisebach1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,w4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #bga4 #ffh ,oliver1 ,fl4 of ,trop4 ,afr41 ii4 p4 #dhc4 #ffi ,piddington1 ,index4 #fgj ,dioscorides1 #a1 c4 #abd2 ,lenz1 ,bot4 d4 ,alten1 p4 #agg4 #fga ,tiedemann1 ,geschichte des ,tabaks1 in #hvo1 #ahed4 ,for ,brazil1 see ,martius1 ,beitrge zur ,ethnographie und ,sprachkunde ,amerikas1 i4 p4 #gai4 #fgb ,tiedemann1 p4 #ag1 pl4 #a4 #fgc ,the drawings on these pipes are reproduced in ,naidaillac's recent work1 ,les ,premiers ,hommes et les ,temps ,prhistoriques1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #de1 #dh4 #fgd ,tiedemann1 pp4 #ch1 #ci4 #fge ,martius1 ,syst4 ,mat4 ,med4 ,bras41 p4 #abj2 ,fl4 ,bras41 vol4 x4 p4 #aia4 #fgf ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,raisonne1 p4 #hdi4 #fgg ,flckiger and ,hanbury1 ,pharmacographia1 p4 #dah4 #fgh ,one of these is classed under the name ,nicot4 fruticosa1 which in my opinion is the same species1 tall1 but not woody1 as the name would lead one to believe4 ,n4 auriculata1 ,bertero1 is also ,tabacum1 according to my authentic specimens4 #fgi ,hayne1 ,arzneikunde ,gewachse1 vol4 xii t4 #da2 ,miller1 ,figures of ,plants1 pl4 #ahe1 f4 #a4 #fhj ,the capsule is sometimes shorter and sometimes longer than the calix1 on the same plant1 in ,andr's specimens4 #fha ,see the figures of ,n4 rustica in ,ple1 ,types de ,familles ,naturelles de ,france1 ,solanes2 ,bulliard1 ,herbier de ,france1 t4 #bhi4 #fhb ,asa ,gray1 ,syn4 ,flora of ,north ,amer4 7#ahgh71 p4 #bda4 #fhc ,martin de ,moussy1 ,descr4 de la ,repub4 ,argent41 i4 p4 #aif4 #fhd ,bulliard1 ,herbier de ,france4 #fhe ,csalpinus1 lib4 viii4 cap4 #dd2 ,bauhin1 ,hist41 iii4 p4 #fcj4 #fhf ,tiedemann1 ,geschichte des ,tabaks1 7#ahed7 p4 #bjh4 ,two years earlier1 ,volz1 ,beitrge zur ,culturgeschichte1 had collected a number of facts relative to the introduction of tobacco into different countries4 #fhg ,according to an anonymous ,indian author quoted by ,tiedemann1 p4 #bbi4 #fhh ,tiedemann1 p4 #bcd4 #fhi ,rumphius1 ,herb4 ,amboin v4 p4 #bbe4 #fij ,raffles1 ,descr4 of ,java1 p4 #he4 #fia ,thunberg1 ,flora ,japonica1 p4 #ia4 #fib ,klemm1 quoted by ,tiedemann1 p4 #bef4 #fic ,stanislas ,julien1 in de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,rais41 p4 #hea2 ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc41 p4 #ag4 #fid ,piddington1 ,index4 #fie ,forskal1 p4 #fc4 #fif ,lehmann1 ,historia ,nicotinarum1 p4 #ah4 ,the epithet suffruticosa is an exaggeration applied to the tobaccos1 which are always annual4 ,i have said already that ,n4 suffruticosa of different authors is ,n4 ,tabacum4 #fig ,link and ,otto1 ,icones ,plant4 ,rar4 ,hort4 ,ber41 in #dto1 p4 #fc1 t4 #cb4 ,sendtner1 in ,flora ,brasil1 vol4 x4 p4 #afg1 describes the same plant as ,sello1 as it seems from the specimens collected by this traveller2 and ,grisebach1 ,symbol ,fl4 ,argent41 p4 #bdc1 mentions ,n4 alata in the province of ,entrerios of the ,argentine republic4 #fih ,bertero1 in ,de ,cand41 ,prodr41 xii41 sect4 #a1 p4 #efh4 #fii ,thwaites1 ,enum4 ,pl4 ,zelani1 p4 #beb2 ,brandis1 ,forest ,flora of ,india1 p4 #cge4 #gjj ,flckiger and ,hanbury1 ,pharmacographia1 p4 #dfg2 ,porter1 ,the ,tropical ,agriculturist41 p4 #bfh4 #gja ,brandis1 ,forest ,flora2 ,grisebach1 ,flora of ,brit4 ,w4 ,india ,is41 p4 #agi4 #gjb ,de ,malartic1 ,journ4 d',agric4 ,pratique1 #ahga1 #ahgb1 vol4 ii4 ,no4 #ca2 de la ,roque1 ibid41 ,no4 #bi1 ,bull4 ,soc4 d',acclim41 #ahgb1 p4 #dfc2 ,vilmorin1 ,bon ,jardinier1 #ahhj1 pt4 #a1 p4 #gjj2 ,vetillart1 tudes sur les ,fibres ,vgtales ,textiles1 p4 #ii1 pl4 #b4 #gjc ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochin41 ii4 p4 #fhc4 #gjd ,bentham1 ,fl4 ,hongkong1 p4 #cca4 #gje ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enum4 ,plant4 ,jap41 i4 p4 #dci4 #gjf ,blanco1 ,flora de ,filip41 edit4 #b1 p4 #dhd4 #gjg ,rumphius1 ,amboin1 v4 p4 #bad4 #gjh ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 iii4 p4 #eij4 #gji ,miquel1 ,sumatra1 ,germ4 edit41 p4 #agj4 #gaj ,bretschneider1 ,on the ,study and ,value1 etc41 pp4 #e1 #aj1 #dh4 #gaa ,piddington1 ,index2 ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 edit4 #b1 vol4 iii4 p4 #ggb4 #gab ,roxburgh1 ibid4 #gac ,reynier1 conomie des ,celtes1 p4 #ddh2 ,legonidec1 ,dict4 ,bas-,breton4 #gad ,j4 ,humbert1 formerly professor of ,arabic at ,geneva1 says the name is kannab1 kon-nab1 hon-nab1 hen-nab1 kanedir1 according to the locality4 #gae ,athenus1 quoted by ,hehn1 ,culturpflanzen1 p4 #afh4 #gaf ,rosenmller1 ,hand4 ,bibl4 ,alterth4 #gag ,forskal1 ,flora2 ,delile1 ,flore d'gypte4 #gah ,reynier1 conomie des ,arabes1 p4 #dcd4 #gai ,heer1 ,ueber d4 ,flachs1 p4 #be4 #gbj ,sordelli1 ,notizie sull4 ,staz4 di ,lagozza1 #ahhj4 #gba ,vol4 xvi4 sect4 #a1 p4 #cj4 #gbb ,de ,bunge1 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,bot4 de ,fr41 #ahfj1 p4 #cj4 #gbc ,ledebour1 ,flora ,rossica1 iii4 p4 #fcd4 #gbd ,bunge found hemp in the north of ,china1 but among rubbish 7,enum4 ,no4 #cch74 #gbe ,seringe1 ,description et ,culture des ,mriers4 #gbf ,bureau1 in ,de ,candolle1 ,prodromus1 xvii4 p4 #bch4 #gbg ,brandis1 ,forest ,flora of ,north-,west and ,central ,india1 #ahgd1 p4 #djh4 ,this variety has black fruit1 like that of ,morus nigra4 #gbh ,bureau1 ibid41 from the specimens of several travellers4 #gbi ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc41 p4 #ab4 #gcj ,this name occurs in the ,pent-sao1 according to ,ritter1 ,erdkunde1 xvii4 p4 #dhi4 #gca ,platt says 7,zeitschrift d4 ,gesellsch4 ,erdkunde1 #ahga1 p4 #afb7 that its cultivation dates from #djjj years ,b4,c4 #gcb ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enum4 ,plant4 ,jap41 i4 p4 #dcc4 #gcc ,ant4 ,targioni1 ,cenni ,storici sull' ,introduzione di ,varie ,piante nell' ,agricoltura ,toscana1 p4 #ahh4 #gcd ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 iv4 p4 #aaec4 #gce ,buhse1 ,aufzhlung der ,transcaucasien und ,persien ,pflanzen1 p4 #bjc4 #gcf ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 iii4 p4 #fdc4 #gcg ,steven1 ,verseichniss d4 ,taurisch4 ,halbins1 p4 #cac2 ,heldreich1 ,pflanzen des ,attischen ,ebene1 p4 #ejh2 ,bertoloni1 ,fl4 ,ital41 x4 p4 #agg2 ,caruel1 ,fl4 ,toscana1 p4 #aga4 #gch ,bureau1 de ,cand41 ,prodr41 xvii4 p4 #bch4 #gci ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind42 ,piddington1 ,index4 #gdj ,reichenbach gives good figures of both species in his ,icones ,fl4 ,germ41 #feg1 #feh4 #gda ,fraas1 ,syn4 ,fl4 ,class41 p4 #bcf2 ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alten ,gr4 und ,rm41 p4 #dai2 ,ritter1 ,erdkunde1 xvii4 p4 #dhb2 ,hehn1 ,culturpflanzen1 edit4 #c1 p4 #ccf4 #gdb ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 iv4 p4 #aaec 7published #ahgi74 #gdc ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 iii4 p4 #fda4 #gdd ,steven1 ,verseichniss d4 ,taur4 ,halb4 ,pflan41 p4 #cac4 #gde ,tchihatcheff1 trans4 of ,grisebach's ,vgtation du ,globe1 i4 #dbd4 #gdf ,heldreich1 ,nutzpflanzen ,griechenlands1 p4 #ai4 #gdg ,bertoloni1 ,flora ,ital41 x4 p4 #agi2 ,viviani1 ,fl4 ,dalmat41 i4 p4 #bbj2 ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,hisp41 i4 p4 #bej4 #gdh ,humboldt1 ,nouvelle ,espagne1 ed4 #b1 p4 #dhg4 #gdi ,humboldt1 in ,kunth1 ,nova ,genera1 i4 p4 #big4 #gej ,grisebach1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,w4 ,ind4 ,is41 p4 #ehb4 #gea ,alph4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,raisonne1 p4 #gci2 ,h4 ,hoffmann1 in ,regel's ,gartenflora1 #ahge1 p4 #gj4 #geb ,k4 ,ritter1 ,ueber die ,geographische ,verbreitung des ,zuckerrohrs1 in #dto1 #ajh pages 7according to ,pritzel1 ,thes4 ,lit4 ,bot472 ,die ,cultur des ,zuckerrohrs1 ,saccharum1 in ,asien1 ,geogr4 ,verbreitung1 etc41 etc41 in #hvo1 #fd pages1 without date4 ,this monograph is full of learning and judgment1 worthy of the best epoch of ,german science1 when ,english or ,french authors were quoted by all authors with as much care as ,germans4 #gec ,kunth1 ,enum4 ,plant4 7#ahch71 vol4 i4 p4 #dgd4 ,there is no more recent descriptive work on the family of the ,gramine1 nor the genus ,saccharum4 #ged ,miquel1 ,flor ,indi ,batav1 #ahee1 vol4 iii4 p4 #eaa4 #gee ,aitchison1 ,catalogue of ,punjab and ,sindh ,plants1 #ahfi1 p4 #agc4 #gef ,thwaites1 ,enum4 ,,pi4 ,zeyloni4 #geg ,crawfurd1 ,indian ,archip41 i4 p4 #dge4 #geh ,forster1 ,de ,plantis ,esculentis4 #gei ,vieillard1 ,annales des ,sc4 ,nat41 #dth series1 vol4 xvi4 p4 #cb4 #gfj ,loureiro1 ,cochin-,ch41 edit4 #b1 vol4 i4 p4 #ff4 #gfa ,forskal1 ,fl4 gypto-,arabica1 p4 #ajc4 #gfb ,macfadyen1 ,on the ,botanical ,characters of the ,sugar-,cane1 in ,hooker's ,bot4 ,miscell41 i4 p4 #aja2 ,maycock1 ,fl4 ,barbad41 p4 #ej4 #gfc ,rumphius1 ,amboin1 vol4 v4 p4 #ahf4 #gfd ,hehn1 ,no4 #dhj4 #gfe ,schacht1 ,madeira und ,teneriffe1 tab4 i4 #gff ,tussac1 ,flore des ,antilles1 i4 p4 #aec1 pl4 #bc4 #gfg ,piddington1 ,index4 #gfh ,bretschneider1 ,on the ,study and ,value1 etc41 pp4 #de-dg4 #gfi ,see the quotations from ,strabo1 ,dioscorides1 ,pliny1 etc41 in ,lenz1 ,botanik der ,alten ,griechen und ,rmer1 #ahei1 p4 #bfg2 ,fingerhut1 in ,flora1 #ahci1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ebi2 and many other authors4 #ggj ,rosenmller1 ,handbuch der ,bibl4 ,alterth4 #gga ,calendrier ,rural de ,harib1 written in the tenth century for ,spain1 translated by ,dureau de la ,malle in his ,climatologie de l',italie et de l',andalousie1 p4 #ga4 #ggb ,von ,buch1 ,canar4 ,ins4 #ggc ,piso1 ,brsil1 p4 #di4 #ggd ,humboldt1 ,nouv4 ,espagne1 ed4 #b1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cd4 #gge ,not4 ,stat4 sur les ,col4 ,franc41 i4 pp4 #bjg1 #bi1 #hc4 #ggf ,macfadyen1 in ,hooker1 ,bot4 ,miscell41 i4 p4 #aja2 ,maycock1 ,fl4 ,barbad41 p4 #ej4 #ggg ii4 p4 #c4 #ggh ii4 tab4 #c4 #ggi ,sonnerat1 ,voy4 ,nouv4 ,guin41 tab4 #aai1 #abj4 #ghj ,thunberg1 ,diss41 ii4 p4 #cbf2 ,de ,candolle1 ,prodr41 iii4 p4 #bfb2 ,hooker1 ,bot4 ,mag41 tab4 #bgdi2 ,hasskarl1 ,cat4 ,hort4 ,bogor4 ,alt41 p4 #bfa4 #gha ,roxburgh1 ,flora ,indica1 edit4 #ahcb1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aid4 #ghb ,alph4 de ,candolle1 in ,prodromus1 vol4 xvi41 sect4 #a1 p4 #bi2 ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 iv4 p4 #aaeb2 ,hohenacker1 ,enum4 ,plant4 ,talysch1 p4 #cj2 ,buhse ,aufzhlung ,transcaucasien1 p4 #bjb4 #ghc ,an erroneous transcription of what ,asa ,gray 7,botany of ,north4 ,united ,states1 edit4 #e7 says of the hemp1 wrongly attributed to the hop in ,prodromus1 and repeated in the ,french edition of this work1 should be corrected4 ,humulus ,lupulus is indigenous in the east of the ,united ,states1 and also in the island of ,yeso1 according to a letter from ,maximowicz4--,,author',s ,,note1 #ahhd4 #ghd ,hehn1 ,nutzpflanzen und ,hausthiere in ihren ,uebergang aus ,asien1 edit4 #c1 p4 #dae4 #ghe ,pliny1 ,hist41 bk4 #ba1 c4 #ae4 ,he mentions asparagus in this connection1 and the young shoots of the hop are sometimes eaten in this manner4 #ghf ,tacitus1 ,germania1 cap4 #be2 ,pliny1 bk4 #ah1 c4 #g2 ,hehn1 ,kulturpflanzen1 edit4 #c1 pp4 #abe-acg4 #ghg ,volz1 ,beitrge zur ,culturgeschichte1 p4 #adi4 #ghh ,ibid4 #ghi ,beckmann1 ,erfindungen1 quoted by ,volz4 #gij ,piddington1 ,index2 ,fick1 ,wrterb4 ,indo-,germ4 ,sprachen1 i42 ,ursprache4 #gia ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,rais41 p4 #heg4 #gib ,dict4 ,,ms41 compiled from floras1 ,moritzi4 #gic ,unger1 ,die ,pflanzen des ,alten gyptens1 p4 #dg4 #gid ,schweinfurth1 in a letter to ,m4 ,boissier1 #ahhb4 #gie ,piddington1 ,index4 #gif ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc41 p4 #ae4 #gig ,see ,targioni1 ,cenni ,storici1 p4 #ajh4 #gih ,forskal1 ,fl4 gypt41 p4 #gc2 ,ebn ,baithar1 ,germ4 trans41 ii4 pp4 #aif1 #bic2 i4 p4 #ah4 #gii ,see ,gasparin1 ,cours d',agric41 iv4 p4 #bag4 #hjj ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 iii4 p4 #gaj2 ,oliver1 ,flora of ,trop4 ,afr41 iii4 p4 #dci4 #hja ,clarke1 ,composit ,indic1 #ahgf1 p4 #bdd4 #hjb ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1 ,aufzhlung1 p4 #bhc4 #hjc ,rohlfs1 ,kufra1 in #hvo1 #ahha4 #hjd ,ebn ,baithar1 ii4 p4 #aif4 #hje ,pliny1 bk4 xxi4 c4 #f4 #hjf ,royle1 ,ill4 ,himal41 p4 #cgb4 #hjg ,index1 p4 #be4 #hjh ,according to ,forskal1 ,delile1 ,reynier1 ,schweinfurth1 and ,ascherson4 #hji ,theophrastus1 ,hist41 #a4 #f1 c4 #f4 #haj ,j4 ,bauhin1 ,hist41 ii4 p4 #fcg4 #haa ,royle1 ,ill4 ,himal4 #hab ,sibthorp1 ,prodr42 ,fraas1 ,syn4 ,fl4 ,class41 p4 #bib4 #hac ,j4 ,gay1 quoted by ,babington1 ,man4 ,brit4 ,fl4 #had ,maw1 in the ,gardener's ,chron41 #ahha1 vol4 xvi4 #hae ,jacquemont1 ,voyage1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bch4 #haf ,the word fruit is here employed in the vulgar sense1 for any fleshy part which enlarges after the flowering4 ,in the strictly botanical sense1 the ,anonace1 strawberries1 cashews1 pine-apples1 and breadfruit are not fruits4 #hag ,a4 squamosa is figured in ,descourtilz1 ,flore des ,antilles1 ii4 pl4 #hc2 ,hooker's ,bot4 ,mag41 #cjie2 and ,tussac1 ,flore des ,antilles1 iii4 pl4 #d4 #hah ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,rais41 p4 #hei4 #hai ,aug4 de ,saint-,hilaire1 ,plantes usuelles des ,brsiliens1 bk4 vi4 p4 #e4 #hbj ,alph4 de ,candolle1 ,mem4 ,soc4 ,phys4 et d',hist4 ,nat4 de ,genve4 #hba ,ibid41 p4 #ai of ,mem4 printed separately4 #hbb ,see ,botany of ,congo1 and the ,german translation of ,brown's works1 which has alphabetical tables4 #hbc ,royle1 ,ill4 ,himal41 p4 #fj4 #hbd ,webb1 in ,fl4 ,nigr41 p4 #ig4 #hbe ,ibid41 p4 #bjd4 #hbf ,thonning1 ,pl4 ,guin4 #hbg ,brown1 ,congo1 p4 #f4 #hbh ,guillemin1 ,perrottet1 and ,richard1 ,tentamen ,fl4 ,seneg4 #hbi ,sloane1 ,jam41 ii4 p4 #afh4 #hcj ,p4 ,brown1 ,jam41 p4 #beg4 #hca ,macfadyen1 ,fl4 ,jam41 p4 #i4 #hcb ,martius1 ,fl4 ,bras41 fasc4 ii4 p4 #ae4 #hcc ,splitgerber1 ,nederl4 ,kruidk4 ,arch41 ii4 p4 #bcj4 #hcd ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,rais41 chap4 x4 #hce ,rumphius1 i4 p4 #aci4 #hcf ,forster1 ,plant ,esculent4 #hcg ,rheede1 ,malabar1 iii4 p4 #bb4 #hch ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochin41 p4 #dbg4 #hci ,blanco1 ,fl4 ,filip4 #hdj ,this depends upon the opinion formed with respect to ,a4 glabra1 ,forskal 7,a4 ,asiatica1 ,b4 ,dun4 ,anon41 p4 #ga2 ,a4 ,forskalii1 ,d4 ,c4 ,syst41 i4 p4 #dgb71 which was sometimes cultivated in gardens in ,egypt when ,forskal visited that country2 it was called keschta1 that is1 coagulated milk4 ,the rarity of its cultivation and the silence of ancient authors shows that it was of modern introduction into ,egypt4 ,ebn ,baithar 7,sondtheimer's ,german translation1 in #b vols41 #ahdj71 an ,arabian physician of the thirteenth century1 mentions no ,anonacea1 nor the name keschta4 ,i do not see that ,forskal's description and illustration 7,descr41 p4 #ajb4 ic4 tab4 #ae7 differ from ,a4 squamosa4 ,coquebert's specimen1 mentioned in the ,systema1 agrees with ,forskal's plate2 but as it is in flower while the plate shows the fruit1 its identity cannot be proved4 #hda ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 edit4 #ahcb1 v4 ii4 p4 #feg4 #hdb ,piddington1 ,index1 p4 #f4 #hdc ,royle1 ,ill4 ,him41 p4 #fj4 #hdd ,rheede and ,rumphius1 i4 p4 #aci4 #hde ,hernandez1 pp4 #cdh1 #ded4 #hdf ,dunal1 ,mem4 ,anon41 p4 #gj4 #hdg ,martius1 ,fl4 ,bras41 fasc4 ii4 p4 #ae4 #hdh ,hence the generic name ,anona1 which ,linnus changed to ,annona 7provision71 because he did not wish to have any savage name1 and did not mind a pun4 #hdi ,martius1 ,fl4 ,bras41 fasc4 ii4 p4 #ae4 #hej ,marcgraf1 ,brazil1 p4 #id4 #hea ,see ,baker1 ,flora of ,mauritius1 p4 #c4 ,the identity admitted by ,oliver1 ,fl4 ,trop4 ,afr41 i4 p4 #af1 of the ,anona palustris of ,america with that of ,senegambia1 appears to me very extraordinary1 although it is a species which grows in marshes2 that is1 having perhaps a very wide area4 #heb ,hooker1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #gh2 ,miquel1 ,fl4 ,indo-,batava1 i4 part #b1 p4 #cc2 ,kurz1 ,forest ,flora of ,brit4 ,burm41 i4 p4 #df2 ,stewart and ,brandis1 ,forests of ,india1 p4 #f4 #hec ,grisebach1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,w4 ,i4 ,isles1 p4 #e4 #hed ,eggers1 ,flora of ,st4 ,croix and ,virgin ,isles1 p4 #bc4 #hee ,triana and ,planchon1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,novo-,granatensis1 p4 #bi2 ,sagot1 ,journ4 ,soc4 d',hortic41 #ahgb4 #hef ,warming1 ,symbol ad4 ,fl4 ,bras41 xvi4 p4 #dcd4 #heg ,figured in ,descourtilz1 ,fl4 ,med4 des4 ,antilles1 ii4 pl4 #hg1 and in ,tussac1 ,fl4 des ,antilles1 ii4 p4 #bd4 #heh ,richard1 ,plantes ,vasculaires de ,cuba1 p4 #bi2 ,swartz1 ,obs41 p4 #bba2 ,p4 ,brown1 ,jamaica1 p4 #bee2 ,macfadyen1 ,fl4 of ,jam41 p4 #g2 ,eggers1 ,fl4 of ,st4 ,croix1 p4 #bc2 ,grisebach1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,w4 ,i41 p4 #d4 #hei ,martius1 ,fl4 ,brasil1 fasc4 ii4 p4 #d2 ,splitgerber1 ,pl4 de ,surinam1 in ,nederl4 ,kruidk4 ,arch41 i4 p4 #bbf4 #hfj ,richard1 ,macfadyen1 ,grisebach1 ,eggers1 ,swartz1 ,maycock1 ,fl4 ,barbad41 p4 #bcc4 #hfa ,seemann1 ,bot4 of the ,herald1 p4 #ge4 #hfb ,triana and ,planchon1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,novo-,granat41 p4 #bi4 #hfc ,oliver1 ,fl4 ,trop4 ,afr41 i4 p4 #ae4 #hfd ,sir ,j4 ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #gh4 #hfe ,de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,rais41 p4 #hfc4 #hff ,feuille1 ,obs41 iii4 p4 #bc1 t4 #ag4 #hfg ,macfadyen1 ,fl4 ,jam41 p4 #aj4 #hfh ,martius1 ,fl4 ,bras41 fasc4 iii4 p4 #ae4 #hfi ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,nigr41 p4 #bje4 #hgj ,nov4 ,act4 ,nat4 ,cur41 xix4 suppl4 #a4 #hga ,richard1 ,plant4 ,vasc4 de ,cuba2 ,grisebach1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,w4 ,ind4 ,is42 ,hemsley1 ,biologia ,centr4 ,am41 p4 #aah2 ,kunth1 in ,humboldt and ,bonpland1 ,nova ,gen41 v4 p4 #eg2 ,triana and ,planchon1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,novo-,granat41 p4 #bh4 #hgb ,gay1 ,flora ,chil41 i4 p4 #ff4 #hgc ,molina1 ,french trans4 #hgd ,gallesio1 ,trait du ,citrus1 in #hvo1 ,paris1 #ahaa2 ,risso and ,poiteau1 ,histoire ,naturelle des ,orangers1 #ahah1 in folio1 #aji plates4 #hge ,hooker1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #eae4 #hgf ,brandis1 ,forest ,flora1 p4 #ej4 #hgg ,for a work of this nature1 the first step would be to publish good figures of wild species1 showing particularly the fruit1 which is not seen in herbaria4 ,it would then be seen which forms represented in the plates of ,risso1 ,duhamel1 and others1 are nearest to the wild types4 #hgh ,bretschneider1 ,on the ,study and ,value of ,chinese ,botanical ,works1 p4 #ee4 #hgi ,acosta1 ,hist4 ,nat4 des ,indes1 ,fr4 trans4 #aeih1 p4 #ahg4 #hhj ,roxburgh1 ,flora ,indica1 edit4 #ahcb iii4 p4 #cic4 #hha ,rumphius1 ,hortus ,ambeinensis1 ii4 p4 #ih4 #hhb ,miquel1 ,flora ,indo-,batava1 i4 pt4 #b1 p4 #ebf4 #hhc ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc4 #hhd ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochin41 ii4 p4 #egb4 ,for another species of the genus1 he says that it is cultivated and non-cultivated1 p4 #efi4 #hhe ,forster1 ,de ,plantis ,esculentis ,oceani ,australis1 p4 #ce4 #hhf ,seemann1 ,flora ,vitiensis1 p4 #cc4 #hhg ,plukenet1 ,almagestes1 p4 #bci2 ,sloane1 ,jamaica1 i4 p4 #da4 #hhh ,cedrat gros fruit of ,duhamel1 ,trait des ,arbres1 edit4 #b1 vii4 p4 #fh1 pl4 #bb4 #hhi ,royle1 ,ill4 ,himal41 p4 #abi2 ,brandis1 ,forest ,flora1 p4 #eb2 ,hooker1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #ead4 #hij ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enum4 ,plant4 ,jap41 p4 #abi4 #hia ,miquel1 ,flora ,indo-,batava1 i4 pt4 #b1 p4 #ebh4 #hib ,theophrastus1 l4 #d1 c4 #d4 #hic ,bodus1 in ,theophrastus1 edit4 #afdd1 pp4 #cbb1 #cdc2 ,risso1 ,trait du ,citrus1 p4 #aih2 ,targioni1 ,cenni ,storici1 p4 #aif4 #hid ,dioscorides1 i4 p4 #aff4 #hie ,targioni1 ,cenni ,storici4 #hif ,targioni1 p4 #bag4 #hig ,gallesio1 ,trait du ,citrus1 pp4 #cb1 #fg1 #cee1 #ceg4 #hih ,macfadyen1 ,flora of ,jamaica1 p4 #abi4 #hii ,quoted in ,grisebach's ,veget4 ,karaiben1 p4 #cd4 #ijj ,ernst1 in ,seemann1 ,journ4 of ,bot41 #ahfg1 p4 #bgb4 #ija ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,indica1 edit4 #ahcb1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cib2 ,piddington1 ,index4 #ijb ,gallesio1 p4 #abb4 #ijc ,in the modern languages of ,india the ,sanskrit name has been applied to the sweet orange1 so says ,brandis1 by one of those transpositions which are so common in popular language4 #ijd ,gallesio1 pp4 #abb1 #bdg1 #bdh4 #ije ,gallesio1 p4 #bdj4 ,goeze1 ,beitrag zur ,kenntniss der ,orangengewchse1 #ahgd1 p4 #ac1 quotes early ,portuguese travellers on this head4 #ijf ,wallich1 ,catalogue1 ,no4 #fchd4 #ijg ,hooker1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #eae4 #ijh ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochin41 p4 #ega4 #iji ,royle1 ,illustr4 of ,himal41 p4 #abi4 ,he quotes ,turner1 ,journey to ,thibet1 pp4 #bj1 #chg4 #iaj ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochin41 p4 #efi4 #iaa ,gallesio1 p4 #cba4 #iab ,the date of this statuto is given by ,targioni1 on p4 #bje of the ,cenni ,storici1 as #acgi1 and on p4 #bac as #acji4 ,the errata do not notice this discrepancy4 #iac ,goeze1 ,ein ,beitrag zur ,kenntniss der ,orangengewchse4 ,hamburg1 #ahgd1 p4 #bf4 #iad ,rumphius1 ,amboin41 ii4 c4 #db4 #iae ,forster1 ,plantis ,esculentis1 p4 #ce4 #iaf ,bretschneider1 ,on the ,study and ,value1 etc41 p4 #aa4 #iag ,rumphius1 ,amboin41 ii4 pls4 #cd1 #ce1 where1 however1 the form of the fruit is not that of our mandarin4 #iah ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochin41 p4 #egj4 #iai ,kurz1 ,forest ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,bur4 #ibj ,royle1 ,ill4 ,himal41 p4 #acc1 and ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #fah4 #iba ,macfadyen1 ,flora of ,jamaica1 p4 #acd4 #ibb ,rumphius1 ,amboin41 i4 p4 #acc2 ,miquel1 ,plant ,junghun41 i4 p4 #bij2 ,flora ,indo-,batava1 i4 pt4 #b1 p4 #ejf4 #ibc ,hooker1 ,flora of ,brit4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #bfj4 #ibd ,ernst in ,seemann1 ,journal of ,botany1 #ahfg1 p4 #bgc2 ,triana and ,planchon1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,novo-,granat41 p4 #bhe4 #ibe ,sloane1 ,jamaica1 i4 p4 #abc2 ,jacquin1 ,amer41 p4 #bfh2 ,grisebach1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,w4 ,ind4 ,isles1 p4 #aah4 #ibf ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,rais41 p4 #gfh4 #ibg ,flora of ,brit4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #cdc4 #ibh ,jacquin1 ,observationes1 iii4 p4 #aa4 #ibi ,marcgraf1 ,hist4 ,plant41 p4 #cb1 with illustrations4 #icj ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1 ,aufzhlung1 p4 #bfe1 under the name abelmoschus4 #ica ,flckiger and ,hanbury1 ,pharmacographia1 p4 #hf4 ,the description is in ,ebn ,baithar1 ,sondtheimer's trans41 i4 p4 #aah4 #icb ,unger1 ,die ,pflanzen des ,alten gyptens1 p4 #ej4 #icc ,grisebach1 ,vgt4 du ,globe1 ,french trans4 by ,tchihatcheff1 i4 pp4 #afb1 #afc1 #ddb2 ,munby1 ,catal4 ,alger2 ,ball1 ,fl4 ,maroc4 ,spicel1 p4 #cib4 #icd ,adolphe ,pictet1 ,origines ,indo-,europ4 edit4 #b1 vol4 #a1 p4 #bie4 quotes several travellers for these regions1 among others ,wood's ,journey to the ,sources of the ,oxus4 #ice ,these are figured in ,heer's ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1 p4 #bd1 fig4 #aa4 #icf ,ragazzoni1 ,rivista ,arch4 della ,prov4 di ,como1 #ahhj1 fasc4 #ag1 p4 #cj4 #icg ,heer1 ibid4 #ich ,planchon1 tude sur les ,tufs de ,montpellier1 #ahfd1 p4 #fc4 #ici ,de ,saporta1 ,la ,flore des ,tufs ,quaternaires de ,provence1 #ahfg1 pp4 #ae1 #bg4 #idj ,kolenati1 ,bulletin de la ,socit ,impriale des ,naturalistes de ,moscou1 #ahdf1 p4 #bgi4 #ida ,regel1 ,acta ,horti ,imp4 ,petrop41 #ahgc4 ,in this short review of the genus1 ,m4 ,regel gives it as his opinion that ,vitis vinifera is a hybrid between two wild species1 ,v4 vulpina and ,v4 labrusca1 modified by cultivation2 but he gives no proof1 and his characters of the two wild species are altogether unsatisfactory4 ,it is much to be desired that the wild and cultivated vines of ,europe and ,asia should be compared with regard to their seeds1 which furnish excellent distinctions1 according to ,englemann's observations on the ,american vines4 #idb ,ad4 ,pictet1 ,origines ,indo-,eur41 #bnd edit41 vol4 i4 pp4 #bih-cba4 #idc ,m4 ,delchevalerie1 in l',illustration ,horticole1 #ahha1 p4 #bh4 ,he mentions in particular the tomb of ,phtah-,hotep1 who lived at ,memphis #djjj ,b4,c4 #idd ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc41 p4 #af4 #ide ,pliny1 ,hist41 lib4 #ae1 c4 #ad4 #idf ,bertoloni1 ,fl4 ,ital41 ii4 p4 #ffe2 ,gussone1 ,syn4 ,fl4 ,sicul41 ii4 p4 #bgf4 #idg ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,prod4 ,fl4 ,hisp41 iii4 p4 #dhj2 ,desfontaines1 ,fl4 ,atlant41 i4 p4 #bjj2 ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #ab2 ,j4 ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #fcc2 ,bunge1 ,enum4 ,pl4 ,chin41 p4 #ad2 ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enum4 ,pl4 ,jap41 i4 p4 #ha4 #idh ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc41 p4 #aa4 #idi ,zizyphus chinensis of some authors is the same species4 #iej ,brandis1 ,forest ,flora of ,british ,india1 p4 #hd4 #iea ,lenz1 ,botanik der ,alten1 p4 #fea4 #ieb ,heldreich1 ,nutzpflanzen ,griechenlands1 p4 #eg4 #iec ,munby1 ,catal41 edit4 #b1 p4 #i4 #ied ,odyssey1 bk4 l1 v4 #hd2 ,herodotos1 l4 #d1 p4 #agg1 trans4 in ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alt41 p4 #fec4 #iee ,theophrastus1 ,hist41 l4 #d1 c4 #d1 edit4 #afdd4 ,the edition of #afac does not contain the words which refer to this detail4 #ief ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1 ,beitr4 zur ,fl4 thiop41 p4 #bfc4 #ieg ,see the article on the carob tree4 #ieh ,desfontaines1 ,fl4 ,atlant41 i4 p4 #bjj2 ,munby1 ,catal4 ,alger41 edit4 #b1 p4 #i2 ,ball1 ,spicilegium1 ,fl4 ,maroc41 p4 #cja2 ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,hisp41 iii4 p4 #dha2 ,bertoloni1 ,fl4 ,ital41 ii4 p4 #ffd4 #iei ,this name1 which is little used1 occurs in ,bauhin1 as ,jujuba ,indica4 #ifj ,sir ,j4 ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #fcb2 ,brandis1 ,forest ,fl41 i4 #hg2 ,bentham1 ,fl4 ,austral41 i4 p4 #dab2 ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #ac2 ,oliver1 ,fl4 of ,trop4 ,afr41 i4 p4 #cgi4 #ifa ,received from ,martius1 ,no4 #ajgj1 from the ,cabo frio4 #ifb ,bouton1 in ,hooker's ,journ4 of ,bot42 ,baker1 ,fl4 of ,mauritius1 p4 #fa2 ,brandis4 #ifc ,kurz1 ,forest ,flora of ,burmah1 i4 p4 #bff4 #ifd ,beddone1 ,forest ,flora of ,india1 i4 pl4 #adi 7representing the wild fruit1 which is smaller than that of the cultivated plant72 ,brandis4 #ife ,rheede1 iv4 pl4 #ada4 #iff ,piddington1 ,index4 #ifg ,rumphius1 ,amboyna1 ii4 pl4 #cf4 #ifh ,zizyphus abyssinicus1 ,hochst1 seems to be a different species4 #ifi ,tussac1 ,flore des ,antilles1 iii4 p4 #ee 7where there is an excellent figure1 pl4 #ac74 ,he says that it is an ,east ,indian species1 thus aggravating ,linnus' mistake1 who believed it to be ,asiatic and ,american4 #igj ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,rais41 p4 #hgc #iga ,piso and ,marcgraf1 ,hist4 rer4 ,natur4 ,brasil1 #afdh1 p4 #eg4 #igb ,vide ,piso and ,marcgraf2 ,aublet1 ,guyane1 p4 #cib2 ,seemann1 ,bot4 of the ,herald1 p4 #ajf2 ,jacquin1 ,amr41 p4 #abd2 ,macfadyen1 ,pl4 ,jamaic41 p4 #aai2 ,greisbach1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,w4 ,ind41 p4 #agf4 #igc ,ernst in ,seemann1 ,journ4 of ,bot41 #ahfg1 p4 #bgc4 #igd ,rheede1 ,malabar1 iii4 pl4 #ed4 #ige ,rumphius1 ,herb4 ,amboin41 i4 pp4 #agg1 #agh4 #igf ,beddone1 ,flora ,sylvatica1 t4 #afc2 ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #bj4 #igg ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochin41 p4 #cjd4 #igh ,brown1 ,congo1 pp4 #ab1 #di4 #igi ,oliver1 ,fl4 of ,trop4 ,afr41 i4 p4 #ddc4 #ihj ,see plate #deaj of the ,botanical ,magazine4 #iha ,roxburgh1 ,flora ,indica1 edit4 #b1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dce2 ,piddington1 ,index4 #ihb ,rumphius1 ,herb4 ,amboin41 i4 p4 #ie4 #ihc ,blanco1 ,fl4 ,filip41 p4 #aha4 #ihd ,rumphius2 ,forskal1 p4 cvii4 #ihe ,thwaites1 ,enum4 ,plant4 ,ceyl41 p4 #ge2 ,brandis1 ,forest ,flora1 p4 #abf2 ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #ac2 ,kurz1 ,forest ,flora ,brit4 ,burmah1 i4 p4 #cjd4 #ihf ,oliver1 ,flora of ,trop4 ,afr41 i4 p4 #ddb2 ,baker1 ,fl4 of ,maur4 and ,seych41 p4 #fc4 #ihg ,hughes1 ,barbados1 p4 #agg4 #ihh ,macfadyen1 ,fl4 of ,jam41 p4 #bba2 ,sir ,j4 ,hooker1 ,speech at the ,royal ,institute4 #ihi ,sagot1 ,jour4 de la ,soc4 ,centr4 d',agric4 de ,france1 #ahgb4 #iij ,forster1 ,de ,plantis ,esculentis ,insularum ,oceani ,australis1 p4 #cc2 ,seemann1 ,flora ,vitiensis1 p4 #ea2 ,nadaud1 ,enum4 des ,plantes de ,taiti1 p4 #ge4 #iia ,there is a good coloured illustration in ,tussac's ,fl4 des ,antilles1 iii4 pl4 #bh4 #iib ,boyer1 ,hortus ,mauritianus1 p4 #ha4 #iic ,h4 ,c4 ,watson1 ,compendium ,cybele ,brit41 i4 p4 #afj2 ,fries1 ,summa ,veg4 ,scand41 p4 #dd4 #iid ,lowe1 ,man4 ,fl4 of ,madeira1 p4 #bdf2 ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,hisp41 iii4 p4 #bbd2 ,moris1 ,fl4 ,sardoa1 ii4 p4 #ag4 #iie ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient4 #iif ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 ii4 p4 #fd4 #iig ,gay2 ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #cdd2 ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enum4 ,pl4 ,japon41 i4 p4 #abi4 #iih ,perny1 ,propag4 de la ,foi1 quoted in ,decaisne's ,jardin ,fruitier du ,mus41 p4 #bg4 ,gay does not give ,china4 #iii ,babington1 ,journ4 of ,linnan ,society1 ii4 p4 #cjc2 ,j4 ,gay4 #ajjj ,asa ,gray1 ,botany of the ,northern ,states1 edit4 #ahfh1 p4 #aef4 #ajja ,sir ,w4 ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,bor4 ,amer41 i4 p4 #ahd4 #ajjb ,a4 ,gray1 ,bot4 ,calif41 i4 p4 #agf4 #ajjc ,j4 ,gay1 in ,decaisne1 ,jardin ,fruitier du ,musum1 ,fraisier1 p4 #cj4 #ajjd ,le ,grand d',aussy1 ,hist4 de la ,vie ,prive des ,franais1 i4 pp4 #bcc and #c4 #ajje ,olivier de ,serres1 ,thtre d',agric41 p4 #eaa2 ,gerard1 from ,phillips1 ,pomarium ,britannicum1 p4 #ccd4 #ajjf ,purdie1 in ,hooker's ,london ,journal of ,botany1 #ahdd1 p4 #eae4 #ajjg ,bojer1 ,hortus ,mauritianus1 p4 #aba4 #ajjh ,bory ,saint-,vincent1 ,comptes ,rendus de l',acad4 des4 ,sc4 ,nat41 #ahcf1 sem4 ii4 p4 #aji4 #ajji ,asa ,gray1 ,manual of ,botany of the ,northern ,states1 edit4 #ahfh1 p4 #aee2 ,botany of ,california1 i4 p4 #agg4 #ajaj ,phillips1 ,romar4 ,brit41 p4 #cce4 #ajaa ,cl4 ,gay1 ,hist4 ,chili1 ,botanica1 ii4 p4 #cje4 #ajab ,ledebour4 ,fl4 ,ross41 ii4 p4 #f2 ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #fdi4 #ajac ,ledebour1 ibid42 ,fries1 ,summa ,scand41 p4 #df2 ,nyman1 ,conspec4 ,fl4 ,eur41 p4 #bac2 ,boissier4 ibid42 ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,hisp41 iii4 p4 #bde4 #ajad ,munby1 ,catal4 ,alger41 edit4 #b1 p4 #h4 #ajae ,as the cherries ripen after the season when birds migrate1 they disperse the stones chiefly in the neighbourhood of the plantations4 #ajaf ,sir ,j4 ,hooker1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,india4 #ajag ,lowe1 ,manual of ,madeira1 p4 #bce4 #ajah ,darlington1 ,fl4 ,cestrica1 edit4 #c1 p4 #gc4 #ajai ,ad4 ,pictet1 ,origines ,indo-,europ41 edit4 #b1 vol4 i4 p4 #bha4 #ajbj ,heer1 ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1 p4 #bd1 figs4 #ag1 #ah1 and p4 #bf4 #ajba ,in ,perrin1 tudes ,prhist4 sur la ,savoie1 p4 #bb4 #ajbb ,atte ,soc4 ,ital4 ,sc4 ,nat41 vol4 vi4 #ajbc ,for the numerous varieties which have common names in ,france1 varying with the different provinces1 see ,duhamel1 ,trait des ,arbres1 edit4 #b1 vol4 v41 in which are good coloured illustrations4 #ajbd ,hohenacker1 ,plant ,talysch41 p4 #abh4 #ajbe ,koch1 ,dendrologie1 i4 p4 #aaj4 #ajbf ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 ii4 p4 #f4 #ajbg ,grisebach1 ,spicil4 ,fl4 ,rumel41 p4 #hf4 #ajbh ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #fdi2 ,tchihatcheff1 ,asie ,mineure1 ,bot41 p4 #aih4 #ajbi ,sir ,j4 ,hooker1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,india1 ii1 p4 #cac4 #ajcj ,steven1 ,verzeichniss ,halbinselm1 etc41 p4 #adg4 #ajca ,rehmann1 ,verhandl4 ,nat4 ,ver4 ,brunn1 x4 #ahga4 #ajcb ,heldreich1 ,nutzpfl4 ,griech41 p4 #fi2 ,pflanzen d',attisch4 ,ebene41 p4 #dgg4 #ajcc ,viviani1 ,fl4 ,dalmat41 iii4 p4 #beh4 #ajcd ,bertoloni1 ,fl4 ,ital41 v4 p4 #aca4 #ajce ,lecoc and ,lamotte1 ,catal4 du ,plat4 ,centr4 de la ,france1 p4 #adh4 #ajcf ,theophrastes1 ,hist4 ,pl41 lib4 #c1 c4 #ac2 ,pliny1 lib4 #ae1 c4 #be1 and others quoted in ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alten ,gr4 and ,rm41 p4 #gaj4 #ajcg ,part of the description of ,theophrastus shows a confusion with other trees4 ,he says1 for instance1 that the nut is soft4 #ajch ,ad4 ,pictet quotes forms of the same name in ,persian1 ,turkish1 and ,russian1 and derives from the same source the ,french word guigne1 now used for certain varieties of the cherry4 #ajci ,schouw1 ,die ,erde1 p4 #dd2 ,comes1 ,ill4 delle ,piante1 etc41 in #dto1 p4 #ef4 #ajdj ,sordelli1 ,piante della torbiera di ,lagozza1 p4 #dj4 #ajda ,caruel1 ,flora ,toscana1 p4 #dh4 #ajdb ,hist41 lib4 #ae1 c4 #ac4 #ajdc ,koch1 ,syn4 ,fl4 ,germ41 edit4 #b1 p4 #bbh2 ,cosson and ,germain1 ,flore des ,environs de ,paris1 i4 p4 #afe4 #ajdd ,hudson1 ,fl4 ,anglic41 #aggh1 p4 #bab1 unites them under the name ,prunus communis4 #ajde ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 ii4 p4 #e2 ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #feb2 ,k4 ,koch1 ,dendrologie1 i4 p4 #id2 ,boissier and ,buhse1 ,aufzhl ,transcaucasien1 p4 #hj4 #ajdf ,dioscorides1 p4 #agd4 #ajdg ,bretschneider1 ,on the ,study1 etc41 p4 #aj4 #ajdh ,fraas1 ,syn4 ,fl4 ,class41 p4 #fi4 #ajdi ,heldreich1 ,pflanzen ,attischen ,ebene4 #ajej ,steven1 ,verzeichniss ,halbinseln1 i4 p4 #agb4 #ajea ,comes1 ,ill4 ,piante ,pompeiane4 #ajeb ,insititia foreign4 ,a curious name1 since every plant is foreign to all countries but its own4 #ajec ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,hisp41 iii4 p4 #bdd2 ,bertoloni1 ,fl4 ,ital41 v4 p4 #ace2 ,grisebach1 ,spicel4 ,fl4 ,rumel41 p4 #he2 ,heldreich1 ,nutzpfl4 ,griech41 p4 #fh4 #ajed ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #fea2 ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 ii4 p4 #e2 ,hohenacker1 ,pl4 ,talysch1 p4 #abh4 #ajee ,dioscorides1 p4 #agc2 ,fraas1 ,fl4 ,class41 p4 #fi4 #ajef ,heldreich1 ,nutzpflanzen ,griechenlands1 p4 #fh4 #ajeg ,ibid4 #ajeh ,heer1 ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1 p4 #bg1 fig4 #af1 c4 #ajei ,dioscorides1 lib4 #a1 c4 #afe4 #ajfj ,pliny1 lib4 #b1 cap4 #ab4 #ajfa ,the ,latin name has passed into modern ,greek 7prikokkia74 ,the ,spanish and ,french names1 etc4 7albaricoque1 abricot71 seem to be derived from arbor prcox1 or prcocium1 while the old ,french word armegne1 and the ,italian armenilli1 etc41 come from mailon armeniacon4 ,see further details about the names of the species in my ,gographie ,botanique ,raisonne1 p4 #hhj4 #ajfb ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 ii4 p4 #c4 #ajfc ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #feb4 #ajfd ,tchihatcheff1 ,asie ,mineure1 ,botanique1 vol4 i4 #ajfe ,k4 ,koch1 ,dendrologie1 i4 p4 #hg4 #ajff ,nouv4 ,ann4 des ,voyages1 ,feb41 #ahci1 p4 #agf4 #ajfg ,e4 de ,salle1 ,voyage1 i4 p4 #adj4 #ajfh ,spach1 ,hist4 des ,vgt4 ,phanr41 i4 p4 #chi4 #ajfi ,boissier and ,buhse1 ,aufzhlung1 etc41 in #dto1 #ahfj4 #ajgj ,reynier1 conomie des gyptiens1 p4 #cga4 #ajga ,munby1 ,catal4 ,fl4 d',algr41 edit4 #b1 p4 #di4 #ajgb ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1 ,beitrge z4 ,fl4 thiop41 in #dto41 #ahfg1 p4 #bei4 #ajgc ,royle1 ,ill4 of ,himalaya1 p4 #bje2 ,aitchison1 ,catal4 of ,punjab and ,sindh1 p4 #ef2 ,sir ,joseph ,hooker1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #cac2 ,brandis1 ,forest ,flora of ,n4 ,w4 and ,central ,india1 #aia4 #ajgd ,westmael1 in ,bull4 ,soc4 ,bot4 ,belgiq41 viii41 p4 #bai4 #ajge ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 edit4 #b1 v4 ii4 p4 #eja4 #ajgf ,bretschneider1 ,on the ,study and ,value1 etc41 pp4 #aj1 #di4 #ajgg ,decaisne1 ,jardin ,fruitier du ,musum1 vol4 viii41 art4 ,abricotier4 #ajgh ,dr4 ,bretschneider confirms this in a recent work1 ,notes on ,botanical ,questions1 p4 #c4 #ajgi ,prunus armeniaca of ,thunberg is ,p4 mume of ,siebold and ,zuccharini4 ,the apricot is not mentioned in the ,enumeratio1 etc41 of ,franchet and ,savatier4 #ajhj ,capus 7,ann4 ,sc4 ,nat41 sixth series1 vol4 xv4 p4 #bjf7 found it wild in ,turkestan at the height of four thousand to seven thousand feet1 which weakens the hypothesis of a solely ,chinese origin4 #ajha ,piddington1 ,index2 ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind42 ,forskal1 ,fl4 gyp42 ,delile ,ill4 ,egypt4 #ajhb ,bretschneider1 ,on the ,study and ,value1 etc4 #ajhc ,bretschneider1 ,early ,european ,researches1 p4 #adi4 #ajhd ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc41 p4 #aj2 and ,early ,europ4 ,resear41 p4 #adi4 #ajhe ,brandis1 ,forest ,flora2 ,sir ,j4 ,hooker1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,ind41 iii4 p4 #cac4 #ajhf ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 edit4 #b1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ejj2 ,royle1 ,ill4 ,himal41 p4 #bjd4 #ajhg ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orien41 iii4 p4 #fda4 #ajhh ,k4 ,koch1 ,dendrologie1 i4 p4 #hj2 ,tchihatcheff1 ,asie ,mineure ,botanique1 i4 p4 #ajh4 #ajhi ,ann4 des ,sc4 ,nat41 #crd series1 vol4 xix4 p4 #ajh4 #ajij ,gussone1 ,synopsis ,flor ,sicul1 i4 p4 #eeb2 ,heldreich1 ,nutzpflanzen ,griechenlands1 p4 #fg4 #ajia ,hiller1 ,hierophyton1 i4 p4 #bae2 ,rosenmller1 ,handb4 ,bibl4 ,alterth41 iv4 p4 #bfc4 #ajib ,theophrastus1 ,hist41 lib4 #a1 c4 #aa1 #ah1 etc42 ,dioscorides1 lib4 #a1 c4 #agf4 #ajic ,schouw1 ,die ,erde1 etc42 ,comes1 ,ill4 ,piante nei dipinti ,pomp41 p4 #ac4 #ajid ,pliny1 ,hist41 lib4 #af1 c4 #bb4 #ajie ,moris1 ,flora ,sardoa1 ii4 p4 #e2 ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,hisp41 ii4 p4 #bdc4 #ajif ,dictionnaire ,franais ,berbre1 #ahdd4 #ajig ,alph4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,rais41 p4 #hha4 #ajih ,theophrastus1 ,hist41 iv4 c4 #d2 ,dioscorides1 lib4 #a1 c4 #afd2 ,pliny1 ,geneva edit41 bk4 #ae1 c4 #ac4 #ajii ,royle1 ,ill4 ,him41 p4 #bjd4 #aajj ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 #bnd4 edit41 ii4 p4 #ejj2 ,piddington1 ,index2 ,royle1 ibid4 #aaja ,sir ,joseph ,hooker1 ,journ4 of ,bot41 #ahej1 p4 #ed4 #aajb ,rose1 the head of the ,french trade at ,canton1 collected these from ,chinese manuscripts1 and ,noisette 7,jard4 ,fruit41 i4 p4 #gf7 has transcribed a part of his article4 ,the facts are of the following nature4 ,the ,chinese believe the oval peaches1 which are very red on one side1 to be a symbol of a long life4 ,in consequence of this ancient belief1 peaches are used in all ornaments in painting and sculpture1 and in congratulatory presents1 etc4 ,according to the work of ,chin-noug-king1 the peach ,yu prevents death4 ,if it is not eaten in time1 it at least preserves the body from decay until the end of the world4 ,the peach is always mentioned among the fruits of immortality1 with which were entertained the hopes of ,tsinchi-,hoang1 ,vouty1 of the ,hans and other emperors who pretended to immortality1 etc4 #aajc ,lindley1 ,trans4 ,hort4 ,soc41 v4 p4 #aba4 #aajd ,trans4 ,hort4 ,soc4 ,lond41 iv4 p4 #eab1 tab4 #ai4 #aaje ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind4 #aajf ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochin41 p4 #chf4 #aajg ,kmpfer1 ,amn41 p4 #gih2 ,thunberg1 ,fl4 ,jap41 p4 #aii4 ,kmpfer and ,thunberg also give the name momu1 but ,siebold 7,fl4 ,jap41 i4 p4 #bi7 attributes a somewhat similar name1 mume1 to a plum tree1 ,prunus mume1 ,sieb4 and ,z4 #aajh ,noisette1 ,jard4 ,fr41 p4 #gg2 ,trans4 ,soc4 ,hort4 ,lond41 iv4 p4 #eac4 #aaji ,pallas1 ,fl4 ,rossica1 p4 #ac4 #aaaj ,shuft aloo is1 according to ,royle 7,ill4 ,him4 p4 #bjd71 the ,persian name for the nectarine4 #aaaa ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 i4 p4 #c4 ,see p4 #bbh1 the subsequent opinion of ,koch4 #aaab ,bosc1 ,dict4 d',agric41 ix4 p4 #dha4 #aaac ,thouin1 ,ann4 ,mus41 viii4 p4 #dcc4 #aaad ,royle1 ,ill4 ,him41 p4 #bjd4 #aaae ,bunge1 ,enum4 ,pl4 ,chin41 p4 #bc4 #aaaf ,thunberg1 ,fl4 ,jap4 #aii4 #aaag ,thunberg1 ,fl4 ,jap41 #aii4 #aaah ,the accounts about ,china which ,i have consulted do not mention the nectarine2 but as it exists in ,japan1 it is extremely probable that it does also in ,china4 #aaai ,noisette1 ,jard4 ,fr41 p4 #gg2 ,trans4 ,hort4 ,soc41 iv4 p4 #eab1 tab4 #ai4 #aabj ,lindley1 ,trans4 ,hort4 ,soc41 v4 p4 #abb4 #aaba ,j4 ,bauhin1 ,hist41 i4 pp4 #afb1 #afc4 #aabb ,dalechamp1 ,hist41 i4 p4 #bie4 #aabc ,pliny1 lib4 xv4 cap4 #ab and #ac4 #aabd ,pliny1 ,de ,div4 ,gen4 ,malorum1 lib4 ii4 cap4 #ad4 #aabe ,dalechamp1 ,hist41 i4 p4 #ceh4 #aabf ,dalechamp1 ibid42 ,matthioli1 p4 #abb2 ,csalpinus1 p4 #ajg2 ,j4 ,bauhin1 p4 #afc1 etc4 #aabg ,pliny1 lib4 xvii4 cap4 #aj4 #aabh ,i have not been able to discover an ,italian name for a glabrous or other fruit derived from tuber1 or tuberes1 which is singular1 as the ancient names of fruits are usually preserved under some form or other4 #aabi ,braddick1 ,trans4 ,hort4 ,soc4 ,lond41 ii4 p4 #bje4 #aacj ,ibid41 pl4 #ac4 #aaca ,bertero1 ,annales ,sc4 ,nat41 xxi4 p4 #cej4 #aacb ,bretschneider1 ,on the ,study and ,value1 etc41 p4 #aj4 #aacc ,sir ,j4 ,hooker1 ,flora of ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #cac4 #aacd ,brandis1 ,forest ,flora1 etc41 p4 #aia4 #aace ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #fdj4 #aacf ,k4 ,koch1 ,dendrologie1 i4 p4 #hc4 #aacg ,decaisne1 ,jard4 ,fr4 du ,mus41 ,pchers1 p4 #db4 #aach ,comes1 ,illus4 ,piante nei ,dipinti ,pompeiani1 p4 #ad4 #aaci ,darwin1 ,variation of ,plants and ,animals1 etc41 i4 p4 #cch4 #aadj ,decaisne1 ubi supra1 p4 #b4 #aada ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 ii4 p4 #id2 ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #fec4 ,he has verified several specimens4 #aadb ,sir ,j4 ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #cgd4 #aadc ,p4 sinensis described by ,lindley is badly drawn with regard to the indentation of the leaves in the plate in the ,botanical ,register1 and very well in that of ,decaisne's ,jardin ,fruitier du ,musum4 ,it is the same species as ,p4 ussuriensis1 ,maximowicz1 of ,eastern ,asia4 #aadd ,well drawn in ,duhamel1 ,trait des ,arbres1 edit4 #b1 vi4 pl4 #ei2 and in ,decaisne1 ,jard4 ,frui4 du ,mus41 pl4 #a1 figs4 ,b and ,c4 ,p4 balans1 pl4 #f of the same work1 appears to be identical1 as ,boissier observes4 #aade ,this is the case in the forests of ,lorraine1 for instance1 according to the observations of ,godron1 ,de l',origine ,probable des ,poiriers ,cultivs1 #hvo pamphlet1 #ahgc1 p4 #f4 #aadf ,rosenmller1 ,bibl4 ,alterth42 ,lw1 ,arameische ,pflanzennamen1 #ahha4 #aadg ,the spelling ,pyrus1 adopted by ,linnus1 occurs in ,pliny1 ,historia1 edit4 #afca1 p4 #cja4 ,some botanists1 purists in spelling1 write pirus1 so that in referring to a modern work it is necessary to look in the index for both forms1 or run the risk of believing that the pears are not in the work4 ,in any case the ancient name was a common name2 but the true botanical name is that of ,linnus1 founder of the received nomenclature1 and ,linnus wrote ,pyrus4 #aadh ,comes1 ,ill4 ,piante nei ,dipinti ,pompeiani1 p4 #ei4 #aadi ,heer1 ,pfahlbauten1 pp4 #bd1 #bf1 fig4 #g4 #aaej ,sordelli1 ,notizie ,stat4 ,lacustre di ,lagozza4 #aaea ,nemnich1 ,polyglott4 ,lex4 ,naturgesch42 ,ad4 ,pictet1 ,origines ,indo-,europ41 i4 p4 #bgg2 and my manuscript dictionary of common names4 #aaeb ,from a list of plant-names sent by ,m4 d',abadie to ,professor ,clos1 of ,toulouse4 #aaec ,godron1 ubi supra1 p4 #bh4 #aaed ,jacquin1 ,flora ,austriaca1 ii4 pp4 #d1 #ajg4 #aaee ,decaisne1 ,jardin ,fruitier du ,musum1 ,poiriers1 pl4 #ba4 #aaef ,decaisne1 ibid41 p4 #ah1 and ,introduction1 p4 #cj4 ,several varieties of this species1 of which a few bear a large fruit1 are figured in the same work4 #aaeg ,boreau1 ,fl4 du ,centre de la ,france1 edit4 #c1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bcf4 #aaeh ,palladius1 ,de re ,rustica1 lib4 #c1 c4 #be4 ,for this purpose 8pira sylvestria vel asperi generis0 were used4 #aaei ,the ,chinese quince had been called by ,thonin ,pyrus sinensis4 ,lindley has unfortunately given the same name to a true pyrus4 #aafj ,decaisne 7,jardin ,fruitier du ,musum1 ,poiriers1 pl4 #e7 saw specimens from both countries4 ,franchet and ,savatier give it as only cultivated in ,japan4 #aafa ,nyman1 ,conspectus ,flor ,europe1 p4 #bdj2 ,ledebour1 ,flora ,rossica1 ii4 p4 #if2 ,boissier1 ,flora ,orientalis1 ii4 p4 #fef2 ,decaisne1 ,nouv4 ,arch4 ,mus41 x4 p4 #aec4 #aafb ,boissier1 ibid4 #aafc ,maximowicz1 ,prim4 ,ussur42 ,regel1 ,opit4 ,flori1 etc41 on the plants of the ,ussuri collected by ,maak2 ,schmidt1 ,reisen ,amur4 ,franchet and ,savatier do not mention it in their ,enum4 ,jap4 ,bretschneider quotes a ,chinese name which1 he says1 applies also to other species4 #aafd ,koch1 ,syn4 ,fl4 ,germ41 i4 p4 #bfa4 #aafe ,boreau1 ,fl4 du ,centre de la ,france1 edit4 #c1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bcf4 #aaff ,boissier1 ubi supra4 #aafg ,orig4 ,indo-,eur41 i4 p4 #bgf4 #aafh ,heldreich1 ,nutzpflanzen ,griechenlands1 i4 p4 #fd4 #aafi ,theophrastus1 ,de ,causis1 lib4 #f1 cap4 #bd4 #aagj ,heer1 ,pfahlbauten1 p4 #bd1 figs4 #a-g4 #aaga ,sordelli1 ,sulle ,piante della ,stazione di ,lagozza1 p4 #ce4 #aagb ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #fef2 ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 ii4 p4 #ee4 #aagc ,steven1 ,verzeichniss ,taurien1 p4 #aej2 ,sibthorp1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,grc1 i4 p4 #cdd4 #aagd ,boissier1 ibid4 #aage ,nemnich1 ,polyglott ,lexicon4 #aagf ,nemnich1 ,poly4 ,lex4 #aagg ,ibid4 #aagh ,heldreich1 ,nutz4 ,griech41 p4 #fd4 #aagi ,in #dto1 ,napoli1 #ahgi4 #aahj ,de re ,rustica1 lib4 #g1 cap4 #b4 #aaha ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #gcg2 ,sir ,j4 ,hooker1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #eha4 #aahb ,quoted from ,royle1 ,illus4 ,himal41 p4 #bjh4 #aahc ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 ii4 p4 #ajd4 #aahd ,munby1 ,fl4 ,alger41 p4 #di2 ,spicilegium ,flora ,maroccan1 p4 #deh4 #aahe ,boissier1 ibid4 #aahf ,bretschneider1 ,on ,study and ,value1 etc41 p4 #af4 #aahg ,piddington1 ,index4 #aahh ,rosenmller1 ,bibl4 ,naturge41 i4 p4 #bgc2 ,hamilton1 ,la ,bot4 de la ,bible1 ,nice1 #ahga1 p4 #dh4 #aahi ,hehn1 ,cultur und ,hausthiere aus ,asien1 edit4 #c1 p4 #ajf4 #aaij ,hehn1 ibid4 #aaia ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alten ,grie4 und ,rm41 p4 #fha4 #aaib ,heldreich1 ,die ,nutzpflanzen ,griechenlands1 p4 #fd4 #aaic ,fraas1 ,fl4 ,class41 p4 #gi2 ,heldreich1 ibid4 #aaid ,hehn1 ibid4 #aaie ,pliny1 lib4 #ac1 c4 #ai4 #aaif ,dictionnaire ,franais-,berbre1 published by the ,french ,government4 #aaig ,de ,saporta1 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,gol4 de ,france1 ,april #e1 #ahfi1 pp4 #gfg-gfi4 #aaih ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,rais41 p4 #aia4 #aaii ,descourtilz1 ,flore ,mdicale des ,antilles1 v4 pl4 #cae4 #abjj ,miquel1 ,sumatra1 p4 #aah2 ,flora ,indi-,batav1 i4 p4 #dbe2 ,blume1 ,museum ,lugd4-,bat41 i4 p4 #ic4 #abja ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #dgd2 ,baker1 ,fl4 of ,maurit41 etc41 p4 #aae2 ,grisebach1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,w4 ,ind4 ,isles1 p4 #bce4 #abjb ,rumphius1 ,amboin1 i4 p4 #aba1 t4 #cg4 #abjc ,tussac1 ,flore des ,antilles1 iii4 p4 #hi1 pl4 #be4 #abjd ,forster1 ,plantis ,esculentis1 p4 #cf4 #abje ,blume1 ,museum ,lugd4-,bat41 i4 p4 #ia2 ,miquel1 ,fl4 ,indi-,batav41 i4 p4 #daa2 ,hooker1 ,flora of ,british ,india1 ii4 p4 #dgb4 #abjf ,grisebach1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,w4 ,indies1 p4 #bce2 ,baker1 ,fl4 of ,mauritius1 p4 #aae4 #abjg ,raddi1 ,di ,alcune ,specie di ,pero ,indiano1 in #dto1 ,bologna1 #ahba1 p4 #a4 #abjh ,martius1 ,syst4 ,nat4 ,medic ,bras41 p4 #cb2 ,blume1 ,museum ,lugd4-,bat41 i4 p4 #ga2 ,hasskarl1 in ,flora1 #ahdd1 p4 #ehi2 ,sir ,j4 ,hooker1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p #dfh4 #abji ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,rais41 p4 #hic4 #abaj ,lowe1 ,flora of ,madeira1 p4 #bff4 #abaa ,see ,blume1 ibid42 ,descourtilz1 ,flore ,mdicale des ,antilles1 ii4 p4 #bj1 in which there is a good illustration of the pyriform guava4 ,tussac1 ,flore des ,antilles1 gives a good plate of the round form4 ,these two latter works furnish interesting details on the use of the guava1 on the vegetation of the species1 etc4 #abab ,rumphius1 ,amboin1 i4 p4 #ada2 ,rheede1 ,hortus ,malabariensis1 iii4 t4 #cd4 #abac ,bojer1 ,hortus ,mauritianus2 ,baker1 ,flora of ,mauritius1 p4 #aab4 #abad ,all the floras1 and ,berg in ,flora ,brasiliensis1 vol4 xiv4 p4 #aif4 #abae ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,rais41 p4 #hid4 #abaf ,acosta1 ,hist4 ,nat4 et ,morale des ,indes ,orient4 et ,occid41 ,french trans41 #aeih1 p4 #age4 #abag ,hernandez1 ,nova ,hispani ,thesaurus1 p4 #he4 #abah ,piso1 ,hist4 ,brasil41 p4 #gd2 ,marcgraf1 ibid41 p4 #aje4 #abai ,the word gourd is also used in ,english for ,cucurbita maxima4 ,this is one of the examples of the confusion in common names and the greater accuracy of scientific terms4 #abbj ,naudin1 ,annales des ,sc4 ,nat41 #dth series1 vol4 xii4 p4 #ia2 ,cogniaux1 in our ,monog4 ,phanrog41 iii4 p4 #dag4 #abba ,linnus1 ,species ,plantarum1 p4 #adcd1 under ,cucurbita4 #abbb ,a4 ,p4 de ,candolle1 ,flora ,franaise 7#ahje71 vol4 iii4 p4 #fib4 #abbc ,rheede1 ,malabar1 iii4 pls4 #a1 #e2 ,royle1 ,ill4 ,himal41 p4 #bah4 #abbd ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 edit4 #ahcb1 vol4 iii4 p4 #gai4 #abbe ,rumphius1 ,amboin1 vol4 v4 p4 #cig1 t4 #add4 #abbf ,piddington1 ,index1 at the word ,cucurbita lagenaria2 ,ad4 ,pictet1 ,origines ,indo-,europ41 edit4 #c1 vol4 i4 p4 #chf4 #abbg ,seemann1 ,flora ,vitiensis1 p4 #ajf4 #abbh ,bentham1 ,flora ,australiensis1 iii4 p4 #caf4 #abbi ,described first under the name ,lagenaria idolatrica4 ,a4 ,richard1 ,tentamen ,fl4 ,abyss41 i4 p4 #bic1 and later1 ,naudin and ,cogniaux1 recognized its identity with ,l4 vulgaris4 #abcj ,torrey and ,gray1 ,fl4 of ,n4 ,amer41 i4 p4 #edc2 ,grisebach1 ,flora of ,brit4 ,w4 ,ind4 ,is41 p4 #bhh4 #abca ,bretschneider1 letter of the #bcrd of ,august1 #ahha4 #abcb ,tragus1 ,stirp41 p4 #bhe2 ,ruellius1 ,de ,natura ,stirpium1 p4 #dih2 ,naudin1 ibid4 #abcc ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,plant41 l4 #ai1 c4 #e4 #abcd ,ibn ,alawm1 in ,e4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte der ,botanik1 iii4 p4 #fj2 ,ibn ,baithar1 ,sondtheimer's translation4 #abce ,unger1 ,pflanzen des ,alten gyptens1 p4 #ei2 ,pickering1 ,chronol4 ,arrang41 p4 #acg4 #abcf ,in #hvo1 #ahgg1 p4 #ag4 #abcg ,rauwolf1 ,fl4 ,orient41 p4 #abe4 #abch ,piso1 ,indi ,utriusque41 etc41 edit4 #afeh1 p4 #bfd4 #abci ,marcgraf1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,brasili1 #afdh1 p4 #dd4 #abdj ,naudin1 ibid42 ,cogniaux1 ,flora ,brasil41 fasc4 #gh1 p4 #g2 and de ,candolle1 ,monogr4 ,phanr41 iii4 p4 #dah4 #abda ,cl4 ,gay1 ,flora ,chilena1 ii4 p4 #djc4 #abdb ,jos4 ,acosta1 ,french trans41 p4 #afg4 #abdc ,pickering1 ,chronol4 ,arrang41 p4 #hfa4 #abdd ,pickering1 ibid4 #abde ,ramusio1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aab4 #abdf ,p4 ,brown1 ,jamaica1 edit4 ii4 p4 #ced4 #abdg ,elliott1 ,sketch of the ,botany of ,south ,carolina and ,georgia1 ii4 p4 #ffc4 #abdh ,torrey and ,gray1 ,flora of ,n4 ,america1 i4 p4 #edd4 #abdi ,asa ,gray1 in the ,american ,journal of ,science1 #aheg1 vol4 xxiv4 p4 #ddb4 #abej ,trumbull1 in ,bull4 ,torrey ,bot4 ,club1 vol4 vi4 p4 #fi4 #abea ,naudin1 ,ann4 ,sc4 ,nat41 #dth series1 vol4 vi4 p4 #e2 vol4 xii4 p4 #hd4 #abeb ,ibid41 #dth series1 vol4 xviii4 p4 #afj2 vol4 xix4 p4 #ahj4 #abec ,as much as #bjj lbs41 according to the ,bon ,jardinier1 #ahej1 p4 #ahj4 #abed ,hooker1 ,fl4 of ,trop4 ,afr41 ii4 p4 #eee4 #abee ,lobel1 ,icones1 t4 #fda4 ,the illustration is reproduced in ,dalechamp's ,hist41 i4 p4 #fbf4 #abef ,clarke1 ,hooker's ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #fbb4 #abeg ,bretschneider1 letter of ,aug4 #bc1 #ahha4 #abeh ,the list is given by ,e4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte der ,botanik1 iii4 p4 #dja4 ,the ,cucurbita of which he speaks must have been the gourd1 ,lagenaria4 #abei ,piso1 ,brazil41 edit4 #afeh1 p4 #bfd2 ,marcgraf1 edit4 #afdh1 p4 #dd4 #abfj ,harris1 ,american ,journal1 #aheg1 vol4 xxiv4 p4 #dda2 ,trumbull1 ,bull4 of ,torrey ,bot4 ,club1 #ahgf1 vol4 vi4 p4 #fi4 #abfa ,asa ,gray1 ,botany of the ,northern ,states1 edit4 #ahfh1 p4 #ahf4 #abfb ,darlington1 ,flora ,cestrica1 #ahec1 p4 #id4 #abfc ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,raisonne1 p4 #ijb4 #abfd ,naudin1 ,ann4 ,sc4 ,nat41 #crd series1 vol4 vi4 p4 #i2 ,cogniaux1 in de ,candolle1 ,monogr4 ,phanr41 iii4 p4 #edf4 #abfe ,asa ,gray1 ,plant ,lindheimerian1 part ii4 p4 #aih4 #abff ,molina1 ,hist4 ,nat4 du ,chili1 p4 #cgg4 #abfg ,cogniaux1 in ,monogr4 ,phanr4 and ,flora ,brasil41 fasc4 #gh1 p4 #ba4 #abfh ,cogniaux1 ,fl4 ,bras4 and ,monogr4 ,phanr41 iii41 p4 #edg4 #abfi ,see the excellent plate in ,wight's ,icones1 t4 #ejg1 under the erroneous name of ,cucurbita maxima4 #abgj ,cogniaux1 in ,monogr4 ,phanr41 iii4 p4 #edg4 #abga ,miquel1 ,sumatra1 under the name ,gymnopetalum1 p4 #ccb4 #abgb ,cogniaux1 in ,monogr4 ,phanr4 #abgc ,gardener's ,chronicle1 articles signed 8,i4 ,h4 ,h410 #aheg1 p4 #aec2 #aheh1 p4 #acj4 #abgd ,cogniaux1 ,monogr4 ,phanr41 iii4 p4 #dhe4 #abge ,naudin1 ,ann4 ,sc4 ,nat41 #dth series1 vol4 xviii4 p4 #aga4 #abgf ,hooker1 in ,oliver1 ,fl4 of ,trop4 ,afr41 ii4 p4 #edf4 #abgg ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1 ,aufzhlung1 p4 #bfg4 #abgh ,schumacher and ,thonning1 ,guineiske ,planten41 p4 #dbf4 #abgi ,cogniaux1 in de ,candolle1 ,monogr4 ,phanr41 p4 #dhc4 #abhj ,bretschneider1 letter of ,aug4 #bf1 #ahha4 #abha ,piddington1 ,index4 #abhb ,see the copy in ,unger's ,pflanzen des ,alten gyptens1 fig4 #be4 #abhc ,galen1 ,de ,alimentis1 l4 #b1 c4 #e4 #abhd ,see all the ,vergilian floras1 and ,naudin1 ,ann4 ,sc4 ,nat41 #dth series1 vol4 xii4 p4 #aaa4 #abhe ,comes1 ,ill4 ,piante nei ,dipinti ,pompeiani1 in #dto1 p4 #bj1 in the ,museo ,nation41 vol4 iii4 pl4 #d4 #abhf ,habitat in ,apulia1 ,calabria1 ,sicilia 7,linnus1 ,species1 edit4 #agfc1 p4 #adce74 #abhg ,seringe1 in ,prodromus1 iii4 p4 #cja4 #abhh ,naudin1 ,ann4 sc4 ,nat41 #dth series1 vol4 xii4 p4 #aja2 ,sir ,j4 ,hooker1 in ,oliver1 ,flora of ,trop4 ,afr41 ii4 p4 #edi4 #abhi ,french trans41 p4 #ef4 #abij ,unger has copied the figures from ,lepsius' work in his memoir ,die ,pflanzen des ,alten gyptens1 figs4 #cj1 #ca1 #cb4 #abia ,dictionnaire ,franais-,berber1 at the word pastque4 #abib ,moris1 ,flora ,sardoa4 #abic ,piddington1 ,index4 #abid ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc41 p4 #ag4 #abie ,heldreich1 ,pflanz4 d4 ,attisch4 ,ebene41 p4 #eia2 ,nutzpfl4 ,griechenl41 p4 #ej4 #abif ,langkavel1 ,bot4 der ,spt4 ,griechen4 #abig ,forskal1 ,flora gypto-,arabica41 part i4 p4 #cd4 #abih ,nemnich1 ,polyg4 ,lexic41 i4 p4 #acji4 #abii ,piddington1 ,index2 ,pickering1 ,chronol4 ,arrang41 p4 #gb4 #acjj ,heldreich1 ,nutzpfl41 etc41 p4 #ej4 #acja 8,sativa planta et tractu temporis quasi nativa facta0 7,piso1 edit4 #afeh1 p4 #bcc74 #acjb ,naudin1 in ,ann4 ,sc4 ,nat41 #dth series1 vol4 xi4 p4 #ca4 #acjc ,wildenow1 ,species1 iv4 p4 #fae4 #acjd ,piddington1 ,index4 #acje ,bot4 ,mag41 pl4 #fbjf4 #acjf ,cogniaux1 in de ,candolle1 ,monogr4 ,phanr41 iii4 p4 #dii4 #acjg ,bretschneider1 letters of ,aug4 #bc and #bf1 #ahha4 #acjh ,theophrastus1 ,hist41 lib4 #g1 cap4 #d2 ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alten1 p4 #dib4 #acji ,heldreich1 ,nutzpfl4 ,griechen41 p4 #ej4 #acaj ,nemnich1 ,polygl4 ,lex41 i4 p4 #acjf4 #acaa ,nemnich1 ibid4 #acab ,forskal1 ,fl4 gypt41 p4 #gf4 #acac ,rosenmller1 ,biblische ,alterth41 i4 p4 #ig2 ,hamilton1 ,bot4 de la ,bible1 p4 #cd4 #acad ,descourtilz1 ,fl4 ,md4 des ,antilles1 v4 pl4 #cbi2 ,hooker1 ,bot4 ,mag41 t4 #ehag2 ,cogniaux1 in ,fl4 ,brasil41 fasc4 #gh1 pl4 #b4 #acae ,browne1 ,jamaica1 edit4 #b1 p4 #cec4 #acaf ,grisebach1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,w4 ,india ,is41 p4 #bhh4 #acag ,cogniaux1 ubi supra4 #acah ,guanerva-oba1 in ,piso1 ,brasil41 edit4 #afeh1 p4 #bfd2 ,marcgraf1 edit4 #afdh1 p4 #dd1 without illustration1 calls it ,cucumis sylvestris ,brasili4 #acai ,naudin1 ,ann4 ,sc4 ,nat41 #dth series1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ab4 #acbj ,darlington1 ,agric4 ,bot41 p4 #eh4 #acba ,cucurbita ,pepo of ,loureiro and ,roxburgh4 #acbb ,clarke1 in ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #faf4 #acbc ,cogniaux1 in de ,candolle1 ,monogr4 ,phanr41 iii4 p4 #eac4 #acbd ,thunberg1 ,fl4 ,jap41 p4 #cbb2 ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enum4 ,pl4 ,jap41 i4 p4 #agc4 #acbe ,hasskarl1 ,catal4 ,horti4 ,bogor4 ,alter41 p4 #aij2 ,miquel1 ,flora ,indo-,batav4 #acbf ,mueller1 ,fragm41 vi4 p4 #ahf2 ,forster1 ,prodr4 7no description72 ,seemann1 ,jour4 of ,bot41 ii4 p4 #ej4 #acbg ,nadeaud1 ,plan4 ,usu4 des ,taitiens1 ,enum4 des ,pl4 ,indig4 ,taiti4 #acbh ,bretschneider1 letter of ,aug4 #bf1 #ahha4 #acbi ,naudin1 ,ann4 ,sc4 ,nat41 #dth series1 vol4 xii4 p4 #aba4 #accj ,cogniaux1 ,monogr4 ,phanr41 iii4 p4 #deh4 #acca ,rheede1 ,hort4 ,malab41 viii4 p4 #ae1 t4 #h2 ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 iii4 p4 #gad1 as ,l4 clavata2 ,kurz1 ,contrib41 ii4 p4 #ajj2 ,thwaites1 ,enum4 #accb ,mueller1 ,fragmenta1 iii4 p4 #ajg2 ,bentham1 ,fl4 ,austr41 iii4 p4 #cag1 under names which ,naudin and ,cogniaux regard as synonyms of ,l4 cylindrica4 #accc ,hooker1 in ,oliver1 ,fl4 of ,trop4 ,afr41 ii4 p4 #ecj4 #accd ,schweinfurth and ,ascheron1 ,aufzhlung1 p4 #bfh4 #acce ,forskal1 ,fl4 gypt41 p4 #ge4 #accf ,naudin1 ,ann4 ,sc4 ,nat41 #dth series1 vol4 xii4 p4 #abb2 ,cogniaux1 in de ,candolle1 ,monogr4 ,phanr41 iii4 p4 #dei4 #accg ,linnus1 ,species1 p4 #adcf1 as ,cucumis acutangulus4 #acch ,rheede1 ,hort4 ,malab41 viii4 p4 #ac1 t4 #g4 #acci ,thwaites1 ,enum4 ,ceylan1 p4 #abf2 ,kurz1 ,contrib41 ii4 p4 #aja2 ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochin41 p4 #gbg4 #acdj ,rumphius1 ,amboin1 v4 p4 #djh1 t4 #adi4 #acda ,clarke1 in ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #fad4 #acdb ,bojer1 ,hort4 ,maurit4 #acdc ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1 ,aufzhlung1 p4 #bfh4 #acdd ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc41 p4 #ag4 #acde ,naudin1 ,ann4 ,sc4 ,nat41 #dth series1 vol4 xviii4 p4 #aij4 #acdf ,rumphius1 ,amboin1 v4 pl4 #adh4 #acdg ,grisebach1 ,flora of ,brit4 ,w4 ,india ,isl41 p4 #bhf4 #acdh ,browne1 ,jamaica1 p4 #cee4 #acdi ,jacquin1 ,stirp4 ,amer4 ,hist41 p4 #bei4 #acej ,naudin1 ,ann4 ,sc4 ,nat41 #dth series1 vol4 xviii4 p4 #bje4 #acea ,in ,monogr4 ,phanr41 iii4 p4 #ijb4 #aceb ,seemann1 ,bot4 of ,herald1 p4 #abh4 #acec ,sagot1 ,journal de la ,soc4 d',hortic4 de ,france1 #ahgb4 #aced ,cogniaux1 ,fl4 ,brasil1 fasc4 #gh4 #acee ,sagot1 ibid4 #acef ,webb and ,berthelot1 ,phytog4 ,canar41 sect4 #a1 p4 #bjh4 #aceg ,hernandez1 ,theo4 ,nov ,hisp41 p4 #gh4 #aceh ,sloane1 ,jamaica1 ii4 p4 #aej4 #acei ,chapman1 ,flora of ,southern ,states1 p4 #add4 #acfj ,the cactos of the ,greeks was quite a different plant4 #acfa ,steinheil1 in ,boissier1 ,voyage ,bot4 en ,espagne1 i4 p4 #be4 #acfb ,webb and ,berthelot1 ,phytog4 ,canar41 vol4 iii4 sect4 #a1 p4 #bjh #acfc ,robson1 quoted in ,english ,botany1 pl4 #bjeg4 #acfd ,nyman1 ,conspectus ,fl4 ,europe1 p4 #bff2 ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,or41 ii4 p4 #hae4 #acfe ,munby1 ,catal41 edit4 #b1 p4 #ae4 #acff ,ball1 ,spicilegium ,fl4 ,maroc41 p4 #ddi4 #acfg ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 ii4 p4 #aid2 ,boissier1 ubi supra4 #acfh ,clarke1 in ,hooker's ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #daj4 #acfi ,phillips1 ,account of ,fruits1 p4 #agd4 #acgj ,moore and ,more1 ,contrib4 to the ,cybele ,hybernica1 p4 #aac4 #acga ,davies1 ,welsh ,botanology1 p4 #bd4 #acgb ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 ii4 p4 #aii4 #acgc ,torrey and ,gray1 ,fl4 ,n4 ,amer41 i4 p4 #aej4 #acgd ,dodoneus1 p4 #gdh4 #acge ,watson1 ,cybele ,brit4 #acgf ,brebisson1 ,flore de ,normandie1 p4 #ii4 #acgg ,phillips1 ,account of ,fruits1 p4 #acf4 #acgh ,gerard1 ,herbal1 p4 #aadc4 #acgi ,that of currant is a later introduction1 given from the resemblance to the grapes of ,corinth 7,phillips1 ibid474 #achj ,legonidec1 ,diction4 ,celto-,breton4 #acha ,moritzi1 ,dict4 ,indit des ,noms ,vulgaires4 #achb ,linnus1 ,flora ,suecica1 n4 #aig4 #achc ,watson1 ,compend4 ,cybele1 i4 p4 #agg2 ,fries1 ,summa ,veg4 ,scand41 p4 #ci2 ,nyman1 ,conspect4 ,fl4 ,europ41 p4 #bff4 #achd ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,or41 ii4 p4 #hae4 #ache ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 p4 #bjj2 ,maximowicz1 ,primiti ,fl4 ,amur41 p4 #aai2 ,clarke1 in ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #daa4 #achf ,boreau1 ,flore du ,centre de la ,france1 edit4 #c1 p4 #bfb4 #achg ,bauhin1 ,hist4 ,plant41 ii4 p4 #ii4 #achh ,this name ,cassis is curious4 ,littr says that it seems to have been introduced late into the language1 and that he does not know its origin4 ,i have not met with it in botanical works earlier than the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,my manuscript collection of common names1 among more than forty names for this species in different languages or dialects has not one which resembles it4 ,buchoz1 in his ,dictionnaire des ,plantes1 #aggj1 i4 p4 #bhi1 calls the plant the ,cassis or ,cassetier des ,poitevins4 ,the old ,french name was ,poivrier or groseillier noir4 ,larousse's dictionary says that good liqueurs were made at ,cassis in ,provence4 ,can this be the origin of the name8 #achi ,aitchison1 ,catalogue1 p4 #hf4 #acij ,lowe1 ,man4 ,fl4 of ,madeira1 ii4 p4 #bj2 ,webb and ,berthelot1 ,hist4 ,nat4 des ,canaries1 ,gog4 ,bot41 p4 #dh2 ,ball1 ,spicil4 ,fl4 ,maroc41 p4 #efe4 #acia ,cosson1 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,bot4 ,france1 iv4 p4 #ajg1 and vii4 p4 #ca2 ,grisebach1 ,spicil4 ,fl4 ,rumelic1 ii4 p4 #ga2 ,steven1 ,verzeich4 der ,taurisch4 ,halbins41 p4 #bdh2 ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 p4 #ch4 #acib ,bulletin1 iv4 p4 #ajg4 #acic ,rosenmller1 ,handbuch der ,bibl4 ,alterth41 vol4 iv4 p4 #beh2 ,hamilton1 ,bot4 de la ,bible1 p4 #hj1 where the passages are indicated4 #acid ,fr4 ,lenormand1 ,manuel de l',hist4 ,auc4 de l',orient41 #ahfi1 vol4 i4 p4 #ca4 #acie ,fick1 ,wrterbuch1 ,piddington1 ,index1 only mentions one ,hindu name1 julpai4 #acif ,herodotus1 ,hist41 bk4 i4 c4 #aic4 #acig ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 iv4 p4 #cf4 #acih ,ebn ,baithar1 ,germ4 trans41 p4 #efi2 ,forskal1 ,plant4 ,egypt41 p4 #di4 #acii ,boissier1 ibid42 ,steven1 ibid4 #adjj ,unger1 ,die ,pflanz4 der ,alten4 gypt1 p4 #de4 #adja ,de ,candolle1 ,physiol4 ,vgt41 p4 #fif2 ,pleyte1 quoted by ,braun and ,ascherson1 ,sitzber4 ,naturfor4 ,ges41 ,may #ae1 #ahgg4 #adjb ,hehn1 ,kulturpflanzen1 edit4 #c1 p4 #hh1 line #i4 #adjc ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant41 lib4 iv4 c4 #c4 #adjd ,kralik1 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,bot4 ,fr41 iv4 p4 #ajh4 #adje ,beitrge zur ,fl4 thiopiens1 p4 #bha4 #adjf ,balansa1 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,bot4 de ,fr41 iv4 p4 #ajg4 #adjg ,moris1 ,fl4 ,sard41 iii4 p4 #i2 ,bertoloni1 ,fl4 ,ital41 i4 p4 #df4 #adjh ,pliny1 ,hist41 lib4 xv4 cap4 #a4 #adji ,duveyrier1 ,les ,touaregs du ,nord 7#ahfd71 p4 #agi4 #adaj ,munby1 ,flore de l',algerie1 p4 #b2 ,debeaux1 ,catal4 ,boghar1 p4 #fh4 #adaa ,boissier1 ,voyage ,bot4 en ,espagne1 edit4 ,i1 vol4 ii4 p4 #djg4 #adab ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,prod4 ,fl4 ,hispan41 ii4 p4 #fgb4 #adac ,webb and ,berthelot1 ,hist4 ,nat4 des ,canaries1 ,gog4 ,bot41 pp4 #dg1 #dh4 #adad ,webb and ,berthelot1 ibid41 ,ethnographie1 p #ahh4 #adae ,seemann1 ,bot4 of the ,herald41 p4 #aff4 #adaf ,grisebach1 ,flora of ,brit4 ,w4 ,ind4 ,isl41 p4 #cih4 #adag ,sloane1 ,jamaica1 ii4 p4 #agj2 ,jacquin1 ,amer41 p4 #eb4 #adah ,flora ,brasil41 vol4 vii4 p4 #hh4 #adai ,see the synonyms in the ,flora ,brasiliensis1 vol4 vii4 p4 #ff4 #adbj ,sagot1 ,journ4 ,soc4 d',hortic4 de ,france1 #ahgb1 p4 #cdg4 #adba ,blanco1 ,fl4 de ,filipinas1 under the name ,achras lucuma4 #adbb ,nova ,genera1 iii4 p4 #bdj4 #adbc ,dampier and ,lussan1 in ,sloane's ,jamaica1 ii4 p4 #agb2 ,seemann1 ,botany of the ,herald41 p4 #aff4 #adbd ,jacquin1 ,amer41 p4 #ei2 ,humboldt and ,bonpland1 ,nova ,genera1 iii4 p4 #bci4 #adbe ,grisebach1 ,flora of ,brit4 ,w4 ,ind41 p4 #cii4 #adbf ,sloane1 ubi supra4 #adbg ,dunal1 ,hist4 des ,solanum1 p4 #bji4 #adbh ,ebn ,baithar1 ,germ4 trans41 i4 p4 #aaf4 #adbi ,rauwolf1 ,flora ,orient41 ed4 ,groningue1 p4 #bf4 #adcj ,dict4 ,fr4-,berbre1 published by the ,french ,government4 #adca ,thonning1 under the name ,s4 edule2 ,hooker1 ,niger ,flora1 p4 #dgc4 #adcb ,trans4 of ,linn4 ,soc41 xvii4 p4 #dh2 ,baker1 ,fl4 of ,maurit41 p4 #bae4 #adcc ,bretschneider1 ,on the ,study and ,value1 etc41 p4 #ag4 #adcd ,forster1 ,de ,plantis ,escul4 ,insul41 etc4 #adce ,piddington1 ,index4 #adcf ,piddington1 at the word ,capsicum4 #adcg ,nemnich1 ,lexicon1 gives twelve ,french and eight ,german names4 #adch ,piso1 p4 #ajg2 ,marcgraf1 p4 #ci4 #adci ,descourtilz1 ,flore ,mdicale des ,antilles1 vi4 pl4 #dbc4 #addj ,fingerhuth1 ,monographia ,gen4 ,capsici1 p4 #ab2 ,sendtner1 in ,flora ,brasil41 vol4 x4 p4 #adg4 #adda ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 edit4 ,wall1 ii4 p4 #bfj2 edit4 #ahcb1 ii4 p4 #egd4 #addb ,blume1 ,bijdr41 ii4 p4 #gjd4 #addc ,sendtner1 in ,fl4 ,bras41 x4 p4 #adc4 #addd ,alph4 de ,candolle1 ,prodr41 xiii4 part #a1 p4 #bf4 #adde ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 edit4 #ahcb1 vol4 i4 p4 #efe2 ,piddington1 ,index4 #addf ,rumphius1 ,amboin1 v4 p4 #daf4 #addg ,mala ,peruviana1 ,pomi del ,peru1 in ,bauhin's ,hist41 iii4 p4 #fba4 #addh ,hughes1 ,barbados1 p4 #adh4 #addi ,humboldt1 ,espagne1 edit4 #b1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dgb4 #adej ,fl4 ,brasil41 vol4 x4 p4 #abf4 #adea ,the proportions of the calyx and the corolla are the same as those of the cultivated tomato1 but they are different in the allied species ,s4 ,humboldtii1 of which the fruit is also eaten1 according to ,humboldt1 who found it wild in ,venezuela4 #adeb ,ruiz and ,pavon1 ,flor4 ,peruv41 ii4 p4 #cg4 #adec ,spruce1 n4 #dadc1 in ,boissier's herbarium4 #aded ,asa ,gray1 ,bot4 of ,califor41 i4 p4 #ech4 #adee ,baker1 ,fl4 of ,maurit41 p4 #baf4 #adef ,clusius1 ,historia1 p4 #b4 #adeg ,for instance in ,madeira1 according to ,grisebach1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,w4 ,ind41 p4 #bhj2 in ,mauritius1 the ,seychelles and ,rodriguez1 according to ,baker1 ,flora of ,mauritius1 p4 #bij4 #adeh ,it is not in ,rumphius4 #adei ,aublet1 ,guyane1 i4 p4 #cfd4 #adfj ,meissner1 in de ,candolle1 ,prodromus1 vol4 xv4 part #a1 p4 #eb2 and ,flora ,brasil41 vol4 v4 p4 #aeh4 ,for ,mexico1 ,hernandez1 p4 #hi2 for ,venezuela and ,para1 ,nees1 ,laurine1 p4 #abi2 for ,eastern ,peru1 ,pppig1 ,exsicc41 seen by ,meissner4 #adfa ,p4 ,browne1 ,jamaica1 p4 #bad2 ,jacquin1 ,obs41 i4 p4 #ch4 #adfb ,acosta1 ,hist4 ,nat4 des ,indes41 edit4 #aeih1 p4 #agf4 #adfc ,laet1 ,hist4 ,nouv4 ,monde1 i4 pp4 #cbe1 #cda4 #adfd ,see the fine plates in ,tussac's ,flore des ,antilles1 iii4 p4 #de1 pls4 #aj and #aa4 ,the papaw belongs to the small family of the ,papayace1 fused by some botanists into the ,passiflor1 and by others into the ,bixace4 #adfe ,r4 ,brown1 ,bot4 of ,congo1 p4 #eb2 ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,rais41 p4 #iag4 #adff ,sagot1 ,journ4 de la ,soc4 ,centr4 d',hortic4 de ,france1 #ahgb4 #adfg ,rumphius1 ,amboin1 i4 p4 #adg4 #adfh ,sloane1 ,jamaica1 p4 #afe4 #adfi ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,coch41 p4 #ggb4 #adgj ,marcgraf1 ,brasil41 p4 #ajc1 and ,piso1 p4 #aei1 for ,brazil2 ,ximenes in ,marcgraf and ,hernandez1 ,thesaurus1 p4 #ii1 for ,mexico2 and the last for ,st4 ,domingo and ,mexico4 #adga ,clusius1 ,cur ,posteriores1 pp4 #gi1 #hj4 #adgb ,martius1 ,beitr4 z4 ,ethnogr41 ii4 p4 #dah4 #adgc ,p4 ,browne1 ,jamaica1 edit4 #b1 p4 #cfj4 ,the first edition is of #agef4 #adgd ,the passage of ,oviedo is translated into ,english by ,correa de ,mello and ,spruce1 in their paper on the ,proceedings of the ,linnan ,society1 x4 p4 #a4 #adge ,de ,candolle1 ,prodr41 xv4 part #a1 p4 #dad4 #adgf ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 iv4 p4 #aaed2 ,brandis1 ,forest ,flora of ,india1 p4 #dah2 ,webb and ,berthelot1 ,hist4 ,nat4 des ,canaries1 ,botanique1 iii4 p4 #beg4 #adgg ,count ,solms ,laubach1 in a learned discussion 7,herkunft1 ,domestication1 etc41 des ,feigenbaums1 in #dto1 #ahhb71 has himself observed facts of this nature already indicated by various authors4 ,he did not find the seed provided with embryos 7p4 #fd71 which he attributes to the absence of the insect 7,blastophaga71 which generally lives in the wild fig1 and facilitates the fertilization of one flower by another in the interior of the fruit4 ,it is asserted1 however1 that fertilization occasionally takes place without the intervention of the insect4 #adgh ,chabas1 ,mlanges ,egyptol41 #crd series 7#ahgc71 vol4 ii4 p4 #ib4 #adgi ,rosenmller1 ,bibl4 ,alterth41 i4 p4 #bhe2 ,reynier1 con4 ,publ4 des ,arabes et des ,juifs1 p4 #dgj4 #adhj ,forskal1 ,fl4 gypto-,arab41 p4 #abe4 ,lagarde 7,revue ,critique d',histoire1 ,feb4 #bg1 #ahhb7 says that this ,semitic name is very ancient4 #adha ,bretschneider1 in ,solms1 ubi supra1 p4 #ea4 #adhb ,herodotus1 i4 #ga4 #adhc ,lenz1 ,botanik der ,griechen1 p4 #dba1 quotes four lines of ,homer4 ,see also ,hehn1 ,culturpflanzen1 edit4 #c1 p4 #hd4 #adhd ,hehn1 ,culturpflanzen1 edit4 #c1 p4 #eac4 #adhe ,no importance should be attached to the exaggerated divisions made by ,gasparini in ,ficus carica1 ,linnus4 ,botanists who have studied the fig tree since his time retain a single species1 and name several varieties of the wild fig4 ,the cultivated forms are numberless4 #adhf ,gussone1 ,enum4 ,plant4 ,inarimensium1 p4 #cja4 #adhg ,for the history of the fig tree and an account of the operation 7of doubtful utility7 which consists in planting insect-bearing ,caprifici among the cultivated trees 7caprification71 see ,solms' work4 #adhh ,pliny1 ,hist41 lib4 xv4 cap4 #ah4 #adhi ,hehn1 ,culturpflanzen1 edit4 #c1 p4 #eac4 #adij ,webb and ,berthelot1 ,hist4 ,nat4 des ,canaries ,ethnogr41 p4 #ahf2 ,phytogr41 iii4 p4 #beg4 #adia ,duveyrier1 ,les ,touaregs du ,nord41 p4 #aic4 #adib ,planchon1 tude sur les tufs de ,montpellier1 p4 #fc2 de ,saporta1 ,la flore des tufs quaternaires en ,provence1 in ,comptes rendus de la #cb;e ,session du ,congrs ,scientifique de ,france2 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,geolog41 #ahgc-gd1 p4 #ddb4 #adic ,see the fine plates published in ,tussac's ,flore des ,antilles1 vol4 ii4 pls4 #b and #c2 and ,hooker1 ,bot4 ,mag41 t4 #bhfi-bhga4 #adid ,voyages la ,nouvelle ,guine1 p4 #ajj4 #adie ,hooker1 ubi supra4 #adif ,rumphius1 ,herb4 ,amboin1 i4 p4 #aab1 pl4 #cc4 #adig ,flora ,vitiensis1 p4 #bee4 #adih ,seemann1 ,fl4 ,vit41 p4 #bee2 ,nadeaud1 ,enum4 des ,pl4 ,indig4 de ,taiti1 p4 #dd2 ,idem1 ,pl4 usuelles des ,taitiens1 p4 #bd4 #adii ,see ,tussac's plates1 ,flore des ,antilles1 pl4 #d2 and ,hooker1 ,bot4 ,mag41 t4 #bhcc1 #bhcd4 #aejj ,rheede1 ,malabar1 iii4 p4 #ah2 ,wight1 ,icones1 ii4 ,no4 #fgh2 ,brandis1 ,forest ,flora of ,india1 p4 #dbf2 ,kurz1 ,forest ,flora of ,brit4 ,burmah1 p4 #dcb4 #aeja ,tussac1 ,flore des ,antilles1 pl4 #d4 #aejb ,baker1 ,fl4 of ,maurit41 p4 #bhb4 #aejc ,martius1 ,gen4 et ,spec4 ,palmarum1 in folio1 vol4 iii4 p4 #beg2 ,c4 ,ritter1 ,erdkunde1 xiii4 p4 #gfj2 ,alph4 de ,candolle1 ,gog4 ,bot4 ,rais41 p4 #cdc4 #aejd ,unger1 ,pflanzen d4 ,alt4 gypt41 p4 #ch4 #aeje ,pliny1 ,hist41 lib4 vi4 cap4 #cg4 #aejf ,unger1 ubi supra4 #aejg ,see ,c4 ,ritter1 ubi supra4 #aejh ,hehn1 ,culturpflanzen1 edit4 #c1 p4 #bcd4 #aeji ,c4 ,ritter1 ibid41 p4 #hbh4 #aeaj ,according to ,roxburgh1 ,royle1 etc4 #aeaa ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc41 p4 #ca4 #aeab ,according to ,schmidt1 ,fl4 d4 ,cap4-,verd4 ,isl41 p4 #afh1 the date-palm is rare in these islands1 and is certainly not wild4 ,webb and ,berthelot1 on the contrary1 assert that in some of the ,canaries it is apparently indigenous 7,hist4 ,nat4 des ,canaries1 ,botanique1 iii4 p4 #bhi74 #aeac ,humboldt1 ,nouvelle ,espagne1 #ast edit41 ii4 p4 #cfj4 #aead ,oviedo1 ,hist4 ,nat41 #aeef1 p4 #aab4 ,oviedo's first work is of #aebf4 ,he is the earliest naturalist quoted by ,dryander 7,bibl4 ,banks7 for ,america4 #aeae ,i have also seen this passage in the translation of ,oviedo by ,ramusio1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aae4 #aeaf ,humboldt1 ,nouvelle ,espagne1 #bnd edit41 p4 #che4 #aeag ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 ,commentarios ,reales1 i4 p4 #bhb4 #aeah ,acosta1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,de ,indias1 #afjh1 p4 #bej4 #aeai ,desvaux1 ,journ4 ,bot41 iv4 p4 #e4 #aebj ,caldcleugh1 ,trav4 in ,s4 ,amer41 #ahbe1 i4 p4 #bc4 #aeba ,stevenson1 ,trav4 in ,s4 ,amer41 i4 p4 #cbh4 #aebb ,ibid41 p4 #cfc4 #aebc ,boussingault1 ,c4 r4 ,acad4 ,sc4 ,paris1 ,may #i1 #ahcf4 #aebd ,meyen1 ,pflanzen ,geog41 #ahcf1 p4 #chc4 #aebe ,ritter1 ,erdk41 iv4 p4 #hgj4 #aebf ,seemann1 ,bot4 of the ,herald1 p4 #bac2 ,ernst1 in ,seemann's ,journ4 of ,bot41 #ahfg1 p4 #bhi2 ,sagot1 ,journ4 de la ,soc4 d',hort4 de ,fr41 #ahgb1 p4 #bbf4 #aebg ,martius1 ,eth4 ,sprachenkunde ,amer41 p4 #abc4 #aebh ,roxburgh and ,wallich1 ,fl4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #dhe2 ,piddington1 ,index4 #aebi ,pliny1 ,hist41 lib4 xii4 cap4 #f4 #aecj ,unger1 ubi supra1 and ,wilkinson1 ii4 p4 #djc1 do not mention it4 ,the banana is now cultivated in ,egypt4 #aeca ,forster1 ,plant4 ,esc41 p4 #bh4 #aecb ,clusius1 ,exot41 p4 #bbi2 ,brown1 ,bot4 ,congo1 p4 #ea4 #aecc ,roxburgh1 ,corom41 tab4 #bge2 ,fl4 ,ind4 #aecd ,rumphius1 ,amb41 v4 p4 #aci4 #aece ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,coch41 p4 #gia4 #aecf ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,coch41 p4 #gia4 #aecg ,blanco1 ,flora1 #ast edit41 p4 #bdg4 #aech ,finlayson1 ,journey to ,siam1 #ahbf1 p4 #hf1 according to ,ritter1 ,erdk41 iv4 p4 #hgh4 #aeci ,thwaites1 ,enum4 ,pl4 ,cey41 p4 #cba4 #aedj ,aitchison1 ,catal4 of ,punjab1 p4 #adg4 #aeda ,hughes1 ,barb41 p4 #ahb2 ,maycock1 ,fl4 ,barb41 p4 #cif4 #aedb ,sloane1 ,jamaica1 ii4 p4 #adh4 #aedc ,piso1 edit4 #afdh1 ,hist4 ,nat41 p4 #ge4 #aedd ,humboldt quotes the ,spanish edition of #afjh4 ,the first edition is of #aeia4 ,i have only been able to consult the ,french translation of ,regnault1 published in #aeih1 and which is apparently accurate4 #aede ,acosta1 trans41 lib4 iv4 cap4 #ba4 #aedf ,that is probably ,hispaniola or ,san ,domingo2 for if he had meant the ,spanish language1 it would have been translated by castillan and without the capital letter4 #aedg ,this is probably a misprint for ,andes1 for the word ,indes has no sense4 ,the work says 7p4 #aff7 that pine-apples do not grow in ,peru1 but that they are brought thither from the ,andes1 and 7p4 #agc7 that the cacao comes from the ,andes4 ,it seems to have meant hot regions4 ,the word ,andes has since been applied to the chain of mountains by a strange and unfortunate transfer4 #aedh ,i have read through the entire work1 to make sure of this fact4 #aedi ,prescott1 ,conquest of ,peru4 ,the author has consulted valuable records1 among others a manuscript of ,montesinos of #aebg2 but he does not quote his authorities for each fact1 and contents himself with vague and general indications1 which are very insufficient4 #aeej ,marcgraf1 ,brasil41 p4 #cc4 #aeea ,oviedo1 ,ramusio's trans41 iii4 p4 #aac2 ,jos4 ,acosta1 ,hist4 ,nat4 des ,indes1 ,french trans41 p4 #aff4 #aeeb ,thevet1 ,piso1 etc42 ,hernandez1 ,thes41 p4 #cda4 #aeec ,rheede1 ,hort4 ,malab41 xi4 p4 #f4 #aeed ,rumphius1 ,amboin1 v4 p4 #bbh4 #aeee ,royle1 ,ill41 p4 #cgf4 #aeef ,kircher1 ,chine ,illustre1 trans4 of #afgj1 p4 #bec4 #aeeg ,clusius1 ,exotic41 cap4 #dd4 #aeeh ,baker1 ,fl4 of ,maurit4 #aeei ,royle1 ubi supra4 #aefj ,seemann1 ,bot4 of the ,herald1 p4 #bae4 #aefa ,humboldt1 ,nouv4 ,esp41 #bnd edit41 ii4 p4 #dgh4 #aefb ,gardeners' ,chronicle1 #ahha1 vol4 i4 p4 #feg4 #aefc ,martius1 letter to ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,rais41 p4 #ibg4 #aefd ,humboldt1 ,voy41 ii4 p4 #eaa2 ,kunth1 in ,humboldt and ,bonpland1 ,nova ,genera1 v4 p4 #caf2 ,martius1 ,ueber den ,cacao1 in ,bchner1 ,repert4 ,pharm4 #aefe ,schach1 in ,grisebach1 ,flora of ,brit4 ,w4 ,ind4 ,is41 p4 #ia4 #aeff ,sloane1 ,jamaica1 ii4 p4 #ae4 #aefg ,g4 ,bernoulli4 ,uebersicht der ,arten von ,theobroma1 p4 #e4 #aefh ,hemsley1 ,biologia ,centrali ,americana1 part ii4 p4 #acc4 #aefi ,grisebach1 ubi supra4 #aegj ,triana and ,planchon1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,novo ,granatensis1 p4 #bjh4 #aega ,blanco1 ,fl4 de ,filipinas1 edit4 #b1 p4 #dbj4 #aegb ,kunth1 in ,humboldt and ,bonpland1 ubi supra2 ,triana1 ubi supra4 #aegc ,bretschneider1 letter of ,aug4 #bc1 #ahha4 #aegd ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,indica1 ii4 p4 #bfi4 #aege ,blume1 ,rumphia1 iii4 p4 #ajf4 #aegf ,loureiro1 ,flora ,coch41 p4 #bcc2 ,kurz1 ,forest ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,burmah1 p4 #bic4 #aegg ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #bga2 ,thwaites1 ,enum4 ,zeyl41 p4 #eh2 ,hiern1 in ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #fhh4 #aegh ,hiern1 in ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #fhg4 #aegi ,blume1 ,rumphia1 iii4 p4 #ajc2 ,miquel1 ,fl4 ,indo-,batava1 i4 p4 #eed4 #aehj ,bossier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #e4 #aeha ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat41 lib4 xiii4 cap4 #ae2 lib4 xv4 cap4 #bb2 ,galen1 ,de ,alimentis1 lib4 ii4 cap4 #cj4 #aehb ,lerche1 ,nova ,acta ,acad4 ,cesareo-,leopold1 vol4 v41 appendix1 p4 #bjc1 published in #aggc4 ,maximowicz1 in a letter of ,feb4 #bd1 #ahhb1 tells me that ,lerche's specimen exists in the herbarium of the ,imperial ,garden at ,st4 ,petersburgh4 ,it is in flower1 and resembles the cultivated bean in all points excepting height1 which is about half a foot4 ,the label mentions the locality and its wild character without other remarks4 #aehc ,there are ,transcaucasian specimens in the same herbarium1 but taller1 and they are not said to be wild4 #aehd ,marschall ,bieberstein1 ,flora ,caucaso-,taurica2 ,c4 ,a4 ,meyer1 ,verzeichniss2 ,hohenacker1 ,enum4 ,plant4 ,talysch2 ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 p4 #egh1 ,buhse and ,boissier1 ,plant4 ,transcaucasi4 #aehe ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 i4 p4 #ffd1 quotes de ,candolle1 ,prodromus1 ii4 p4 #ced2 now ,seringe wrote the article ,faba in ,prodromus1 in which the south of the ,caspian is indicated1 probably on ,lerche's authority4 #aehf ,dict4 d',agric41 v4 p4 #eab4 #aehg ,munby1 ,catal4 ,plant4 in ,alger4 sponte nascent41 edit4 #b1 p4 #ab4 #aehh ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1 ,aufzhlung1 p4 #bef2 ,rohlfs1 ,kufra4 #aehi ,loiscleur ,deslongchamps1 ,consid4 sur les ,crales1 part i4 p4 #bi4 #aeij ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc41 pp4 #g1 #ae4 #aeia ,iliad1 #ac1 v4 #ehi4 #aeib ,wittmack1 ,sitz4 bericht ,vereins1 ,brandenburg1 #ahgi4 #aeic ,novitius ,dictionnarium1 at the word ,faba4 #aeid ,origines ,indo-,europennes1 edit4 #b1 vol4 i4 p4 #cec4 #aeie ,heer1 ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1 p4 #bb1 figs4 #dd-dg4 #aeif ,perrin1 tude ,prhistorique sur la ,savoie1 p4 #b4 #aeig ,delile1 ,plant4 ,cult4 en gypte1 p4 #ab2 ,reynier1 conomie des gyptiens et ,carthaginois1 p4 #cdj2 ,unger1 ,pflan4 d4 ,alt4 gyp41 p4 #fd2 ,wilkinson1 ,man4 and ,cus4 of ,anc4 ,egyptians1 p4 #djb4 #aeih ,reynier1 ubi supra1 tries to discover the reason of this4 #aeii ,herodotus1 ,histoire1 ,larcher's trans41 vol4 ii4 p4 #cb4 #afjj #b ,sam4 xvii4 #bh2 ,ezek4 iv4 #i4 #afja ,dict4 ,franais-,berbre1 published by the ,french government4 #afjb ,note communicated to ,m4 ,clos by ,m4 d',abadie4 #afjc ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,rais41 chap4 x4 #afjd ,rhododendron ponticum now exists only in ,asia ,minor and in the south of the ,spanish peninsula4 #afje ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #egg4 #afjf ,c4 ,a4 ,meyer1 ,verzeichniss ,fl4 ,caucas41 p4 #adg4 #afjg ,georgi1 in ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross4 #afjh ,forskal1 ,fl4 gypt42 ,delile1 ,plant4 ,cult4 en gypte1 p4 #ac4 #afji ,ebn ,baithar1 ii4 p4 #acd4 #afaj ,reynier1 conomie publique et rurale des ,arabes et des ,juifs1 ,genve1 #ahbj1 p4 #dbi4 #afaa ,dict4 ,fran4-,berbre1 in #hvo1 #ahdd4 #afab ,hehn1 ,culturpflanzen1 etc41 edit4 #c1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ahh4 #afac ,ad4 ,pictet1 ,origines ,indo-,europennes1 edit4 #b1 vol4 i4 p4 #cfd2 ,hehn1 ubi supra4 #afad ,heer1 ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1 p4 #bc1 fig4 #di4 #afae ,theophrastus1 ,hist41 lib4 iv4 cap4 #e4 #afaf ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 edit4 #ahcb1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cbd2 ,piddington1 ,index4 #afag ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 i4 p4 #ffj1 according to ,pallas1 ,falk1 and ,koch4 #afah ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #efj2 ,steven1 ,verzeichniss des ,taurischen ,hablinseln1 p4 #acd4 #afai ,iliad1 bk4 #ac1 verse #ehi2 ,theophrastus1 ,hist41 lib4 viii4 c4 #c4 #afbj ,dioscorides1 lib4 ii4 c4 #abf4 #afba ,heldreich1 ,nutzpflanzen ,griechenlands1 p4 #ga4 #afbb ,nemnich1 ,polyglott4 ,lex41 i4 p4 #ajcg2 ,bunge1 in ,goebels ,reise1 ii4 p4 #cbh4 #afbc ,clment d',alexandrie1 ,strom41 lib4 i41 quoted from ,reynier1 con4 des gyp4 et ,carthag41 p4 #cdc4 #afbd ,reynier1 con4 des ,arabes et ,juifs1 p4 #dcj4 #afbe ,rosenmller1 ,bibl4 ,alterth41 i4 p4 #ajj2 ,hamilton1 ,bot4 de la ,bible1 p4 #ahj4 #afbf ,rauwolf1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ,no4 #bbj2 ,forskal1 ,fl4 gypt41 p4 #ha2 ,dict4 ,fran4-,berbre4 #afbg ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 iii4 p4 #cbd2 ,piddington1 ,index4 #afbh ,see ,fraas1 ,fl4 ,class41 p4 #ea2 ,lenz41 ,bot4 der ,alten1 p4 #gc4 #afbi ,heldreich1 ,nutzpflanzen ,griechenlands1 p4 #fi4 #afcj ,olivier de ,serres1 ,thtre de l',agric41 edit4 #aebi1 p4 #hh4 #afca ,clusius1 ,hist4 ,plant41 ii4 p4 #bbh4 #afcb ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,fl4 ,hisp41 iii4 p4 #dff4 #afcc ,caruel1 ,fl4 ,toscana1 p4 #acf4 #afcd ,gussone1 ,fl4 ,sicul ,syn41 edit4 #b1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dff4 #afce ,grisebach1 ,spicil4 ,fl4 ,rumel41 p4 #aa4 #afcf ,d',urville1 ,enum41 p4 #hf4 #afcg ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 i4 p4 #eaj4 #afch ,caruel1 ,fl4 ,tosc41 p4 #acf4 #afci ,gussone1 ,fl4 ,sic4 ,syn41 ii4 p4 #bfg2 ,moris1 ,fl4 ,sardoa1 i4 p4 #eif4 #afdj ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #bi4 #afda ,aufzhlung1 etc41 p4 #beg4 #afdb ,schweinfurth1 ,plant ,nilot4 a ,hartman ,coll41 p4 #f4 #afdc ,unger1 ,pflanzen d4 ,alt4 gyp41 p4 #fe4 #afdd ,wilkinson1 ,manners and ,customs of the ,ancient ,egyptians1 ii4 p4 #djc4 #afde ,rosenmller1 ,bibl4 ,alterth41 vol4 i4 #afdf ,muratori1 ,antich4 ,ital41 i4 p4 #cdg2 ,diss41 #bd1 quoted by ,targioni1 ,cenni ,storici1 p4 #ca4 #afdg ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 ii4 p4 #fbc2 ,royle1 ,ill4 ,himal41 p4 #bjj4 #afdh ,bertoloni1 ,fl4 ,ital41 vii4 p4 #dai2 ,caruel1 ,fl4 ,tosc41 p4 #ahd2 ,gussone1 ,fl4 ,sic4 ,synopsis1 ii4 p4 #bgi2 ,moris1 ,fl4 ,sardoa1 i4 p4 #egg4 #afdi ,steven1 ,verzeichniss1 p4 #acd4 #afej ,alefeld1 ,bot4 ,zeitung41 #ahfj1 p4 #bjd4 #afea ,darwin1 ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 p4 #cbf4 #afeb ,theophrastus1 ,hist41 lib4 viii4 c4 #c and #e4 #afec ,heldreich1 ,nutzpflanzen ,griechenlands1 p4 #ga4 #afed ,pliny1 ,hist41 lib4 xviii4 c4 #g and #ab4 ,this is certainly ,p4 sativum1 for the author says it cannot bear the cold4 #afee ,ad4 ,pictet1 ,origines ,indo-,europennes1 edit4 #b1 vol4 i4 p4 #cei4 #afef ,heer1 ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1 xxiii4 fig4 #dh2 ,perrin1 tudes ,prhistoriques sur la ,savoie1 p4 #bb4 #afeg ,piddington1 ,index4 ,roxburgh does not give a ,sanskrit name4 #afeh ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc41 p4 #af4 #afei ,ibid41 p4 #i4 #affj ,see ,pailleux1 in ,bull4 de la ,soc4 d',acclim41 ,sept4 and ,oct41 #ahhj4 #affa ,rumphius1 ,amb41 vol4 v4 p4 #chh4 #affb ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 iii4 p4 #cad4 #affc ,piddington1 ,index4 #affd ,kmpfer1 ,amer4 ,exot41 p4 #hcg1 pl4 #hch4 #affe ,haberlandt1 ,die ,sojabohne1 in #hvo1 ,vienna1 #ahgh1 quoted by ,pailleux1 ubi supra4 #afff ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochin41 ii4 p4 #ech4 #affg ,bunge1 ,enum4 ,plant4 ,chin41 p4 #aah2 ,maximowicz1 ,primit4 ,fl4 ,amur41 p4 #hg4 #affh ,miquel1 ,prolusio1 in ,ann4 ,mus4 ,lugd4 ,bat41 iii4 p4 #eb2 ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enum4 ,plant4 ,jap41 i4 p4 #ajh4 #affi ,junghuhn1 ,plant ,jungh41 p4 #bee4 #afgj ,soja angustifolia1 ,miquel2 see ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #ahd4 #afga ,rumphius1 ,amb41 vol4 v4 p4 #chh4 #afgb ,tussac1 ,flore des ,antilles1 vol4 iv4 p4 #id1 pl4 #cb2 ,grisebach1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,w4 ,indies1 i4 p4 #aia4 #afgc ,see ,wight and ,arnott1 ,prod4 ,fl4 ,penins4 ,ind41 p4 #bef2 ,klotzsch1 in ,peters1 ,reise nach ,mozambique1 i4 p4 #cf4 ,the yellow variety is figured in ,tussac1 that with the red flowers in the ,botanical ,register1 #ahde1 pl4 #ca4 #afgd ,bentham1 ,flora ,hongkongensis1 p4 #hi2 ,flora ,brasil41 vol4 xv4 p4 #aii2 ,bentham and ,hooker1 i4 p4 #eda4 #afge ,tussac1 ,flore des ,antilles2 ,jacquin1 ,obs41 p4 #a4 #afgf ,rheede1 ,roxburgh1 ,kurz1 ,burm4 ,fl41 etc4 #afgg ,thwaites1 ,enum4 ,pl ,ceylan4 #afgh ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochin41 p4 #efe4 #afgi ,rumphius1 ,amb41 vol4 v4 t4 #ace4 #afhj ,seemann1 ,fl4 ,vitiensis1 p4 #gd4 #afha ,junghuhn1 ,plant ,jungh41 fasc4 i4 p4 #bda4 #afhb ,piddington1 ,index2 ,rheede1 ,malab41 vi4 p4 #bc1 etc4 #afhc ,pickering1 ,chron4 ,arrang4 of ,plants1 p4 #ddb2 ,peters1 ,reise1 p4 #cf2 ,r4 ,brown1 ,bot4 of ,congo1 p4 #ec2 ,oliver1 ,fl4 of ,trop4 ,afr41 ii4 p4 #baf4 #afhd ,bulletin de la ,socit d',acclimation1 #ahga1 p4 #ffc4 #afhe ,the species is given here in order not to separate it from the other leguminous plants cultivated for the seeds alone4 #afhf ,de ,gasparin1 ,cours4 d',agric41 iv4 p4 #cbh4 #afhg ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1 ,aufzhlung1 p4 #bee2 ,richard1 ,tentamen ,fl4 ,abyss4 #afhh ,ascherson1 etc41 in ,rohls1 ,kufra1 #a vol4 in #hvo1 #ahha1 p4 #eai4 #afhi ,heldreich1 ,nutzpflanzen ,griechenlands1 p4 #gc2 ,die ,pflanzen der ,attischen ,ebene1 p4 #dgg2 ,gussone1 ,syn4 ,fl4 ,sic41 p4 #fdf2 ,bianca1 ,il ,carrubo1 in the ,giornale d',agricoltura ,italiana1 #ahha2 ,munby1 ,catal4 ,pl4 in ,alg4 ,spont41 p4 #ac4 #afij ,hfer1 ,hist4 ,bot4 ,minr4 et ,gol41 #a vol4 in #abmo41 p4 #bj2 ,bonn1 ,le ,caroubier1 ou l',arbre des ,lotophages1 ,algiers1 #ahfi 7quoted by ,hfer74 ,see above1 the article on the jujube tree4 #afia ,pliny1 ,hist41 lib4 i4 cap4 #cj4 #afib ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant41 lib4 i4 cap4 #aa2 ,dioscorides1 lib4 i4 cap4 #aee2 ,fraas1 ,syn4 ,fl4 ,class41 p4 #fe4 #afic ,ebn ,baithar1 ,german trans41 i4 p4 #ced2 ,forskal1 ,fl4 gypt41 p4 #gg4 #afid ,columna1 quoted by ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alten1 p4 #gc2 ,pliny1 ,hist41 lib4 xiii4 cap4 #h4 #afie ,dict4 ,fran4-,berbre1 at the word ,caroube4 #afif ,lexicon ,oxon41 quoted by ,pickering1 ,chron4 ,hist4 of ,plants1 p4 #ada4 #afig ,the drawing is reproduced in ,unger's ,pflanzen des ,alten gyptens1 fig4 #bb4 ,the observation which he quotes from ,kotschy needs confirmation by a special anatomist4 #afih ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,rais41 p4 #ifa4 #afii ,bentham1 in ,ann4 ,wiener ,museum1 vol4 ii42 ,martens1 ,die ,gartenbohnen1 in #dto1 ,stuttgart1 #ahfj1 edit4 #b1 #ahfi4 #agjj ,savi1 ,osserv4 sopra ,phaseolus e ,dolichos1 #a1 #b1 #c4 #agja ,theophrastus1 ,hist41 lib4 viii4 cap4 #c2 ,dioscorides1 lib4 ii4 cap4 #acj2 ,pliny1 ,hist41 lib4 xviii4 cap4 #g1 #ab1 interpreted by ,fraas1 ,syn4 ,fl4 ,class41 p4 #eb2 ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alten1 p4 #gca2 ,martens1 ,die ,gartenbohnen1 p4 #a4 #agjb ,wittmack1 ,bot4 ,vereins ,brandenburg1 ,dec4 #ai1 #ahgi4 #agjc ,delile1 ,plantes ,cultives en gypte1 p4 #ad2 ,piddington1 ,index4 #agjd ,bretschneider does not mention any1 either in his pamphlet ,on the ,study and ,value of ,chinese ,botanical ,works1 or in his private letters to me4 #agje ,e4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte der ,botanique1 iii4 p4 #djd4 #agjf 8,faseolus est species leguminis et grani1 quod est in quantitate parum minus quam ,faba1 et in figura est columnare sicut faba1 herbaque ejus minor est aliquantulum quam herba ,fab4 ,et sunt faseoli multorum colorum1 sed quodlibet granorum habet maculam nigram in loco cotyledonis0 7,jessen1 ,alberti ,magni1 ,de ,vegetabilibus1 edit4 critica1 p4 #eae74 #agjg ,p4 ,crescens1 ,french trans41 #aeci4 #agjh ,macer ,floridus1 edit4 #adhe1 and ,choulant's commentary1 #ahcb4 #agji ,de ,rochebrune1 ,actes de la ,soc4 ,linn4 de ,bordeaux1 vol4 xxxiii4 ,jan41 #ahhj1 of which ,i saw an analysis in ,botanisches ,centralblatt1 #ahhj1 p4 #afcc4 #agaj ,wittmack1 ,sitzungsbericht des ,bot4 ,vereins ,brandenburg1 ,dec4 #ai1 #ahgi1 and a private letter4 #agaa ,molina 7,essai sur l',hist4 ,nat4 du ,chili1 ,french trans41 p4 #aja7 mentions ,phaseoli1 which he calls pallar and asellus1 and ,cl4 ,gay's ,fl4 du ,chili adds1 without much explanation1 ,ph4 ,cumingii1 ,bentham4 #agab ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gog4 ,bot4 ,rais41 p4 #fia4 #agac ,tournefort ,elments 7#afid71 i4 p4 #cbh2 ,instit41 p4 #dae4 #agad ,durante1 ,herbario ,nuovo1 #aehe1 p4 #ci2 ,matthioli ed ,valgris1 p4 #cbb2 ,targioni1 ,dizion4 ,bot4 ,ital41 i4 p4 #ac4 #agae ,feuille1 ,hist4 des ,plan4 ,medic4 du ,prou1 etc41 in #dto1 #agbe1 p4 #ed4 #agaf ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,rais41 chapter on disjunctive species4 #agag ,ph4 bipunctatus1 ,jacqnin2 ,ph4 inamnus1 ,linnus2 ,ph4 puberulus1 ,kunth2 ,ph4 saccharatus1 ,mac,fadyen2 etc41 etc4 #agah ,bentham1 in ,fl4 ,brasil41 vol4 xv4 p4 #aha4 #agai ,roxburgh1 ,piddington1 etc4 #agbj ,royle1 ,ill4 ,himalaya1 p4 #aij4 #agba ,aufzhlung1 etc41 p4 #beg4 #agbb ,oliver4 ,fl4 of ,trop4 ,afr41 p4 #aib4 #agbc ,wittmack1 ,sitz4 ,bot4 ,vereins ,branden41 ,dec4 #ai1 #ahgi4 #agbd ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind4 edit4 #ahcb1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bii2 ,aitchison1 ,catal4 of ,punjab1 p4 #dh2 ,sir ,j4 ,hooker1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #bjb4 #agbe ,sir ,j4 ,hooker1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #bja4 #agbf ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 p4 #bii4 #agbg ,schweinfurth1 ,beitr4 z4 ,fl4 ,ethiop41 p4 #ae2 ,aufzhlung1 p4 #beg2 ,oliver1 ,fl4 ,trop4 ,afr41 p4 #aid4 #agbh ,see authors quoted for ,p4 tribolus4 #agbi ,sir ,j4 ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #bji2 ,junghuhn1 ,plant ,jungh41 fasc4 ii4 p4 #bdj4 #agcj ,baker1 ,fl4 of ,mauritius1 p4 #hc4 #agca ,oliver1 ,fl4 of ,trop4 ,africa1 ii4 p4 #baj4 #agcb ,forskal1 ,descript41 p4 #acc2 ,delile1 ,plant4 ,cult4 en gypte1 p4 #ad4 #agcc ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1 ,aufzhlung1 p4 #bef4 #agcd ,dict4 ,fran4-,berbre1 at the word haricot2 ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,prod4 ,fl4 ,hisp41 iii4 p4 #cbd4 ,the common haricot has no less than five different names in the ,iberian peninsula4 #agce ,piddington1 ,index4 #agcf ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alt4 ,gr4 und ,rm41 p4 #gcb4 #agcg ,langkavel1 ,bot4 der ,spteren ,griechen1 p4 #d2 ,heldreich1 ,nutzpfl4 ,griechenl41 p4 #gb4 #agch ,sir ,j4 ,hooker1 ,flora of ,brit4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #bje2 ,miquel1 ,fl4 ,indo-,batava1 i4 p4 #age4 #agci ,linnus1 junr41 ,decad41 ii4 pl4 #ai1 seems to have confounded this plant with ,arachis1 and he gives1 perhaps because of this error1 ,voandzeia as cultivated at his time in ,surinam4 ,modern writers on ,america either have not seen it or have omitted to mention it4 #agdj ,gardener's ,chronicle1 ,sept4 #d1 #ahhj4 #agda ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochin41 ii4 p4 #ebc4 #agdb ,guillemin1 ,perottet1 ,richard1 ,fl4 ,senegambia ,tentamen1 p4 #bed4 #agdc ,aufzhlung1 p4 #bei4 #agdd ,maximowicz1 ,primiti ,fl4 ,amur41 p4 #bcf4 #agde ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 iii4 #eag4 #agdf ,meissner1 in ,de ,candolle1 ,prodr41 xiv4 p4 #adc4 #agdg ,bretschneider1 ,on ,study1 etc41 p4 #i4 #agdh ,madden1 ,trans4 ,edinburgh ,bot4 ,soc41 v4 p4 #aah4 #agdi ,the ,english name buckwheat and the ,french name of some localities1 buscail1 come from the ,german4 #agej ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient42 ,buhse and ,boissier1 ,pflanzen ,transcaucasien4 #agea ,pritzel1 ,sitzungsbericht ,naturforsch4 freunde zu ,berlin1 ,may #ae1 #ahff4 #ageb ,reynier1 conomie des ,celtes1 p4 #dbe4 #agec ,i have given the vernacular names at greater length in ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,rais41 p4 #iec4 #aged ,nemnich1 ,polyglott4 ,lexicon1 p4 #ajcj2 ,bosc1 ,dict4 d',agric41 xi4 p4 #cgi #agee ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enum4 ,pl4 ,japon41 i4 p4 #djc4 #agef ,royle1 ,ill4 ,himal41 p4 #cag4 #ageg ,gmelin1 ,flora ,sibirica1 iii4 p4 #fd2 ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,rossica1 iii4 p4 #egf4 #ageh ,maximowicz1 ,primiti2 ,regel1 ,opit4 ,flori1 etc42 ,schmidt1 ,reisen in ,amur1 do not mention it4 #agei ,royle1 ,ill4 ,himal41 p4 #cag2 ,madden1 ,trans4 ,bot4 ,soc4 ,edin41 v4 p4 #aah #agfj ,roth1 ,catalecta ,botanica1 i4 p4 #dh4 #agfa ,don1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,nepal41 p4 #gd4 #agfb ,molina1 ,hist4 ,nat4 du ,chili1 p4 #aja4 #agfc ,moquin1 in ,de ,candolle1 ,prodromus1 xiii4 part #a1 p4 #fg4 #agfd ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,rais41 p4 #ieb4 #agfe ,bon ,jardinier1 #ahhj1 p4 #efb4 #agff ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 edit4 #b1 vol4 iii4 p4 #fji2 ,wight1 ,icones1 pl4 #gbj2 ,aitchison1 ,catalogue of ,punjab ,plants1 p4 #acj4 #agfg ,madden1 ,trans4 ,edin4 ,bot4 ,soc41 v4 p4 #aah4 #agfh ,don1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,nepal1 p4 #gf4 #agfi ,wallich1 ,list1 ,no4 #fijc2 ,moquin1 in ,d4 ,c41 ,prodr41 xiii4 sect4 #b1 p4 #bef4 #aggj ,for further details1 see my article in ,prodromus1 vol4 xvi4 part #b1 p4 #aad2 and ,boissier1 ,flora ,orientalis1 iv4 p4 #aage4 #agga ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat41 lib4 xix4 c4 #bc4 #aggb ,olivier de ,serres1 ,thtre de l',agric41 p4 #aad4 #aggc ,lyons marrons now come chiefly from ,dauphin and ,vivarais4 ,some are also obtained from ,luc in the department of ,var 7,gasparin1 ,trait d',agric41 iv4 p4 #gdd74 #aggd ,targioni1 ,cenni ,storici1 p4 #ahj4 #agge ,vilmorin1 ,essai d'un ,catalogue ,mthodique et ,synonymique des ,froments1 ,paris1 #ahej4 #aggf ,the best drawings of the different kinds of wheat may be found in ,metzger's ,europische ,cerealien1 in folio1 ,heidelberg1 #ahbd2 and in ,host4 ,gramin1 in folio1 vol4 iii4 #aggg ,tessier1 ,dict4 d',agric41 vi4 p4 #aih4 #aggh ,loiseleur ,deslongchamps1 ,consid4 sur les ,crales1 #a vol4 in #hvo1 p4 #bai4 #aggi ,these questions have been discussed with learning and judgment by four authors3 ,link1 ,ueber die ltere ,geschichte der ,getreide ,arten1 in ,abhandl4 der ,berlin ,akad41 #ahaf1 vol4 xvii4 p4 #abb2 #ahbf1 p4 #fg2 and in ,die ,urwelt und das ,alterthum1 #bnd edit41 ,berlin1 #ahcd1 p4 #cii2 ,reynier1 conomie des ,celtes et des ,germains1 #ahah1 p4 #dag2 ,dureau de la ,malle1 ,ann4 des ,sciences ,nat41 vol4 ix4 #ahbf2 and ,loiseleur ,deslongchamps1 ,consid4 sur les ,crales1 #ahab1 part i4 p4 #eb4 #aghj ,heer1 ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1 p4 #ac1 pl4 #a1 figs4 #ad-ah4 #agha ,sordelli1 ,sulle piante della torbiera di ,lagozza1 p4 #ca4 #aghb ,heer1 ibid42 ,sordelli1 ibid4 #aghc ,nyari1 quoted by ,sordelli1 ibid4 #aghd ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc41 pp4 #g and #h4 #aghe ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc42 ,ad4 ,pictet1 ,les ,origines ,indo-,euro41 edit4 #b1 vol4 i4 p4 #cbh2 ,rosenmller1 ,bibl4 ,naturgesch41 i4 p4 #gg2 ,pickering1 ,chronol4 ,arrang41 p4 #gh2 ,webb and ,berthelot1 ,canaries1 ,ethnogr41 p4 #ahg2 ,d',abadie1 ,notes ,,mss4 sur les ,noms ,basques2 ,de ,charencey1 ,recherches sur les ,noms ,basques1 in ,actes ,soc4 ,philolog41 ,march1 #ahfi4 #aghf ,nemnich1 ,lexicon1 p4 #adib4 #aghg ,g4 ,syncelli1 ,chronogr41 fol4 #afeb1 p4 #bh4 #aghh ,strabo1 edit4 #agjg1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ajag4 #aghi ,ibid41 vol4 i4 p4 #abd2 ii4 p4 #ggf4 #agij ,lib4 ix4 v4 #aji4 #agia ,diodorus1 ,terasson's trans41 ii4 pp4 #ahf1 #aij4 #agib ,bretschneider1 ibid41 p4 #ae4 #agic ,parlatore1 ,fl4 ,ital41 i4 pp4 #df1 #efh4 ,his assertion is the more worthy of attention that he was a ,sicilian4 #agid ,strobl1 in ,flora1 #ahhj1 p4 #cdh4 #agie ,inzenga1 ,annali ,agric4 ,sicil4 #agif ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,bot4 de ,france1 #ahed1 p4 #ajh4 #agig ,j4 ,gay1 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,bot4 de ,france1 #ahfj1 p4 #cj4 #agih ,olivier1 ,voy4 dans l',emp4 ,othoman 7#ahjg71 vol4 iii4 p4 #dfj4 #agii ,linnus1 ,sp4 ,plant41 edit4 #b1 vol4 i4 p4 #abg4 #ahjj ,bunge1 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,bot4 ,france1 #ahfj1 p4 #bi4 #ahja ,de ,candolle1 ,physiologie ,botanique1 ii4 p4 #fif4 #ahjb ,unger1 ,die ,pflanzen des ,alten gyptens1 p4 #ca4 #ahjc ,see ,rosenmller1 ,bibl4 ,naturgesch42 and ,lw1 ,aramaische ,pflanzen ,namen1 #ahha4 #ahjd ,delile1 ,pl4 ,cult1 en gypte1 p4 #c2 ,fl4 gypt4 ,illus41 p4 #e4 #ahje ,dict4 ,fr4-,berb41 published by the ,government4 #ahjf ,heer1 ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1 p4 #e1 fig4 #d2 p4 #eb1 fig4 #bj4 #ahjg ,messicommer1 in ,flora1 #ahfi1 p4 #cbj4 #ahjh ,quoted from ,sordelli1 ,notizie sull4 ,lagozza1 p4 #cb4 #ahji ,heer1 ubi supra1 p4 #ej4 #ahaj ,heldreich1 ,die ,nutzpflanzen ,griechenlands1 p4 #e4 #ahaa ,pliny1 ,hist41 lib4 xviii4 cap4 #aj4 #ahab ,koch1 ,linna1 xxi4 p4 #dbg4 #ahac ,letter from ,ascherson1 #ahha4 #ahad ,dict4 ,,ms4 of ,vernacular ,names4 #ahae ,debeaux1 ,catal4 des ,plan4 de ,boghar1 p4 #aaj4 #ahaf ,delile says 7ubi supra7 that wheat is called qamh1 and a red variety qamh-ahmar #ahag ,nemnich1 ,lexicon1 p4 #adhh4 #ahah ,alefeld1 ,bot4 ,zeitung1 #ahfe1 p4 #i #ahai ,h4 ,vilmorin1 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,bot4 de ,france1 #ahha1 p4 #cef4 #ahbj ,journal1 ,flora1 #ahce1 p4 #d4 #ahba ,see the plates of ,metzger and ,host1 in the works previously quoted4 #ahbb ,essai d'un ,catal4 ,method4 des ,froments1 ,paris1 #ahej4 #ahbc ,seringe1 ,monogr4 des ,cr4 de la ,suisse1 in #hvo1 ,berne1 #ahah4 #ahbd ,fraas1 ,syn4 ,fl4 ,class41 p4 #cjg2 ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alten1 p4 #beg4 #ahbe ,dioscorides1 ,mat4 ,med41 ii41 #aaa-aae4 #ahbf ,pliny1 ,hist41 lib4 xviii4 cap4 #g2 ,targioni1 ,cenni ,storici1 p4 #f4 #ahbg ,heer1 ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1 p4 #f2 ,unger1 ,pflanzen des ,alten gyptens1 p4 #cb4 #ahbh ,delile1 ,pl4 ,cult1 en gypte1 p4 #e4 #ahbi ,reynier1 con4 des gyptiens1 p4 #ccg2 ,dureau de la ,malle1 ,ann4 ,sc4 ,nat41 ix4 p4 #gb2 ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1 ,aufzh4 ,tr4 spelta of ,forskal is not admitted by any subsequent author4 #ahcj ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,rais41 p4 #icc4 #ahca ,exod4 ix4 #cb2 ,isa4 xxviii4 #be2 ,ezek4 iv4 #i4 #ahcb ,rosenmller1 ,bibl4 ,alterth41 iv4 p4 #hc2 ,second1 ,trans1 of ,old ,test41 #ahgd4 #ahcc ,ad4 ,pictet1 ,orig4 ,indo-,europ41 edit4 #b1 vol4 i4 p4 #cdh4 #ahcd ,ad4 ,pictet1 ibid42 ,nemnich41 ,lexicon4 #ahce ,willkomm and ,lange1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,hisp41 i4 p4 #ajg4 #ahcf ,olivier1 ,voyage1 #ahjg1 vol4 iii4 p4 #dfj4 #ahcg ,lamarck1 ,dict4 ,encycl41 ii4 p4 #efj4 #ahch ,h4 ,vilmorin1 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,bot4 de ,france1 #ahha1 p4 #heh4 #ahci ,heer1 ,pflanz4 der4 ,pfahlb41 p4 #e1 fig4 #bc1 and p4 #ae4 #ahdj ,fraas1 ,syn4 ,fl4 ,class41 p4 #cjg4 #ahda ,dioscorides1 ,mat4 ,med41 #b1 c4 iii4 #aee4 #ahdb ,heldreich1 ,nutz4 ,griech4 #ahdc ,bieberstein1 ,fl4 ,tauro-,caucasaica1 vol4 i4 p4 #he4 #ahdd ,steven1 ,verzeichniss ,taur4 ,halbins4 ,pflan41 p4 #ced4 #ahde ,bull4 ,soc4 ,bot4 ,fran41 #ahfj1 p4 #cj4 #ahdf ,boissier1 ,diagnoses1 #ast series1 vol4 ii4 fasc4 #ac1 p4 #fi4 #ahdg ,balansa1 #ahed1 ,no4 #acg in ,boissier's ,herbarium1 in which there is also a specimen found in the fields in ,servia1 and a variety with brown beards sent by ,pancic1 growing in ,servian meadows4 ,the same botanist 7of ,belgrade7 has just sent me wild specimens from ,servia1 which ,i cannot distinguish from ,t4 monococcum1 which he assures me is not cultivated in ,servia4 ,bentham writes to me that ,t4 boticum1 of which he saw several specimens1 is1 he thinks1 the same as ,t4 monococcum4 #ahdh ,bretschneider1 ,on the ,study1 etc41 p4 #h4 #ahdi ,a specimen determined by ,reuter in ,boissier's ,herbarium4 #ahej ,figari and de ,notaris1 ,agrostologi gypt4 ,fragm41 p4 #ah4 #ahea ,a very starved plant gathered by ,kotschy1 ,no4 #bij1 of which ,i possess a specimen4 ,boissier terms it ,h4 distichon1 varietas4 #aheb ,c4 ,a4 ,meyer1 ,verzeichniss1 p4 #bf1 from specimens seen also by ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 iv4 p4 #cbg4 #ahec ,ledebour1 ibid4 #ahed ,regel1 ,descr4 ,plant41 ,nov41 #ahha1 fasc4 #h1 p4 #cg4 #ahee ,willdenow1 ,sp4 ,plant41 i4 p4 #dgc4 #ahef ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant41 lib4 viii4 cap4 #d4 #aheg ,heer1 ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1 p4 #ac2 ,messicommer1 ,flora ,bot4 ,zeitung1 #ahfi1 p4 #cbj4 #aheh ,theophrastus1 ,hist41 lib4 viii4 cap4 #d4 #ahei ,willdenow1 ,species ,plant41 i4 p4 #dgb4 #ahfj ,unger1 ,pflanzen des ,alten ,egyptens1 p4 #cc2 ,ein ,ziegel der ,dashur ,pyramide1 p4 #aji4 #ahfa ,heer1 ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1 p4 #e1 figs4 #b and #c2 p4 #ac1 fig4 #i2 ,flora ,bot4 ,zeitung1 #ahfi1 p4 #cbj2 de ,mortillet1 according to ,perrin1 tudes prhistoriques sur la ,savoie1 p4 #bc2 ,sordelli1 ,sulle piante della torbiera di ,lagozza1 p4 #cc4 #ahfb ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 edit4 #ahcb1 vol4 i4 p4 #ceh4 #ahfc ,ad4 ,pictet1 ,origines ,indo-,europ41 edit4 #b1 vol4 i4 p4 #ccc4 #ahfd ,bretschneider1 ,on ,study and ,value1 etc41 pp #ah1 #dd4 #ahfe ,pliny1 ,hist41 lib4 xviii4 c4 #af4 #ahff ,galen1 ,de ,alimentis1 lib4 xiii41 quoted by ,lenz1 ,bot4 de ,alten1 p4 #bei4 #ahfg ,heer1 ,die ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1 p4 #af4 #ahfh ,ad4 ,pictet1 ,origines ,indo-,europ41 edit4 #b1 vol4 i4 p4 #cdd4 #ahfi ,nemnich1 ,lexicon ,naturgesch4 #ahgj ,ad4 ,pictet1 ubi supra4 #ahga ,secale fragile1 ,bieberstein2 ,s4 anatolicum1 ,boissier2 ,s4 montanum1 ,gussone2 ,s4 villosum1 ,linnus4 ,i explained in my ,gogr4 ,botanique1 p4 #icf1 the errors which result from this confusion1 when rye was said to be wild in ,sicily1 ,crete1 and sometimes in ,russia4 #ahgb ,flora1 ,bot4 ,zeitung1 #ahef1 p4 #ebj4 #ahgc ,flora1 ,bot4 ,zeitung1 #ahfi1 p4 #ic4 #ahgd ,kunth1 ,enum41 i4 p4 #ddi4 #ahge ,sadler1 ,fl4 ,pesth41 i4 p4 #hj2 ,host1 ,fl4 ,austr41 i4 p4 #agg2 ,baumgarten1 ,fl4 ,transylv41 p4 #bbe2 ,neilreich1 ,fl4 ,wien41 p4 #eh2 ,viviani1 ,fl4 ,dalmat41 i4 p4 #ig2 ,farkas1 ,fl4 ,croat41 p4 #abhh4 #ahgf ,strobl saw it1 however1 in the woods on the slopes of ,etna1 a result of its introduction into cultivation in the eighteenth century 7ster4 ,bot4 ,zeit41 #ahha1 p4 #aei74 #ahgg ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1 ,beitrge zur ,fl4 thiop41 p4 #bih4 #ahgh ,royle1 ,ill41 p4 #dai4 #ahgi ,bretschneider1 ,on ,study and ,value1 etc41 pp4 #ah1 #dd4 #ahhj ,fraas1 ,syn4 ,fl4 ,class41 p4 #cjc2 ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alten1 p4 #bdc4 #ahha ,pliny1 ,hist41 lib4 xviii4 cap4 #ag4 #ahhb ,galen1 ,de ,alimentis1 lib4 i4 cap4 #ab #ahhc ,heer1 ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1 p4 #f1 fig4 #bd4 #ahhd ,lenz1 ,bot4 der ,alten1 p4 #bde4 #ahhe ,ad4 ,pictet1 ,orig4 ,indo4-,europ41 edit4 #b1 vol4 i4 p4 #cej4 #ahhf ,notes communicated by ,m4 ,clos4 #ahhg ,ad4 ,pictet1 ubi supra4 #ahhh ,nemnich1 ,polyglott4 ,lexicon1 p4 #edh4 #ahhi ,dict4 ,fr4-,berbre1 published by the ,french ,government4 #ahij ,linnus1 ,species1 p4 #aah2 ,lamarck1 ,dict4 ,enc41 i4 p4 #dca #ahia ,phillips1 ,cult4 ,veget41 ii4 p4 #d4 #ahib ,munby1 ,catal4 ,alger41 edit4 #b1 p4 #cf2 ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enum4 ,pl4 ,jap41 ii4 p4 #age2 ,cosson1 ,fl4 ,paris1 ii4 p4 #fcg2 ,bunge1 ,enum4 ,chin41 p4 #ga1 for the variety nuda4 #ahic ,lamarck1 ,dict4 ,encycl41 i4 p4 #cca4 #ahid ,viviani1 ,fl4 ,dalmat41 i4 p4 #fi2 ,host1 ,fl4 ,austr41 i4 p4 #ach2 ,neilreich1 ,fl4 ,wien41 p4 #he2 ,baumgarten1 ,enum4 ,transylv41 iii4 p4 #bei2 ,farkas1 ,fl4 ,croatica1 p4 #abgg4 #ahie ,bentham1 ,handbook of ,british ,flora1 edit4 #d1 p4 #edd4 #ahif ,the passages from ,theophrastus1 ,cato1 and others1 are translated in ,lenz1 ,botanik der ,alten1 p4 #bcb4 #ahig ,heer4 ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1 p4 #ag4 #ahih ,regazzoni4 ,riv4 ,arch4 ,prov4 di ,como1 #ahhj1 fasc4 #g4 #ahii ,unger1 ,pflanzen des ,alten gyptens1 p4 #cd4 #aijj ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value of ,chinese ,botanical ,works1 pp4 #g1 #h1 #de4 #aija ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 edit4 #ahcb1 p4 #caj2 ,piddington1 ,index4 #aijb ,rosenmller1 ,bibl4 ,alterth42 ,dict4 ,fran4-,berbre4 #aijc ,delile1 ,fl4 gypt41 p4 #c2 ,forskal1 ,fl4 ,arab41 civ4 #aijd ,ad4 ,pictet1 ,origines ,indo-,europennes1 edit4 #b1 vol4 i4 p4 #cea4 #aije ,ibid4 #aijf ,linnus1 ,spec4 ,plant41 i4 p4 #hf4 #aijg ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 edit4 #ahcb1 p4 #caj2 ,aitchison1 ,cat4 of ,punjab ,pl41 p4 #aei4 #aijh ,bunge1 ,enum41 ,no4 #djj4 #aiji ,maximowicz1 ,primiti ,amur41 p4 #ccj4 #aiaj ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 iv4 p4 #dfi4 #aiaa ,hohenacker1 ,plant4 ,talysch41 p4 #ac4 #aiab ,steven1 ,verzeich4 ,halb4 ,taur41 p4 #cga4 #aiac ,mutel1 ,fl4 ,fran41 iv4 p4 #bj2 ,parlatore1 ,fl4 ,ital41 i4 p4 #abb2 ,viviani1 ,fl4 ,damat41 i4 p4 #fj2 ,neilreich1 ,fl4 ,nied4 sterr41 p4 #cb4 #aiad ,heldreich1 ,nutz4 ,griechenl41 p4 #c2 ,pflanz4 ,attisch4 ,ebene41 p4 #eaf4 #aiae ,m4 ,ascherson informs me in a letter that in his ,aufzhlung the word cult4 has been omitted by mistake after ,panicum miliaceum4 #aiaf ,forskal1 ,fl4 ,arab41 p4 civ4 #aiag ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc41 pp4 #g1 #h #aiah ,bretschneider1 ibid4 #aiai ,according to ,unger1 ,pflanz1 d4 ,alt4 gypt41 p4 #cd4 #aibj ,heer1 ,pflanzen d4 ,pfahlbaut41 p4 #e1 fig4 #g2 p4 #ag1 figs4 #bh1 #bi2 ,perrin1 tudes ,prhistoriques sur la ,savoie1 p4 #bb4 #aiba ,heldreich1 ,nutzpfl4 ,griech4 #aibb ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 edit4 #ahcb1 vol4 i4 p4 #cjb2 ,rumphius1 ,amboin41 v4 p4 #bjb1 t4 #ge4 #aibc ,roxburgh1 ibid4 #aibd ,ainslie1 ,mat4 ,med4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #bbf4 #aibe 8,obeurrit in ,baleya10 etc4 7,rumphius1 v4 p4 #bjb74 #aibf 8,habitat in ,indiis0 7,linnus1 ,species1 i4 p4 #hc74 #aibg ,aitchison1 ,catal4 of ,punjab ,pl41 p4 #afb4 #aibh ,bentham1 ,flora ,austral41 vii4 p4 #dic4 #aibi ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enum4 ,japon41 ii4 p4 #bfb4 #aicj ,bunge1 ,enum41 ,no4 #cii2 ,maximowicz1 ,primiti ,amur41 p4 #ccj4 #aica ,buhse1 ,aufzhlung1 p4 #bcb4 #aicb ,see ,parlatore1 ,fl4 ,ital41 i4 p4 #aac2 ,mutel1 ,fl4 ,fran41 iv4 p4 #bj1 etc4 #aicc ,delile1 ,plantes ,cult4 en gypte1 p4 #g2 ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 edit4 #ahcb1 vol4 i4 p4 #bfi2 ,aitchison1 ,catal4 of ,punjab ,pl41 p4 #age2 ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc41 p4 #i4 #aicd ,pliny1 ,hist41 lib4 xviii4 c4 #g4 #aice ,quoted by ,unger1 ,die ,pflanzen des ,alten ,egyptens1 p4 #cd4 #aicf ,s4 ,birch1 in ,wilkinson1 ,man4 and ,cust4 of ,anc4 ,egyptians1 #ahgh1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dbg4 #aicg ,lepsius' drawings are reproduced by ,unger and by ,wilkinson4 #aich ,ezek4 iv4 #i4 #aici ,brown1 ,bot4 of ,congo1 p4 #edd4 #aidj ,schmidt1 ,beitrge zur ,flora ,capverdischen ,inseln1 p4 #aeh4 #aida ,see ,host1 ,gramin ,austriac1 vol4 iv4 pl4 #d4 #aidb ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 edit4 #b1 vol4 i4 p4 #bga2 ,rumphius1 ,amboin41 v4 p4 #aid1 pl4 #ge1 fig4 #a2 ,miquel1 ,fl4 ,indo-,batava1 iii4 p4 #ejc2 ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc41 pp4 #i1 #df2 ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochin41 ii4 p4 #gib4 #aidc ,forskal1 ,delile1 ,schweinfurth1 and ,ascherson1 ubi supra4 #aidd ,herodotus1 lib4 i4 cap4 #aic4 #aide ,pliny1 ,hist41 lib4 xviii4 cap4 #g4 ,this may also be the variety or species known as bicolor4 #aidf ,w4 ,hooker1 ,niger ,flora4 #aidg ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1 ,aufzhlung1 p4 #bii4 #aidh ,bon ,jardinier1 #ahhj1 p4 #ehe4 #aidi ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enum4 ,plant4 ,japon41 ii4 p4 #agb4 #aiej ,bon ,jardinier1 ibid4 #aiea ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,indica1 edit4 #b1 vol4 i4 p4 #cdc4 #aieb ,boyle1 ,ill4 ,him4 ,plants4 #aiec ,thwaites1 ,enum4 ,pl4 ,zeylan41 p4 #cga #aied ,several synonyms and the ,arabic name in ,linnus1 ,delile1 etc41 apply to ,dactyloctenium gyptiacum1 ,willdenow1 or ,eleusine gyptiaca of some authors1 which is not cultivated4 #aiee ,fresenius1 ,catal4 ,sem4 ,horti4 ,francof41 #ahcd1 ,beitr4 z4 ,fl4 ,abyss41 p4 #ada4 #aief ,stanislas ,julien1 in ,loiseleur1 ,consid4 sur les ,crales1 part i4 p4 #bi2 ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value of ,chinese ,botanical ,works1 pp4 #h and #i4 #aieg ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochin41 i4 p4 #bfg4 #aieh ,piddington1 ,index2 ,hehn1 ,culturpflanzen1 edit4 #c1 p4 #dcg4 #aiei ,theophrastus1 ,hist41 lib4 iv4 cap4 #d1 #aj4 #aifj ,strabo1 ,gographie1 ,tardieu's translation1 lib4 xv4 cap4 #a1 #ah2 lib4 xv4 cap4 #a4 #ec4 #aifa ,reynier1 conomie des ,arabes et des ,juifs 7#ahbj71 p4 #dej2 conomie ,publique et ,rurale des gyptiens et des ,carthaginois 7#ahbc71 p4 #cbd4 #aifb ,unger mentions none2 ,birch1 in #ahgh1 furnishes a note to ,wilkinson's ,manners and ,customs of the ,ancient ,egyptians1 ii4 p4 #djb1 8,there is no proof of the cultivation of rice1 of which no grains have been found40 #aifc ,reynier1 ibid4 #aifd ,targioni1 ,cenni ,storici4 #aife ,crawfurd1 in ,journal of ,botany1 #ahff1 p4 #cbd4 #aiff ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 edit4 #ahcb1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bjj4 #aifg ,aitchinson1 ,catal4 ,punjab41 p4 #aeg4 #aifh ,nees1 in ,martius1 ,fl4 ,brasil41 in #hvo1 ii4 p4 #eah2 ,baker1 ,fl4 of ,mauritius1 p4 #deh4 #aifi ,von ,mueller writes to me that rice is certainly wild in tropical ,australia4 ,it may have been accidentally sown1 and have become naturalized4--,,author',s ,,note1 #ahhd4 #aigj ,bonafous1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,agric4 et conomique du ,mas1 #a vol4 in folio1 ,paris and ,turin4 #ahcf4 #aiga ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,bibliothque ,universelle de ,genve1 ,aug4 #ahcf1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,rais41 p4 #idb4 #aigb ,molinari1 ,storia d',incisa1 ,asti1 #ahaf4 #aigc ,riant1 ,la ,charte d',incisa1 #hvo pamphlet1 #ahgg1 reprinted from the ,revue des ,questions ,historiques4 #aigd ,ruellius1 ,de ,natura ,stirpium1 p4 #dbh1 8,hanc quoniam nostrorum tate e ,grcia vel ,asia venerit ,turcicum frumentum nominant40 ,fuchsius1 p4 #hbd1 repeats this phrase in #aedc4 #aige ,tragus1 ,stirpium1 etc41 edit4 #aeeb1 p4 #fej4 #aigf ,dodoens1 ,pemptades1 p4 #eji2 ,camerarius1 ,hort41 p4 #id2 ,matthiole1 edit4 #aegj1 p4 #cje4 #aigg ,p4 ,martyr1 ,ercilla1 ,jean de ,lery1 etc41 #aeaf-aegh4 #aigh ,hernandez1 ,thes4 ,mexic41 p4 #bdb4 #aigi ,lasgue1 ,muse ,delessert1 p4 #dfg4 #aihj ,fe1 ,souvenirs de la ,guerre d',espagne1 p4 #abh4 #aiha ,bibliothque ,orientale1 ,paris1 #afig1 at the word ,rous4 #aihb ,kunth1 ,ann4 ,sc4 ,nat41 sr4 #a1 vol4 viii4 p4 #dah2 ,raspail1 ibid42 ,unger1 ,pflanzen des ,alten gyptens2 ,a4 ,braun1 ,pflanzenreste gypt4 ,mus4 in ,berlin2 ,wilkinson1 ,manners and ,customs of ,ancient ,egyptians4 #aihc ,forskal1 p4 liii4 #aihd ,crawfurd1 ,history of the ,indian ,archipelago1 ,edinburgh1 #ahbj1 vol4 i41 ,journal of ,botany1 #ahff1 p4 #cbf4 #aihe ,roxburgh1 ,flora ,indica1 edit4 #ahcb1 vol4 iii4 p4 #efh4 #aihf ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc41 pp4 #g1 #ah4 #aihg ,ibid4 #aihh ,the article is in the ,pharmaceutical ,journal of #ahgj2 ,i only know it from a short extract in ,seemann's ,journal of ,botany1 #ahga1 p4 #fb4 #aihi ,rumphius1 ,amboin41 vol4 v4 p4 #ebe4 #aiij ,malte-,brun1 ,gographie1 i4 p4 #dic4 #aiia ,a plant engraved on an ancient weapon which ,siebold had taken for maize is a sorghum1 according to ,rein1 quoted by ,wittmack1 ,ueber ,antiken ,mas4 #aiib ,see ,martius1 ,beitrge zur ,ethnographie ,amerikas1 p4 #abg4 #aiic ,darwin1 ,var4 of ,plants and ,anim4 under ,domest41 i4 p4 #cbj4 #aiid ,a4 de ,saint-,hilaire1 ,ann4 ,sc4 ,nat41 xvi4 p4 #adc4 #aiie ,lindley1 ,journ4 of the ,hortic4 ,soc41 i4 p4 #aad4 #aiif ,i quote these facts from ,wittmack1 ,ueber ,antiken ,mas aus ,nord und ,sud ,amerika1 p4 #hg1 in ,berlin ,anthropol4 ,ges41 ,nov4 #aj1 #ahgi4 #aiig ,rochebrune1 ,recherches ,ethnographiques sur les ,spultures ,pruviennes d',ancon1 from an extract by ,wittmack in ,uhlworm1 ,bot4 ,central-,blatt41 #ahhj1 p4 #afcc1 where it may be seen that the burial-ground was used before and after the discovery of ,america4 #aiih ,sagot1 ,cult4 des ,crales de la ,guyane ,fran4 7,journ4 de la ,soc4 ,centr4 d',hortic4 de ,france1 #ahgb1 p4 #id74 #aiii ,de ,naidaillac1 in his work entitled ,les ,premiers ,hommes et les ,temps ,prhistoriques1 gives briefly the sum of our knowledge of these migrations of the ancient peoples of ,america in general4 ,see especially vol4 ii4 chap4 #i4 #bjjj ,de ,naidaillac1 ii4 p4 #fi1 who quotes ,bancroft1 ,the ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states4 #bjja ,willkomm and ,lange41 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,hisp41 iii4 p4 #hgb4 #bjjb ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient42 ,tchihatcheff1 ,asie ,mineure2 ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 and others4 #bjjc ,heer1 ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1 p4 #cb1 figs4 #fe1 #ff4 #bjjd ,de ,lanessan1 in his translation from ,flckiger and ,hanbury1 ,histoire des ,drogues d',origine ,vgtale1 i4 p4 #abi4 #bjje ,dioscorides1 ,hist4 ,plant41 lib4 iv4 c4 #fe4 #bjjf ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,plant41 lib4 xx4 c4 #ah4 #bjjg ,unger1 ,die ,pflanze als ,errerungs und ,betabungsmittel1 p4 #dg2 ,die ,pflanzen des ,alten gyptens1 i4 p4 #ej4 #bjjh ,ebn ,baithar1 ,german trans41 i4 p4 #fd4 #bjji ,ad4 ,pictet1 ,origines ,indo-,europennes1 edit4 #c1 vol4 i4 p4 #cff4 #bjaj ,ainslie1 ,mat4 ,med4 ,indica1 i4 p4 #cbf4 #bjaa ,nemnich1 ,polygl4 ,lexicon1 p4 #hdh4 #bjab ,martin1 in ,bull4 ,soc4 d',acclimatation1 #ahgb1 p4 #bjj4 #bjac ,sir ,j4 ,hooker1 ,flora of ,brit4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #aag2 ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc41 #dg4 #bjad ,ebn ,baithar1 i4 p4 #fd4 #bjae ,flckiger and ,hanbury1 ,pharmacographia1 p4 #dj4 #bjaf ,barbosa's work was published in #aeaf4 #bjag ,hughes1 ,trade ,report1 quoted by ,flckiger and ,hanbury4 #bjah ,sloane1 ,jamaica1 ii4 p4 #ec4 #bjai ,sloane1 ibid42 ,clos1 ,ann4 ,sc4 ,nat41 #dth4 series1 vol4 viii4 p4 #bfj2 ,grisebach1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,w4 ,ind4 ,is41 p4 #bj4 #bjbj ,seemann1 ,bot4 of ,herald41 pp4 #gi1 #bfh2 ,triana and ,planchon1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,novo-,granat41 p4 #id2 ,meyer1 ,essequebo1 p4 #bjb2 ,piso1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,brasil1 edit4 #afdh1 p4 #fe2 ,claussen1 in ,clos1 ubi supra4 #bjba ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 ii4 p4 #eha2 ,oliver1 ,fl4 ,trop4 ,africa1 i4 p4 #aad4 #bjbb ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,rais41 p4 #iga4 #bjbc ,parlatore1 ,le ,specie dei ,cotoni1 text in #dto1 plates in folio1 ,florence1 #ahff4 #bjbd ,todaro1 ,relazione della ,coltura dei ,cotoni in ,italia1 segnita da una ,monographia del ,genere ,gossypium1 text large #hvo1 plates in folio1 ,rome and ,palermo1 #ahgg-gh2 a work preceded by several others of less importance1 which were known to ,parlatore4 #bjbe ,masters1 in ,oliver1 ,fl4 ,trop4 ,afr41 i4 p4 #baj2 and in ,sir ,j4 ,hooker1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #cdf4 #bjbf ,kurz1 ,forest ,flora of ,british ,burmah1 i4 p4 #abi4 #bjbg ,piddington1 ,index4 #bjbh ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant41 lib4 iv4 cap4 #e4 #bjbi ,ibid41 lib4 iv4 cap4 #i4 #bjcj ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc41 p4 #g4 #bjca ,pausanias1 lib4 v41 cap4 #e2 lib4 vi4 cap4 #bf2 ,pliny1 lib4 xix4 cap4 #a4 ,see ,brandes1 ,baumwolle1 p4 #if4 #bjcb ,c4 ,ritter1 ,die ,geographische ,verbreitung der ,baumwolle1 p4 #be4 #bjcc ,it is impossible not to remark the resemblance between this name and that of flax in ,arabic1 kattan or kittan2 it is an example of the confusion which takes place in names where there is an analogy between the products4 #bjcd ,de ,lasteyrie1 ,du ,cotonnier1 p4 #bij4 #bjce ,torrey and ,asa ,gray1 ,flora of ,north ,america1 i4 p4 #bcj2 ,darlington1 ,agricultural ,botany1 p4 #af4 #bjcf ,schouw1 ,naturschilderungen1 p4 #aeb4 #bjcg ,masters1 in ,oliver1 ,fl4 ,trop4 ,afr41 i4 p4 #baa2 ,hooker1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,ind41 i4 p4 #cdg2 ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1 ,aufzhlung1 p4 #bfe 7under the name ,gossypium nigrum72 ,parlatore1 ,specie dei ,cotoni1 p4 #be4 #bjch ,rosellini1 ,monumenti dell' ,egizia1 p4 #b2 ,mon4 ,civ41 i4 p4 #fj4 #bjci ,parlatore1 ,specie dei ,cotoni1 p4 #af4 #bjdj ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,plant41 lib4 xix4 cap4 #a4 #bjda ,pollux1 ,onomasticon1 quoted by ,c4 ,ritter1 ubi supra1 p4 #bf4 #bjdb ,reynier1 conomie des ,arabes et des ,juifs41 p4 #cfc2 ,bertoloni1 ,noc4 ,act4 ,acad4 ,bonon41 ii4 p4 #bac1 and ,miscell4 ,bot41 #f2 ,viviani1 in ,bibl4 ,ital41 vol4 lxxxi4 p4 #id2 ,c4 ,ritter1 ,gogr4 ,verbreitung der ,baumwolle1 in #dto42 ,targioni1 ,cenni ,storici1 p4 #ic2 ,brandis1 ,der ,baumwolle in ,alterthum1 in #hvo4 #ahhj4 #bjdc ,masters1 in ,oliver1 ,flora of ,trop4 ,africa1 i4 p4 #cbb2 and in ,hooker1 ,flora of ,brit4 ,india1 i4 p4 #cdg4 #bjdd ,he says1 for instance1 of ,gossypium herbaceum1 which is certainly of the old world1 as facts known before his time show1 8habitat in ,america40 #bjde ,nascitur in calidis humidisque cultis prcipue locis 7,hernandez1 ,nov ,hispani ,thesaurus1 p4 #cjh74 #bjdf ,hemsley1 ,biologia ,centrali-,americana1 i4 p4 #abc4 #bjdg ,macfadyen1 ,flora of ,jamaica1 p4 #gb4 #bjdh ,grisebach1 ,flora of ,brit4 ,w4 ,india ,is41 p4 #hf4 #bjdi ,triana and ,planchon1 ,prodr4 ,fl4 ,novo-,granatensis1 p4 #agj4 #bjej ,the ,malvace have not yet appeared in the ,flora ,brasiliensis4 #bjea ,cl4 ,gay1 ,flora ,chilena1 i4 p4 #cab4 #bjeb ,the ,gardener's ,chronicle of ,sept4 #d1 #ahhj1 gives details about the cultivation of this plant1 the use of its seeds1 and the extensive exportation of them from the west coast of ,africa1 ,brazil1 and ,india to ,europe4 #bjec ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gographie ,botanique ,raisonne1 p4 #ifb4 #bjed ,linnus1 ,species ,plantarum1 p4 #ajdj4 #bjee ,r4 ,brown1 ,botany of ,congo1 p4 #ec4 #bjef ,bentham1 in ,trans4 ,linn4 ,soc41 xviii4 p4 #aei2 ,walpers1 ,repertorium1 i4 p4 #gbg4 #bjeg ,maregraf and ,piso1 ,brasil41 p4 #cg1 edit4 #afdh4 #bjeh ,ibid41 edit4 #afech1 p4 #bef4 #bjei ,acosta1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,ind41 ,french1 trans41 #aeih1 p4 #afe4 #bjfj ,aublot1 ,pl4 ,guyan1 p4 #gfe4 #bjfa ,sloane1 ,jamaica1 p4 #ahd4 #bjfb ,guillemin and ,perrottet1 ,fl4 ,senegal4 #bjfc ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochin4 #bjfd ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 iii4 p4 #bhj2 ,piddington1 ,index4 #bjfe ,rumphius1 ,herb4 ,amb41 v4 p4 #dbf #bjff ,rochebrune1 from the extract in the ,botanisches ,centralblatt1 #ahhj1 p4 #afcd4 #bjfg ,study and ,value of ,chinese ,botanical ,works1 p4 #ah4 #bjfh ,grisebach1 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,w4 ,ind4 ,is41 p4 #ahi4 #bjfi ,richard1 ,tentamen ,fl4 ,abyss41 i4 p4 #cdi2 ,oliver1 ,fl4 ,trop4 ,afr41 iii4 p4 #ahj4 #bjgj ,ritter1 quoted in ,flora1 #ahdf1 p4 #gjd4 #bjga ,meyen1 ,gogr4 ,bot41 ,english trans41 p4 #chd2 ,grisebach1 ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,w4 ,ind4 ,is41 p4 #cch4 #bjgb ,h4 ,welter1 ,essai sur l',histoire du ,caf1 #a vol4 in #hvo1 ,paris1 #ahfh4 #bjgc ,ellis1 ,an ,historical ,account of ,coffee1 #aggd4 #bjgd ,ebn ,baithar1 ,sondtheimer's trans41 #b vols4 #hvo1 #ahdb4 #bjge ,bellus1 ,epist4 ad ,clus41 p4 #cji4 #bjgf ,rauwolf1 ,clusius4 #bjgg ,rauwolf2 ,bauhin1 ,hist41 i4 p4 #dbb4 #bjgh ,bellus1 ubi supra4 #bjgi ,richard1 ,tentamen ,fl4 ,abyss41 p4 #cej4 #bjhj ,an extract from the same author in ,playfair1 ,hist4 of ,arabia ,felix1 ,bombay1 #ahei1 does not mention this assertion4 #bjha ,nouv4 ,dict4 d',hist4 ,nat41 iv4 p4 #eeb4 #bjhb ,ellis1 ubi supra2 ,nouv4 ,dict41 ibid4 #bjhc ,this detail is borrowed from ,ellis1 ,diss4 ,caf41 p4 #af4 ,in the ,notices ,statistiques sur les ,colonies ,franaises 7ii4 p4 #df7 ,i find3 8,about #agaf or #agba1 fresh seeds of the coffee having been brought secretly from ,surinam1 in spite of the precautions of the ,dutch1 the cultivation of this colonial product became naturalized at ,cayenne40 #bjhd ,the name of this sailor has been spelt in several ways--,declieux1 ,duclieux1 ,desclieux4 ,from the information supplied me at the ministre de la guerre1 ,i learn that de ,clieu was a gentleman1 and a connection of the ,comte de ,maurepas4 ,he was born in ,normandy1 went into the navy in #agjb1 and retired in #agfj1 after a distinguished career4 ,he died in #agge4 ,the official reports have not neglected to mention the important fact that he introduced the coffee plant into the ,french colonies4 #bjhe ,deleuze1 ,hist4 du ,musum1 i4 p4 #bj4 #bjhf ,not4 ,stat4 ,col4 ,fran41 i4 p4 #cj4 #bjhg ,ibid41 i4 p4 #bji4 #bjhh ,martin1 ,stat4 ,col4 ,brit4 ,emp4 #bjhi ,nouv4 ,dict4 ,hist4 ,nat41 iv4 p4 #ace #bjij ,not4 ,stat4 ,col4 ,fran41 ii4 p4 #hd4 #bjia ,h4 ,welter1 ,essai sur l',histoire du ,caf1 #a vol4 #hvo1 ,paris1 #ahfh4 #bjib ,in ,hiern1 ,trans4 ,linn4 ,soc41 #bnd series1 vol4 i4 p4 #aga1 pl4 #bd4 ,this plate is reproduced in the ,report of the ,royal ,botanical ,gardens at ,kew for #ahgf4 #bjic ,oliver1 ,fl4 ,trop4 ,afr41 iii4 p4 #aha4 #bjid ,cl4 ,gay1 ,fl4 ,chilena1 iv4 p4 #bfh4 #bjie ,asa ,gray1 in ,watson1 ,bot4 of ,california1 i4 p4 #cei4 #bjif ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,rais41 p4 #ajdg4 #bjig ,rumphius1 ,amboin41 ii4 p4 #ag2 ,blume1 ,rhumphia1 i4 p4 #ahj4 #bjih ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,indica1 iii4 p4 #hde4 #bjii ,bentham and ,hooker1 ,genera ,pl41 ii4 p4 #ajei4 #bajj ,pickering1 ,chronol4 ,history of ,plants1 p4 #bbc2 ,rumphius1 ,herb4 ,amb41 v4 p4 #bjd2 ,miquel1 ,flora ,indo-,batava1 ii4 p4 #gfj2 ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1 ,aufzhlung1 p4 #bgc2 ,grisebach4 ,fl4 ,brit4 ,w4 ,ind4 ,is41 p4 #deh4 #baja ,blume1 ,bijdragen1 p4 #ggh4 #bajb ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 edit4 #ahcb1 vol4 iii4 p4 #ajj2 ,piddington1 ,index4 #bajc ,thunberg1 ,fl4 ,jap41 p4 #bed4 #bajd ,bretschneider1 letter of ,aug4 #bc1 #ahja4 #baje ,ibid41 ,on ,study1 etc41 p4 #af4 #bajf ,theophrastus1 lib4 viii4 cap4 #a1 #e2 ,dioscorides1 lib4 ii4 cap4 #aba2 ,pliny1 ,hist41 lib4 xviii4 cap4 #aj4 #bajg ,pliny1 ,hist41 lib4 xv4 cap4 #g4 #bajh ,wilkinson1 ,manners and ,customs of ,ancient ,egyptians1 vol4 ii42 ,unger1 ,pflanzen des ,alten gyptens1 p4 #de4 #baji ,reynier1 con4 ,pub4 des ,arabes et des ,juifs1 p4 #dca2 ,lw1 ,arameische ,pflanzennamen1 p4 #cgf4 #baaj ,e4 ,meyer1 ,geschichte der ,botanik1 iii4 p4 #ge4 #baaa ,herodotus1 lib4 i4 cap4 #aic4 #baab ,thwaites1 ,enum41 p4 #bji4 #baac ,piso1 ,brazil41 edit4 #afeh1 p4 #baa4 #baad ,ball1 ,flor ,maroccan ,spicilegium1 p4 #ffd4 #baae ,mller1 ,argov41 in ,d4,c41 ,prodromus1 vol4 xv4 part #b1 p4 #ajag4 #baaf ,richard1 ,tentamen ,fl4 ,abyss41 ii4 p4 #bej2 ,schweinfurth1 ,plant ,nilotic a ,hartmann1 etc41 p4 #ac4 #baag ,schweinfurth and ,ascherson1 ,aufzhlung1 p4 #bfb4 #baah ,forskal1 ,fl4 ,arabica1 p4 #ga4 #baai ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 iv4 p4 #aadc4 #babj ,rheede1 ,malabar1 ii4 p4 #eg1 t4 #cb4 #baba ,rumphius1 ,herb4 ,amb41 vol4 iv4 p4 #ic4 #babb ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enum4 ,japon41 i4 p4 #dbd4 #babc ,unger1 ,pflanzen des ,alten gyptens1 p4 #fa4 #babd ,theophrastus1 ,hist41 lib4 i4 cap4 #ai2 ,dioscorides1 lib4 iv4 cap4 #aga2 ,fraas1 ,syn4 ,fl ,class41 p4 #ib4 #babe ,nemnich1 ,polyglott4 ,lexicon2 ,forskal1 ,fl4 gypt41 p4 #ge4 #babf ,jonah iv4 #f4 ,pickering1 ,chron4 ,his4 ,plants1 p4 #bbe1 writes kykwyn4 #babg ,flckiger and ,haubury1 ,pharmacographia1 p4 #eaa4 #babh ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,prodr41 xvi4 part #b1 p4 #acf2 ,tchihatcheff1 ,asie ,mineure1 i4 p4 #agb2 ,ledebour1 ,fl4 ,ross41 i4 p4 #ejg2 ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 iii4 p4 #fcj2 ,boissier1 ,fl4 ,orient41 iv4 p4 #aafj2 ,brandis1 ,forest ,flora of ,n4,w4 ,india1 p4 #dih2 ,kurz1 ,forest ,flora of ,brit4 ,burmah1 p4 #cij4 #babi ,c4 ,koch1 ,dendrologie1 i4 p4 #ehd4 #bacj ,franchet and ,savatier1 ,enum1 ,plant4 ,jap41 i4 #dec4 #baca ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochin41 p4 #gjb2 ,bunge1 ,enum41 p4 #fb4 #bacb ,heldreich1 ,verhandl4 ,bot4 ,vereins ,brandenb41 #ahgi1 p4 #adg4 #bacc ,theophrastus1 ,hist4 ,plant41 lib4 iii4 cap4 #c1 #f4 ,these passages1 and others of ancient writers1 are quoted and interpreted by ,heldreich better than by ,hehn and other scholars4 #bacd ,heuffel1 ,abhandl4 ,zool4 ,bot4 ,ges4 in ,wien1 #ahec1 p4 #aid4 #bace ,de ,saporta1 #ccrd ,sess4 du ,congres ,scient4 de ,france4 #bacf ,dioscorides1 lib4 i4 cap4 #agf4 #bacg ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,plant41 lib4 xv4 cap4 #bb4 #bach ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,plant41 lib4 xv4 cap4 #bb4 #baci ,heer1 ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1 p4 #ca4 #badj ,sordelli1 ,sulle piante della torbiera1 etc41 p4 #ci4 #bada ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc41 p4 #af2 and letter of ,aug4 #bc1 #ahha4 #badb ,ad4 ,pictet1 ,origines ,indo-,europ41 edit4 #b1 vol4 i4 p4 #bhi2 ,hehn1 ,culturpflanzen und ,hausthiere1 edit4 #c1 p4 #cda4 #badc ,martius1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,palmarum1 in folio1 vol4 iii4 p4 #agj 7published without date1 but before #ahea74 #badd ,roxburgh1 ,fl4 ,ind41 iii4 p4 #faf2 ,brandis1 ,forest ,fl4 of ,india1 p4 #eea2 ,kurz1 ,forest ,fl4 of ,brit4 ,burmah1 p4 #ecg2 ,thwaites1 ,enum4 ,zeylan41 p4 #cbg2 ,loureiro1 ,fl4 ,cochin-,ch41 p4 #fie4 #bade ,blume1 ,rumphia1 ii4 p4 #fg2 ,miquel1 ,fl4 ,indo-,batava41 iii4 p4 #i2 suppl4 de ,sumatra1 p4 #bec4 #badf ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc41 p4 #bh4 #badg ,blanco1 ,fl4 di ,filipinas1 edit4 #b4 #badh ,da ,mosto1 in ,ramusio1 i4 p4 #ajd1 quoted by ,r4 ,brown4 #badi ,brown1 ,bot4 of ,congo1 p4 #ee4 #baej ,martius1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,palmarum1 ii4 p4 #fb2 ,drude1 in ,fl4 ,brasil41 fasc4 #he1 p4 #deg4 ,i find no author who asserts that this palm is wild in ,guiana1 as ,martius affirms it to be in ,brazil4 #baea ,elis melanocarpa1 ,grtner4 ,the fruit also contains oil1 but it does not appear that the species is cultivated1 as the number of oleaginous plants is considerable in all countries4 #baeb ,sloane1 ,nat4 ,hist4 of ,jamaica1 ii4 p4 #aac4 #baec ,grisebach1 ,flora of ,brit4 ,w4 ,ind4 ,is41 p4 #ebb4 #baed ,piso1 ,brasil41 p4 #fe2 ,marcgraf1 p4 #ach4 #baee ,martius1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,palmarum1 #c vols4 in folio2 see vol4 ii4 p4 #abe4 #baef ,aublet1 ,guyane1 suppl41 p4 #ajb4 #baeg ,sloane1 ,jamaica1 ii4 p4 #i4 #baeh ,j4 ,acosta1 ,hist4 ,nat4 des ,indes1 ,french trans41 #aeih1 p4 #agh4 #baei ,vafer1 ,voyage de ,dampier1 edit4 #agje1 p4 #ahf2 ,vancouver1 ,french edit41 p4 #cbe1 quoted by de ,martius1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,palmarum1 i4 p4 #ahh4 #bafj ,seemann1 ,bot4 of ,herald41 p4 #bjd4 #bafa ,hernandez1 ,thesaurus ,mexic41 p4 #ga4 ,he attributes the same name1 p4 #ge1 to the cocoa-nut palm of the ,philippine ,islands4 #bafb ,oviedo1 ,ramusio's trans41 iii4 p4 #ec4 #bafc ,a4 de ,candolle1 ,gogr4 ,bot4 ,raisonne1 p4 #igf4 #bafd ,grisebach1 ,vegetation der ,erde1 pp4 #aa1 #cbc4 #bafe ,seemann1 ,flora ,vitiensis1 p4 #bge4 #baff ,the cocoa-nut called ,maldive belongs to the genus ,lodoicea4 ,coco mamillaris1 ,blanco1 of the ,philippines is a variety of the cultivated ,cocos nucifera4 #bafg ,drude1 in ,bot4 ,zeitung1 #ahgf1 p4 #hja2 and ,flora ,brasiliensis1 fasc4 #he1 p4 #dje4 #bafh ,stieler1 ,hand ,atlas1 edit4 #ahfg1 map #c4 #bafi ,stieler1 ibid41 map #i4 #bagj ,grisebach1 ,flora of ,brit4 ,w4 ,indies1 p4 #eeb4 #baga ,eugne ,fournier has indicated to me1 for instance1 drdapala 7with hard fruit71 palakecara 7with hairy fruit71 jalakajka 7water-holder71 etc4 #bagb ,blume1 ,rumphia1 iii4 p4 #hb4 #bagc ,forster1 ,de ,plantis ,esculentis1 p4 #dh2 ,nadeaud1 ,enum4 des ,plantes de ,taiti1 p4 #da4 #bagd ,blume1 ubi supra4 #bage ,bretschneider1 ,study and ,value1 etc41 p4 #bd4 #bagf ,seemann1 ,fl4 ,vitiensis1 p4 #bgf2 ,pickering1 ,chronol4 ,arrangement1 p4 #dbh4 #bagg ,dr4 ,bretschneider writes to me from ,pekin1 ,dec4 #bb1 #ahhb1 that the species is mentioned in the ,ryd1 a work of the year #aajj ,b4,c4 ,i do not know if we must suppose the original habitat to be ,china or western ,asia4 #bagh ,essai sur la ,gographie des ,plantes1 p4 #bh4 #bagi ,counting two or three forms which are perhaps rather very distinct races4 #bahj ,see the list of the useful plants of ,australia by ,sir ,j4 ,hooker1 ,flora ,tasmania1 p4 cx42 and ,bentham1 ,flora ,australiensis1 vii4 p4 #aef4 #baha ,the proportions which ,i give for the ,phanerogams collectively are based upon an approximative calculation1 made with the aid of the first two hundred pages of ,steudel's ,nomenclator4 ,they are justified by the comparison with several floras4 #bahb ,the species in italics are of very ancient cultivation 7,a or ,d71 those marked with an asterisk have been less than two thousand years in cultivation 7,c or ,f74 #bahc ,since this list was printed1 ,i have been informed that the quinoa is wild in ,chili4 ,some of the figures need modification in consequence of this error4 #bahd ,for reasons which ,i cannot here express1 monotypical genera are for the most part in process of extinction4 ,,index4 ,a ,abi1 #bhe ,agava americana1 #aec ,alexanders1 #ia ,alexandrine clover1 #ajg ,alligator pear1 #bib ,allium ,ampeloprasum1 #aja ---- ,ascalonicum1 #fh ---- ,cepa1 #ff ---- fistulosum1 #fh ---- sativum1 #fc ---- ,schnoprasum1 #gb ---- ,scorodoprasum1 #ga ,almond1 #bah ,alocasia macrorhiza1 #ge ,aloe1 ,american1 #aec ,amarantus frumentaceus1 #ceb ---- gangeticus1 #ajj ,american ,aloe1 #aec ---- indigoes1 #acg ,amorphophallus ,konjak1 #gf ---- ,rivieri1 #gf ,amygdalus communis1 #bah ---- ,persica1 #bba ,anacardium occidentale1 #aih ,ananassa sativa1 #caa ,andropogon saccharatus1 #chb ---- ,sorghum1 #chj ,angular ,luffa1 #cga ,angurian cucumber1 #bfg ,annual capsicum1 #bhi ,anona ,cherimolia1 #agd ---- muricata1 #afh1 #agc ---- reticulata1 #agd ---- squamosa1 #afh ,anthriscus ,cerefiolum1 #ij ,ap1 #ge ,apium graveolens1 #ij ,apple1 #bcc ---- custard1 #afh1 #agd ---- ,malay1 #bda ---- mammee1 #ahi ---- pine1 #caa ---- star1 #bhe ---- sugar1 #afh ---- ,tahiti1 #bjb ,apricot1 #bae ,arab tea1 #acd ,arachis hypoga1 #daa ,areca catechu1 #dbg ,armeniaca vulgaris1 #bae ,arnotto1 #dja ,arracacha esculenta1 #dj ,arrowroot1 #ha ,artichoke1 #ib ---- ,jerusalem1 #db ,artocarpus incisa1 #bih ---- integrifolia1 #bii ,arum esculentum1 #gc ---- macrorhizon1 #ge ,aubergine1 #bhg ,avena orientalis1 #cgc ---- sativa1 #cgc ---- strigosa1 #cge ,avocado pear1 #bib ,b ,bambarra ground-nut1 #cdg ,banana1 #cjd ,barbados cotton1 #djh ,barleys1 #cfg ,batatas edulis1 #ec ,batata mammosa1 #eg ,bean1 broad1 #caf ---- kidney1 #cch ,beetroot1 #eh ,benincasa1 #bfh ,beta vulgaris1 #eh ,bird-cherry1 #bje ,bird's foot1 #aac ,bitter orange1 #ahc ,bixa ,orellana1 #dja ,black currant1 #bgh ,brassica campestris1 #cf ---- ,napus1 #cf ---- oleracea1 #cf1 #hc ---- ,rapa1 #cf ,bread-fruit1 #bih ,broad bean1 #caf ,bromelia ,ananas1 #caa ,buckwheat1 common1 #cdh ---- notch-seeded1 #cea ---- ,tartary1 #cec ,bullace1 #bad ,bullock's heart1 #agd ,c ,cabbage1 #hc ,cacao1 #cac ,camito1 #bhe ,calabash1 #bde ,cannabis sativa1 #adh ,capsicum annuum1 #bhi ---- frutescens1 #bij ,cardoon1 #ib ,carica ,papaya1 #bgc ,carob1 #ccd ,carthamine1 #afd ,caryophyllus aromaticus1 #afa ,cashew1 #aih ,cassis1 #bgh ,castanea vulgaris1 #cec ,castor-oil plant1 #dbb ,catha edulis1 #acd ,celery1 #hi ,cerasus vulgaris1 #bjg ,ceratonia ,siliqua1 #ccd ,chayote1 #bgc ,chenopodium ,quinoa1 #cea ,cherry1 bird1 #bje ---- sour1 #bjg ,chervil1 #ij ,chestnut1 #cec ,chickling vetch1 #aaj ,chick-pea1 #cbc ,chicorium ,endivia1 #ig ---- ,intybus1 #if ,chicory1 #if ,china grass1 #adf ,chinese pear1 #bcc ,chirimoya1 #agd ,chives1 #gb ,chocho1 #bgc ,chrysophyllum ,camito1 #bhe ,cinnamon1 #adf ,cinnamonum zeylanicum1 #adf ,citron1 #agh ,citrullus vulgaris1 #bfb ,citrus ,aurantium1 #ahh ---- decumana1 #agg ---- medica1 #agh ---- nobilis1 #ahh ,clove1 #afa ,clover1 crimson1 #ajf ---- ,egyptian1 #ajg ---- purple1 #aje ,coca1 #ace ,cochlearia ,armoracia1 #cc ,cocoa-nut palm1 #dbi ,cocos nucifera1 #dbi ,coffee1 #dae ,coffea arabica1 #dah ---- liberica1 #dah ,colocasia1 #gc ,convolvolus ,batatas1 #ec ---- mammosa1 #eg ,corchorus capsularis1 #acj ---- olitorius1 #acj ,corn salad1 #ia ,corn spurry1 #aad ,cotton1 ,barbados1 #djh ---- herbaceous1 #deb ---- tree1 #djh ,cress1 garden1 #aff ,crocus sativum1 #hf ,cucumber1 #bfd ,cucumis ,anguria1 #bfg ---- ,melo1 #beh ---- sativas1 #bfd ,cucurbita citrullus1 #bfc ---- ficifolia1 #beg ---- ,lagenaria1 #bde ---- maxima1 #bdi ,cucurbita ,melopepo1 pepo1 #bec ---- moscbata1 #beg ,currant1 black1 #bgh ---- red1 #bgg ,custard apple1 #afh ,cydonia vulgaris1 #bcf ,cynara ,cardunculus1 #ib ---- ,cytisus ,cajan1 #ccb ---- ,scolymus1 #ib ,d ,date-palm1 #cja ,dioscorea1 #gf ,dolichos ,lablab1 #cdf ---- ,lubia1 #cdg ---- ,soja1 #ccj ,dyer's indigo1 #acf ,e ,egyptian clover1 #ajg ---- lupin1 #cbg ---- wheat1 #bei ,elis guineensis1 #dbi ,eleusine ,coracana1 #chd ,endive1 #ig ,ervilla1 #ajg ,ervum ,ervilia1 #ajg ---- lens1 #cba ,erythroxvlon ,coca1 #ace ,eugenia ,jambos1 #bdj ---- malaccensis1 #bda ,f ,faba vulgaris1 #caf ,fagopyrum emarginatum1 #cea ---- esculentum1 #cdh ---- tataricum1 #cej ,fenugreek1 #aab ,ficus ,carica1 #bie ,field-pea1 #cbg ,fig1 #bie ,fig-leaved pumpkin1 #beg ,fig1 ,indian1 #bgd ,flat-podded pea1 #aji ,flax1 #aai ,fragaria chiloensis1 #bje ---- vesca1 #bjc ---- virginiana1 #bje ,french honeysuckle1 #ajd ,g ,garcinia ,mangostana1 #aah ,garden cress1 #hf ---- pea1 #cbh ,garlic1 #fc ,glycine soya1 #ccj ---- subterranea1 #cdg ,gombo1 #ahi ,gooseberry1 #bgf ,gossypium arboreum1 #djh ---- barbadense1 #djh ---- herbaceum1 #djb ,gourd1 #bde1 #bdi ---- snake1 #bgc ---- towel1 #bfi ,grass1 ,china1 #adf ,grass1 guinea1 #aae ,green gram1 #cdf ,guava1 #bda ,h ,haricot bean1 #cch ,hedysarium coronarium1 #ajd ,helianthus tuberosus1 #db ,hemp1 #adh ,henna1 #ach ,hibiscus esculentus1 #ahi ,holcus saccharatus1 #chb ---- ,sorghum1 #chj ,hop1 #afb ,hordeum distichon1 #cfg ---- hexastichon1 #cfi ---- vulgare1 #cfh ,horse-radish1 #cc ,humulus ,lupulus1 #afb ,i ,ilex paraguariensis1 #ace ,indian fig1 #bgd ,indigo1 ,american1 #acg ---- dyer's1 #acf ---- silver1 #acg ,indigofera argentea1 #acg ---- cerulea1 #acg ---- tinctoria1 #acf ,ipomea mammosa1 #eg ,j ,jack-fruit1 #bii ,jambosa ,malaccensis1 #bda ---- vulgaris1 #bdj ,jatropha manihot1 #ei ,jerusalem artichoke1 #db ,juglans regia1 #dbe ,jujube1 common1 #aid ---- ,indian1 #aig ---- ,lotus1 #aif ,jute1 #acj ,k ,kidney bean1 #cch ---- moth1 #cdd ---- three-lobed1 #cde ,kiery1 #ceb ,kht1 #acd ,konjak1 #gf ,l ,lablab1 #cdg ,lagenaria vulgaris1 #bde ,lamb's lettuce1 #ia ,lathyrus ,cicera1 #aji ---- ,ochrus1 #aaj ---- sativus1 #aaa ,lattuca scariola1 #ie ,lawsonia alba1 #ach ,leek1 #aja ,lemon1 #agh ,lens esculenta1 #bba ,lentil1 #cba ,lepidum sativum1 #hf ,lettuce1 #ie ---- lamb's1 #ia ,linum usitatissimum1 #aai ,litchi1 #cad ,longan1 #cae ,lotos jujube1 #aif ,lubia1 #cdg ,lucern1 #ajb ,lucuma ,camito1 #bhe ---- mammosa1 #bhf ,lupin1 #cbe ,lupinus albus1 #cbe ---- termis1 #cbg ,lycopersicum esculentum1 #bij ,m ,madder1 #da ,madia sativa1 #dah ,maize1 #chg ,malay apple1 #bda ,mammee1 #aii ---- americana1 #ahi ---- ,sapota1 #bhf ,mandarin1 #ahh ,mandubi1 #daa ,mangifera indica1 #bjj ,mango1 #bjj ,mangosteen1 #ahh ,manioc1 #ei ,manihot utilissima1 #ei ,maranta arundinacea1 #ha ,marmalade plum1 #bhf ,mat1 #ace ,medicago sativa1 #ajb ,melon1 #beh ---- pumpkin1 #bef ---- water1 #bfb ---- white gourd1 #bfh ,millet1 common1 #bgf ---- ,italian1 #bgh ,momordica cylindrica1 #bfi ,monkey-nut1 #daa ,morus alba1 #adi ---- nigra1 #aeb ,mulberry1 #adi ,mung1 #cdf ,musk pumpkin1 #cef ,myristica fragrans1 #dai ,n ,nephelium lappaceum1 #cae ---- litchi1 #cad ---- longana1 #cae ,new ,zealand spinach1 #hi ,nicotiana tabacum1 #aci ,nutmeg1 #dai ,o ,oats1 #cgb ,ochro1 #ahi ,ochrus1 #aaa ,oil-palm1 #dbi ,olea europea1 #bgi ,olive1 #bgi ,onion1 #ff ---- spring or ,welsh1 #fh ,onobrychis sativa1 #ajd ,opuntia ficus ,indica1 #bgd ,orange1 #aha ---- bitter1 #ahe ---- sweet1 #ahc ,ornithopus sativus1 #aac ,oryza sativa1 #che ,p ,palm1 cocoa-nut1 #dbi ---- oil1 #dbi ,panicum italicum1 #cgh ---- maximum1 #aae ---- miliaceum1 #cgf ,papava somniferum1 #cig ,papaw1 #bic ,papaya vulgaris1 #bic ,parsley1 #ij ,pea1 #cbg ---- field1 #cbg ---- garden1 #cbh ---- nut1 #daa ---- pigeon1 #chb ,peach1 #bba ,pear1 #bbi ---- avocado1 #bgb ---- ,chinese1 #bcc ---- prickly1 #bgd ---- sand1 #bcc ---- snowy1 #bcb ,pepper1 red1 #bhh ,persea gratissima1 #bib ,persica vulgaris1 #bba ,petroselinum sativum1 #ij ,phaseolus aconitifolius1 #cde ---- lunatus1 #cdd ---- ,mungo1 #cdf ---- vulgaris1 #cch ,phnix dactylifera1 #cja ,pigeon-pea1 #ccb ,pine-apple1 #caa ,pistachio nut1 #caf ,pistacia vera1 #caf ,pisum arvense1 #cbg ---- ,ochrus1 #aaa ---- sativum1 #cbh ,plum1 #baa ,polygonum emarginatum1 #cea ---- fagopyrum1 #cdh ---- tataricum1 #cec ,pomegranate1 #cbg ,poppy1 #cig ,portulaca oleracea1 #hg ,potato1 #de ---- sweet1 #hc ,prickly pear1 #bgd ,prunus ,amygdalus1 #bah ---- ,armeniaca1 #bae ---- avium1 #bje ---- ,cerasus1 #bjg ---- domestica1 #bab ---- insititia1 #bad ---- ,persica1 #bba ,psidium guayava1 #bda ,pumpkin1 fig-leaved1 #beg ---- musk or melon1 #bef ,punica ,granatum1 #bcg ,purslane1 #hg ,pyrus communis1 #bbi ---- malus1 #bcc ---- nivalis1 #bcc ---- sinensis1 #bcc ,q ,quince1 #bcf ,quinoa1 #cea ,r ,radish1 #bi ---- horse1 #cc ,rambutan1 #cae ,raphanus sativus1 #bi ,rhus ,coriaria1 #acc ,ribes ,grossularis1 #bgf ---- nigrum1 #bgh ---- rubrum1 #bgg ---- ,uva-crispa1 #bgf ,rice1 #che ,ricinus communis1 #dbb ,rocambole1 #gb ,rose-apple1 #bdj ,rubia tinctorum1 #da ,rye1 #cgj ,s ,saccharatum officinale1 #aed ,saffron1 #aff ,sainfoin1 #ajd ---- ,spanish1 #ajd ,salsify1 #dd ,sapodilla1 #bhf ,sapota achras1 #bhf ,scandix cerefolium1 #ij ,scorzonera hispanica1 #dd ,secale cereale1 #cgj ,sechium edule1 #bgb ,sesame1 #dai ,sesamum indicum1 #dai ,setaria ,italica1 #chj ,shaddock1 #agg ,shallot1 #fh ,sium ,sisarum1 #ci ,skirret1 #ci ,smyrnium ,olus-atrum1 #ia ,snake gourd1 #bgb ,solanum ,commersonii1 #df ---- immite1 #di ---- maglia1 #di ---- tuberosum1 #de ---- verrucosus1 #di ,sorghum saccharatus1 #chb ---- vulgaris1 #chj ,sour sop1 #agc ,soy1 #ccj ,spanish sainfoin1 #ajd ,spelt1 #cfb ,spergula arvensis1 #aad ,spinach1 #ih ---- ,new ,zealand1 #hg ,spinacia oleracea1 #ih ,spondias dulcis1 #bjb ,spurry1 corn1 #aad ,strawberry1 #bjc ---- ,chili1 #bje ---- ,virginian1 #bje ,sugar apple1 #afh ---- cane1 #aed ,sumach1 #acc ,sweet potato1 #hc ---- sop1 #afh ,t ,tahiti apple1 #bjb ,tare1 #ajh ,tea1 #aag ,tetragonia expansa1 #hi ,thea sinensis1 #aag ,theobroma ,cacao1 #cac ,tobacco1 #aci ,towel gourd1 #bfi ,trigonella ,fnum-grcum1 #aab ,trifolium ,alexandrinum1 #ajg ---- incarnatum1 #adf ---- pratense1 #aje ,triticum stivum1 #ced ---- compositum1 #cei ---- dicoccum1 #cfe ---- durum1 #cfj ---- hybernum1 #ced ---- moncoccum1 #cfe ---- polonicum1 #cfa ---- spelta1 #bfb ---- vulgare1 #ced ,turnip1 #cf ,v ,valerianella olitoria1 #hi ,vetch1 chickling1 #aaj ---- common1 #ajh ,vicia ervilla1 #ajg ---- sativa1 #ajh ,vine1 #aia ,vitis vinifera1 #aia ,voandzeia subterranea1 #cdg ,w ,walnut1 #bde ,wheats1 #ced ,y ,yams1 #gf ,z ,zea ,mays1 #chg ,zizyphus jujube1 #aig ---- ,lotus1 #aif ---- vulgaris1 #aid